WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
10 September 2013  
(13-4734)  Page: 1/56  
Sub-Committee on Least-Developed Countries   
 
  MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST 
TO LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents 
1  INTRODUC TION ........................................................................................................... 4  
2  LDCS' TRADE PROFILE .................................................................................................. 5  
2.1  Trends in goods and commercial services ....................................................................... 5  
2.2  Merchandise Trade Developments ................................................................................. 8  
2.2.1  Commodity pr ice movements .................................................................................... 8  
2.2.2  Trends and pr oduct comp osition ............................................................................... 11 
2.2.3  Direction of trade .................................................................................................... 14 
2.2.4  Major markets and their imports structure .................................................................. 16 
2.2.5  Differentiation by region  and export sp ecialization ....................................................... 17 
2.2.6  Merchandis e trade balance ....................................................................................... 20 
2.3  Commercial Services .................................................................................................. 22 
2.3.1  Direction of trade .................................................................................................... 26 
2.3.2  Services exports by GATS modes of supply ................................................................. 28 
2.3.3  Foreign Direct  Investment  (FDI) ............................................................................... 29 
3  TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PROD UCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS ............ 31  
3.1  Market Access in Developed Ec onomies ........................................................................ 31 
3.2  Market Access in Developing Economies ........................................................................ 36 
4  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC PRODUCTS ................. 40  
5  CONCLU SION ............................................................................................................. 41  
ANNEX ......................................................................................................................... .. 44 
 
                                               
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and without prejudice to 
the positions of Members and to their rights and obligations under the WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 2 - 
  List of tables 
Table 1: Trends in LDCs' exports of g oods and commercial se rvices, 2000- 2012 ........................ 6  
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1980-2012 ............................ 7  
Table 3: Export prices of pr imary commodities, 2000-2012 .................................................... 10 
Table 4: Top 20 export products of  LDCs by market  share,  2012 ............................................ 13 
Table 5: Product composition of LDCs' exports by destination, 2000-2012 ................................ 15 
Table 6: LDCs' merchandise trade by export specialization, 2000-2012 .................................... 18 
Table 7: Product composition of African LDCs' exports, 2000-2012 .......................................... 19 
Table 8: Product composition of Asian LDCs' exports, 2000-2012 ............................................ 20 
Table 9: Coverage ratios of import s by exports of th e LDCs, 2000 -2012 .................................. 20 
Table 10: LDCs' merchandise trade ba lance by product groups, 2 000-20 12 .............................. 21 
Table 11: LDCs' commercial services  exports by cate gory, 2000- 2012 ..................................... 23 
Table 12: A simplified Tourism Value Chain .......................................................................... 25 
Table 13: Distribution of FDI infl ows among LDCs by  range, 2012 ........................................... 30 
Table 14: Proportion of developed country imports from developing and least-developed 
countries admitted free of duty, by valu e, 2000- 2011 ........................................................... 32 
Table 15: Average tariffs levied by developed countries on key products from developing 
and least-developed countries, 2000-2011  .......................................................................... 32 
Table 16: Imports entering under preferential regime as a percentage of eligible imports, 
2011 .............................................................................................................................. 33 
Table 17: GSP tariff treatment of LDC export s in selected develo ped market s, 2011 .................. 34 
Table 18: Average tariffs imposed by selected developing countries on key products from 
least-developed co untries, 2001-20 11 ................................................................................ 36 
Table 19: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2011 ....................... 37 
Table 20:  DFQF access in GSP schemes of developed Members, 2011 ..................................... 41 
Table 21:  DFQF access for LDC products  in selected deve loping countries ............................... 41 
 
List of charts 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDCs' exports of goods and commercial services, 2000-2012 (Index, 
2000=100)  ..................................................................................................................... . 5 
Chart 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2012 ..................................................... 9  
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies 
(Indices, 2000=100)  ........................................................................................................ 11 
Chart 4: Composition of LDCs' merchandise exports by major product group, 2000 and 
2012 (percent age) ........................................................................................................... 12 
Chart 5: Evolution in LDCs' merchand ise export struct ure, 2000 an d 2012 ............................... 14 
Chart 6: LDCs' merchandise export s by destination,  2000 and 2012 ........................................ 15 
Chart 7: Top 20 markets for LDC me rchandise export s, 2000 an d 2012 ................................... 17 
Chart 8: Imports of LDCs by Broa d Economic Catego ries, 2000 – 2012 .................................... 21 
Chart 9: Contribution of ODA and worker remi ttances to the finance of imports, 2000-2011 ....... 22 
Chart 10: LDCs' structure of comme rcial services by sector, 2012 ........................................... 24 
Chart 11: European Union (27) – Imports of services from LDCs, 2006- 2011 ........................... 27 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 3 - 
  Chart 12: Russian Federation – Imports of commercial services from LDCs, 2012 ...................... 27 
Chart 13: LDCs: Estimated exports of commercia l services by mode of supply (BoP basis), 
2011 .............................................................................................................................. 29 
Chart 14: LDCs' FDI inflows, 2005-2012 .............................................................................. 29 
Chart 15: Greenfield FDI projects in LDCs by re gion/country of origin, and by main sector, 
2012 .............................................................................................................................. 30 
 
List of Annex Tables 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and import s of LDCs by selected country grouping, 
2012 .............................................................................................................................. 44 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000 - 2013Q2 ..................................... 46 
Annex Table 3: Leading merchand ise exports of LDCs in  2012 ................................................ 48 
Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2000-2012 ............... 51 
Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of impo rts by exports of the LDCs, 2000-2012  ......................... 53 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members ....................................................................................................................... . 55 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 4 - 
  1  INTRODUCTION 
1.1.  This note prepared by the Secretariat respon ds to paragraph 8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for Least-Developed Countries (LDCs), which mand ates an annual review of market access for 
products originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat 
studies by updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions, 
covering goods and, to some  extent, trade in services. 
1.2.  The note is divided into four main parts, in addition to this introduction. Chapter II, on trade 
profile, provides a description of the recent tr ends of LDCs' trade flows, both in goods and 
commercial services. It includes an analysis of LDCs' exports by main products and market destinations and specific information on trade in services. Chapter III is devoted to market access conditions facing LDCs' exports. Chapter IV covers recent initiatives to improve market access for 
LDCs' products. A concluding section summarizes the findings of the note, while a series of annex 
tables provide Members with additional background  information and references. The note does not 
pretend to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for LDCs' 
products. It should therefore be read in conjunction with previous versions of this note to gauge 
the different factors that determine market access for LDCs
. 
1.3.  While there has been modest improvement of the statistical coverage of LDCs over the recent 
past, analysing LDC trade is still constrained by data gaps. For trade by commodity and 
destination, the Secretariat has been relying heavily on mirror statistics, i.e. data reported by LDCs' trading partners. In preparation of last year's report on this topic (WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56/Rev.1), the Secretariat has made a special effort to compile statistics 
primarily based on LDCs' reported data in the United Nations commodity trade database 
(Comtrade), complemented by information from national sources as well as through mirror statistics. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it underestimates intra-trade among the 
LDCs, as well as trade with non-reporting developi ng economies. Efforts have also been made to 
improve data on developing country trade with LDCs.
2 
                                               
2 The Secretariat wishes to acknowledge the colla boration received from the International Trade 
Centre (ITC) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 5 - 
   
2  LDCS' TRADE PROFILE 
2.1  Trends in goods and commercial services 
2.1.  LDCs' exports of goods and commercial services totalled US$232.7 billion in 2012, 0.7% 
higher than in 2011. This dismal performance contrasts with the strong growth of 23.7% 
registered in the preceding year and the annual average growth of 15.5% recorded between 2000 
and 2012. The 2000-2012 growth performance is still higher compared to other developing 
economies (excluding LDCs) whose exports of goods and commercial services increased on 
average by 11.9% per year during this period.   
2.2.  LDCs' imports of goods and commercial services, however, continued to expand, albeit at a 
slower pace (3.6%) compared to the preceding year's 26.8% to reach US$278.4 billion in 2012. 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDCs' exports of  goods and commercial services, 2000-2012 
(Index, 2000=100)   
0100200300400500600700800900
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012Commercial  services Other goods Fuels and Mining
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.3.  In 2012, petroleum prices and global oil demand increased marginally by 1.8% and 1.1% 
respectively. LDCs' exports of fuels stagnated. Th ough prices of minerals and non-ferrous metals 
(excluding fuels) dropped 17%, LDCs' exports of th ese products grew marginally by 1.2%. All in 
all, the value of LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products remained unchanged compared to the 
previous year. Excluding fuels and mining produc ts, however, exports of LDCs rose by 3.2%.  
2.4.  Exports of agricultural products increased by 2. 2%, even though, prices of food and non-food 
agricultural raw materials fell by 2.2% and 12.6% respectively. While world exports of 
manufactured products declined by 0.3% in 2012, exports of LDCs increased by 6%. 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 6 - 
  Table 1: Trends in LDCs' exports of goods and commercial services, 2000-2012 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 
 Values Annual rate of growth Annual 
Percentage 
change 
 2000  2012 2005 2006  2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2000-2012  
Total goods and 
commercial services 41.5 232.7 32.2 23.3 26.9 30.6 -23.7  27.3 23.7 0.7 15.5 
Total goods 35.8  205.7 34.9 24.2  26.7 31.2 -26.7  28.6 24.5 0.0 15.7  
Fuels and 
 Mining 16.0 126.2 56.3 30.4 30.1 39.2 -32.9  28.7 25.4 -1.1 18.8 
Other goods 19.8  79.5 12.9 15.4  21.2 17.3 -14.0  28.6 23.0 1.8 12.3  
Commercial 
services 5.7 27.1 11.3 15.0 29.1 24.7 7.8 17.9 18.2 6.4 13.8 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.5.  LDCs' total trade (imports and exports) in good s and commercial services grew by 2.3% - at 
a higher rate than the 1% world average growth. Albeit by a minor percentage point, LDCs have 
once again managed to increase their share in world trade (1.14%), gradually approaching double 
the share they recorded in 2000 (0.59%).   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 7 - Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1980-2012 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 
Value Annual 
percentage 
change 
 1980 1990 1995  2000  2005  2006  2007 2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2000-2012 
Total trade in goods and commercial servicesa 
   World 2,304 4,213 6,235  7,895  12,797  14,685  17,087 19,639  15,687  18,705  22,127  22,342  9.1 
   LDC 48 57 73 94 204 243 308 403 339 399 500 511 15.2 
     Share in world 1.05 0.67 0.59  0.59 0.80 0.83 0.90 1.03  1.08 1.07 1.13 1.14 … 
Total trade in goods a 
   World 1,919 3,407 5,048  6,418  10,349  11,934  13,790 15,899  12,301  14,988  17,977  18,090  9.0 
   LDC 39 45 57 75 168 202 254 332 270 323 408 412 15.3 
     Share in world 1.02 0.66 0.56  0.58 0.81 0.85 0.92 1.04  1.10 1.08 1.13 1.14 … 
Total trade in commercial services a 
   World 385 806 1,187  1,477  2,448  2,751  3,297 3,740  3,387  3,716  4,150  4,251  9.2 
   LDC 9 12 16 19 35 41 54 71 69 76 92 99 14.8 
     Share in world 1.21 0.75 0.69  0.64 0.72 0.74 0.81 0.95  1.02 1.02 1.11 1.16 … 
Goods exports 
   World 1,940 3,432 5,105  6,419  10,371  11,992  13,882 15,964  12,406  15,136  18,149  18,283  9.1 
   LDC 16 19 25 36 85 105 134 175 128 165 206 206 15.7 
     Share in world 0.82 0.57 0.48  0.56 0.82 0.88 0.96 1.10  1.04 1.09 1.13 1.12 … 
Commercial services exports  
   World 367 789 1,178  1,491  2,513  2,842  3,420 3,846  3,481  3,820  4,258  4,350  9.3 
   LDC 2 3 5 6 9 11 14 17 18 22 25 27 13.8 
     Share in world 0.66 0.41 0.42  0.38 0.36 0.37 0.40 0.44  0.52 0.56 0.60 0.62 … 
Goods imports 
   World 1,899 3,382 4,992  6,416  10,327  11,877  13,698 15,834  12,195  14,840  17,804  17,898  8.9 
   LDC 23 25 32 39 83 96 120 157 141 158 202 207 14.9 
     Share in world 1.22 0.75 0.64  0.61 0.81 0.81 0.88 0.99  1.16 1.06 1.13 1.16 … 
Commercial se rvices imports  
   World 404 823 1,195  1,464  2,384  2,660  3,174 3,633  3,292  3,613  4,042  4,152  9.1 
   LDC 7 9 11 13 26 30 40 54 51 54 67 72 15.2 
     Share in world 1.72 1.08 0.95  0.90 1.10 1.13 1.26 1.49  1.54 1.50 1.65 1.73 … 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world exports and imports. Total LDC trade in this table is approximated as the sum of their exports and imports. This 
measure thus double counts trade among LDCs, which is not, however, so significant to affect the analytical value of the data. Total trade shares are calculated in 
relation to the corresponding world exports plus imports. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 8 - 
  2.6.  The contribution of LDCs in world trade in goods is now double (1.14%) that of 2000 when 
their share was only 0.58%. Share of LDCs in world trade of commercial services also increased significantly from 0.64% in 2000 to 1.16% in 2012.  
2.7.  Seen separately, LDCs' total trade (imports and exports) in goods increased by 1.2%, well 
below the 26.3% posted in 2011. While LDCs' exports of goods stagnated, their imports increased 
by 2.4% - at a relatively higher pace than the world average of 0.5%.  
2.8.  In 2012, total trade (imports and exports) of LDCs in commercial services increased by 7%. 
Here again LDCs fared better compared to the world average increase of 2.4%. Growth in LDCs' 
commercial services exports (6.4%) was three time s higher than the world average; while growth 
in imports at 7.3% was more than two and half times than that of the world average. 
2.2  Merchandise Trade Developments 
2.2.1  Commodity price movements 
2.9.  In 2012, as demand in developed economies continue to weaken and growth in emerging 
economies slowed down, the average price of pr imary commodities fell by 2.6%, following the 
29.2% robust increase recorded in the preceding year. Despite the weakening global economic 
growth, for the second year in a row, average crud e oil prices were, however, at historically high 
levels. Brent crude oil averaged US$111.7 per barrel, practically the same level of the 2011 
(US$111.3). 
2.10.  With the exception of crude oil, prices of most commodities dropped in 2012. The average 
price of agricultural products declined by 6.2%. Pr ices of food and beverages fell by 4%. Prices of 
non-food agricultural raw materials plunged 12. 6%. Prices of coffee, cocoa and cotton tumbled 
22%, 20% and 42% respectively. Prices of minerals and non-ferrous metals dropped 17%.  
2.11.  In the context of declining prices, preliminary partner trade statistics show significant 
contraction in LDCs' exports of coffee (-17%) and cocoa (-60%). LDCs' expo rts of cotton, on the 
contrary, expanded by 20%; as China, the biggest world importer and consumer of cotton 
increased its imports from LDCs by 81% and 67% in 2011 and 2012. China is looking to African LDCs as alternative source of cotton. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 9 - 
  Chart 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2012 
(Indices, 2000=100) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 10 - Table 3: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2012  
(Annual and quarterly percentage changes) 
 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2012 Q-o-Q 2013 Annual 
average  
2000-
2012               Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and 
beverages -0.4  0.4  2.7  5.1  13.2  1.5  10.3  15.1  23.3  -13.1  12.2  19.5  -4.0  2.1  0.5  7.5  -3.2  0.8  0.4  6.7 
Agricultural 
raw materials 4.7  -5.0  1.8  3.8  5.4  1.6  8.6  5.0  -0.8  -16.8  32.3  22.7  -12.6  0.3  0.8  -3.4  0.1  0.8  2.1  3.1 
Minerals 
and non-
ferrous metals 
(excluding 
crude 
petroleum) 12.1  -9.7  -2.7  12.3  36.2  26.5  55.9  17.5  -7.8  -19.4  48.1  13.6  -16.9  5.1  -5.5  -8.0  4.2  7.1  -11.5  10.3 
Total of above 4.5  -4.0  0.8  6.9  18.6  10.3  23.1  14.1  7.5  -15.7  26.4  17.9  -9.9  2.8  -1.5  0.6  -0.4  2.8  -3.2  7.2 
Energy 56.1  -11.6  -0.4  16.7  31.1  38.7  19.2  10.5  40.2  -36.8  25.9  36.4  1.4  7.4  -7.4  -0.4  0.3  1.7  -7.0  11.8 
All primary 
commodities 32.6  -8.9  0.1  13.0  26.6  29.1  20.6  11.8  27.7  -30.0  26.1  29.2  -2.6  5.9  -5.5  -0.1  0.0  2.0  -5.7  10.2 
Memo item: 
Manufacture 
Unit Value -1.9  -5.0  -0.6  7.0  7.7  3.0  2.2  6.3  7.8  -6.6  3.3  8.9  -1.9  ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.5 
Note: Period averages calculated from IMF indices based on dolla r prices. The data for manufacture corresponds to unit values. The quarterly figures are not seasonally 
adjusted. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 11 - 
  2.2.2  Trends and product composition 
2.12.  Against the backdrop of weaker global econom ic activity and declining commodity prices, 
merchandise exports of LDCs nearly stagnated in 2012; rising just 1.3% to US$205.9 billion. Their imports, however, expanded by 8% to US$224.3 billion. LDCs thus posted their second ever 
largest merchandise trade deficit of US$18.4 billion.  
2.13.  In 2012, while nine LDCs registered double digit decline in their exports (ranging from -65% 
to -10%), 12 others achieved double digit growth (ranging from 10.5% to 27%). Sierra Leone's 
large scale exploitation of iron ore boosted its export capacity which in 2012 increased by more 
than three-fold. Sudan, on the other hand, displa yed drastic fall in exports due to disagreement 
with its new neighbour, over the amount South Sudan should pay to export its oil through Sudanese pipelines.  
2.14.  During the 2000-2012 period, LDCs' merchandise exports expanded by an annual average 
of 15.6% as compared to 12.4% for non-LDC developing economies. Likewise, imports grew by an average of 14.6% per year; at a relatively higher pace compared to other non-LDC developing 
economies (12.3%).  
2.15.  As expected, variations were noticed in the merchandise trade performances of the different 
groups of LDCs during the 2000-2012 period. Fuel  exporters and exporters of non-fuel minerals 
expanded their exports by about the same rate  (on average 17.5% per year). Exporters of 
agricultural products grew at an annual rate of 13%. With nearly 12% annual increase, exporters 
of predominantly manufactured products lagged behi nd fuel exporters by 5 percentage points. The 
least performance, with an annual average growth rate of 9%, was recorded for exporters without 
clear specialization in specific product category.  
2.16.  In volume terms, LDCs' exports grew by 4.3%  while their imports expanded by 8.8%, the 
highest increase recorded after the onset of the cris is. The growth in values was, therefore entirely 
due to higher volume increases; as prices of exports stagnated and those of imports contracted by 
1.5%. 
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies 
(Indices, 2000=100) 
50100150200250
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012LDCs exports LDCs imports LDC trade other developing  economies'  trade
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD. 
 
 2.17.  As mentioned in previous reports, Chart 4 confirms the shift in the commodity composition 
of LDCs, with a general decline in the share of pr actically all agricultural and manufactured product WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 12 - 
  categories and a substantial rise in the share of fuels and mining products. In the last 12 years, 
the average annual growth rate of LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products was much higher 
(18.9%) than those of manufactured products (12%) and agricultural products (11%). The commodity boom of the last decade favoured more  prices of fuels and mining products to grow 
faster than those of agricultural and manufactured products (twice the growth of agriculture and 
more than four-fold that of manufactures, respectively).  
Chart 4: Composition of LDCs' merchandise exports by major product group, 2000 and 
2012 (percentage) 
10 17101117141219
010203040506070
Textiles Machinery
and transportAgr. raw
materialsProcess
manufacturesFood Others Clothing Fuels  and
minerals2000
2012
 
Note: Data may include re ‑exports.  The number over 2012 bar indicates average annual growth rate for 
the period 2000 ‑2012. In addition to minor di fferences in composition, data  for textiles and clothing 
here differ from (HS 61 and 62) in Table 4 and Anne x Table 3, mainly due to compilation methods, 
which in the case of Table 4 and Annex Table 3 are strictly based on imports of trading partners of 
LDCs. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.18.  Table 4 which is based on partner statistics once again confirms the concentration of LDCs' 
exports in few products. Of the 20 top products exported by LDCs in 2012, petroleum and clothing 
accounted for nearly 60% and 12% of the total LDC merchandise exports. Another noteworthy 
feature of LDC exports is the considerable market share that some of their products maintain in 
world trade. As depicted in Table 4, LDCs' exports of aluminium ore and concentrates, for 
example, represented some 22% of world exports,  while a number of clothing items keep notable 
world market shares.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 13 - 
  Table 4: Top 20 export products of LDCs by market share, 2012  
(million of dollars and percentage) 
HS07 Product Description LDC exports World exports 
Value Share in 
Total 
Exports Value LDCs' 
 Share in 
Total 
2709 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from 
bituminous minerals, crude. 93,536 51.0 1,643,563 5.7 
2711 Petroleum gases and other gaseous 
hydrocarbons. 10,065 5.5 330,255 3.0 
7403 Refined copper and copper alloys, 
unwrought. 5,037 2.7 59,795 8.4 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets, 
blazers, trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts (other than 
swimwear). 4,855 2.6 29,683 16.4 
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waistcoats 
and similar articles, knitted or crocheted. 4,656 2.5 40,583 11.5 
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, knitted 
or crocheted. 4,371 2.4 23,912 18.3 
6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear). 2,981 1.6 38,342 7.8 
2710 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from 
bituminous minerals, other than crude; 
preparations not elsewhere specified or 
included, containing by weight 70 % or 
more of petroleum oils or of oils obtained 
from bituminous minerals, these oils being 
the basic c 2,458 1.3 634,591 0.4 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or not 
stripped of bark or sapwood, or roughly squared. 2,377 1.3 13,208 18.0 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, including 
roasted iron pyrites. 2,223 1.2 148,373 1.5 
6205 Men's or boys' shirts. 2,039 1.1 11,410 17.9 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not worked, but 
not mounted or set. 1,665 0.9 105,033 1.6 
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed. 1,571 0.9 19,330 8.1 
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or 
decaffeinated; coffee husks and skins; 
coffee substitutes containing coffee in any 
proportion. 1,541 0.8 26,397 5.8 
6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear), knitted or crocheted. 1,463 0.8 16,146 9.1 
7601 Unwrought al uminium. 1,162 0.6 39,606 2.9 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates. 1,068 0.6 47,865 2.2 
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or 
crocheted. 927 0.5 6,255 14.8 
2606 Aluminium ores and concentrates. 870 0.5 3,876 22.4 
1207 Other oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, 
whether or not broken. 861 0.5 2,687 32.1 
Source: Annex Table 3. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 14 - 
  Chart 5: Evolution in LDCs' mercha ndise export structure, 2000 and 2012  
(percentage) 
 
Textiles 2%Clothing 
20%Residual 6%Semi‐manu 
6%Other manu 
2%
Food 12%Agr. raw 
materials 
5%Fuels 40%
Ores and 
minerals 2%Non‐
ferrous 
metals 2%61%2000
Primary
products
Textiles 1%Clothing 
13%Residual 5%Semi‐manu 
3%Other 
manu 5%
Food 8%Agr. raw 
materials 
3%Fuels 52%
Ores and 
minerals 
4%Non‐
ferrous 
metals 6%72%2012
Primary
products
  
Source: WTO Secretariat.  
 
2.19.  While the year 2012 was marked by weak econom ic growth and declining commodity prices, 
the last decade witnessed a sustained demand from emerging economies for primary commodities and rising commodity prices which led to a phenom enal increase in the share of fuels and mining 
products in the total exports of LDCs from 44% in 2000 to 62% in 2012.
3 As a result, share of 
manufactured products shrank from 33% in 2000 to 23% in 2012. The share of agricultural 
products also declined from about 17% to 10% in  the same period. Overall, the share of primary 
commodities in LDCs' merchandise exports increased from 62% in 2000 to 72% in 2012. 
2.20.  LDCs' exports of fuels expanded by an average of 18% per year between 2000 and 2012 
and gained 13 percentage points share in total exports of LDCs. Likewise, exports of non-fuel 
minerals expanded thirteen-fold during this period. Exports of the other two major product 
categories, agricultural and manufactured products, grew by an average annual rate of 11% and 12% respectively.  
2.21.  Textiles and clothing represent 64% of LDCs' exports of manufactures. Clothing, accounting 
for 59% of LDCs' manufactured product is by far the major manufactured item in LDC exports. The 
decline in the share of clothing in LDCs' total exports from 20% in 2000 to 13% in 2012 is not the result of weak export competitiveness of LDCs in the sector; it is rather due to the strong growth 
in the exports of extractive resources in the recent past. In fact, in the last 12 years, LDCs' 
exports of clothing registered average annual gr owth of 12% compared to the world average of 
6.5%. Next in importance to clothing is othe r semi-manufactures, such as diamonds which 
accounted for 13% of LDCs' manufactures exports.  
2.2.3  Direction of trade 
2.22.  In 2012, LDCs' exports to developing economies expanded by 8%; while those to the 
developed countries declined by 4%. Developing economies now absorb 53% of LDCs' exports 
compared to 50% in 2011, and up from 40% in 2000. The share of developed economies as 
destination markets for products originating from LDCs continued to shrink and represented 40% in 2012 compared to 54% in 2000.  
2.23.  China continues to remain the top destination for LDC exports in 2012. In 2012, 23% of 
LDCs' total exports were destined to China- up from 9% in 2000. Forty-four % of LDCs' products destined to developing markets ended up in China; double of what it was in 2000. As destination 
                                               
3 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product and destination compiled 
according to the United Nations St andard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this 
classification, diamonds and non-moneta ry gold are not part of mineral prod ucts. While diamonds are classified 
under manufactured products, non-mo netary gold is shown under the residual item "Commodities and 
transactions not classified elsewhere". Besides gold, th is residual item, which in 2012 represented 5% of total 
LDCs' exports, may also include mining products which could not be identified se parately. As a result, the 
shares of fuels and mining product in total LDCs' ex ports derived from the LDC network differ from the shares 
of exporters of fuels and mining produc ts discussed elsewhere in this report. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 15 - 
  markets, developing Asia (excluding China) and Africa represented 16% and 10% of LDCs exports 
in 2012.  
2.24.  The share of the United States as destination market for LDC products was 11% in 2012 - 
half of the 2000 share. The European Union a ccounted for19% of LDCs' exports in 2012- down 
from 27% in 2000. These drops in shares took place in spite of 9% and 13% average annual 
growth in the exports of LDCs to the United States and the European Union during the same 
period.  
Chart 6: LDCs' merchandise exports by destination, 2000 and 2012 
(percentage) 
Other 
8%Europe 
(developed)  
28%North 
America 
(excl. 
Mexico) 24%
Other 
developing  
Asia 19%China 9%
Other 
developing  
10%
Intra‐LDC 2%40%2000
Developing  
Other 10%Europe 
(developed)  
23%North 
America 
(excl. 
Mexico) 
14%
Other 
developing  
Asia 16%China 23%
Other 
developing  
11%
Intra‐LDC 
3%53%2012
Developing  
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.25.  Intra-LDC trade is under recorded. Estimates based on reported and mirror data indicate an 
average annual increase of 17% in intra-LDC tr ade in the last 12 years. Due to geographic 
proximity, most of this trade takes place within Africa. Intra-African trade accounted for nearly 
95% of the total intra-LDC trade in 2012. Wh ile the estimated share of intra-LDC trade 
represented 3.5% of total LDCs' exports; the intra-African LDCs' share was 4.5% in the total exports of African LDCs.
4  
Table 5: Product composition of LDCs ' exports by destination, 2000-2012  
(billion dollars and percentage)  
 Value Share in LDC exports Annual % change 
 2012  2000  2012  2011  2012 2000-2012  
Agriculture       
World 21.0 100 100 26 2 11 
Asia 8.2 30 39 27 6 13 
Africaa 4.8 16 23 34 4 14 
Europe 4.5 37 22 26 -9 6 
Middle East 1.9 7 9 25 -8 13 
North America 0.6 7 3 13 5 2 
CIS 0.4 0 2 64 5 27 
South and Central America 0.1 1 0 0 -11 3 
Fuels and mining products       
World 128.0 100 100 26 0 19 
Asia 69.4 46 54 14 11 21 
Europe 22.8 16 18 59 -2 20 
North America 15.8 25 12 15 -23 12 
Africaa 5.9 4 5 -3 30 21 
South and Central America 1.9 1 1 35 2 23 
Middle East 1.1 1 1 -7 -22 23 
CIS 0.1 0 0 4 -50 42 
                                               
4 Considering that informal cross-border trade especi ally in Africa are not reported or under-recorded, 
these figures obviously represent lower-end estimates. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 16 - 
   Value Share in LDC exports Annual % change 
 2012  2000  2012  2011  2012 2000-2012  
Manufactures       
World 46.4 100 100 26 6 12 
Europe 18.4 41 40 40 4 11 
North America 11.2 35 24 19 4 9 
Asia 9.0 14 19 16 13 15 
Africaa 5.8 6 13 16 6 19 
Middle East 1.0 1 2 21 7 18 
South and Central America 0.3 0 1 74 4 23 
CIS 0.3 1 1 43 13 13 
a Includes re-exports.  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.26.  Combining direction and composition of trade, Table 5 shows that Asia is the major 
destination market for LDCs' exports of fuels and mining (54%) as well as agricultural products (39%). For manufactured products, Europe (39%) and North America (24%) are the major destination markets. In manufactured products, while LDCs' lost market shares in North America 
from 35% in 2000 to 24% in 2012, the share in Asia increased from 14% to 19%. In 2012, as a 
result of rising domestic production, United Stat es' imports of fuels from LDCs dropped by 25.7%. 
In fact, the share of LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products to North America dropped from 
25% to 12% in the last 12 years. The share of Europe as LDCs' market for agricultural products 
also shrank from 37% in 2000 to 22% in 2012; whil e the corresponding share for Africa increased 
from 16% to 23%.  
2.2.4  Major markets and their imports structure 
2.27.  Chart 7 is based on partner import statistics and shows the top 20 markets for products 
originating from LDCs. The combined imports of these economies from LDCs increased on average 
by 15% per year in the last 12 years. In 2012, the top three developing partners- China, India and 
Thailand-registered 5%, 26.3% and 13.4% increase in their imports from LDCs. The top three 
developed partners in 2012 were: the EU, US and Japan. Imports of the EU and the US declined by 3% and 16.7% respectively; while Japan increased its imports by 10.4%. As mentioned earlier, 
the strong decline in the imports of the United St ates is prompted by 25.7% drop in imports of 
crude oil from LDCs, subsequent to an upsurge in domestic production. In 2012, while 3% of the total imports of China, India and Thailand originated from LDCs; the corresponding figures for the 
United States, Japan and the European Union were respectively 1.1%, 0.8% and 0.7%. Between 
2000 and2012, LDCs gained market shares of 1.3%, 1.2% and 0.8% in the total imports of China, 
India and Thailand. Gains in market shares of less than 1% were also registered in the top three 
developed partners. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 17 - 
  Chart 7: Top 20 markets for LDC me rchandise exports, 2000 and 2012 
(billion dollars)  
0 1 02 03 04 05 06 0
China
EU 27
USA
India
Thailand
Japan
Chinese Taipei
Canada
South Africa
Korea, Republic of
Saudi Arabia  a
Turkey
Viet Nam  a
Zambia  a
Singapore
Indonesia
Russian Federation
Brazil
Peru
Chile2012
2000
 
a 2011 instead of 2012. 
Source: UN Comtrade database. 
 
2.28.  For most of these major trading partners, imports from LDCs' are concentrated not only on 
few products but also few partners. In 2012, for example, fuels and mining products constituted 
for 96% of Chinese Taipei's, 91% of China's an d 73% of India's imports from LDCs. Fuels and 
mining accounted for 59% and 45% of United Stat es' and European Union's imports from LDCs.   
2.29.  LDCs have gained market shares in clothing in their major trading partners. The European 
Union imported 7.9% of its clothing from LDCs  in 2012 as compared to only 4.2% in 2000. In 
2012, 9.6% of United States' imports of clothing originated from LDCs, compared to 6.3% in 2000. In Japan as well, share of clothing imports from  LDCs' increased from 0.3% in 2000 to 3.3% in 
2012.  
2.2.5  Differentiation by region and export specialization  
2.30.  Table 6 once again confirms the heterogeneous characteristics of LDCs. Commodity price 
developments and demand for fuels and mining products from emerging economies obviously 
tilted the commodity mix towards fuels and mining products thereby boosting the share of exporters of these products in total LDCs' exports from 60% in 2000 to 73% in 2012.    
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 18 - Table 6: LDCs' merchandise trade by  export specialization, 2000-2012 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 Exports     Imports     
 Value Share in 
LDCs' 
exports  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value Share in 
LDCs' 
exports  Annual 
percentage 
change  
 2012 2000  2012  2012  2000-12  2012 2000  2012  2012  2000-12 
LDCs 205.9 100 100 1 16 224.3  100 100 8 15 
Exporters of fuels and minerals  151.3 60  73 1 17 114.9  41 51 10 17 
  Fuel exporters 115.4 47 56 0 17 66.1 24 29 12 17 
  Exporters of non-fuel minerals  36.0 14  17 3 18 48.8 18 22 7 17 
Manufacture exporte rs 37.7 28 18 5 12 60.4 36 27 0 12 
Exporters of agricultural products  14.3 9  7 0 13 42.1 19 19 14 14 
Diversified and others 2.6 3 1 0 9 7.0 4 3 9 12 
African LDCs  149.5 58  73 2 18 138.1  53 62 12 16 
Fuel exporters 97.3 30 47 2 20 43.8 12 20 13 19 
Exporters of non-fuel minerals  33.7 13  16 4 18 46.3 16 21 8 17 
Exporters of agricultural products  13.3 9 6 0 13 35.3 16 16 20 15 
Diversified and others 2.6 3  1 0 9 7.0 4 3 9 12 
Manufacture exporters  2.6 3 1 -6 8 5.7 4 3 5 9 
Asian LDCs  47.0 30  23 3 13 71.1 39 32 -1 13 
Manufacture exporters  34.3 24 17 6 12 51.5 29 23 0 13 
Exporters of fuels and minerals  11.8 6  6 -3 16 12.8 7 6 2 12 
Exporters of agricultural products  0.9 1 0 6 12 6.8 3 3 -11 14 
Diversified and others 0.0 0  0 0 33 0.0 0 0 0 14 
Middle East and Caribbean            
Yemen  (fuel exporter)  8.6 11  4 -20 6 12.0 5 5 20 15 
Haiti 0.8 1 0 6 8 3.2 2 1 5 10 
Memorandum items:  Share in world exports     Share in world imports    
World 18,401 100 100 0 9 18,601  100 100 1 9 
Developing economies excluding  
LDCs 7,629 29  41 4 12 7,167  27 39 4 12 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 19 - 
  2.31.  Over the last 12 years, the respective shares in total LDCs' exports of both exporters of 
manufactured and agricultural products shrank by 10 and 2 percentage points. This is despite the 
above world average growth of the two product groups in the same period.  
2.32.  Regional export growth rates were also varied for the same reasons mentioned earlier. 
While African LDCs - predominantly exporters of fu els and mining products - posted annual growth 
of 18% between 2000 and 2012; the corresponding growth in the exports of Asian LDCs was 13%. 
In 2012, 87% of African LDCs' total exports orig inated from the regions' fuel and mineral 
exporters. Asian LDCs' exports are dominated by  manufactures exporters; in 2012 such exports 
accounted for 73% of Asian LDCs' exports. 
2.33.  On the import side, the structure is less co ncentrated, though exporters of fuels and 
minerals accounted for 51% of total LDC imports in 2012. The share of manufactures exporters in 
total LDCs' imports, for example, is one and half  times their corresponding share in LDCs' total 
exports. The share in total LDC imports of agricu ltural exporters remained unchanged in the last 
12 years. While the share of African LDCs in to tal LDCs' exports gained 15 percentage points 
between 2000 and 2012; the corresponding gain on the import side was 9 percentage points.  
2.34.  Table 7 shows the commodity composition of African LDCs. In 2012, exports of fuels and 
mining products nearly stagnated, reflecting depressed export prices. In the last 12 years, fuels 
and mining products gained 21 percentage points share in total African LDCs exports. In contrast, 
share of African LDCs' Agricultural exports dropped by more than half it was in 2000. Exports of manufactured products also lost nearly 7 percentage points of their share.  
Table 7: Product composition of African LDCs' exports, 2000-2012  
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 Value Share in total 
exports Annual percentage change 
 2012 2000 2012 2011 2012 2000-12 
Agriculture 14.2  21.1 9.7 28.9 1.1 10.3  
  Food 11.5 14.9 7.8 28.1 2.2 11.6 
  Raw materials 2.7  6.2 1.8 31.9 -3.5 6.4  
Fuels and mining products 112.7  55.9 76.5 26.2 0.6 20.8 
  Fuels 93.8  48.6 63.7 26.5 0.5 20.4  
  Non-fuel minerals 18.9 7.3 12.8 24.9 1.1 23.4 
Manufactures 11.3  14.4 7.6 26.3 14.5 11.7  
  Textiles and clothing 1.3 3.0 0.9 25.6 3.1 5.9 
Total merchandise exports 147.4  100.0  100.0  25.4 0.9 17.7  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.35.  The product composition of Asian LDCs' exports is dominated by manufactures, which in 
2012 represented 73% of their total exports (Tab le 8). Between 2000 and 2012, the region's 
exports of fuels and mining products (including electricity) expanded by 24%- nearly twice faster 
than those of manufactured products. As the shar e of agriculture in total exports practically 
remained unchanged, fuels and mining products thus acquired 7.5 percentage points share at the 
expense of manufactures. As mentioned earlier, th e observed decline in the share of manufactures 
is not so much due to loss in competitiveness, as growth in Asian manufactures exports (11.7%) 
was faster than the corresponding world aver age growth of 8% during this period.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 20 - 
  Table 8: Product composition of  Asian LDCs' exports, 2000-2012 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 Value Share in total exports  Annual percentage change 
 2012 2000 2012 2011 2012 2000-12 
Agriculture 6.1  13.1 12.8 20.3 3.2 12.8  
Food 3.5 9.4 7.4 11.8 2.1 10.7 
Raw materials 2.6  3.7 5.5 34.6 4.7 16.8  
Fuels and mining products 5.6 4.1 11.8 3.6 1.3 23.5 
Fuels 4.5  3.8 9.4 2.0 2.1 21.8  
Non-fuel minerals 1.2 0.2 2.4 10.1 -1.4 36.9 
Manufactures 34.9  80.7 73.2 26.2 5.4 12.1  
Textiles and clothing 28.0 67.3 58.8 30.2 5.0 11.8 
Total merchandise exports 47.6  100.0  100.0  22.7 5.0 13.0  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 2.2.6  Merchandise trade balance 
2.36.  As already pointed out in previous reports, with  the exception of the three years prior to the 
crisis (2006, 2007 and 2008), the merchandise trade balances of the LDCs as a group remained in 
deficit. The overall favourable trade balances reco rded in the three years were entirely the result 
of huge surpluses enjoyed by the fuel exporters which managed to surpass the deficits incurred by 
non-fuel exporting LDCs. Following the crisis, however, LDCs posted record trade deficit of 
US$26 billion in 2009. In 2012, they registered the second highest trade deficit of US$18 billion. 
Table 9: Coverage ratios of import s by exports of the LDCs, 2000-2012 
(ratio of groups' total exports to imports, expressed in percentage) 
 2000 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010 2011 2012  
Developing economies 105 109  112 111 108 106 106 106 106  
Least developed countries 83 95 103 103 104 83 96 98 92 
  fuel exporters 164 195  207 204 214 139 190 197 175  
  non-fuel exporters 58 54 60 56 52 53 58 59 57 
   agricultural exporters 40 33  33 34 31 33 34 39 34  
   manufacture exporters 65 61 65 60 56 57 58 60 62 
   mineral exporters 65 66  82 77 71 70 81 76 74  
   diversified and others 55 43 41 32 31 40 43 41 37 
Note: Indicators based on total export s and imports for the reference group. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.37.  Two groups of countries with contrasting merchandise trade balances could be 
distinguished; fuel exporters, with persistent trade surpluses and the non-fuel exporters with 
systemic and growing trade deficits. In 2012, fuel  exporters recorded a trade surplus of US$48 
billion; while non-fuel exporters run record-high trade deficit of US$68 billion. Within the latter 
group, exporters of agricultural products posted the highest trade deficit of US$28 billion, followed 
by exporters of predominantly manufactured products with US$23 billion deficit. In the last 
12 years, non-fuel exporters' trade deficit increased by 14% per year on average; while the 
surplus of fuel exporters grew by 18%.  
2.38.  Table 9 illustrates that non-fuel exporters LDCs have to resort to external resources to 
finance their trade deficits as their income from their merchandise exports covers no more than 
57% of their merchandise imports. Barely, a third of the merchandise import bills of agricultural exporters are financed through foreign exchange earned from their merchandise exports. Even 
mineral exporters are not capable of financing thei r imports; despite the favourable prices exports 
of these resource-rich countries enjoyed in recent years.  
2.39.  When considering individual countries, only five - Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Chad (fuel 
exporters), Zambia and Congo Dem. Rep. (non-fue l mineral exporters) - posted positive trade 
balances in 2012. Among them, Angola leads with a surplus of US$50 billion. Ethiopia and 
Bangladesh, on the other hand, posted the highest trade deficits in 2012 (US$9.7 billion and US$9 billion respectively).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 21 - 
  Table 10: LDCs' merchandise trade ba lance by product groups, 2000-2012 
(billion dollars) 
 2000 2001 2002 2003  2004  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009 2010 2011 2012  
Total 
merchandise -7.3 -11.1 -9.7 -14.1  -10.5  -4.7 2.9 3.6 6.0 -26.0 -7.0 -4.3 -18.4  
Agriculturea -1.9 -2.3 -3.1 -4.1 -4.5 -5.3 -6.6 -9.3 -15.2  -14.4 -17.6 -23.4 -23.8  
Fuels 10.5 10.1 12.7 15.1  23.0 37.2 47.5 62.8 87.7 52.3 64.0 76.3 78.0  
Non-fuel 
minerals 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.6 2.6 3.3 6.6 8.0 10.0 7.8 13.2 16.4 16.4 
Manufactures -17.5 -18.9 -20.7 -25.0  -31.7  -39.3  -48.6  -59.3  -78.7  -74.8 -89.1 -107.9 -116.3  
a  Includes forestry and fishery products. 
Note: Trade balances for the respective product gr oups are estimated based on WTO network of world 
merchandise trade by products and regions and refe r to FOB valuation on both export and import 
sides. These estimates do not add up to the total merchandise trade balances, which are calculated from official statistics and calculated as FOB-based expo rts minus CIF-based imports. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.40.  Few countries dominate the merchandise exports of LDCs. The first ten major exporters 
account for some 80% of LDCs' total merchandise exports. In contrast, the share of the bottom 
ten countries represents only 0.2% of the total LDC exports. Imports on the other hand are relatively less concentrated, as the major ten importers account for 62% of the total merchandise 
imports of LDCs and the bottom ten for 1.1%.  
2.41.  Chart 8 shows the importance of intermediate  and capital goods in the total imports of 
LDCs. In the last five years the share of imports of intermediate goods fluctuated around 45% of 
total LDCs' imports. These are essential materials used as inputs in the agricultural and 
manufacturing sectors either for domestic consumption or exports. The respective shares of consumption goods, capital goods and fuels were 20%, 17% and 12% (average of last five years). 
Between 2000 and 2012, imports of capital goods ex panded at a faster rate (16% annual average) 
than those of other categories. 
Chart 8: Imports of LDCs by Broad Economic Categories, 2000 – 2012  
(Indices, 2000=100) 
01002003004005006007008009001000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012Capital goods Intermediate  goods Consumption  goods Fuels
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. Estimates based on partners trade statistics. 
 
2.42.  As development related investment needs in LDCs are vast and most LDCs lack foreign 
exchange resources needed to import capital an d intermediate inputs, they naturally run large 
trade deficits. These deficits are typically financed through capital inflows such as Official Development Assistance (ODA), migrant remitta nces and other concessional loans etc.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 22 - 
  2.43.  Among the different channels of financial flows,  Chart 9 shows the evolution of official aid 
flows - ODA - and migrant's remittances5 for which data are systematically collected. According to 
OECD, LDCs received US$44.3 billion of ODA in 2011. Seventy per cent of this (US$31.3 billion) went to African LDCs.  
2.44.  As a percentage of imports, ODA peaked in 2003 (40% of LDC imports) and started to 
steadily decline reaching 21% of LDCs' imports in 2 011. This is mainly a result of faster growth of 
LDCs' imports relative to ODA. Between 2000 and 2011, ODA grew by an annual average rate of 
12% compared to the corresponding 15% increase in imports. 
2.45.  Afghanistan, the biggest aid recipient (ODA) in  recent years received 15% of the total ODA 
to LDCs in 2011. The Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia followed with 12.5% and 8.5% shares. 
2.46.  Workers' remittances increased by an average of 14% per year during the 2000-2011 
period to reach US$27 billion in 2011. Together with ODA, remittances were equivalent to 34% of LDCs' imports in 2011. This is down from the 57% peak registered in 2003.  
2.47.  For some countries, workers' remittances are quite significant. Forty-four per cent of 
recorded LDCs' remittances go to Bangladesh and 15% to Nepal. In 2011, remittances were the equivalent of 33% of Bangladesh's imports, down from the 48% peak registered in 2009. The 
magnitude is even higher for Nepal, where foreign exchange from migrants' remittances is more 
than four times than those obtained from exports.  
Chart 9: Contribution of ODA and worker remittances to the finance of imports,  
2000-2011 
(percentage of imports) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat based on  data from UNCTAD and OECD. 
 
2.3  Commercial Services 
2.48.  In 2012, the value of LDCs' commercial services exports reached an estimated 
US$ 27.1 billion, up from US$5.7 billion in 2000. Despite the 6%  rise recorded by the group in 
2012, much higher than the world average (2%), services exports accounted only for 11.6% of 
total goods and services exports. The participation of LDCs in world exports of commercial services remained marginal, at 0.6%, and, in world imports, at 1.7%.  
                                               
5 Though in recent years, there are improvements in  the recoding of remittan ces; migrant remittances 
still remains under-recorded. Transfers through informal  channels are among the main causes of this under 
recording.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 23 - Table 11: LDCs' commercial services  exports by category, 2000-2012  
(million dollars and percentage) 
Value 2000  2001 2002 2003  2004  2005  2006  2007 2008  2009  2010  2011  2012 
Commercial 
services 5,713  5,870 6,302 6,668  8,220  9,150  10,524  13,588  16,947  18,274  21,540  25,463  27,092 
Transport 1,179  1,224 1,319 1,456  1,679  2,095  2,401  2,778  3,449  3,247  4,207  5,415  5,898 
Travel 2,546  2,841 3,137 3,315  4,146  4,810  5,366  7,246  9,141  9,003  9,763  11,389  12,171 
Other 
commercial 
services 1,989  1,805 1,846 1,897  2,394  2,245  2,757  3,564  4,357  6,024  7,570  8,659  9,022 
Growth Rate 2000  2001 2002 2003  2004  2005  2006  2007 2008  2009  2010  2011  2012 
Commercial 
services 3.3 2.7 7.3 5.8 23.3 11.3 15.0 29.1 24.7 7.8 17.9 18.2 6.4 
Transport 1.4  3.9 7.7 10.4  15.3 24.8 14.6 15.7 24.2 -5.9 29.6 28.7 8.9 
Travel 0.6 11.6 10.4 5.7 25.1 16.0 11.6 35.0 26.1 -1.5 8.4 16.6 6.9 
Other 
commercial services 8.3
 -9.2 2.3 2.7  26.2 -6.2 22.8 29.3 22.3 38.3 25.7 14.4 4.2 
Structure 2000  2001 2002 2003  2004  2005  2006  2007 2008  2009  2010  2011  2012 
Commercial 
services 100.0  100.0 100.0 100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0 
Transport 20.6 20.9 20.9 21.8 20.4 22.9 22.8 20.4 20.4 17.8 19.5 21.3 21.8 
Travel 44.6  48.4 49.8 49.7  50.4 52.6 51.0 53.3 53.9 49.3 45.3 44.7 44.9 
Other 
commercial 
services 34.8 30.8 29.3 28.4 29.1 24.5 26.2 26.2 25.7 33.0 35.1 34.0 33.3 
Source: WTO and UNCTAD Secretariat estimates. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 24 - 
  2.49.  From a structural perspective, LDCs' services  exports are dominated by the tourism sector. 
In the 2012, LDCs' travel exports (proxy to tourism) grew by 7% to US$5.9 billion.6 Travel receipts 
made up 44.9% of LDCs' total commercial services exports, more than double in developed economies. Cambodia, Tanzania and Uganda rema ined the largest exporters within the group, 
accounting respectively for some 15%, 14% and 9% of the groups' travel receipts. International 
tourist arrivals to these economies have been risi ng rapidly. In 2012, foreign tourists to Cambodia 
and Tanzania rose by 24% and by almost 22% in Uganda in 2011.
7  
2.50.  Strong increases in 2012 were recorded also in Myanmar (+52%), Cameroon (+35%), 
Bhutan (+17%) and Madagascar (+14%). Overall, the estimated number of international tourist 
arrivals to LDCs (above 25 million in 2012) has more than doubled compared to 2005.8  
Chart 10: LDCs' structure of commercial services by sector, 2012 
(percentage) 
Transport
21.8%
Travel
44.9%Communications  
services
7.8%Construction
7.2%Insurance  
services
0.7%Financial 
services
3.8%Computer  and 
information  
services
1.0%Royalties  and 
licence fees
0.7%Other 
business 
services
11.6% Personal,  cult. 
and recreat. 
services
0.5%2012
 
Source: WTO and UNCTAD Secretariat estimates. 
 
2.51.  Travel exports represent an important source of revenue for smaller LDCs, in particular 
islands. In 2012, the highest contributions to GDP were found in Vanuatu (29.7%) and Samoa (20.9%). Money spent by international travellers enters directly the tourism value chain affecting 
industries such as accommodation, food and beverages, transport, retail, recreation and cultural 
activities, etc. 
2.52.  Tourism has benefits indirectly the domestic economy contributing to the development of 
other sectors such as agriculture (e.g., food supply to hotel establishments), construction, 
communications, utilities (e.g., supply of electricity and water to hotels), and conference and 
events management. The demand for these services, of which some are labour intensive, creates additional employment opportunities especially for semi-skilled people in rural areas in LDCs.  
                                               
6 In Balance-of-payments Statistics , "travel" covers all goods and se rvices acquired by international 
travellers in the host economy, for their own use or to give away, such as accommodation, food, souvenirs, 
visits to museums, local transportation, etc. It excludes transportation to the host country. 
7 Source: UNWTO "World Tourism Barometer" (July 2013). 
8 WTO Secretariat estimates based on UNWTO data. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 25 - 
  Table 12: A simplified Tourism Value Chain 
Accommodation Food and 
beverages Souvenirs and 
Entertainment  Transportation Excursions 
Hotel Restaurant Souvenir shop Regional and local Guides 
Resort Bar Market Bus, taxi, car rental Tour operators 
Guesthouse Food stall Sellers etc. Travel agencies  
Lodge Market Craftsmen  etc. 
etc. etc. Festivals   
  Theme parks   
Source: ITC. 
 
2.53.  Tourism-oriented LDCs have attempted to measure the contribution of tourism in the 
tourism value chain. For example, in 2010, in Tanzania, hotel accommodation accounted for 
25.3% of tourists' total spending, followed by sh opping (17.8%) and food and beverages (16.8%). 
Mountain climbing represented an additional 13.5%.9 In Uganda, a visitor exit survey showed that, 
in 2011, accommodation was the largest expenditure category (44%), followed by souvenirs 
(16%), meals and drinks (15%), transport (12%), and excursions (8%).10  
2.54.  Transport is the second largest export serv ice sector of LDCs. In 2012, transportation 
services receipts represented 21.8% of LDCs' total exports, with Djibouti (76.6% - in 2011) and 
Ethiopia (67.6%) demonstrating strong potentials. Accounting for some 30% of LDCs' total 
transport exports, Ethiopia is the largest transport exporter in the group. The country's transport sector is developing rapidly with exports rising by 21%t on average per year since 2005 due to expanding air transport.  
2.55.  Ethiopia is gradually integrating in international air passenger transport value chain. As from 
the end of 2011, Ethiopian airlines joined the largest global airline alliance (Star Alliance). Integration is also pursued at the regional level.  For example, Ethiopia's airlines and Djibouti 
airport authority recently launched a cooperation agreement for the provision of sea-air and 
air-sea cargo transport of goods in Eastern Africa, which is expected to enable multimodal transport services to shippers, forwarders and logistics providers in Africa. 
2.56.   The "other commercial services" represented ov erall one third of total commercial services 
exports of LDCs, a share which is significantly below than the average of other developing countries (43.8%) as well as developed economies (59.4%).
11 While lack of data could be an 
important reason for underperformance, it is a fact that poor infrastructure, limited skills and lack 
of financial resources, continue to hinder LDCs' exports especially in higher segments of service 
trade. In 2012, exports of computer and inform ation services represented 1% of LDCs' total 
commercial services exports. Insurance services and royalties and licence fees stood below 1%.12  
2.57.  The most important subsectors under the category of "other commercial services" is other 
business services, which accounted for 11.6% of total commercial services exports in 2012, followed by communications services (7.8%). Thanks  to the rapid expansion of mobile telephony, 
communications services exports have been increa sing rapidly in the group (21% on average per 
year since 2005). The relatively large shares of construction (7.2%) and of financial services (3.8%) are mainly due to newly available statis tics for Afghanistan, which in 2011 accounted for 
some 64 and 66% of total LDCs' construction and financial services exports.
13  
2.58.  Despite the LDCs' group dependence on tourism receipts, some countries are trying to 
diversify their services exports. For example, Bang ladesh's IT and IT-enabled sector has grown in 
recent years. According to a survey, in 2011, in  Bangladesh there were over 160 companies which 
                                               
9 Based on expenditure of non-package tourists. Source: The 2010 Tanzania Tourism Sector Survey, 
Tanzania's National Bureau of Statistics (2012). 
10 Source: "Uganda inclusive tourism", ITC (2011). 
11 The aggregate "other commercial services" covers  communications services, construction, insurance 
services, financial services, comput er and information services, royalt ies and licence fees, other business 
services and personal, cultural  and recreational services. 
12 These estimates, however, should be taken with ca ution as data quality issu es affect LDCs' services 
trade statistics. 
13 It should be noted that in Balance of Payments statistics, the item construction is valued on a gross 
basis that is inclusive of all goods and services used as  inputs to the work, other costs of production and the 
operating surplus that accrues to the owners of the construction enterprise. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 26 - 
  reported exports. The bulk of IT and IT-enabled services exports were destined to North America, 
largely the United States, followed by European countries such as the United Kingdom, Denmark and Netherlands, as well as the Middle East (United Arab Emirates and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). Recently, in Bangladesh a new trend of individual/group based outsourcing (freelancing) 
has emerged. Young IT professionals/entrepreneurs,  often students acquire foreign clients through 
various online marketing channels. Although they execute small jobs for foreign clients such as software programming, web design, web research, mobile application, graphic design, data 
processing, etc., their overall contribution was estimated at over US$7 million in 2011.
14  
2.59.  According to available figures, following a 24 % export rise, Uganda ranked as the leading 
LDC exporter of computer services (US$57 million ) in 2012. It accounted for 21.3% of the LDCs' 
exports of computer and information services.  
2.3.1  Direction of trade 
2.60.  To the Secretariat's knowledge, only one LDC, namely Bangladesh, publishes statistics on 
bilateral trade in services among the LDCs.15 Thus, it is very difficult to determine the direction of 
LDCs' exports of services. Although an increasing number of developing countries have started to 
engage in bilateral data collection, bilateral statistics in the area of services are mainly compiled by developed economies.  
2.61.  To analyse the direction of trade in services of the LDCs, it is necessary to use mirror 
statistics of developed economies. However, at pr esent, only the European Union and the Russian 
Federation publish detailed partner breakdown allowing to measure trade with the LDCs as an individual partner.
16  
2.62.  In 2011, EU(27) imports from the LDCs amounted to some US$11.5 billion, accounting for 
1.4% of total services imports from non-EU countries, a share virtually unchanged since 2006 (the earliest year for which an aggregate for EU imports can be calculated). Imports from African LDCs 
totalled US$8.5 billion, while those from Asian LD Cs stood at US$2.8 billion. The value of EU(27) 
imports represented around 39% of the LDCs' estimated services exports in 2011. The EU(27) main partners within the group were Afghanistan (10.3%), Liberia (8.5%) and Senegal (7.3%), 
accounting overall for a quarter of the European Union's total services payments to the LDCs.  
                                               
14 Source: Bangladesh beckons - an emerging dest ination for IT/ITes outsourcing, ITC and KPMG 
(2012). 
15 In fiscal year 2011-2012 (July 2011-June 2012), Bangladesh's exports of commercial services were 
largely destined to the United States (30.5%), the Eu ropean Union (19%), and to India (4.8%). Source: 
Central Bank of Bangladesh, Bala nce of Payments, Annual 2011-2012.  
16 The aggregate "LDCs" was calculated by the WT O Secretariat on the basis of national data. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 27 - 
  Chart 11: European Union (27) – Imports of services from LDCs, 2006- 2011 
(billion dollars) 
0.02.04.06.08.010.012.014.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011Billion dollarsAsian LDCs African LDC Other LDCs
 
Source: Eurostat. 
 
2.63.  According to the latest data, in 2012, the Russian Federation imported services from the 
LDCs for some US$38.5 million, a very modest va lue, but up by over 80% compared to 2011. 
Other business services accounted for 47% of total imports, followed by transportation services 
with 26%, construction and telecommunications services, respectively with 13%. In 2012, the 
Russian Federation's main LDC partners were Senegal (33%), Liberia (18.9%) and Afghanistan (10.7%).  
Chart 12: Russian Federation – Imports of  commercial services from LDCs, 2012 
(percentage)  
Transport
26%Telecommun
ications 
services
13%
Construction
13%
Other 
business 
services
47%Other 
1%
 
Source: Central Bank of the Russian Federation. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 28 - 
  2.3.2  Services exports by GATS modes of supply 
2.64.  Ideally, each Balance of Payments services transaction should be allocated to each 
individual mode of service supply as defined in the GATS. Compiling services statistics by GATS 
modes of supply requires designing specific su rveys targeting primarily the firms engaged in 
services transactions. This exercise can be costly both in terms of human and financial resources 
especially for developing economies, in particular the LDCs. At present, only a few countries have started to explore this issue.  
2.65.  The Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services proposes a simplified approach 
on the allocation of services statistical domains to GATS modes of supply.
17 This approach should 
be considered as a first step in the estimation process. According to the simplified approach, Balance of Payments services transactions will be  allocated to the predominant mode(s) of supply; 
Foreign Affiliates Statistics (FATS) will be assigned only to Mode 3.  
2.66.  Following the simplified approach, in 2011, almost  half of LDCs' services exports took place 
through mode 2.
18  This is due to the magnitude of travel exports and, for some LDCs, of 
supporting and auxiliary transport services (such as loading and unloading of containers in ports 
and airports, storage and warehousing, etc.) which are supplied on a consumption abroad basis. Mode 1 exports (cross-border trade) accounted for one third of total and include transport services 
(excluding supporting, auxiliary transport, and other transport services for available LDCs), 
communications services, insurance services, financial services, and royalties and licence fees.  
2.67.  Exports through modes 1 and 4 (cross-border trade and presence of natural persons) 
together made up 12% of total exports. This ca tegory covers computer and information services, 
other business services (excluding merchanting and other trade related services, as well as 
operational leasing services, as available), personal, cultural and recreational services, which are services for which a dominant mode of supply cannot be determined.  
2.68.  Modes 3 and 4 (commercial presence and presence of natural persons) cover only 
construction in Balance of Payments statistics, an d represented 7% in total exports in 2011. As for 
t h e  v a s t  m a j o r i t y  o f  d e v e l o p i n g  e c o n o m i e s ,  a l s o  i n  t h e  c a s e  o f  t h e  L D C s ,  n o  F A T S  e x i s t ,  a n d  
existing outward FDI statistics for LDCs point to very small amounts. 
                                               
17 UN - Eurostat - IMF - OECD - UNCTAD - UNWTO - WTO, "Manual on Statistics of International Trade 
in Services 2010 (MSITS 2010)". 
18 The year 2011 was chosen due to higher data availability. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 29 - 
  Chart 13: LDCs: Estimated exports of comme rcial services by mode of supply (BoP 
basis), 2011 (percentage) 
Mode 1
33%
Modes 1 + 4
12%
Mode 2
48%Modes 3 + 4
7%
 
Source: WTO estimates. 
 
2.3.3  Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)  
2.69.  Foreign Direct Investment plays a fundamental role in transferring technology and skills to 
the LDCs, especially in the area of services. A ccording to UNCTAD, in 2012, FDI flows to the LDCs 
reached US$25.7 billion, recording an encouraging 20% growth. LDCs accounted for 1.9% of global FDI inflows in 2012, up from 1.3% in 2011. This increase was due to expanding 
South-South FDI flows, though FDI flows from developed economies remain important for the 
LDCs (40%).
19  
Chart 14: LDCs' FDI inflows, 2005-2012 
(billion dollars) 
5.97.710.312.713.6 13.715.918.8
1.53.23.74.6 2.73.84.25.6
0.20.61.01.5
1.31.31.31.3
051015202530
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012Billion dollars    LDCs: Africa     LDCs: Asia     LDCs: Island States
 
Source: UNCTAD onli ne FDI statistics. 
 
                                               
19 UNCTAD, "World Investment Report" (2013). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 30 - 
  2.70.  The rise was led by Cambodia (+73%), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (+96%), 
Liberia (+167%), Mauritania (+105%), Mozambique (+96%) and Uganda (+93%). However, the concentration of inflows to resource-rich LDCs remained high. In 2012, Mozambique, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan totalled  some 43% of global FD I flows to the group. 
Table 13: Distribution of FDI in flows among LDCs by range, 2012 
Range Inflows 
Above US$2.0 billion Mozambique;  Congo Democratic Republic; Sudan; Myanmar; Equatorial 
Guinea. 
US$1.0 to US$1.9 billion Uganda; Tanzania; Cambodia; Liberia; Mauritania; Zambia. 
US$0.5 to US$0.9 billion  Bangladesh; Ethiopia ; Madagascar; Niger; Guinea; Sierra Leone. 
US$0.1 to US$0.4 billion  Yemen; Senegal; Chad; Mali; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Haiti; 
Lesotho; Togo; Rwanda; Benin; Malawi; Somalia; Djibouti. 
Below US$0.1 billion  Afghanistan; Nepal; Gambia; Eritrea; Central African Republic; Solomon 
Islands; São Tomé and Principe; Timor-Leste; Burkina Faso; Vanuatu; Samoa; Comoros; Guinea-Bissau; Bhutan ; Burundi; Kiribati; Angola.  
Note: Economies are listed according to the magnitude of their FDI inflows.  
Source: UNCTAD World Investment Report 2013. 
 
2.71.  FDI to the LDCs takes the form mainly of greenfield projects. In 2012, greenfield FDI 
totalled US$21.8 billion. The primary sector (mining, quarrying and petroleum industry) accounted 
for 20% of greenfield investment although in a declining trend over the last decade. On the 
contrary, the share of FDI projects in infrastructure such as utilities, transport, communications, as 
well as finance has progressively increased. In 2012, financial services made up for 9% of total 
greenfield investment, with projects covering primarily retail banking. FDI targets also other services sectors, such as healthcare, which is on the rise.  
2.72.  In 2012, India ranked as the largest single investor in LDCs, followed by the United States, 
and the European Union. Some 59% of the value of greenfield FDI originated from other developing countries. Over the past decade, the developing countries which sustained investment 
in greenfield projects in LDCs are Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, 
South Africa, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates and Viet Nam.  
Chart 15: Greenfield FDI projects in LDCs by  region/country of origin, and by main 
sector, 2012 
(percentage)  
European  
Union
15%United States
15%
Canada
3%
Japan
6%
Other 
developed  
economies
2%
India
20%
Korea, Rep. of
5%China
4%Hong Kong, 
China
3%Other 
developing  
Asia
8%Africa
12%Middle East
2%Other 
developing  
economies
5%
Mining, 
quarrying  and 
petroleum
20%Electricity,  gas 
and water
18%Transport,  
storage and 
communicatio
ns
10%Finance
9%Business 
services
4%Other services
9%Food, 
beverages  and 
tobacco
5%Coke, 
petroleum  
products and 
nuclear fuel
9%
Non‐
metallic 
mineral 
products
5%
Metals 
and metal 
products
3%
Other 
manufacturing
8%
 
Source: Based on data contained in the UNCTAD World Investment Report 2013. 
 
2.73.  In 2012, India's greenfield investment in LDCs went to Mozambique (45%), Bangladesh 
(37%) and Madagascar (8%). In general, Indian FDI projects cover various sectors such as 
automotive, IT, pharmaceuticals, textiles and, re cently, healthcare. In 2012, India accounted for 
one quarter of the total value of greenfield FDI in healthcare in LDCs.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 31 - 
  2.74.  China is one of the top investors in some African LDCs, such as Sudan and Zambia. 
South Africa's greenfield FDI is mainly destined to Mozambique's mining industry. Brazilian public financial institutions have been playing an important role recently in LDCs, for example, in the expansion of Brazilian businesses in the ethanol industry in Angola, Ghana and Mozambique or 
supporting the development of housing projects in Angola and Mozambique.
20 In addition, 
investments from the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in African LDCs have increased in industries such as telecoms, tourism, finance, infrastructure, mining, oil and gas and agriculture.
21 
In 2012, the United Arab Emirates announced a project in retail banking in South Sudan, and 
invested in healthcare in Malawi. Moving to the Middle East, in 2012, Yemen benefited from important investment from Qatar for the construction of general and surgical hospitals. 
2.75.  Over the years, LDCs in Asia received increasing inflows from other developing economies in 
the region. For instance, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic has received investment for the 
construction of an international high-speed rail network from China, as well as flows from Thailand in the healthcare sector. Thailand investment in healthcare reached also other LDCs in Asia, such 
as Cambodia and Nepal. Malaysia made the biggest investments in LDCs in retail banking in 2012. 
Overall, Cambodia attracted the largest amount of FDI in retail banking, followed by Bangladesh.  
3  TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
3.1.  This chapter analyses the evolution of market access conditions for LDCs export along two 
tariff related dimensions: the share of LDC expo rts benefiting from duty-free access in the 
importing markets and the average tariffs paid on  dutiable products. For both indicators, the 
report identifies preferential treatments that the exporters may receive under existing LDC or 
other preferential schemes. The review includes LD Cs' market access conditions in both developed 
and main emerging countries; in the latter case, the coverage is still limited by data availability.  
3.1  Market Access in Developed Economies 
3.2.  In value terms, the proportion of exports fr o m  L D C s  i m p o r t e d  f r e e  o f  d u t y  b y  d e v e l o p e d  
markets increased to 83% in 2011 (excluding arms and oil). Though market access has also improved for the larger group of developing co untries (80% of the value of their exports to 
developed countries' markets), the competitive advantage remains significant for LDCs. Most of 
the LDCs enjoy true preferential duty-free access,  and this share has been increasing over time: 
53% of true duty-free in 2011 as against 35% in 2000.
22 In contrast, most of the improvements 
recorded for other developing countries in genera l were due to elimination of tariffs on an MFN 
basis. In 2011, out of the 80% of non-dutiab le exports from developing countries, only 
20 percentage points corresponded to true preferential access. 23  
 
                                               
20 UNCTAD, "Global Investment Trends Monitor", March 2013. 
21 UNCTAD, "World Investment Report", 2011. 
22 True preferential duty-free access is defined as the percentage of exports offered duty-free treatment 
under the GSP-LDC and other preferential schemes, as co mpared to products offered duty-free entry under the 
MFN treatment. 
23 This result arises from the concentration of large emerging countries exports in industrial products 
covered by the IT agreement, while a higher share of non-oil LDCs' expo rts is in items that are normally 
dutiable under MFN, such as agriculture or clothing. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 32 - 
  Table 14: Proportion of developed country im ports from developing  and least-developed 
countries admitted free of duty, by value, 2000-2011  (percentage) 
 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 
 Total Duty Free (excluding oil and arms) 
Developing countriesa  64.8 74.9 76.2 77.4 78.7 77.0 78.8 79.7 
 Least Developed Countries  69.8 80.4  79.1 79.8 80.6 80.4 80.4 83.4  
 Of which: True Duty Free b 
Developing countriesa  17.0 21.5  20.9 20.0 20.0 20.1 19.6 20.3  
 Least Developed Countries  35.0 49.0 52.7 51.9 48.7 52.9 53.6 52.7 
 
a Including LDCs. 
b The true duty-free portion is calculated by subt racting from the total duty-free access all products 
receiving duty free treatment under the MFN regime. The indicators are based on the best available 
treatment, including regional and preferential agreements. 
Source: WTO-ITC-UNCTAD and based on CAMAD da tabase compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
3.3.  Table 15 shows the average tariffs levied on key products of export interest to LDCs. Average 
tariffs on agricultural products witnessed a grad ual decline from 3.6% in 2000 to a mere 1% in 
2011. Average tariffs remain relatively high and virtually unchanged during the same period, 
reaching 6.7% in 2011. This indicates room for im provement of LDCs' access for clothing products 
in developed country markets. It also appears from Table 15 that the largest preference margin for LDCs corresponded to agricultural products, compared to other developing countries (about 6 
percentage points). The preference margin was almost non-existent for clothing (about 1.2 
percentage points). However, some recent rese arch shows that small margins may still offer 
competitive advantage as ratio of preference utilization remains high even for small margins.
24 
Table 15: Average tariffs levied by developed countries on key products from developing 
and least-developed countries, 2000-2011 (percentage ad valorem)
a 
 
 Developing countriesb 
 2000 2005  2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011  
Agriculture 9.2 8.8 8.5 8.3 8.0 7.8 7.3 7.2 
Clothing 10.8 8.4  8.3 8.3 8.2 8.1 8.0 7.9  
Textile 6.6 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.1 5.0 4.9 
Other industries 1.4 1.1  1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8  
 Least Developed Countries  
 2000 2005  2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011  
Agriculture 3.6 3.0 2.7 1.9 1.6 1.2 1.0 1.0 
Clothing 7.8 6.4  6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.7 6.7  
Textile 4.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 
Other industries 0.3 0.3  0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2  
a Average tariffs are based on best applicable tariffs  (MFN and preferential tr eatments granted to LDCs 
and developing countries), and weighted using a standard export structure based on 2000 2001 
data, to limit the impact of the year-to-year change s in export composition and relative prices on the 
indicators. 
b Includes LDCs. 
Source: WTO-ITC-UNCTAD based on CAMAD data base compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
3.4.  Table 16 shows that utilization rates on averag e are 90%, ranging from an estimated 83% to 
more than 90%. The provisional data show a net im provement of about 8 percentage points in the 
rate of utilization of EU preferences. In comparison to 2005 (See WT/COMTD/LDC/W/41/Rev.1), 
utilization rates improved significantly for the low-utilization cases. Rates of utilizations vary from one preferential scheme to another, and also can change according to the types of products that 
are traded. The Secretariat Note contained in WT /COMTD/LDC/W/41/Rev.1 provides an analysis of 
the factors affecting those variations. 
                                               
24 Looking at "New evidence on preference utiliz ation" (WTO Staff Workin g Paper ERSD-2012-12) A. 
Keck and A. Lendle find, using US import data, that util ization rates remain often very  high, even for very small 
preferential margins. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 33 - 
  Table 16: Imports entering under preferenti al regime as a percentage of eligible 
imports, 2011  
Importing Marketsa Utilization rateb 
Canada 90 
EU (low estimate)c 92 
EU (high estimate)c 96 
USA 83 
a Results are not directly comparable between prefer ential schemes, due to di fference in coverage and 
reporting.  
b Provisional, covering GSP and other preferential schemes. 
c Low and high estimates depend upon the statis tical treatment of "unknown" inflows; the high 
estimate imputes them as having used the preferen ce while the low estimate considers that they did 
not.  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
3.5.  Most developed countries have been providing total or nearly total duty-free status to LDC 
exports (Table 17). This is evident with tariff line coverage as well as with import value.25 While a 
handful of dutiable lines remain in a number of developed countries (Canada, the EU, Japan), the 
number is somewhat higher for the United States. In 2011, US trade with the LDCs was registered 
on a total of 1,797 tariff lines out of which 591 tariff lines remained dutiable. Overall, duty-free status under the US GSP scheme was 82.5% in 2011. It may also be noted that the US grants 
duty-free access to AGOA beneficiaries, which include a large number of LDCs. As per the latest 
United States' notification to the IDB, duty-fr ee tariff lines under AGOA constituted around 91%.
26 
                                               
25 When 100% of tariff lines are covered, 100% of imported value will be covered; the reverse is not 
true as 100% of imported value can be treated as duty-free even if some tariff lines are not duty free, as long 
as no imports are recorded for those dutiable tariff lines. 
26 This duty-free figure could be higher, since so me dutiable lines in Chapters 50 through 60 and 
Chapter 63 could become AGOA elig ible under certain conditions.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 34 - Table 17: GSP tariff treatment of LDC export s in selected developed markets, 2011 
Market Sector 
 
 
 
 GSP-LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- LDC 
scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied dutyc 
Australia Total  0 100.0  886 547 0 493.5  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  0 100.0  98 33 0 36.1 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agricultured 0  100.0  785 514 0 443.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  3 0 0 13.8 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Canada Total  102 98.8 2,099  996 0 5,564.2  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  102 92.6 320 153 0 59.4 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agricultured 0 100.0  1,768  843 0 2,284.0  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  10 0 0 110.7  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 3,110.1  0.0 100.0  0.0 
European Union Total  92 99.0 3,772  2,902  9 41,177.1  629.9  98.5 0.2 
Agriculture  73 96.3 611 456 6 4,160.9  149.5  96.4 0.2 
Non-agricultured 19  99.7 3,139  2,446  3 20,667.6  480.4  97.7 0.3 
Ores 0 100.0  20 0 0 1,571.7  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  2 0 0 14,777.0  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Japan Total  164 98.2 888 588 17 6,265.1  9.9 99.8 0.0 
Agriculture  69 96.3 120 69 1 341.2  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agricultured 95 98.7 763 519 16 3,518.1  9.9 99.7 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  4 0 0 141.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 2,264.1  0.0 100.0  0.0 
New Zealand Total  0 100.0  776 481 0 58.4 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  0 100.0  80 23 0 13.1 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agricultured 0  100.0  696 458 0 45.2 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Petroleum  0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Norway Total  1 100.0  790 272 1 397.8  6.7 98.3 3.5 
Agriculture  1 99.9 115 55 1 24.9 6.5 73.8 55.5 
Non-agricultured 0 100.0  672 217 0 217.1  0.2 99.9 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  2 0 0 20.4 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 135.4  0.0 100.0  0.0   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 35 - Market Sector 
 
 
 
 GSP-LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- LDC 
scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied dutyc 
Switzerland Total  2 100.0  885 756 0 425.1  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  2 99.9 172 128 0 145.2  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agricultured 0  100.0  713 628 0 279.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Petroleum  0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
United States of 
America Total  1,832  82.5 1,797  1,175  591 28,624.5  8,515.2  70.3 4.9 
Agriculture  276 84.6 228 141 4 463.8  0.5 99.9 0.0 
Non-agricultured 1,556  81.9 1,562  1,031  587 11,785.4  8,514.7  27.8 11.9 
Ores 0 100.0  5 1 0 94.6 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  2 2 0 16,280.8  0.0 100.0  0.0 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme ; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries m ay be included. At the difference of 
Table 1 and Table 2, the incidence of other preferenti al schemes such as AGOA or EBA is not included. 
b Forty-nine LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2011. 
c Excludes non-ad valorem duties, except for the US. 
d "Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products with the exclusion of ores and petroleum 
Source: IDB-WTO  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 36 - 
  3.2  Market Access in Developing Economies 
3.6.  Table 18 uses the available information on  12 emerging and high-income developing 
countries to replicate the methodology used for tr acking policy changes through time in developed 
countries (see Table 15).27 In particular, the indicators produced in this exercise are not actual 
trade-weighted averages (tariffs weighted by trade flows for a given year). The weights used are 
based on a fixed Standard Import Structure (SIS) corresponding to a fixed basket of LDC goods imported by theses 12 countries between 2009 and 2011. Using a fixed weight across years allows 
the indicator to capture exclusively the changes in tariff policy. 
Table 18: Average tariffs imposed by select ed developing countries on key products 
from least-developed countries, 2001-2011  (percentage ad valorem)
a 
Products Tariff and preference 2001 2006 2011 
Agriculture Average MFN 31.9 21.4 21.2 
 Average Applied 31.2 20.5 18.6 
 Average Margin 0.7 0.9 2.6 
Other raw materialb Average MFN 5.3 2.8 2.6 
 Average Applied 5.2 2.7 1.5 
 Average Margin 0.1 0.1 1.0 
Clothing Average MFN 19.4 18.4 19.1 
 Average Applied 18.9 15.9 8.1 
 Average Margin 0.4 2.6 11.0 
Textile Average MFN 12.7 9.3 9.4 
 Average Applied 12.5 8.6 4.1 
 Average Margin 0.2 0.7 5.3 
Other Industrial Average MFN 5.1 4.1 3.6 
 Average Applied 4.8 3.8 1.6 
 Average Margin 0.3 0.3 2.0 
Totalb Average MFN 11.9 8.3 8.1 
 Average Applied 11.6 7.8 5.6 
 Average Margin 0.3 0.5 2.4 
a Average applied tariffs are based on  best applicable tariffs (MFN an d preferential treatments granted 
to LDCs), and weighted using a standard export structure based on 2009 2011 data.  
b Excluding oil.  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
3.7.  Up to the beginning of the present decade, actu al preference granted by developing countries 
to LDCs was limited, on average, and preferences were granted mainly to clothing products. Data 
for 2011 show a change in this situation, with a deepening of preferences granted to apparels 
(11 percentage points over a theoretical  MFN tariff of 19%) but in addition some preference being 
granted for textiles (about 5 percentage points). In a weighted average of all products, except oil, the preference margin granted to LDCs is 2.4%.  
3.8.  Table 19 presents available data on preferential  treatments to LDCs by selected developing 
countries for the year 2011. As has been note d in previous reports, duty-free imports by 
developing countries from LDCs have been grow ing over the years. The duty-free imports by 
China, Chinese Taipei and Turkey were well above 90% in 2011; this was also higher for countries 
such as Korea (nearly 90%) and South Africa (76% ). The phasing-in period of India's duty-free 
tariff preference scheme of LDCs is supposed to  have been completed by the end of 2012, and 
next year's report may capture the data incorpor ating the expanded duty-free coverage of India 
for LDCs. As a result of increased efforts by developing countries to improve market access conditions for LDC products, on average, the applied duties faced by LDC exports in developing country markets came down considerably (1.5%, weighting all trade flows reported in Table 19). 
While the average applied duties are close to zero for oil or minerals and about 2% for 
non-agricultural products, the average applied duty on agriculture was above 12% (excluding 
non-ad valorem tariffs) in 2011. 
                                               
27 Namely, Brazil; China; Hong Kong, China; India; Indonesia; Korea; Mexico; Saudi Arabia; Singapore; 
South Africa; Chinese Taipei and Turk ey. Hong Kong, China; and Singapore were not considered in the sample 
because their MFN duty is already zero (see Table 19).   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 37 - Table 19: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2011 
Market Sector LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa  
Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme Total Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyd 
Brazil Total  - - 289 273 - 1,351.6  208.3  84.6 3.7 
Agriculture  - - 15 13 - 16.6 16.6 0.1 10.9 
Non-agriculturec - - 271 258 - 444.4  190.7  57.1 10.8 
Ores - - 2 2 - 1.0 1.0 0.0 2.0 
Petroleum  - - 1 0 - 889.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Chile Total  - - 403 403 - 737.7  737.7  0.0 6.0 
Agriculture  - - 16 16 - 0.5 0.5 0.0 6.0 
Non-agriculturec - - 386 386 - 736.8  736.8  0.0 6.0 
Ores - - 1 1 - 0.4 0.4 0.0 6.0 
Petroleum  - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
China e Total  3,146  60.5 1,372  1,169  311 52,684.4  965.5  98.2 0.1 
Agriculture  489 55.3 155 145 53 1,267.1  639.9  49.5 3.3 
Non-agriculturec 2,657  61.2 1,195  1,024  258 8,818.0  325.6  96.3 0.1 
Ores 0 100.0  21 0 0 3,606.3  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 38,992.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Egypt Total  - - 414 371 - 874.6  771.8  11.8 2.2 
Agriculture  - - 72 53 - 203.3  116.4  42.7 0.9 
Non-agriculturec - - 340 316 - 671.1  655.1  2.4 2.5 
Ores - - 2 2 - 0.2 0.2 0.0 2.0 
Petroleum  - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Hong Kong, China Total  - - 811 0 - 1,222.8  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  - - 86 0 - 43.1 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agriculturec - - 719 0 - 1,162.7  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores - - 6 0 - 17.0 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
India f Total  10,967  3.2 1,669  1,586  1,586  11,096.6  10,509.6  5.3 7.1 
Agriculture  1,351  5.6 260 239 239 1,539.3  1,151.3  25.2 22.2 
Non-agriculturec 9,555  2.9 1,394  1,332  1,332  2,160.1  1,961.0  9.2 4.6 
Ores 60 0.0 14 14 14 26.0 26.0 0.0 1.3 
Petroleum  1 0.0 1 1 1 7,371.2  7,371.2  0.0 4.8 
Kenya g Total  - - 988 722 - 315.6  212.7  32.6 16.0   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 38 - Market Sector LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa  
Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme Total Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyd 
Agriculture  - - 166 144 - 162.4  155.4  4.3 23.7 
Non-agriculturec - - 819 578 - 150.1  57.3 61.8 8.5 
Ores - - 3 0 - 3.1 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Korea, Republic of Total  1,494  87.4 1,151  1,012  201 3,281.3  355.2  89.2 1.8 
Agriculture  1,046  33.5 169 162 111 113.1  46.6 58.8 33.3 
Non-agriculturec 438 95.7 971 848 88 3,028.1  170.0  94.4 0.6 
Ores 0 100.0  9 0 0 1.5 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  10 0.0 2 2 2 138.6  138.6  0 3.0 
Mexico Total  - - 980 543 - 452.8  297.7  34.3 18.5 
Agriculture  - - 46 33 - 28.6 26.7 6.6 22.1 
Non-agriculturec - - 927 510 - 417.5  271.0  35.1 18.6 
Ores - - 7 0 - 6.7 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Pakistan Total  - - 553 447 - 584.9  129.6  77.8 3.3 
Agriculture  - - 138 92 - 287.9  98.1 65.9 5.3 
Non-agriculturec - - 412 353 - 296.8  31.4 89.4 1.3 
Ores - - 3 2 - 0.2 0.0 88.6 0.6 
Petroleum  - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Singapore Total  - - 1,355  2 - 1,038.1  0.1 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  - - 288 2 - 200.7  0.1 99.9 0.0 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,063  0 - 464.5  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores - - 2 0 - 0.3 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - 2 0 - 372.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
South Africa Total  - - 2,071  983 - 3,491.2  828.2  76.3 2.3 
Agriculture  - - 239 134 - 190.7  124.7  34.6 4.1 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,816  849 - 1,571.0  703.5  55.2 5.8 
Ores - - 15 0 - 2.9 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - 1 0 - 1,726.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Taipei, Chinese Total  5,961  31.7 731 560 508 7,021.9  93.4 98.7 0.2 
Agriculture  1,067  24.2 95 64 60 68.6 29.4 57.2 6.6 
Non-agriculturec 4,894  32.7 633 496 448 912.3  64.0 93.0 0.7   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 39 - Market Sector LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa  
Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme Total Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyd 
Ores 0 100.0  1 0 0 1.1 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  2 0 0 6,040.0  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Thailand Total  - - 1,815  1,625  - 6,498.7  4,324.5  33.5 2.0 
Agriculture  - - 210 200 - 261.3  144.6  44.7 12.6 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,594  1,417  - 4,761.9  4,164.1  12.6 2.4 
Ores - - 10 8 - 17.2 15.9 7.4 0.9 
Petroleum  - - 1 0 - 1,458.4  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Turkey Total  2,384  79.7 793 647 67 1,483.4  103.5  93.0 1.7 
Agriculture  1,603  26.1 75 48 42 145.7  91.0 37.6 15.2 
Non-agriculturec 778 91.9 717 598 24 1,337.5  12.4 99.1 0.2 
Ores 3 92.3 1 1 1 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.5 
Petroleum  0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme ; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries m ay be included. 
b Forty-eight LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2011. 
c Non-agriculture covers NAMA products with  the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
d Excludes non-ad valorem duties. 
e Tariffs (MFN and LDC schemes) are sourced from Worl d Bank WITS database (not  notified to WTO-IDB). 
f Year 2010; 2011 MFN scheme and imports data are available in WTO-IDB but preferential scheme was not submitted. On average, th e preference margin over the MFN 
duty is around 6%. As noted in the report, India has completed fi ve years of implementation of it s DFQF scheme on 10 October 20 12 and now grants duty-free coverage 
to LDCs for 85% of its total tariff lines (c.f. http://ptadb.wto.org).  
g Year 2010. 
Source: IDB-WTO. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 40 - 
  4  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC PRODUCTS 
4.1.  Annex Table 6 provides a non-exhaustive list of major multilateral non-reciprocal market 
access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs.  It updates the previous year's information mostly based on notifications made to the WTO.  The Table does not include regional 
or bilateral agreements/initiatives under which, too, LDCs receive preferences.  
4.2.  As noted earlier, most developed Members provide full or nearly full market access to LDC 
products. Thus, the room for further improvement of tariff preferences is somewhat limited barring 
a few markets. Developing countries over the recent past (China, India, Korea, Chinese Taipei) 
have notified their duty-free and quota-free (DFQF) market access schemes for LDCs which were reported in the previous version of this Note. These developing countries grant a significant degree of duty-free access to LDC products, a number of which have reached or are in the process of 
attaining the level of developed countries.   
4.3.  Since the last report, the Russian Federation made a notification (WT/COMTD/N/42) on its 
GSP scheme for developing countries and LDCs whic h is being implemented in the context of the 
Customs Union between Belarus, Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation. The notification was 
made pursuant to the provisions under the Tr ansparency Mechanism for Preferential Trade 
Arrangements. The Secretariat estimates show that some 28.6% of the Russian Federation's tariff 
lines are duty free for the LDCs.  
4.4.  The delegation of India informed Members at the March 2013 meeting of the CTD that it had 
completed five years of implementation of it s DFQF scheme on 1 October 2012 - thus granting 
DFQF access to 85% of its tariff lines to LDCs. In addition, LDCs enjoy a specific margin of 
preference over others on 9% of  tariff lines. In total, India ha s been providing 94% preferential 
duty access to products of export interest to LDCs.
28  
4.5.  While formal notifications have been limited over the reporting period, some developments 
indicate further progress of market access opportunities for LDC products. For instance, the 
Secretariat received a communication from the Government of Chile in June 2013 indicating that it had submitted to its Congress a draft law eliminating tariffs on imports from LDCs, with the 
exception of wheat, flour and sugar, and that al l LDCs would be covered under the zero tariff 
treatment within a span of three years.  
4.6.  Some notifications, under the Enabling Clau se, were received from developed Members 
during the reporting period which were not necessarily linked to the enhancement of market 
access for LDC products. Switzerland submitted a revised list of GSP beneficiaries which, inter alia , 
excludes Maldives from LDC category and includes South Sudan as a new developing country beneficiary (WT/COMTD/LDC/N/7/A dd.5). Norway submitted a notification (WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5) 
on its revised GSP scheme indicating the improvem e n t s  m a d e  i n  i t  w i t h  e f f e c t  f r o m  1  J a n u a r y  
2013. The EU made a notification (WT/COMTD/N/4/ Add.6), mainly outlining the features of the 
revised GSP regulation, tariff preferences under wh ich will be applicable as of 1 January 2014. In 
all three cases, there are as such no implications for the LDCs which already enjoy nearly full 
duty-free access in these markets.  
4.7.  The review of developed and developing countries' preference schemes for LDCs 
demonstrates that market access conditions for LDC's exports are being continually improved.  
Most of the developed Members grant full or nearly full DFQF market access to the LDCs, thus 
responding to the DFQF Decision taken at the Hong Kong Ministerial Conference in 2005. However, positive duty remains in some developed markets (see Table 20). A number of developing 
countries, despite enjoying flexibility in coverage and in phasing-in DFQF commitments as per the 
DFQF Decision, have granted a significant degree of DFQF access to LDC products (see Table 21). 
                                               
28 For further details, see WT/COMTD/M/87. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 41 - 
   
Table 20:  DFQF access in GSP sc hemes of developed Members, 2011  
 
Country Duty-free coverage and exclusions Number of Dutiable 
linesa  
(national tariff lines) 
Australia 100% None 
Canada 98.8% (dairy, eggs and poultry) 102  
European Union 99% (arms and ammunitions)  92 
Japan 98.2% (rice, sugar, fishery products, 
articles of leather) 164  
New Zealand 100% None 
Norway 100% (except roses)  1  
Switzerland 100% (except two cheese items)  2  
United States 82.5% (dairy products, sugar, cocoa, 
articles of leather, cotton, articles of apparel and clothing, other textiles and 
textile articles, footwear, watches, etc.) 1,832  
a These tariff lines could vary from one year to anot her due to change in national tariff nomenclature. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
4.8.  The Hong Kong Decision on DFQF access for LDCs remains a standing item on the CTD's 
agenda.  In the beginning of 2013, the LDC Group submitted a communication 
(WT/COMTD/W/194) asking Members that have not done so, to provide information on line-by-line 
tariff treatment on LDC products to better utiliz e market access preferences provided to them, as 
well as sought information on their plans for implementing the Hong Kong DFQF Decision. Members have recognized the usefulness of enhanc ed transparency regarding the implementation 
of DFQF schemes being offered to the LDCs. In th is regard, the usefulness of the PTAs Database 
and other existing databases was also highlighted.
29 The LDC Group while working internally to 
finalize its position, has sought an outcome on the implementation of the Hong Kong DFQF 
Decision in the context of its "LDC Package for Bali" submitted in May 2013 (TN/C/W/63). Some 
Members have reiterated that DFQF remains an important part of the single undertaking of the Doha Round.  
Table 21:  DFQF access for LDC products in selected developing countries  
 
Country Duty-free coverage 
China At present, 60% of all tariff line s covered by DFQF access, with the aim 
of increasing to 97% of its tariff lines by 2015 
India At present, 85% of tariff lines covered by DFQF access, and a margin 
of preference above MFN for an ad ditional 9% of tariff lines  
Korea, Republic of 95% of tariff lines (as of January 2012) 
Chinese Taipei Nearly 32% of tariff lines (2011) 
Turkey Nearly 80% of tariff lines (2011) 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
5  CONCLUSION 
5.1.  In 2012, LDC merchandise exports stagnated whil e exports of commercial services grew by 
6%. The share of LDC merchandise exports in world trade was 1.12% in 2012, virtually the same 
share posted in 2011. The share of LDC exports in world commercial services trade only improved 
marginally to 0.62% from 0.60% in 2011.  
5.2.  Merchandise exports made up 88% of the LDCs' export basket in 2012, with services exports 
gaining some ground - accounting for nearly 12% of LDCs' total exports - up from 9% in 2011. The average annual growth rate of merchandis e exports during 2000-2012 was 15.6%, well above 
                                               
29 For details, see WT/COMTD/M/87 and WT/COMTD/M/88. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 42 - 
  the world average of 9.1%; over the same pe riod, the average annual growth rate of LDC 
commercial services exports was 13.8% which also was higher than the world average of 9.3%.   
5.3.  Weak export growth in merchandise exports was mostly due to stagnant or diminishing prices 
for the primary commodities that continue to make up a large part of LDCs' export basket (72% in 
2012, up from 61% in 2000). Among the primary commodities, petroleum and other fuel and 
mining products continue to dominate the LDC goods profile accounting for 62% of LDC exports in 2012. The share of manufactured products in LD C exports shrank from 33% in 2000 to 23% in 
2012; similarly, the share of agricultural products went down from 17% to 10% during the same 
period. The commodity composition of African and Asian LDCs continue to exhibit the same features as before: fuels and mini ng products represented 76% of African LDCs' total exports while 
manufactures represented the dominant item of Asian LDCs' exports with a 73% share in 2012.  
5.4.  The stagnating growth in merchandise trade in 2012, coupled with an 8% expansion of 
import growth, led to the worsening of the mercha ndise trade deficit of the LDCs in 2012; the LDC 
Group, as a whole, experienced its second largest trade deficit (US$18 billion) since 2009. Here, 
two groups of LDCs can be identified; the fuel ex porters have been enjoying trade surpluses while 
non-fuel exporters (mainly agriculture and manuf actures) experiencing systemic and growing 
trade deficits. Nevertheless, capital inflows in th e LDCs have shown signs of improvement in the 
past few years. The ODA and workers remittances reached US$45 billion and US$27 billion in 
2011, respectively. The FDI rose to US$25 bill ion in 2012, up from US$15 billion in 2011.   
5.5.  As noted above, despite continued growth, th e share of LDC exports in world commercial 
services has remained more or less static; it is dominated by tourism (i.e. travel receipts) which 
made up nearly 45% of LDCs' total commercial services export - Cambodia, Tanzania and Uganda 
were the largest exporters. Transport services are the second-largest services export sector for LDCs, with Djibouti and Ethiopia being the top two transport exporters in the LDC Group. Some 
LDCs, such as Uganda and Bangladesh, have also shown some success in computer and 
information technology-related services - though revenues generated through such exports remain limited. Overall, the LDCs are yet to penetrate higher segments of services trade. 
5.6.  In 2012, LDCs' exports to developing countries have expanded by 8% while those of 
developed countries declined by 4%. In fact, developing countries today absorb some 53% of LDC exports, up from 40% in 2000 while the share of de veloped countries in LDC exports declined from 
54% in 2000 to 40% in 2012. China continues to remain as the top destination for LDC exports, 
accounting for 23% of total LDC exports in 2012. Indi a is also consolidating its position among the 
top five destinations for LDC exports. The EU and the US represented 19% and 11% of LDC exports in 2012, respectively. 
5.7.  As evident from the top five destinations fo r LDC exports, Asia was the major destination 
market for LDC products, in particular for fuels and mining (54%) as well as agricultural products (39%) in 2012; it is also catching up for manufacturing products, registering 19% of LDC exports 
of manufacturing in 2012. For manufactured products, Europe (39%) and North America (24%) 
remained the dominant destination markets for LDCs.  
5.8.  As most of the developed Members grant full or nearly full DFQF access, there is little scope 
for further enhancement of tariff preferences in  most of these markets. Nevertheless, a few 
developed markets are yet to grant comprehensive coverage to the LDCs as a group. As a result, 
in value terms, the overall proportion of export s from LDCs imported free of duty by developed 
countries was 83% in 2011, although this indicates some modest improvement compared to an 
average of roughly 80% between 2005 and 2010.  
5.9.  Increasing efforts are being made by developing countries to open up markets for LDC 
products. Some of the developing countries have  reached the level comparable to those of the 
developed countries (e.g. Korea, India) while China has reiterated its commitment to increase the 
DFQF coverage from its present 60% to 97% by 2015.  
5.10.  Since the last report some notifications relating to market access for LDCs were made; 
notably among them was the one by the Russian  Federation which grants modest duty-free 
treatment to LDC products in the context of th e Customs Union between Belarus, Kazakhstan and WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 43 - 
  the Russian Federation. A Communication to the WTO from the Government of Chile in 2013 
indicates a comprehensive DFQF initiative for LDCs which is expected to be effective soon.  
5.11.  WTO Members are preparing for the Ninth WTO Ministerial Conference (MC9) which will take 
place in Bali, Indonesia, from 3 to 6 December 2013. As noted earlier, the LDCs have submitted 
some proposals for an LDC package for Bali includ ing in the area of market access. The MC9 will 
provide Members an opportunity to further assist LDCs in their beneficial integration into the multilateral trading system.  
 
 
_______________ 
 
 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 44 - ANNEX 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2012 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 Exports Imports 
 Value Annual percentage change Value Annual percentage change 
 2012 2000-12 2010 2011 2012 2012 2000-12 2010 2011 2012 
LDCs 205,937.0  15.6 27.2 25.2 1.3 224,344.0  14.7 10.2 22.6 8.0 
Exporters of agricultural products  14,254.5  12.8 17.6 30.9 0.2 42,083.6  14.5 15.2 15.6 13.9 
Afghanistan 370.0  8.6 -3.7 -3.3 -1.6 5,500.0  13.7 54.5 24.0 -13.9 
Benin 1,400.0  11.2 4.6 10.0 -0.7 2,200.0  11.2 -0.5 7.1 0.0 
Burkina Faso 2,183.3  21.6 76.1 48.4 -7.2 3,150.0  14.6 9.5 17.5 30.9 
Burundi 133.5  8.5 50.2 22.0 8.1 751.1  14.5 26.5 47.9 -0.2 
Central African Republic 210.0  2.2 16.7 35.7 10.5 320.0  8.7 11.1 3.3 3.2 
Comoros 18.8 2.5 37.8 22.1 -25.1 273.4  16.7 10.6 18.9 -1.2 
Ethiopia 3,000.0  16.4 44.0 23.4 4.3 12,656.3  21.2 12.2 3.4 42.3 
Gambia 100.0  17.1 -47.0  170.8  5.6 380.0  6.1 -6.2 20.6 10.6 
Guinea-Bissau 130.0  6.4 4.1 81.7 -43.5 250.0  12.8 -2.8 32.3 -3.8 
Kiribati 5.8 4.1 -38.0  120.8  -32.4 108.6  8.7 9.1 25.5 18.3 
Liberia 459.4  2.8 49.2 65.3 25.2 1,065.6  4.0 28.8 47.1 2.0 
Malawi 1,184.3  10.0 -10.2  33.7 -16.9 2,723.9  14.6 7.5 11.7 12.2 
Rwanda 590.8  22.4 26.5 56.2 27.3 2,407.7  22.5 9.4 24.1 35.6 
Sao Tome and Principe 11.0 11.4 34.3 0.0 0.9 131.3  13.1 8.6 17.3 -0.2 
Solomon Islands 493.3  17.8 35.8 85.6 18.8 495.0  15.1 50.8 15.3 6.2 
Somalia 540.0  9.0 7.1 15.6 3.8 1,100.0  10.2 12.0 31.0 0.0 
Timor-Lestea 12.0  4.6 96.3 -28.0  0.0 380.0  12.7 1.0 14.1 11.8 
Togo 1,000.0  8.8 -0.3 22.2 -9.1 1,850.0  10.4 6.0 12.5 2.8 
Uganda 2,357.5  15.9 3.3 33.4 9.2 6,044.2  12.1 9.8 20.7 7.3 
Vanuatu 54.8 6.4 -14.0  38.1 -18.7 296.6  10.8 -3.1 6.7 -2.5 
Fuel exportersb 115,378.4  17.4 25.3 24.3 -0.4 66,066.4  16.8 -8.3 19.5 12.4 
Angola 74,000.0  20.5 23.9 33.0 9.9 24,000.0  18.8 -26.4  21.4 18.6 
Bhutan 610.0  16.0 29.3 5.2 -9.6 1,090.0  16.5 61.3 23.2 3.6 
Chad 4,400.0  30.3 25.0 31.4 -4.3 2,800.0  19.9 20.0 12.5 3.7 
Equatorial Guinea 15,500.0  24.7 9.9 35.0 14.8 7,500.0  26.4 0.0 25.0 15.4 
Myanma r 8,900.4  15.1 30.0 6.7 -3.7 9,201.4  11.8 9.5 89.5 2.0 
Sudan 3,368.0  5.3 38.1 -15.0  -65.2 9,475.0  16.3 3.7 -8.1 2.6 
Yemen 8,600.0  6.4 34.2 28.6 -20.4 12,000.0  14.7 0.8 8.4 19.6   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 45 -  Exports Imports 
 Value Annual percentage change Value Annual percentage change 
 2012 2000-12 2010 2011 2012 2012 2000-12 2010 2011 2012 
Manufacture exporters  37,714.9  11.7 23.5 29.4 4.9 60,359.4  12.0 21.7 25.1 0.5 
Bangladesh 25,112.9  12.1 27.3 27.3 2.8 34,131.0  11.9 27.4 30.2 -5.8 
Cambodia 8,200.0  15.9 22.6 36.1 17.1 11,000.0  15.6 16.5 37.0 18.3 
Haiti 815.2  8.2 0.5 32.4 6.3 3,169.5  9.8 48.1 -4.0 5.0 
Lesotho 1,100.0  14.4 19.5 33.6 -6.2 2,600.0  10.2 24.3 8.7 4.0 
Madagasca r 1,500.0  5.1 1.8 48.4 -5.7 3,050.0  8.9 -21.1  15.1 5.0 
Nepal 910.7  1.0 4.0 7.4 -0.9 6,063.3  11.9 17.1 12.5 5.0 
Samoa 76.1 1.3 52.8 -5.7 14.8 345.5  10.3 34.4 11.6 -0.1 
Exporters of non-fuel mineralsc 35,962.6  17.8 45.9 22.6 3.5 48,795.6  16.7 26.5 29.6 7.4 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 6,300.0  18.7 51.4 24.5 -4.5 6,100.0  20.0 15.4 22.2 10.9 
Eritrea 480.0  23.8 9.1 3,233.3  20.0 1,000.0  6.5 16.9 29.0 12.4 
Guinea 1,300.0  5.7 40.1 -2.6 -9.3 2,300.0  11.7 32.5 49.9 9.2 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 2,269.0  17.4 65.9 26.9 2.4 2,467.1  13.6 41.0 16.4 2.9 
Mali 2,164.0  12.2 12.5 19.8 -9.5 2,940.6  11.4 37.9 -1.1 -13.3 
Mauritania 2,641.0  18.2 52.0 33.9 -4.9 3,170.3  17.6 29.2 27.5 28.5 
Mozambique 4,100.0  22.4 39.7 20.1 13.8 6,800.0  15.9 22.2 37.1 7.8 
Niger 1,500.0  14.9 15.0 8.7 20.0 2,900.0  18.1 12.5 9.1 7.4 
Sierra Leone 1,108.5  44.8 47.9 2.3 217.4 1,571.6  21.7 48.0 122.9  -8.4 
Tanzania 5,500.0  18.3 35.8 16.9 16.2 11,346.0  18.2 22.8 37.1 5.1 
Zambia 8,600.0  20.8 67.0 25.0 -4.5 8,200.0  20.4 38.9 34.9 14.2 
Diversified and othersd 2,627.0  8.8 7.2 17.3 -0.3 7,039.2  12.4 -0.1 24.6 9.2 
Djibouti 95.0 9.6 10.0 8.9 2.5 580.0  9.0 -17.0  36.6 13.6 
Senegal 2,531.7  8.8 7.1 17.6 -0.4 6,434.2  12.8 1.5 23.6 8.9 
Tuvalu 0.3 32.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 14.4 14.3 56.3 0.0 
Worlde 18,401,000.0  9.1 21.7 19.9 0.4 18,601,000.0  8.8 21.3 19.3 0.6 
a 2003-2012, as no 2000-2002 data were available. 
b Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan). 
c Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. acco rding to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamonds (normally included in 
manufactures according to the UN classification). 
d Includes exporters without a clear speciali zation in a specific category of goods. 
e Includes significant re-exports  and imports for re-export. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 46 - Annex Table 2: Export prices of  primary commodities, 2000 - 2013Q2 
(Indices 2005=100) 
 2000  2001 2002 2003 2004  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010 2011  2012   2012   2013 
               Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4  Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages 80  81 83 87  98 100 110 127 157 136 153 182 175  169 170 183 177  179 179 
Food 81 82 84 88 100 100 111 127 157 134 150 180 176  169 171 184 179  181 183 
Cereals 78  82 94 95  102 100 122 159 222 161 166 230 236  216 215 257 255  240 231 
Wheat 75 83 97 96 103 100 126 167 214 147 147 207 206  183 176 229 233  211 206 
Maize 90  91 101 107  114 100 124 166 227 168 189 297 303  282 274 334 322  310 296 
Rice 71 60 67 69 85 100 106 116 243 205 181 192 202  193 209 203 202  198 191 
Barley 81  99 115 110  104 100 123 181 211 135 167 218 251  227 249 265 262  252 244 
Vegetable oils and 
protein meals 72 70 82 96 111 100 103 143 193 154 170 209 217  203 217 236 214  213 211 
Meat 79  85 80 82  100 100 95 99 103 98 117 134 132  135 132 130 132  135 136 
Beef 74 81 80 76 96 100 97 99 102 101 128 154 158  163 158 153 160  163 153 
Lamb 70  81 91 99  103 100 96 101 106 91 91 93 63  78 62 56 56  60 65 
Swine meat 88 91 70 79 105 100 94 94 96 82 110 132 122  126 124 123 117  118 131 
Poultry 80  86 85 90  102 100 94 106 115 116 116 118 128  124 127 129 131  136 141 
Seafood 112 99 85 84 88 100 121 113 113 114 140 139 113  110 112 109 116  149 165 
Fish 90  71 72 74  82 100 125 112 119 121 151 146 117  116 119 113 121  159 176 
Shrimp 180 181 124 117 105 100 105 116 91 85 98 115 97  84 83 94 99  109 123 
Sugar 81  82 70 77  83 100 133 102 117 152 172 211 175  193 173 174 162  153 145 
Bananas 73 101 91 65 91 100 118 117 146 147 153 169 171  181 170 167 164  162 158 
Oranges 43  71 67 81  101 100 98 114 132 108 118 102 99  88 97 114 99  94 121 
Beverages 78 66 76 80 83 100 108 123 152 154 176 206 167  175 163 170 162  152 147 
Coffee 76  54 54 59  70 100 112 129 150 132 165 231 180  200 180 178 162  161 153 
Cocoa beans 59 70 115 114 100 100 103 127 167 187 203 193 154  152 143 162 159  143 149 
Tea 115  92 83 90  92 100 112 98 125 145 146 160 161  157 158 163 168  148 122 
Agricultural raw 
materials 93 88 90 93 98 100 109 114 113 94 124 153 133  135 136 131 132  133 135 
Timbe r 90  83 82 86  96 100 108 107 109 102 101 111 107  105 109 109 107  104 106 
Cotton 107 87 84 115 112 100 105 115 129 114 188 280 162  182 164 153 149  163 168 
Wool 83  78 101 113  105 100 104 144 138 115 153 234 215  241 219 199 202  218 191 
Rubbe r 46 40 51 72 87 100 140 153 174 128 243 321 225  257 239 198 206  210 193 
Hides and skins 122  129 123 104  102 100 105 110 98 68 110 125 127  118 128 130 131  131 143 
Minerals and non-
ferrous metals 
(excluding crude 
petroleum) 59 53 52 58 79 100 156 183 169 136 202 229 190  205 193 178 185  199 176   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 47 -  2000  2001 2002 2003 2004  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010 2011  2012   2012   2013 
               Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4  Q1 Q2 
Coppe r 49  43 42 48  78 100 183 194 189 141 205 240 217  226 214 210 215  216 195 
Aluminum 82 76 71 75 90 100 135 139 136 88 114 126 106  115 104 101 105  105 97 
Iron ore 44  46 45 49  58 100 119 130 219 285 522 597 457  505 496 398 431  528 446 
Tin 74 61 55 66 115 100 119 196 250 184 276 353 286  311 278 262 293  326 283 
Nickel 58  40 46 65  94 100 163 251 143 99 148 155 119  133 116 111 115  117 101 
Zinc 82 64 56 60 76 100 237 235 137 120 157 159 141  147 140 137 141  147 133 
Lead 47  49 46 53  91 100 132 265 215 177 221 246 212  215 203 204 226  235 211 
Uranium 30 31 35 40 65 100 171 355 230 167 165 201 175  186 184 176 155  153 146 
Total of above 74  71 72 76  91 100 123 140 151 127 161 190 171  172 170 171 170  175 169 
Energy 54 47 47 55 72 100 119 132 185 117 147 201 203  216 200 199 199  203 189 
Natural gas 60  60 48 63  70 100 115 117 174 110 113 154 171  171 178 169 167  168 169 
Crude petroleum 53 46 47 54 71 100 121 133 182 116 149 204 208  220 202 203 204  208 192 
Coal 53  65 54 57  113 100 104 138 266 149 206 254 202  236 201 188 183  193 179 
All primary 
commodities 59 54 54 61 77 100 121 135 172 121 152 197 191  200 189 188 189  192 181 
Note: Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil price index is computed excluding West Texas Intermediate (WTI), in order to better reflec t prices in international 
trade. The price of WTI, which accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oil index, became largely dislocated from int ernational markets in early 2011. Although 
suited for measuring oil price worldwide, the WTI inclusion in a crude oil price index would however considerably distort an in dex meant to measure oil prices in 
international trade. 
Source: IMF commodity prices. 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 48 - 
  Annex Table 3: Leading merchand ise exports of LDCs in 2012a 
(million dollars and percentage) 
HS07 Product Description LDC exports  World exports  
 
Value  Share in 
Total 
Exports Exports to  Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World Developed 
economies Developing 
Economies 
TOTA L All Commodities  183,465  100.0  79,457  102,034 13,194,624 1.4  
27 Mineral fuels, mineral 
oils and products of 
their distillation; 
bituminous substances; 
mineral waxes 107,341  58.5  34,465  70,698 2,806,938 3.8  
2709 Petroleum oils and 
oils obtained from bituminous minerals, 
crude. 93,536
 51.0  29,662  61,751 1,643,563 5.7  
2711 Petroleum gases and 
other gaseous 
hydrocarbons. 10,065  5.5  3,426  6,597 330,255 3.0  
2710 Petroleum oils and 
oils obtained from 
bituminous minerals, other than crude; preparations not elsewhere specified or 
included, containing by 
weight 70 % or more of petroleum oils or of oils obtained from bituminous minerals, 
these oils being the 
basic c 2,458
 1.3  1,311  1,145 634,591 0.4  
61 Articles of apparel and 
clothing accessories, 
knitted or crocheted 14,881  8.1  14,683  1,174 136,591 10.9  
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, 
cardigans, waistcoats and similar articles, knitted or crocheted. 4,656
 2.5  4,453  408 40,583 11.5  
6109 T-shirts, singlets and 
other vests, knitted or 
crocheted. 4,371  2.4  4,504  315 23,912 18.3  
6104 Women's or girls' 
suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than 
swimwear), knitted or 
crocheted. 1,463
 0.8  1,546  83 16,146 9.1  
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, 
knitted or crocheted. 927 0.5  862 72 6,255 14.8  
62 Articles of apparel and 
clothing accessories, not knitted or crocheted 12,953
 7.1  12,317  1,436 139,078 9.3  
6203 Men's or boys' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, 
blazers, trousers, bib 
and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts 
(other than swimwear). 4,855  2.6  4,745  397 29,683 16.4  
6204 Women's or girls' 
suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, bib and 
brace overalls, breeches 
and shorts (other than swimwear). 2,981
 1.6  3,032  248 38,342 7.8  
6205 Men's or boys' shirts. 2,039  1.1  1,886  227 11,410 17.9  
74 Copper and articles 
thereof 7,825  4.3  278 7,157 130,402 6.0  
7403 Refined copper and 
copper alloys, 
unwrought. 5,037  2.7  169 4,510 59,795 8.4  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 49 - 
  HS07 Product Description LDC exports  World exports  
 
Value  Share in 
Total 
Exports Exports to  Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World Developed 
economies Developing 
Economies 
26 Ores, slag and ash 5,908  3.2  1,659  3,856 248,489 2.4  
2603 Copper ores and 
concentrates. 1,068  0.6  45 1,023 47,865 2.2  
2601 Iron ores and 
concentrates, including roasted iron pyrites. 2,223
 1.2  429 1,589 148,373 1.5  
2606 Aluminium ores and 
concentrates. 870 0.5  739 8 3,876 22.4  
2605 Cobalt ores and 
concentrates. 350 0.2  0 350 439 79.8  
71 Natural or cultured 
pearls, precious or 
semi-precious stones, 
precious metals, metals 
clad with precious 
metal, and articles 
thereof; imitation 
jewellery; coin 4,149  2.3  2,389  1,760 468,236 0.9  
7102 Diamonds, whether or 
not worked, but not mounted or set. 1,665
 0.9  1,417  249 105,033 1.6  
44 Wood and articles of 
wood; wood charcoal 2,954  1.6  154 2,788 80,956 3.6  
4403 Wood in the rough, 
whether or not stripped 
of bark or sapwood, or 
roughly squared. 2,377  1.3  60 2,313 13,208 18.0  
03 Fish and crustaceans, 
molluscs and other 
acquatic invertebrates 2,629  1.4  1,561  994 74,230 3.5  
0306 Crustaceans, whether 
in shell or not, live, fresh, chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; crustaceans, in shell, 
cooked by steaming or 
by boiling in water, whether or not chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; flours, meals 
and pellets of crus 833
 0.5  663 177 16,612 5.0  
0303 Fish, frozen, 
excluding fish fillets and 
other fish meat of 
heading 03.04. 729 0.4  190 519 18,133 4.0  
09 Coffee, tea, mate and 
spices 2,188  1.2  1,491  549 35,620 6.1  
0901 Coffee, whether or 
not roasted or 
decaffeinated; coffee 
husks and skins; coffee 
substitutes containing 
coffee in any 
proportion. 1,541  0.8  1,291  105 26,397 5.8  
52 Cotton 1,666  0.9  54 1,608 44,653 3.7  
5201 Cotton, not carded or 
combed. 1,571  0.9  41 1,527 19,330 8.1  
76 Aluminum and articles 
thereof 1,270  0.7  1,104  125 101,052 1.3  
7601 Unwrought 
aluminium. 1,162  0.6  1,097  23 39,606 2.9  
24 Tobacco and 
manufactured tobacco substitutes 1,328
 0.7  836 315 23,679 5.6  
64 Footwear, gaiters and 
the like; parts of such 
articles 1,305  0.7  1,157  148 79,970 1.6  
6403 Footwear with outer 
soles of rubber, plastics, 
leather or composition 
leather and uppers of leather. 850
 0.5  767 67 35,696 2.4  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 50 - 
  HS07 Product Description LDC exports  World exports  
 
Value  Share in 
Total 
Exports Exports to  Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World Developed 
economies Developing 
Economies 
28 Inorganic chemicals; 
organic or inorganic 
compounds of precious 
metals, of rare-earth 
metals, of radioactive 
elements or of isotopes 1,218  0.7  704 444 98,330 1.2  
12 Oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits; miscellaneous grains, seeds and fruit; 
industrial or medicinal 
plants; straw and fodder 1,117
 0.6  235 882 77,976 1.4  
1207 Other oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, 
whether or not broken. 861 0.5  155 708 2,687 32.1  
63 Other made up textile 
articles; sets; worn clothing and worn textile articles; rags 994
 0.5  791 245 37,342 2.7  
6302 Bed linen, table linen, 
toilet linen and kitchen 
linen. 503 0.3  535 12 13,129 3.8  
40 Rubber and articles 
thereof 724 0.4  257 453 144,880 0.5  
4001 Natural rubber, 
balata, gutta-percha, 
guayule, chicle and 
similar natural gums, in 
primary forms or in 
plates, sheets or strip. 683 0.4  247 423 25,250 2.7  
81 Other base metals; 
cermets; articles thereof 702
 0.4  244 431 14,996 4.7  
8105 Cobalt mattes and 
other intermediate 
products of cobalt 
metallurgy; cobalt and 
articles thereof, 
including waste and 
scrap. 698 0.4  243 428 2,052 34.0  
99 Commodities not 
specified according to 
kind 695 0.4  545 155 388,778 0.2  
53 Other vegetable textile 
fibres; paper yarn and 
woven fabrics of paper 
yarn 627 0.3  70 528 2,531 24.8  
 Total of above  172,477  94.0  74,993  95,747 5,134,726 3.4  
a Based on imports from LDCs by 96 countries and ec onomies (EU as one) reporting their trade to the 
United Nations Comtrade database. 
Source: WTO, based on UNSD Comtrade database.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 51 - Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2000-2012 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Regions and 
major marketsa Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change 
 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 
Africa 1,180  10,931  100 28 20  425 1,768  16 1 13 455 7,269  66 50 26 296 1,882  17 -5 17 
South Africa 174 4,900  100 40 32 50 264 5 25 15 47 4,257  87 43 46 78 377 8 24 14 
Zambiab 34  1,429  100 6 36  4 22 2 9 15 25 1,140  80 5 37 5 266 19 12 39 
Malic 83 1,252  100 … 25 3 60 5 … 28 52 977 78 … 28 28 214 17 … 18 
Côte d'Ivoire 64  577 100 32 20  48 319 55 -4 17 4 67  12 46 27 11 189 33 236 27 
Egypt 100 573 100 -14 16 78 138 24 -33 5 17 404 71 -8 30 6 31 5 45 15 
Kenya 47  456 100 -10 21  21 304 67 -5 25 11 37  8 -26 11 15 115 25 -17 18 
Ghana 137 337 100 1 8 30 155 46 6 15 31 8 2 1 -10 73 170 50 -6 7 
Nigeriab 120  319 100 -64 8  86 153 48 -24 5 3 21  7 76 17 31 145 45 -78 14 
Sudand 25 247 100 27 21 10 34 14 253 11 2 88 36 (*) 36 14 122 49 -34 20 
Malawib 23  233 100 22 21  9 89 38 -13 21 3 13  6 13 12 10 130 56 69 24 
Ethiopiab 247 172 100 36 -3 5 24 14 104 13 236 132 77 26 -5 5 15 9 67 9 
Tanzaniab 16  170 100 75 22  2 74 44 121 33 4 45  26 50 23 10 51 30 52 14 
Morocco 53 105 100 16 6 51 73 69 -3 3 ... 9 9 1395 ... 2 23 22 52 25 
Mauritius 53  85 100 -14 4  25 54 64 -22 7 20 11  13 -38 -5 7 20 23 86 9 
Senegal 4 75 100 -25 28 2 5 6 45 6 0 57 76 -3 56 2 14 18 -64 20 
Americas 10,505  31,886  100 -18 10  683 879 3 -7 2 4,811 18,319  57 -29 12 4,954  11,955  37 1 8 
North America 10,061  30,485  100 -15 10 555 812 3 -8 3 4,530 17,369  57 -25 12 4,919  11,570  38 0 7 
USA 9,725  24,982  100 -17 8  495 674 3 -7 3 4,486 14,690  59 -25 10 4,689  9,357  37 -2 6 
Canada 282 5,120  100 -8 27 36 99 2 -12 9 44 2,653  52 -18 41 201 1,901  37 7 21 
Mexico 54  383 100 -16 18  25 39 10 -2 4 0 26  7 -80 44 29 312 82 12 22 
South and Central 
America 444 1,401  100 -55 10 128 67 5 0 -5 281 950 68 -65 11 35 384 27 22 22 
Brazil 179  525 100 -61 9  80 25 5 -11 -9 85 270  51 -76 10 14 230 44 22 26 
Peru 7 436 100 -41 42 2 2 0 273 1 4 419 96 -42 47 1 15 3 16 31 
Chile 102  286 100 -61 9  0 0 0 -62 28 95 247  86 -65 8 7 39 13 24 16 
Colombia 34 46 100 48 3 33 15 33 137 -6 0 0 0 -96 -7 1 31 67 27 33 
Argentina 25  41 100 -7 4  2 12 28 80 17 16 0  0 -90 -40 7 29 72 -21 12 
Costa Rica 2 33 100 191 28 0 0 1 -52 9 0 9 27 203 72 2 23 72 219 26 
Uruguay 64  14 100 -89 -12  0 2 13 48 23 63 5  37 -96 -19 1 7 50 44 20 
Venezuela 12 8 100 58 -3 10 1 13 275 -17 0 0 0 … … 1 7 87 45 16 
El Salvador 1  7 100 -44 15  1 5 76 -52 22 0 ...  … … ... 1 2 24 16 8   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
- 52 -  All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Regions and 
major marketsa Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change 
 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 2000 2012 2012 2012 2000-
2012 
Ecuador 19 4 100 -91 -12 0 3 62 -65 20 17 0 4 -100 -33 1 1 34 51 3 
Guatemala 0  1 100 -55 16  0 1 67 -63 15 ... ...  … … ... 0 0 33 -17 18 
Asia and Pacific 11,869  99,773  100 8 19 2,687  10,294  10 6 12 8,042 82,263  82 7 21 1,120  6,577  7 13 16 
China 4,007  55,425  100 5 24  274 3,804  7 19 25 3,650 50,475  91 5 24 83 1,146  2 -20 24 
India 1,202  14,897  100 23 23 617 2,759  19 2 13 293 10,940  73 36 35 287 1,093  7 -14 12 
Thailand 1,393  7,589  100 17 15  331 752 10 15 7 1,027 6,543  86 15 17 27 294 4 85 22 
Japan 1,234  7,176  100 9 16 584 845 12 15 3 448 4,597  64 3 21 200 1,723  24 26 20 
Chinese Taipei 659  6,030  100 -14 20  91 129 2 -3 3 539 5,790  96 -15 22 29 110 2 10 12 
Korea, Republic 
of 1,828  3,356  100 2 5 74 254 8 10 11 1,691 2,384  71 -7 3 64 719 21 43 22 
Singapore 580  1,421  100 36 8  154 192 14 -20 2 239 587  41 0 8 185 300 21 70 4 
Indonesia 178 1,005  100 -4 16 121 383 38 -45 10 28 540 54 96 28 29 81 8 12 9 
Malaysia 177  766 100 9 13  115 543 71 10 14 43 130  17 -18 10 18 89 12 109 14 
Australia 172 727 100 48 13 27 60 8 21 7 59 17 2 18 -10 86 477 66 33 15 
Hong Kong, China 226  616 100 37 9  136 162 26 9 1 3 11  2 -56 11 87 443 72 60 15 
Pakistan 157 533 100 -9 11 131 337 63 -8 8 18 169 32 -12 20 7 26 5 2 11 
New Zealand 12  151 100 158 24  6 21 14 19 11 0 81  53 (*) 82 6 50 33 29 20 
Philippines 43 80 100 -14 5 26 53 66 -16 6 4 0 0 -99 -20 13 27 34 200 6 
Europe and CIS 12,372  42,971  100 -12 11  2,972  5,228  12 -20 5 2,389 16,315  38 -19 1 7 6,922  20,949  49 -2 10 
EU 27 11,797  40,688  100 -12 11 2,869  4,625  11 -22 4 2,223 15,890  39 -19 18 6,620  19,695  48 -3 10 
Switzerland 100  589 100 38 16  33 146 25 0 13 3 0  0 -32 -22 65 443 75 59 17 
Norway 244 442 100 11 5 12 34 8 21 9 3 198 45 27 40 227 210 48 -2 -1 
CIS 231  1,251  100 -3 15  59 423 34 -7 18 160 227  18 -26 3 11 601 48 13 39 
Russian 
Federation 134 897 100 -10 17 37 323 36 -8 20 86 74 8 -62 -1 10 501 56 9 39 
Ukraine 62  234 100 12 12  12 61 26 8 15 50 115  49 5 7 0 57 24 34 57 
Kazakhstan 4 68 100 119 28 3 8 12 -29 8 0 29 43 549 100 0 30 45 105 46 
Belarus 7  42 100 -8 16  7 29 68 -15 13 ... 1  2 … ... 0 13 30 5 32 
Azerbaijan 24 10 100 662 -7 0 2 16 36 26 23 8 83 … -9 0 0 1 -45 26 
Kyrgyzstanb 0  1 100 -36 11  0 1 59 (*) 10 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 0 41 -74 15 
a Regional totals are based on the information available, and may not coincide with aggregated trade figures.  
b 2000-2011 only, as no 2012 data were available. 
c 2000-2010 only, as neither 2012 nor 2011 data were available. 
d 2000-2009 only, as 2010-2012 data were available. 
(*) High annual percentage change due to base effect (not shown in table).  Sources: UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Information Services (GTIS). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 53 - 
  Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of impo rts by exports of the LDCs, 2000-2012 
(percentage) 
 2000 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 average 
2000-
2012 
LDC (Least developed countries)a 83 95  103 103 104 83 96 98 92 93  
Agricultural exporters 40 33 33 34 31 33 34 39 34 34 
Afghanistan 12 16  16 18 18 12 8 6 7 10  
Benin 64 57 60 51 56 59 62 64 64 60 
Burkina Faso 34 37  45 37 34 48 77 98 69 54  
Burundi 34 22 14 18 14 17 20 16 18 19 
Central African Republic 138 73  78 71 50 44 47 61 66 72  
Comoros 33 12 9 10 4 7 9 9 7 12 
Ethiopia 39 22  20 22 19 21 27 32 24 24  
Gambia 8 3 4 4 4 22 12 28 26 12 
Guinea-Bissau 105 85  58 64 64 60 64 88 52 72  
Kiribati 9 6 10 14 10 9 5 9 5 8 
Liberia 49 42  34 40 30 27 31 35 43 39  
Malawi 71 44 55 63 40 59 49 59 43 53 
Rwanda 25 26  25 23 23 18 21 26 25 24  
Sao Tome and Principe 10 14 11 9 9 8 10 8 8 10 
Solomon Islands 75 56  56 56 64 61 55 89 100 72  
Somalia 56 40 37 39 47 56 54 47 49 47 
Timor-Leste … 7  8 5 5 3 6 4 3 5  
Togo 65 62 58 55 56 60 56 61 54 60 
Uganda 26 40  38 38 38 37 35 38 39 37  
Vanuatu 30 25 22 22 18 19 17 22 18 21 
Fuel exporters 164 195  207 204 214 139 190 197 175 181  
Angola 261 289 363 325 305 180 304 333 308 283 
Bhutan 59 67  99 128 96 94 75 64 56 74  
Chad 58 324 248 204 208 140 146 170 157 161 
Equatorial Guinea 243 539  406 369 402 175 192 208 207 266  
Myanma r 69 198 179 191 162 153 182 102 97 131 
Sudan 116 71  70 101 125 85 114 105 36 90  
Yemen 176 104 110 74 72 68 91 108 72 91 
Manufacture exporters 65 61  65 60 56 57 58 60 62 61  
Bangladesh 72 67 74 67 64 69 69 67 74 69 
Cambodia 72 79  77 75 72 72 76 75 75 76  
Haiti 31 32 31 31 21 27 18 25 26 26 
Lesotho 27 46  48 48 49 40 38 47 42 44  
Madagasca r 75 50 55 47 35 33 42 55 49 50 
Nepal 51 38  34 28 26 19 17 16 15 26  
Samoa 61 37 24 37 25 20 23 19 22 31 
Mineral exporters 65 66  82 77 71 70 81 76 74 74  
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 118 89 94 91 102 90 118 120 103 103 
Eritrea 8 2  2 3 2 2 2 45 48 14  
Guinea 109 104 108 99 98 99 105 68 57 90 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 62 63  83 86 78 72 85 92 92 80  
Mali 68 71 85 71 63 71 58 71 74 71 
Mauritania 78 44  117 102 92 91 107 112 83 89  
Mozambique 31 74 83 79 66 57 65 57 60 64 
Niger 72 52  54 58 54 45 46 46 52 51  
Sierra Leone 9 46 59 55 40 44 44 20 71 43 
Tanzania 48 51  44 40 41 47 51 44 48 47  
Zambia 100 71 123 115 101 113 135 125 105 108 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 54 - 
   2000 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 average 
2000-
2012 
Diversified and others 55 43  41 32 31 40 43 41 37 41  
Djibouti 15 14 16 12 12 17 23 18 16 16 
Senegal 61 45  43 34 33 43 45 43 39 43  
Tuvalu 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 
a Weighted average. 
Note: Coverage ratio of imports by exports= (exports/imports*100). Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 55 - 
   
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non recipr ocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Membersa 
Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary  
(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  References  
 
Australia 
 Duty- and quota-
free entry. 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 LDCs  All products.  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada GSP – Least-
developed Countries' 
Tariff Programme 
(LDCT) 
Entry into force: 
1 January 2003, 
extended until 
30 June 2014  LDCs  With the exception of ove r-quota 
tariff items for dairy, poultry and 
egg products, Canada provides duty-
free access under all tariff items for 
imports from LDCs. 
 WT/COMTD/W/159 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1 and 
Add.2 
 
China Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs LDCs  As of 1 July 2010, China has granted 
zero-tariff treatment to 4,762 tariff lines - which accounts for nearly 60% of its total tariff lines. China intends to continue to expand this 
coverage with the aim of achieving 
the final objective of reaching 97%t of tariff lines under zero-tariff treatment by 2015.   WT/COMTD/N/39 
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1 WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1 
EU GSP - Everything 
But Arms (EBA) 
initiative 
Entry into force:  
5 March 2001 
   LDCs  Since 1 October 2009, the EBA has 
been granting DFQF access for all 
products from all LDCs (except arms 
and ammunitions). The EU 
introduced revised rules of origin for 
the GSP, as of 1 January 2011, 
simplifying rules specially for the 
LDCs.  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2, Add.4,  
Add. 5 and Add.6 
WT/TPR/S/214/Rev.1 
http://ec.europa.eu   
Iceland GSP – Tariff 
Preferences in 
Regard to the 
Importation of Products Originating in the World's 
Poorest Developing 
Countries  Entry into force:  29 January 2002  LDCs  
 Essentially all products with some 
exceptions in agricultural products 
(HS chapters: 04, 15, 18, 19, 21 
and 22) and non-agricultural products (HS sub-headings:  3502 and 3823, and all of HS 16 with the 
exception of sub-headings 1603 to 
1605).  WT/COMTD/N/17 and Corr.1 
 
WT/TPR/S/164/Rev.1  
 
India  
 Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP) 
Entry into force: 
13 August 2008 LDCs  Duty-free access on 85%  tariff lines 
at HS 6-digit level by 2012. WT/COMTD/N/38  
http://commerce.nic.in/trade/i
nternational_tpp_DFTP.pdf   
Japan GSP – Enhanced 
duty- and quota-free 
market access Entry into force:  1 April 2007 Extended till 2021 
 LDCs Duty-free access on 8,859 tariff lines 
(or 98% at the tariff line level), 
covering over 99% in terms of the import value from LDCs. WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14 
 
and Add.15  
Korea, Rep. of 
 Presidential Decree 
on Preferential Tariff 
for LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000 LDCs As of January 2012, Korea has 
provided duty-free access to LDCS 
covering 95% of its tariff lines. WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1   
WT/GC/M/120 
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1 
Morocco Preferential tariff 
treatment for LDCs Entry into force:  
1 January 2001 
 33 African 
LDCs Duty-free access on 61 products (at 
the HS 4 to 10-digit level). Under the Global System of Trade 
Preferences among Developing 
Countries (GSTP), signed by Morocco, a special treatment is provided to LDCs.  WT/LDC/SWG/IF/18 and 
G/C/6  WT/TPR/S/217/Rev.1  
New Zealand GSP- Tariff  
Treatment for LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 
 LDCs All products.  WT/COMTD/27, WT/GC/36   
WT/TPR/S/216/Rev.1  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58 
- 56 - 
  Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary  
(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  References  
 
Norway  GSP – Duty -  and 
quota-free market access 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 LDCs All products, except one item.
  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5 
Russian 
Federation The GSP scheme, in 
the context of the 
Customs Union 
between Belarus, 
Kazakhstan and the 
Russian Federation. 49 LDCs  As per Secretariat estimates, 
roughly 28.6% of Russia's tariff lines 
is duty free. Textiles, clothing, 
leather, footwear, etc. are excluded 
from DFQF coverage.  WT/COMTD/N/42 
Switzerland GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  Entry into force:  1 April 2007  LDCs Duty-free access for all products 
originating from all LDCs as of 
September 2009.  New GSP rules of origin, with special treatment to LDCs, introduced as of May 2011. TN/CTD/M/28 
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.2 and 
Add.3  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4 and Add.5 
Chinese Taipei Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs LDCs Duty-free access to nearly 32%  of 
tariff lines, exclusively for the LDCs. WT/TPR/S/232/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/40 
http://doca.mof.gov.tw/public
/Data/1101891847152.xls   
Turkey 
 GSP  
Entry into force:  
31 December 2005 LDCs Duties are eliminated for LDCs on 
the basis of EU's EBA Initiative. WT/TPR/S/192/Rev.1  
United States GSP for least-
developed 
beneficiary 
developing countries 
(LDBDC). Legal 
authorization of the 
GSP Programme 
expired on 31 July 
2013. The US 
Congress is 
considering 
legislation that 
would extend the 
authorization of GSP 
beyond this date. 
 43 
designated 
LDCs Preferential duty-free t reatment for 
3,511 products for all GSP 
beneficiaries, including 43 LDBDCs; 
an additional 1,464 products are 
GSP-eligible for LDBDCs (April, 
2013).  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8 
WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
http://www.ustr.gov   
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act 
(AGOA)  
Entry into force:  18 May 2000, extended until 
30 September 2015
 38 
designated 
sub-Saharan 
African Countries (including 
24 LDCs
 ) 1,835 products, available for duty-
free treatment, in addition to 
products designated for duty-free 
treatment under GSP. WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
WT/L/754 
WT/L/818 and Corr.1 
 Caribbean Basin 
Trade Partnership 
Act (CBTPA) 
Entry into force:  
1 October 2000, 
extended until 
30 September 2020 17 
designated 
beneficiaries 
(including 
one LDC, i.e. 
Haiti) in 
Central 
America and 
the 
Caribbean  Duty free for most products, 
including textiles and apparels.  The 
Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity 
through Partnership Encouragement 
(HOPE) Act of 2006 provided new 
trade benefits, especially of apparel 
imports from Haiti.  The HOPE II Act 
of 2008 enhanced duty-free 
treatment for qualifying apparel 
imports from Haiti.  The Haiti 
Economic Lift Program (HELP) Act of 
2010 provided duty-free treatment 
for additional textile and apparel 
products from Haiti. WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1  
WT/L/753 
WT/L/817 
http://www.ustr.gov   
 
a  This table represents a non-exhaustive list of no n-reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.   
Source: WTO Secretariat.  
__________