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  ANNEX 1 – ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA  
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  CONTENTS  
1   ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT  ................................ ................................ .......................  63 
1.1   Recent macroeconomic developments  ................................ ................................ ....... 63 
1.1.1   Real economy  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 63 
1.1.2   Fiscal policy  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........  66 
1.1.3   Balance of payments, and monetary and exchange rate policy  ................................ .... 67 
1.2   Trends and patterns in merchandise and services trade  ................................ ................  69 
2   TRADE AND INVESTMENT REGIMES  ................................ ................................ ..........  73 
2.1   General framework  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 73 
2.2   Trade policy formulation and objectives  ................................ ................................ ..... 74 
2.3   Trade agreements and arrangements  ................................ ................................ ........  75 
2.3.1   WTO ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................  75 
2.3.2   Regional and preferential agreements  ................................ ................................ ..... 76 
2.4   Investment regime  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 77 
3   TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE  ................................ .......................  80 
3.1   Measures directly affecting imports  ................................ ................................ ...........  80 
3.1.1   Customs procedures, valuation, and requirements  ................................ ....................  80 
3.1.2   Rules of origin  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 81 
3.1.3   Tariffs  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................  81 
3.1.3.1    Structure  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  81 
3.1.3.2    Tariff bindings  ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 82 
3.1.3.3    MFN applied tariff  ................................ ................................ ..............................  83 
3.1.4   Other charges affecting imports  ................................ ................................ .............  84 
3.1.5   Import prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing  ................................ .........................  85 
3.1.6   Anti-dumping, coun tervailing, and safeguard measures  ................................ .............  86 
3.1.6.1    Anti-dumping and countervailing measures  ................................ ...........................  86 
3.1.6.2    Safeguards  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 86 
3.2   Measures directly affecting exports  ................................ ................................ ...........  86 
3.2.1   Customs procedures and requirements  ................................ ................................ ... 86 
3.2.2   Taxes, charges, and levies  ................................ ................................ ....................  86 
3.2.3   Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing  ................................ ..........................  87 
3.2.4   Export support and promotion  ................................ ................................ ...............  87 
3.2.5   Export finance, insurance, and guarantees  ................................ ..............................  87 
3.3   Measures affecting production and trade  ................................ ................................ .... 87 
3.3.1   Incentives  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  87 
3.3.2   Standards and other technical requirements  ................................ ............................  89 
3.3.3   Sanitary and phytosanitary measures  ................................ ................................ ..... 90 
3.3.4   Competition policy and price controls  ................................ ................................ ...... 92 
3.3.4.1    Price controls  ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 92 
3.3.5   State trading and state -owned enterprises  ................................ ..............................  93 WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3.3.6   Government procurement  ................................ ................................ .....................  93 
3.3.7   Intellectual property rights  ................................ ................................ ....................  93 
3.3.7.1    Trademarks  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 94 
3.3.7.2    Patents and industrial designs  ................................ ................................ .............  94 
3.3.7.3    Copyright  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  95 
3.3.7.4    Other intellectual property rights  ................................ ................................ .........  95 
3.3.7.5    Enforcement  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 95 
4   TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR  ................................ ................................ ....................  96 
4.1   Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries  ................................ ................................ ............  96 
4.2   Services  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................  96 
4.2.1   Financial services  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 97 
4.2.1.1    Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  97 
4.2.1.2    Banking  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  97 
4.2.1.3    Insurance  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........  98 
4.2.1.4    Offshore services  ................................ ................................ ..............................  99 
4.2.2   Telecommunications  ................................ ................................ ...........................  100 
4.2.3   Transport  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  101 
4.2.3.1    Maritime transport  ................................ ................................ ..........................  101 
4.2.3.2    Air transport  ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 102 
4.2.4   Tourism  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  103 
4.2.5   Other offshore services  ................................ ................................ .......................  105 
5   APPENDIX TABLE  ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 106  
 
CHARTS  
 
Chart  1.1 Merchandise trade by main SITC section, 2014 and 2021  ................................ .........  70 
Chart  3.1 Applied MFN tariff rates distribution, 2020  ................................ .............................  84 
 
TABLES  
 
Table  1.1 Selected economic indicators, 2014 -21 ................................ ................................  63 
Table  1.2 Central government fiscal accounts, 2014 -21 ................................ .......................  66 
Table  1.3 Balance of payments, 2014 -21 ................................ ................................ ...........  68 
Table  1.4 Trade in services, 2014 -21 ................................ ................................ ................  71 
Table  2.1 Major trade -related laws, 2022  ................................ ................................ ..........  74 
Table  2.2 Notifications to the WTO, 2014 -22 ................................ ................................ ...... 76 
Table  2.3 Eligibility criteria and incentives offered under the ABIA, 2022  ................................  77 
Table  3.1 Structure of the tariff schedule, 2013 and 2020  ................................ ....................  81 
Table  3.2 Summary analysis of the MFN tariff, 2020 ................................ ............................  82 
Table  4.1 Tourism statistics, 2014 -22 ................................ ................................ .............  103 
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  APPENDIX TABLES  
 
Table  A1.1 Merchandise visible exports and imports by SITC section, 2014 -21 ......................  106 WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  1  ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT  
1.1  Recent  macroeconomic developments  
1.1.1   Real economy  
1.1.  As a small island located in the Caribbean, Antigua and Barbuda has an economy that remains 
highly dependent on imports and vulnerable to natural disasters and other external shocks. By 
end-2021, it had an estimated  population of around 99,000 inhabitants and a GDP per capita of 
USD 15,117. The country showed sustained growth over the review period, with GDP growth being 
lower than 3% at only one instance in 2020 ( -20%) (Table  1.1). 
1.2.  The economic base is very narrow a nd mainly services oriented; productive sectors such as 
agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing never accounted for more than 6% of GDP. Real 
estate, construction, and wholesale and retail trade are the main contributors to the GDP, each 
accounting  for approximately 12% of GDP over the review period. Sectors such as tourism1, 
transport, public administration, and financial intermediation contributed between 7.0% and 10.0% 
of GDP. Although its contribution may seem modest, the tourism sector is a ma in driver of the 
economic activity by creating synergies with other sectors such as transport, construction, and real 
estate. Similarly, foreign investors and financial services create positive spill -overs to other sectors 
(construction, and real estate, a mong others).  
1.3.  Besides the contraction in 2020 following the COVID -19 pandemic, the economy benefited from 
economic growth during almost the entire review period. This general performance is reflected in 
the increase by 24.9% of the GDP per capita between 2 014 and 2019. Despite the recent negative 
shock, GDP per capita in 2021 is 8% higher than its corresponding value in 2014.  
Table  1.1 Selected economic indicators, 2014 -21 
 
2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019a 2020a 2021a 
GDP (current XCD  million)  3,374  3,609  3,879  3,964  4,336  4,556  3,700  4,054  
GDP (current USD  million)  1,250  1,337  1,437  1,468  1,606  1,688  1,370  1,502  
Real GDP growth 
(% change)  3.8 3.8 5.5 3.1 6.9 4.9 -20.2 7.4 
GDP per capita (USD)  13,981  14,729  15,588  15,687  16,902  17,460  13,969  15,117  
GDP by economic activity (% of current GDP)  
Agriculture, livestock and 
forestry  0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 
Crops  0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 
Bananas  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Nutmeg  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Sugar  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Other crops  0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 
Livestock  0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 
Forestry  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Fishing  0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.1 
Mining & quarrying  0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 
Manufacturing  2.8 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.3 
Sugar  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Other  2.8 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.3 
Electricity & water  3.5 4.2 4.5 4.0 3.4 3.6 4.4 4.2 
Electricity  3.1 4.0 4.3 3.9 3.4 3.5 4.1 3.9 
Water  0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.3 
Construction  9.0 8.8 9.9 11.8 14.3 14.3 13.2 14.7 
Wholesale & retail trade  12.9 12.5 11.8 11.3 10.3 10.8 11.3 12.5 
Hotels & restaurants  11.1 10.6 10.9 10.6 10.3 10.9 7.3 7.6 
Hotels  8.0 7.6 7.8 7.3 6.9 7.2 4.7 6.3 
Restaurants  3.1 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.7 2.6 1.3 
Transport, storage and 
communications  9.4 10.5 10.5 9.7 9.5 9.7 8.7 8.5 
Transport and storage  6.6 7.1 7.0 6.5 6.5 6.8 5.3 5.5 
Road transport  4.0 3.9 3.7 3.7 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.4 
Sea transport  0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 
Air transport  1.3 2.0 1.8 1.3 1.4 1.5 0.3 0.3 
 
1 The tourism sector is proxied by the activities recorded under hotels and restaurants in national 
accounts.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019a 2020a 2021a 
Supporting and 
auxiliary transport 
activities  1.3 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.7 
Communications  2.8 3.4 3.5 3.2 3.0 2.9 3.4 3.0 
Financial intermediation  6.6 6.7 6.6 6.9 6.6 7.3 7.7 7.5 
Banks  5.0 5.1 5.2 5.4 5.3 6.1 6.1 6.0 
Insurance  1.5 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.5 
Activities auxiliary to 
financial 
intermediation  0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 
Real estate, renting and 
business activities  12.4 13.0 12.1 12.3 11.7 11.9 11.8 11.1 
Owner -occupied 
dwellings  7.2 6.9 6.5 6.7 6.3 6.2 7.8 7.4 
Real estate activities  0.9 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 0.8 0.8 
Renting of machinery 
and equipment  0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 
Computer and related 
activities  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Business services  4.0 4.6 4.2 4.3 4.1 4.2 3.1 2.7 
Public administration, 
defence & compulsory 
social security  7.5 7.1 7.0 7.0 7.8 7.2 8.6 7.9 
Education  5.0 4.4 4.8 4.7 4.5 4.4 4.7 4.3 
Public  1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.0 
Private  3.1 2.5 3.0 2.9 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.3 
Health and social work  2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.9 2.7 
Public  2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.2 
Private  0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 
Other community, social & 
personal service  2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.1 1.8 2.0 1.7 
Activities of private 
households as employers  0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 
Less: FISIM  1.5 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.6 
GVA in basic prices  86.7 86.5 86.6 86.9 87.3 88.2 87.1 86.9 
Plus: product taxes  14.0 14.2 14.1 13.7 13.3 12.3 13.6 13.7 
Less: Subsidies  0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 
GDP by expenditure (%  of current GDP)  
Total consumption  87.4 81.5 78.0 72.9 67.6 62.8 60.0 .. 
Private  16.4 16.0 15.4 15.5 15.1 14.8 14.6 .. 
General government  71.0 65.5 62.5 57.4 52.5 48.0 45.4 .. 
Gross capital formation  24.5 23.5 26.7 31.5 36.5 41.0 43.6 .. 
Construction  1.4 1.4 2.1 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.6 .. 
Transport equipment  3.4 2.8 3.1 3.8 4.4 4.9 5.2 .. 
Other equipment  19.7 19.3 21.4 25.9 30.0 33.7 35.8 .. 
Goods & non -factor 
services  -11.9 -5.0 -4.6 -4.4 -4.1 -3.8 -3.6 .. 
Total exports of goods 
and non -factor services  46.3 44.3 42.3 41.8 39.8 38.5 37.4 .. 
Exports of goods  5.4 4.4 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.7 3.6 .. 
Exports of NFS  40.9 39.9 38.1 37.7 35.9 34.7 33.8 .. 
Total imports of goods 
and non -factor services  58.2 49.3 46.9 46.2 43.9 42.3 41.0 .. 
Imports of goods  40.6 32.7 31.0 30.5 29.0 27.9 27.1 .. 
Imports of NFS  17.6 16.6 15.9 15.7 14.9 14.4 13.9 .. 
Labour force          
Labour force (persons)  .. 49,308  .. .. 51,931  .. .. .. 
Labour force participation 
rate (%)  .. 70.9 .. .. 72.1 .. .. .. 
Employment (persons)  .. 41,769  .. .. 47,429  .. .. .. 
Employment rate (%)  .. 61.2 .. .. 65.9 .. .. .. 
Unemployment rate (%)  .. 13.7 .. .. 8.7 .. .. .. 
Employment by industry (%)  
Agriculture, hunting and 
forestry  .. 2.4 .. .. 1.8 .. .. .. 
Fishing  .. 0.8 .. .. 0.4 .. .. .. 
Manufacturing  .. 2.8 .. .. 4.2 .. .. .. 
Electricity, gas and water 
supply  .. 3.4 .. .. 2.7 .. .. .. 
Construction  .. 8.0 .. .. 8.0 .. .. .. WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019a 2020a 2021a 
Wholesale and retail trade  .. 13.1 .. .. 11.0 .. .. .. 
Hotels and restaurants  .. 16.5 .. .. 17.4 .. .. .. 
Transport, storage and 
communications  .. 7.1 .. .. 8.5 .. .. .. 
Financial intermediation  .. 2.1 .. .. 2.6 .. .. .. 
Real estate, renting and 
business activities  .. 11.2 .. .. 9.0 .. .. .. 
Public administration and 
defence  .. 13.2 .. .. 15.9 .. .. .. 
Education  .. 7.1 .. .. 6.4 .. .. .. 
Health and social work  .. 3.4 .. .. 4.4 .. .. .. 
Other community, social 
and personal service 
activities  .. 5.2 .. .. 5.8 .. .. .. 
Activities of private 
households as employers  .. 1.8 .. .. 1.7 .. .. .. 
Other industriesb .. 2.4 .. .. 0.1 .. .. .. 
Prices and interest 
rates          
Inflation (%, end of 
period)  1.3 0.9 -1.1 2.4 1.6 0.7 2.8 1.2 
Inflation (%, period 
average)  1.1 1.0 -0.5 2.4 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.6 
Money supply (M1) (% 
growth))  5.9 9.8 14.0 17.0 4.7 11.1 .. .. 
Monetary liabilities (M2) 
(% growth)  3.6 8.9 -1.7 7.6 6.3 0.8 .. .. 
Deposit interest rate (%)  2.81 2.04 1.68 1.63 1.44 1.53 .. .. 
Lending interest rate (%)  9.45 9.30 9.11 9.02 8.44 8.53 .. .. 
Memorandum:          
Population (persons)  89,391  90,755  92,157  93,581  95,014  96,651  98,093  99,337  
Exports of goods and 
services (% of GDP, 
current prices)  82.2 76.0 72.6 67.7 64.5 72.0 42.3 .. 
Imports of goods and 
services (% of GDP, 
current prices)  74.0 63.8 64.3 66.1 70.6 69.6 46.3 .. 
Exchange rate (domestic 
currency per USD)  2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 
Real effective exchange 
rate based on CPI (Index)  99.8 108.9  110.6  111.0  108.0  110.8  109.6  103.6  
Real effective exchange 
rate based on CPI (% 
change)  -0.1 9.1 1.6 0.3 -2.6 2.5 -1.1 -5.4 
.. Not available.  
a Preliminary data.  
b Other industries include mining and quarrying, as well as industries not stated.  
Source:  Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) (as of October 2022); Statistics Division of Antigua and 
Barbuda; and International Monetary Fund (IMF).  
1.4.  According to expenditure data available until 2020, government spending has substantially 
declined bringing the p art of total consumption in GDP from 87.4% in 2014 to 60.0% in 2020. During 
the same time, the gross capital formation has been on the rise, particularly on other equipment. 
The balance of capital and non -factor services remains negative all along this per iod; however, the 
gap between imports (mainly goods) and exports (mainly services) narrowed. Although both flows 
are in decline, merchandise imports have declined more rapidly as a share of GDP. Merchandise 
imports accounted for approximatively 27.9% of GD P in 2019, while their share was 40.6% of GDP 
in 2014.  
1.5.  There is limited information regarding employment; for instance, the most recent information 
available by industry is from 2018. Regarding general unemployment, data for 2015 and 2018 
pointed out a dec rease of the unemployment rate of five  percentage points, although this is likely 
to be limited to the formal sector. The authorities indicate that this positive trend in unemployment 
rates has reversed as a consequence of the COVID -19 pandemic.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  1.6.  The COVID -19 pandemic had some very concrete consequences on the economy of Antigua 
and Barbuda. The exports of services plummeted following travel and lockdown restrictions, the 
Government had to significantly increase its health expenditure to counter the spread o f the disease 
and to acquire vaccines, the uncertain situation created distortions in the labour market, and there 
was a need to introduce additional social programmes, some of which are still ongoing.2 
Furthermore, the freezing of the economic activity r equired support measures targeted at the private 
sector. Overall, this increased the cash flow pressure for the Government, which had less revenue 
to support its expenditures.  
1.1.2   Fiscal policy  
1.7.  As a member of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU), Antigu a and Barbuda does not 
have independent monetary policy and uses fiscal policy as its main macroeconomic instrument. The 
Ministry of Finance, Corporate Governance and Public Private Partnership is responsible for fiscal 
policy.  
1.8.  The main sources of revenue continue to be taxes on goods and services, mainly the Antigua 
and Barbuda Sales Tax, and taxes on international trade and transactions. Considered together, they 
amounted to 60% -65% of the current revenue during the review period (Table  1.2). The Citizens hip 
by Investment (CBI) programme started generating revenues in 2015 and, despite initial 
fluctuations, has become a stable source of revenue, corresponding to 10% of current revenue. This 
contribution by the BCI programme is equivalent to the revenue col lected through corporate taxes 
by the authorities. Regarding expenditures, more than 40% of the government expenditure is 
directed to payment of salaries. Approximately one third of expenditures is used for transfers and 
subsidies, while 12% is spent in in terest payment, mainly domestic.  
Table  1.2 Central government fiscal accounts, 2014 -21 
(% of GDP at market prices)   
2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  
Current revenue  19.7 21.7 20.0 20.0 18.8 18.6 20.3 19.4 
Tax revenue  16.9 17.3 16.5 16.2 15.7 14.8 16.5 16.4 
Taxes on goods and services  7.9 7.6 7.8 7.5 7.6 6.7 7.1 8.2 
Of which:  Sales tax  6.8 6.4 6.5 6.0 6.4 5.5 5.6 6.0 
Stamp duties  0.9 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.7 
Taxes on income and profits  2.2 2.5 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.7 2.4 2.1 
Corporation tax  1.1 1.4 1.3 1.8 1.8 1.7 2.3 2.0 
Personal income tax  1.1 1.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Taxes on property  0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 
Taxes on international trade and transactions  6.2 6.7 6.4 6.3 5.8 5.7 6.5 5.6 
Of which:  Consumption tax  1.2 1.8 2.0 1.6 1.2 1.4 2.1 1.2 
Import duty  2.3 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.3 
Non-tax revenue  2.8 4.4 3.5 3.8 3.1 3.8 3.8 2.9 
Of which:  Citizenship by Investment  0.0 3.5 1.9 1.4 1.4 2.5 2.1 1.8 
Capital revenue  0.0 1.8 4.5 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.0 
Grants  0.4 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.8 0.7 
         
Current expenditure  21.3 20.5 20.9 21.2 21.1 20.5 23.9 22.2 
Goods and services  3.7 3.0 3.3 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.4 3.1 
Interest payments  2.6 2.4 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.4 
Domestic interest payments  1.7 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.4 
External interest payments  0.9 0.6 1.0 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.0 
Personal emoluments  9.1 8.5 8.5 8.3 9.7 8.8 10.5 9.7 
Transfers and subsidies  5.8 6.6 6.5 7.1 5.9 5.8 7.4 6.9 
Capital expenditure  1.6 1.4 3.2 1.5 1.9 1.9 2.9 2.4 
Capital expenditure and net lending  1.6 1.4 4.0 1.5 1.9 1.9 2.9 2.4 
         
Current account balance  -1.6 1.2 -0.9 -1.2 -2.3 -1.9 -3.6 -2.9 
Primary balance (after grants)  -0.1 4.6 2.3 0.1 -0.7 -1.2 -3.0 -2.1 
Overall balance (after grants)  -2.8 2.2 -0.4 -2.4 -3.2 -3.8 -5.5 -4.5 
         
Total financing  2.8 -2.2 0.4 2.4 3.2 3.8 5.5 4.5 
Domestic financing  3.8 -8.3 0.2 1.1 0.0 1.3 4.2 4.9 
Commercial banks  -0.3 -2.6 -0.1 0.3 -0.1 -0.4 0.8 2.3 
 
2 These social packages included, inter alia, food packages for unemployed, single mothers, and elderly 
people; customs duties relief of sanitary g oods during the COVID -19 pandemic; and a food voucher 
programme.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  
ECCB  0.0 -2.4 1.6 -0.7 0.5 0.2 1.8 -0.5 
Other  4.1 -3.3 -1.3 1.5 -0.4 1.5 1.7 3.1 
External financing  -2.4 1.8 -1.2 -0.4 1.2 0.4 -1.3 -2.0 
Arrears  1.3 0.0 0.6 1.7 2.0 2.1 2.6 1.7 
Domestic arrears  0.2 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.3 0.8 0.6 -0.4 
External arrears  1.2 -0.2 0.5 0.9 1.7 1.3 2.0 2.0 
Other financing  0.0 4.2 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Source:  Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) as of October 2022.  
1.9.  In 2016, the primary balance showed a surplus reaching a peak of 4.6% of GDP mainly related 
to the inflows by the CIP. However, the fiscal position has weakened since 2017, mainly due to a 
decrease in revenue collection. The expansionary fiscal policy put in place to respond to the effects 
of the COVID -19 pandemic created further pressure on the government budget. The  primary balance 
deficit reached 3% of GDP in 2020 and surpassed 2% in 2021. The current deficit in the overall 
balance is mainly financed through an increase in arrears, mainly external ones, and other domestic 
sources of financing. The increase in arrear s creates further tensions related to long -term financing 
while exposing the Government to less favourable conditions for short -term lending.  
1.10.  Since 2021, the Government implements a Medium -Term Fiscal Strategy (MTFS) to improve 
its fiscal position. To achi eve fiscal consolidation, the Government prioritizes revenue collection: 
improving compliance; reducing tax expenditures; and expanding the property tax base. Among 
these measures, the enhancement of risk management and post -clearance audit, strengthening duty 
exemptions controls, and allowing online payments are those closely related to trade activities. 
Limiting the growth of the public sector wage and supporting investments in health, education, and 
public investments are also among the identified priori ties for the period 2021 -23. 
1.11.  According to the IMF, the current debt -to-GDP is close to 100% of GDP and the objective of 
the Antigua and Barbuda's MTFS is to bring public debt -to-GDP to under 70% by 2030.3 To achieve 
this objective, the Government aims at restructuring local commercial bank debts, and at 
establishing a comprehensive arrangement for the reduction of arrears. The strategy also seeks to 
prioritize the use of official external financing opportunities through multilateral and bilateral donors, 
which offers longer maturity and more attractive lending conditions. The Government is committed 
to enhance its management of other external risks to the overall fiscal situation. Identified challenges 
include building buffers to future natural disasters, r eforming the pension system, channelling 
investment to climate -resilient infrastructure; and accelerating the shift to renewables.4 All of these 
actions are expected to lower the overall cost of borrowing for Antigua and Barbuda; however, the 
IMF recently  considered that additional measures are needed to ensure that the MTFS meets its 
objectives.5 
1.12.  Regarding the financial sector, banks are now well  capitalized and non -performing loan ratios 
have remained stable. One remaining challenge for the sector is to  expand its credit to households. 
An ongoing reform of the pension system, started in 2017, aims at ensuring its long -term 
sustainability.  
1.1.3   Balance of payments, and monetary and exchange rate policy  
1.13.  Among Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) members, monetary and exchange 
rate policy is determined by the Monetary Council of the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB). 
The ECCB keeps the East Caribbean dollar pegged to the US dollar  at a rate of XCD  2.70 per USD. 
Changes in the real effective exchange rate for the regional currency are largely related to changes 
in the value of the USD  vis-à-vis other major currencies.  
 
3 IMF (2022), "Antigua and Barbuda: Staff Concluding Statement of the 2022 Article IV Mission ", 
5 October. Viewed at: https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2022/10/05/antigua -and-barbuda -staff-
concluding -statement -of-the-2022-article -iv-mission . 
4 For instance, a tourist accommodation levy was established  in 2021 to collect financial resources for a 
resilience fund.  
5 IMF (2022), "Antigua and Barbuda: Staff Concluding Statement of the 2022 Article IV Mission ", 
5 October. Viewed at: https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2022/10/05/antigua -and-barbuda -staff-
concluding -statement -of-the-2022-article -iv-mission . WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  1.14.  During the period under review, inflation was limited to 2.8% at most and on  average, it 
remained below 2%. However, because Antigua and Barbuda is a net importer of goods, the recent 
surge in global food and energy prices is putting pressure on domestic prices.  
1.15.  In 2014 and 2015, Antigua and Barbuda's current account presented a s urplus (Table  1.3). 
However, the situation quickly deteriorated after 2016, and the annual deficit has fluctuated around 
USD 200 million since 2017. The highest deficit was in 2020 (USD  251.6  million); the deficit 
amounted to USD  220.9  million (15% of GDP)  in 2021. The current account deficit was mainly due 
to a decline in the trade balance in merchandise goods in 2017 -19 and a sensitive deterioration of 
the trade balance for services in 2020 -21. 
Table  1.3 Balance of payments, 2014 -21 
(USD  million)   
2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019a 2020a 2021b 
1. Current account  3.3 29.6 -35.3 -118.0  -233.7  -126.9  -251.6  -220.9  
1.A Goods and services  103.1  163.0  119.5  17.9 -94.9 16.0 -146.8  -119.3  
1.A.a Goods  -433.6  -358.5  -393.1  -456.7  -579.8  -576.7  -402.1  -495.3  
Exports  98.7 67.6 50.1 37.2 43.0 50.1 34.4 36.6 
Imports  532.4  426.1  443.2  493.9  622.7  626.8  436.6  531.8  
1.A.b Services  536.7  521.5  512.6  474.6  484.8  592.6  255.3  376.0  
Exports  928.6  948.8  993.0  951.5  995.0  1,145.6  556.4  712.9  
Imports  391.9  427.3  480.4  476.9  510.2  553.0  301.1  337.0  
1.B Primary income  -60.8 -84.2 -97.1 -76.0 -80.2 -89.0 -43.3 -48.2 
1.B.1 Compensation of employees  -7.5 -5.9 -3.0 -4.3 -2.9 -3.1 -2.0 -2.2 
1.B.2 Investment income  -53.3 -78.3 -94.1 -71.7 -77.4 -85.9 -41.3 -46.0 
1.B.2.1 Direct investment  -38.0 -71.3 -83.5 -55.6 -70.4 -72.2 -24.3 -25.9 
1.B.2.2 Portfolio investment  3.0 2.0 2.5 0.3 -0.2 1.2 0.4 -1.0 
1.B.2.3 Other investment  -18.2 -9.0 -13.1 -16.4 -6.8 -14.8 -17.4 -19.1 
1.B.3 Other primary income  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
1.C Secondary income  -39.0 -49.2 -57.7 -59.9 -58.5 -53.9 -61.4 -53.4 
1.C.1 General government  0.3 -0.2 -2.3 -2.3 -0.5 -1.2 -1.2 -1.3 
1.C.2 Financial corporations, nonfinancial 
corporations, households, and NPISHs  -39.3 -49.0 -55.4 -57.6 -58.0 -52.7 -60.2 -52.1 
1.C.3 Adjustment for change in pension 
entitlements  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
2. Capital account  22.5 46.9 27.7 33.6 23.3 30.4 28.5 37.5 
2.1 Gross acquisitions (DR) / disposals (CR) of 
non-produced nonfinancial assets  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 
2.2 Capital transfers  22.5 46.9 27.7 33.6 23.3 28.9 28.5 37.5 
2.2.1 General government  22.4 46.8 27.7 35.4 23.4 46.3 28.5 37.5 
2.2.2 Financial corporations, nonfinancial 
corporations, households, and NPISHs  0.2 0.1 0.0 -1.9 -0.1 -17.3 0.0 0.0 
Net lending (+) / net borrowing ( -) (balance from 
current and capital account)  25.8 76.5 -7.5 -84.4 -210.4  -96.5 -223.1  -183.3  
3. Financial account  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Net lending (+) / net borrowing ( -) (balance from 
financial account)  64.7 92.9 -56.5 -67.6 -164.1  -131.6  -195.1  -9.9 
3.1 Direct investment  -39.9 -99.9 -59.4 -139.6  -205.9  -128.3  -81.7 -113.1  
3.2 Portfolio investment  5.2 30.4 11.1 -13.1 83.3 18.8 -42.2 -4.6 
3.3 Financial derivatives (other than reserves) 
and employee stock options  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
3.4 Other investment  4.9 103.8  17.5 101.5  -56.7 27.6 -13.8 5.4 
3.4.1 Other equity  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
3.4.2 Currency and deposits  28.9 135.6  0.7 160.1  -103.4  -53.3 56.0 96.5 
3.4.3 Loans  10.7 -22.6 33.8 0.4 25.4 51.6 -29.7 -45.5 
3.4.4 Insurance, pension, and standardized 
guarantee schemes  2.5 0.1 1.5 -40.2 38.1 -7.0 -11.1 -15.7 
3.4.5 Trade credit and advances  -36.0 -8.5 -9.0 -14.5 -9.0 9.3 -13.7 -3.6 
3.4.6 Other accounts receivable/payable  -1.3 -0.9 -9.4 -4.3 -7.9 26.9 -15.3 0.5 
3.4.7 Special drawing rights (Net incurrence of 
liabilities)  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 26.8 
3.5 Reserve assets  94.6 58.7 -25.6 -16.5 15.1 -49.6 -57.3 102.3  
3.5.2 Special drawing rights  0.1 0.0 0.1 -0.2 0.2 0.0 -0.1 0.2 
3.5.3 Reserve position in the IMF  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
3.5.4 Other reserve assets  94.4 58.6 -25.7 -16.3 15.0 -49.6 -57.3 102.1  
Net errors and omissions  38.9 16.4 -48.9 16.8 46.3 -35.1 28.0 173.4  
Memorandum:          
Current account as a share of GDP (%)  0.3 2.2 -2.5 -8.0 -14.5 -7.5 -18.4 -14.7 
a Preliminary data.  
b Estimates.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
- 69 - 
 
  Source:  Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) as of October 2022.  
1.2  Trends and patterns in merchandise and services trade  
1.16.  Antigua and Barbuda's trade balance deteriorated over the review period. There are 
two persistent element s in the recent trade performance of Antigua and Barbuda: a trade deficit in 
merchandise trade, and a trade surplus in services trade. The total trade surplus of 
USD 154.6  million cumulated over 2014 -16 rapidly vanished as soon as merchandise imports start ed 
to peak in 2018. In parallel, services imports also start to increase more rapidly than services exports 
during 2014 -18, which narrowed down the trade surplus on the services side. In 2020, the 
emergence of the COVID -19 pandemic had a large impact on th e tourism industry and the services 
trade surplus shrank by 55% on a year -to-year basis, leading to a total trade deficit of more than 
USD 200 million. Although services exports started to recover quickly in 2021 (+28%) after halving 
its value in 2020, the  merchandise imports were also on the rise (+20%) even though it was the 
less affected aggregate in the first year of the pandemic ( -29%). Altogether, since 2017, 
Antigua  and Barbuda has carried a trade deficit that in the last five years amounted to nearl y 
USD 750 million.  
1.17.  Regarding merchandise trade, exports totalled USD  19.1 million in 2021 (USD  4 million less 
than in 2014) while imports totalled USD  596 million in 2021 after reaching a maximum of 
USD 701 million in 2019 (Table  A1.1). Between 85% and 90%  of exports are re -exports, except in 
2021, and the domestic exports only surpassed USD  3.3 million in 2021, when they amounted to 
USD 4.3 million.6 Regarding merchandise imports, the strong dependence of Antigua and Barbuda 
remains a valid concern. Not o nly did merchandise imports shrink the least during the COVID -19 
crisis, but the heavy reliance on imported mineral fuels, food and live animals, and manufactured 
goods pushed the merchandise trade deficit beyond USD  500 million in four of the last five ye ars. In 
2021, the overall merchandise trade deficit was USD  576.4  million (Chart  1.1). 
 
6 Regarding total exports, including re -exports, the main trading partner is the European  Union, 
accounting for nearly 40% of the value in 2021, while the Bahamas, China, and the United  States represented 
approximately 10% each. As for imports ( excluding petroleum imports) in 2021, the United  States is the 
source of half of imports by Antigua and Barbuda, while China and Trinidad and Tobago accounted together for 
10% of the imported values.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
- 70 - 
 
  Chart  1.1 Merchandise trade by main SITC section, 2014 and 2021  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on ECCB statistics.  
1.18.  The majority of merchandise exports are mineral fuels, machinery and transport equipment, 
and beverages and tobacco.7 During the review period, exports of manufactured goods declined 
sharply, and accounted only for 7.2% in 2021 compared to 33. 9% in 2014 (Table  A1.1). The import 
 
7 The composition of domestic exports significantly chan ged during the review period: crude materials, 
and chemical and related products are no longer major components. Food and live animals became the main 
exported category, accounting for more than 50% of domestic exports in last three years; and manufactured  
good, and beverages and tobacco continue to be part of the export basket.  
Chart 1.1
Merchandise trade by main SITC sections, 2014 and 2021
2014 2021
Exports
Total: USD 23 million
Imports
Total: USD 552 million Total: USD 596 million
Source:   WTO Secretariat calculations, based on ECCB statistics.Total: USD 19 millionOther
4.3%Beverages & 
tobacco
6.0%Other
0.2%
Chemical 
products
5.8%Machinery & 
transport 
equipment
20.0%
Mineral fuels
29.8%Misc. manuf.
11.1%
Machinery & 
transport 
equipment
17.5%Other
0.2%
Chemical 
products
8.4%Misc. manuf.
10.0%
Machinery & 
transport 
equipment
19.4%Other
0.5%
Crude 
materials 
(except fuels)
1.9%
Mineral fuels
20.0%Mineral fuels
4.4%
Mineral fuels
26.2%Machinery & 
transport 
equipment
36.9%
Chemical 
products
2.8%Chemical products
2.3%
Manufactured 
goods
33.9%Misc. manuf.
9.2%
Manufactured 
goods
14.2%Food & 
live 
animals
3.0%
Manufactured 
goods
7.2%Food & live 
animals
16.0%
Beverages & 
tobacco
17.7%Misc. manuf.
9.9%
Food & live 
animals
17.8%Food & live 
animals
20.0%
Beverages & 
tobacco
4.5% Beverages & 
tobacco
4.1%
Manufactured 
goods
11.4%Crude 
materials 
(except fuels)
3.3%WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
- 71 - 
 
  structure remained relatively stable during the review period. The share of manufactured goods, 
chemical and related products, and food products and live animals in total imports has increased 
since 2014, while the share  of mineral fuels decreased from 29.8% to 20% in 2021 (Table  A1.1).8 
1.19.  Between 2014 and 2019, import of services increased to USD  553 million (+41%) while 
exports reached USD  1,145.6  million (+23%); nonetheless, the trade surplus increased by 
USD 56 million  (Table  1.4). In 2020, services exports declined more significantly than services 
imports, and thus the trade deficit passed from almost USD  600 million in 2019 to around 
USD 250 million in 2021. Since then, services exports and imports show some recovery and there 
was a trade surplus in services of USD  376 million in 2021; travel services accounted for the bulk of 
this result on the export side, while technical trade -related and other business services, and 
transportation are the main contributors on the i mport side.  
1.20.  At the time of the preparation of this Review, there were no data available regarding the 
investment flows to and from Antigua and Barbuda.  
Table  1.4 Trade in services, 2014 -21 
(USD  million)   
2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019a 2020a 2021b 
Services trade balance  536.7  521.5  512.6  474.6  484.8  592.6  255.3  376.0  
Exports of services  928.6  948.8  993.0  951.5  995.0  1,145.6  556.4  712.9  
Maintenance and repair services , n.i.e. 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 
Transportation  131.3  132.1  135.2  124.9  126.2  138.1  34.9 45.1 
Sea transport  7.2 10.6 13.4 13.4 14.2 12.5 9.7 8.6 
Passenger  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Freight  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Other  7.2 10.6 13.4 13.4 14.2 12.5 9.7 8.6 
Air transport  120.7  117.9  118.1  108.6  109.5  123.1  23.4 34.5 
Passenger  95.5 91.9 90.5 83.3 79.3 89.6 17.8 26.3 
Freight  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Other  25.2 26.0 27.6 25.3 30.2 33.5 5.6 8.2 
Other transport  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Postal and courier services  3.4 3.6 3.6 2.9 2.5 2.6 1.8 1.9 
Travel  708.3  710.0  752.7  736.7  776.0  903.6  411.8  546.1  
Construction services  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.7 0.3 
Construction abroad  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Construction in the compiling 
economy  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.7 0.3 
Insurance services  34.3 37.3 39.5 32.0 37.2 43.3 50.2 47.6 
Direct insurance  30.3 33.4 35.0 27.1 32.9 37.9 44.7 42.3 
Reinsurance  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Auxiliary insurance services  4.1 3.9 4.5 4.9 4.3 5.4 5.6 5.3 
Financial services  0.2 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 
Charges for use of intellectual 
property  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Telecommunications, computer and 
information services (Combined)  8.0 8.4 8.5 8.7 7.4 7.4 7.0 7.0 
Other business services  43.3 58.5 54.8 47.2 45.8 48.9 35.3 56.4 
Professional and management 
consulting services  1.2 3.2 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.2 2.1 6.0 
Technical trade -related and other 
business services  42.1 55.3 51.3 43.2 41.8 44.7 33.2 50.5 
Personal, cultural, and recreational 
services  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.1 7.6 
Government services, n.i.e.  1.2 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.9 2.5 1.7 2.1 
Embassies and consulates  1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.5 0.8 
Other government services  0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.6 1.2 1.3 
Imports of services  391.9  427.3  480.4  476.9  510.2  553.0  301.1  337.0  
Maintenance and repair services , n.i.e. 24.0 20.2 14.7 15.0 13.9 15.7 3.1 3.4 
Transportation  95.9 88.1 90.6 92.9 109.1  109.9  60.5 73.6 
Sea transport  55.2 46.3 49.7 55.4 69.9 70.3 49.5 60.6 
Passenger  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Freight  55.2 46.3 49.7 55.4 69.9 70.1 49.4 60.4 
Other  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 
Air transport  40.7 41.7 40.8 37.5 39.2 39.7 11.0 12.9 
 
8 There is a substantial inconsistency between trade statistics reported by the ECCB and those available 
in sources such as UN Comtrade. In 2019, the data available at UN Comtrade i ndicate that the United Arab 
Emirates accounted for half of Antigua and Barbuda's exports while the United  States represented around half 
of Antigua and Barbuda's imports.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019a 2020a 2021b 
Passenger  23.4 24.8 23.9 23.5 25.2 24.2 6.9 7.4 
Freight  1.9 2.0 1.4 1.4 1.9 1.9 1.4 1.5 
Other  15.4 14.9 15.6 12.6 12.1 13.6 2.7 4.1 
Other transport  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Postal and courier services  0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Travel  65.9 69.9 77.1 82.1 86.5 101.1  40.1 43.0 
Construction services  5.2 3.6 10.5 8.6 17.6 10.2 8.4 9.7 
Construction abroad  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Construction in the compiling 
economy  5.2 3.6 10.5 8.6 17.6 10.2 8.4 9.7 
Insurance services  29.6 31.6 31.4 35.9 39.5 40.2 41.1 45.6 
Direct insurance  16.3 14.9 14.8 19.0 21.4 21.2 19.4 22.3 
Reinsurance  4.9 7.1 6.7 7.0 7.7 9.4 10.2 10.9 
Auxiliary insurance services  8.5 9.6 9.9 9.9 10.4 9.6 11.5 12.4 
Financial services  3.9 6.6 7.2 8.8 6.8 6.4 4.8 5.2 
Charges for use of intellectual 
property  3.0 3.1 4.0 5.0 3.8 4.0 3.3 3.6 
Telecommunications, computer and 
information services (Combined)  5.8 7.4 14.9 10.6 7.8 10.2 6.7 7.2 
Other business services  138.8  176.8  208.5  197.9  203.7  234.0  112.9  130.6  
Professional and management 
consulting services  20.7 25.2 25.5 22.5 20.7 23.1 12.8 17.2 
Technical trade -related and other 
business services  118.1  151.6  183.0  175.5  183.0  210.9  100.1  113.4  
Personal, cultural, and recreational 
services  19.4 19.9 21.4 20.0 21.6 21.3 20.1 15.1 
Government services, n.i.e.  0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Embassies and consulates  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Other government services  0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
a Preliminary data.  
b Estimates.  
Source:  Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) as of October 2022.  
 WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  2  TRADE AND INVESTMENT REGIMES  
2.1  General framework  
2.1.  The Government in Antigua and Barbuda consists of three branches: legislative, executive, and 
judicial; the reigning British monarch is represented by the General Governor, who acts as the head 
of state. The legislative branch is a bicameral Parliament compris ing the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, and they consist of 19 and 17 members, respectively. Seventeen of the members 
of the House are elected through general elections, which generally occur every five years but may 
be called earlier.9 The last election was held in 2018 and the next election is due for March  2023. 
The leader of the majority party in the House is the Prime Minister, who appoints other members of 
the Parliament as Cabinet ministers. Currently, there are 13 Ministers at the Cabinet,  including the 
Prime Minister. The Cabinet is responsible for the general direction and control of the Government 
and is directly accountable to Parliament. Members of the Senate are appointed by the Governor 
General on the advice of the Prime Minister, th e Leader of the Opposition, and the Barbuda Council.10 
2.2.  Established in 1976, the 11 -member Barbuda Council is the principal organ of local government 
for the island of Barbuda. The Council administers agriculture and forestry issues, public health, 
medical and sanitary facilities, electricity, water, and other public utilities; constructs, improves, and 
maintains roads; and raises and collects revenue to meet expenses involved in executing its 
functions.  
2.3.  The Constitution supersedes all other laws, and any la w that does not conform to it is void to 
the extent of the inconsistency. Bills are drafted at the request of a government ministry and 
introduced in either House, with the exception of a finance or money bill, which must always be 
introduced in the House of Representatives. Usually, a bill will have three readings. A bill that 
commences in either House must be passed at its third reading, with or without amendments, before 
moving to the other House. Bills other than those related to finance or money may be  rejected by 
the Senate twice and, in that case, the House may submit the bill to the Governor General without 
the consent of the Senate. For finance or money bills, the House may present the bill to the Governor 
General in case the Senate does not pass th e bill within one month. Bills become law only after 
receiving the assent of the Governor General and publication in the official Government Gazette . 
This procedure applies to all laws, including trade and trade -related laws.  
2.4.  Following the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers, trade treaties and related agreements are 
signed by the Prime Minister or any other minister authorized to sign on behalf of the Government. 
The Cabinet also authorizes ratification of and accession to international agreements. Parlia mentary 
involvement is limited to the enactment of enabling legislation regarding treaties, agreements, and 
other commitments.  
2.5.  English common law is the basis of the legal system in Antigua and Barbuda. Criminal and civil 
cases are heard in both the magist rate and the high courts. There is also an industrial court, which 
deals with matters arising from labour and employment disputes. In all cases, there is a right to 
appeal to the Eastern Caribbean Court of Appeal. The London -based Judicial Committee of the  Privy 
Council (JCPC) stands as the final court of appeal.  
2.6.  In 2005, Antigua and Barbuda joined other Caribbean Community (CARICOM) States in 
establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) with independent trade jurisdiction for dealing with 
the interpre tation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas. In 2018, a constitutional referendum, the 
first one in the country's history, was held to replace the JCPC with the CCJ as the appellate 
jurisdiction; only 48% of voters were in favour of this amendment.11 
 
9 Besides elected members, the House of Representative has an ex officio  member (the  Attorney 
General and Minister of Legal Affairs, Public Safety, and Labour) and a Speaker.  
10 The Leader of the Opposition is a figure legally recognized by the Constitution. Regarding the 
composition of the Senate, 10 senators as well as a senator inhabita nt of Barbuda are appointed on the advice 
of the Prime Minister, while 4 senators are advised by the Leader of the Opposition and 1 senator by the 
Barbuda Council. The remaining senator is appointed at the discretion of the Governor General.  
11 A majority o f two thirds is required for changes to the Constitution.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  2.2  Trade  policy formulation and objectives  
2.7.  The main objectives of Antigua and Barbuda's trade policy have evolved over time and the 
authorities indicate that they are now more outward oriented with the aim of diversifying the 
economy and encouraging foreign direct  investment. The Government seeks to attract investors in 
industries creating local jobs, enhancing economic activity, and providing a source for foreign 
currency. The authorities note their interest in economic diversification, including areas such as the  
blue economy and education.12 Sustainability and resilience -building regarding climate change, food 
security, and improved access to finance for small business are also part of the objectives of 
policymakers. Antigua and Barbuda seeks to develop further t he creative industries while sustaining 
the activities of the tourism sector, its main exporting sector. Recently, there has been push towards 
renewables as well.  
2.8.  The Department for International Trade of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade and 
Immigrat ion (MoFATI) has primary responsibility for formulating and implementing trade policy. 
Proposals are submitted by the technical staff to the Minister, upon whose approval they are sent to 
the Cabinet for consideration and approval. Once approved by the Cab inet, the Department for 
International Trade is responsible for implementation and monitoring. In addition, the Ministry 
undertakes periodic reviews and assessment of trade policy. To the extent possible, these reviews 
are conducted in conjunction with the  private sector and concerned ministries.  
2.9.  As part of economic development and planning, trade policies are also reviewed by agencies, 
statutory bodies, and other Ministries; however, the ultimate responsibility lies with the Cabinet. 
Other ministries and a gencies involved in trade policy formulation and implementation include the 
Antigua and Barbuda Investment Authority; the Antigua and Barbuda Bureau of Standards; the 
Antigua and Barbuda Intellectual Property and Commerce Office; the Ministry of Agricultur e, 
Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs; the Ministry of Finance, Corporate Governance and Public Private 
Partnerships; the Ministry of Legal Affairs, Public Safety and Labour; and the Ministry of Tourism, 
Investment and Economic Development.  
2.10.  As a member of the O ECS and CARICOM, Antigua and Barbuda has certain elements in its 
trade policy that are formulated and implemented by these bodies at the regional level. The 
authorities indicate that coordination with the regional partners is a paramount to maximize 
outcom es in terms of trade policies and negotiations.  
2.11.  The main laws related to customs, intellectual property rights, government procurement, and 
other trade -related aspects are listed in Table  2.1. 
Table  2.1 Major trade -related laws, 2022  
Description  Legislation  
Foreign trade  Customs (Control and Management) Act 2013  
Revenue Recovery Charge Act 2010  
Sales Tax Act 2006  
Environmental Protection Levy Act 2002  
Export Duty Act 1941  
Quality control  Animal Health Act 2017 
The Standards Act 2017  
Plant Protection Act 2012  
Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Act 2008  
Metrology Act 2007  
Investment/business environment  Antigua and Barbuda Investment Authority Act 2006  
Antigua and Barbuda Citizenship by Investment Act 
2013 
Special Economic Zone Act 2015  
Free Trade and Processing Zone Act of 1994  
Small Business Development Act 2007  
Personal Income Tax Act 2005  
Non-Citizens Land Holding Regulation Act 1968, 
Cap 293 
Industrial Court Act 1976  
The Companies Act 1995  
Aid to Pionee r Industries Act, Cap 14  
 
12 In 2019, the University of the West Indies inaugurated its fifth campus in Antigua and Barbuda. The 
authorities note that the objective is that this campus becomes an excellency centre for oceanog raphy.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  Description  Legislation  
Excise Tax Act 1903  
Government procurement  Procurement Administration Act 2011  
Intellectual property rights  Intellectual Property Office Act 2003  
Trade Mark Act 2003  
The Patent Act 2018  
Industrial Designs Act 2003  
Copyright Act of 2003  
Geographical Indications Act 2003  
Integrated Circuits Topography Act 2003  
Services  Banking Act 2015  
International Banking Act 2016  
Securities Act 2020  
Insurance Act 2007  
Telecommunications Act 1951  
Merchant Shipping Act 2006  
Civil Aviation Act 2003  
Tourism Authority Act 2008  
Hotel Aid Act 1952  
International Trust Act 2007  
Note:  The listed regulations might have been amended after the initial enactment and those amendments 
are not listed here.  
Source:  Information provided by t he authorities.  
2.3  Trade agreements and arrangements  
2.3.1   WTO  
2.12.  Antigua and Barbuda is an original WTO Member and extends at least MFN treatment to all 
its trading partners. Under the GATS, Antigua and Barbuda made initial commitments on tourism, 
professional servic es, computer and related services, research and development, recreational 
services, maritime transport, and financial services (Section  4). The Marrakesh Agreement is not 
incorporated into domestic law as a single piece of legislation and thus certain prov isions of the 
Agreement are part of different domestic laws. Those provisions may be invoked in litigation before 
local courts.  
2.13.  In 2017, Antigua and Barbuda ratified the Agreement on Facilitation Agreement (TFA) and 
communicated the definitive dates for th e implementation of all its commitments, some of which 
span until 2035. In November 2021, post -clearance audit was implemented in line with Article  7.5 
of the TFA. Antigua and Barbuda has requested assistance and support for capacity -building for 
14 measur es. The authorities indicate that a common approach has been in put in place at the 
regional level to improve capacity -building regarding the implementation of the TFA.  
2.14.  The authorities indicate that they consider multilateralism as the best option for 
Antigua and Barbuda. In this regard, they aim at actively participating to future initiatives, fora, and 
negotiations at the multilateral level. The authorities stressed the need to consider a 
multidimensional perspective for the vulnerabilities faced by small  developing islands.  
2.15.  During the period under review, Antigua and Barbuda made some notifications to the WTO, 
covering, inter alia, the regional trade agreement between CARIFORUM and the United  Kingdom, its 
commitments under the TFA, and its fiscal incentiv es programme (Table  2.2). There was no 
notification in other areas, such as agriculture, technical regulations, and sanitary and phytosanitary 
measures.  
2.16.  Antigua and Barbuda was not involved as a complainant, a defendant, or a third  party in any 
case before  the Dispute Settlement Body during the review period.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  Table  2.2 Notifications to the WTO, 2014 -22 
WTO  Agreement  Description  Most recent notification and date  
Implementation of Article  VI of GATT  1994 (Anti -Dumping  Agreement)  
Article  16.1 New and full notification pursuant to 
Article  XVI:I  of the GATT  1994 and Article  25 of 
the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing 
Measures.  
Transparency notification concerning the 
extensions provided for in Article  27.4 of the 
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing 
Measures  of the transition period for the 
elimination of export subsidies.  G/SCM/N/284/ATG, G/SCM/N/290/ATG, 
G/SCM/N/299/ATG, G/SCM/N/315/ATG , 
7 May 2018 
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures  
Articles 25.1 and 
27.4 New and full notification pursuant to 
Article XVI:I of the GATT  1994 and Article  25 of 
the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing 
Measures.  
Transparency notification concerning the 
extensions provided for in Article  27.4 of the 
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing 
Measures  of the transitio n period for the 
elimination of export subsidies.  G/SCM/N/284/ATG, G/SCM/N/290/ATG, 
G/SCM/N/299/ATG, G/SCM/N/315/ATG , 
7 May 2018 
General Agreement on Trade in Services  
Article  5.7(a)  Regional Trade Agreement (CARIFORUM -UK 
EPA) WT/REG420/N/1/Add.1  
S/C/N/1025/Add.1,  
5 May 2021 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation  
Article  1.4 Notification of Category Commitments under the 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation  G/TFA/N/ATG/1/Add.1/Corr.1,  
11 January  2022 
 
G/TFA/N/ATG/1, 23 August  2019 
Article  10.6.2  Notification under Article  10.6.2 of the 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation  G/TFA/N/ATG/3, 17  September  2020 
Article  22.3 Notification under Article  22.3 of the Agreement 
on Trade Facilitation  G/TFA/N/ATG/2, 17  September  2020 
Transparency Mechanism on Regional Trade Agreements  
 Regional Trade Agreement (CARIFORUM -UK 
Economic Partnership Agreement ) WT/REG420/N/1/Add.1  
S/C/N/1025/Add.1,  
5 May 2021 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
2.3.2   Regional and preferential agreements  
2.17.  Antigua and Barbuda is a member of CARICOM, established by the Treaty of Chaguaramas in 
1973. Several protocols amending the original Treaty were consolidated into the Revised Treaty, 
which forms the legal basis for the establishment of the CARICOM Single Market and E conomy 
(CSME). The CSME, which permits the free movement of goods, capital, and labour, became effective 
in February  2002.  
2.18.  As a member of CARICOM, Antigua and Barbuda has signed bilateral agreements with the 
Bolivarian  Republic  of Venezuela, Colombia, the Dominican  Republic, Costa  Rica, Cuba, the 
European  Union, and the United  Kingdom.13 The agreement with the United  Kingdom was the only 
one signed during the review period, and Antigua and Barbuda provisionally has applied this 
agreement since the beginning of 2021.14 The agreement with the United  Kingdom is a roll -over of 
the previous ag reement with the European  Union.  
2.19.  Antigua and Barbuda is also a founding member of the OECS. The ratification of the Revised 
Treaty of Basseterre by six OECS member States established the OECS Economic Union. Entered 
 
13 The agreements with the European  Union and the United  Kingdom were signed in conjunction with 
other 14 member States of CARICOM and the Dominican  Republic, named the CARIFORUM group.  
14 WTO document WT/REG420/N/1, S/C/N/1025, 7  January  2021.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  into force in 2011, the Economic Union a ims to become a single financial and economic space within 
which all factors of production, including goods, services, and people, move.  
2.20.  Antigua and Barbuda's exports are also granted preferential access to the Canadian market, 
through CARIBCAN, and to the  United  States under the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). 
Antigua  and Barbuda also benefits from the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) schemes of 
Armenia, Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz  Republic, New  Zealand, Norway, the 
Russian  Federation, a nd Switzerland.  
2.4  Investment regime  
2.21.  Antigua and Barbuda keeps an open foreign investment regime, with foreign investors 
receiving national treatment.15 Fishing, fisheries, and agriculture are the only sectors reserved for 
domestic investors. There are no res trictions on the repatriation of dividends, and consent for it is 
granted automatically provided that all applicable taxes have been paid. Personal income tax was 
abolished in 201616, and worldwide income, assets, or capital gains are exempted from income tax 
for citizens of Antigua and Barbuda. Domestic borrowing by foreigners is subject to a 3% stamp tax.  
2.22.  The purchase of real estate for residential or commercial purposes by foreign investors 
requires an alien landholder's licence. Subject to Cabinet appro val, the licences require payment of 
a fee that varies between 3% and 7% of the purchase price of the property, depending on the term 
for the lease.17 
2.23.  To formally operate in Antigua and Barbuda, any business or company must complete the 
following steps: (i ) obtain a business registration certificate by the Antigua and Barbuda Intellectual 
Property and Commerce Office (ABIPCO); (ii)  obtain a Tax Identification Number from the Inland 
Revenue Department; and (iii)  register with the Social Security, the Medical  Benefits, and the Board 
of Education. The whole registration procedure, including the business name search, takes between 
two and three weeks and costs approximately XCD  120. ABIPCO was expected to roll out an online 
e-service for business registration an d incorporation in November 2022.  
2.24.  Antigua and Barbuda offers a number of incentives to foreign investors under the provisions 
of the Antigua and Barbuda Investment Authority (ABIA) Act 2006. During the review period, this 
framework was amended three times.  Since 2016, incentives and concessions to be granted require 
the approval of the Cabinet instead of the minister in charge of finance as previously. Whenever the 
owner of a hotel or a group of hotels representing more than 5% of the country's room occupan cy 
intends to carry business for less than 10 months during the year or to close temporarily for two 
months or more, the owner must submit a notice of intention, at least 30 days before the intended 
closure date, to the Minister of Tourism.  
2.25.  In 2019, the el igibility criteria and the related incentives offered under the ABIA Act were 
amended (Table  2.3).18 The ABIA Act classifies investors in different categories, each offering 
different incentives. Thresholds for the different investment categories are still  based on the size of 
the capital investment and the number of employees that will be employed as a result of the project; 
however, the capital thresholds were increased and a requirement of local residency for at least a 
director or owner was kept.  
Table  2.3 Eligibility criteria and incentives offered under the ABIA , 2022  
 Category 1  Category 2  Category 3  Category 4  Category 5  Category 6a 
 Eligibility criteria  
Capital investment 
(XCD million)  Between to 
3 and 10  Between 10 
and 30  Between 30 
and 60  Between 60 
and 100  Between 
100 and 150  Over 150  
Number of 
employees  Up to 26  Over 26  Over 61  Over 100  Over 150  Not specified  
Local residency  At least one director or owner lawfully resident in Antigua and Barbuda  Not specified  
 
15 In 2020, the Companies (Amendment) Regulations 2020 amended fees related to business 
incorporation and other formalities.  
16 Personal Income Tax (Amendment) Act 2016.  
17 Non-Citizens Land Holding Regulation Act Cap 293, as amended by Non -Citizens Land Holdi ng 
Regulation (Amendment) Act 2018, and Non -Citizens Land Holding Regulation (Amendment) Act 2020.  
18 Investment Authority (Amendment) Act 2019, and Investment Authority (Amendment) (No.  2) 
Act 2019.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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   Category 1  Category 2  Category 3  Category 4  Category 5  Category 6a 
 Incentives  
Equipment and 
capital goods  Exemption from or reduction of payment of duty under the Customs Duty 
Act 1993, the Revenue Recovery Charge Act 2010, and the Antigua and 
Barbuda Sales Tax Act 2006 on the importation or purchase of raw 
materials, building materials, furniture, furnishings, fixtures, fittings, 
appliances, tools, spare parts, plant machinery, and equipment for use in 
the construction and operation of the business.  Incentives and 
conces sions 
are fixed 
according to 
the investment 
level and may 
include 
incentives and 
concessions 
not granted 
under any 
other 
category.  Vehicles for use in 
business operation  Exemption from or reduction of payment of duty under the Customs Duty 
Act 1993, the Revenue Recovery Charge Act 2010, and the Antigua and 
Barbuda Sales Tax Act 2006 on the importation or purchase of vehicles.  
Corporate income 
tax Up to 2 
years  Up to 4 
years  Up to 6 
years  Up to 8 
years  Up to 10 
years  
Losses carried 
forward  Up to 1  year Up to 2 
years  Up to 3 
years  Up to 4 
years  Up to 5 
years  
Stamp duty on 
land transfers and 
non-citizen licences  Up to 20% 
on land and 
building  Up to 30% 
on land and 
building  Up to 40% 
on land and 
building  Up to 50% 
on land and 
building  Up to 75% 
on land and 
building  
a Sectors identified as eligible for this investment category include the provision of healthcare, 
tourism, infrastructure development, renewable energy, education, or any similar project related to 
the economic development of Antigua and Barbuda.  
Source:  Investment Authority Act 2006, and its amendments.  
2.26.  In 2019, the maximum duration of the fiscal incentives on corporate income tax was reduced 
from 20 to 10 years. The reduction on stamp duty on land transfers and non -citizen li cences became 
more attractive, while duty reductions or exemptions on capital goods and vehicles remained 
unchanged across categories. Concessions on the property tax were removed from incentives. 
Incentives for investment above XCD  150 million are oriente d to selected sectors: healthcare, 
tourism, infrastructure development, renewable energy, education, or any similar project related to 
the economic development of Antigua and Barbuda.19 A project not belonging to any of the nine 
selected sectors is not eli gible for concessions under the ABIA Act 2019. Since 2019, incentives for 
this latter category are approved by the Cabinet and may be a combination of incentives to other 
categories and other incentives not granted to any other category.  
2.27.  Antigua and Barbud a promotes the establishment of free trade and processing zones, with 
the aim of attracting foreign and local private investment to various manufacturing and services 
entities. Authorities notified that the only licensee under this programme did not begin operations 
until end -2014.20 In 2022, a second licensee under this framework was announced. In 2019, 
incentives for companies established under the Free Trade and Processing Zones were aligned with 
incentives provided under the ABIA.21 
2.28.  In 2015, Antigua and  Barbuda established a framework for the development of Special 
Economic Zones (SEZs) (Section  3.3.1).22 Until mid -2022, the two entities granted a SEZ operator 
licence under the programme were still to commence construction.  
2.29.  In 2013, the Tourism and Busin ess Special Incentives Act 2013 provided concessions, which 
were available for two years, to investors in specified business activities (manufacturing; agriculture, 
fisheries, and agri -business; information and telecommunication technologies; financial ser vices; 
health and wellness; creative industry; and energy). These incentives were extended for two 
additional years in 2016 by the Parliament and were automatically discontinued in 2018.  
2.30.  Since its establishment in 2013, the Citizenship by Investment (CBI) programme was 
amended five times. In 2014, the minimum residence requirement for citizens benefitting from the 
programme passed from 35 to 5 days over a 5 -year period. In 2016, the CBI Unit, as a dependency 
of the Cabinet, was established to administer the  programme and introduced fees for the renewal of 
passports and for the application of additional dependants. Additionally, the right to appeal to the 
High Court in case of deprivation of citizenship was introduced. In 2018, the CBI Board was created 
 
19 There is not an established methodology to determine th e selected sectors under the ABIA Act.  
20 WTO document G/SCM/N/284/ATG, G/SCM/N/290/ATG, G/SCM/N/299/ATG, and G/SCM/N/315/ATG, 
7 May 2018.  
21 Free Trade and Processing Zone (Amendment) Act 2019.  
22 Special Economic Zone Act 2015, and its amendments in 2019 an d 2021.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  to provide policy and oversight advisory to the programme. Since 2020, the Prime Minister can 
suspend the residence requirement of five days for sanitary and other grounds considered necessary.  
2.31.  Applications for the programme must be submitted through a licensed  agent; only nationals 
and residents living for at least seven years in the country can obtain an agent licence. Application 
fees, including those for due diligence check, start at XCD  155,250 for an individual person and 
increase with the number of family  members. During the review period, the minimum investment 
thresholds for obtaining citizenship remained unchanged for investors purchasing real estate 
(XCD 1,080,000) and those investing in approved business (XCD  4 million for an individual, or 
XCD 13.5 million for two or more persons, with each minimum contribution of at least 
XCD 1,080,000). Since 2016, applicants under the National Development Fund, another option to 
apply to the programme, make a contribution of XCD  540,000 instead of XCD  675,000 previ ously.  
2.32.  Under the Small Business Development Act, the Government provides loan guarantees to 
businesses; however, the authorities indicate that these loan guarantees were never implemented. 
Businesses employing less than 25 people, not related to a larger c ompany, with less than 
XCD 3 million in capital investment and less than XCD  2 million in sales, and which are majority 
owned by citizens of Antigua and Barbuda, are eligible for this programme. To benefit from the 
scheme, businesses owned by foreigners mu st export half their production, locally procure 40% of 
their inputs, and have a minimum investment of XCD  500,000; in addition, half of their employees 
must be citizens of Antigua and Barbuda.  
2.33.  Antigua and Barbuda has bilateral investment treaties with Ger many (in force since 2001) 
and the United  Kingdom (1987). It also has taxation agreements with Australia, Canada, Denmark, 
Germany, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United  Kingdom, and double taxation agreements 
with the United Arab Emirates and the Un ited Kingdom. Antigua and Barbuda has signed 22 tax 
information exchange agreements.23 Since 2017, an agreement with the United  States makes it 
mandatory for local banks to report the banking information of US citizens.  
 
 
23 OECD, Tax Information Exchange Agreements (TIEAs) . Viewed at: 
https://www.oecd.org/tax/exchange -of-tax-information/taxinformationexchan geagreementstieas.htm .  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3  TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE  
3.1  Measures directly affecting imports  
3.1.1   Customs procedures, valuation, and requirements  
3.1.  Under the provisions of the Customs (Control and Management) Act 2013 and its amendments, 
all imports require a formal entry certificate or warrant. Importers may clear their imports 
themselves (up to three shipments per year) or through a customs broker.24 For the customs 
declaration, the importer must provide a formal entry certificate, an invoice, a bill of lading or airway 
bill, information on insurance and other costs, and an import licence when needed. To benefit from 
CARICOM preferences, a certificate  of origin is required. SPS documents must also be provided when 
needed.25 Importers are required to register with Antigua and Barbuda's Inland Revenue 
Department, which assigns a Tax Identification Number to the importer.  
3.2.  Under the provisions of the Act, customs decisions may be appealed. In the first instance, the 
importer may appeal to the Comptroller of Customs; if a satisfactory solution is not found, the 
importer has recourse to the Customs Appeal Commission. Small infractions are handled at last 
instance by the Magistrate Court, while large infractions are heard at the High Court.  
3.3.  After updating the regulatory framework to integrate the use of customs systems26, 
Antigua  and Barbuda started the implementation of the ASYCUDA World System in 2015 and it took 
two years to complete the project (June 2017). To submit a declaration, a user needs to first register 
on the ASYCUDA World System. The customs declaration can be prepared and submitted online via 
the system, and as part of the submission, a Single Ad ministrative Document collecting all relevant 
information, including a Tax Compliance Certificate, must be filled by the applicant. All accompanying 
documents can be submitted online via the system.27 In 2018, amendments were introduced to 
allow for the su bmission of Advance Cargo Information through ASYCUDA.28 
3.4.  In light of these improvements, the authorities report that customs clearance of complete 
declaration with all required documents now takes an hour for goods that do not require a physical 
inspection , instead of five hours as previously. The system improvement has also had an impact on 
inspections; customs officials inspect only 40% of consignments (compared to 70% in the past).29 
The recent modernization of the port infrastructure enabled the consoli dation of all services in one 
single place and also improved customs operations.  
3.5.  Customs valuation is based on the second schedule of the Customs (Control and Management) 
Act 2013, which is consistent with the WTO Customs Valuation Agreement. The transacti on value is 
to be used first for valuation purposes, followed in order by the transaction value of identical goods, 
the transaction value of similar goods, the deducted valuation, and computed valuation. 
Antigua  and Barbuda has not notified its current val uation methodology to the WTO.  
 
24 Brokers need to be registered with Antigua and Barbuda Intellectual Property and Commerce Office, 
the Inland Revenue Department, and Customs to operate. Since 2017, the Government took the first steps to 
provide a legal framework for customs brokers' activities through the Customs (Control and Management) 
(Amendment) Act 2017. Licensing requirements, control, and management may be adopted by the authorities, 
and the establishment of an independent body, known as the Brokers Board, is foreseen; however, no specific 
regulation has been approved.  
25 At the time of the preparation of this Review, a new website for Customs was under development and 
the authorities expect it to become public by end -2022.  
26 Customs (Control and Management) (Amendment) Act 2015.  
27 A Customs Declaration User Manual was made available by the Customs and Excise Department at: 
https://customs.gov.ag/docs/DECLARATION%20MANUAL.pdf . 
28 Notably, a Fi fth Schedule is added by the Customs (Control and Management) (Amendment) Act 
2018.  
29 The risk assessment module assigns consignments to four different channels for custom clearance: 
red (involving physical inspections and documentation check, concerns 40%  of consignments), yellow (only 
documentation check, concerns 20% of consignments), blue (for which a post -clearance audit is conducted, 
concerns 10% of consignments), and green (no inspection or check, concerns 30% of consignments).  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3.1.2   Rules of origin  
3.6.  Antigua and Barbuda does not maintain any non -preferential rules of origin and CARICOM 
preferential rules of origin are applied to imports from other CARICOM members. Goods are 
recognized as originating from t he Common Market if they have been (i)  completely produced within 
CARICOM; or (ii)  produced within CARICOM wholly or partly from materials imported from third 
countries, provided a substantial transformation has taken place within CARICOM. A change of tari ff 
heading is considered as a substantial transformation; however, other requirements are specifically 
defined for each tariff heading in Part A of the List in Schedule II of the CARICOM Treaty. In case 
materials are not available in a CARICOM member State , a manufacturer may request an 
authorization or waiver of the Council for Trade and Economic Development (COTED) for such 
imports from outside the region (safeguard mechanism). Goods directly shipped between member 
States are granted duty -free treatment p rovided an accompanying certificate of origin from the 
exporting country can be verified at the importing end.  
3.7.  Under the CARICOM Treaty's derogation facility to the application of Common Market Rules of 
Origin, a derogation granted to Antigua and Barbuda f or coffee beans in 2004 remains in effect.30 
Antigua and Barbuda implements the rules of origin contained in the Amended Schedule I of the 
Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas; however, the application of different tariff nomenclatures creates 
some inconsistencie s. 
3.1.3   Tariffs31 
3.1.3.1   Structure  
3.8.  Antigua and Barbuda applies an ad valorem  duty to all goods. In 2020, the applied MFN tariff 
ranged between duty -free and 70%. Since 2013, the simple average MFN tariff increased by 
0.8 percentage points and this increase is stronger  in agricultural products (+1.3%). The occurrence 
of tariff peaks is also on the rise.  
Table  3.1 Structure of the tariff schedule, 2013 and 2020  
(%)  
2013  2020  
Total number of tariff lines  6,686  6,690  
Non-ad valorem  tariffs (% of all tariff lines)  0.0 0.0 
Non-ad valorem  with no AVEs (% of all tariff lines)  0.0 0.0 
Lines subject to tariff quotas (% of all tariff lines)  0.0 0.0 
Duty-free tariff lines (% of all tariff lines)  9.5 9.8 
Dutiable lines tariff average rate (%)  12.5 13.4 
Simple average tariff (%)  11.3 12.1 
WTO agriculture  18.1 19.4 
WTO non -agriculture (including petroleum)  9.9 10.6 
Domestic tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)a 5.8 8.4 
International tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)b 29.9 31.3 
Overall standard deviation  10.5 11.7 
   
Bound tariff lines (% of all tariff lines)  97.1 95.7 
a Domestic tariff peaks are defined as those exceeding three times the overall average applied rate.  
b International tariff peaks are defined as those exceeding 15%.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
 
30 A 40% tax is levied on imports of this products, unless the merchandise originates from a CARICOM 
member.  
31 Antigua and Barbuda's tariff schedule, which is based on HS07 nomenclature, has not been submitted 
to the WTO. The analysis in this section uses the CARICOM Common Exte rnal Tariff (CET), which is based on 
HS17 nomenclature, and applies exceptions in Lists A, C, and D to this tariff schedule.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3.1.3.2   Tariff bindings  
3.9.  Antigua and Barbuda bound all tariff lines except for fish products (HS Chapter 3) and a few 
lines in other chapters; consequently, 95.7% of lines in 2020 are bound. In general, tariffs on 
non-agricultural products were bound at 50% while those on agricultural products were bound at 
100%. Nonetheless, both groups include a number of exceptions, such as motor veh icles among 
non-agricultural products, and beer, spirits, margarine, and bananas among agricultural products. 
Applied tariffs exceed bound rates for 10 tariff headings, all corresponding to arms and ammunition, 
for which the applied rate is 70%, while the bound rate is 50%. The authorities indicate that they 
are committed to aligning these tariffs to their bound rates.  
Table  3.2 Summary analysis of the MFN tariff, 2020  
Description  MFN 
Bound rates rangea 
(%) No. of 
lines  Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Coefficient 
of variation 
(CV)  
Total  6,690  12.1 0-70 1.0 50-220 
HS 01 -24 1,370  22.8 0-45 0.7 100-220 
HS 25 -97 5,320  9.3 0-70 0.9 50-206 
By WTO category       
WTO agriculture  1,127  19.4 0-45 0.8 50-220 
 - Animals and products thereof  177 24.5 0-40 0.6 100-130 
 - Dairy products  25 13.2 5-20 0.5 100 
 - Fruit, vegetables and plants  332 23.4 0-40 0.7 100-220 
 - Coffee and tea  29 17.4 5-40 0.8 100 
 - Cereals and preparations  139 15.1 0-40 0.8 100 
 - Oil seeds, fats and oils and their 
 products  109 16.0 0-40 1.1 100-156 
 - Sugars and confectionery  24 24.0 5-40 0.6 100 
 - Beverages, spirits and tobacco  122 25.3 5-45 0.5 100-182 
 - Cotton  6 5.0 5-5 0.0 100 
 - Other agricultural products , n.e.s.  164 8.4 0-40 1.6 50-100 
WTO non -agriculture (including 
petroleum)  5,563  10.6 0-70 0.9 50-206 
 - WTO non -agriculture (excluding 
 petroleum)  5,531  10.6 0-70 0.9 50-206 
 - - Fish and fishery products  321 30.3 0-40 0.5 100 
 - - Minerals and metals  1,105  7.6 0-30 0.9 50-120 
 - - Chemicals and photographic 
 supplies  1,089  7.4 0-40 0.8 50-120 
 - - Wood, pulp, paper and furniture  356 10.1 0-20 0.7 50-150 
 - - Textiles  636 7.5 0-30 0.8 50-113 
 - - Clothing  281 19.9 5-20 0.1 50-93 
 - - Leather, rubber, footwear and 
 travel goods  174 9.9 0-25 0.8 50-100 
 - - Non-electric machinery  601 6.9 0-30 0.9 50-100 
 - - Electric machinery  265 10.9 0-35 0.8 50-163 
 - - Transport equipment  228 14.3 0-35 0.9 50-143 
 - - Non-agriculture articles , n.e.s.  475 13.8 0-70 0.8 50-206 
 - Petroleum  32 6.9 0-25 1.1 50-120 
By ISIC sectora      
Agriculture and fisheries  542 22.6 0-40 0.8 50-220 
Mining  106 3.5 0-30 2.1 50-113 
Manufacturing  6,041  11.3 0-70 0.9 50-206 
By HS section       
 01 Live animals & products  494 27.9 0-40 0.6 100 
 02 Vegetable products  438 20.0 0-40 0.9 100-220 
 03 Fats & oils  54 26.6 5-40 0.6 100-156 
 04 Prepared food etc.  384 19.0 0-45 0.6 100-182 
 05 Minerals  191 4.1 0-25 1.4 50-120 
 06 Chemical & products  1,018  7.0 0-40 0.8 50-105 
 07 Plastics & rubber  241 8.5 0-25 0.7 50-120 
 08 Hides & skins  80 9.8 0-20 0.8 50-100 
 09 Wood & articles  156 11.1 0-20 0.5 50-90 
 10 Pulp, paper etc.  165 7.3 0-20 1.0 50-150 
 11 Textile & articles  906 10.9 0-20 0.7 50-100 
 12 Footwear, headgear  59 16.3 0-20 0.4 50 
 13 Articles of stone  181 10.7 0-25 0.7 50 
 14 Precious stones, etc.  62 17.7 0-30 0.7 50-113 
 15 Base metals & products  708 7.3 0-20 0.8 50-93 
 16 Machinery  881 8.3 0-35 0.9 50-163 WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  Description  MFN 
Bound rates rangea 
(%) No. of 
lines  Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Coefficient 
of variation 
(CV)  
 17 Transport equipment  239 14.0 0-35 0.9 50-143 
 18 Precision equipment  225 10.6 0-25 0.7 50-113 
 19 Arms and ammunition  22 39.8 0-70 0.7 50 
 20 Miscellaneous manufactur ing 178 15.2 0-20 0.4 50-206 
 21 Works of art, etc.  8 20.0 20-20 0.0 50 
By stage of processing       
First stage of processing  972 18.6 0-40 1.0 50-220 
Semi-processed products  1,968  6.4 0-40 0.9 50-120 
Fully-processed products  3,750  13.4 0-70 0.8 50-206 
a Bound rates are provided in HS12 classification and applied rates in HS17; therefore, there may be a 
difference between the number of lines included in the calculation.  
b ISIC (Rev.2) classification, excluding electricity (1 line).  
Source:  WTO Secretariat estimates, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.1.3.3   MFN applied tariff  
3.10.  Antigua and Barbuda applies the CARICOM Common External Tariff (CET) with exception s 
detailed in List A (items in respect of which member States wish to encourage national production) 
and List C (items for which minimum rates have been agreed, but can be increased up to bound 
levels by members). Applied tariff rates for List C products a re determined by each CARICOM 
member, however, they are generally subject to a minimum rate.32 CET changes occur at the 
CARICOM level, but ultimate authority for tariff determination rests with the Parliament. There are 
no seasonal tariffs; tariff quotas a re not used.  
3.11.  Since 2013, the simple average tariff increased by 0.7  percentage points, reaching 12.0% in 
2020. The increase in MFN tariff rates is stronger in agricultural products (+1.1%) than in 
non-agricultural products (+0.7%). The increase was due to changes in nomenclature (structure of 
tariff lines) and increases of applied tariff rates for some product groups. Compared to values in 
2013, the largest increases in average applied tariffs using WTO definitions are related to animals 
and products thereo f; dairy products; sugars and confectionery; beverages, spirits and tobacco; and 
fish and fishery products (Table  3.2). By HS section, these increases are mainly observed for live 
animals and products (+7.9% for Section  1) and prepared food products (+2.4%  in Section  4). 
Regarding the stage of processing, tariff increases mainly concern products in their first stage of 
processing (+2%).  
3.12.  In 2020, almost 88% of applied tariff rates range from zero to 20%, and the most common 
rate is 5%; nearly 10% of tariff l ines are duty -free (Chart  3.1). Using the WTO definition, the average 
tariff on agricultural products (19.4%) is almost twice the average tariff for non -agricultural products 
(10.6%). An important difference between average bound rates and the average appl ied MFN rates 
persists for most products33, which provides considerable scope to increase tariffs and may be a 
source of unpredictability for importers.  
3.13.  Between April 2020 and June 2020, imports of foodstuff, toiletries, sanitizers, detergents, 
face masks,  gloves, baby wipes, and disinfecting wipes were exempted of import duties as a measure 
to counter the spread of the COVID -19 pandemic.34 
 
32 Exceptions to the CET are included in Lists A, C, and D, annexed to the CET. Rates vary by country 
and products. For products inc luded in List A, mainly agricultural products, packaging material, ceramics, 
washing machines and dryers, and sanitary fixtures, which may be subject to a maximum customs duty of 
30%, Antigua and Barbuda applies rates generally below the CET. List C contai ns products that are highly 
revenue sensitive, mainly alcoholic beverages, tobacco, oil products, jewellery, electrical appliances, and motor 
vehicles; these products face rates either equal or above the CET rates, up to 70%.   
33 The simple average difference between bound and applied tariff rates across 6,107 tariff lines is 
50.9%.  
34 The Customs (Control and Management) (Pandemic Relief Barrel) (Exemption) Order 2020.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  Chart  3.1 Applied MFN tariff rates distribution, 2020  
 
a The total number of lines is 6,690.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.  
3.1.4   Other charges affecting imports  
3.14.  All imports (including those from CARICOM and OECS countries) as well as goods produced 
in Antigua and Barbuda are subject to the Revenue Recovery Charge (RRC) at a rate of 10%.35 
Certain agencies and products are exempt, including entities with which the Government has 
international assistance agreements; most government entities; supplies and imports of certain 
fuels; imports of goods to be used in the creation of other goods or services intended solely for 
export; books of printed matter; medicines; pharmaceutical goods; live animals and insects; certain 
agricultural and fishing inputs; and certain pesticides, in secticides, herbicides, fungicides, and other 
treatments that have been approved by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs.  
3.15.  The Minister with responsibility for Finance may exempt any person or company from the RRC 
by Order published in  the Gazette on an exceptional occasion for a specific shipment. During the 
review period, at least nine Orders in this regard were issued, each granting exemption to several 
companies. Since 2021, the exemption granted by Order was limited to up to 50% of  the charge.36 
3.16.  All imports are subject to a 15% tax rate under the Antigua and Barbuda Sales Tax Act 2006. 
Certain goods and services listed in schedules 4 and 5 of the Act are exempt from the tax. In 2019, 
additional goods, such as biodegradable cups, pla tes and containers, and hurricane shutters, were 
added to the list of exempt supplies (schedule 4). Exemptions are granted under the Manufacturers 
Initiative and at least 20 companies were exempted from this tax by Order during the review period.  
3.17.  A levy on imported and domestically produced goods is applied to protect, preserve, and 
enhance the environment.37 The levy varies across products: glass and plastic containers are subject 
to a levy of XCD  0.25 per container, bottle, or can, and motor vehicl es to a levy of 
XCD 1,000 -XCD 4,000.38 Other goods such as tyres, electric accumulators, white goods 
 
35 Revenue Recovery Charge Act 2010 and its amendments.  
36 Reven ue Recovery Charge (Amendment) Act 2021.  
37 Environmental Protection Levy Act 2002.  
38 The lower value of the levy applies to new vehicles, while the higher value of the levy is for used 
vehicles older than one year.  
(9.8%)(50.2%)
(3.2%)(5.6%)(18.9%)
(1.1%)(11.3%)
0102030405060708090100
05001,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,5004,000
Duty free >0-5 >5-10 >10-15 >15-20 >20-25 >25Number of lines (% of total)
Cumulative %Chart 3.1
Frequency distribution of MFN tariff rates, 2020
(Number of tariff linesa) %
a   The total number of lines is 6,690.
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities.WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  (microwaves, etc.), air conditioners, vacuum cleaners, hair dryers, and toasters are also subject to 
this levy.  
3.1.5   Import prohibitions, restrictions, and lice nsing  
3.18.  The import of firearms having a disguised appearance, utensils for the smoking or preparation 
for smoking of any drug the use of which is prohibited, and imports prohibited by any other law of 
the State are prohibited.39 Plant imports from countries where certain diseases are present are also 
prohibited and these prohibitions are updated based on risk assessment conducted by the 
authorities. Imports of camouflage uniforms are also banned. Imports of goods containing 
ozone -depleting substances (refrige rators, motor vehicles, air conditioning units, and other goods) 
and of vehicles using freon in their air  conditioning system are prohibited. Schedule 3 of the 
Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Act of 2008 lists 28 prohibited products, including pesticides an d 
chemicals. Since 2015, Antigua and Barbuda bans imports of polyethylene or petroleum -based 
single -use bags for carrying items.40 In 2017, the prohibition was extended to food service and all 
other containers of expanded polystyrene; utensils; trays for f ruit, vegetables, and meat; egg 
cartons; and coolers of those same materials were banned in 2018.  
3.19.  Certain import restrictions are in place on health and safety grounds and the relevant imports 
require a permit or sanitary/phytosanitary certificate (plants,  fruits, and vegetables).41 The Chief 
Medical Officer or the Chief Veterinary Officer authorizes the import of any herb or plant or any part 
of any herb or plant for use as medicine or drug by people or animals, or which may be used as 
medicine or drug for  people or animals. Imports of pharmaceutical products; substances used to 
manufacture drugs; firearms; and ammunition are also restricted and require prior permission.  
3.20.  Imports of any mechanical game, device, or appliance that can be used to play at any ga me 
of chance for money, and of tear gas or any ingredient that may produce it can only be expressly 
authorized by the Comptroller of Customs and Excise. Importation of controlled pesticides and 
chemicals42 is restricted and requires a licence from the Pest icides and Toxic Chemicals Control 
Board.  
3.21.  The External Trade (Import Prohibition) Order 2001 prohibits the import of goods from or 
originating in the certain countries (First Schedule) and requires a licence for imports of certain 
goods (Second and Third S chedules). However, when imported from CARICOM and OECS countries, 
these goods are exempt from the licensing requirement.  
3.22.  In 2002, Antigua and Barbuda notified its import licensing system to the WTO43 and there 
was no change to it during the review period.  The import licensing regime is administered by the 
MoFATI. Imports requiring licensing are subject to automatic licensing for data collection purposes, 
as indicated by the authorities, and licences are granted on request. Non -automatic licensing is 
applie d on products subject to tariffication under Article  164 of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas 
(aerated beverages, beer, stout, ale, porter, pasta, candles, solar water heaters, oxygen in cylinder, 
carbon dioxide in cylinder, acetylene in cylinder, chairs a nd other seats of wood and upholstered 
fabric, other furniture of wood and upholstered fabric, mops); imports of animals, poultry, livestock, 
and poultry products; plants and plant products; pesticides; drugs and antibiotics; firearms, 
fireworks, arms and ammunition; and chemicals controlled by the Montreal Protocol.  
3.23.  No licensing fee or administrative charge, and no deposit or advance payment are required 
for the issuance of licences.44 In practice, licences are often requested and issued upon the arrival 
of the goods. Generally, a licence is valid for a month from the date of issue, and it can be extended 
 
39 Third Schedule of the Customs (Control and Management) Act 2013.  
40 Materials not used at the point of sale used for wrapping or packaging of food products, used as 
seedling tubes, or used in waste storage and disposal are not subject to the prohibition (External Trade (Import 
Prohibition) Order  2016).  
41 Customs and Excise Division. Viewed at: https://customs.gov.ag/customs -procedures/goods -
requiring -import -license/ . 
42 Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Act 200 8, Schedule 2.  
43 WTO document G/LIC/N/1/ATG/1, 31  January  2002.  
44 Three copies of the licence requesting form are to be filled by applicants; each form costs XCD  0.10.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  upon request. They are not transferable and there is no penalty for the non -use of a licence. Licences 
may be required on a seasonal basis for imports of certain agricultural products.  
3.1.6   Anti-dumping, countervailing, and safeguard measures  
3.1.6.1   Anti-dumping and countervailing measures  
3.24.  During the period under review, there was no change to Antigua and Barbuda's anti -dumping 
and countervailing legislation. The Custo ms Duties (Dumping and Subsidies) Act 1959, which was 
notified to the WTO in 2002, prescribes the regulatory framework in this regard.45 
Antigua  and Barbuda has still not provided answers to questions by other WTO members on the lack 
of provisions on vario us essential elements of an anti -dumping investigation in its legislation. There 
is no competent authority to initiate and conduct an investigation within the meaning of Article  16.5 
of the Agreement, and thus Antigua  and Barbuda has not, to date, taken an y anti -dumping actions 
within the meaning of Article  16.4 of the Agreement. 46 
3.1.6.2   Safeguards  
3.25.  During the period under review, there was no change to Antigua and Barbuda's safeguards 
legislation. As a less developed country, Antigua and Barbuda may invoke, when  necessary, the 
special provisions in Chapter 7 of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, in particular articles 150 and 
164, with respect to other CARICOM member States. Article  150 (Safeguard Measures) allows a 
disadvantaged country to limit imports of goods  from other member States for up to three years, 
and to take such other measures as COTED may authorize. Article  164 (Promotion of Industrial 
Development) entitles less developed CARICOM countries to request COTED to suspend 
Community -origin treatment to c ertain products as a temporary measure to promote the 
development of an industry, and to apply tariff rates higher than the CET.  
3.26.  In 2020, the tariff rates applied to aerated waters, other waters, and paint and varnishes 
were increased for imports from more  developed CARICOM members and other partners.47 The 
preferential rate at 0% for waters and 15% for paints is still applied for less developed CARICOM 
members. More developed CARICOM members face a 70% rate for waters and 35% for paints, while 
other partne rs are subject to 100% and 50% rates, respectively. The initial term of this measure is 
10 years.  
3.27.  In addition, Antigua and Barbuda may apply safeguards for balance -of-payments reasons 
under Article  84 of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas; however, it has n ever done so. The 
Caribbean Community (Movement of Factors) Act 2006 entitles the Minister in charge of trade to 
use safeguards measures, consistently with international obligations, in case there are serious 
balance -of-payments and external financial diff iculties or the threat thereof.  
3.2  Measures directly affecting exports  
3.2.1   Customs procedures and requirements  
3.28.  Under the Customs (Control and Management) Act 2013, exporters must furnish an export 
declaration, a bill of lading or airway bill, an invoice, a certificate of origin (for preferential trade, as 
needed), and an SPS certificate (when required).  
3.2.2   Taxes, charges, and levies  
3.29.  Exports of lobsters and fish carry an export levy of XCD  0.5/lb and XCD  0.10/lb, 
respectively.48 Export duties are also applied on  clean cotton lint, molasses, and sugar. The 
authorities indicate that export taxes on molasses and sugar have not been collected since the 
stoppage of the sugar production in the late 1980s.  
 
45 WTO document G/ADP/N/1/ATG/2, G/SCM/N/1/ATG/2, 19  March  2002.  
46 WTO document G/ADP/N/193/ATG, 27  September  2011.  
47 Customs Duties Act (Amendment of Sch edule) Order 2020.  
48 Export Duty Act 1941.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3.2.3   Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing  
3.30.  Under the Custo ms (Control and Management) Act 2013, exports of firearms having a 
disguised appearance, utensils used for smoking or for the preparation for use of any illegal drug, 
and exports prohibited by any other law of Antigua and Barbuda are prohibited. In additio n, the 
export of wild birds or of any live or dead wildlife or parts thereof is prohibited in accordance with 
the CITES.  
3.31.  No goods are subject to export licensing.  
3.2.4   Export support and promotion  
3.32.  Antigua and Barbuda has not notified the WTO Committee on Agricu lture that it provides 
export subsidies on agricultural products.  
3.33.  Under the SCM  Agreement, Antigua and Barbuda has notified the SCM Committee that it 
maintains the incentive scheme under the Free Trade and Processing Zone (FTPZ) Act 1994 and that 
there wer e no beneficiaries under this programme until 2014.49 In 2019, incentives previously 
offered under the FTPZ Act were replaced by incentives provided by the Antigua and Barbuda 
Investment Authority (Sections 2.4 and 3.3.1) and they are no longer linked to e xport performance.  
3.34.  Antigua and Barbuda also notified its Special Economic Zone (SEZ) Act 2015 to the WTO 
(Section  3.3.1).50 Until 2022, only two operator licences were granted for the development of two 
SEZs and, among other incentives granted to the opera tor and future businesses operating within 
the SEZ, all goods imported, exported, and re -exported are exempted from import and export duties 
and all other related taxes.51 
3.35.  Between 2018 and 2021, the INTERREG Trade Enhancement for the Eastern Caribbean Proj ect 
provided assistance to companies based in the English -speaking countries of the OECS that wish to 
access to other markets. The Direct Support Grants Programme 2021 of the Caribbean Export 
Development Agency (CEDA) aims at supporting firms to mitigate t he impact of the COVID -19 
pandemic by providing a non -reimbursable grant between EUR  10,000 and EUR  30,000.  
3.2.5   Export finance, insurance, and guarantees  
3.36.  Exporters may also receive export finance support from the CEDA. Under its 11th Regional 
Private Sector Development Programme Grants in 2018, five exporters in Antigua and Barbuda 
benefited from a total support of XCD  177,405.  
3.3  Measures affecting production and trade  
3.3.1   Incentives  
3.37.  The Government encourages and promotes domestic and forei gn investment with a view to 
fostering private sector development, job creation, wealth creation, and poverty reduction. 
Concessions and incentives are offered to investors under various schemes.  
3.38.  Incentive schemes currently in place are the Antigua and Bar buda Investment Authority Act 
2006; the Aid to Pioneer Industries Act 1950; the Free Trade and Processing Zone (FTPZ) Act 1994; 
the Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Act 2015; and a number of sector -specific incentives schemes, 
in particular for tourism, for ex ample the Hotel Aid Act 1952. During the review period, the Tourism 
and Business (Special Incentives) Act 2013 prescribed an incentive regime that was in place for four 
years. In addition, there is also a Citizenship by Investment programme in place (Secti on 2.4). 
 
49 WTO document G/SCM/N/284/ATG, G/SCM/N/290/ATG, G/SCM/N/299/ATG, and G/SCM/N/315/ATG, 
7 May 2018.  
50 WTO document G/SCM/N/284/ATG, G/SCM/N/290/ATG, G/SCM/N/299/ATG, and G/SCM/N/315/ATG, 
7 May 2018.  
51 Antigua and  Barbuda Special Economic Zone (YIDA International Investment Antigua Limited) Licence 
Order 2015, and Antigua and Barbuda Special Economic Zone, Investment Brief . Viewed at: 
https://www.antiguaabsez.com/wp -content/uploads/2020/12/English -Investment -Brief.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3.39.  The Aid to Pioneer Industries Act and the Hotel Aid Act remain unchanged. The Aid to Pioneer 
Industries Act provides customs duty (on building materials and capital goods) and income tax relief 
for pioneer industries, while the Hotel Aid Act only provides for customs duty relief (on building 
materials and capital goods). Under the Aid to Pioneer Industries Act, the tax holiday on corporate 
taxes may be up to five years from the date production begins, and losses may be carried forward 
for up to thr ee years after the tax holiday ends.  
3.40.  Under the provisions of the Antigua and Barbuda Investment Authority (ABIA) Act 2006, 
incentives are based on the size of the capital investment and the number of employees to be hired 
(Section  2.4). The ABIA  serves as a one -stop shop for investors52, as well as the repository for 
information on doing business in the country. A tax holiday on corporate income tax up to 10 years, 
the possibility to carry forward losses for up to five years, and a tax holiday on income tax  up to 
20 years are part of the incentives to production that ABIA may grant to investors.  
3.41.  The framework establishing by the Free Trade and Processing Zone (FTPZ ) Act 1994 is still in 
force, although since 2019, incentives are now those granted under the ABIA Act. A licence is needed 
to operate in an FTPZ and licences are granted only to corporations, regardless of where they are 
incorporated, or a branch or unit of such corporation. The level of investment, the project's capacity 
to generate employment, the generation of foreign exchange, the technological adaptability and 
transfer possibilities, and the environmental impact are considered before granting licences . The 
licence fee ranges between USD  10,000 and USD  20,000.  
3.42.  Between 2014 and 2018, the Tourism and Business (Special Incentives) Act 2013 prescribed 
an incentive regime for businesses in manufacturing; agriculture, fisheries and agri -business; 
information and communication technologies; financial services; medical and wellness services; 
creative industry; and energy. For different categories of investors according to the capital invested, 
investors could benefit from exemption of corporate income tax up to 25 years; the possibility to 
carry forward losses up to 7 years; exemption or reduction of withholding taxes up to 25 years; 
exemption or reduction of property taxes; exemption or reductions of stamp duty for land transfers 
and non -citizen licences; and th e relief of customs duties, sales taxes, and revenue recovery charges 
on capital goods.53 These incentives were granted by the Cabinet.  
3.43.  No information on beneficiaries and the total amount of incentives granted under these two 
schemes was available.  
3.44.  In 201 5, the Special Economic Zone (SEZ) Act 201554 was passed; the criteria for the approval 
of an SEZ are prescribed by the Special Economic Zone (Licence) Regulations 2015. Any private 
entity, public entity, or public -private partnership may apply for a speci fied area to be designated 
as an SEZ. The maximum size of an SEZ is 500 acres and its operator must obtain a licence that 
must be approved by the Cabinet. After receiving the approval of the SEZ Committee for a specific 
SEZ, businesses operating within a s pecific SEZ may receive targeted support measures to 
encourage and facilitate the development of and investment in manufacturing, technology, and 
tradable services. Each SEZ Committee determines fees (admission, annual fee, and operating and 
administrative  costs) to be paid by businesses operating in the SEZ. Until 2022, only two operators 
were granted licences to operate an SEZ and incentives granted to each operator are also valid for 
any approved entity admitted to operate a business or industry in the S EZ.55 Besides relief on 
customs duties (Section  3.2.4), these incentives include waivers for all corporate and personal 
income taxes; value  added tax, sales tax, and capital gains tax; taxes related to sales, operations, 
development, and construction activ ities within the SEZ; capital gains and wealth taxes for 
shareholders and personnel; and inheritance and gift taxes. All of these incentives shall remain in 
force during the life of the SEZ. The authorities indicate that the two licensees have not yet star ted 
any development.  
 
52 Since 2019, beneficiaries under the Free Trade and Processing Zone Act 1994 have requested their 
incentives from the ABIA.  
53 Tourism and Business ( Special Incentives) Act 2013, Schedule IV. No information on beneficiaries and 
the total amount of incentives granted was available.  
54 Special Economic Zone Act 2015, and its amendments in 2019 and 2021.  
55 Antigua and Barbuda Special Economic Zone (YIDA In ternational Investment Antigua Limited) Licence 
Order 2015, and Antigua and Barbuda Special Economic Zone, Investment Brief . Viewed at: 
https://www.antigua absez.com/wp -content/uploads/2020/12/English -Investment -Brief.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3.45.  Regarding the Fiscal Incentives Act, which was repealed in 2013, not a single enterprise in 
2022 benefited from waivers on consumption and income taxes granted under this scheme.  
3.3.2   Standards and other technical requirements  
3.46.  No notificati ons were made to the TBT Committee during the period under review.  
3.47.  The Antigua and Barbuda Bureau of Standards (ABBS) is the national standards body, enquiry 
point, and national notification authority under the TBT  Agreement.56 The ABBS, which is part of t he 
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade, and Immigration, is responsible for establishing and maintaining 
the national quality infrastructure, for developing and preparing technical regulations and standards, 
and for dealing with standards -related matters, s uch as metrology and quality. The approval of 
standards and conformity assessment procedures is ultimately carried out by the Standards Council, 
a 15-member committee also in charge of the general administration of the ABBS and comprising 
representatives f rom several agencies and the private sector as well as experts on industrial or 
commercial standards.  
3.48.  The ABBS is a member of the CARICOM Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality 
(CROSQ)57, Codex Alimentarius (WHO/FAO), and the Inter -American Metrol ogy System (SIM). The 
ABBS also has subscriber membership in the International Organization for Standardization (ISO); 
it is an affiliate member of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and a participating 
member of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).  
3.49.  In 2017, Antigua and Barbuda passed a new Standards Act that replaces the previous 
legislation issued in 1987. The Standards Act 2017 entered into force on 1  November  2020. 
However, the Standards Regulations of 1998 remains in  force, and no additional regulations for the 
purposes of the Standards Act 2017 were enacted until mid -2022.  
3.50.  Under this regulatory framework, standards formulation and development is mainly the 
responsibility of the ABBS.58 All standards are voluntary in Antigua and Barbuda. The standards 
development process can be initiated by government, industry, consumer groups, or individuals 
through a formal request outlining the need for a particular standard.59 After considering or 
evaluating the request or proposa l for a standard, the Standards Council assigns the proposal to a 
Technical Committee (TC).60 Representatives of organizations to be affected by the standard and 
consumers, as well as experts in the field relevant for the standard subject or matter, are pa rt of 
the TC, which is in charge of preparing and submitting a draft standard to the Standards Council for 
approval. If the draft standard is approved, the ABBS publishes a notice in newspapers and the 
Gazette  of its intention to declare the standard a nat ional standard, giving the general public the 
opportunity to comment on the technical content. After treating public comments, the TC finalizes 
the draft standard, including a second quality and background review, and submits it for approval 
to the Standar ds Council. The Council has the authority to approve and publish standards. The whole 
process of standard development takes up to 18 months.61 
3.51.  Technical regulations are documents specifying product characteristics or their related 
processes and production methods whose compliance is mandatory. On the recommendation of the 
ABBS, standards may be declared by Order of the Minister to become a technical regulation with the 
intention to (i)  protect the consumer or user against danger to health and safety; (ii)  prevent fraud 
or deception arising from misleading advertising or labelling; (iii)  ensure acceptable quality in goods 
produced for export; (iv)  require adequate information to be given to the consumer or user; 
(v) ensure quality in a case where the choice o f sources of supply is restricted; (vi)  protect the 
 
56 WTO ePing SPS & TBT Platform. Viewed at: https://epingalert.org/en/EnquiryPoint/tbt -nep. 
57 In 2018, Antigua and Barbuda bec ame the first country to ratify the agreement establishing the 
CROSQ.  
58 Standards are formulated generally by consensus between the ABBS and concerned parties. Viewed 
at: https://abbs.g ov.ag/qi -services/standards -development/ .  
59 An electronic form for this formal request is available on the ABBS website and can be submitted via 
email or by bringing a hard copy to the ABBS premises. Viewed at: https://abbs.g ov.ag/standards/proposal -
for-new-standards/ . 
60 There are four established Technical Committees is Antigua and Barbuda: Codex, Food and 
Agriculture; National Electrotechnical Committee; Tourism and Hospitality Services; and Beauty and Wellness.  
61 ABBS, Standards Development Process – Timeframe Table . Viewed at: 
https://abbs.gov.ag/download/standards -development -process -time-frame -table/ .  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  environment; or (vii)  generally protect public or industrial health, welfare, or safety. At least 60 days 
before the technical regulation comes into force, a notice must be published in the Gazette  specif ying 
the date the technical regulation comes into effect.62 
3.52.  In 2018, the regulatory framework for the commerce of tobacco and tobacco products was 
updated63 and the previous regulation enacted in 1948 was repealed. The new regulatory framework 
includes cer tain prohibitions on sales, advertising, and promotion of tobacco products and tobacco 
sponsorship. The packaging and labelling requirements are also prescribed in this legislation.  
3.53.  In 2019, Antigua and Barbuda enacted labelling requirements on food produc ts.64 The 
CARICOM Regional Standard on this matter, which was approved by the COTED in 2010, is fully 
adopted by this technical regulation. Among others, it covers aspects such as the quantitative listing 
of ingredients and food additives, and the declarat ion of weights, origin, producer, production date, 
durability, and storage conditions.  
3.54.  The authorities indicate that standards are usually based on CARICOM standards or 
international standards, if they exist. Standards developed by other standards bodies, such as ISO 
and Codex, are also in drafting ABBS standards/technical regulations. In June 2022, there were no 
standards under development or out for comments.  
3.55.  The necessary technical regulations that form the basis for conformity assessment procedures 
have not yet been adopted in Antigua and Barbuda. Similarly, there are no regulations on market 
surveillance. There is no fully functional certification body in Antigua and Barbuda, as the ABBS lacks 
the necessary technical resources.  
3.56.  The Analyt ical Services Division under the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda 
Affairs has three testing facilities to carry out microbiological and chemical analyses, including on 
heavy metals and pesticide residue. In addition, there are three concrete -testing laboratories: one 
is in the Public Works Division, and two are private (the Caribbean Testing Laboratory, and Antigua 
Masonry Products). The ABBS has the legal authority to delegate the testing responsibility for 
certification purposes. Accreditati on is done at the regional level.  
3.57.  Following the Metrology Act 2007, the implementing regulations were enacted in 2017.65 
Under this framework, both the International System of units and the British Imperial System of 
units may be used concurrently. Verific ation and licensing to sell, manufacture, and repair weighing 
and measuring equipment are also prescribed by this regulatory framework. The National Metrology 
Service, which is part of the ABBS, is responsible for the inspection of weighing and measuring 
instruments.  
3.3.3   Sanitary and phytosanitary measures  
3.58.  No notifications were made to the SPS Committee during the period under review.  
3.59.  During the period under review, a significant change to Antigua and Barbuda's SPS regime is 
given by the enactment of the Animal  Health Act 2017.  
3.60.  The Plant Protection Unit (PPU) within the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda 
Affairs is the designated National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO ) under the provisions of the 
Plant Protection Act 2012. The PPU is responsible for the implementation of the International Plant 
Protection Convention (IPPC) and SPS  Agreement; it acts as the national enquiry point and the 
notification authority for the S PS Agreement. The PPU is responsible for, inter alia, issuing 
phytosanitary certificates and import permits; carrying out inspection and surveillance pertaining to 
plant and plant products; disinfecting consignments of plant and plant products; conducting pest-risk 
analysis; providing information to other countries concerning SPS measures applied; notifying 
 
62 Standards Act 2017, Sectio n 28. 
63 Tobacco Control Act 2018.  
64 Standards (Technical Regulations) (Labelling of Pre -Packaged Foods) Regulations 2019.  
65 Metrology Regulations 2017. Consequently, the Metrology Act 2007 came into force on 3  April 2017.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  trading partners of non -compliance with import requirements; and providing information regarding 
import and export regulations in force.  
3.61.  The Plant Prote ction Board, which functions within the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and 
Barbuda Affairs, is the body that determines the need for plant protection regulations, advises the 
Minister on the need for such regulations, and advises on when phytosanitary emergencies are to 
be declared. In 2015, the Board was appointed for the first time by the Cabinet. In 2016, fees for 
general services, including certificates, import permits, and other procedures, by the PPU were 
established.66 Regulations currently under  development cover issues such non -quarantined pests, 
ports of entry, required declarations to be signed by the captain, and plant protection stations at the 
ports of entry.  
3.62.  Imports of regulated products require an import permit from the PPU. Such regulate d products 
include all planting material (including seeds, plant cuttings, and live plants); cut flowers and 
ornamentals (including floral blooms and greenery); unprocessed plant products; plant growth 
media (including soil, soil substitutes, mulches, and potting mixes); wood and wood products; and 
construction aggregates such as sand, and other media. As pest -risk assessment may be needed, 
importers are advised to submit their application for an import permit in advance. Import permits 
are granted accordin g to categorization of commodities in the International Standards for 
Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) No.  32. Goods in categories 4 (plants seeds), 3 (unprocessed fruits 
and vegetables), and 2 (semi -processed plant products) require an import permit and its related 
phytosanitary certificate. Commodities that have been processed to the point where they do not 
remain capable of being infested with quarantine pests (category 1) do not require an import permit. 
Currently, the import permit carries no fee, althoug h regulations in this regard were issued in 2016. 
Import permits expire 60 days from the date of issue and they are granted for a specific shipment.67 
3.63.  Every inbound consignment of regulated items of plant origin must present a phytosanitary 
certificate at its arrival. Whenever required, the phytosanitary certificate must also state the 
necessary treatment – chemical or other. Upon inspection, consignments not complying with import 
requirements will be refused or confiscated and/or destroyed at the importer' s expense.  
3.64.  Imports of live plants and all unprocessed plant products and commodities and 
non-commercial untreated seeds are subject to quarantine regulations and control, depending on 
the country of origin and the presence of particular pests and diseases of quarantine importance to 
Antigua and Barbuda. The importation of soil or products containing soil is prohibited, thus imported 
plants should be free of soil.  
3.65.  Plant quarantine inspectors, stationed at the two main ports of entry (the airport and St Johns  
harbour), conduct inspections of all plants and plant products that enter via these. Other minor 
ports, including Barbuda, can benefit from mobile inspections on request. Surveillance for general 
pest management is carried out periodically in high -risk ar eas within the country.68 From time to 
time, surveys are conducted for pests of quarantine significance such as the boll weevil, the mango 
seed weevil, fruit flies, palm pests (lethal yellowing and red palm weevil), and the Giant African 
snail.  
3.66.  Antigua and  Barbuda has developed a list of prohibited and permitted commodities with 
respect to specific trading partners.69 Specific import restrictions apply to some products, 
e.g. mangoes from countries with mango seed weevil or fruit flies, and citrus from areas  with fruit 
flies, are prohibited.  
3.67.  Since 2017, imports of animals, poultry, livestock, and poultry products are governed by the 
Animal Health Act 2017. The legislation covers aspects such as notifiable diseases, the related 
 
66 Plant Protection (Fees) Regulati ons 2016.  
67 During the COVID -19 pandemic, some import permits were granted an extended duration of 90 days 
to cope with logistic challenges that arose during this period.  
68 IPPC (2005), Quarantine Pests of Antigua and Barbuda. Viewed at: 
https://www.ippc.int/en/countries/antigua -and-barbuda/reportingobligation/2012/12/quarantine -pests -of-
antigua -and-barbuda/ .  
69 Departme nt of Agriculture, Import Status of Plant Commodities and Regulated Items . Viewed at: 
https://agriculture.gov.ag/wp -content/uploads/2017/02/Import -Status -of-Plant-Commodities -and-Regulated -
Items -PLANT -PROTECTION -ANTIGUA -AND-BARBUDA -02122016.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  surveillance system, inspection procedures at the border, and other import requirements including 
quarantines. An Import License must be obtained prior to any importation of live animals or animal 
products, and requirements vary depending on the country of origin. Every entry of animal o r animal 
products must be accompanied by an export health certificate from the veterinary authority of the 
exporting country. Upon inspection, animals or animal products not complying with the import 
requirements will be refused entry or quarantined. The V eterinary and Livestock Division of the 
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs delivers import permits and conducts 
inspections. No additional restrictions apply on the import or sale of animals that have been fed 
hormones (or their product s), or that are genetically engineered or altered.  
3.68.  As a signatory to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, Antigua and Barbuda does not permit 
the importation or sale of living modified organisms (LMOs). Imports are allowed if an approval, 
based on a risk a ssessment, from the competent national authority was obtained.  
3.69.  A draft Food Safety Act aimed at regulating the sale of food by producers, processors, 
manufacturers, or handlers of food, as well as the import and export of food into or from Antigua 
and Barb uda, is currently being discussed at the Parliament.  
3.70.  Antigua and Barbuda is a contracting party to the IPPC, and a member of the Codex 
Alimentarius Commission.  
3.71.  The Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Act 2008 contains the main provisions on the registration, 
import, sale, transport, disposal, control, and inspection of pesticides. The Pesticides and Toxic 
Chemicals Control Board, which functions under the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda 
Affairs, is also responsible for, inter alia, considering app lications for registration; granting or 
revoking licences; approving research permits; and certifying pest control operators. Pesticides must 
be registered; their registration requirements depend on the toxicity level of its active ingredients. 
Registratio n costs are XCD  500, and approved registration is valid for three years.70 
3.3.4   Competition policy and price controls  
3.72.  Antigua and Barbuda has no competition legislation. The Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas 
addresses competition policy and provides for the enactme nt and harmonization of legislation in 
CARICOM member States; it established the CARICOM Competition Commission in 2008 to deal with 
competition issues and enforcement in the CSME (Common  Report). The EPA and the agreement 
with the United  Kingdom contain p rovisions with respect to competition policy (Common  Report).  
3.73.  Regional competition policy at the CARICOM level is not yet implemented. The OECS agreed 
to establish a regional competition body to handle competition matters within its single market 
(Common R eport) and a draft OECS Competition Bill is under review by the Ministry of Legal Affairs, 
Public Safety and Labour. No specific date has been set for the completion of this review. Upon the 
approval of this Bill, Antigua and Barbuda is expected to create a national competition authority to 
deal with domestic competition issues.  
3.3.4.1   Price controls  
3.74.  Antigua and Barbuda applies price controls on a list of products including milk, cheese, and 
petroleum products (e.g.  gasoline and kerosene).71 The wholesale and retail margins allowed for 
41 items are prescribed.  
3.75.  The wholesale markup is 10% in most cases, 12.5% in some instances, and in one instance 
15%. The retail markup is generally 15% or 20%, but may be higher for some goods (e.g. 22.5% 
for frozen goods). Prices for petroleum products are set by the Ministry of Finance, Corporate 
Governance and Public Private Partnerships in response to developments in the international market; 
for other products, landed costs, which include all associated co sts and taxes, are used as reference.  
 
70 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs, Pesticides . Viewed at: 
https://agriculture.gov.ag/index.php/pesticides/ .  
71 Price Control Order 1967 as amended in 1982.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  3.76.  Market surveillance is conducted by the Consumer Affairs Division of the MoFATI through 
regular inspections to wholesale and retail stores to inspect the enforcement of prices for items 
subject to control. Repeated vio lations may result in fines (not exceeding XCD  5,000) and 
prosecution. Monitoring of landed costs at the port of entry is expected to be conducted through 
ASYCUDA in the near future.  
3.3.5   State trading  and state -owned enterprises  
3.77.  Antigua and Barbuda has notifie d no state trading enterprise to the WTO.  
3.78.  Established in 1973, the Central Marketing Corporation (CMC), an agency of the Ministry of 
Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs, is mandated to provide a market for locally grown 
produce, secure markets for i t, and ensure that prices of basic food commodities remain stable. To 
achieve these objectives, the CMC put in place an import licensing regime, which restricts imports 
of an assortment of vegetables that local farmers can produce. The CMC may exercise sol e 
responsibility for the importation and marketing of carrots, cabbage, onions, sweet peppers, and 
tomatoes.  
3.3.6   Government procurement  
3.79.  During the period under review, Antigua and Barbuda introduced transitional regulations72 for 
the implementation of Procurem ent Administration Act 2011. The Act encourages public competition 
in the procurement process while broadening the participation in the process in Antigua and Barbuda 
and overseas; it also aims at maintaining safeguards to ensure integrity, fairness, and t ransparency 
while providing value for money in the procurement process. Competitive sealed bids are the 
preferred method of procurement.  
3.80.  By the enactment of the provisional regulations in 2021, the Tenders Board under the Ministry 
of Finance , Corporate Gov ernance and Public Private Partnerships  ceased to exist, and the 
Procurement Board is now responsible for government procurement. Until the Chief Procurement 
Officer is appointed, the functions of this Officer are delegated to a member of the Procurement 
Board. 
3.81.  Requests for tendering for supplies must be sent to the Board. Tenders may be public or 
selective. Upon receipt of a request by an agency, the Board must either invite members of the 
public in general to make offers for the supply of the articles, wo rks, or services, by notice published 
in the Gazette  and in local or overseas newspapers; or, subject to the approval of the Minister, invite 
such bodies or persons as may be selected by the Board to make offers.  
3.82.  In making its decision, the Board must take  into account the quality of the articles or, in the 
case of works or services, the financial, technical, and administrative competence of the persons 
making the offer, as well as the prices offered. It must accept the lowest offer, except where it has 
good reason to accept another offer, if it accepts an offer higher in value than the lowest offer, it 
must submit a comprehensive report to the Minister giving its reasons. Once the contract is awarded, 
the Board must publish in the Gazette  the name of the pe rson or body to whom the contract is 
awarded, the amount of the tender, and the date on which the award was made.  
3.83.  Agencies may be allowed to establish their own procurement departments for small amounts, 
although the relevant regulation fixing the threshol d for small procurements has not yet been 
enacted.  
3.84.  Antigua and Barbuda does not apply any national or regional preferences in the procurement 
process. Antigua and Barbuda is not a party to the WTO  Agreement on Government Procurement.  
3.3.7   Intellectual property rights  
3.85.  During the period under review, the only change to the intellectual property (IP) regime in 
Antigua and Barbuda was due to the enactment of the Patent Act 2018, its amendment in 2022, and 
its implementing regulations. Under the Ministry of Legal Aff airs, Public Safety and Labour, the 
 
72 Procurement Administration (Transitional) Regulations 2021.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  Antigua and Barbuda Intellectual Property and Commerce Office (ABIPCO) is responsible for all 
functions relating to the grant of patents and utility model certificates; the registration of industrial 
designs, marks, coll ective marks, and geographical indications; supervising and performing other 
duties conferred by the IP legislation or its regulations; and carrying out studies, programmes, or 
exchanges of items or services on domestic and international IP issues, and on the use of patent 
documents as a source of information.73 Fees and forms for all IP -related matters are available 
online.74 
3.86.  Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the World Intellectual Property Organization and a 
contracting party to a number of IP convention s.75 
3.3.7.1   Trademarks  
3.87.  The exclusive right to a trademark is acquired through registration in the Register of Marks.76 
The term of protection is the standard 10 years, renewable for consecutive periods of 10 years each. 
The regulation provides for the right of priority of an earlier national or regional application filed by 
the applicant in any WTO Member or State party t o the Paris Convention. Under the current law, 
service marks may be registered.  
3.88.  There were 2,380 trademarks registered in Antigua and Barbuda during 2014 -21, all from 
abroad.77 
3.3.7.2   Patents and industrial designs  
3.89.  Patent rights are enforced by the Patent Act 2018, as amended by the Patents (Amendment) 
Act 2022, which replaces the previous legislation of 2012. The right to a patent belongs to the 
inventor and the conditions for patentable inventions are covered by the Act. Furthermore, the Act 
specifies the app lication procedures for filing for and obtaining a patent, as well as the rights of the 
patent holder.78 A patent expires 20 years after the filing date of the application. Compulsory 
licensing is allowed when the public interest requires79, the manner of exploitation was determined 
as anti -competitive, or the invention is not available in sufficient quantities or quality or at 
predetermined reasonable prices. Search and reports from external partners are now admitted as 
part of the examination process for patent applications. The amendment of 2022 provides for a 
reduction of fees payable by a natural person or a small business entity. The Act also integrates 
Antigua and Barbuda's obligations under the Patent Cooperation Treaty into the domestic legislation.  
3.90.  Only new industrial designs may be registered and the right to registration of an industrial 
design belongs to its creator.80 Registration procedures are prescribed by the law and the registration 
term is initially for five years from the filing date of t he application. Registrations may be renewed 
for two further consecutive five -year periods. National legislation is in conformity with the terms of 
the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.  
3.91.  During the review period, 58 patents were gr anted in Antigua and Barbuda, all for applications 
from abroad.81 Over the same period, there were more than 1,700 patent applications, out of which 
 
73 Intellectual Property Office Act 2003.  
74 ABIPCO, Fees. Viewed at: https://abipco.gov.ag/intellectual -property/fees/ . In 2022, the ABIPCO will 
be launching an electronic platform for some of  its commercial services.  
75 Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Berne Convention, 1999; the Madrid Protocol; the Paris 
Convention; the Patent Cooperation Treaty; and the WIPO Convention. In all cases, accession was on 
17 December 1999, and the agreement  entered into force in 2000.  
76 Trade Mark Act 2003 and its implementing regulations.  
77 WIPO, Statistical Country Profiles: Antigua and Barbuda  (data available up to 2020). Viewed at: 
https://www.wipo.int/ipstats/en/statistics/country_profile/profile.jsp?code=AG . 
78 Further information on fees, forms, and necessary documentation for the application procedure are 
described in the Patent Regulations 2018.  
79 Reasons for public interest are related to national security, nutrition, health, or the development of 
other vital sectors of the national economy.  
80 Industrial Designs Act 2003.  
81 WIPO, Statistical Country Profiles: Antigua and Barbuda  (data available up  to 2020). Viewed at: 
https://www.wipo.int/ipstats/en/statistics/country_profile/profile.jsp?code=AG . WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  5 by residents and 50 by non -residents. In 2018, 78 patents were reported in force. Since 2014, 
three indus trial designs were registered, again all for applications from abroad.  
3.3.7.3   Copyright  
3.92.  A copyright may be granted to an original literary, musical, dramatic, or artistic work; sound 
recordings, film broadcasts, or cable recordings; and typographical arrangements  of published 
editions.82 Databases may be treated as original literary works only if the compilation is the author's 
own intellectual creation. Protection is also granted to collections of folklore. The term of protection 
is generally for life plus 50 yea rs, although it is limited to 25 years for typographical arrangements 
of published editions. Rules on copyright owners' economic and moral rights, joint authorship, 
ownership and assignment of rights, licensing, exceptions, rights conferred in performances , and 
available remedies for infringement of copyright and related rights are stipulated by the law that 
also establishes a Copyright Tribunal.  
3.3.7.4   Other intellectual property rights  
3.93.  Any interested person or group of producers or consumers can initiate proceed ings in Court 
as to prevent misleading the public or unfair competition, with respect to geographical indications.83 
Although the law provides for registration, it states that protection is as well available when a 
geographical indication has been register ed. 
3.94.  Under the Integrated Circuits Topography Act 2003, it is illegal to reproduce a protected 
layout -design, or to import, sell, or otherwise distribute an unlawfully reproduced layout -design. 
Procedures for registration of these  designs are stipulated by the Act.  
3.3.7.5   Enforcement  
3.95.  The enforcement system of IP rights (IPRs) is based on a combination of the previous 
legislations and common law. In Antigua and Barbuda, IPRs are considered private rights, and thus, 
the burden of the proof lies with the right holder.  
3.96.  IPR infringement cases are under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of Judicature, and the 
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council stands as the final court of appeal. IPR owners or licensees 
may initiate civil proceedings in case their rights were inf ringed. In the case of copyright and 
neighbouring rights, and protection of secret information, owners of IPRs may assert their rights, 
without the need for registration. Registration is required for the protection of trademarks, patents, 
industrial design s and integrated circuits, and plant breeders' rights. Nonetheless, unregistered 
trademarks and trade secrets may be protected under common law.  
3.97.  Enforcement measures include injunctions; damages, including recovery of profits, and 
expenses, including attor ney's fees; and destruction or other disposal of infringing goods and 
materials/implements for their production. Under common law, a right holder who has valid grounds 
for suspecting that imports infringe an IPR may apply to the court for an order for the suspension 
by Customs of the release of such goods. The Copyright Act of 2003 authorizes the seizure of 
imported copies of published copyright material if a notice of objection has been given to the 
Comptroller of Customs and Excise.  
3.98.  Certain violations of the trademark, copyright, and industrial property legislation are 
considered to be criminal acts, which are punishable by fines and imprisonment of up to five years. 
The authorities indicate that an IP unit within the police services will soon be establish ed. 
 
 
82 Copyright Act 2003.  
83 Geographical Indications Act 2003.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  4  TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR  
4.1  Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries  
4.1.  The agriculture and fisheries sector in Antigua and Barbuda remains small and its contribution 
to GDP was below 1.8% on average during the review period. In recent years, the labour force 
working in the sector substantially shrunk, and it only accounted for 2.2% of total employment in 
2018. Labour productivity in the sector is lower than in the rest of the economy and authorities 
noted a regression in terms of skills in recent years for workers in the sector. The sector's total 
contribution to the economy in 2020 was around USD  30.2 million, with fisheries accounting for 
USD 16.1 million and crops for around USD  14.1 million. Most of domestic production is locally sold. 
The sector is vulnerable to natural disasters such as hurricanes.  
4.2.  At the time of the previous Review, the Government id entified agriculture as a focus area with 
the aim of diversifying the economy. During the review period, government initiatives were focused 
on increasing the access to water, promoting the efficient use of water resources, and facilitating 
the access to l ong-term loans for farmers. Several other policies, such as a food security law and 
the increase of budgetary allocation for the sector, have not yet been implemented.  
4.3.  The Government continues to support the backyard garden programme, which promotes the 
autonomous production of vegetables by households; authorities consider that the programme is an 
opportunity to promote good health and wellbeing through the consumption of mainly eco -friendly 
produce. In 2010, close to 2,000  households registered  for the pr ogramme; however, there are no 
recent statistics regarding the beneficiaries of this programme.  
4.4.  The Government promotes the sustainable development and the responsible management of 
fisheries and aquaculture activities. All fishing vessels must be register ed and have a valid fishing 
licence.84 
4.5.  Employment and investment in the sector are reserved for nationals.  
4.6.  The average tariff for agricultural products (WTO definition) is 19.4%, with rates ranging from 
0-100%. The highest rate applies to beverages, spirit s, and tobacco. Bound rates range from 
50%-220%, which implies a large difference with applied rates. Some agricultural products may 
require import licences; other agricultural products such as poultry, livestock and poultry products, 
plants, and plant pro ducts may require non -automatic licences.  
4.2  Services  
4.7.  Under the General Agreement on Trade in Services, Antigua and Barbuda made sector -specific 
commitments in 6 of the 12 broadly defined service areas, or 32 of the approximately 
160 subsectors.85 No market a ccess or national treatment limitations were scheduled on cross -
border supply and consumption abroad for services provision, except for telecommunications 
services. All commercial presence commitments are subject to market access and in some cases 
national  treatment limitations.  
4.8.  Horizontal commitments by Antigua and Barbuda include limitations regarding natural persons 
and commercial presence. For the movement of natural persons, a labour market test is necessary, 
and employment of foreign natural persons is permitted only when qu alified nationals are 
unavailable. Regarding commercial presence, a general approval is required, while joint ventures 
 
84 Fisheries Act 2006.  
85 These sectors (and subsectors) are financial services (insurance services); business services 
(professional services, computer and related services, research and development services); 
telecommunications services (voice telephone se rvices; terrestrial -based mobile services; satellite -based 
mobile services; fixed satellite services; teleconferencing services; telecommunications equipment sales, 
rental, maintenance, and repair; and consulting services); tourism and travel -related servi ces (hotels and 
restaurants); recreational, cultural, and sporting services (entertainment services); and transport services 
(maritime transport services).  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  are encouraged. The only exemption to MFN treatment concerns terrestrial -based mobile services, 
for which CARICOM nationals are offered n ational treatment through regional agreements.86 
4.2.1   Financial services  
4.2.1.1   Overview  
4.9.  The financial sector in Antigua and Barbuda comprised 4 domestic commercial banks; 
2 non-bank credit institutions; 9 offshore banks; 5 non -bank financial institutions; 31 insuranc e 
companies, brokers, and agents; 8 credit unions; and 1 development bank. Domestic commercial 
banks and two non -bank credit institutions87 are regulated by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 
(ECCB), while all other institutions are regulated by the Financ ial Services Regulatory Commission 
(FSRC). During the review period, the sector's contribution to GDP on average was 7.1%; however, 
the influence of the sector on the rest of the economy is considerable. The main legislation governing 
domestic banks and no n-bank financial institutions, except insurance companies and credit unions, 
is the Banking Act 201588, which is an ECCB -wide harmonized banking framework (Common  Report).  
4.2.1.2   Banking  
4.10.  During the review period, the banking sector in Antigua and Barbuda has witn essed 
consolidation of banking activities. In 2016, the ABI Bank had its licence for banking services in 
Antigua and Barbuda revoked by the ECCB and thus, stopped its operations. In 2018, another bank 
and a financial institution had their licences revoked.  In 2021, Scotiabank in Antigua and Barbuda 
completed the sale of its operations to the Eastern Caribbean Amalgamated Bank (ECAB). In the 
same year, the ACB Caribbean (previously known as the Antigua Commercial Bank) acquired the 
operations of the Royal Ba nk of Canada (Antigua).89 By these operations, the number of domestic 
banks reduced to four, of which two are locally incorporated and owned banks, and two are branches 
of other banks in the region.  
4.11.  Banking licences are approved by the ECCB after all requi red criteria have been fulfilled and 
conditions can be attached to the licence. All banks, either locally incorporated or a subsidiary or 
branch of a foreign bank, must have a physical presence in the country. There are no restrictions on 
foreign investmen t in the sector; foreign -owned banks in Antigua and Barbuda receive national 
treatment since they are subject to same requirements and can provide the same services to the 
public.90 Since 2015, regulations make it easier to open branches in the region as a  single financial 
space licensed by the ECCB.91 However, branches of foreign banks need to provide satisfactory 
evidence that they are subject to comprehensive supervision on a consolidated basis in their home 
markets and that the regulatory body in their home jurisdiction has no objection to their application.  
4.12.  The latest annual reports of three of the four domestic banks92 show that the ratio of tier 1 
and regulatory capital to total risk -weighted assets was well above the stipulated regulatory 
requirement  (8%). By September 2020, the exposure to the public sector of ECAB's loan portfolio 
was for nearly half of its loan portfolio (43.3%). All of these loans were granted to the Government, 
which represents a significant concentration of risk on a single cust omer.  
4.13.  Established in 1971, the Antigua and Barbuda Development Bank (ABDB) provides, inter alia, 
medium - and long -term development financing to the productive sectors, mortgages, student loans, 
and small -micro enterprises. Since 2016, the ABDB is under the regulatory and supervisory purview 
of the FSRC and the last supervisory review of the Bank was conducted in 2021.  
 
86 WTO document GATS/EL/2, 11  April 1997.  
87 Any other financial activity recognized by the ECCB as a banking practice is subject to the licence 
requirement.  
88 This Act entered into force on 1  October  2015 and repealed the previous Banking Act 2005. The Act 
was later amended by the Banking (Amendments) Act 2018, which streamlines procedures of the Act.  
89 ECCB (2021), "Acquisition of Royal Bank of Canada ECCU Operations by Consortium of National Banks 
Finalised", 4  April. Viewed at: https://www.eccb -centralbank.org/news/view/acquisition -of-royal-bank-of-
canada -eccu-operations -by-consortium -of-national -banks -finalised . 
90 Note that Antigua and Barbuda has not submitted specific commitments for the banking secto r. 
91 Banking (Licences) Regulations 2019.  
92 Information regarding the Caribbean Union Bank was not available.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  4.14.  Since 2016, the FSRC has adopted a risk -based supervisory framework that applies to 
companies and institutions under its purview. Th is framework provides a structured approach for 
understanding and assessing key risks inherent in an institution's activities, whether its 
risk-management processes are adequate and whether its earnings, capital, and liquidity are 
sufficient to enable it t o support its risk profile and withstand unexpected shocks. On average, the 
FSRC conducts 14 examinations per year; banks, insurance companies, and credit unions are the 
main institutions examined during the review period.  
4.15.  Antigua and Barbuda participated in the establishment of the Eastern Caribbean Asset 
Management Corporation (ECAMC) in 201593, a regional attempt to address the incidence of 
non-performing loans (Common Report). The Credit Reporting Act94, which established a Credit 
Bureau, is also a regi onal effort to secure transactions and improve access to credit (Common 
Report).  
4.16.  In 2019 and 2020, commercial banking institutions were taxed at a rate of 10% on their net 
corporate income.95 
4.2.1.3   Insurance  
4.17.  In 2022, 21 domestic insurance companies were register ed and operating in 
Antigua  and Barbuda; six are locally operating limited liability companies, and the remaining ones 
are agents of foreign insurers. There are also four registered insurance brokers. Except one, all 
insurers in Antigua and Barbuda offer g eneral and life insurance but not reinsurance.  
4.18.  The Insurance Act of 2007 (as amended) governs the operations of the domestic insurance 
sector and companies in the sector must be registered by the Superintendent of Insurance, who is 
part of the FSRC.  
4.19.  Companies must be lawfully constituted in accordance with the laws of the country in which 
their head office is situated, have paid -up share capital of not less than XCD  2 million for local 
companies and XCD  5 million for foreign companies, and be register ed as a company under the 
Companies Act. Foreign insurance companies must have a principal office in Antigua and Barbuda, 
which may be a branch office or the office of their agent, and must appoint a resident as their 
principal representative. No nationali ty or citizenship requirements nor residence requirements are 
applied to company directors. No restriction on foreign ownership of domestic insurance companies 
is applied, other than the restriction of 20% on holding shares in a registered domestic company . 
4.20.  In 2022, the Insurance Act was amended to move away from a one -size-fits-all approach 
regarding deposit requirements and annual fees for the licence. The previous statutory deposit 
requirement of XCD  200,000 for all insurers (regardless of the size of th e company) was removed 
and a stepped approach based on the gross premium income of the insurer was introduced.  
4.21.  Until its removal in 202296, a distinction existed between domestic and foreign companies 
regarding the application and annual fees; foreign comp anies were requested to pay higher fees. 
Since this amendment, an application fee of XCD  5,000 for registration and an annual fee of the 
same amount for continued registration are to be paid by both domestic and foreign insurers. 
Applications may be refuse d if they are deemed not to be in the public interest by the FSRC.  
4.22.  The Insurance (Supervision and Compliance) Regulations 2019 include further provisions on 
registration and renewal procedures for insurance companies, brokers, and intermediaries by 
specify ing the related fees and providing the relevant forms. Moreover, these regulations require 
insurance companies to maintain proper market conduct, and to make documentary logs available 
for examinations determined by the Superintendent. Insurers are require d to provide, within four 
months of each financial year, a balance sheet; a profit and loss account; separate revenue accounts 
in respect of each class of insurance business; and an analysis of long -term insurance policies to the 
 
93 Eastern Caribbean Asset Management Corporation Act 2015, as amended by Eastern Caribbean Asset 
Management Corporation (Amendment) Act 2017.  
94 Credit Reporting Act 2017.  
95 Income Tax (Amendment) Act 2019.  
96 Insurance (Amendment) Act 2022.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  Superintendent of Insuranc e. Since 2021, insurers failing to provide these documents are subject to 
an administrative penalty of up to XCD  30,000, plus XCD  1,800 for each day of non -compliance.97 
4.23.  An insurance agent, broker, or representative is personally liable to the insured on a ll policies 
unlawfully made by or through him or her with any unregistered insurer as if the insurance agent, 
broker, or representative had been the insurer.  
4.24.  In 2015, Antigua and Barbuda enacted a plan of arrangement between creditors and two 
insurers unde r judicial management. The two insurers are still listed as non -active on the FSRC 
website: one is under judicial management and the other is under liquidation.  
4.25.  In 2019 and 2020, insurance companies were taxed at a rate of 10% on their net corporate 
income .98 
4.2.1.4   Offshore services  
4.26.  The FSRC regulates international banking and insurance services. Within the FSRC, there is a 
Director of International Banks and Non -banks, and a Superintendent of International Insurance 
Companies. The regulatory framework for intern ational banking activities was amended in 2016.99 
The International Banking Act 2016 (as amended) provided a single piece of legislation for the 
regulation and supervision of international banks similar to the one for domestic banks. The Act 
established a detailed framework that includes licensing of institutions, ownership of licensed 
institutions, financial limitations, and restrictions, as well as supervision and remedial actions by the 
Commission.100 The Act outlined a framework for the taxation of inter national banks and aimed at 
facilitating the adoption of the Basel II Standardized Reporting Framework for the international 
banking sector. The 2017 amendment101 broadened the definition of banking business and thus, the 
one for international banking, and allowed international banks to conduct business with the 
Government of, its statutory bodies, and other corporate entities owned and approved by the 
Ministry of Finance, Corporate Governance and Public Private Partnerships and the Commission. 
Other laws go verning international financial services are the International Business Corporations Act 
(as amended), the International Trusts Act (as amended), the International Limited Liability Act, the 
International Foundations Act, the Corporate Management and Trust  Service Providers Act (as 
amended), and the Financial Services Regulatory Act.  
4.27.  International banks and international insurance companies require a licence. International 
insurers are tax exempt for a period of 50 years from establishment. International ba nks are subject 
to degressive tax on profits, which ranges between 1% and 2.5%. International banks and 
international insurance companies are not allowed to issue bearer shares. There are 
nine international banks registered in Antigua and Barbuda, and one international insurance 
companies.  
4.28.  Licence requirements for international banks include a minimum capital requirement and 
physical presence. Minimum capital requirements are USD  3 million for Class I banks; USD  500,000 
for Class II banks; and USD  3 million  for Class III composite bank and trust corporations. 
A proportion of the paid -up capital must be deposited by the FSRC, or in a manner approved by the 
Commission. Applications for a licence are examined by the Commission within three months of the 
receipt  of the application. The Commission has the sole right to grant or refuse a licence and refusals 
can be enquired by way of judicial review in the High Court. The non -refundable application fees for 
international banks are fixed at 10% of the corresponding annual licence fees; annual licences fees 
are USD  40,000 for Class I banks, USD  30,000 for Class II banks, and USD  50,000 for Class III bank 
and trust corporations.102 International banks may only conduct transactions in currencies other 
than those of CARIC OM members.  
 
97 Insurance (Amendment) Act 2021.  
98 Income Tax (Amendment) Act 2019.  
99 The International Banking Act 2016 entered into force on 1  September  2016. In 2017, the Act  was 
amended by the International Banking (Amendment) Act 2017.  
100 For instance, the FRSC can appoint an official administrator if deemed necessary.  
101 The International Banking (Amendment) Act 2017.  
102 An initial fee of the same amount of the annual licence fees needs to be paid at the approval of the 
licence.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  4.29.  Paid-up capital requirements are USD  250,000 for international insurance companies and 
USD 250,000 for international trust companies. Registration fees for an international insurance 
business are USD  10,000, while annual licence fees are USD  10,000. A licence may be revoked if a 
licensee does not start operations within six months of the issuance of the licence.  
4.30.  At least one of the trustees of international trusts must be domiciled in Antigua and Barbuda 
and an international trust may be adminis tered by a minimum of one or a maximum of four 
functioning trustees at any time.103 Trusts are also required to maintain a physical presence in 
Antigua  and Barbuda, and their licence fee varies between USD  300 (restricted international trust) 
and USD  10,000  (general international trust). General international trusts are subject to a minimum 
capital requirement of USD  250,000 in paid -up capital.  
4.31.  The liquidation of the Stanford International Bank is still ongoing, and a second distribution 
of USD  30 million, r epresenting 0.6% of total admitted claims, took place in 2019.  
4.2.2   Telecommunications  
4.32.  During the review period, the telecommunications sector contributed 3.2% to 
Antigua  and Barbuda's GDP and employed around 4,000  people.104 By end -2020, the fixed -line 
penetrat ion (line subscriptions per 100 inhabitants) was at 28%, as it continued to decrease after 
reaching a peak of nearly 40% in 2011. Mobile phone penetration rates largely exceeded 100% over 
the review period; by end -2020, almost every inhabitant owned two li nes, as penetration reached 
188%. The use of the Internet is spreading through mobile subscriptions, and half of the population 
(49%) has access to the Internet through a mobile broadband subscription. Less than one of every 
10 inhabitants (8%) uses the In ternet through a fixed (wired) broadband subscription. All users are 
covered by the 3G network.  
4.33.  The provision of domestic fixed -line services, including voice and data, is under a monopoly 
by the Antigua and Barbuda Public Utilities Authority (APUA).105 Since 2012, the provision of 
international voice and data services is unrestricted. The provision of mobile services is unbound for 
cross-border supply; however, foreign suppliers wishing to have a commercial presence must 
undertake a minimum investment o f at least USD  500,000. Four telecommunications providers 
(Flow, Digicel, Antigua Computer Technology, and APUA) were granted licences to provide 
international voice and data networks and services. Three of the four providers also offer mobile 
services. Ot her services may be provided only on network facilities supplied by licensed operators.106 
4.34.  The Telecommunications Act 1951, which is the main legislation governing the sector, was 
updated in 2018.107 Changes included the creation of the Telecommunications Au thority, which is to 
become responsible for regulating the sector under the directions of the Ministry of Information, 
Communications Technology and Digitalization (MICTD); however, the Authority has not yet been 
established. The Telecommunications Divisio n at the MICTD continues to have administrative 
functions and the regulatory authority of the sector remains with the Minister. Service providers are 
licensed by the Minister, although the licensing of some special services not covered by the 
Telecommunica tions Act, such as mobile services, cable TV, and almost all services not using a radio 
frequency, requires Cabinet approval. Rules on types and forms of licences, licence applications and 
conditions, such as terms, conditions and restrictions, and duties of licensees, are under the 
authority of the Minister. Licences have been granted to companies offering cable TV, undersea 
cable, and Internet services. There was no standard approach to granting licences, whose terms and 
conditions vary considerably. The authorities indicate their interest in standardizing the framework 
for licensing; however, this type of regulation needs to be approved by the Parliament.  
4.35.  The amendment of 2018 provides for the Telecommunications Authority to be in charge of 
planning and a ssigning the numbering of telecommunication services, and makes provisions for the 
introduction of number portability. Currently, the Telecom Division leads efforts to implement 
 
103 International Trust Act 2007.  
104 The employment statistics concerns transport, storage, and communications considered together.  
105 This monopoly is in line with commitments in WTO document GATS/SC/2/Suppl.1, 11  April 1997.  
106 These services include, inter alia, packet -switched and circuit -switched data transmission services for 
non-public, facsimile services, electronic mail, voice mail, and Interne t access.  
107 Telecommunications (Amendments) Act 2018.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  number portability and rules are under development. At the time of the prepara tion of this Review, 
there was no information available regarding tariffs and charges for fixed and mobile lines.  
4.36.  Antigua and Barbuda is the only OECS -WTO Member that is not a member of the Eastern 
Caribbean Telecommunications Authority (ECTEL). The author ities indicate that the cross -subsidies 
by the telecommunications sector to electricity and water utilities as specified in the GATS 
commitments by Antigua and Barbuda is the main barrier for further liberalizing the sector.  
4.37.  In 2017, a tax on telecommunica tions originating outside Antigua and Barbuda was 
established (USD  0.05 per minute for calls, and USD  0.05 per short message service).108 The 15% 
sales tax is levied on all telecommunications services provided in Antigua and Barbuda. In 2019 and 
2020, telec ommunications companies were taxed at a rate of 10% regarding their net corporate 
income.109 In general, licence holders are responsible for collecting taxes and passing them on to 
the Internal Revenue Service.  
4.2.3   Transport  
4.2.3.1   Maritime transport  
4.38.  St Johns is the m ain commercial seaport in Antigua and Barbuda. Bulk cement enters through 
Crabbes Port, while an offshore facility at Fort James Port handles bulk petroleum products. All ports 
are owned and controlled by the State.  
4.39.  The main legislation governing the secto r is the Merchant Shipping Act 2006, as amended. 
During the review period, the Act was amended to (i)  remove restrictions on the registration of 
passenger ships and high -speed craft; (ii)  increase the choice of ports of registry for commercial and 
pleasure  yachts; (iii)  formalize the issuance of temporary permissions; (iv)  implement international 
conventions and agreements to which Antigua and Barbuda is a party; (v)  prescribe the removal of 
ships from the Registrar in given circumstances; (vi)  enable the p rovisional registration of ships; 
and (vii)  amend qualifications to own Antigua and Barbuda ships. The Antigua and Barbuda 
Department of Marine Services and Merchant Shipping (ADOMS) within the Merchant Shipping and 
Ship Regulation regulates small craft an d merchant shipping activities.110 The portfolio of merchant 
shipping and ship registration is currently assigned to the Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda.  
4.40.  Licensing, which addresses operational and technical safety standards, is compulsory for small 
craft and small commercial vessels operating within the maritime jurisdiction of 
Antigua  and Barbuda.111 All vessels engaged in fishing are licensed by the Fisheries Division. In order 
for a vessel to be registered in Antigua and Barbuda, it must be owned or effectively controlled by 
nationals of Antigua and Barbuda or CARICOM nationals, or by a company registered under the laws 
of Antigua and Barbuda, or by a foreign entity through a Principal Representative in 
Antigua  and Barbuda. Under exceptional circumsta nces, a waiver may be granted by the Cabinet for 
the operation of specialized vessels. ADOMS operates and administers the Antigua and Barbuda Ship 
and Yacht Registry, which includes locally operated vessels and vessels engaged in international 
trade. Regis tration fees, tonnage taxes, and annual charges vary according to gross tonnage and in 
January  2021 ADOMS published revised fees for all of its services.112 By mid -2022, there were 
700 ships registered as vessels engaged in international trade and 750 yacht s and other small 
pleasure craft. The main users of the International Registry of Ships are located in Germany and 
other members of the European  Union.  
4.41.  During the review period, Antigua and Barbuda adopted regulations providing for the 
recognition and appl ication of international codes to vessels above or below 24 metres in length.113 
 
108 Telecommunications Tax Act 2017.  
109 Income Tax (Amendment) Act 2019.  
110 The Small Craft Control Act 2015. Besides its headquarters in St John, ADOMS keeps an office in 
Oldenburg (Germany) to provide ser vices to its customers.  
111 All powered craft below 24 metres in length and all other small craft above 5 metres in length are 
required to obtain a licence.  
112 Antigua and Barbuda Ship and Yacht Registry, Fees. Viewed at: https://abregistry.ag/vessel -
registration/fees/ . 
113 Merchant Shipping (Commercially Operated Large Vessels) Regulations 2020, later replaced by 
Merchant Shipping (Vessels in Commercial Use for Sport or Pleasure) Regulations 2022.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  For vessels under 24  metres, the Marine Guidance Notice 280(M), as published by the Maritime and 
Coastguard Agency of the United  Kingdom, is applied, while for vessels over 24  metres, the Red 
Ensign Group Yacht Code of the United  Kingdom or the newly adopted Marshall Islands' Yacht Code 
2021 can be used.  
4.42.  Cabotage is reserved for ships registered in Antigua and Barbuda. Masters, chief officers, and 
chief engineers of merchant shi ps registered in Antigua and Barbuda must be nationals of 
Antigua  and Barbuda, except if vessels are mainly employed between ports outside 
Antigua  and Barbuda.114 
4.43.  The Antigua Port Authority is responsible for developing the harbours of Antigua and Barbuda, 
operating and managing port services, and collecting dues and charges.115 Some port services are 
provided by the private sector, for example, stevedore activities are privately owned and operated, 
and private firms provide port security.  
4.44.  A travel tax, an em barkation tax, and a cruise passenger tax are levied on passengers 
travelling to and from Antigua and Barbuda by maritime transportation.  
4.2.3.2   Air transport  
4.45.   Antigua and Barbuda remains one of the main civil aviation centres within the OECS with 
most of the act ivity located at V.C. Bird International Airport in Antigua, including air cargo.116 There 
are 17 carriers, of which 8 are regional, operating regular flights to Antigua and Barbuda from the 
region, the United  States, the United  Kingdom, and Canada. The Government and other 
governments of the region own the regional airline LIAT, which is  incorporated in 
Antigua  and Barbuda. After recording a loss of XCD  12 million in 2019, LIAT was intervened in 
July 2020 and reinitiated a limited schedule of flights as of November 2020.  
4.46.  During the period under review, the administration and regulation of  the air transport sector 
remained unchanged. The main legislation governing the sector is the Civil Aviation Act 2003. The 
Air Transport Licensing Board deals with licence applications and tariffs charged for cargo and 
passenger transport. Decisions taken  by the Board must be endorsed by the Minister of Energy, Civil 
Aviation and Transportation, who has overall responsibility for the development and supervision of 
civil aviation. In general, an air transport licence is only granted to citizens of Antigua a nd Barbuda 
or a member State of the OECS or CARICOM; or a body incorporated in Antigua and Barbuda or in 
OECS/CARICOM member State that is substantially controlled by citizens of Antigua and Barbuda or 
an OECS/CARICOM member State. The following matters mu st be considered when granting a 
licence: existence of other air services; need/demand for the proposed service; and any unfair 
advantage of the applicant over other operators by reason of the terms of employment of persons 
employed. Within bilateral air a greements, the previous matters are not considered, unless 
instructed by the Minister; the main matter under consideration is whether the air service provider 
is fit, willing, and able to operate the service.  
4.47.  At the regional level, regulatory oversight for  safety and security issues is the responsibility 
of the Eastern Caribbean Civil Aviation Authority (ECCAA).117 In 2019 and 2020, a number of security 
and flight safety regulations were issued; these regulations adopted recent amendments to the 
Chicago Convention.  
4.48.  There are no foreign investment restrictions relating to ownership of domestically 
incorporated carrie rs. The Minister has the authority to issue regulations regarding commercial 
aircraft carrying goods and services within Antigua and Barbuda; however, no restrictions on 
cabotage services have been issued.  
4.49.  Established in 2006, the Antigua and Barbuda Airpo rt Authority, a statutory body, is 
responsible for managing the government -owned airports. The Airport Authority can contract out 
management services for the airport facility, but has not done so to date. Supply auxiliary services 
 
114 Aliens Restriction Act 1929.  
115 Port Authority Act 1973.  
116 Codrington Airport in Barbuda was severely damaged after Hurricane Irma in 2017 and is back in full 
operation.  
117 Eastern Caribbean Civil Aviation Agreement Act 2003.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  are open to local and for eign private participation and, for instance, ground handling services are 
provided by local and foreign airlines.  
4.50.  A passenger facility tax of USD  10 per individual is levied to help pay for the expansion and 
development of the airport. In 2015, a modern t erminal with four jet bridges was opened at V.C.  Bird 
International Airport. The construction of the new terminal cost approximately USD  100 million.  
4.51.  Antigua  and Barbuda has bilateral air services agreements with Canada, Cuba, Colombia, the 
Dominican  Repub lic, France, Nigeria, the United Arab Emirates, and the United  Kingdom. Except for 
the agreements with Canada and the United  Kingdom, all agreements were signed during the review 
period. Other agreements with Germany and Qatar are under negotiation. Air tr ansport 
arrangements with the United  States are regulated by the 1977 US -UK Bermuda II Agreement. 
Antigua and Barbuda is a contracting state of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 
and is also a party to the CARICOM Multilateral Air Service s Agreement (MASA), which was recently 
ratified.  
4.2.4   Tourism  
4.52.  The tourism sector is of key importance to Antigua and Barbuda's economy. During the review 
period, the sector's direct contribution to GDP was around 10%118 and tourism activities have 
significant sp illovers to other sectors of the economy (transport, construction, and real estate). The 
sector was severely hit by international travel restrictions and lockdowns related to the COVID -19 
pandemic, and the number of visitors shrank by 62% in 2020 after thr ee continuous years with more 
than a  million visitors per year (Table  4.1). After reaching a low in 2021, the tourism sector gave 
signs of a strong recovery in the first trimester of 2022.  
4.53.  All segments (cruise ship passengers, stay -over visitors, and yacht  passengers) endured the 
impact of the global health crisis; however, the shutdown of the cruise industry was the most 
dramatic ( -90% passengers between 2021 and 2019). Stay -over visitors started coming back in 
2021 as travel restrictions were eased, in pa rticular from the United  States, which is the origin of 
nearly 60% of these visitors in 2021. For other source markets (the United  Kingdom, Canada, and 
the Caribbean), the recovery is not yet fully underway.  
4.54.  Consequently, total visitor expenditure shrank b y almost 60% in 2020; however, the good 
performance of some segments enabled certain revenue streams to begin to recover since 2021. 
In 2021, total expenditure by visitors amounted to XCD  1,318  million compared to 
XCD 2,096  million in 2019. The sector cont inues to be the largest recipient of foreign investment 
and the most significant foreign exchange earner.  
Table  4.1 Tourism statistics, 2014 -22 
('000, unless specified)   
2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  2022a 
Total visitors  792.6  905.7  891.4  1,059.7  1,082.4  1,054.1  397.8  252.2  222.8  
Cruise ship passengers  525.3  636.5  608.5  792.9  794.6  734.0  259.4  77.1 151.7  
Stay-over visitors  249.3  250.5  265.2  247.3  268.9  301.0  125.1  169.5  64.9 
United  States  95.3 94.6 108.7  96.3 104.1  123.6  60.3 102.5  28.4 
United  Kingdom  71.2 77.9 76.5 70.7 70.6 76.8 31.8 48.3 25.7 
Canada  27.7 23.3 21.2 22.9 38.1 37.2 15.7 4.1 3.4 
Caribbean  30.3 30.5 33.9 32.0 32.3 34.5 8.0 7.9 3.3 
Other countries  24.8 24.2 24.9 25.4 23.9 28.9 9.3 6.7 4.1 
Yacht passengers  17.9 18.8 17.7 19.5 18.9 19.1 13.3 5.6 6.2 
Number of cruise ship calls  0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 
 
118 The direct contribution of the sector is mapped throu gh the activities by hotels and restaurants in 
national accounts.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  2022a 
Number of yacht calls  3.8 3.9 4.0 4.4 3.8 3.9 2.3 1.0 0.4 
Total visitor expenditure 
(XCD billion)  1.6 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.7 2.1 0.9 1.3 0.6 
a Data for January to March 2022.  
Source:  Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB). Viewed at: https://www.eccb -
centralbank.org/statistics/tourisms/comparative -report . 
4.55.  In its Medium Term Strategic Development Plan of Antigua and Barbuda (2016 -2020), the 
Government identified as flagship priorities to use the tourism industry as an economic anchor for 
its development and to transform the country into a green, low -density, and high -end tourism 
destination by limiting undesirable environmental and socio -cultural conseq uences. To achieve these 
objectives, a Green Tourism Initiative is ongoing, covering areas such as energy consumption and 
efficiency, use of renewable energy, water consumption, waste disposal practices, green building 
practices, green operations, promotio n of the local economy, employee engagement, social 
responsibility, customer education, and conservation practices.  
4.56.  The Ministry of Tourism, Investment and Economic Development (MoTIED) is responsible for 
establishing policies and guidelines for the tourism industry. Established in 2008, the Antigua and 
Barbuda Tourism Authority (ABTA)119, a statutory body within the MoTIED, is in charge of developing 
policies for tourism promotion, designing and implementing marketing strategies, advising the 
Government and the tourism industry on marketing strategies, putting measures in place to ensure 
sufficient and suitable transport services to and from Antigua and Barbuda, and carrying out 
tourism -related research. The ABTA has three offices overseas.  
4.57.  Commercial presence for the construction of hotels and resorts and the management of hotels 
is subject to the provisions of the Hotel Proprietors Act, which fixes liabilities for the proprietor with 
respect to hotel guests. There are no limitations on foreign  investment in hotels; however, under 
the ABIA Act, one director must reside in the country.  
4.58.  Besides incentives under the ABIA Act (Section  2.4), under the Hotel Aid Act 1952, developers 
may import building materials and equipment duty -free, or drawback cu stoms duties already paid, 
subject to obtaining a licence from the Cabinet. Since 2003, the development of new hotels and the 
expansion of existing ones are eligible for relief from corporate income tax for 7 to 25  years 
depending on the number of new room s created by each project.120 
4.59.  Between 2014 and 2018, tourism development or tourism -related projects could benefit from 
the incentives prescribed by the Tourism and Business (Special Incentives) Act 2013 (Section  2.4). 
These benefits included waivers on all  import and other duties on all capital items, as well as 
exemptions or reductions on corporate income taxes, withholding taxes, property taxes, and stamp 
duties on land transfers and non -citizen licences. The terms of those benefits ranged between 6 and 
25 years and were only granted for projects of XCD  1 million or above.  
4.60.  In 2019, Antigua and Barbuda passed a new framework regarding the licensing and the 
classification of tourism services121; however, this legislation has not yet come into force. The 
Tourism Industry Licensing Committee, which is yet to be established, will examine all licence 
applications before submitting its recommendations to the Minister for their issuance. Licences will 
be valid for 12 months and can be renewed without any limitation.  In 2021, criteria for the 
classification of tourist accommodations (class A, class B, and luxury hotels) were published and a 
tourism guest levy tax was imposed according to the classification and price charged for hotel 
rooms.122 All monies collected are transferred to the Climate Resilience Development Fund.  
4.61.  Antigua and Barbuda also granted an exemption of visa requirement to tourists from 
15 countries during the review period. Since March 2020, tourism activities are subject to a sales 
 
119 Tourism Authority Act 2008. In 2015, the composition of the Board of Directors of ABTA was 
amended, and the Advisory Council repealed (Tourism Authority (Amendment) Act 2015).  
120 Income Ta x (Amendment) Act 2003.  
121 Tourism Licensing and Classification Act 2019.  
122 Tourism Guest Levy Act 2021.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
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  tax of 14%123; part  of the revenue collected is dedicated to the funding of marketing and promotion 
activities.  
4.2.5   Other offshore services  
4.62.  Under the International Business Corporations (IBCs) Act 1982 (as amended), other offshore 
services are regulated by the FSRC. These corpor ations may be formed by an attorney, an 
accountant, or a trust company and, according to the authorities, incorporation may be completed 
within 24 hours for non -licensed corporations.124 Minimum requirements include a single director, a 
single shareholder, a registered office, and a registered agent. IBCs are eligible for an array of 
incentives that include exemptions from various taxes including customs duties. For instance, IBCs 
are not subject to income tax, capital gains tax, and asset transfer tax.  
4.63.  In 2016, the regulatory framework for interactive gaming (virtual casino) and interactive 
wagering (sports book) was modified by the issuance of a new law and relevant regulations to the 
sector.125 The Gambling Authority of Antigua and Barbuda was established i n 2016, and it replaced 
the FRSC as the licensing and supervisory body over all local gambling and online gaming in 
Antigua  and Barbuda.126 Some other regulations such as Interactive Gaming and Interactive 
Wagering Regulations 2007 (the Online Gaming Regula tions) remain in place. All interactive gaming 
activities require a licence by the Gambling Authority of Antigua and Barbuda and companies must 
be incorporated under the laws of Antigua and Barbuda. Applicants pay a non -refundable fee of 
USD 15,000 for con ducting investigations, due diligence, and assessments of applicants. The 
processing time of a licence is 60  days and there are currently three licensees in 
Antigua  and Barbuda. The annual licence fee is USD  100,000 for an interactive gaming business and 
USD 75,000 for an interactive wagering business. In addition, there is a USD  100,000 minimum 
reserve requirement, and the Authority may establish higher thresholds based on its assessment of 
risk. The Authority has monitoring and examination powers to monit or the adequacy of the capital 
reserve on an ongoing basis as well as to implement surveillance over business associates of 
licensees providing key services.127 
4.64.  In 2020, a regulatory framework for digital asset businesses and for the protection of the 
interests of their clients or potential clients was adopted. Digital asset business activities to the 
general public or to private clients include (i)  issuing, selling, or redeeming virtual coins, tokens, or 
any other form of digital asset; (ii)  operating as a payment service provider business utilizing digital 
assets; and (iii)  operating as an exchange, a vendor, a custody service, or a custodial wallet service. 
A digital asset is defined as anything that exists in binary or digital format and comes with the ri ght 
to use it and includes, but is not limited to, a digital representation of value. A digital asset is not 
recognized as a security.  
 
 
 
123 In January 2019, the Antigua and Barbuda Sales Tax (ABST) rate on hotel accommodation was 
raised to 13% from 12.5%, which had been the rate applied si nce January 2012.  
124 Licensed corporations are international banks, trusts, insurance corporations, and interactive gaming 
and wagering companies.  
125 Antigua and Barbuda Gambling Act 2016, and Antigua and Barbuda Gambling (Amendment) 
Act 2017.  
126 The Gambling  Act Regulations 2020 introduced new licensing fees and the tax structure for local 
gambling.  
127 The authorities indicate that no action has been in this regard during the review period.  WT/TPR/S/437 • Antigua and Barbuda  
 
- 106 - 
 
  5  APPENDIX TABLE  
Table  A1.1 Merchandise visible exports and imports by SITC section, 2014 -21 
Description  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021   
(USD  million)  
Total exports  23.1 27.5 25.6 20.9 25.8 37.7 22.2 19.1 
Domestic exports  3.2 2.2 1.8 2.1 3.3 2.7 2.7 4.3 
Re-exports  19.9 25.3 23.8 18.8 22.6 35.0 19.5 14.8  
(% of total exports)  
0. Food and live animals  3.0 0.8 1.4 3.5 4.3 4.2 9.4 16.0 
1. Beverages and tobacco  6.0 11.0 10.6 19.9 18.1 8.7 17.7 17.7 
2. Crude materials, inedible, except fuels  4.3 3.1 2.8 1.4 1.8 0.1 0.0 0.2 
3. Mineral fuels and related materials  4.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 4.0 12.2 16.5 26.2 
4. Animal and vegetable oils, fats and 
waxes  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
5. Chemicals and related products  2.3 7.7 5.1 1.8 0.7 0.7 1.4 2.8 
6. Manufactured goods  33.9 16.1 7.1 27.0 12.6 5.2 6.1 7.2 
7. Machinery and transport equipment  36.9 14.5 12.7 22.1 8.8 5.5 9.8 20.0 
8. Miscellaneous manufactured articles  9.2 46.3 60.1 23.9 15.3 9.5 11.1 9.9 
9. Commodities and transactions not 
classified elsewhere in SITC  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 34.4 54.0 28.0 0.0 
 
(USD  million)  
Total imports  551.8  462.6  478.0  554.3  698.8  700.9  498.1  595.5   
(% of total imports)  
0. Food and live animals  17.8 20.8 19.5 19.6 17.2 17.1 21.5 20.0 
1. Beverages and tobacco  4.5 5.8 5.2 5.2 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.1 
2. Crude materials, inedible, except 
fuels 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.0 2.5 2.2 2.5 3.3 
3. Mineral fuels and related materials  29.8 20.0 16.2 18.4 19.0 17.4 14.9 20.0 
4. Animal and vegetable oils, fats and 
waxes  0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 
5. Chemicals and related products  5.8 7.3 7.0 7.3 6.5 6.7 8.6 8.4 
6. Manufactured goods  11.4 11.5 12.7 11.7 14.0 14.6 14.0 14.2 
7. Machinery and transport equipment  17.5 18.8 23.3 22.5 21.6 22.4 22.2 19.4 
8. Miscellaneous manufactured articles  11.1 13.3 13.5 12.9 12.8 12.0 10.9 10.0 
9. Commodities and transactions not 
classified elsewhere in SITC  0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 2.8 0.4 0.1 
Source:  Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB), Real Sector Statistics – Selected Visible Trade Statistics , as 
of October 2022. Viewed at: https://www.eccb -centralbank.org/statistics/trades/country -report .