WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
8 November 2019  
(19-7652 ) Page: 1/52 
Committee on Trade and Development   
 
 
PARTICIPATION OF D EVELOPIN G ECONOMIES IN THE G LOBAL TRADING SYSTEM  
NOTE BY THE SECRETAR IAT* 
  
                                                             
* This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice  
to the positions of Members or  to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 2 - 
 
  TABLE OF CONTENTS  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMAR Y ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 3 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  5 
3   OVERVIEW  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................  5 
3.1   Developing economies trade in real terms  ................................ ................................ ....... 5 
3.2   Developing economies trade in nominal terms ................................ ................................ .. 7 
4   MERCHANDISE TRAD E DEVELOPMENTS BETWE EN 2016 AND 2018 ..............................  8 
4.1   Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ .....................  8 
4.2   Leading traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  9 
4.3   Merchandise trade by product  ................................ ................................ ....................... 11 
4.4   Net exporters and net importers of merchandise trade  ................................ ..................... 14 
4.5   Agricultural (AoA) and Non -Agricultural Market Access (NAMA) goods ................................ 15 
4.6   "South -South" trade ................................ ................................ ................................ .....16 
5   TRADE IN COMMERC IAL SERVICES DEVELOP MENTS BETWEEN 2016 A ND 2018  ........  17 
5.1   Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 17 
5.2   Leading traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 18 
5.3   Transport  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 20 
5.4   Travel  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 22 
5.5   Other commercial services  ................................ ................................ ............................ 23 
5.6   Foreign Affiliate Statistics (FATS)  ................................ ................................ ................... 25 
6   TRADE IN VAL UE-ADDED AND PARTICI PATION IN GLOBAL VAL UE CHAINS  ..............  26 
6.1   The domestic and foreign value -added contents of exports  ................................ ............... 26 
6.2   Backward and forward participation in GVCs  ................................ ................................ ...27 
6.3   Rising participation of developing economies in GVCs  ................................ ...................... 28 
6.4   Geographical and s ectoral origins of the value -added contained in exports of developing 
economies  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 29 
6.5   Decomposing the contribution of services to exports using the TiVA approach  .................... 30 
6.6   GVC participation in the computer and electronic industry  ................................ ................ 31 
7   CURRENT CHALLENG ES AND INITIATIVES O F DEVELOPING ECONOMI ES IN 
COMPILING STATISTICA L TRADE DATA  ................................ ................................ ..........  32 
7.1   Implementing revisions to international standards in compiling International Merchandise 
Trade Statistics  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 33 
7.2   Improving data availability in commercial services ................................ ........................... 33 
7.3   Using ASYCUDA to facilitate statistical data compilation and WTO notifications for  
developing economies  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 34 
APPENDIX  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................  36 
  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 3 - 
 
  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1.1.  During the period 2016 -2018, world trade and GDP fluctuated strongly as the global 
economy was hit by several shocks that affected developing economies as much as 
developed economies.  Growth was particularly weak in North America and in natural resource 
exporting regions, p articularly South America.  
1.2.  The shares of developing economies in world merchandise and commercial services 
trade continued to rise gradually during the 2016 -2018 period on both the export and 
import sides. Increasing shares were partly due to faster econom ic growth in developing economies 
compared to developed countries and partly due to rising oil prices, which boosted the value of 
exports and imports from resource -based developing economies . 
1.3.  Both economic conditions and trade tensions influenced the evolu tion of merchandise 
trade volumes by developing economies between 2016 and 2018. Trade growth accelerated 
in 2017 before slowing in 2018 as global trade tensions rose sharply. Trade growth has continued 
to weaken in the current year at trade disputes have escalated.  Developing Asian economies made 
the biggest contribution to export and import volumes growth between 2016 and 2018 .  
1.4.  Merchandise exports and imports in value terms bounce d back in 2017 and 2018 . 
After weak global economic activity from 2014 to 2 016, developing economies bounce d back in 
merchandise trade in 2017 and 2018. Performance of most developing economies can be seen to 
have declined in 2016 , most likely as a direct result of the general decrease in world prices of primary 
commodities, part icularly that of energy  products . Merchandise trade in value terms decreased by 
5% in 2016 and increased by 12% and 10% in 2017 and 2018 respectively. Merchandise exports of 
developing economies amounted to USD 8 ,753 billion in 2018 while imports totalled 
USD 8,449 billion .  
1.5.  Manufactures continue to dominate exports and imports. In 2018, an estimated 70% of 
total exports of developing economies were manufacturing products of which 42% were attributed 
to office and telecommunication equipment, transport equipment and other manufactures. 
Developing economies exports of manufactures in 2018 are estimated to have reached 
USD 5.4 trillion in 2018 reflecting an annual growth of 9%. Fuels and non -fuel mineral exports 
account for 20% of total exports i n 2018, 5% less than its share in 2016. The share of agriculture 
exports also slightly increased accounting for 9% of total developing economy exports in 2018 
compared to 8% in 2016 .  
1.6.  More than half of the top 20 merchandise traders from developing economi es are 
from Asia . The top 20 traders in 2016 to 2018 were composed of 11 Asian economies, 4 from the 
Middle East, 3 from Latin America, Turkey and South Africa. They represented 37% of total world 
trade, averaging USD 6.6 trillion annually . The top 20 also  represented 85% of total merchandise 
trade of developing economies. Developing Asia and trade in manufactures are the main drivers of 
"South -South" trade.  Brazil, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and China are the leading net exporters 
of developing economies.  Soya beans, palm oil, motor cars and petroleum products were the most 
traded agricultural and non -agricultural products in 2017 and 2018 by developing economies.  
1.7.  Developing Asia and trade in manufactures are the main drivers of 
South -South  trade . Trade of developing economies with other developing economies or “South -
South” trade has remained stable at an estimated share of 53% for the 4th consecutive year, 
amounting to about USD  4149 billion in 2018 , a 7% increase from its value in 2017 . In 2017, 70% 
of total exports were mostly generated by Developing Asia, about 15% by the Middle East and a 
little under 10% by South  and Central America and the Caribbean.  
1.8.  Developing economy trade of commercial services increased from 2016 -18, with 
exports gr owing  by 9.1 % and imports increasing by 7.6 % on average annually to USD 1.8 trillion 
and USD 2.1 trillion respectively. Commercial services trade stagnated in 2016, with some 
developing economies seeing a decrease in the value of exports and imports rela tive to 2015. The 
global economy was hit by weak or slowing growth in major economies, thereby reducing demand. 
However, by 2017 the global economy had begun to improve with commodity prices increasing and 
accelerated growth in developing economies, leadin g to strong growth in commercial services trade 
through 2018.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 4 - 
 
  1.9.  Developing Asia accounted for the largest share of developing economy commercial 
services trade , with its share increasing from 65.5 % in 2016 to 66.4 % in 2018. Of this trade, the 
top five develo ping Asian economies by value of commercial services trade (China , India, Singapore , 
the Republic of Korea and Hong Kong, China) accounted for approximately half of all developing 
economy commercial services trade in every year from 2016  to 2018 and eleven  of the top 20 most 
dynamic commercial services traders were economies in Developing Asia.  
1.10.  Transport exports grew to USD 354 billion in 2018 , up from USD 300 billion in 2016 as 
every developing economy region registered positive growth following the low of  2016. Turkey led 
transport export growth in developing Europe as its economy expanded over the period . In 
Developing Asia, Singapore, China, and Hong Kong, China returned to their previous growth trends 
after a slight dip in transport exports in 2016. For  Africa, Egypt had the highest growth in transport 
services after suffering the negative impacts of a late 2015 security incident.  
1.11.  Travel remained the largest single services sector traded by developing economies 
in 2018, with exports reach ing USD 574 bill ion in 2018 and international tourist arrivals to 
developing economies surpassing 600 million. Although the share of world services exports of travel 
by developing economies has remained stable at about one third of all travel exports over the past 
five ye ars, the share of travel imports by developing economies has steadily increased from 25.1% 
in 2013 to 31.5% in 2018 as global tourism, including tourism by developing country nationals, 
continues to grow. China remained the world's top source of tourism, a ccounting for 20% of global 
travel expenditures on average over the 2016 -18 period. Thailand also continued to show strong 
growth in travel exports and imports, as tourist arrivals remained high.  
1.12.  South -East Asian economies are currently the most engaged in  Global Value Chains 
(GVCs ), with their total GVC participation rates significantly exceeding 50%  in 2015 . The region 
also included the top developing economies that expanded their level of interconnection within GVCs 
the most between 2005 and 2015. Viet Nam experienced the greatest increase in GVC participation 
with an annual average growth of 16.5%. The Philippines and Cambodia also continued rapid 
GVC integration  (respectively 10.4% and 8.5%)  while India increased GVC linkages at a high pace 
(9.5%) during the 2005 -2015 decade. Moreover, South -East Asian economies were also found to be 
major contributors to world computer and electronic production networks , either as exporters or 
importers of components,  in 2015.   
1.13.  The Trade in Value -Added  Approach (TiVA) enables to decompos e the contribution 
of services to total exports for each country . The highest share of direct services exports in 
total exports of goods and service s was observed for Hong Kong , China. The predominance of direct 
domestic services in exports outlines the services orientation of an economy. China, Brazil and 
Turkey showed the highest rates of indirect services value -added in their exports. These underli ne 
the dynamism of domestic networks of companies that provide services to other domestic exporting 
companies. Singapore, Hong Kong , China and Viet Nam , on the other hand , showed to be top 
economies that played the role of GVC hubs and assemblers at the en d of the production chain and 
who tend to  have significant  import s of intermediate goods and services for the production of their 
exports. They presented high rates of foreign services in their exports in 2015.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 5 - 
 
  2  INTRODUCTION  
2.1.  This document has been prepared  by the Secretariat to assist the Committee on Trade and 
Development (CTD) in meeting its requirement to continuously review the participation of developing 
economy Members in the multilateral trading system  (MTS) . It updates previous studies on this topic 
produced for the Committee since 1997 . The last report was produced in 201 71 The first part of the 
current report provides an overview of developing economies' trade since 201 6. The  report then 
reviews detailed a spects and salient features of developing economies' merchandise trade from 201 6 
to 201 8, their trade in commercial services , and an update  of their participation in 
Global Value  Chains  (GVCs) . The report concludes with a brief section that mentions curren t 
challenges and initiatives on compiling trade statistics of developing economies. F urthermore, the 
statistical appendix contain s specific tabulations as well as  the composition of regions and economic 
groupings used in this report .2 
3  OVERVIEW  
3.1  Developing e conomies trade in real term s 
Strong fluctuations in world trade and GDP affected both developing and developed  
economies from 2016 to 2018.  
 
3.1.  During the period 2016 -2018, world trade and GDP fluctuated strongly as the global economy 
was hit by several shocks that affected developing economies as much as developed economies. In 
2016, weak economic growth in North America and financial turbulence in developing Asia and 
Latin America reduced global import demand, causing merchandise trade volume gr owth, as 
measured by the average of exports and imports, to fall to its lowest level since 2009. In 2017, a 
broad -based recovery lifted world trade growth to its highest rate since 2011, led by strong rebounds 
in exports and imports of developing economies . In 2018, trade and GDP growth eased in both 
developed and developing economies as rising trade tensions increased economic uncertainty and 
discouraged investment. Partial data for the current year suggests that trade and output growth in 
2019 will be eve n weaker than in 2016 .  
3.2.  The relationship between world trade and GDP became more unstable during the 
2016-2018 period, partly due to the participation of developing economies in global value chains. 
The volume of world merchandise trade grew more slowly th an world real GDP at market exchange 
rates in 2016. As a result, the ratio of trade growth to GDP growth fell to 0.7:1 for the year, its 
lowest outside of a recession since 1980. The ratio recovered to 1.5:1 in 2017 as trade grew faster 
than output, then f ell back to 1.1:1 in 2018 as trade tensions escalated. Developing economies are 
disproportionately affected by these developments as demand shocks tend to reverberate through 
global value chains that are highly concentrated in developing Asia.  
3.3.  Strong fluc tuations in exchange rates and commodity prices also buffeted developing 
economies during the 2016 -2018 period, with real consequences for their economies. Developing 
countries are disproportionately represented among natural resource exporters whose expor t 
earnings are strongly influenced by commodity prices. These countries benefitted from a 
57% recovery in commodity prices between January 2016 and October 2018, although prices have 
fallen around 15% since then according to IMF statistics. The exchange ra te of the US dollar against 
currencies of developing economies also fluctuated strongly between 2016 and 2018. These 
fluctuations can have negative economic consequences for developing countries, triggering capital 
outflows and raising the cost of servicin g foreign debts.  
  
                                                             
1 The 2017 document is WT/COMTD/W/230.  
2 Data published in this document (unless ot herwise indicated) are derived fro m the WTO's World Trade 
Statistical Review 2019 and the WTO  DATA Portal  (https://data.wto.org/ ). For more information on the definitions 
of indicators and detailed sources of data, see the Technical Notes in the above -mentioned report or the WTO's 
Statistics website.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 6 - 
 
  Chart 1: World, developed and developing economies quarterly merchandise trade 
volume, 2016 -20193 
(Indices 2016Q1=100, seasonally adjusted)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD  estimates . 
3.4.  Both economic conditions and trade tensions influenced the evolution of merchandise trade 
volumes by developing economies between 2016 and 2018. Exports of these countries grew at an 
average rate of 1.1% per quarter during this period, equivalent to an ann ualized rate of 4.5%. Over 
the same period, imports grew 1.0% per quarter on average, equal to 4.1% on an annualized basis. 
Export and import volumes peaked in Q3 of 2018 before declining in Q4 and into 2019. Year on year 
growth was strongest in 2017 as th e global economy regained some momentum after a weaker 
performance in 2016. The peak in Q3 may have been artificially inflated as traders stockpiled imports 
in anticipation of higher US tariffs on Chinese goods. As a consequence, underlying growth may have  
been slightly stronger in subsequent quarters as demand was shifted forward in time.  
Chart 2 : Contributions of regions to trade volume growth of developing economies, 
2008 -2018  
(Percentage share)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD estimates, WTO Secretariat calculatio ns. 
3.5.  Developing Asian economies made the biggest contribution to export and import volumes 
growth of developing economies between 2016 and 2018, partly due to stronger real trade growth 
                                                             
3 In this document, the CIS refers to the Commonwealth of Independent States, including  associate and 
former member States . 
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 7 - 
 
  and partly due to Developing Asia’s larger share in total trade of deve loping economies. Asia’s 
contribution to developing economies’ import volume growth remained positive in 2016 while other 
developing regions subtracted from this growth due to economic weakness. Resource exporting 
regions suffered from low commodity prices  in 2016, which constrained their ability to import, while 
South American countries suffered from recessions and financial crises that depressed their import 
demand.  
3.2  Developing economies trade in nominal terms  
In value terms, m erchandise trade of developing economies was more volatile than world 
trade as well as than commercial services trade . 
 
3.6.  Merchandise trade growth of developing economies in value terms was more volatile than world 
merchandise trade overall and more volatile  than commercial services trade of developing economies 
during 2016 -2018. Merchandise exports and imports of developing economies in nominal 
US dollar  terms declined more than world merchandise trade overall in 2016 before growing faster 
than the world ave rage in 2017 and 2018. This can be partly explained by the greater representation 
of developing economies among exporters of primary commodities, prices of which were depressed 
in 2016 and rising in 2017 and 2018. In contrast, commercial services trade of developing economies 
declined less than merchandise trade in 2016 and grew more slowly in 2017 and 2018, with import 
growth in line with the world average . The fact that commercial services trade fluctuates less with 
global business cycles allows it to act  as a cushion against macroeconomic shocks.  
Chart 3 : World and developing economies' merchandise trade and trade in  commercial 
services, in nominal terms, 2016 -2018  
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
3.7.  Shares of developing economies in world merchandise and commercial services trade continued 
to rise gradually during the 2016 -2018 period on both the export and import sides. The share of 
developing countries in merchandise exports rose from 42.7 % in 2016 to 43.4 % in 2018  while share 
in import s rose marginally from 39.9 % to 41.1 % from 2016 to 2018  (see Chart 4). 
3.8.  Developing countries also s aw their share in world services exports rise from 30. 2% to 30. 9% 
and their share in services imports from 37.7 % to 38.2 % over the  same time period. These rising 
shares reflect the faster rate of economic growth in developing economies compared to developed 
countries. However, the fact that shares of developing economies are lower than their representation 
in the global population hi ghlights their lower per capita i ncome on average , compared to developed 
economies . 
  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 8 - 
 
  Chart 4: Developing economies' share in world trade, 2016 and 2018  
(Percentage)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
4  MERCHANDISE TRADE DE VELOPMENTS BETWEEN 2 016 AND 201 8 
4.1  Overview  
Merchandise exports and imports of developing economies bounce back in 2017 and 2018 . 
 
4.1.  After weak global economic activity from 2014 to 2 016, developing economies bounce d back 
in merchandise trade in 2017 and 2018. A general decline i n the performance of most developing 
economies in 2016 can be seen, most likely as a direct result of a decline in world prices of primary 
commodities, particularl y that of energy . World prima ry commodities overall recorded a general 
decrease of 8% in 2016 then increased strongly at 14% and 13% for 2017 and 2018 respectively.  
4.2.  The group's merchandise trade4 showed a positive performance a second  time in a row since 
2016. The group recorded an annual growth of 1 0%5 in 2018, slightly dipping from its 1 2% growth 
in 2017. Its strong performance in these last 2 years was a rebound from its zero growth in 2014 , 
negative growth of 12% in 2015 and 5% in 2016. The group also performed at a slightly higher level 
of growth than the world level. World merchandise trade  grew by 11% in 2017 and 10% in 2018.  
4.3.  Developing economies' merchandise exports and imports averaged USD 7. 8 trillion6 annually 
from 2016 -2018. In 20 18, the group represented 4 4% of world merchandise trade of which about 
67% was generated by developing economies in Asia. 2018 exports a mount ed to USD 8,753 billion 
while imports totalled USD 8,449 billion . The share of merchandise trade of developing eco nomies  
in world trade has increased from 3 7% in 2008  to 44% in 2018.  
4.4.  In the last 10 years , 2008-2018, Developing Asia dominated the group's trade , account ing for 
67% in 2018 , 7% more than its share in total developing economies trade in 2008.  Mexico and 
non-EU Southern European countries retained their market share of 5% and 3% respec tively during 
the period. Middle East , Africa  and South and Central America , on the other hand, slightly decreased 
their share in the group's total trade by 2 -3% in 2018, compared to their levels in 2008 .  
4.5.  At the short-term level, 2016-2018 quarterly merchandise values  data show positive growth in 
both merchandise exports and imports in some developing regions. Chart  5 (using non-seasonally 
                                                             
4 Average of export and imports, exclud es CIS.  
5 Includes significant re -exports or imports for re -exports.  
6 Includes significant re -exports or imports for re -exports.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 9 - 
 
  adjust ed data)  shows that Africa and the Middle East  exports , for example, record relatively 
high-performance  rates compared to world and other regions , the performance especially of oil 
exporters s ignificantly influenced by fuel prices. Imports  growth of both regions c ombined , however, 
show positive growth  but lower than that of the world level.  
4.6.  Developing Asia merchandise trade and Latin America exports also showed generally positive 
performance . Except for dips in the 1st quarter of both 2017 and 2018  these regions exhibited trends 
higher than that of the world level . The growth rate of the combined imports  of Latin America and 
Developing Europe , however,  approached t hat of the world level.  
Chart 5: Quarterly merchandise t rade value of developing economies by region, 
2016 -2018  
(Indices 201 6Q1 = 100, not seasonally adjusted)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
4.2  Leading traders  
More than half of the top 20 merchandise traders are from Asia.  
4.7.  Over the period 2016 -2018, the top 20 merchandise traders  from developing economies  were 
composed of 11 Asian economies , four from the Middle East, three  from Latin America, Turkey and 
South Africa.  They represented 3 7% of total world trade7 from 2016  to 2018, averaging 
USD 6.6 trillion  annually for the last three years. The top 20 also represented 8 5% of total 
merchandise trade of developing economies . The 11 Asian merchandise traders8 alone accounted 
for 65% of the group’s trade . Six o f these have consistently been top 10 traders of developing 
economies.9 
4.8.  For the last ten years, China  has been the highest -ranking  trader among the developing 
economies . Merchandise exports of China amounted to USD 2487 billion in 2018, almost half of all 
Developing Asia  total exports , almost 30% of all developing economies  and 1 3% of world 
merchandise trade  (see Appendix Table 1). Following China as top traders are Hong Kon g, China , 
                                                             
7 Including significant shipments through processing zones.  
8 China, the Six East -Asian T raders , India, Viet Nam , Indonesia , and Philippines.  
9 China, Hong Kong, China, Republic of Korea, India, Singapore and Chinese Taipei . 
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 10 - 
 
  the Republic of Korea, Mexico  and India, remain ing stable at second  to fifth place for the last 
five years.  
4.9.  Viet Nam and India lead the top 20 merchandise traders of the developing economies as the 
top two most dynamic economies  in the last three  years . From 2016 to 2018, their  trade recorded 
an averag e annual growth of 17% and 16% respectively (see Chart 6). Viet Nam  also advanced in 
its rank among the developing economies when it joined the top ten from 2017. Its rank among 
developing economies merchandise traders jumped from 18th place in 2008 to 10th place in 2018.  
India share 's in world trade has remained stable for the last 10 years at 2% , same as its rank among 
developing economies as 5th leading merchandise trader  since 2011 . Next in line among the faster 
growing top 20 traders are the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , Iran and Indonesia averaging an annual 
growth of 15% during 2016 to 2018.  
4.10.  Hong Kong , China  has overtaken the Republic of Korea as top 2 trader among developing 
economies ( placing the Republic of Korea at 3rd place) since 2013. In 2014, Mexico also overtook 
both Singapore and India when it became 4th top trader, India became 5th and Singapore 6th. Other 
countries in the top 20 developing economies have also increased rank in the last 10 years. 
Philippines was placed at 25th place  in 2008 and is now ranked at 17th place. Chile was in 22nd place 
in 2008 and is now at 19th place. Finally, Thailand which used to be at 11th place in 2008 is now at 
9th place.  
4.11.  Except for the United Arab Emirates all top 20 recorded positive and strong growth in both 
2017 and 2018 . But in 2016 where most countries recorded negative growth, only Viet Nam  and 
Philippines reported steady  annual growth of 7% and 9% respectively. The Middle Eastern traders 
in the top 20 namely the United Arab Emirates, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , Iran and Israel generated 
70% of the region's total trade  in 2018 , a drop, however , compared to its combined regional share 
of 74% in 20 16. 
4.12.  In Latin America, Mexico, Brazil and Chile continue to dominate trade a veraging 67% of the 
region’s trade  in the last 3 years . The 3 countries recorded double -digit average annual growth  and 
have been the top 3 Latin American traders since 20 12. Close runner ups are Argentina and Colombia 
whose combined trade account ed for 10% of the region ’s trade  in 2016 to 2018 and rank ed 3rd and 
4th place among leading South American traders  during the period . 
4.13.  Turkey, the 13th top developing econom y trader in 2018 , 31st exporter and 25th importer in 
the world, recorded a n average annual growth of 7% from 2016 -2018. After its d ecline  in annual 
performance by 3% in 2016, it rebounded strongly by 15 % in 2017. Its strong performance, 
however, was short -lived when it dropped to zero growth in 2018 despite maintaining its 8 1% share 
of trade and top rank among non-EU South Eastern Europ ean countries .  
4.14.  South Africa maintained its place as top trader of Africa, maintaining its 20% share of Africa’s 
total trade and recording strong growth for both 2017 and 2018 at 13% and 9% respectively. 
Following South Africa are Egypt and Nigeria re portin g strong average annual growth of 11% and 
23% respectively for the  2016 to 2018 period and whose combined trade account ed for 10% of the 
region’s trade. As in most countries, the top 3 African countries underperformed in 2016 recording 
a decrease of 10%, 4% and 27% respectively , most likely partly affected by the decline in prices  of 
fuels and manufactures . 
  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 11 - 
 
  Chart 6: Developing economies' top twenty dynamic merchandise traders, 2016 -2018   
(Average annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
4.3  Merchandise trade by product  
Manufactures continue to dominate exports and imports of developing economies .  
4.15.  Latest WTO estimates show world manufactures exports to amount to USD 13 trillion10 in 
2018, reflecting an annual growth of 8% , similar to its performance i n 2017 but an improvement to 
its 2% decline in 2016.  In 2018, an estimated 7 0% of total exports of developing economies were 
manufacturing products (see Chart 7) of which 42% were exports of office and telecommunication 
equipment, transport equipment and other manufactures. Fuels and non -fuel minerals exports  were 
estimated to account for 20% of total exports in 2018, 5% less than its share in 2016 . Agriculture 
exports also slightly increase d in share accounting for 9% of total developing economy exports in 
2018 compared to 8% in 2016.  
Chart 7: Developing economies' exports by product, 2016  and 2018  
(Percentage share)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat (2016), WTO estimates (2018) . 
4.16.  For the last ten years, m anufactures of developing economies have mostly been  exported by 
Developing Asia. Latest WTO estimates show that t he region account ed for an average of 80% of 
                                                             
10 Excluding re -exports of Hong Kong, China.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 12 - 
 
  the developing economies’  total manufacture exports in 2016 and 2017, of which a little over half 
were machinery and transport equipment, mostly office and telecommunication equipment.   
4.17.  In 201 8, China and the Republic of Korea were the top manufacture traders in the region 
followed by Hong Kong , China  and Mexico.11 In 2018, manufacture exports of China , the Republic of 
Korea and Hong Kong , China  were estimated to total USD 2 ,318 billion , USD 5 29 billion and 
USD 511 billion respectively  (see Appendix Table 5) . China and Mexico ’s exports both expand ed by 
9%, China showing a slight improvement from its  8% performance in 2017 . The Republic of Korea , 
however, show s a drop from its double -digit growth of 15% in 2017 to an estimated and much lesser 
3% increase in 2018. Hong Kong , China 's 2018 increase  in manufacture exports is estimated to be 
at 7%, equall ing its performance in 2017 .  
4.18.  Despite the general decline in trade performance in 2016 of most economies in  Developing 
Asia, Viet Nam  and Bangladesh show ed the most  resilience. Unlike the other Asian economies, the 
two countries recorded increase s in their 2016 manufacture exports of 11% and 8% respectively . 
4.19.  Mexico shows to be the fourth  top trader12 of manufactures among developing economies. 
Merchandise trade  in 2018 averag ed USD 360 billion , with exports standing at USD 36 3 billion and 
imports at USD 357 billion.  A significant portion of its 2017 manufacture exports show to be 
automotive products ( 33%) and office and telecommunications equipment ( 20%). Their share of 
automoti ve products has grown in the last ten years, having a share of only 22% of their total 
manufacture exports in 2008. Machine  transport equipment alone accounted for about 75% of its 
total manufacture exports in 2016 and 2017 .  
4.20.  On the demand side, latest estimates show developing economies’  imports  of manufactures 
to have expanded by 9% in  both 2017 and 2018. The top importers namely, China, the 
Four East Asian13 traders, Mexico and India collectively  imported goods amounting to 
USD 2,929 billion and  USD 3,220 billion in 201 7 and 201 8, respectively , both accounting for almost 
60% of the group's total imports . The top importer o f manufactures , China recorded a 4% decline 
in its manufactured goods imports in 2016 , but a 12% increase in 2017 and 13% increase in 2018. 
Close followers of the top manufacture importer s among developing economies are Viet Nam , the 
two other East Asian  traders14, and Brazil. Together they imported a combined total of 
USD 639 billion in 2018, an esti mated 12% share of the developing economies’  total manufacture 
imports .  
After a cut in oil production in end-2016, energy  prices rise again  in 2017 and 2018 . 
4.21.  On world commodity prices, f uel prices in 2018 increased by 27.3%, even more than the 
steep increase of 2017 (+23.9%). Still , after five years (2012 -16) of decreasing or stagnating 
commodity prices, the 2018 price level was 30% below the level of 2011. Continued oil production 
cuts by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was one of the main reasons 
for the price jumps of the last two years. Prices of minerals and non -ferrous metals (excluding crude 
petroleum) went up by 3.7% in average, with base metals showing the highest growth rates 
(+6.2%). Within base metals, nickel wa s subject to the highest growth in terms of prices (+26.0%). 
Chart 8 below shows how both imports and the prices of fuels have strong increases in 2017 and 
2018. In the case of cereals, a 14% increase in 2018  prices  shows to have resulted to a large 
decrea se in food imports.  
  
                                                             
11 Including re-exports of Hong Kong, China.  
12 Including re-exports of Hong Kong, China.  
13 Hong Kong, China; the Republic of Korea; Singapore; Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, 
Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) . 
14 Thailand and Malaysia.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 13 - 
 
  Chart 8: Selected flows in developing economies' trade , 2016 and 2018,  and world 
prices, 2017 -2018  
(Annual percentage change ) 
 
Source:  Trade flows: WTO Secretariat (2017) / WTO estimates  (2018); prices: IMF . 
4.22.  World commodity prices continue to have a direct effect on international merchandise trade 
flows. As a result of OPEC agree ing to cut production in end -2016, t he 24% and 27% price increase s 
of energy products in 2017 and 2018 after the 16% decline in 2016 largely affected oil exporters 
and oil-dependent importers of developing economies. Consequently , most countries record ed a 
decline in demand for fuel and mining products in 2016 then very significant double digit increases 
in mining p roducts in 2017 and 2 018. Moreover, th is is consistent with the increased participation 
of developing economies in global value chains which has led to multiple cross -border flows of 
intermediate goods by and for developing economies.  
4.23.  For fuel and mining exports , total exports of developing economies  are estimated to be at 
USD 1,585 billion  in 2018. Due to the fall in prices between 2014 -2016, fuel and mining products 
exports of developing economies decreased significantly by 40% and 1 4% in 2015 and 2016. Exports  
then paralleled the behaviour of prices, increasing by 2 6% in 2017 and an estimated 2 4% in 2018.  
According to latest estimates, t he Middle East accounted for an estimated average of 39 % of total 
mining exports of developing economies  between 2016 to 2018.  
4.24.  The top Middle East energy exporters were followed by Developing Asia  (28%) , 
Latin America  (17%) and Africa ( 16%). The top two traders Kingdom of Saudi Arabia  and the 
United  Arab Emirates are estimated to have annually exported, on average, a total of USD 243 billion 
between 2016 and 2018 . They are closely followed by Iran, Qatar and Kuwait  who generated a 
combined total amount of USD 161 billion  of mining exports from 2016  to 2018.  
4.25.  In terms of imports, China, India and Four East -Asian traders  were the  top importers of mining 
products. Their combined imports totalled to USD 1,083 billion accounting for 6 3% of total mining 
products imports of developing economies.  China is estimated to have imported USD 563 billion of 
fuel and mining products in 2018 and  India, USD 199 billion. Other top 20 traders like Turkey, 
two other East -Asian Traders15, Indonesia, Brazil and South Africa imported another 18% amounting 
to USD 305 billion.  
4.26.  In agriculture,  developing economies exports and imports in 2018 are estimated to have 
reached USD 709 billion and USD 750 billion respectively. Developing Asia and Latin America 
together account for almost 80% of agriculture exports of the developing economies  in 2016 an d 
2017. In Developing Asia, top exporters of food namely China, Indonesia, Thailand, India and 
Viet Nam lead the region with their combined 2018 agriculture exports totalling USD 2 43 billion  or 
34% of the group's agriculture exports . In Latin America, Braz il, Argentina , Mexico and Chile lead 
agriculture exports with combined exports of USD 1 87 billion  or a share of 26%  of developing 
economies’ total agricultural exports . In the import side, China once again leads the group as top 
                                                             
15 Thailand and Malaysia.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 14 - 
 
  importer in 2018 of agricul ture products among developing economies . Its m arket share increased 
to 25%, an improvement of it s 19% share in 2008.  
4.4  Net exporters and net importers of merchandise trade  
Brazil, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia  and China  are the leading net exporters of developing 
economies . 
4.27.  Table  1 lists the net importers and exporters of agriculture, mining and manufacturing 
products of developing economies from 2016 to 2018. Among the top 20 developing economy 
traders  from 2016 to 2018, Brazil , the Kingdom of Saudi Ara bia and China show to be the top net 
export ers of agricultural products, fuel and mining products and manufactures  respectively . In 
agriculture, Brazil and Chile have consistently been net exporters , with their  combined estimated 
food exports averaging  USD 89 billion  in 2016 and 2017 .  
4.28.  On the import side, China heads the list as net importer of agriculture as well as fuel and 
mining products . China, Chinese Taipei and Hong Kong , China  have consistently been net food 
importers for the last 10 ye ars with estimated combined food imports  amounting to USD 146 billion 
in 2016 and 2017. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia comes out as top net exporter of mining products 
and top net importer of  manufactures exporting an estimated USD 147 billion of fuels and im porting 
an estimated USD 48 billion of machinery and transport equipment in 2017.  
4.29.  It is worth noting that while most countries have remained net exporters or importers for 
many years, not all have always stayed as n et exporter or importe r. For instance, Vi et Nam was a 
net importer of manufactures from 2008 to 2015  but has moved to net exporter in 2016 and 2017. 
Another example is the Philippines which data show to be a net exporter of manufactures until 2014. 
But from 2015, it started importing more manufac turing goods than it export s. 
Table  1: Net exporters and importers of top 20 merchandise traders of developing 
economies, 2016 -2018  
(By rank of descending trade balance , annual average ) 
Rank  Net exporters  Net importers  
Agriculture  Fuels and 
mining products  Manufactures  Agriculture  Fuels and 
mining 
products  Manufactures  
1 Brazil  Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  China  China  China  Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  
2 Thailand  United Arab 
Emirates  Korea, Republic 
of Korea, Republic 
of India  Brazil  
3 Indonesia  Iran Chinese Taipei  Hong Kong, 
China  Korea, 
Republic of  Chile  
4 Chile  South Africa  Singapore  Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  Turkey  Hong Kong, 
China  
5 Malaysia  Indonesia  United Arab 
Emirates  United Arab 
Emirates  Chinese 
Taipei  Turkey  
6 India  Malaysia  Thailand  Chinese Taipei  Singapore  India  
7 Viet Nam    Malaysia  Philippines  Thailand  Indonesia  
8 South Africa    Viet Nam  Israel  Mexico  Philippines  
9 Mexico    Mexico  Iran Hong Kong, 
China  South Africa  
10       Singapore  Viet Nam  Iran 
11         Philippines  Israel  
12         Israel    
Source:  WTO Secretariat . WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 15 - 
 
  4.5  Agricultural (AoA) and Non -Agricultural Market Access (NAMA) goods  
In 2017 and 2018, soya beans , palm oil, motor cars and petroleum products were  the 
most traded  agricultural and non -agricultural product s by developing economies.  
4.30.  Changes in world food prices affect agricultural production and trade. From 2016 to 2018, 
annual changes in world food prices have stagnated in 2016, increased modestly by 4% in 2017 and 
decreased by 1 % in 2018. Major c hanges in prices occurred from 2016 to 2018  for some primary 
commodities : in 2016, wheat ( -23%), coarse grain like oats (-21%)  and sorghum ( -23%) , in 2017 , 
cocoa ( -30%) , and finally in 2018,  coffee ( -13%), palm oil ( -14%), sugar ( -21%) and wheat (+2 8%) 
(see Appendix Table 7). 
4.31.  Chart 9 shows the top ten AoA and NAMA products most traded by developing economies  in 
2017 and 2018 .16 Among the top AoA products exported , soya bean, palm oil, sugar cane and rice 
accou nt for 32% . Among th e most imported, carrots  and soya beans account for 26% and wine of 
fresh grapes, wheat and coffee account for 15%. According to latest data, Brazil takes the top spot 
as exporter of soya bean (HS1201), sugar cane ( HS1701) and meat and edible offal of 
poultry  (HS0207). Indonesia and Malaysia lead as top exporter s of palm oil (HS1511) while India 
and Thailand come out as top exporters of rice (HS1006). On the imports side,  the Leban ese Republic  
leads as top importer of carrots, turnip s, salad beetroot (HS0706) while China leads as top importer 
of soya beans (HS1201), palm oil (HS1511), malt extract (HS1901) and frozen meat (HS0202).  
4.32.  Price c hanges in some primary commodities, however, did not seem to affect trade  as much. 
Taking a closer look at wheat  (HS1101) , one of the core primary commodities  that would have an 
impact on world population17, available country data show that wheat exports have not significantly 
increased in 2016 to 2018 , despite the drastic decline in 2016  and jump in prices in 2018. Latest 
data show wheat exports to have decreased by 2% in 2016 and slightly increased by 1% in 2017 
and 2018. Available data show s Turkey as the top exporter of wheat in 2018.18   
4.33.  Trends in r ice exports from available  data, howe ver, somewhat  reflect  the trend of world 
prices for rice. Latest data19 reflect that rice exports (HS1006) increased by 4% in 2016 but bounced 
back to 24% in 2017 and record a modest increase of 6% in 2018. World prices of rice show an 
increase  from 2016 to 2018 by 2%, 3% and 1% respectively (see Appendix Table 7). Available data 
show India and Thailand as the top exporters of rice in 2018.20 
4.34.  In the case of Brazil 's 2018 exports of soya beans, available data show21 that despite a 
decrease in world price s from 2017 to 2018 ( -1% and -5%, s ee Appendix Table 7), net weight data 
shows an increase in Brazil's  volume of soya beans by 32% and 2 3%, respectively. Brazil’s e xports 
of soya bean (HS1201) decreased in value by 8% in 2016 but increased by 33% in 2017 and 29% 
in 2018. Brazil exported 83.6 million metric tons of soya bean  (HS0201) worth USD 33.1 billion in 
2018.  
4.35.  In the NAMA side, motorcars  (HS2703) , petroleum products (HS2709 and 2710) and 
electronic integrated circuits (HS8542) account  for over 45% of top traded NAMA goods . 
Medicaments in measured doses and radio -telephony transmission tools also account for 7% of those 
exported and imported respectively.  According to latest 2017 data, radio -telephony transmission 
tools and automatic data processing machi nes exported by China amount ed to USD 334 billion . 
4.36.  Despite the increase in fuel prices and the global call to reduce negative effects of climate 
change, trade in petroleum products continued to increas e. Available country data22 show that 
imports of oil and petroleum products (HS2700) in developing economies are estimated to have 
increased by 36% in 2017 and 31% in 2018. Imports of motor cars (HS8703) , on the other hand, 
show an increase of 6% in 2016 ( consistent with the drop-in fuel prices) , 7% in 2017 , and a decrease 
                                                             
16 List of products taken from the WTO World Trade Profiles 2019.  
17 https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/trs916/download/en/ . 
18 Data sourced from TDM (Trade Data Monitor).  
19 Data sourced from TDM (Trade Data Monitor).  
20 Data sourced from TDM  (Trade Data Monitor).  
21 Data sourced from TDM (Trade Data Monitor).  
22 Data sourced from TDM (Trade Data Monitor).  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 16 - 
 
  of 9% in 2018 . Plastics (HS3926) also show an increasing trend of 5%, 11% and 3% from 2016 to 
2018, respectively.  
4.37.  While existing trade statistics may not adequate ly show the direct  impact of natural disasters 
and w arming temperatures  on trade , potential links of natural phenomen a to trends in agriculture 
production, market share and prices could be further observed and monitored. Moreover, current 
trade classifications would have to be adapted to reflect new product s that have emerged due to 
environment and IT technology trend s. 
Chart 9: Developing economies’ top 10 exports and imports of AoA and NAMA goods, 
2017 and 2018  
(Percentage share)  
 
Source:  UN Comtrade database . 
Note:  Using Harmonised System (HS) reported AoA and NAMA data as published in the WTO Trade Profiles 
2019. 
4.6  "South -South" trade  
Developing Asia and trade in manufactures are the main drivers of South -South trade . 
4.38.  Trade of developing economies with other developing ec onomies or "South -South " trade has 
remain ed stable at an estimated share of 53% (see Chart 10) for the fourth  consecutive year, 
amounting to about USD 4,149 billion in 2018  and a 7% increase from its value in 2017 . In 2017, 
70% of total exports were mostly generated by Developing Asia, about 15% by the Middle East and 
a little under 10% by South and Central America and the Caribbean.  Total world exports of the 
developing economies are estimated to have reach ed USD 7766 billion in 2018.  Total exports were 
estimated to be about 65% manufactures, 20% fuels and mining and 10% agriculture products.  
4.39.  In terms of "who traded with whom ", about  70% of total "South -South " exports in 2017 were 
mostly directed to Developing Asia, particularly to the Six East -Asian traders  (almost 30%) and 
China  (20%) . The United States and the European Union remain to be important destinations of 
exports of developing economies . They averag ed 15% and 17% , respectively , of market share of 
total exports from 2015-2017. At least 75% of goods exported to both destinations were 
manufactures.  
4.40.  In "South -South" manufacture  exports , 84% was mostly generated by Developing Asia. In 
fuels and mining products , 36% were exported by the Middle East followed closely by 
Asian  economies (33%). And finally, total agricultural exports were mostly exported by 
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 17 - 
 
  Developing  Asia (52%) and by South and Central America and the Caribbean (over 30%). Latest 
bilateral data estimated "South -South " exports  in manufacture s, mining and agriculture in 2017 to 
amount to USD 2,545 billion, USD 825 billion and USD 400 billion respectively.  
4.41.  In terms of what was exported "South -South " manufacture exports predominantly sent to 
Developing Asia  were 40% office and telecommunication equipment. Fuel and mining exports  were 
also estimated to predominantly be sent to Developing Asia, mostly to the Six East -Asian traders or 
NICs(6)  (31%) and China  (28%). Latest estimates  reflect that exports to the NICs(6) 10 years ago 
had shrunk as market share has shifted to China. In particular, in 2008, 58% of developing 
economies’ exports of fuels and mining products was sent to NICs(6) countries and only 9 % sent to 
China. This had drastically changed in 2017 where fuel and mining exports to NICs(6) were estimated 
to have dropped to  39% and  increase for China at 25%.  
4.42.  Finally , for "South -South " agriculture  exports, 60% were mostly directed to Developing Asia 
(almost 40% directed to NICs(6) and China ), almost 15% each for the Middle East and Africa and 
10% to South and Central America and the Caribbean  in 2017.  
Chart 10: Developing economies' merchandise trade with de veloping, developed and CIS 
economies, 2000 -2018  
(Billion dollars ) 
 
a Excludes re -exports of Hong Kong, China.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat (2000 -2017), WTO estimates (2018).  
5  TRADE  IN COMMERCIAL SERVI CES DEVELOPMENTS BET WEEN 2016 AND 2018  
5.1  Overview  
Developing economy trade of commercial services increased from 2016 through 2018.  
 
5.1.  Commercial services trade for developing economies increased substantially over the 
2016-18 period , with exports growing 9.1 % and imports increasing 7.6 % on average annually to 
USD 1.8 trillion and USD 2.1 trillion respectively. Overall, commercial services trade stagnated in 
2016 with some developing economies seeing a decrease in the value of commercial ser vices exports 
and imports compared to 2015. The global economy was hit with a number of political shocks and 
weak or slowing growth in major economies during this year, thereby reducing demand. However, 
by 2017 the global economy had begun to improve with commodity prices increasing and accelerated 
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 18 - 
 
  growth in developing economies, leading to strong growth in commercial services trade through 
2018.  
5.2.  Trade in every main services sector by developing economies grew from 2016 to 2018  
(see Chart 11). Other commerc ial services exports saw the largest increase, growing 11.6% in 2018  
to USD 795 billion , with strong growth in telecommunications, computer and information services 
exports. Transport and travel services trade by developing countries also expanded, with ex ports 
rising on average by 8. 6% and 7. 6% respectively  over the period . Finally, goods -related services 
also increased, although this sector continues to be less well -represented as only half of all 
developing economies collect this data.  
Chart 11: Developi ng economies' trade in commercial services by main category, 
2016 -2018  
(Billion dollars )
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
5.3.  The main source of statistics on trade in commercial services continues to be the 
balance -of-payments (BOP) framework. However, BOP data does not provide information per the 
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS ), as discussed in the previous version of this report 
(WT/COMTD/W/230) .23 Commercial services trade statistics by partner country a re also not readily 
available, thereby limiting the analysis of commercial services trade flows (see chapter 7). Although 
statistics compiled on commercial presence within the  framework of  FATS are also not widely 
published, some information is available a nd is briefly discussed at the end of this section to broaden 
the perspective on developing economy services trade.24 
5.2  Leading traders  
Asia led developing economy  trade in commercial services.  
 
5.4.  All developing economy regions saw growth over the 2016-18 period , with shares of developing 
economy trade increasing for Asia, Africa and developing Europe.  This change in shares was 
precipitated by strong average annual export growth in Asia (+9.9%) , Africa  (+12.2%) , and 
Europe  (+14.1%) as well as average annual import growth of 8.2 % in Asia and 12.1 % in Africa. 
Developing Asian economies' exports rose the most in value terms, reaching USD 1.2 trillion in 2018, 
largely from increased exports of telecommunications, computer and information services a s well as 
other business services (led by China and India). In Africa, travel exports increased significantly 
from 2016 -18 given continued growth in North Africa and the recovery of Egyptian tourism following 
security events in late 2015. The increased sha re of commercial services exports by Other 
                                                             
23 The analysis of the international supply of services by developing economies in this Section is based 
on BOP statistics. Estimates jointly compiled by the WTO, the United Nations Conference on Trade and 
Development (UNCTAD) and the International Trade Centre (ITC), reflect the services classification contained 
in the sixth edition of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual (BPM6).  
24 Bosnia and Herzegovina; Costa Rica; China; Hong Kong, China; Israel; Serbia; Thailand;  Zambia and 
Zimbabwe are  currently the only developing economies compiling FATS statistics.   
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 19 - 
 
  South -Eastern Europe came from growth of Turkish air transport exports as the country continued 
to target its passenger aviation sector for development.  
5.5.  Developing Asia accounts for the largest share of developing  economy commercial services 
trade, with its share increasing from 65.5 % in 2016 to 66.4 % in 2018. Of this trade, the 
top five developing Asian economies by value of commercial services trade (China; India; Singapore; 
the Republic of Korea; and Hong Kong, China) accounted for approximately half of all developing 
economy commercial services trade in every year from 2016 -18 (see Chart 12).  
Chart 12: Share of developing economy commercial services trade by region and top 
traders, 2016 -18 
(Percentage share)
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
5.6.  A contributing factor to commercial services trade growth in Africa and Asia were regional trade 
networks. In Africa, COMESA and ECOWAS both saw strong growth in travel exports over the period, 
with COMESA registering aver age annual growth of 39.6 % over 2016 -18 (reaching US D 22.5 billion 
in 2018) as inter -African travel continued to grow and ECOWAS showing average growth of 13.4% 
in other commercial services trade, especially other business services. ASEAN saw balanced 
increases in all the main services export sectors, including manufactures on inputs owned by others.  
5.7.  Drilling down from the regional to the economy -level, more than half of the top 20 most 
dynamic commercial services traders were economies in Developing Asia (see Chart 13). 
Macao,  China, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia all saw strong average annual growth in exports of 
travel (+15.0%, +13.7 %, +12.2% +2.8% respectively) over the period as well as growth in imports 
of transport, a reflection of their strong tourism industries. India  and Singapore recorded high growth 
in imports of transport (18.0% and 11.7% respectively) given merchandise trade's return to growth 
following 2016, as well as exports and imports of other commercial services. China's commercial 
services trade grew across  the board as their GDP continued to expand over the period. Notably, 
the Philippines and Chinese Taipei both saw increases in exports of goods -related services over this 
period, increasing to USD 4.1 billion and US 4.4 billion respectively in 2018, althou gh their goods 
related services shares of total commercial services trade remained small (10.9% and 8.9%). Finally, 
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 20 - 
 
  Hong Kong, China and the Republic of Korea saw increases in transportation exports, again tied to 
the general growth in the global economy.  
5.8.  Egypt had the highest average annual percentage commercial services trade growth from 
2016-18 (+17.1%) as its tourism industry recovered following security events in late 2015 that 
negatively impacted its travel exports. In 2018, the value of Egypt's trave l services exports neared 
its 2010 record, reaching an estimated USD 11.6 billion. Several countries in the Middle East also 
posted high levels of average trade growth over the period, principally due to a return to growth for 
the transport sector, related  to the growth in merchandise trade. Exports of marine transport was 
especially important for Qatar, while an increase in insurance and pensions services exports, many 
of which are related to trade in the gulf, contributed to the high average annual growth  rate for the 
State of Kuwait. Israel showed continued growth in exports of telecommunications services. Lastly 
Turkey returned to more robust economic growth in 2016 following a slowdown in 2015 and showed 
strong increases in travel exports from 2016 to 2 018 (up from USD 18.7 billion to USD  25.2 billion).  
5.9.  Latin America also posted trade increases from 2016 to 2018. Mexico in particular showed 
strong increases in travel exports (+7.0%) and imports (+4.7%) while Brazil's trade growth was 
primarily focused in  imports of travel (+12.2%) and transport (+17.0%).  
Chart 13: Developing economies' top twenty dynamic commercial services traders, 
2016 -2018  
(Average annual percentage change)
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
5.3  Transport  
Transport services trade by develo ping economies  continued to grow.  
 
5.10.  Transport was the second  largest services sector traded by developing economies, making up 
19.9% of developing economies' exports and 28.1% of imports. Developing economies’ trade in 
transport services increased every yea r over the 2016 -18 period. Transport exports grew to 
USD 354 billion in 2018, up from USD 300 billion in 2016. Every region registered positive transport 
trade growth, with developing Europe, Developing Asia, and Africa having some of the largest 
changes  (see Chart 14).  
5.11.  Turkey led transport export growth in developing Europe as its economy expanded over the 
period, while Developing Asia; Singapore;  China;  and Hong Kong, China returned to  their previous 
growth trends after a slight dip in transport  exports in 2016. For Africa, Egypt had the highest growth 
in transport services following the negative impacts of a 2015 security incident.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 21 - 
 
  Chart 14: Developing economies' trade in transport services by region, 2016 -2018 
and 2018  
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
5.12.  By value terms, developing economy trade in maritime transport was the largest mode of 
transport, with exports reaching USD 171 billion and imports reaching USD 332 billion in 2018. Most 
leading develo ping country transport exporters saw growth in sea transport services exports, except 
for the Republic of Korea and Egypt. Although the Suez Canal can accommodate very large container 
ships, they generally do not make use of Egyptian seaports, limiting Egy ptian exports of 
maritime  transport.25 Additionally instability in the region contributed to Egypt's decline in exports.  
5.13.  Developing economy exports of air transport services, however, increased for all ten leading 
transport exporters. Singapore saw high growth  in passenger, freight and other air transport. 
Singapore, for many years, has targeted its aviation sector for development. Further, 
Singapore  Airlines, the country's flagship carrier, re -launched its super long -haul flight from Newark, 
United  State s of America  to Singapore in 2018, which was well -received.  
5.14.  Other transport services include services such as rail. China notedly increased its exports of 
other transport services by nearly 11.7% on average annually from 2016 -18. China has been 
working to increase its block train capacity and use, especially with services to Europe.  
  
                                                             
25 UNCTAD, "Review of Maritime Transport, 2017."  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 22 - 
 
  Chart 15: Developing economies' top ten transport exporters by mode of transport, 
2016 -2018  
(Average annual percentage change)  
 
a Negligible or zero values for other transpor t services . 
b The United Arab Emirates is the 4th largest developing economy exporter of transport services but  
its statistics do not have detail by mode of transport.  
 
Source:  WTO estimates . 
5.4  Travel  
Travel services continued to be the largest single commercial services sector traded by 
developing economies.  
 
5.15.  Travel, which records expenditure on goods and services by foreign travellers in the host 
economy, remained the largest single services sector traded by developing economies in 2018 
(see Chart 11) and continued to be an especially important sector for LDCs. Although the share of 
world services exports of travel by developing economies has remained stable at about one third of 
all travel exports over the past five years, the share of travel imports by developing economies has 
steadily increased from 25.1% in 2013 to 31.5% in 2018 as global tourism, including tourism by 
developing country nationals, continue d to grow.  
5.16.  Despite the economic slowdown in 2016 , international tourist arrivals continued growing, 
reach ing more than 600 million to developing economies in 2018.26 As in the past, about half of all 
tourist arrivals were to developing Asian economies, followed by Latin America. 
International  travellers' expenditure in goods and services during thei r stay in developing economies 
(travel  exports) reached US D 574  billion in 201 8, accounting for 39.9% of world receipts of travel , 
a share that has remained relatively constant over the past ten years.  
                                                             
26 Aggregates for the develop ing economies and for the developing regions were compiled by the 
Secretariat on the basis of  statistics by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO ). 
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 23 - 
 
  Chart 16: Developing economies' travel exports and int ernational tourist arrivals by 
region, 2016 -2018  
(Billion dollars and million)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates and WTO aggregations on the basis of UNWTO data . 
5.17.  China remained the world's top source of tourism over the 2016 -18 period, both in terms of 
spending and number of tourists. China, alone, accounted for 20% of global travel expenditures on 
average over the 2016 -18 period. Thailand also continued to show strong growth in travel exports 
and imports, as tourism arrivals remained high. Although ther e was a continued trend of fewer 
Chinese tourists to Thailand, this deficit was made up by tourist arrivals from India.  
Chart 17: Developing economies' top 10 travel traders' exports and imports by region, 
2016 -2018 and 2018  
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
5.5  Other commercial services  
Other commercial services trade continued to grow, with developing economies' shares 
increasing from 2016 -18. 
 
5.18.  From 2016 -18, developing economies' exports of "other commercial services" increased on  
average by 10.6% annually, reaching USD 795 billion in 2018 . Developing economies share of 
world  exports of other commercial services continued to increase, rising from 24.2% of world exports 
in 2016 to 25.6% of world exports in 2018.   
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 24 - 
 
  5.19.  All regions saw oth er commercial services trade growth over the 2016 -18 period except for 
Latin America, where economic difficulties in some of its leading economies such as Brazil and 
Argentina contributed to a slowdown in trade. Developing Asia and the Middle East saw the highest 
export growth in this period, while Africa reported strong growth of other commercial services 
imports.  
Chart 18: Developing economies' exports and imports of other commercial services by 
region, 2016 -2018 and 2018  
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
5.20.  Other business services" (which includes different types of services, such as research and 
development services, professional and management consulting services as well as technical, 
trade -related, and other business servi ces) and telecommunications, computer and information 
services had the largest share of other commercial services exports by developing economies 
(46.1%  and 23.0% respectively over 2016 to 20 18). This is reflected in the subsector shares by top 
developing economy other commercial services exporters (see Chart 19). For example, only 
Hong Kong, China and the United Arab Emirates did not show other business services as their largest 
other commercial services subsector in 2018 .  
5.21.  On the other hand, telecommunica tions, computer and information services played an 
important role in certain leading developing economy other commercial services exports, especially 
in China, India, Israel, the Philippines, the United Arab Emirates, and Chinese Taipei all six of which 
are focused in computer services exports. Complementing these services exports are strong 
electronic manufacturing industries in these economies.  
5.22.  Following telecommunications, computer and information services is developing economy 
exports of financial servi ces. Certain developing economies, principally Hong Kong, China, 
Singapore, and Chinese Taipei export large shares of financial services, a reflection  of their 
established global finance sectors.  
5.23.  Lastly, charges for the use of IP has been growing in devel oping economies, particularly China. 
Although still a relatively small share of total Chinese commercial services exports, exports of 
Chinese IP has more than doubled from USD 1.2 billion in 2016 to USD 5.6 billion in 2018. Other 
developing economies with strong digital sectors also have relatively larger shares of IP exports, 
namely Singapore, the Republic of Korea, Israel, the United Arab Emirates, and Chinese Taipei.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 25 - 
 
  Chart 19: Developing economies' top ten exporters of other commercial services by 
subsec tor, 2018  
(Percentage share)  
 
Source:  WTO estimates . 
5.6  Foreign Affiliate Statistics (FATS)  
Foreign Affiliate Statistics (FATS) information remains scarce.  
 
5.24.  Information for foreign affiliate statistics (FATS) is limited, especially for developing 
economies. However, available data suggest an increase in the value of inward investment in 2016, 
the latest year reported, especially within the information and comm unications sector. In recent 
years, nine developing economies have reported inward FATS data and three have reported outward 
data (see WTSR 2018). Most recently, six developing economies (Bosnia & Herzegovina, China;  
Hong Kong, China;  Serbia;  Thailand and Zambia) have inward FATS statistics available for 2016, 
while only China has reported outward FATS.  
5.25.  Of the six developing economies with reported inward FATS, the value increased from 
2015 to 2016 except in Bosnia & Herzegovina and China. Inward investmen t in information and 
communications increased by 4.0 % on average for the reporting countries, declining only in 
Thailand, which faced political uncertainty in 2016 that deterred business investment. Additionally, 
the number of inward FATS affiliates were a lso up slightly for five of the six reporters relative 
to 2015.  
5.26.  Available FATS data for Zambia in 2017 show some positive developments, although the 
report on services trade is mixed. The number of foreign affiliate enterprises in Zambia increased 
from 182  in 2016 to 193 in 2017 and their sales rose from US D 11.1 to US D 14.1 in 2017. These 
foreign affiliates data, however, also include non -services industries given the largest sector for 
Zambian foreign affiliates is the mining and quarrying sector. Zambian  exports of services to 
foreign  affiliates declined from USD 93 million in 2016 to USD 8.9 million in 2017. Similarly imports 
of services from foreign affiliates dropped from USD 515.3 million in 2016 to USD 11.67 million  in 
2017. On the other hand, foreig n affiliate services sectors such as wholesale & retail trade, deposit 
taking corporations, and information and communications all saw increases in their turnover from 
2016 to 2017.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 26 - 
 
  6  TRADE IN VALUE -ADDED  AND PARTICIPATION IN GLOBAL VALUE CHAINS  
6.1  The domestic  and foreign value -added contents of exports  
Developing economies import foreign inputs to produce their exports of goods and 
services.  
 
6.1.  Nowadays, a large part of the products consumed all over the world is produced within 
international Global Value Chains (GVCs) where economies and companies specialize in specific steps 
of the production process. Measuring trade related to the global produ ction phenomenon is a 
challenge and requires complementing  traditional trade statistics with data informing on the origin 
of the inputs contained in traded products.  
6.2.  The estimation of trade in value -added terms leads to the decomposition of gross exports i nto 
their domestic and foreign value -added contents. This can be used to assess the actual contribution 
of trade to an economy as well as the trade taking place among GVCs that refers to the vertical 
exchange of intermediate goods and services through inte rnational production chains.  
6.3.  The OECD Trade in Value -added (TiVA) database, resulting from an OECD -WTO initiative 
launched in 2011, provides free access to a wide range of indicators for 64 economies  for the 
period  2005-2015, among which are 27 developing economies27 and 36 industries .28  
6.4.  All economies shown in Chart 20 below  produce for their exports of goods and services the 
majority of value added in their own country (domestic value added). However, all exports contain 
a share of foreign value -added that varies substantially across economies. In 2016, oil and other 
primary products exporters, like the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Argentina or Brunei Darussalam, 
included more than 90% of domestic value -added in their total exports. Most of 
South -East Asia econo mies presented high rates of foreign content in their exports, thus outlining 
their integration in regional supply chains. For example, the Republic of Korea sourced its exports in 
2016 with intermediates from abroad up to 32%. Viet Nam's share of foreign inputs in its total 
exports  is the highest , estimated at 44.5%, mainly due to its specialization in assembly functions in 
the manufacturing industry.  
Chart 20: The domestic and foreign value -added content of exports, 2016  
(Percentage  of total gross exports of goods and services)  
 
Source:  OECD TiVA database . 
                                                             
27 Developing economies covered in the TiVA database: Argentina;  Brazil;  Brunei Darussalam; 
Cambodia; Chile;  China;  Colombia; Costa Rica;  Croatia; Hong Kong , China;  India;  Indonesia;  Israel;  
Korea  ,Republic of ; Malaysia;  Mexico; Morocco;  Peru;  Philippines;  Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of ; Singapore;  
South  Africa;  Chinese Taipei ; Thailand;  Tunisia;  Turkey and Viet Nam.  
28 Access the OECD TiVA database at https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TIVA_2018_C1  
or from the WTO GVC portal at https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/miwi_e/miwi_e.htm . 
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 27 - 
 
  6.2  Backward and forward participation in GVCs  
The level of total GVC participation varies significantly among  developing  economies , from 
24% to 62% of the value added contained in to tal exports, informing on their roles and 
positions in international production chains . 
 
6.5.  The GVC participation index illustrates the "Trade in tasks" phenomenon and the multiple 
value -added  exchanges between countries and industries taking place within international 
production. GVC participation can be broken down in two parts related to backw ard and forward 
linkages of a country with its foreign partners.  
6.6.  The backward participation to GVCs refers to the foreign value -added  content of exports, also 
referred to as vertical specialization, notion developed by Hummels et al. (2001). This is the " Buyer" 
perspective or sourcing side in GVCs, corresponding to the value -added  of inputs that were imported 
in order to produce intermediate or final goods and services for export. The forward participation to 
GVCs captures the domestic value -added  containe d in inputs sent to third countries in the production 
chain for further processing and export. This is the seller -related measure or supply side in the 
GVC participation index.  
6.7.  Chart 21 locates the set of developing economies available in the OECD TiVA da tabase 
according to their levels of backward and forward linkages to GVCs in 2015. Crossing the 
two dimensions of GVC participation provides information on the position and level of implication of 
economies in GVCs.  
Chart 21: Forward and backward GVC participation, all industries, 2015  
(Percentage  of total gross exports of goods and services)  
 
Source:  OECD TiVA database . 
6.8.  Brunei Darussalam and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia showed the highest rates of forward 
GVC participation, respectively 46.5% and 41.4% in 2015, which reflected their role as 
core oil suppliers to supply chains. Other primary products exporters, mainly from South America 
and also Indonesia, also intervene at the beginning of supply chains and predominantly export inputs 
through GVCs.  All these economies present low rates of backward GVC participation since the 
production of primary products requires less inputs for their production, and even less foreign inputs, 
than the manufacturing of more sophisticated products.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 28 - 
 
  6.9.  In 2015, Mexico i mported 36.1% of the total value -added contained in its exports. Such a 
trade  pattern is observed for processing traders that import massively foreign inputs to produce 
their exports. Although processing trade in China is prevalent, both backward and forwa rd 
GVC participations were quite balanced in 2015, around 17.5% each. In the last years, China has 
led industrial structural changes that modified its GVC patterns. The economy gradually increased 
its capacity to produce inputs, thus reducing its level of vertical specialization and exporting more 
and more industrial inputs to neighbour economies like Cambodia or Viet Nam. The latter had the 
highest rate of backward GVC participation (44.5%) in the economies under review, reflecting its 
specialization in en d-production activities.  
6.10.  Other South -East Asian economies, like Singapore, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea or 
Chinese  Taipei turned out to be the most engaged in GVCs with total GVC participation rates (sum 
of backward and forward rates) significantly exce eding 50%. Singapore had the most important rate 
in 2015, with 61.9% of its value -added exports taking place within GVCs and a predominance of 
backward linkages to supply chains (40.9%).  
6.3  Rising participation of developing economies  in GVCs  
Among  the econom ies under review , Viet Nam expanded the most its level of 
interconnection within GVCs , reaching a yearly growth of GVC participation of 16.5% 
between 2005 and 2015.  
 
6.11.  Chart 22 informs on the 2005 -2015 historical evolution of the integration of 
developing  economies into GVCs and highlights emerging economies and their potential to contribute 
to international production chains.  
6.12.  The top five economies having expanded the most their level of interconnection within 
GVCs  (either through backward or forward linka ges) between 2005 and 2015 are from Asia. 
Viet Nam experienced by far the greatest increase in GVC participation with an annual average 
growth of 16.5%. The Philippines and Cambodia continued rapid GVC integration, with respectively 
10.4% and 8.5% yearly g rowths. The two economies were relatively newcomers to GVCs especially 
compared to other ASEAN economies. Philippines benefited from export processing zones that 
supported the economy's GVC participation. While Cambodia has pursued policies and reforms to 
modernize its industrial structure and facilitate its integration to regional and global value chains. 
India's participation to GVCs also increased at a high pace (9.5%) during the 2005 -2015 decade, far 
above the average growth estimated for developing eco nomies (6.5%). This reflects inter alia  the 
successful integration of the economy within ICT global value chains, notably in the software services 
industry .  
  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 29 - 
 
  Chart 22: Evolution of GVC participation in selected developing economies, 2005 -2015  
(Annual ave rage percentage  change)  
 
Source:  OECD TiVA database . 
6.4  Geographical and sectoral origin s of the value -added cont ained  in exports of 
developing economies  
Total exports of developing economies were estimated to include 40.6% of 
services ' value  added  in 2015 . 
 
6.13.  Table 2 gives an overview of the geographical and sectoral origin of the value -added contained 
in the exports of developing economies, by main industry and based on the average of economies 
available in the TiVA database.  
6.14.  All sectors are domestically and internat ionally interconnected for the production of exported 
goods and services. On average, total exports of goods and services of developing economies 
contained around three -quarter of value -added originating from the domestic sector in 2015. The 
remaining quar ter was about the foreign value -added content of exports. While the domestic origin 
informs on the contribution of domestic industries and value chains to exports, the foreign 
value -added origin content deals with value -added stemming from upstream compani es in GVCs.  
6.15.  The average share of manufactures' value -added in manufacturing exports was estimated at 
46.6% in 2015, while the interpretation of gross trade statistics might assume that manufacturing 
exports are composed of 100% value from the industry itse lf.  
  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 30 - 
 
  Table 2: Average domestic and foreign sectoral VA contribution to gross exports of 
developing economies, by main industry, 2015  
(Percentage  of total industry gross exports)  
Value -added origin  
 Domestic  Foreign   
Export 
industry  Primary 
products  Manufactures  Services  Primary 
products  Manufactures  Services   
Total  11.2 34.4 31.1 4.8 9.0 9.5 100.0  
Primary 
products  77.2 5.4 9.5 1.9 2.7 3.4 100.0  
Manufactures  6.9 46.6 18.7 5.8 11.5 10.5 100.0  
Services  2.2 5.7 77.8 2.7 3.1 8.4 100.0  
Source:  OECD TiVA database . 
6.16.  Domestic services accounted for 18.7% of the total value -added contained in manufactures 
exports  (see Table 2 above) . This is about so -called "indirect exports" where services are integrated 
to the manufactures process and embed ded in exported goods. In the literature, this can be referred 
to as "Manu -services" or the "servicification" of  the manufacturing industry. Broadly speaking, 
indirect exports apply whenever an industry provides inputs to another one that exports. Hence, i n 
2015, the agricultural sector of developing economies exported indirectly through the manufactures 
industry up to 6.9% of the value -added included in manufactures exports.  
6.17.  Services exports from developing economies include value -added from all other dome stic or 
foreign industries. Foreign services accounted for 8.4% of the total value -added in services exports, 
which characterizes services value chains where services are used for the creation and export of 
other services. All in all, total exports of deve loping economies were estimated to include 40.6% of 
services in 2015 (the sum of national services, 31.1%, and foreign services supplied by 
GVC partners, 9.5%).  
6.5  Decompos ing the contribution of services  to exports using the TiVA ap proach  
The indirect servi ces value -added content of exports outlines  the dynamism of domestic 
value chains  and the role of SMEs to supply services to larger domestic companies that 
export.  
 
6.18.  The TiVA approach enables to decompose the contribution of services to exports into 
three  value-added components (see Chart 23): (a) Direct services domestic value -added content of 
exports, corresponding to the share of domestic services contained in exports from the 
services  sector; (b) Indirect services domestic value -added content of exports, or the share of 
domestic services embedded in the exports of other domestic industries; and (c) Foreign services 
value -added content of exports, or services supplied as inputs by foreign compagni es. 
6.19.  The highest share of direct services exports observed in the sample of countries was for 
Hong Kong, China, estimated to 61.1 % of its total exports of goods and services in 2015. Croatia, 
Costa Rica and Israel also included significant contents of dire ct services value -added in their 
exports, beyond 40% of their total exports. The predominance of direct domestic services in exports 
outlines the services orientation of an economy.  
6.20.  China, Brazil and Turkey showed the highest rates of indirect services val ue-added in their 
exports respectively 20.7%, 19.9% and 16.2% in 2015. This underlines the dynamism of domestic 
networks of companies that provide services to other domestic exporting companies. Indirect 
exporters are often SMEs that provide inputs to larg er companies that export.  
  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 31 - 
 
  Chart 23: Direct, indirect and foreign services value -added contents in gross 
exports,  2015  
(Percentage  of total gross exports of goods and services)  
 
Source:  OECD TiVA database . 
6.21.  GVC hubs or economies that play the role of assemblers at the end of the production chain 
tend to import significantly intermediate goods and services for the production of their exports. This 
is the case for Singapore; Hong Kong, China; and Viet Nam, whic h presented high rates of 
foreign  services in their exports in 2015, respectively 26%, 17.7% and 16.8%.  
6.6  GVC participation in the computer and electronic industry  
South -East Asian economies were major contributors to world computer and electronic 
supply ch ains in 2015.  
 
6.22.  Trade in value -added statistics allow to decompose the GVC participation index by industry. 
Chart 24 illustrates the engagement of some developing economies in "Computer, electronic and 
optical equipment" supply chains (ISIC Rev.4 classifica tion, Division 26). In this case, backward 
participation corresponds to the share of imported technical components in the exports of the same 
industry, while forward participation stands for the exports of IT -related components to downward 
production partn ers from the "Computer, electronic…" industry.  
6.23.  Overall, Chart 24 below highlights that South -East Asian economies were major contributors 
to world computer and electronic production networks in 2015, either by importing components from 
GVC partners, like V iet Nam, Malaysia or Thailand, or by specializing in some industrial tasks and 
the export of components to GVC partners, such as Chinese Taipei, the Republic of Korea or the 
Philippines. In 2015, 30% of the value -added contained in Philippines' exports of 
electronic  equipment was related to inter connections with international production networks, either 
by exporting components to IT supply chains (16.9% , the Philippines host a significant number of 
semiconductor assembly and test facilities ) or by importing  technical inputs within same supply 
chains (13.1%). Israel, which hosts manufacturing plants and R&D centres of many multinational 
semiconductor companies, is also a leading supplier of IT components to GVCs. Its forward 
GVC participation within the compu ter and electronic industry stood at 14.7% in 2015.  
6.24.  Major computer and electronic exporters presented different GVC patterns in 2015. China 
mainly acted as a buyer of components within production chains with a backward GVC participation 
estimated to 11.5% of China's IT total exports in 2015.The Republic of Korea had a more balanced 
interaction with IT supply chains, by exporting and importing inputs along IT supply chains 
corresponding to 25% of Korean total exports of computer and electronic products. Chin ese Taipei 
was a major supplier of components through IT production networks and showed a fairly high 
forward GVC participation rate of 18.9%, corresponding to the value -added share from its total 
exports of computers and electronics destined to IT supply chains.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 32 - 
 
  6.25.  Chart 22 reflects the boom of the information and technology sector in Viet Nam during the 
last decade and highlights the significant level of imported components used to produce its exports. 
In 2015, 21.2% of the total value -added contained in Vie tnamese IT exports were based on 
foreign  inputs supplied by GVC partners.  
6.26.  Malaysia is also an IT exporter engaged in supply chains, with emphasis on upstream 
industrial linkages. All in all, foreign inputs represented 15% of the total value -added contained  in 
its exports of computer and electronic products. Mexico is another core buyer from IT supply chains 
with a backward GVC participation estimated to 18.3 % in 2015, mainly relying on imports of 
high-tech components from the United States. Thailand has sp ecialized in the production of 
IT components such as hard disks, integrated circuits and other electronic sub -components. The 
economy is well integrated to computer and electronic supply chains and acts on both sides of 
GVC participation, with 22.6% of its trade activity in the industry related to GVCs.  
Chart 24: Forward and backward GVC participation, "Computer, electronic and optical 
products" industry, 2015  
(Percentage of total gross exports in the "Computer, electronic and optical products" industry)  
 
Source:  OECD TiVA database . 
7  CURRENT CHALLENGES AND INITIATIVES OF D EVELOPING ECONOMIES IN COMPILING 
STATISTICAL TRADE DA TA 
This section aims to mention  the current challenges and initiatives developing economies have in 
compiling their trade statistics.  The better developing economies have this information , the better 
the chance s their trade statistics will record and reflect the ir size of trade and participation in the 
world economy. Pointing these out a lso hopes to encourage conversations at the nation al level on 
how to support statistical offices in produc ing timely, more reliable and national and internationally 
comparable trade statistics.  
WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 33 - 
 
  7.1  Implement ing revision s to international standards in compiling International 
Merchandise Trade Statistics  
7.1.  The WTO collaborates with the United Nations and other international organizations in hosting 
regional workshops  in various developing economies  on International Merchandise Trade Statistics  
(IMTS) . These were organized in order to ensure harmon ised understanding and implementation of 
internationally recommended standards in compiling IMTS among national and regional statistical 
compilers . These are also opportunit ies for international compilers to be informed and be made 
aware of challenges that national and region al statistic ians have particularly when revisions or new 
statistical compiling standards are introduced.  
7.2.  In one of the workshop s done in 201 9, for example, below are some of the compilation 
challenges raised29: 
 
(a) Applying the general trade system , i.e. excluding goods admitted to (customs) warehouse 
for subsequent re -exports , compil ing trade indices due to high cost s of survey s and the 
heterogeneity of HS codes , compil ing trade by enterprise characteristics , compil ing extended 
IMTS required datasets , compliance on quantity information , identif ying and correcti ng of 
over- or under -invoicing , compil ing seasonal adjustments , outdated compil ing tools or lack 
of resources to upgrade ; compil ing imports in FOB for the use in the BOP. 
(b) Analysing and reducing  bilateral asy mmetries , i.e. having a better understanding o f valid 
statistical reasons of bilateral asymmetry , for example, most, if not all discrepancies may be 
attributed to  trade mis -invoicing , the absence of necessary information such as country of 
consignment, imports FOB or re -exports . 
(c) Enhanc ing knowledge about the methodological difference between BOP and IMTS to 
attribute  trade transactions accurately . 
(d) Understanding the conceptual statistical framework on measuring digital trade and 
e-commerce . 
 
7.3.  Statisticians of developing economies welcome the efforts of international organizations in 
assisting them in ensuring proper understanding and implementation of internationally 
recommended standards in compiling Internationa l Merchandise Trade Statistics.  National and 
regional compilers are committed to sharing best practices, knowledge and statistical challenges 
with each other and to seek technical assistance as necessary.  
7.2  Improving data availability in commercial services  
7.4.  Compilation of services statistics has a variety of challenges stemming from its inherent 
complexity, especially for developing countries. To begin with, services trade has no physical 
component that can be counted and tallied, unlike for merchandise trade . This means that data must 
largely be derived statistically, which requires substantial human capital and the financial ability to 
maintain properly trained professionals in the compiling office. Further, many services industries are 
not straightforward t o sample, and compilers need to have training and a clear understanding of the 
definition of the industry in order to produce estimates that are comparable across countries.  
7.5.  Besides trained professionals, generating a statistically significant sample of a n industry sector 
also needs up to date business registries, which can require significant resources to maintain. In 
fact, the Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services Compiler's Guide 2010  recommends 
maintaining a statistical business regis ter (SBR) and to regularly control the quality of the SBR. Once 
the surveys are collected, there is also the difficulty of maintaining business confidentiality of the 
information acquired.  
7.6.  In addition to business surveys, services data can be collected thr ough border, labor force, or 
household surveys, especially for travel statistics. This requires having systems and infrastructure 
in place to collect and analyze these data. Surveys of individuals are can also be problematic as, for 
example, travelers do n ot always remember precise values spent abroad and depending on how the 
survey is conducted it may suffer from a very low response rate . Additionally, population censuses 
are important sources of benchmark information, however the comprehensive nature of a  census 
                                                             
29 Notes from the Regional Workshop on International Merchandise Trade Statistics in Johannesburg, 
South Africa, 2019.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 34 - 
 
  can be especially challenging in developing economies where access to some remote areas may be 
impossible and the shear cost of such an endeavor may be prohibitive.  
7.7.  Some direct services transaction data can be collected, such as financial transacti ons from 
banks. However, this data too has challenges as the institution collecting the data may have different 
definitions for transactions compared to the Balance of Payments system used by statistical 
agencies. Further, there are likely to be errors and  possible misclassifications of information compiled 
by financial institutions.  
7.8.  Services data also suffers from an issue of timeliness. Sometimes data might be collected, such 
as border statistics, but it is only released after periodic services statistics  are already published. In 
this case, delayed data can be used for verification and for improving models to estimate trade in 
services sectors such as travel . 
7.9.  Besides these basic issues when compiling services data, new technologies and the changing 
global  economy add to the difficulties of keeping services data relevant and comparable across 
compilers. Additionally, although there may be new "big data" sources of information that could be 
relevant to compilers, there are potential legal barriers to accessi ng and using this information, new 
human resource skill constraints, possible privacy concerns and costs to acquiring and maintaining 
these large datasets.  
7.10.  Although services trade data collection suffers from a wide variety of challenges, perhaps the 
largest issue is the fact that there is no estimation at all for certain types of information, such as 
information on international trade in services partner dat a or FATS. All of these difficulties will take 
time, education, and resources to resolve.  
7.3  Using ASYCUDA to facilitat e statistical data compilation  and WTO notifications  for 
developing economies  
7.11.  Advances in customs management systems around the world have b een driven significantly 
by innovation in information communication technology over the last decades. These developments 
have led to important improvements to facilitate trade, reduce costs and enhance timeliness and 
reliability. By using technology effici ently, customs can play a key role in facilitating companies to 
trade internationally, help verify compliance with recognized standards and collect government 
revenue.  
7.12.  One long -established customs management solution is the "Automated System for 
Customs  Data" (ASYCUDA) offered by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 
(UNCTAD). Implemented in 120 countries and territories worldwide – including many developing 
and least -developed countries – ASYCUDA has become the reference for customs comput erization, 
which allows customs interacts with many players in the process of any import or export 
transactions. For data collection, the central national ASYCUDA database offers a unique possibility 
to be used as the base repository allowing for the extra ction of relevant data and information. The 
common ASYCUDA architecture also provides a standard structure for easy data integration across 
the countries.  
7.13.  WTO Members are required to notify tariff and trade data to the WTO Secretariat on an annual 
basis. S ome WTO Members, however, have difficulties in accessing and compiling the required 
information and in reporting in a timely manner. A project led by the World Trade Organization 
(WTO) in close co -operation with UNCTAD aims to strengthen the statistical ca pacity of customs 
authorities by facilitating the extraction, dissemination and analysis of trade and market access 
related data using the ASYCUDA system.  
7.14.  The project foresees to develop a software module that allows to compile trade and customs 
related da ta. With the agreement with countries, the module sources relevant data directly from 
ASYCUDA data repository and automatically produce a notification file required by the 
WTO notification. The module will also identify constraints, inconsistencies and dup lication: issues 
that can be addressed in order to effectively facilitate import, export and transit procedures. The 
development and implementation of a multilingual software module will be implemented in 
two phases, first to facilitate the compilation of relevant tariff data, followed by a second phase 
facilitating the extraction of aggregated imports statistics.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 35 - 
 
  7.15.  The project's overall objective is to strengthen statistical capacity, compile reliable data and 
help WTO members to fulfil WTO notification obli gations. Furthermore, these efforts in data collection 
will support trade policymakers with latest trade statistics and enhance national statistical capacity 
to analyse market access opportunities, based on consistent, reliable and up -to-date information, to 
strengthen countries' participation in global trade.  
 
  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 36 - 
 
  APPENDIX  
APPENDIX TABLE 1: ME RCHANDISE EXPORTS OF  DEVELOPING ECONOMIE S AND REGIONS, 
2016‑2018 
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -18 2017  2018  
Worlda 18,894.61  100.000  100.000  - - 10 11 10 
Developing Economiesa 8,197.09  42.653  43.383  100.000  100.000  11 12 10 
Latin America and the 
C aribbean  1,086.44  5.723  5.750  13.418  13.254  11 12 9 
Developing Europe  204.58  1.094  1.083  2.564  2.496  10 11 8 
A frica  483.86  2.287  2.561  5.362  5.903  17 19 15 
Middle East  1,110.75  5.239  5.879  12.283  13.551  17 15 18 
Developing Asiaa 5,311.45  28.310  28.111  66.373  64.797  10 11 9 
A fghanistan  0.88 0.004  0.005  0.009  0.011  21 31 12 
A lbania  2.87 0.013  0.015  0.030  0.035  21 17 25 
A lgeria  41.17  0.193  0.218  0.453  0.502  17 17 17 
A merican Samoa  0.43 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.005  5 2 8 
A ngola  40.76  0.178  0.216  0.417  0.497  22 25 18 
A ntigua and Barbuda  0.09 0.001  0.000  0.001  0.001  1 144 -58 
A rgentina  61.62  0.373  0.326  0.874  0.752  3 1 5 
A ruba, the Netherlands 
with respect to  0.19 0.002  0.001  0.004  0.002  -17 -53 44 
Bahamas  0.66 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.008  17 19 15 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  18.26  0.082  0.097  0.193  0.223  20 20 19 
Bangladesh  39.25  0.225  0.208  0.527  0.479  6 3 9 
Barbados  0.45 0.003  0.002  0.008  0.005  -7 -6 -8 
Belize  0.45 0.003  0.002  0.007  0.006  1 3 -1 
Benin  2.45 0.011  0.013  0.027  0.030  18 25 11 
Bhutan  0.61 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.007  7 9 6 
Bolivia, Plurinational State 
of 8.96 0.046  0.047  0.107  0.109  13 11 14 
Bosnia and Herzegovina  7.18 0.034  0.038  0.080  0.088  16 20 12 
Botswana  6.59 0.047  0.035  0.111  0.080  -5 -20 12 
Brazil  239.89  1.193  1.270  2.797  2.927  14 18 10 
Brunei Darussalam  6.57 0.031  0.035  0.074  0.080  16 14 18 
Burkina Faso  3.25 0.016  0.017  0.038  0.040  14 15 13 
Burundi  0.18 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  20 38 5 
C abo Verde  0.08 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  12 -16 51 
C ambodia  13.95  0.065  0.074  0.152  0.170  18 20 15 
C ameroon  3.80 0.021  0.020  0.050  0.046  7 -2 18 
C ayman Islands  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.000  -18 -35 2 
C entral African Republic  0.15 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  15 22 8 
C had  2.00 0.012  0.011  0.027  0.024  5 -17 33 
C hile  75.45  0.391  0.399  0.917  0.920  11 13 10 
C hina  2,486.70  13.508  13.161  31.670  30.336  9 8 10 
C olombia  41.77  0.205  0.221  0.479  0.510  15 16 13 
C omoros  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  17 25 10 
C ongo  10.03  0.028  0.053  0.066  0.122  52 40 65 
C ook Islands  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  8 51 -23 
C osta Rica 11.20  0.053  0.059  0.125  0.137  16 16 17 
C ôte d'Ivoire  12.32  0.070  0.065  0.164  0.150  6 9 4 
C uba  2.82 0.015  0.015  0.035  0.034  10 29 -5 
C uraçao  0.61 0.003  0.003  0.006  0.007  21 14 28 
Democratic Republic of 
the C ongo  8.80 0.035  0.047  0.082  0.107  28 46 11 
Djibouti  0.17 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  10 2 18 
Dominica  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -10 -9 -10 
Dominican Republic  10.91  0.063  0.058  0.149  0.133  5 3 8 
Ecuador  21.61  0.108  0.114  0.254  0.264  13 14 13 
Egypt  27.62  0.164  0.146  0.385  0.337  4 1 8 
El Salvador  5.90 0.035  0.031  0.082  0.072  4 6 3 
Equatorial Guinea  6.50 0.032  0.034  0.074  0.079  15 6 25 
Eritrea  0.68 0.003  0.004  0.007  0.008  25 29 22 
Eswatini  1.83 0.011  0.010  0.025  0.022  6 10 2 
Ethiopia  2.83 0.019  0.015  0.044  0.035  -2 8 -10 
Fiji 1.04 0.006  0.006  0.014  0.013  6 3 9 
French Polynesia  0.15 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.002  -8 -11 -4 
Gabon  7.08 0.028  0.037  0.066  0.086  27 30 25 
The Gambia  0.10 0.001  0.001  0.001  0.001  4 13 -4 
Ghana  14.87  0.072  0.079  0.168  0.181  16 24 7 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 37 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -18 2017  2018  
Grenada  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  2 0 4 
Guam  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  1 0 3 
Guatemala  10.77  0.067  0.057  0.158  0.131  2 5 -2 
Guinea  3.98 0.016  0.021  0.036  0.049  28 90 -13 
Guinea -Bissau  0.35 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.004  12 19 6 
Guyana  1.37 0.009  0.007  0.022  0.017  -2 0 -4 
Haiti 1.08 0.007  0.006  0.016  0.013  2 -4 8 
Honduras  8.67 0.051  0.046  0.120  0.106  4 9 0 
Hong Kong, C hina  568.45  3.327  3.009  7.800  6.935  5 6 3 
domestic exports  12.44  0.164  0.066  0.385  0.152  -30 -28 -32 
India  324.78  1.704  1.719  3.994  3.962  11 13 9 
Indonesia  180.22  0.930  0.954  2.181  2.199  12 17 7 
Iran 105.00  0.469  0.556  1.101  1.281  20 27 13 
Iraq 95.26  0.302  0.504  0.707  1.162  43 36 50 
Israel  61.95  0.390  0.328  0.914  0.756  1 1 1 
Jamaica  1.88 0.008  0.010  0.018  0.023  25 9 43 
Jordan  7.77 0.049  0.041  0.114  0.095  1 0 3 
Kenya  6.05 0.037  0.032  0.086  0.074  3 1 5 
Kiribati  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  11 45 -15 
Korea, Democratic 
People's Republic of  0.30 0.019  0.002  0.045  0.004  -68 -41 -83 
Korea, Republic of  604.86  3.190  3.201  7.480  7.379  10 16 5 
Kuwait, the State of  71.94  0.298  0.381  0.699  0.878  25 19 31 
Lao People's Democratic 
Republic  5.29 0.027  0.028  0.064  0.065  12 15 9 
Lebanese Republic  3.83 0.025  0.020  0.059  0.047  -1 2 -5 
Lesotho  1.18 0.006  0.006  0.013  0.014  15 17 14 
Liberia  0.49 0.002  0.003  0.004  0.006  32 28 37 
Libya  24.81  0.061  0.131  0.143  0.303  62 95 35 
Macao, China  1.51 0.008  0.008  0.019  0.018  10 12 7 
Madagascar  3.05 0.015  0.016  0.034  0.037  16 26 7 
Malawi  1.05 0.007  0.006  0.015  0.013  1 -14 18 
Malaysia  247.46  1.222  1.310  2.865  3.019  14 15 13 
Maldives  0.34 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.004  15 24 7 
Mali 3.44 0.018  0.018  0.043  0.042  10 2 19 
Marshall Islands  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  8 11 5 
Mauritania  1.89 0.009  0.010  0.021  0.023  16 23 9 
Mauritius  2.37 0.015  0.013  0.036  0.029  0 -1 1 
Mexico  450.68  2.408  2.385  5.646  5.498  10 9 10 
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.08 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  24 -6 63 
Mongolia  7.01 0.032  0.037  0.074  0.086  19 26 13 
Montenegro  0.47 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  14 17 12 
Montserrat  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  17 48 -8 
Morocco  28.61  0.146  0.151  0.342  0.349  12 12 13 
Mozambique  5.20 0.021  0.027  0.050  0.063  25 42 10 
Myanmar  16.64  0.076  0.088  0.179  0.203  19 17 20 
Namibia  5.40 0.026  0.029  0.062  0.066  15 18 12 
Nauru  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -6 39 -36 
Nepal  0.79 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.010  6 7 6 
New C aledonia  1.93 0.009  0.010  0.020  0.024  21 17 24 
Nicaragua  5.01 0.031  0.027  0.072  0.061  2 8 -3 
Niger  1.29 0.007  0.007  0.016  0.016  12 17 7 
Nigeria  60.55  0.214  0.320  0.503  0.739  35 34 36 
Niue 0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  27 60 0 
North Macedonia  6.91 0.031  0.037  0.072  0.084  20 18 22 
Northern Mariana Islands  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -9 17 -29 
O man  46.64  0.157  0.247  0.369  0.569  38 35 42 
Pakistan  23.49  0.132  0.124  0.309  0.287  7 6 8 
Palau  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  9 -2 20 
Panama  11.48  0.072  0.061  0.169  0.140  1 -1 3 
Papua New Guinea  10.04  0.053  0.053  0.124  0.122  11 21 1 
Paraguay  9.04 0.055  0.048  0.128  0.110  3 2 4 
Peru 49.07  0.239  0.260  0.560  0.599  15 22 8 
Philippines  67.49  0.363  0.357  0.850  0.823  9 22 -2 
Q atar  84.29  0.369  0.446  0.865  1.028  21 18 25 
Rwanda  1.13 0.005  0.006  0.011  0.014  24 45 7 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  3 -2 8 
Saint Lucia  0.13 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  5 6 4 
Saint Martin  0.15 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  6 -7 21 
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  -2 -9 6 
Samoa  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  -9 -21 4 
Sao Tomé and Principe  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  8 11 6 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  294.37  1.182  1.558  2.772  3.591  27 21 33 
Senegal  3.62 0.017  0.019  0.040  0.044  17 13 21 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 38 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -18 2017  2018  
Serbia  19.23  0.096  0.102  0.225  0.235  14 14 13 
Seychelles  0.57 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.007  11 19 4 
Sierra Leone  0.55 0.004  0.003  0.009  0.007  -4 -6 -2 
Singapore  412.95  2.128  2.186  4.990  5.038  12 13 11 
Solomon Islands  0.52 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.006  9 14 5 
Somalia  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
South Africa  93.97  0.491  0.497  1.151  1.146  11 17 6 
Sri Lanka  11.89  0.066  0.063  0.156  0.145  7 10 5 
Sudan  3.48 0.020  0.018  0.047  0.043  6 33 -15 
Suriname  2.13 0.009  0.011  0.022  0.026  22 41 5 
Syrian Arab Republic  2.00 0.011  0.011  0.026  0.024  8 6 11 
C hinese Taipei  335.91  1.805  1.778  4.232  4.098  9 13 6 
Tanzania  3.98 0.029  0.021  0.068  0.049  -6 -9 -3 
Thailand  252.96  1.387  1.339  3.252  3.086  8 10 7 
Timor -Leste  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  53 17 99 
Togo  1.15 0.007  0.006  0.016  0.014  5 -2 13 
Tonga  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -16 -12 -20 
Trinidad and Tobago  9.99 0.049  0.053  0.115  0.122  14 20 9 
Tunisia  15.53  0.087  0.082  0.205  0.190  7 5 9 
Turkey  167.92  0.918  0.889  2.152  2.049  9 10 7 
Tuvalu  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -17 -78 220 
Uganda  3.09 0.016  0.016  0.037  0.038  12 17 6 
United Arab Emirates  316.90  1.900  1.677  4.454  3.866  4 6 1 
Uruguay  7.50 0.045  0.040  0.106  0.092  3 12 -5 
V anuatu  0.06 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  12 -7 35 
V enezuela, Bolivarian 
Republic of  34.41  0.172  0.182  0.403  0.420  14 22 6 
V iet Nam  242.68  1.137  1.284  2.666  2.961  17 21 13 
Yemen  2.55 0.004  0.014  0.010  0.031  98 146 59 
Zambia  9.04 0.041  0.048  0.096  0.110  19 26 13 
Zimbabwe  4.39 0.021  0.023  0.050  0.054  15 16 14 
Memorandum                  
Developed Economies  10,060.01  54.669  53.243  128.172  122.727  9 9 9 
C ommonwealth of 
Independent States 
(C IS), including associate 
and former member 
States  637.51  2.677  3.374  6.277  7.777  24 24 23 
LDCs (47)  191.41  0.938  1.013  2.198  2.335  15 17 12 
NICS(6)a 1,866.58  9.897  9.879  23.204  22.771  10 13 7 
a Excluding Hong Kong, China re -exports.  
- Not applicable.  
... Not available.  
Note:  Recent figures for a number of countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 39 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 2: ME RCHANDISE IMPORTS OF  DEVELOPING ECONOMIE S AND REGIONS, 
2016‑2018 
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -
18 2017  2018  
Worlda 19,394.67  100.000  100.000  - - 11 11 10 
Developing Economiesa 7,976.19  39.940  41.126  100.000  100.000  12 13 11 
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  1,122.40  5.899  5.787  14.769  14.072  10 8 11 
Developing Europe  278.54  1.516  1.436  3.795  3.492  8 17 -1 
Africa  576.19  3.085  2.971  7.725  7.224  9 6 12 
Middle East  742.51  4.473  3.828  11.199  9.309  2 3 1 
Developing Asiaa 5,256.55  24.967  27.103  62.511  65.903  15 17 14 
Afghanistan  7.41 0.041  0.038  0.103  0.093  6 16 -2 
Albania  5.93 0.029  0.031  0.073  0.074  13 14 12 
Algeria  46.20  0.297  0.238  0.744  0.579  -1 -2 0 
American Samoa  0.61 0.004  0.003  0.010  0.008  -3 -9 3 
Angolab 15.80  0.082  0.081  0.206  0.198  10 11 9 
Antigua and Barbuda  0.50 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.006  6 25 -10 
Argentina  65.44  0.352  0.337  0.882  0.820  8 20 -2 
Aruba, the Netherlands 
with respect tob 1.23 0.007  0.006  0.018  0.015  4 -1 9 
Bahamas  3.31 0.017  0.017  0.042  0.042  12 18 7 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  12.90  0.058  0.066  0.145  0.162  19 18 19 
Bangladesh  60.50  0.282  0.312  0.707  0.758  16 18 14 
Barbados  1.58 0.010  0.008  0.026  0.020  -1 -1 -1 
Belize  0.96 0.006  0.005  0.015  0.012  0 -4 5 
Benin  4.07 0.018  0.021  0.045  0.051  19 22 16 
Bhutan  1.05 0.006  0.005  0.016  0.013  2 3 2 
Bolivia, Plurinational State 
of 10.00  0.053  0.052  0.133  0.125  9 10 8 
Bosnia and Herzegovina  11.63  0.058  0.060  0.144  0.146  13 15 11 
Botswana  6.29 0.039  0.032  0.097  0.079  1 -13 18 
Brazil  188.56  0.905  0.972  2.265  2.364  15 10 20 
Brunei Darussalam  4.16 0.017  0.021  0.042  0.052  25 15 35 
Burkina Faso  4.45 0.021  0.023  0.053  0.056  15 16 14 
Burundi  0.79 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.010  14 23 5 
Cabo Verde  0.82 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.010  11 19 3 
Cambodia b 18.78  0.089  0.097  0.223  0.235  15 10 21 
Cameroon  6.13 0.033  0.032  0.082  0.077  8 1 17 
Cayman Islands  1.16 0.006  0.006  0.016  0.015  6 3 10 
Central African Republic  0.43 0.003  0.002  0.006  0.005  3 -9 17 
Chad  2.17 0.016  0.011  0.039  0.027  -6 -22 12 
Chile  75.00  0.375  0.387  0.938  0.940  12 10 15 
China  2,135.75  10.017  11.012  25.079  26.777  16 16 16 
Colombia  51.23  0.283  0.264  0.709  0.642  7 3 11 
Comoros  0.28 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.004  14 15 13 
Congob 3.47 0.032  0.018  0.080  0.044  -17 -26 -7 
Cook Islands  0.13 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  12 26 -1 
Costa Rica  16.16  0.097  0.083  0.244  0.203  2 -1 5 
Côte d'Ivoire  10.97  0.053  0.057  0.133  0.138  14 14 14 
Cuba  10.04  0.065  0.052  0.162  0.126  -1 -1 -1 
Curaçao  1.79 0.009  0.009  0.023  0.022  12 3 21 
Democratic Republic of the 
Congo  5.20 0.030  0.027  0.076  0.065  4 2 6 
Djiboutib 0.80 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.010  7 9 5 
Dominica  0.30 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.004  19 -7 53 
Dominican Republicb 20.21  0.110  0.104  0.275  0.253  8 2 14 
Ecuador  23.19  0.103  0.120  0.258  0.291  19 23 16 
Egypt  72.00  0.352  0.371  0.881  0.903  14 10 17 
El Salvador  11.83  0.062  0.061  0.155  0.148  10 8 12 
Equatorial Guinea  2.21 0.015  0.011  0.037  0.028  -2 -6 2 
Eritrea  1.17 0.007  0.006  0.017  0.015  6 7 4 
Eswatini  1.88 0.009  0.010  0.023  0.024  13 13 13 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 40 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -
18 2017  2018  
Ethiopia  15.50  0.105  0.080  0.263  0.194  -3 -3 -4 
Fiji 2.72 0.015  0.014  0.037  0.034  8 4 12 
French Polynesia  2.24 0.009  0.012  0.024  0.028  22 10 37 
Gabon  3.06 0.017  0.016  0.043  0.038  7 12 2 
The Gambia  0.55 0.002  0.003  0.006  0.007  20 43 0 
Ghana  13.09  0.081  0.067  0.204  0.164  1 -2 3 
Grenada  0.46 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.006  14 20 9 
Guam  1.07 0.004  0.006  0.011  0.013  23 7 41 
Guatemala  19.70  0.107  0.102  0.268  0.247  8 8 7 
Guinea  3.39 0.028  0.017  0.070  0.042  -13 -21 -3 
Guinea -Bissaub 0.33 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.004  20 26 14 
Guyana  1.83 0.009  0.009  0.023  0.023  12 14 11 
Haiti 4.82 0.022  0.025  0.054  0.060  19 13 24 
Hondurasb 12.20  0.067  0.063  0.167  0.153  7 7 8 
Hong Kong, China  626.62  3.447  3.231  8.631  7.856  7 8 6 
retained imports  154.01  0.814  0.794  2.038  1.931  9 6 12 
India  514.46  2.281  2.653  5.712  6.450  19 24 14 
Indonesia  188.71  0.856  0.973  2.142  2.366  18 16 20 
Iran 49.35  0.272  0.254  0.680  0.619  7 15 0 
Iraq 53.19  0.278  0.274  0.697  0.667  10 10 10 
Israel  80.10  0.434  0.413  1.088  1.004  8 4 11 
Jamaica  6.13 0.030  0.032  0.075  0.077  13 22 5 
Jordan  20.22  0.122  0.104  0.305  0.253  2 6 -1 
Kenya  17.38  0.089  0.090  0.223  0.218  11 18 4 
Kiribati  0.12 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  -6 2 -13 
Korea, Democratic 
People's Republic of  2.59 0.024  0.013  0.061  0.032  -18 -2 -31 
Korea, Republic of  535.20  2.562  2.760  6.415  6.710  15 18 12 
Kuwait, the State of  35.86  0.194  0.185  0.487  0.450  8 9 7 
Lao People's Democratic 
Republic  6.16 0.034  0.032  0.085  0.077  7 5 9 
Lebanese Republic  20.40  0.122  0.105  0.306  0.256  3 3 2 
Lesotho  2.23 0.012  0.011  0.029  0.028  9 13 6 
Liberia  1.10 0.008  0.006  0.021  0.014  -8 -16 1 
Libya  12.83  0.055  0.066  0.137  0.161  22 31 13 
Macao, China  11.16  0.056  0.058  0.141  0.140  12 6 18 
Madagascar  4.03 0.019  0.021  0.047  0.051  17 24 10 
Malawi  2.80 0.014  0.014  0.035  0.035  12 15 10 
Malaysia  217.60  1.064  1.122  2.664  2.728  14 16 11 
Maldives  2.96 0.013  0.015  0.034  0.037  18 11 25 
Mali 4.77 0.026  0.025  0.064  0.060  9 6 11 
Marshall Islands  0.08 0.001  0.000  0.002  0.001  -12 -7 -17 
Mauritania  2.58 0.012  0.013  0.030  0.032  17 10 23 
Mauritius  5.67 0.029  0.029  0.074  0.071  10 13 8 
Mexico  476.55  2.508  2.457  6.278  5.975  9 9 10 
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.11 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.001  -23 -1 -40 
Mongolia  5.88 0.021  0.030  0.053  0.074  32 29 35 
Montenegro  3.01 0.014  0.016  0.036  0.038  15 14 15 
Montserrat  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.000  -3 -16 12 
Morocco  51.04  0.261  0.263  0.654  0.640  11 7 15 
Mozambique  6.79 0.033  0.035  0.082  0.085  14 10 18 
Myanmar  19.35  0.099  0.100  0.248  0.243  11 23 0 
Namibia  8.33 0.041  0.043  0.104  0.104  13 2 25 
Nauru  0.12 0.000  0.001  0.001  0.001  52 -16 174 
Nepal  12.71  0.056  0.066  0.141  0.159  19 16 23 
New Caledonia  2.81 0.015  0.014  0.038  0.035  8 5 12 
Nicaragua  6.63 0.044  0.034  0.110  0.083  -2 4 -8 
Niger  2.22 0.011  0.011  0.027  0.028  14 14 14 
Nigeria  43.01  0.224  0.222  0.561  0.539  10 -12 38 
Niue 0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  19 27 12 
North Macedonia  9.05 0.043  0.047  0.107  0.113  16 14 17 
Northern Mariana Islands  0.18 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  14 15 13 
Oman  25.41  0.147  0.131  0.367  0.319  5 14 -4 
Pakistan  60.47  0.299  0.312  0.749  0.758  13 22 5 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 41 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -
18 2017  2018  
Palau  0.16 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  0 3 -2 
Panama  23.01  0.132  0.119  0.331  0.288  5 5 5 
Papua New Guinea  2.60 0.013  0.013  0.033  0.033  12 48 -15 
Paraguay  13.33  0.062  0.069  0.154  0.167  17 22 12 
Peru 43.26  0.229  0.223  0.573  0.542  9 10 8 
Philippines  119.33  0.564  0.615  1.412  1.496  16 14 17 
Qatar  31.70  0.202  0.163  0.506  0.397  -1 -4 3 
Rwanda  2.52 0.016  0.013  0.039  0.032  1 -6 8 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.33 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.004  0 -7 8 
Saint Lucia  0.68 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.009  2 0 4 
Saint Martin  0.90 0.005  0.005  0.014  0.011  3 -11 18 
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.35 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.004  3 -1 7 
Samoa  0.36 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.005  2 2 2 
Sao Tomé and Principe  0.15 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  3 6 1 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  137.06  0.884  0.707  2.214  1.718  -1 -4 2 
Senegal  8.07 0.035  0.042  0.087  0.101  21 23 20 
Serbia  25.88  0.119  0.133  0.298  0.324  17 16 18 
Seychelles  1.27 0.007  0.007  0.016  0.016  11 25 -2 
Sierra Leone  1.35 0.007  0.007  0.017  0.017  13 22 4 
Singapore  370.88  1.787  1.912  4.475  4.650  14 16 13 
Solomon Islands  0.62 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.008  16 26 8 
Somalia  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
South Africa  113.60  0.578  0.586  1.447  1.424  11 11 12 
Sri Lanka  22.23  0.121  0.115  0.303  0.279  8 9 6 
Sudan  7.85 0.052  0.040  0.131  0.098  -3 10 -14 
Suriname  1.58 0.008  0.008  0.020  0.020  12 9 16 
Syrian Arab Republic  6.40 0.032  0.033  0.079  0.080  13 16 10 
Chinese Taipei  286.33  1.454  1.476  3.641  3.590  11 12 10 
Tanzania  8.82 0.059  0.045  0.147  0.111  -3 0 -5 
Thailand  248.20  1.225  1.280  3.067  3.112  13 14 12 
Timor -Leste 0.56 0.003  0.003  0.009  0.007  2 1 2 
Togo  2.51 0.014  0.013  0.036  0.031  5 -17 34 
Tonga  0.27 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.003  9 4 14 
Trinidad and Tobago  7.09 0.051  0.037  0.127  0.089  -6 -14 3 
Tunisia  22.71  0.123  0.117  0.307  0.285  8 6 10 
Turkey  223.05  1.253  1.150  3.137  2.796  6 18 -5 
Tuvalu  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  13 50 -14 
Uganda  6.73 0.030  0.035  0.076  0.084  18 16 20 
United Arab Emirates  261.54  1.682  1.349  4.210  3.279  -1 3 -4 
Uruguay  8.89 0.051  0.046  0.129  0.111  5 4 5 
Vanuatu  0.35 0.003  0.002  0.007  0.004  -9 -12 -5 
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Republic of  11.70  0.098  0.060  0.245  0.147  -13 -32 11 
Viet Nam  235.52  1.103  1.214  2.761  2.953  16 21 11 
Yemen  8.39 0.046  0.043  0.115  0.105  7 2 12 
Zambia  9.46 0.046  0.049  0.115  0.119  14 10 19 
Zimbabwe  4.10 0.023  0.021  0.058  0.051  5 5 5 
Memorandum                  
Developed Economies  10,982.39  57.979  56.626  145.164  137.690  9 9 9 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States (CIS), 
including associate and 
former member States  436.09  2.080  2.248  5.208  5.467  15 22 9 
LDCs (47)  271.00  1.409  1.397  3.528  3.398  10 10 10 
NICS(6)a 1,812.23  8.907  9.344  22.301  22.720  13 15 12 
a Excluding Hong Kong, China imports for re -exports.  
b Imports are valued f.o.b.  
 
- Not applicable.  
... Not available.  
 
Note:  Recent figures for a number of countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  
  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 42 - 
 
   
APPENDIX TABLE 3: CO MMERCIAL SERVICES EX PORTS OF DEVELOPING ECONOMIES AND 
REGIONS, 201 6-2018 
(Billion dollars  and percentage)  
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -
18 2017  2018  
World  5,769.67  100.000  100.000  - - 8 8 8 
Developing Economies  1,781.14  30.175  30.871  100.000  100.000  9 9 9 
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  187.10  3.494  3.243  11.580  10.504  4 6 2 
Developing Europe  66.07  1.021  1.145  3.384  3.709  14 17 12 
Africa  111.79  1.789  1.938  5.929  6.276  12 15 10 
Middle East  218.72  3.872  3.791  12.832  12.280  7 8 5 
Developing Asia  1,197.47  19.998  20.755  66.275  67.230  10 8 11 
Afghanistan  0.48 0.008  0.008  0.025  0.027  13 -34 91 
Albania  3.57 0.053  0.062  0.174  0.200  17 22 12 
Algeria  3.04  0.063  0.053  0.210  0.171  -2 -7 4 
Angola  0.63 0.014  0.011  0.047  0.035  -6 38 -36 
Anguilla  0.15 0.004  0.003  0.013  0.009  -11 0 -22 
Antigua and Barbuda  1.08 0.019  0.019  0.063  0.061  7 -2 16 
Argentina  13.91  0.267  0.241  0.885  0.781  2 10 -4 
Aruba (the Netherlands with 
respect to)  2.32 0.041  0.040  0.136  0.130  7 6 8 
Bahamas  3.24 0.058  0.056  0.193  0.182  6 -3 15 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  11.92  0.222  0.207  0.735  0.669  4 3 5 
Bangladesh  2.98 0.040  0.052  0.134  0.167  22 13 32 
Barbados  1.32 0.025  0.023  0.082  0.074  4 4 4 
Belize  0.58 0.010  0.010  0.034  0.033  7 7 7 
Benin  0.56 0.006  0.010  0.021  0.031  33 2 72 
Bhutan  0.18 0.003  0.003  0.010  0.010  13 11 15 
Bolivia, Plurinational State of  1.45 0.025  0.025  0.081  0.081  9 16 2 
Bosnia and Herzegovina  2.08 0.034  0.036  0.112  0.117  11 12 11 
Botswana  0.97 0.016  0.017  0.054  0.054  10 18 2 
Brazil  33.22  0.656  0.576  2.175  1.865  1 3 -1 
Brunei Darussalam  0.56 0.010  0.010  0.034  0.032  5 5 5 
Burkina Faso  0.50 0.009  0.009  0.029  0.028  8 7 10 
Burundi  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  0 -2 1 
Cabo Verde  0.67 0.011  0.012  0.036  0.038  11 11 10 
Cambodia  5.25 0.078  0.091  0.257  0.295  17 14 20 
Cameroon  1.97 0.032  0.034  0.105  0.110  12 17 7 
Cayman Islands  3.32 0.062  0.058  0.205  0.187  4 9 -1 
Central African Republic  0.05 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.003  -1 -15 15 
Chad  0.20 0.003  0.003  0.011  0.011  11 8 14 
Chile  10.13  0.191  0.176  0.631  0.569  4 7 0 
China  265.09  4.199  4.595  13.915  14.883  13 9 17 
Colombia  9.13 0.152  0.158  0.504  0.512  10 8 12 
Comoros  0.09 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  12 9 15 
Congo  0.19 0.005  0.003  0.015  0.011  -7 -17 4 
Costa Rica  9.07 0.171  0.157  0.568  0.509  3 2 5 
Côte d'Ivoire  0.92 0.016  0.016  0.053  0.052  8 10 6 
Cuba  10.74  0.225  0.186  0.744  0.603  -2 2 -6 
Curaçao  1.38 0.028  0.024  0.094  0.077  -1 -7 5 
Democratic Republic of the 
Congo  0.06 0.002  0.001  0.006  0.003  -17 -30 -3 
Djibouti  0.21 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.012  7 6 8 
Dominica  0.15 0.005  0.003  0.015  0.009  -19 -9 -28 
Dominican Republic  8.97 0.161  0.155  0.534  0.503  6 7 5 
Ecuador  2.41 0.040  0.042  0.134  0.135  9 3 16 
Egypt  22.91  0.268  0.397  0.889  1.286  31 40 23 
El Salvador  2.72 0.050  0.047  0.166  0.153  4 0 9 
Equatorial Guinea  0.31 0.006  0.005  0.019  0.017  5 4 6 
Eritrea  0.33 0.004  0.006  0.014  0.019  23 13 35 
Eswatini  0.09 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.005  31 118 -21 
Ethiopia  4.50  0.056  0.078  0.184  0.253  28 19 38 
Fiji 1.47 0.026  0.026  0.086  0.083  7 7 7 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 43 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -
18 2017  2018  
French Polynesia  0.96 0.017  0.017  0.057  0.054  6 3 9 
Gabon  0.33 0.007  0.006  0.024  0.019  -3 -11 4 
The Gambia  0.17 0.003  0.003  0.009  0.009  11 -1 24 
Ghana  7.42 0.126  0.129  0.418  0.417  9 3 15 
Grenada  0.62 0.010  0.011  0.032  0.035  13 13 13 
Guatemala  2.73 0.054  0.047  0.180  0.153  1 3 -2 
Guinea  0.09 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.005  33 -1 80 
Guinea -Bissau  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.002  19 58 -10 
Guyana  0.12 0.003  0.002  0.011  0.007  -16 -20 -13 
Haiti 0.50 0.012  0.009  0.038  0.028  -7 -15 1 
Honduras  2.82 0.057  0.049  0.190  0.158  -1 -1 0 
Hong Kong, China  113.92  1.984  1.974  6.575  6.396  8 6 9 
India  204.48  3.250  3.544  10.770  11.480  13 15 11 
Indonesia  27.21  0.456  0.472  1.513  1.528  10 9 10 
Iran 10.18  0.197  0.176  0.653  0.572  2 3 2 
Iraq 5.31 0.106  0.092  0.351  0.298  0 8 -6 
Israel  49.91  0.806  0.865  2.671  2.802  12 12 12 
Jamaica  3.80 0.064  0.066  0.213  0.213  9 10 9 
Jordan  7.02 0.118  0.122  0.390  0.394  10 9 10 
Kenya  4.33 0.068  0.075  0.224  0.243  14 13 14 
Kiribati  0.01  0.000   0.000   0.001   0.001   4   4   4  
Korea, Dem. People's Rep. 
of …  … … … … … … … 
Korea, Republic of  95.45  1.894  1.654  6.278  5.359  1 -8 10 
Kuwait, the State of  7.62 0.100  0.132  0.332  0.428  24 -5 61 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  0.92 0.017  0.016  0.056  0.051  5 5 4 
Lebanese Republic  15.29  0.300  0.265  0.995  0.859  1 2 1 
Lesotho  0.03 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.002  -28 -46 -4 
Liberia  0.02 0.001  0.000  0.002  0.001  -9 -29 17 
Libya  0.12 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.007  20 25 15 
Macao, China  43.59  0.665  0.755  2.203  2.447  15 18 12 
Madagascar  1.32 0.023  0.023  0.077  0.074  7 9 6 
Malawi  0.15 0.002  0.003  0.007  0.008  18 19 16 
Malaysia  39.56  0.716  0.686  2.372  2.221  6 4 7 
Maldives  3.28 0.058  0.057  0.193  0.184  7 3 11 
Mali 0.45 0.009  0.008  0.029  0.025  2 3 1 
Marshall Islands   -    … … … … … … … 
Mauritania  0.16 0.005  0.003  0.015  0.009  -15 -41 23 
Mauritius  3.18 0.056  0.055  0.187  0.179  7 8 5 
Mexico  28.38  0.493  0.492  1.633  1.593  8 10 5 
Micronesia, Federated States 
of 0.06 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  15 29 3 
Mongolia  1.11 0.016  0.019  0.053  0.062  18 21 15 
Montenegro  1.83 0.028  0.032  0.093  0.103  15 14 15 
Montserrat  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  11 -5 29 
Morocco  17.89  0.295  0.310  0.978  1.005  11 13 8 
Mozambique  0.67 0.009  0.012  0.029  0.038  24 49 2 
Myanmar  5.08 0.075  0.088  0.248  0.285  17 1 35 
Namibia  0.73 0.011  0.013  0.036  0.041  16 27 5 
Nepal  1.78 0.021  0.031  0.071  0.100  29 30 29 
New Caledonia  0.42 0.007  0.007  0.023  0.024  10 11 9 
Nicaragua  1.24 0.026  0.021  0.087  0.070  -2 13 -16 
Niger  0.23 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.013  13 11 14 
Nigeria  4.34 0.065  0.075  0.217  0.244  16 40 -4 
North Macedonia  1.84 0.031  0.032  0.102  0.103  10 6 13 
Oman  4.50 0.070  0.078  0.234  0.252  13 15 12 
Pakistan  4.00 0.073  0.069  0.242  0.225  5 8 2 
Panama  13.67  0.246  0.237  0.816  0.768  6 9 3 
Papua New Guinea  0.38 0.002  0.007  0.006  0.021  101 169 49 
Paraguay  0.99 0.017  0.017  0.056  0.056  9 13 6 
Peru 7.20 0.124  0.125  0.411  0.404  8 18 0 
Philippines  37.45  0.629  0.649  2.083  2.103  10 12 8 
Qatar  17.78  0.293  0.308  0.972  0.998  11 20 1 
Rwanda  0.80 0.012  0.014  0.038  0.045  18 27 9 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.46 0.008  0.008  0.028  0.026  5 7 4 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 44 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -
18 2017  2018  
Saint Lucia  0.95 0.017  0.017  0.055  0.054  8 3 12 
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.27 0.005  0.005  0.017  0.015  4 -1 10 
Samoa  0.27 0.004  0.005  0.014  0.015  12 15 10 
Sao Tome and Principe  0.08 0.002  0.001  0.005  0.005  0 -13 14 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  17.39  0.334  0.301  1.107  0.976  2 5 0 
Senegal  1.25 0.021  0.022  0.070  0.070  9 7 11 
Serbia  7.06 0.102  0.122  0.337  0.396  18 18 19 
Seychelles  1.01 0.018  0.017  0.059  0.057  7 12 3 
Sierra Leone  0.15 0.005  0.003  0.018  0.008  -25 -46 4 
Singapore  183.71  3.158  3.184  10.467  10.314  8 10 7 
Sint Maarten  0.47 0.021  0.008  0.069  0.026  -32 -22 -41 
Solomon Islands  0.15 0.002  0.003  0.008  0.008  14 17 11 
Somalia  0.40 0.008  0.007  0.025  0.023  4 5 3 
South Africa  15.59  0.282  0.270  0.933  0.875  6 10 1 
South Sudan  0.22 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.012  10 10 11 
Sri Lanka  8.38 0.143  0.145  0.475  0.470  9 9 8 
Sudan  1.49 0.030  0.026  0.100  0.083  0 18 -15 
Suriname  0.14 0.003  0.002  0.010  0.008  -4 -14 7 
Syrian Arab Republic  0.22 0.006  0.004  0.020  0.012  -14 -14 -14 
Chinese Taipei  49.91  0.827  0.865  2.740  2.802  10 9 12 
Tanzania  3.75 0.072  0.065  0.239  0.210  2 7 -2 
Thailand  83.77  1.361  1.452  4.509  4.703  11 11 11 
Timor -Leste 0.22 0.001  0.004  0.004  0.013  90 25 189 
Togo  0.55 0.010  0.009  0.033  0.031  5 6 3 
Tonga  0.09 0.001  0.002  0.005  0.005  8 3 13 
Trinidad and Tobago  1.16 0.020  0.020  0.068  0.065  7 7 6 
Tunisia  3.64 0.062  0.063  0.205  0.205  9 2 17 
Turkey  48.10  0.750  0.834  2.484  2.700  14 17 11 
Tuvalu  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -8 -8 -8 
Uganda  1.56 0.034  0.027  0.111  0.088  -3 -17 14 
United Arab Emirates  70.88  1.304  1.228  4.321  3.979  5 8 2 
Uruguay  4.87 0.082  0.084  0.273  0.273  9 21 -2 
Vanuatu  0.38 0.007  0.007  0.022  0.021  8 11 5 
Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 
of 0.77 0.025  0.013  0.083  0.043  -21 -27 -16 
Viet Nam  14.92  0.249  0.259  0.825  0.838  10 5 15 
Yemen  0.16 0.006  0.003  0.021  0.009  -29 -56 14 
Zambia  0.96 0.018  0.017  0.059  0.054  4 -2 11 
Zimbabwe  0.45 0.007  0.008  0.023  0.025  13 6 20 
Memorandum          
Developed Economies  3,871.37  67.969  67.099  - - 7 8 7 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States (CIS), 
including associate and 
former member States  117.16  1.857  2.031  - - 13 13 12 
LDCs (48)  39.77  0.642  0.689  2.129  2.233  12 7 16 
NICS(6)  566.33  9.940  9.816  32.941  31.796  7 5 9 
- Not applicable . 
... Not available . WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 45 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 4: CO MMERCIAL SERVICES IM PORTS OF DEVELOPING ECONOMIES AND 
REGIONS, 2016 -2018 
(Billion dollars  and percentage ) 
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -18 2017  2018  
World  5,485.18  100.000  100.000  - - 6.8 6 7 
Developing Economies  2,097.42  37.693  38.238  100.000  100.000  7.6 7 8 
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  217.89  4.205  3.972  11.155  10.388  3.8 7 1 
Developing Europe  33.26  0.607  0.606  1.609  1.586  6.8 11 3 
Africa  169.55  2.809  3.091  7.451  8.084  12.1 11 13 
Middle East  300.41  5.610  5.477  14.883  14.323  5.6 5 6 
Developing Asia  1,376.31  24.463  25.092  64.902  65.620  8.2 7 9 
Afghanistan  1.20 0.018  0.022  0.049  0.057  16 19 13 
Albania  2.19 0.036  0.040  0.094  0.105  13 11 16 
Algeria  10.45  0.216  0.191  0.574  0.498  0 4 -4 
Angola  9.77 0.252  0.178  0.669  0.466  -10 6 -24 
Anguilla  0.08 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.004  -10 -11 -9 
Antigua and Barbuda  0.47 0.010  0.009  0.026  0.022  0 -7 8 
Argentina  23.61  0.450  0.430  1.194  1.126  4 14 -4 
Aruba (the Netherlands 
with respect to)  1.02 0.017  0.019  0.045  0.048  11 8 15 
Bahamas  2.08 0.030  0.038  0.080  0.099  19 19 20 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  7.94 0.157  0.145  0.416  0.378  3 4 2 
Bangladesh  10.44  0.158  0.190  0.420  0.498  17 19 16 
Barbados  0.51 0.010  0.009  0.027  0.024  3 2 3 
Belize  0.22 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.010  4 7 1 
Benin  0.73 0.014  0.013  0.036  0.035  6 -12 27 
Bhutan  0.23 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.011  7 1 13 
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of  3.22 0.059  0.059  0.155  0.153  7 9 5 
Bosnia and Herzegovina  0.61 0.010  0.011  0.027  0.029  11 14 8 
Botswana  0.85 0.015  0.015  0.040  0.040  9 14 4 
Brazil  65.73  1.279  1.198  3.392  3.134  3 8 -1 
Brunei Darussalam  1.54 0.034  0.028  0.089  0.073  -2 -24 26 
Burkina Faso  1.49 0.026  0.027  0.068  0.071  10 10 10 
Burundi  0.19 0.004  0.003  0.010  0.009  2 14 -9 
Cabo Verde  0.37 0.006  0.007  0.016  0.018  12 12 12 
Cambodia  2.98 0.050  0.054  0.132  0.142  11 13 10 
Cameroon  2.54 0.046  0.046  0.121  0.121  8 9 7 
Cayman Islands  1.23 0.023  0.022  0.062  0.059  5 9 0 
Central African Republic  0.22 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.010  5 4 7 
Chad  2.98 0.053  0.054  0.140  0.142  8 -2 20 
Chile  13.85  0.265  0.253  0.703  0.660  4 3 5 
China  520.57  9.347  9.490  24.799  24.820  8 3 12 
Colombia  13.19  0.232  0.240  0.615  0.629  9 10 7 
Comoros  0.11 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  14 9 19 
Congo  2.52 0.046  0.046  0.121  0.120  7 -13 32 
Costa Rica  3.83 0.071  0.070  0.188  0.183  6 8 4 
Côte d'Ivoire  3.09 0.057  0.056  0.152  0.147  6 15 -3 
Cuba  2.18 0.041  0.040  0.108  0.104  6 8 3 
Curaçao  1.16 0.018  0.021  0.048  0.055  15 11 20 
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  2.26 0.032  0.041  0.085  0.108  21 15 27 
Djibouti  0.20 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.010  6 8 5 
Dominica  0.14 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.007  0 -3 3 
Dominican Republic  3.26 0.067  0.060  0.178  0.156  1 -2 4 
Ecuador  3.17 0.064  0.058  0.170  0.151  1 4 -1 
Egypt  17.83  0.341  0.325  0.905  0.850  4 -2 11 
El Salvador  1.97 0.036  0.036  0.095  0.094  7 5 9 
Equatorial Guinea  1.57 0.029  0.029  0.078  0.075  5 -5 17 
Eritrea  0.16 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.008  14 12 16 
Eswatini  0.23 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.011  13 68 -24 
Ethiopia  6.69 0.107  0.122  0.285  0.319  14 -6 38 
Fiji 0.71 0.012  0.013  0.031  0.034  12 14 11 
French Polynesia  0.44 0.008  0.008  0.021  0.021  7 6 8 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 46 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -18 2017  2018  
Gabon  1.91 0.037  0.035  0.099  0.091  3 3 4 
The Gambia  0.14 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.007  2 -7 13 
Ghana  9.02 0.148  0.164  0.391  0.430  13 20 6 
Grenada  0.24 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.012  7 8 6 
Guatemala  3.41 0.062  0.062  0.163  0.163  7 8 7 
Guinea  0.77 0.015  0.014  0.039  0.037  4 7 1 
Guinea -Bissau  0.17 0.002  0.003  0.004  0.008  45 89 12 
Guyana  0.45 0.009  0.008  0.025  0.021  0 8 -6 
Haiti 1.02 0.020  0.019  0.054  0.049  2 2 3 
Honduras  2.11 0.035  0.039  0.094  0.101  11 10 13 
Hong Kong, China  81.32  1.546  1.483  4.103  3.877  5 4 5 
India  175.45  2.764  3.199  7.334  8.365  15 16 14 
Indonesia  34.98  0.632  0.638  1.676  1.668  7 7 7 
Iran 18.68  0.315  0.341  0.835  0.891  11 5 17 
Iraq 17.79  0.311  0.324  0.825  0.848  9 8 10 
Israel  30.48  0.536  0.556  1.422  1.453  9 11 7 
Jamaica  2.46 0.044  0.045  0.118  0.117  8 8 7 
Jordan  4.66 0.093  0.085  0.247  0.222  2 3 1 
Kenya  3.40 0.053  0.062  0.140  0.162  16 12 19 
Kiribati  0.06 0.002  0.001  0.004  0.003  -8 -15 0 
Korea, Dem. People's 
Rep. of  … … … … … … … … 
Korea, Republic of  122.79  2.315  2.239  6.142  5.855  5 8 2 
Kuwait, the State of  33.57  0.531  0.612  1.410  1.600  15 6 23 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  1.15 0.021  0.021  0.056  0.055  6 11 1 
Lebanese Republic  14.34  0.274  0.261  0.726  0.684  4 5 4 
Lesotho  0.33 0.006  0.006  0.016  0.016  8 13 3 
Liberia  0.21 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.010  4 11 -2 
Libya  3.82 0.049  0.070  0.131  0.182  27 58 2 
Macao, China  4.90 0.080  0.089  0.211  0.234  13 15 11 
Madagascar  1.30 0.020  0.024  0.054  0.062  16 12 19 
Malawi  0.34 0.005  0.006  0.014  0.016  14 17 12 
Malaysia  44.25  0.830  0.807  2.202  2.110  5 5 5 
Maldives  1.36 0.023  0.025  0.060  0.065  12 17 6 
Mali 1.61 0.026  0.029  0.069  0.077  13 5 21 
Marshall Islands  0.00 … … … … … … … 
Mauritania  0.75 0.012  0.014  0.031  0.036  15 24 7 
Mauritius  2.18 0.042  0.040  0.112  0.104  4 7 1 
Mexico  37.05  0.693  0.675  1.837  1.766  6 10 1 
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.09 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  7 10 3 
Mongolia  3.07 0.044  0.056  0.117  0.146  20 2 42 
Montenegro  0.72 0.011  0.013  0.029  0.034  17 12 23 
Montserrat  0.02 0.001  0.000  0.001  0.001  -6 -6 -6 
Morocco  9.30 0.151  0.169  0.400  0.443  13 20 7 
Mozambique  4.14 0.065  0.075  0.172  0.197  15 -5 40 
Myanmar  3.87 0.052  0.071  0.138  0.185  25 15 35 
Namibia  0.61 0.015  0.011  0.039  0.029  -7 -10 -4 
Nepal  2.27 0.026  0.041  0.068  0.108  36 28 43 
New Caledonia  1.21 0.023  0.022  0.061  0.058  4 1 8 
Nicaragua  0.89 0.020  0.016  0.052  0.042  -3 4 -9 
Niger  1.08 0.017  0.020  0.044  0.051  16 21 11 
Nigeria  30.58  0.236  0.557  0.626  1.458  64 59 70 
North Macedonia  1.40 0.024  0.025  0.063  0.067  11 4 18 
Oman  12.07  0.206  0.220  0.548  0.575  10 9 12 
Pakistan  9.56 0.181  0.174  0.481  0.456  5 13 -3 
Panama  4.39 0.099  0.080  0.262  0.209  -4 -2 -6 
Papua New Guinea  1.70 0.022  0.031  0.058  0.081  27 43 12 
Paraguay  1.24 0.022  0.023  0.059  0.059  8 10 6 
Peru 9.70 0.169  0.177  0.448  0.463  9 7 12 
Philippines  26.46  0.495  0.482  1.314  1.261  5 9 2 
Qatar  30.74  0.619  0.560  1.641  1.465  2 0 3 
Rwanda  0.93 0.020  0.017  0.054  0.044  -2 -7 3 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.26 0.005  0.005  0.012  0.012  9 1 17 
Saint Lucia  0.37 0.007  0.007  0.019  0.018  4 3 6 WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 47 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2018  2016  2018  2016  2018  2016 -18 2017  2018  
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.14 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.007  2 1 2 
Samoa  0.09 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.004  1 -1 4 
Sao Tome and Principe  0.06 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  0 -2 3 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 55.48  1.042  1.011  2.764  2.645  5 8 2 
Senegal  1.64 0.027  0.030  0.071  0.078  13 13 12 
Serbia  5.72 0.083  0.104  0.221  0.273  20 20 19 
Seychelles  0.53 0.010  0.010  0.028  0.025  2 9 -4 
Sierra Leone  0.36 0.009  0.007  0.024  0.017  -10 -5 -15 
Singapore  186.73  3.322  3.404  8.814  8.903  8 14 3 
Sint Maarten  0.32 0.006  0.006  0.015  0.015  8 -3 21 
Solomon Islands  0.18 0.004  0.003  0.011  0.009  -4 3 -10 
Somalia  1.48 0.028  0.027  0.074  0.070  5 9 2 
South Africa  16.11  0.302  0.294  0.802  0.768  5 8 2 
South Sudan  0.60 0.013  0.011  0.034  0.028  -2 -9 7 
Sri Lanka  6.76 0.127  0.123  0.337  0.322  5 6 5 
Sudan  1.06 0.028  0.019  0.074  0.051  -11 -1 -20 
Suriname  0.61 0.010  0.011  0.027  0.029  11 4 18 
Syrian Arab Republic  0.90 0.027  0.016  0.073  0.043  -17 -17 -17 
Chinese Taipei  56.14  1.062  1.024  2.817  2.677  5 3 6 
Tanzania  1.99 0.045  0.036  0.120  0.095  -4 -10 2 
Thailand  55.00  0.899  1.003  2.384  2.622  13 7 19 
Timor -Leste 0.35 0.009  0.006  0.024  0.017  -11 -29 10 
Togo  0.43 0.008  0.008  0.022  0.021  4 7 2 
Tonga  0.10 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.005  18 28 10 
Trinidad and Tobago  2.78 0.058  0.051  0.154  0.132  0 13 -12 
Tunisia  2.94 0.056  0.054  0.149  0.140  4 3 6 
Turkey  21.90  0.432  0.399  1.146  1.044  3 9 -3 
Tuvalu  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  6 5 7 
Uganda  2.53 0.042  0.046  0.111  0.121  12 2 23 
United Arab Emirates  70.99  1.443  1.294  3.827  3.384  1 2 1 
Uruguay  3.66 0.068  0.067  0.180  0.175  6 6 7 
Vanuatu  0.18 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.008  9 4 15 
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Rep. of  5.77 0.189  0.105  0.501  0.275  -20 -23 -17 
Viet Nam  18.17  0.344  0.331  0.914  0.867  5 2 8 
Yemen  1.32 0.030  0.024  0.080  0.063  -4 -18 12 
Zambia  1.63 0.028  0.030  0.074  0.078  10 10 11 
Zimbabwe  1.37 0.026  0.025  0.068  0.065  6 -13 28 
Memorandum                  
Developed Economies  3,243.72  59.887  59.136  - - 6 5 7 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States 
(CIS), including 
associate and former 
member States  144.04  2.420  2.626  - - 11 15 7 
LDCs (48)  73.59  1.321  1.342  3.505  3.509  8 6 9 
NICS(6)  546.24  9.974  9.958  26.462  26.043  7 9 5 
- Not applicable . 
... Not available . WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 48 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 5 : TOP 10 MERCHANDISE TRADE EX PORTERS AND IMPORTER S  
BY PRODUCT GROUP, 20 18 
(Billion dollars and percentage)   
Agricultural products  
Rank  Exporters  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a Rank  Importers  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a 
1 Brazil  93 5.1 13.2 10 1 C hina  195 10.5 26.0 12 
2 C hina  83 4.5 11.7 6 2 Korea, 
Republic of  38 2.1 5.1 9 
3 Indonesia  46 2.5 6.5 8 3 Mexico  31 1.6 4.1 5 
4 Thailand  44 2.4 6.1 9 4 Hong Kong, 
C hina  30 1.6 4.0 3 
5 India  39 2.1 5.5 8 5 India  28 1.5 3.8 -1 
6 Mexico  35 1.9 5.0 9 6 Indonesia  25 1.3 3.3 11 
7 A rgentina  34 1.9 4.8 -4 7 V iet Nam  23 1.2 3.1 7 
8 V iet Nam  31 1.7 4.4 9 8 Malaysia  20 1.1 2.7 7 
9 Malaysia  27 1.5 3.8 2 9 Saudi 
A rabia, 
Kingdom of  20 1.1 2.7 0 
10 C hile  24 1.3 3.4 9 10 Thailand  19 1.0 2.5 7 
Manufactures  
Rank  Exporters  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a Rank  Importers  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a 
1 C hina  2,318 17.0 38.1 8 1 C hina  1,302 9.0 24.0 12 
2 Korea, 
Republic of  529 3.9 8.7 9 2 Hong Kong, 
C hina  550 3.8 10.1 8 
3 Hong Kong, 
C hina  511 3.7 8.4 7 3 Mexico  357 2.5 6.6 7 
4 Mexico  363 2.7 6.0 9 4 Korea, 
Republic of  313 2.2 5.8 9 
5 C hinese 
Taipei  304 2.2 5.0 9 5 India  253 1.8 4.7 17 
6 Singapore  301 2.2 4.9 8 6 Singapore  246 1.7 4.5 10 
7 India  226 1.7 3.7 9 7 C hinese 
Taipei  198 1.4 3.7 9 
8 V iet Nam  201 1.5 3.3 18 8 V iet Nam  186 1.3 3.4 15 
9 Thailand  187 1.4 3.1 8 9 Thailand  167 1.2 3.1 9 
10 United Arab 
Emirates  169 1.2 2.8 6 10 Malaysia  150 1.0 2.8 11 
Fuels and mining products  
Rank  Exporters  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a Rank  Importers  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a 
1 Saudi 
A rabia, 
Kingdom of  220 6.8 13.9 26 1 C hina  563 16.7 32.6 31 
2 United Arab 
Emirates  87 2.7 5.5 26 2 India  199 5.9 11.5 36 
3 Iraq 86 2.6 5.4 40 3 Korea, 
Republic of  182 5.4 10.5 30 
4 C hina  80 2.4 5.0 26 4 Singapore  92 2.7 5.3 28 
5 Q atar  72 2.2 4.5 25 5 C hinese 
Taipei  67 2.0 3.9 23 
6 Kuwait, the 
State of  63 1.9 4.0 23 6 Turkey  60 1.8 3.5 29 
7 Korea, 
Republic of  61 1.9 3.9 27 7 Mexico  59 1.7 3.4 32 
8 India  59 1.8 3.7 27 8 Thailand  52 1.5 3.0 27 
9 Brazil  59 1.8 3.7 34 9 Malaysia  43 1.3 2.5 30 
10 Singapore  58 1.8 3.6 18 10 Indonesia  38 1.1 2.2 27 
a 2016 -18: statistics on % change refer to the difference between 2016 and 2018 in % terms rather 
than the average annual % change.  
Note:  Recent figures for a number of countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat. For 
ranking purposes, Hong Kong, China re -exports and imports for re -exports are included.   WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 49 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 6: TO P 10 COMMERCIAL SERV ICES EXPORTERS AND I MPORTERS  
BY SECTOR, 2018  
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
Transport  
Rank  Exporters  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a Rank  Importers  Value  Share in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a 
1 Singapore  51 5.1 14.6 22 1 C hina  108 8.9 18.4 34 
2 C hina  42 4.2 12.0 25 2 India  67 5.5 11.3 39 
3 Hong Kong, 
C hina  33 3.2 9.3 16 3 Singapore  54 4.4 9.2 25 
4 United Arab 
Emirates  28 2.8 8.0 11 4 Korea, Republic 
of 32 2.6 5.4 10 
5 Korea, 
Republic of  28 2.7 7.8 1 5 Thailand  19 1.6 3.2 26 
6 India  19 1.9 5.4 25 6 Hong Kong, 
C hina  18 1.5 3.1 9 
7 Turkey  18 1.7 5.0 34 7 Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  16 1.3 2.8 -1 
8 C hinese Taipei  11 1.1 3.1 24 8 Mexico  15 1.3 2.6 17 
9 Q atar  10 1.0 2.8 32 9 United Arab 
Emirates  15 1.2 2.5 6 
10 Egypt  9 0.9 2.5 8 10 Indonesia  12 1.0 2.1 36 
Travel  
Rank  Exporters  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a Rank  Importers  Value  Share in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a 
1 Thailand  63 4.4 11.0 29 1 C hina  277 19.7 42.0 6 
2 Macao, China  40 2.8 7.0 32 2 Korea, Republic 
of 31 2.2 4.7 13 
3 C hina  39 2.7 6.9 -11 3 Hong Kong, 
C hina  27 1.9 4.0 10 
4 Hong Kong, 
C hina  37 2.6 6.4 12 4 Singapore  25 1.8 3.8 6 
5 India  29 2.0 5.0 27 5 India  21 1.5 3.2 30 
6 Turkey  25 1.8 4.4 35 6 C hinese Taipei  19 1.4 2.9 17 
7 Mexico  23 1.6 3.9 15 7 Brazil  18 1.3 2.8 26 
8 United Arab 
Emirates  21 1.5 3.7 10 8 United Arab 
Emirates  18 1.3 2.7 5 
9 Singapore  21 1.4 3.6 8 9 Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  16 1.2 2.5 -2 
10 Malaysia  19 1.3 3.3 6 10 Kuwait, the 
State of  15 1.0 2.2 18 
Other commercial services  
Rank  Exporters  Value  Share 
in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a Rank  Importers  Value  Share in 
world  Share in 
developing 
economies  2016 -
18a 
1 C hina  159 5.1 20.0 49 1 C hina  133 4.9 16.3 26 
2 India  156 5.0 19.7 27 2 Singapore  107 3.9 13.1 16 
3 Singapore  105 3.4 13.2 17 3 India  86 3.2 10.6 27 
4 Korea, 
Republic of  50 1.6 6.3 7 4 Korea, Republic 
of 50 1.8 6.2 7 
5 Hong Kong, 
C hina  44 1.4 5.5 19 5 United Arab 
Emirates  38 1.4 4.7 0 
6 Israel  37 1.2 4.7 25 6 Brazil  35 1.3 4.3 -7 
7 Philippines  23 0.7 2.9 9 7 Hong Kong, 
C hina  24 0.9 2.9 10 
8 United Arab 
Emirates  21 0.7 2.7 7 8 Thailand  24 0.9 2.9 24 
9 Brazil  21 0.7 2.6 -1 9 Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  23 0.8 2.8 34 
10 C hinese Taipei  21 0.7 2.6 30 10 C hinese Taipei  21 0.8 2.6 9 
a 2016 -18 percentage change refers to the difference between 2016 and 2018 in percentage terms 
rather than the average annual percentage change.  WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 50 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 7: CHANGES IN EXPORT PR ICES OF PRIMARY COMM ODITIES, 2016 -2018 
(Annual percentage change, in terms of USD)  
 2016 -
18 2016  2017  2018   2016 -
18 2016 2017  2018  
Food and 
beverages  1 0 3  -1  Agricultural raw 
materials  4  0 5  2  
Food  2 0 4  -1  Timber  2  -2  -2  6  
Cereals  7 -13  1  14  Cotton  11  5  13  9  
Wheat  14 -23  1  28  Wool  22  10  18  27  
Maize  2 -6  -3  6  Rubber  -3  5  22  -22  
Rice 2 2  3  1  Hides and skins  -11  -14  -8  -14  
Barley  3 -2  4  3       
Vegetable oils & 
protein meals  -2 4  1  -6  Minerals and non -
ferrous metalsa 8  0  12  4  
Meat  3 -9  10  -3  Copper  16  -12  27  6  
Beef 1 -11  7  -4  Aluminium  15  -4  23  7  
Lamb  13 -13  19  7  Iron ore  9  4  21  -1  
Swine meat  0 -8  9  -9  Tin 6  12  12  0  
Poultry  9 -3  13  5  Nickel  17  -19  8  26  
Seafood  4 35  6  3  Zinc 18  8  38  1  
Fish 3 4  4  1  Lead  10  4  24  -3  
Shrimp  7  -22  8  7  Uranium  -12  -28  -18  -7  
Sugar  -16  -34  -11  -21       
Bananas  7  5  7  7  Energy  26  -16  24  27  
Citrus fruit  -6  32  -9  -3  Natural gas  21  -29  16  26  
Beverages  -6  -3  -5  -8  Crude petroleum  25  -15  24  27  
Coffee  -6  1  2  -13  Coal 25  22  33  18  
Cocoa beans  -11  -8  -30  13       
Tea 2  -16  26  -18  All primary 
commodities  13  -8  14  13  
a Excluding crude petroleum . WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 51 - 
 
  APPENDIX 8: COMPOSITION OF REP ORTER AND PARTNER GR OUPS  
DEVELOPING ECONOMIES include  
 
Latin America (including the Caribbean):  
 
• Mexico (classified within North America in the World Trade Statistical Review 
publication);  
• Central America : Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and 
Panama;  
• South America : Argentina; Bo livia, Plurinational State of; Brazil; Chile; Colombia; 
Ecuador; Guyana; Paraguay; Peru; Suriname; Uruguay; Venezuela, 
Bolivarian  Republic of; 
• The Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba  (the Netherlands with respect to) , 
Bahamas, Barbados, Cayman Islands; Cuba, Curaçao, Dominica, Dominican Republic, 
Grenada, Haiti, Jamaic a, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint  Lucia, Saint Maarten, 
Saint Vincent  and the Grenadines; and Trinidad and Tobago.  
• Other countries and territories in Lati n America n.e.s.  
 
Developing Europe:  
 
Albania;  Bosnia and Herzegovina;  Montenegro;  North Macedonia;  Serbia; and Turkey.  
 
Africa:  
 
• North Africa : Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.  
• Sub-Saharan Africa : Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cameroon; 
Cape  Verde; Central African Republic; Chad; Congo;  Comoros; Côte d'Ivoire; 
Democratic Republic of the Congo; Djibouti; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Eswatini; 
Ethiopia; Gabon;  the Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea -Bissau; Kenya; Lesotho;  Liberia; 
Madagascar; Mali; Malawi; Mauritania; Mauritius; Mozambique;  Namibia;  Niger; 
Nigeria; Rwanda;  Sao Tome and Principe; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Somalia; 
South Africa;  South  Sudan;  Sudan; Tanzania, United Republic of ; Togo; Uganda;  
Zambia;  and Zimbabwe.  
 
Middle East:  
 
Bahrain, Kingdom of; Iraq; Iran; Israel; Jordan; Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of; Kuwait, 
the State of ; Leban ese Republic ; Oman; Qatar; Syrian Arab Republic; 
United  Arab Emirates;  and Yemen.  
 
Developing Asia:  
 
Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Brunei Darussal am; Cambodia; China; Fiji; 
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China (Hong Kong, China); India; 
Indonesia; Kiribati; Korea, Republic of; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Maldives; 
Macau, China; Malaysia; Micronesia, Federated States of; Mongolia; Myanmar; Nepal; 
Pakistan; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Samoa; Singapore; Solomon Islands; 
Sri Lanka; Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and 
Matsu  (Chinese  Taipei);  Thaila nd; Tonga; Tuvalu; V anuatu; Viet Nam;  and other 
countries and territories in Asia and the Pacific n.e.s.  
 
DEVELOPED ECONOMIES include:  
 
North America (excluding Mexico for this report):  
 
Bermuda, Canada, United States of America, and territories in North A merica n.e.s.  
 
Developed Europe:  
 
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, 
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, WT/COMTD/W/251  
 
- 52 - 
 
  Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Po rtugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, 
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and territories in Europe n.e.s.  
 
Developed Asia:  
 
Australia, Japan and New Zealand.  
 
THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES including associate and former 
member  States (CIS) include:  
 
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, 
Russian  Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.  
 
THE NICs(6) or "Six East -Asian traders" include:  
 
Hong Kong, China; the Republic of Korea; Malaysia; Singapore; 
Separate  Customs  Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei); 
and Thailand.  
 
THE NICs(4) or "Four East -Asian traders" include:  
 
Hong Kong, China; the Republic of Korea; Singapore; Separate Customs 
Territory  of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) . 
 
__________