RESTRICTED  
  
WT/TPR/S/367  
16 January 2018  
(18-0441) Page: 1/172 
Trade Policy Review Body   
 
TRADE POLICY REVIEW  
REPORT BY THE SECRET ARIAT  
EGYPT 
This report, prepared for the fourth Trade Policy Review of Egypt, has been drawn up by the WTO 
Secretariat on its own responsibility. The Secretariat has, as required by the Agreement 
establishing the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (Annex 3 of the Marrakesh Agreement 
Establishing the World Trade Organization), sought clarification from Egypt on its trade policies 
and pract ices. 
 
Any technical questions arising from this report may be addressed to Mr. Angelo Silvy (tel.: 022 
739 5249), Mr. Pierre Latrille (tel.: 022 739 5266), Mr. Ricardo Barba (tel.: 022 739 5088) and 
Ms Takako Ikezuki (tel.: 022 739 5534).  
 
Document WT/TPR /G/367 contains the policy statement submitted by Egypt.  
 
Note: This report is subject to restricted circulation and press embargo until the end of the first 
session of the meeting of the Trade Policy Review Body on Egypt. This report w as drafted in 
English.  
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  CONTENTS  
SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................  8 
1   ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT  ................................ ................................ ........................  14 
1.1   Main Features of the Economy  ................................ ................................ ..................... 14 
1.2   Recent Economic Developments  ................................ ................................ ................... 15 
1.3   Developments in Trade and Investment  ................................ ................................ ........ 19 
1.3.1    Trends and patterns in merchandise and servi ces trade  ................................ ................ 19 
1.3.2    Trends and patterns in FDI  ................................ ................................ ....................... 23 
2   TRADE AND INVESTMENT  REGIMES ................................ ................................ ...........  25 
2.1   General Framework  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....25 
2.2   Trade Policy Formulation and Objectives  ................................ ................................ ........ 26 
2.3   Trade Agreements and Arrangements  ................................ ................................ ........... 29 
2.3.1    WTO ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 29 
2.3.2    Trade Ag reements and Arrangements  ................................ ................................ ........ 30 
2.3.2.1    European Union  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....30 
2.3.2.2    Agadir Agreement  ................................ ................................ ................................ .30 
2.3.2.3    Pan-Arab Free Trade Area  ................................ ................................ ...................... 31 
2.3.2.4    Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)  ................................ .......31 
2.3.2.5    EFTA–Egypt Free Trade Agreement  ................................ ................................ ......... 31 
2.3.2.6    Turkey  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 32 
2.3.2.7    MERCOSUR  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 32 
2.3.2.8    Non-reciprocal preferential arrangements  ................................ ................................ 32 
2.3.3    Other agreements and arrangements  ................................ ................................ ......... 32 
2.4   Investment Regime  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....33 
3   TRADE POLICIES AND P RACTICES BY MEASURE  ................................ ........................  39 
3.1   Measures Directly Affecting Imports  ................................ ................................ .............. 39 
3.1.1    Customs procedures, valuation, and requirements  ................................ ....................... 39 
3.1.1.1    Customs procedures  ................................ ................................ .............................. 39 
3.1.1.2    Trade facilitation  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...44 
3.1.1.3    Customs Valuation  ................................ ................................ ................................ 45 
3.1.2    Rules of origin  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 46 
3.1.3   Tariffs  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 47 
3.1.3.1    Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 47 
3.1.3.2    Applied MFN customs duties  ................................ ................................ ................... 49 
3.1.3.3    Bound tariffs  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 53 
3.1.3.4   Tariff exemptions and reductions  ................................ ................................ ............ 54 
3.1.3.5    Tariff preferences  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..55 
3.1.3.6    Other charges affecting imports  ................................ ................................ .............. 58 
3.1.4    Import prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing  ................................ ............................ 59 
3.1.5    Anti-dumping, countervailing, and safeguard measures  ................................ ................ 65 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.1.5.1    Legal and institutional framework  ................................ ................................ ........... 65 
3.1.5.2    Anti-dumping and countervailing measures  ................................ .............................. 66 
3.1.5.3    Safeguards  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 67 
3.2   Measures Directly Affecting Exports  ................................ ................................ .............. 70 
3.2.1    Customs procedures and requirements  ................................ ................................ .......70 
3.2.2    Taxes, charges, and levies  ................................ ................................ ........................ 71 
3.2.3    Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing  ................................ ............................. 71 
3.2.4    Export support and promotion  ................................ ................................ ................... 72 
3.2.5    Free zones and special economic zones  ................................ ................................ ......73 
3.2.6    Export finance, insurance, and guarantees  ................................ ................................ ..74 
3.3   Measures Affecting Production and Trade  ................................ ................................ .......75 
3.3.1    Incentives  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 75 
3.3.1.1    Industrial incentives  ................................ ................................ .............................. 75 
3.3.1.2    Special Economic Zones  ................................ ................................ ......................... 77 
3.3.1.3    Promotion of small and micro enterprises  ................................ ................................ .78 
3.3.1.4    Support for research and development  ................................ ................................ ....78 
3.3.1.5    Regional support  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...79 
3.3.2    Standards and other technical requirements  ................................ ............................... 79 
3.3.2.1    Standards and technical regulation s ................................ ................................ ........ 79 
3.3.2.1.1    Standards  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 79 
3.3.2.1.2    Technical regulations  ................................ ................................ .......................... 81 
3.3.2.2    Conformity assessment ................................ ................................ .......................... 82 
3.3.2.3    Other quality control measures  ................................ ................................ ............... 83 
3.3.2.4    Accreditation  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 84 
3.3.2.5    Labelling requirements  ................................ ................................ .......................... 85 
3.3.3    Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures  ................................ ................................ 86 
3.3.4    Competition policy and price controls  ................................ ................................ ......... 89 
3.3.5    State trading, state -owned enterprises, and privatization  ................................ ............. 93 
3.3.6    Government procurement  ................................ ................................ ......................... 94 
3.3.7    Intellectual property rights (IPRs)  ................................ ................................ .............. 96 
3.3.7.1    Legal and institutional framework  ................................ ................................ ........... 96 
3.3.7.2    Patents  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............  100 
3.3.7.3    Trademarks, geographical indications and industrial designs ................................ ..... 101 
3.3.7.4    Copyright  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  101 
3.3.7.5    Plant varieties  ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 102 
3.3.7.6    Enforcement  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 103 
4   TRADE POLICIES BY SE CTOR  ................................ ................................ ...................  104  
4.1   Agriculture and Fisheries  ................................ ................................ ...........................  104 
4.1.1    Agriculture  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  104 
4.1.1.1    Main features  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 104 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.1.1.2    Policy developments  ................................ ................................ ............................  106 
4.1.1.2.1    Overall strategy  ................................ ................................ ...............................  106 
4.1.1.2.2    Support to farming  ................................ ................................ ...........................  107 
4.1.1.2.3    Market access  ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 110 
4.1.1.2.4    The Food Subsidy Programme  ................................ ................................ ............  111 
4.1.2    Fisheries  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...............  111 
4.2   Mining and Energy  ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 113 
4.2.1   Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............  113 
4.2.2    Oil and gas  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  114 
4.2.2.1    Oil ................................ ................................ ................................ .....................  114 
4.2.2.2    Gas ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................  115 
4.2.3    Electr icity ................................ ................................ ................................ .............  116 
4.3   Manufacturing  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  122 
4.3.1    Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............  122 
4.3.2    Textiles and clothing  ................................ ................................ ..............................  122 
4.3.3    Food processing ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 123 
4.4   Services  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................  124 
4.4.1    Financial services  ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 124 
4.4.1.1    Banking  ................................ ................................ ................................ .............  124 
4.4.1.2    Insurance  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  127 
4.4.1.3    Stock exchange and securities  ................................ ................................ ..............  129 
4.4.1.4    Pension funds  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 130 
4.4.2    Telecommunication services  ................................ ................................ ....................  130 
4.4.3    Postal and courier services  ................................ ................................ ......................  133 
4.4.3.1    Postal services  ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 133 
4.4.3.2    Courier services  ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 134 
4.4.4    Transport services  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 134 
4.4.4.1    Air transport services  ................................ ................................ ..........................  134 
4.4.5    Maritime transport  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 137 
4.4.5.1    Inland waterways transport  ................................ ................................ ..................  140 
4.4.5.1.1    Suez Canal  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 140 
4.4.5.1.2   Nile River navigation  ................................ ................................ .........................  142 
4.4.6    Tourism services  ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 142 
 
CHARTS  
 
Chart 1.1 GDP by economic activity (current prices), 2015/16  ................................ ................. 14 
Chart 1.2 Product composition of merchandise trade by main HS section, 2011 and 2016  ........... 21 
Chart 1.3 Direction of merchandise trade, 2011 and 2016  ................................ ....................... 22 
Chart 3.1 Breakdown of applied MFN duties, 2005, 2012, 2016, and 2017  ................................ 50 
Chart 3.2 Average tariff rates, by WTO product categories, 2005, 2012, 2016 and 2017  ............. 53 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Chart 3.3 Distribution of applied MFN and preferential tariffs, 2017  ................................ .......... 56 
Chart 3.4 Procedure for the preparation of Egyptian standa rds ................................ ................ 80 
Chart 3.5 National Standards, 2017  ................................ ................................ ..................... 81 
Chart 3.6 National standards aligned with international standards, 2002 -16 .............................. 81 
Chart 3.7 Technical regulations, 31 December 2016  ................................ ............................... 82 
Chart 4.1 The current electric ity market structure  ................................ ................................  119 
Chart 4.2 The future electricity market structure  ................................ ................................ .. 119 
 
TABLES  
 
Table 1.1 Selected economic indicators, 2005/06 and 2010/11 -2016/17a ................................ ..17 
Table 1.2 Balance of payments, 2005/06 and 2010/11 -2016/17a ................................ ............. 19 
Table 1.3 Trade in services (net), 2005/06 and 2010/11 –2016/17a ................................ .......... 23 
Table 1.4 FDI, 2005 -07 and 201 3-16 ................................ ................................ .................... 24 
Table 2.1 Ministerial responsibility for trade -related issues  ................................ ...................... 26 
Table 2.2 Main trade -related laws  ................................ ................................ ........................ 28 
Table 2.3 Private investment in Egypt under the Investment Guarantees and Incentives 
Law (IGIL) and the Companies Law (CL), 2005 -16 ................................ ................................ .34 
Table 2.4 Areas eligible for incentives under the Investment Law 2017 and its regulations  .......... 34 
Table 2.5 Incentives und er the Investment Law, 2017  ................................ ............................ 35 
Table 2.6 Conditions placed on land ownership in Egypt  ................................ .......................... 38 
Table 3.1 Total release time and customs release time  ................................ ........................... 43 
Table 3.2 Category "A" commitments under Section II of the Agreement on Trade 
Facilitation  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 44 
Table 3.3 Appeals of the Egyptian Customs Authority's (ECA) decisions, 2013 -17 
(September)  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 46 
Table 3.4 Revenue from import duties and other  taxes on imported goods, 2010/11 -
2016/17  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 47 
Table 3.5 Overview of tariff changes introduced by Presidential Decree, 2013 -16 (HS  2012)  .......48 
Table 3.6 Egypt's customs tariff in 2016 and 2017, pursuant to changes introduced by 
Presidential Decree No. 538/2016, b y tariff rate  ................................ ................................ ....50 
Table 3.7 Structure of MFN tariffs  ................................ ................................ ........................ 51 
Table 3.8 Summary of tariff analysis, 2017  ................................ ................................ ........... 51 
Table 3.9 Key features of tariff exemptions and concessions, 2017  ................................ ........... 55 
Table 3.10 TRQs under the Agreement with Turkey  ................................ ................................ 57 
Table 3.11 Tariffs under preferential ag reements, 2017  ................................ .......................... 57 
Table 3.12 Goods and services subject to excise tax only, 2017  ................................ ............... 58 
Table 3.13 Goods and services subject to VAT and excise tax, 2017  ................................ ......... 58 
Table 3.14 List of goods subject to import prohibitions according to Annex 1 to Decree 
770/2005 and amendments  ................................ ................................ ................................ 59 
Table 3.15 Products allowed to be imported as used goods, and conditions for importation 
(Annex 2 to Decree No. 770/2005)  ................................ ................................ ...................... 60 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 3.16 Goods imported with special conditions in accordance with Annex 3 to Decree 
No. 770/2005  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 61 
Table 3.17 Main categories of products subject to inspection fees  ................................ ............ 64 
Table 3.18 Definitive anti -dumping measures in force, as  at 30 June 2017  ................................ 67 
Table 3.19 Safeguard measures imposed, 2005 -June 2017  ................................ ..................... 68 
Table 3.20 Exports duties imposed by Egypt, 2017 ................................ ................................ .71 
Table 3.21 Total exports and drawback annual refunds  ................................ ........................... 72 
Table 3.22 Accreditation process time limits for conformity assessment bodies (CABS)  ............... 85 
Table 3.23 Governm ent procurement, 2006 -16 ................................ ................................ ......96 
Table 3.24 Overview of IPR protection, 2017  ................................ ................................ ......... 98 
Table 3.25 IPR activity, 2006 -16 ................................ ................................ ........................  100 
Table 4.1 Evolution of the contribution of agriculture to GDP, employment and exports 
(2005/06 -2015/16) (%)  ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 104 
Table 4.2 La nd use by crop, 2005 -16 ................................ ................................ .................  104 
Table 4.3 Agricultural outputs, 2005 -16 ................................ ................................ ..............  105 
Table 4.4 Livestock, 2005 -16................................ ................................ .............................  105 
Table 4.5 Development of agricultural foreign trade in Egypt, 2005 -16 ................................ ... 106 
Table 4.6 Evolution of the spending on investments for  land improvement projects in 
Egypt, 2005/06 -2015/16  ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 107 
Table 4.7 Evolution of the reclaimed land areas in Egypt, 2005/06 -2015/16  ............................  108 
Table 4.8 Evolution of farm gate (guaranteed) and import prices of wheat and quantities 
purchased from domestic farmers by the GASC, 2005 -16 ................................ ......................  109 
Table 4.9 Main agricultural provisions in Egypt's FTAs  ................................ ...........................  110 
Table 4.10 Foreign investment in agricultural and agri -processing activities in Egypt, 2015  ....... 110 
Table 4.11 Ration card subsidies under the Food Subsidy Programme, 2006/07 -2015/16  ..........  111 
Table 4.12 Production, consumption, imports and exports of fish (including aquaculture) in 
Egypt in volume terms, 2006 -15 ................................ ................................ ........................  111 
Table 4.13 Production, imports and exports of fish (including aquaculture) in Egypt in value 
terms, 2006 -15 ................................ ................................ ................................ ...............  112 
Table 4.14 Employment and number of vessels in the fisheries sector, 2010 -16.......................  112 
Table 4.15 Production, consumption, imports and exports of crude oil in Egypt, 2005/06 -
2015/16  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  114 
Table 4.16 Subsidies granted for the consumption of petroleum products and natural gas, 
2005/06 -2015/16  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  115 
Table 4.17 Production of natural gas in Egypt, 2005/06 -2015/16  ................................ ...........  116 
Table 4.18 Main electricity indicators, 2005/06 -2015/16  ................................ .......................  116 
Table 4.19 Subsidies for electricity in Egypt, 2005 -16 ................................ ...........................  120 
Table 4.20 Manufacturing output by activity, 2007 -14 ................................ ..........................  122 
Table 4.21 ITU's 2015 telecommunication services price basket for Egypt  ...............................  131 
Table 4.22 Universal postal services and reserved area by weight, type of item and type of 
traffic   ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................  133 
Table 4.23 Value and volume of maritime trade, 2005 -16 ................................ .....................  137 
Table 4.24 Passenger and container traffic  ................................ ................................ ..........  138 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 4.25 Suez Canal revenue, 2005/06 -2015/16  ................................ ...............................  140 
Table 4.26 Suez Canal traffi c, 2005 and 2010 -16 ................................ ................................ . 141 
Table 4.27 Number of inbound tourists and the revenues stemming from inbound tourism, 
2010-16 ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  142 
Table 4.28 Regulatory framework for tourism and travel -related services  ................................  143 
 
BOXES  
 
Box 4.1 Main economic and statistical indicators for banking services in Egypt .........................  124 
Box 4.2 Main economic and statistical indicators of the insurance sector  ................................ . 127 
Box 4.3 Main economic and statistical indicators for stock exchange and securities in Egypt  ...... 129 
Box 4.4 Main economic and statistical indicators for pension funds services in Egypt  ................  130 
Box 4.5 Penetration rates of  telecommunications services in Egypt  ................................ ........  131 
Box 4.6 Main economic indicators for aviation services in Egypt  ................................ .............  135 
Box 4.7 Egypt's international obligations regarding maritime transport services  .......................  139 
 
APPENDIX TABLES  
 
Table A1.1 Basic economic indicators, 2005/06 -2015/16 and estimates for 2016/17 -and 
2017/18  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  145 
Table A1.2 Fiscal accounts, 2005/06 -2016/17  ................................ ................................ ..... 148 
Table A1.3  Main monetary indicators, 2005/06 -2016/17  ................................ .......................  149 
Table A1.4a Balance of payments (f.o.b. basis), 2005/06 -2016/17  ................................ .........  150 
Table A1.4 b Balance of payments (f.o.b. and c.i.f. basis), 2005/06 -2016/17  .........................  1502 
Table A1.5 Merchandise exports by HS section and major HS chapter, 2011 -16 .......................  154 
Table A1.6 Merchandise imports by HS section and major HS chapter, 2011 -16 .......................  155 
Table A1.7 Merchandise exports by destination, 2011 -16 ................................ ......................  156 
Table A1.8 Merchandise imports by origin, 2011 -16 ................................ .............................  157 
Table A1.9 Trade in services, 2005/06 -2016/17  ................................ ................................ ... 158 
 
Table A2.1 Selected notifications to the WTO, 1 August 2004 -1 November 2017  ......................  160 
 
Table A3.1 Summary tariff analysis, 2005, 2012, 2016, and 2017  ................................ ..........  162 
Table A3.2 Tariff lines with the 2017 applied MFN tariff rates higher than the corresponding 
bound duties, 2017  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  164 
Table A3.3 Goods subject to import quality control and inspection, 2017  ................................  166 
Table A3.4 Egypt's notifications to the SPS Committee, 2005 -November 2017  .........................  168 
 
Table A4.1 Egypt's Air Transport Agreements  ................................ ................................ ...... 171 
 
 
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  SUMMARY  
1. Egypt's real GDP expanded at an annual average rate of 4.5% over the 2005/06 -2016/17 
period, although growth began to decelerate in 2011 in the aftermath of political turmoil. Annual 
average GDP growth slowed down to 3.2% over the 2010/11 -2015/16 period, but has accelerated 
in recent years on the basis of an expansionary fiscal policy that led to strong consumption and 
investment expenditure, and an economic reform programme aimed at fostering growth.  GDP per 
capita increased from US$1,514 in 2005/06 to US$3,462 in 2015/16, although it is estimated to 
have declined to US$2,508 in 2016/17 due to the depreciation of the Egyp tian pound. Despite the 
recent acceleration of growth, Egypt's unemployment rate remains at around 12%, with rates 
higher among young persons and women. Furthermore , despite an increase in per capita income, 
the share of the population living under the pov erty line has increased in the last few years and 
poverty alleviation continues to be one of Egypt's major challenges.  
2. Egypt's economy is diversified.  The services sector constitutes the mainstay of the economy 
in terms of GDP share (55.3% in 2015/16), emp loyment, and exports. The share of agriculture in 
GDP has been declining over the last few decades and reached 11.9% in 2015/16 (14.5% in 
2010/11), although the sector is still important for employment and merchandise export earnings ; 
while the contributio n of manufacturing to GDP was 17.1% in 2015/16 (16.5% in 2010/11).  
3. In 2014 , the Government began to  implement a reform programme aimed at stimulating 
economic growth and improving the business environment. The first wave of reforms focused on 
rebalancing the macroeconomic situation, and included various fiscal, monetary and exchange rate 
policy measures: introduction of the value-added tax (VAT) at a rate of 13% in September 2016 
(increased to 14% as from July 2017); a shift in the exchange rate regime fro m a peg to the US 
dollar to a full float of the Egyptian pound in November 2016; broadening of the tax base; 
reduction of energy subsidies; and containment of public sector salary increases. A second wave of 
reforms is currently under way to improve govern ance and the investment climate. Egypt's 
economic programme has been supported by the IMF: a three -year US$12 billion Extended Fund 
Facility (EFF) loan was granted in November 2016, with the aim of helping restore macroeconomic 
stability, correct ing extern al and fiscal imbalances and restor ing competitiveness . 
4. Egypt's fiscal deficit h as exceeded 10% of GDP since FY 2010/11 as a result of the 
implementation of an expansionary fiscal policy. The deficit reached 12.5% of GDP in 2015/16, 
which prompted the authoriti es to introduce, starting in FY 2016/17, a three -year fiscal 
consolidation plan aimed at lowering the budget deficit to between 8% and 8.5% of GDP by 
2018/19. As a result of various fiscal consolidation efforts, including streamlining expenditure b y 
reducing subsidies and containing the public wage bill, and increasing revenue by replacing the 
10% general sales tax with the VAT, the deficit declined to 10.8% of GDP in 2016/17.  
5. The presence of the State in the economy remains strong. The productive structure of the 
Egyptian economy is skewed towards large public -sector enterprises, which may result, on 
occasions, in a sub -optimal allocation of resources. In this respect, Egypt could benefit from 
adopting a more market -oriented approach to economic po licy implementation. This has been 
recognized by the authorities and a more participat ory role of the private sector in the economy is 
one of the objectives of Egypt's Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) "Egypt Vision 2030 ", a 
comprehensive development plan introduced in March 2015 that seeks to foster GDP growth and 
employment and gradually reduce the budget deficit.  
6. Remittances from Egyptians overseas ( US$17.1  billion in 2015/16) , as well as travel and 
tourism and Suez Canal revenues , continue to be o f primary importance for the Egyptian economy. 
The introduction of a flexible exchange rate has led to an increase in capital and financial inflows, 
particularly foreign direct investment, which have partly countered the decline in transfers and the 
growin g merchandise trade deficit. Nonetheless, the current account deficit widened to 5.9% of 
GDP in 2015/16 from 3.6% the year before, reflecting a fall in exports and strong import demand, 
a weakening of services exports, notably in tourism, limited growth in  Suez Canal receipts due to 
weak global trade, and a drop in remittances. Although it declined in US dollar terms, the current 
account deficit increased as a share of GDP to 6.7% in 2016/17 due to the depreciation of the 
Egyptian pound.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  7. Egypt's export base  has become more diversified during the review period: the share of 
exports of fuel products declined from 43% of total exports in 2005 to 14.3% in 2016. Despite 
this, fuel remain s Egypt's single most important export product, followed by vegetables, which  
represented 12.5% of total merchandise exports in 2016 (8.7% in 2011), precious stones and 
metals (11.8%), chemicals (11.3%), and textiles (11.2%). Egypt's merchandise exports declined 
in US dollar terms between 2011 and 2016 , to US$22.5 billion. In 2016,  the European Union was 
Egypt's main export destination, followed by the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Turkey. 
Merchandise imports (c.i.f.) amounted to US$58.1 billion in 2016. Machinery and electrical 
equipment is the single most important import  group, accounting for 16.1% of total merchandise 
imports in 2016, followed by mineral fuels (14.2%) and base metals (11.4%). In 2016, 32.4% of 
Egypt's merchandise imports came from the European Union; China and other Asian countries 
were the source of 27. 3% of Egyptian imports.  
8. Egypt's Constitution was amended several times during the review period. The current 
Constitution, which was approved in January 2014, provides for the separation of powers between 
the executive, the legislature and the judiciary, a nd reformed the legislative branch by making it 
unicameral. The next presidential election is scheduled for May 2018.  
9. Egypt's trade policy objectives are set out in the Industrial Development Strategy (IDS) for 
2016-2020, in accordance with Egypt's SDS "Eg ypt Vision 2030". The aim is to help Egypt become 
a leading industrial economy in the Middle East and North Africa region and a main export hub for 
medium -technology manufactured products by 2025.  The IDS covers the following  areas: 
industrial development for micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs); export promotion and 
import rationalization; innovation promotion; energy conservation; the development of technical 
and vocational education; and improvement of the business climate. The main goals are to 
accelerate industrial growth, increase the contribution of MSMEs to GDP, spur export growth and 
create productive jobs.  
10. Egypt participates actively in the multilateral trading system, both in the regular work of the 
WTO and in the Doha Development Agenda ne gotiations. It grants at least MFN treatment to all 
WTO Members. Egypt is a party to the Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft, and to the Information 
Technology Agreement (ITA), but not to the Agreement on Government Procurement GPA). In 
June 2017, Egypt r atified domestically the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), but has still to 
submit to the WTO its instrument of acceptance of the Agreement. Egypt notified its category "A" 
commitments, in January 2015, and the authorities are currently working on catego ry "B" and "C" 
commitments. Egypt submitted numerous notifications to the WTO during the period under review. 
Some lagging notifications, for instance with respect to agriculture, were submitted to the WTO 
during the review process. Under the WTO Dispute S ettlement Mechanism, Egypt has been 
involved in four trade disputes as a respondent and seven as a third party during the review 
period. This is the fourth Trade Policy Review of Egypt; its previous one was in 2005.  
11. Egypt participates in several preferenti al trade agreements, which play an increasingly 
important role in its trade policy. In addition to preferential agreements with the European Union , 
the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Turkey and MERCOSUR, Egypt is party to the Pan 
Arab Free Trade A greement (PAFTA), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa 
(COMESA), and the Agadir Agreement. Egypt benefits from the Generalized System of Preferences 
(GSP) schemes of several countries. On the other hand, Egypt offers improved market access to 
least developed countries (LDCs). Egypt also participates in the Framework Agreement on the 
Trade Preferences System of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (TPS -OIC), which is still to 
enter into force.  
12. There have been important changes to Egypt's inv estment regime since its last Trade Policy 
Review in 2005. In May 2017, the new Investment Law No. 72/2017 entered into force. 
Investment incentives under the new law include deductions on taxable profits and preferential 
import duty rates. Exemptions from  stamp duty, and notarization and registration fees are 
provided for up to five years from registration in the Commercial Register. In October 2017, the 
regulations to implement the law were approved and published in the National Gazette . The new 
law and r egulations aim at updating Egypt's investment regime and incentives schemes to attract 
more investment. Egypt's foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows averaged some US$6 billion per 
year during 2013 -16, below the US$9 billion annual average in 2005 -07. Th e European Union is 
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  13. During the period under review, Egypt continued its reform process , with a view to making 
its customs administration more efficient and transpare nt, by reducing the number of documents 
required for import and export processes and allowing their presentation electronically. Egypt's 
customs regime is still based on the Customs Law of 1963 as amended, although a new Draft 
Customs Law is currently be ing examined to incorporate, among others, the amendments needed 
to implement the TFA and the Kyoto Convention. However, some changes have already been 
introduced to facilitate trade. These changes include activating the Authorized Economic Operator 
(AEO) sy stem, introducing x -ray devices in most customs posts to facilitate customs control and 
reduce release times, and implementing an e -freight import and export system for air freight. A 
Ministerial Steering Council for Egyptian Trade Facilitation (EgyTrade) has been established, aiming 
at the creation of an Egyptian National Single Window (ENSW) system.  
14. Egypt's simple average applied MFN tariff rate was 19.1% in 2017, slightly down from 20% 
in 2005, but higher than  16.5% in 2012. Some two thirds of all tariff  lines face rates of 10% or 
lower. The 51.6% average tariff in agriculture reflects tariff peaks for alcohol and tobacco, which 
can be as high as 3,000%. Egypt has bound 99.3% of its tariff lines; the general simple average 
bound tariff is 37.2%. In 2017 , some 46 lines exceeded their bindings. Despite recent reforms, 
Egypt's tariff system remains somewhat complex, with a number of exemptions, reductions, and 
concessions. All tariff rates are ad valorem , with the exception of 21 lines. In addition to tariffs , 
imports are now subject to a value-added tax of 14% which also applies to domestically  produced 
goods; exported goods are exempted and services are zero -rated. Egypt also applies excise taxes 
on some products in addition to the general VAT rate.  
15. Import p rohibitions and restrictions are maintained for economic, environmental, health, 
religious, safety, sanitary, and phytosanitary reasons. They are applied equally to all trading 
partners. Import prohibitions apply to chicken offal and limbs, fowl livers, goods bearing marks 
considered sensitive to religious beliefs, and various hazardous chemicals and pesticides, among 
others. There are also restrictions on the importation of used products, which must meet certain 
conditions. A number of products are subject to quality control inspections when imported. 
Additionally , the importation of a relatively large number of items  is subject to "special conditions" 
and requires a licence, including passenger cars; shoes; apparel;  home textiles; carpets; car 
parts; household appliances; eyeglasses and watches; petroleum products; milk and milk 
products; oils and fats; pasta; and soaps. The importation of certain products is subject to specific 
administrative formalities and require s government approval; such is the case for wheat grains, 
corn used for  the feed industry, and soya bean seeds for oil extraction. Egypt has not submitted 
any notification s to the WTO with respect to its import licensing regime.  
16. Egypt is a relatively activ e user of trade remedy measures: between January 2005 and 
30 June 2017, it initiated 31 anti -dumping investigations, 16 of which resulted in the imposition of 
definitive anti -dumping duties. Three anti -dumping measures were extended. During the same 
period , Egypt initiated 14 safeguard investigations, imposed provisional measures in all and final 
safeguard measures on three products: blankets, steel rebar, and cotton and mixed yarns. 
Although few final measures were adopted, the application of provisional m easures could have 
acted as a deterrent to trade. There are currently no co untervailing measures in place.  
17. Egypt imposes export taxes on a number of products, including sugar, waste plastic, some 
fertilizers, fish, sand, some skins, marble, and raw granite , among others. Egypt introduced an 
export tax of LE 3,000 per ton of sugar for  an unlimited duration effective end -March 2017. 
According to the authorities, the rationale for applying export taxes is, in all cases, to ensure a 
sufficient domestic supply o f those products. Exports of rice of any kind have been  banned since 
August 2016; this measure has unlimited validity and was imposed due to the lack of water 
resources. In addition, Egypt bans the exportation of raw or tanned hides, skins or leather in it s 
wet state. Exports can be prohibited or restricted in order to meet local demand  or for 
environmental purposes.  
18. New regulations for the establishment of free zones are contained in Law No. 72/2017. The 
incentives offered in free zones  are meant primarily  to attract investment, to provide employment 
for Egyptians, and to encourage exports. There are two types of free zones: public and private. 
Public free zones are established for several projects, whereas private free zones are confined to 
one specific pr oject or company, and must meet certain conditions, inter alia  with respect to 
minimum capital (US$10 million) and exports (they must amount to  no less than 80% of the 
production value). Enterprises in free zones benefit from complete exemption from import  tariffs, WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 11 - 
 
  income taxes and the VAT. They are charged, however, a fee of 1% or 2% in lieu of taxes. Free -
zone investors may sell all or part of their products on the Egyptian market after payment of the 
relevant customs duties. There are currently nine publ ic free zones in operation. Egypt also has 
one Special Economic Zone, which benefits from special and simplified customs procedures, tariff -
free imports of inputs and equipment, and lower taxes.  
19. Egypt implements a number of incentives programmes, which can  be general or sector -
specific. There are also regional support programmes, and programmes for MSMEs, which include 
facilitating access to credit at preferential conditions. There are currently 13 investment zones 
specialized in various fields; they enjoy the same benefits as free zones in terms of facilitation of 
licence  issuance but are not granted tax exemptions. A new governmental agency was created in 
2017 to provide support to MSMEs; its budget for this purpose was about LE 5 billion in 2017. 
Under th e new Investment Law, Egypt also provides regional incentives in the form of a discount 
on taxable net profits, depending on the region.  
20. Egypt has accepted the WTO Code of Good Practice for the Preparation, Adoption and 
Application of Standards. Technical  regulations are issued by the different ministries. As at 
December 2016, Egypt had in place some 860 technical regulations covering five sectors, with the 
largest number pertaining to engineering and chemical products, food, textiles and measurement 
produ cts. All imported goods subject to technical regulations are inspected to verify conformity 
with each regulation. The Egyptian Accreditation Council (EGAC) is the sole national body for the 
assessment and accreditation of conformity assessment bodies and l aboratories in Egypt 
performing testing and calibration, inspection , and certification activities for products, systems and 
personnel. Egypt submitted its first TBT notification in 1997; between then and late October 2017, 
it submitted 221 notifications in cluding addenda and corrigenda.  
21. There are various controls and inspection procedures for food products, live animals, and 
animal and plant products, implemented by the corresponding responsible agency. Importers of 
plants must obtain an import permit prior  to importation and are also required to notify the 
exporting trading partner of the corresponding import regulatory requirements, which are set 
according to the potential risk associated with pests. Imports of live animals require an import 
permit from the Central Administration of Veterinary Quarantine. Importers of meat products and 
chicken must provide a number of certificates before the product is accepted, including a slaughter 
certificate proving that the animal was slaughtered in accordance with the  Islamic ritual (halal), a 
veterinary certificate, and a certificate of origin. Egypt submitted it first SPS notification in 
September 2005; between  then and November 2017, it submitted 80 notifications to the WTO.  
22. During the period under review, the legal  framework for Egypt's competition policy 
underwent far -reaching changes. Competition policy is mainly regulated by the new Constitution of 
2014, and the Egyptian Competition Law of 2005, its Executive Regulations, and their 
amendments. The Competition Law  sets out prohibitions in respect of the abuse of dominant 
position and provides a list stating nine different prohibited acts. It also prohibits vertical 
agreements or contracts between a person and its supplier or clients if they are intended to 
restrict  competition. The Law applies to all type s of persons or enterprises carrying  out economic 
activities, be they public or private. This includes state -owned enterprises, except for public 
utilities managed directly by the State. Recent amendments to the Com petition Law gave the 
Egyptian Competition Authority (ECA) the power to initiate criminal lawsuits and to settle with 
violators , and in general strengthened its enforcement faculties. Between  its inception in 2006 and 
April 2017, the ECA completed 109 inve stigations, 37 studies and 13 advisory opinions. During this 
period, the ECA proved 36  violations of the law, 28 of which were during the 2012 to 2016 period.  
23. Egypt is not a party to the GPA. The two main procedures for public procurement of goods 
and serv ices in Egypt are public tender and public reverse auction. Both procurement methods 
may be open to both Egyptian and foreign suppliers, and must be advertised in at least two daily 
newspapers of major circulation. A 15% price preference is given to Egypti an products in all 
government procurement. Egyptian subsidiaries of foreign companies can benefit from the 
preference. Additionally, MSMEs must be given an extra 10% preference in any tender. The 
presence of the State in the economy is important in Egypt, which has about 150 state -owned 
enterprises engaged in activities in a number of sectors, including petroleum, transportation, 
telecommunications, post and industrial activities. Three state -owned banks own some 40% of the 
banking sector's assets.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  24. Egypt i s a member of most of the main international treaties on intellectual property rights 
(IPRs). In April 2008, Egypt notified the WTO that it had accepted the Protocol Amending the 
TRIPS Agreement. The Intellectual Property Law No. 82/2002 is a unified Law t hat covers the 
major areas referred to in the TRIPS Agreement. There are no provisions in Egypt's IPR legislation 
that expressly allow or prohibit parallel imports. According to the authorities, Egypt's IPR policy 
recognizes the importance of IPR protectio n as a key factor in economic growth and development; 
through it, the Government aims to promot e the effective use of the IPR system and to fully utilize 
inventions, and attract FDI. The enforcement of IPR legislation is handled by various specialized 
authorities, some of which are entitled to act ex officio regarding IPR crimes. Border measures 
may be applied on all forms of intellectual property.  
25. Egypt's agricultural policy is primarily aimed at meeting the rising demand for food at 
reasonable prices; to this end, Egypt has made more land available for crops where it has a 
relative comparative advantage such as fruits and vegetables, and has resorted to subsidies. It has 
also discouraged the production of crops that use water intensively, such as cotton an d sugar. 
Although Egypt provides state support for both production and consumption of agricultural goods, 
actual spending for direct farming support is much lower than for food subsidies. The fishing 
industry remains of moderate importance to Egypt, which is a net importer of fish and fish 
products, though aquaculture is a growing business.  
26. Manufacturing continues to be of considerable importance for the Egyptian economy and the 
sector is relatively diversified. During the period under review, the contribution of the 
manufacturing sector (excluding petroleum) to Egypt's GDP has averaged aroun d 17% and it has 
represented about 30% of employment. The State continues to play an important role in Egypt's 
manufacturing sector. Food, textile, cement and basic metallurgy are the main subsectors.  
27. The Government is pursuing its efforts to solve the el ectricity supply crisis by raising 
electrical generation and distribution capacity through a combination of new investments and of 
regulatory reforms, opening and partially unbundling the sector. Egypt has adopted a number of 
measures to promote renewable energies and to facilitate public -private partnerships in them. It 
has also undertaken measures recently to diminish energy subsidies granted to consumers, which 
weigh heavily on Egypt's budget.  
28. The financial services sector is well supervised and open. Eg ypt has a large banking sector, 
though during the period under review the number of banks has declined somewhat as Egypt has 
not delivered any new banking licen ces since 2009. Banks, both domestic and foreign -owned, 
must register with, and obtain a licence  from, the Central Bank of Egypt. A number of conditions 
must be met prior to registration, including  a minimum capital requirement of LE 500 million, or 
US$50 million for a foreign bank branch. There are no legal limitations to the number of licences 
that can be granted, but there is a policy of consolidation of existing banks. Licences are open -
ended. Despite  a rather low rate of penetration, Egypt has a well -developed insurance sector. 
Insurance companies must take the form of joint stock companies and h ave a minimum capital of 
LE 60 million. Foreign companies applying for a licence in Egypt must have been granted a licence 
in their home country. Branches of foreign insurance companies are not allowed.  
29. Egypt is an important market for telecommunication se rvices in view of the size of its 
population. The fixed telecommunications penetration rate is relatively low while the coverage of 
mobile telephony already surpasses the population, a result achieved during the period under 
review. Internet usage is also on the rise and reaches more than a third of the population. Mobile 
telecommunications services are open to foreign investment, though state ownership remains 
present in two of the four licen ce holders. Fixed -line services have been gradually liberalized s ince 
2009, but the effects of this liberalization have not materialized yet.  
30. Egypt has a liberal aviation policy with few restrictions. All domestic airlines are privately  
owned and foreign investment plays a large role in some of them. Except for two management 
contracts, airports remain publicly  owned and managed and third -party handling is not allowed. 
Maritime transport is the main means of transportation used for Egypt's international trade. 
Cabotage in maritime transport is reserved for national f lag carriers. However, waivers can be 
granted to foreign vessels to practice cabotage in case of the breakdown of an Egyptian vessel and 
when a supplier terminates its service. Three such waivers were granted in 2015. The bilateral and 
plurilateral agreeme nts signed by Egypt do not grant any reciprocal preferential treatment to 
partner States for cargo sharing. There are no restrictions for the exercise of onshore maritime WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 13 - 
 
  transport activities and auxiliary services (except for maritime agenc y services). Th ere are no 
foreign ownership restrictions for cargo handing/maritime terminal activities or for specialized 
ports. Egypt grants no preferential treatment for national flag vessels ' access to ports and port 
services. The Suez Canal is of a vital economic im portance for Egypt, as it generated 
US$5.12  billion in revenue in fiscal year 2015/16, accounting for 9.8% of total external account 
receipts; its enlargement is the most significant development regarding inland waterways 
transport in Egypt during the peri od under review.  
31. Despite being severely affected by events in the past few years, tourism continues to be a 
key service in Egypt as it employs , directly and indirectly, 12.6% of the total work force and is one 
of the main earners of foreign exchange. The sector is largely open to foreign investment and the 
authorities are trying to promote it through the incentives contained in the new Investment Law. 
 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  1  ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT  
1.1  Main Features of the Economy  
1.1.  The Egyptian economy is highly trade -oriented and dependent on remittances from Egyptians 
overseas (estimated at US$17.5 billion in 2016/17)1, as well as on travel and tourism (accounting 
for US$19.4  billion, i.e. 7.2% of GDP, of which US$4.4 billion directly, and 1 in 15 jobs in  2016)2, 
Suez Canal revenues (US$4.9  billion in 2016/17), and above all merchandise exports 
(US$22.5  billion in 2016 or 8.4% of GDP). Indeed, exports are the most significant source of 
foreign currency despite their significant fall in recent years. At the  same time, Egypt's export base 
has become more diversified partly due to a sizeable decrease in fuel exports (Section 1.3.1).  
1.2.  Egypt's economy is relatively well diversified. As shown in Chart 1.1, the services sector 
constitutes the backbone of the econom y in terms of GDP share (55.3% in 2015/16), employment, 
and exports. The share of agriculture in GDP has been declining during recent decades and 
reached 11.9% in 2015/16 (14.5% in 2010/11), although the sector is still important for 
employment and merchan dise export earnings. In 2015/16, mining and quarrying accounted for 
8% of GDP, of which 6.6 percentage points (or 82.5% of the sector's contribution to GDP) was 
production of petroleum and natural gas; this is considerably lower than the contribution to G DP of 
petroleum and gas in 2010/11, which was 14.5%. The contribution of manufacturing to GDP was 
17.1% in 2015/16 (16.5% in 2010/11).  
Chart 1.1 GDP by economic activity (current prices), 2015/16  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat based on data provided by the authorities.  
1.3.  The structure of the Egyptian economy is tilted towards large public -sector enterprises. 
Indeed, the large number of state -controlled agencies, authorities, committees, and councils 
reflects the stron g presence of the State in the economy and economic decision -making. This may 
have resulted in the emergence of some inefficiency in the allocation of resources. In this respect, 
Egypt could probably benefit from a more market -oriented approach to economic  policy 
implementation.  
1.4.  The alleviation of poverty continues to be one of Egypt's major challenges. Despite an 
increase in per capita income, the share of the population living under the poverty lines has 
increased in the last few years. According to the 2 015 income and household expenditure survey, 
Egypt's poverty headcount ratio was 27.8% (compared with 26.3% in 2013 and 25.2% in 2010). 
Rural Upper Egypt is the poorest region with 56.7% of its inhabitants considered poor (43% in 
                                                
1 The majority of transferred funds come from Egyptians working in the Middle East, mostly in the Gulf 
region, followed by the United States and the European Union.  
2 World Travel and Tourism Council online information. Viewed at: https://www.wttc.org/ -/media/files/ 
reports/economic -impact -research/countries -2017/egypt2017.pdf . 
Chart 1.1 GDP by economic activity (at current prices), 2015/16
Source: WTO Secretariat, based on data provided by the authorities.Distributions
14.0%Real estate 
services
10.5%
Information 
services
2.3%Agriculture
11.9%Mining & 
quarrying  
8.0%Manufacturing
17.1%Electricity & water
supply  2.3%Construction
5.4%
Services
55.3% Financial 
intermediation
4.9%
Transport, 
storage & courier
4.7%Public 
administration, 
education, and 
public health 
15.5%
Other services
3.4%WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2008), while the majority of 18 -29 year olds in Upper Egypt are classified as poor. In 2015, with 
the support of the World Bank, the Government of Egypt initiated a new cash transfer programme 
to help 1.5 million poor, elderly and disabled families.3 Per capita income was about US$ 3,462 in 
2016 (up from US$1,514 in 2005/06 and US$2,923 in 2010/11).  
1.5.  Egyptians inhabit and cultivate a small share of their territory, with approximately 95% of the 
population living and working on 5% of the land.4 Egypt's population is estimated to reach 
102 million by 2020 (around 95 million currently)5, while its labour force is forecast to expand to 
34 million in 2020 (27 million people in 2010). The informal economy absorbs over half of Egypt's 
workers. The fastest -growing segment of employment in Egyp t is currently informally employed 
individuals, many of whom lack adequate pay and social protection.6 The growing informal sector 
provides 91% of the jobs for young people. The Egyptian Government is taking measures to 
address this "informality trap" such  as the adoption of the Civil Service Law (approved in 
October  2016), which simplifies pay, benefits and allowances structures.7 
1.6.  The national currency is the Egyptian pound (LE). In November 2016, the Central Bank of 
Egypt (CBE) shifted exchange -rate polic y from a peg to the US dollar to a floating regime 
(Section  1.2). The CBE is responsible for formulating monetary and exchange rate policy, and for 
overseeing the banking system .8 Effective from 2 January 2005, Egypt has accepted Article VIII, 
sections 2, 3 and 4, of the Articles of Agreement of the IMF.  
1.7.  Egypt continues to be an important recipient of official development assistance (ODA). 
Annual average net ODA flows amounted to US$2,463  million during 2010 -15 (against 
US$1,537  million during 2000 -09). The  main bilateral donors are the United States and 
EU institutions/members.9 
1.2  Recent Economic Developments  
1.8.  At the time of its previous TPR in 2005, Egypt's economy had grown at an annual average 
rate of 3.9% during 1998/99 to 2003/04, not enough to have a sig nificant impact on poverty and 
unemployment. The fiscal deficit had fluctuated around 6% of GDP, while Egypt's current account 
had posted growing surpluses (after years of deficit) due to strong increases in fuel exports which 
accounted for over 40% of com modity exports. Moreover, the Egyptian economy was facing large 
macroeconomic imbalances which largely predated 2005, such as microeconomic distortions, low 
human capital, poor infrastructure, low access to finance, and poor external competitiveness.10 
1.9.  The political turmoil of January 2011 triggered a sharp capital account reversal and left 
growth depressed, while policy accommodation widened fiscal and external imbalances.11 In the 
aftermath of the 2011 revolution, tourism was hit hard by security concerns a nd foreign exchange 
inflows, including FDI, declined sharply leading to a rising deficit in the current account. This was 
followed by the change of government in July 2013 and the approval of a new Constitution in 
January 2014 (Section 2.1).  
                                                
3 The programme aims to ensure that children under 18 have access to education and health care. In 
terms of providing accommodation for the poorest, the Government has built 240,000 social housing units and 
aims to build 1 million units over the course of th e next five years along with implementing a plan to raise the 
coverage of sanitation in rural areas from 15% to 40% by June 2018. OECD online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.af ricaneconomicoutlook.org/en/country -notes/egypt . 
4 World Bank online information. Viewed at: 
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/853671468190130279/Egypt -Promoting -poverty -reduction -and-
shared -prosperity -a-systematic -country -diagnostic . 
5 Ministry of Trade and Industry (2016), Industry of Trade and Development Strategy 2016 -2010, Cairo.  
6 African Development Bank online information. Viewed at: https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/ 
afdb/Documents/Public ations/Working_paper -Addressing_ informality_in_Egypt.pdf . 
7 OECD online information. Viewed at: http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/country -notes/egypt . 
8 Pursuant to the Ba nk Law, the CBE enjoys formal independence in drafting monetary policies. The CBE 
shall, however, set monetary policy targets in agreement with the Government.  
9 OECD online information. Viewed at: http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/documentupload/Africa -
Development -Aid-at-a-Glance.pdf . 
10 WTO (2005), Trade Policy Review of Egypt , Geneva.  
11 IMF (2015), Arab Republic of Egypt: Staff Report for the 2014 Article IV Co nsultation . IMF Country 
Report No. 15/33, 11 February 2015. Viewed at: http://www.imf.org/~/media/Websites/IMF/imported -full-
text-pdf/exte rnal/pubs/ft/scr/2015/_cr1533.ashx . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  1.10.   In 2014, the n ew Egyptian Government started implementing an ambitious reform 
programme aimed at spurring the economy, enhancing the country's business environment and 
staging balanced and inclusive growth. The first wave of reforms focused on rebalancing the 
macroecono mic aspects, which included policy choices that were adopted simultaneously, notably: 
introduction of the Value -Added Tax (VAT) in September 2016; shifting of the exchange rate 
regime from a peg to the US dollar to a full float of the Egyptian Pound on 3 N ovember 2016; 
reduction of energy subsidies; and containment of the high growth of the wage bill. The second 
wave of reforms is under way (November 2017) and aims to improve governance and the 
investment climate.  
1.11.   Egypt's economic programme has been endorse d by key development partners, notably 
through the IMF Extended Fund Facility (EFF) and the African Development Bank parallel financing. 
In the fall of 2016, Egypt embarked on an IMF -sponsored programme with the aim to reduce 
public debt, primarily by limi ting expenditure. On 11 November 2016, the IMF approved a 
three -year US$12  billion loan to help restore macroeconomic stability, correct external imbalances 
and restore competitiveness, reduce the budget deficit and place public debt on a declining path, 
boost growth and create jobs while protecting vulnerable groups.12 
1.12.   The implementation of reforms, along with the gradual restoration of confidence and 
stability, are starting to yield positive results. Real GDP expanded annually at an average rate of 
3.2% du ring 2011 -16, accelerating from 1.8% in 2011 to 4.4% in 2015 and 4.3% in 2016 on the 
basis of an expansionary fiscal policy that led to strong consumption and investment expenditure 
(Tables 1.1 and A1.1).13 Nonetheless, Egypt's unemployment rate remains at around 12%, with 
rates higher among youth and women. Assuming reforms continue, real economic growth, 
according to the IMF, should be 3.5% and 4.5% in 2017 and 2018, respectively.14 The 
Government is more optimistic, forecasting GDP growth of 6% in 2017/201 8. To alleviate the 
adverse effects of the economic reforms on the poor and vulnerable, the Government has adopted 
social -protection and safety -net mitigating measures and intensified its efforts to move away from 
inefficient and generalized subsidies to m ore efficient and better poverty -targeted social safety 
nets.15 
1.13.   To foster GDP growth and employment, the Government is seeking a more participatory role 
of the private sector in the economy. This objective forms part of " Egypt Vision 2030", a 
comprehensive development plan  introduced in March 2015. In February 2016, t he four -year 
Industrial Development Strategy (IDS) was launched premised on Egypt  becoming a leading 
industrial economy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and a main export hub fo r 
medium -technology manufactured products by 2025. The IDS  covers the following areas: 
industrial development for micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs)16; export promotion and 
import rationalization; innovation promotion17; energy conservation; the dev elopment of technical 
                                                
12 IMF (2017), Egypt: IMF Executive Board Completes First Review under the Extended Fund Facility 
(EFF) . IMF Press Release No. 17/281, 13 July 2017. Viewed at: 
http://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2017/07/13/pr17281 -imf-executive -board -completes -first-review -under -
eff-with-egypt . 
13 In 2013/14, to support domestic demand, the Government intro duced two stimulus packages that, 
inter alia , raised infrastructure and social spending by 1.8% of GDP and increased the minimum wage for 
government workers by 70%. IMF (2015), Arab Republic of Egypt: Staff Report for the 2014 Article IV 
Consultation . IMF Country Report No. 15/33, 11 February 2015. Viewed at: 
http://www.imf.org/~/media/Websites/IMF/imported -full-text-pdf/external/pubs/ ft/scr/2015/_cr1533.ashx . 
14 IMF (2017), World Economic Outlook, April, Washington, D.C.  
15 About 1% of GDP from fiscal savings are being directed to help the elderly and poor families. IMF 
News, 11 November 2016.  
16 In 2016 , the Government, via the CBE, allo cated LE 200 billion over five years to national banks for 
on-lending to small SMEs at 5% and to larger SMEs at 7%, to be repaid over 5 -7 years in a wider attempt to 
support commerce and industry. In addition, commercial banks have been directed by the CBE  to raise SME 
lending to 20% of their total loan books.  OECD online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/documentupload/Africa -Development -Aid-at-a-Glance.pdf . 
17 In a bid for greater global integration , the Government has announced the establishment of an 
Innovation Centre in Cairo's Smart Village to enable Egypt to become a world -class hub for information and 
communications technology (ICT) -based innovation and entrepreneurship.  It is considered that  both the 
traditional industrial sector and the growth of knowledge -based industry have the potential to become 
important drivers of higher growth and employment while fostering Egypt's integratio n into the global 
economy. OECD online information. Viewed at: http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/documentupload/Africa -
Development -Aid-at-a-Glance.pdf . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 17 - 
 
  and vocational education; and improvement of the business climate. The main goals are to: 
increase the annual industrial growth rate to 8%; raise the share  of industrial output in GDP to 
21%; increase the contribution of MSMEs to GDP; achieve an annual growth rate of exports of 
10%; provide 3 million adequate and productive job opportunities; and further promote 
institutional development.18 
1.14.   Weak growth and an expansionary fiscal pol icy resulted in a fiscal deficit (including grants) 
reaching 12.2% of GDP in  2013/14 (Table A1.2). Since FY 2016/17, a three -year fiscal 
consolidation plan is being implemented aiming to cut the budget deficit to between 8% and 8.5% 
of GDP by 2018/19. Furth ermore , the 2017/18 budget targets a primary surplus for the first time 
in a decade. The fiscal deficit narrowed from 12.5% of GDP in 2015/16 to 10.8% in 2016/17 
(Table  1.1) as a result of various fiscal consolidation efforts. These include streamlining sp ending 
(e.g. energy and other subsidies have been reduced and the public wage bill contained), and 
increasing revenues across all taxes on imports (Table 3.3 and Section  3.2.2.1) by, inter alia , 
introducing the VAT in September 2016 at a rate of 13% (14% a s from July 2017) replacing the 
10% general sales tax (Section 3.2.3), and widening the tax base.19 
Table 1.1 Selected economic indicators, 2005/06 and 2010/11 -2016/17a 
 2005/06  2010/11  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17b 
Real sector indicators        
Nominal GDP (LE billion)  617.7  1,371  2,130  2,444  2,708  3,496  
Nominal GDP (US$ billion)  107.0  230.1  297.9  332.5  332.3  236.2  
Real GDP at market prices (% change)  6.8 1.8 2.9 4.4 4.3 4.2 
GDP per capita (US$)  1,514  2,923  3,521  3,734  3,462  2,508  
Consumer prices (end period; % 
change)  7.3 11.8 8.2 11.4 14.0 29.8 
Consumer prices (average; % change)  4.2 11.1 10.1 11.0 10.2 23.5 
Unemployment rate (average, %)  11.2 10.4 13.4 12.9 12.7 12.2 
GDP by type of expenditure (as 
percentage of current GDP)        
Total consumption  82.9 87.0 94.8 94.2 94.2 .. 
Private consumption  70.6 75.6 82.9 82.4 82.8 .. 
Public consumption  12.3 11.5 11.8 11.8 11.4 .. 
Gross fixed capital formation  18.7 17.1 13.6 14.3 15.0 .. 
Exports of goods and services  29.9 20.6 14.2 13.2 10.4 .. 
Imports of goods and services  31.6 24.7 22.7 21.7 19.6 .. 
Money and banking (% change)        
Broad money (M2, %change)  13.5 10.0 17.0 16.4 18.6 39.3 
Credit to the private sector (% change)  8.6 0.8 7.4 16.7 14.2 37.8 
Treasury bill rate, 3 month (average, 
%) 8.8 10.2 11.3 11.4 11.8 17.1 
Public finances (% of GDP)c       
 Gross debt  112.7  88.0 94.8 94.3 104.0  105.9  
 External  17.6 11.8 9.5 7.7 7.3 14.8 
 Domestic  95.1 76.2 85.3 86.6 96.7 91.1 
 Budget sectord       
 Revenue and grants  24.5 19.3 21.7 19.1 18.1 18.1 
 Expenditure (incl. net acquisition of 
financial assets)  33.6 29.3 33.4 30.2 30.2 28.7 
 Of which: energy subsidies  6.8 4.9 6.0 3.0 1.9 3.0 
 Overall balance  -8.2 -9.8 -12.2 -11.5 -12.5 -10.8 
 Overall balance, excluding grants  -8.5 -10.0 -16.7 -12.5 -12.7 -10.8 
 Primary balance  -2.2 -3.7 -3.9 -3.5 -3.4 -1.8 
External sector        
LE/US$ (period average)  5.7 5.8 7.1 7.3 8.2 14.8 
Real effective exchange rate (period 
average, % change; appreciation +)  1.5 0.9 -0.3 -3.8 -2.0 -8.5 
Current account (% of GDP)  1.6 -2.6 -0.9 -3.6 -5.9 -6.7 
                                                
18 Minist ry of Trade and Industry (2016), Industry of Trade and Development Strategy 2016 -2010, 
Cairo.  
19 IMF (2017), Egypt: IMF Executive Board Completes First Review under the Extended Fund Facility 
(EFF) . IMF Press Release No. 17/281, 13 July 2017. Viewed at: 
http://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2017/07/13/pr17281 -imf-executive -board -completes -first-review -under -
eff-with-egypt . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 18 - 
 
   2005/06  2010/11  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17b 
Total external debt (% of GDP)e 27.6 15.2 15.1 14.4 16.6 33.6 
Gross international reserves (US$ 
billion)  22.9 26.6 16.7 20.1 17.6 31.3 
 In months of next year's imports  6.1 4.7 2.8 3.6 3.1 5.6 
.. Not available.  
a Fiscal year ends 30 June.  
b Provisional.  
c General government includes: budget sector, National Investment Bank, and social insurance funds.  
d Budget sector comprises central government, local governments, and some public corporations.  
e Includes multilateral/bilateral public sector borrowing, private borrowing and prospective financing.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities; Central Bank of Egypt, online information on statistic s; and 
IMF Country Report No. 15/33 and IMF Press Release No. 17/281.  
1.15.   To finance the fiscal deficit, the Government has relied extensively on domestic borrowing. 
Gross domestic debt went up from 76.2% of GDP in 2010/11 to 96.7% in 2015/16. With fiscal 
consolidation delivering the expected reduction in the fiscal deficit -financing requirement, domestic 
debt issuance has slowed, allowing the domestic debt stock to fall to 91.1% of GDP in 2016/17. 
Nonetheless, further reducing the domestic debt stock remains a  key challenge as Egypt tries to 
diversify sources of financing, lengthen debt maturities and reduce the cost of borrowing while 
aiming not to crowd out credit for the private sector. Total external debt increased from around 
15.2% of GDP in 2010/11 to an estimated 33.6% in 2016/17, boosted partly by external 
borrowing and euro bond issuance to help meet the Government's financing gap. Over 80% of 
Egypt's total external debt is medium - and long -term.20 
1.16.   According to the IMF, the transition to a flexible excha nge rate has gone smoothly despite 
initially displaying some volatility.21 Subsequently, the exchange rate started to strengthen, 
notably due to strong foreign investor demand for local debt instruments.22 The parallel market 
has virtually disappeared and th e reserves of the CBE increased to US$31 billion in 2016/17, 
equivalent to 5.6 months of merchandise and services imports (Table  1.1). At the same time, the 
CBE tightened monetary policy by raising interest rates to support the Egyptian pound. The 
authorit ies' immediate priority is to reduce inflation, which poses a risk to macroeconomic stability 
and hurts the poor. After reaching 14% at the end of the 2015/16 fiscal year (Table A1.3), the 
increase in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) has accelerated. Average  annual inflation is estimated 
to have reached 23.5% in 2016/17 because of the exchange -rate effect, along with other 
structural bottlenecks and cyclical factors (such as supply -side weaknesses and the harvest 
season).  
1.17.   With a flexible exchange rate, the CB E is aiming at striking a balance between curbing 
inflationary pressures and boosting growth.  The new exchange rate regime should help improve 
monetary policy effectiveness because inflation targeting through interest -rate setting is to replace 
exchange -rate targeting.23 However, Egypt is still largely a cash -based economy  despite the fact 
that mobile banking is growing in importance and Egypt is now the second largest credit - and 
debit-card issuance market in the Middle East. Only some 12% of Egyptians have  a bank account  
and many small, informal sector businesses do not hold bank accounts. Consequently, a large part 
of the population/businesses are relatively immune to changes in interest rates.  
                                                
20 OECD online information. Viewed at: http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/documentupload/Africa -
Development -Aid-at-a-Glance.pdf . 
21 The overvalued exchange rate was on e of the IMF's major concerns (along with fiscal laxity and a 
weak business environment) and its advice was that shifting from a peg to the US dollar to a floating regime 
was crucial to stabilizing the economy and supporting economic recovery. On 3 Novembe r 2016, the exchange 
rate moved from LE 8.85 to 16.5 per US dollar under the peg, a depreciation of 86%. In March 2016, the CBE 
had tried to reduce external -sector pressures by devaluing the Egyptian pound by 13%, but keeping the peg to 
the US dollar. This  was unsuccessful and led to the change in policy. IMF (2015), Arab Republic of Egypt: Staff 
Report for the 2014 Article IV Consultation . IMF Country Report No. 15/33, 11 February 2015. Viewed at: 
http://www.imf.org/~/media/Websites/IMF/imported -full-text-pdf/external/pubs/ft/scr/2015/_cr1533.ashx . 
22 Around US$1.5 billion in extra inflows was recorded by the CBE in the immediate two -week per iod 
following the policy shift, and the Egyptian stock market index rose to its highest level since 2008. OECD online 
information. Viewed at: http://www.oec d.org/dac/stats/documentupload/Africa -Development -Aid-at-a-
Glance.pdf . 
23 The successful experience of other developing countries indicates that  this is an important move in 
making monetary policy dominant when trying to tackle inflationary pressures.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  1.18.   The flexible exchange rate regime has also led to an increase in capital and financial inflows, 
particularly FDI (Section 1.3.2). Nonetheless, the current account deficit widened to 5.9% of GDP 
in 2015/16 from 3.6% the year before. The deterioration was driven by a fall in exports and strong 
import demand despite the  shortage of foreign currency ( Section  1.3.1); a weakening of services 
exports, notably  in tourism caused by domestic insecurity, along with limited growth in Suez Canal 
receipts due to weak global trade ( Section  4.4.5.1); and a drop in remittances to around 
US$17.1  billion in 2015/16 from US$19.3  billion in 2014/15 (Table A1.4 and A1.4b). Although it 
declined in US dollar terms, the current account deficit increased as a share of GDP to 6.7% in 
2016/17 due to the  devaluation of the Egyptian pound (Table 1.2).  
Table 1.2 Balance of payments, 2005/06 and 2010/11 -2016/17a 
(US$ million)  
 2005/06  2010/11  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17b 
Current account  1,751.9  -6,087.8  -2,779.7  -12,142.6  -19,831.1  -15,575.2  
Trade balance (f.o.b.)  -8,200.0  -20,401.2  -26,695.4  -31,440.1  -31,539.3  -28,325.3  
 Exports (f.o.b.)  18,455.1  26,992.5  26,022.6  22,245.1  18,704.6  21,687.0  
 Imports (f.o.b.)  -26,655.1  -47,393.7  -52,718.0  -53,685.2  -50,243.9  -50,012.3  
Services balance  3,874.1  7,226.0  810.5  3,122.6  -610.8  -298.7  
 Receipts  15,436.1  21,454.3  17,437.2  21,811.8  16,079.3  16,597.0  
 Paymentsc -11,562.0  -14,228.3  -16,626.7  -18,689.2  -16,690.1  -16,895.7  
Investment income balance  530.7  -6,049.5  -7,262.7  -5,700.9  -4,471.7  -4,423.0  
 Credit  2,001.8  418.8  194.2  212.8  396.9  497.9  
 Debit -1,471.1  -6,468.3  -7,456.9  -5,913.7  -4,868.6  -4,920.9  
Current transfers  5,547.1  13,136.8  30,367.9  21,875.8  16,790.7  17,471.8  
Of which remittances from Egyptians  
working abroad  5,034.2  12,592.6  18,518.7  19,330.0  17,077.4  17,453.0  
Capital and financial account  3,511.3  -4,198.6  5,189.5  17,928.9  21,176.7  29,034.2  
Capital account  -37.6 -32.3 194.1  -122.9  -141.4  -113.3  
Financial account  3,548.9  -4,166.3  4,995.4  18,051.8  21,318.1  29,147.5  
 Direct investments abroad  -145.3  -958.0  -326.6  -223.3  -164.2  -175.1  
FDI in Egypt (net)  6,111.4  2,188.6  4,178.2  6,379.8  6,932.6  7,915.8  
Port. investments abroad  -729.1  -117.7  65.9 47.2 192.1  208.4  
 Port. investments in Egypt  2,764.0  -2,550.9  1,237.2  -638.6  -1,286.8  15,985.3  
 Other investments (net)  -4,452.1  -2,728.3  -159.3  12,486.7  15,644.4  5,213.1  
Errors and omissions (net)  -2,009.8  532.5  -931.2  -2,061.4  -4,158.6  258.2  
Overall balance  3,253.4  -9,753.9  1,478.6  3,724.9  -2,813.0  13,717.2  
a Fiscal year ends 30 June.  
b Provisional.  
c Includes freight and insurance cost of merchandise imports.  
Source:  Data provided by the authorities.  
1.3  Developments in Trade and Investment  
1.3.1   Trends and patterns in merchandise and services trade  
1.19.   Trade accounted for 18% of Egypt's GDP during the 2013 -15 period. Egypt ranks 47th 
among world merchandise exporters and 26th among importers (considering EU member States as 
one and excluding intra -EU trade).24 The trade deficit fell from US $52.4 billion in 2015 to 
US$35.6  billion in 2016 (US$30.7 billion in 2011), largely due to a big decrease in imports.  
1.20.   Egypt's merchandise exports decreased significantly in the last few years to US$22.5 billion 
in 2016 (US$31.6 billion in 2011). Egypt's ex port base has also become more diversified. Indeed, 
at the time of Egypt's previous TPR in 2005, its main exports were fuel products, accounting for 
over 43% of the total. This share declined to 29.3% in 2011 and to 14.3% in 2016 (Table A1.5). 
However, min eral fuels remain the single most important export product, followed by vegetables 
which make up 12.5% of total merchandise exports in 2016 (8.7% in 2011), precious stones and 
metals (11.8%), chemicals (11.3%), and textiles (11.2%) (Chart 1.3 and Table A1. 5). 
                                                
24 WTO Statistics database, "Trade Profiles: Egypt". Viewed at: http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/EG -
e.htm . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 20 - 
 
  1.21.   In 2016, the European Union was Egypt's main export destination, led by Italy and the 
United Kingdom, accounting for 25.9% of Egyptian exports (30.7% in 2011). It was followed by 
the United Arab Emirates with a share of 12.6% (up from 2.7% in 2011), Sa udi Arabia (7.8%) and 
Turkey (6.4%). The share of the United States decreased from 5.8% in 2011 to 4.5% in 2016. 
Other important export destinations are Lebanon, India, and Libya (Chart 1.3, and Table A1.6).  
1.22.   Merchandise imports amounted to US$58.1 billion in 2016 (compared with US$74.4 billion 
in 2015 and US$62.3 billion in 2011).25 Machinery and electrical equipment is the single most 
important import group, accounting for 16.1% of merchandise imports in 2016 (14.6% in 2011). It 
is followed by mineral fuels  (14.2%) and base metals (11.4%). Vegetable products made up 9.4% 
of merchandise imports in 2016, while live animals and products represented 4.5% of the total 
(Chart 1.2 and Table A1.7).  
1.23.   In 2016, 32.4% of Egypt's merchandise imports came from the European  Union (led by 
Germany, Italy and Spain), up from 29.3% in 2011. China and other Asian countries were the 
source of 27.3% of Egyptian imports. The United States, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, the 
Russian  Federation, and Brazil also represent a sizeable source of E gypt's imports (Chart 1.3, and 
Table A1.8).  
                                                
25 There is a discrepancy with balance -of-payments figures, as the trade figures consider imports c.i.f., 
and balance -of-payments figures consider them f.o.b., with a 10% charge relative to freight and 2.5% related 
to insurance charged to the services account as payments. Also trade figures are based on COMTRADE, which 
uses as a source Egypt's Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS). CAPMAS import 
figures include all customs clearance systems, including free trade zones, commodities stored in warehouses, 
and imports under temporary admission (general trade system).  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 21 - 
 
  Chart 1.2 Product composition of merchandise trade by main HS section, 2011 and 2016  
 
Source:  WTO calculations, based on UNSD, Comtrade database.  
Chart 1.1
Product composition of merchandise trade by HS section, 2011 and 2016
2011 2016
Precious stones
& metals  
11.8%Base metals &
articles thereof
6.3%
Vegetables 
products
12.5%Other
11.7%
Mineral products
15.7%Textiles & 
textile articles
11.2% Machinery; 
electrical equipment
7.3%
Plastics & rubber
5.6%
Chemicals 
11.3%Prepared 
food, 
beverages 
and tobacco 
6.6%
Total:   US$31.6 billion Total:  US$22.5 billion  
Base metals & 
articles thereof
12.9% Mineral products
16.8%
Chemicals
8.3%Textiles & 
textile articles
4.7% Vegetable 
products
9.4%
Mineral 
products
14.9%
Chemicals
9.4% Plastics & 
rubber
6.0% Textiles & 
textile articles
5.0% Base metals & 
articles thereof
11.4%Machinery;
electrical 
equipment
16.1% Transport
equipment
10.0%Other 
18.0%Precious stones
& metals  5.5%
Total:   US$62.3 billion Total:   US$58.1 billion 
Source:  WTO calculations, based on UNSD, Comtrade database.Other 
18.3%Base metals &
articles thereof
10.0%
Vegetables products
8.7%Other
9.2%
Transport
equipment
5.5%Mineral products
31.4%Textiles & 
textile articles
10.9% Machinery; 
electrical equipment
4.5%
Machinery;
electrical equipment
14.6% 
Plastics & 
rubber
6.0% Plastics & rubber
3.8%
Vegetable 
products
12.8%Chemicals 
11.8%Prepared 
food, 
beverages 
and tobacco 
4.2%Exports (f.o.b.) 
Imports (c.i.f.) WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Chart 1.3 Direction of merchandise trade, 2011 and 2016  
 
Source:  WTO calculations, based on UNSD, Comtrade database.  
1.24.   In services trade, Egypt ranks 25th as exporter and 30th as importer in the world 
(considering EU  member States as one and excluding intra -EU trade).26 Egypt has traditionally 
been a net exporter of services. Nonetheless, the services balance has deteriorated significantly, 
due to an important deficit in insurance -related services and a significant dro p in travel -related 
                                                
26 WTO S tatistics database, "Trade Profiles: Egypt". Viewed at: http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/EG -e. 
htm. 
Chart 1.3  Direction of merchandise trade, 2011 and 2016
2011 2016
Exports (f.o.b.) 
Asia
15.2%Asia
8.1%
United Arab 
Emirates
12.6%Americas
5.7%
Lebanese 
Republic 
3.6%EU-28
25.9%
Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of
7.8%
Africa
15.2%Other
2.0%
Other 
Middle East
10.6%
Europe 
34.5%Middle 
East
34.5%
Turkey 6.4%
Other Europe 
2.3%
Total:   US$31.6 billion Total:  US$22.5 billion
EU-28
29.3%China
9.2%United States
10.4%Other
0.2%
Americas
18.6%
Europe 
35.0%
Other Europe 
1.5%CIS 7.9%Korea, Republic of 
2.8%India 2.6%
Other Middle 
East
7.5%Other Americas
8.2%
Middle 
East
11.8%Asia
27.3%Americas
11.9%
Europe 
38.2% EU-28
32.4%
Turkey 
4.3%Other Europe 
1.4%Africa
3.1%China
13.0%United 
States
5.3%
CIS 7.7%Korea, 
Republic of 
3.7%India 3.2%
Other Middle 
East
7.7%Other 
Americas
6.6%
Saudi Arabia  
4.2%Other Asia   
7.4%
Total:   US$62.3 billion Total:   US$58.1 billionUnited Arab 
Emirates
2.7%
Saudi Arabia  
4.1%Americas
7.3%
Source:  WTO calculations, based on UNSD, Comtrade database.Lebanese 
Republic 3.1%
Middle 
East
11.6%
Turkey 
4.2%EU-28
30.7%
Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of
6.3%
Africa
13.6%
Other Asia   
9.1%Other
5.2%
Asia
23.7%Other 
Middle East
10.1%
Africa
3.0%Imports (c.i.f.) Europe 
36.5% Middle 
East
22.2%
Turkey 4.8%
Other Europe 
1.0%WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 23 - 
 
  earnings during the last few years. Other transportation, which includes Suez Canal revenues, is 
Egypt's most important service receipt (Tables 1.3 and A1.9).  
Table 1.3 Trade in services (n et), 2005/06 and 2010/11 –2016/17a 
(US$ million)  
 2005/06  2010/11  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17b 
Services balance  3,874.1  7,226.0  810.5  3,122.6  -610.8  -298.7  
Transportationc 703.5  1,322.3  1,777.6  2,219.0  2,480.5  2,088.1  
Sea transport  -2,591.2  -4,643.4  -4,267.2  -4,095.0  -3,560.4  -3,680.7  
Air transport  95.5 627.4  506.7  693.4  643.0  518.5  
Other transportation  3,199.2  5,338.3  5,538.1  5,620.6  5,397.9  5,250.3  
Of which Suez Canal 
Revenue  3,558.8  5,052.9  5,369.1  5,361.7  5,121.6  4,945.3  
Travel  5,615.0  8,476.1  2,028.8  4,032.2  -323.5  1,639.8  
Insurance  -849.8  -1,361.8  -1,556.3  -1,581.2  -1,522.2  -1,545.9  
Financial services  -37.7 245.2  126.0  139.4  192.2  121.4  
Computer and information 
services  10.1 40.1 44.2 43.5 25.9 -29.9 
Royalties and licence 
services  -10.5 -240.9  -286.5  -224.4  -206.0  -220.6  
Government services  -961.7  -988.4  -419.5  527.4  -399.1  -347.7  
Communication services  50.9 469.8  523.5  462.0  543.0  351.6  
Construction services  357.2  242.9  324.5  -1,055.0  -85.4 237.7  
Business, professional and 
technical services  -1,087.8  -1,026.4  -1,844.5  -1,454.2  -1,385.1  -2,720.3  
Personal, cultural and 
recreational services  84.9 47.1 92.7 13.9 68.9 127.1  
a Fiscal year ends 30 June.  
b Provisional.  
c Includes freight and insurance cost of merchandise imports.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
1.3.2   Trends and patterns in FDI  
1.25.   Egypt is taking measures to attract larger FDI inflows and improve the business climate as 
reflected in the World Bank's report on doing business, where Egypt's ranking improved from 126th 
in 2016 to 122nd (out of 190 economies) in 2017. Egypt has made considerable progress 
particularly with respect to starting a business and protecting minority investors, as well as in 
streamlining industrial licensing and facilitating access to finance fo r SMEs. The main obstacles 
refer to trading across borders and registering property.27 According to other external sources, the 
most problematic factors for private investors are policy instability and government instability.28 
1.26.   Egypt's potential for attracti ng foreign investors and fostering domestic investment remains 
largely untapped. Indeed, its FDI inflows averaged some US$6 billion per year during 2013 -16 
compared with an annual average of around US$9 billion in 2005 -07 (Table 1.4). Traditionally, the 
European Union has been the most important foreign investor in Egypt (mainly due to large single 
acquisitions by Spanish, French, and Dutch companies), followed by the United States and some 
Arab countries. In 2015/16, 53.5% of FDI inflows went to the oil in dustry, followed by finance 
(3.8%), real estate (3.6%), and manufacturing (3.4%).29 
                                                
27 World Bank online information. Viewed at: http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/ 
egypt . 
28 World Economic Forum online information. Viewed at: http://reports.weforum.org/global -
competitiveness -report -2016-2017/economies/#economy=EGY . 
29 Central Bank of Egypt (2016), Annual Report 2015/2016 , Cairo. Viewed at: http://www.cbe.org.  
eg/en/EconomicResearch/Publications/AnnualReportDL/Annual%20Report%202015 -2016.pdf . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 1.4 FDI, 2005 -07 and 2013 -16 
(US$ million)  
 2005 -07 2013  2014  2015  2016  
FDI inflows  8,999  4,256  4,612  6,925  8,107  
FDI inward stock  .. 82,893  87,485  94,307  102,324  
FDI inward stock (% of GDP)  .. 27.1 28.6 28.4 30.8 
FDI outflows  302 301 253 182 207 
FDI outward stock  .. 6,586  6,839  7,020  7,227  
FDI outward stock (% of GDP)  .. 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.2 
.. Not available.  
Source:  UNCTAD (2017), World Investment Report 2017 , Geneva.  
1.27.   The Egyptian authorities' strategy to boost growth and employment relies on increasing 
domestic investment. To this end, important reforms are being implemented to further remove 
investment barriers and attract larger local and foreign investments. In particular, the government 
has adopted a new Investment Law No. 1/2017 and its regulations ( Section  2). The new law aims 
to make investing in Egypt more attractive by developing a one -stop-shop system. In ad dition, 
other reforms are under way  such as the Industrial Licensing Law and the Company Law. Once 
fully in place, these measures will positively impact the investment climate.  
1.28.   To promote more FDI inflows, large infrastructure projects are also under way, notably the 
Suez Canal Development Project. This project aims to increase the role of the Suez Canal region in 
international trading and to develop the three canal cities: Suez, Ismailia, and Port Said. It 
comprises a first stage, already completed, consis ting of the digging of a parallel canal and the 
widening of the current one and, a second stage consisting of the development of services around 
the Canal's core activities. Other investment initiatives include: building one million houses around 
greater C airo; the construction and rehabilitation of 3,000 kilometres  of new roads; the 
reclamation of one million acres of land; renewable energy projects; and fostering development in 
the "Golden Triangle" aiming at exploiting the natural resources in the region  while developing the 
area for touristic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural activities.30 
 
                                                
30 IMF (2015), Arab Republic of Egypt : Staff Report for the 2014 Article IV Consultation . IMF Country 
Report No. 15/33, 11 February 2015. Viewed at: http://www.imf.org/~/media/Websites/IMF/imported -full-
text-pdf/external/pubs/ft/scr/2015/_cr1533.ashx . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2  TRADE AND INVESTMENT  REGIMES  
2.1  General Framework  
2.1.  Egypt is a parliamentary republic; executive authority is vested with the President as Head of 
State. Egypt's Constitution was amended several times during the review period.1 The current 
Constitution, which was approved by a referendum in January 2014, provides for the separation of 
powers between the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. The President of the Republic is 
elected by popular vote for a period of four years and may be re -elected for one additional term. 
The next presidential election is scheduled for May 2018.  
2.2.  The President of the Republic assigns a Prime Minister to form the Government. The Cabinet, 
or Council of Mi nisters, consists of the Prime Minister, ministers and their deputies. The 
responsibilities of the Cabinet include: formulating and implementing the policies of the State; 
preparing draft laws and decrees; drafting the State Budget; maintaining the securit y of the 
nation; and protecting the rights of the citizens. The present Cabinet consists of 33 ministers.  
2.3.  Egypt is divided into administrative regional units, including governorates, comprising cities 
and villages. Local People's Councils are elected by t he administrative units for a term of four 
years with the requirement that one quarter of the seats are allocated to people under 35 years 
old, another quarter are allocated to women, no less than 50% are allocated to workers and 
farmers, and that these pe rcentages include an appropriate representation of Christians and 
people with disabilities. There are presently 27  governorates and the governors are appointed by 
the President.  
2.4.  The legislative branch of the Government is the unicameral parliament, the Hou se of 
Representatives (Majlis al Nuwaab).2 All government policies, laws, the State Budget, the General 
Plan for Economic and Social Development, and agreements between Egypt and other countries 
must be approved by the House of Representatives, which has 2 5 specialized committees to assist 
in decision -making, including in relation to economic affairs. The draft State Budget must be 
submitted to the House of Representatives at least 90 days before the beginning of the fiscal year, 
and is not effective withou t its approval. The number of members elected to the House of 
Representatives must be at least 450, with up to 5% appointed by the President. At present, the 
House consists of 596 members, of which 28 were appointed by the President. The House sits for 
five years from the date of its first session. Pursuant to Article 137 of the Constitution, the 
President has the right to dissolve the House of Representatives ("in case of necessity") following a 
public referendum; the House may not be dissolved for the sam e reason that the previous House 
was dissolved. The most recent legislative elections took place in two phases between October and 
December 2015.  
2.5.  Egypt's judicial system comprises the Supreme Constitutional Court, the Council of State, and 
the ordinary cou rt system. The Supreme Constitutional Court is vested with judicial control over 
the constitutionality of laws and regulations. It may also rule on any judgements made by the 
Court of Appeals or other national courts, and on any conflict of law between the  civil and 
administrative courts. The Council of State is responsible for adjudicating administrative matters; 
it also reviews all draft legislation before it is considered by the Cabinet. Any administrative 
dispute regarding WTO -related decisions and rule s may be brought before the Administrative Court 
under the jurisdiction of the Council of State. Egypt's ordinary courts consist of regular civil and 
criminal courts, and special courts such as family, economic and state security courts. Pursuant to 
the Ju dicial Authority Law No. 13/2017, the President has the power to appoint the chief justice for 
each of the main three judicial bodies.  
                                                
1 Egypt's 1971 Constitution, which was amended in 1980, 2005, and 2007, was proclaimed to update 
the democratic representative system in assertion of the rule of law, independence of the judiciary, and party 
plurality. On 13 February 2011, the Constitution was suspended following the resignation of President Hosni 
Mubarak. On 30 March 2011, it was officially voided after a new provisional constitution was passed by the 
country's ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces.  A new 2012 Constitution was approved in 2012; it w as 
suspended  on 3 July 2013. The current Constitution was approved by referendum in January 2014.  
2 The Shura Council, "consultative council" was the upper house of the formerly bicameral Parliament of 
Egypt. The Council was abolished by the 2014 Constitut ion. WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2.2  Trade Policy Formulation and Objectives  
2.6.  Policies are generally formulated and implemented by means of legislation initia ted by the 
relevant ministries; proposals may also be submitted by members of Parliament. All bills must be 
introduced in, and passed by, Parliament by an absolute majority of members present. Each bill is 
first referred to the Committee for Constitutional  and Legislative Affairs, and, if appropriate, to 
other specialized committees, for recommendations. Once approved by Parliament, the bill is sent 
to the President for approval. The President may withhold approval and refer back to Parliament 
within 30 day s. Bills nevertheless become law if they are approved by a two -thirds majority of the 
members of Parliament. Laws are proclaimed through their publication in the National  Gazette.  
2.7.  Under exceptional circumstances, if an emergency measure must be taken in th e absence of 
regular Parliamentary sessions, the President may convene the Parliament for an emergency 
session to discuss the matter. If this is not possible , the President may issue decrees having the 
force of law  provided that these decrees are subject t o discussion and approval within 15 days of 
the establishment of the new Parliament . If these decrees are not approved or not discussed by 
Parliament, they cease to have the force of law automatically and retroactively.  
2.8.  Responsibility for trade policy form ulation is with the Ministerial Economic Group, chaired by 
the Prime Minister, which drafts legislation to be introduced in Parliament. The Ministerial 
Economic Group is composed of: representatives of the Central Bank and the Ministries of Finance; 
Supply  and Internal Trade; Planning, Monitoring and Administrative Reform; Investment and 
International Cooperation; and Trade and Industry.  
2.9.  Trade policy is implemented by the Ministry of Trade and Industry. The Ministry coordinates 
implementation with other st ate entities where necessary, most notably with the Ministry of 
Agriculture and the Ministry of Finance which, through the Customs Authority, is responsible for 
tariff collection and administration (Table  2.1). Inter -ministerial consultations are also carr ied out 
to assess the impact of major policy changes on various sectors of the economy.  
Table 2.1 Ministerial responsibility for trade -related issues  
Ministry/Agency  Competence  
Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation  Agriculture, including phytosanitary standards  
Ministry of Communication and Information 
Technology  Telecommunication, postal services  
Ministry of Civil Aviation  Air transport  
Ministry of Culture  Copyright (books)  
Ministry of Electrici ty and Renewable Energy  Energy  
Ministry of Finance  Public procurement  
 Customs Authority  Customs tariff, valuation, rules of origin  
Ministry of Trade and Industry  Trade policy, contingency measures, export 
promotion, industrial development  
Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality  Standards  
General Organization for Export and Import Control  Import and export inspections, including quality 
control  
Ministry of Supply and Internal Trade  Trademarks  
Ministry of Health and Population  Sanitary standards  
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research  Research and development  
Egyptian Patent Office  Patents  
Supreme Council for Media Regulation  Copyright (audiovisual)  
Ministry of Investment and International Cooperatio n Foreign and domestic investment  
General Authority for Investment and Free Zones  Investment  
Financial Supervisory Authority  Non-banking financial services  
Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources  Petroleum, natural gas, mineral resources  
Ministry of Planning, Monitoring and Administrative 
Reform  Public investment planning and management  
Ministry of Public Enterprise  Privatization  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Ministry/Agency  Competence  
Ministry of Tourism  Tourism  
Ministry of Transport  Maritime transport, ports  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
2.10.   The ministries are assisted by autonomous and advisory bodies, such as the High Ministerial 
Economic Reform Committee (HMERC), the Cabinet Policy Committee, and the Economic Group of 
Ministers. The HMERC, headed by the Prime Minister and with representation from the Ministries of 
Trade and Industry, and Finance, relevant sectoral ministries, the Chairman of the Public 
Enterprise Office (PEO), and the Chairman of the High Officials Committee, is responsible for 
issues relating to the stabilizati on and reform programme, including trade liberalization. The 
HMERC is assisted by the High Officials Committee, made up of high -level government officials, 
which prepares quarterly reports assessing the state of the economy and recommending further 
reforms  to be undertaken.  
2.11.   To complement the official process, informal consultations are carried out by the ministries 
with academia and organized interest groups, including the General Federation of Chambers of 
Commerce, the Federation of Egyptian Industries (FE I), the Egyptian Businessmen's Association 
(EBA), and trade associations.  
2.12.   One of the most important trade -related bodies in Egypt is the National High Committee and 
its subsidiary committees. The Committee is under the auspices of the Ministry of Trade an d 
Industry, and was established by Ministerial Decree No. 478/2002. The main role of this 
Committee, which has both public and private sector participation, is the formulation of the 
Egyptian negotiating position and all proposals related to WTO negotiatio ns, and also the follow -up 
of the implementation of laws and regulations and their compliance with Egypt's international 
obligations. The subsidiary committees (Market Access Committee, Dispute Settlement and Trade 
Safeguard Committee, Trade in Services Co mmittee, Intellectual Property Rights Committee, and 
New Issues Committee) are responsible for periodically preparing a technical report for the High 
Committee for follow up. Decree No. 183/2011 created new subsidiary committees, namely the 
Government Proc urement Committee, the Trade and Environment Committee, the Sanitary and 
Phytosanitary Measures Committee, the Technical Barriers to Trade Committee, and Trade 
Facilitation Subsidiary Committee.  
2.13.   The Trade Facilitation Subsidiary Committee meets on a regul ar basis and is considered as 
the main instrument through which both public and private sector representatives convey the 
problems encountered and their technical needs. This Committee is responsible for coordinating 
the Egyptian position towards trade fac ilitation -related issues and for following up the 
implementation of the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA).  
2.14.   The authorities have indicated that Egypt's economic policy objectives are aimed at 
achieving private -sector led, outward -oriented economic growth, by maintaining a stable 
macroeconomic environment, creating a business -friendly environment, attracting foreign direct 
investment, and developing capital markets.  
2.15.   In accordance with Egypt's Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) "Egypt Vision 2030", 
which  relies heavily on the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals as well as the 
Ministry of Trade and Industry's Industry and Trade Development Strategy (ITD) 2016 -20, 
industrial development is the engine for sustainable and inclusive economic deve lopment in Egypt.  
2.16.   The SDS aims to, inter alia : (a) increase annual GDP growth from 4.3% in 2015/16 to 10% 
by 2020, and 12% by 2030; (b) increase GDP per capita from US$3,462 in 2015/16 to US$4,000 
by 2020 and US$10,000 by 2030; (c) reduce the inflation ra te to 3 -5% in 2030; and (d) reduce 
the budget deficit to 7.5% by 2020 and 2.28% by 2030.  
2.17.   The ITD strategy aims to: (a) increase the annual industrial growth rate to 8%; (b) increase 
the contribution of manufacturing to GDP from 17.1% in FY2015/16 to 18 -20%; (c) increase the 
micro, small and medium enterprises sector's contribution to GDP; (d) increase the growth rate of 
exports to 10% annually; (e) provide three million adequate and productive job opportunities; and 
(f) promote institutional development.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2.18.   According to the authorities, Egypt is seeking to liberalize its trade regime on an MFN basis 
through WTO negotiations and unilateral tariff reductions, and on a preferential basis through 
reciprocal agreements with selected trading partners. In agriculture , Egypt seeks meaningful 
multilateral liberalization. In the services sector, Egypt supports greater multilateral trade 
liberalization, most notably in mode 4, and increased participation of developing countries in the 
multilateral trading system.  
2.19.   The Pre sident of the Republic, according to Article 151 of the Constitution, represents the 
State in matters related to foreign relations; the President may conclude treaties and ratify them 
after the approval of Parliament. Under Article 93 of the Constitution, any international agreement 
or convention, after being ratified by Parliament and published in the National Gazette , becomes 
law in Egypt and supersedes national legislation, notwithstanding constitutional provisions that 
may contradict it. International a greements thus require no further legislative implementation to 
be invoked before national courts. However, for implementation purposes, 
revision/amendment/introduction of new legislation may be required to harmonize national laws 
with international commit ments.  
2.20.   The main legislation relating to international trade is the Customs Law No. 66/1963 
(amended by Laws No. 88/1976, No. 75/1980, No. 158/1997, and No. 95/2008), and Law 
No. 118/1975 on Import and Export (known, together with its Executive Regulations , as the 
Import and Export Regulations) (Table  2.2). Since its last Trade Policy Review in 2005, Egypt has 
amended its Customs Law and adopted new regulations under the Law on Import and Export. In 
late October 2017, the draft of a new Customs Law was bein g finalized and was expected to be 
sent to Parliament for its consideration after the conclusion of consultations with the trading 
community and the introduction of the required amendments. This new law aims to merge 
Customs Law No. 66/1963 and Customs Exe mption Law No. 186/1986. The Law on Import and 
Export No. 118/1975 was last amended in June 2017 by Ministerial Decree No. 835/2017. These 
amendments aim at facilitating the procedures for exporters and importers as well as at launching 
an electronic link between concerned parties.  
2.21.   The Customs Exemption Law No. 186/1986, as amended, and its Executive Regulations 
provide details of the various tax exemptions granted to certain sectors of the economy. Egypt's 
current applied customs tariff was last changed b y Presidential Decrees No. 25/2016 and 
No. 538/2016 amending certain tariff categories in Presidential Decree No. 184/2013.  
2.22.   On 31 May 2017, a new Investment Law No. 72/2017 entered into force. Other laws 
containing various provisions on foreign investment are the Companies Law No. 159/1981 and the 
Special Economic Zones Law No. 83/2002 (Table 2.2).  
Table 2.2 Main trade -related laws  
Law Area  
Presidential Decrees 25/2016 and 538/2016  Customs tariff  
Customs Exemption Law (186/1986), as amended  Tariff exemptions  
Customs Law (66/1963), as amended  Customs procedures  
Law 121/1982  Registration of traders  
Decree 765/2001 on Determination of the Value of 
Goods for Customs Purposes  Customs valuation  
Law 161/1998  Anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard measures  
Law on Investment (Law 72/2017), Companies Law 
(159/1981), Special Economic Zones Law (83/2002)  Foreign investment  
Intellectual Property Law (82/2002) and its Executive 
Statutes  Intellectual property  rights  
Law 118/1975 on Import and Export, as amended, 
with Executive Regulations  Registration, levies and charges, barter and 
countertrade, labelling and quality control  
Export Promotion Law (155/2002)  Export promotion   
Tenders Law (89/1998)  Government procurement  
Standardization Law (2/1957)  Standards   
Agricultural Law (53/1996), Pharmaceutical Law 
(14/1984)  Sanitary and phytosanitary measures   
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2.3  Trade Agreements and Arrangements  
2.3.1   WTO  
2.23.   Egypt became a contracting party to the GATT in 1970 and has been a WTO Member since 
30 June 1995; it participates actively in the multilateral trading system. Egypt grants at least MFN 
treatment to all WTO Members. It is party to the Information Technolog y Agreement and the 
plurilateral Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft. Egypt is not a party to the Agreement on 
Government Procurement. Egypt accepted the Protocol amending the TRIPS Agreement in April 
2008. As concerns trade facilitation, Egypt notified i ts category A commitments under the Trade 
Facilitation Agreement (TFA) in December 2014.3 The TFA was approved by Egypt's Parliament and 
ratified by the Egyptian President in June 2017. However, as at late October 2017, Egypt had yet 
to deposit in the WTO its instrument of acceptance of the TFA. During the review period, Egypt 
submitted a large number of notifications to the different WTO Committees (Table A2.1). During 
the review process, some lagging notifications, for instance with respect to agriculture , were 
submitted to the WTO.  
2.24.   At the Bali Ministerial Conference in 2013, Egypt called all WTO Members to commit to 
successfully concluding the Doha Development Agenda, with a fair and balanced outcome, taking 
into consideration its development aspects. At the Nairobi Ministerial Conference in 2015, Egypt 
argued that outcomes of trade negotiations must provide the policy space for economic 
diversification for industrialization and that special and differential treatment for developing 
countries should remain  the overarching principles in trade liberalization.  
2.25.   Under the Doha Development Agenda, Egypt has, either on its own or in conjunction with 
other Members, submitted proposals on agriculture, non -agricultural market access, special and 
differential treatmen t, dispute settlement, rules, services, and trade facilitation. Egypt seeks 
meaningful multilateral liberalization of the agricultural sector. It also supports liberal market 
access for non -agricultural goods, but believes that concerns should be accommoda ted for certain 
industries that have not yet taken hold in developing economies. Egypt considers issues such as 
implementation, special and differential treatment, and rules as essential to the integration of 
developing countries into the multilateral trad ing system.  
2.26.   Since its last TPR in July 2005, Egypt has been a defendant in one trade dispute and 
reserved its third party rights in eight others. The case involving Egypt as a defendant relates to 
anti-dumping duties on imports of matches from Pakistan. I n July 2005, the DSB established a 
panel. In March 2006, Pakistan and Egypt informed the DSB that they had reached a mutually 
agreed solution in the form of a price undertaking. The cases involving Egypt as a third party 
relate to: (a) measures affecting t he importation of rice imposed by Turkey4; (b) continued 
application of the zeroing methodology by the United States5; (c) measures granting refunds, 
reductions or exemptions from taxes imposed by China6; (d) measures concerning trademarks and 
other plain packaging requirements applicable to tobacco products and packaging imposed by 
Australia7; (e) cost adjustment methodologies and anti -dumping duties imposed by the European 
Union on imports from Russia8; (f) domestic support for agricultural producers prov ided by China9; 
and (g) anti -dumping duties imposed by Morocco on imports of hot -rolled steel from Turkey.10 
2.27.   Egypt has not been involved in any trade disputes outside the WTO since 2005.  
                                                
3 WTO document WT/PCTF/N/EGY/1, 7 January 2015.  
4 WTO document series WT/DS141.  
5 WTO document series WT/DS350.  
6 WTO document series WT/DS358, WT/DS359, and WT/DS511.  
7 WTO document series WT/DS434.  
8 WTO document series WT/DS494.  
9 WTO document seri es WT/DS511.  
10 WTO document series WT/DS513.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2.3.2   Trade Agreements and Arrangements  
2.3.2.1   European Union  
2.28.   The agreement between  Egypt and the European Union entered into force on 1 June 2004, 
replacing the 1977 Cooperation Agreement.11 It was notified to the WTO in September 2004.12 
This agreement is of particular importance for Egypt, as the European Union is its main trading 
partn er and its principal bilateral donor . In recent years, roughly three quarters of FDI inflows to 
Egypt originated in the European Union. In addition, in accordance with information provided by 
the Egyptian authorities, the total amount of ongoing EU assista nce to Egypt amounts to nearly 
€1.1 billion, provided in the form of grants. The agreement also includes provisions on political, 
scientific, technological, and cultural cooperation. It establishes an Association Council, which 
meets at ministerial level o nce a year, and an Association Committee, which is responsible for the 
implementation of the agreement.  
2.29.   The agreement provides for the establishment of a free trade area by January 2019. 
Quantitative restrictions and other measures having equivalent effec t on trade were abolished 
when the agreement entered into force in 2004. With the exception of a number of products 
(including wool, cotton, hides and skins, and various oils), imports into the European Union of 
products of HS  chapters 25 to 97 originating  in Egypt are allowed duty -free access. Customs duties 
on imports into Egypt originating in the European Union are to be phased out over a maximum of 
15 years, depending on the product and according to four product lists annexed to the agreement. 
There are  reductions for all items of HS  chapters 1 to 25, but there are two lists with seasonal 
rates and preferential tariff quotas. The agreement also specifies that the European Union and 
Egypt shall gradually liberalize a greater share of their trade in agricu ltural, processed agricultural 
and fisheries products.  
2.30.   In October 2005, the European Union and Egypt decided to replace the previous Protocol on 
rules of origin with the single regional convention on preferential rules of origin for the Pan -Euro-
Mediterran ean area. This extended the possibility of diagonal cumulation to the 42 countries 
participating in the Pan -Euro-Med process. In 2008, a Protocol on trade in agricultural, and 
processed agricultural and fisheries goods was concluded; it entered into force in June 2010. A 
mechanism to settle disputes under the agreement was established but was still awaiting approval 
from the Egyptian Parliament in November 2017. Negotiations on trade in services started in 2007 
but have not shown any progress since 2010.  
2.3.2.2   Agadir Agreement  
2.31.   On 25 February 2004, Egypt signed a free trade agreement with three Arab -Mediterranean 
countries: Jordan , Morocco, and Tunisia . The so -called Agadir Agreement took effect on 
27 March  2007, and was notified to t he WTO in February 2016.13 On 27 March 2017, a meeting of 
the Committee of Foreign Affairs Ministers of the Member States of the Agadir Agreement was held 
in Amman, Jordan, in which the accession of Palestine and Lebanon to the Agreement was agreed 
provided  that the applicable accession procedures were concluded pursuant to the provisions 
stipulated in the Accession Protocol of the Agadir Agreement.  
2.32.   The Agadir Agreement commits the parties to waiving all import duties and any taxes 
having equivalent effect.  The agreement provides for diagonal cumulation of origin within the Pan -
Euro-Med Zone in accordance with the Pan -Euro-Med Protocol of Rules of Origin, with the 
exception of agricultural and agro -industrial products. This arrangement will be replaced by th e 
new Regional Convention on Pan -Euro-Mediterranean preferential rules of origin (PEM). Egypt 
signed the main text on 9 October 2013 and ratified it on 23 April 2014. The general provisions 
and the list of rules are still under discussion.  
2.33.   The Agadir Tech nical Unit (ATU), a technical secretariat working under the agreement, was 
established in April 2007, to support cooperation between the member States. The Strategy 2017 -
2021, prepared by the ATU, aims to achieve economic integration among the members thro ugh 
the coordination of their economic and trade policies.  
                                                
11 The text of the agreement may be viewed at : http://eeas.europa.eu/egypt/aa/06_aaa_en.pdf . 
12 WTO document WT/REG177/N/1, 4 October 2004.  
13 The text o f the agreement may be viewed at: http://rtais.wto.org/rtadocs/583/TOA/English/ToA.pdf . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2.3.2.3   Pan-Arab Free Trade Area  
2.34.   Egypt is also a party to the agreement, effective January 1998, creating the Pan -Arab Free 
Trade Area (PAFTA), the implementation of which was completed in 2005. The PAFTA was notified 
to the WTO under GATT Article XXIV, in October 2006.14 This agreement covers only goods 
originating in and coming directly from 18 Arab countries. The principal entity responsible for 
implementing it is the Economic and Social Council of the Ar ab League. In addition, the Union of 
Arab Chambers of Commerce has been tasked with producing a half -yearly report on the 
difficulties encountered by traders in their dealings with the customs administration and regulatory 
agencies of individual member cou ntries. As of July 2017, the Arab League Initiative, launched in 
2009, and aiming to implement an Arab Customs Union by 2015, remained unachieved. An 
agreement on rules of origin, which entered into force in 2007, covers some products having at 
least 40% o f their value -added produced in member countries; under this agreement some 
detailed rules of origin are currently applied but negotiations are still ongoing on the remaining 
rules.  
2.3.2.4   Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)  
2.35.   COMESA aims to deep en and expand the integration process for its 19 member countries by 
adopting general measures to liberalize trade. These include: the removal of all tariff and non -tariff 
barriers and the adoption of a common external tariff; free movement of capital, lab our and 
goods, and the right of establishment in the region; the adoption of a common set of standards, 
technical regulations, quality control procedures, certification systems, and sanitary and 
phytosanitary regulations; tax harmonization (including VAT a nd excise duties), and provisions on 
cooperation in spheres such as company law, intellectual property, and investment; the 
implementation of a harmonized competition policy; and the establishment of a monetary union.15 
COMESA was notified to the WTO under the Enabling Clause, in June 1995.16 
2.36.   Egypt became a member of COMESA in June 1998. In October 2000, Egypt together with 13 
other member States eliminated tariffs on COMESA originating products. COMESA's Common 
External Tariff (CET) was intended to be in pla ce by 2004, with rates of 0%, 5%, 15% and 30%, 
on capital goods, raw materials, intermediate, and final goods, respectively. Subsequent to the 
decision to adopt the COMESA CET, goods were finally categorized into the three bands of the tariff 
structure (0% , 10%, and 25%). However, as at April  2017, the CET has not yet been 
implemented, as negotiations were still ongoing.  
2.37.   According to the authorities, COMESA has implemented a monetary harmonization 
programme to reach a full -fledged monetary union by 2025. Th is programme aims at, inter alia : 
(a) full harmonization of the member States' economic, budgetary, and monetary policies; (b) a 
pooling of exchange reserves; and (c) the establishment of a single monetary authority. A 
coordination body, composed of expert s from central banks and ministries of finance in the region, 
has been set up to oversee implementation of the measures and ensure that the harmonization 
process makes progress towards monetary union.  
2.3.2.5   EFTA–Egypt Free Trade Agreement  
2.38.   Egypt and the EFTA Sta tes concluded a free trade agreement in January 2007, which 
entered into force in August 2007. It was notified to the WTO in July 2007.17 The agreement 
covers trade in industrial products, including fish and other marine products, and processed 
agricultural  products. Trade in basic agricultural products is covered in three bilateral agreements 
negotiated separately between Iceland, Norway and Switzerland/Liechtenstein on the one hand 
and Egypt on the other. Egyptian industrial good exports into the EFTA Stat es have been duty -free 
since the entry into force of the agreement. Customs duties on imports into Egypt originating in 
EFTA States shall be abolished completely by 2020 . This agreement also includes general 
provisions on non -tariff barriers, competition, state monopolies, subsidies, intellectual property, 
                                                
14 WTO online information. Viewed at: http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicShowMemberRTAIDCard.aspx? 
rtaid=16 . 
15 COMESA online information. Viewed at: http://www.comesa.int . 
16 WTO document WT/COMTD/N /3, 29 June 1995.  
17 WTO document WT/REG232/N/1, 18 July 2007.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  investment, services, current payments and capital movements, government procurement, 
economic cooperation, and dispute settlement.  
2.3.2.6   Turkey  
2.39.   Egypt and Turkey signed a free trade agreement in December 2005,  which entered into 
force in March 2007. Imports into Turkey of industrial products originating in Egypt were allowed 
free of customs duties upon the entry into force of the Agreement. On the other hand, customs 
duties on imports into Egypt of industrial p roducts originating in Turkey were to be gradually 
abolished according to the schedules of four lists, which are identical to the lists attached to 
Egypt's Association Agreement with the European Union. The dismantling of customs duties on 
Turkish goods of  each list was to lag one year behind the respective list of the European Union. 
The authorities indicated that the Egyptian Customs Authority has been applying the annual tariff 
reductions on imports of industrial products originating in Turkey according to the schedules 
contained in the four lists.  Implementation is to be completed by 2020 for industrial goods. 
Regarding agricultural products, both parties agreed to exchange two lists including both tariff rate 
quotas and tariff reductions for certain pro ducts. With regard to processed agricultural products, 
the two parties agreed to exchange a list including the same concessions for exports and imports. 
The two parties have also agreed to apply the Pan -Euro-Mediterranean rules of origin.  
2.3.2.7   MERCOSUR  
2.40.   Egypt si gned a preferential free trade agreement with MERCOSUR in August 2010. The 
agreement entered into force after Argentina finalized its ratification process in July 2017. This 
agreement allows a full and gradual liberalization of both exports and imports of industrial, 
agricultural and processed agricultural commodities by applying four lists of trade liberalization: 
(a) first list: total exemption upon entry into force; (b) second list: 25% reduction upon entry into 
force ( over four years); (c) third list: 12.5% reduction upon entry into force (eight years); (d) 
fourth list: 10% reduction upon entry into force (ten years). The agreement was notified to the 
WTO in July 2017.18 
2.3.2.8   Non-reciprocal preferential arrangements  
2.41.   Australia, Belarus, Canada, Japan, Kazakhst an, the Russian Federation, Turkey and the 
United States accord tariff preferences to Egypt under the Generalized System of Preferences 
(GSP). Egyptian exports of products covered by the GSP are therefore totally or partially exempt 
from customs duties in those countries.  
2.42.   Egypt offers improved market access to least developed countries (LDCs). This scheme 
includes tariff reductions on applied rates of 10% to 20% for around 100 products. In addition, 
duty-free access is granted to around 50 raw materials (ma inly minerals).19 
2.43.   As a participant in the Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP), established and notified 
to the WTO in 1989, Egypt has granted tariff preferences to all other GSTP signatories on a range 
of specified products since its entry into force.  
2.3.3   Other agreement s and arrangements  
2.44.   Egypt is a member of the Developing -8 (D-8) group of countries, formed in 1997 as an 
organization for economic cooperation along with Bangladesh, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria, 
Pakistan, and Turkey. The D -8 Preferential Trade Agreem ent (PTA) was signed in 2006 and 
officially entered into force among Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria and Turkey on 25 August 2011. 
Indonesia joined on 4 October 2011 and Pakistan on 8 February 2012, but Egypt and Bangladesh 
have not yet joined as they have reserva tions regarding the value addition criteria.  The D -8 is 
aimed at, inter alia : (a) boosting trade by reducing duties in order to improve member States' 
positions in the global economy; (b) diversifying and creating new opportunities in trade relations; 
                                                
18 WT/COMTD/N/55WT/COMTD/N/55, 20 July 2017.  
19 WTO document WT/COMTD/W/47, 15  October  1998; and WTO document WT/COMTD/W/47/Add.1, 
25 January 1999.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  (c) enhancing participation in decision -making at international level; and (d) improving standards 
of living.  
2.45.   Egypt participates in the Framework Agreement on the Trade Preferences System of the 
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (TPS -OIC) that became effecti ve in 2002. The framework 
agreement aims to promote trade among members on the basis of equal and non -discriminatory 
treatment.20 The Protocol on the Preferential Tariff Scheme ( PRETAS), which complements the 
Framework Agreement by laying out the concrete r eduction rates in tariffs in accordance with a 
timetable for implementation, entered into force in February 2010. The rules of origin, which will 
be applied for the identification of the origin of products eligible for preferential concessions under 
the TP S-OIC, entered into force in August 2011. In Accordance with Article 18 on Entry into Force, 
the required number of countries having met the necessary requirements of the TPS -OIC System 
was reached in December 2014. However, the system has not yet (Novembe r 2017) entered into 
force among participating member States that have ratified it.  
2.46.    Egypt signed a trade protocol with Israel on 14 December 2004. The protocol establishes 
"qualified industrial zones" (QIZ) which are designated geographical areas within E gypt that offer 
specific advantages for exporters. In particular, products from these zones enjoy duty -free access 
to the United States, provided that at least 35% of the product's value is manufactured in an 
Egyptian QIZ, and that at least 10.5% of the to tal value consists of Israeli inputs. However, during 
several meetings in 2016, Egypt reviewed with the United States the possibility of reduction of the 
Israeli component to 8%, as applied in the case of Jordanian QIZs. As at February 2017, 961 
companies had been approved under this scheme, of which 766 were from the textiles and 
clothing sector. The majority of the companies are located in the greater Cairo area and in 
Alexandria. Total exports under this scheme amounted US$851.3 million in 2015.  
2.47.   In Janua ry 2012, the African Union decided to establish a Continental Free Trade Area that 
will bring together 54 African countries by 2018. This agreement aims to create a single 
continental market for goods and services and pave the way for accelerating the esta blishment of 
the Customs Union.  
2.48.   Egypt was involved in the negotiations for the Tripartite Free Trade Area (TFTA) which is a 
free trade agreement between COMESA, SADC (Southern African Development Community), and 
EAC (East African Community), to address the  issue of overlapping membership of African 
countries in more than one economic bloc. The TFTA Agreement was signed on 10 June 2015, by 
Egypt and 17  other States among the 26 members, at the 3rd Tripartite Summit of Heads of States 
and Governments. Some im portant work under phase I negotiations (trade in goods) remains 
outstanding in areas such as tariff concessions, rules of origin, and trade remedies.  
2.49.   In February 2015, Egypt announced that the members of the Eurasian Economic Union 
(Russia, Belarus, Kazak hstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Armenia) had agreed to commence free trade zone 
negotiations with Egypt. This agreement is expected to allow Egyptian goods to be exported to 
these countries free of custom duties. Although members of the Eurasian Economic Union agre ed 
to start the negotiations in December 2016, as of November 2017 they had not yet begun.  
2.4  Investment Regime  
2.50.   There have been several changes to Egypt's investment regime since its last TPR in 2005. 
On 31 May 2017, a new law on investment entered into force . In addition to the new Investment 
Law No. 72/2017, the Companies Law No. 159/1981 and the Special Economic Zones Law 
No. 83/2002 regulate investment in Egypt. The Regulations to implement the Investment Law 
entered into force on 29 October 2017  through P rime Minister Decree No. 2310/2017 . The 
Investment Law No. 72/2017 repealed the Investment Guarantees and Incentives Law 
No. 8/1997. Foreign investors may choose to invest in Egypt either under the Companies Law or 
the Investment Law, depending on the type s of incentive sought and the areas in which the 
investment is to be made.21 In the past, this choice was between the Investment Guarantees and 
                                                
20 Organization of Islamic Cooperation online information. Viewed at : http://www.oic -oci.org/page/?p 
_id=40&p_ref=16&lan=en . 
21 Other laws of relevance to foreign investment include the Commercial Register Law (No. 34/1976); 
the Income Tax Law (No. 157/ 1981); Industrial Licensing Law (No. 21/1958); the New Urban Communities WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Incentives Law and the Companies Law. Table 2.3 shows the percentage of FDI and domestic 
investment that took pla ce under each of these laws  between 2005 and 2016.  
Table 2.3 Private investment in Egypt under the Investment Guarantees and Incentives 
Law (IGIL) and the Companies Law (CL), 2005 -16 
(LE billion and %)  
 Total 
investment  Egyptian 
companies  Foreign 
companies  Egyptian 
companies  Foreign 
companies  
 LE billion  % 
Investments under the IGIL  67.52  41.52  26.01  61.5 38.5 
Investments under the CL  48.33  34.42  13.91  71.2 28.8 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
2.51.   The Companies Law supplements the Civil and Commercial Codes of Egypt. The companies 
incorporated under this Law and their shareholders are exempted from all duties and taxes. The 
shares of the companies emanating from this incorporation or th e shares issued as counterpart of 
the capital of the incorporated companies may become negotiable directly on their issue 
(Article  133). The Law was amended several times to improve the business climate in Egypt. Law 
No. 68/2009, for example, eliminated th e minimum capital requirement for limited liability 
companies. The authorities indicated that a draft law is currently being examined to introduce a 
new form of establishment for companies that will allow a single investor to establish a company.  
2.52.    The new Investment Law and its regulations allow investments to be registered under the 
Law as enterprises (one person) or as companies (more than one person) through modalities such 
as shareholder companies, joint -stock companies, limited liability companies, and  partnerships. 
The Law governs "inland investments", essentially domestic investment projects, and investment 
in free zones, which are treated as being outside the domestic economy for taxation, customs, and 
trade purposes. Like the Companies Law, the Inve stment Law applies to all private investment, 
(domestic or foreign); however, the latter applies only to certain specified activities or sectors, 
subject to further amendments by the Minister in charge of the activity, in coordination with other 
relevant m inistries, and in accordance with the National Economic Plan (Table 2.4).  
Table 2.4 Areas eligible for incentives under the Investment Law 2017 and its 
regulations  
Agriculture (including animal, poultry and fi sh farming)  
Communications and Information Technology (scientific research and patents)  
Domestic or internal trade  
Education  
Electricity and energy  
Hospital and medical centres offering 10% of their service capacity free of charge  
Housing and construction (including projects whose units are t o be leased unfurnished for 
non-administrative purposes, and infrastructure related to drinking water, sewage, electricity, roads, and 
communications services)  
Industry (any activity related to industrial development except tobacco and alcoholic beverages)  
Oil services in support of exploration and the transport and delivery of natural gas  
Public transport (capacity of at least 300 passengers), maritime and river transport operating under the 
Egyptian flag, air transport and services directly related to it  
Sports (management and marketing of sports activities operated by a joint -stock company)  
Tourism (including hotels, motels, boarding houses, tourist villages, tourist travel)  
Water sector (construc tion and management of desalination plants)  
Source:  Prime Minister Decree No. 2310/2017, containing the Executive Regulations of Investment Law 
No. 72/2017.  
                                                                                                                                                  
Law (No. 59/1979); and the Industrial Shops Law (No. 453/1954), as well as other laws affecting land 
ownership and registration.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  2.53.   Investment incentives under the Investment Law include several types of tax and non -tax 
incentives, as shown in Table 2.5. Tax incentives include deductions on taxable  profits, and 
preferential import duty. Exemptions from stamp duty, and notarization and registration fees are 
provided for up to five years from registration in the Commercial Register. In addition to these 
general incentives, the new law provides a 50% tax discount on investments made in 
underdeveloped areas.22 Besides these tax advantages, t he Council of Ministers may grant 
additional incentives such as, inter alia, refunding half the price of the land, if the industrial project 
starts production within 2 years of the land delivery.  
Table 2.5 Incentives under the Investment Law, 2017  
 
1. TAX INCENTIVES  
1.A General Incentives  
- Exemption from the stamp tax, notary fees and taxes on the registration of the Memorandum of 
Incorporation of the company and credit facilities granted and contracts pledged in association with the activity 
of the company for five years from the date of registration in the Commercial Register  
- Exemption from taxes on the registration of the land required to set up the company and establishments  
- Preferential import  duty rate of 2% (in accordance with Art. 4 of the Customs Exemption Law 
No. 186/1986) on the value of imports of machinery and equipment to be used to set up the company or in 
any public utility project needed to set up the company  
- Industrial investment projects subject to the Investment Law may import exempt from customs duties 
casts and moulds and other supplies for temporary use in the manufacturing of products to be re -exported 
abroad  
1.B Specific Incentives  
- 50% discount off taxable net  profits for investment costs incurred in Sector A, which includes those 
geographical locations most urgently in need of development as defined in Egypt's Investment Map, and in 
the activities defined in Prime Minister Decree No. 2310/2017, containing the Executive Regulations of 
Investment Law No. 72/2017 (Table 2.4). These areas, as defined in the Regulations are: the Economic Zone 
of the Suez Canal; the Economic Zone of the Golden Triangle; and areas most in need of development (high 
level of poverty and  low level of education and health services), determined by the Council of Ministers.  
- 30% discount off taxable net profits for investment costs incurred in Sector B, covering the rest of 
 Egypt's areas and in the activities defined in Prime Minister Decree No. 2310/2017, containing the 
 Executive Regulations of Investment Law No. 72/2017 (Table 2.4), for the following investment projects:  
 - Labour -intensive projects as defined in the Regul ations (at least 500 Egyptian workers and the cost of 
  wages representing at least 30% of production costs)  
 - Small and medium -size enterprises and projects  
 - Projects using or producing new and renewable energy  
 - National and strategic projects as def ined by a Decision of the Council of Ministers  
 - Tourism projects as defined by a Decision of the Council of Ministers  
 - Electricity generation and distribution projects as defined by a Decree issued by the Prime Minister 
  upon a joint proposal from the  competent Ministry, the Minister concerned with electricity affairs and 
  the Ministry of Finance  
 - Export projects  
 - Automotive manufacturing and auto feeding industries  
 - Wood, furniture, printing, packaging and chemical industries  
 - Antibiotics, on cology drugs and cosmetic industries  
 - Food, agricultural products, and agricultural waste recycling industries  
 - Engineering, metallurgical, textile and leather industries  
2. NON -TAX INCENTIVES  
The Council of Ministers may:  
- Establish Customs Offices dedicated to an investment project's exports or imports in agreement with the 
Ministry of Finance  
- Decide that the State is to cover, wholly or partly, the expenses incurred by the investor for the provision 
of utilities to the real -estate proper ties allocated to the project  
- Decide that the State is to partly cover the expenses incurred for the technical training of the staff  
- Refund 50% of the value of the land allocated for the industrial projects in case the production starts within 
two ye ars from the land delivery date  
                                                
22 Law No. 72/2017, Section 2, Article 11.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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- Allocate lands free of charge for some strategic activities  
- Upon proposal from the competent Ministry, pass a decree to introduce new non -tax incentives whenever it 
is considered necessary  
The investor may deduct from  income tax expenses up to 10% of his annual profits to create a social 
development system outside of the investment project in one of the following fields: (a) enhancing 
environmental protection; (b) providing healthcare, social care or cultural programme s or services; (c) 
supporting research, technical education and production improvement, in agreement with universities or 
research institutes; (d) training and scientific research.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
2.54.   All investments are guara nteed national treatment. Moreover, through a Decree, the Council 
of Ministers may grant foreign investors preferential treatment in the application of the principle of 
reciprocity. Investors also receive guarantees against nationalization and the suspensi on of 
licences and have the right to appoint foreigners up to a limit of 10% of the total number of 
workers, except if insufficient numbers of national workers are found, in which case the limit can 
be extended to up to 20%.23 Foreign investors are also gra nted residence in Egypt throughout the 
project's term. The Investment Law stipulates that the State shall honour and enforce all the 
contracts it has concluded. Investment projects may not be nationalized or expropriated except for 
the public utility and u pon fair compensation paid in advance. The licences issued for the 
investment project may not be revoked or suspended before giving the investor an advance 
warning of the law or regulation that has been violated and time to mend the breach. A foreign 
investor has the right to fund, set up, establish and expand a project from abroad with no foreign -
currency restriction, as well as to transfer abroad any profits made.  
2.55.   Under the Investment Law, investors may import raw materials, production supplies, 
machinery , equipment, spare parts and transport equipment that suit the nature of the investment 
project and are required for establishment, expansion, operation or exportation without the need 
to register in the Register of Exporters or Importers.  
2.56.   Private investment, including in free zones, whether foreign or domestic, is managed by the 
General Authority for Foreign Investment and Free Zones (GAFI), established by Presidential 
Decree  No. 284/1997. The GAFI is the main regulator of the investment regime. It s Board of 
Directors comprises GAFI's Chairman, the chief executive officer (CEO), CEO Deputies, three 
representatives of relevant entities, and one expert in private investment and another in law.24 
The GAFI is responsible for following up the implementati on of the new Investment Law as well as 
its regulations contained in Prime Minister Decree No. 2310/2017. Thus, the GAFI is entitled to 
take all necessary measures to stop violations of this Law. The GAFI is the competent authority to 
provide all establish ment and post -establishment services, including liquidation, to companies 
engaged in activities cited in the investment law or subject to the law regulating joint -stock 
companies and shareholding companies. To establish a new company, the applicant must: c reate 
an account on the GAFI’s official website; complete an application and pay the fees of 
establishment; and provide certain documents that vary according to the type of the company. 
Throughout this process, the project requires several approvals to sta rt production. However, in 
the case of a project considered strategic by the Cabinet of Ministers, a single approval will be 
issued including all necessary licences to start production. Companies benefitting from the 
Investment Law are required to submit a n annual statement to the GAFI including information 
regarding the capital of the company, the partners and the workers.  
2.57.   Under Law No.  72/2017, the Investor Service Centre, an administrative unit under GAFI's 
auspices, was established to reduce bureaucratic measures. The Centre now provides services for 
the establishment of companies or branches of companies . In addition, th e new Law introduced 
approval or ratification offices, licensed by the GAFI, to facilitate obtainment of necessary 
approvals, permits and licences within 10 days. In accordance with Prime Minister Decree 
No. 2310/2017, the requirements to be licensed as an  approval office, include: (a) the applicant 
must be a joint -stock company and its activity must be limited to the work of an approval office; 
                                                
23 The Invest ment Law foresees some exceptions to these limits for some strategic projects identified 
under a decision issued by the Council of Ministers.  
24 Law No. 72/2017, Section 3, Article 73.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  and (b) the applicant must have the necessary financial and human resources enabling the 
issuance of approvals.  
2.58.   In accordance with the Investment Law's Regulations, several committees shall be 
established to consider grievances and objections to the GAFI and approval offices' decisions. Each 
committee is chaired by an advisor of one of the judicial authorities. Griev ances must be submitted 
to the Committee within 15 working days of the date of notification or knowledge of the decision. 
The Committee must make a decision within 30 days of the date of the termination of the hearing 
of the parties.  
2.59.   During the review peri od, Egypt continued to promote the establishment of free zones 
(Section 3). Free zones may be established by the Council of Ministers under Article  33 of 
Law No. 72/2017. Investors in the public free zones (currently nine), as well as in private free 
zones , are exempt from rules or customs procedures for imports and exports. They are also 
exempt from customs duties, value -added tax and any other taxes or duties for the duration of 
individual projects.  
2.60.   Private free zones are established based on the decision  of the Council of Ministers, provided 
that, inter alia : (a) there is no convenient site for the project's activity inside a public free zone; 
(b) the project is operated by joint -stock or limited liability companies; (c) the capital is not less 
than US$10  million; (d) there are no less than 500 permanent worke rs for industrial projects; 
(e) exports of the project amount to not less than 80% of the production value.25 
2.61.   Manufacturing and assembly projects established in public free zones are subject to a fee o f 
1% of the commodity value upon egress (exportation). Goods in transit to a determined 
destination are exempted from this fee. A fee of 2% of the c.i.f value of imports (commodity value 
upon ingress) is charged in the case of storage projects. A fee of 1%  of total revenue is charged in 
the case of projects whose main activity does not require the ingress or egress of goods. Projects 
in private free zones are subject to a fee of 2% of total revenues, with the exception of 
manufacturing and assembling projec ts, which are subject to a fee of 1% of total export revenues, 
and a charge of 2% of total revenues if the product is traded inside the country. In addition, 
projects in both public and private free zones are subject to a service fee of 0.001% of the capit al 
cost of projects, payable annually to the GAFI, with a maximum fee of LE 100,000.  
2.62.   The Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Law No. 83/2002 provides for the establishment of 
special zones for export -oriented activities. The Law allows firms established in these zones to 
import capital equipment, raw material and intermediate goods duty -free. Companies established 
are also subject to lower corporate taxes, exempt from sales and indirect taxes, and operate under 
more flexible labour regulations. The special economi c zones and the authorities that manage 
them are established by a Presidential Decree. Currently, two special economic zones are 
operational in the North West Gulf of Suez, and in the Golden Triangle.  
2.63.   The Investment Law also contemplates the creation of in vestment zones and of 
technological zones, established based on the decision of the Prime Minister upon the proposal of 
the Board of Directors of GAFI or the competent minister. Each investment or technological zone 
shall have a Board of Directors responsi ble for the development of this zone, selected by the 
competent minister. Machinery and equipment used for production in these areas shall not be 
subject to taxes or customs duties.  
2.64.   There are no restrictions on repatriation of funds by companies, or rules requiring foreign 
companies to hold foreign currency accounts. Land ownership by foreigners is governed by several 
laws as shown in Table 2.6.  
                                                
25 Prime Minister Decree No. 2310/2017.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 2.6 Conditions placed on land ownership in Egypt  
Location/ty pe of 
ownership  Conditions for foreign investment  Legislation  
Desert lands  Maximum limit of foreign ownership is 49%.  
Egyptian nationals must own not less than 51% of 
the company's capital; in addition no owner shall 
possess more than 20% of the shares.  
Lands for cooperative associations and companies 
must be 100% owned by Egyptians.  
Exceptions may be granted by Presidential Decree 
upon approval from the Cabinet to nationals from 
other Arab countries.  Desert Lands Law 
No. 43/1981, amended by 
Law No. 205/1 991; 
Desert Lands Law No. 
43/1981, amended by Law 
No. 143/1981  
Strategic and military 
regions  Foreign companies and establishments are not 
allowed to own land in these regions, nor lands or 
real estate in the Sinai Peninsula, including in the 
Ismailia, Su ez and Port Said governorates.  
However, companies and establishments may use 
land and real estate located in the Sinai Peninsula 
under the usufruct system.  Prime Minister Decree 
No. 350/2007, 
implementing art. 12 of 
Law No. 94/2005  
 
Sinai Peninsula  Lands and real estate in the Sinai Peninsula shall be 
owned only by natural persons holding the Egyptian 
nationality, with Egyptian parents, and by legal 
persons whose capital is totally owned by Egyptians.  
Natural and legal persons, both national and foreign, 
can use lands in areas of development. Foreigners 
can do this only under the usufruct system.  Decree by Military Council 
Law No. 14/2012;  
Minister of Defence Decree 
No. 203/2012  
Real estate and land in 
other regions  Non-Egyptian nationals may own up to two  private 
residences in Egypt, each one of an area of up to 
4,000 m2; they may not be sold within a minimum of 
five year from the date of purchase.  
Exceptions to this limitation apply to private 
residences in new urban communities or some 
tourist areas, whe re properties can be sold 
immediately after purchase.  Law No. 230/1996;  
Decree No. 548/2005  
Agricultural lands  Foreign ownership is forbidden.  Law No, 15/1963, as 
amended by Law 
No. 104/1985  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
2.65.   In the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index 2017, Egypt ranks 122 out of 
190 economies, up from 165 out of 175 in 2007. Despite this considerable improvement, 
numerous challenges to the investment environment remain. Notably, it is considered that Egypt 
made tradi ng across borders more difficult by making the process of obtaining documents more 
complex and by imposing a cap on foreign exchange deposits and withdrawals for imports.26 
2.66.   Egypt has been very active in concluding bilateral investment agreements; by October  2017 
it had concluded treaties with 111 countries, of which 74 have entered into force. Egypt is also a 
member of the World Bank's Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).  
                                                
26 World Bank, Doing Business Repo rt (2017) . Viewed at: http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/explore 
economies/egypt . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3  TRADE POLICIES AND P RACTICES BY MEASURE  
3.1  Measures Directly Affecting Imports  
3.1.1   Customs procedures, valuation, and requirements  
3.1.1.1   Customs procedures  
3.1.  The Egyptian Customs Authority (ECA) is the body in charge of implementing customs 
procedures and trade -related legislation issued by different ministries. The ECA is divided into 
three customs areas: (a) the Northern and Western Customs  Area, including the ports of 
Alexandria, El Dekheila, Mahmoudia, Abu Qir, and Al Nozha Airport; (b) the Eastern Customs Area , 
including the ports of Portsaid, Eastern Portsaid, Western Portsaid, Suez, Adabiya, Damietta, and 
Sinai land port; and (c) the Ce ntral and Southern Customs area, including Cairo Airport and the 
lands ports of Safgaa, Sokhna, Red Sea, and Aswan.1 Another body that plays an important role 
with respect to the international movement of goods is the General Organization for Export and 
Import Control (GOEIC), within the Ministry of Trade and Industry, which is in charge of keeping a 
Registry of Exporters, a Registry of Importers, and a Registry of Agents and Commercial 
Mediators, as well as inspecting imports and exports, through its 27 br anches at ports and 
governorates.  
3.2.  The specific functions of the ECA are the following: (a) to monitor the flow of exports and 
imports; (b) to determine the value of exports and imports; (c) to define tariff headings in 
accordance with the international cla ssification; (d) to collect customs duties and other import and 
export taxes; (e) to update all aspects of import -related laws; (f) to implement Import and Export 
Law No. 118/1975; and (g) ensure compliance with the Customs Law.2 The authorities have 
indicated that the guiding principles followed by the ECA when implementing its mandate include 
the facilitation of international trade and the removal of barriers to international trade, while, at 
the same time, enforcing a policy of surveillance so as to prev ent entry of prohibited and restricted 
goods which threaten the security and safety of the community. The authorities are seeking to 
promote the use of electronic commerce, to facilitate trade, to foster efficient collection of customs 
duties and other bor der taxes, and to step up the fight against commercial fraud, trade in 
counterfeit goods and smuggling.  
3.3.  The ECA works within the framework of a number of international instruments and 
commitments, including Egypt's participation in the World Customs Organi zation (WCO), its use of 
the Harmonized Tariff System, and its commitments in the WTO. In January 2008, Egypt acceded 
to the World Customs Organization's revised Kyoto Convention on the Simplification and 
Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Presidential D ecree No. 334/2007). The WTO's Trade 
Facilitation Agreement (TFA) was approved by the Egyptian Parliament on 22 June 2017 and 
ratified by Presidential Decree No. 149/2017. However, as of early November 2017, the instrument 
of acceptance of the TFA had stil l to be deposited in the WTO.  
3.4.  The authorities conduct periodic reviews with regard to Egypt's obligations in international 
organizations. Reflecting its international commitments and its participation in international bodies, 
the role of Customs also incl udes: (a) the implementation of trade agreements where tariff 
preferences are granted; (b)  contributing to the protection of rare and endangered animals and 
plants; (c) contributing to environmental protection; (d) the application of the integrated customs  
control procedures described in customs directives issued by the WCO for integrated supply chain 
management; (e)  promoting legitimate trade and addressing illegal trade, with a view to 
promoting voluntary compliance among importers; and (f) introducing in ternational standards for 
border protection and management of the movements of goods, such as the "end -to-end" or 
"door -to-door"3 standard and also new WCO security standards, such as the SAFE Framework.4 
                                                
1 A contract has been signed to establish 19 advanced logistic centres. Work has already started in  three 
centres in Cairo, Portsaid and Sokhna.  
2 Egyptian Customs Authority online information (in Arabic only). Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.eg/ . 
3 In door -to-door shipping, the quoted price includes all shipping, handling, import and customs duties.  
4 The SAFE Framework of Standards is a set of recommendations to the customs organizations of 
WCO members; their scope is to facilitate trade. They include: integrated customs control procedures for WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.5.  Noting that the SAFE Framework rests on the twin pi llars of customs -to-customs network 
arrangements and customs -to-business partnerships, the authorities have indicated that measures 
have been taken with respect to both. With respect to customs -to-customs network arrangements, 
the authorities highlighted t hat the ECA: follows Integrated Supply Chain Management (ISCM) 
procedures; has x -ray scanning devices available to carry out inspections; implements a risk 
management system (see below); has an intelligence department to help identify high -risk cargo; 
allows an advance electronic exchange of information5; and coordinates with foreign 
administrations to detect, suppress and combat customs offences. With regard to the customs -to-
business partnership, the authorities have highlighted the creation of the Author ized Economic 
Operator (AEO) programme, through Ministry of Finance Decision No. 204/2013 (see below), and 
the protocol signed between Customs and the GOEIC for its implementation.  
3.6.  Customs duties and value -added tax may be collected electronically; additio nally, the 
"inspection fees" collected by the GOEIC can be paid electronically since 1 July 2017. However, 
some other duties on imports and exports are collected separately and this may not be done 
electronically.  
3.7.  As at November 2017, Egypt's customs regim e was still based on Law  No. 66/1963, as 
amended (the Customs Law), Law No.  118/1975 with its Executive Regulations (Ministerial Decree 
No. 770/2005 as amended), Law No. 121/1982, and on a number of other Ministerial Decrees. As 
the legislation in place re quires updating, a new Draft Customs Law was being examined in 2017.6 
The new law would incorporate the amendments needed to implement the TFA and the Kyoto 
Convention. However, some changes have already been introduced to Egyptian law to facilitate 
trade (see below).  
3.8.  In accordance with Egyptian laws and regulations, goods imported into Egypt, except those 
destined for the free zones, must be accompanied by a customs declaration, irrespective of their 
value. The procedures for importing into the free zones are governed by Law No. 72/2017 
promulgating the Investment Law . Other documents are required, such as: the original commercial 
invoice, customs stakeholder registration card, inspection certificate, compliance certificate, letter 
of credit7, administration fees receipt, Form  48, bill of lading or a copy of it, and packing list. In 
certain cases, additional certificates may be required by the customs authorities, including: control 
and security authorities' approval; a maritime delivery order,  except for pre -arrival processing; or 
a certificate of origin when requesting customs duty exemption or preferential treatment. 
Additional certificates may be required for some specific purposes: chemical analysis certificates 
are requested for imports of  food additives and other materials used in the food processing 
industry; quality control certificates are required for a number of products; and a disinfection 
certificate for shipments of shaving brushes and bristles must be obtained prior to importation . 
Sanitary certificates are also required for a number of products, and plant and animal products are 
subject to inspection by the Agriculture Quarantine Body and the Animal Quarantine Body. 
Customs has the authority to conduct cargo inspections.  
                                                                                                                                                  
integrated supply chain management; authority to inspect c argo, and use modern technology in doing so; 
implementation of a risk -management system to identify potentially high -risk shipments; identification of high -
risk cargo and container shipments; advance electronic information on cargo and container shipments;  and 
joint targeting and screening. WCO online information. Viewed at: http://tfig.unece.org/contents/wco -
safe.htm . 
5 Customs implements a Pre -Release System in all customs posts; the system aims at facilitating the 
release of goods by completing all customs formalities prior to the arrival of the goods, which are released 
immediately upon arrival. An e-freight system has also been implemented to develop a paperless air cargo 
supply chain; this sys tem applies only to air cargos.  
6 The draft Law may be consulted (in Arabic only) on the Egyptian Customs Authority's website, at: 
http://www.customs.gov.eg/ . 
7 Under  the Central Bank of Egypt's rules , banks opera ting in Egypt are required to demand that letters 
of credit be 100% covered in cash by the importer, except for some food items. In general, the exporter may 
not ship the goods before the Egyptian bank has provided notification of the opening of a letter o f credit. See 
US Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration (2017), Egypt Country Commercial Guide: 
Egypt - Import Requirements & Documentation . Viewed at: https://www.export.gov/article?id=Egypt -Import -
Requirements -Documentation . 
8 Form No. 4 contains information on the financing of imports for trading or production purposes. It 
includes information about the importer, the imported goods, import financ ing methods and methods of 
payment. The paper form has been substituted with an electronic one, which is sent directly from the bank to 
the Customs Authority in accordance with Minister of Trade and Industry Decree No. 835/2017, issued on 31 
August 2017.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.9.  To simpli fy procedures, Minister of Finance Decree No. 256/2015 amended Articles 63 and 64 
of the Regulations under the Customs Act to reduce the number of documents required for import 
and export processes and to allow their submission electronically. Minister of Finance Decree 
No. 40/2017 mandated Customs to start work on producing and implementing a Single 
Administrative Document (SAD) as soon as possible. The authorities indicated that work on the 
SAD had been finalized and that they were currently (October 2017) using a harmonized SAD in 
the import customs posts and would soon be using it in the export  customs posts.  
3.10.   Law No. 121/1982 establishing the Importers Register mandates that all persons or 
companies importing goods into Egypt register with the General Organization for Export and 
Import Control (GOEIC). The Law also requires that all registered importers be Egyptian nationals 
and fulfil a number of other conditions, including financial reliab ility and a proven record of past 
commercial activities. When registering, importers must also provide details of the products they 
intend to import. New import registration regulations were issued in 2017. Law No. 7/2017 
amended Law No. 121/1982 changing the conditions for registration.9 The Executive Regulations 
to these amendments were issued by Ministerial Decree No. 846/2017 on 1 June 2017.  
3.11.   As of September 2017, 55,534 traders were enrolled in the register.  Importers must pay for 
imports through a ban k operating in Egypt. Law No.  7/2017 increased the minimum capital 
required to be registered as an importer to LE 500,000 instead of LE 10,000 for natural persons 
and to LE 2 million instead of LE 15,000 for companies with limited liability. Furthermore, 
importers must provide a cash guarantee of LE 50,000 or a letter of guarantee for that amount in 
the case of natural persons, or a cash guarantee of LE 200,000 or a letter of guarantee for that 
amount for legal persons. Applicants or the person responsible for importation must obtain an 
import training certificate from the GOEIC. The new Law also contains stricter enforcement 
conditions; for instance, it stipulates that authorization to import may be revoked if the importer 
violates the Egyptian Competition Law and receives a final judgment from the Court of Appeal in 
this respect. Furthermore, the new Law also includes a number of penalties for violations by 
importers, such as imprisonment for a period not exceeding one year and a fine of between 
LE 50,000 a nd LE 1 million.  
3.12.   The conditions of registration as amended by Law No. 7/2017 are as follows for natural 
persons, who must: (a) be an Egyptian national; (b) have practiced the trading business for at 
least two consecutive years before applying for registrat ion (to be proved by a certificate from a 
specified chamber of commerce accredited by the General Federation of Chambers of Commerce) 
and have had a volume of business of no less than LE 2 million the previous year (as testified by a 
tax declaration presen ted to the Tax Authority); (c) have a clean judicial record; (d) not have been 
sentenced by a final judgment for committing bankruptcy crimes through fraud or dereliction, 
unless rehabilitated; (e) have paid up capital of at least LE 500,000. Natural perso ns already 
registered in the Importers Register at the time of entry into force of Law No. 7/2017 were given 
six months from the date of entry of the law's Executive Regulations to adjust their situation to 
meet the requirements.  
3.13.   In the case of companies, Law No. 7/2017 established the following requirements for 
registration: (a) the company must be registered in the Commercial Register; (b) partnership 
companies and limited liability companies must have been registered in the commercial registry for 
at lea st a year before applying for registration in the Importers Register; (c) their volume of 
business in the year prior to application, according to the tax declaration submitted to the Tax 
Authority, must be of at least LE 5 million10; (d) the company's headq uarters must be in Egypt and 
established according to the provisions of Egyptian law; (e) the paid capital of the partnership 
companies and limited liability companies must be no less than LE 2 million and this should be 
proved through presentation of the last budget submitted by the company to the Tax Authority for 
a previous financial year or a certificate proving that the capital was deposited in one of the 
registered banks at the Central Bank; (f) in the case of joint stock and share holding companies, 
their issued capital must not be less than LE 5 million, and at least 51% of the shares must be 
owned by Egyptians; (g) the company manager responsible for import activities must be an 
Egyptian national; h) joint partners and company managers and employees  responsible for import 
                                                
9 The changes in the conditions are included in Articles 1, 3, 10 and 11 of Law No. 7/2017.  
10 Companies already registered in the Importers Register at the time of entry into force of Law 
No. 7/2017's  Executive Regulations (Ministerial Decree No. 846/2017 o f 1 June 2017) are exempted from this 
requirement.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  activities must have a clean judicial record, with the same requirements as for natural persons. 
Companies already registered at the time of entry into force of Law No. 7/2017 were given six 
months from the date of entry of the Exec utive Regulations to adjust their situation to meet the 
requirements.  
3.14.   The Minister responsible for Foreign Trade may issue a decision to suspend an importer's 
registration in the Importers Register, for a period not exceeding 2 years, if the importer viola tes 
the provisions of the laws governing imports and exports, or customs or taxes, commits fraud, or 
violates accredited Egyptian Standards or provisions of international agreements, or if actions are 
committed that result in harm to the safety and health of consumers, the national industry, the 
national economy, public order, or public morals.  
3.15.   Ministerial Decree  No. 770/2005 requires that imports for trading purposes (not for 
production) of a number of products be shipped from the country of origin, or fro m the 
headquarters of producing companies or their branches or distribution centres owned or certified 
by them, or from companies holding trademarks or trade names.11 The authorities indicated that 
the purpose of this requirement is to ensure the origin and  the respect of the trademark or trade 
name, preventing the entry of products of unknown source into the Egyptian market.  
3.16.   Imported goods may be subject to quality control inspection by the GOEIC within one week 
of the date of importation. The GOEIC is enti tled to examine a random sample of 1% of the total 
number of packages in each consignment and up to 2% of the contents of the chosen packages. 
The procedures for sampling are laid down in Ministerial Decree No. 1186/2003; as a main 
principle, customs offic ials must ensure that the samples examined are representative of the 
consignment. If the chosen samples are not in conformity with regulations, the GOEIC may search 
up to 2% of the remaining number of packages in the sample before rejecting a consignment.12 
Rejected goods must be re -exported or destroyed. In the case of food, all imports are inspected 
without exception. Additionally, under Ministerial Decree No. 991/2015, a certificate of 
examination by an authority accredited by ILAC is requested for a list  of industrial items prior to 
importation.13 This does not preclude the GOEIC from engaging in random checks of imports of 
these products. The authorities have indicated that the percentage of rejected consignments for 
food imports was of about 2.1% during the period between 1 January 2016 and end -September 
2017. The percentage of rejected industrial products during the period running from 1 January 
2017 to end -August 2017 was 1.2%.  
3.17.   In 1999, Egypt established a Register of Trustworthy Importers and Exporters . Inclusion on 
the Register, held by the GOEIC, grants entitlement to speedier product quality controls based on 
the producers' or importers' declarations. The authorities indicated that, as at September 2017, 
the number of registered companies was 245. Al so, according to Decision No. 770/2005, the 
GOEIC may speed up the release and clearance of goods from companies included in a "visual 
inspection list" of producing companies, after filing certain forms.14 
3.18.   Egypt applies a risk management system by which it routes imports into two different 
channels: green and red. Clearance and release times depend on the channel to which the goods 
have been routed. The authorities indicated that the main risk assessment factors that are taken 
into account are: country of or igin, port of shipping, supplier, shipping agent, importer, broker, HS 
                                                
11 The products in question are: car parts and spare parts except for body parts; apparel, ready -made 
garments, upholstery and fabrics used in their manufacture; carpets and floor linens; shoes and the like ; bags; 
consumer commodities made of plastic or wood or porcelain, glass or metal; machines and apparatuses for 
household use; and eyeglasses and watches. Decree No. 770/2005, Annex 3.  
12 Executive Regulations to the Import and Export Law, Article 91.  
13 The list includes: milk and dairy products prepared for retail sale; preserved and dried fruits prepared 
for retail sale; oils and fats prepared for retail sale; chocolate and food preparations containing cocoa prepared 
for retail sale; sweets; food pastries and prepared foods from cereals, bread products and bakery products; 
fruit juices for retail sale; natural and mineral water and carbonated water; and cosmetics, oral and dental 
care, deodorants, bath preparations and perfume preparations.  
14 Visual inspect ion and conformity of data on the consignment may be granted exclusively concerning 
non-food industrial goods imported by GOEIC -registered importers that meet the following requirements: (a) 
an application for registration  is filed  by the commercial agent of the producer, or his representative or the 
importer, indicating the trademarks and varieties produced and their production sites in different countries; (b) 
the producer maintains a quality control system regarding his products or his licensed productio n and submits 
supportive documents along with the registration request; (c) production is carried out according to one of the 
approved standards of the Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality Control.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  tariff heading, tariff rate, trade agreements, exemptions, and special customs regime. According to 
information provided by the authorities, the vast majority of goods are inspected. In  2016, 97% of 
import declarations were processed through the red channel, and only 3% were processed through 
the green channel. P re-arrival processing and post -delivery clearance are used on occasion to 
speed up the release and clearance of goods. Under Mi nisterial Decree No. 770/2005, the release 
of some industrial goods may be sped up by applying only physical inspection and random test 
analysis. The conditions for visual inspection and random testing are stated in Article 94 of 
Ministerial Decree No. 770 /2005.  
3.19.   Customs release time varies from two hours to more than two weeks depending on the size 
and sensitivity of the consignment. In 2016, 22.5% of the goods imported were released by 
Customs in four days to one week and only 10% in less than two hours (T able 3.1). The latter 
compares unfavourably with the release times achieved in 2014 and 2015. Moreover, if time 
allocated for the GOEIC's quality inspection is included, the release time becomes even longer: 
only 1.3% of customs declarations were released within two hours in 2016, while 31% took from 
four days to two weeks to be released and 15.4% took more than two weeks. Also, it has been 
reported that sometimes consignments are held in warehouses for periods of up to several 
months. The authorities have indicated  that this refers mainly to dual -use chemicals, for which 
release of some consignments is delayed for several months. In this regard, specific instructions 
were issued from the security authorities requiring the analysis of these chemicals during 2014 
and 2015. Nevertheless, following consultations among the GOEIC, the security authorities and the 
Egyptian Chemical Administration, it was agreed to speed up the release process of some of those 
consignments according to specific criteria. This signif icantly decreased the time of holding such 
consignments.  The challenge will be to seek to reduce further these release times as the risk 
management system is improved and other trade -facilitating measures are adopted.  
Table 3.1 Total release time and customs release time  
(%) 
Release time  Customs declarations  
2016  2015  2014  
Customs 
release 
time Total 
release 
time Customs 
release 
time Total 
release 
time Customs 
release 
time Total 
release 
time 
Within two hours on the same day  10.0 1.3 18.4 1.6 16.0 2.4 
More than two hours on the same day  16.7 8.2 16.9 8.5 19.6 9.9 
The second day  18.9 14.3 17.5 15.2 18.3 16.3 
The third day  13.0 13.1 11.4 13.0 11.4 13.4 
From four days to a week  22.5 31.0 20.6 32.0 18.6 29.1 
More than a week to two weeks  10.0 16.8 8.6 17.1 8.8 15.5 
More than two weeks  8.9 15.4 6.6 12.5 7.3 13.3 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.20.   Egypt issues advance rulings with respect to tariff classification and rates. The 
determination remains valid if no changes occur at the time of importation. The ruling does not 
preclude verification upon importation of the products, without any liability whatsoever on the 
Customs Authority. The authorities  have indicated that 48 advance rulings were issued in 2015, 69 
in 2016, and 88 between January and September 2017; most of them were with respect to 
chemical products.  
3.21.   Customs decisions may be appealed in accordance with Law No. 27/1994 Concerning 
Arbitra tion in Civil and Commercial Matters. Arbitration rules and procedures are also contained in 
Articles 57 and 58 of the Customs Law. Appeals against a testing result conducted by or through 
Customs are regulated by Article 103 of the Customs Law. Requests t o contest a determination or 
an analysis result must be submitted to the competent Customs office, explaining the reasons, 
within a week of being notified of the result. The analysis or test will then be repeated at the 
expense of the requester at the indi cated labs. The second analysis result is deemed final. In all 
cases, the analysis result is valid for a year provided that the item is imported from the same 
manufacturer and the same country of origin of the previously analysed consignment, and that it 
carries the same code number (Article) and has the same specifications. However, this is without 
prejudice to Custom's right to ask for another analysis when doubting that the contents are 
different from what is specified in the packages or in the accompany ing documents. There is also 
an opportunity for a second test if the testing is done by the GOEIC, in cases where the first test WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  result of a sample taken upon arrival of goods declared for importation shows an adverse finding. 
A second test is also possibl e, through the Appeals Committee, when the testing is done by any of 
the Quarantine Units.  
3.22.   Egypt's Customs Authority has 10 bilateral administrative cooperation agreements for the 
exchange of customs information: with Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco,  Palestine, Sudan, 
Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey.  
3.1.1.2   Trade facilitation  
3.23.   The WTO's Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) was approved by the Egyptian Parliament on 
22 June 2017 and ratified by Presidential Decree No. 149/2017. However, as of early November 
2017, the instrument of acceptance of the TFA had still to be deposited in the WTO. Egypt 
submitted its Category "A" commitments in January  2015 (Table 3.2).15 The authorities have 
indicated that they are currently working on category "B" and "C" commitments.  
Table 3.2 Category "A" commitments under Section II of the Agreement on Trade 
Facilitation  
Article number  Description  
Article 4 (paragraphs 1, 3, 4, 5)  Procedures for appeal or review  
Article 5.2  Detention  
Article 6.2  Specific disciplines on fees and charges for customs 
processing imposed on or in connection with importation 
and exportation  
Article 6.3 (sub -paragraphs 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6)  Penalty disciplines  
Article 7.3 (sub -paragraphs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 
3.5) Separation of release from final determination of customs 
duties, taxes, fees and charges  
Article 9  Movement of goods intended for import under customs 
control  
Article 10.5 (paragraph 5.1)  Preshipment inspection  
Article 10.6  Use of customs brokers  
Article 10.7  Common border procedures and uniform documentation 
requirements  
Article 10.8  Rejected goods  
Article 10.9  Temporary admission of goods and inward and outward 
processing  
Article 11 (paragraphs 2, 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 
16) Freedom of transit  
Source:  WTO document WT/PCTF/N/EGY/1, 7 January 2015.  
3.24.   In 2011, a National Trade Facilitation Committee (NTFC) was formed as mandated by 
Ministerial Decree No. 183/2011. The Committee includes the participation of all the competent 
authorities in matters of trade facilitation, both from the public and the private sectors. They 
comprise: the ECA; the GOEIC; the Central Administration of Plant Quarantine; the Central 
Administration of Veterinary Quarantine; the Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Q uality 
(EOS); the Ministry of Transport; the Ministry of Health; the Egyptian Businessmen Association; 
the Federation of Egyptian Chambers of Commerce; and the Federation of Egyptian Industries. The 
Committee meets to discuss and coordinate the implementat ion of the provisions of the TFA and 
may invite any other relevant authorities as needed, ac cording to the topic discussed.  
3.25.   The authorities consider that the NTFC played an important role during the TFA 
negotiations. After MC9, the work of the Committee ha s been focused on TFA implementation 
issues including preparing notifications regarding category "A" commitments, and, subsequently, 
on determining Egypt's needs including technical assistance and capacity building required to 
implement category "B" and "C " commitments. The NTFC has also been discussing and analysing 
trade -facilitation related issues, including the use of trade facilitation indicators and transport 
agreements in connection with trade facilitation. In this respect, the NTFC is considered by the 
authorities to play a pivotal role in the development of a roadmap with clear timelines for the 
implementation of the TFA.  
                                                
15 WTO document WT/PCTF/N/EGY/1, 7 January  2015.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.26.   As noted above, the ECA has been engaging in a number of actions geared at facilitating 
trade. They have included interacting wit h port authorities to reduce the time of release and 
therefore cost. Customs has also put in place x -ray devices (total of 102) in most customs posts to 
facilitate trade and customs control and reduce release times. Also, an e -freight import and export 
system has been developed for air freight, geared at facilitating international trade. The ECA's 
website has been upgraded and a questions -and-answers system has been activated. The 
authorities have indicated that information available on the website is being  updated on a daily 
basis, and that the tariff is published on it.  
3.27.   Prime Minister Decree No. 2295/2015 created the Ministerial Steering Council for Egyptian 
Trade Facilitation "EgyTrade", chaired by the Minister of Trade and Industry, and comprised of the 
Minister of Finance, the Minister of Transportation, the Minister of Investment and International 
Cooperation, the Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of Egypt, the Chairman of the Federation of 
Egyptian Industries, the Chairman of Egypt's Federation of Co mmercial Chambers, and 
businessmen associations. EgyTrade aims at the creation of an Egyptian National Single Window 
(ENSW) system. The authorities have indicated that, in the framework of implementing the ENSW 
project, the ECA has taken into consideration  international best practices and the experience of 
other countries. A working group has been established following a Decision from the Egyptian 
Customs commissioner, which includes four teams: legislation, documents, procedures, and 
technology. Similar wo rking groups have been established in the Ministry of Transport, the 
Maritime Transport Authority, the Ministry of Trade and Industry and the GOEIC. The authorities 
have indicated that, as at October 2017, the stage of studying the status quo had been conc luded 
and that they were currently working on the simplification of procedures and documentation (re -
engineering procedures).  
3.28.   Minister of Finance Decision No. 204/2013 amending the Executive Regulations of the 
Customs Law was issued in order to activate th e Authorized Economic Operator (AEO system) in 
Egypt. The system is managed by the Customs Authority in accordance with the WCO SAFE 
Framework, in order to facilitate and expedite the procedures of imported and exported AEO 
consignments. Publication 51/201 3 establishes the conditions for approving the AEO engaging in 
importing and exporting; Publication 3/2017 establishes the conditions for the approval of 
warehouses and brokers providing services to the AEOs. As of October 2017, 75 importers and 45 
exporte rs have been granted AEO status.  
3.29.   Egypt is also trying to promote trade facilitation with neighbouring countries. Preparation of 
a draft agreement on security and trade facilitation within the Arab League16 is ongoing. 
Furthermore, Egypt has started consulta tions with Jordan and Saudi Arabia to allow their customs 
offices to exchange information electronically. Egypt is also holding talks with Sudan to introduce a 
"one-stop shop" for trade between the two countries.  
3.1.1.3   Customs Valuation  
3.30.   Since its last TPR in 200 5, Egypt has notified new legislation on customs valuation to the 
WTO.17 Law No. 95/2005 amended the provisions on customs valuation of the Customs Law 
No. 65/1963 and of Ministerial Decree No. 765/01 on the Determination of the Value of Goods. 
Under Law No . 95/2005, the customs value is the actual value of the goods to which are added all 
actual costs and expenses paid in connection with the goods until their arrival at the port of 
destination in Egypt. For values defined in foreign currency, the exchange r ate published by the 
Central Bank of Egypt is used for conversion. The Executive Regulations of Law No. 95/2005, 
issued in 2006 and contained in Ministry of Finance Decree No. 10/2006, further specify the 
definition of transaction value for customs purpose s. Articles 14 to 35 of the Executive Regulations 
describe the methods of valuation according to the provisions of the WTO Customs Valuation 
Agreement.  
                                                
16 The members of the Arab League are: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, 
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, 
Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. There  are four observer States: Brazil, Eritrea, India, and the 
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.  
17 WTO document G/VAL/N/1/EGY/1, 27 April 2007.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.31.   Egypt provided information on its administration and implementation of the Customs 
Valuation Agreement t hrough its replies to the checklist of issues.18 It has also subsequently 
responded to several questions posed by the United States.19 
3.32.   According to the ECA, the procedures prescribed by the Customs Valuation Agreement are 
followed in cases of undervaluation.  If the difference between the declared value and the assessed 
correct value of the goods exceeds 20%, a fine equalling 15% of the customs duty is payable on 
the price differential, in accordance with Article 118 of the Customs Law No. 66/1963.  
3.33.   Procedures for appeals regarding customs valuation and product classification are also laid 
down in Articles 57 and 58 of the Customs Law. Complaints are referred to an arbitration 
committee, which comprises one arbitrator appointed by the ECA and one appointed by th e 
concerned party. If the members of the committee decide unanimously, their decision is final; in 
case of disagreement, the case may be submitted for higher arbitration to a committee consisting 
of a permanent delegate appointed by the Minister of Justice  and two other members, one chosen 
by the ECA, and the other by the concerned party. The decision of the higher arbitration 
committee is final.  
3.34.   Between January 2013 and September 2017, 6,675 decisions of the ECA were appealed at 
both the primary and the hi gher arbitration levels, most of which concerned valuation (Table 3.3). 
About two thirds of the appeals were settled in primary arbitration. Most cases of arbitration dealt 
with imports of clothing and textiles, tyres, household articles and electric cable s. 
Table 3.3 Appeals of the Egyptian Customs Authority's (ECA) decisions, 2013 -17 
(September)  
Year Primary arbitration  Higher arbitration  Total arbitration 
cases  
 In favour of 
trader  In favour of 
ECA In favour of 
trader  In favour 
of ECA   
2013  29 366 87 149 631 
2014  239 1,470  288 653 2,650  
2015  36 1,293  52 591 1,972  
2016  50 466 27 245 788 
2017  7 455 4 168 634 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
3.1.2   Rules of origin  
3.35.   Egypt has not notified any rules of origin to the WTO. Egypt does not have non -preferential 
rules of origin. Article 19 of the Customs Law defines origin as the country where the goods are 
produced. Ministerial Decree No.  515 of October  2003 requires that all goods be clearly labell ed 
and carry a certificate of origin.  
3.36.   Each of Egypt's bilateral and regional trade agreements contains specific preferential rules 
of origin. The Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA) rules of origin confer originating status on 
goods wholly obtained or con taining value added of 40% of the ex -factory cost for goods not 
included in a list of products that must satisfy specific criteria. Bilateral and diagonal cumulation is 
allowed. The same rule of origin with respect to the 40% value added content is laid do wn in 
Egypt's bilateral agreements with Iraq, Lebanon, Libya, and Syria.  
3.37.   Under the COMESA rules of origin, all goods must be directly transacted between signatories 
to qualify for preferential treatment. The COMESA agreement provides four alternative crite ria for 
determining origin on the basis of which an exporter may claim eligibility for preferential 
treatment: (a) that goods are wholly produced in the region; (b) that the c.i.f. value of non -
originating materials is not more than 60% of the total cost o f materials used in production; (c) 
that the value added resulting from the process of production accounts for at least 35% of the ex -
factory cost of the goods (this percentage can be reduced to 25% if the final product is considered 
                                                
18 WTO document G/VAL/N/2/EGY/1, 30 April 2007.  
19 WTO documents G/VAL/W/166, 13 November 2007; G/VAL/W/169, 17 June 2 008; G/VAL/W/175, 
27 January 2009; G/VAL/W/177, 6 May 2009; G/VAL/W/188, 11 November 2009 ; and G/VAL/W/189, 
3 March  2010.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  of particular importan ce to the economic development of a member State); and (d) that there is a 
change of tariff classification heading following transformation.  
3.38.   Under the EU –Egypt Association Agreement, the rules of origin are defined in the Pan -Euro-
Mediterranean protocol o n rules of origin. A new regional Convention on Pan -Euro-Mediterranean 
rules of origin is currently under negotiation. Although Egypt signed the main text in October 2013 
and ratified it in April 2014, the general provisions and the lists of rules are stil l under discussion. 
When it enters into force, the regional Convention will replace the current protocol. The same will 
apply for the protocols on rules of origin applied in the agreements between Egypt and the Agadir 
Agreement countries (Jordan, Morocco a nd Tunisia), EFTA, and Turkey.  
3.39.   Under the Egypt -MERCOSUR Free Trade Agreement, some goods are subject to specific 
rules of origin (product -specific list rules). Goods that are not subject to specific rules of origin are 
considered to originate in any signat ory party when they either fulfil a change of tariff heading 
classification or, when this condition cannot be satisfied, the value of non -originating materials 
does not exceed 45% of the ex -work price (55% in the case of Paraguay). Likewise, the rules of 
origin for the Tripartite Free Trade Agreement and the Continental Free Trade Agreement are still 
under negotiation.  
3.1.3   Tariffs  
3.1.3.1   Overview  
3.40.   As indicated in Article 6 of Customs Law No.  95/2005, which amended Customs Law 
No. 66/1963, tariffs are determined and mod ified through a decree issued by the President of the 
Republic. The Customs tariff is reviewed by the Supreme Customs Tariff Council for the purpose of 
revising tariff rates.20 Egypt's MFN tariff rates are currently applied pursuant to Presidential Decree 
No. 184/2013 and its amendments (see below).  
3.41.   In FY2015/16, customs duties and taxes (i.e. GST and excise) on imports accounted for 
over one quarter of total tax revenue, the largest revenue source being attributable to the General 
Sales Tax (GST) on imports.21 Revenue collected from duties and taxes on imports increased from 
LE 45.9 billion in 2010/11 to LE 91.8 billion in 2015/16. Revenue collected rose across all taxes on 
imports; revenue from excise tax on imports registered the fastest annual growt h (48%). Customs 
duties accounted for approximately 8.0% of tax receipts in 2015/16, up from 7.0% in 2010/11 
(Table 3.4). This increase is mainly attributable to increases in customs duty rates, reflected in the 
various Presidential Decrees issued since 20 13. 
Table 3.4 Revenue from import duties and other taxes on imported goods, 2010/11 -
2016/17  
(LE million)  
 2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17  
Total 45,914  50,469  57,615  63,476  78,190  91,816  .. 
% of total tax 
receipt  23.9%  24.3%  22.9%  24.4%  25.6%  26.1%  .. 
General sales taxa 18,950  21,607  25,458  28,398  35,010  36,352  .. 
Excises  55 71 49 374 259 396 .. 
Customs duty  13,455  14,788  16,771  17,673  21,867  28,091  29,548  
% of total tax 
receipt  7.0%  7.1%  6.7%  6.8%  7.1%  8.0%  .. 
.. Not available.  
a Replaced by the Value Added Tax in 2016.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
                                                
20 The Supreme Council, headed by the Ministry of Finance, consists also of the Ministry of Trade and 
Industry, the Ministry of Investm ent, and the Ministry of Tourism. The Technical Secretariat of the Supreme 
Customs Tariff Council considers issues related to customs duties and their rates in order to present, when 
required, amendment proposal s to the Minister of Finance. These proposals are subsequently presented to the 
Council of Ministers for the issuance of a Presidential Decree to amend these rates.  
21 The General Sales Tax was replaced by the Value Added Tax in 2016 (see below).  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.42.   The Government of Egypt has implemented a series of changes in its tariff policy since its 
last Trade Policy Review (2005). Before 2011, the Government made significant changes to 
Egypt's tariff system through tariff cuts and a reduction in the number of tariff bands.22 However, 
this policy was reversed in the aftermath of the 2011 revolution, as Egypt bega n to face economic 
challenges including a widening of the trade deficit. Presidential Decree No. 184/2013, published in 
the Official Gazette  in March 2013, announced changes in customs duties, which consisted mainly 
of higher rates on a wide range of produ cts. This Decree was followed by three additional 
amendments, namely Presidential Decree No. 69/2015, Presidential Decree No. 25/2016, and 
Presidential Decree 538/2016. Presidential Decree No. 25/2016, issued in January 2016, raised 
import tariffs on a wid e range of products (11.4% of the tariff lines of the 2016 schedule). 
Presidential Decree No. 538/2016, issued in December 2016, further increased tariffs to up to 60% 
on certain items, some of which were already covered in the earlier decree. These decree s in 
general increased import tariffs on a substantial number of goods mainly for non -agricultural 
products (WTO definition), and reduced rates on a small number of items (Table 3.5).23 
Table 3.5 Overview of ta riff changes introduced by Presidential Decree, 2013 -16 
(HS 2012)  
Presidential 
Decree No. (date 
issued)  Affected tariff lines  
(% of total tariff 
lines)a Main changes  
Rates  
increased  Rates 
reduced  
184/2013  
(21 March 2013)  2.7%  
(of which 
1.4% for 
non-
agricultural 
productsb) 0.3%  Increased import tariffs mainly on fish products (HS 03 and HS 16), 
cut flowers (HS 06), fresh and dried fruits and nuts (HS 08); 
vehicles (HS 87), and clocks and watches (HS 91).  
Reduced import tariffs m ainly on furniture such as lamps and seats 
(HS 94); bicycles and trailers (HS 87), silicones (HS 3910), and 
paper (HS 48).  
69/2015  
(7 February 2015)  n.a. 0.2%  Reduced import tariffs mainly on some pharmaceutical products  
(HS 30).  
25/2016  
(26 January 2016)  11.4%  
(of which  
10.6% for 
non-
agricultural 
productsb) n.a. The most common pattern was a tariff rate increase from 30% in 
2015 to 40% in 2016 (78% of all affected tariff lines).c 
 
Main product groups (% of total affected tariff lines)  
 HS 61 Articles of apparel, knitted or crocheted (12.8%)  
 HS 62 Articles of apparel, not knitted or crocheted (12.4%)  
 HS 85 Electrical machinery and equipment (7.2%)  
 HS 84 Machinery and mechanical appliances (6.4%)  
 HS 63 Other made up textile articles (6.3%)  
 HS 94 Furniture (5.7%)  
 HS 91 Clocks and watches (4.1%)  
 HS 33 Essential resinoids; perfumery, cosmetic or toilet 
preparations (4.1%)  
 HS 42 Articles of leather (3.9%)  
 HS 08 Edible fruit and nuts (3.8%)  
 HS 64 Footwear (3.8%)  
 HS 96 Miscellaneous manufactured article s (3.6%)  
 HS 73 Articles of iron or steel (3.4%)  
 HS 17 Sugars and sugar confectionery (2.6%)  
 HS 82 Tools, implements, etc. of base metals (2.5%)  
538/2016  
(30 November  2016)  7.0%  
(of which 
6.1% for 
non-
agricultural 
productsb) n.a. New tariff rates of 45%, 50%, and 60%, were introduced.  
 
The most common pattern was a tariff rate increase from 40% in 
2016 to 60% in 2017 (53% of all affected tariff lines)c. 
 
Main product groups (% of total affected tariff lines)  
 HS 85 Electrical machinery and equipment (12.9%)  
 HS 84 Machinery and mechanical appliances (8.5%)  
 HS 33 Essential oils; perfumery, cosmetic (6.7%)  
 HS 57 Carpets and other textile floor coverings (6.5%)  
 HS 20 Preparations of vegetables, fruit, nuts (6.2%)  
 HS 70 Glass and glassware (5.8%)  
                                                
22 WTO docum ent WT/TPR/S/150/Rev.1, 5 August 2005; and documents related to tariff policies in 
Presidential Decrees No. 39/2007, No. 103/2008, and No. 51/2009.  
23 Given recent tariff changes in Egypt, the 2012 and 2016 Tariff Schedules were used as the 
benchmark for th e purposes of this tariff analysis (along with the 2005 and 2017 Tariff Schedules). The 2012 
Tariff Schedule was considered to be suitable to observe the effect of tariff increases due to Presidential Decree 
184/2013, and the 2016 Tariff Schedule covers th e tariff changes as a result of the amendment (No.  25/2016), 
which affected by far the largest number of tariff lines.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Presidential 
Decree No. (date 
issued)  Affected tariff lines  
(% of total tariff 
lines)a Main changes  
Rates  
increased  Rates 
reduced  
 HS 94 Furniture (5.8%)  
 HS 73 Articles of iron or steel (5.6%)  
 HS 64 Footwear (5.6%)  
 HS 42 Articles of leather (5.4%)  
 HS 96 Miscellaneous manufactured articles (4.4%)  
 HS 08 Edible fruit and nuts (3.4%)  
 HS 62 Articles of apparel, not knitted or crocheted (3.1%)  
 HS 87 Vehicl es (2.4%)  
 HS 34 Soap, organic surface -active agents (2.4%)  
n.a. Not applicable.  
a For analysis purposes, the tariff duties contained in each Presidentia l Decree have been included in 
the relevant year's tariff schedule. For example, the 2017 tariff  schedule reflects the changes 
contained in Presidential Decree No. 538/2016. In this case, calculati ons of the percentage of lines 
affected are based on the national tariff line level of the 2017 Tariff Schedule.  
b WTO definition.  
c For the purpose of ana lysing tariff changes before and after each P residential Decree, the tariff 
schedules applied in two consecutive years are used. For example, 2017 tariff rates are compared 
with 2016 rates in order to observe changes in import duties before and after the l atest amendment 
(Presidential Decree No. 538/2016).  
Source:  Information compiled by WTO Secretariat, based on the Presidential Decrees noted in the Table.  
3.1.3.2   Applied MFN customs duties  
3.43.   The Egyptian tariff for 2017 is based on the HS 2012 version of the Harmon ized Commodity 
Description and Coding System. Tariff rates are mostly assessed on an ad valorem  basis and are 
applied on the c.i.f. value of imports. The 2017 tariff contains 7,850 tariff lines at the HS 10 -digit 
level, of which 99.7% carry ad valorem  duties. Some 21 tariff lines (tobacco products), equivalent 
to 0.3% of all tariff lines, carry specific duties, ranging from LE 6.1 to LE 150 per kg. These 21 
tariff lines are excluded from the analysis in this section since ad valorem  equivalents (AVEs) are 
not available. No tariff quota access is provided on an MFN basis, but there are preferential tariff 
quotas (see below).  
3.44.   In 2017, some 66% of all tariffs carried rates of 10% or below and duty -free treatment was 
applied to 11.1% of tariff lines. The sh are of duty -free lines in 2017 was twice as large as in 2005, 
resulting from the elimination of duties on some agricultural products included in HS chapter 10 
(cereals), HS 12 (oil seeds), HS 13 (gums, other vegetable saps and extracts), and HS 15 (animal 
and vegetable fats and oils). There were, however, some tariff peaks: about 0.3% of tariff lines, 
corresponding to alcoholic beverages and spirits, were subject to rates of 600%, 1,200%, 1,800%, 
or 3,000%.  
3.45.   Law No. 538/2016 introduced three new tariff level s to the 2017 tariff schedule, namely 
45%, 50%, and 60%; these levels affect 5.8% of lines. The comparison between 2016 and 2017 
shows that some 294 tariff lines with a duty rate of 40% in 2016 were subject to a rate of 60% in 
2017; the affected items are mainly non -agricultural products such as machinery and mechanical 
appliances, electrical machinery and equipment, and furniture (Table 3.6). Moreover, the share of 
lines with a tariff rate lower or equal to 10% fell slightly from 69% in 2012 to 66% in 2017  
(Chart  3.1). This was mainly a result of shifts between tariff levels, moving lines from lower rates 
to higher rates (Table 3.6). For instance, of a total of 2,073 tariff lines that were subject to a 5% 
rate in 2016, 2,040 were subject to the same rate in  2017, while 26 were subject to a rate of 
20%, 2 were subject to a rate of 30%, 4 to a rate of 40% and one to a rate of 60%. Similarly, out 
of 1,410 tariff lines that were subject to a rate of 10% in 2016, 1,370 were subject to the same 
rate in 2017, while  12 were subject to a rate of 20%, 5 to a rate of 30%, one to a rate of 40%, 11 
to a rate of 50% and 11 to a rate of 60%.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Chart 3.1 Breakdown of applied MFN duties, 2005, 2012, 2016, and 2017  
 
n.a. Not applicable.  
Note:  Tariff lines with specific duty rates are not included.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities and WTO IDB.  
Table 3.6 Egypt's customs tariff in 2016 a nd 2017, pursuant to changes introduced by 
Presidential Decree No. 538/2016, by tariff rate  
(Number of tariff lines at the 10 -digit level)  
  2017 tariffs  
  0% 2% 5% 10% 20% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 60% >135%a Total 2016 tariffs  0% 870            870 
2%  1,767   2         1,769  
5%   2,040   26 2  4   1  2,073  
10%    1,370  12 5  1  11 11  1,410  
20%     358 13  7 4 4 31  417 
30%      345  23 2 2 55  427 
35%       56      56 
40%        435 37 4 294  770 
>135%a            58 58 
 Total 870 1,767  2,040  1,372  396 365 56 470 43 21 392 58 7,850  
a Including non -ad valorem  rates.  
Source:  WTO secretariat estimates, based on tariff information provided by the authorities and WTO IDB.  
3.46.   Overall, the 2017 simple average applied MFN tariff rate was 19.1%, slightly down from 
20% in 2005, but 2.6 percentage points higher than in 2012 (16.5%) (Table 3.7). The overall 
increase in the level of tariff averages is mainly due to the recent amendments on customs duties, 
noted earlier. The coefficient of variation of  7.3 indicates high tariff dispersion, mainly due to the 
tariff peaks of up to 3,000%, while some two thirds of the lines faced rates of 10% or lower. 
However, if alcoholic beverages (subject to customs duties of between 600% and 3,000%) are 
excluded from the calculation, the 2017 simple average applied MFN tariff rate comes down to 
12.3%, with a much lower coefficient of variation of 1.4.  
010203040506070
Duty free >0%-10% >10%-20% >20%-30% >30%-40% >40%-50% >50%-60% >100%2005 2012 2016 2017
WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.(% of total lines)Chart 3.1  Distribution of MFN tariff rates, 2005, 2012, 2016, and 2017
Source:n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.
Not applicable. n.a.WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 3.7 Structure of MFN tariffs  
 MFN applied  Final  
bounda 2005  2012  2016  2017  
Bound tariff lines (% of all tariff lines)  n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 99.3 
Simple average rate  20.0 16.5 17.6 19.1 37.2 
 WTO agricultural products  66.4 50.4 49.5 51.6 96.4 
 WTO non -agricultural products  12.8 10.2 11.5 13.0 28.7 
Duty-free tariff lines (% of all tariff lines)  5.3 10.7 11.1 11.1 2.6 
Simple average of dutiable lines only  21.1 18.5 19.8 21.5 38.3 
Tariff quotas (% of all tariff lines)  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Non-ad valorem  tariffs (% of all tariff lines)  0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 
Non-ad valorem  tariffs with no AVEs (% of all tariff lines)  0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 
Domestic tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)b 0.4 0.5 0.4 5.5 0.7 
International tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)c 26.6 20.1 21.9 22.7 71.6 
Coefficient of variation  7.4 8.6 7.9 7.3 4.2 
Nuisance applied rates (% of all tariff lines)d 23.7 22.5 22.5 22.5 2.5 
Memo:       
Simple average rate (excluding alcoholic beverages)e 12.2 9.5 10.8 12.3 29.1 
  WTO agricultural products  12.0 8.2 9.3 11.0 32.1 
  WTO non -agricultural products  12.2 9.7 11.1 12.5 28.7 
  Coefficient of variation  1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.7 
n.a. Not applicable.  
a The calculations for final bound rates were made using the CTS data base. The final bound schedule 
is based on the HS07 nomenclature (8 -digit).  
b Domestic tariff peaks are defined as those exceeding three times the overall simple average applied 
rate. 
c International tariff peaks are defined as those exceeding 15%.  
d Nuisance rates are those greater than zero, but lower than or equal to 2%.  
e Tariff lines for alcoholic beverages refer to HS lines 2106902000,  2203, 2204, 2205, 2206, 2207, 
2208, and 3302101000.  
Note:  The 2005 tariff is based on the HS 02 nomenclature, consisting of 5,687 tariff lines (8 -digit).  
 The 2012 ta riff is based on the HS 07 nomenclature, consisting of 7,595 tariff lines (10 -digit).  
 The 2016 tariff is based on the HS 12 nomenclature, consisting of 7,860 tariff lines (10 -digit).  
 The 2017 tariff is based on the HS 12 nomenclature, consisting of 7,850  tariff lines (10 -digit).  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorit ies of Egypt, WTO IDB, and CTS 
database.  
3.47.   One of the features of the Egyptian tariff schedule is the large gap between tariffs applied to 
agricultural products and those applied to non -agricultural goods. In 2017, protection granted to 
agricultural products (WTO definition) remained high, with an average tariff of 51.6%, while tariffs 
on non -agricultural products (WTO definition) were generally lower, wi th an average of 13%. 
Animals and animal products, cereals, sugar, beverages, clothing, leather products, and transport 
equipment are the product groups with import duties higher than 15%. The product groups with 
the highest coefficients of variation (tari ff dispersion) are cereals and chemicals (Table 3.8).  
Table 3.8 Summary of tariff analysis, 2017  
 Number 
of lines  Average 
(%) Range 
(%) CVa Share of 
duty-free 
lines (%)b 
Total  7,850  19.1 0-3,000  7.3 11.1 
HS 01-24 1,381  48.3 0-3,000  6.7 17.5 
HS 25 -97 6,469  12.9 0-3,000  3.2 9.7 
By WTO category       
WTO agricultural products  1,256  51.6 0-3,000  6.5 15.8 
  Animals and products thereof  149 15.3 0-30 0.8 18.1 
  Dairy products  54 6.7 0-20 0.9 31.5 
  Fruit, vegetables, and plants  361 12.8 0-60 1.2 8.6 
  Coffee and tea  29 14.6 0-40 1.0 20.7 
  Cereals and preparations  169 30.3 0-3,000c 7.6 17.8 
  Oils seeds, fats, oil and their products  144 4.7 0-30 1.1 21.5 
  Sugars and confectionary  32 17.2 2-60 1.0 0.0 
  Beverages, spirits and tobacco  77 875.9  2-3,000  1.5 0.0 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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   Number 
of lines  Average 
(%) Range 
(%) CVa Share of 
duty-free 
lines (%)b 
  Cotton  23 0.9 0-5 2.2 82.6 
  Other agricultural products, n.e.s.  218 3.1 0-40 1.6 17.0 
WTO non -agricultural products  6,594  13.0 0-3,000  3.1 10.2 
  Fish and fishery products  246 9.2 0-40 1.3 33.3 
  Minerals and metals  1,285  10.7 0-60 1.3 7.7 
  Chemicals and photographic supplies  1,312  8.7 0-3,000c 9.6 10.1 
  Wood, pulp, paper and furniture  394 14.2 0-60 1.1 8.1 
  Textiles  763 13.5 0-60 1.1 3.5 
  Clothing  248 38.2 10-40 0.2 0.0 
  Leather, rubber, footwear and travel 
goods  266 17.7 0-60 1.2 1.1 
  Non-electric machinery  709 9.3 0-60 1.8 19.0 
  Electric machinery  463 13.6 0-60 1.4 16.8 
  Transport equipment  283 19.0 0-135 1.6 7.1 
  Non-agricultural products, n.e.s. 604 16.1 0-60 1.1 10.1 
  Petroleum  21 4.2 0-5 0.4 9.5 
By ISIC sectord      
  ISIC 1 - Agriculture, hunting and fishing  530 7.3 0-60 1.6 20.8 
  ISIC 2 - Mining  145 2.3 0-10 0.8 6.9 
  ISIC 3 - Manufacturing  7,174  20.3 0-3,000  7.2 10.4 
By stage of processing       
  First stage of processing  1,060  4.8 0-60 1.9 24.0 
  Semi-processed products  2,363  7.1 0-3,000  8.7 8.6 
  Fully processed products  4,427  28.9 0-3,000  6.2 9.3 
a Coefficient of variation.  
b Share of duty -free lines in the total number of tariff lines of the product group.  
c Product relating to alcohol content.  
d International Standard Industrial Classification (Rev.2). Electrici ty, gas and water are excluded 
(1 tariff line).  
Note:  The 2017 tariff schedule is based on HS12 nomenclature consisting of 7,850 tariff lines (10 -digit).  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities of Egypt.  
3.48.   Egypt's tariff structure shows signs of positive escalation, with 2017 average tariffs of 4.8% 
on raw materials, 7.1% on semi -processed goods , and 28.9% on fully processed products 
(Table  3.8). At a more disaggregated level, positive escalation seems to exist on some product 
groups: in 2017 tariff rates for fresh tomatoes, semi -processed tomatoes, and preparations (e.g. 
juice, ketchup) of tomat oes were 5.0%, 10.0%, and 21.7%, respectively. Similarly, the tariff rate 
for cotton raw materials was 0.5%, while the rate for thread was 8.4% and that for clothing of 
cotton was 40%.  
3.49.   The tariff modifications introduced since 2012 have led to changes that  have affected 
product groups differently (Chart 3.2). The level of protection has risen greatly for most non -
agricultural product groups (WTO definition) such as leather, non -electric and electric machinery, 
and transport equipment, fish products, mineral s and metals, and clothing. On the other hand, the 
level of tariff protection for agriculture has declined, reflecting the elimination of tariffs on some 
agricultural products noted earlier, as well as the fact that many agricultural products are not 
cover ed by the Presidential Decrees issued since 2013. This has reduced the gap between 
protection granted to agricultural products and to non -agricultural products, which, however, 
remains high.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 53 - 
 
  Chart 3.2 Average tariff rates, by WTO product categories, 2005, 2012, 2016 and 2017  
(%) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.1.3.3   Bound tariffs  
3.50.   Egypt's latest certified WTO tariff schedule follows the HS 2007 nomenclature.24 According 
to the authorities, in mid -2017 the Government was in the process of reviewing the transposition 
of the schedule of commitments to the HS 2012 nomenclature.  
3.51.   Egypt has bound 99.3% of its tariff lines, consisting mostly of ad valorem  rates ranging  
from 0% to 3,000% and some non -ad valorem  tariffs (for tobacco products).25 The general simple 
                                                
24 WTO document WT/Let/1038, 4 May 2015.  
25 Calculations are based on the HS 2007 nomenclature, which is available in the CTS database.  
0.010.020.030.040.050.060.070.080.090.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 112005 2012 2016 2017
0.05.010.015.020.025.030.035.040.0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 242005 2012 2016 2017Chart 3.2 Average tariff rates, by WTO product categories
Per cent
1,0001,010
1 WTO Agriculture
2 Animals and products
3 Dairy products
4 Fruit, vegetables, and 
plants
5 Coffee and tea
6 Cereals and preparations
7 Oil seeds, fats and oils 
and their products      8 Sugars and confectionary
9 Beverages, spirits, and 
tobacco
10 Cotton
11 Other agricultural 
products
12 WTO non -agriculture
13 Fish and fishery 
products
14 Minerals and metals15 Chemicals and 
photographic supplies
16 Wood, pulp, paper, and 
furniture
17 Textiles
18 Clothing19 Leather, rubber, 
footwear, and travel goods
20 Non -electric machinery
21 Electric machinery
22 Transport equipment
23 Non -agricultural 
products
24 Petroleum
WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities of Egypt. Source:WTO agriculture
WTO non -agricultureWT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 54 - 
 
  average bound tariff is 37.2%. The simple average bound rate on agricultural products (WTO 
definition) is 96.4%, whereas the rate for non -agricultural products is 28.7%. Some 40 tariff lines 
at the HS  8-digit level remain unbound, consisting mainly of rubber and rubber articles, natural 
and cultured pearls, machinery and mechanical appliances, electrical equipment, and vehicles.  
3.52.   Although applied MFN rates are in  most cases considerably lower than bound rates, in the 
2017 tariff some 46 lines exceeded their bindings. In some cases this was due to the recent tariff 
increases contained in the Presidential Decrees (Table A3.2).  
3.1.3.4   Tariff exemptions and reductions  
3.53.   Custom s Law No. 95/2005 and Customs Exemptions Law 186/1986 provide for a variety of 
duty and tax concessions in the form of different schemes such as duty drawback, temporary 
admission, duty -free warehouses, and concessional duties (Table 3.9). Duty and tax con cessions 
are also granted under the new Investment Law No. 72/17.  
3.54.   Furthermore, import duties can be reduced temporarily in case of a fall in domestic 
production or due to other causes affecting the domestic supply of a product. In this respect, 
Prime Minis terial Decree No. 532/2017 of 7 March 2017 on the temporary tariff removal of raw 
cane and beet sugar (HS  170112, 170113, and 170114), lowered the tariff on raw sugar from 20% 
to zero for the period running between 15 March 2017 and 31 December 2017.26 The reduction 
was available for all importers during the specific period of application  or within the limits of the 
quota determined in the Ministerial Decree. A similar measure had been adopted in 2016.27 These 
temporary measures responded to a fall in world p roduction of sugar leading to increases in sugar 
prices in international markets, accompanied by a devaluation of the Egyptian pound, which made 
imports more expensive.28 As a result, importers in Egypt had difficulty in sourcing their needs 
from internatio nal markets when additionally faced with a 20% tariff, which compounded the 
difficulties created by the deficit in the domestic market.  
3.55.   Egypt also applied a temporary tariff suspension on imported frozen poultry, which is 
generally subject to an MFN duty r ate of 30%. The suspension was expected to last from 
10 November 2016 to 31 May 2017 in accordance with Decree No. 3047/2016. This measure 
aimed at ensuring availability in the market at affordable prices. However, on 5 December 2016, 
the Government decide d to cancel the measure, following consultations with the Egyptian 
Federation Industries and the Egyptian Poultry Association.29 
3.56.   Besides temporary tariff exemptions, Presidential Decree No. 184/2013 (Article 6) allows for 
the reduction of customs duties on intermediate goods if the final product has a certain percentage 
of local inputs. Under this concession, the customs duty rate assessed based on the final product 
may be reduced by rates ranging from 10% if the local content of the final product is less th an 
30%, up to a maximum of 90% if the local content exceeds 60%.30 The exemptions granted to the 
assembly industries under this Decree during 2013 -2014 reached approximately LE  202.9  million, 
while during 2014 -15 they totalled LE  112.1  million.  
                                                
26 The applied tariff on raw sugar was raised from 2% to 20% by Presidential Decree No. 25/2016.  
27 Prime Ministerial Decree No. 1364/2016 on the temporary tariff removal on raw sugars lowered the 
tariff rate on these products from 20% to zero from 20 May 2016 to 31 December 2016.  
28 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, Gain Report, Egypt Sugar Annual 2017 , 18 April 2017.  
29 Daily News Egypt , "Government abandons decision to exempt imported poultry from customs", 
5 December 2016. Viewed at: https://dailynewsegypt.com/2016/12/05/603046/ . 
30 United States International Trade Administration online information, Egypt - Performance 
Requirements and Investment Incentives . Viewed at: https://www.export.gov/article?id=Egypt -Performance -
Requirements . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 3.9 Key features of tariff exemptions and concessions, 2017  
Schemes  Summary  
Exemption  Free zones:  Investment Law No. 72/2017 regulates them.  Firms operating in free zones are 
exempt from customs duties, other taxes, and import regulations imported capital equipment, 
raw materials, and intermediate goods to be used in the zones. Goods destined for the free 
zones may be sold domestically if customs duties are paid and applicable regulations are 
implemented.  
 
Imports for rearmament purposes:  Imports by: the Ministry of Defence, companies and 
organizations affiliated to the Ministry of Military Production; and the National Security 
Authority.  
 
Imports for the Presidency:  of articles for formal use as defined by the General Secretary 
of the Presidency and the Ministry of the Interior.  
 
Gifts and donations  to the Government with an approval of the Customs Authority.  
 
Medical purpose:  Passenger cars of less than 1,800 cc with special medical equipment for 
the person al use of insured or handicapped persons, with an attestation of the General 
Medical Council.  
 
Articles exempted by presidential decree  
 
Diplomatic status: Customs privileges for diplomats  
Temporary 
duty 
exemption  Customs duties and other taxes are exempted temporarily for imports of primary materials 
and intermediate goods used for processing, and for imports of parts to repair or complete the 
manufacture of finished products. Customs offices require a deposit equivalent to the import 
duties and oth er taxes assessed. The deposit is returned when the goods are transferred to a 
free zone or exported.  
 
Temporary duty exemptions are also granted to commercial samples and temporary imports 
for display purposes at exhibitions or for sales promotion activit ies, with the exception of 
goods in the list of prohibited goods.  
Duty 
drawback  Full customs duties are refunded if the products are destined for a free zone or are re -
exported within a period not to exceed two years from the date of payment of the duties . This 
period may be extended for another period of up to two years maximum by Ministry of 
Finance Decree. Partial drawback is available for goods imported to areas receiving partial 
exemption from custom duties. All importers are entitled to benefit from the duty drawback 
system.  
Temporary 
release  Goods may be temporarily released without paying customs duties and other taxes for goods 
destined for Ministries, government departments, general organizations and state -owned 
enterprises, under the conditions determined by the Ministry of Treasury.  
Concessional 
duty A flat rate of 2% for all imports of machinery and equipment required to establish a company 
or project  (Investment Law No. 72/2017).  
Warehouses  Goods can be temporarily stored in warehouses without paying customs duties for six months, 
which may be extended for another three months with approval of the Director General of 
Customs. The goods may not be accepted at the warehouses without a warehouse licence. 
Prohibited goods, explosives, inflam mable materials, and other goods, which may cause 
damage to other goods, are not permitted.  
Source:  Information compiled by the WTO Secretariat, based on informatio n provided by the authorities, 
Investment Law No. 72 /2017; and WTO document WT/TPR/S/150/Re v.1, 5 August 2005.  
3.1.3.5   Tariff preferences  
3.57.   Egypt grants tariff preferences to the European Union, EFTA, and Turkey, with which it has 
signed free trade agreements, as well as to the members of the Pan -Arab Free Trade Area, the 
Agadir Agreement, and the COMESA Free Trade Area; and under the GSTP (Section 2).  
3.58.   Under the free trade agreements signed by Egypt, some 75% to 100% of tariff lines are 
eligible for preferential tariff rates, after submitting proof of origin (Chart 3.3). Egypt grants duty -
free access to al l imports from its partners under the Pan -Arab Free Trade Area, the Agadir 
Agreement, and COMESA, with some exceptions (see below).  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 56 - 
 
  Chart 3.3 Distribution of applied MFN and preferential tariffs, 2017  
 
a The implementation period is not yet over.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.59.   Under the bilateral agreements with the European Union, EFTA, and Turkey, Egypt provides 
free trade access to most non -agricultural prod ucts. While imports of over 90% of total agricultural 
products are granted duty -free access in the case of the European Union, preferences are granted 
on a limited range of agricultural products for EFTA and Turkey. The main exceptions from 
preferences und er the agreements with EFTA and Turkey are meat products (HS  02), vegetables 
(HS 07), edible fruit and nuts (HS 08), and oil seeds (HS 12). As a result, the simple average tariff 
rates for agriculture under the agreements are only slightly lower than the a veraged applied MFN 
tariff rates, while average tariffs on non -agricultural products are less than 1%.  
3.60.   While Egypt does not apply any tariff rate quotas (TRQs) on an MFN basis, TRQs on imports 
of some agricultural products from the European Union, EFTA, an d Turkey are applied.31 
3.61.   In the case of EFTA, the authorities indicated that due to the sensitivity of the agricultural 
sector and the differences in agricultural policies applied in both parties, it was agreed that certain 
TRQs would be established for both  Egyptian and EFTA exports  upon the entry into force of the 
agreement in 2007. Products subject to these TRQs enjoy tariff preferences only within the 
specified quota. The out -of-quota rate is the MFN tariff. The products for which Egypt has TRQs for 
impor ts from EFTA include: milk products (HS 0402), cheese and curd (HS 0406), and sunflower 
seed oil (HS  1512). EFTA States grant Egypt TRQs on certain Egyptian fruit and vegetable crops, 
such as: tomatoes (HS 0702), onions (HS 0703), cabbages (HS 0704), lettu ce (HS 0705), 
cucumbers (HS  0707), and leguminous vegetables (HS 0708).  
3.62.   Table 3.10 shows the products that are subject to TRQs by Egypt in the FTA with Turkey.  
                                                
31 WTO documents WT/REG177/3, 26 June 2012; WT/REG232/1/Rev.1, 16 December 2008; and 
WT/COMTD/RTA/1/1/Rev.1, 24 October 2008.  
01,0002,0003,0004,0005,0006,0007,0008,0009,000
MFN Aghadir Pan Arab
FTACOMESA Ethiopia
under
COMESAEritrea and
Uganda
under
COMESAEFTA EU Turkey GSTPChart 3.3 Breakdown of applied MFN and preferential tariffs, 2017
(Number of tariff lines)
WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. Source:Implementation period is not yet over. aa a aMFN duty -free
Dutiable lines (no preferential rate)Duty-free
Reduced ratePreferential tariff 
ratesWT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 3.10 TRQs under the Agreement with Turkey  
Product HS code  Product description  Tariff 
reduction %  TRQs/tonnes  
0802.21, 0802.22  Filberts (in shells or shelled)  100 2,000  
0804.20  Figs 100 500 
0809.20  Cherries  100 500 
0813.10  Apricots  100 500 
1507.90.91  Soya-bean oil and its fractions, semi-refined  100 10,000  
1512.11  Crude oil of sunflower -seed or safflower  100 20,000  
1512.19.91  Sunflower seed oil, semi -refined    
1515.21  Crude maize oil  100 10,000  
1517 Margarine  100 1,000  
1704 Sugar confectionery (including white chocolate), 
not containing cocoa  15 2,000  
1806 Chocolate and other food preparations containing 
cocoa  15 1,000  
1902 Pasta, whether or not cooked or stuffed (with 
meat or other substances) or otherwise prepared  15 1,000  
1905 Bread, pastry, cakes, biscuits and other bakers' 
wares  15 1,000  
2001.10  Cucumbers and gherkins  15 1,000  
2008 Fruit, nuts and other edible parts of plants, 
otherwise prepared or preserved  15 500 
2009 Fruit juices (including grape must) and vegetable 
juices, unfermented and not containing added 
spirit 15 500 
210210  Active yeasts  15 3,000  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
3.63.   With respect to COMESA non -FTA members (i.e. Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Uganda), imports 
from Eritrea and Uganda benefit from an 80% reduction on the MFN tariff rate, while only a 10% 
reduction on the MFN tariff rate is accorded to imports from Ethiopia. Accordingly, the simple 
average tariff rate for Ethiopia is 17.2%, which is much higher than the rate for Eritrea and 
Uganda (3. 8%) (Table 3.11). Egypt does not g rant any tariff reductions to Swaziland or the 
Democratic Republic of Congo, on a reciprocal basis.  
3.64.   The overall impact of the tariff increases Egypt has implemented since 2013 is largely 
minimized for suppliers from countries that have engaged in FTAs with  Egypt. As opposed to an 
applied MFN rate of 19.1%, or 12.3% if alcoholic beverages are excluded, in 2017 imports from 
the regional trade groups (except from COMESA non -FTA members) enjoy duty -free access for all 
products. Imports from the European Union, EFTA, and Turkey face average tariffs below 10%, or 
2% if alcoholic beverages are excluded (Table 3.11).  
Table 3.11 Tariffs under preferential agreements, 2017  
 Simple average tariffs (%)a Duty -free lines (%)b 
Total  WTO 
Agriculture  WTO non -
agriculture  Total  WTO 
Agriculture  WTO non -
agriculture  
MFN 19.1 (12.3)  51.6 (11.0)  13.0 (12.5)  11.1 15.8 10.2 
Pan-Arab FTA  0 0 0 100 100 100 
Agadir 
agreement  0 0 0 100 100 100 
COMESA        
  All 0 0 0 100 100 100 
  Ethiopia  17.2 (11.1)  46.5 (9.9)  11.7 (11.3)  11.1 15.8 10.2 
  Eritrea and 
Uganda  3.8 (2.5)  10.3 (2.2)  2.6 (2.5)  11.1 15.8 10.2 
EFTAc 8.8 (2.0)  51.6 (10.9)  0.8 (0.3)  84.9 16.7 97.9 
EUc 7.0 (0.3)  41.9 (1.0)  0.5 (0.2)  97.5 90.7 98.7 
Turkeyc 8.7 (1.9)  49.9 (9.3)  1.0 (0.5)  83.8 16.8 96.5 
GSTP  19.0 (12.3)  51.6 (11.0)  12.9 (12.5)  11.1 15.8 10.2 
Note:  The tariff schedules are based on the HS12 nomenclature, consistin g of 7,850 tariff lines at the 
10-digit level.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  a Figures in parentheses indicate simple average tariffs excluding alcoholic beverages.  
b Duty-free lines (MFN and preferential tariff rates = 0%) as a percentage of total tariff lines.  
c Implementation has not been completed yet.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.1.3.6   Other charges affecting imports  
3.65.   A Value -Added Tax (VAT) was introduced by Law No. 67/2016 to replace the General Sales 
Tax (GST) governed by Law No. 11/1991. The general VAT rate was set at 13% for the fiscal year 
ending on 30 June 2017 an d it was increased to 14% on 1 July 2017. Machinery and equipment 
used in producing taxable or non -taxable goods or services are subject to a 5% VAT rate; exported 
goods are exempted, while services are generally zero -rated. Essential commodities, such as basic 
foods, are exempted from the tax, as are newsprint, papers and magazines, and some services. 
The VAT applies equally to imported and domestic goods and VAT registration is obligatory for all 
persons or legal entities selling goods or services with gr oss sales equal or higher than LE 500,000 
in the 12  months preceding the date of enactment of the law.  
3.66.   Egypt also applies excise taxes, which were introduced in 2010, on some products 
(Table  3.12). While certain goods and services are subject to schedule ( excise) tax only, a number 
of goods and services are subject to the excise tax in addition to the general VAT rate 
(Table  3.13).  
Table 3.12 Goods and services subject to excise tax only, 2017  
Goods and services subject to excise tax only  Excise tax rate  
Gas LE 0.03 -0.2 per litre  
Kerosene  LE 0.36 per litre  
Animal or vegetable fats and oils (hydrogenated or frozen)  0.5%  
Cooking oil  0.5%  
Air conditioned transportation between governorates by bus and 
railways  5% 
Chips  5% 
Construction and building works  5% 
Crisps and products made of flour (excluding bread)  5% 
Fertilizers and agriculture pesticide  5% 
Gypsum  5% 
Media production  5% 
Soap and detergents for household use  5% 
Consultancy and professional services (excluding vocational services)  10% 
Tobacco and cigarettes  50-200%  
Source:  Egyptian Sales Tax Department.  
Table 3.13 Goods and services subject to VAT and excise tax, 2017  
Goods and services  Excise tax rate  
Passenger cars, with engines of less than 1 ,600 CC  1% 
Air conditioners  8% 
Mobile telecommunication services  8% 
Perfumes and cosmetics  8% 
Soft drink and non -alcohol beers  8% 
TV (32 inches), refrigerators (16 feet), freezers  8% 
Golf cars  10% 
Local passenger cars above 2 ,000 CC  15% 
Passenger cars, with engines of up to 2 ,000 CC  15% 
Imported passenger cars above 2 ,000 CC  30% 
Beer (alcohol)  200%  
Source:  Egyptian Sales Tax Department.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.1.4   Import prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing  
3.67.   Egypt has not submitted any notifications with respect to its import licensing regime to the 
WTO. The authorities indicated that import prohibitions and restrictions are maintained for 
economic, environmental, health, religious, safety, sanitary,  and phytosanitary reasons.  
3.68.   As a general rule, prohibitions and restrictions are maintained according to the Import and 
Export Law No. 118/1975, as well as the Executive Regulations of the Import and Export Law, 
Ministerial Decree No. 770/2005 and its ame ndments. They are applied equally to all trading 
partners. Ministerial Decree No. 902/2015 modified Law No.  118/1975 to specify that inputs 
imported for certain specific purposes may not be used for other purposes without approval of the 
Minister of Foreig n Trade.  
3.69.   As established by Annex 1 to Decree No. 770/2005, import prohibitions apply to: chicken 
offal and limbs32, fowl livers, goods bearing marks considered sensitive to religious beliefs, and 
various hazardous chemicals and pesticides. In addition, the two-stroke motor bicycle engines, 
toys in the form of pistols or rifles, bracelets listed as organizing body energy, and some 
incandescent bulbs and laser pens are subject to import prohibitions (Table 3.14).  
Table 3.14 List of goods subject to import prohibitions according to Annex 1 to Decree 
770/2005 and amendments  
Description  
Goods bearing marks considered sensitive to  religious beliefs  
Poultry offal and limbs  
Livers of birds and poultry  
Two-stroke motor bicycles not equipped with oil injection pumps (Ministerial Decree 23/2008 issued on 
10/1/2008)  
Two-stroke motor bicycle engines, all its types and sizes (Ministerial Decree No. 923/2016 issued on 
5/10/2016)  
All kinds of asbestos material  
Brake pads made of asbestos  
Tuna, containing genetically treated oils  
Pesticides and chemicals imported  as pesticides or for use as inputs for processing  or manufacturing the 
specified pesticides (Ministerial Decree No. 760/2009 issued on 14/9/2009)  
Toys in the form of pistols or rifles, used  with projectiles of solid objects such as beads or arrows  (Ministerial 
Decree No. 1050/2009 issued on 30/12/2009)  
Incandescent bulbs that light up blazingly  of more than 40 watts, working directly by connecting them to a 
source of feed with AC voltage of between 100 and 250 volts (HS 8539.2290, 8539.29) (Ministerial Decree 
No. 2/2014 issued on 5/1/2014)  
Power rings  "GMI Quantum Pendant " and similar bracelets or pendants or other items listed as organizing body 
energy, r emoving muscle and joint pain, helping sleep, or protecting humans from mobile phones waves 
(Ministerial Decree No. 873/2013 issued on 17/12/2013)  
Laser pens with power exceeding 5 milliwatts  that work by internal source of energy (Ministerial Decree 
No. 530/2015 issued on 15/7/2015) (importation suspended).  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities . 
3.70.   Apart from the prohibitions contained in Annex 1 to Decree No. 770/2005, Law No.  4/1994 
prohibits the importation of hazardous wastes. Furthermore, pur suant to Article 46 of the 
Telecommunications Law, imports of used telecommunications materials for trading purposes are 
prohibited. Ministerial Decree No. 232/2015 suspended the importation of products of Egyptian 
folk-art nature, especially drawings with  lines and colours, and carvings or engravings, sculptures, 
porcelain and clay, products made of wood or with other different formulations, mosaics, jewellery, 
handmade bags with needle work, carpets, garments and textiles, musical instruments, and 
archite ctural forms. Additionally, products of Egyptian folk art and fabrics with camouflage prints 
are not allowed to be cleared from customs in accordance with Ministerial Decree No.  151/2015. 
Egypt bans the importation of most used automobiles: pursuant to Dec ree No.  580/1998 and 
Annex 2 to Decree No. 770/2005, automobiles can be imported only during the year of their 
manufacture, except for some vehicles with special features subject to prior approval by the 
Minister of Trade after obtaining the opinion of the  Minister of Interior Affairs. Since 2004 and 
                                                
32 The authorities indicated that this prohibition is for religious reasons, as it cannot be guaranteed that 
chicken offal and lim bs have been obtained from chicken slaughtered according to Islamic Sharia.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  pursuant to Ministerial Decree No. 161/2004, textile and clothing products are not subject to any 
import prohibitions.  
3.71.   The Ministry of Health prohibits the importation of natural products, vitamins, and food 
supplements in their finished form. The legal basis for this prohibition is the decision taken by the 
Technical Committee of the Drug Control Commission on 19 February 2009. However, these items 
may be marketed in Egypt through local manufacture under licen ce, or by sending ingredients and 
premixes to a local pharmaceutical firm to be prepared and packed in accordance with Ministry of 
Health specifications. Until recently, only local factories were allowed to produce food supplements, 
and to import raw mater ials used in the manufacturing process. However, Egypt is currently 
allowing importation of certain food supplements as bulk -type registered products that are 
subsequently packed in Egypt according to market needs.  
3.72.   The importation of certain products is su bject to specific administrative formalities. In 
accordance with Prime Minister Decree No. 2992/2016 and Ministerial Decree No. 24/2017, some 
agricultural commodities including wheat grains, corn used for the feed industry, and soya bean 
seeds for oil extr action, are allowed to be imported only upon approval from the GOEIC, unless the 
commodities are imported by governmental bodies (see below). Permits from the National 
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority are required for the import of telecommunication s 
equipment, in accordance with the Telecommunications Regulation Law No. 10/2003.  
3.73.   Annex 2 to Decree No. 770/2005 contains a list of the goods that are allowed to be 
imported used and the conditions under which they can be imported (Table 3.15). These incl ude 
machines, equipment and sport gear, certain equipment and means of transportation, computers, 
and containers, among others. Importation of some of these products is contingent upon meeting 
certain conditions.  
Table 3.15 Products allowed to be imported as used goods, and conditions for 
importation (Annex 2 to Decree No. 770/2005)  
Item  Established conditions  
Production lines, machines, 
apparatuses, equipment and 
their spare parts  1. Household appliances and their spare parts are excluded.  
2. Computer sets and their accessories shall not have production dates 
exceeding 10 years.  
3. The approval of the competent authority at the Ministry of Health is 
mandatory with regard to apparatuses, machines  and equipment used for 
medical purposes including patients' beds.  
4. Ozone -depleting substances shall not be used in manufacturing the above 
mentioned items.  
5. Does not include refrigerators for display. The authorities have noted that 
this exclusion is  for hygiene purposes, and for reasons related to the 
protection of the public health.  
Equipment and means of 
transport and their spare 
parts (except for motorcycles ) 
 1. Spare parts allowed to be imported are limited to: fenders, doors, engines, 
gearboxes and body parts (other than the chassis), dampers, differentials, 
rims, dashboards and springs.  
2. Vehicles for special use not exceeding five  years plus the year of 
production until the shipping or ownership date, except for cars not to be 
operat ed on public roads and those equipped with hydraulic cranes seated on 
a movable base and others equipped with concrete pumps.  
3. (a) Vehicles carrying persons and others carrying goods with a maximum 
weight of less than 9 tonnes; they shall not have their production dating back 
to more than one year, plus the year of production, starting from the 
shipping or ownership date;  
    (b) Vehicles carrying goods with a weight of 9 tonnes or more; their 
production date should not exceed 5 years plus the year of pro duction, 
starting from the shipping or ownership date.  
    (c) In both cases, except for vehicles not designed for use on public roads.  
4. Road tractors for semi -trucks shall not have a production date of more 
than seven years plus the year of production  except for those not designed 
for public roads.  
5. Vehicles, cars and trucks shall meet the production date requirement at 
the time of purchase or ownership concerning import for personal use and 
import by companies or agencies operating overseas.  
6. Appr oval of the Civil Aviation Authority for aircrafts and their spare parts.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Item  Established conditions  
7. Approval of the Ministry of Transportation for ships and fishing boats 
verifying validity for operation before release.  
8. Approval of the Ministries of Tourism and Maritime Trans port for vessels 
and cruisers.  
9. Passenger ships shall meet the rules stipulated in the agreements to which 
Egypt is party.  
Machines, equipment and 
sport gear  
Containers   
Weapons  Approval of the Ministry of the Interior.  
Aircraft tyres and inner tubes  They shall be purchased from the Egyptian Airport Authority (EAA). However, 
the EAA is not the sole importer of aircraft tyres and inner tubes.  
Waste and metal  scrap 
including used railway tracks  Must not include used car spare parts.  
Railway tracks shall be scrapped prior to customs clearance. They must be 
accompanied by an official certificate issued by governmental agencies or 
auditing companies in the exporting country stating that the consignments 
are free of explosives or hazardou s materials.  
Waste, parings and scrap of 
artificial plastics  Approval of the Head of Environment Affairs Agency.  
Ordinary and empty packs 
and leftovers from the 
activities of projects 
established in free zones  Approval of the Head of Executive Council of  the General Investment 
Authority.  
 
Scratch paper, paper used for 
newspapers and magazines, 
returned stuff and used books  Approval of the competent authority at the Ministry of Information.  
Used or new rags, scrap 
twine, cordage, ropes and 
cables and worn out articles 
of twine, cordage, ropes or 
cables made of textile  1. Must be used upon the approval of the Industrial Control Authority.  
2. Imported on account of licensed factories.  
3. Subject to the inspection of the GOEIC by recruiting technicians from the 
Industrial Control Authority.  
4. The GOEIC shall be informed of released items to follow up their operation.  
Art collections, masterpieces 
and antiques  Approval of the competent  authority at the Ministry of Culture.  
Metal and wooden pillars 
(supports) and scaffolds, 
steel structures, tools and 
equipment  Must be imported by Egyptian companies and agencies implementing projects 
overseas . 
Packs of ink (cartridge) for 
printers, renewed or refilled   
Source:  Annex 2 of the Executive Regulations to Implement Import and Export Law 118/1975, as amended.  
3.74.   Annex 3 to Decree No. 770/2005 contains the list of goods than can be imported under 
special conditions. They include passenger cars  and parts, apparel, some fabrics, carpets, shoes, 
some consumer goods and some petroleum products. The importation of these goods is subject to 
meeting the specific requirements determined in each case (Table 3.16).  
Table 3.16 Goods imported with special conditions in accordance with Annex 3 to Decree 
No. 770/2005  
Item  Conditions  
Passenger cars (Ministerial Decree 
416/2014 issued on 25 May 2014 ) 
 1. To be shipped or to open a credit for its importa tion during its year 
of production; cars must not have been used before, except for cars 
that have special features and approved by the Minister of Foreign 
Trade, after obtaining  the opinion of the Minister of Interior Affairs  
(Ministerial Decree 416/2014) . 
 
2. Clearance documents of imported items must certify that the types 
and models included are suitable for hot climates  or designed for Egypt 
and Middle East or Gulf countries, or attach a certificate from the 
producing company verifying conformity to st andards for their use in 
hot climates , or their designation to Egypt and Middle East or Gulf 
countries.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Item  Conditions  
Shoes, leather bags, apparel, ready -
made garments, home textiles, 
carpets and floor coverings (goods 
included in section 1  of Ministerial 
Decree No. 961/2012 )a 
Natural leather, artificial leather, 
footwear parts, textiles and dyed 
and coloured yarns (goods included 
in section 2 of Ministerial Decree 
No. 961/2012 ) Imports must be shipped from the country of origin or from the 
headquarters of the produci ng company or its branches or distribution 
centres  owned or certified by them or from companies holding 
trademarks or trade names.  
2. In the case of textiles, the name of the producer, country of origin, 
fabric type, percent of blend and name of the import er must be printed 
at equal intervals of the fabric, except for these varieties: a)  goods 
classified in HS chapter 58; b) synthetic mink; c) thick and blackout 
curtains; d) cases approved by the Appeals Committee.  
3. Except for imports for private and pers onal use, clearance of 
shipments of shoes, leather bags, apparel and ready -made garments, 
home textiles, carpets, and floor coverings are subject to the following 
alternatives:  
Alternative 1: The producer must be registered in the GOEIC. 
Producers may regi ster in the GOEIC provided they maintain a quality 
control system regarding their products or their licensed production, 
and production is carried out according to one of the approved 
standards of the Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality 
Control (EOS).  
Alternative 2: The shipment is accompanied by an inspection and 
review certificate containing the shipment's data and the required 
inspection and testing results stipulating its conformity with the 
relevant accredited Egyptian standards. This  certificate should be 
issued by inspection companies accredited by an ILAC accredited body.  
Alternative 3: The inspection and review certificate can also be issued 
by an Egyptian or foreign agency which has been approved by the 
Minister of Foreign Trade a nd possesses accredited and specialized 
laboratories to conduct the tests required for each product.  
Shipments are subject to random inspection by the GOEIC.  
4. In the case of products included in section 2, that is, intermediate 
products (natural leather,  artificial leather, footwear parts, textiles and 
dyed and coloured yarns), except for imports for private and personal 
use, clearance is conditioned upon the fulfilment of the control 
requirements set out in Ministerial Decree No.  770/2005 and its 
amendme nts (section 3.4.2.3), after the payment of the relevant 
testing fees.  
- Car parts and spare parts except 
for body parts  
- Consumer commodities made of 
plastic or wood or porcelain, glass or 
metal  
-Machines and apparatuses for 
household use  
- Eyeglasses and watches  Imports must be:  
1- Shipped from the country of origin or from the headquarters of 
producing companies or their branches or distribution centres  owned or 
certified by them or from companies holding trademarks or trade 
names. Companies holding trademarks or trade names should be 
treated as producing companies.  
2- Concerning porcelain tableware and ornaments, their origin and the 
name of factory must be shown on each item.  
Petroleum products: butane, 
benzene, jet fuel, gasoline, diesel 
fuel, lubricants except for synthetic 
oils Approval of the Egyptian General Organization for Petroleum.  
Apparatus, equipment and aerosol 
products except for products used 
for medical purposes  Ozone -depleting substances shall not be used in the manufacturing of 
those items (e.g. Freon, CFC11 -12113 -114, foam, Methyl Bromide).  
Fire extinguishers and fire 
extinguishing equipment  with all 
their parts and components  Imported under the conditions set in Ministerial Decree No.  820/2013. 
Except for imports for private a nd personal use, clearance of shipments 
is conditioned  upon the fulfilment of the control requirements set out in 
section 2 of Ministerial Decree No. 770/2005 and its amendments after 
the payment of the relevant testing fees.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Item  Conditions  
-Milk and milk products for retail sale  
- Preserved and dried fruits (retail 
sale) 
- Oils and fats for retail sale  
- Chocolates and products containing 
cocoa for retail sale  
- Sugar confectionaries  
- Pastas and prepared foods from 
cereals and bread produc ts and 
pastries  
- Fruit juices for retail sale  
- Natural and mineral and aerated 
water  
- Beauty and make -up products, 
preparations for oral or dental 
hygiene, deodorants and 
antiperspirants, and perfumed 
preparations  
- Soap and washing preparations  
- Floor coverings  
- Cutlery and kitchen utensils  
- Baths, shower baths, sinks, 
washbasins, bidets, lavatory pans, 
seats and covers  
- Toilet paper  and similar paper, 
babies'  and sanitary napkins  
- Refractory bricks, blocks, tiles for 
household use  
- Tableware gla ss articles  
- Iron and steel bars and rods  
- Stoves, fryers, air conditioners, 
fans, washing machines, blenders 
and heaters.  
- Home and office  furniture  
- Bicycles, motorcycles  
- Watches and clocks  
-Lightening equipment, household 
use 
- Toys In accordance  with Ministerial Decree 991/2015,b the clearance of 
shipments of imports of the above -mentioned products except for 
imports for private and personal use, is subject to the following 
alternatives:  
 
Alternative 1: The producer must be registered in the GOEI C. 
Producers may register in the GOEIC provided they maintain a quality 
control system regarding their products or their licensed production, 
and production is carried out according to one of the approved 
standards of the Egyptian Organization for Standard ization and Quality 
Control (EOS).  
 
Alternative 2: The shipment is accompanied by an inspection and 
review certificate containing the shipment's data and the required 
inspection and testing results stipulating its conformity with the 
relevant accredited Eg yptian standards. This certificate should be 
issued by inspection companies accredited by an ILAC accredited body.  
 
Alternative 3: The inspection and review certificate can be issued by an 
Egyptian or foreign agency which has been approved by the Minister of 
Foreign Trade and possesses accredited and specialized laboratories to 
conduct the tests required for each product.  
Shipments are subject to random inspection by the GOEIC.  
Items from HS codes 85.01, 
8504.10, 8516.90, 85.35, 85.36, 
85.39, 85.44  Conditions for importation set by Ministerial Decree No. 558/2014  
Motorcycles , three -wheelers "tuk -
tuks" and their chassis  Conditions for importation set by Ministerial Decree No. 417/2014.  
Products falling under the provisions 
of the UNECE 1958 Agreemen t 
concerning the adoption of uniform 
technical prescriptions for wheeled 
vehicles, equipment and parts which 
can be fitted and/or be used on 
wheeled vehicles  Ministerial Decree No. 540/2014 sets the conditions for importation . 
a Notified to the WTO in document G/TBT/N/EGY/29/Rev.1, 21 February 2013.  
b Notified to the WTO in document G/TBT/N/EGY/115, 1 February 2016.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities and Decree 770/2005 and amendments.  
3.75.   Annex 8 of the Regulations conta ins the list of products subject to quality control when 
imported and the inspection fees imposed on them (Section 3.4.2.3 and Table A3.3). The controls 
are performed by the GOEIC. During the period under review, Annex 8 was amended by Ministerial 
Decree N o. 169/2009 to add a list of products and change the inspection fees for a number of 
products already included in Annex 8. Ministerial Decrees No. 305/2010, No. 784/2010, 
No. 219/2012 and No. 818/2015 also added new HS codes to the list of products subject  to GOEIC 
inspection. Inspection fees are not significant; Table 3.17 contains examples of them.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 3.17 Main categories of products subject to inspection fees  
HS Customs Code  Commodity  Inspection fees  
25.23  Cement  LE 1 per ton of the consignment  
36.05  Matches  PT 1 per kilo  
Heading under 
section 11  Textiles and fabrics; carpets, rugs and 
tapestries; apparel; blankets and towels, 
curtains; bed linen and covers (except for 
imports for medical purposes); raw fabrics, raw 
yarn, dyes and colours used in textiles  LE 5 for each ton of the 
consignment  
Chapter 63  Footwear and components  (a) PT 25 for each gram of 
complete shoes;  
(b) PT 1 for each gram of shoe 
component.  
PT: Piastre; 100 piastres make one LE.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
3.76.   Other changes introduced to import licensing le gislation during the review period include 
those contained in Prime Minister Decree No. 2992/2016 Organizing Imports of Strategic 
Agricultural Commodities, which set import permit requirements for these products. The strategic 
agricultural commodities cove red by this decree are: wheat grains; corn used for the feed 
industry; and soya bean seeds. Ministerial Decree No. 24/2017 contains the regulations of Decree 
No. 2992/2016 and the procedures required for importing strategic agricultural commodities. 
Under the Decree, the importation of these commodities is prohibited without written approval 
from the GOEIC; this does not apply to commodities imported by governmental bodies. To obtain 
this approval, the goods must be subject to inspection prior to shipment b y international 
surveillance and inspection companies registered at the GOEIC after obtaining accreditation from 
the Egyptian Accreditation Council (EGAC); currently there are 10 such companies. The above 
inspection does not necessarily replace inspections  carried out by the GOEIC upon arrival in Egypt. 
The importer must bear all the expenses.  
3.77.   In accordance with Ministerial Decree No. 43/2016, imports for commercial purposes of a 
number of products will be allowed into Egypt only if they are produced by man ufacturing plants or 
imported from the companies owning the trademarks or their distribution centres registered in the 
relevant established Register in the GOEIC.33 Registration in, or striking off from this Register is 
                                                
33 The products covered are: milk and milk products ( except for infants' milk) for retail sale in packages 
weighing no more than 2 kilograms  (HS from 04.01 to 04.06); preserved and dried fruits for retail sale in 
packages weighing no more than 2 kilograms  (products of HS chapter 08); oils and fats for retail  sale in 
packages weighing no more than 5 kilograms  (products of HS chapter 15); chocolates and food products 
containing cocoa for retail sale in packages weighing no more than 2 kilograms (products of HS 18.06); sugar 
confectionaries (HS 17.04); pastas an d prepared foods from cereals and bread products and pastries except for 
empty cachets of a kind suitable for pharmaceutical use (HS 19.02, 19.04 and 19.05); fruit juices for retail sale 
in packages weighing less than 10 kilograms (products of HS 20.09); n atural and mineral water and aerated 
water (HS 22.01 and 22.02); beauty and make -up products, preparations for oral or dental hygiene, personal 
deodorants and antiperspirants  and perfumed preparations (HS codes from 33.03 to 33.07); soap and washing 
prepar ations used as soap for retail sale (HS 3401.11, 3401.19, 3401.2090, 3401.30, 3402.20 and 
3402.9090); cutlery and kitchen utensils (HS codes 39.24, 44.19, 69.11, 69.12, 73.23, 7418.10, 7615.10, 
8211.10, 8211.91 and 82.15); baths, shower baths, sinks, washb asins, bidets, lavatory pans, seats and 
covers; toilet paper and similar paper, babies ' and sanitary napkins (HS 96. 19, 48.18 (except for 4818.1090  
and 4803); refractory bricks, blocks, tiles for household use (HS 6802.10, 6802.2110, 6802.9110, 6904.40, 
6810.19, 69.07 and 69.08); tableware glass articles (HS 70.13); iron and steel bars and rods (HS codes 72.13, 
72.14 and 72.15); household electrical appliances (stoves, fryers, air conditioners, fans, washing machines, 
blenders and heaters) (products of HS codes 73.21, 73.22, 8414.51, 8415.10, 8415.81, 8415.82, 8415.83, 
8418.10, 8418.21, 8418.29, 8418.30, 8418.40, 8422.11, 8450.11, 8450.12, 8450.19, 84 51.21, 8508.11, 
8509.40, 8509.80, 8516.10, 8516.21, 8516.32, 8516.40, 8516.50, 8516.60, 8516.71, 8516.72, 8516.79, 
8527.12, 8527.13, 8527.19, 8527.91, 8527.92, 8527.99, 8528.71, 8528.7220, 8528.7290, 8528.73); home 
and office furniture (HS 9401.30, 9401.40 , 9401.51, 9401.59, 9401.61, 9401.69, 9401.7190, 9401.79, 
9401.8090, 94.03 and 94.04); bicycles, motorcycles and those with auxiliary motors (HS 87.11, 8712); 
watches and clocks (products of HS chapter 91); lightening equipment for household use (HS 9405.1 0, 
9405.20, 9405.30 and 9405.4090); toys (HS 9503); textiles, clothing, and home textiles (HS 50.07, 51.11, 
51.12, 5113, 52.08, 52.09, 52.10, 52.11, 52.12, 53.09, 5311, 54.07, 54.08, 55.12, 55.13, 55.14, 55.15, 
55.16, 58.01, 58.02, 58.04, 58.05, 58.09, 581 0.1090, 5810.91, 5810.92, 5810.99, Chapter 60, Chapter 61 
(except 6113.0010, 6114.3010, 6115.10 and 6116.1010), Chapter 62 (except 6210.1010, 6210.2010, 
6210.3010, 6210.4010, 6210.5010, 6211.3910, 6211.4910, 6212.2010, 6212.9010, 6216.0010, 62.17), WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  decreed by the Minister of Foreign Tr ade who also has the authority to allow for an exemption from 
some or all the requirements for registration. To register in the relevant registry in the GOEIC, 
manufacturing plants must produce evidence of the trademarks and the trademarked products 
produc ed under licence from the trademark owners. They must also certify that the producer 
maintains a quality control system. The certificate must be issued by entities accredited by ILAC or 
the International Accreditation Forum (IAF) or an Egyptian or foreign governmental entity 
approved by the Minister of Foreign Trade. In the case of companies owning trademarks, 
registration requires a certificate stating the registration of the trademark and the trademarked 
goods produced, as well as a certificate from the t rademark owning company containing the 
distribution centres that are entitled to supply the products bearing the trademark. Likewise, a 
certificate that the trademark owning company maintains a quality control system issued by 
entities accredited by ILAC o r IAF or an Egyptian or foreign governmental entity approved by the 
Minister of Foreign Trade must be produced.34 
3.1.5   Anti-dumping, countervailing, and safeguard measures  
3.1.5.1   Legal and institutional framework  
3.78.   Law No. 161/1998 on the Protection of the National Econo my from the Effects of Injurious 
Practices in International Trade, along with its Executive Regulations (last amended in 2008), 
establish the procedures to be followed in anti -dumping, countervailing or safeguard 
investigations. All complaints must be made  in writing to the Central Department of International 
Trade Policies, in the Ministry of Trade and Industry. The request for an investigation must be 
registered on behalf of the domestic industry by interest groups such as industry associations, or 
by the  Ministries of Agriculture or Trade and Industry. Investigations are only to be considered if 
the application is supported by domestic producers whose collective output accounts for at least 
25% of total output of the domestic industry concerned.  
3.79.   Once the request is accepted, the Central Department conducts the respective investigation 
and submits a preliminary report to an Inter -Ministerial Advisory Committee, with its 
recommendations. According to the authorities, there is no statutory time frame for the 
submission of the preliminary report. The Advisory Committee takes a decision based on these 
recommendations and on what it considers to be the interests of Egypt; it must present its 
recommendations to the Minister of Trade and Industry within ten days of  receiving the Central 
Department's report. The Minister may accept or reject the recommendations made by the 
Advisory Committee.  
3.80.   The authorities have noted that Egypt has supported the negotiation on rules (anti -
dumping, subsidy, fisheries subsidies and r egional trade agreements) supervised by the 
Negotiating Group on Rules in light of Paragraph 28 of the Doha Declaration. Egypt submitted 
several communications to the Negotiating Group on Rules.35 Egypt's sees a need to enhance the 
current disciplines, preserve the workability and effectiveness of anti -dumping and countervailing 
measures, and simplify and clarify certain provisions considering the needs of developing 
countries. For example, Egypt c onsiders that clearer rules should be established in relation to the 
determination of injury, threat of injury, material retardation, conversion of currencies and special 
and differential treatment for developing countries.  
3.81.   The authorities have also indic ated that Egypt, at the same time, has rejected proposals 
that impose additional requirements for the conduct of anti -dumping and countervailing measures 
and therefore impose burdens on the investigating authority. In particular, Egypt considers that 
any p roposal to substantially alter the WTO Anti -Dumping Agreement, through the use of more 
complex and stringent rules, will not prevent the misuse of the Agreement, and that the 
introduction of new rules to the Agreement would be counterproductive. However, a dequate 
disciplines should be provided to protect developing country firms from unnecessary 
investigations, particularly as these firms are generally small or medium -sized.  
                                                                                                                                                  
Chapter  63 (except for 63.07); carpets, floor and wall coverings from textiles or non -textiles materials (HS 
chapter 57, HS 39.18, 4016.91); and footwear (HS codes 64.01, 64.02, 64.03, 64.04, 64.05).  
34 Notified to the WTO in WTO document G/TBT/N/EGY/114, 1 Februa ry 2016.  
35 Since Egypt's last TPR in July 2005: WTO documents TN/RL/GEN/118 -121, all 21 April 2006; 
TN/RL/GEN/122, 26 April 2006; TN/RL/GEN/136, 16 May 2006; TN/RL/GEN/139 -140, 6 June 2006; 
TN/RL/GEN/152, 5 October 2007.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.82.   With respect to the proposals and discussions presented during the negotiations on fisheries 
subsidies, the authorities have stated that Egypt believes that it is important to clarify technical 
issues first taking into consideration that there is no consensus regarding such issues. It has also 
requested technical assistance for developin g countries to meet any future WTO fisheries subsidies 
obligations.36 
3.1.5.2   Anti-dumping and countervailing measures  
3.83.   After a preliminary determination of dumping/subsidy and material injury, or threat thereof, 
is made, provisional anti -dumping or countervailing m easures, not greater than the margin of 
dumping or the subsidy rate, may be applied. The measures may be initiated 60 days after the 
date of initiation of the investigation and may be applied for a period of up to four months. This 
period may be extended t o six months, on a case -by-case basis, depending on the need for 
extension. In the case of anti -dumping measures, if there is a possibility that a duty lower than the 
margin of dumping would be sufficient to remove injury, provisional measures may be appli ed for 
a six-month period, extendable to nine months, provided that the lower duty is applied.  
3.84.   After a final determination is made, final measures may be taken for a period not exceeding 
five years from the date of their publication. There are sunset revie w clauses: the investigating 
authority is mandated to carry out a review of the measure on its initiative or upon request by a 
concerned party. The review must commence six months before the expiry of the five year period 
from the date of the imposition of  definitive duties and must be concluded within 12 months of the 
date of initiation. The investigating authority shall review whether the expiry of the duty is likely to 
lead to continuation or recurrence of dumping and injury. The duty remains in force pe nding the 
outcome of such review.  
3.85.   The Central Department, currently the Trade Remedies Sector, may recommend termination 
of an anti -dumping investigation if the volume of dumped imports from a particular country is less 
than 3% of the total of the volume o f imports of the goods subject to investigation, unless 
countries accounting individually for less than 3% of the total imports of the like product 
collectively account for more than 7% of the total imports; or if the margin of dumping is less than 
2% of t he export price. For countervailing measures, termination of the investigation is 
recommended if the amount of subsidy is less than 1% of the value of the subsidized goods, or if 
the imposition of a countervailing duty is considered to be inconsistent with  Egypt's WTO 
obligations . 
3.86.   As at 30 June 2017, Egypt had 11 definitive anti -dumping duties in force, on imports from 
five trading partners: China (5), India (2), Turkey (2), the Republic of Korea, and Pakistan. The 
products affected by the measures included : ball pens, tyres, blankets, tableware, match boxes, 
some organic compounds, wipes and coated electrodes (Table  3.18). This represents a decrease of 
50% over the previous review period, when there were 22 measures in place.  
3.87.   Despite the decline in the num ber of measures in place, the number of investigations has 
substantially increased since 2016. As at 30 June 2017, 13 new anti -dumping investigations were 
ongoing, a higher number than over the previous review period. Investigations were on: flat -rolled 
iron or steel products from Belgium (2 investigations), China (2), the European Union, and the 
Russian Federation; bars and rods of iron or steel (from China, Turkey and Ukraine); trays made 
of urea from China; polyvinyl chloride from the United States; and tableware from China and 
Malaysia .37 
3.88.   Between January 2005 and 30 June 2017, Egypt initiated 31 anti -dumping investigations, 
16 of which resulted in the imposition of definitive anti -dumping duties. Three anti -dumping 
measures were extended.  
                                                
36 WTO document TN/RL/GEN/179, 28 Ma rch 2011.  
37 WTO document G/ADP/N/300/EG, 20 July 2017.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 3.18 Definitive anti -dumping measures in force, as at 30 June 2017  
Country/  
customs territory  Product  Date of original 
imposition  Date of 
extension  Definitive duty  
China  Porcelain or ceramic 
tableware  25.02.03  23.01.14  208% (c.i.f. value), 
US$967 per ton  
 Ball point pens  22.01.07  16.10.12  US$0.0185 per pen  
 Tyres for buses and 
lorries  06.03.08  20.02.14  3.8% -60% (c.i.f. 
value)  
 Blankets (other than 
electric blankets) and 
travelling rugs of 
synthetic fibres  25.08.15   54%-77% (c.i.f. 
value), US$1.53 -1.89 
per kg  
 Coated electrodes of 
base metal, for electric 
arc welding  05.10.16   30%-41% (c.i.f. 
value), US$0.21 -0.28 
per kg  
India Tyres for buses and 
lorries  06.03.08  20.02.14  46%-59% 
(c.i.f.  value)  
 Ball point pens  21.02.13   82%, US$0.02 per 
pen 
Korea, Rep. of  Dioctylorthophthalates  29.11.16   6.2% -13.9% 
(c.i.f.  value), US$72 -
145 per tonne  
Pakistan  Match boxes  10.04.17   0% to 35% of CIF 
value  
Turkey  Wet wipes  24.01.16   72% (c.i.f.  value) , 
US$0.04 -0.31 per 
pack 
 Coated electrodes of 
base metal for electric 
arc welding  05.10.16   23%-58% 
(c.i.f.  value), 
US$0.36 -0.95 per kg  
Source:  WTO document G/ADP/N/300/EG, 20 July 2017.  
3.89.   Between 2011 and 30 June 2017, Egypt conducted, upon request of the domestic industry, 
three sunset reviews. In all three cases the duties applied were maintained. A fourth review with 
respect to ball point pens from China was initiated in early 2017 and was still ongoing at the time 
of drafting this report.38 
3.90.   No countervailing measures were adopte d by Egypt during the 2005 -2017 period. However, 
there were eight investigation initiations, six in 2014 and two in 2016. Five of the 2014 initiations 
were related to polyethylene terephthalate (PET) from China, India, Malaysia, Oman and Pakistan 
and ended  without the imposition of duties due to a lack of causal link between imports and 
injury.39 The remaining 2014 investigation initiation, concerning imports of Edam cheese from the 
Netherlands, was terminated due to lack of cooperation of the domestic indus try with the 
investigating authority.40 Two investigations initiated in 2016 with respect to steel rebar for 
construction from China and Turkey were still ongoing in late 2017.  
3.1.5.3   Safeguards  
3.91.   In accordance with Law No. 161/1998, provisional safeguard measures m ay be imposed in 
the form of tariff increases, for a maximum of 200 days. Any duties applied provisionally must be 
promptly refunded if the investigation shows that increased imports have not caused serious injury 
to the domestic industry. Definitive measu res may be imposed in the form of quantitative 
restrictions or tariff increases or both. The measures are to be imposed to the extent necessary to 
prevent or remedy the injury caused, where "to the extent necessary" is determined by the 
magnitude of the in jury, the adjustment programme proposed, and public -interest factors. Final 
measures are applied for up to four years and the period of application may be extended to up to 
10 years (inclusive of the period during which provisional measures were applied).  
3.92.   Since its last TPR in 2005, Egypt has initiated 14 safeguard investigations, imposed 
provisional measures in all of them and final safeguard measures on three products: blankets, 
                                                
38 WTO document G/ADP/N/300/EG, 20 July 2017.  
39 WTO document G/SCM/N/298/EG, 25 January 2016.  
40 WTO document G/SCM/N/289/EG, 23 July 2015.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  steel rebar, cotton and mixed yarns (Table 3.19). Although few final measure s were adopted, the 
application of provisional measures could have acted as a deterrent to trade.  
Table 3.19 Safeguard measures imposed, 2005 -June 2017  
Product  Countries 
concerned  Domestic 
legal 
instrument  Imposed duties 
(c.i.f. basis)  Notification  Situation as 
at 30  June 
2017  
Blankets made 
of synthetic 
fibres  All, except 
Saudi Arabia 
and Jordan 
where an 
annual 
quota was 
established 
for each of 
them Ministerial 
Decree 
No. 721/2008  LE 22/kg (from 
27/08/2008 until 
11/02/2009)  
LE 20/kg (from 
12/02/2009 until 
11/02/2010)  
LE 18/kg (from 
12/02/2010 until 
11/02/2011)  G/SG/N/8/EGY/5  
G/SG/N/10/EGY/5  
G/SG/N/11/EGY/1,  
22 August 2008  Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
No. 721/2008  
Cotton and 
mixed yarns 
(other than  
sewing threads)  All Ministerial 
Decree 
No. 19/2009  25% of c.i.f. value for 
a period of one year or 
not less than US$1/kg   Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
336/2009  
Woven cotton or 
mixed yarns  All Ministerial 
Decree 
No. 20/2009  25% of c.i.f. value for 
one year period or not 
less than US$1/kg   Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
336/2009  
White or refined 
sugar, except 
those imported 
as an input of 
pharmaceutical 
industries  All Ministerial 
Decree 
No. 21/2009  LE 500/tonne for 
one year  Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
659/2009  
Cold rolled or 
galvanized or 
coated steel 
sheets  All Ministerial 
Decree 
No. 124/2009  Cold rolled (10% of 
c.i.f. value in not less 
than US$150/tonne)  
Coated or covered 
with zinc (10% of c.i.f. 
value in not less than 
US$200/tonne)  
Coated or varnished or 
covered with plastics 
(10% of c.i.f. value in 
not less than 
US$250/tonne)   Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
336/2009  
Cotton and 
mixed yarns 
(other than 
sewing threads)  All Ministerial 
Decree 
736/2011  
(provisional) 
Ministerial 
Decree 
No. 589/2012 
(definitive ) 3.33 LE/ kg for 
200 days 
(provisional).  
LE 3.48 kg from 
18/7/2012 until 
30/12/2012, and 
LE 3.13/kg from 
31/12/2012 until 
30/12/2013, and 
LE 2/kg from 
31/12/2013 until 
30/12/2014.  G/SG/N/6/EGY/5,  
5 December 2011;  
 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/5/Suppl1, 
24 September  2012 
 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/4 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/4,  
9 January 2012  
 
G/SG/N/6/EGY/6 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/5 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/3,  
5 March 2012  
 
G/SG/N/8/EGY/6 
G/SG/N/10/EGY/6 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/5, 20  July 
2012 
 
G/SG/N/8/EGY/6/Corr.1 
G/SG/N/10/EGY/6/Corr .1 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/5/Corr.1,
8 August 2012  Duties expired 
on 
30/12/2014  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Product  Countries 
concerned  Domestic 
legal 
instrument  Imposed duties 
(c.i.f. basis)  Notification  Situation as 
at 30  June 
2017  
Woven cotton or 
mixed yarns  All Ministerial 
Decree 
No. 116/2012 
(provisional)  10% of c.i.f. value and 
not less than LE 
3.33/kg  G/SG/N/6/EGY/5,  
5 December 2011  
G/SG/N/7/EGY/5/Suppl.1, 
24 September  2012 
 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/4 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/2, 
9 January 2012  
 
G/SG/N/6/EGY/6 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/5 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/3, 
5 March 2012  
 
G/SG/N/8/EGY/6 
G/SG/N/10/EGY/6 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/5, 
20 July 2012 
 
G/SG/N/8/EGY/6/Corr.1 
G/SG/N/10/EGY/6/Corr.1 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/5/Corr.1, 
8 August 2012  Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
693/2012  
Polypropylene  All Ministerial 
Decree 
430/2012 
(provisional)  15% of c.i.f. value , at 
least LE 1,605/ton  G/SG/N/7/EGY/6/Suppl.1,
24 September 2012  
 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/6/Suppl.2,
7 January 2013 
 
G/SG/N/6/EGY/7 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/6 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/4, 
6 June 2012  Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
718/2012  
Steel rebars  All  Ministerial 
Decree 
944/2012 
(provisional)  6.8% of c.i.f. value , at 
least LE 299/ton  G/SG/N/6/EGY/9 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/8 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/7, 
5 December 2012  Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
784/2013  
White or refined 
sugar, except 
those imported 
as an input of 
pharmaceutical 
industries  All Ministerial 
Decree 
950/2012 
(provisional)  Refined sugar: 17% of 
c.i.f. value , at least 
LE 591/ton.  
White sugar:  20% of 
c.i.f. value , at least 
LE 713/ton.  G/SG/N/6/EGY/8 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/7 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/6, 5 
December 2012  
G/SG/N/6/EGY/8/Corr.1 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/7/Corr.1 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/6/Corr.1,
7 December 2012  Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
512/2013  
Steel rebars  All Ministerial 
Decree 
765/2014 
(provisional).  
Ministerial 
Decree 
287/2015 
(definitive).  7.3% of c.i.f. value , at 
least LE 290/ton 
(provisional).  
8%, at least LE 
408/ton from 
19/4/2015 until 
13/10/2015, and 
6.5%, at least LE 
325/ton from 
14/10/2015 until 
13/10/2016, and 
3.5% at least LE 
175/ton from 
14/10/2016 until 
13/10/2017.  G/SG/N/6/EGY/10 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/9 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/8, 
15 October 2014  
 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/8/Suppl.1, 
4 December 2013  
 
G/SG/N/8/EGY/7 
G/SG/N/10/EGY/7 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/8/Suppl.1
16 April 2015  
G/SG/N/8/EGY/7/Suppl.1  
G/SG/N/10/EGY/7/Suppl.1  
8 June 2017  Cessation of 
the measure. 
Ministerial 
Decree No. 
874, 6 June 
2017 
White sugar  All Ministerial 
Decree 
288/2015 
(provisional)  20% of c.i.f. value , at 
least 700 LE/ton.  
 G/SG/N/6/EGY/12 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/10 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/9, 
16 April 2015  
 
G/SG/N/6/EGY/12/Suppl.1 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/10/Suppl.1 
G/SG/N/11/EGY/9/Suppl.1 
22 April 2016  
 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/7/Suppl.1 
3 September 2013  
 
G/SG/N/7/EGY/7/Suppl.1/Duties 
eliminated by 
Decree 
101/2016  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Product  Countries 
concerned  Domestic 
legal 
instrument  Imposed duties 
(c.i.f. basis)  Notification  Situation as 
at 30  June 
2017  
Corr.1, 11 September 
2013 
Polyethylene 
Terephthalate  
(PET)  All Official 
Gazette , 
10 December 
2015  G/SG/N/6/EGY/13,  
14 December 2015  Terminated 
with no 
measures 
imposed.  
Official 
Gazette  No. 5, 
21 August 
2016 
Automotive 
batteries  All  Additional duty 16% 
of the CIF value and 
not less than LE 46 
per battery  G/SG/N/6/EGY/11 on 
17 December 2014.  
 
G/SG/N/9/EGY/1,  
11 December 2015  Terminated 
with no final 
measure 
imposed. 
Official 
Gazette  
No. 278 
supplement, 
8 December 
2015.  
Source:  Ministry of Trade and Industry and WTO notifications.  
3.2  Measures Directly Affecting Exports  
3.2.1   Customs procedures and requirements  
3.93.   Export customs procedures are governed by the Customs Law, as amended. The conditions 
to be fulfilled by exporters are laid down in Articles 52 to 65 of the Import and Export Regulations 
(Decree No. 770/2005). Law No. 121/1982 mandates that all persons or companies exporting 
goods from Egypt must register in the GOEIC's Exporters Register. To be included in the register, 
exporters require prior registration in the Commercial Register, a minimum capital of LE  10,000 for 
production companies and LE 25,000 for  other companies, and a clean criminal record. Public 
sector or government employees are not allowed to be registered as exporters, pursuant to 
Ministerial Decree No. 770/2005. Unlike for imports, according to Ministerial Decree No. 770/2005, 
engaging in e xport is not restricted to Egyptian nationals.  
3.94.   Applications for registration in the Exporters' Register must include information on the type 
of activity or trade, and on the articles the applicant intends to export. For natural persons, a copy 
of the ID c ard, a copy of the criminal record, and a transcript of the registration record in the 
Commercial Register must be attached to the application. Legal persons must attach a copy of the 
criminal record of every joint liability partner, and the ID card of the  director. Applicants or the 
person responsible for exportation must obtain an export practice certificate, issued from the 
Foreign Trade Training Centre  at the Ministry of Trade and Industry or from accredited centres , or 
must hold  a qualifying university  degree. A decision to register the potential exporter must be 
made within two days of submission of the application, provided that all the relevant documents 
are in order. Registration must be renewed every five years; the fee for registration is LE  80, a nd 
26,123 exporters are currently registered.  
3.95.   Certificates of origin, required by Egypt's trading partners under bilateral and regional 
agreements, may be issued by the GOEIC. Applications for a certificate of origin must be 
accompanied by copies of the in voice and the bill of lading, as well as a declaration by the exporter 
that the consignment fulfils the rules of origin of the agreement under which the consignment is 
exported. The GOEIC is bound to issue the certificate of origin within 24 hours of submi ssion of the 
complete application. The fee for the certificate ranges between LE 0.25 and LE 3.25, depending 
on the required form. The GOEIC is also responsible for verifying the authenticity of these 
certificates and the origin of the goods included there in. 
3.96.   Under the Investment Guarantees and Incentives Law (Law No. 72/2017), producers and 
exporters in free zones are exempt from all inspection and registration procedures.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.2.2   Taxes, charges, and levies  
3.97.   Egypt imposes export taxes on a number of products, inclu ding sugar, waste plastic, some 
fertilizers, fish, sand, some skins, marble, and raw granite, among others (Table 3.20). Through 
Ministerial Decree No. 469/2017, Egypt introduced an export tax of LE 3,000 per ton of sugar for 
an unlimited duration  effectiv e 30 March 2017.  According to the authorities, export taxes are 
applied in all cases to ensure a sufficient domestic supply of those products.  
Table 3.20 Exports duties imposed by Egypt, 2017  
Product  Legal basis  Time frame  Tax rate  
Fodder  Ministerial Decree 1320/2016  Applied until 22 December 2017  LE 600 per ton  
Waste plastic 
(except crushed)  Ministerial Decree 1164/2016  Applied until 29 August 2017  LE 5,000 per ton  
Sugar  Ministerial Decree 469/2017  Unlimited duration  LE 3,000 per ton  
Rags, rope, twine 
of textile materials  Ministerial Decree 1351/2016  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 8,000 per ton  
Azotic fertilizers  Ministerial Decree 1353/2016  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 125 per ton  
Aluminium scrap  Ministerial Decree 1357/2017  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 7,000 per ton  
Copper scrap  Ministerial Decree 1357/2017  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 20,000 per ton  
Iron scrap  Ministerial Decree 1354/2016  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 1,300 per ton  
Lead scrap  Ministerial Decree 1354/2016  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 6,000 per ton  
Waste paper  Ministerial Decree 612/2017  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 3,600 per ton  
Zinc scrap  Ministerial Decree 1354/2016  Applied until 26 December 2017  LE 3,000 per ton  
Blocks of talc  Ministerial Decree 145/2017  Applied until February 2018  LE 900 per ton  
Feldspar  Ministerial Decree 145/2017  Applied until 8 February 2018  LE 400 per ton  
Marble and raw 
granite  Ministerial Decree 145/2017  Applied until 8 February 2018  LE 400 per ton  
Quartz ore  Ministerial Decree 145/2017  Applied until 8 February 2018  LE 150 per ton  
Sand Ministerial Decree 145/2017  Applied until 8 February 2018  LE 100 per ton  
Talc powder  Ministerial Decree 145/2017  Applied until 8 February 2018  LE 500 per ton  
Blocks of talc and 
crushed talc  Ministerial Decree 145/2017  Applied until 8 February 2018  LE 900 per ton  
Fresh and 
refrigerated and 
frozen fish  Ministerial Decree 1106/2017  Applied until 24 August 2018  LE 12,000 per ton  
White crust leather 
pre tanned from 
bovine skin  Ministerial Decree 631/2017  Applied until 3 May 2018  LE 250/piece of skin  
White crust leather 
pre tanned from 
calf skin  Ministerial Decree 631/2017  Applied until 3 May 2018  LE 150/piece  of skin  
White crust leather 
pre tanned from 
lamb skin  Ministerial Decree 631/2017  Applied until 3 May 2018  LE 15/piece of skin  
White crust leather 
pre tanned from 
goat skin  Ministerial Decree 631/2017  Applied until 3 May 2018  LE 7.5/piece of skin  
White  crust leather 
pre tanned from 
camel skin  Ministerial Decree 631/2017  Applied until 3 May 2018  LE 150/piece of skin  
Source:  Ministry of Trade and Industry.  
3.98.   Under the Value Added Tax Law No. 67/2016, exported commodities and services are 
subject to a zero VAT rate.  
3.2.3   Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing  
3.99.   Pursuant to Article 7 of Law No. 118/1975, the exportation of certain commodities can be 
prohibited or restricted through Ministerial Decree to meet local demand and for environmental 
purposes.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.100.   Exports of rice of any kind (HS10.06), including broken rice, are banned in accordance with 
Ministerial Decree No. 722/2016 issued on 1 August 2016; this measure has unlimited validity and 
was imposed due to the lack of water resources. In addition, and in a ccordance with Ministerial 
Decree No. 304/2011 issued on 20 June 2011, Egypt banned the exportation of raw or tanned 
hides, skins or leather in their wet state including the "wet blue"; this measure has unlimited 
validity and bans exports of all kinds of r aw or tanned hides, skins or leather included in HS codes 
41.01, 41.02, 41.03, 41.04.11, 41.04.19, 41.05.10, 4106.21, 4106.31 and 4106.91. Asses' hides 
and skins are excluded from the scope of this decree in accordance with Ministerial Decree 
No. 692/2012 as amended by Ministerial Decree No. 1036/2012, which allows the exportation of 
8,000 asses' hides and skins annually, subject to prior approval of the General Organization for 
Veterinary Service in the Ministry of Agriculture. Approval is required for eac h consignment and 
within the imposed annual quota. Egypt does not impose any export licensing requirements.  
3.2.4   Export support and promotion  
3.101.   Egypt maintained export subsidies for its textiles and clothing industry from December 
2008 to June 2009. The subsidy a mounted to 8% -10% of the export value and was paid by the 
Export Development Fund. The measure was not notified to the WTO. The authorities have noted 
that Egypt currently does not grant any form of export subsidy.  
3.102.   The duty drawback scheme, applied under A rticles 102 to 106 of the Customs Law and 
Prime Minister Decree No. 1635/2002, allows a full refund of customs duties paid on imports of 
inputs and components used in the manufacture of finished products provided that the finished 
products are exported or shipped to a free zone within two years of the date of payment of the 
duties. All excise duties incurred on local inputs are also refunded. Drawback refunds have 
oscillated between 0.5% and 1% of the value of exports in the 2012 -17 period. There has been a  
declining trend in recent years (Table 3.21).  
Table 3.21 Total exports and drawback annual refunds  
(LE million and %)  
Year Total exports  Total refunds  % of exports  
2012/2013  13,743.4  165.7  1.2 
2013/2014  18,422.2  184.3  1.0 
2014/2015  24,791.8  206.0  0.8 
2015/2016  22,549.3  205.2  0.9 
2016/2017  34,642.2  163.0  0.5 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
3.103.   The main government agency responsible for export promotion is the Export Development 
Authority (EDA). The EDA was activated in May 2017 and a number of agencies have been brought 
under its umbrella. The EDA includes the Foreign Trade Centre (FTTC), the In ternational Trade 
Point and the Egyptian Export Promotion Centre. The EDA was originally established by Law 
No. 22/1992 to be the champion for export development in Egypt. The EDA is responsible for: the 
development of export strategies and policies; raisi ng the export capabilities of exporters to 
support the penetration of Egyptian exports into international markets; facilitating trade policies 
and regulations; and providing comprehensive market research and export strategies for industrial 
enterprises, in  parallel with technical assistance and business development services to help 
Egyptian products comply with international standards and market entry requirements. The FTTC, 
established in 2001, aims at developing Egyptian export competitiveness by providin g training 
services to enhance exporters' skills, knowledge and capabilities. Other export -related agencies 
affiliated with the Ministry of Trade and Industry that work closely with the EDA include the 
Egyptian Commercial Service (ECS), the Egypt Expo and Convention Authority (EECA), the 
Coordination Council for Egyptian Sectoral Export Councils, and the GOEIC. The Ministry of Trade 
and Industry aims at increasing the annual growth rate of non -petroleum exports to 10% by 2020.  
3.104.   Egypt's Export Development St rategy, developed in the context of Egypt's Industry and 
Trade Development Strategy for the period 2016 -2020, focuses on six main areas: (a) simplifying 
export and import procedures to facilitate trade ; (b) enhancing the competitiveness of a wide 
range of small exporters; (c) improving the inspection and quality control of export projects; (d) 
improving the logistics system related to export projects; (e) raising exporters' awareness about 
current preferential agreements and implementing pending agreements;  and (f) promoting WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Egyptian export projects. The authorities noted that no changes have been made to the strategy 
since its adoption. In cooperation with the private sector, the Ministry of Trade and Industry is 
currently engaged in addressing problems rel evant to each industry so as to be able to move in 
the direction indicated by the Strategy. In this respect, sectoral strategies for the chemical and 
building material industries, which were given priority by the Ministry, have been completed. 
Strategies t o promote exports in general and to the African market in particular have also been 
implemented. The authorities indicated that a project to develop new legislation to regulate export 
and import procedures, called EGYTRADE, is currently being developed.  
3.105.   The Export Promotion Law No. 155/2002 established an Export Development Fund with a 
view to increasing and diversifying exports of goods and services and raise their competitiveness. 
This is to be achieved by: (a) promoting the marketing of Egyptian products  in foreign markets; 
(b) assisting producers in increasing their export capabilities by conducting technical and 
marketing research, setting up inspection laboratories, technical certification centres, marketing 
research institutes and training centres; (c ) developing an electronic communications network with 
importing markets, national development institutes, organizations that stimulate exports, and 
other entities working in this field; (d) reducing the financial burden on exporters to put them on 
an equa l footing with competitors in international markets; (e) strengthening the ability of 
exporters to market in the areas of goods and services exports; (f) financing export market 
studies, identifying their qualitative and quantitative needs, and introducing  the demands of 
foreign markets and the controls they place on circulation of imported goods to exporters; and (g) 
providing other means and tools that work to achieve the objectives of the Fund.  
3.2.5   Free zones and special economic zones  
3.106.   Since 1974, the Govern ment of Egypt has been promoting the establishment of free zones. 
Currently, free zones may be established by the Council of Ministers under Article  33 of 
Law No. 72/2017. Free zones are located in Egypt but considered offshore areas. The incentives 
offere d in them are meant primarily to attract investment, provide employment for Egyptians, and 
encourage exports. The general provisions of Law No. 72/2017 apply to investment in free zones; 
there are no specific eligibility criteria for enterprises. The body responsible for overseeing the free 
zone regime in Egypt is the General Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI).  
3.107.   There are two types of free zones: public and private. Public free zones are established for 
several projects licensed in accordance wi th the provisions of Law  No. 72/2017, whereas private 
free zones are confined to one specific project or company. Private free zones are established 
based on the decision of the Council of Ministers, provided that, inter alia : (a) there is no 
convenient si te for the project's activity inside a public free zone; (b) the project is operated by 
joint-stock or limited liability companies; (c) the capital is not less than US$10 million; (d) there 
are no less than 500 permanent workers in the case of industrial p rojects; (e) exports of the 
project amount to not less than 80% of the production value. Individual public free zones are 
managed by a Board of Directors, which is responsible for granting licences for projects within the 
zone. The GAFI is responsible for the overall management of the zones; the GAFI may also 
establish private free zones if deemed appropriate. There are currently nine major public free 
zones in Egypt, up from seven in 2005.41 There is a customs office in each free zone.  As of end 
December 20 16, there were 212 private free zone projects. The GAFI is also responsible for the 
management of these projects.  
3.108.   Enterprises installed in free zones benefit from complete exemption from import tariffs and 
service charges, income taxes, and the value added  tax. Similarly, with the exception of passenger 
vehicles, imports of all types of tools, supplies, machinery and all means of transportation 
necessary for exercising the activity licensed for all projects within a free zone are exempted from 
customs dutie s, VAT, and other taxes and duties. These taxes and duties must be paid if 
production from the free zones is sold in the customs territory of Egypt. Incentives provided under 
the Egyptian Free Zone system also include: no limitations in transferring profit s and investing 
money; the right to import and export without the need to be included in the Register of 
Importers; and free price determination.  
                                                
41 The nine free zones are: Alexandria, Nasr City, Port Said, Su ez, Ismailia, Damietta, Media Production 
City, Keft, and Shebin El Kom.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.109.   Enterprises in free zones are, however, charged a fee in lieu of taxes. Manufacturing and 
assembly projects es tablished in public free zones are subject to a fee of 1% of the commodity 
value upon egress (exportation). Goods in transit are exempted from this fee. A fee of 2% of the 
c.i.f. value of imports (commodity value upon ingress) is charged in the case of sto rage projects. A 
fee of 1% of total revenue is charged in the case of projects whose main activity does not require 
the ingress or egress of goods. Also, projects in private free zones are subject to a fee of 2% of 
total revenues, with the exception of man ufacturing and assembling projects, which are subject to 
a fee of 1% of total revenues achieved by exporting the products, and a charge of 2% of total 
revenues if the product is traded inside the country. Free zones companies are subject to charges 
for ser vices rendered by the GAFI, at an annual rate not exceeding 0.001% of the project's capital, 
with a maximum of LE 100,000. This percentage is reduced to 0.0005% of the project's issued 
capital for manufacturing and assembly projects. They must also submit a financial guarantee to 
cover the project's liabilities, which is generally  1% of the project's investment costs with a 
maximum of US$75,000 for manufacturing and assembly projects, and 2% , with a maximum of 
US$125,000 for storage, services and other proj ects with more than one activity.  
3.110.   There are some restrictions on investment activities in free zones in the case of heavy or 
explosive industries. In 2015, further limitations were introduced for energy -related free zone 
investments, and licences are no lo nger granted in free zones for projects in the following sectors: 
fertilizers; oil and steel; petroleum; natural gas production, liquefaction and transport; or other 
energy -intensive industries.  
3.111.   Free-zone investors may sell all or part of their products on  the Egyptian market after 
payment of the relevant customs duties on the goods. Production sold on the national market 
amounted to US$3.63 billion in 2016, up from US$1.53 billion in 2003. More than 85% of 
investment in free zones is of Egyptian origin. Cu mulative investment in free zones reached 
US$10.77 billion at end 2016.42 Employment at the same date totalled 183,657. There were 1,108 
companies operating.43 
3.112.   With a view to attracting more investment to Egypt, Law No. 83/2002, amended by Law 
No. 27/2015, p rovides for the establishment of Special Economic Zones. In particular, the Law 
provides for a special customs system with simple and efficient procedures, tariff -free imports of 
inputs and equipment, a special taxation system with lower rates, and a speci al regime for labour 
relations. As at December 2016, one special economic zone had been established at the Gulf of 
Suez in Ain Sokhna.  
3.2.6   Export finance, insurance, and guarantees  
3.113.   The Export Development Bank of Egypt (EBE), established in 1983, provides short - and 
medium -term loans to finance capital assets of export companies, and bank guarantees required 
for financing exports. The guarantees are granted either directly to the exporter, or through other 
banks. The EBE also provides credit to finance imports p rimarily meant as inputs for export 
production, and acts as an insurer for exports against commercial and non -commercial risks, 
through its subsidiary the Export Credit Guarantee Company of Egypt (ECGE). By the end of 2016, 
credits disbursed amounted to LE  13.5 billion. The EBE currently offers four  individual financing 
programmes each with its own financing conditions and eligibility criteria. The Agriculture 
Development Programme (ADP), for example, provides export loans of up to LE  16 million to 
agricult ural companies.  
3.114.   The ECGE is a subsidiary of EBE, established in 1992, to help exporters reduce the risk of 
uncertainty when exporting to others countries. The ECGE underwrites political and commercial 
risks by offering export credit guarantees covering up to 90% of the lo ss incurred. The ECGE can 
also support the banking sector directly through the coverage of unconfirmed export letters of 
credit to enable exporters to obtain the necessary financing for their exports. It also provides 
export -factoring services including ri sk coverage and the purchase and collection of receivables. 
Other products offered to exporters include information reports on foreign buyers and assistance 
                                                
42 Of which, US$3.57 billion went to Alexandria free zone; US$3.48 billion to Nasr City, US$991 million 
to Port Said, US$965 million to Media Production City, US$925 million to Suez, US $669 million to Ismailia, 
US$88 million to Keft, US$56 million to Damietta, and US$18 million to Shebin El Kom.  
43 Of which, 411 in Alexandria, 222 in Nasr City, 83 in Port Said, 188 in Suez, 87 in Ismailia, 66 in Media 
Production City, 23 in Damietta, 9 in  Keft, and 19 in Shebin El Kom.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  with export debt recovery. ECGE premiums range between 0.3% and 2%, depending on the 
importer's cou ntry and the buyer's position. Exporters  can then sell the guarantee to their banks to 
obtain financing for their export operations. Between 2005 and 2016, the ECGE guaranteed export 
credits totalling LE  9 billion.  
3.3  Measures Affecting Production and Trade  
3.3.1   Incentives  
3.3.1.1   Industrial incentives  
3.115.   The Industry and Trade Development Strategy 2016 –2020, implemented by the Ministry of  
Trade and Industry, contains the main elements and goals of Egypt's industrial policy. The 
Strategy focuses on five key pillars: (a) indus trial development; (b) micro, small and medium 
enterprises and entrepreneurship development; (c) export development; (d) the upgrading of 
technical and vocational education and training; and (e) governance and institutional 
development. With respect to its  action plan, the Strategy has five main components: (a) 
determining targeted industrial sectors; ( b) conducting legislative and procedural reform; ( c) the 
development of industrial lands; ( d) drawing a governorate industrial investment map; and 
(e) implem enting an industrial clusters project.  
3.116.   The targeted industrial sectors under the Strategy are divided into: (a) sectors targeted for 
export (engineering, chemicals, textiles and clothing, information technology and software, and 
craft activities); (b) indu stries targeted for increasing value added (agriculture, textiles and 
clothing, iron and steel, leather, furniture, and natural product based industries); (c) sectors 
targeted for deepening the industry, rationalizing imports and increasing exports (engine ering, 
textiles and clothing, building materials and chemicals).  
3.117.   The Industrial Development Authority (IDA), created by Presidential Decree No. 350/2005 
is the body in charge of implementing industrial policy, including incentives, in Egypt. The IDA is in 
charge of implementing land-development policies, including land servicing for industrial purposes 
and providing industrial lands for investors; establishing  the necessary servicing plans and 
mechanisms for industrial zones; and establishing specialized industrial clusters, with the aim of 
raising the value -added of Egy ptian industrial production. The IDA's goals include: attracting more 
foreign and local investments; restoring the Egyptian industry's ability to provide new job 
opportunities; increasing the contribution of industrial activity to GDP and export earnings; 
deepening local manufacturing; rationalizing the use of natural resources; and minimizing the 
trade deficit, especially in the area of engineering goods. The IDA is responsible for establishing 
factories, providing utilities, and issuing licences for inves tors. The General Authority for 
Investment and Free Zones (GAFI), the principal governmental authority concerned with 
regulating and facilitating investment in Egypt, is responsible for promoting the establishment of 
investment zones to accelerate the expa nsion of competitive strategic clusters. Law No. 83/2016 
granted the IDA the exclusive authority over industrial land, including planning, development, 
installation of utilities and infrastructure, maintenance, and putting the land up for bids.  
3.118.   Article 10 of Presidential Decree No. 350/2005 established an Industrial Zones Support, 
Servicing and Development Fund, which is managed by the IDA. Total financial support granted by 
the Fund as of May 2017 reached LE 5.03 billion, involving 44  industrial zones in 2 5 governorates. 
During the period under review, the IDA has also provided support through its New Generation of 
Industrial Zones programme, which was carried out between 2008 and 2013.  
3.119.   Law No. 15 of 2017 for the Simplification of Industrial Licensing Proc edures was approved 
by Parliament in March 2017 and entered into force on 3 May 2017. The new law simplifies 
requirements and shortens the length of procedures for issuing industrial licences. In accordance 
with the new law, the duration for issuing licenc es will be reduced to 7 days for low -risk industries 
and 30 days for high -risk industries. The law will also contribute to the activation of the Central 
Bank of Egypt's initiative to provide LE 200 billion for the financing of SMEs'  activities, enabling 
these entities to benefit from available concessional financing. The law provides for the 
establishment of a Special Committee for Licensing Requirements, responsible for identifying all 
the requirements to obtain an industrial licence . Low -risk projects can  be established by a simple 
notification to the IDA subject to a subsequent inspection and are granted a grace period of one WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  year for compliance. SMEs are given a grace period of two years to comply. These projects are 
exempted from submitting an environme ntal assessment study.  
3.120.   Companies engaging in industrial activities may benefit from Egypt's investment 
legislation, which provides for various incentives. Incentives schemes were modified by Egypt's 
new Investment Law No. 72/2017 and its regulations,  Prime  Minister Decree No. 2310/2017. 
During most of the review period, incentives were mainly governed by the Investment Guarantees 
and Incentives Law No. 8/1997, (amended by Law No. 17/2015) aimed at promoting investment in 
targeted economic sectors including:  agriculture; certain oil field services; financial services; 
hotels; infrastructure; manufacturing; medical services; mining; software development; tourism; 
and transport. The benefits granted included: a flat 5% customs duty rate on imports of 
equipment and machinery; exemption from stamp duties and notarization fees for three years 
from the date of registration; and exemption from registration and notarization charges. Other 
incentives under the Investment Guarantees and Incentives Law included tax holid ays for 
company profits, personal income tax on dividends, and annual stamp duty on capital. Tax 
holidays were granted for five years for all investments; for up to ten years for companies 
established in the new industrial zones, new urban communities or r emote areas; and for up to 20 
years from the date of establishment for investments outside the Old Valley of the Nile.  
3.121.   Under Investment Law No. 72/2017 and its regulations, the contracts of registration of the 
lands required for the set -up of the companies  and establishments are exempted from stamp duty 
and fees  of notarization and registration for five years after inscription in the Commercial Register . 
The companies and establishments subject to the provisions of this Law may also benefit from 
Article 4 o f the Customs Exemptions Law promulgated by Law No. 186 of 1986 related to the 
collection of a unified customs tax rate of 2% on the value of all the imported machinery, 
equipment, and devices required for the set -up of such companies. They are also exempt ed from 
the stamp tax, as well as from the payment of fees for the notarization and registration of their 
Memoranda of Incorporation and on credit facilities and pledge contracts associated with their 
business for five years from the date of registration i n the Commercial Register. Investment 
projects set up under Law No. 72/2017 shall receive an investment incentive in the form of a 
discount from taxable net profits, of 30% or 50% depending on  the zone where the investment 
takes place ( Section  2.7). The di scount period shall not exceed seven years from the activity's 
start-up date. Investors implementing investment projects of an industrial nature may import free 
of customs duties casts and moulds and other similar production supplies for their temporary us e 
in manufacturing products and, thereafter, for re -export abroad.  
3.122.   Presidential Decree No.  17/2015 allow ed the Egyptian government, for a period of five 
years to end on April 2020, to offer government -owned industrial land to serious qualified 
investors fr ee or at discounted prices. In implementation of this, a Presidential Decision was issued 
in 2016, allowing the free allocation of certain industrial areas in Upper Egypt for financially and 
technically qualified investors. However, this Decree and all oth er Decrees allocating land were 
annulled by the Executive Regulations of the Investment Law No. 72/2017.  
3.123.   Law No. 19/2007 authorized the creation of investment zones, which require Prime 
Ministerial approval for establishment. They fall under the purview of  the GAFI. The legal 
framework regarding investment zones was modified by Law No. 72/2017, which provides that 
investment zones must be specialized in an investment field, including logistic, agricultural, and 
industrial zones. Investment zones are establi shed, built, and operated by the private sector and 
regulated by the Government through a board of directors. They enjoy the same benefits as free 
zones in terms of facilitation of licence issuance, but are not granted the incentives and 
tax/custom exempti ons enjoyed in free zones. Projects in investment zones pay the same 
tax/customs duties applied throughout Egypt. The aim of the law is to assist the private sector in 
diversifying its economic activities. There are currently 13 investment zones specialize d in various 
fields and distributed among seven Egyptian governorates.44 
                                                
44 The zones are: CBC Egypt for Industrial Development (building materials), Giza; Polaris International 
Industrial Park (textiles), Giza; the Industrial Development Group (automotive -related industries), Giza; 
Pyramids Indus trial Parks (engineering industries), Sharqiya; Al -Tajamouat Industrial Park (textiles), Sharqiya; 
Meet Ghamr (SME), Dakahlia; Al -Saf (SME), Giza; City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications 
(nanotechnology and biotechnology), Alexandria; Cairo  University (higher education and scientific research ), 
Giza; Ain Shams University (higher education and scientific research), Qalyubiya; Fayyoum University (higher WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.124.   Although Egypt's investment legislation does not contain any performance requirements, 
and fulfilling local content requirements is not a prerequisite for establishing a business, in s ome 
cases, assembly industries must meet a minimum local content requirement in order to benefit 
from customs tariff reductions on imported industrial inputs. For instance, under Decree 
No. 184/2013 local producers may benefit from a reduction of customs t ariffs on intermediate 
goods if the final product has at least 30% local content. The percentage of tariff reduction 
depends directly on the percentage of local content, with a maximum of 90% if local content is 
60% or higher.  
3.3.1.2   Special Economic Zones  
3.125.   Under the Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Law No. 83/2002, as amended by Law 
No. 27/2015, special zones for the exportation of industrial and agricultural products or of services 
may be established. The law allows firms operating in a SEZ to import capital equipmen t, raw 
materials, and intermediate goods duty free. Companies established in the SEZs are also subject 
to lower corporate taxes, are exempt from sales and indirect taxes and can operate under more 
flexible labour regulations. Foreign entities can participa te in the infrastructure development of an 
SEZ; this may be achieved through contractual arrangements between the developer and the main 
development company, which is in charge of constructing the backbone utility services and 
necessary infrastructure in t he public areas of the zone. Developers are responsible for the 
construction and operation of the necessary on -site infrastructure in order to deliver utility services 
to the end -users within the areas of the zone over which they have development rights. A  foreign 
investor may invest in the main development company of the zone through a partnership.45 
3.126.   The first SEZ under Law No. 83/2002, the Sokhna Special Economic Zone (SEZone), was 
established in the northwest Gulf of Suez.46 The SEZone was created mainly t o utilize foreign 
investment, develop industries, especially new and high technology industries, and to export. It 
was considered an experimental zone for opening up and carrying out reform, and establishing and 
improving the structure of the market econom y in Egypt.47  
3.127.   As a second step, the establishment of a Suez Canal Economic Zone (SCZone) was 
announced in 2014. The zone is expected to become a major industrial and logistics services hub 
built along the Suez Canal, and is anticipated to include upgrades and renovations to ports located 
along the Suez Canal corridor, including West and East Port Said, Ismailia, Suez, Adabiya, and Ain 
Sokhna (Section 4). The project is expected to be built in several stages, the first of which is 
scheduled to be completed b y 2020. Investment is sought in particular in certain industries 
including: maritime services; pharmaceuticals; food processing; automotive production; 
electronics; textiles; petrochemicals; IT  services; renewable energy; and logistics and commercial 
devel opments. The SCZone spans an area of 461 km2; it consists of two integrated areas (Ain 
Sokhna with Ain Sokhna, and Port East Port Said with East Port Said Port), two development areas 
(Qantara West and East Ismailia) and four ports (West Port Said Port, Ad abiya Port, Al Tor Port, 
and Al Arish Port).  
3.128.   Companies operating in the SCZone enjoy a number of incentives and guarantees, 
including a 10% unified income tax rate, compared to 22.5% outside the zone, applicable on 
company profits and on the income of natu ral persons, as well as on revenues derived from land 
and non -residential buildings. Imports are exempt from customs duties and sales tax. Customs 
duties on exports to Egypt are imposed on imported components only, not the final product. The 
Zone will also  provide a one -stop shop for investment with a special customs service. Also, the 
Zone has a Dispute Settlement Centre, and most disputes can be resolved at this level; in general, 
a dispute is referred to court only if a panel has rendered its decision or  if, 60 days after the date a 
motion was filed to appeal the decision, the panel has not decided on the appeal. Companies 
                                                                                                                                                  
education and scientific research ), Fayyoum. GAFI online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.gafi.gov.eg/English/StartaBusiness/InvestmentZones/Pages/Investment -Zone.aspx . 
45 GAFI online information. Viewed at: http://www.gafi.gov.eg/English/Howcanwehelp/Pages/FAQ.aspx . 
46 SEZONE is located 120 kilometres  south east of Cairo and 45 kilometres  south of Suez city. It is 
adjacent to the New Port of Sokhna, the only privately managed port in Egypt, with direct access to the 
Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, which makes it an ideal location for transit operations.  
47 GAFI online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.gafi.gov.eg/English/StartaBusiness/InvestmentZones/Pages/Special -Economic -Zones.aspx . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  operating within the SCZone are entitled to 100% foreign ownership of companies; and 100% 
foreign control of import/export activities.48 
3.3.1.3   Promotion of small and micro enterprises  
3.129.   The development of small and micro enterprises (SMEs) is considered a fundamental pillar 
for further developing and modernizing the economy, and a major instrument for adjustment 
assistance. SMEs account for about  99% of private establishments in the non -agricultural sector 
and 85% of private sector employment.  
3.130.   For most of the period under review, the Social Fund for Development (SFD), a semi -
autonomous governmental agency under the direct supervision of the Prime  Minister, was the 
main policy tool for providing support to SMEs. On 21 April 2017, the Egyptian Government issued 
a decree transforming the previous SFD into the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Development 
Agency (MSME), a semi –autonomous governmental  agency under the direct supervision of the 
Minister of Trade and Industry. The MSME is mandated to put in place a roadmap to encourage 
investment in SMEs and help smaller companies expand their exports. The Agency also aims at 
promoting the implementation  of more SME -friendly land and licensing procedures. The MSME's 
board includes representatives from the Egyptian Ministries of Trade and Industry, Planning, Local 
Development, Finance, Social Solidarity, Investment and International Cooperation. The Agency  
has 31 regional offices nationwide. The MSME receives funding from the Government, and from 
multilateral and bilateral donors; its budget for the promotion of SMEs in 2017 is about 
LE 5 billion.  
3.131.   The SME Development Law (Law No. 141/2004) aims at providing  incentives and 
facilitating the procedures required to establish and run a medium, small or micro enterprise. The 
MSME is the competent authority for implementing the Law, which includes various provisions to 
improve small and micro enterprises' access to  capital and the establishment of trust funds in each 
governorate to finance small and micro enterprises.  
3.132.   Other incentives currently available to SMEs include: (a) the One Stop Shop (OSS) 
Initiative, which consists of supporting the incorporation of busin esses in the informal sector into 
the formal sector. Up to September 2017, 33 OSS outlets had been established in all the 
governorates simplifying and facilitating procedures and the acquisition of the necessary approvals 
and licences to start the projects , and enabling SMEs to obtain their share of government tenders, 
in accordance with Article 12 of the Small Projects Law No. 141 of 2004, which provides for the 
allocation of at least 10% of annual government purchases to small business owners. The 
authori ties have noted that the Government is currently considering further legal amendments to 
improve the business environment for SMEs in Egypt, inter alia , by updating the definition of 
medium -sized projects by redefining small and micro enterprises, as well as by integrating several 
government incentives.  
3.3.1.4   Support for research and development  
3.133.   Egypt does not provide explicit incentives to encourage investment by private companies 
in research and development (R&D) activities. The Government does, however, fund R &D directly 
through the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, as well as other ministries that 
provide R&D funding from the annual state budget and through scientific institutions and 
universities. According to the authorities, the annual b udgeted assistance for R&D is less than 
0.3% of GDP. Publicly funded R&D is geared towards the following priority areas: agriculture, 
biotechnology, environmental technologies, manufacturing technologies, information technology, 
energy, and standards and m etrology. Tax rebates of up to 50% are available for investment in 
technological hubs. Tax rebates from the cost of investment upon inception range from 30% to 
50% based on the geographical area, and are capped at 80% of the paid -up capital; this applies 
across different industries including technological hubs.  
                                                
48 SCZONE online information. Viewed at: https://www.sczone.eg/English/Pages/default.aspx . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.3.1.5   Regional support  
3.134.   There are a number of policy initiatives with a view to reducing population pressure in the 
Nile area and redirecting people to less densely populated areas of the country. This includes the 
development of so -called new communities and new industrial zones , and efforts to irrigate large 
parts of the Western Desert. The new communities and new industrial zones were established in 
desert areas. They offer subsidized land for all developments in order to attract investment. The 
incentives offered by the new co mmunity projects in some cases include a ten -year tax holiday 
period49; they have resulted in a significant increase in industrial activities in these areas. The 
corporate income tax law exempts profits of land reclamation or cultivation establishments for a 
period of ten years.  
3.135.   The South Valley Development project aims at achieving the integrated development of 
the South Valley region through the construction of an industrial zone which will largely depend on 
agricultural and cattle raising production and i s expected to increase the cultivated and habitable 
areas.  
3.136.   The Investment Law No. 72/17 introduced regional incentives in the form of a discount on 
taxable net profits, depending on the region. Projects located in Sector A, which includes the 
geographic lo cations most urgently requiring development, receive a 50% discount off their 
investment costs; projects in Sector B, which covers all the remaining areas of Egypt, enjoy a 30% 
discount off their investment costs. In the latter case, projects must be at le ast one of the 
following: (a) labour -intensive; (b) implemented by small and medium enterprises; (c) dependent 
on or produce new and renewable energy; (d) defined as national and strategic projects defined 
under a decision issued by the Supreme Council; (e ) a tourism project defined under a decision 
issued by the Supreme Council; (f) an electricity generation and distribution project; (g) a project 
that exports its production outside the geographical territory of Egypt; (h) an automotive 
manufacturing and a uto feeding industry project; (i) a wood, furniture, printing, packaging, and 
chemical industry project; (j) an antibiotics, oncology drugs, or cosmetics industry project; (k) a 
food, agricultural products, or agricultural waste -recycling industry project;  or (l) an engineering, 
metallurgical, textile, or leather industry project. In all cases, the investment incentive shall not 
exceed 80% of the paid up capital until the activity start date, in accordance with the provisions of 
the Income Tax Law No. 91/20 05. The discount period may not exceed seven years from the 
activity start -up date.  
3.3.2   Standards and other technical requirements  
3.3.2.1   Standards and technical regulations  
3.3.2.1.1   Standards  
3.137.   The Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality (EOS), a semi -autonomous 
body affiliated with the Ministry of Trade and Industry, is the national  authority in all matters 
related to standardization, quality control, and metrology. While the EOS, with its more than 800 
permanent staff members , formulates and sets standards, veri fication of compliance is the 
responsibility of agencies affiliated with different ministries, including the Ministries of Agriculture 
and Health, the Atomic Energy Authority, the National Telecommunications Regulatory Authority 
and, for imported goods, th e GOEIC. As the national standards body (NSB) in Egypt, the EOS is 
responsible for: (a) the preparation and issuance of Egyptian Standards; (b) licensing the award of 
Egyptian quality marks and conformity certificates for various products; (c) providing te chnical 
consultancy services in the areas of standards and quality; (d) conducting laboratory inspections 
and testing; (e) representing Egypt in international and regional organizations in the fields of 
standards and quality; (f) the calibration of measuri ng and testing equipment for industrial 
companies and establishments; (g) providing information in the fields and activities of standards 
                                                
49 Tax holidays as incentives were cancelled in principle by the Income Tax Law No. 91/2005 for these 
projects, with the exception of: (a) profits from  land reclamation or cultivation enterprises, granted a tax 
holiday of 10 years from the date of activity inception; and (b) poultry farming, apiculture, livestock husbandry 
and fattening, fisheries, fish farming enterprises and fishing boats enterprises p rofits, for a period of 10 years 
from the date of activity inception.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  and quality; (h) acting as the national WTO -TBT Enquiry Point and Notification Authority50; and 
(i) providing the Halal  Mark according to Ministerial Decree No. 561 of 2012.51 
3.138.   Egypt has accepted the WTO Code of Good Practice for the Preparation, Adoption and 
Application of Standards.52 It is a member of the International Organization for Standardization 
(ISO). The EOS has si gned mutual recognition agreements in the field of standardization and 
related activities with most Agadir countries, China, France, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, 
Morocco, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia and Uganda .  
3.139.   Draft standards are developed b y EOS technical committees; currently there are 
138 committees. Within their scope, technical committees determine their own work programmes 
to identify the market requirements for individual work items. The committees include 
representatives from research  organizations, control authorities, producers, consumers, and 
chambers of commerce and industry. A draft standard, once developed by a technical committee, 
is circulated to all interested persons for comments for a period of at least two months. Once all 
relevant comments have been incorporated and a final draft has been developed, the standard 
must be issued by the EOS Council and published. The EOS Council comprises, amongst others, 
heads of holding companies and control authorities, as well as represent atives from the legal 
profession and the media (Chart 3.4).  
Chart 3.4 Procedure for the preparation of Egyptian standards  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat, based on information provided by the authorities.  
3.140.   Egypt's st andards do not distinguish between foreign and domestic goods. The majority of 
the mandatory standards (technical regulations) issued by ministerial decree concern chemicals, 
food products, engineering goods, measurement and textiles. In the absence of a m andatory 
Egyptian standard, importers may choose a relevant standard from among seven international 
standard systems.53 Importers are usually required to inform the GOEIC of the standards to be 
applied to imported goods, prior to importation. In the absence  of a mutual recognition agreement 
between Egypt and the exporting country, the imported product is subject to inspection and 
testing in Egypt, even if covered by a certificate.  
3.141.   Egyptian standards are reviewed periodically, usually once every five years, to ensure their 
relevance to current requirements. As at November 2017, Egypt had issued more than 
8,500  standards covering six sectors (Chart 3.5). In addition, according to the authorities, more 
                                                
50 WTO document G/TBT/ENQ/37, 15 June 2010.  
51 Ministerial Decree No. 561 of 2012 stipulates that the EOS is the sole entity with the authorization to 
provide the Halal mark on products ac cording to the standard specifications issued in this regard.  
52 WTO document G/TBT/CS/N/17, 1 November 1995.  
53 These are standards either based on ISO or on the standardization systems of the European Union, 
the United States, Germany, Japan and the United  Kingdom.  
Chart 3.4 Procedure of the prepartion of Egyptian standards
Source: WTO Secretariat, based on information provided by the authorities.Stage 1
Set up the standards' 
plan by contacting all 
relevant bodies to 
identify their needs.Stage 2
Circulate the standards' 
plan and collect 
information to prepare a 
technical report.Stage 3
Develop the draft 
standard.
Stage 6
The final draft is 
submitted to EOS for 
approval.Stage 5
Technical committee 
studies the received 
suggestions and 
comments.Stage 4
Circulate the draft for 
comments and 
suggestions.
Stage 7
Number the new 
standard.Stage 8
Publish in the official 
Egyptian Gazette.WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  than 7,000 national standards had been aligned with interna tional standards in several sectors 
(Chart  3.6). 
Chart 3.5 National Standards, 2017  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
Chart 3.6 National standards aligned with international standards, 2002 -16 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.3.2.1.2   Technical regulations  
3.142.   Apart from those standards developed by the EOS which become mandatory, and hence 
are technical regulations, various national line function departments in different ministries are 
responsible for drafting and implementing technical regulations. A technical  regulation is issued by 
a Ministry when it requires that a product, or a group of products, complies with a particular 
05001,0001,5002,0002,500
Engineering Chemical Food Measurement Textile Documentation(Number of standards)Chart 3.5 National standards  2002 -2016
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.
020040060080010001200
Engineering Chemical Food Measurement Textile Documentation(Number of standards)Chart 3.6 National standards aligned to international standards
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  production method or contains (or does not contain) particular elements such as residues, or food 
additives.  
3.143.   As at December 2016, Egypt  had more than 860 technical regulations in place covering 
five sectors, with the largest number pertaining to engineering and chemical products, food, 
textiles and measurement products (Chart 3.7).  
Chart 3.7 Technical regulations, 31 December  2016  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.144.   Egypt submitted its first TBT notification in 1997; between then and late October 2017, it 
had submitted 168 new notifications (221 notifications including addenda and corrigenda) to the 
WTO Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade.  
3.3.2.2   Conformity assessment  
3.145.   As per Decree No. 392/1979, the EOS is the national authority for conformity assessment 
in Egypt. The EOS grants quality and conformity marks as well as conformity certificates for 
industrial commodities and products according to Egyptian and foreign stand ards. The main tasks 
of EOS in respect of quality are  determined  according to the decree establishing EOS as follows: 
(a) testing  the conformity of raw materials, industrial commodities and products to approved 
standards including through technical researc h and studies, inspection, and sampling; (b) 
evaluating results and granting quality marks for local industrial products in conformity with 
Egyptian standards; (c) verifying the accuracy of measurement and testing instruments used in 
industrial units in al l sectors; and (d) representing Egypt in international and regional 
organizations concerned with standards, following up their activities and coordinating quality 
activities in Egypt with their corresponding bodies abroad.54 
3.146.   A quality mark is issued by the EOS upon request by a producer and is valid for two years; 
goods carrying the mark are subject to random testing and must comply with a specified standard.  
3.147.   In addition to quality marks, the EOS also issues conformity marks after verifying the 
conformity o f a product to the relevant mandatory Egyptian standard (technical regulation). The 
conformity mark system is of obligatory application on the products for which mandatory 
Ministerial Decrees have been issued in respect of engineering products. The EOS car ries out 
periodical tests and inspections on those products to verify their conformity to the relevant 
Egyptian standards.  
                                                
54 EOS online information. Viewed at: http://www.eos.org.eg/en/page/31 . 
050100150200250300350400450
Engineering Chemical Food Textile Measurement(Number of regulations)Chart 3.7 Technical regulations, 2002 -16 (31 December) 
Source :WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities .WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.148.   The EOS also grants quality conformity certificates to establishments upon the request of 
the applying establishment, indicating the conformity of a specified amount of a product to the 
relevant Egyptian standard after conducting the required relevant technical studies. The conformity 
certificate system aims at providing consumers with the certainty t hat the products used conform 
to the  relevant Egyptian standards. To obtain a quality conformity certificate, a number of 
conditions must be met: (a) the establishment must obtain the approval of the GAFI or the IDA as 
the case may be and be registered in the Industrial Register; (b) a commi tment must be made to 
produce in accordance with Egyptian or foreign standards approved by EOS; (c) the establishment 
must have manufacturing capabilities with modern and appropriate technology; (d) it must have 
available laboratory equipment and the capab ilities necessary to conduct tests according to the 
standard specifications of the commodity to be licensed, and (e) there must be an effective control 
and quality assurance system in place, among others.  
3.3.2.3   Other quality control measures  
3.149.   As mandated by Presi dential Decree No. 106/200055 concerning inspection and control of 
imported and exported goods procedures, product inspections may be carried out by different 
authorities under the auspices of the General Organization for Export and Import Control (GOEIC), 
affiliated with Ministry of Trade and Industry.56 The GOEIC's main mission is to inspect imported 
and exported commodities, and/or oversee the inspection of exported and imported commodities 
subject to specific rules. The GOEIC also carries out optional ins pections of commodities upon the 
request of applicants, and issues certificates of origin for commodities of Egyptian origin or 
acquiring Egyptian origin.  
3.150.   Egypt has mandatory quality control requirements for a number of imports listed in 
Annex  8 of the Exe cutive Regulations (Ministerial Decree No. 770/2005) of the Import and Export 
Law No. 118/75.57 These products, which must be inspected by the GOEIC, include foodstuffs, 
handbags, furniture, electronic products, spare parts, consumer products, live animals,  iron tubes 
and pipes, ceramic sanitary ware, stoves and heaters, steam boilers, washing machines, electrical 
equipment, motor vehicle parts, pencils, and textiles (Table A3.3). An inspection fee is charged in 
all cases. The authorities indicated that simi lar measures are applied to equivalent domestic 
products.  
3.151.   If relevant mandatory standards have been issued by the Egyptian authorities, the GOEIC 
must conduct the inspection in accordance with those standards. However, the GOEIC's inspection 
can be based on standards from other countries if there is no relevant Egyptian mandatory 
standard. When products are imported into Egypt, they are required to undergo verification of 
conformity. Products are held either at customs compounds or sealed on the premises o f the 
importer, until testing is completed.  
3.152.   The GOEIC conducts the necessary tests on the samples in its laboratories no later than at 
the time mentioned in the test standard. In general terms, the GOEIC does not accept testing by 
any other body, except in  the case of preshipment inspection. However, the authorities have 
indicated that 14 companies are registered with the GOEIC allowing them to issue inspection 
certificates for imports of the products mentioned in Ministerial Decree No. 961/2012. Despite th is, 
the GOEIC has the right to carry out random inspections to ensure that the inspection performed 
by those companies is appropriate.  
3.153.   In accordance with Article 79 of Ministerial Decree No. 770/2005, the Egyptian Customs 
Authority (ECA) shall abide by dec isions taken by the GOEIC regarding inspection and control 
procedures for imported and exported goods. The ECA may not accept requests for inspection or 
inspection results released by any other entity. Customs is authorized to release exported or 
                                                
55 Other related legislation included Decision of the Prime Minister No. 1186/2003; Law No. 21/1982 and 
Law No.  7/2017 on the i mporters register, and the corresponding implementing regulations, Ministerial Decree 
No. 342/1982.  
56 The GOEIC was established by Presidential Decree No. 1770/1971 as a service and executive agency.  
57 In accordance with Article 69 of Ministerial Decree No . 770/2005, products listed in Annex 8 to the 
same Decree constitute the scope of the GOEIC's inspection services.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  imported goods only upon the GOEIC's decision stating that all inspection and control requirements 
have been adequately met.58 
3.154.   The exporter or importer may appeal the final inspection results before the Appeals 
Committee Secretariat no later than one week from the d ate of being informed of the results. The 
Committee, which includes representatives from all the regulatory bodies responsible for imports 
and exports, shall examine the appeal submitted against the final inspection results. The 
Committee decides whether t o accept the results of the final inspection, to amend or annul them, 
or to re -inspect the consignment or allow treatment.59 The decision of the Committee is final.  
3.155.   As at July 2017, the GOEIC had 132 accredited quality testing laboratories (49  for food 
comm odities and 83 for industrial and engineering products); most of these laboratories hold 
international accreditation. Inspection fees depend on the good.  Collected fees per consignment 
may not exceed LE 10,000. The quality control examination for textiles is executed by a committee 
that includes representatives of the domestic spinning and weaving industries.  
3.3.2.4   Accreditation  
3.156.   Accreditation in Egypt is the responsibility of the Egyptian Accreditation Council (EGAC), 
established by Presidential Decree No. 312/19 96 and re -organized by Presidential Decree 
No. 248/2006. The EGAC is the sole national body for the assessment and accreditation of 
conformity assessment bodies and laboratories in Egypt performing testing and calibration, 
inspection and certification acti vities for products, systems and personnel. The EGAC is headed by 
the Minister of Trade and Industry and governed by a board of 14 members, representing all 
stakeholders and concerned bodies.60 The EGAC is mandated with setting up a system for 
evaluation of  conformity assessment bodies and continuous surveillance of the accredited bodies. 
The EGAC may issue, suspend, or withdraw accreditation certificates.  
3.157.   The EGAC provides accreditation services in accordance with accepted established 
principles of quality assurance and the internationally agreed requirements and recommendations 
for the operation of accreditation systems. In this respect, the EGAC operates in accordance with 
International Accreditation Forum (IAF) and International Laboratory Cooperation (IL AC) 
guidelines and ISO/IEC 17011:2004. The EGAC's target is to establish mutual recognition 
agreements with accreditation bodies in other countries operating with equivalent standards. The 
EGAC joined the International Accreditation Forum's (IAF) Multilate ral Recognition Arrangement in 
May 2006 and the International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation's (ILAC) Mutual Recognition 
Arrangement in October 2009.  
3.158.   EGAC accreditation is granted to the conformity assessment bodies (CABS) that meet the 
requirements of the following international standards: (a) testing and calibration including 
sampling: ISO/IEC 17025; (b) quality systems certification: ISO/IEC 17021; (c) product 
certification: ISO/IEC Guide 65; (d) personnel certifiers: ISO/IEC 17024; and (e) inspect ion 
bodies: ISO/IEC 17020. The accreditation process for CABS and its renewal follows a specified 
time schedule (Table 3.22). The process provides time for an assessment visit as well as for 
proposing and adopting corrective measures.  
                                                
58 The documents required, in the case of imports, are: bill of lading; commercial invoice; customs 
import declaration; delivery order; inspec tion certificate; compliance certificate; certificate of origin; Form 4; 
receipt of administration fees; cargo release order, and packing list.  
59 If the Committee opts for the re -inspection of the consignment, it shall name a specialized inspection 
laboratory to conduct it and give the complainant the chance to attend the inspection procedures. Results are 
then deemed final and may not be contested . 
60 EGAC online information. Viewed at: http://www.egac.gov.eg/ . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 3.22 Accreditation process time limits for conformity assessment bodies (CABS)  
Activity  Time limits for 
initial assessment  Time limits for 
extension of scope  Time limits for 
surveillance  Time limits for 
reassessment  
Start of the 
accreditation 
process  9 months before 
accreditation is 
required  3.5 months before 
the date of 
surveillance  3.5 months before 
the date of 
surveillance  9 months before the 
expiry date of the 
accreditation certificate. 
CABs are encouraged to 
apply for reassessment 
2 months before that 
date 
Submitting 
application  9 months before 
accreditation is 
required  3.5 months before 
the date of 
surveillance  Not applicable  9 months before the 
date of reassessment 
and up to 8 months 
before the expiry date  
Acceptance of 
assessment 
team  Within 7 working 
days maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 7 working 
days maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 7 working 
days maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 7 working days 
maximum of receiving 
EGAC's notification 
letter  
Answer to 
document 
review  Within 3 months 
maximum of 
receiving document 
review report  Within 2 weeks 
maximum of 
receiving document 
review report  Within 2 weeks 
maximum of 
receiving document 
review report  Within 2 weeks 
maximum of receiving 
document review report  
Agreement on 
assessment visit 
date  Within 2 weeks 
maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 2 weeks 
maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 2 weeks 
maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 2 weeks 
maximum of receiving 
EGAC's notification 
letter  
Rescheduling of 
assessment visit 
date Within 3 months 
maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 1 month 
maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 1 month 
maximum of 
receiving EGAC's 
notification letter  Within 1 month 
maximum of receiving 
EGAC's notification 
letter  
Root cause and 
proposed 
corrective action  Within 7 working 
days maximum of 
the date of the 
assessment visit  Within 7 working 
days maximum of 
the date of the 
assessment visit  Within 7 working 
days maximum of 
the date of the 
assessment visit  Within 7 working  days 
maximum of the date of 
the assessment visit  
Completed 
corrective 
actions  Within 3 months 
maximum of date of 
assessment visit  Within 4 weeks 
maximum of date of 
assessment visit  Within 4 weeks 
maximum of date of 
assessment visit  Within 4 weeks 
maximum  of date of 
assessment visit  
Additional 
corrective 
actions  Within 1 month 
maximum of the 
date of receiving the 
refusal of corrective 
actions letter  Within 6 weeks 
maximum of the 
date of the 
assessment visit  Within 6 weeks 
maximum of the 
date of the 
assessment visit  Within 6 weeks 
maximum of the date of 
the assessment visit  
Committee 
corrective 
actions  Within 4 weeks of 
the time of giving 
the notice to the CAB  Within 4 weeks of 
the time of giving 
the notice to the CAB  Not applicable  Within 4 weeks of  the 
time of giving the 
notice to the CAB  
Source:  EGAC online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.egac.gov.eg/uploads/Information_Back/Regulations/R05G%20accreditation%20process
%20timings%20and%20response%20actions.pdf . 
3.159.   The EGAC's application fees are LE 3,000 for testing CABS and for calibration laboratories 
and LE 5,000 for inspection bodi es, certification bodies, and proficiency testing providers.  
3.160.   The EGAC has signed a Sub Licence Agreement with ILAC to use the ILAC Laboratory 
Combined Multilateral Recognition Arrangement (MRA) Mark. It has also signed an agreement with 
IAF to use the IAF Combined Multilateral Recognition Arrangement (MLA) Mark.  
3.161.   As at November 2017, there were 12 certification bodies (six Egyptian and six foreign, 
from Germany, India (4) and Italy) accredited by EGAC; there were also 10 inspection bodies (all 
Egyptian), 251  testing laboratories (238 Egyptian and 13 foreign), 45 calibration laboratories (all 
Egyptian), 28 medical laboratories (27 Egyptian and one from the United Arab Emirates), and two 
proficiency (Egyptian) testing providers accredited.61 
3.3.2.5   Labelling requiremen ts 
3.162.   Egypt imposes some labelling requirements. Finished goods imported for retail sale must 
specify the product's country of origin, the producer's name and must contain the product's 
                                                
61 EGAC online information. Viewed at: http://www.egac.gov.eg/egac.php?id=20 . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  description in Arabic in a clearly visible place on the packaging. Specia l regulations exist for some 
items, including foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and textiles. In accordance with Ministerial Decree 
No. 770/2005, a ll foodstuff must be labelled with the following information, in Arabic and at least 
one other language: name of th e producer, country of origin, description of the commodity, name 
and address of the importer, production date, expiry date for consumption, preservation and 
storing conditions for easily perishable goods, mode of preparation for goods to be prepared befor e 
consumption, net and gross weight, and additives and preservatives included.  
3.163.   Appliances, machinery and equipment must be accompanied by: a manual in Arabic 
containing illustrative drawings of the parts; assembly and operating instructions; maintenance; 
details of the electric circuitry for electronically operated appliances; and security precautions. In 
accordance with Ministerial Decree No. 770/2005, imported fabrics must have the name of the 
importer woven into the cloth in Arabic, English or French; in  the case of imported readymade 
garments, the required information (name of importer, type of fabric and country of origin) can be 
shown woven into the cloth or by a sticker fixed on it, or printed.  
3.3.3   Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures  
3.164.   The Central Adm inistration for Foreign Agricultural Relations in the Ministry of Agriculture 
and Land Reclamation is Egypt's SPS enquiry point and National Notification Authority.62 The 
National SPS Steering Sub -Committee, under the auspices of the Ministry of Trade and I ndustry, 
established by Ministerial Decree No. 583/2003, is the body in charge of coordinating Egypt's SPS 
policies and monitoring Egypt's rights and obligations under the WTO's SPS agreement. The 
Committee is also in charge of evaluating and assessing the  impact of other countries' SPS 
measures on Egypt. Another SPS Sub -Committee exists under the Ministry of Agriculture and Land 
Reclamation, created in accordance with Ministerial Decree No. 1332/2005 and restructured 
following Decree No. 1606/2011 to ensur e the internal coordination on issues related to SPS. This 
Sub-Committee operates in coordination and cooperation with the National SPS Steering Sub -
Committee. Other bodies dealing with SPS issues include: the National Food Safety Authority; the 
Atomic Ene rgy Agency; the Central Administration for Plant Quarantine (CAPQ); the General 
Organization for Veterinary Services (GOVS); the Agricultural Pesticides Residue Committee; the 
Central Laboratory of Residue Analysis of Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Food (Q CAP Lab); the 
Egyptian Organization for Standardization (EOS); the GOEIC; and the Ministry of Health. Food 
safety issues are dealt with, in a coordinated manner, by the multi -agency National Food Safety 
and Control System, comprising the following agencies : the Ministry of Health and Population; the 
Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; the Ministry of Trade and Industry; the Ministry of 
Supply and Internal Trade; the Ministry of Tourism; the Ministry of Electricity; and the Ministry of 
Housing.  
3.165.   The main legislation with respect to SPS measures includes Law No. 48/1941 on Protection 
against Fraud and Deception and its amendments; Law No. 10/1966 on Control of Food and its 
Handling and its Amendments; Presidential Decree No. 187/1984 on Establishment of the General 
Organization for Veterinary Services; Decree No. 47/1967 on Veterinary Quarantine Regulations; 
Law No. 118/1975 Regulating Imports and Exports; Presidential Decree No. 106/2000 on 
facilitating measures on inspecting and controlling exported and imported goods; and Prime 
Minister Decree No. 1186/2003 on inspection and control of exports and imports. Other legislation, 
passed during the review period, includes: Prime Minister Decree No. 2992/2016 on the regulation 
of the importation of certain agricultural commodities and its implementing regulations; Ministry of 
Trade and Industry Decree No. 24/2017; Ministerial Decree No. 974/2017 on the registration, 
handling and use of agricultural pesticides in Egypt63; Joint Ministerial Decree No. 670/2017 on the 
new system for the production and export of agricultural products of export importance; and Law 
No. 1/2017 on the National Authority for Food Safety.64 
                                                
62 WTO document G/SPS/ENQ/25, 15 October 2009.  
63 The Decree updates  and modifies some of  the Ministerial Decrees concerning pesticides and the role 
of the Central Laboratory of Residue Analysis of Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Food, following discussions 
within the Agricultural Pesticide Committee.  
64 Law No. 1/2017 created a new authority to deal with food safety and its requirements. The idea is to 
centralize this work in one agency. Prior to the law, several ministries dealt with the issue and there were s ome 
2,000 laws, decisions and regulations related in one way or another to food safety.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.166.   There are various controls and inspection procedures for food products, live animals, and 
animal a nd plant products. The controls are implemented by the corresponding responsible 
agency: the National Authority for Food Safety, established by Law No. 1/2017, for food products; 
the Atomic Energy Agency, for the examination of radiation levels; the Centra l Administration for 
Plant Quarantine (CAPQ), for plants and plant products; the Ministry of Agriculture and Land 
Reclamation for plants before harvesting;  the Food Control Department of the Ministry of Health, 
the GOEIC, and the GOVS for live animals, animal health and any products of animal origin. The 
duration of inspections depends on the product.  
3.167.   The CAPQ acts as the National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) as set by the 
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). Its work is guided by th e Phytosanitary and 
Quarantine Rules and Regulations, Ministerial Decree No.  3007/2001. The CAPQ is in charge of 
conducting pest risk assessment and determining pest -free areas; it is also responsible for issuing 
phytosanitary certificates and participatin g in drafting bilateral phytosanitary agreements and 
protocols to strengthen the trade relations between Egypt and its trading partners. The CAPQ has 
signed memoranda of understanding with four research institutes and projects (the Plant 
Protection Researc h Institute, the Plant Pathology Research Institute, the Central Lab for Weeds 
Research Institute, and the Project for the Surveillance and Control of Brown Rot in Potatoes) 
through which it delegates some official activities of the NPPO related to the sur veillance and 
control of plant pests.  
3.168.   Importers of plants must obtain an import permit from the CAPQ prior to importation. They 
are also required to notify the exporting trading partner of the corresponding import regulatory 
requirements, which are establ ished according to the potential risk associated with pests.  
3.169.   One of the phytosanitary measures recently adopted is the temporary suspension of the 
importation of ornamental plants and seedlings of fruit trees from countries where Xylella 
fastidiosa  is present.65 Other recent measures include: a Joint Decree between the Ministry of 
Agriculture and the Ministry of Trade and Industry regarding the amendments to the system of 
production, preparation, and inspection of exported potatoes (Ministerial Decre e No. 223/2012); 
Ministerial Decree No. 339/2013 amending the fees of procedures applied on import and export 
consignments; Ministerial Decree No. 1669/2016 on phytosanitary requirements and specifications 
for the importation of seed potatoes for growing y ear 2016/ 17; and Joint Ministerial Decree 
No. 670/2017 on the new system for the production and exportation of agricultural products of 
export importance.  
3.170.   The GOVS is in charge of setting SPS measures to protect human or animal life or health 
from food -borne risks (risks arising from additives, contaminants, toxins or disease -causing 
organisms in foods, beverages or feedstuffs). The GOVS is also responsible for protecting human 
life or health from diseases carried by animal products, and for protecting anim al life or health 
from the entry, establishment or spread of disease -carrying or disease -causing organisms. In 
order to better protect the Egyptian territory from other damage arising from the entry, 
establishment or spread of diseases transmitted by anima ls, a Risk Assessment Unit geared at the 
implementation of Article 5 of the SPS Agreement was established in GOVS by Administrative 
Decree No. 398/2015.  
3.171.   The Central Administration of Veterinary Quarantine, within the GOVS, is responsible for 
setting the SP S measures required for the importation of live animals and any products of animal 
origin and to approve their importation. The Administration is divided into four regional 
departments or units. The Central Administration of Veterinary Quarantine studies t he health 
status of the exporting countries, and sets SPS measures accordingly based on the 
recommendations of relevant international organizations such as the OIE and Codex and taking 
into account their consistency with the SPS Agreement. As a result of t his, the SPS measures 
adopted by the GOVS may differ by country according to the health status of each exporting 
country at the time of exportation. Imports of live animals require an import permit issued by the 
Central Administration of Veterinary Quarant ine. Decree No.  1647/1997 establishes that importers 
of live animals must submit an import request to the GOVS specifying the number and type of 
animals to be imported, the country of origin, the shipping port, the expected arrival date, and the 
means of t ransportation. The consignment must be accompanied by a veterinary certificate issued 
by the competent authority in the country of origin, and notarized at the corresponding Egyptian 
                                                
65 The measure was notified to the WTO (WTO document G/SPS/N/EGY/75, 9 November 2015 ). WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Consulate. However, partners with which Egypt has trade agreements, such as the European Union 
and COMESA  countries, are exempted from notarization requirements. Upon arrival, further 
veterinary procedures, including physical inspections, may be applied.  
3.172.   The GOVS adopted a number of SPS measures during the review period. Some o f the 
measures adopted include the implementation of "zoning" on imports of day -old chicks from 
countries which have Avian Influenza, and the implementation of SPS measures on the importation 
of live cattle from countries which have Blue Tongue disease. Th e latter measures consist in 
quarantining the animals in a disease -free zone and testing and vaccinating them.  
3.173.   Importers of meat products and chicken must provide a number of certificates before the 
product is accepted; these include: a slaughter certifica te proving that the animal was slaughtered 
in accordance with the Islamic ritual (halal), issued by an entity approved by the GOVS through 
the Commercial Office of the Egyptian Embassy or Consulate in the country of origin66; a 
veterinary certificate, issue d in the country of origin, confirming that any animal used in the 
making of the product was examined before and after slaughter, and is free from contagious 
diseases; and a certificate of origin indicating the exporting country, number of parcels, type of  
meat, date of inspection, production and expiration dates, name of the exporter, port of entry, and 
name of the consignee. Frozen meat products require a further certificate, confirming that a 
temperature of –18°C was maintained before exportation and tha t each piece was wrapped in 
accordance with accepted international packaging standards.   
3.174.   Law No. 48/1941, as amended by Law No. 281/1994, specifies the different types of fraud 
and sets the corresponding penalties related to adulterations and deception in relation to food, 
animal feed and medicines. This law prohibits the importation of any spoiled food, animal feed or 
medicine. Law No. 10/1966 contains the Food Control and Handling Regulations; it specifies the 
cases in which the handling of food is prohib ited, namely when: is does not comply with Egyptian 
standards; is unfit for human consumption; or is adulterated (containing harmful food additives, 
toxic substances, etc.) The Regulations also indicate that food must be free from any substances 
harmful to  health in all handling steps and food additives must be within the limits determined by 
the Minister of Heath.  
3.175.   Ministerial Decree No. 204/2015 lists food additives allowed in Egypt. The Decree was an 
important step in the modernization of Egypt's sanitar y legislation since it contains all types of 
food additives, compared to the previous legislation that allowed only three types of additives 
(colours , preservatives and antioxidants). Moreover, the list of additives is to be updated regularly .  
3.176.   Presidentia l Decree No. 106/2000 established that the control over imports and exports of 
food is the responsibility of the GOEIC, which carries out the inspection of imported and exported 
food. The GOEIC also participates, together with the EOS, in the amendment of specifications 
related to imported foodstuffs. The GOEIC maintains an integrated system of information 
technology to exchange information between testing laboratories and the GOEIC's different 
branches throughout Egypt. GOEIC's agricultural products tracea bility system allows the exporter 
to record all the data from the beginning of the agricultural production process to the exportation 
of the product.  
3.177.   The Food Safety and Control Department of the Ministry of Health and Population is 
responsible for the enf orcement of national food laws and regulations and for inspecting all 
foodstuffs whether imported, exported or locally produced to ensure their fitness for human 
consumption and compliance with Egyptian standards. The Department, which employs some 
1,800 f ood inspectors across all health offices/units and ports throughout Egypt, also performs 
controls and inspections of food -handling places to ensure their compliance with health 
requirements and Egyptian standards; it takes food samples from the food chain to ensure that the 
food is fit for human consumption.  
3.178.   The Central Public Health Laboratories (CPHL) are responsible for monitoring and 
controlling food safety, for both imported and locally manufactured foodstuffs, at all stages of 
preparation until final  consumption. The CPHL has a laboratory network that includes a reference 
laboratory in Cairo and peripheral laboratories in all governorates. These laboratories conduct 
microbiological, chemical and toxicological analysis of food samples. The authorities have indicated 
                                                
66 The institution issuing the halal certificate should be approved by the GOVS.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  that about 650,000 samples are analysed per year. The CPHL participate in elaborating and issuing 
Egyptians standards for the different food items in cooperation with the EOS; they participate in 
the International Codex Committee.  
3.179.   The Nation al Nutrition Institute (NNI) is responsible for the registration of foodstuffs for 
special dietary uses, including infant and follow -up formula, weight control foods, herbal teas, and 
bottled water, among others. The NNI is responsible for the analysis of imported registered food 
products to ensure their compliance with registration data; it has reference laboratories for 
analysis of the chemical, microbiological and toxicological content of food samples. The NNI 
participates in developing and issuing Egypt ian standards for the different food items in 
cooperation with the EOS and participates in the International Codex Committee. It has a role in 
research and interventions concerning food and nutrition and is a training centre for nutrition, 
including clinic al nutrition, and runs several clinics for the management of malnutrition and non -
communicable diseases (NCD).  
3.180.   Egypt currently lacks a comprehensive biosafety regulatory regime. The authorities have 
indicated that they are currently working on the draft of  a National Biosafety Law, which would 
allow Egypt to have a fully operational National Biosafety Framework (NBF).  
3.181.   Egypt submitted it first SPS notification in September 2005; between then and November 
2017, it has submitted 80  notifications to the WTO Com mittee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary 
Measures (Table A3.4).  
3.182.   Egypt maintains some packaging and labelling requirements for SPS reasons. For instance, 
wood packaging materials entering Egypt must be treated and certified in accordance with the 
standards esta blished by the relevant International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures 
("Guidelines for Regulating Wood Packaging Material in International Trade").67 Wooden containers 
must be accompanied by an official certificate declaring the containers to be free of  insects and 
pests. For imported non -food commodities, Decree No. 396/1994 establishes that the remaining 
shelf-life should be at least half the original shelf -life. 
3.183.   The Agricultural Pesticides Residue Committee (APC) is in charge of the registration, 
trading, handling and use of pesticides in Egypt, in accordance with Ministerial Decree 
No. 974/2017. This decree also introduced legislation regulating the exportation of pesticides by 
requiring special registration certificates to be able to export pesticide s made locally. It also 
contains provisions regarding the handling and use of pesticides. Export control measures were 
recently reinforced: for instance, the APC's Resolution of 18 October 2016 emphasizes the 
importance of assessing all living and non -living contaminants on all food crops prior to 
exportation.  
3.3.4   Competition policy and price controls  
3.184.   Competition policy is mainly regulated in Egypt by the following pieces of legislation: (a) 
the Egyptian Constitution of 2014; (b) the Egyptian Competition Law No . 3/2015 (ECL or Egyptian 
Law on "Protection of Competition and Prohibition of Monopolistic Practices"), which entered into 
force on 15 May 2005, and was amended in 2008 and 2014; and (c) the ECL's Executive 
Regulations (ER), adopted in August 2005 and ame nded in 2010 and 2016, to ensure consistency 
with the ECL amendments that were adopted in 2008 and 2014, and to guarantee a better 
application of the ECL.  
3.185.   The Egyptian Constitution of 2014 explicitly states that competition is one of the main 
pillars of th e Egyptian Economy. In this respect, Article 27 provides that: "the economic system 
shall adhere to transparency and good governance, enhance the pillars of competitiveness, 
encourage investment, ensure balanced geographical, sectorial, and environmental g rowth, 
prohibit monopolistic practices, and maintain financial and trade balances and a fair tax system."  
3.186.   The Egyptian Competition Authority (ECA), a legally independent administrative body that 
was created in 2005 and started activities in 2006, is respon sible for implementing the ECL. The 
ECA is managed by a Board of Directors with 10 members, including competition specialists, 
                                                
67 WTO document  G/SPS/N/EGY/2, 6 September 2005.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  representatives of various ministries, representatives of the State Council, representatives of the 
Consumer Protection Union, an d representatives of the private sector. It is responsible for 
interpreting and applying the ECL under judicial review. The ECA has the right to receive and 
investigate complaints, to initiate its own investigations, and take decisions and necessary steps to 
stop anti -competitive practices.  
3.187.   The ECA has two main tools to defend competition: enforcement and advocacy, which, 
according to the authorities, are complementary. The ECA's enforcement powers include: 
conducting raids; using search warrants; requesti ng any type of data from anyone, including 
Ministries and affiliated bodies; and imposing "cease and desist orders" on violators of the ECL. 
The ECA can initiate an investigation based on complaints from any person, based on requests 
from Ministries and af filiated bodies or can opt for an ex officio initiation. In the case of 
agreements or practices perpetrated by businesses that harm or are likely to harm competition, 
ECA intervention may be through enforcement or advocacy. However, if the perpetrator of 
anticompetitive practices is a Government body through existing or new legislation, regulations or 
policies that harm or are likely to harm competition, the type of intervention by the ECA is limited 
to advocacy. Also, and although the ECA's enforcement pow ers have been enhanced through the 
amendments introduced to the ECL, as the authorities have noted, the main role of the ECA is to 
solve competition problems and promote a competitive environment, rather than building a strong 
enforcement record. Fines mus t be enforced by a court decision, upon recommendation from the 
ECA. The ECL does not include any imprisonment sanctions.  
3.188.   The ECL sets out prohibitions in respect of the abuse of dominant position, which is defined 
as a situation in which a company has a m arket share exceeding 25% and has the ability to 
effectively influence market prices or volumes while preventing competitors from limiting this 
effect. The ECL provides a list of nine different prohibited acts. It also prohibits vertical 
agreements or cont racts between a person and its supplier or clients if they are intended to 
restrict competition. The ECL also forbids various agreements among competitors considered as 
anti-competitive per se , for example, price collusion, production -restriction agreement s, market 
sharing, and arrangements in the tendering process. However, agreements among competitors 
that lead to cost reduction, improvement of production or distribution conditions, or the 
encouragement of new technology, that are not hard -core cartels, a re exempt from the 
prohibition, after an ex -ante competition review concluding that the consumer's interest overrides 
the negative consequences of restraining competition. This is assessed on a case -by-case basis.  
3.189.   The ECL applies to all types of persons o r enterprises carrying out economic activities, be 
they public or private.68 This includes state -owned enterprises, except for public utilities managed 
directly by the State. However, the ECA may also exempt from the scope of the ECL agreements 
and practice s related to public utilities managed indirectly by the State through private companies 
if they provide benefits to the consumers that exceed the effects of restricting the freedom of 
competition, or in the public interest. Such exemption was granted to a market player in the 
chlorine and aluminium -used-for-water -purification -processes market. By the same token, price -
fixing regulations and circulars for essential products concluded by the Government are exempt 
from the prohibitions stated in the ECL only i f the price -fixing decision complies with four 
cumulative conditions: (a) it was issued by the Cabinet of Ministers; (b) it concerns an essential 
product (neither the ECL nor its regulations provide an exhaustive list of products considered 
essential or st rategic in the application of the ECL); (c) it is limited in time; (d) it was issued after 
taking into account the ECA's non -binding opinion.  
3.190.   The 2008 amendments to the ECL are contained in Law No. 190 of 2008 and inter alia : 
 established a financial penalty ceiling and increased minimum penalty levels;  
 established incentives to cooperate in investigations; more specifically, a Court may reduce 
the penalty for crimes under Articles 6 (cartels) and 7 (vertical agreements) of the ECL by 
up to 50% for vio lators who take the initiative to report the crime and submit supporting 
evidence to the Court, or for whomever the Court considers to have contributed to 
disclosing and establishing the elements of the crime at any stage of the case, including 
during the inquiry, search, inspection, investigation or trial;  
                                                
68 The ECL applies to natural and legal persons, economic entities, unions, financial associations and 
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   established the imposition of a fine for failing to notify the ECA of mergers and acquisitions 
with an annual combined turnover exceeding LE 100 million (US$5.64 million at the 
current exchange rate); and 
 established the imposition of a fine on persons refraining from providing the ECA with data 
and documents on specific target dates; the fine is doubled in cases where false 
information is provided.  
3.191.   In September 2012, the ECA formed a Committee to work on further amendments to the 
ECL. The Committee devoted 14 months to preparing a draft that introduced changes aimed at 
meeting ECA and market needs, taking into account international best practices together with the 
political, economic and social reality.  In this process, the ECA conducted a series of public 
consultation sessions with various stakeholders and held an awareness event to touch on the 
suggested amendments and to receive feedback. The results of these consultations are reflected in 
Law No. 56/ 2014, passed in May 2014. The new Law amended 17 Articles of the ECL (out of 28) 
and introduced a new article. The authorities consider that the modifications introduced were 
intended to strengthen the ECA's independence, effectiveness and credibility.  
3.192.   The main amendments introduced to the ECL by Law No. 56/2014 include:  
 endowing the ECA Board with the power to initiate criminal lawsuits and to settle with 
violators;  
 introducing the inviolability of the ECA Board members, who cannot be compelled to 
leave of fice except in a few and specific cases;  
 reducing the number of government representatives in the ECA Board from four to two;  
 modifying appointment of the ECA's Executive Director so that it is done by the ECA 
Chair instead of the competent Minister;  
 introducing revenue/sales value -based fines for anticompetitive practices so as to ensure 
fairness and act as a more effective deterrent;  
 adopting full and mandatory leniency for the first applicant who comes forward to the 
ECA (instead of partial and discreti onary leniency);  
 imposing a mandatory prior consultation with the ECA on draft laws and draft regulations 
that are likely to harm competition;  
 exempting from the scope of the ECL cooperation agreements among competitors that 
tend to be pro -competitive;  
 endowing the ECA with more enforcement powers;  
 adopting harsher sanctions for lack of cooperation with the ECA;  
 relaxing the settlement system to become more attractive for violators of the ECL;  
 widening the scope of the ECL so that it is applied to every c ontract instead of certain 
types of contracts (some provisions of the ECL dealt only with sale and purchase 
agreements/contracts prior to 2014);  
 reducing the number of Board members to five from ten;  
 relaxing the voting quorum for some types of decisions ( to the majority of attendees 
instead of the majority of Board members);  
 extending the confidentiality obligation of ECA officials to Board members; and  
 adopting harsher sanctions for the breach of the said obligation.  
3.193.   The ECL stipulates that sanctions appl y in respect of all prohibited activities that have an 
effect in Egypt, even if committed abroad. The 2008 amendment to the ECL (Law No. 190/2008) 
increased fines, which since then range from LE  30,000 to LE  300 million. The 2014 amendment 
changed the way sanctions are calculated by introducing two possible methods: (a) the original 
method, which must be applied if feasible, determines the fine as a percentage of the total 
revenue of the product subject to the violation; and (b) the alternative method, to b e used in case 
of inability to calculate total revenue , consists of a fixed range of monetary amounts. Percentages 
and amounts of the criminal fines vary according to the type of infringement committed by the 
firms/persons as follows:  
 Horizontal agreements  (Art.6): (a) original test: 2 -12% of the total revenue of the 
product(s) subject to the violation during the violation period; (b) alternative test: 
LE 500,000 -LE 500 million;  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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   Abuse of dominance and vertical agreements (Arts. 7 and 8): (a) o riginal test: 1-10% of the 
total revenue of the product(s) subject to the violation during the violation period; 
(b) alternative test: LE 100,000 -LE 300 million;  
 Failure to notify mergers and acquisitions to the ECA or to submit the required data or 
documents or refraining to cooperate with the ECA's officers: a fine of between LE 20,000 
and LE 500,000.  
3.194.   Criminal cases are dealt with by Economic Courts which were established by the Economic 
Courts Law No. 120/2008.  
3.195.   In addition to the ECL, various provisions on comp etition are contained in a number of 
other legal instruments. The Companies Law No. 159/1981 contains provisions on mergers and 
acquisitions; the Law of Supplies and Commerce forbids competition -reducing activities such as 
collusion and hoarding; and the T elecommunications Law, the Intellectual Property Law, and the 
Insurance Supervision and Control Law  also include provisions on competition. Despite this, and in 
accordance with the ECL, the ECA is the only competent competition authority responsible for 
protecting competition and prohibiting any of the monopolistic practices provided for in the ECL in 
all sectors in Egypt. The authorities indicated that none of the competition provisions contained in 
other laws may restrict the ECA's authority in conducting  investigations and prohibiting any 
monopolistic practices in these sectors. Furthermore, in 2014 the Cairo Economic Court ruled in 
the ECA's favour regarding its jurisdiction with respect to monopolistic practice cases in the 
telecommunications sector.  
3.196.   Between the  ECA's inception in 2006 and April 2017, it completed 124 investigations, 33 
studies and 9 advisory opinions, using the two main tools at its disposal: enforcement of the ECL 
and advocacy through the dissemination of a "competition culture" . Of th e completed 
investigations, 61% resulted in a non -violation verdict, 20% in a violation decision and 22% in a 
"non-jurisdiction" decision. During this period, the ECA proved 41  violations of the ECL, 21 of 
which were during the 2012 to 2016 period. Horizon tal agreements represented the largest 
percentage of violations (16, or 40% of the total)69, followed by abuse of dominant position (12, or 
29% of the total)70, non-notification of mergers and non -cooperation with an investigation (11, or 
27% each), and non -cooperation with ECA law enforcement officers and vertical agreements (1, or 
2% each). During the same period, the ECA approved settlements in seven cases.71 
3.197.   During the period under review, the ECA collected LE 230.7 million in fines that were 
imposed on violators of the ECL either in cases that ended in a settlement or in those cases 
referred to courts and in which the court determined the imposition of a fine.  
3.198.   The authorities noted that, as part of its advocacy work, the ECA had succeeded in 
approaching the Constitutional Committee in 2013, and had been instrumental in the inclusion of 
competition provisions in the new Constitution. They also noted that the ECA succeeded in 
conducting extensive advocacy activities for the purpose of amending the ECL. The ECA also 
participated in discussions to amend legislation in a number of areas linked to competition policy, 
including provisions of the Government Contracts Law, the Consumer Protection Law and the new 
Investment Law.  
3.199.   Some of the major cases dealt with in  the 2006 -2016 period that had a major impact on 
consumers include a medicine distribution case, a fertilizers case, a cement case, a dairy products 
case and a poultry case. The medicine distribution (pharma)  case, which led to an ECA ruling in 
December 20 15, was related to four major medicines distribution companies that agreed to unify 
their marketing and sale policies by reducing credit periods and cash discounts granted to small 
and medium -sized pharmacies leading to: (i) higher costs of distribution se rvices; (ii) market 
foreclosure for small and medium -size pharmacies in the long term; and (iii) diminished profit 
                                                
69 Cases de aling with cement (2007); cinemas (2010); dairy products (2011); poultry (2013); corn 
starch (2013); mobile phone operators (2013); car insurance (2014); glucose (2014); engineering insurance 
(2015); pharmaceutical products (2015); medical insurance (2016) ; fertilizers  (4 violations, 2016); and 
medical supplies (2017) . 
70 Cases dealing with molasses (2008); flat glass (3 cases, 2009 and 2011); sports event s (3 violations 
2013 and 2016); sports channels (2014); school textbooks (2014); carpets (2015); telecom munications Egypt 
(2016); and football associations (2017).  
71 More information on the activities of the ECA may be found at: http://eca.org.eg/ECA/Default.aspx . 
Most of the decisions and publications are a vailable in Arabic only.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  margins for pharmacies. This was ruled to constitute a violation of Article 6 a) and d) of the ECL by 
the ECA Board. The ECA did not consider  settlement with these companies, and the file was 
transferred to the public prosecutors. The fertilizers  case dealt with a distribution and production 
cartel among 24 fertilizer distribution companies. The ECA proved in August 2016, that the cartel 
was: ( a) fixing sale prices of superphosphate fertilizers to consumers/farmers in a market with a 
supply surplus, which violated Article 6 (a) of the ECL; (b) agreeing on a specific price difference 
between the two main products in the market which would limit c ompetition in the distribution 
market; and (c) that some of the companies were dividing markets among themselves thus 
violating Article 6 (b) of the ECL. The ECA Board rejected the settlement request, and referred the 
case to the public prosecution in Octo ber 2016. In parallel, the ECA also proved the existence of a 
price fixing cartel between the two main producers; the case was also referred to the public 
prosecution and was still under investigation in late 2017.  
3.200.   In the cement case, initiated in 2006, th e ECA concluded that there was a cartel involving 
agreements on prices between cement companies in violation of Article 6 (a) of the ECL, as well as 
agreements to restrict the marketing of products in violation of Article 6 (d). The ECA's Board of 
Director s decided to refer the report to the Minister of Trade and Industry to request the filing of a 
criminal lawsuit in accordance with Article 21 of the ECL. The criminal lawsuit ended with the 
imposition of a fine of LE 10 million on each of the cement compan ies and their executives.  
3.201.   In the dairy products  case, initiated in 2007, the ECA determined that the packed drinking -
milk producers were agreeing on fixing purchase prices of raw milk provided by farms. The ECA 
concluded that the agreements violated Articl e 6 (a) of the ECL and referred the report to the 
Minister of Trade and Industry to request the filing of a criminal lawsuit against the producers. The 
case was settled in May 2013 and each violator was required to pay a LE 200,000 fine. In the 
poultry cas e, initiated in December 2010, the ECA determined the existence of a cartel and price 
fixing on a daily basis  by General Union of Poultry members and issued a cease -and-desist order 
for this practice. The case was further referred to the prosecution who th en referred it to the court.  
3.202.   According to Egypt's new Investment Law No. 72/2017, the Government shall not interfere 
in the pricing policies of firms operating in any market. Although there are no price controls, in 
cases of market failure or natural monop oly, prices may be set or guided. T he Central 
Administration of Pharmaceutical Affairs, in the Ministry of Health, is responsible for setting the 
price of pharmaceutical products, certain medical devices and dietary supplements. Prices are set 
by a pricing  committee, in collaboration with the Ministry of Trade and Industry. In accordance 
with the Electricity Law No. 87/2015, electricity tariffs are approved and fixed by the Egyptian 
Electric Utility according to the rules approved by the Cabinet. Tariffs ar e issued by a decree from 
the Minister of Electricity and Renewable Energy, and published in the Egyptian official newspaper 
as well as online. Sugar and edible oils are not subject to price controls, but are sold in the context 
of a ration -cards system at  market prices.  
3.3.5   State trading, state -owned enterprises, and privatization  
3.203.   Egypt has about 150 state -owned enterprises (SOEs), most of which are under the 
umbrella of the Ministry of Investment. They are engaged in activities in a number of sectors, 
includi ng petroleum, transportation and industrial activities. Some of the main companies include: 
Egypt Air; Egypt Post ; the Egyptian National Railways ; Nile TV International ; the Suez Canal 
Authority ; Telecom Egypt; and three state -owned banks (Banque Misr, Banque du Caire, and 
National Bank of Egypt), which reportedly control some 40% of the banking sector's assets.72 
3.204.   In accordance with Egyptian law, SOE s and military -owned companies must compete 
directly with private companies in many sectors of the Egyptian economy. Public Sector Law 
No. 203/1991 states that SOEs should not receive preferential treatment from the Government, 
nor should they be accorded any exemption from legal requirements applicable to private 
companies. SOEs in Egypt are structured as individual companies controlled by boards of directors 
and are grouped under government holding companies arranged by industry. The holding 
companies are  headed by boards of directors.  
                                                
72 U.S. Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration (2017), Egypt Country Commercial 
Guide, section 8, State Owned Enterprises . Viewed at: https://www.export.gov/article?id=Egypt -State -Owned -
Enterprises . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.205.   Egypt conducted a privatization programme between 1991 and 2008 based on Public 
Enterprise Law No.  203/1991, which allowed the sale of state enterprises to foreign entities. 
During that period, Egypt engaged in the privatiza tion of a large number of companies. A total of 
148 companies were privatized through stock market flotation or direct sale to investors, or 
through the majority sale of some companies to employees through an Employee Shareholder 
Ownership Programme (ESOP) . No new privatizations have been concluded since 2008. In May 
2010, the Government announced a halt in the overall privatization programme in favour of an 
approach based on a partnership with the private sector with the aim of restructuring, transferring 
knowhow, modernizing public enterprises, and based on management agreements with revenue 
sharing without privatization of the ownership. All shares of SOEs may be listed and traded in the 
stock exchange; the listing decision is based on the companies' liqu idity needs. The stock 
exchange may be used to provide the required financing for SOEs.  
3.206.   In the last few years, some privatization deals have been brought to court, and in a 
number of these cases, Egyptian courts have ruled to reverse the privatization, alt hough most of 
these cases are still under appeal.73 In response to this, and to reassure investors, Law 
No. 32/2014 was issued on 22 April 2014 to limit the appeal rights on state -concluded contracts, 
on the contract parties only, so as to reduce challenges  to prior government privatization deals. In 
March 2016, the Government declared that it would cease efforts to privatize SOEs, and would 
concentrate on reforming them, for which it re -established a Ministry of Public Business Sector 
(separated from the Mi nistry of Investment) and declared a new programme for restructuring the 
remaining public enterprises. This programme includes financing the restructuring or rehabilitation 
of public enterprises through financial or non -financial services, with the possibi lity of a capital 
increase through the stock market.  
3.207.   In the telecommunications sector, the state -owned telephone company, Telecom Egypt, 
was the only provider of fixed -line services prior to October 2016, when the National 
Telecommunications Regulatory Aut hority (NTRA) started implementing a unified licence regime 
that allows a company to offer both fixed -line and mobile networks.  
3.208.   Egypt's most recent notification to the WTO Working Party on State Trading Enterprises 
was made in February 2016 and states that  the Government of Egypt does not maintain any state 
trading enterprises in accordance with the working definition contained in paragraph 1 of the 
Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XVII.74 
3.3.6   Government procurement  
3.209.   Egypt is not a signatory to the WTO plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement.  
3.210.   Egypt has no central procurement body; each government agency has its own 
procurement department, which examines its own tenders and procedures, in accordance with the 
procurement law (see below) and it s Executive Regulations. Procurement committees are 
established by the competent authority in each entity for each procurement transaction, to ensure 
the consistent and correct application of procurement rules and procedures. Each procurement 
transaction i s conducted through these committees;  the participation of a Ministry of Finance's 
representative in each procurement transaction's technical and financial evaluation committee is 
mandatory if the value of the purchase exceeds LE  250,000. If the value exce eds LE  500,000, 
participation by competent legal counsel from the Council of State is also required. Decisions with 
regard to tenders/reverse auctions are made by a single committee if the value of the transaction 
is of up to LE 50,000; above this amount, two committees examine all bids. The General Authority 
for Government Services (GAGS), an affiliate of the Ministry of Finance, plays an a posteriori  role 
in the procurement process and its main function is to control the contracts to ensure that the 
presc ribed guidelines and directives are followed. The GAGS may also provide technical assistance 
and training to departments or procurement units, and may represent the Ministry of Finance in 
procurement committees.  
                                                
73 U.S. Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration (2017), Egypt Country Commercial 
Guide, section 8, State Owned Enterprises . Viewed at: https://www.export.gov/article?id=Egypt -State -Owned -
Enterprises . 
74 WTO document G/STR/N/16/EGY, 17 February 2016.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.211.   Public procurement is governed by the Tender s Law No.  89/1998, which aims at promoting 
deregulation, decentralization and flexibility in procurement procedures. The Tenders Law governs 
procurement by all civilian and military agencies unless they are specifically exempted from this 
law. Law No.  89/1998 was amended by Law No. 5/2005, Law No. 148/2006, La w No. 191/2008 , 
Law No. 14/2009, Law No. 82/2013, and Law No. 48/2014. The 2005 Law dealt with instalment  
payment guidelines to contractors under works' contracts; the 2006 Law amended provisions 
regar ding public land property; the 2008 Law amended the threshold for local tenders; the 2009 
Law dealt with performance bonds under PPP projects; the 2013 Law amended some provisions of 
the law regarding the organization of tenders and auctions and with respe ct to contracts by direct 
agreement (see below); and Law No. 48/2014 introduced some specific tendering provisions. In 
addition to the previous laws, Law No. 5/2015 dealt with the preferences granted to Egyptian 
products supplied in government contracts.  
3.212.   To complement the previously mentioned laws, a number of Prime Minister decrees were 
issued during the review period, including: Prime Minister Decree No. 33/2010 regarding 
publication of the tender notice and tender document on the Government Procurement P ortal, 
Decrees No. 800/2012 and No.  736/2012 on rationalizing government spending and encouraging 
the purchase of domestic production; Prime Minister Decree No. 463/2012 regarding the electronic 
publication of the results of the technical and the financial  decision and the award of tenders, 
reverse auctions and auctions of all government agencies; and Prime Minister Decree 
No. 122/2015 on achieving financial and administrative discipline and raising the efficiency of 
government spending. The Minister of Fin ance also issued a number of circulars and decrees in the 
area of procurement during the review period, including Circular No. 21/2011 regarding the 
publication of tender documents  in the Government Procurement Portal; Circular No. 7/2014 on 
the national b udget including a section on pooled procurement (framework agreements) of items 
commonly used at ministry or governorate level; Circular No. 4/2014 on the requirements to be 
met before launching a tendering procedure; Circular No. 11/2014, also on publicat ion in the 
Government Procurement Portal; and Circular No. 426/2016 on some amendments to the Tenders 
Law Regulations related to adjusting prices in works contracts.  
3.213.   The GAGS publishes guidelines for the procurement process to be followed across 
agencies.  During the review period, it issued guidelines with respect to topics such as the 
procurement portal, the electronic publication of tenders, pricing adjustment policy in works 
contracts, SME support, and pooled (framework agreements) procurement, among ot hers. 
3.214.   Procurement procedures under the Tenders Law require that contracts are awarded to the 
lowest priced technically acceptable bid. Purchases financed by international financial institutions, 
where specified criteria are considered, are awarded in accor dance with the institutions' relevant 
procedures. In all procurement, a 15% price preference is given to Egyptian products. Egyptian 
subsidiaries of foreign companies can benefit from the preference. Additionally, pursuant to the 
Small and Medium Sized Ent erprises Development Law No. 141/2004, SMEs must be given a 10% 
share of the entity's procurement.  
3.215.   The two main procedures for public procurement of goods and services in Egypt are public 
tender and public reverse auction. The purchasing entity is obliged to adhere to the procedures 
and guidelines for selecting the appropriate procurement method to be used. Both procurement 
methods are open to both Egyptian and foreign suppliers, and must be advertised in at least two 
daily newspapers of major circulation. Public tenders and public reverse auctions require offers to 
be submitted in two sealed envelopes, one with the technical offer and the other with the financial 
offer. The envelope with the technical offer is considered first; only financial offers corresp onding 
to accepted technical offers are taken in consideration. In the case of public reverse auctions, 
bidders whose technical offers are deemed acceptable typically compete in an open manner by 
decreasing their offered prices. In contrast, in the case of  public tenders, initial offers are final and 
cannot be negotiated after the bid is open. Tenders cannot be changed to reverse auction once the 
procedures have been launched, and vice versa. Bidders must be provided with the reasons upon 
which the decision  was based in the case of both rejected and awarded bids. Bid bonds will be 
refunded immediately upon expiration of the tendering process or contract award.  
3.216.   In addition to the methods previously mentioned, public procurement may also be carried 
out through  the following methods: limited tender, local tender, direct agreement or request for 
quotation (known as direct purchase), and limited reverse auction. The use of these methods 
requires a decision from the competent authority. Limited tenders are used whe re the nature of WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  the product requires participation by selected available suppliers in Egypt or abroad that are 
considered to have technical and financial competence and a good reputation. Local tenders may 
be used for products with a value of up to LE  400,000; tendering is limited in this case to local 
suppliers from within a governorate. Limited reverse auction, based on the applicable competitive 
procedures with selected suppliers, may be used for: (a)  products available only from specific 
suppliers in E gypt or abroad; (b)  products whose nature dictates that they are brought from their 
production location; (c)  products whose technical specifications require that they are purchased 
from certain suppliers; and (d)  for national security reasons. Direct agree ments are applied in 
emergency situations. They require the prior authorization of the competent authority depending 
on the purchase value: the Head of Administration for purchases not exceeding LE  500,000 
(LE 1 million for works); or the competent Ministe r or Governor for contracts not exceeding 
LE 5 million for purchases of goods and services (LE 10 million for contractual work). In the case of 
direct agreements, buyers are advised to purchase from Egyptian SMEs. Both the Ministry of 
Defence and the Minis try of State for Military Production and their entities may use any of the 
limited methods of procurement when necessary. While using direct purchase methods, agencies 
are required to award contracts after comparing offers and selecting the lowest priced t echnically 
compliant offer between at least two offers.  
3.217.   An online government procurement portal was established in 2010.75 The portal was 
developed to cover the entire life cycle of procurement. Tender documents, technical and financial 
evaluation results and contract award notices must be published and posted on the portal. This 
requirement was enforced through Prime Ministe r Decrees No. 1033/2010 and No.  463/2012, 
instructing government entities to use the e -tender portal for all procurement transactions, except 
those pertinent to national security and defence.  
3.218.   The authorities noted that the MOF/GAGS have successfully compl eted the amendments to 
the current procurement law, currently (November 2017) being revised by the Parliament for 
issuance. The amendments envisaged would include: developing new procurement methods; 
introducing the possibility of renting instead of purcha sing if it is economically convenient and 
feasible; introducing hedging/forward and future contracts;  promoting the further use of the e -
procurement system; introducing framework agreements for procurement; introducing two -stage 
tendering; fostering coordi nation with the private sector and  streamlining the review and 
complaints mechanism.  
3.219.   The volume of government procurement has increased strongly over recent years, from 
less than LE 11.2 billion in 2006/07 to LE 31.6 billion in 2015/16 (Table 3.23).  
Table 3.23 Government procurement, 2006 -16 
(LE million)  
 2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  
Goods  4,265  7,272  11,404  11,967  9,979  10,598  11,994  12,084  14,448  16,535  
Services  6,984  7,625  9,805  11,442  10,716  11,517  11,297  11,786  13,549  15,029  
Total 11,249  14,897  21,209  23,409  20,695  22,115  23,291  23,870  27,997  31,564  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
3.3.7   Intellectual property rights (IPRs)  
3.3.7.1   Legal and institutional framework  
3.220.   The authorities have noted that Egypt fully recognizes the importance of IPR protection as 
a key factor in growth and development, as well as its effect on FDI. Through its IPR policy, the 
Government aims at: (a) promoting local ind ustries by guiding local businesses in the effective use 
of the IPR system and encouraging them to fully utilize their inventions; and (b) promoting the 
effectiveness of the IPR system in order to encourage and attract FDI.  
3.221.   Egypt is a member of most of the  main international treaties on intellectual property, 
namely: the TRIPS Agreement; the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic 
Works; the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms; the Convention 
establishing the  World Intellectual Property Organization; the Madrid Agreement on the 
                                                
75 The address of the portal is: http://etenders.gov.eg/ . WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  International Registration of Marks; the Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of 
Industrial Designs; the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property; the Trademark 
Law Treaty; the Patent Cooperation Treaty; the Nairobi Treaty on the Protection of the Olympic 
Symbol; the Washington Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of Integrated Circuits; the 
Protocol relating to the Madrid Agreement concerning the International Registration of Marks; the 
Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods; the 
Nice Agreement concerning the International Classification of Goods and Services for the purposes 
of the Registration of Marks; and the Strasbourg Agreement concerning the International Patent 
Classification. In April 2008, Egypt notified the WTO that it had accepted the Protocol Amending 
the TRIPS Agreement.76  
3.222.   The Authority for Protecting Intellectual Property Rights, also known as the Contact Point 
Organization for IPR Protection, is the notified IPR contact point.77 The contact point was 
established by virtue of Ministerial Decree No. 58/1997, in implementation of Egypt's 
commitments under the WTO TRIPS Agreement's Article 69. The authorities have noted that, 
following its establishment, several ministerial decrees were issued to reorganize the 
administration of the Contact Point Organization. The aim was to enhance the protection of IPRs 
and for the Contact Point Organizati on to be an effective and active contact point. These 
governmental decrees had the following four goals: (i) to make the Contact Point Organization the 
active contact between the WTO and governmental agencies and authorities in Egypt concerned 
with IPR pro tection; (ii) to have all ministries and governmental and non -governmental entities 
concerned with intellectual property, as well as the relevant associations and unions, represented 
in the contact point, in order to have sufficient expertize in all requir ed issues; (iii) to maintain 
total separation between the executive duties and responsibilities of the Contact Point Organization 
on one hand, and the executive duties and responsibilities of ministries and authorities that 
enforce the law on the other han d; and (iv) to strictly observe the principle that the Contact Point 
Organization has no judicial jurisdiction in Egypt as far as the disputes and/or legal proceedings 
are concerned either by judgment or executive orders.  
3.223.   The Contact Point Organization is  composed of nine committees: the  Committee on Patents 
and Utility Models, and undisclosed information; the Committee on Trademarks; the Committee on 
Copyright and related rights; the Committee on Plant Varieties; the Committee on Drugs; the 
Foreign Relati ons Committee; the Media Committee; the Training Committee; and the Committee 
on Administrative and Financial Affairs.  
3.224.   The Trade Agreements and Foreign Trade Sector (TAS) office, in the Ministry of Trade and 
Industry, is responsible for the preparation of Egypt's negotiating position in the WTO TRIPS 
Council. It is also in charge of monitoring Egypt's compliance with its TRIPS obligations, 
negotiating trade agreements with Egypt's trading partners, and incorporating IPR provisions into 
these agreements. The  TAS also has responsibility for implementing border measures for the 
protection of IPRs in coordination with the Egyptian Customs Authority, and for reviewing 
international IPR agreements and examining their compliance with the national IPR Law. In 2016, 
a Committee for E -Commerce was established within the Ministry of Trade and Industry by 
Ministerial Decree 943/2016. The Committee will address IPR issues in the online environment.  
3.225.   The Intellectual Property Law No. 82/2002 is a unified law that covers the  major areas 
referred to in the TRIPS Agreement; it has been notified to the WTO.78 Executive Statutes to Books 
1, 2, and 4 of the Law were issued in 2004; Executive Statutes to Book 3, covering copyright and 
neighbouring rights, were issued in 2005. More r ecently, Presidential Decree No. 26/2015 
amended the law's provisions regarding plant varieties in order to allow for accession to the UPOV. 
In March 2017, the Egyptian Parliament approved Presidential Decree No. 84/2017 concerning 
Egypt's accession to the  International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV).  
3.226.   The authorities indicated that Egypt is considering accession to the Convention for the 
Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 
(Rome  Conven tion, 1961), and the Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the 
Deposit of Micro -organisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure.  
                                                
76 WTO document WT/Let/617, 18 April 2008.  
77 WTO document IP/N/3/Rev.11, 4 February 2010.  
78 WTO document IP/N/1/EGY/I/1, 6 August 2004.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.227.   The Intellectual Property Law sets the criteria for the protection of all IPR fields, defines 
the protected subjec t matter, sets out the granted rights and their permitted exceptions, in 
addition to setting the time limits for protection (Table 3.24). Furthermore, this Law deals with 
remedial means and procedures and includes provisions on civil and administrative pro cedures, 
remedies, provisional measures, criminal procedures, fines and sanctions.  
3.228.   There are no provisions in Egypt's IPR legislation that expressly allow or prohibit parallel 
imports. However, Egypt's IPR Law adopts the principle of international exhaust ion of IPRs 
according to Article 10 concerning patents, Article 71 concerning trademarks, Article 147 
concerning copyright and Article 198 concerning plant varieties.  
Table 3.24 Overview of IPR protection, 2017  
Subject  Coverage  Duration  Selected exclusions and limitations  
Patents and 
utility models  Any invention 
that is novel and 
susceptible of 
industrial 
application  20 years from 
the application 
filing date in 
Egypt (7 years 
for utility 
models)  No patent can be granted: (1) to innovations 
affecting national security, contradicting public 
morals and order, causing severe damage to the 
environment, or harming the life of humans, 
animals or plants; (2) to discoveries, scientific 
theories, mathematical methods, programs and 
drawings; (3) to diagnostics, therapeutic, and 
surgical methods for treatment of humans and 
animals; (4) to plants and animals however rare or 
unique, including biological processes for the 
production of animals  and plants, with the 
exception of micro -organisms, non -biological 
processes and micro -biological processes; (5) to 
organs, tissues, viable cells, DNA, and genomes.  
Compulsory licences may be granted to exploit an 
invention if the utilization is for non -commercial 
public use, or will resolve a national emergency, or 
other circumstances of extreme urgency, or will 
support the national effort in a significant sector for 
economic, social and technological development. 
Compulsory licences may also be granted i n the 
case of non -exploitation of a patent within 4 years 
following the application date, or 3 years from 
granting, or 1 year without a justified reason from 
the date of the last exploitation.  
Layout -design 
of integrated 
circuits  New integrated 
circuits  10 years from 
the application 
filing date in 
Egypt, or from 
the first 
commercial 
exploitation in 
Egypt or 
abroad, 
whichever is 
earlier. In all 
cases, 
protection 
expires after 15 
years from the 
date of its 
creation  Any natural or legal person has the right,  and 
without a licence from the rightful owner, to 
engage in the following: personal use of a 
protected layout -design for the purpose of 
examination, inspection, analysis, education, 
training or scientific research; innovation of a 
layout -design identical to another protected layout 
design using independent efforts; reproduction or 
commercial exploitation of an integrated circuit 
including a protected layout design or a product 
incorporating such an integrated circuit on behalf of 
a person unaware of the ex istence of a protected 
layout design in such product.  
Compulsory licences to exploit layout -designs may 
be granted under conditions similar to those for 
patents.  
Undisclosed 
information  Undisclosed 
information 
having a 
commercial value 
due to its 
secrecy  Competent 
authorities 
receiving the 
information 
must protect it 
against 
disclosure and 
unfair 
commercial use 
from the date 
of reception 
until expiration Some acts of  obtaining information are not 
considered contradictory to fair commercial 
practices, as obtaining the information from 
publicly available sources or by using personal and 
independent efforts through inspection, 
examination and analysis of products that ar e 
circulated in the market and that embody the 
undisclosed information; or from independent 
scientific research, innovation, invention, 
compilation, development, and improvement efforts 
exerted by independent persons.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  Subject  Coverage  Duration  Selected exclusions and limitations  
of the secrecy 
classification, or 
for a period not 
to exceed five 
years, 
whichever is 
less 
Trademarks 
and 
geographical 
indications  Trademarks that 
distinguish a 
product or 
service from 
others and 
include names, 
figures etc. 
Trade marks 
must be visual  One or more 
periods of 10 
years, 
indefinitely 
renewable  The non -effective use of a mark for five 
consecutive years can entai l its cancellation 
through court order.  
Trade marks cannot be registered if they are 
contrary to public order or morality, or similar or 
identical to religious, Red Cross, or Red Crescent 
symbols. Individual portraits, public emblems, 
flags, and other spec ial symbols cannot be 
registered.  
Industrial 
designs and 
models  Compositions or 
arrangements of 
lines or three -
dimensional 
figures with a 
specific 
appearance that 
are novel and 
industrially 
applicable  10 years from 
the application 
filing date. 
Protection may 
be renewed 
once for five 
years  Designs and models that cannot be registered 
include those which are dictated by technical or 
functional considerations; those comprised of logos, 
religious symbols, stamps, or flags; those which 
are contrary to public or der or morality, etc.  
Registered industrial designs and models are not 
violated if they are used for scientific research, 
education or training purposes, non -commercial 
activities, etc.  
Copyright and 
related rights  Literacy, 
scientific, and 
artistic works, 
including 
computer 
programs, 
databases, 
publications, 
lectures, 
speeches, and 
other oral works, 
phonographic 
works, applied 
and plastic art 
works, line or 
colour drawings, 
engravings, 
audio -visual and 
architectural  
work, illustrative 
pictures, 
geographical 
maps, sketches, 
topographies, 
designs  Authors, 
performers and 
their successors 
benefit from 
infinite literary 
rights.  
Financial rights 
for the authors 
and the authors 
of joint works 
are protected 
for their lives 
plus 50 years. 
For collective 
works, the 
protection is 
50 years from 
the date of the 
first public 
display or 
performance. 
This protection 
is reduced to 25 
years for 
authors of 
performing arts, 
and to 20 years 
for broadcasting 
organizations  Personal licenc es can be obtained for copying or 
translating, in return for fair indemnification to the 
author and observing certain conditions. After 
publication, third parties may copy, photograph, 
perform, or publish all or a part of the work, 
without causing a prejud ice to the literary rights of 
the author, as long as they do not obtain any direct 
or indirect financial compensation. Any work not 
translated into Arabic within three years of its 
publication is public domain.  
Plant 
varieties  Plant varieties 
that are novel, 
distinct, and 
uniform  25 years for 
trees and vines, 
20 years for 
other 
agriculture 
crops from the 
date of granting  Some activities are allowed, for example: non -
commercial activities and use for the purpose of 
personal propagation; scientific resear ch activities; 
breeding, hybridization, and selection activities 
aimed at propagating new varieties; education and 
training activities.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat based on information provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.3.7.2   Patents  
3.229.   Patent protection is granted for a period of 20 years from the date of filing. To be 
considered for patent protection the invention must be novel, must involve an innovative step, and 
must be susceptible of industrial application. No patent can be delivered to innovations affecting 
national  security, contradicting public morals and order, causing severe damage to the 
environment, or harming the life of humans, animals or plants, among others (Table 3.24). Patent 
protection cannot be extended to computer programs, or to plants and animals, wi th the exception 
of micro -organisms, non -biological processes and micro -biological processes.  
3.230.   Egyptian legislation allows for compulsory licences to be granted for the exploitation of an 
invention if the utilization is for non -commercial public use, or wil l resolve a national emergency, 
or other circumstances of extreme urgency, or will support the national effort in a significant 
sector for economic, social and technological development. Compulsory licences may also be 
granted in the case of non -exploitati on of a patent within 4 years of the application date, or three 
years of granting, or within one year of the date of the last exploitation without a justified reason. 
No compulsory licences for patents have been granted since 2005.  
3.231.   Applications for a paten t must be made to the Egyptian Patent Office, in the Academy of 
Scientific Research and Technology, ascribed to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific 
Research. The Egyptian Patent Office was appointed by the International Patent Cooperation Union  
Assembly as an International Searching Authority (ISA) and a Preliminary Examination Authority 
(IPEA) in 2009. The Egyptian Patent Office started operating as an ISA and IPEA on April 2013.  
3.232.   The cost of filing an application is LE  150 for patents or LE  100 for utility models, layout 
designs, and integrated circuits. Applications filed by students of educational institutes of any kind 
are exempt from fees. Filing can be done electronically. In addition, annual fees are levied; these 
increase gradually from L E 20 in the second year to LE  1,000 in the 20th year. Reduced fees are in 
place for natural persons, SMEs, and students. A 60 -day period is granted to file any opposition to 
a patent. Oppositions are subject to a fee of LE  500, which is refunded if the opp osition is 
accepted.  
3.233.   The number of patent applications has been relatively steady over the 2006 -16 period: in 
2016, there were 2,196 applications. The number of patents granted has fluctuated more, from 
130 in 2006 to a peak of 634 in 2012; in 2016, 471 p atents were granted (Table 3.25). The 
number of industrial design applications as well as the number of applications granted has been 
more volatile than in the case of patents. From a peak of 3,460 in 2010, the number of 
applications declined to about half  in 2011, and has remained at around that level since. In 2016, 
there were 1,932 industrial design applications and 290 applications were granted.  
Table 3.25 IPR activity, 2006 -16 
 2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Patent 
applications  1,966  2,167  2,130  1,942  2,230  2,201  2,163  2,010  2,112  2,080  2,196  
Applications granted  130 299 361 321 321 484 634 465 415 472 471 
PCT patents granted  .. .. .. .. .. 29 36 42 43 49 40 
Trade mark 
applications  13,652  16,080  15,134  14,077  18,371  13,936  14,280  13,583  15,327  16,215  11,782  
Applications granted  7,103  9,161  6,780  7,126  6,179  6,556  5,369  7,462  6,333  5,905  4,919  
Industrial design 
applications  2,285  2,413  3,092  2,044  3,460  1,785  1,598  1,750  1,951  1,711  1,932  
Applications granted  509 994 510 546 531 615 519 536 352 675 290 
Copyright 
applications  209 249 390 292 330 219 216 232 218 202 254 
Applications granted  209 249 390 292 330 219 216 232 218 202 254 
.. Not available.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
3.234.   The Egyptian Patent Office has signed cooperation agreements with the European Patent 
Office (EPO), with Japan's Patent Office (JPO) and with the State Intellectual Property Office of 
China (SIPO); it works in close  cooperation with the World Intellectual Property Organization 
(WIPO).  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.3.7.3   Trademarks, geographical indications and industrial designs  
3.235.   Trademark protection is also regulated by Law No. 82/2002. Trademarks are protected for 
one or more periods of 10 years, inde finitely renewable. For protection, it is necessary that they 
are registered with the Egyptian Trademarks and Industrial Designs Office of the Ministry of Trade 
and Industry. Trademarks granted registration are published in the Official Gazette . If an 
application for registration of a mark is filed in a WTO Member, or a country which extends 
reciprocity to Egypt, the applicant, or his rightful successor, may, within six months of the date of 
filing the application, file in Egypt a similar application for th e same mark, covering the same 
products included in the previous application. In such cases, the priority date is that of the first 
application in the foreign country.  
3.236.   Opposition against a trademark may be filed within five years of the mark's first 
regist ration or, if the registration was obtained in bad faith, at any time. In accordance with Law 
No. 82/2002, the person who has registered a trademark and who has made use of it for a period 
of five years from the date of its registration shall be deemed the  owner of such a trademark, 
unless precedence of use by a third party is proven. A prior user of the mark may, within the said 
period of five years, challenge the validity of its registration. There is no previous use requirement 
to register a trademark.  
3.237.   The owner of a mark may license one or more natural persons or legal entities to use the 
mark on all or some of the products for which the mark was registered. Such licensing to a third 
party may not prevent the owner from using his mark, unless otherwise a greed.  
3.238.   The owner of a well -known trademark, worldwide and in Egypt, has the right to enjoy the 
protection conferred by the Law even if such a mark is not registered in Egypt. The right of the 
mark owner to prevent third parties from the import, use, sale o r distribution of products 
distinguished by such a mark shall lapse when the owner undertakes the marketing of these 
products in any country, or authorizes a third party to do so.  
3.239.   Industrial designs and models are granted a protection term of 10 years from  the 
application filing date (renewable once for five years). They can be registered with the Egyptian 
Trademarks and Industrial Designs Office.  
3.240.   At the end of September 2015, the Egyptian Trademarks and Industrial Designs Office 
began using WIPO's Industri al Property Administration System (IPAS) to support its business 
process related to trademarks (soon also industrial designs).79 
3.241.   Geographical indications are addressed and are protected as such in Articles 104 to 118 of 
Law No. 82/2002 establishing the rule s governing their protection and the sanctions for violations. 
Article 104 defines geographical indication and stipulates that to be eligible for protection under 
Egyptian Law geographical indications must be protected in their country of origin.80 Law 
No. 82/2002 also prohibits the use of a geographical indication in a manner that misleads the 
public as to the true origin of the good.  
3.242.   Trademarks may contain geographical indications if production of the good under 
consideration is consistently undertaken by the applicant in the area referred to. However, a 
trademark that includes a geographical indication must not be registered as a trademark if its use 
would mislead the public with regard to the true origin of the good.  
3.3.7.4   Copyright  
3.243.   Copyright protection is cove red by Book 3 of Law No. 82/2002. It is extended to: books, 
booklets, articles, bulletins and any other written works; computer programs; databases; lectures, 
speeches, sermons and any other oral works when recorded; dramatic and dramatic -musical 
                                                
79 Information provided by the authorities and WIPO online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.wipo.int/global_ip/en/activities/technicalassistance/news/2015/news_0004.html . 
80 Article 104 states that "Where a geographical origin has become descriptive of the quality, reputat ion 
or other characteristics of a certain product so as to be largely instrumental in its marketing, such geographical 
indications shall be used to indicate the place of origin of such goods in a district or part in a country member 
in the World Trade Orga nization or a country according Egypt reciprocity."  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  works, an d pantomimes; musical works with or without words; audiovisual works; works of 
architecture; drawings with lines or colours, sculpture, lithography, printing on textile and any 
other similar works of fine arts; photographic and similar works; works of appl ied and plastic arts; 
illustrations, maps, sketches and three -dimensional works relating to geography, topography or 
architectural designs; and derivative works, without prejudice to the protection prescribed for the 
works from which they have been derived . Protection also covers the title of the work if it is 
inventive.  
3.244.   Copyright protection is extended to authors, performers and their successors. They benefit 
from infinite literary rights. Financial rights for the authors and the authors of joint works are  
protected for their lives plus 50 years. For collective works, the protection is 50 years from the 
date of the first public display or performance. Protection is reduced to 25 years for authors of 
performing arts, and to 20 years for broadcasting organiza tions. Registration is not required for 
protection. However, registration helps in the case of disputed rights.  
3.245.   The body in charge of copyright issues in Egypt is the Permanent Office for the Protection 
of Copyright, Supreme Council of Culture, in the Mini stry of Culture. Applications for copyright 
registration must be made, depending on the material, either to the National Centre for Cinema 
(under the Ministry of Information) for audiovisual works; the Cabinet Information and Decision 
Support Centre for co mputer works; or to the General Authority for Books and National Documents 
(under the Ministry of Culture) for written works and all other material.  
3.3.7.5   Plant varieties  
3.246.   Under Book Four of Law No. 82/2002, protection is granted to plant varieties, derived 
inside or outside Egypt, whether developed through biological or non -biological means, when 
registered in the special register of protected plant varieties. Presidential Decree No. 26/2015 
amended Book Four of the IPR Law in order to allow for accession to the International Union for 
the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV). The draft legislation was approved by the UPOV 
Board in March 2015. In March 2017, the Egyptian Parliament accepted Presidential Decree 
No. 84/2017 concerning the accession to UPOV. However, as at November 2017, Egypt was still an 
observer to UPOV.  
3.247.   Plant varieties must be novel, distinct, and uniform to be granted protection. The term of 
protection is 25 years for trees and vines, and 20 years for other agricultural crops from the dat e 
of granting. A variety, for which a breeder's right is requested, must be granted temporary 
protection starting from the date of the filing of the application and expiring on the date of the 
publication of the granting of the title.  
3.248.   Registration with the  Plant Varieties Protection Office (PVPO) in the Central Administration 
for Seed Certification (CASC) of the Ministry of Agriculture's Agricultural Service Sector is required 
for protection. The CASC is the only agency of the Ministry of Agriculture author ized to assure the 
quality of seeds through a legislative framework. The PVPO within the CASC acts a monitoring 
authority that does not breed or produce plant varieties or engage in trading activities. The PVPO 
is tasked with: receiving and examining appli cations; following -up tests results; following -up the 
maintenance of the protected varieties; issuing an Annual Bulletin; issuing certificates granting 
rights; publishing the accepted applications; and preparing Ministerial Decrees for plant variety 
protec tion. 
3.249.   In the 2008 -2016 period, there were 229 Egyptian applications and 282 foreign 
applications for plant variety protection. As at April 2017, 213 plant variety protection certificates 
had been granted, 95 requests had been rejected and 203 were under ex amination.81 The species 
protected up to 2017 include: strawberry (52 types), grapes (42), maize (27), potato (15), rice 
(9), squash (9), plum (8), blueberry (7), nectarine (6), tangerine (6), wheat (5), peaches (4), 
apricot (3), avocado (3), flax (2), mang o (2), orange (2), peas (3) watermelon (2), apple (1), 
artichoke (1), beans (1), beets (1), kiwi (1), and tomatoes (1).  
                                                
81 Of the requests granted protection, 56 were Egyptian, 102 were from the United States, 21 from 
South Africa, 9 from the Netherlands, 8 from Spain, 3 from Chile, 3 from Germany, 2 from Australia, 2 from 
France, 2 from Italy, 2 from the United Kingdom, 1 from Cyprus, 1 from Denmark, and 1 from Panama.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
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  3.3.7.6   Enforcement  
3.250.   Chapter 9 of the Executive Regulations to Implement Import and Export Law (Border 
Measures for the Protection against the Im portation of IPR Infringing Goods) handles IPR border 
measures in conformity with Articles 51 to 60 of the TRIPS Agreement.  
3.251.   The enforcement of the IPR law and its executive regulations is handled by various 
specialized authorities. Some of these authoritie s are entitled to act upon their own initiative 
(ex officio) regarding IPR crimes, while other authorities act upon complaints filed by right holders. 
Authorities entitled to take ex officio actions may use raids as a main element of enforcement; the 
autho rities have noted that they are regularly engaged in conducting raids to seize products 
infringing IPRs.  
3.252.   The Ministry of the Interior (MOI) is the main ex officio enforcing authority for all laws 
applied in Egypt including the IPR Law. The Supply Investiga tion Department under the MOI plays 
a major role in combating counterfeited trademarks and industrial designs, and is regularly 
engaged in raids to seize counterfeited products. The Cyber Investigation Unit under the MOI is 
responsible for combating Intern et copyright infringement. The Works Investigation and IP 
Protection Department within the MOI acts as a specialized department in combating artistic works 
crimes. With respect to software piracy, the Information Technology Industry Development Agency 
(ITIDA) is entitled to take ex officio actions against IPR infringements, and is also regularly 
engaged in conducting raids. The ITIDA also provides support in investigating IPR -related lawsuits, 
by providing technical reports.  
3.253.   Enforcement through border measu res is carried out by the Trade Agreements and Foreign 
Trade Sector (TAS) office in coordination with the Egyptian Customs Authority (ECA). Border 
measures are applied to all forms of intellectual property, and are not limited only to pirated 
copyrights an d counterfeited trademarks. The ECA may suspend goods when there is prima facie 
evidence of infringement. The TAS is competent for receiving complaints from right holders, 
inspection and decision making, while the ECA is responsible for implementing these decisions.  
3.254.   The Contact Point Organization for IPR Protection is considered as an expert body before 
economic courts. The Organization was reorganized by Ministerial Decree No. 203/2001, which 
entitles it to examine complaints of IPR infringements and to is sue legal and technical opinions as 
an expert body. The authorities have noted that many lawsuits are referred to it for examination, 
technical reports and recommendations. The Contact Point also receives complaints submitted by 
right holders for examinati on and technical reports. The Contact Point, together with the ITIDA, is 
responsible for raising awareness regarding IPR issues through the organization of awareness 
campaigns. To this end, the Contact Point Organization has held a number of courses, semin ars 
and workshops for judges of economic courts, prosecutors and experts of the Ministry of Justice, 
as well as for employees of IPR protection agencies.  
3.255.   Penalties for IPRs violations are detailed in Law No. 82/2002. These can be fines or 
imprisonment, de pending on the violation. The fines range from LE 2,000 to LE 100,000; prison 
terms are for not less than one month. In the case of recidivism, penalties increase to fines 
ranging from LE  10,000 to LE 200,000; and prison terms of not less than three months . 
 WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4  TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR  
4.1  Agriculture and Fisheries  
4.1.1   Agriculture  
4.1.1.1   Main features  
4.1.  Agriculture plays an important role for the Egyptian economy, both in terms of contribution to 
GDP and employment and as a source of foreign exchange earnings. In 2015/16 , agriculture 
accounted for  11.9% of Egypt's  GDP, 27% of employment and 22.8%  of its total exports. 
Table  4.1 describes the evolution of the share of agriculture in GDP, employment and exports 
during the period under review.  
Table 4.1 Evolution of the contribution of agriculture to GDP, employment and exports 
(2005/06 -2015/16) (%)  
 2005/
06 2006/
07 2007/
08 2008
/09 2009/
10 2010/
11 2011/
12 2012/
13 2013/
14 2014/
15 2015
/16 
Share of GDP  14.1 14.1 13.2 13.6 14 14.5 11 10.9 10.9 11.3 11.9 
Share of 
employment  31.2 31.7 29.5 29.9 28.2 29.2 27.1 28 27.5 25.8 27 
Share of exports  11.1 7.3 8.7 10 14.7 14.0 12.4 15.2 17.6 19.3 22.8 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.2.  Egypt's main exports are  cotton, rice, vegetables and fruits, aromatic and medicinal plants , 
and cut flowers. Egypt is a net importer of agricultural products; it reaches about self -sufficiency 
level only for eggs and is a net importer of wheat (for which it had a self -sufficienc y ratio (SSR) of 
52.2% in 2015 ), sugar (SSR of 79.3% ), red meat (SSR of 56.3% ), white meat (SSR of 93.4%), 
fish (SSR of 84.6%), milk (SSR of 79.5%)  and edible oils (SSR of 22.8% ). 
4.3.  Table 4.2 describes land use by crops between 2005 and 2016. The use of land  for the 
production of wheat has increased , by some 12% , and so has the use of land for the production of 
maize , by 14.4% , while for sugar beet it has risen by more than 235% . On the other hand, land 
dedicated to the production of sugar  cane has remained stable, while there has been a decline in 
areas used to grow rice mainly in order to rationalize the use of irrigation water. The land use for 
cotton has also declined.  
Table 4.2 Land use by crop, 2005 -16 
(Thousand  feddansa) 
Crop  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Wheat  2,985  3,064  2,716  2,920  3,147  3,001  3,049  3,161  3,378  3,393  3,469  3,353  
Maize  1,940  1,711  1,782  1,860  1,978  1,998  1,759  2,157  2,139  2,186  2,260  2,220  
Rice 1,459  1,593  1,673  1,770  1,369  1,093  1,409  1,472  1,419  1,364  1,216  1,353  
Sugar 
cane 321 363 335 330 317 320 325 326 329 332 328 326 
Sugar 
beet 167 186 248 258 265 386 362 424 460 504 555 560 
Cotton  657 536 575 313 284 369 520 333 287 369 241 131 
a 1 feddan is equivalent to 0.42 hectares.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.4.  Table 4.3 describes the evolution of the production of the most important agricultural crops in 
Egypt between 2005 and 2016. As can be seen, the production of sugar  beet has almost 
quadrupled during the period; the production of wheat has increased by 15%, and the production 
of meat, fruit and vegetables has also followed an upward path. However, during the period , Egypt 
has experienced a decline in the production of  some traditional crops such as cotton and rice.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 4.3 Agricultural outputs, 2005 -16 
('000 tonnes)  
  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Wheat  8,141  8,246  7,379  7,977  8,523  7,177  8,407  8,795  9,460  9,280  9,608  9,343  
Cotton lint  202 602 222 364 95 137 181 109 94 113 160 114 
Maize  7,085  6,150  6,243  6,930  7,686  7,041  6,876  8,094  7,957  8,060  7,803  7,818  
Rice, paddy  6,125  6,744  6,877  6,877  5,520  4,330  5,675  5,911  5,724  5,467  4,818  5,308  
Sugar beet  3,430  3,905  5,458  5,133  5,334  7,840  7,486  9,126  10,044  11,046  11,983  11,209  
Sugar cane  16,317  16,656  17,014  17,014  15,482  15,709  15,765  15,550  15,780  16,055  15,903  15,558  
Vegetablesa 16,846  20,308  18,995  21,502  21,351  19,488  18,992  19,825  17,634  19,352  21,338  2,003  
Fruitb 8,583  9,832  9,398  9,956  10,317  9,600  9,912  10,615  10,734  11,682  12,839  12,830  
Meat 1,460  1,674  1,773  1,795  1,884  1,945  1,984  2,018  2,137  2,212  2,268  2,200 . 
Edible oilsc 198 207 235 175 285 337 392 398 359 381 164 .. 
.. Not available.  
a Including melons.  
b Excluding melons.  
c Edible oils include cottonseed, groundnut, soybean, and sunflower oil, and virgin olive oil.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities  
4.5.  Table 4.4 describes the evolution of livestock during the period 2005 -16. As can be seen, 
growth in the number of livestock heads has been overall very moderate over the period. The 
number of heads has been relatively stable; except for cows and camels , whose numbers have 
registered a slight increase.  
Table 4.4 Livestock, 2005 -16 
('000 of heads)  
Year Cows  Buffalos  Sheep  Goats  Camels  
2005 4,485  3,885  5,232  3,803  142 
2006 4,610  3,937  5,385  3,877  148 
2007 4,933  4,042  5,467  4,211  137 
2008 5,023  4,053  5,498  4,473  107 
2009 4,525  3,839  5,592  4,139  137 
2010 4,540  3,870  5,645  4,210  137 
2011 4,780  3,983  5,365  4,258  137 
2012 4,946  4,165  5,430  4,306  142 
2013 4,745  3,915  5,564  4,153  153 
2014 4,762  3,949  5,503  4,186  158 
2015 4,883  3,702  5,463  4,046  153 
2016 5,012  3,437  5,556  4,260  157 
Source:  Data provided by the authorities.  
4.6.  As was noted above, production of most crops (and the corresponding areas  used) has 
generally increased during the period under review, with the except ion of  rice. Policies were 
implemented in 2015 to decrease the area under rice cultivation , due to the fact that it is a crop 
that uses large amounts of water. The policy instruments used include  a ban that has been place d 
on the cultivation of rice in areas other than those specif ied by the Ministry of Water Resources 
and Irrigation each year, imposing a penalty of LE  3,000 per feddan for violations. Other measures 
included: accelerating the payment of penalties to prevent the recurrence of violations; requiring 
the payment of the equivalent cost of the water wasted by cultivating in other areas; and 
preventing rice exportation. In addition, the Egyptian Government has defined guaranteed prices 
for maize, a competitor product for rice, from 2011 to 2017 so as to encourage farmers to  
decrease the cultivation of rice and increase the production of maize. The fast growth of sugar 
beet production has been a result of policies that aim to replace the grow ing of sugar  cane with 
that of another crop that requires less water.  
4.7.  As noted above and despite increases in the production of some crops, Egypt continues to be 
a significant  overall importer of food. Egypt must meet the challenge of satisfying the demand of a 
fast-increasing population, which partly explains its growing trade deficit in agricultural products. 
Although this deficit has fluctuated considerably over the years, it is of a structural nature since it WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  follows a trend that started back in 1974. The value of agricultural imports is about three times 
that of agricultural exports as  described in Table 4.5. Overall, Egypt relies on imports for a 
considerable part of its food consumption and is vulnerable to changes in international food prices 
and supplies. In 2016, some 17.5%  of all merchandise export earnings were spent on agricultu ral 
imports.  
Table 4.5 Development of agricultural foreign trade in Egypt,  2005 -16 
(US$ billion)  
 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Agricultural 
exports  983  930 1,193  2,075  2,915  3,131  3,026  2,684  2,867  2,954  2,852  2,676  
Agricultural 
imports  2,408  2,269  3,647  4,819  4,390  5,632  8,211  8,806  5,133  4,165  4,100  3,840  
Agricultural 
trade balance  -1,425  -1,339  -2,454  -2,744  -1,475  -2,501  -5,185  -6,122  -2,266  -1,211  -1,248  -1,164  
Note:  WTO agriculture definition.1 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.1.1.2   Policy developments  
4.1.1.2.1   Overall strategy  
4.8.  The agricultural policy of Egypt has two main targets: (a) to provide support to farmers and 
more generally to the agricultural sector and (b) to ensure the supply of food to the entire  
population at reasonable prices. The latter  is to be achieved either t hrough domestic production or 
through importation, by subsidizing basic foodstuff s for the poorer segments of the population and 
by trying to use comparative advantage as a means to arbitrate between domestic production and 
importation. To this end, accord ing to the authorities, Egypt seeks production specialization in 
crops where it has a relative comparative advantage , such as fruits and vegetables, and to 
maintain a certain degree of self -sufficiency for all other crops for food security and social stabi lity 
purposes; the remaining demand is to be met by imports.  
4.9.  The State intervenes in order to meet the targets described above. The State purchases 
crops such as wheat from farmers through the General Authority for Supply of Commodities 
(GASC), in addition  to importing basic foodstuffs to form the country's strategic food stocks of the 
main commodities (wheat, flour, sugar, and edible oil) . There is no state monopoly either for 
importing foodstuffs or for buying crops from farmers domestically. If a private  sector operator 
buys crops from farmers it does so at market prices, the farmer always having the choice between 
selling to the State at guaranteed prices and selling to the private sector at market prices. The 
State has the obligation to buy at guarantee d prices if the farmer chooses that option, but there is 
no obligation for t he farmer to sell to the State.  
4.10.   Egypt provides state support for production and consumption. However, in budgetary terms , 
the actual spending for direct farming support is much low er than the actual spending for food 
subsidies. According to information provided by the Egyptian Ministry of Finance, about 
US$4.19  billion were allocated in 2015/16 for food support and about US$367.8 million for support 
to farmers, including the partial  subsidization by the Government of pesticides for cotton 
production.  
4.11.   The main agricultural policy orientation has been successively defined by the 1990 
Agricultural Strategy Towards 2017  and the 2009 Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy 
Towards 2 030 (SADS 2030). Among the challenges identified by these strategies are the following: 
improving the efficiency of water resources used for irrigation; addressing the problem of 
agricultural land fragmentation; limiting the encroachment on agricultural la nd; strengthening 
agriculture with effective institutions for small farmers; increasing the effectiveness of agricultural 
research and extension institutions in supporting agricultural development efforts; taking 
                                                
1 WTO definition of agriculture: HS Chapters 01 -24 less fish and fishery products (HS Chapter 3, 0508, 
0511.91, 1504.10, 1504.20, 1603 -1605 and 2301.20) plus  some selected products (HS 2905.43, 2905.44, 
2905.45, 3301, 3501 -3505, 3809.10, 3823, 3824.60, 4101 -4103, 4301, 5001 -5003, 5101 -5103, 5201 -5203, 
5301, and 5302).  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  advantage of the progress in the informatio n and communications field; reducing postharvest 
agricultural production losses; and preparing the agricultural sector to adapt to climate change.  
4.12.   The objectives of the SADS 2030 are the following:  
 Improving the living standards of the rural population and  reducing rural poverty rates;  
 Achieving  sustainable use of natural agricultural resources;  
 Increasing agricultural productivity;  
 Achieving a higher degree of food security;  
 Strengthening the competitiveness of agricultural products in domestic and interna tional 
markets; and  
 Improving the climate of agricultural investment.  
4.13.   Regarding , in particular , the improvement of the standard of living of the rural population, 
the SADS 2030 plans to use the following policy instruments : 
 Diversifying production by encou raging the establishment of agricultur e-related activities 
and projects in rural areas, such as marketing and manufacturing activities;  
 Planning new agricultural activities encompassing multiple areas and projects, thus 
supporting the establishment of inte grated agricultural industrial service communities ;  
 Supporting and developing small rural crafts and industries, thus creating new job 
opportunities and improving incomes;  
 Maximizing farmers' use of agricultural residues, both from plants and animals, and  turning 
them into useful materials with added economic value (fertilizers, feed and energy), also 
contributing to improving the cleanliness of the rural environment;  
 Supporting and developing small farmers' institutions, especially in the field of agricul tural 
marketing, to increase the marketability of their products at fair prices;  
 Working to integrate small farmers in to export activities;  and 
 Promoting the role of women in various areas of rural development.  
4.1.1.2.2   Support to farming  
4.14.   Support to farming is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land 
Reclamation (MALR). Since Egypt has been following an agricultural policy of reform based on 
liberalization and privatization over the past 30 years, direct government c ontrol on the 
agricultural sector has been eliminated and the role of the MALR is now confined to scientific 
research and agricultural extension activities , the reclamation of land, technical assistance, 
monitoring and control, data gathering , and the prep aration of economic studies to help farmers 
make sound decisions.  
4.15.   The General Authority for Improving Land Support to Farmers and Young Graduates, a body 
affiliated to the MALR, plays an important operational role in the support of farmers by providing 
them with a number of services: soil and water analysis, primary surfacing by operational 
equipment, land laser surfacing, deep tillage under soil, establishing and clearing drains and small 
irrigation channels, contributing to environment protection through bridging swamps, and helping 
farmers  face natural disasters such as floods. Table 4.6 below describes the evolution of actual 
spending for investments in  land improvement projects between 2005/06 and 2015/16.  
Table 4.6 Evolution of the spending on investments for land improvement projects in 
Egypt,  2005/06 -2015/16  
(LE million)  
Years  2005/ 
06 2006/ 
07 2007/ 
08 2008/ 
09 2009/ 
10 2010/ 
11 2011/ 
12 2012/ 
13 2013/ 
14 2014/ 
15 2015/ 
16 
Investments 
executed  36.9 32.0 14.7 45.1 41.8 16.0 40.6 64.4 43.5 46.3 22.0 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.16.   Arable land is a scarce resource in Egypt as most of the territory is covered by desert and 
agriculture is competing with urbanization for the use of land in areas such as the Nile Valley and 
the Delta. In addition, land suffers from excessive fragmentation, which slows down the adoption 
of modern water and crop management techniques.  It is noticeable that the average area of  an WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  agricultural tenure in Egypt has recently decreased, from about 2.7 acres in 1989/1990 to 
2.19 acres in 2009/2010 . The number of holders of less than one feddan increased from about 
1.05 million, representing about 36.1% of the total holdings in 1990, to about 2.14 million, 
representing about 48.3% of the total number of holdings in 2010 . The area represented by 
holdings of less than one feddan, which totalled 508,100 feddans and represented about 6.5% of 
the total area of holdings in 1990, increased to  about 924,000 feddans and represented about 
9.5% of the total area of holdings in 2010 . 
4.17.   Two types of agricultural land management policies are pursued in Egypt: "horizontal " and 
"vertical" expansion. Horizontal expansion is the reclamation of new land in  the desert and its 
irrigation. The latter is done with groundwater in addition to the Nile water provided by the Field 
Irrigation Development Programme (see below) , and by reducing the area assigned . The 
Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy Towar ds 2030 aims at reclaiming 1.3 million 
hectares (3.1 million acres) by 2030. Under this programme, a  part of the reclaimed lands will be 
exploited by foreign investors in the form of build -operate -transfer (BOT) agreements, while other 
lots will be attribu ted to investment companies, small farmers and young investors/farmers, with 
the aim of helping tenures acquire an economically viable size and to fully benefit from modern 
technologies.  
Table 4.7 Evolution of  the reclaimed land areas in Egypt,  2005/06 -2015/16  
('000 acres)  
Years  2005/
06 2006/
07 2007/
08 2008/
09 2009/
10 2010/
11 2011/
12 2012/
13 2013/
14 2014/
15 2015/
16 
Reclaimed 
land  38.8  231.6  95.2  22 14.7  15.5  39 22.9  22.6  14.5  38.5  
Source:  Information provided  by the authorities . 
4.18.   The second type of land expansion mode, vertical expansion, consists in increasing the per 
unit productivity of the land. This includes:  
 The development of salt -tolerant and drought -resistant crop varieties to face the problems 
associated with climate change (rise in temperature in the Middle  East and North Africa 
region). The authorities consider that the development of highly salt tolerant  varieties is 
necessary for the reuse of wastewater, as well as for the expansion of the use of marginal 
land with high salinity, as is the case of the horizontal expansion lands in North Sinai;  
 The production of short -life varieties, to reduce water consu mption on the one hand, and 
increase crop intensification rates on the other hand. In this respect, the authorities consider 
that where more than two crops can be grown per year water is saved for horizontal 
expansion;  and  
 The provision of integrated technological packages together with the required technical and 
advisory staff to manage various crops and transfer this knowledge to farmers.  
4.19.   As mentioned above, the GASC buys a share of the wheat crop  at administered prices so as 
to guarantee a revenue t o farmers and orient planting decisions, as well as to build up public 
stocks of basic foodstuff to be processed and sold to the general population at subsidized prices. 
The State fixes the guaranteed price and purchases the crop from farmers before the pl anting 
date, so that the farmer can make a decision on whether or not to produce wheat. Table 4.8 shows 
the evolution of the farm gate (guaranteed) price for wheat, the price of imported wheat and the 
quantity purchased from farmers by the Government throu gh the GASC in the 2005 -16 period. The 
authorities have indicated that purchases from the Government represent some 35% of the total 
crop.  Also, the GASC is responsible for close to half of total imports, which are made for the 
subsidized wheat programme. A FAO study shows that the Government' s share of imports has 
been declining, partly as a result of the increased procurement of domestic wheat.2 
                                                
2 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2015), Egypt, Wheat Sector Review . Country highlig hts, 
prepared under the FAO /EBRD Cooperation . Consulted at: http://www.fao.org/3/a -i4898e.pdf . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 4.8 Evolution of farm gate (guaranteed) and import prices of wheat and quantities 
purchased from domestic farmers by the GASC, 2005 -16 
Years  Farm gate price 
(LE/ton)  Import price (LE/ton)  Quantity purchased from 
farmers by the GASC 
(million  tons)  
2005 1,120.0  941.0  2.8 
2006 1,126.7  954.1  1.8 
2007 1,153.3  1,493.4  2.3 
2008 2,553.3  2,822.6  2.5 
2009 1,613.3  2,159.5  3.2 
2010 1,813.3  1,264.6  2.1 
2011 2,346.7  1,946.9  2.6 
2012 2,520.0  3,292.0  3.7 
2013 2,586.7  2,328.8  2.7 
2014 2,740.0  2,816.3  3.7 
2015 2,760.0  2,160.5  5.3 
2016 2,773.3  2,080.2  4.9 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.20.   With respect to water management, the goal is to improve water  use by rationalizing it, 
particularly by lowering water  utilization in agriculture, which currently represents some 85% of 
Egypt's water consumption. One of the SADS ' goals is to lower the ratio of total (sustainable) 
water consumption from 107% in 2015 to 100% in 2020 and 80% in 2030.3 The SADS also aims 
at reducing the percentage of loss in water transfer networks from the current 15% to less than 
5% by  2030. Another goal is achieving water conveyance efficiency levels ranging from 70% to 
80% and water distribution efficiency levels of between  50% and 60% by 2030 . The Farm -Level 
Irrigation Modernization Project, a national programme for rationalizing wat er use in agriculture , is 
currently being implemented jointly by the MALR and the Ministry of Water Resources and 
Irrigation. The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation established the programme in 1987, 
which was implemented in cooperation with USAID and the World Bank. The Farm -Level Irrigation 
Modernization Project aims at achieving an equitable distribution of water, a nd timely access to 
water resources in the quantity needed. The savings in water due to the implementation of the 
project are estimat ed at about 15% of the amount of water used in agriculture. This is achieved 
through, for instance, the improvement and development of canals, setting up irrigation branches 
and water installations, the formation of water user associations, and the levelli ng of land with 
laser equipment. The water thus saved is intended for use in the reclamation and cultivation of 
new lands. The project also aims to achieve an increase of between 10% and 25%, depending on 
the crop, in the productivity of crops in the proje ct area. The Farm -Level Irrigation Modernization 
Project currently works on an area of about 560,000 feddans in 11 districts in different 
governorates.  
4.21.   With respect to the management of labour, the Government supports education 
programmes and encourages fa rmers to form cooperatives or small farmers' organizations. In this 
respect, t he Agricultural Cooperation Law was amended to encourage cooperatives to carry out 
their assigned role . 
4.22.   Investment in agriculture remains limited: funds directed to agriculture r epresented only 
2.8%  of total government investments and 5.3%  of total private investment  in 2015/2016 . 
Similarly, funds devoted to agricultural extension and  research are relatively low by international 
standards, having reached LE 285.9 million in 2015/2016 . To facilitate access to funds, the 
Government is encouraging the development of rural credit and agricultural insurance. According 
to information provided by the authorities, credit may be granted at preferential interest rates. 
Access to insura nce must be requested by the farmer: it may cover pests, catastrophes and 
diseases, but not price fluctuations.  
                                                
3 This ratio  shows the total volume of fresh water consumed by humans (agriculture, industry, and 
home) as a percentage of total renewable fresh water resources available for the State . SADS 2030, 
Environmental Dimension (Ninth Pillar). Viewed at: http://sdsegypt2030.com/wp -content/uploads/2016/ 
10/10. -Environment -Pillar.pdf . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.1.1.2.3   Market access  
4.23.   Bound rates for agricultural products range from 1% to 3000%, which is the maximum rate 
for alcoholic beverages. The simple averag e MFN applied rate  for agricultural products  in 2017 was 
51.6% (11%, if alcoholic beverages are excluded) (Section 3). Egypt does not use MFN tariff rate 
quotas. However , it applies tariff rate quotas in the context of some of its preferential trade 
agreem ents. Table 4.9 below describes the agricultural provision s of FTAs signed by Egypt.  
Table 4.9 Main agricultural provisions in Egypt's FTAs  
FTA Main agricultural provisions  
EU–Egypt Association 
Agreement  The two parties have amended the Protocols on Agricultural Products, Processed 
Agricultural Products and Fish and Fishery Products. These new protocols entered 
into force on 1 June 2010.  
Customs duties applicable on the importation into either party shall be f ully 
eliminated, except for tomatoes, garlic, cucumbers, squash, artichokes, grapes, 
strawberries, rice and processed agricultural products containing 70% sugar 
content, which are subject to special treatment (they are either not subject to 
any preferentia l treatment or are subject to preferential treatment within tariff 
rate quota limits).  
Egypt –Turkey Free 
Trade Agreement  The two parties have agreed to grant each other concessions either as tariff rate 
quotas or tariff reductions on a selected number of agricultural and fishery 
products. The two parties exchanged the same concessions on processed 
agricultural products.  
Egypt –EFTA Free Trade 
Agreement  (a) Treatment of processed agriculture goods: b oth parties agreed on the list 
of Egyptian exports that is to be accorded preferential treatment by EFTA 
countries for a period of 5 years, renewable. This preferential treatment is not 
reciprocal. This unilateral preferential treatment granted to the Egyptian 
processed agriculture exports was extended to 31 July 2016 .  
(b) Fisheries and marine products: u pon entry into force of the agreement, 
both parties agreed on grant ing some Egyptian fisheries products, such as 
processed, canned fish, Mollusca , among others, a total exemption from tariffs.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.24.   Egypt currently imposes export duties on sugar and feed components. Pursuant to Minister 
of Commerce and Industry Decree No. 469/2017 of 30 March 2017, a fee of LE 3,000 per ton was 
imposed on exports of sugar. Pursuant to article 7 of Law No. 118/1975 , the exportation of certain 
commodities can be prohibited or restricted by minister ial decree under certain circumstances. The 
Government did so for rice between 2008 and 2014.  
4.25.   The authorities have stated that Egypt follows a n "open doors"  policy with no restrictions on 
foreign investment in agriculture and the processing of agricultural  production. In fact, there is 
considerable foreign investment in the reclaimed "new lands". Table 4.10 provides data on stocks 
of foreign investment and on foreign companies investing in various agricultural and agri -
processing subsectors.  
Table 4.10 Foreign investment in agricultural and agri -processing activities in Egypt,  
2015  
Activity  Number of 
companies  Percentage 
share  Capital inflow in 
LE million  Percentage in 
capital inflow  
Land reclamation  5,008  77.1 38,743.4  78.1 
Agro-industrial integration  39 0.6 3,525.0  7.1 
Poultry production  168 2.6 3,034.8  6.1 
Animal production, fisheries, 
poultry production and feed  725 11.2 1,728.5  3.4 
Feed 391 6.0 1,484.7  3.0 
Slaughter houses  53 0.9 862.3  1.7 
Fisheries  98 1.5 251.9  0.5 
Other  9 0.1 30.3 0.1 
Total  6,491  100.0  49,662.0  100.0  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.1.1.2.4   The Food Subsidy Programme  
4.26.   As mentioned above, in view of the increasing gap between population growth and that of 
domestic agricultural production and for historical and social reasons, the Government subsidizes 
the prices of basic foodstuff s such as bread, wheat, rice, sugar and edible oils , including in certain 
instances (wheat/bread) subsidies to food processors. The number  of beneficiaries of bread 
subsidies is 82.2 million.  
4.27.   The authority responsible for the administration of the Food Subsidy Programme is the 
General Administration for the S upply of Commodities (GASC). Table 4.11 shows the evolution of 
subsidies devoted to this programme between 2006/07 and 2015/16. As can be seen, these 
subsidies have increased fivefold over the period.  
Table 4.11 Ration card subsidies under the Food Subsidy Programme, 2006/07 -2015/16  
(LE million)  
Ration 
card 
subsidies   2006/ 
07 2007/ 
08 2008/ 
09 2009/ 
10 2010/ 
11 2011/ 
12 2012/ 
13 2013/ 
14 2014/ 
15 2015/ 
16 
2,320  3,784  6,827  5,859  9,379  13,613  17,366  14,765  12,527  12,527  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.28.   A reform of the ration card system so as to better target the poorest segments of the 
population and to avoid leakages and spillages is ongoing, through the deployment of smart cards.  
4.1.2   Fisheries  
4.29.   The fishing industry remains of moderate importance to Egypt, which is a net importer of 
fish and fish products. There are four main fishing areas in Egypt: the Mediterranean Sea, the Red 
Sea, the lakes and the Nile River. Catches in the Mediterranean and the Nile have shown a 
declining trend while catches in the lakes and the Red Sea have been stable or have even grown 
slightly. Aquaculture has become increasingly the most important segment of the fishing industry, 
doubling between 2006 and 2015, while the  volume of total catch has remained relatively stable 
(Table 4.12). Egypt had the tenth  largest aquaculture production in the world in 2015. 
Consumption increased by some 50% between 2006 and 20 15, while exports, although still 
modest, increased fivefold i n volume terms.  
Table 4.12 Production, consumption, imports and exports of fish  (including aquaculture) 
in Egypt in volume terms, 2006 -15 
(Million tons)  
 2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  
Total catch  0.38 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.38 0.35 0.36 0.35 0.34 
Aquaculture 
production  0.6 0.64 0.69 0.71 0.92 0.99 1.02 1.1 1.14 1.18 
Consumption  1.17 1.26 1,198  1.20 1.55 1.54 1.69 1.67 1.81 1.8 
Exports  0.004  0.004  0.01 0.01 0.011  0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 
Imports  021 0.26 0.14 0.14 0.26 0.18 0.34 0.24 0.36 0.30 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.30.   The value of aquaculture production more than tripled between 2006 and 2015, when it 
reached LE 17.14 billion. The value of exports of fish and  aquaculture products, although still 
relatively moderate, increased twelvefold over the period, while the value of imports also increased 
(Table 4.13). Egypt runs a sizeable trade deficit in fish products, including aquaculture, which 
reached some L E 5.5 billion in 2015 (US$700 million at that ye ar's exchange rate; some 
US$312  million at end -2017 exchange rates).  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  Table 4.13 Production, imports and exports of fish (including aquaculture) in Egypt in 
value terms , 2006 -15 
(LE billion)  
 2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  
Total catch  3.94 4.26 4.09 4.14 4.69 5.17 5.47 5.28 5.98 6.27 
Aquaculture 
production  5.37 6.56 6.73 7.52 9.81 11.65  12.19  14.35  16.3 17.14  
Exports  0.02 0.03 0.06 - 0.09 0.14 0.11 0.16 0.24 0.24 
Imports  0.59 1.22 2.04 - 2.78 3.12 4.77 2.98 5.35 5.75 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.31.   As illustrated by table 4.14, the number of fishing vessels deployed in Egypt has slightly 
declined between 2010 and 2015, notably due to the modernization of the fleet. Vessels are 
granted f ishing licences , which are renewed annually. Fishermen are grante d "fishing cards" for 
periods of five years  in the case of permanent fishermen, and for one year in the case of 
temporary fishermen . 
Table 4.14 Employment and number of vessels in the fisheries sector, 2010 -16 
 2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  
Number of fishing 
vessels  38,522  33,488  32,020  31,214  32,049  34,292  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.32.   The regulatory authority for fisheries and aquaculture in Egypt is the General Authority for 
Fish Resources Development (GAFRD), under the aegis of the MALR. The basic legislation for the 
sector is Law No. 124/1983 on fishing, aquaculture and the organizat ion of fish farms (Fishing 
Law).  
4.33.   The GAFRD has set a goal for fish production, including aquaculture, of 2.2 million tons for 
2020 and 3 million tons for 2030. Other goals include: achieving new employment opportunities 
for the sector; creating integrated  production communities; providing fish to the population at 
reasonable prices, in particular to the low income population; exporting "luxury" fish such as sea 
bass, sea bream and shrimp to increase foreign exchange revenue; and developing fish production 
in line with population growth. In order to achieve the above -mentioned goals, the GAFRD has 
deployed a five -axis policy, which consists of: (a) the expansion of aquaculture projects across the 
whole chain of production (hatcheries, feed factories, farms, fish cages); (b) the exploitation of 
fish farming projects in desert areas; (c) the expansion of intensive aquaculture projects; (d) the 
development of resources by increasing the productivity of lake and Nile waters via the release of 
fish fry and the dep ollution of waters; and (e) the development and modernization of the Egyptian 
fishing fleet by equipping vessels notably with chilling and preservation systems, so as to allow it 
to fish in deep waters, in particular in the Egyptian Exclusive Economic Zone . 
4.34.   The GAFRD has also identified a number of challenges faced by the fishing industry. These 
challenges include: overfishing, in particular in the Mediterranean Sea; competition for the use of 
waters with other economic sectors; pollution; enforcement of na tional and international fishing 
rules; non -utilization so far of the resources of the Egyptian Exclusive Economic Zone; endemic 
disease; and lack of financial resources for further aquaculture projects. To take into account those 
challenges, a general ove rhaul of the basic fishing legislation, which dates back to 1984, is under 
examination in the Parliament. The main features of this legislative reform include: (a) tightening 
overfishing penalties to protect fish stocks  – in case of illegal fishing , the Captain of the fishing 
vessel may face imprisonment of up to two years or/and shall pay a fine of between LE  10,000 and 
LE 200,000; and (b) irrigation of fish farms and granting them the right to use fresh water.  
4.35.   The Hurghada Declaration was signed i n June 2009 with the purpose of combatting over -
fishing in Egypt's Red Sea. This declaration of principles seeks to ban all trawling in the Red Sea 
with the exception of the area north of the Gulf of Suez  and in the south of the Red Sea . It also 
seeks to e stablish "no -take" zones, which are areas free of fishing activity. The Hurghada 
Declaration was formulated and signed by the Hurghada Environmental Protection and 
Conservation Association (an independent NGO) in cooperation with the Governorates of the Re d 
Sea, South Sinai, and Suez, along with the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment.  Reflecting WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  these goals and policies, and as a first step, Egypt has ceased to deliver licences for vessels using 
trawlers in this zone.  
4.36.   In the fisheries subsidies negot iations in the WTO, Egypt has stated that it is in favour of 
further technical work and of linking the results of the negotiations to those of other subjects, be 
they in the context of the Negotiating Group on Rules (anti -dumping, subsidies and regional tr ade 
agreements) or in the wider context of the Doha Development Agenda (agriculture, NAMA and 
services).  
4.2  Mining and Energy  
4.2.1   Overview  
4.37.   The mining sector, including the production of hydrocarbons, accounted for 8% of GDP in 
fiscal year 2015/16. Hydrocarbons ac count for most of the sector's production, the rest is 
comprised of phosphate and barite. T he energy sector (production of hydrocarbons, refined 
petroleum products and electricity) accounted overall for 13.7% of Egyptian GDP in 2015.4 The 
primary fuel mix of Egypt's energy sector for the same year was: gas (53%), oil (41%), 
hydroelectric (3%), coal (2%), and solar and wind (1%). Egypt is the largest oil and gas consumer 
in Africa, accounting for 20% of the continent's petroleum consumption and 40% of dry na tural 
gas consumption. Despite this, consumption per capita remains at a relatively low level by 
international standards. On the production side, Egypt is the largest non -OPEC oil producer in 
Africa and the second largest dry natural gas producer on the co ntinent. It also plays a major role 
in the transit of oil and gas from the Arab -Persian gulf to Europe and the United States via the 
Suez Canal and the Sumed pipeline.  
4.38.   The early part of the period under review was characterized by the creation of an energy  
gap due to the decline in the supply of natural gas, stagnant oil production and a shortfall in 
electricity generation capacity. More recently, however, this gap has been closed, particularly as of 
2015, as Egypt started importing liquefied natural gas (LNG), new start -up power plants were built 
under an emergency programme, and numerous concession agreements for the exploitation and 
production of oil and gas were signed. Furthermore, new natural gas fields have been recently 
discovered in the Western Dese rt and offshore and will soon come into exploitation.  
4.39.   The Government is continuing its efforts to increase Egypt's electrical generation and 
distribution capacity through a combination of new investments and of regulatory reforms opening 
and partially unbu ndling the sector, with particular attention to renewable energies. The 
Government has also recently undertaken to progressively diminish (in certain instances, 
drastically ) energy subsidies granted to consumers, which have traditionally been a heavy drag on 
Egypt's budget.  
4.40.   Energy is considered the second pillar of the 2016 "Sustainable Development Strategy: 
Egypt Vision 2030" which includes ten such pillars. Some of the main objectives set by this 
Strategy with respect to energy are: ensuring energy securi ty for Egypt; maximizing the utilization 
of domestic energy resources; reducing the intensity of energy consumption; changing the energy 
mix by relying more on renewable energy sources, especially wind and solar power; initiating a 
legislative reform aimed  at encouraging private sector participation in the renewable energy 
business; encouraging the use of coal in electricity generation or as an alternative fuel for some 
industries; building at least one nuclear power plant; encouraging the adoption of techn ological 
solutions and applications to rationalize energy consumption and to optimize the exploitation of 
available energy resources; and promoting the use of sustainable and environmentally friendly 
technologies. The Strategy aims at reducing greenhouse g as emissions from the energy sector by 
5% between 2016 and 2020, and by 10% by 2030.  
                                                
4 Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt Vision 2030, Energy Pillar. Viewed at: 
http://sdsegypt2030.com/category/reports -en/?lang=en . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.2.2   Oil and gas  
4.2.2.1   Oil 
4.41.   The petroleum industry in Egypt is dominated by the state-owned Egyptian General 
Petroleum Corporation (EGPC), established in 1956, and whose regulatory framework of 
operations dates back to 1976 and is included in Law No. 20/76. EGPC is active in all segments of 
the petroleum industry: exploration, developm ent, production, drilling, engineering, refining and 
processing, transportation, supply and distribution, trading imports and exports.  
4.42.   Exploration, development and production activities must be undertaken in joint ventures 
with foreign companies or through  public sector affiliated companies which are also present in 
refining, processing, transportation and distribution activities. In 2017, there were 41 such joint 
ventures and public sector companies. In the case of joint ventures, private companies are 
generally allowed to sell directly up to 30% of production. A third legal form of establishment is 
through the so -called "investment law companies" with reference to the now repealed Investment 
Law N o. 8/1997. As at November 2017, 87 such companies had been  established under this law. 
EGPC is a shareholder of these companies, either directly or through affiliated companies. 
Investment law companies are active in areas such as drilling, engineering, construction, 
fabrication, maintenance, training, as well as r efining and processing . 
4.43.   During most of the period under review, Egypt has been a net exporter of crude oil, as 
domestic production has generally outpaced domestic consumption (Table 4.15). The main 
domestic users of oil are: the transportation sector; heav y industries such as cement, steel and 
petrochemicals; and electricity generation companies. Oil production in Egypt takes place in seven 
main areas: the Western Desert, which accounts for 56% of production, the Gulf of Suez (20%), 
the Eastern Desert (9.5% ), the Sinai Peninsula (10%), the Mediterranean Sea (3.3%), and the 
Nile Delta and Upper Egypt (1.2%). Production comes from relatively small fields. In recent years, 
foreign investment in the upstream oil sector has resumed and numerous exploration conces sions 
have been granted. Proven oil reserves are estimated at 4.2 billion barrels (2017).  
Table 4.15 Production, consumption , imports and exports of crude oil in Egypt, 2005 /06-
2015/ 16 
(Million tons)  
 2005/
06 2006/
07 2007/
08 2008/
09 2009/
10 2010/
11 2011/
12 2012/
13 2013/
14 2014/
15 2015/
16 
Production  31.1 30.8 31.6 33.3 32.7 33.3 33.4 32.9 33 33.7 33.2 
Consumption  31.5 31.4 33.1 31.3 29.8 28.9 26.6 26.7 25.6 26.4 26.3 
Imports  2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.1 2.9 2.2 4.9 3.1 
Exportsa 2.6 2.9 3.4 4.1 4.1 4.3 4.3 5.2 4.2 5.9 5.5 
a Excluding so -called "partner share exports and cost recovery excess" , i.e. the share of oil that EGPC 
allows its partners to sell directly (generally 30% of total production) and the reimbursement in kind 
by EGPC of the initial development costs over a 20 -year period, respectively.  
Source:  Information provided by the author ities  
4.44.    All oil refineries in Egypt are operated by EGPC or its subsidiaries. Refining capacity stood 
in 2015 at 700,000 barrels per day and output at 510,000 barrels per day. Production of refined 
petroleum has declined during the period under review, not ably during the 2009 -13 period when it 
fell by 14%. This decline was partly due to the permission given by the Egyptian Government to 
foreign oil companies to export crude oil as repayment of EGPC debt, which had an impact on the 
amount of petroleum left f or refining. More recently, however, new projects that are expected to 
result in an increase in Egypt's refining capacity were put in place, most notably the privately 
financed Egyptian Refining Company project in Cairo which was expected to become operati onal at 
the end 2017, and the capacity expansion of the Midor refinery in Alexandria, which is 80% owned 
by EGPC and 20% by Egyptian private investors.  
4.45.   The local production of refined and processed petroleum products (including LPG from local 
fields) sligh tly declined during the review period, from 34.2 million tons in 2005/2006 to 
29.8 million tons in 2015/2016; a peak of 35.9 million tons was reached in 2007/2008. The main 
refined products are: fuel oil, with a production level of 9.4 million tons in 2015 /2016; gas oil 
(7.8 million tons) and gasoline/naphtha (6.7 million tons).  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.46.   Local consumption of refined petroleum products presently exceeds national production 
capacities, a reversal of the situation as compared to the beginning of the review period. In 
2005/2006 , the production of petroleum products exceeded consumption by 6.7 million tons, 
although some products like gasoline and gas oil already exhibited a deficit, while in 2015/2016 
consumption exceeded local production by 10.4 million tons, and all re fined products exhibited a 
deficit. The authorities have noted that this was partly due to a strong increase in the local 
consumption of gas oil (of some 50% during the review period), fuel oil (40%) and gasoline 
(34%). As a result, imports of refined petr oleum products (including bunker and aviation fuel 
sales) surged from 3.4  million tons in 2005 -2006 to 16 million tons in 2015/2016, while exports 
declined from 8.25  million tons to 3.48 million tons.  
4.47.   The 2016 "Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt Vision 2030" identifies the state 
monopoly on exportation and importation of petroleum products as one of the handicaps of the 
present energ y situation and argues in favour of allowing the private sector to participate in these 
activities and to contribute  to the achievement of the country's energy security. During the present 
review, the authorities stated that the recommendations mentioned in the Strategy are being 
implemented and the necessary approvals are under way.  
4.48.   Some petroleum products, namely liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline, kerosene, gas 
oil and fuel oil , benefit from Government subsidies. Gas oil, fuel oil and gasoline accounted for the 
bulk of the subsidies granted during the review period. The level of total subsidies to petroleum 
produ cts has fluctuated during the period under review: starting from LE 34.8 billion in 
2005/2006, they reached a peak of LE 121.2 billion in 2013/2014 before being drastically reduced 
to LE 74 billion in 2014/2015 and LE 51 billion in 2015/2016 (Table 4.16). This represents an even 
more drastic cut in real terms taking into account the recent devaluation of the Egyptian pound. In 
the case of fuel oil and kerosene, no subsidies were granted in 2015/2016, although subsidies for 
these products were not definitive ly eliminated.  
Table 4.16 Subsidies granted for the consumption of petroleum products and natural 
gas, 2005/06 -2015/16  
(LE billion)  
Year  2005/
06 2006/
07 2007/
08 2008/
09 2009/
10 2010/
11 2011/
12 2012/
13 2013/
14 2014/
15 2015/
16 
Petroleum 
products  34.8 37.2 63.2 46.7 56.5 82.0 104.6  117.8  121.2  73.9 51.0 
  LPG 8.4 9.7 13.4 11.1 14.0 17.8 21.7 20.2 20.9 16.8 16.2 
  Gasoline  4.4 4.4 9.2 7.3 9.3 15.6 20.1 27.1 27.4 16.7 11.5 
  Kerosene  0.5 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 
  Gas Oil  16.6 18.2 32.8 23.5 24.8 37.2 50.1 56.1 60.5 36.2 23.3 
  Fuel Oil  5.0 4.7 7.5 4.7 8.2 11.1 12.4 14.3 12.4 4.2 0.0 
Natural Gas  7.2 6.6 8.0 6.0 6.5 8.2 9.8 10.5 5.0 0.0 0.0 
Total  42.0 44.0 71.2 52.7 63.0 90.2 114.4  128.3  126.2  73.9 51.0 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.2.2.2   Gas 
4.49.    The Egyptian National Gas Holding Company (EGAS), a state -owned company in which 
EGPC holds an 80% share, oversees the development, production and marketing of natural gas in 
Egypt. EGAS is also responsible for organizing international exploration bid rou nds and awarding 
natural gas concession licences, with a duration that varies between 15 and 25 years.  
4.50.   The regulatory framework of the gas industry was modified by Law No. 196/2017 passed on 
7 August 2017 with a view to liberaliz ing Egypt's domestic gas m arket and establish ing an 
independent regulatory body to oversee the gas market. The new agency, to be headquartered in 
Cairo, is expected to regulate all activities of the gas market and monitor it with a view to securing 
gas production and the quality of  services. In accordance with the new gas law, when established, 
Egypt's independent regulatory body will issue licences for the importation, transportation, and 
sale of natural gas. With the new legislation, the Government expects to create a competitive gas 
market, and lead to efficient services and continuous development and upgrades. The new law also 
aims at attracting investment to the gas industry. As at November 2017, executive regulations to 
implement the Law had not yet been adopted. The new law stipulates that they should be passed 
within six months of its enactment.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.51.   Under the previous legislative regime, EGPC was the owner of the concessions while EGAS 
was the contractor. The new gas law authorizes EGAS to own its concessions. It also allows the 
private sector to supply gas directly to end users hence competing with EGAS. Under the new law, 
private companies will pay a set fee for the use of public transit facilities and pipelines. Profits from 
these fees will be used to expand existing pipelines and to encourage investment in gas 
infrastructure and transportation networks.  
4.52.   Both EGAS and EGPC have joint  ventures with international companies to develop and 
operate natural gas fields. For its part, the Egyptian Natural Gas Company (GASCO), a subsidia ry 
of EGAS, operates all the gas processing plants either directly, as is the case for two of them, or in 
joint ventures, as is the case for the remaining 27 facilities.  
4.53.   Foreign companies operating in Egypt must direct all or part of their production to th e 
domestic market and new discoveries have been earmarked for domestic needs. Major foreign 
players in Egypt's upstream natural gas sector include ENI, BG Group, BP, Shell, and Apache. Most 
of the gas consumed in Egypt is used to fuel electric power plants . 
4.54.   Although national production of gas has been increasing (Table 4.17), it remains insufficient 
to cover domestic needs. That partly explains the request for foreign investors to produce for the 
domestic market. Also, since 2012, the Government has put in operation two importing LNG 
facilities, signed numerous LNG import contracts, restricted gas supplies to the industry and 
diverted to domestic use gas previously designated for exportation. The start -up of major market 
gas projects in the offshore Mediterr anean (notably the Zorh field) and in the Western Nile Delta 
was expected to increase the natural gas supply by 40% as of the end of 2017. In order to 
encourage production, the Government has raised the price at which it buys gas from operators, 
thereby en couraging investment and production. The Government aims at attaining self -sufficiency 
in 2020, and subsequently, at resuming exportation.  
Table 4.17 Production of natural gas in Egypt,  2005/06 -2015/16  
(Millio n tons)  
 2005/
06 2006/
07 2007/
08 2008/
09 2009/
10 2010/
11 2011/
12 2012/
13 2013/
14 2014/
15 2015/
16 
Production  25,061  28,000  29,777  31,225  32,992  35,235  39,081  39,205  37,578  35,335  36,755  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.55.   Production of LPG has been relatively stable over the period under review, oscillating 
between 1.07 billion tons and 1.33 billion tons (1.12 billion tons in 2015/16). Consumption during 
the same period, on the other hand, has been much higher and has followed an upward tren d, 
increasing from 3.54 billion tons in 2005/2006 to 4.26 billion tons in 2015/2016, and leading to 
increased imports. Consumption subsidies to LPG reached their peak in the period 2011/12 -
2013/14; they since diminished but remain ed substantial at LE 16.2 billion in 2015/16 
(Table  4.16).  
4.2.3   Electricity  
4.56.   Installed capacity in 2015/2016 reached 38.9 GW, while consumption (peak load) reached 
29.2 GW. Installed capacity for the production of electricity increased by almost 90% between 
2005/2006 and 2015/2016, while  consumption increased by 68.7% (Table 4.18). Egypt is a net 
exporter of electricity.  
Table 4.18 Main electricity indicators, 2005/06 -2015/16  
(MW)  
 2005/0
6 2006/
07 2007/0
8 2008/0
9 2009/1
0 2010/1
1 2011/1
2 2012/1
3 2013/1
4 2014/1
5 2015/1
6 
Installed 
capacity  20,452  21,944  22,583  23,502  24,726  27,049  29,075  30,800  32,015  35,220  38,857  
Consumption 
(GWh)  92,859  98,812  107,226  112,617  120,180  126,934  135,838  140,918  143,585  146,906  156,300  
Consumption 
(peak load) 17,300  18,500  19,738  21,330  22,750  23,470  25,705  27,000  26,140  28,015  29,200  
Imports (GWh)  168 208 251 126 183 152 102 77 61 51 54 
Exports (GWh)  945 557 814 1,022  1,118  1,595  1,679  474 460 730 747 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.57.   Faced with increasing demand, the Government is intent on expanding installed capacity 
and plans to practically double the electricity generation capacity by 2027 to reach 73.1 GW. To 
this end, it signed in March 2015, a contract with the German firm Sieme ns to install a total of 
16.4 GW of thermal and renewable capacity at a total cost of US$6.7 billion. Most of this additional 
capacity will stem from three 4.8 GW combined cycle plants, which were expected to be 
operational by the end of 2017. There are al so plans to add gas -turbine (combined cycle and 
conventional) plants, large coal fired plants, one or two nuclear power stations and a significant 
amount of solar and wind capacity.  
4.58.   During the period under review, Egypt's electricity generation, transmissi on and distribution 
were almost exclusively ensured by the state-owned Egyptian Electricity Holding Company, a 
vertically integrated utility. The Egyptian Electricity Holding Company is responsible for some 90% 
of generation through the six regional sites of the Egyptian Electricity Production Company, as well 
as for 100% of the transmission through the Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company, and 99% 
of the distribution through the nine regional distribution subsidiaries of the Electricity Distribution 
Company.  
4.59.   The remaining electricity generation activities, which represent some 10% of the market, 
are undertaken by nine private small -size electricity producers and by three power  plants run 
under a 20 -year build-own-operate -transfer (BOOT) scheme. These p ower plants are presently 
owned by two Malaysian companies: Powertek and EDRA. The respective expiry dates of these 
BOOT schemes are: January 2022 for the Sidi Krir power  plant owned by Powertek; February 2023 
for the Suez Gulf power plant, and July 2023 f or the Port Said East power plant, both owned by 
EDRA. These projects benefit from the guarantee of the Central Bank of Egypt. The average tariff 
for the three projects is 2.8 -2.9 US cent s/kWh. In the case of distribution, the remaining 1% of 
activities ar e split among 15 private distributors.  
4.60.   The Ministry for Electricity and Renewable Energy, originally instituted in 1964, has as its 
stated goal to provide electricity to all consumers across  the country. In order to fulfil that aim, the 
Ministry: (a) deter mines the general electricity plan and the levels of energy generation, 
transmission and distribution and follows  up the different activities concerning the electrical 
network; (b) suggests electricity tariffs for all different voltage levels and different  usages; (c) 
supervises the study and execution of essential electrical projects; (d) publishes statistics and data 
relating to electricity production and consumption;  and (e) provides the needed technical 
services.5 
4.61.   The Ministry's goals include to: optimi ze the use of available energy sources taking into 
consideration environmental protection; provide electricity at a suitable price; expand the 
utilization of new and renewable energy sources; support electrification; interconnect the Egyptian 
electrical gr id to African neighbouring countries; boost the local contribution in designing, 
implementing and manufacturing electrical equipment; optimize investments and improve 
electrical services; and use modern and advanced technical systems, among others.6 The Mi nistry 
has adopted a programme to support local producers of electrical equipment, in particular it is 
seeking to promote the manufacturing of optical fibre cables, power transformers, measuring, 
insulators (up to 220 KV) and control equipment.  
4.62.   There are f our authorities under the Ministry's aegis, supervising different areas of the 
electricity sector: (a) the New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA); the Nuclear Materials 
Authority; (b) the Atomic Energy Authority; and (c) the Nuclear Power Plants Authori ty. 
4.63.   The NREA was established in 1986 to act as the national focal point for expanding efforts to 
develop and introduce renewable energy technologies to Egypt on a commercial scale together 
with implementation of related energy conservation programmes. The NREA is entrusted with 
planning and implementing renewable energy programmes in coordination with other concerned 
national and international institutions.7 
                                                
5 Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy online information. Viewed at: 
http://www .moee.gov.eg/english_new/define.aspx .  
6 Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy online information . Viewed at:  
http://www.moee.gov.eg/english_new/strategy.aspx . 
7 NREA online information. Viewed at: http://www.nrea.gov.eg/english1.html . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.64.   The Egyptian Electric Utility and Consumer Protection Regulatory Agency (EgyptERA ), 
created by Presidential Decree No. 326/1997, is a supervisory body in charge of monitoring and 
regulating the relationship between the participants in the electricity market. Presidential Decree 
No. 339/2000 restructured EgyptERA , defining its terms of reference and establishing its Board of 
Directors.8 The Electricity Law No. 87/2015 redefined EgyptERA 's functions and enhanced its 
independence. EgyptERA  is responsible for determining and enforcing the rules to be adhered to 
by the participants in the electricity mark et, so as to protect the interest s of consumers and 
promote fair competition. It is also in charge of setting the rules and economic fundamentals to 
calculate electricity tariffs in the regulated market and fees for the use of the transmission network 
and the distribution networks. In this respect, EgyptERA  prepares a study for approval by the 
Council of Ministers. EgyptERA  is also responsible for monitoring the supply of electrical energy 
provided to consumers and review ing the investment plans in coordina tion with the concerned 
authorities. The Authority receives consumer complaints and examines them, seeking solutions in 
cooperation with the competent distribution companies; it is also involved in creating awareness 
among consumers with respect to their r ights and obligations in the electricity market.9 
4.65.   The main law governing the sector is the Electricity Law No. 87/2015. Minister of Electricity 
and Renewable Energy Decree No. 230 of 2016 promulgated the Executive Regulations of the 
Electricity Law. Other legislation regulating the electricity sectors includes Law No. 203/2014 on 
the stimulation of electricity production from renewable sources of energy; Law No. 164/2000 on 
the transformation of the Egyptian Electricity Authority into an Egyptian Joint Stoc k Company  ; Law 
No. 18/1998 with some provisions concerning the distribution of electricity, generation stations 
and transport networks and the amendment of some provisions of Law No. 12 of 1976 establishing 
the Electricity Authority of Egypt; Law No. 204/ 1991 on electricity sector facilities; Law 
No. 102/1986 establishing the Authority for the Development and Use of New and Renewable 
Energy; Law No. 55/1977 regarding the establishment and management of thermal machines and 
steam boilers; Law No. 12 of 1976  establishing the Egyptian Electricity Authority and its 
amendments Law No. 100/1996 and Law No. 36 of 1984; Presidential Decree No. 933/1976 
transferring electricity facilities in some governorates to the Electricity Authority of Egypt; and Law 
No. 63/197 4 concerning electricity installations.  
4.66.   The new Electricity Law No. 87/2015 seeks to reform in depth the structure of the sector. 
The aim is to progressively liberalize the market so as to address  the rapid ly growing demand and 
facilitate the addition of generation capacity either by the State or by the private sector as well as 
to create competition and raise efficiency while making investment attractive in the areas of 
production and sale of electricity. This liberalization is expected to be achieved, in  a first phase, by 
distinguishing two segments of the market: (a) a regulated segment for customers of the medium 
and low voltage network where the Transmission System Operator (TSO) will be transformed into 
a wholesale public trader; and (b) a competitive  market, where a new category of suppliers 
grouping both distribution companies and new intermediaries has been created; generation 
companies can sell their electricity through those suppliers or directly via bilateral contracts to 
eligible customers linke d to the extra high voltage and high voltage networks. More than 100 such 
bilateral contracts have already been concluded.  
4.67.   Charts 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate the main features and changes of the electricity market reform 
introduced by Law No. 87/2015 , describin g the current market structure, the future regulated 
market and the future competitive market.  
                                                
8 EGYPTERA online information. Viewed at: http://egyptera.org/ar/el5eta.aspx . 
9 EGYPTERA online information . Viewed at: http://egyptera.org/ar/el5eta.aspx . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  Chart 4.1 The current electricity market structure  
GENCO -1Egyptian Electricity 
Holding Company (EEHC)
Egyptian 
Electricity 
Transmission 
Company 
(EETC)GENCO -6GENCO -2Chart 4. [Egypt] The current market structure
DISCO -1
DISCO -2
DISCO -7EHV/HV/MV
MV/LV -1
MV/LV -2
MV/LV -7
BOOTs
RES
Source: Information provided by the authorities.EHV: Extra high voltage
HV: High voltage
MV: Medium voltage
LV: Low voltageGENCO: Main generation companies 
DISCO: Distribution companies
BOOTs: Build Own Operate Transfer
RES: Residual generation companies 
 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
Chart 4.2 The future electricity market structure  
G1 GnG3/
BOOTG2/RES
Wholesale Public Trader
DC1 DCn DC2
C1 C2 C3 C4 CnRegulated market
Public generators
Low and Medium voltage customersDistribution 
companies....
....
....
G:         Generators
BOOTs:  Build Own Operate Transfer
RES:      Residual suppliers
DC:        Distribution companies
C:          ConsumersG1 Gn G3 G2
S1 Sn S2
EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4 ECnCompetitive market
Generators
Suppliers....
....
....
G:   Generators
S:    Suppliers
EC:  Eligible consumers for extra -high and high voltagesChart 4. [Egypt] The future market structure
Source: Information provided by the authorities.
 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.68.   As mentioned above, tariff reform and price adjustment must be ratified by the Cabinet, 
following recommendations by EgyptERA . Electricity tariffs in Egypt were kept constant between 
1994 and 2003, and only slight increases were applied to some categories of consumption during 
the 2004 -2008 period followed by increases in the tariff charged to the industrial sector. Keeping  
tariffs unmodified for a long time resulted in a distortion of the tariff structure, a lower 
performance of economic and financial indicators, a deficit in the cash flow of electricity 
companies, and a gap between the cost of energy supply and the selling  prices. This gap was 
covered by high subsidies that reached LE 2 2.6 billion in 2013/2014, of which LE 19.3 billion 
corresponded to subsidies granted to residential customers. All these factors led the Government 
to decide a reform was needed and request a study from EgyptERA . To this end, EgyptERA  was WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 120 - 
 
  charged with prepari ng a study with recommendations , taking into consideration the protection of 
low income families and full compliance with energy conservation policies.  
4.69.   Following the recommendations of EgyptERA 's study, Egypt undertook an Electricity Tariff 
Reform process,  which seeks to arrive at  pricing policies that: cover costs according to supply 
voltage; promote financial and economic efficiency of the electricity utility; and reflect the right 
indicator of electricity use, taking into consideration the social dimensi on (i.e. affordable prices to 
the customer). In July 2014, the Cabin et issued Decree No. 1257/2014  approving the study 
prepared by EgyptERA  for the restructuring of electricity tariffs and the gradual phase out of 
energy subsidies. The Decree calls for a s taged series of increases in the electricity tariff, with a 
view to reach ing the real cost of generation, transmission and distribution of electricity and an 
elimination of subsidies over a five -year period starting on 1 July 2014 and ending on 30 June 
2019. After the end of the implementation period, tariffs are to be revised on an annual basis in 
light of any major change s in costs elements or in the market situation.  
4.70.   Implementation  of the  restruct uring programme began in 2014/ 15. The new tariffs were 
expected to achieve a financial balance for the electricity companies and cover the full cost of 
generation, transmission and distribution of electricity based on an assumed natural gas price. 
However, as from its second year (2015/ 16), it began to face  some difficulties, since companies 
experienced a substantial increase in costs, compounded by the devaluation of the Egyptian 
pound10, which caused an increase in the price of natural gas delivered to the generators. 
Responding to these increases, it was decided  to exempt the first three categories of the 
residential sector from the appr oved tariff increase for 2015/ 16, and the demand charge w as kept 
unchanged at 2014/ 15 prices for medium -voltage industrial customers to prevent the negative 
impact of a higher cha rge on their activities. In 2016, EgyptERA  was entrusted with reviewing the 
approved tariff for the third year of the reform and pri ce adjustment plan (2016/ 17) and 
introduc ing any amendment needed to achieve the balance between the financial situation of the 
electricity companies and their commitment towards continuity of electricity supply.11 EgyptERA  
recommended maintaining the subsidy for tariffs charged to consumers of up to 1,000 kWh per 
month (mostly low income families ). The expected subsidy was esti mated at LE  28.9 billion. The 
tariffs to be applied in 2016/ 17 (that is, from 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2017) are contained in 
Minister of Electricity Decree No. 43/2 016, issued on 8 August 2016.  
4.71.   Tariff reform was , to a large extent , prompted by the rapid increase in user subsidies and 
the consequent effect of this on public finances. As Table 4.19 shows, there was a tenfold increase 
in subsidies between 2011/12 and 2012/ 13, and then again a twofold increase the following fiscal 
year. This rapid increase in what appear to be  subsidies is principally due to a change in the 
accountancy conventions of generation companies which  show as subsidies the reduced prices at 
which they bought  their fuel (oil and gas) from EGAS and EGPC. The modalities of how these 
subsidi es are calculated have recently been reformed in accordance with the new Electricity Law 
No. 87/2015. As of financial year 2016/2017, upstream subsidies granted to generation companies 
were transformed into downstream subsidies granted to distribution comp anies designed to cover 
the difference between total costs and the selling price to consumers.  
Table 4.19 Subsidies for electricity in Egypt, 2005 -16 
(LE billion)  
 2005
/06 2006/
07 2007/
08 2008/
09 2009/
10 2010/
11 2011/
12 2012/
13 2013/
14 2014/
15 2015/
16 
Subsidy  0.769 0.901 0.924 0.946 1.150 1.031 1.054 11.409 22.586 25.657 27.626 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.72.   Despite the modifications made to the tariff plan, Egypt continues to be committed to a 
gradual phase -out of all energy subsidies via annual price increments so as to adjust energy prices 
to cost recovery levels. However, the timetable  of the reform has be en extended , and the 
completion date moved from 2019 to 2022 so as to take into account the effects of the devaluation 
of the Egyptian pound.  
                                                
10 There was a 13% devaluation of the Egyptian pound in March 2016, followed by a further 86% 
depreciation in November 2016, wh en the currency was floated (see Section 1).  
11 EGYPTERA (2016), Egyptian Power Sector Reform and New Electricity Law by Dr. Hafez A. El -
Salmawy, Managing Director, Egyptian Electric Utility and Customer Protection Regulatory Agency. Viewed at: 
http://www.ecrc.org.eg/backend/uploads/documents/dr.Hafez%20El -Salmawy%20 -%20EgyptEra.pdf . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.73.   Egypt's electricity generation is still heavily reliant on fossil fuels. In 2016, 91% of the 
electricity gen erated  stemmed from oil and gas,  while 7.4% came from hydro -electrical sources 
and 1 .2% from solar and wind sources. The authorities are planning to reverse this situation and 
to rely increasingly on renewable sources of electricity generation as well as on coal . In fact , the 
objective set for 2030 in the 2016 "Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt Vision 2030" is 
drastically different from the current situation as it foresees that in 2030 only 27%  of the total 
electricity generated will stem from oil and gas, 29% from coal, 16% from solar sources, 14% 
from wind sources, 9% from nuclear and 5% from hydro -electrical sources.  
4.74.   Different policy approaches have been taken with respect to the various sources of 
electricity generation. For instance, Egypt is not planni ng to increase its reliance on hydro -
electricity as Egypt's hydro -electrical potential is nearly fully exploited with an installed capacity of 
2,800 MW. With respect to nuclear energy, the approach is to expand it in the medium run. To this 
end, in 2015 th e Government signed a contract with the Russian firm Rossatom to build a four -
reactor plant at El Dabaa. The project regarding the first pair of reactors, with an installed capacity 
of 1,200 MW each, is scheduled to be completed by 2024. The estimated cost  of the project is 
US$20 billion. As far as wind -powered electricity generation is concerned, the Government is 
planning a tenfold expansion in capacity from 750 MW in 2016 to 7.2 GW by 2020. Regarding solar 
powered energy, the authorities are planning to expand capacity from 150 MW in 2016 to 3.5  GW 
by 2027, including 2.8 GW of PV (photovoltaic) power and 700 MW of CSP (concentrated solar)  
power.  The tendering process for both wind and solar energy projects is likely to be based on a 
feed-in tariff12 under the aegis of both the Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company and of the 
NREA. Also, to promote their activities, solar and wind producers will be entitled to long -term 
leases of land at 2% of the value of the energy produced and to a customs tariff of 2 % for 
imported equipment and materials.  
4.75.   Egypt has adopted a number of measures to promote renewable energies and to facilitate 
public -private partnerships in renewable energies. In April 2007, the Supreme Council of Energy in 
Egypt adopted a resolution on  an ambitious plan to cover 20% of the generated electricity with 
renewable energy by 2020, including a 12% contribution from wind energy, translating  to about 
7200 MW grid -connected wind farms. This plan gives enough room to private investments to play 
the major role in realizing this goal.  
4.76.   The July 2014 tariff reform guaranteed annual tariff increases for energy generated from 
renewable sources for the same five -year period and at the same rate as electricity generated by 
conventional sources. The use of  feed-in tariff s was introduced in September 2014. The 
introduction of feed -in tariffs for renewable energies was accompanied by the institution of long -
term purchase power agreements of a duration between 20 and 25 years. Also, to attract new 
investment, EgyptERA  was granted the power to establish by itself or to enter in partnerships with 
the private sector to implement renewable energy projects.  
4.77.   Egypt has plans to develop further electricity power plants with private investors in the form 
of build-own-operate (BOO) projects.13 The first such project is a 2,250 MW combined cycle power 
plant to be built and operated in Luxor by the Saudi company , ACWA Power Company , which was 
selected through a bid process. The second such project is a 2,640 MW coal power pl ant to be built 
and operated by the UAE company , ANI, in Ayoun Mousa, South Sinai. The third project is a 2,300 
MW combined cycle power plant to be built and operated by an Egyptian private company, 
Benchmark International Company, at Towairat. The three p rojects are expected to enter in to 
operation between 2022 and 2027 and their legal schemes will have a duration of 25 years.  
                                                
12 A feed -in tariff is a policy mechanism designed to accelerate investment in renewable energy 
technologies by offering long -term contracts to renewable energy producers based on the cost of generation of 
each technology. The goal is to provide price certai nty and long -term contracts that help finance renewable 
energy investment.  
13 A build-own-operate  (BOO)  scheme is a project delivery mechanism in  which a government entity 
grants  to a private sector party the right to construct a project according to agreed  design specifications and to 
operate the project for a specified time. Unlike the build -own-operate -transfer (BOOT) or the build-operate -
transfer (BOT) structure, the private sector party owns the project and does not have to transfer it to the 
government entity at the end of the term.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.3  Manufacturing  
4.3.1   Overview  
4.78.   Manufacturing continues to be of great importance to the Egyptian economy; the sector is 
relatively diversified. During the period u nder review, the manufacturing  sector 's (excluding 
petroleum) share of Egypt's GDP averaged around 17.1% and it represented about 30% of 
employment. The most important subsecto rs are metallurgy, food processing, textiles, and 
chemical products (Table 4.20). According to the authorities, the private sector contributed about 
90% of manufacturing output in 2016.  
Table 4.20 Manufacturin g output by activity, 2007 -14 
(LE billion)  
Industry  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  
Metallurgy  53.7 69.8 51.7 46.2 59.7 74.3 61.9 68.6 
Food processing  43.9 50.4 51.9 55.7 68.2 76.5 86.7 105.2  
Chemical products  19.1 24.6 22.7 25.3 29.2 35.6 37.1 38.5 
Textiles  17.3 20.2 18.4 17.4 22.3 21.3 23.4 26.9 
Papers products  6.2 7.6 6.3 7.4 8.3 9.5 11.1 11.1 
Wood products  0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 
Other industries  183.7  234.6  208.9  251.2  603.7  626.4  667.3  419.7  
Total 324.3  407.6  360.3  403.5  791.8  844.0  888.0  670.5  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.79.   The Trade Development Strategy (ITD)14 2016-20, adopted by the Ministry of Trade and 
Industry, identifies industrial development as the engine for sustainable and inclusive economic 
development in Egypt. The ITD strategy aims to: (a) increase the annual industrial growth rate by 
8%; (b) increa se the contribution rate of manufacturing to GDP to 18 -21%; (c) increase the micro, 
small and medium -sized enterprises sector's contribution to GDP; (d) increase the growth rate of 
exports to 10% annually; (e) provide three million productive job opportuni ties; and (f) promote 
institutional development.  
4.80.   Under the auspices of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Industry,  Export Councils offer 
technical and financial support to increase manufactured goods  exports .15 The Egyptian Export 
Promotion Centre provides aid in the form of tax rebates, for export producers in textiles and 
processed foods.  
4.81.   The average applied tariff on manufactured goods (ISIC Rev.2 definition) in 2017 was 
20.3%, down from 21.1% in the preceding review. Tariff dispersion between the subsect ors is 
considerable, and about 3% of Egypt's industrial tariffs are unbound.  
4.3.2   Textiles and clothing  
4.82.   The textiles and clothing subsector continues to play an important role in Egypt's 
manufacturing sector and economy , accounting for 3% of GDP and about 30% of the total 
manufacturing workforce. Exports of textiles and clothing products reached US$2.53 billion in 
2016. In the same year, there were 7,413 companies in the textiles and clothing industry, with 
another 196 operating in free zones. While the private  sector roughly owned 99.5% of the 
companies, the number of state-owned companies was 40 in 2016. There are no specific 
restrictions on foreign investment in the textiles and clothing sector.  
                                                
14 MTI online information. Viewed at: http://www.mti.gov.eg/English/MediaCenter/News/Publishing 
Images/Pages/2017 -Strategy/2017%20 Strategy.pdf . 
15 There are a number of Export Councils in Egypt,  which seek to promote exports of their respective 
industrial sector or subsector. The main ones are: the Export Council of Medical Industries; the Leather Export 
Council of Egypt; the Agriculture Export Council; the Food Export Council; the Export Council  For Building, 
Refractory and Metallurgy Industries; the Ready Made Garments Export Council; the Chemical and Fertilizers 
Export Council; the Egyptian Furniture Export Council; the Engineering Export Council of Egypt; the Home 
Textiles Export Council; and the Egyptian Export Council for Handicrafts.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.83.   Since the previous review, the average applied tariff on both te xtiles and clothing has 
declined, bringing it in 2017 to 16.2% for textiles (ISIC 321) and to 35.4% for clothing except 
footwear (ISIC 322).  
4.84.   The Qualified Industrial Zones (QIZ), which are designated geographic al areas within Egypt, 
enjoy duty -free access to the United States. Companies located within such zones are granted 
duty-free access to the US market  provided that at least 35% of the product's value is 
manufactured in an Egyptian QIZ, and that at least 10.5% of the total value consists of Israeli 
inputs. As at February 2017, 966 companies had been approved under this scheme in 15 
designated QIZ, of which 773 were from the textiles and clothing sector. The majority of the 
companies are located in the greater Cairo area and in Alexandria. In 2016, total  exports under 
this scheme amounted to US$674 million.  
4.85.   Companies operating within the boundaries of a QIZ are free to export within or outside the 
QIZ framework; they may be of Egyptian or foreign capital. Apart from the minimum value rule 
described above  to grant origin, QIZ advantages may be enjoyed when manufacturers on both the 
Egyptian side and the Israeli side  of the QIZ  each contribute and maintain at least 20% of the total 
cost of production of goods eligible for duty -free treatment, excluding prof its, even if the costs 
cannot be considered as part of the 35% minimum content requirement. For this purpose, costs 
may include originating materials, wages and salaries, design, research and development, 
depreciation of capital investment, overhead s including marketing expenses, etc.16 
4.86.   The QIZ Unit, part of the Technical Office of the Minist ry of Trade and Industry (MTI), serves 
as an executive and technical support unit for the Egyptian side of the Joint Committee that is 
vested with managing the implement ation process of the terms of the Protocol Establishing the 
QIZ.17 The QIZ Unit's goal is to maximize the value that qualified Egyptian companies can obtain 
from the flow of custom -free Egyptian goods to the United States. The Unit is mandated with: 
receivi ng applications from the Egyptian companies located in the QIZ designated zones and 
wishing to be included in the list of companies entitled to the US preferential treatment under the 
QIZ Protocol; reviewing the merits of such applications in terms of thei r meeting all geographic 
and rules of origin requirements of the Protocol; and auditing the compliance of the companies 
included on the QIZ list in order to determine whether they still meet qualification requirements. 
The Unit also serves as an informatio n centre for local and foreign businesses interested in doing 
business under the terms of the QIZ Protocol.18 
4.3.3   Food processing  
4.87.   Food processing is a major industry employing 25% of the total industrial sector's workforce 
in Egypt in 2016 and accounting for nearly 5% of the country’s GDP . The industry posted an 
average annual growth rate of 12% over the last five years. The main activities of the food 
processing industry in Egypt include wheat milling and bread making, edible oil production, and 
production of  soft drinks. According to the authorities, the food processing sector increased its 
export sales from US$226 million in 2002 to US$2,719 million in 2016. Egypt's main exports of 
food products are dairy products, frozen vegetables, and processed sugar, wit h a majority of the 
sector's output sent to Arab and European countries.  
4.88.   Food processing is Egypt's second largest manufacturing industry, based on volume of 
production, following the coke and refined petroleum sector. There are 7,212 companies operating 
in the food processing sector in Egypt of which 28 are state owned; the remaining 99.6% are 
privately  owned companies. During most of the period under review, there were no specific 
restrictions related to foreign investment in food processing; however, und er the new Investment 
Law No. 72/2017, licences may not be issued for alcoholic beverages projects operating in free 
zones . 
                                                
16 Article II.D.1.b of the Protocol between the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt a nd the 
Government of the State of Israel o n Qualifying Industrial Zones . Viewed at: 
http://www.qizegypt.gov.eg/About_Textprotocol.aspx . 
17 The responsibilities of the QIZ Joint Committee are to: (a) supervise the implementation of the QIZ 
Protocol; (b) verify full compliance with the QIZ requirements; (c) issue  and/or cancel certificates pursuant to 
Article E of the Protocol; (d) determine the lists of companies pursuant to Article F of the Protocol; and (e) 
prepare an annual report to be submitted to the relevant Ministers. The QIZ Joint Committee carries out i ts 
responsibilities on a quarterly basis.  
18 QIZ Egypt online information . Viewed at: http://www.qizegypt.gov.eg/ . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.89.   In 2017, average applied tariffs on imports of food and beverages ranged from 13.6% on 
food products (ISIC 311) to 1,292.4% on bever ages (ISIC 313). For religious reasons, Egypt 
maintains prohibitive tariffs of up to 3,000% on imports of alcoholic beverages; however, the tariff 
on alcoholic beverages imported under a licence issued by the Ministry of Tourism is 300% . 
4.4  Services  
4.4.1   Financial  services  
4.4.1.1   Banking  
4.90.   Egypt has a large banking sector, which has weathered successfully both the financial crisis 
and the recent political events through a consolidation movement and the effective supervision of 
the Central Bank of Egypt.  
4.91.   During the period un der review, the number of banks has fallen from 59 (of which 13 
foreign -controlled banks and 14 branches of foreign banks) in 2005 to 40 (of which 15 foreign -
controlled banks and 6 branches of foreign banks) in 2015 . Domestic banks accounted for 71.2% 
of the total balance sheet of the banking sector in 2015, while foreign -controlled banks accounted 
for 24.2%, and branches of foreign banks for 4.6%. The cumulative share of foreign -controlled 
banks and of branches of foreign banks has considerably increased o ver the period under review, 
from 15.4% in 2005 to 28.8% in 2015.  
4.92.   In late 2017, five large banks (National Bank of Egypt, Banque Misr, Banque du Caire, 
Agricultural Bank of Egypt, and Arab African International Bank ) remained 100% state -owned. A 
number of banks have been privat ized during the period under review. Alexbank was privatized 
and acquired by San Paolo Intesa (Italy) in 2006 and there are plans to partially privatize Banque 
du Caire in the near future. In the past few years, there have been severa l acquisitions in the 
foreign -owned banking sector. For example: BNP (France) sold its interests to the Emirates 
National Bank of Dubai (United  Arab Emirates) in 2013; the Qatar National Bank acquired the local 
National Societé Générale Bank (NSGB) in 2013 ; Al Ahli Bank (Kuwait) acquired Piraeus Bank 
Egypt (Greece) in 2015; and Barclays (United Kingdom) sold its interest in Egypt to Attijariwafa 
Bank (Morocco) in 2017.  
4.93.   The banking system's financial soundness indicators appear relatively solid. The average 
capital adequacy ratio, including the capital conservation buffer, was 14.5% at the end of June 
2017, against a mandatory minimum ratio, as of January 2017, of 11.25%. The leverage ratio was 
6.2% at the same date, against an indicative ratio of 3%. There w as a 1.5% return on average 
assets. The non -performing loan ratio remains relatively low (5.5% in June 2017) and has actually 
decreased over the period. However, financial penetration remains low, as only 14% of Egyptian 
citizens hold a formal bank account . 
4.94.   Box 4.1 below provides more details on the economic and statistical indicators of the 
banking services sector in Egypt.  
Box 4.1 Main economic and statistical indicators for banking services in Egypt  
Number of banks:  
2005: 59 banks (of which, 12 foreign -controlled banks and 14 branches of foreign banks)  
2010: 39 banks (of which, 14 foreign -controlled banks and 15 branches of foreign banks)  
2015: 40 banks (of which, 15 foreign -controlled banks and 6 branches of f oreign banks)  
Concentration/share of the various types of banks in the total balance sheet for banks (%):  
2005:  domestic banks: 84.6%, foreign -controlled banks: 10.2%, branches of foreign banks: 5.2%  
2010: domestic banks: 72.8%, foreign -controlled banks: 22.9%, branches of foreign banks: 4.3%  
2015: domestic banks:71.2%, foreign -controlled banks: 24.2%, branches of foreign banks: 4.6%  
 
State ownership : National Bank of Egypt (100%), Banque Misr (100%), Banque du Caire (100%), 
Agricultural Bank of Egypt (100 %) and Egyptian Arab Land Bank (100%)  
 
Total balance sheet (LE million) : 2005: 705,146; 2010: 1,220,655; 2015: 2,198,979; June 2016: 
2,846,094  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  Lending activities  
 
2005: domestic lending: 75.7% ; foreign lending: 24.3%  
2010: domestic lending: 67.4% ; foreign lending: 32.6%  
2015: domestic lending: 66.6% ; foreign lending: 33.4 %  
June 2016: domestic lending: 73.1% ; foreign lending: 28.7%  
 
Non-performing loans ratio : 2011: 10.5%; 2015: 6.1%; 2016: 6%  
Securities activities: (securities holding in bank acc ounts in million LE) : 
2005: 172,177 ; 2010: 405,895; 2015: 1,016,025  
Banking rate : 14%  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.95.   The banking sector's regulatory framework in Egypt is based on Law No. 88/2003 (Banking 
Law) and has remained largely stable during the review period. Regulatory action and reform 
during the period under review can be divided in to three phases . 
4.96.   In the first phase, started in 2004, the Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) launched a package of 
reforms aimed at the privatization and consolidation of the banking sector, addressing the problem 
of non -performing loans, restructuring state-owned banks , and upgrading supervision.  
4.97.   In the second phase, from 2009 to 2012, the CBE initiated the second wave of reforms . The 
main pillars of the reform programme consisted in:  
 Supervising and monitoring the launching of a complete operational and financial 
restructuring plan fo r the three state-owned specialized banks.  
 Following up on the operational and institutional restructuring of public banks to ensure the 
sustainability of the achievements implemented in the first phase, and finalize the 
requirements necessary to improve t heir efficiency.  
 Adopting an initiative promoting the development and growth of banking activities and 
services catering to various sectors, especially SMEs.  
 Initiating the implementation of Basel II and III prudential standards.  
 Revising the governance of  banks by issuing Bank Governance Regulations in August 2011. 
These regulations define the relationship between a bank 's management, the board, its 
shareholders, and other stakeholders, and define the authorities and responsibilities of each 
one of them. T he regulations mandated the creation of compulsory committees on audit, risk 
management, remuneration and benefits, and governance. Another regulation was issued in 
September 2014 to reinforce the internal control system of banks, mainly by ensuring the 
effective segregation of duties and independence of the three main internal control functions 
(audit, risk and compliance) and defining the tasks and responsibilities of each of these 
functions.  
4.98.   In the third phase, started in 2015 and currently (November 201 7) still in implementation, 
the regulatory efforts of the CBE concentrated on: (a) encouraging banks to finance SMEs by 
issuing a unified definition of SMEs in December 2015 and updating it in March 2017; (b) requiring 
banks to direct 20% of their total cr edit lending portfolio to loans to MSMEs by 2020; and (c) 
capping at 5% the interest rate applied to small -sized companies , at 7% the rate  applied to 
medium -sized companies for the financing of their capital expenditures through long term loans , 
and at 12%  the rate applied to medium -sized enterprises to finance their working capital.  
4.99.   Future plans for the upcoming fourth phase include:  
 The preparation of a new banking law to increase the independence of the CBE and improve 
its governance structure as well as  the internal control and governance of banks .  
 The expansion of the role of credit guarantees by reinforcing the Credit Guarantee Company 
(CGC) so as to mitigate perceived risks by banks in lending to SMEs.  
 The enhancement of financial inclusion , through  the creation of a special department within 
the CBE to deal with the issue and through  the issuance of financial inclusion reports.  
 The reinforcement of customer protection through new regulations stating the rights and 
obligations of banks towards their customers and specifying more precisely the way of 
handling customer complaints.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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   The promotion of digital financial services (DFS) through the establishment, at the beginning 
of 2017, of a National Payment Council, and through the preparation by the CBE of  a law 
stimulating digital financial transactions.  
 The planned reduction of the gender gap by half by 2021. To reach this target, the CBE will 
develop a set of supply -side indicators on women's access to and use of financial services to 
measure financial i nclusion for women as well as determining the  baseline gender gap. The 
CBE signed an MOU with the National Council for Women to capitalize on initiatives 
conducted by the Council and promote women entrepreneurship in the formal financial 
system.  
4.100.   Banks, bo th domestic and foreign -owned , must obtain a licen ce from the CBE to operate in 
Egypt. The CBE registers any establishment desiring to exercise the banking business or to open 
foreign -bank branches in Egypt in a special register prepared for this purpose. A number of 
conditions and procedures must be met prior to registration, as stated in Law No. 88/2003. In that 
regard, the applied regime echoes the GATS commitments which have been undertaken on a 
status quo  basis, i.e. the application of an economic need s test for foreign bank branches but not 
for joint –venture banks.  
4.101.   There are no l egal limitations of the numbers of licen ces that can be granted, but there is a 
deliberate policy of consolidation of existing banks and therefore of access through acquisition s 
only. Licen ces are open -ended . The owners of a bank may sell the licen ce granted to the bank 
subject to the prior approval of the CBE.  The minimum capital requirement to obtain a licen ce for a 
joint stock company is LE 500 million, while for a branch of a foreign bank it is US$50 million or its 
equivalent in convertible currencies . 
4.102.   The policy followed for the administrative allocation of financial resources prioritizes 
programmes to finance MSMEs, as was mentioned above, as well as the allocati on of mortgage 
credit to people with low income levels.  
4.103.   The overnight interbank interest rate is considered the operational target of monetary 
policy in Egypt. The CBE operates a "corridor system" with the overnight deposit and lending rates 
acting as floor and ceiling, respectively. These rates act as guidelines for the determination of 
other interest rates and fees which are market -determined following the movements of the CBE's 
key rates.  Since March 2013, the CBE operates essentially though reposito ry (repo) or deposit 
(reverse repo) auctions depending on the prevailing market liquidity conditions . 
4.104.   With respect to measures to ensure compliance with the Basel Committee's Core Principles 
for Effective Banking Supervision, the CBE and the European Centr al Bank in cooperation with 
seven European national central banks signed in 2008, the Basel -II Program Memorandum of 
Understanding. Egyptian banks have hence been applying a Basel II pillar one regulation since 
December 2012 and the CBE is in the process o f implementing Basel III and studying the 
corresponding monetary policy requirements.  
4.105.   In 2016 the CBE started implementing a capital conservation buffer, according to which 
the total capital adequacy ratio, in addition to the capital conservation buffer wa s set at 10.625% 
in January 2016. This rate was revised and set at 11.25% starting in January 2017, at 11.875% 
starting in January 2018 and 12.5% starting in January 2019.  
4.106.   During the review period, Egypt strengthened it s anti-money laundering (AML) policy:  the 
AML Law No. 80/2002 was amended three times (by Law No. 78/2003, Law No. 181/2008 and Law 
No. 36/2014). The amend ments  were aimed at: adopting a comprehensive approach in 
determining offences (including any felony or misdemeanour); expanding the entit ies subject to 
key AML and CFT  (combating the financing of terrorism) obligations to include designated non-
financial businesses or professions (DNFBPs) and more financial institutions; expanding the 
reporting obligation to include transactions suspected o f being proceeds of crime; and d) 
expanding the functions of the Egyptian Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Combating Unit 
(EMLCU).  
4.107.   The Executive Regulations of the AML (Prime Minister's Decree No. 951/2003) were also 
amended on three occasions duri ng the review period (by Decrees No. 1463/2006, No. 2367/2008 
and No. 1569/2016) notably to establish the regulatory authorities for the DNFBPs and all financial WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  institutions that are subject to key AML/CFT obligations. Law No. 8/2015 on Regulating the Lis ts of 
Terrorists and Terrorist Entities established two national lists that name terrorist entities and 
terrorists, set measures to freeze the funds of the listed terrorist entities and terrorists and ban 
their activities, and established procedures to man age the frozen funds. The Counter Terrorism 
Law (Law No. 94/2015) defines terrorism financing, terrorist crimes and terrorist acts in line with 
the international conventions and standards ratified and adhered to by Egypt.  Other regulatory 
measures regarding the AML include the issuance in 2008 by the EMLCU of customer due diligence 
(CDD) procedures for all financial institutions. The EMLCU amended the customer due diligence 
procedures for banks in 2011 and in 2012 for othe r financial institutions. Moreover, the EMLCU 
issued new customer due diligence procedures for mobile payments in 2016.  
4.108.   Article 87 of the Banking Law No. 88/2003 foresees a deposit insurance scheme. However, 
as at November 2017, no such insurance scheme ha d been created. The authorities indicated that 
the structure of this scheme will be elaborated in the planned new banking law.  
4.4.1.2   Insurance  
4.109.   In spite of a relatively low rate of penetration (insuran ce premiums represented only 0. 7% 
of GDP in 2015 /16), Egypt ha s a well -developed insurance sector with 36 insurance companies and 
61 insurance broking companies. Of these 36 companies, one is a state-owned insurance company 
(Misr Insurance Company), and 20 are at least partially foreign -owned companies. Unlike bankin g, 
this market still attracts new entrants, e.g. the French company AXA in 2015.  
4.110.   Box 4.2 below provides more detailed information on the main economic and statistical 
indicators of the insurance services sector in Egypt.  
Box 4.2 Main economic and statistical indicators of the insurance sector  
Number of insurance companies  
2005: 5 life , 8 non -life, 6 both life and non -life, 1 reinsurance company, 1 society of cooperative insurance.19 
2010: 9 life insurance companie s, 14 non -life, 5 both life and non -life, 0 reinsurance company, 1  society of 
cooperative insurance.  
2015: 14 life,  20 non -life, 0 reinsurance companies, 1 society of cooperative insurance (the category "both life 
and non -life" insurance companies disappea red due to a regulatory change20 in 2008 with a transition period 
up to 2015).  
2017: 15 life, 20 non -life, 0 reinsurance company, 1 society of cooperative insurance. There are in total nine 
takaful (Islamic insurance) companies, five of which are non -life and 8 of which are foreign -owned.  
 
New entrants, acquisitions, closures and mergers (2005 -15): In 2006 the Insurance Holding Company was 
established as the new owner of the state reinsurer and the three state insurers; in 2007 various new takaful 
companies  were authorized in both the life and non -life segments. Royal and Sun Alliance withdrew from the 
market, leaving its local partners to continue operating as Royal Insurance Co (Egypt). In 2008 Egypt Re and 
Al Chark were both absorbed into Misr. In 2010 th e merger of National's non -life business into Misr was 
completed; in 2015 AXA (France) acquired Commercial International Life.  
 
Insurance brokers: 61 companies with 8,000 employees, no foreign -owned companies.  
Total balance sheet of the insurance sector:  
2005: LE 22.2 billion (of which life insurance: 39.8%, non -life: 60.2%  
2010: LE 40.1 billion (of which life insurance: 52.7%, non -life: 47.3%  
2015: LE 60 billion (of which life insurance: 58%, non -life: 42%  
Gross premiums written and market shares of the  top 5 life companies (2015/2016, in LE million and in %)  
Misr Life Insurance Company: 2,804 (33.7%), Met Life (previously Alico Life) Insurance Company: 1,404 
(16.9%), Allianz Life Insurance Co: 1363 (16.4%), Commercial International Life Insurance Compan y (CIL): 
1,095 (13.2%), Suez Canal Life insurance Company: 432 (5.2%).  
Total top 5: 7,098 (85.3%)  
 
Gross premiums written and market shares of the top 5 non -life companies (2015/2016, in million LE and %):  
Misr Insurance Company: 5178 (52.3%), Suez Canal  Insurance Company: 616 (6.22%), Bupa Egypt 559 
                                                
19 In the Egyptian insurance market, there are no branches  of foreign insurance companies  and no 
captives . The insurance or reinsurance company must take the form of an Egyptian joint stock company. 
However, it is permitted for the foreign ownership to be up to 100%.  
20 Law No. 118 of 2008 amending  Law No. 10 of 1981  and its Executive Regulation Decree  No. 245 of 
2008.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  (5.6%), Arab Misr Insurance Group (GIG): 536(5.4%), Orient Insurance Company – Egypt: 350 (3.5%).  
Total top 5: 7,239 (73%)  
 
Insurance penetration (insurance premiums as % of GDP): 2005: 0.80%; 2010: 0.90%, 20 15: 0.67%.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.111.   The Egyptian Financial Supervisory Authority (EFSA) is the supervisory authority of the 
insurance sector. The EFSA has signed bilateral agreements and MOUs with the United Arab 
Emirates, Germany, Iraq, South Africa, Ukraine, Malaysia, Bahrain, the United States , Libya, 
Yemen, Tunisia and Sudan.  
4.112.   The main regulatory developments regarding the insurance sector during the period under 
review are the following:  
 Presidentia l Decree No. 246/2006 of 6 September 2006 set up the Insurance Holding 
Company as the new parent of the three state-owned insurers and of the state reinsurer, in 
order to merge these companies with a view to eventual privatization.  
 Decree No. 72/2007 set u p a guarantee fund to cover the victims of uninsured and hit -and-
run vehicles.  
 Law No. 118/2008, and its Executive Regulations, Decree No. 245/2008 made significant 
changes to Law No. 10/1981, which included: increasing minimum capital requirements for 
life and non -life companies to LE 60 million; tighter investment rules for all companies; 
minimum qualifications and registration details for individual and corporate insurance 
brokers (with the latter becoming authorized for the first time); and the applicat ion by the 
EFSA of a risk -based  supervision approach.  
 Law No. 10/2009 established the Egyptian Financial Supervisory Authority (EFSA) as the 
supervisory authority for all non -banking operations. The EFSA controls and supervises 
insurance operations, capita l markets, real estate, commodities, finance leasing and 
factoring and replaced the various individual regulators, including the Egyptian Insurance 
Supervisory Authority (EISA). The EFSA also has jurisdiction over any new financial 
instruments or products which are not banking instruments. Accompanying regulations to 
Law No. 10 were embodied in Presidential Decree No. 192/2009.  
 EFSA Resolution No. 122/2015 is the first step towards establishing a regulatory 
environment for online sales, and allows insurers to offer compulsory motor third party 
liability, travel and term life insurance online.  
 EFSA Resolution No. 66/2015 on transactions with foreign reinsurance brokers, sets out the 
minimum capital requirements (US$60 million and a BBB grade) for their opera tion in  Egypt.  
 EFSA Resolution No. 14/2015 allows the marketing of insurance products and services 
through banks licensed by the CBE or through the National Postal Authority.  
 Recent regulatory developments include the creation in 2016 of supervisory framew orks to 
allow micro insurance and the distribution of insurance policies through channels such as 
brokers, the post office and travel agencies. There have been discussions since 2015 to 
establish a new Egyptian reinsurance company with capital from both lo cal and foreign 
investors.  
4.113.   Any company wishing to enter the Egyptian insurance market must take the form of an 
Egyptian joint stock company and obtain a new licence; it must have a minimum capital of 
LE 60 million, out of which the minimum paid –up capital should be LE 30 million. Foreign 
companies applying for a licence in Egypt must have licen ces from their home countries and must 
first obtain EFSA approval. Branches of foreign insurance companies are not allowed. The Prime 
Minister's approval is required for an individual or for any entity that intends to own 10% or more 
of an insurance company's shares. The criteria to assess licen ce applications include the 
qualifications of natural persons according to the "Fit & Proper " IAIS (International Association of 
Insurance Supervisors) principles. The licensing documents of the insurance company in its home 
country are also examined in the process. A n insurance licen ce cannot be sold or disposed of. A 
holding company may hold both a life and a non –life insurance  licence but the two businesses 
must be run separately.  
4.114.   Although they must incorporate locally, insurance companies may be 100% foreign owned. 
Risk insurance may be transacted outside Egypt. The managing directors of state-owned insurance 
companies may be non-Egyptians. There are no limitations on the number of providers. There are WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  no differences of treatment between state-owned firms, other domestically  owned firms, and 
foreign -owned subsidiaries. There is recognition of home country supervision for foreig n-owned 
insurance companies. All products (insurance policies) must be approved by the EFSA before being 
put on the market . 
4.4.1.3   Stock exchange and securities  
4.115.   Egypt has a well -developed stock exchange and securities market. The stock market has 
suffered in rece nt years as evidenced by the contraction of the market capitalization of the 
companies listed (from 40% of GDP in 2010 to 25% in 2015). The bond market is more stable, in 
particular due to state borrowing. Box 4.3 below provides the main economic and stati stical 
indicators of the stock market and securities services sector in Egypt.  
Box 4.3 Main economic and statistical indicators for stock exchange and securities in 
Egypt  
Stock Exchange a nd Securities  
Capitalization of the companies listed (% of the GDP the same year)  
2010:  40%; 2015:  25%; 2017: 25.6%  
Gross value of publicly issued bonds  
2010: LE 14.66 billion (of which domestic borrowers 100% as foreign borrowers can buy publicly issued bonds 
in Egypt, but only through domestic firms)  
2015: LE 5.0 billion (of which domestic borrowers 100%)  
 
Traded value of listed shares/market capitalization  
2010: 41.0% ; 2015: 27.0%  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.116.   The supervisory authority for st ock markets and securities is the Egyptian Financial 
Supervisory Authority (EFSA).  
4.117.   There are no foreign firms present per se  as the companies must all take the form of an 
Egyptian stock company. However, foreign ownership in these companies is allowed up t o 100%. 
In addition, if the firm is transacting business from outside Egypt, it must have a registration code 
in Egypt. There are no limitations to the number of providers and no restrictions on foreigners 
buying and selling on the stock market. In this ca se, the foreigners must buy and sell through 
registered "securities dealers" in Egypt. Capital markets in Egypt apply international accounting 
standards.  
4.118.   Egypt's GATS commitments regarding securities include no restrictions for the four modes 
of delivery. The market is therefore totally liberalized and this liberalization is fully bound. In terms 
of licensing, the formal criteria for securities dealers and for asset managers are contained in Law 
No. 95/1992.  
4.119.   Licensing criteria for mutual funds, which are l ikewise supervised by the EFSA, are also 
contained in Law No. 95/1992 . An investment fund must be incorporated as a joint -stock 
company, the capital of which must be paid in cash. The fund must assign the management of its 
activities to a specialized entit y, in accordance with the Executive Regulations. The statute of an 
investment fund must specify the ratio between its paid -up capital and investors' subscription, 
which shall not exceed the ratio specified by the Executive Regulations. Funds must issue 
securities in the form of investment certificates, holders of which will have a share in the fund's 
investment returns. The subscription of these investment certificates must be done through one of 
the banks to be authorized for this purpose. EFSA's Board specifies the procedures to issue these 
certificates  and for the redemption of their value , and determines the information that must be 
contained therein, in addition to  the rules governing their listing and trading on the stock 
exchange.  
4.120.   Foreign companies, when transacting business from their home countries, must be 
licensed in these countries. Law No. 95/1992 does not prevent foreign ownership: mutual funds 
may be 100% foreign -owned provided they are established in Egypt in the form of an Egyptian 
joint-stock company. There are no limitations on the number of providers. Licen ces cannot be 
transferred.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.4.1.4   Pension funds  
4.121.   Egypt has numerous pension funds , although of small size and so far of a purely domestic 
nature. The market is not open to for eign investment because of the nature of the private pension 
funds in Egypt. The supervisory authority for pension funds is the EFSA. The criteria for licensing 
are contained in Law No. 54/1975.  
4.122.   Box 4.4 below provides the main economic and statistical ind icators of the pension funds 
services sector in Egypt.  
Box 4.4 Main economic and statistical indicators for pension funds services in Egypt  
Number of pension funds:  2005: 625; 2010: 632; 2015: 672  
Pension's fun ds' contributions (LE) : 2005: 1.9 billion; 2010: 3.8 billion; 2015: 5.9 billion  
Total assets (LE) : 2005: 17 billion; 2010: 30 billion; 2015: 48 billion.  
Source:  Information provides by the authorities.  
4.4.2   Telecommunication services  
4.123.   Egypt is an important mark et for telecommunication services in view of the size of its 
population. The fixed telecommunications penetration rate is relatively low while the coverage of 
mobile telephony already surpasses the population (110 subscriptions for 100 inhabitants), a 
result achieved during the period under review. Internet usage is also on the rise and reaches 
more than a third of the population.  
4.124.   Telecom Egypt (which is 80% owned by the State, the remaining 20% having been listed 
on the Egyptian stock market in 2005) is still the monopoly operator for fixed -line services. This in 
spite of having lost its exclusivity in 2009 for certain segments such as the provision of fixed 
services in closed residential compounds, for which the National Telecom Regulatory Authority 
granted a triple play licen ce to two operators that are currently able to provide fixed, data and 
value added services to end users in closed residential compounds. Moreover, in October 2016, the 
three mobile telephone companies (Vodafone, Orange, and Etisalat ) obtained a fixed -line licen ce. 
They intend to provide fixed service through Telecom Egypt' s Network.  
4.125.   As the sole provider of infrastructure leasing services, Telecom Egypt issued its Reference 
Interconnection offer that defines the technical, operational , and commercial terms and conditions 
for interconnection and wholesale services. These must be granted to other licensed operators in 
an open access manner and following non -discriminatory principles.  
4.126.   There are three providers in the mobile telephony mark et: Vodafone (41% of the market 
in 2016), Orange (34%) and Etisalat (25%). Etisalat is the last entrant, having entered  in 2009. 
The mobile operators were granted, together with Telecom Egypt,  a 4G/LTE licen ce in October 
2016. Those three companies are maj ority-owned by foreign interests in various proportions ; 
Vodafone  (55.05% ), Orange  (98.92% ), and Etisalat  (80%). State ownership accounts for most of 
the rest of the shares with 44.95% of the shares owned by Telecom Egypt in the case of Vodafone, 
and 20% owned by the Egyptian Post Office in the case of Etisalat. In the case of Orange, 1.08% 
of total shares have been listed on the Egyptian stock market.  
4.127.   The same four companies intervening in the fixed and mobile provision of services are the 
main players in  broadband internet services. Regarding fixed broadband services (xDSL) , TE-Data, 
the data arm of Telecom Egypt, has the largest  market share, while the three mobile operators are 
competing in the mobile broadband market. In addition, 20 licensed companies  are competing in 
the value -added telecom services market.  
4.128.   Box 4.5 below provides more details with respect to the penetration rates of 
telecommunications services in Egypt,  while Table 4.21 below provides the average price basket of WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  the various main types  of telecommunication services for 2015 as computed by the 2016 edition of 
the ITU's Annual Report "Measuring the Information Society ".21 
Box 4.5 Penetration rates of telecommunications services in Egypt  
Total fi xed telephone subscribers (per 100 inhabitants)  
2005:  14.48  
2010:  12.32  
2015:  7.36 
 
Mobile phone subscribers (per 100 inhabitants)  
2005:  18.99  
2010:  90.50  
2015:  110.99  
 
Internet users (per 100 inhabitants)  
2005: 12.75  
2010: 21.6 
2015: 37.80  
 
Fixed broadband internet subscribers (per 100 inhabitants)  
2005: 0.20 
2010: 1.86 
2015: 4.52 
 
Mobile broadband internet subscribers (per 100 inhabitants)  
2005: 0 
2010: 16.99  
2015: 50.66  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
Table 4.21 ITU's 2015 telecommunication services price basket for Egypt  
Type of 
services  Rank  Price as % 
gross 
national 
income 
per capita  
(GNIPC)  US$ Purchase 
power 
parity 
US$ Speed 
in MB/s  Cap per 
month in 
GB Tax rate 
include
d Monthly 
data 
allowed 
in GB  GNI pc 
in US$  
Fixed 
broadband 
sub-basket  82 2.56 6.5 22.61  1 10 0.0 n.a. 3.050  
Mobile 
broadband 
prices, post -
paid 
computer -
based, 1  GB 69 1.28 3.25 11.3 n.a. n.a. n.a. 1 3.050  
Mobile 
broadband 
prices, 
prepaid 
handset -
based, 
500 MB 73 1.18 2.99 10.40  n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.5 3.050  
Mobile cellular 
sub basket  90 1.90 4.83 16.78  n.a. n.a. 15% n.a. 3.050  
n.a. Not applicable.  
Source:  ITU. 
4.129.   Egypt has followed a progressive liberalization policy for the telecommunications sector 
during the period under review. The mains steps of this li beralization are the following:  
 In 2005, 20% of the shares of Telecom Egypt were sold on the Egyptian stock market.  
 
 In 2007, a third mobile telecom licen ce was granted to Etisalat.  
                                                
21 ITU online information. Viewed at:  https://www.itu.int/en/ITU -D/Statistics/Documents/publications/ 
misr2016/MISR2016 -w4.pdf . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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   In 2009, Telecom Egypt lost its fixed-line monopoly. Mobile operators were allowed first 
to provide fixed services in closed residential compounds, then wholesale services via 
interconnection offers.  
 
 In 2010, fixed satellite services (FSS), mobile satellite services (MSS) and leased lin es 
were fully liberalized while the wireless local loop was partially opened.  
 
 In August 2016, Telecom Egypt obtained a 4G/LTE mobile licen ce as the fourth mobile 
operator in Egypt.  
 In October 2016, the three mobile companies obtained a 4G/LTE licen ce and a fixed -line 
licence each. They intend to provide fixed services through Telecom Egypt' s network 
using full local loop, bit stream, and call origination solutions.  
4.130.   As a result of these reforms, all but two of the 14 services of ITU profiles standard lists of 
telecommunications services available in Egypt are subject to full competition. The two exceptions 
are wireless local loop and international gateways, which are subject to partial competition.  
4.131.   There is currently no licensed mobile virtual network operator in Egypt, nor are there any 
plans to grant a licen ce in the near future. However, the regulator is planning (2017) to perform 
regular market analysis to define the needs of the mobile markets in Egypt . 
4.132.   The regulatory supervision of the telecommunic ations sector is ensured by the National 
Telecom Regulatory Authority (NTRA), created by the Telecommunications Regulation Law 
No. 10/2003. Its Board has 17 members and is chaired by the Minister of Communications and 
Information Technology, who has a deci sive voice. The NTRA is in charge of: licensing 
telecommunications services; regulating prices; regulating interconnection; setting technical 
standards; allocating radio frequencies; assigning and monitoring the use of the spectrum; 
determining numbering; granting type a pproval to equipment; regulating  universal service; 
monitoring the quality of the services; enforcing consumer rights protection; and carrying out 
research and development. The regulation of broadcasting content is under the supervision of t he 
broadcasting regulator, while the entity in charge of information technology policies is the Ministry 
of Communications and Information Technology. There is no regulatory framework yet for over -
the-top (OTT) or Internet Protocol TV (IPTV) Internet telev ision providers such as Netflix.  
4.133.   Regarding the fixed interconnection regime, the termination rate into an operator is a 
percentage (65%) of this operator's on -net retail rate. This regime has been  challenged by some 
operators and there are some cases stil l awaiting court decision. As at the end of 2017, the NTRA 
and the licensed operators were in the process of reconsidering the interconnection regime.  
4.134.   Infrastructure sharing is a right for licensed operators, not an obligation. Operators are 
allowed to neg otiate for infrastructure sharing and sign the needed agreement subject to NTRA 
approval. Local loop unbundling is mandatory on the incumbent fixed operator, Telecom Egypt. 
The current types of unbundling are: full local loop unbundling, shared access (hal f line sharing), 
and bit stream service.  
4.135.   Number portability is mandatory for mobile and fixed licensees as per regulation and 
licences. International call termination is based on a revenue sharing model between the owner of 
the international gateway and t he operator, which terminates the inte rnational call to its end user.  
4.136.   As at September 2017, there were 57 licensed companies that have been granted 73 
licences including four mobile service licen ces and four fixed service licen ces. Some value added 
service s are subject to authorization (such as the 200 Internet services providers and the so -called 
class C resellers) and others are subject to licensing according to  the type of service.  
4.137.   All operators are subject to universal service obligations but they are n ot required to offer 
it below costs prices. Universal service is financed by a Universal Service Fund operational since 
2005 and administered by the regulator; 5% of the Fund's resources stem from a 0.5% 
contribution of the operators' adjusted gross revenu es and 95% from the regulator's budget.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.4.3   Postal and courier services  
4.4.3.1   Postal services  
4.138.   The designated operator of postal services is the National Postal Authority,  under the 
Ministry of Communications and Information Technology. The Authority provides the usu al postal 
services (letter post, postal parcels and express mail) and, in the financial field, savings, giro and 
money order services and the payment of pensions. It also issues motor vehicle licen ces and the 
mandatory insurance certificates for such vehic les, by Internet. In addition, the following new 
services have been recently added to its portfolio: sale of telephone cards; daily income current 
accounts (gold and silver accounts); electronic bill payments; payment of pensions and salaries by 
ATM; telep hone bill payment at post offices; and electronic exchange of documents through the 
electronic document exchange centre.  
4.139.   There is no independent postal regulator per se . The Ministry of Communications and 
Information Technology directly supervises the acti vities of the National Postal Authority and 
prepares overall national postal policies.  
4.140.   The National Postal Authority has a large degree of autonomy in its decision -making 
process, pursuant to the postal reform implemented over recent years.  Within the fram ework of 
Law No. 19/1982 on the postal field, the Authority has an independent budget annexed to the 
general state budget. It has administrative and financial independence, finances its own 
investment plan, and does not have to refer to any governmental bo dy. The Authority is directed 
by a Board of Directors, most of whose members have experience in the various areas of postal 
activity. The Board of Directors maps out the policies, develops the strategies and makes the 
decisions it considers necessary for t he conduct of the Authority's work. However, approval of the 
budget remains within the remit of Parliament.  
4.141.   The Board of Directors of the Authority determines the scope of the services provided and 
monitors and manages them. It is also empowered to make th e decisions it considers necessary to 
achieve the targets set, including the development of the work plan and programme and the 
preparation of the organizational chart and personnel policies, without being bound by the rules 
laid down by the Government.  
4.142.    Table 4.22 describes both the universal postal services and the reserved area of the 
designated operator.  
Table 4.22 Universal postal services and reserved area by weight, type of item and type 
of traffic  
Item  Domestic  International  
Letters (20 grams or less)  Reserved area. However, the 
private sector can operate in this 
category provided that the price 
billed does not exceed three times 
the price of the national operator  Reserved area. However, the 
privat e sector can operate in this 
category provided that the price 
billed does not exceed three times 
the price of the national operator  
Letters (above 20 grams and 
up to two kilos)  Both the national operator and 
private companies can operate in 
this category on the condition that 
the minimum price is not inferior 
to the price offered by the national 
operator on the market  Both the national operator and 
private companies can operate in 
this category on the condition that 
the minimum price is not inferior 
to the price offered by the national 
operator on the market  
Parcels  Parcels (of 50 kilos or less) : 
fully liberalized  Parcels (of 20 kilos or less) : 
fully liberalized  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
 WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.143.   The operator itself ensures that the monopoly is applied. It can, however, entrust third 
parties to carry out certain services on its behalf, on the basis of contracts concluded in 
accordance with the leg islation and statutes in force.  
4.144.   Licensed services are subject to the payment of fees. The minimum fee paid is LE 50,000 
for each service category, in addition to LE 25,000 in the case of a request for an additional 
category. No fees are required to  be paid upon the  renewal of the contract.  
4.145.   Competition from private companies is authorized for the provision of express courier 
services (EMS). The National Postal Authority, i.e. the operator, issues authorizations for the 
provision of EMS. The regulator is a division in side the National Postal Authority structure that 
reports directly to the CEO and is independent from the functional areas responsible for postal 
service operations. The regulator is in charge of authorizing the handling of inward and outward 
EMS mail. A l arge share of the EMS market is outsourced to private companies .  
4.146.   With respect to the determination of charges for the different services rendered, the Board 
of Directors of the Authority proposes the charges for the services in accordance with its Rules f or 
the Sound Calculation of Cost Prices, on bases drawn up by the Cabinet. The charges are then 
fixed by a Ministry of Communications and Information Technology Decision after consideration by 
the Cabinet. Charges of services affecting the majority of the general population are set in 
accordance with the plan drawn up by the Government with a view to switching to a market -based 
pricing system. They are set taking into account social considerations, particularly as regards rates 
for domestic letter -post item s. The difference between the cost of postal services and the fees 
collected on these services is covered with the revenues generated by other profitable services 
such as the financial services and the licen ce fees collected from private companies.  
4.147.   Regardi ng the financing of postal services, the Postal Authority is required to balance its 
revenue and expenditure and even to make a profit. Profits are partly used to cover the 
accumulated deficit and for self -financing and are partly paid into the State Treas ury. The Postal 
Authority retains the terminal dues owed to it. Postal service s do not receive state subsidies.  
4.4.3.2   Courier services  
4.148.   In accordance with Law No. 19/1982, private courier operators must obtain a licen ce to 
provide, by delegation, certain services  under monopoly, such as the distribution of letters of up to 
2 kg, and certain universal services, such as  the handling of letter -post items of up to 2 kg, and of 
books, newspapers, periodicals and parcels of up to 20 kg. A licen ce is also required for ot her 
activities such as the handling of parcels of up to 50 kg for domestic traffic and of parcels of up to 
20 kg for international traffic, as well as for express mail. However, in practice there is only one 
general licen ce for all types of services and no  service -specific licen ces. This licen ce is valid for 5 
years and subject to a fixed charge and to an annual charge calculated as a percentage of 
revenues. Licences are renewable with the consent of both parties. The licensed activity must be 
delivered by the operator itself.  
4.149.   The criteria with respect to registration and establishment requirements defined by the 
General Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI, Section 2) apply. There are no additional 
criteria. In particular, there is no limitation on the number of suppliers, domestic or foreign. 
Similarly , there is no limitation placed on the volume and value of services, no restriction on 
foreign ownership , and no discriminatory requirements with respect to legal forms of 
establishment. There is no universal services fund. According to the authorities, there is no cross 
subsidization and hence no need for cross subsidization disciplines.  
4.150.   There were 36 licensed operators in April 2017, 7 of which foreign (UPS, DHL, Abamix, 
DHL, TNT, OCS, FEDEX).  
4.4.4   Transport services  
4.4.4.1   Air transport services  
4.151.   Civil aviation's direct contribution to GDP is of about 1.2%; its indirect contribution is 
estimated to be 8%. According to the latest information available, in 2011, it supported 53,000 WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  jobs directly and 197,000 indirectly in Egypt.22 Egypt has nine national scheduled carriers in 
addition to its state-owned flag carrier Egyptair; some of them are of a small size, as detailed in 
Box 4.6. All domestic airlines are privately -owned and several of them have foreign investment 
participation. This responds to a policy that seeks to promote start -ups in order to multiply tourism 
arrivals and strengthen Egypt's connections in a region where aviation is a highly competitive 
sector.  
Box 4.6 Main economic indicators for aviation services in Egypt  
Main economic indicators  
Number of jobs supported: direct: 53,000 and indi rect: 197,000 (excluding tourism) in 2011  
Contribution to GDP:  direct : 1.2% , indirect : 8% (including tourism) in 2011  
Scheduled airlines (name, fleet and ownership):  
- Egyptair, 70 planes, state owned via a holding company  
- Air Arabia Egypt, 1 plane, private, 60% Egyptian, 40% foreign  (Saudi Arabia)  
- Nesma Airlines, 4 planes, private, 100% Egyptian  
- Air Cairo, 7 planes, private, 100% Egyptian  
- AMC Airlines, 5 planes, private, 100% Egyptian  
- Alexandria Airlines, 1 plane, private, 60% Egyptian, 40% foreign (Jordan)  
- Nile Air, 6 planes, private,  60% Egyptian, 40% foreign (Saudi Arabia)  
- El Masria Universal Airlines, 3 planes, private , 100% Egyptian  
- Air Leisure, 6 planes, private, 100% Egyptian  
- Flyegypt, 2 planes, private, 100% Egyptian  
Number of passengers (departed and arrived) handled by the airport system:  
2005: departed 12,381,042 , arrived 12,287,045  
2010: departed 20,354,220 , arrived 20,093,034  
2015: departed 17,650,864 , arrived 17,156,469  
Total tonnage of cargo handled by the airport sys tem: 
2005: 216,921  
2010:  313,210  
2015:  313,968  
Maintenance and repair:  
1 repair station certified by the  U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)  and by the European Aviation Safety 
Agency (EASA): Egypt Air M and E  
Computer reservation systems present on the Egyptian market:  Amadeus, Galileo, Worldspan, Sabre  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.152.   The Ministry of Civil Aviation of Egypt (MCA) is responsible for policy formulation and 
implementation in the sector. The Egyptian Civil Aviation Authority (ECA) is the regulator, and is in 
charge of: (a) establishing a safety management system; (b) setting airworthiness standards for 
small and large airplanes; (c) granting licen ces for pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors; 
(d) certify ing flight crew members other than pilots; (e) certifying ground crew members; (f) 
establishing general operating and flight rules; g) regulating air cargo agents and air freight 
forwarders; (h) certifying air carriers and air taxi operations; (i) certifyi ng heliports; (j) certifying 
and operating land aerodromes; (k) managing aviation training centres; (l) approving maintenance 
organizations or repair stations; (m) certifying and operating organizations providing air traffic 
service s in the Egyptian Flight  Information Region; (n) certifying and operating organizations 
providing aeronautical information services in Egypt; (o) certifying and operating Egyptian 
organizations providing aeronautical telecommunication services; (p) certifying aircraft ground 
handling service providers; and (q) issuing regulations on the transport of dangerous goods, 
aeronautical charts, passenger protection, and accident investigation standards, among others.23 
4.153.   Although air traffic experienced an important surge between 2005 and 2010, it has since 
then declined due to political and external events. Between 2010 and 2015 , tourism traffic 
declined, while cargo traffic remained virtually unchanged.  
                                                
22 IATA online information.  Viewed at: https://www.iata.org/policy/Documents/Benefits -of-Aviation -
Egypt -2011.pdf . 
23 Egyptian Civil Aviation Authority  online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.civilaviation.gov.eg/Regulations/solta.html . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.154.   Regarding the regulatory framework of aviation, the rules for establishing an aviation  
company are based on national substantial ownership (i.e. 51%) and effective control. There is a 
specific policy for charter flights. According to Ministerial Decree No. 52/1996 , there are no 
restrictions on charter flights from any foreign city to Egypti an airports except for Cairo Airport. In 
the case of Cairo airport, permission may be granted to Egyptian and foreign air carriers if these 
flights depart from countries not served by Egyptair. Foreign air carriers operating charter tourist 
flights are not  allowed to operate flights within the Egyptian territory.  
4.155.   To promote the use of airports operating at below full capacity, an incentives scheme 
consisting of granting rebates on airport charges to charter and low cost carrier flights to all tourist 
destin ations was put in place. The scheme was operational between 1 November 2016 and 31  
October 2017, with possibility of extension . 
4.156.   The operation of all -cargo flights is subject to MOU's signed between aeronautical 
authorities . With respect to  scheduled passen ger flights, the authorities describe Egypt's policy as 
one of gradual opening. Indeed, from analysing the table of bilateral agreements coded according 
to the WTO QUASAR method, emerges a clear pattern of partial liberalization through an active 
policy of  renegotiation of , and introduction of amendments to , agreements (see Table A4.1). The 
main features of this liberalization policy, included in several of Egypt's bilateral aviation 
agreements are:  
 The suppression of fifth freedom rights, which could appea r prima facie  as a measure 
counter to liberalization, but which actually responds to the fact that fifth freedom rights 
had increasingly been ensured by alliance partners through a codeshare, which could 
have hindered competition.  
 The systematic inclusion of a cooperation clause, including code sharing, which can also 
be linked to the adhesion of Egyptair to the Star Alliance.  
 The replacement of the dual approval clause by a free pricing clause.  
 A flexib le approach towards the needs of the partner country with regard to the 
ownership clause. For example, the principal place of business clause has been accepted 
for Switzerland and Serbia to take into account the non -national majority shareholder of 
their flag carrier. Egypt has also accepted the community of interest clause for the 
European Union members States, either directly in the bilateral agreements or via the 
horizontal agreement on the community clause concluded with the European Union.  
 A switch to multiple designation of airlines.  
4.157.   The QUA SAR methodology does not capture the increase in capacity granted, which is a 
key feature of air transport liberalization. However, the drop in inbound tourism passengers over 
the last six years, from 14 million in 2010 to 5.4 million in 2016 ( Section 4.4. 7), leaves ample 
overall capacity as compared to the peak of 2010. In addition, the considerable capacity expansion 
of Egyptian airports over recent years (from 28.3 million passengers in 2002 to 73 million in 2016, 
that is, a 282% increase) needs to be ma tched by further additional capacity granted to scheduled 
carriers via bilateral agreements, since charter traffic expansion alone will not suffice. In this 
context , the authorities have started studying the possibility of adopting an open skies policy.  
4.158.   Egypt's regime regarding auxiliary services (aircraft repair and maintenance, computer 
reservation services (CRS) and selling and marketing) is in practice quite liberal, although Egypt 
has not undertaken any GATS commitments in this area. In the case of mai ntenance and repair,  
national planes may be maintained and repaired in both domestic and foreign maintenance outlets, 
provided these facilities are approved by the ECA (rules ECA 43 and 145). The establishment in 
Egypt of foreign maintenance, repair and ov erhaul providers is permitted only for line maintenance 
and defect rectification and on the basis of reciprocity   
4.159.   There is no regulation restricting the choice of CRS providers by airlines and travel agents. 
Airlines have the right to establish offices for  the purpose of engaging in the sale of air transport 
services. Symmetrically, customers have the right to purchase freely these services. Ground 
handling services are partially liberalized:  Egyptair and EAC perform ground handling services in all 
Egyptian  airports; designated foreign airlines can perform self -handling operations on a reciprocal 
basis.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  4.160.   All Egyptian airports are publicly owned and publicly managed, except for two that are 
managed under a BOT agreement. The Egyptian Holding Company for Airpor ts and Air Navigation 
(EHCAAN) is the body responsible for airport management in Egypt. The EHCAAN has four 
subsidiaries, two of which manage and operate airports, namely the Cairo Airport Company (CAC) 
and the Egyptian Airports Company (EAC), which manage s 21 regional airports (11 international 
airports and 10 domestic airports).  
4.161.   Private sector participation in the airport subsector is regulated by the Airport 
Build-Operate -Transfer (BOT) Law No. 3/1997. The Law allows private domestic or foreign 
investors  to build and operate commercial airports through concessions for periods of up to 
99 years. The Ministry of Civil Aviation has awarded BOT concessions to a group of private 
investors at Marsa Alam and El Alamein airports.  
4.162.   The EHCAAN has developed a Strat egic Vision 2030, which aims at making Egyptian 
airports leading and pioneer airports in the Middle East and Africa and able to compete globally. 
The Strategy aims at optimizing EHCAAN's assets to provide aeronautical and air navigational 
services in a man ner that complies with international standards and customers' and investors' 
expectations through an efficient and effective management based on human and technological 
capabilities and by adopting security, safety, quality and environmental protection pol icies to 
achieve sustainable development.24 
4.163.   The Vision's specific objectives are:  
 Developing and expanding Egyptian airports to accommodate the expected increase in 
passenger traffic and converting the Cairo airport in to a regional hub.  
 Activating the integ ration of sea, air and land transport (Sea Air Cargo).  
 Upgrading the security and safety of airports to reach the highest international 
standards.  
 Achieving high local and international safety standards.  
 Upgrading the performance of services provided to stakeholders . 
 Making all Egyptian airports environmentally friendly.  
4.4.5   Maritime transport  
4.164.   Maritime transport is the main means of transportation used for Egypt's international 
trade. The value of imports transported by maritime means reached US$60.6 billion in 2015 and 
that of exports US$12.8 billion the same year. Table 4.23 provides detailed data on the value and 
volume of cargo imported to and exported from Egypt between 2005 and 2016. The import value 
of merchandise transported by maritime means quadruple d between 2005 and 2015, while the 
value of exports more than doubled between 2005 and 2011 and then declined in the aftermath of 
the revolution; since 2015 , lower exports via maritime transport also reflect lower oil prices.  
Table 4.23 Value and volume of maritime trade, 2005 -16 
(US$ million and '000 tons)  
YEAR  SEA PORTS  
IMPORT  EXPORT  TOTAL  
VALUE  VOLUME  VALUE  VOLUME  VALUE  VOLUME  
2005  15,294  31,475  9,208  31,857  24,502  63,332  
2006  15,825  28,037  11,631  36,747  27,456  64,784  
2007  20,614  30,478  13,090  34,903  33,704  65,381  
2008  45,583  25,806  23,601  32,610  69,184  58,416  
2009  37,550  23,767  15,750  28,898  53,300  52,665  
2010  38,836  34,127  16,837  33,041  55,673  67,168  
2011  49,864  42,633  20,575  26,247  70,439  68,880  
2012  59,312  42,217  19,762  27,492  79,074  69,709  
2013  53,581  38,661  19,072  20,223  72,253  58,884  
2014  59,589  44,800  17,161  17,853  76,750  62,653  
                                                
24 EHCAAN online information. Viewed at: http:/ /www.ehcaan.com/mission.aspx . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  YEAR  SEA PORTS  
IMPORT  EXPORT  TOTAL  
VALUE  VOLUME  VALUE  VOLUME  VALUE  VOLUME  
2015  60,597  46,366  12,883  25,032  73,480  71,398  
2016a 54,556  47,310  11,478  27,759  66,034  75,069  
a Preliminary data.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.165.   Total container traffic almost doubled between 2005 and 2010, but declined somewhat 
thereafter (Table 4.24). Passenger traffic, on the other hand, has shown a declining trend since 
2005; th is reflects, in particular, a decline in cruise passengers.  
Table 4.24 Passenger and container traffic  
Traffic handled  Total passengers (million)  Total handed containers  (million TEUs)  
2005 3.7 3.65 
2010 2.9 6.70 
2015 1.1 6.40 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.166.   Egypt has a sizeable fleet under its national flag, consisting of 114 vessels accounting for 
960,000 gross registered tons (GRT). Most of this tonnage is deployed internationally. Egypt has 
encouraged foreign operators to fly the Egyptian flag by requiring, since 2009, that international 
ship owners willing to pursue maritime agency activities in Egypt have at least one Egyptian -
flagged vessel. The foreign -controlled fleet under the  Egyptian flag now stands at four vessels 
representing 131,118 GRT.  
4.167.   On the other hand, the Egyptian "beneficially owned" fleet under foreign flag is larger, with 
232 vessels, representing 3.59 million dead weight tons25 and 0.46% of the world fleet. One of the 
factors explaining this situation is that, unlike some other ship registers, the Egyptian register 
limits the age of cargo vessels to 15 years. Older Egyptian owned vessels are hence registered 
under foreign flags.  
4.168.   Egypt has 15 commercial sea ports on  the Mediterranean and the Red Sea (the main ones 
being Alexandria, Damietta, East Port Said and El Sokhna) and 28 specialized ports in the fields of 
oil, mining, tourism and fishing. Egypt has opened the sector to private domestic and foreign 
investment o ver the last 15 years. There are now several terminals, including container terminals 
and specialized bulk terminals, managed and partially owned by foreign operators (e.g. the 
Spanish -Egyptian Company for Gas SEGAS in Damietta or Dubai Port World in East Port Said) in 
cooperation with local public and private partners.  
4.169.   Egypt made some commitments under the GATS with respect to maritime transport 
services. These commitments were regarding international passenger and freight maritime 
transport, for which co mmercial presence was bound, but only in the case of joint -venture 
companies, with foreign capital not exceeding 49% of the total. There are also domestic 
registration requirements to fly the Egyptian flag (MA). Egypt also bound port dredging services in 
the GATS, also only in the form of joint -ventures companies, with foreign capital equity not 
exceeding 75%. Limitations with respect to personnel and the members of the board of directors 
were also inscribed in the Schedule (Box 4.7). With respect to region al agreements, Egypt 
undertook maritime transport commitments in 2014 in the context of the COMESA services 
negotiations (Box 4.7).  
                                                
25 Statistics for the beneficially owned fleet are not available in GRT.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
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  Box 4.7 Egypt's international obligations regarding maritime transport services  
GATS commitments:  
International passenger and freight maritime transport:  mode  1: unbound (market access (MA) and 
national treatment (NT)), mode 2: unbound (MA) and none (NT), mode 3: commercial presence is only allowed 
for joint -venture companies; foreig n capital should not exceed 49% of the total; all ships owned by established 
companies should be registered in the Egyptian ship register as a pre -requisite to fly the Egyptian flag (MA); 
none (NT); mode 4: 95% of the crew should be Egyptian nationals and their wages and salaries should be no 
less than 90% of the total paid up wages and salaries; the Chairman and majority of the Board of Directors 
must be Egyptian nationals.  
 
Port dredging services:  mode 1 and 2: unbound (MA and NT); mode3: commercial prese nce is only allowed 
in the form of joint -venture companies; foreign capital equity should not exceed 75% (MA); none (NT); 
mode  4: at least 25 % of both the personnel and the members of the Board of Directors should be nationals 
(MA); none (NT).  
 
Regional t rade agreements commitments:  
 
COMESA:  Egypt undertook maritime transport commitments in 2014 in the context of the COMESA services 
negotiations. These commitments echo the GATS commitments which reflect themselves the applied regime 
and the existing legislation.  
Source:  Egypt GATS schedules , WTO documents GATS/SC/30, 15 April 1994; GATS/SC/30, Suppl. 1, 
28 July 1998; GATS/SC/30, Suppl. 2, 26 February 1998; GATS/SC/30, Suppl. 3, 5 June 2002.  
4.170.   Cabotage in maritime transport is reserved for national flag carriers in accordance with 
Article 8 of t he Maritime Trade Law No. 8/1990. Waivers can be granted  to foreign vessels to 
practice cabotage in case of the breakdown of an Egyptian vessel and when a supplier terminates 
its service. Three such waivers were granted in 2015.  
4.171.   Regarding the registration policy, the conditions to fly the Egyptian flag are the following:  
 The vessel must be owned by an Egyptian national or by a legal person established in Egypt. 
In the case of partial ownership, the majority of the shares of the company owning the 
vessel mus t be owned by Egyptian nationals or by a  business established in Egypt  (article 5 
of the Maritime Trade Law No. 8/1990);  
 The vessel must be registered in an Egyptian port;  
 The percentage of national maritime labour shall be no less than 95% and the corresp onding 
wages shall be no less than 90% (Maritime Transport Minister Decree No.  105 /1990);  
 The age of the ship shall not exceed 10 years for a cargo ship and 15 years for a passenger 
ship (article 3 of Law No. 232/1989 on safety of vessels).  
4.172.   Maritime transport projects established in the free zones are exempt from the stipulations 
related to the nationality of ship owners and of ship crews as well as from the stipulations 
regarding wages (Maritime Trade Law No. 8/1990 and Investment Law No. 72 /2017, article 42). 
The vessels owned by these projects are also exempt from the provisions of Law No. 12/1964 on 
establishing the Egyptian General Corporation for Maritime Transport. The Ministry of Investment 
is the competent authority for establishing t he companies in the free zones. There are already two 
companies Misr and Pyramid, owning four vessels, established in such free  zones.  
4.173.   Minister of Transportation Decree No. 451/2009 of 31 October 2009 and Law No. 800/2016 
regulate shipping agency services,  among others. They stipulate that for the establishment of 
shipping agencies a joint  venture is compulsory and that the share of the Egyptian partner shall 
not be less than 51%. However , these requirements are lifted for maritime transport companies 
that exercise a real investment activity in Egypt, own at least one Egyptian -flagged vessel and for 
whom shipping agency activities are only a partial activity to serve its own vessels (Egyptian or 
foreign).  
4.174.   Regarding support policy and cargo reservations, flyi ng the Egyptian flag does not entail 
any grant of subsidies or financial support nor access to reserved cargoes such as Government or WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 140 - 
 
  public cargoes. There is no second register and no tonnage tax and the recourse to those policy 
instruments is not envisag ed.26 
4.175.   With respect to access to ports and port services, Egypt  grants no preferential treatment 
for national flag vessels or to those from any partner  States in terms of access to berths, ports 
dues, pilotage exemption, and pilotage fees. Foreign users pay their fees in foreign currencies.  
4.176.   The bilateral and plurilateral agreements signed by Egypt do not grant any reciprocal 
preferential treatment to partner States for cargo sharing. A past agreement wit h Saudi Arabia 
that contained a cargo sharing provision  has been adapted and this provision suppressed. A similar 
revision is ongoing for the bilateral agreement with Bangladesh.  
4.177.   In accordance with Law No. 1/1998, the private sector  (foreign or domestic ) faces no 
restrictions for the exercise of onshore mariti me transport activities and maritime auxiliary 
services (except for maritime agencies services).  
4.178.   There are no foreign ownership restrictions for cargo handing/maritime terminal activities 
or for specialized ports. The only conditions that must be met are registration in the Egyptian 
Commercial Register and that the percentage of national maritime labour be no less than 90%.  
4.179.   Egypt is not a party to the US -led Container Security Initiative (CSI).  
4.4.5.1   Inland waterways transport  
4.4.5.1.1   Suez Canal  
4.180.   The Suez Canal is of vi tal importance for Egypt's economy. In fiscal year 2015/16, it 
generated US$5.12 billion in revenue, accounting for 9.8% of total external account receipts 
(Table 4.25). As a share in total external current account receipt s, revenue in fiscal year 2015/16 
outpaced the previous 8.6% peak reached in 2005/2006. In money terms, however, there was a 
decline in revenue in both 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 with respect to the peak reached in 
2013/2014 (US$5.37  billion). These diverging evolutions between the two indica tors can be 
explained by a recent decline of overall foreign earnings in dollar terms, stronger than the one 
faced by the Canal.  
Table 4.25 Suez Canal revenue, 2005/06 -2015/16  
Fiscal year  US$ million  Share in  total external current 
account receipts (%)  
2005/06  3,559  8.6 
2006/07  4,170  8.4 
2007/08  5,155  7.8 
2008/09  4,720  8.3 
2009/10  4,517  7.8 
2010/11  5,053  8.1 
2011/12  5,208  8.1 
2012/13  5,032  7.4 
2013/14  5,369  7.3 
2014/15  5,362  8.1 
2015/16  5,122  9.8 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.181.   Table 4.26 describes the evolution of the Suez Canal's traffic by number, tonnage and 
types of vessels as well as the corresponding revenue generated. While in 2016 the number of 
ships transiting by the Cana l had not yet caught up with its pre -financial crisis levels, the tonnage 
crossing it had well passed these marks, due to the growing size of container ships. As far as total 
traffic is concerned, several factors explain its recent evolution, including dem and for maritime 
transport services, the enlargement of the Canal, and the fee policy of the Suez Canal Authority.  
                                                
26 Second registers have been introduced by a number of countries to, for example, waive restrictions 
on the nationality of the crew, or provide more favou rable tax conditions than in the "first register".  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 141 - 
 
  Table 4.26 Suez Canal traffic, 2005  and 2010 -16 
Year 2005  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Total No. of ships  18,224  17,993  17,799  17,225  16,596  17,148  17,483  16,833  
Total tonnage (million tons)  672.0  846.4  928.9  928.5  915.4  962.7  998.7  974.2  
- of which bulk carriers  110.9  82.5 83.5 98.9 101.2  107.7  102.2  96.5 
- of which container ships  321.4  465.9  519.3  507.1  508.2  536.3  555.6  552.4  
Revenues from bulk carriers 
(US$ million)  537.9  489.2  487.6  558.3  574.6  630.5  551.0  493.0  
Revenue from container 
ships (US$ million)  1,795.4  2,716.1  3,056.4  2,898.3  2,899.0  3,084.0  2,870.0  2,787.1  
Source:  Suez Canal Authority.  
4.182.   Container ships account for more than half of the tonnage of ships crossing the Su ez Canal 
and represent some 85% of the revenue. Bulk carriers represent a significantly less important and 
slowly decreasing share of both revenues and traffic.  
4.183.   With respect to the cargoes transiting through the Suez Canal, there was a noticeable 
increase in  the share of LNG, which rose from 5.3% in 2006 to a peak of 17.4% in 2011. Since 
2012, the volume  of LNG passing  through the Suez Canal ha s fallen and its share declined to only 
9.2% in 2016. This can be partly explained by a switch of Middle East exports  of LNG from Europe 
to Japan; these LNG cargoes no longer cross the Canal.  
4.184.   Although bulk traffic has been slowing down in general terms, traffic of crude oil is an 
exception. In fact, traffic of these products nearly trebled between 2011 and 2016, from 37  million 
tons to 91 million tons. This increase can be partly explained by the effect of the cooperation 
between the Suez Canal Authority and the  Arab Petroleum Pipelines Co. (SUMED), whereby very 
large crude carriers (VLCC) which cannot navigate the Canal with full load, can partially reduce 
their load at its entrance by sending the excess load through the SUMED pipeline and retrieving it 
on exiting the Canal. A complementary explanation is the enlargement of the Canal which has 
allowed the passage of large r crude carriers.  
4.185.   The expansion of the Suez Canal is indeed the most significant development that has taken 
place with respect to waterways transport in Egypt since the last Review. The expansion was 
inaugurated in August 2015 after one year of works. The total length of the expansion is 72 
kilometres: 35 kilometres are a totally new waterway, and 37  kilometres correspond to the 
deepening  and widening of the Canal and by -passes in the Great Bitter Lakes and Ballah Area. The 
enlarged Canal allows ships to sa il in both directions at the same time as it increased the two -way 
navigable part of the Canal from 80.5 kilometres to 111.2 kilometres. Before that enlargement, 
much of the Canal was only one -way shipping lane wide. The project, which had a total cost of 
LE 31.1 billion (some US$4.2 billion) was entirely financed locally through interest -bearing 
investment certificates issued by the Suez Canal Authority with an interest rate of 12% that do not 
confer any ownership rights on investors. In November 2016, the  interest rate was increased to 
15.5%.  
4.186.   The expansion of the Suez Canal has raised its daily crossing capacity from 49 vessels to 
97 and decreased the transit time from 18 to 11 hours. The standard draft of the Canal is now 66 
feet. This allows the passage of 93% of the world dry bulk cargo fleet and more specifically of 63% 
of the tanker fleet, 100% of the container fleet and 100% of other types of ships.  
4.187.   The toll policy of the Suez Canal Authority is non -discriminatory and in constant flux to 
adapt to the market and to try to attract new traffic. It contains several incentives and fidelity 
rebate schemes.27 
                                                
27 For more elements of the fee policy of the Suez Canal Authority see:  
http://www.suezcanal.gov.eg/Engli sh/Tolls/Pages/MarketingPoliciesAndTollRebates.aspx . WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 142 - 
 
  4.4.5.1.2   Nile River navigation  
4.188.   Navigation on the Nile River is not subject to International Maritime Organization rules but 
to the Egyptian Law No. 10/1956. Investment rules in the sector are the general rules applicable 
to investment in Egypt. There is an Inland Waterway Shipping Regis ter for all types of motorized 
vessels. Licen ces for all motorized vessels are issued by the River Transport Authority (RTA).  
4.189.   Inland waterways28 passenger transport, inland water local tours and cruise ships are 
subject to some GATS commitments, namely: mod e 1 was left unbound for market access (MA) 
and national treatment (NT); mode 2 was bound with no limitations for MA and NT; mode 3 was 
bound with the limitation that "the addition of (capacity) to the inland water passenger and/or 
local tours is subject t o the physical capacity of the river Nile", for MA and with no limitation for 
NT.29 However, for the time being there is no foreign provider operating in Egypt.  
4.190.   The fleet operating on the Nile is composed of four segments: (a) floating hotels and 
touristic restaurants, which account for 288 vessels, 138 of which static, and a capacity of 
35,000  passengers; (b) ferry boats, which account for 94 vessels and some 1.8  million passengers 
annually; (c) small tonnage vessels for private passengers, accounting for 1 0,000  vessels and 
5.5 million passengers yearly; and (d) cargo vessels, accounting for 1,290 vessels and traffic of 
3.67 million tons in 2016.  
4.4.6   Tourism services  
4.191.   Tourism is a key service in Egypt: in 2015 , it employed 1.8 million persons directly and 
4 million indirectly, which represents some 12.6% of the total work force. In the same year, it 
accounted for 11.3% of GDP, when totalling its direct and indirect contribution. Tourism is a major 
source of foreign currency earnings for Egypt, accounting for 12% o f the total foreign currency 
earnings in 2014/2015 and for 7.2% in 2015/2016. In 2016 , the geographical origin of inbound 
tourists was the following: Europe 48.2%, other Arab countries 37%, Asia 7%, America 5.3%, and 
other Africa 2.2%. Particular efforts h ave been deployed towards attracting new customers 
especially from other Arab countries and from Asia.  
4.192.   Tourism revenues and the number of visitors are highly dependent on political events and 
security concerns. In recent years, there has been an overall de clining trend in international 
receipts due to these concerns, to the point that in 2014 domestic tourism receipts (US$3.1 billion) 
amounted to nearly half of inbound tourism receipts (US$7.2 billion). Overall tourism receipts have 
declined from US$12.5 bi llion in 2010 to US$6.2 billion in 2015 and US$2.6 billion in 2016. The 
average expenditure per tourist/night in 2016 was US$80.9, up from US$72.4 in 2015, but lower 
than the US$85 registered in 2010. Table 4.27 depicts the evolution of the number of inbou nd 
tourists and the tourism receipts stemming from these tourists between 2010 and 2016.  
Table 4.27 Number of inbound tourists and the revenues stemming from inbound 
tourism , 2010 -16 
 2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Number of inbound tourists  14.7 9.8 11.5 9.5 9.9 9.3 5.4 
Inbound tourism receipts (US$ billion)  12.5 8.7 10.0 6.1 7.2 6.2 2.6 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
4.193.   Total hotel capacity in 2016 was 206,054 rooms, of which a third each in the Red Sea and 
South Sinai areas, 14% in Cairo, 4% in Luxor and Aswan, 4% in Alexandria, and 12% in the rest 
of the country.  
4.194.   The authorities responsible for tourism activities are the Ministry of Tourism and its two 
administrative arms, the Touris m Development Authority (TDA) and the Egyptian Tourism 
Authority (ETA). The TDA is primarily in charge of setting and implementing regulations for 
tourism projects and investments, by assisting with the provision of land and facilitating access to 
                                                
28 Under the Egyptian legislation , the Suez Canal is not considered an inland waterway and is subject to 
special laws . 
29 WTO document GATS/SC/30, 15 April 1994.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 143 - 
 
  loans fo r developing infrastructure projects. The ETA is responsible for promoting inbound and 
domestic tourism. It manages the development and diversification of the tourism product, both 
regionally and internationally.  
4.195.   In order to counterbalance the decline in t he number of tourists, the Ministry of Tourism 
has developed a six -pillar Global Strategy that will be soon enshrined in a new Tourism Law, which 
as at October 2017 was still in the drafting process and is expected in the course of 2018. These 
six pillars are: reviving tourism activities; supporting aviation; upgrading the sector's 
infrastructures; developing new tourism products and improving services; attracting investment; 
and promoting green tourism. Particular efforts have been made and are further pla nned in the 
areas of safety and security, with actions such as: the deployment of control cameras and metal 
detectors in hotels and GPS systems to monitor tourist vehicles; the implementation of a road 
safety and welcome awareness campaign among the popula tion in the zones concerned; 
promoting the Egypt brand; and promoting e -marketing. The Strategy acknowledges that 
traditional cultural tourism, and an all -inclusive seaside hotel, are just two segments among 
others, and seeks to develop other types of tour ism products such as green tourism and to 
promote tourism in all governorates.  
4.196.   Concrete measures already adopted to promote tourism include the creation of a high -level 
Tourism Committee and the reduction in the numbers of permits required to open a hotel  from 
12 to 2 as per Decree No. 852/2014. Apart from the drafting of a new, unified Tourism Law, the 
authorities are working on seeking closer coordination between the Ministry of Tourism and the 
Ministry of Investment in order to facilitate the issuance o f permits and licen ces. 
4.197.   Regarding incentives for the sector, they are contained in the new Investment Law 
No. 72/2017 (see Section 3.3.1). Table 4.28 describes the regulatory framework applicable to 
tourism services in Egypt.  
Table 4.28 Regulatory framework for tourism and travel -related services  
Subsectors  GATS  Applied regime  
9.A Hotels and 
restaurants  
(a) Hotels and motels  
(b) Resort hotels and  
 accommodation 
facilities  
 
(c) Casino hotels  
 
 
 
2. Restaurants, bars and 
canteens  
 
(a) Full service 
 restaurants  
(b)  Fast food 
 restaurants and 
 cafeteria  
 
  
 
(1) Unbound  
(2) None 
(3) Market access: licen ce will be 
 granted following an economic 
 needs test.  
 
- Casino services can be provided 
only through  5-star hotels 
(gambling is allowed only for 
foreigners)  
 
 
- Limitations on the total number 
of services operations depend on 
an economic needs test.  
- Foreign capital equity should not 
exceed 49% in projects to be 
established in Sinai  
 National treatment:  The training 
of Egyptian employees should be 
performed by the foreign natural 
persons within the terms of the 
contract.  
(4) None GATS commitments are based on the 
status quo , namely:  
 
- An economic needs test is applied in a 
non-discriminatory manner; its  main 
criteria are market needs, geographical 
location, hotel categories and increase in 
number and categories of tourists.  
 
- The number of foreign natural persons 
necessary to supply services in any entity 
shall not exceed 10% of the total of 
number of p ersons employed.  
 
- In the Sinai peninsula, foreign capital 
participation should not exceed 49% (Law 
14/2012).  
 
 
 
- The training of Egyptian employees 
should be performed by foreign natural 
persons.  
 
9.B Travel agencies and 
tour operators services 
(CPC 7471)  (1) Unbound  
(2) None 
(3)  Market access: Limitations on the 
total number of services 
operations depend on an 
economic needs test  
 National treatment:  The training 
of Egyptian employees should be - A non -discriminatory economic needs 
test is applied  based on the categories of 
tourists.  
 
- Some limitations apply depending on the 
type of travel agencies, A,  B or C:  
(A): Agencies that carry out all tourist 
activities: inbound and outbound tourism, WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 144 - 
 
  Subsectors  GATS  Applied regime  
performed by the foreign natural 
persons within the terms of the 
contract.  
 
 
 
(4) None 
 ticketing and transportation.  
(B): Companies providing ticketing and 
transportation services only.  
(C): Companies providing  transportation 
services only.  
 
- The number of foreign natural persons 
necessary to supply ser vices in any entity 
shall not exceed 10% of the total number 
of persons employed.  
9.C Tourist guides 
services (CPC 7472)  No commitments  - A nationality requirement applies  
- Foreign translators of rare languages 
that Egyptian guides do not possess are 
given permission by the Ministry of 
Tourism to translate for Egyptian tourist 
guides.  
9.D Other tourism and 
travel related services  
-1. Tourism 
management 
services  
(a) Tourism property  
 management  
(b) Rental lease tourism  
 property  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Institutional Food 
Service Caterers 
(with the exception of 
airport catering 
facilities which are 
confined only to 
national air carriers)   
 
 
 
(1) None 
(2) None 
(3) Market access: Bound only for 
representative offices. Limitations 
on the total number of services 
operations depend on the 
requirement of an economic 
needs test.  
National treatment: The training 
of Egyptian employees should be 
performed by the foreign natural 
persons within the terms of the 
contract.  
(4) None 
 
(1) None 
(2) None 
(3) None 
(4) None 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
A non -discriminatory economic needs test 
is applied based on the categories of 
tourists.  
 
 
- Training of Egyptian employees should 
be performed by foreign natural persons  
 
 
 
 
 
No restrictions (the New Norms for the 
Quality of Service approved by  the UN 
World Tourism Organization apply)  
 
Source:  GATS schedule and informat ion provided by the authorities 
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 145 - 5  APPENDIX TABLES  
Table A1. 1 Basic economic indicators, 2005/06 -2015/16 and estimates for 2016/17 -and 2017/18  
 2005/  
06 2006/  
07 2007/  
08 2008/  
09 2009/  
10 2010/  
11 2011/  
12 2012/  
13 2013/  
14 2014/  
15 2015/  
16 2016/  
17 2017/  
18 
Gross domestic product (GDP)  
 Current GDP 
(LE billion)  617.7  744.8  895.5  1,042.2  1,206.6  1,371.1  1,674.7  1,860.4  2,130.0  2,443.9  2,708.3  3,496.0  3,789.9  
 Current GDP 
(US$ billion)  107.0  130.5  167.2  185.7  212.2  230.1  276.5  265.9  297.9  332.5 332.3 236.2  .. 
 GDP per 
capita (US$)  1,513.6  1,807.7  2,271.4  2,469.2  2758.9  2,923.4  3,435.0  3,222.5  3,521.2  3,734.1  3,461.9  2,508  .. 
 Real GDP, 
growth rate 
(%) at market 
prices  6.8 7.1 7.2 4.7 5.1 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.9 4.4 4.3 4.2 6.0 
 Real GDP, 
growth rate 
(%) at factor 
cost 6.9 7.1 7.2 4.6 5.1 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.9 3.4 2.3 .. .. 
 By type of expenditure (in LE billion)  
 Total 
consumption  512.0  623.6  745.1  911.4  1,034.5  1,193.1  1,538.9  1,713.9  2,019.0  2,301.9  2,551.3  .. .. 
 Private 
consumption  436.1  539.2  647.6  793.1  899.8  1,036.1  1,351.7  1,502.7  1,766.6  2,014.5  2,241.7  .. .. 
 Public 
consumption  75.9 84.4 97.5 118.3  134.7  157.0  187.2  211.2  252.4  287.4  309.6  .. .. 
 Gross fixed 
capital 
formation  115.7  155.3  200.5  200.0  235.3  234.5  268.4  264.4  290.6  349.2  407.5  .. .. 
 Exports of 
goods and 
services  185.0  225.3  295.9  260.1  257.6  282.0  274.6  316.6  303.4  322.2  280.4  .. .. 
 Imports of 
goods and 
services  195.0  259.4  346.0  329.3  320.8  338.5  407.2  434.5  483.0  529.4  530.9  .. .. 
 By type of expenditure (as percentage of current GDP)  
 Total 
consumption  82.9 83.7 83.2 87.4 85.7 87.0 91.9 92.1 94.8 94.2 94.2 .. .. 
 Private 
consumption  70.6 72.4 72.3 76.1 74.6 75.6 80.7 80.8 82.9 82.4 82.8 .. .. 
 Public 
consumption  12.3 11.3 10.9 11.4 11.2 11.5 11.2 11.4 11.8 11.8 11.4 .. ..  
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 146 -  2005/  
06 2006/  
07 2007/  
08 2008/  
09 2009/  
10 2010/  
11 2011/  
12 2012/  
13 2013/  
14 2014/  
15 2015/  
16 2016/  
17 2017/  
18 
 Gross fixed 
capital 
formation  18.7 20.9 22.4 19.2 19.5 17.1 16.0 14.2 13.6 14.3 15.0 .. .. 
 Exports of 
goods and 
services  29.9 30.2 33.0 25.0 21.3 20.6 16.4 17.0 14.2 13.2 10.4 .. .. 
 Imports of 
goods and 
services  31.6 34.8 38.6 31.6 26.6 24.7 24.3 23.4 22.7 21.7 19.6 .. .. 
By sector of economic activity (% of current GDP)  
 Agriculture  14.1 14.1 13.2 13.6 14.0 14.5 11.0 10.9 10.9 11.3 11.9 .. .. 
 Industry  17.0 16.1 16.3 16.6 16.9 16.5 15.8 16.1 16.2 16.5 17.1 .. .. 
 Mining and 
quarrying  15.5 14.6 15.6 14.9 14.4 14.9 16.2 16.1 15.9 12.7 8.0 .. .. 
 Construction  4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.1 4.3 4.3 4.8 5.4 .. .. 
 Electricity, 
gas, water, 
sewage, and 
urban cleaning  1.9 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.6 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 .. .. 
 Services  7.3 7.0 7.1 6.2 5.7 5.4 4.5 1.7 3.8 4.0 3.4 .. .. 
 Distributive 
trade 10.9 10.4 10.9 11.4 11.6 11.5 12.5 12.3 12.4 12.9 14.0 .. .. 
Transportation, 
storage, and 
courier  4.2 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.3 4.7 .. .. 
 Information 
services  2.1 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.3 .. .. 
 Financial 
intermediation 
and insurance  7.1 7.6 7.4 7.2 7.2 7.1 4.5 7.2 4.5 4.6 4.9 .. .. 
 Real estate 
services  3.3 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 8.9 9.0 9.1 9.6 10.5 .. .. 
 Public 
administration, 
education, and 
public health  12.6 13.6 13.2 13.9 14.0 14.1 13.4 13.6 14.3 14.8 15.5 .. .. 
Other economic indicators (% of current GDP)  
 Gross national 
savings  17.1 16.3 16.8 12.6 14.3 13.0 8.1 7.9 5.2 5.8 5.8 .. ..  
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 147 -  2005/  
06 2006/  
07 2007/  
08 2008/  
09 2009/  
10 2010/  
11 2011/  
12 2012/  
13 2013/  
14 2014/  
15 2015/  
16 2016/  
17 2017/  
18 
 Gross 
domestic 
investment  18.7 20.9 22.3 18.9 19.2 16.7 14.7 13.0 12.4 13.7 14.5 .. .. 
 Private sector  10.7 13.1 14.4 9.2 10.5 10.3 9.2 7.8 7.3 7.6 8.4 .. .. 
 Public sector  8.0 7.8 7.9 9.8 8.7 6.4 5.5 5.2 5.2 6.0 6.1 .. .. 
Employment  
 Urban 
unemployment 
rate (%, 
annual)  11.2 10.6 8.9 8.7 9.4 9 12 12.7 13.2 13 12.7 .. .. 
 Structure of national employment (% of occupied population)  
 Agriculture  .. .. 29.1 28.2 28.1 29.6 26.9 27.5 26.5 25 22.9 .. .. 
 Industry of 
transformation 
activities  .. .. 12.2 11.9 12.2 9.7 11.2 11.3 11.7 10.7 12.8 .. .. 
 Construction  .. .. 12.2 10.9 11.1 11.7 12 11.2 11.4 12.4 12 .. .. 
 Other 
activities  .. .. 46.5 49.0 48.6 49.0 49.9 50.0 50.4 51.9 52.3 .. .. 
Memorandum items:  
Industrial 
production (% 
change)  .. .. 9.9 1.0 -1.1 -5.4 2.5 -0.1 3.5 0.3 .. .. .. 
Economically 
active 
population 
(million)  19.3 20.4 21.7 22.5 23.0 23.8 23.3 23.6 24.0 24.3 24.9 .. .. 
.. Not available.  
Note:  Fiscal year ends on 30 June.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 148 - Table A1. 2 Fiscal accounts, 2005/06 -2016/17  
(% to GDP)  
  2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17  
A. Budget sector                         
Total revenue  24.5 24.2 24.7 27.1 22.2 19.3 18.3 19.0 21.7 19.1 18.1 18.1 
 - Taxes  15.8 15.3 15.3 15.7 14.1 14.0 12.5 13.6 12.4 12.6 13.0 13.1 
 Taxes on income and profits  7.8 7.9 7.5 7.7 6.3 6.5 5.5 6.4 5.8 5.3 5.3 4.8 
 Taxes on property  0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 
 Taxes on goods and services  5.6 5.3 5.6 6.0 5.6 5.5 5.1 5.0 4.4 5.1 5.2 5.7 
 Taxes on international trade (customs)  1.6 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 
 Other taxes  0.6 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 
- Grants  0.4 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.3 4.6 1.0 0.1 0.0 
- Other revenue  8.3 8.3 9.2 10.7 7.7 5.2 5.2 5.1 4.8 5.5 5.0 4.9 
 Property income  5.9 6.1 5.9 5.1 4.5 3.0 3.4 3.1 2.7 3.4 2.6 2.7 
 Proceeds of selling goods and services  1.3 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.1 0.9 
 Financial investments  0.7 0.6 1.4 0.9 1.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.7 
Total expenditure  33.6 29.8 31.5 33.7 30.3 29.3 28.4 31.9 33.4 30.2 30.2 28.7 
 Workers' wages and compensations  7.6 7.0 7.0 7.3 7.1 7.0 7.4 7.8 8.5 8.2 7.9 6.5 
 Purchases of goods & services  2.4 2.3 2.1 2.4 2.3 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 
 Interest  6.0 6.4 5.6 5.1 6.0 6.2 6.3 8.0 8.2 7.9 9.0 9.0 
 Subsidies, grants and social benefits  11.2 7.8 10.3 12.2 8.5 9.0 9.1 10.7 10.9 8.2 7.4 7.6 
 Subsidies  8.8 7.2 9.4 9.0 7.8 8.1 8.1 9.3 8.9 6.2 5.1 5.5 
 Grants  0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 
 Social benefits  2.0 0.2 0.5 2.8 0.4 0.4 0.6 1.1 1.7 1.7 2.0 1.8 
 Others  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 Other expenditure  3.2 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.3 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.0 1.7 
 Defen ce 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.4 
 Other  0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 
 Purchases of nonfinancial 
assets(investments)  3.4 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.0 2.9 2.2 2.1 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 
Budget overall balance  -8.2 -7.3 -6.8 -6.9 -8.1 -9.8 -10.1 -13.0 -12.2 -11.5 -12.5 -10.8 
B. General government              
Total revenues  28.5 28.1 27.8 27.7 25.1 22.0 21.1 21.9 24.7 22.2 .. .. 
Total expenditures  36.2 33.4 34.1 34.2 32.9 32.1 31.2 34.9 36.2 33.2 .. .. 
Cash deficit/ net acquisition of financial 
assets  -7.7 -5.2 -6.4 -6.6 -7.7 -10.1 -10.1 -13.0 -11.4 -11.0 .. .. 
Overall deficit  -9.2 -7.7 -7.5 -6.9 -8.2 -9.8 -10.0 -13.4 -12.1 -11.7 .. .. 
.. Not available.  
Note:  Fiscal year ends on 30 June.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 149 - Table A1. 3 Main monetary indicators, 2005/06 -2016/17  
 2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17  
Money   
Monetary base (12 -month 
rate of change) %  14.8 15.6 26.7 3.1 16.0 23.6 5.1 20.6 14.6 33.3 -1.6 20.8 
M1 (12 -month rate of 
change) %  21.8 20.1 29.9 7.3 17.0 16.2 10.4 25.4 19.3 21.6 14.8 23.5 
M2 (12 -month rate of 
change) %  13.5 18.3 15.7 8.4 10.4 10.0 8.4 18.4 17.0 16.4 18.6 39.3 
Interest rates   
Average lending rate 
(annual average)  .. .. .. .. .. 10.84  11.63  12.20  11.92  11.71  12.12  15.75  
Average deposit rate 
(annual average)  .. .. .. .. .. 7.28 7.91 8.97 9 8.76 8.66 10.37  
Inflation   
Consumer price index 
(period average, 
% change)  4.2 10.9 11.7 16.2 11.7 11.1 8.6 6.9 10.1 11.0 10.2 23.5 
Consumer price index (end 
of period, % change)  7.3 8.6 20.2 9.9 10.1 11.8 7.3 9.8 8.2 11.4 14.0 29.8 
Producer price index (end 
of period, % change)a 5.7 8.6 33.7 -12.0 8.6 19.4 -3.7 8.4 4.3 -2.2 5.7 .. 
Exchange rates   
Exchange rate ( LE per 
US$, period average) buy 
rate 5.7204  5.6799  5.4594  5.5162  5.4939  5.8114  5.953  6.4459  6.9539  7.2502  8.0533  14.7867  
.. Not available.  
a The Producer Price Index replaced the Wholesale Price Index in September 2007.  
Note:  The fiscal year ends on 30 June.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 150 - Table A1. 4a Balance of payments (f.o.b. basis), 2005/06 -2016/17  
(US$ million)  
 2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16a 2016/17a 
Current account   
Balance on goods 
(f.o.b.)  -8,200.0  -11,520.4  -16,860.8  -18,934.0  -19,039.7  -20,401.2  -26,839.0  -23,581.8  -26,695.4  -31,440.1  -31,539.3  -28,325.30  
Exports  18,455.1  22,017.5  29,355.8  25,168.9  23,873.1  26,992.5  25,071.9  26,988.1  26,022.6  22,245.1  18,704.6  21,687.0  
Imports  -26,655.1  -33,537.9  -46,216.6  -44,102.9  -42,912.8  -47,393.7  -51,910.9  -50,569.9  -52,718.0  -53,685.2  -50,243.9  -50,012.3  
Services and income 
(net) ‎4,404.8 ‎ ‎6,728.1 ‎ ‎8,411.5 ‎ ‎6,263.0  ‎4,258.7 ‎ ‎1,176.5 ‎ ‎-1,715.3 ‎ ‎-2,073.5 ‎ ‎-6,452.2 ‎ ‎-2,578.3 ‎ ‎-5,082.5  -4,721.7  
Services  3,874.1  5,551.1  7,051.8  6109.4  8,623.4  7,226.0  4,764.1  5,332.9  810.5  3,122.6  -610.8  -298.7  
Credit  15,436.1  17,410.8  23,921.6  21,864.6  22,733.9  21,454.3  20,626.1  22,026.6  17,437.2  21,811.8  16,079.3  16,597.0  
Debit 11,562.0  11,859.7  16,869.8  15,755.2  14,110.5  14,228.3  15,862.0  16,693.7  16,626.7  18,689.2  16,690.1  16,895.7  
Income  530.7  1,177.0  1,359.7  153.6  -4,364.7  -6,049.5  -6,479.4  -7,406.4  -7,262.7  -5,700.9  -4,471.7  -4,423.0  
Credit  2,001.8  3,044.7  3,289.4  1,936.7  829.0  418.8  246.1  197.8  194.2  212.8  396.9  497.9  
Debit 1,471.1  1,867.7  1,929.7  1,783.1  5,193.7  6,468.3  6,725.5  7,604.2  7,456.9  5,913.7  4,868.6  4,920.9  
Current unilateral 
transfers  5,547.1  7,061.3  9,337.6  8,246.6  10,463.4  13,136.8  18,408.0  19,264.9  30,367.9  21,875.8  16,790.7  17,471.8  
Of which remittances 
from Egyptians 
working abroad  5,034.2  6,321.0  8,559.2  7,805.7  9,753.4  12,592.6  17,970.9  18,668.0  18,518.7  19,330.0  17,077.4  17,453.0  
Capital and financial 
account   
Capital account  -37.6 -39.0 2.3 -2.6 -36.2 -32.3 -96.0 -86.8 194.1  -122.9  -141.4  -113.3  
Financial account  3,548.9  892.0  7,555.2  2,287.3  9,015.7  -4,166.3  1,118.9  9,859.8  4,995.4  18,051.8  21,318.1  29,147.5  
Direct investments              
Abroad  -145.3  -535.6  -1,112.7  -1,340.5  -976.6  -958.0  -249.2  -183.6  -326.6  -223.3  -164.2  -175.1  
   In the reporting 
country  6,111.4  11,053.2  13,236.5  8,113.4  6,758.2  2,188.6  3,982.2  3,753.3  4,178.2  6,379.8  6,932.6  7,915.8  
Portfolio investments              
Assets  -729.1  -557.5  -959.5  -410.8  -522.2  -117.7  -148.7  22.4 65.9 47.2 192.1  208.4  
Liabilities  2,764.0  -936.7  -1,373.6  -9,210.7  7879.3  -2,550.9  -5,025.3  1,477.4  1,237.2  -638.6  -1,286.8  15,985.3  
Other investments 
(net) -4,452.1  -8,131.4  -2,235.5  5,135.9  -4,123.0  -2,728.3  2,559.9  4,790.3  -159.3  12,486.7  15,644.4  5,213.1  
Error and omission  -2,009.8  2,160.3  -3,025.4  -1,238.0  -1,306.2  532.5  -2,155.0  -3,145.6  -931.2  -2,061.4  -4,158.6  258.2  
Overall balance  3,253.4  5,282.3  5,420.4  -3,377.6  3,355.7  -9,753.9  -11,278.4  237.0  1,478.6  3,724.9  -2,813.0  13,717.2  
Memorandum items:   
Current account (% of 
GDP) 1.6 1.7 0.5 -2.3 -2.0 -2.6 -3.6 -2.2 -0.9 -3.6 -5.9 -6.7 
Gross official reserves 
(US$ million)  22,952  28,589  34,603  31,347  35,248  26,593  15,556  14,960  16,710  20,104  17,570  31,307.0   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 151 -  2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16a 2016/17a 
Official reserve assets  22,494.3  29,595.3  36,694.1  30,945.9  35,060.1  26,413.4  15,238.1  14,484.9  16,289.0  19,550.8  17,096.7  30,652.4  
Month of imports 
(goods and services)  
in month s of next 
year's imports (goods 
and services)  6.1 5.4 6.9 6.6 6.9 4.7 2.8 2.6 2.8 3.6 3.1 5.6 
.. Not available.  
a Provisional.  
Note:  Fiscal year ends on 30 June.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 152 - Table A1.4b Balance of payments (f.o.b. and c.i.f. basis), 2005/06 -2016/17  
(US$ million)  
 2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16a 2016/17a 
Current account   
Balance on goods  -11,985.9  -16,290.6  -23,415.4  -25,173.3  -25,120.0  -27,103.0  -34,139.0  -30,694.7  -34,159.3  -39,060.4  -38,683.1  -35,435.1  
Exports (f.o.b.)  18,455.1  22,017.5  29,355.8  25,168.9  23,873.1  26,992.5  25,071.9  26,988.1  26,022.6  22,245.1  18,704.6  21,687.0  
Imports (c.i.f.)  -30,441.0  -38,308.1  -52,771.2  -50,342.2  -48,993.1  -54,095.5  -59,210.9  -57,682.8  -60,181.9  -61,305.5  -57,387.7  -57,122.1  
Services and income 
(net) ‎8,190.7  11,498.3 ‎ ‎14,966.1  ‎12.502.4  10,339.0  ‎7,878.4  5,584.7  5,039.4 ‎ 1,011.7  5,042.0  2,061.3  2,388.1  
Services  7,660.0  10,321.3  13,606.4  12,348.8  14,703.7  13,927.9  12,064.1  12,445.8  8,274.4  10,742.9  6,533.0  6,811.1  
Credit  15,436.1  17,410.8  23,921.6  21,864.6  22,733.9  21,454.3  20,626.1  22,026.6  17,437.2  21,811.8  16,079.3  16,597.0  
Debit 7,776.1  7,089.5  10,315.2  9,515.8  8,030.2  7,526.4  8,562.0  9,580.8  9,162.8  11,068.9  9,546.3  9,785.9  
Income  530.7  1,177.0  1,359.7  153.6  -4,364.7  -6,049.5  -6,479.4  -7,406.4  -7,262.7  -5,700.9  -4,471.7  -4,423.0  
Credit  2,001.8  3,044.7  3,289.4  1,936.7  829.0  418.8  246.1  197.8  194.2  212.8  396.9  497.9  
Debit 1,471.1  1,867.7  1,929.7  1,783.1  5,193.7  6,468.3  6,725.5  7,604.2  7,456.9  5,913.7  4,868.6  4,920.9  
Current unilateral 
transfers  5,547.1  7,061.3  9,337.6  8,246.6  10,463.4  13,136.8  18,408.0  19,264.9  30,367.9  21,875.8  16,790.7  17,471.8  
Of which remittances 
from Egyptians working 
abroad  5,034.2  6,321.0  8,559.2  7,805.7  9,753.4  12,592.6  17,970.9  18,668.0  18,518.7  19,330.0  17,077.4  17,453.0  
Capital and financial 
account   
Capital account  -37.6 -39.0 2.3 -2.6 -36.2 -32.3 -96.0 -86.8 194.1  -122.9  -141.4  -113.3  
Financial account  3,548.9  892.0  7,555.2  2,287.3  9,015.7  -4,166.3  1,118.9  9,859.8  4,995.4  18,051.8  21,318.1  29,147.5  
Direct investments              
Abroad  -145.3  -535.6  -1,112.7  -1,340.5  -976.6  -958.0  -249.2  -183.6  -326.6  -223.3  -164.2  -175.1  
   In the reporting 
country  6,111.4  11,053.2  13,236.5  8,113.4  6,758.2  2,188.6  3,982.2  3,753.3  4,178.2  6,379.8  6,932.6  7,915.8  
Portfolio investments              
Assets  -729.1  -557.5  -959.5  -410.8  -522.2  -117.7  -148.7  22.4 65.9 47.2 192.1  208.4  
Liabilities  2,764.0  -936.7  -1,373.6  -9,210.7  7879.3  -2,550.9  -5,025.3  1,477.4  1,237.2  -638.6  -1,286.8  15,985.3  
Other investments (net)  -4,452.1  -8,131.4  -2,235.5  5,135.9  -4,123.0  -2,728.3  2,559.9  4,790.3  -159.3  12,486.7  15,644.4  5,213.1  
Error and omission  -2,009.8  2,160.3  -3,025.4  -1,238.0  -1,306.2  532.5  -2,155.0  -3,145.6  -931.2  -2,061.4  -4,158.6  258.2  
Overall balance  3,253.4  5,282.3  5,420.4  -3,377.6  3,355.7  -9,753.9  -11,278.4  237.0  1,478.6  3,724.9  -2,813.0  13,717.2  
Memorandum items:   
Current account (% of 
GDP) 1.6 1.7 0.5 -2.3 -2.0 -2.6 -3.6 -2.2 -0.9 -3.6 -5.9 -6.7 
Gross official reserves 
(US$ million)  22,952  28,589  34,603  31,347  35,248  26,593  15,556  14,960  16,710  20,104  17,570  31,307.0  
Official reserve assets  22,494.3  29,595.3  36,694.1  30,945.9  35,060.1  26,413.4  15,238.1  14,484.9  16,289.0  19,550.8  17,096.7  30,652.4   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 153 -  2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16a 2016/17a 
Month of imports (goo ds 
and services)  
in month s of next year's 
imports (goods and 
services)  6.1 5.4 6.9 6.6 6.9 4.7 2.8 2.6 2.8 3.6 3.1 5.6 
.. Not available.  
a Provisional.  
Note:  Fiscal year ends on 30 June.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 154 - 
 
  Table A1. 5 Merchandise exports by HS section and major HS chapter, 2011 -16 
HS Section  HS Chapter/Code  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Total (US$ billion)  31.6 29.4 28.8 26.8 22.0 22.5 
  (% of total exports)  
01 Live animals and products  1.8 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 1.8 
02 Vegetable products  8.7 8.5 9.7 10.8 13.5 12.5 
 08 Edible fruit and nuts; peel of citrus fruit or melons  3.2 3.4 3.5 3.9 5.1 5.3 
 07 Edible vegetables and certain roots and tubers  3.1 2.7 3.6 4.6 5.2 4.3 
03 Fats and oils  1.0 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.7 
04 Prepared food, beverages and tobacco  4.2 4.2 4.9 5.4 6.2 6.6 
05 Mineral products  31.4 32.7 28.5 24.9 19.8 15.7 
 27 Mineral fuels  29.3 30.2 26.3 23.4 18.0 14.3 
  2709 Petroleum oils, crude.  9.5 10.3 10.6 11.4 9.1 8.0 
  2710 Petroleum oils, other than crude  11.1 10.7 8.9 9.1 6.8 4.2 
06 Chemicals and products thereof  11.8 12.0 12.4 11.7 9.7 11.3 
 31 Fertiliz ers 4.6 4.4 4.1 2.8 1.9 3.8 
07 Plastics and rubber  3.8 4.6 5.6 6.6 6.8 5.6 
 39 Plastics and articles thereof  3.5 4.3 5.3 6.1 6.3 5.2 
08 Raw hides and skins; leather  0.5 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5 
09 Wood, cork, straw  0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 
10 Pulp of wood; paper and paperboard  1.6 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.1 
11 Textiles and textile articles  10.9 9.9 10.8 11.3 13.5 11.2 
 62 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories  3.1 2.6 3.0 2.9 4.0 3.4 
 52 Cotton  2.0 1.8 1.9 1.8 2.2 2.1 
12 Footwear, headgear, etc.  0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
13 Articles of stone, plaster, cement  2.6 3.8 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.6 
14 Precious stones and metals, pearls  5.5 4.5 3.2 2.5 2.9 11.8 
15 Base metals and articles thereof  10.0 8.5 9.0 7.3 6.9 6.3 
16 Machinery, electrical machines  4.5 4.7 4.8 8.2 8.6 7.3 
 85 Electrical machinery and equipment  3.7 3.9 4.2 7.3 8.0 6.8 
17 Transport equipment  0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 
18 Precision equipment  0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 
19 Arms and ammunitions  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
20 Miscellaneous manufactured articles  1.0 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6 2.7 
21 Works of art, collector pieces and antiques  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Source:  UNSD, Comtrade database.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 155 - 
 
  Table A1. 6 Merchandise imports by HS section and major HS chapter, 2011 -16  
HS 
Section  HS Chapter/Code  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Total (US$ billion)  62.3 69.9 66.7 71.3 74.4 58.1 
  (% of total imports)  
01 Live animals and  products  3.4 4.0 3.8 4.5 4.8 4.5 
02 Vegetable products  12.8 11.9 11.4 11.3 9.7 9.4 
 10 Cereals  8.8 7.7 7.1 7.1 5.9 5.3 
03 Fats and oils  3.3 2.3 2.4 1.6 1.0 1.3 
04 Prepared food, beverages and tobacco  4.5 4.4 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.4 
05 Mineral products  16.8 20.1 15.5 15.4 16.7 14.9 
 27 Mineral fuels  14.9 18.7 13.9 13.9 16.0 14.2 
  710 Petroleum oils, other than crude  8.2 11.0 8.3 7.8 9.6 5.7 
  711 Petroleum gases and other gaseous hydrocarbons  3.3 3.2 2.4 1.4 3.3 5.5 
06 Chemicals and products thereof  8.3 8.3 9.2 8.8 8.9 9.4 
 30 Pharmaceutical products  2.2 2.4 2.7 2.6 3.1 3.3 
 29 Organic chemicals  2.2 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.2 
07 Plastics and rubber  6.0 5.9 6.4 6.0 5.7 6.0 
08 Raw hides and skins; leather  0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 
09 Wood, cork, straw  2.2 2.4 2.2 2.6 2.3 2.3 
10 Pulp of wood; paper and paperboard  2.3 2.2 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.3 
11 Textiles and textile articles  4.7 4.2 4.8 5.1 5.7 5.0 
12 Footwear, headgear, etc.  0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 
13 Articles of stone, plaster, cement  0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 
14 Precious stones and metals, pearls  0.1 0.2 1.5 1.3 0.2 0.1 
15 Base metals and articles thereof  12.9 12.7 12.6 12.0 10.9 11.4 
 72 Iron and steel  5.8 6.2 5.9 6.1 5.0 4.9 
 73 Articles of iron or steel  4.2 3.7 4.0 3.6 3.6 4.1 
16 Machinery, electrical machines  14.6 13.3 15.6 14.7 15.0 16.1 
 84 Machinery and mechanical appliances  8.8 8.0 9.3 8.1 8.1 9.1 
 85 Electrical machinery and equipment  5.9 5.3 6.3 6.6 6.9 7.0 
17 Transport equipment  5.5 5.5 5.3 7.6 9.2 10.0 
 87 Vehicles  5.0 5.1 5.0 7.3 8.4 7.9 
18 Precision equipment  1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 
19 Arms and ammunitions  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 
20 Miscellaneous manufactured articles  0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.8 
21 Works of art, collector pieces and antiques  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Source:  UNSD, Comtrade  database.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 156 - 
 
  Table A1. 7 Merchandise exports by destination, 2011 -16 
  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Total exports (US$ billion)  31.6  29.4  28.8  26.8  22.0  22.5  
 % of total exports  
Americas  7.3 8.5 7.4 7.1 8.6 5.7 
 United States  5.8 6.9 4.1 4.2 5.6 4.5 
 Other America  1.6 1.7 3.3 2.9 3.0 1.2 
Europe  36.5 33.4 34.7 35.1 34.2 34.5 
 EU-28 30.7 26.8 28.2 29.4 27.3 25.9 
 Italy 8.6 7.9 9.4 9.2 7.4 6.5 
 United Kingdom  3.1 2.9 3.4 3.8 4.3 4.7 
 Spain  4.2 3.4 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.9 
 Germany  2.5 2.2 2.2 2.5 2.5 2.4 
 France  4.1 3.9 3.4 3.1 2.2 2.2 
 Netherlands  2.2 1.4 1.1 1.4 1.8 1.5 
 Belgium  1.7 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.4 
 EFTA 0.9 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.1 2.2 
 Switzerland  0.9 1.2 0.3 0.1 1.0 2.2 
 Other Europe  4.9 5.4 6.1 5.5 5.9 6.4 
 Turkey  4.8 5.3 6.1 5.4 5.8 6.4 
Commonwealth of Independent States  1.6 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.9 1.4 
Africa  13.6 15.5 15.2 14.6 15.2 15.2 
 Libya 1.8 4.9 4.4 3.7 2.6 2.6 
 Sudan  1.7 1.5 1.9 1.5 2.5 2.4 
 Algeria  1.2 1.3 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.1 
 Morocco  1.6 1.4 1.4 1.8 1.6 1.5 
Middle East  22.2 20.7 22.5 25.5 28.3 34.5 
 United Arab Emirates  2.7 2.5 2.7 3.7 5.1 12.6 
 Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  6.3 6.2 6.9 7.4 9.2 7.8 
 Lebanese Republic  3.1 2.9 2.4 2.2 2.0 3.6 
 Jordan  2.7 2.4 3.0 2.3 2.6 2.3 
 Iraq 1.4 1.9 2.6 2.9 2.2 1.7 
 Kuwait, the State of  0.8 0.8 1.0 2.2 2.2 1.7 
Asia 15.2 16.4 15.7 12.8 9.4 8.1 
 China  2.0 2.5 1.9 1.2 2.0 2.2 
 Japan  1.1 3.4 1.6 1.4 0.6 0.2 
 Other Asia  12.1 10.4 12.2 10.2 6.8 5.7 
 India 7.2 6.9 7.4 7.2 4.1 2.8 
Other  3.5 4.2 3.3 3.2 2.5 0.7 
Source:  UNSD, Comtrade database.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 157 - 
 
  Table A1. 8 Merchandise imports by origin, 2011 -16 
  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  
Total imports (US$ billion)  62.3  69.9  66.7  71.3  74.4  58.1  
 (% of total imports)  
Americas  18.6 14.1 14.8 13.0 12.4 11.9 
 United States  10.4 7.6 7.8 7.3 5.9 5.3 
 Other America  8.2 6.6 7.0 5.7 6.5 6.6 
 Brazil  3.9 4.0 3.4 3.1 3.6 3.0 
 Argentina  3.0 1.6 2.4 1.6 1.9 2.5 
Europe  35.0 35.7 38.1 37.1 38.3 38.2 
 EU-28 29.3 29.3 32.0 31.5 32.4 32.4 
 Germany  6.3 6.7 7.9 7.8 7.8 8.7 
 Italy 5.0 5.0 5.3 4.6 4.4 4.6 
 Spain  1.8 1.9 2.3 2.1 2.8 3.4 
 France  3.3 3.3 3.2 3.0 3.3 2.3 
 United Kingdom  2.0 1.8 2.1 2.3 1.7 2.0 
 Netherlands  2.7 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.4 
 Belgium  2.1 2.4 1.8 1.4 1.3 1.2 
 Greece  0.6 0.5 1.1 0.9 1.3 1.2 
 EFTA 1.5 1.3 2.1 1.5 1.3 1.3 
 Other Europe  4.3 5.1 4.0 4.1 4.6 4.4 
 Turkey  4.2 5.0 3.9 4.0 4.4 4.3 
Commonwealth of Independent States  7.9 11.5 7.7 8.6 8.0 7.7 
 Russian Federation  4.2 5.7 2.8 4.1 4.5 3.8 
 Ukraine  3.1 5.5 4.7 4.2 3.3 3.7 
Africa  3.0 3.6 2.1 1.7 2.4 3.1 
Middle East  11.6 11.4 12.3 13.4 11.3 11.8 
 Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  4.1 3.9 4.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 
 Qatar  0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 2.7 
 Kuwait, the State of  4.5 3.9 3.9 4.9 2.4 1.9 
 United Arab Emirates  1.3 1.2 1.7 2.4 2.0 1.3 
Asia 23.7 23.8 24.8 26.2 27.6 27.3 
 China  9.2 9.4 10.5 11.3 13.1 13.0 
 Japan  2.2 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 
 Other Asia  12.3 12.0 12.1 12.6 12.1 12.3 
 Korea, Republic of  2.8 2.5 2.3 3.1 3.3 3.7 
 India 2.6 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.1 3.2 
 Thailand  1.1 1.3 1.2 1.6 1.6 1.3 
Other  0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Source:  UNSD, Comtrade database.   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 158 - Table A1. 9 Trade in services, 2005 /06-2016/17 
(US$ million)  
 2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17  
 Balance  3,874.1  5,551.1  7,051.8  6,109.5  8,623.4  7,226.0  4,764.1  5,332.9  810.5  3,122.6  -610.8  -298.7  
 Services              
 Transportation  703.5  1,282.2  695.9  997.6  1,122.5  1,322.3  1,370.1  1,838.5  1,777.6  2,219.0  2,480.5  2,088.1  
Sea transport  -2,591.2  -3,328.5  -4,960.3  -4712.9  -4,473.5  -4,643.4  -4,749.6  -4,149.2  -4,267.2  -4,095.0  -3,560.4  -3,680.7  
Air transport  95.5 525.8  613.2  800.4  689.2  627.4  515.2  686.9  506.7  693.4  643.0  518.5  
Other transportation  3,199.2  4,084.9  5,043.0  4910.1  4,906.8  5,338.3  5,604.5  5,300.8  5,538.1  5,620.6  5,397.9  5,250.3  
  Of which Suez Canal revenue  3,558.8  4,169.6  5,155.2  4,720.6  4,516.8  5,052.9  5,207.8  5,031.8  5,369.1  5,361.7  5,121.6  4,945.3  
 Travel  5,615.0  6,265.4  7,931.2  7,748.3  9,263.8  8,476.1  6,921.4  6,823.0  2,028.8  4,032.2  -323.5  1,639.8  
 Insurance  -849.8  -1,045.3  -1,263.8  -1,400.4  -1,333.6  -1,361.8  -1,480.1  -1,491.0  -1,556.3  -1,581.2  -1,522.2  -1,545.9  
 Financial services  -37.7 35.1 54.6 804.2  681.7  245.2  99.2 164.7  126.0  139.4  192.2  121.4  
 Computer and information services  10.1 28.6 115.8  74.4 24.5 40.1 62.0 119.8  44.2 43.5 25.9 -29.9 
 Royalties and licen ce services  -10.5 -175.8  -286.3  -289.2  -286.4  -240.9  -284.0  -319.7  -286.5  -224.4  -206.0  -220.6  
 Government services  -961.7  -942.4  -1,125.5  -929.5  -1,316.6  -988.4  -875.7  -806.1  -419.5  527.4  -399.1  -347.7  
 Communication services  50.9 284.8  884.5  337.4  370.4  469.8  423.4  547.7  523.5  462.0  543.0  351.6  
 Construction services  357.2  386.8  1,140.7  458.0  383.3  242.9  231.8  401.8  324.5  -1,055.0  -85.4 237.7  
 Business, professional and technical 
services  -1,087.8  -629.7  -1,118.3  -1707.8  -308.6  -1,026.4  -1,760.5  -2,012.1  ‎-1,844.5 ‎ ‎-1,454. 2 -1,385.1  -2,720.3  
 Personal, cultural and recreational 
services  84.9 61.4 23.0 16.5 22.4 47.1 56.5 66.3 92.7 13.9 68.9 127.1  
Credit  
 Services  15,436.1  17,410.8  23,921.6  21,864.6  22,733.9  21,454.3  20,626.1  22,026.6  17,437.2  21,811.8  16,079.3  1,6597  
 Transportation  4,947.1  6,371.3  7,559.7  7,481.0  7,216.5  8,069.1  8,585.0  9,187.5  9,466.0  9,850.3  9,534.6  9,108.1  
Sea transport  583.2  665.1  646.5  717.0  905.7  1,296.9  1,784.8  2,410.4  2,580.4  2,713.5  2,778.5  2,632.1  
Air transport  422.9  940.8  1,115.9  1,254.8  1,109.5  1,069.8  930.0  1,055.5  843.4  964.5  901.9  811.8  
Other transportation  3,941.0  4,765.4  5,797.3  5,509.2  5,201.3  5,702.4  5,870.2  5,721.6  6,042.2  6,172.3  5,854.2  5,664.2  
 Travel  7,234.6  8,183.0  10,826.5  10,487.6  11,591.3  10,588.7  9,419.0  9,751.8  5,073.3  7,370.4  3,767.5  4,379.7  
 Insurance  34.6 53.8 233.3  66.9 94.5 122.1  118.0  100.7  86.8 137.5  233.1  179.5  
 Financial services  178.7  92.1 144.1  890.5  741.9  278.9  128.3  176.8  143.6  149.0  237.1  136.1  
 Computer and information services  40.9 59.4 164.7  194.4  170.6  141.3  175.2  221.5  173.7  176.4  152.7  178.1  
 Royalties and licen ce services  141.0  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 Government services  358.2  253.5  188.3  252.8  217.9  117.7  276.2  437.6  654.4  1,381.5  378.0  776.4  
 Communication services  383.2  650.0  1,585.0  885.0  801.0  815.7  788.2  875.3  781.3  703.1  732.7  598.2  
 Construction services  508.9  576.3  1,497.3  705.2  712.0  582.9  502.9  761.6  565.7  606.3  489.7  540.7  
 Other trade -related services              
 Business, professional and technical 
services  1,488.8  1,086.7  1,641.0  813.1  1,089.0  635.0  530.5  412.6  363.6  1,345.4  440.5  500.1  
 Personal, cultural and recreational 
services  120.1  84.7 81.7 88.1 99.2 102.9  102.8  101.2  128.8  91.9 113.4  200.1  
Debit  
 Services  11,562.0  11,859.7  16,869.8  15,755.2  14,110.5  14,228.3  15,862.0  16,693.7  16,626.7  18,689.2  16,690.1  16,895.7  
 Transportation  4,243.6  5,089.1  6,863.8  6,483.4  6,094.0  6,746.8  7,214.9  7,349.0  7,688.4  7,631.3  7,054.1  7,020.0  
Sea transport  3174.4  3993.6  5606.8  5429.9  5379.2  5940.3  6534.4  6559.6  6847.6  6808.5  6338.9  6,312.8  
Air transport  327.4  415.0  502.7  454.4  420.3  442.4  414.8  368.6  336.7  271.1  258.9  293.3  
Other transportation  741.8  680.5  754.3  599.1  294.5  364.1  265.7  420.8  504.1  551.7  456.3  413.9  
 Travel  1,619.6  1,917.6  2,895.3  2,739.3  2,327.5  2,112.6  2,497.6  2,928.8  3,044.5  3,338.2  4,091.0  2,739.9  
 Insurance  884.4  1,099.1  1,497.1  1,467.3  1,428.1  1,483.9  1,598.1  1,591.7  1,643.1  1,718.7  1,755.3  1,725.4  
 Financial services  216.4  57.0 89.5 86.3 60.2 33.7 29.1 12.1 17.6 9.6 44.9 14.7 
 Computer and information services  30.8 30.8 48.9 120.0  146.1  101.2  113.2  101.7  129.5  132.9  126.8  208.0  
 Royalties and licen ce services  151.5  175.8  286.3  289.2  286.4  240.9  284.0  319.7  286.5  224.4  206.0  220.6   
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 159 -  2005/06  2006/07  2007/08  2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13  2013/14  2014/15  2015/16  2016/17  
 Government services  1,319.9  1,195.9  1,313.8  1,182.3  1,534.5  1,106.1  1,151.9  1,243.7  1,073.9  854.1  777.1  1124.1  
 Communication services  332.3  365.2  700.5  547.6  430.6  345.9  364.8  327.6  257.8  241.1  189.7  246.6  
 Construction services  151.7  189.5  356.6  247.2  328.7  340.0  271.1  359.8  241.2  1,661.3  575.1  303.0  
 Business, professional and technical 
services  2,576.6  1,716.4  2,759.3  2,521.0  1,397.7  1,661.4  2,291.0  2,424.7  2,208.2  2,799.7  1,825.6  3,220.40  
 Personal, cultural and recreational 
services  35.2 23.3 58.7 71.6 76.8 55.8 46.3 34.9 36.1 78.0 44.5 73.0 
Note:  Fiscal year ends on 30 June.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 160 - 
 
  Table A2. 1 Selected notifications to the WTO, 1 August 2004 -1 November 2017  
Agreement 
and article  Requirement  Frequency  Document (most 
recent if submitted 
regularly)  Date  
Agreement on Trade Facilitation  
Article 15, 
Section II  Category A commitments  Once only  WT/PCTF/N/EGY/1  07/01/2015  
Agreement on Agriculture  
Articles 10 and 
18.2, ES:1 and 
ES:2 Export subsidies  On an  annual 
basis No notification made 
since 1999   
Article 18.2, 
DS:1 Domestic support  On an annual 
basis G/AG/N/EGY/3  02/11/2017  
Article 18.3, 
DS:2 Domestic support  On an annual 
basis G/AG/N/EGY/3  02/11/2017  
General Agreement on Trade in Services  
Article  III:3 Laws/regulations  Ad hoc  S/C/N/862  14/03/2016  
Article III:4 
and/or IV:2  Enquiry and contact points  On an annual 
basis S/ENQ/78/Rev.9  01/12/2006  
GATT 1994  
Article 
XXVIII:5  Modification of schedules  Triennial  G/MA/319  23/12/2014  
Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1994 (anti -dumping)  
Article 16.4  Anti-dumping actions 
(preliminary and final)  Ad hoc  G/ADP/N/302  18/07/2017  
Article 16.4  Anti-dumping actions 
(taken during the preceding 
six months)  Semi-annual  G/ADP/N/300/EGY  20/07/2017  
Article 16.5  Competent authorities and 
domestic procedures  As appropriate  G/ADP/N/18/Add.23  24/04/2007  
Article 18.5  Laws and Regulations  Once and ad hoc 
(changes)  G/ADP/N/1/EGY/2/REV.1
/Suppl.1  22/08/2008  
Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of the GATT 1994 (customs valuation)  
Article 22.2  Changes in 
laws/regulations and 
administrative 
arrangements  Ad hoc  G/VAL/N/2/EGY/1  30/04/2007  
GATT 1994  
Article 
XVII:4(a)  State trading activities  Annual (triennial 
full notification 
and annual 
changes)  G/STR/N/16/EGY  17/02/2016  
Article 
XXIV:7(a)  Regional trade agreement  Ad hoc  WT/COMTD/N/51  09/01/2017  
WT/COMTD/N/48  24/02/2016  
WT/REG232/N/1/Add.4  25/03/2015  
WT/REG177/N/1  04/10/2004  
Agreement on Safeguards  
Article 12.1(a) 
- initiation  Initiating an investigation 
relating to serious injury or 
threat thereof and the 
reasons for it  Ad hoc  G/SG/N/6/EGY/13  14/12/2015  
Article 12.1(b) 
- finding  Finding of serious injury or 
threat thereof caused by 
increased imports  Ad hoc  G/SG/N/1 1/EGY/10  26/10/2015  
Article 12.1(c) 
- decision  Application or extension of 
a safeguard measure.  Ad hoc  G/SG/N/11/EGY/10  26/10/2015  
 Termination of a safeguard 
investigation with no 
safeguard measure 
imposed  Ad hoc  G/SG/N/9/EGY/2  02/09/2016  
Article 12.4  Safeguard measures 
(provisional)  Ad hoc (prior to 
applying the 
measure)  G/SG/N/11/EGY/9  16/04/2015  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 161 - 
 
  Agreement 
and article  Requirement  Frequency  Document (most 
recent if submitted 
regularly)  Date  
Article 9.1 
footnote 2  Non-application of 
safeguard measures 
against a product 
originating in a developing 
country Member  Ad hoc  G/SG/N/11/EGY/10  26/10/2015  
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures  
Article 7, 
Annex  B  Sanitary/phytosanitary 
measures  Ad hoc  G/SPS/N/EG/79 – 
G/SPS/N/EG/1  21/02/2017 – 
06/09/2005  
Agreement on Rules of Origin  
Article 5 and 
Annex II, 
paragraph 4  Changes in preferential 
rules of  origin; new 
preferential rules of  origin  Ad hoc  WT/COMTD/N/48  24/02/2016  
  
  
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade  
Article 2.9  Technical regulations  Ad hoc  G/TBT/N/EGY/168 - 22/06/2017 - 
G/TBT/N/EGY/1  14/12/2005  
Article 5.6  Conformity assessment 
procedures  Ad hoc  G/TBT/N/EGY/114  01/02/2016  
Article 10.6          
Article 15.2  Administrative 
arrangements; 
laws/regulations  Once (upon entry 
into force of the 
WTO Agreement)  
   No 
notification 
made since 
1999 
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures  
Article 25.1  Any subsidy defined as 
specific in the Agreement, 
or which causes increased 
exports or decreased 
imports  Annual (triennial 
full notification 
and annual 
changes)    No 
notification 
made since 
1999 
Article 25.11  Countervailing duty actions 
(preliminary and final)  Ad hoc (without 
delay)  G/SCM/N/316  21/02/2017  
Article 25.11  Countervailing measures 
(adopted during the 
preceding six  months)  Semi-annual  G/SCM/N/321/EGY  21/07/2017  
Article 25.12  Competent authorities and 
domestic procedures  Once; ad hoc 
(changes)  G/SCM/N/18/Add.23  24/04/2007   
Agreement on Trade -Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights  
Article 63.2  Main dedicated intellectual 
property laws and 
regulations  Once; ad hoc 
(subsequent 
modifications)  IP/N/1/EGY/I/1  06/08/2004  
Agreement on Customs Valuations        
  Check list of issues  Once G/VAL/N/2/EGY/1  30/04/2007  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/TPR/S/ 367 • Egypt  
 
- 162 - Table A3. 1 Summary tariff analysis, 2005, 2012, 2016, and 2017  
 2005  2012  2016  2017  
 Average  
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) 
Total  20.0 0-3,000  5.3 16.5 0-3,000  10.7 17.6 0-3,000  11.1 19.1 0-3,000  11.1 
HS 01 -24 64.1 0-3,000  0.1 49.5 0-3,000  16.1 46.4 0-3,000  17.3 48.3 0-3,000  17.5 
HS 25 -97 12.8 0-3,000  6.2 10.2 0-3,000  9.7 11.5 0-3,000  9.7 12.9 0-3,000  9.7 
By WTO category                 
WTO agricultural products  66.4 0-3,000  2.6 50.4 0-3,000  16.4 49.5 0-3,000  15.6 51.6 0-3,000  15.8 
Animals and products 
thereof  18.4 5-32 0.0 15.4 0-30 17.8 15.2 0-30 18.2 15.3 0-30 18.1 
 Dairy products  11.5 2-32 0.0 5.9 0-20 41.0 6.7 0-20 31.5 6.7 0-20 31.5 
 Fruit, vegetables, and plants  13.8 2-40 0.0 7.3 0-30 9.3 10.1 0-40 8.6 12.8 0-60 8.6 
 Coffee and tea  18.8 2-32 0.0 11.8 0-30 20.7 11.8 0-30 20.7 14.6 0-40 20.7 
 Cereals and preparations  46.9 2-3,000  0.0 31.6 0-3,000  14.8 29.7 0-3,000  17.5 30.3 0-3,000  17.8 
 Oils seeds, fats, oil and their 
 products  6.3 0-32 1.0 4.6 0-30 23.9 4.6 0-30 21.8 4.7 0-30 21.5 
 Sugars and confectionary  14.1 2-32 0.0 8.9 2-30 0.0 15.5 2-40 0.0 17.2 2-60 0.0 
 Beverages, spirits and tobacco   1,003.0  12-3,000  0.0 892.0  2-3000 0.0 861.0  2-3,000  0.0 875.9  2-3000 0.0 
 Cotton  4.0 0-5 20.0 0.9 0-5 82.6 0.9 0-5 82.6 0.9 0-5 82.6 
 Other agricultural products, 
 n.e.s.  4.2 0-32 12.5 3.0 0-30 17.7 3.1 0-40 17.0 3.1 0-40 17.0 
WTO non -agricultural products  12.8 0-3,000  5.7 10.2 0-3,000  9.7 11.5 0-3,000  10.2 13.0 0-3,000  10.2 
 Fish and fishery products  8.5 2-32 0.0 5.3 0-30 26.0 9.2 0-40 33.3 9.2 0-40 33.3 
 Minerals and metals  9.8 0-40 2.2 8.4 0-30 8.0 9.2 0-40 7.9 10.7 0-60 7.7 
 Chemicals and photographic 
 supplies  9.5 0-3,000  1.1 7.9 0-3,000  9.8 8.2 0-3,000  10.2 8.7 0-3,000  10.1 
 Wood, pulp, paper and 
 furniture  13.6 0-40 0.4 11.1 0-30 8.3 13.0 0-40 8.2 14.2 0-60 8.1 
 Textiles  19.0 0-40 4.3 11.0 0-30 3.5 11.6 0-40 3.5 13.5 0-60 3.5 
 Clothing  38.1 12-40 0.0 27.7 5-30 0.0 37.0 5-40 0.0 38.2 10-40 0.0 
Leather, rubber, footwear 
and travel goods  13.9 0-32 0.5 11.7 0-30 1.1 14.1 0-40 1.1 17.7 0-60 1.1 
 Non-electric machinery  6.2 0-40 15.2 6.6 0-30 19.3 7.7 0-40 19.0 9.3 0-60 19.0 
 Electric machinery  9.2 0-40 22.3 9.6 0-30 16.8 10.8 0-40 16.5 13.6 0-60 16.8 
 Transport equipment  16.3 0-135 6.1 17.4 0-135 6.6 17.9 0-135 7.2 19.0 0-135 7.1 
 Non-agricultural products, 
 n.e.s.  13.9 0-40 10.4 11.9 0-30 10.3 14.6 0-40 10.1 16.1 0-60 10.1 
 Petroleum  6.1 2-12 0.0 4.2 0-5 10.0 4.2 0-5 9.5 4.2 0-5 9.5  
  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 163 -  2005  2012  2016  2017  
 Average  
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Share of 
duty 
free 
lines 
(%) 
By ISIC sector                 
 ISIC 1 - Agriculture, hunting 
 and fishing  5.8 0-40 4.7 3.9 0-30 22.2 6.3 0-40 20.9 7.3 0-60 20.8 
 ISIC 2 - Mining  2.7 0-22 2.0 2.3 0-10 7.0 2.3 0-10 7.0 2.3 0-10 6.9 
 ISIC 3 - Manufacturing  21.1 0-3,000  5.4 17.6 0-3,000  10.0 18.7 0-3,000  10.4 20.3 0-3,000  10.4 
By stage of processing              
 First stage of processing  4.8 0-40 7.4 3.3 0-30 21.6 4.3 0-40 24.1 4.8 0-60 24.0 
 Semi-processed products  10.6 0-3,000  1.5 6.7 0-3,000  9.0 6.8 0-3,000  8.6 7.1 0-3,000  8.6 
 Fully processed products  28.2 0-3,000  7.0 24.6 0-3,000  9.3 26.5 0-3,000  9.3 28.9 0-3,000  9.3 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 164 - 
 
  Table A3. 2 Tariff lines with the 2017 applied MFN tariff rates higher than the 
corresponding bound duties, 2017  
Tariff code  Description  MFN 
2017  Final 
bound 
rate 
1602901010  Prepared and preserved tongues, of swine  30 25 
1602901090  Other prepared or preserved meat  offal or blood, of swine , 
other than livers and tongues  30 25 
3302101000  Compound alcoholic  preparations of a kind used for 
manufacture of beverages  3,000 40 
3401110010  Health medical soap registered by the Mi nistry of health for 
toilet use  60a 40 
ex 3604900000  Signalling flares, rain rockets, fog signals and other pyrotechnic 
articles  40a 30 or 40  
ex 3922100000  Baths, shower -baths, sinks and wash -basins of plastics  40a 10 or 60  
ex 8424300000  Steam or sand blasting machines and similar jet projecting  
machines  5 2 or 20  
8451210000  Drying machines, each of dry linen capacity not exceeding 
10 kg 40a 20 
8501401000  Other AC electric motors, single phase, from 92  W and up to 
552 W, of a single spe ed. (excluding generating sets)  30 2 
8501402000  Other AC electric motors, single phase, of an output exceeding 
37.5 W and up to 1 ,000 W, of different sp eed (excluding 
generating sets)  30 2 
8501511000  Other AC electric motors (excluding generating sets), multi -
phase of an output from 552  W and up to 750  W 30 2 
8501522010  Other electric AC motors( excluding generating sets), multi -
phase, of an output exceeding 750  W, up to 6  KW 30 2 
8501522020  Other electric AC motors (excluding generating sets), multi -
phase, of an output exceeding 6  KW, up to 18.4KW  30 2 
8501522090  Other AC electric motors (excluding generating sets), multi -
phase, of an output exceeding 18.4  KW and up to 74  KW 30 2 
8508190010  Industrial vacuum cleaners with self -contained electric motor of 
a power exceeding 1 ,500 W or of a capacity exceeding 20  L 30a 10 
8703239010  Motor cars tourism and motor -homes (caravan), with spark -
ignition internal combustion reciprocating piston engine of a 
cylinder capacity exceeding 1 ,600 CC up to 2 ,000 CC 135 70 
8703249010  Motor cars tourism and motor -homes (caravan), with spark -
ignition internal combustion reciprocating piston engine of a 
cylinder capacity exceeding 3 ,000 CC 135 70 
8703329010  Motor cars tourism and motor -homes (caravan), with 
compression -ignition internal combustion piston engine (diesel 
or semi diesel) of a cylinder capacity exceeding 1 ,600 CC but 
not exceeding 2 ,500 CC 135 70 
8703339010  Motor cars tourism and motor -homes (caravan), with 
compression -ignition internal combustion piston engine (diesel 
or semi diesel) of a cylinder capacity exceeding 2 ,500 CC 135 70 
8703909010  Other motor cars tourism and motor -homes (caravan), with 
other kind of engines  135 70 
9405100050  Theatrical external lightin g fittings of plastic and metal  60a 20 
9405401000  Motion picture or  theatrical electric spotlights  5 3 
9405402000  Electric shadows spotlights commonly used in surgical 
operation rooms  5 3 
9405403000  Electrical lighting equipment working with light diffusing dual 
valves LED, electrical lighting equipment workin g with 
regenerated power source  5a 3 
9405409010  Electric chandeliers of a kind used for lighting public open 
spaces or thoroughfares  60a 3 
9405409090  Other lighting fittings (including searchlights and spotlights), 
including those of a kind used for lighting public open spaces or 
thoroughfares.  60a 3 
9503000010  Children's toys that can touch the mouth.  30a 20 
9503000020  Children play with pistols or rifles, using projectiles from solid 
objects such as beads or arrows  30a 20 
9503000030  Balloons (play)  30a 20 
9503000050  Aircraft models complet e or disjointed, or spare parts  30a 20 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 165 - 
 
  Tariff code  Description  MFN 
2017  Final 
bound 
rate 
9503000090  Tricycle, scooter, wheel -mounted trolleys and similar toys, and 
other toys, mini -size models (other than the above), similar 
entertainment models, which wo rk or not; puzzles of all kinds  30a 20 
ex 9504500000  Video games of a kind consoles and video game consoles other 
than of heading 9504.30  60a 20 or 40 or 
60 
9505100010  Articles of Ch ristmas festivities of plastics  40a 30 
9505100090  Articles of Christmas  festivities of other materials  40a 30 
9505900000  Other festive, carnival or other entertainment articles, including 
conjuring tricks and novelty jokes  40a 30 
9603210000  Toothbrushes,  including dental -plate brushes  60a 40 
9603290010  Shaving brushes  60a 40 
9608100050  Ball point pens of plastic  60a 50 
9608100090  Other ball point pens  60a 40 
9608200000  Felt tipped and other  porous -tipped pens and markers  60a 40 
9608300010  Chinese ink drawing pens  60a 40 
9608300090  Fountain pens, stylograph  pens, other than Chinese ink drawing 
pens and other than those made of precious metals  60a 40 
9608400010  Propelling or sliding pencils, of precious metal  60a 40 
9608400090  Propelling or sliding pencils, ot her than made of precious metal  60a 40 
9608500090  Sets consist of articles f rom two or more of the forgoing 
subheadings, ot her than made of precious metal  60a 40 
9609100090  Crayons, with leads encased in a rigid sheath  50a 40 
a Tariff rates, reflected by Presidential Decree.  
Source:  WTO calculations, based on data provided by the authorities and CTS database.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 166 - 
 
  Table A3. 3 Goods subject to import quality control and inspection, 2017  
Customs code  Commodity  
68.02  Marble, granite, monumental or bu ilding stone and their products  
25.23  Cement  
27.10  Benzene, jet fuel, diesel  
28.17  Zinc oxide  
32.06.42  Lithopone and other pigments  and preparations based on zinc  
32.08, 32.09, 32.10, 32.12  Varnishes and paints  
32.15  Printing and writing ink  
34.01  Soap 
34.02  Detergents ( organic surface -active agents preparations)  
3407, 4016.95, 9503  Modelling pastes, inflatable articles; bicycles, scooters and other pedal toys  
35.03.0010  Gelatin (except for pharmaceutical items with a licen ce from the Ministry of Health)  
35.06  Glue 
36.05  Matches  
38.13  Preparations and charges for fire -extinguishers; charged fire -extinguish ing grenades  
39.09.4010  Phenolic mo ulding compounds ( Formaldehyde ) 
39.17, 39.22, 39.24  Pipes, household, kitchenware and toilet articles of plastics  
39.17  
39.24  Tubes, pipes and hoses and fittings therefor, of plastics.  
Tableware, kitchenware, other household articles and toilet articles, of plastics  
39.18, 39.21.90.10  Wall and floor cov erings and floor Formica sheets  
39.20.51, 39.20.59  Plastic sheets ( acrylic) 
39.26.90.10, 40.10, 42.02, 
42.04, 59.10  Conveyor and transmission belts  
39.26.90.10, 39.26.90.90  Conveyor and transmission belts, bolts and nuts; gaskets and friction articles for machines; 
clips for electrical harnesses and other similar articles for technical use  
40.09, 59.09  Fire hoses  
40.11, 40.12, 40.13  Pneumatic tires and tube s 
40.16.93  Gaskets, washers and other seals  
Chapter 44  - Wooden products, strips and friezes for parquet flooring and prepared for buildings and 
constructions; and prefabricated wooden facilities  
Chapter 48  Paper (printing and writing paper, carbon paper, cellophane, Kraft paper, notebooks, 
cigarettes paper,  waxed paper, graphic purposes paper, carbonizing base paper), boxes, 
sacks, bags and packs, toilet paper  
Section 11  - Textiles and fabrics; carpets, rugs and tapestries ; apparel; blankets and towels; curtains; 
bed linen and covers (except for imports for  medical purposes); raw fabrics, raw yarn, dyes 
and colo urs used in textiles industries  
Chapter 64  Footwear and their components  
68.04  Cutting and polishing stones  
68.05  Natural or artificial ab rasive powder or grain on bases  
68.10  Articles of cement  
68.11, 68.12  Articles of asbes tos or mixture or asbestos base  
6813.10  Brake pads  
681390  Friction material and articles thereof for b rakes, for clutches or the like  
69.06  Ceramic pipes, conduits, guttering and pipe fittings and pa rts made of porcelain and china  
69.07, 69.08  Ceramics  
69.10  Toilet articles of ceramics  
69.11, 69.12, 70.13  Tableware, household articl es of porcelain, china or glass  
70.03, 70.09, 70.20, 87.08  Flat glass, glass mirrors prepared for transportation means, insulating glass a nd safety glass, 
other articles  
72.07, 72.28  Flat-rolled products of iron and steel rods, bars, angles, shapes and sections; steel sections, 
rods and bars of construction reinf orcing steel  
73.03, 73.05, 73.06, 73.07  Tubes, pipes and fittings of iron  
7310.21, 7310.29, 7612.90  Aerosol cans  
73.11, 73.12  Containers for packing butane gas  
73.20  Springs and leave s for springs, of iron or steel  
73.21, 8516.50, 8516.60, 
8516.90  Stoves, heaters, house cooke rs and parts and grates thereof  
73.23, 75.08  Household steam cooking pots  
73.24  Sanitary ware of cast iron or stainless steel  
74.08, 74.13, 85.44  Cables and wires of copper  
74.07, 74.11, 74.12  Copper bars, rods, profiles, an gles, pipes, tubes and fittings  
74.17, 74.18, 74.19, 76.15  Non-electric cooking  or heating apparatus and parts  
75.05, 75.07  Nickle rods, bars, ang les, shapes, tubes and fittings  
76.04, 76.05, 76.08, 76.09, 
76.14  Alumin ium bars, rods, profiles, pipes, tu bes and fittings, aluminium  wire 
82.12  Razors and razor blades  
82.15  Tableware (spoons, forks, ladles)  
83.01  Padlocks, locks and parts thereof  
83.02  Mountings and fittings for furniture and doors  
83.07  Flexible pipes and tubes  
83.11  Arc-welding electrodes  
84.07, 84.08, 84.09  Engines and separate parts thereof  
84.13  All types of pumps and parts thereof  
84.14, 84.15, 84.18  Air conditioners and parts thereof  
84.18.69.90  Refrigerators and refrigerating equipment for domestic use, as well as heat insulating 
containers and parts  
84.14  Fans and electric ventilators and parts thereof  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 167 - 
 
  Customs code  Commodity  
84.19  Instantaneous or storage water heaters, non -electric and parts thereof  
84.24  Fire extinguishers and parts thereof  
84.67  Tools 
84.81  Taps (mixers, cocks and  valves for domestic use) and similar appliances for pipes, boiler 
shells, tanks, vats  or the like, and parts thereof  
84.25.42  Jacks; hoists of a kind used for raising vehicles hydraulic  
84.82  Roller (ball) bearings  
84.83  Transmission shafts, bearing housings and plain shaft bearings; gears and gearing; ball or 
roller screws; gear boxes and other speed changers, flywheels, pulleys, clutches and sh aft 
couplings and parts thereof  
84.21.21, 84.21.31, 
84.21.99  Filtering or purifying machinery and apparatu s for liquids or gases and parts thereof  
84.22.11, 84.22.90.10, 
84.22.9090, 84.51  Washing machines  of the household type and parts  
Drying machines of the h ousehold type and parts thereof  
84.31  Elevators and parts thereof  
84.50.11, 84.50.12  Washing machines, including machines which both wash and dry; parts thereof of a dry linen 
capacity not exceeding 10 kg:  
85.01, 85.02, 85.03, 85.04  Electric devices (motors, generators and transformers) and parts thereof  
8504.10  Ballasts  
85.06  Electric primary cells  
85.07  Electr icity accumulators (batteries)  
85.08  Vacuum cleaners  
85.09  Electro -mechanical domestic appliances, with self -contained electric motor and parts thereof.  
8511.10  Sparking plugs  
8512.20  Other lighting or visual signa ling equipment  
85.16  Electric smoothing irons, electric heating plates, electric water immersion heaters, electro -
thermic appliances of a kind used for domestic purposes, driers and hair driers and parts 
thereof.  
85.19, 85.20, 85.21, 85.22, 
85.27, 85.28, 85.29, 85.48  Reception apparatus for radio and television broadcasting, recorders, cassette -players radio 
cassette, video sets and television antennas (and parts thereof)  
85.35, 85.36  Switches, plugs, twin switch and plug, fuses, lamp -holder, starter base, multi -outlets unit, 
circuit breakers, fluorescent lamp starters.  
85.39  Electric lamps  
85.23, 85.24  Prepared unrecorded media for sound and picture recording, magnetic discs prepared for 
recording by c omputers.  
85.10  Shavers, hair clippers and hair -removing appliances, with self -contained electric motor  
85.11  Electrical ignition or engine starting equipment, generators and engines current cut -outs 
85.13  Portable electric lamps designed to function by their own source of energy.  
85.18  Microphones, loudspeakers, audio -frequency electric amplifiers and electric sound amplifier 
sets. 
85.31  Electric sound or visual signa ling apparatus and burglar or fire alarm devices.  
85.15, 85.32, 85.38, 85.42, 
85.44  Electrical fixed or variable capacitors, resistors other than heating ones, printed circuits, 
electrical apparatus for cutting - out, switching or protecting electrical circuits, control panels 
and integrated circuits and parts thereof.  
85.45.20  Carbon brushes  
85.46  Electrical insulators  
85.16.10, 85.16.90  Water heaters of a kind used for domestic purposes  and parts thereof.  
87.08  Motor vehicles parts and accessories of the  
87.11  Motorcycles (including mopeds) and cycles fitted with an auxiliary motor  
87.14  Parts of motorcycles including mopeds and b icycles with additional engines  
87.12 , 87.14  Not motorized bicycles and their non - assembled parts and parts thereof  
90.01.40, 90.01.50  Spectacle lenses  
90.03, 90.04  Spectacles and parts thereof  
9029.20  Speed indicators  and tachometers, stroboscopes  
9032.10  Thermostats  
9032.20  Manostats  
Chapter 91  All kinds of watches and parts thereof  
9401,9402,9403,9404  Furniture  
94.05  Lighting fittings, illuminated signs, illuminate d name -plates and parts thereof  
9405.50  Household lighting apparatuses of the kind func tion by burning petroleum gases  
9603.21  Tooth brushes  
9608.10  Ball point pens  
9609.10  Pencils and crayons  
96.13  Lighters  
9608.20, 9608.60  Ball point pens; felt tipped and other porous -tipped pens and markers. Refills for ball point 
pens 
96.09  Pencil leads, black or coloured  
96.17  Vacuum flasks and other vacuum vessels, complet e with cases; and parts thereof  
Source:  Decree No. 770/2005 and amendments.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 168 - 
 
  Table A3. 4 Egypt's notifications to the SPS Committee, 2005 -November 2017  
Agency 
responsible  Legal basis  Description  Date  Notification  
GOVS  Decree 561/2005  Conditions of importing de -boned 
frozen beef from EU countries  6 September 2005  G/SPS/N/EGY/1  
CAPQ  ISPM #15  Measures for the administration of 
imported wood packaging materials  6 September 2005  G/SPS/N/EGY/2  
GOVS  Ministerial Decrees 
1326-27/2005  Ban of importing live birds, their meat, 
feather powder and by -products of 
poultry slaughterhouses  2 November 2005  G/SPS/N/EGY/3  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
1389/2005  Ban of importing feather powders and 
poultry slaughterhouse by -products  11 November 
2005 G/SPS/N/EGY/4  
GOVS   Conditions for importing meat  11 November 
2005 G/SPS/N/EGY/5  
GOVS   Date of entry into force of measures 
notified in G/SPS/N/EGY/5  11 April 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/5/Add.1  
GOVS   Date of entry into force of measures 
notified in G/SPS/N/EGY/5  11 November 
2006 G/SPS/N/EGY/5/Add.2  
GOVS   Date of entry into force of measures 
notified in G/SPS/N/EGY/5  4 May 2009  G/SPS/N/EGY/5/Add.3  
GOVS   Conditions of importing de -boned 
frozen beef and frozen bovine livers, 
kidneys and hearts from the United 
States.  25 January 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/6  
GOVS   Conditions of importing live cattle from 
Uruguay  27 January 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/7  
GOVS   Conditions for importing de -boned 
frozen buffalo meat from Ut tar- 
Pradesh province, India  27 January 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/8  
GOVS   Importation of de -boned frozen buffalo 
meat from Andhra -Pradesh and Punjab 
provinces, India  2 August 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/8/Add.1  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
38/2006  Continuation of banning of imported 
live birds, their meat and products.  20 February 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/9  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree 
1600/2005  Measures concerning the import of 
honey or honey bees  9 March 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/10  
CAPQ   Egyptian Phytosanitary Certificate  9 March 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/11  
CAPQ   Amendments to Phytosanitary 
Certificate  3 July 2006 G/SPS/N/EGY/11/Add.1  
GOVS   Prohibition of importing live animals 
and their meat from the province of 
Corrientes, Argentina  24 March 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/12  
GOVS   Importation of de -boned frozen beef 
from certain provinces in Argentina  24 April 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/13  
GOVS   Importation of de -boned frozen beef 
from Canada  3 July 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/14  
GOVS   Import ban on de -boned frozen beef 
from British Columbia, Canada  3 July 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/15  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
640/2006  Importation of one -day old turkey 
chicks  13 July 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/16  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
766/2006  Excluding certain products from the 
ban mentioned in Ministerial Decree 
38/2006  2 August 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/17  
GOVS   Conditions for importing food for pet 
animals  2 August 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/18  
GOVS   Condition of sex determination for 
imported beef  2 August 2006  G/SPS/N/EGY/19  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree 
833/2006  Conditions for the importation and 
inspection of potato seeds  22 September 
2006 G/SPS/N/EGY/20  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
1128/2006  Allowing importation of one -day 
parent ducklings  16 November 
2006 G/SPS/N/EGY/21  
GOVS   Importation of de -boned frozen beef 
from China  16 November 
2006 G/SPS/N/EGY/22  
GOVS   Importation of live animals (cattle, 
sheep) from Moldova, Ukraine, 
New Zealand, Australia, Hungary and 
Romania  16 November 
2006 G/SPS/N/EGY/23  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
1409/2006  Importation of one -day old ducklings  31 January 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/24  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 169 - 
 
  Agency 
responsible  Legal basis  Description  Date  Notification  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
246/2007  Ban of importation of one -day old 
ducklings  5 April 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/24/Rev.1  
GOVS  GOVS 
Decree  1/2007  Importation of de -boned frozen buffalo 
meat from Brazil  18 April 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/25  
GOVS  GOVS Decree 
2/2007  Importation of dairy cows from 
Australia  18 April 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/26  
GOVS  GOVS Decree 
3/2007  Importation of live cattle, frozen 
bovine semen and hides from Canada  18 April 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/27  
GOVS  GOVS Decree 
4/2007  Importation of live cattle and pregnant 
heifers from Denmark  18 April 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/28  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree 
3007/2001  Conditions for importing plants and 
plant products  18 April 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/29  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree 
1275/2007  Conditions for importing potato seeds  30 October 2007  G/SPS/N/EGY/30  
GOVS   Conditions for importing  de-boned 
frozen cattle meat from Kenya  7 January 2008  G/SPS/N/EGY/31  
GOVS   Conditions for importing pregnant 
heifers from the United States  8 April 2008  G/SPS/N/EGY/32  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
1102/2008  Import conditions for one -day old 
parent broiler chicks and one -day old 
broiler chicks;  16 March 2009  G/SPS/N/EGY/33  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
1409/2008  Import conditions for one -day old 
broiler ducks  16 March 2009  G/SPS/N/EGY/34  
GOVS  Decree 205/2009  Conditions for importing heat -treated 
feathers powder  16 March 2009  G/SPS/N/EGY/35  
GOVS   Conditions for importing whole herring 
fish  4 May 2009  G/SPS/N/EGY/36  
CAPQ   Conditions for importing tomatoes, 
eggplants and other plant products  13 August 2009  G/SPS/N/EGY/37  
MALR  Ministerial Decree 
503/2010  Import requirements for potato tubers  25 May 2010  G/SPS/N/EGY/38  
EOS ES 1601 -1/2010  Conditions for importing wheat  2 July 2010  G/SPS/N/EGY/39  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree  
1146/2009  Import requirements for potato tubers  20 August 2010  G/SPS/N/EGY/40  
CAPQ  New Ministerial 
Decree  Plant quarantine rules and regulations  2 November 2010  G/SPS/N/EGY/41  
CAPQ   Import requirements of cotton lint  5 January 2011  G/SPS/N/EGY/42  
CAPQ   Certificate for export and certificate of 
re-export  5 January 2011  G/SPS/N/EGY/43  
CAPQ   Importation and exportation of honey 
bees 16 February 2011  G/SPS/N/EGY/44  
CAPQ   Importation of plants for planting 
and/or propagation  11 July 2011  G/SPS/N/EGY/45  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree  
1703/2011  Import requirements of potato seeds  14 October 2011  G/SPS/N/EGY/46  
GOVS  Ministerial Decree 
2128/2012  Import from countries classified as 
controlled BSE risk according to (OIE)  3 February 2012  G/SPS/N/EGY/47  
GOVS   Importation of live animals and animal 
products from the European Union 4 April 2012  G/SPS/N/EGY/48  
GOVS  Ministerial Degree 
448/2012  Importation of heat treated feather 
meal 7 May 2012  G/SPS/N/EGY/49  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree 
1448/2012  Requirements for potato seeds  17 October 2012  G/SPS/N/EGY/50  
CAPQ   Requirements for potato for processing  17 October 2012  G/SPS/N/EGY/51  
CAPQ   Declaration for imported wheat and 
other grains  29 January 2013  G/SPS/N/EGY/52  
CAPQ   Exportation of plants/plant products  13 February 2013  G/SPS/N/EGY/53  
CAPQ   New certificate models  4 June 2013  G/SPS/N/EGY/54  
CAPQ   Requirements for potato tubers  23 August 2013  G/SPS/N/EGY/55  
EOS Ministerial Decrees 
130/2005, 
515/2005  Egyptian standards on meat and meat 
products  17 June 2014  G/SPS/N/EGY/56  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
266/2011  Mandating Egyptian standards related 
to food products  17 June 2014  G/SPS/N/EGY/57  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree 
1660/2014  Requirements for potato seeds  16 October 2014  G/SPS/N/EGY/58  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 170 - 
 
  Agency 
responsible  Legal basis  Description  Date  Notification  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
515/2005  Draft standard for milk products  3 March 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/59  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
515/2005  Draft standard for canned tuna and 
bonito  3 March 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/60  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
515/2005  Draft standard for milk products  3 March 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/61  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
515/2005  Draft standard for non-carbonated 
sweeten drinks  13 August 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/62  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
266/2011  Draft standard for food contaminants  13 August 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/63  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
515/2005  Draft standard for edible fats and oil  13 August 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/64  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
130/2005  Draft standard for edible fats and oil  13 August 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/65  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
693/2015  Edible fats and oil  4 December 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/65/Rev.1  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
515/2005  Draft standard for milk products  13 August 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/66  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
515/2005  Draft standard for milk products  14 August 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/67  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
130/2005  Draft standard non -alcoholic 
beverages  14 August 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/68  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
536/2015  Requirements for vegetables and fruits  15 October 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/69  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
536/2015  Requirements for tomato concentrates  15 October 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/70  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
536/2015  Modified standard for food grade salt  15 October 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/71  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
536/2015  Requirements for food salt  15 October 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/72  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
536/2015  Requirements for tomato products  15 October 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/73  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree  
485/2015  Requirements for the importation of 
potatoes  seeds  23 October 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/74  
CAPQ   Temporary sus pension of the 
importation of ornamental plants and 
seedlings of fruit  9 November 2015  G/SPS/N/EGY/75  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
256/2016  Requirements for fish and fishery 
products  11 August 2016  G/SPS/N/EGY/76  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
244/2016  Maximum residue limits of pesticides 
in food  16 August 2016  G/SPS/N/EGY/77  
EOS Ministerial Decree 
256/2016  Requirements for olive oils  16 August 2016  G/SPS/N/EGY/78  
NFSA  Law 1/2017  Control and handling of food  21 February 2017  G/SPS/N/EGY/79  
CAPQ  Ministerial Decree 
1458/2017  Import phytosanitary requirements 
and specifications of potato seeds for 
the growing year 2017/2018  7 November 2017  G/SPS/N/EGY/80  
Note:  GOVS stands for General Organization for Veterinary Services; CAPQ stands for Central 
Administration of Plant Quarantine; EOS stands for Egyptian Organization for Standardization; MALR 
stands for Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation and NFSA  stands  for National Food Safety 
Authority.  
Source:  Ministry of Trade and Industry and WTO notifications.  WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 171 - 
 
  Table A4. 1 Egypt's Air Transport Agreements  Partner  
Date  
Entry into 
force  
5th 
7th 
Cabotage 
Coop 
Designation 
Withholding 
Pricing 
Capacity 
Stat 
ALI 
Australia  1997/03/10  1997/03/10  N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Bahrain, 
Kingdom of  20/10/1993  22/01/1995  N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Belgium  28/06/1960  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
23/10/2015  27/07/1977  N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Brunei 
Darussalam  08/11/1993   N N N N M SOEC  FP PD Y 12 
Bulgaria  09/07/1959  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
02/06/2016  17/06/1960  N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Cyprus  11/10/2016   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Czech Republic  04/09/1991  19/12/1991  N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Denmark  14/03/1950  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
09/12/2012   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Finland  17/10/1979  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
12/11/2014   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
France  06/03/1950  
Renewed 
/initialled 
13/11/2013   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Germany  24/03/1975  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
12/08/2003   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Ghana  28/08/1960   Y N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 21 
Greece  08/12/2015   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
India 09/04/1997   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Iraq 23/03/1955  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
11/08/2010   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Japan  10/05/1962   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Jordan  26/02/1986   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Luxembourg  05/10/1960  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
24/06/2014   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Morocco  13/06/1999  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
23/04/2013  27/03/2000  Y N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 21 
Myanmar  08/05/1974   N N N N S SOEC  FP PD Y 8 
Netherlands  05/08/1965  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
27/11/2013   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 WT/TPR/S/367 • Egypt  
 
- 172 - 
 
  
Partner  
Date  
Entry into 
force  
5th 
7th 
Cabotage 
Coop 
Designation 
Withholding 
Pricing 
Capacity 
Stat 
ALI 
Nigeria  16/04/1966  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
30/10/2002  07/05/1967  Y N N N M SOEC  FP PD Y 18 
Norway  11/03/1950  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
09/12/2012  30/09/1950  N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Oman  08/02/1987   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Pakistan  08/05/1970   N N N N M SOEC  FP PD Y 12 
Philippines  17/11/1970   N N N N S SOEC  FP PD Y 8 
Romania  14/08/1958   N N N N S CoI FP PD Y 12 
Russian 
Federation  20/12/1994   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 12 
Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  21/02/2006  01/03/2006  N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Serbia  28/05/2010   N N N N M PPOB  FP PD Y 20 
Singapore  07/05/1980   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
South Africa  06/08/1997  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
20/10/2015   Y N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 21 
Spain  12/03/1991  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
22/10/2015  19/05/1993  N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Sri Lanka  19/10/2005   N N N N M SOEC  FP PD Y 12 
Sweden  11/11/1958  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
09/12/2012   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
Switzerland  30/07/1995  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
04/03/2010   N N N Y M PPOB  FP PD Y 23 
Syrian Arab 
Republic  10/02/1992  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
29/03/2009   N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
Turkey  12/01/1993  19/08/2001  N N N Y M SOEC  FP PD Y 15 
United Kingdom  14/05/1981  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
12/02/2013   N N N Y M CoI FP PD Y 19 
United States of 
America  05/05/1964  
Renewed/ 
initialled 
14/06/1997  08/04/1965  N N N N M SOEC  FP PD Y 12 
Uzbekistan  16/12/1992   N N N N M SOEC  FP PD Y 12 
Note:  "5th" = fifth freedom rights; "7th = seventh freedom rights; "Cabotage" = domestic traffic; "Coop" = 
cooperation clauses; "Stat" = statistics; "ALI" = Air Liberalization Index.  
 "Y" = Yes; "N" = No; "S" = single designation; "M" = multiple designation; "FP"= free pricing; "PD" 
= pre -determ ination; "CoI" = community of interest, "PPOB" = principal place of business; and  
"SOEC" = substantial ownership and effective control.  
Source:  Information provided by the authorities.  
__________