WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
23 October  2020 
(20-7351) Page: 1/52 
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries    
 
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MARK ET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST  
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 4 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  6 
3   LDCS' TRADE DEVELOPMENTS IN 2020  ................................ ................................ ....... 7 
3.1   Merchandise Trade Values  ................................ ................................ ...........................  7 
3.2   Merchandise Trade Volume and Outlook  ................................ ................................ ....... 12 
3.3   Services trade  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  13 
4   LDCS' TRADE PROFILE 2019  ................................ ................................ ......................  18 
4.1   Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  ................................ ................................ ... 18 
4.2   Merchandise Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ...............  22 
4.2.1   Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  22 
4.2.2   Commodity price movements  ................................ ................................ ..................  23 
4.2.3   Major LDC traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 24 
4.2.4   Trends in product composition and concentration of LDCs  ................................ ............  25 
4.2.5   Major markets of LDCs  ................................ ................................ ...........................  27 
4.3   Services Trade Development s ................................ ................................ .....................  29 
4.3.1   Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  29 
5   MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  .............................  32 
5.1   Duty-free market access granted by s elected Members  ................................ ..................  32 
5.2   Utilization of preferential market access granted to LDCs  ................................ ................  34 
5.3   Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  ................................ .....................  36 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  38 
 
 
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's o wn responsibility and is without prejudice to 
the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  List of T ables  
Table 1: Merchandise trade volume and real GDP at ma rket exchange rates, 2012 -2021 ............  13 
Table 2: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2011 -2019 ..........................  18 
Table 3: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 2011 -2019 ...........................  21 
Table 4: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2011 and 2019  ................................ .........................  28 
Table 5: Duty free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 2018  .....................  33 
Table 6: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  ................................ ............................  37 
 
List of C harts  
Chart 1: Imports of 97 economies from World and from LDCs, January 2019 to June 2020  ..........  7 
Chart 2: Imports of 97 economies from LDCs, January 2019 to June 2020, by major product 
group  8 
Chart 3: Imports of 97 economies from LDCs, March -June 2020 vs. March -June 2019  ................  9 
Chart 4: Imports of 97 economies in agricultural products from selected exporters  ....................  10 
Chart 5: Imports of 97 economies in fuels and mining products from selected exporters  ............  11 
Chart 6: Imports of 97 economies in clothing products from selected exporters  ........................  11 
Chart 7: Merchandise trade volume of least -developed countries, 2005Q1 -2020Q2  ...................  12 
Chart 8: Travel exports in selected LDCs in Asia, Q1 -Q2 2020  ................................ ................  14 
Chart 9: China, Republic of Korea, Japan, and Australia – Travel imports, August 2018 - 
August 2020  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................  15 
Chart 10: Travel exports in selected LDCs in Africa, Q1 -Q2 2020  ................................ ............  15 
Chart 11: Uganda's services and goods exports, August 2019 - August 2020 ............................  16 
Chart 12: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2011 -2019 ....................  18 
Chart 13: LDCs' total trade balance, 2011, 2018 and 2019  ................................ ....................  19 
Chart 14: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 
2011-2019 ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................  19 
Chart 15: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2011 -2019 ................................ .............................  20 
Chart 16: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 2011 -2019 ................................ ................................ . 22 
Chart 17: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2011 -2019 ................................ .....................  23 
Chart 18: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub -grouping, 2011 -2019 ................................ ...... 23 
Chart 19: Ex port prices of primary commodities, 2011 -2019 ................................ ..................  24 
Chart 20: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2011 and 2019  ................................ .............  25 
Chart 21: Evolution of merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2011 and 2019  ..........................  26 
Chart 22: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2011 and 2019  ................................ . 27 
Chart 23: LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2011 -2019 ................................ ..................  29 
Chart 24: LDCs' exports of commercia l services by category, 2011 -2019 ................................ . 30 
Chart 25: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2011 -2019 ..............................  30 
Chart 26: Leading LDC exporters of commercial services, 2019 and 2011  ................................  31 
Chart 27: Imports from LDCs by duty category, 2018 (or latest available year)  .........................  35 
 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  List of Anne x Tables  
Annex Table 1: Exports, imports and trade balance of LDCs during January -June 2020  ..............  38 
Annex Table 2: Change in exports of LDCs by destination market, March -June 2020 vs. 
March -June 2019  ................................ ................................ ................................ .............  39 
Annex Table 3: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2019
  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................  40 
Annex Table 4: Indices of Market Prices for Non -Fuel and Fuel Commodities, 2016 -2020 Q1 ....... 42 
Annex Table 5: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2011 -2019 ...............  44 
Annex Table 6: Top 5 0 exported products of LDCs in 2019  ................................ .....................  46 
Annex Table 7: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2019  .........................  49 
Annex Table 8: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2020 or latest available yeara ................................ ................................ ..............  50 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1.1.  This Note, prepared by the Secretariat on an annual basis, provides an update on the trends in 
trade and market access conditions  of the 47 least developed countries (LDCs) . In addition to the 
standard coverage of the evolution of LDC trade in previous years, mainly during 2011 -2019, the 
note also look s at the developments in LDC trade during the first half of 2020 to gauge the short -term 
impact of the COVID -19 pandemic.  
1.2.  Data from 97 economies, which include most of LDCs' key trading partners, show that the value 
of LDC merchandise exports dropped by 21% during March -June 2020 year -on-year. Exports 
declined for  more than two -thirds of  LDCs with certain LDCs experiencing a particularly severe  export 
slump  compared to the LDC g roup's average. The two largest LDC exporters Angola and Bangladesh 
experienced sharp contractions in their top export destinations, i.e. Angola recorded a 46% decline 
in exports  to China while Bangladesh 's exports to the E uropean Union (27) dropped by 30% .  
1.3.  The decline in the value of LDC merchandise exports ( -16%) during the first six months of 2020 
has been steeper than for world exports ( -13%). At the product level, the drop of  LDC exports has 
been greater for fuel s and mining products ( -26%) compared to clothing exports ( -18%). LDCs' 
exports of agricultural products have been somewhat resilient with a decline of 1% in the first half 
of 2020 .  
1.4.  The contraction in the LDCs'  export volumes was less severe than the drop of export values, 
as the latter reflecte d the decline in energy prices.  In the first half of the 2020, LDC export volumes 
were down 8.1% compared to 2019.  Based on current GDP projections, Secretariat estimates  point 
to a 6.8% decline  of LDCs' merchandise export volumes in 2020,  compared to a higher projected 
decline for the volume of world trade (-9.2%) . However , these estimates are subject to a high degree 
of uncertainty since they depend to a large extent  on the evolution of the pandemic.  
1.5.  The value of LDCs' services exports experienced a sharp decline in the first half of 2020, with 
preliminary estimates suggesting a year-on-year drop of around 38-40%. The sharp decline in overall 
services exports was driven by a slump in travel exports, which accounted for  close to half of LDCs' 
services exports in 2019 . LDCs' travel exports are  estimated to have  plummeted by 90-92% in the 
second quarter  of 2020, and by 58 -60% in the first half of 2020. These estimates might be subject 
to revision as new statistics become a vailable.  
1.6.  In 2019, LDC exports of goods and commercial services declined by 1.5% compared to 2018 
reaching a nominal value of USD 236 billion . Imports grew by 1.3% to reach USD 336 billion , 
exceeding the value of exports by USD 100 billion. This trade defi cit is more than two times higher 
than the LDCs' trade  deficit in 2011 (USD 4 1 billion).  
1.7.  The share of LDCs in world exports (goods and services) increased marginally from 0.95% in 
2018 to 0.96% in 2019, mainly owing to positive export growth in commercial  services. While the 
share of LDCs in goods  exports remained somewhat static in 2019 (1.04%), the ir share in 
commercial services exports registered a marked increase from 0.67% in 2018 to 0.72% in 2019.  
1.8.  In 2019, LDCs' merchandise exports , partly due to dec reases in prices for fuels and mining 
products , fell by 3.1% compared to 2018, while world exports declined by only 2.7% . The export 
structure of LDCs  has seen a gradual decline of primary products, and a considerable increase in the 
share of clothing products . In 2019, fuels accounted for 26% of merchandise exports, down from 
53% in 2011, while clothing products constituted 29% of exports, up from 13% in 2011. The share 
of agricultural products  increased from 10% in 2011 to 13% in 2019.   
1.9.  With a nearly 21% share in LDC merchandise exports , Bangladesh ha s overtaken Angola (18%) 
to become the top LDC merchandise exporter in 2019; Myanmar (9%) and Cambodia (8%) were on 
third and fourth position.  China was the top destination  for LDC merchandise exports in 2019 (share 
of 28%), followed by the European Union (27) with a share of 22%. The top ten importers accounted 
for 84.5% for LDCs ' total exports in 2019, sl ightly higher than the level of 2011 (83.4%).  
1.10.  In 2019, LDCs ' exports of commercial services increased by a robust 10% to reach 
USD 43 billion. Travel remain ed the leading sector accounting for nearly 48% of LDCs' commercial 
services  exports . Myanmar was th e top services exporter, with a 15.5% share in LDCs ' commercial 
services exports, followed by Cambodia (1 3.9%) and Ethiopia (10. 4%). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  1.11.  LDCs continue to benefit from duty -free treatment provided by Members. New notifications 
on LDC market access, both in the areas of goods and services, have been limited. Since the last 
report, Kazakhstan and Montenegro submitted  notification s on their respective  LDC scheme s, which 
they had been implementing since 10 October 2016 and  20 January 2016 , respectively . While no  
additional Members has notified its preferential origin requirements for LDC s since the last report , 
the Russian Federation shared information on the preferential rules of origin of the Common System 
of Tariff Preferences of the Eurasian Economic Union  (EAEU)  which entered into force on 
16 January  2019.  
1.12.  No new notification under the LDC Services Waiver has been received since the last report. 
The number of notifications stood at 24 at the end of September 2020. The operation of preferences 
notified under the LDC Services Waiver was reviewed by Members in a dedicated session of the 
Council for Trade in Services on 29 -30 October 2019.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  2  INTRODUCTION  
2.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretariat responds to paragraph 8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for the Least Developed Countries, which mandates annual reviews of market access for products 
originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secr etariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions.  
2.2.  The Note is divided into t hree main chapters, in addition to the executive summary and the 
introduction. Chapter 3 shades a first insight on the developments  of LDCs' trade during the first half 
of 2020 which was characterized by the effects of the COVID -19 pandemic, while Chapter 4 provides 
a description of the recent  annual  trends of LDCs' trade flows  up to 2019 , both in goods and 
commercial services. Chapte r 5 contains information on trends in market access conditions for LDC 
exports, including duty-free market access for LDC products and recent initiatives undertaken by 
Members to improve market access for LDCs, mainly based on Members' notifications. The N ote does 
not attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for LDC 
products. It should therefore be read in conjunction with previous Secretariat notes prepared on this 
topic, to gauge the different factors that determine  market access for LDCs.  
2.3.  Despite improvements in the production of national data, the statistical coverage of LDCs 
remains incomplete. The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available. 
In many instances, it was still necessary to  rely on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs' trading 
partners. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow taking into consideration 
trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non -reporting developing economies.  
2.4.  The definitio n of geographical and other groupings in this report serves only statistical 
purposes; it does not imply an expression of opinion by the Secretariat concerning the status of any 
country or territory, the delimitation of its frontiers, nor the rights and ob ligations of any WTO 
Member in respect of WTO agreements.  
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  3  LDCS'  TRADE DEVELOPMENTS IN  2020  
3.1.  World trade plunged in the first half of 2020  as the global economy was shaken by the 
COVID -19 pandemic. The trade decline touched countries in all regions and at  all levels of 
development, including LDCs.  
3.1  Merchandise Trade  Values  
3.2.  Based on the reported monthly import data of 97 economies2, which includ e the most important 
destination markets of LDCs, the value of LDCs' merchandise exports dropped to levels of 74% 
(April  2020), 59% (May 2020) and 71% (June 2020) in comparison to January 2019 (Chart 1). The 
LDCs registered a larger drop in their exports to these economies than respective exports by the 
world , in particula r in May 2020.  
3.3.  Over the first half of 2020, this has resulted in a decrease in exports of LDCs to these economies 
by 16% year-on-year, compared to a 1 3% decrease of respective world exports.  Also the LDCs' 
imports  decreased  during January -June 2020 , even though the decline of 13% was slightly less 
severe  than for exports  (Annex  Table 1) . Nevertheless, the overall trade deficit of the LDCs improved 
by 7% year -on-year since in absolute terms the decline in import values was higher than that of 
export va lues. 
Chart 1: Imports of 97 economies from World and from LDCs, Jan uary 2019 to Jun e 2020  
(Index  of USD values , January 2019  = 100)  
 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor (importer data) . 
3.4.  In the product level breakdown it shows (Chart 2) that the value of imports of fuels and mining 
products as well as  of manufactures from LDCs dropped most during the COVID -19 pandemic ; the 
97 economies from the reporters sample imported fuels and mining pr oducts from the LDCs for less 
than half of the respective value of January 2019 in May 2020 and for 63% in June  2020. 
Manufactures imports from the LDCs went down by 5 2% in May 2020 compared to January  2019 
and by 44% in June 2020. Imports of agricultural products from the LDCs showed some resilience , 
with levels of 81% in May 2020 and of 88% in June 2020.  
 
2 Albania ; Argentina ; Australia ; Austria ; Bahrain , Kingdom of;  Belarus ; Belgium; Belize ; Plurinational 
State of  Bolivia ; Bosnia and Herzegovina ; Botswana; Brazil ; Brunei Darussalam; Bulgaria ; Canada ; Chile; 
China ; Colombia ;  Costa Rica ; Côte d'Ivoire ; Croatia ; Cyprus ; Czech Republic ; Denmark ; Ecuador ; Egypt ; 
El Salvador ; Estonia ; Ethiopia ; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Guatemala ; Honduras ; Hong Kong , 
China; Hungary ; Iceland ; India; Indonesia ; Ireland ; Israel ; Italy; Japan ; Jordan ; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Korea, 
Republic of; Kosovo; Latvia; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Ma cao, China;  Madagasca r; Malaysia ; Malta ; Mauritius ; 
Mexico ; Montenegro ; Morocco ; Mozambique ; Myanmar ; Namibia ; Netherlands; New Zealand; North Macedonia; 
Norway ; Pakistan ; Panama ; Paraguay ; Peru; Philippines ; Poland ; Portugal ; Qatar ; Romania ; Russia; 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of; Senegal; Serbia; Singapore; Slovak Republic; Slovenia; South Africa; Spain ; 
Sri Lanka ; Sweden ; Switzerland ; Chinese Ta ipei; Thailand; Turkey; Ukraine; United  Kingdom; United States; 
Uruguay; and Zambia.  
100
8997 9610096108
106
9799
879496
9098
74
5971100
89101 100102
95103
9698103
9997
95
8792
767585
5060708090100110120
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6
2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020Index Jan 2019 = 100
Total (LDC) Total (World)WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  Chart 2: Imports of 97 economies from LDCs, Jan uary 2019 to Jun e 2020 , by major 
product group  
(Index  of USD values , January 2019 = 100)  
 
 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor (importer data) . 
3.5.  Chart 3 depicts the  changes in the value of  merchandise imports of the 97 reporters from the 
LDCs during the period of March to June 2020 in comparison to March to June 2019. Clearly, not all 
LDC members have been hit by the same degree by the effects of COVID -19 on world merchandise 
trade. Twelve  out of the 47 LDC members showed even increases in exp orts to the 97 economies 
from the sample, ranging from + 1% (Cambodia ) up to + 239% (Timor -Leste). For Timor -Leste , this 
was mainly resulted from reported imports of butanes and propane by Japan during May and 
June 2020.  Burkina Faso exported especially gold  to Switzerland during this period resulting in high 
export growth . The high export growth of  Comoros was particularly influenced by imports of ships 
by Greece  in June 2020.  On the other hand, 3 5 out of the 47 LDCs showed decreases in their exports 
during these four months of 2020, ranging from  -5% (Central African Republic ) to -91% 
(South  Sudan).  South Sudan experienced strong declines in Chinese imports of fuels.  
3.6.  Annex Table 2 provides additional  information on  the year-on-year change in value of exports 
of LDCs to selected destination markets during March -June 2020. While LDC s' merchandise exports 
to all 97 economies fell by 2 3%, the drop was even larger for their exports to India ( -46%), the 
United  Kingdom  (-32%), China ( -28%), the Europ ean Union ( -28%), the Russian Federation ( -23%) 
and the United States ( -23%).  The decrease in exports was smaller for the markets of Japan ( -19%), 
the Republic of Korea ( -18%), Canada ( -6%) and Thailand ( -6%). The large decrease  in LDCs' 
exports to India was driven by sharp drops in India's imports from Angola ( -52%), 
Burkina  Faso (-83%), Bangladesh ( -61%) and Zambia ( -49%), which had been the top LDC 
exporters to  India during March -June 2019. The table furthermore reveals that t he two largest LDC 
exporters  Angola and Bangladesh experienced sharp contractions in their main markets, i.e. Angola 
saw a 46% decline in exports to  China , and Bangladesh's exports to the European Union dropped by 
30%.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  Chart 3: Imports of 97 economies from LDC s, Mar ch-June 2020 vs. Mar ch-June 2019  
(Year-on-year percentage change ) 
 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor (importer data) . 
Note:  For illustrative purposes, Timor -Leste is excluded as it registered a 239% increase during 
March -June 2020.  
3.7.  Export  values  of agricultural products have dropped relatively less compared to other sectors  
during the pandemic . LDCs' agricultural exports to 9 7 importing economies decreased by 3% 
year-on-year during March -June, and by 1% during the first half of 2020 (Chart 4). Ne vertheless, a 
number of agriculture -dependent LDCs experienced big drops in their exports. For instance, exports 
of Tuvalu  (-80%) , Afghanistan  (-57%) , The Gambia  (-53%) , Guinea -Bissau  (-46%)  and Burundi 
(-43%) dropped by more than 40% during March -June.  On the other hand, a few  LDCs such as 
Tanzania  (+24%) , Rwanda  (+17%) , Niger  (+12%) , Vanuatu  (+10%) , Benin  (+6%) and 
Central  African Republic  (+3%)  registered an increase in their exports of agricultural products  during 
March -June 2020. 
-100% -80% -60% -40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%South SudanTuvaluAfghanistanLiberiaBhutanGambiaTogoGuinea-BissauAngolaHaitiYemenBurundiZambiaNepalLesothoBangladeshMozambiqueMadagascarSudanMalawiSenegalSolomon IslandsBeninKiribatiLaosEthiopiaChadSomaliaDjiboutiSierra LeoneUgandaMyanmarMauritaniaSao Tome and PrincipeCentral African RepublicCambodiaGuineaEritreaVanuatuCongo (DROC)NigerRwandaTanzaniaBurkina FasoMaliComoros
Year -on-year change in %WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  Chart 4: Imports of 97 economies in agricultural  products from selected exporters  
(Year-on-year percentage change ) 
 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor (based on import data of 9 7 economies)  
Note:  Agricultural products accounted for at least 40% of total merchandise exports of selected LDCs to 
the sample of importers in 2019.  For illustrative purposes, Comoros is excluded as it registered a 
130% increase during March -June 2020.  
3.8.  The COVID -19 pandemic aggravated the decline in  energy  prices that had set in at the 
beginning of 2020. The value of LDCs' exports  of fuel and mining p roducts dropped by  a third ( 33%) 
during March -June, and by more than a quarter ( 26%) in the first half of 2020  (Char t 5). During 
March -June, exports of fuels and mining products dropped by 70% or more for South Sudan, Bhutan, 
Togo and Sudan ; by close to 60 % for Yemen; by more than 40% for Liberia and Angola; and by 
30% or more for Zambia, Rwanda  and Mozambique.  
3.9.  The exports of clothing products, which dominate the LDCs' manufacturing  exports, have also 
been hit hard by the pandemic. The value of LDCs' export s of clothing dropped by 2 8% during 
March -June 2020, and by 1 8% in the first half of 2020  (Chart 6) . Nepal  (-58%) has seen the biggest 
decline during March -June, followed by Lesotho and Haiti (each -49%). Madagascar ( -33%) and 
Bangladesh ( -32%), the biggest LDC clothing exporter, saw their exports drop by around a third.  
-80%-70%-60%-50%-40%-30%-20%-10%0%10%20%30%40%
March-June 2020 January-June 2020WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  Chart 5: Imports of 97 economies in fuels and mining products  from selected exporters  
(Year-on-year percentage change ) 
 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor (based on import data of 9 7 economies)  
Note:  Fuels and mining products accounted for at least 30% of total merchandise exports o f selecte d LDCs 
to the sample of importers in 2019 . For illustrative purposes, Timor -Leste  is excluded as it  registered 
a 2,753% increase during March -June 2020.  
 
Chart 6: Imports of 97 economies in clothing products from selected exporters  
(Year-on-year percentage change ) 
 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor (based on import data of 9 7 economies)  
Note:  Clothing products accounted for at least 2% of total merchandise  exports of selected LDCs to the 
sample of importers in 2019.  
-100%-90%-80%-70%-60%-50%-40%-30%-20%-10%0%10%20%30%
March-June 2020 January-June 2020
-70%-60%-50%-40%-30%-20%-10%0%10%20%
World LDCs Nepal Lesotho Haiti Madagascar Bangladesh Cambodia Tanzania Lao People's
Dem. Rep.Myanmar Ethiopia
March-June 2020 January-June 2020WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  3.2  Merchandise Trade Volume and Outlook  
3.10.  In the first half of 2020, t he volume of world merchandise trade as measured by the average 
of exports and imports was down 3.4% year -on-year in the first quarter and 17.2% year -on-year in 
the second. On average, the vol ume of trade was down 10.2% in the first half of the year compared 
to 2019 (Chart  7). 
Chart 7: Merchandise trade volume of least -developed countries, 2005Q1 -2020Q2  
(Volume indices, 2005Q1=100)  
 
Source:  WTO and UNCTAD.  
 
3.11.  Monthly statistics indicate that merchandise trade bottomed out in May before rebounding in 
June and July. Despite a partial recovery in June, the 14.3% quarter -on-quarter drop in the volume 
of world trade in Q2 was the largest on record. By comparison, tr ade only fell 10.2% in the first 
quarter of 2009, at the height of the financial crisis. Peak -to-trough declines  were similar in both 
episodes ( -17.6% during the financial crisis and -17.5% during the COVID -19 outbreak). Overall, 
both trade slumps are of s imilar magnitude, but the fall during the pandemic was more abrupt.  
3.12.  Contractions in volumes of LDC exports and imports in the first half of 2020 have only been 
slightly smaller than the overall decline in world trade. The volume of merchandise exports of L DCs 
was down 14.2% year -on-year in the second quarter, while the volume of LDC imports fell 14.7%. 
In the first half of the year, LDC export volumes were down 8.1% compared to 2019, while LDC 
imports were 7.7% lower.  As shown  in the previous section, the drop in LDCs' exports was larger in 
value terms  (-16% to 97 economies) , which mainly reflected  the decline in  energy prices (gas and 
oil) in the first half of 2020.  
3.13.  The performance of LDC exports during the COVID -19 pandemic resembles their record during 
the financial crisis, but the behaviour of LDC imports has been markedly different. The volume of 
LDC merchandise exports fell 14.2% from peak to trough in 2019 -20 compared to 17.9% in 2008 -09. 
The volume of LDC imports also fell sharply during the pandemic (-15.7% peak -to-trough), although 
they only registered a small decline during the financial crisis ( -4.0%).  The divergent performance 
of LDC exports and imports may be partly explained by the fact that  financial crisis was mostly a 
demand -side shock while the pandemic hit both the demand and supply sides of the global economy. 
Demand -side effects include reduced consumption and investment while supply constraints were 
mostly in the form of lockdowns and travel restrictions.   
 
 80100120140160180200220240260280300
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Exports Imports World tradeWT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  3.14.  The WTO recently issued an upd ated trade forecast (6 October 2020), which documented 
signs of a rebound in world trade while cautioning that recovery remains uncertain (Table 1). The 
organization now expects a 9.2% decline in the volume of world merchandise trade in 2020, followed 
by a 7.2% rise in 2021. Market -weighted real GDP growth is expected to shrink by 4.8% in 2020 
before growing 4.9% in 2021. The projected trade decline for the current year is less than the 12.9% 
drop foreseen in the more optimistic of two scenarios explored in  WTO's April trade forecast, but 
more negative outcomes are still possible if COVID -19 resurges strongly in the coming months.  
3.15.  The most recent WTO trade forecast did not include projections for LDCs, but aggregate export 
growth of these countries can be d erived based on the expected evolution of global demand. If 
current GDP projections are realised, LDCs ' export  volumes  could see a 6.8% decline in 2020, 
followed by a 7.6% rebound in 2021. Like the forecast for world trade, these estimates are subject 
to a high degree of uncertainty since they depend to a large extent on the evolution of the pandemic. 
Outcomes could be worse if the number of COVID cases and deaths continues to rise. However, 
there is also some upside potential, notably if an effective vacci ne can be made available in the near 
future. Overall, risks to the outlook are considered to be mostly on the downside.  
3.16.  It should be noted that the trade volume indices and forecasts do not cover services trade, 
which has been more negatively affected by t he pandemic than merchandise trade. Reduced 
spending on services, particularly in travel -related sectors, may have left consumers with unspent 
income that could be redirected toward purchases of goods. This may partly explain the 
smaller -than-expected decl ine in merchandise trade in the first half of 2020.  
Table 1: Merchandise trade volume and real GDP at market exchange rates, 2012 -2021  
(Annual percentage change, %)  
 
  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  
Merchandise trade volume  
World (average of 
exports and imports)  2.5 2.7 2.5 2.3 1.4 4.7 2.9 -0.1 -9.2 7.2 
LDCs (exports)  0.9 6.7 1.5 1.9 5.6 7.2 4.1 -0.4 -6.8 7.6 
Real GDP at market exchange rates  
World  2.3 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.4 3.1 2.8 2.2 -4.8 4.9 
LDCs 4.4 5.5 5.9 3.7 3.9 4.9 5.0 4.8 -0.4 2.9 
Source : WTO Secretariat for trade, consensus estimates for GDP.  
Note:   2020 and 2021 are projections.  
3.3  Services trade  
3.17.  According to preliminary Secretariat estimates, LDCs' services exports declined by around 
13-15% in the first quarter and by 60 -65% in the second quarter, resulting in a year-on-year drop 
of around 38 -40% in the first half of 2020. The sharp decline in ove rall services exports was driven 
by a slump in  LDCs'  travel exports , which have dropped by 28 -30% in the  first quarte r and by 
90-92% in the second quarter , resulting in a 58 -60% year -on-year drop i n the first half of 2020 . 
These estimates might be subject to revision as new statistics become available.  
3.18.  Travel restrictions implemented globally to fight the spread of COVID -19 significantly affect 
the ability of LDCs to export services. While international travel is vulnerable to local shocks such as 
natural disasters, political unrest, and health -related concerns, the COVID -19 pandemic is different 
from other health -related crises that hit LDCs in the past. It affects directly also outbound tourism . 
According to the UN  World Tourism Organization (UN WTO), global international tourist arrivals 
decrease d by 25 % year-on-year in the  first quarter of 2020 and dropped 95% in the second quarter 
following suspension of international flights and worldwide lockdown measures.  
 
 
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  3.19.  In Cambodia , the leading travel exp orter among the LDCs, international tourist arrivals 
contracted on average by 65% in the first half of 2020, with arrivals from China, the top source 
market , down 79%. Tourist inflows however remained largely intra -regional  (74% of total arrivals ), 
with China continu ing to account for the largest share  of arrivals  (23.3% from 47.4% in the same 
period of 2019), followed by Vietnam (15.2%), Thailand (13.6%), the Republic of Korea (4.4%), 
Japan (3.4%), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (2.9%). Other main so urce countries were the 
United States (4.5%), United Kingdom (3.7%), France (3.5%), and Germany (2.3%).3 International 
business travel fell also 71%. Almost two -thirds of this smaller segment also originates from China. 
In July, international tourist arri vals to Cambodia were still 96% down compared with July 2019.  
3.20.  Myanmar,  the second largest travel recipient, saw international visitor arrivals drop 66% 
year-on-year during  January -July 2020.4 Tourist arrivals from China, the main source country with 
a share of 37%, fell 72%, while arrivals from Japan and Thailand were both down 63%. Arrivals from 
Asia, making up for 84% of tourist arrivals in 2019, declined by 68% in the first seven months of 
the year. In the same period visitors from Europe, with a share of 9.5%, contracted by 45%.  
3.21.  LDCs in Asia were among the first to be affected by travel restrictions. In the first quarter, 
travel exports were already down 34% in Cambodia, 42% in Myanmar, and  37% in Bhutan, 
somewhat less in Bangladesh, Nepal, Timor -Leste and Lao People's Democratic Republic  (Chart 8) . 
Exports declined sharply in the second quarter in Cambodia ( -97%). For a country that relies for 
20% of its GDP on foreign travellers' expenditu re, the impact is devastating. Although official 
statistics are not available yet for Myanmar, the estimated drop in travel receipts in the second 
quarter is expected to be in similar range as arrivals were down on average by 99% between April 
and July. Af ghanistan was an exception, recording an increase in the second quarter of  2020.  
Chart 8: Travel exports in selected LDCs in Asia, Q1 -Q2 2020  
(Year -on-year percentage change)  
 
Source:  IMF and national data. Economies are ranked o n the basis of the share of travel exports in total 
services exports in 2019.  
 
3.22.  To a large extent, the recovery of tourism in LDCs in Asia will depend on  the ability to fight 
the virus internally, just like for any other country, and on neighbouring Asian e conomies' propensity 
to travel abroad , as well as the lifting of travel restrictions . On a positive note, monthly data show 
that China's and the Republic of Korea's travel imports had their low point in May 2020 and started 
to rebound  during June -August  2020 (Chart 9) .  
3.23.  By contrast, in Australia, a major tourism source market for LDCs islands in the Pacific, such 
as Vanuatu (52% in 2019) and the Solomon Islands (37%) , travel imports were flat, similarly to 
Japan.  
 
3 Cambodia Ministry of Tourism "Tourism Statistics Report June 2020.  
4 Myanm ar, Ministry of Hotels and Tourism www. tourism.gov.mm . 
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  Chart 9: China, Republic of Korea, Japan, and Australia – Travel imports, August 2018 - 
August 2020  
(Volume indices, 2005Q1=100)  
 
 
Source: National data.  
 
3.24.   Tourism is also mainly intra -regional  for LDCs in Africa , accounting on average for at least  
65% of all arrivals. However, Europe an tourists , whose travel -related spending is higher,  represent 
an important share  for several LDCs, i.e. one third of total arrivals in T anzania , almost half in 
Madagascar and two -thirds in Comoros. Following travel and transport restrictions and lockdown 
measures, foreign tourist arrivals to LDCs in Africa dropped. The UNWTO estimates a n overall decline  
of 11.7% for the first quarter and 99.5% for the second quarter for Sub -Saharan A frica.  
3.25.  Only a limited number of African LDCs disseminate data  on travel exports on a short -term 
basis but available statistics confirm the ravaging impact of COVID -19 on tourism and services 
exports overall . In Q2, travel exports were nil in Uganda following border closures, down 99% in 
Sudan, 98% in Angola, 92% in Sao Tomé and Principe and 76% in Zambia  (Chart 10) .  
Chart 10: Travel exports in selected LDCs in Africa, Q1 -Q2 2020  
(Year-on-year change ) 
 
Source:  IMF and national data. Economies are ranked on the basis of the share of travel exports in total 
services exports in 2019.  
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  3.26.  In Tanzania , overall services exports declined by 26% year -on-year in the period January -
August 2020 as tr avel receipts dropped 36%. T ravel receipts were still down 84% year-on-year in 
August .5 In Uganda, between May and August services exports declined on average by 71%. While 
goods exports from the country rebounded quickly in June, services continued to la g behind through 
August  (Chart 11) .  
Chart 11: Uganda's services and goods exports, August 2019 - August 2020  
(Million US dollars)  
 
Source:  Balance of payments, Bank of Uganda.  
 
3.27.  For LDCs  in Africa, which depend on European tourist inflows, the outlook for the tourism 
sector is bleak. As travel restrictions were gradually eased in May and June in Europe, travellers 
largely opted for domestic tourism or intra -regional travel. The resurgence  of COVID -19 cases in 
Europe in August has put long -haul international travel on hold again.  
3.28.  As a result of declines in global travel demand, air transport operators in LDCs are suffering 
losses. According to the International Air Transport Association (I ATA), global revenues from air 
passenger transport will drop by 66% in 2020. Consumer sentiment towards air travel did not 
improve in recent months  and forward booking for the last quarter of 2020 were down 78% 
year-on-year.6 Uncertainty regarding quarant ines in other countries in an effort to contain the virus 
are affecting airlines.  
3.29.  Services trade data for the second quarter of 2020 are not yet available for Ethiopia, the 
leading LDC transport exporter (a 32% share in LDCs' transport exports in 2019). H owever, its 
national airline lost US D 550 million just from January to April due to the C OVID -19 outbreak . Built 
on the strategy of connecting Africa to the world, the airline has reconverted to domestic and regional 
flights , repatriation flights,  and to cargo, like most airlines worldwide .  
3.30.  At present, a ir freight rates are 40-50% above their usual levels. Cargo has been essential to 
ship rapidly PPE (Personal Protection Equipment) and other medical products during the pandemic. 
IATA estimates that cargo will contribute 26% of global airline industry revenue in 2020, up from 
12% in 2019.  Nevertheless, intern ational belly capacity is still scarce, and airlines have not been 
able to increase freighters capacity. Additional air cargo demand could come from e -commerce and 
the need to rapidly distribute a vaccine.7 This offers export opportunities also for LDCs. For example, 
in Tanzania a new airfreight operator was recently set up to satisfy increasing cargo demand. This is 
expected also to increase goods trade and cut transportation costs especially for perishable products. 
Airplane belly capacity is often limit ed due to passenger transport in the peak season, while in the 
low season more expensive transport solution have to be found due to the reduced number of flights.8  
 
5 Bank of Tanzania "Monthly Economic Review 2020"  
6 IATA, "Covid  19 - Downgrade for global air travel outlook", report of the Chief Economist, 29 
September 2020.  
7 IATA, Chart of the week: Air cargo not keeping up with export orders, 2 October 2020"  
8 The Citizen, " New air cargo carrier set to intensify competition " https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/  2 July 
2020.  
050100150200250300350400450Million US dollarsServices GoodsWT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  3.31.  Finding new opportunities in services exports is essential for LDCs. The C OVID -19 pandemic  
has further stressed the LDCs' services sector dependency on foreign travellers' movement and 
expenditure. According to the UNWTO, the recovery of international tourism to 2019 levels is not 
expected before two-and-a-half to four  years . Many local busines ses in LDCs, predominantly MSMEs, 
will struggle to survive .  
3.32.  Notwithstanding the downturn of travel and transport services, s ome LDCs had  registered 
positive growth in information technology and business services . Bangladesh saw its computer 
services expor ts increase by 13% and 10% in the first and second quarter of 2020. Uganda's exports 
of ICT services, essentially computer services, rose 96% and 39% in quarter one and quarter two.  
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  4  LDCS'  TRADE PROFILE  2019  
4.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  
4.1.  LDC exp orts of goods and services increased at an average annual rate of 1.3% between 
2011-2019, slightly less than the exports of other developing economies (+1.5% per year). During 
2014 to 2016, low energy prices had a negative impact on LDCs' exports of goods,  while LDC exports 
of services showed a more stable development during this period (Chart 12). 
Chart 12: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 20 11-2019 
(Index, 20 11 = 100; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
4.2.  In 2019, LDC exports of goods and commercial services declined by 1.5% compared to 2018, 
reaching a nominal value of USD  236.2  billion. The LDCs' imports grew by 3.6%  to USD 336.3  billion  
(see Table  2). After two years (2017 to 2018) of positive  developments, LDCs' exports went back to 
negative growth in 2019, though at a lower rate than during 2015 and 2016. The negative growth 
was due to the negative development of goods exports ( -3.7% in 2019), while commercial services 
exports registered a st rong increase (+9.6% in 2019). In nominal terms, goods exports continue 
dominating services exports. LDC commercial services exports reached a value of USD  43.4 billion 
in 2019, which represented a share of only 18% of LDC goods and commercial services exp orts, up 
from 17% in 2018.  
Table 2: Trends in LDC  exports of goods and commercial services , 2011-2019 
(Billion US dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)  
  Value ( USD bn) Annual percentage change (%)  
  2011 2018  2019  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2011 -
2019  
 Exports  
Total goods and commercial services  213.1  239.8  236.2  0.0 -18.8 -2.5 13.2 13.3 -1.5 1.3 
Goods  187.4  200.2  192.8  -1.4 -21.2 -2.5 14.5 13.1 -3.7 0.4 
Commercial services  25.7 39.6 43.4 9.2 -5.0 -2.8 6.9 14.2 9.6 6.8 
 Imports  
Total goods and commercial services  253.6  338.5  336.3  7.5 -9.9 -5.8 9.6 10.6 -0.7 3.6 
Goods 187.2  266.8  269.8  7.0 -8.0 -4.8 10.6 11.5 1.1 4.7 
Commercial services  66.4 71.7 66.5 8.8 -15.5 -9.2 6.1 7.4 -7.3 0.0 
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
 
4.3.  LDCs' overall trade deficit deteriorate d from USD 99 billion in 201 8 to USD 100 billion in 201 9. 
Imports exceeded exports by USD 77.0 billion  in the case of goods , and by USD  23.0 billion in the 
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  case of commercial services (Chart 13). LDCs' 201 9 trade deficit was more than two times higher 
than in 20 11 (USD 40.5 billion), when the trade balance of goods was slightly positive . 
Chart 13: LDCs' total trade balance, 20 11, 2018  and 201 9 
(Billion US dollars; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
4.4.  Chart 14 shows developments in the volume of merchandise trade for LDCs  and other 
economies to give a picture of the physical level of trade.  LDC merchandise exports fell by 1.1% in 
volume terms  in 201 9, while merchandise imports increased by 2.8%. Thus, LDCs' exports fell less 
in volume terms than in value terms ( -3.1%), and  imports increased more in volume terms than in 
value (+0.9%) – reflecting  the impact of price developments on the nominal trade figures of LDCs' 
merchandise trade. In comparison to 2011, both export  and import  volume s increased by more than 
1.5 times. LDC s' total trade volume (turnover, i.e. exports plus imports) increased by 1. 3% in 201 9 
while the volume of total trade of other developing economies decreased by 4.0%. 
Chart 14: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and dev eloping economies, 
2011-2019 
(Indices, 2011 = 100)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD.  
4.5.  The development of the LDCs' share in world exports from 20 11 to 2019 is shown in Chart 15. 
The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services increased slightly, from 0.9 5% 
-40.7-32.1-23.00.2
-66.6
-77.0
-90-80-70-60-50-40-30-20-100102011 2018 2019Billion US dollars
Commercial services Goods
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  in 201 8 to 0.9 6% in 201 9. However, the share was still below the levels of 201 3 and 2014, and only 
slightly higher than in 2011 . In comparison to 201 8, the sh are of exports of commercial services 
went up  markedly – from 0.67% to 0.72% - while the share of  goods remained at the same level as 
in 2018 (1.04%). The overall increase of LDCs' share in world exports in 2019 was thus solely linked 
to the positive trend  in commercial services' exports.  
Chart 15: LDCs' shares in world exports, 20 11-2019 
(Percentage shares; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
4.6.  Table 3 shows t he respective shares  for total trade, exports and i mports for all years since 
2011 – including the values for world and LDC trade used for the calculation of the shares.  
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 21 - Table 3: LDCs and world trade in go ods and commercial services, 20 11-2019 
(Billion US dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)   
Value ( USD bn) Annual 
percentage  
change  
 2011 2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2011 -2019 
Total trade in goods and commercial 
servicesa         
   
   World  22,054 22,420 23,062 23,498 20,908 20,490 22,589 24,783 24,355 1.2 
   LDC 467 497 542 565 488 466 518 578 573 2.6 
     Share in world  1.06 1.11 1.18 1.21 1.17 1.14 1.15 1.17 1.18 ... 
Total trade in goods  a         
  
   World  17,738 17,965 18,332 18,400 16,049 15,569 17,259 19,006 18,457 0.5 
   LDC 375 400 435 448 386 371 416 467 463 2.7 
     Share in world  1.06 1.11 1.19 1.22 1.20 1.19 1.21 1.23 1.26 ... 
Total trade in commercial services  a         
  
   World  4,315 4,455 4,730 5,098 4,859 4,921 5,330 5,777 5,898 4.0 
   LDC 92 98 107 117 103 95 101 111 110 2.2 
     Share in world  1.08 1.10 1.14 1.15 1.06 0.98 0.96 0.97 0.94 ... 
Goods exports          
  
   World  17,979 18,237 18,642 18,674 16,236 15,752 17,475 19,185 18,629 0.4 
   LDC 187 191 204 201 159 155 177 200 193 0.4 
     Share in world  1.04 1.05 1.09 1.08 0.98 0.98 1.01 1.04 1.04 ... 
Commercial services exports          
  
   World  4,390 4,519 4,819 5,170 4,930 5,018 5,451 5,949 6,066 4.1 
   LDC 26 28 32 35 33 32 35 40 43 6.8 
     Share in world  0.59 0.63 0.67 0.68 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.67 0.72 ... 
Goods imports          
  
   World  17,498 17,693 18,023 18,127 15,862 15,386 17,044 18,827 18,285 0.6 
   LDC 187 208 231 247 227 216 239 267 270 4.7 
     Share in world  1.07 1.18 1.28 1.36 1.43 1.41 1.40 1.42 1.48 ... 
Commercial services imports          
  
   World  4,240 4,390 4,641 5,027 4,788 4,824 5,208 5,605 5,731 3.8 
   LDC 66 69 75 82 69 63 67 72 66 0.0 
     Share in world  1.57 1.58 1.62 1.63 1.45 1.30 1.28 1.28 1.16 ... 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world exports and imports , according to the BOP presentation (BPM 6) . Total LDC  trade in this table is 
approximated as the sum of their exports and imports. Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the corresponding worl d exports plus imports.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  4.2  Merchandise Trade Developments9 
4.2.1   Overall trend  
4.7.  LDCs' m erchandise exports rose from USD 189 billion in 20 11 to USD 190 billion in 201 9 
(Chart  16), corresponding to an average annual increase  of 0.1% (compar ed to  0.3% for World 
exports ). In 201 9, LDCs'  exports , partly due to a  distinct decrease in  prices for fuels and mining 
products , fell by 3.1% compared to 2018, while world exports declined by only 2.7%.  Merchandise 
imports of  the LDCs increased by 0.9% .  
Chart 16: Merchandise trade of LDCs , 2011-2019 
(Billion US dollars and percentages)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD  estimates . 
4.8.  The share of LDCs in world  merchandise  exports remained above 1% in 2019 , declin ing slightly  
from 1.04% in 2018 to 1.03% in 2019  (Chart 16). The share of  imports grew from 1.41% in 2018 
to 1.46% in 2019. Among developing economies, the LDCs' sh are of exports remained stable at 
2.39%, while it increased  for imports (from 3.4 1% in 201 8 to 3.56% in 201 9). In manufacturing, 
the LDCs continued their positive trend, as their share  in world exports of manufactures increased 
from 0.5 5% in 201 8 to 0.5 9% in 201 9.  
4.9.  In 2019, t he merchandise trade deficit of LDCs increased from USD 76 billion in 2018 to 
USD 85 billion  but still remained below the record deficit of 2015 ( USD 89 billion –Chart 17). The 
deficit in 201 9 was mainly due to a decrease in LDC oil exporters' trade surplus (from USD 12 billion 
in 2018 to USD 6 billion in 2019) a s well as  an increase in the deficit of LDC exporters of non-fuel 
minerals  (USD 10 billion in 201 9 versus USD 7 billion in 201 8). The deficits of agricul ture and 
manufactures exporters stood at around the same levels as in 2018.  
4.10.  The economies with the highest trade surpluses in 2019 were Angola (+ USD 20.6 billion), the 
Democratic Republic of the Congo (+ USD 0.6 billion) and Chad (+ USD 0.5 billion), while t he LDCs 
with the highest trade deficits were Bangladesh ( -USD 19.8 billion), Ethiopia ( -USD 11.8 billion) and 
Nepal ( -USD 11.3 billion).  
 
9 It should be noted that the definition of goods trade in merchandise trade statistics, which is mostly 
based on customs records, differs slightly from goods trade as m easured in the balance of payments. 
Differences between Balance of Payments (BOP) (BPM6) and International Merchandise Trade Statistics are 
explained in the International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 (IMTS 2010), 
Chapter XXIV Section B "Goods to be recorded differently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" (p.  250).  
(http://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/publications/seriesf_87Rev1_e_cover.pdf ). 
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  Chart 17: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs , 2011-2019 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
4.11.  Three out of five LDC exporter categories (Chart 18) recorded positive export growth in 2019, 
namely "other LDCs" (Djibouti, Senegal and Tuvalu; +8.9%), LDC exporters of agriculture (+3.5%) 
and LDC exporters of manufactures (+2.9%) . In co ntrast, exports declined for  LDC exporters of 
non-fuel minerals (-8.9% ) and LDC oil exporters ( -7.0%) . Annex Table 3 provides details on the 
value and growth of exports and imports for individual LDCs.  
Chart 18: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub-grouping , 2011-2019 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
4.2.2   Commodity price movements  
4.12.  Exchange rates and commodity prices strongly influence nominal d ollar values of international 
trade flows . As Chart 19 shows , the upward trend of energy price s of the two preceding years came 
to a halt in 2019. In 2019, energy prices dropped by 17.3% compared to 2018. Also, prices of 
agricultural raw materials ( -5.4%) and food and beverages ( -3.1%) dropped in 2019. Only minerals 
and non -ferrous metals increased in terms of prices (+6.8%).  
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  4.13.  The price levels of all product groups remained under the level s of 2011 . In 2019, p rices of 
food and beverages reached 78% of the level of 2011, while prices for minerals and non-ferrous 
metals  stood at  73% of 2011's  level. In the case of agricultural raw materials and  energy , price 
levels were even lower, at  65% and 60% of the ir respective 2011 levels. Annex Table 4 provides 
trends in prices of commodities at a more disaggrega ted level.  
Chart 19: Export prices of primary commodities, 2011-2019 
(Indices, 20 11 = 100)  
 
Source:  IMF. 
4.2.3   Major LDC traders  
4.14.  The top ten individual merchandise exporters and importers of the LDCs for both 2011 and 
2019 are shown in Chart 20. While Angola was the top LDC exporter in both 2011 and 2018, it was 
overtaken by Bangladesh in 2019. Angola's share in 2011 was more than 3 5% but fell to 18% in 
2019. Bangladesh's share increased from almost 13% in 2011 to almost 21% in 2019.  Also, 
Myanmar (9%) and Cambodia (8%), which were on third and fourth place in 2019, have seen their 
shares in LDC merchandise exports increase significa ntly since 2011. While the top ten exporters 
represented more than 80% of LDCs' exports in 2011, this share went down to around 74% in 
2019 – a slight decrease in terms of country concentration among the LDCs.  
4.15.  In 201 1, the three leading importers were Bang ladesh (share of 1 8%), Angola (10%) and 
Yemen  (6%). Eight years later , the top three consisted of Bangladesh ( 22%), Cambodia (8%) and 
Myanmar (7%) . Almost two thirds (6 4%) of LDC  merchandise  imports in 201 9 were covered by the  
top ten importers (up from 63% in 20 11). Hence, the country concentration for imports is not as 
high as for exports . 
4.16.  Among the top 15 LDC exporters (in terms of export value), the highest growth in exports in 
2019 was recorded by Tanzania  (+23%), Cambodia  (+16%) and Senegal (+15%). The highest 
declines were observed for  the Democratic Republic of the Congo  (-37%), Zambia ( -22%) and 
Angola ( -15%).  
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  Chart 20: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 20 11 and 201 9 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
4.2.4   Trends in product composition  and concentration  of LDCs  
4.17.  Chart 21 depicts t he evolution in the commodity mix of the LDCs between 20 11 and 2019. 
The share of primary products in total exports of LDCs decreased from 58% in 201 8 to 53% in 
2019 – due to the lower  value of fuel exports  – and remained  distinctly under the respective share 
in 201 1 (73%) .10 The share of manufactured products increased from  22% in 20 11 to 40% in 201 9. 
This was mainly due to a higher share of clothing products in LDC merchandise exports, which 
increased from 1 3% in 2011 to 29% in 2019. The share of agricultural products (agricultural raw 
materials and food) in LDC exports increased from 10% in 20 11 to 13% in 201 9. 
 
10 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product and destination compiled 
according to the United Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this 
classification, diamonds and non -monetary gold are not part of mineral products  – as opposed to the 
Harmonized System (HS) . As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product in total LDC s' exports derived 
from the LDC network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products presented in the annex  
of this report.  
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  Chart 21: Evolution of merchandise export structure  of LDCs , 2011 and 201 9 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source : WTO Secretariat (20 11), WTO estimates based on Trade Data Monitor  (2019). 
4.18.  The top ten products – and their respective shares – exported by LDCs between 20 11 and 
2019 are shown in Chart 22 (Annex Table 6 provides statistics on the top 50 export products). Back 
in 201 1, petroleum products (HS 27.09, 27.11 and 27.10) clearly dominated exports with a share 
of half (50%) of LDC  merchandise  exports. In 201 9, these three products accounted for only slightly 
less than one  quarter (2 4%) of LDC exp orts. While crude petroleum (HS  27.09) was still the top 
export product, petroleum gases and other gaseous hydrocarbons  (HS 27.11) fell from the second 
position in 201 1 down to position s even in 201 9. Petroleum oils, othe r than crude, (HS 27.10) was 
not even in the top ten products anymore in 2019 (position eight in 201 1, position 31 in 201 9). At 
the same time, the share of clothing products within the top ten increased from 1 0% in 20 11 to 
18% in 201 9. 
4.19.  In 201 1, gold was in fifth position with a share of 2. 9% in LDC exports, eight years later i t 
had jumped  to the third position, increas ing its share to 4.2%. Refined copper (HS 74.03) fell from 
the third position in 201 1 (share of 3. 5%) down to the eighth  positio n in 201 9 (share of 2.7%). 
Unrefined coppe r (HS 74.02) increased its share from 1 .2% in 201 1 to 2.7% in 201 9 and moved 
from the tenth  position in 201 1 up to the ninth position in 201 9. 
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  Chart 22: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 20 11 and 201 9 
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)   
 
Source:  UN Comtrade database (201 1), Trade Data Monitor (201 9); mirror data.  
4.2.5   Major markets of LDCs  
4.20.  Table 4 shows LDCs' top ten markets by produc t groups for both 20 11 and 2019 
(Annex  Table  5 shows trade statistics for a greater number of destination markets). China  was the 
top destination for total LDC merchandise exports both in  2011 (share of 2 6%) and 2019 (share of 
28%) , followed  by the European Union (27)  with a share of 22% in 2019.11 The top ten importers 
accounted for 8 4.5% of LDCs' total exports  in 201 9, more than  in 201 1 (83.4%). 
4.21.  In 2019, China was the main destination of LDCs' exports  of agricultural products (share of 
21% in LDCs ' exports of this product) as well as fuels and mining products (share of 57%), while 
the European Union (27) was the main importer for LDCs ' exports of manufactures (share of 37%). 
The European Union (27) was the second -most important destination for agricultural products and 
fuels and mining products. The United States was the top third destination market for overall LDC 
exports (share of 10%) and the top two destination for manufactured goods exports (share of 20%).  
The United Kingdom accounted for almost 5% of LDC exports of manufactures (top 3 destination for 
 
11 It should be noted that for analytical purposes, the description of trade trends distinguishes between 
the European Union (27) and the United Kingdom.  
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  this product). India was on third position regarding LDC exports of agricultural products and of fuels 
and mining products. T he top ten destinations acco unted for 79.0% of LDC exports of agricultural 
products in 201 9, for 92.7% of LDC exports of fuels and mining products and for 85.7% of exports 
of manufactures.  
Table 4: LDCs ' top ten export markets , 2011 and 2019 
(Billion US dollar s and percentage shares)  
 Total trade  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining 
products  Manufactures  
 Value ( USD bn) 2011 China  51.0 EU (2 7) 5.5 China  46.5 EU (2 7) 17.2 
EU (2 7) 36.5 China  3.1 USA 18.6 USA 9.4 
USA 28.8 India 2.7 EU (2 7) 13.4 United Kingdom  3.7 
India 12.1 Viet Nam  1.1 India 8.1 Canada  1.8 
United Arab 
Emirates  6.8 Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom  of 1.0 Chinese Taipei  6.0 China  1.4 
Thailand  6.5 Japan  0.7 Thailand  5.7 Japan  1.4 
Chinese Taipei  6.2 USA 0.7 Japan  3.1 India 1.3 
Japan  5.3 Indonesia  0.7 South Africa  3.0 Congo  1.1 
United Kingdom  5.1 Thailand  0.7 Canada  2.6 Turkey  1.0 
Canada  4.9 United Kingdom  0.5 Korea, Rep. of  2.0 United Arab 
Emirates  0.7 
Top 10 markets  163.2 Top 10 markets  16.7 Top 10 markets  108.9 Top 10 markets  39.0 
All markets*  195.6  All markets*  23.3 All markets*  119.7  All markets*  46.1 
Share of top 10:  83.4% Share of top 10:  71.6% Share of top 10:  91.0% Share of top 10:  84.6%   Value ( USD bn) 2019 China  53.6 China  5.5 China  43.1 EU (27)  28.3 
EU (27)  42.3 EU (27)  4.9 EU (27)  8.8 USA 15.8 
USA 18.7 India 3.4 India 6.6 United Kingdom  4.8 
India 13.6 Vietnam  1.5 Thailand  5.6 Japan  4.7 
Thailand  9.5 USA 1.2 South Africa  1.5 China  3.2 
Japan  6.3 Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom  of 1.1 USA 1.4 Canada  3.1 
Switzerland  6.3 Thailand  1.1 Namibia  1.3 India 2.2 
United Kingdom  5.3 Japan  0.8 Korea, Rep. of  1.1 Russian 
Federation  1.4 
Canada  3.5 Kenya  0.6 Japan  0.8 Korea, Rep. of  1.3 
Singapore  3.2 Pakistan  0.5 Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom  of 0.5 Thailand  1.2 
Top 10 markets  162.3 Top 10 markets  20.7 Top 10 markets  70.6 Top 10 markets  66.0 
All markets*  192.0  All markets*  26.2 All markets*  76.1 All markets*  77.1 
Share of top 10:  84.5%  Share of top 10:  79.0%  Share of top 10:  92.8% Share of top 10:  85.6% 
* Aggregated export value s for all markets  may not coincide with total trade figures reported by LDCs.  
Source:  UN Comtrade  for 2011 , Trade Data Monitor (importer data)  for 2019 . 
 
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  4.3  Services Trade Developments  
4.3.1   Overall trend  
4.22.  In 2019, LDCs ' exports of commercial services increased by almost 10% to USD 43.4 billion, 
continuing the positive trend from 2018 (+14 %) and 2017 (+7%)  (Chart 23). Since 2011, LDCs' 
services exports growth has been more rapid than in the rest of the world. As a result , the LDCs' 
share in global services exports increased  from 0.59% in 2011  to 0.72% in 2019.  Annex  Table 7 
provides trends in exports and imports of commercial services for individual LDCs.  
Chart 23: LDCs' exports of commercial servi ces, 2011 -2019 
(Annual percentage change and b illion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates in cooperation with ITC and UNSD.  
4.23.  Chart 24 shows the trend in LDCs' exports by commercial services category. Transport exports 
rose by 6% to US D 11 billion in 2019, reflecting swift growth not only in Ethiopia (+9%) , the LDCs' 
largest transport exporter, but also in Mozambique (+26%), The Gambia (+26%), and Cambodia 
(+15%) . The LDCs' contribution to global transport exports exceeded  1%. Air transpo rt, mainly of 
passengers, account ed for 40% of LDC's transport exports  in 2019 . 
4.24.  Travel  exports, covering foreign t ourists' expenditure in goods and services during their stay 
in LDCs, expanded by 7%, reaching US D 20.8 billion  in 2019. Travel remains  the leading service 
export sector for LDCs (4 7.9% of total commercial services), with a share in world exports of 1.4 %. 
Tourism in LDCs is predominantly intra -regional. In 2019, dynamic growth was recorded in Cambodia 
(+13%),  the main exporter, as well as in Uga nda (+12%), Zambia (+10%) , Malawi (+11%),  
Bangladesh (+10%) and in other countries . According to preliminary estimates , Myanmar's travel 
exports increased by over 50%.  
4.25.  In 2019, LDCs' exports of other commercial services  increased by 12%, compared to a growth 
rate of 3% in the rest of the world, to  reach USD 9.6 billion . LDCs' contribution to global exports of 
other commercial services rose from 0.26% in 2018 to 0.29%  in 2019 . Growth was led also in 2019 
by LDCs  in Asia  which saw an increase of 18% in their exports. In LDC islands, growth slowed to 1% 
while in LDCs in Africa, other commercial services exports recovered , rising by 16% in 2019 after a 
2% decline in 2018. At the sub -sectoral level, LDCs' highest participation  in world exports were in 
construction (1.06%) , for the first time exceeding 1%, telecommunications, computer and 
information services (0.36%), and other business services (0.33%). Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal 
and Senegal were the main exporters accounting t ogether for 53.1% of the group's exports of other 
commercial services in 2019.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  Chart 24: LDCs' exports of commercial services by category, 2011 -2019 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD  estimates in cooperation with ITC and UNS D. 
4.26.  In 2019, e xports of LDCs in Africa continued to account for around half of LDCs' total 
commercial services exports , while the eight LDCs in Asia accounted for 44.9% . Exports of LDCs in 
Africa expanded by 3% but lagged behind LDCs in Asia (Chart 25) which  continued to lead growth 
(+22%). In  LDC islands, following a 12% growth in 2018, services exports contracted by 7% in 
2019 due to a decline of travel exports ( -12%),  the most important export sector.  
Chart 25: LDCs' exports o f commercial services by LDC region, 2011 -2019 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  4.27.  In 2019, LDCs' s ervices exports  remained  concentrated within a few economies (Chart  26). 
Myanmar  was the largest exporter , with a 15.5% share, followed by Cambodia (13.9%) and Ethiopia 
(10.4%). T he top ten leading exporters accounted for 7 3.3% of the group's services receipts , almost 
a 7 percentage points increase in comparison to 2011 . The share of other LDCs in total exports 
declined from 33.5% in 2011 to 26.7% in 2019, indicating that an increasing number of LDCs face 
challenges in integrating in global services markets.  
Chart 26: Leading LDC exporters of commercial services, 201 9 and 2011  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates  in cooperation with ITC and UNSD . 
 
  
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  5  MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
5.1  Duty -free market access granted by selected Members  
5.1.  Table 5 provides statistics on duty -free market access accorded to LDCs by selected Members  
that have mostly  notified LDC preference schemes to the WTO.  The LDC schemes of Australia, New 
Zealand, Norway  and Switzerland provide full duty-free access to their benefi ciaries. For Canada, 
Chile, the E uropean Union and Japan, more than 97% of their tariff lines are free of duty for products 
originating from LDCs; China and India  grant duty -free access on more than  94% of their tariff lines; 
and Iceland , Korea and Montene gro have a duty -free coverage of  around 90% or higher . 
5.2.  Hong Kong, China ; and Macao, China offer duty-free access to all products on an MFN basis 
and therefore to LDCs as well. In the case of Singapore, only 6 tariff lines out of 9,558 are dutiable 
on an MF N basis and less than 0.1% of LDC exports enter ing the Singaporean market are dutiable . 
5.3.  As part of the  new GSP scheme in the context of the EAEU , Kazakhstan has significantly 
increased its duty -free access to LDCs, from 36.8 % in 2017  to 62.4 % in 2018 ; this was accompanied 
by an increase in imports. As a result, t he import -weighted applied duty decreased from 1.0% in 
2018 to 0.9% in 2019.  In the case of Chinese Taipei, l ess than one tariff line out of three is duty 
free under its LDC scheme. However, over three quarter of  imports from LDCs enter the market free 
of duty, resulting in an overall trade -weighted duty of 2.5%. 
5.4.  In 201 8, LDCs exported the highest number of products (in terms of national tariff lines) to the 
European Union . Their export basket is als o relatively diversified in Canada, Thailand and the 
United States . In dollar terms, some 60% of LDC exports were dutiable under the United States' 
GSP LDC scheme, with a trade -weighted average tariff of over 10%. However, eligible LDCs enjoy 
significant d uty-free access to the United States under the African Growth and Opportunity Act 
(AGOA) and the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (CBERA).  
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  Table 5: Duty  free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 201 8 
Market  Sector  LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN -LDC countriesb 
(million US D and percentage)  
Number of tariff 
lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  TOTAL  Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyc 
Armeniad Total  6,438  43.9 351 330 296 21.3 51.0 0.6 
Ag 731 71.1 29 23 2 10.6 99.0 0.2 
Non-Ag 5,707  36.2 322 307 294 10.8 4.0 5.9 
Australia  Total  0 100.0  1,114  703 0 1,046.3  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  167 56 0 51.2 100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag 0 100.0  947 647 0 995.1  100.0  0.0 
Canada  Total  105 98.6 2,386  1,002  4 3,021.6  100.0  0.0 
Ag 105 92.7 399 130 4 130.8  99.9 0.0 
Non-Ag 0 100.0  1,987  872 0 2,890.8  100.0  0.0 
Chile  Total  41 99.5 719 719 0 185.7  100.0  0.0 
Ag 41 97.2 35 35 0 1.8 100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag 0 100.0  684 684 0 183.9  100.0  0.0 
Chinaf Total  293 96.6 1,634  1,438  181 42,295.7  97.2 0.8 
Ag 76 93.5 158 148 31 1,638.8  64.4 14.5 
Non-Ag 217 97.1 1,476  1,290  150 40,657.0  98.5 0.2 
European 
Union  Total  18 99.8 5,021  3,801  6 45,491.8  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  857 657 0 3,899.2  100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag 18 99.8 4,164  3,144  6 41,592.6  100.0  0.0 
Hong Kong, 
China  Total  - - - - - 1,319.8  100.0  0.0 
Ag - - - - - 44.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag - - - - - 1,275.7  100.0  0.0 
Iceland  Total  736 91.8 - - - - - - 
Ag 736 63.2 - - - - - - 
Non-Ag 0 100.0  - - - - - - 
Indiad Total  676 94.1 1,612  1,556  190 10,449.9  94.9 1.6 
Ag 344 77.0 295 277 88 3,343.3  91.2 4.7 
Non-Ag 332 96.7 1,317  1,279  102 7,106.6  96.7 0.1 
Japan  Total  204 97.8 1,128  711 24 6,160.8  98.4 0.1 
Ag 69 96.4 190 121 2 420.4  100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag 135 98.2 938 590 22 5,740.5  98.3 0.1 
Kazakhsta n Total  4,586  62.4 582 548 449 76.9 28.5 0.9 
Ag 797 70.5 42 36 0 6.4 100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag 3,789  60.1 540 512 449 70.5 22.0 1.3 
Korea, 
Republic of  Total  1,232  89.9 1,630  1,433  183 3,076.6  90.8 1.4 
Ag 702 59.3 228 220 97 162.8  73.0 15.3 
Non-Ag 530 95.0 1,402  1,213  86 2,913.7  91.8 0.7 
Kyrgyz 
Republic  Total  5,040  58.7 205 200 189 4.5 0.9 12.2 
Ag 1,300  51.9 8 7 2 0.0 99.8 0.0 
Non-Ag 3,740  60.6 197 193 187 4.5 0.3 13.1 
Macao, 
China  Total  - - - - - 23.2 100.0  0.0 
Ag - - - - - 4.6 100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag - - - - - 18.6 100.0  0.0 
Montenegroe Total  679 92.9 452 401 13 11.2 98.7 0.1 
Ag 211 89.9 28 20 2 0.0 84.5 0.1 
Non-Ag 468 93.7 424 381 11 11.2 98.7 0.1 
Morocco  Total  18,021  1.3 408 408 380 257.1  30.7 7.8 
Ag 2,424  5.9 60 60 44 103.3  64.2 1.5 
Non-Ag 15,597  0.6 348 348 336 153.7  8.2 12.1 
New Zealand  Total  0 100.0  1,085  709 0 159.6  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  133 59 0 27.2 100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag 0 100.0  952 650 0 132.4  100.0  0.0 
Norway  Total  0 100.0  1,101  315 0 524.2  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  229 80 0 31.4 100.0  0.0 
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  Market  Sector  LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN -LDC countriesb 
(million US D and percentage)  
Number of tariff 
lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  TOTAL  Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyc 
Russian 
Federationd Total  7,307  37.1 - - - - - - 
Ag 1,034  61.5 - - - - - - 
Non-Ag 6,273  29.7 - - - - - - 
Singapore  Total  - - - - - 919.4  99.9 0.0 
Ag - - - - - 150.2  99.4 0.0 
Non-Ag - - - - - 769.2  100.0  0.0 
Switzerland  Total  0 100.0  1,599  1,323  0 5,286.7  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  284 216 0 168.7  100.0  0.0 
Non-Ag 0 100.0  1,315  1,107  0 5,118.0  100.0  0.0 
Chinese 
Taipei  Total  6,318  30.8 741 557 506 908.2  77.0 2.5 
Ag 1,154  23.3 97 63 62 57.8 43.8 6.8 
Non-Ag 5,164  32.3 644 494 444 850.4  79.3 2.2 
Tajikistane Total  10,553  3.7 - - - - - - 
Ag 2,455  0.4 - - - - - - 
Non-Ag 8,098  4.7 - - - - - - 
Thailand  Total  3,135  71.0 2,491  1,884  732 8,011.7  93.3 1.0 
Ag 333 75.7 244 213 60 591.6  85.1 1.7 
Non-Ag 2,802  70.3 2,247  1,671  672 7,420.1  94.0 0.9 
Turkeyd Total  3,223  80.5 - - - - - - 
Ag 2,249  19.8 - - - - - - 
Non-Ag 974 92.9 - - - - - - 
United 
States  Total  1,972  82.2 2,177  1,421  650 17,895.4  40.3 10.3 
Ag 272 85.8 279 177 3 1,120.3  98.8 0.1 
Non-Ag 1,700  81.5 1,898  1,244  647 16,775.1  36.3 11.0 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; some UN -LDC countries may be 
excluded.  
b 47 LDCs as listed by the UN in 201 8. Full utilization of LDC  schemes is assumed when calculating the 
share of duty -free imports and the trade -weighted applied duty.  
c Excludes non-ad valorem  duties.  
d 2016. 
e 2017.  
f China has submitted data on preferences for  2017 for  three different groups, i.e. (i) 35 LDCs; 
(ii) Benin, Myanmar and Timor -Leste; and (iii) Bangladesh. The data for the number of tariff lines for 
the LDC preference relate to the group of 35 beneficiaries. Information on LDC imports assume full 
preference u tilization for all beneficiaries.  
Source:  WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB).  
5.2  Utilization of preferential market access granted to LDCs  
5.5.  This section discusses to what extent LDC exports in terms of value enter markets duty  free 
and make use of preferences gran ted. Chart 27 presents a decomposition of LDC  exports into four 
duty categories for importing preference -granting Members which have submitted import data to 
the WTO Secretariat.12 The first category is the share of imports from LDCs that enters the market 
MFN duty free. The second category comprises  the share of imports from LDCs that makes use of 
any preferential import scheme, either LDC -specific schemes or other preferential trade 
arrangements, available to LDC exporters. These two categories together can be referred to as 
"utility ratio", the pro portion of total imports subject to no – or a reduced level of  – tariff duties. The 
third category covers imports that are eligible for preferential treatment but  are not utilizing the 
granted preferences. These products enter henceforth paying MFN duties.  Finally, some Members 
exclude certain products from DFQF market access ; the corresponding share of imports is presented 
as the fourth category in the chart . 
 
12 The analysis is based on import data submitted to the WTO Secretariat through the Prefer ential Trade 
Arrangements (PTA) Transparency Mechanism  (WT/L/806). For further information on measuring utilization of 
preferential tariffs and data limitation, please consult the World Tariff Profiles 2018, pp. 211 -221 
(https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/publications_e/world_tariff_profiles18_e.htm ). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  5.6.  The predominant share of LDC exports enter developed markets duty  free. For example, 
Canada's  imports statistics reveal that in the year 2018, 90% of imports from LDCs entered the 
Canadian  market duty  free, i.e. 15% entered MFN duty free and 75% entered duty free by using a 
preferential trade arrangement. The data also reveals that some 10% of imports paid MFN duties, 
despite being eligible to preferential duty-free rates. Import data from Japan offer a similar picture: 
28% of imports from LDCs entered MFN duty free, in addition 66% made use of Japan's preferential 
tariff arrangements for LDCs, and arou nd 5% of imports from LDCs did not make use of preferential 
treatment despite being eligibl e. The data also shows that around 2% of LDC exports to the Japanese 
market  were not covered by the LDC scheme  and hence were subject to  MFN duties . The data for 
Switzerland shows a large proportion of imports from LDCs that are MFN duty free, i.e. 80%, and 
additional 6% of imports enjoying preferential market access. About 1 4% of LDCs  products exported 
to Switzerland are not capable of utilizing the granted preferences.  
5.7.  The utilization of preferential market access by LDCs is similar for other developed markets, 
including Australia , European Union, Norway and the United States: the sha re of imports eligible for 
preferential treatment but entering MFN dutiable is lower than 10 %. In the case of the United States ' 
GSP-LDC scheme , the relatively higher share of MFN dutiable imports from LDCs reflects that a 
significant amount of imports tak es place in products that are not covered by its GSP scheme for 
LDCs. In the case of AGOA, around  93% of imports from LDC beneficiaries enter the U nited States  
duty free.  
5.8.  Data from developing Members present a more diverse picture. Imports from LDCs entere d 
China, Chinese Taipei and Thailand to a large extent on an MFN duty -free basis. Chile and India 
show a large proportion of imports that were eligible for preferential tariff treatment but where LDC 
exporters did not take advantage of it. The data also re veal for example that 23% of Chinese Taipei's 
LDC imports and around 1 5% of Korea's LDC imports were not covered by preferences and therefore 
subject to MFN duties.  
Chart 27: Imports from LDCs  by duty category , 201 8 (or latest avail able year)13 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO Integrated Database, September 2020. 
Note:  While Table 5 assumes full utilization of preferences, Chart 27 distinguishes which imports have used 
preferences and which not.  
 
 
13 The analysis is based on import data submitted to the Secretariat for the 2018; data for Norway 
refers to the ye ar 2017, data for China refers to the year 2016 and data for India to the year 2015.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 36 - 
 
  5.3  Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  
5.9.  Regarding market access in goods, Annex Table 8 provides a non -exhaustive list of major 
non-reciprocal preferential market access scheme s undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs. It 
updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications at the WTO as well as 
submissions made to WTO's Integrated Data Base (IDB).14 The table does not include regional or 
bilateral initiatives  under which, too, LDCs receive preferences.  
5.10.  Since the last report, two new  notification s related to DFQF market access  have been received. 
In February 2020, Montenegro notified its  DFQF  scheme, which it has been implementing since 
20 January 2016  (WT/COMTD/PTA2/N/1) . The duty -free coverage offered by Montenegro to LDCs 
under this scheme is 93.5%.  In October 2020, Kazakhstan submitted a notification 
(WT/COMTD/PTA 3/N/1) on its GSP scheme, including the sub -scheme for LDCs, which it has been 
implementing in the context of the EAEU since 10 October 2016. The duty -free coverage offered by 
Kazakhstan to LDCs under this scheme is 62.9 %. 
5.11.  As has been reported in the past, most of the developed Mem bers grant either full or 
nearly -full DFQF market access. Developing Members, namely Chile, China, India, Republic of Korea, 
Chinese Taipei and Thailand have made notifications concerning their respective DFQF schemes for 
LDCs. Most of them grant a signifi cant degree of DFQF market access to LDC products, and a number 
of them have reached nearly -full DFQF coverage for LDCs. The review of DFQF implementation 
continues to be a standing item on the agenda of the Committee on Trade and Development.  
5.12.  Members cont inue to work towards making progress in the implementation of the Nairobi 
Decision on Preferential Rules of Origin for LDCs  (WT/L/917/Add.1). At the meeting of the Committee 
on Rules of Origin  (CRO)  on 5 March 2020, the Russian Federation presented the revised preferential 
rules of origin of the Common System of Tariff Preferences of the EAEU , which entered into force on 
16 Ja nuary 2019 and aim at implementing the provisions of the Nairobi Ministerial Decision.15 The 
rules, inter alia , allow beneficiary LDCs to use non -originating materials up to 50%, which would be 
gradually increased to 60% by 2025. Since the last report, no additional Member has submitted a 
notification on preferential origin requirements for LDCs using the new notification template 
(G/RO/84). Most (20) preference -granting Members already notified their preferential origin 
requirements.16 
5.13.  Table 6 provides the  list of Members that have submitted notifications of their preferential 
treatment to services and services suppliers of LDCs under the LDC Services Waiver.17 Since the last 
report, the number of notifications has remained the same, standing at twenty -four (24) at the end 
of September 2020. The operationalization of the Services Waiver remains a standing agenda item 
of the Council for Trade in Services (CTS). The operation of preferences notified under the LDC 
Services Waiver was reviewed by Members in a dedicated session of the CTS on 
29-30 October  2019.18 Members also discussed technical assistance and capacity -building initiatives 
aimed at building the LDCs' services -supply capacity and increasing their participation in services 
trade.  
 
14 Armenia, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and Turkey  have submitted data to WTO's IDB, but are yet to 
make a notification pursuant to the PTA Transparency Mechanism ( WT/L/806).  
15 The Minutes of the meeting of the CRO on 5 March 2020 are contained in document G/RO/M/74 . 
16 Notifications are submitted under the document series G/RO/LDC/N/*. Armenia and Iceland are yet to 
notify their preferential origin requirements for LDCs . 
17 See 2011 Decision on the Services Waiver (WT/L/847), and subsequent D ecisions taken at the Bali 
(WT/L/918) and Nairobi Ministerial Conferences (WT/L/982)  in 2013 and 2015, respectively.  
18 Document S/C/M/140 contains the rep ort of the dedicated session of the CTS.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
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  Table 6: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  
Notifying Member  Date of notification  References  
Australia  29-May-15 S/C/N/805  
Brazil  04-Nov-15 S/C/N/839  
Canada  14-Dec-15 S/C/N/792/Rev.1  
Chile 08-Oct-15 S/C/N/834  
China  22-Jul-15 S/C/N/809  
European Union  16-Nov-15 S/C/N/840  
Hong Kong, China  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/810  
Iceland  09-Oct-15 S/C/N/835  
India 29-Sep-15 S/C/N/833  
Japan  31-Jul-15 S/C/N/820  
Korea, Rep. of  10-Jul-15 S/C/N/808  
Liechtenstein  30-Nov-15 S/C/N/841  
Mexico  20-Aug-15 S/C/N/821  
New Zealand  28-Jul-15 S/C/N/813  
Norway  25-Jun-15 S/C/N/806  
Panama  4-May-17 S/C/N/890  
Singapore  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/812  
South Africa  02-Dec-15 S/C/N/853  
Switzerland  30-Jul-15 S/C/N/819  
Chinese Taipei  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/811  
Thailand  17-Feb-16 S/C/N/860  
Turkey  14-Jun-16 S/C/N/824/Rev.1  
United States  03-Sep-15 S/C/N/825  
Uruguay  12-Jan-16 S/C/N/857  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 38 - 
 
  ANNEX  
Annex Table 1: Exports, imports and trade balance of LDCs during January -June 2020  
(Million US dollars and year-on-year percentage change)   
Exports  Imports  Trade balance   
Value  % change  Value  % change  Value  % change  
LDCs (47)  79,085  -16% 115,035  -13% -35,951  7% 
Afghanistan  353  -30% 2,126  -12% -1,773  8% 
Angola  12,278  -35% 3,320  -20% 8,958  -39% 
Bangladesh  16,628  -20% 21,251  -20% -4,623  21% 
Benin  255  -18% 1,399  -51% -1,144  55% 
Bhutan  109  -34% 468  15% -358 -48% 
Burkina Faso  1,618  17% 1,127  -12% 491 385%  
Burundi  33  -33% 157  -10% -124 1% 
Cambodia  10,375  6% 10,106  -13% 269 114%  
Central African 
Republic  36  7% 125  25% -90 -35% 
Chad 663  24% 452  12% 210 63% 
Comoros  39  28% 107  -18% -68 33% 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of  3,775  12% 2,755  -13% 1,020  387%  
Djibouti  75  -11% 2,238  2% -2,163  -2% 
Eritrea  169  6% 173  29% -4 -117%  
Ethiopia  1,268  -2% 3,792  -2% -2,524  2% 
The Gambia  47  -38% 684  -4% -638 0% 
Guinea  2,404  -3% 2,200  10% 204 -57% 
Guinea -Bissau  21  -19% 133  -16% -112 16% 
Haiti 455  -30% 1,498  -4% -1,043  -15% 
Kiribati  31  -33% 77  114%  -45 -517%  
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  2,644  -5% 2,578  -14% 65 130%  
Lesotho  458  -14% 527  -27% -69 63% 
Liberia  380  -48% 5,330  -17% -4,950  13% 
Madagascar  1,432  -24% 1,314  -17% 118 -59% 
Malawi  338  -22% 566  -16% -229 7% 
Mali 1,086  33% 1,777  8% -691 17% 
Mauritania  1,428  -4% 1,209  -20% 219 771%  
Mozambique  2,038  -29% 4,388  -9% -2,350  -23% 
Myanmar  8,387  -1% 12,140  -3% -3,752  8% 
Nepal  363  -23% 3,390  -32% -3,027  33% 
Niger  292  -11% 651  8% -359 -30% 
Rwanda  154  10% 536  -2% -382 6% 
Sao Tome and Principe  12  6% 47  -3% -35 5% 
Senegal  1,257  -11% 4,217  -16% -2,961  18% 
Sierra Leone  286  -7% 462  -18% -176 31% 
Solomon Islands  287  -24% 166  -33% 121 -7% 
Somalia  57  -26% 1,328  0% -1,270  -1% 
South Sudan  273  -70% 257  23% 16 -98% 
Sudan  1,090  -24% 3,472  13% -2,382  -44% 
Tanzania  1,807  22% 4,193  -4% -2,386  17% 
Timor -Leste  61  384%  257  9% -196 12% 
Togo 487  -41% 4,156  -21% -3,669  18% 
Tuvalu  6  -66% 23  -35% -18 5% 
Uganda  597  -6% 1,570  -7% -973 8% 
Vanuatu  74  7% 97  -15% -23 49% 
Yemen  632  -13% 4,559  -3% -3,927  2% 
Zambia  2,526  -35% 1,634  -29% 892 -43% 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor (based on monthly mirror data of 97 reporters) . 
 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 39 - 
 
  Annex Table 2: Change in exports of LDCs by destination market, March -June 2020 vs. 
March -June 2019  
(Year-on-year pe rcentage  change )  
Percentage change in exports to selected destination markets  
Exporter  All (97 
markets)  Canada  China  EU27 India Japan  Korea, 
Rep. 
of Russian 
Fed. Thailand  United 
Kingdom  United 
States  
World  -17 -25 -8 -20 -47 -11 -12 -10 -16 -23 -17 
LDCs -23 -6 -28 -28 -46 -19 -18 -23 -6 -32 -23 
Afghanistan  -64 7 13 -53 -62 -81 4392 -55 -72 -43 -78 
Angola  -44 -100 -46 -62 -52 -60 1137   145 -94 -66 
Bangladesh  -31 -38 -34 -30 -61 -25 -9 -29 -63 -35 -33 
Benin  -15 -58 -82 -18 53   -98 1976 -100 2268 -51 
Bhutan  -55 520 1198 -21 -57 -42 187   -63 267 -57 
Burkina 
Faso 18 1706 -43 -63 -83 -4 194 -99 -85 498 4 
Burundi  -41 -75 -50 -40 -100 40 356 20 -34 -85 -76 
Cambodia  1 -25 -16 -19 -26 -2 -2 -23 -31 -22 11 
Central 
African 
Republic  -5 -52 26 -39 -69 -94 -67 -24  … 248 -69 
Chad -11 -45 -32 3210 -100 -83 294 239 … -75 -96 
Comoros  99 1179 1581 120 373 -5 77   1378 522 44 
Congo, 
Dem. Rep. 
of 10 -42 27 -24 -28 1162 -9 -87 -34 -52 45 
Djibouti  -10 238 - 61 -55 …  -30 1985 -81 -43 -60 
Eritrea  4 -78 103 -18  … 1405 -90 -29 2 …  177 
Ethiopia  -11 44 9 9 -70 -19 23 -21 -98 -78 -17 
The Gambia  -50 -84 -84 -29 -3 134 18 1494 -29 -20 63 
Guinea  3 32 -16 12 -9 -89 8 20 -89 -74 108 
Guinea -
Bissau  -46 -89 -100 -19 -72  … -7  …  …  … -70 
Haiti -42 -25 -41 -24 -7 -24 -32 -36 66 -27 -44 
Kiribati  -13 -70 -77 -   -31 -16   -6 …  -64 
Lao People's 
Dem. Rep.  -12 -38 -20 26 -32 -16 15 42 -10 21 -50 
Lesotho  -35 -16 -92 -19  … -67 137 -100 -88 -24 -34 
Liberia  -59 -44 -64 -51 31 -100 -63 23 -52 -94 -30 
Madagascar  -25 2 -30 -7 -74 -7 -34 -4 263 -12 -32 
Malawi  -20 -54 71 -32 -82 -64 11 -9 -92 43 -63 
Mali 43 9 -24 -6 -55 4 1014 -93 -58 203 -81 
Mauritania  -6 - 20 -46 -47 60 -57 -73 366 135 -14 
Mozambique  -30 83 -11 -25 -40 -70 -71 6 33 -78 -48 
Myanmar  -6 -3 -12 -9 74 0 -13 2 -12 -16 31 
Nepal  -37 -56 -80 -52 -36 -50 -3 -7 -60 -58 -19 
Niger  11 - 13 -91 1913 -53 -65 -78 -11 -37 65 
Rwanda  17 -43 -14 1 -13 -45 -28 -15 -64 41 10 
Sao Tome 
and Principe  -5 62 7134 11  … …  3841 -24 -79 228 -65 
Senegal  -19 -11 13 -39 -40 -37 -35 -29 -93 5 -32 
Sierra 
Leone  -9 -16 7 -12 -31 -70 39 15 67 -45 18 
Solomon 
Islands  -16 122 -11 1 -47 -89 17  … -41 -45 -39 
Somalia  -10 -69 -50 -21 -76 24 -74 12743  -56 -99 -40 
South 
Sudan  -91 -38 -90 -86 -97 …   … -41 262 -50 -100 
Sudan  -22 -86 2 -10 -50 -27 -54 34 -56 -12 688 
Tanzania  17 36 96 -4 -19 -37 14 -21 -43 -33 -38 
Timor -Leste  239 -84 232 -63   8018 148  … -99 -87 -46 
Togo -47 49 -19 -73 -46 -64 2 7876 6 -93 103 
Tuvalu  -89  … 999 -94  … -82  …  … -74 -78 -61 
Uganda  -8 -51 3 2 44 -16 -42 21 425 -28 8 
Vanuatu  7 -67 -40 -41  … -14 -60 -99 182 -69 -46 
Yemen  -41 -49 -47 -84 -72 157 -3 -100 233 -35 -11 
Zambia  -37 395 -26 -45 -49 -88 -80 -55 -71 -21 -92 
… Not available.  
-  Not applicable.  
Source:  Trade Data Monitor ( based on monthly mirror data of 97 reporters ). 
 
 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 40 - Annex Table 3: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 201 9 
(Million US dollars and percentage)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2019  2011 -19 2017  2018  2019  2019  2011 -19 2017  2018  2019  
LDCs  190,242  0.1 17.8 13.1 -3.1 274,985  3.9 10.9 10.2 0.9 
Exporters of agricultural products  19,545  3.9 14.4 11.3 3.5 52,881  4.8 -5.0 5.8 5.7 
Afghanistan  975 12.7 30.8 13.4 10.2 7,330  1.5 16.0 -2.3 -1.0 
Benin  3,363  11.5 24.9 50.8 0.6 4,116  8.6 21.6 25.2 -5.9 
Burkina Faso  3,391  4.4 14.6 13.2 4.2 5,230  10.2 16.7 12.3 19.2 
Burundi  180 4.8 38.0 4.9 -0.2 887 2.1 22.6 5.1 11.8 
Central African Republic  154 -2.6 22.2 11.8 -2.0 616 9.0 22.4 24.0 1.8 
Comoros  49 8.4 25.2 9.5 17.1 224 -2.6 14.7 9.7 -18.8 
Ethiopia  2,761  -0.5 8.4 -10.5 2.1 14,554  6.3 -4.1 -2.9 -4.9 
The Gambia  130 4.0 12.6 15.2 6.7 494 4.8 42.8 9.6 -17.8 
Guinea -Bissau  223 -1.0 22.7 -0.2 -34.3 314 3.4 26.3 -2.2 10.4 
Kiribati  12 4.5 45.0 -46.3 49.3 132 4.6 -4.3 -7.3 8.3 
Liberia  528 4.7 28.2 44.3 2.2 869 -2.3 -16.4 5.0 -24.0 
Malawi  859 -6.1 -13.5 -1.6 -1.2 2,897  2.2 15.3 9.8 3.6 
Rwanda  1,166  12.2 42.5 7.6 4.0 2,703  3.6 -0.7 9.2 10.6 
Sao Tom e and Principe  13 1.7 11.2 5.7 -21.1 148 1.2 5.5 0.9 -0.4 
Solomon Islands  461 1.2 14.3 13.9 -19.0 590 2.9 26.0 5.2 -1.9 
Somalia  470 -1.3 6.8 2.1 -2.1 1,240  0.4 7.3 1.7 4.2 
Timor -Leste  154 35.9 17.1 92.7 239.7  591 8.0 1.4 -6.2 13.6 
Togo 1,135  -0.5 -1.9 6.3 5.1 2,139  -0.3 -17.1 12.9 1.1 
Uganda  3,472  6.1 16.9 6.4 12.5 7,518  3.7 15.9 20.3 11.7 
Vanuatu  48 -4.1 -6.9 35.0 -23.9 290 -0.6 -12.2 -5.5 -17.2 
           
Fuel exportersa 61,453  -6.1 24.0 16.4 -7.0 55,388  0.3 9.7 2.5 2.1 
Angola  34,726  -7.9 25.5 17.8 -14.8 14,127  -4.4 10.9 9.2 -10.6 
Bhutan  594 -1.6 9.2 5.7 -1.9 981 -0.8 2.6 1.8 -6.3 
Chad 2,616  -7.3 13.9 34.2 -18.1 2,067  -5.7 -21.5 2.7 4.0 
Myanmar  18,110  8.8 17.3 20.4 8.4 18,607  9.5 22.6 0.5 -3.9 
Sudan  3,973  -11.1 32.5 -15.0 14.0 9,199  0.0 9.9 -14.1 17.2 
Yemen  1,434  -21.3 89.7 10.0 5.6 10,407  -1.0 -7.9 15.8 26.7 
            
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 41 -   Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2019  2011 -19 2017  2018  2019  2019  2011 -19 2017  2018  2019  
Manufacture exporters  59,860  6.7 5.9 10.3 2.9 102,584  7.0 17.2 16.8 0.8 
Bangladesh  39,337  6.1 2.7 9.5 0.2 59,094  6.3 18.0 14.5 -2.3 
Cambodia  14,700  10.3 12.0 12.6 15.7 20,720  10.5 15.5 22.4 18.5 
Haiti 1,200  5.8 -0.6 10.1 11.3 4,447  5.0 13.6 24.0 -7.8 
Lesotho  1,014  -1.8 16.6 18.8 -16.9 2,057  -2.4 13.2 5.8 -7.7 
Madagascar  2,640  6.5 26.4 9.2 -15.1 3,927  3.8 23.8 10.6 -3.3 
Nepal  968 0.6 6.7 5.9 23.1 12,340  10.0 15.8 22.9 -2.9 
           
Exporters of non -fuel mineralsb 41,604  2.3 25.8 12.4 -9.7 52,016  1.8 3.6 10.4 -1.3 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of  6,800  0.4 42.6 40.3 -37.0 6,200  1.5 2.1 30.6 -3.1 
Eritrea  744 7.1 33.6 14.8 11.2 1,148  2.4 7.3 3.8 7.8 
Guinea  3,851  13.2 90.3 -13.4 -3.2 3,497  6.5 -21.3 -2.8 3.3 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  5,764  12.9 14.8 8.7 8.9 6,252  12.7 5.5 8.8 1.4 
Mali 3,565  5.2 2.5 23.7 -0.5 4,764  4.5 5.8 10.2 0.9 
Mauritania  2,480  -1.3 23.0 11.4 29.2 2,874  1.9 10.2 27.2 7.9 
Mozambique  4,550  3.0 42.0 6.1 -9.2 7,653  2.4 10.4 20.9 10.2 
Niger  1,174  -0.8 16.9 -0.3 -2.3 2,299  0.6 13.8 16.9 0.8 
Sierra Leone  661 8.3 -9.1 -2.3 19.4 1,502  -1.7 21.8 4.1 11.0 
Tanzania  4,967  0.6 -8.6 -1.7 22.9 8,601  -2.8 0.0 -11.1 4.0 
Zambia  7,047  -3.0 25.6 12.8 -22.0 7,225  0.1 9.6 18.5 -23.7 
Diversified and othersc 7,781  14.5 40.7 16.2 8.9 12,116  8.2 32.0 13.2 3.6 
Djibouti  3,606  58.0 82.6 11.4 2.4 3,943  29.1 53.7 0.8 9.5 
Senegal  4,175  6.4 13.2 21.2 15.2 8,143  4.1 22.8 20.0 0.9 
Tuvalu  0 -9.8 -8.3 -26.8 -28.1 29 0.9 13.1 -5.1 15.5 
Worldd 18,395,411  0.3 10.6 9.9 -2.7 18,803,616  0.5 11.1 10.4 -2.8 
 a Includes  exporters of electricity (Bhutan).  
 b Includes  exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamond s (normally  included in  
 manufactures according to the UN classification).  
 c Includes  exporters without a clear specialization i n a specific category of goods.  
 d Excluding  re-exports of Hong Kong, China; including EU -intra trade.  
 Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 42 - 
 
  Annex Table 4: Indices of Market Prices for Non -Fuel and Fuel Commodities, 
2016 -2020  Q1 
(Indices 20 16 = 100 , in terms of US dollars)a 
 
2016  2017  2018  2019  2020   
Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1  
Non-Fuel commodities  100 106 108 109 110 109 111 
Agriculture  100 103 102 99 97 99 100 
Food  100 104 103 100 98 100 102 
Cereals  100 101 115 111 108 108 114 
Wheat  100 102 130 115 107 111 121 
Maize  100 97 103 111 107 105 105 
Rice 100 103 104 102 105 102 114 
Barley  100 104 107 113 117 115 112 
Oats 100 128 130 150 139 154 146 
Sorghum  100 104 108 105 98 105 106 
Vegetable oils  100 101 95 88 89 95 94 
Soybeans  100 99 94 88 89 93 90 
Palm oil  100 101 88 76 77 95 100 
Rapeseed oil  100 106 101 99 106 110 106 
Soybean mel t 100 100 107 97 94 95 94 
Sunflower oil  100 94 89 86 90 91 91 
Olive oil  100 114 98 80 78 73 69 
Soybean oil  100 102 91 85 87 96 92 
Meat 100 110 107 119 111 115 107 
Beef 100 108 103 114 115 135 114 
Swine meat  100 109 100 126 109 94 92 
Poultry  100 119 127 122 126 142 139 
Lamb  100 113 118 118 99 98 101 
Seafood  100 105 103 100 89 90 99 
Fish 100 104 105 106 88 90 103 
Shrimp  100 106 99 90 91 89 93 
Sugar  100 89 70 70 67 73 78 
Free market  100 87 68 68 64 71 75 
United States  100 101 92 96 93 96 96 
Vegetables (tomato)  100 112 111 100 113 108 120 
Non-Citrus fruit (apple)  100 107 118 110 116 105 101 
Oranges  100 91 89 61 60 58 60 
Groundnuts and tree nuts  100 108 114 108 106 102 106 
Bananas  100 107 115 114 113 113 118 
Dairy products (milk)  100 108 99 109 119 131 113 
Legumes (chickpea)  100 78 56 60 57 59 55 
Fishmeal  100 82 95 92 85 86 91 
Beverages  100 95 88 82 83 88 88 
Coffee  100 102 89 82 84 88 88 
Arabica  100 93 84 80 84 91 93 
Robusta  100 110 94 83 84 86 83 
Cocoa beans  100 70 79 81 80 85 88 
Tea 100 126 104 91 90 97 94 
Agricultural raw material sb 100 105 107 105 99 98 99 
Timberb 100 98 104 102 103 102 103 
Hardwood  100 96 99 96 94 96 96 
Sawnwoodb 100 95 99 95 91 95 95 
Logsb 100 97 98 99 101 100 100 
Softwood  100 100 108 106 110 107 109 
Sawnwoodb 100 98 106 108 112 108 109 
Logsb 100 104 116 101 103 101 110 
Cotton  100 113 123 110 98 101 100 
Rubber  100 122 95 112 97 94 96 
Wool 100 118 149 143 124 111 108 
Fine 100 129 150 140 114 109 106 
Coarse  100 107 149 146 133 113 109 
Hides  100 92 79 54 48 52 53 
All fertilizers  100 97 112 115 110 100 103 
Nitrogen  100 100 124 124 120 104 113 
Phosphate  100 102 120 106 95 83 85 WT/COMTD/LDC /W/68  
 
- 43 - 
 
   
2016  2017  2018  2019  2020   
Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1  
Potassium  100 87 88 108 108 108 100 
All metals  100 112 116 123 129 126 128 
Base metals  100 122 130 140 139 130 127 
Copper  100 127 134 126 119 121 116 
Iron ore  100 122 120 174 174 149 155 
Alumin ium 100 123 131 112 110 110 105 
Nickel  100 109 137 128 163 160 132 
Zinc 100 138 140 132 113 114 102 
Molybden um 100 111 163 192 186 153 154 
Uranium  100 83 93 94 96 95 93 
Lead 100 124 120 101 109 109 99 
Tin 100 112 112 110 96 93 91 
Cobalt  100 219 286 126 122 137 127 
Precious metals  100 102 102 106 119 121 130 
Gold 100 101 102 105 118 119 127 
Silver  100 100 92 87 100 101 99 
Platinum  100 96 89 85 89 92 92 
Palladium  100 142 168 226 250 293 373 
Energy  100 124 158 136 123 127 104 
Spot crudec 100 124 157 153 141 143 116 
Natural gas  100 116 147 89 78 89 66 
Netherlands TTF  100 132 182 98 76 94 72 
LNG – Northeast Asiad 100 97 132 65 62 76 50 
Henry Hub  100 119 127 103 96 97 77 
Coal 100 133 157 112 99 109 112 
Australian, export markets  100 134 162 122 102 100 102 
South African export markets  100 131 152 102 95 118 122 
Propane  100 158 181 115 92 103 77 
a Weights based on 2014 -2016 average world export earnings.  
b Provisional . 
c Average Petroleum Spot Price (APSP). Average of U.K. Brent, Dubai, and West Texas Intermediate, equally 
weighted.  
d Argus Media Group . 
Source:  IMF commodity prices .  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 44 - Annex Table 5: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2011-2019 
(Million US dollars and percentage)  
  All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions * and major 
markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  
Africa  9,664 8,083 100 -21 -2 1,771 2,527 31 -1 5 5,800 3,549 44 -36 -6 2,043 1,990 25 -8 0 
South Africa  3,761 2,474 100 -25 -5 259 273 11 7 1 2,981 1,527 62 -34 -8 521 673 27 -7 3 
Mali (2017)  1,045 1,137 100 … 1 62 87 8 … 6 739 763 67 … 1 244 286 25 … 3 
Egypt  664 867 100 -2 3 205 423 49 11 9 438 372 43 -11 -2 21 72 8 -20 16 
Kenya (2010)  341 853 100 -2 11 178 555 65 -8 13 51 64 8 -3 3 112 233 27 23 9 
Zambia  1,442 556 100 -68 -11 22 22 4 52 0 1,153 366 66 -75 -13 267 166 30 -40 -6 
Côte d'Ivoire  414 481 100 -28 2 337 387 80 -10 2 15 36 7 -79 12 58 58 12 -13 0 
Ghana  320 351 100 13 1 147 144 41 -10 0 8 113 32 101 40 166 93 27 -1 -7 
Morocco  91 322 100 25 17 75 116 36 -7 6 1 132 41 132 95 15 74 23 -4 22 
Nigeria ( 2018) 553 220 100 … -18 181 137 62 … -4 34 49 22 … 6 339 31 14 … -29 
Malawi ( 2018) 233 202 100 … -2 89 80 40 … -2 13 16 8 … 3 130 105 52 … -3 
Tanzania  
(2018) 170 174 100 … 0 74 72 41 … -1 45 20 11 … -11 51 83 47 … 7 
Sudan ( 2018) 284 170 100 … -7 46 97 57 … 11 139 3 2 … -43 56 70 41 … 3 
Senegal  75 99 100 -10 4 3 21 21 5 29 34 54 54 -27 6 38 14 15 -10 -12 
Ethiopia  172 92 100 -6 -8 24 47 51 58 9 132 33 35 -18 -16 16 12 14 -55 -3 
Mauritius  98 85 100 -2 -2 70 65 77 -4 -1 18 0 0 92 -42 11 20 23 6 8 
Americas  36,552 24,965 100 5 -5 955 1,531 6 -3 6 23,305 2,741 11  
-23 11,764 20,339 81 17 7 
North America  34,139 22,946 100 4 -5 877 1,479 6 -4 7 21,299 1,629 7 -55 -27 11,435 19,484 85 18 7 
United States  28,763 18,746 100 3 -5 725 1,249 7 -6 7 18,581 1,393 7 -60 -28 9,376 15,793 84 19 7 
Canada  4,919 3,477 100 14 -4 112 228 7 20 9 2,583 236 7 38 -26 1,782 3,012 87 12 7 
Mexico  456 723 100 7 6 40 2 0 -90 -30 135 0 0 -100 -100 277 680 94 11 12 
South and Central  
America  2,413 2,020 100 20 -2 78 52 3 5 -5 2,006 1,112 55 41 -7 329 855 42 1 13 
Brazil  759 678 100 -5 -1 28 14 2 -21 -9 544 407 60 -4 -4 186 257 38 -6 4 
Uruguay  7 444 100 15 67 1 2 0 3 5 1 416 94 14 107 5 27 6 19 24 
Chile 738 407 100 117 -7 1 16 4 46 41 706 197 49 - - 32 194 48 10 25 
Peru 726 194 100 88 -15 1 3 2 19 26 713 69 36 6,411 -25 13 122 63 22 32 
Colombia  31 147 100 14 21 6 8 6 -2 3 0 0 0 -96 -12 25 139 94 18 24 
Argentina  44 79 100 -8 8 6 1 1 4 -19 0 22 28 - 67 37 56 71 -34 5 
Costa Rica  11 26 100 3 12 1 0 0 18 -32 3 0 0 - -81 7 26 100 3 18 
Ecuador  62 23 100 -31 -12 17 6 25 30 -13 39 0 0 -100 -100 7 17 75 -40 13 
El Salvador  20 14 100 -7 -4 13 1 7 -31 -27 0 0 0 -100 - 7 13 93 -4 9 
Guatemala  3 7 100 4 9 3 2 25 128 -6 0 0 0 -100 -100 1 5 75 65 31 
Venezuela , Bolivarian 
Rep. of  (2018) 11 0 100 … -54 1 0 0 … -100 0 0 0 … -100 10 0 100 … -54  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 45 -   All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions * and major 
markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  2011  2019  2019  2019  2011 -
2019  
Asia and Pacific  88,291 94,072 100 0 1 9,591 13,146 14 13 4 72,676 58,391 62 -9 -3 5,803 15,926 17 7 13 
China  51,001 53,608 100 -2 1 3,061 5,543 10 22 8 46,503 43,095 80 -6 -1 1,438 3,199 6 11 11 
India 12,063 13,313 100 -6 1 2,698 3,311 25 17 3 8,056 6,359 48 -16 -3 1,272 2,206 17 -3 7 
Thailand  6,498 8,590 100 7 4 652 1,041 12 2 6 5,688 5,077 59 -12 -1 159 1,101 13 -9 27 
Japan  5,278 6,273 100 1 2 731 788 13 -4 1 3,131 756 12 -25 -16 1,363 4,708 75 9 17 
Singapore  1,064 3,205 100 246 15 243 111 3 -34 -9 588 514 16 109 -2 178 607 19 23 17 
Korea, Rep. of  2,751 2,835 100 -8 0 230 410 14 10 8 2,019 1,095 39 -29 -7 503 1,325 47 13 13 
Australia  457 1,330 100 23 14 49 103 8 39 10 15 198 15 161 38 326 1,026 77 11 15 
Malaysia  700 1,156 100 7 6 495 348 30 7 -4 159 423 37 14 13 43 381 33 0 32 
Hong Kong, China  450 870 100 1 9 148 261 30 2 7 25 9 1 151 -12 276 596 68 0 10 
Pakistan  585 859 100 -9 5 367 546 64 -2 5 192 291 34 -16 5 25 22 3 -45 -2 
Chinese Taipei  6,230 770 100 -15 -23 133 123 16 2 -1 6,005 411 53 -30 -28 91 234 30 16 12 
Indonesia  1,049 751 100 -57 -4 701 357 47 -14 -8 275 156 21 -87 -7 72 220 29 21 15 
Philippines  93 347 100 65 18 62 185 53 116 15 19 2 1 -69 -24 9 160 46 36 43 
New Zealand  71 165 100 4 11 20 20 12 -41 0 2 5 3 489 10 48 140 85 12 14 
Europe and CIS  38,479 51,549  100 -11 4 6,131 5,425 11 -15 -2 13,724 9,223 18 5 -5 18,258 31,541  61 -18 7 
EU (27) 36,501 42,296  100 -15 2 5,504 4,858  11 -15 -2 13,397 8,795 21 4 -5 17,236 28,294  67 -20 6 
Switzerland  426 6,280 100 19 40 146 155 2 -5 1 0 0 0 -11 -26 278 1,115 18 10 19 
United Kingdom  5,110 6,092 100 0 2 518 415 7 2 -3 886 38 1 -87 -33 3,682 5,630 92 4 5 
Norway  262 769 100 46 14 28 75 10 9 13 20 188 24 323 32 214 507 66 23 11 
CIS 1,290 2,203 100 5 7 454 337 15 -25 -4 306 240 11 11 -3 530 1,626 74 14 15 
Russian Federation  1,002 1,707 100 13 7 350 235 14 -1 -5 192 100 6 22 -8 460 1,371 80 15 15 
Ukraine  209 340 100 5 6 57 73 21 -7 3 109 120 35 -2 1 43 147 43 20 17 
Kazakhstan  31 72 100 -7 11 12 5 7 -21 -10 4 20 28 67 20 15 47 65 -20 16 
Belarus  46 59 100 -63 3 34 23 39 -82 -5 0 0 0 15 - 12 36 61 8 14 
Azerbaijan  1 21 100 16 42 1 2 7 44 5 0 0 0 - - 0 20 92 14 85 
* Regional totals are based on the information available and  may not coincide with aggregated trade figures.  
… Not available.  
- Not applicable . 
Source : UN Comtrade database and Trade Data Monitor . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 46 - 
 
  Annex Table 6: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2019  
(Million US dollars and percentage shares)  
HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value 
(USDmn) Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2011 2019  2011 -2019  2011  2019  2011  2019  
2709 Petroleum oils and oils from 
bituminous minerals, crude  86,761  38,346  -9.7 44.4 20.2 5.3 3.6 
6110 Sweaters, pullovers, sweatshirts, 
waistcoats (vests) and similar 
articles, knitted or crocheted  6,032  8,243  4.0 3.1 4.3 11.2 14.7 
7108 Gold (including gold plated with 
platinum), unwrought or in 
semi-manufactured forms, or in 
powder form  5,727  7,989  4.2 2.9 4.2 2.7 2.7 
6203 Men's or boy's suits, ensembles, 
suit-type jackets, blazers, 
trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches, etc. (no swimwear), 
not knitted or crocheted  4,961  7,806  5.8 2.5 4.1 12.0 19.0 
6109 T-Shirts, singlets, tank tops and 
similar garments, knitted or 
crocheted  5,319  7,787  4.9 2.7 4.1 15.0 19.2 
6204 Women' s or girls' suits, 
ensembles, suit -type jackets, 
dresses, skirts, divided skirts, 
trousers, etc. (no swimwear), 
not knitted or crocheted  3,066  6,755  10.4 1.6 3.6 5.7 12.0 
2711 Petroleum gases and other 
gaseous hydrocarbons  7,101  6,641  -0.8 3.6 3.5 1.7 2.3 
7403 Refined copper and copper alloys 
(other than master alloys of 
heading 7405), unwrought  6,881  6,077  -1.5 3.5 3.2 9.2 10.9 
7402 Unrefined copper; copper 
anodes for electrolytic refining  2,280  5,100  10.6 1.2 2.7 24.2 50.6 
6104 Women' s or girls' suits, 
ensembles, suit -type jackets, 
blazers, dresses, skirts, divided 
skirts, trousers, etc. (no 
swimwear), knitted or crocheted  1,636  3,964  11.7 0.8 2.1 8.1 14.5 
2606 Alumin ium ores and 
concentrates  750 3,341  20.5 0.4 1.8 18.2 48.2 
6205 Men's or boys' shirts, not knitted 
or crocheted  2,173  2,933  3.8 1.1 1.5 14.0 22.6 
7112 Waste and scrap of precious 
metal or of metal clad with 
precious metal; other waste and 
scrap containing precious metal 
principally use for recovery  25 2,501  78.1 0.0 1.3 0.1 8.6 
4202 Travel goods, vanity cases, 
binocular and camera cases, 
handbags, wallets, cutlery cases 
and similar containers, of 
various specified materials  45 2,278  63.2 0.0 1.2 0.1 3.4 
1207 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits 
nesoi, whether or not broken  862 2,112  11.8 0.4 1.1 21.1 40.8 
8105 Cobalt mattes and other 
intermediate products of cobalt 
metallurgy; cobalt and articles 
thereof, including waste and 
scrap  658 2,079  15.5 0.3 1.1 23.2 45.3 
2716 Electrical energy  947 1,887  9.0 0.5 1.0 2.6 6.3 
6202 Women' s or girls' overcoats, 
raincoats, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets) and 
similar articles, not knitted or 
crocheted, nesoi  446 1,834  19.3 0.2 1.0 3.0 9.3 
6403 Footwear, with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of leather  911 1,780  8.7 0.5 0.9 1.7 3.3 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 47 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value 
(USDmn) Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2011 2019  2011 -2019  2011  2019  2011  2019  
6201 Men's or boys' overcoats, 
raincoats, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets) and 
similar articles, not knitted or 
crocheted, nesoi  638 1,736  13.3 0.3 0.9 5.4 10.9 
901 Coffee, whether or not roasted 
or decaffeinated; coffee husks 
and skins; coffee substitutes 
containing coffee  2,194  1,658  -3.4 1.1 0.9 6.1 5.5 
2701 Coal; briquettes, ovoids and 
similar solid fuels manufactured 
from coal  131 1,650  37.2 0.1 0.9 0.1 1.3 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, 
including roasted iron pyrites  1,904  1,634  -1.9 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.1 
7103 Precious and semi -precious 
stones (no diamonds), not 
strung, mounted etc.; ungraded 
precious and semi -precious 
stones (no diamonds) strung for 
transport  949 1,606  6.8 0.5 0.8 17.9 19.3 
6108 Women' s or girls' slips, 
petticoats, briefs, panties, 
nightdresses, p yjamas, 
negligees, bathrobes and similar 
articles, knitted or crocheted  746 1,605  10.1 0.4 0.8 6.8 14.9 
6103 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, 
suit-type jackets, blazers, 
trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts (no 
swimwear), knitted or crocheted  357 1,423  18.9 0.2 0.7 7.8 16.3 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates  2,035  1,407  -4.5 1.0 0.7 3.9 2.4 
6111 Babies' garments and clothing 
accessories, knitted or crocheted  620 1,370  10.4 0.3 0.7 8.2 19.5 
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or 
crocheted  1,151  1,338  1.9 0.6 0.7 13.7 17.0 
2710 Petroleum oils & oils from 
bituminous mins (other than 
crude)  & products therefrom, 
nesoi, containing 70% (by 
weight) or more of these oils; 
waste oils  3,801  1,318  -12.4 1.9 0.7 0.4 0.2 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not 
worked, but not mounted or set  1,839  1,278  -4.5 0.9 0.7 1.2 1.3 
2401 Tobacco, unmanufactured 
(whether or not threshed or 
similarly processed); tobacco 
refuse  1,604  1,277  -2.8 0.8 0.7 12.7 12.4 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or 
not stripped of bark or sapwood, 
or roughly squared  2,177  1,254  -6.7 1.1 0.7 11.7 7.5 
713 Leguminous vegetables, dried 
shelled  1,183  1,180  0.0 0.6 0.6 13.9 15.8 
303 Fish, frozen , excluding fish fillets 
and other fish meat without 
bones; fish livers and roes, 
frozen  1,277  1,138  -1.4 0.7 0.6 5.4 5.0 
1006 Rice 415 1,136  13.4 0.2 0.6 2.1 6.9 
6404 Footwear, with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of textile materials  225 1,119  22.2 0.1 0.6 1.3 2.6 
6206 Women' s or girl's blouses, shirts 
and shirt -blouses, not knitted or 
crocheted  552 1,062  8.5 0.3 0.6 4.1 7.7 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 48 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value 
(USDmn) Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2011 2019  2011 -2019  2011  2019  2011  2019  
6210 Garments, made -up of fabrics of 
felt or non -wovens  and 
garments of textile fabrics (not 
knitted etc.) rubberized or 
impregnated, coated etc. with 
plastics  302 1,057  17.0 0.2 0.6 3.5 11.1 
7601 Alumin ium, unwrought  1,651  1,036  -5.7 0.8 0.5 2.9 1.9 
6107 Men's or boys' underpants, 
briefs, nightshirts, p yjamas, 
bathrobes, dressing gowns and 
similar articles, knitted or 
crocheted  390 1,003  12.5 0.2 0.5 6.8 14.9 
905 Vanilla  71 861 36.5 0.0 0.5 57.3 73.3 
306 Crustaceans, live, fresh, chilled , 
frozen , dried, etc; smoked; in 
shell, cooked by steam or boiling 
water; flours, meals & pellets for 
human consumption  958 852 -1.4 0.5 0.4 4.8 3.0 
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed  1,501  815 -7.3 0.8 0.4 6.2 7.5 
6212 Brassieres, girdles, corsets, 
braces, suspenders, garters and 
similar articles and parts 
thereof, whether or not knitted 
or crocheted  209 810 18.4 0.1 0.4 2.0 7.3 
6402 Footwear, with outer soles and 
uppers of rubber or plastics, 
nesoi 195 799 19.3 0.1 0.4 0.7 2.8 
307 Molluscs, live, fresh, chilled, 
frozen, dried, salted or in brine; 
smoked; flours, meals and 
pellets, fit for human 
consumption  478 780 6.3 0.2 0.4 4.2 6.3 
4001 Natural rubber, balata, 
gutta -percha, guayule, chicle 
and similar natural gums, in 
primary forms or in plates, 
sheets or strip  1,029  759 -3.7 0.5 0.4 2.6 5.6 
2609 Tin ores and concentrates  162 726 20.6 0.1 0.4 27.6 62.5 
6211 Track suits, ski -suits and 
swimwear, not knitted or 
crocheted  0 716 - 0.0 0.4 0.0 6.4 
-  not applicable.  
Source:  UN Comtrade database (201 1), Trade Data Monitor ( 2019) [importer data based on available 
 reporters].  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 49 - 
 
  Annex Table 7: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2019 
(Million dollars and annual percentage change)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2019 2012-
2019 2017 2018 2019 2019 2012-
2019 2017 2018 2019 
LDCs  43,409 6 7 14 10 66,453  -1 6 7 -7 
Afghanistan  600 -15 -29 98 -3 1,211 -5 15 13 -9 
Angola  559 -5 38 -36 -11 8,219 -13 6 -24 -16 
Bangladesh  3,207 13 13 31 8 9,526 9 9 16 -1 
Benin  395 -1 2 50 -19 648 2 -10 11 -15 
Bhutan  144 6 11 13 -20 211 2 1 15 -10 
Burkina Faso  491 3 7 11 -3 1,457 3 10 10 -3 
Burundi  21 8 -2 41 -13 189 0 18 1 -12 
Cambodia  6,027 10 14 20 15 3,161 11 13 11 5 
Central African 
Republic  53 17 12 32 -1 431 10 11 53 0 
Chad 319 3 18 4 3 2,100 -1 79 13 3 
Comoros  100 7 14 23 -4 104 0 13 12 -1 
Democratic Republic 
of the Congo  110 -10 -30 50 24 2,150 1 -15 73 -19 
Djibouti  758 25 2 7 6 589 22 42 -20 6 
Eritrea  246 -5 13 1 -1 140 5 12 23 -18 
Ethiopia  4,536 9 19 38 1 4,151 2 -4 22 -32 
The Gambia  229 6 -1 45 17 114 6 -7 -17 12 
Guinea  132 -2 -1 99 27 955 3 7 6 19 
Guinea -Bissau  36 8 58 17 -3 160 12 89 7 -3 
Haiti 395 -3 -15 36 -40 911 2 2 15 -20 
Kiribati  8 -8 4 -30 -2 54 0 -15 -10 -3 
Lao People’s 
Democratic Republic  1,101 9 -7 18 20 1,274 8 9 3 11 
Lesotho  28 -4 -46 -3 -5 436 0 18 4 -6 
Liberia  9 -23 -29 -53 -8 235 -11 11 -8 17 
Madagascar  1,381 1 9 3 8 1,069 -2 12 5 -6 
Malawi  172 8 26 17 7 317 7 20 13 3 
Mali 469 6 3 10 -4 1,355 4 5 5 -3 
Mauritania  135 1 -41 -15 19 600 -7 24 -8 -6 
Mozambique  923 2 49 19 18 2,775 -7 -5 46 -36 
Myanmar  6,735 28 1 19 51 3,444 13 15 18 2 
Nepal  1,512 10 30 7 2 1,691 10 29 11 -5 
Niger  221 18 12 10 -2 1,066 4 21 11 -1 
Rwanda  705 10 21 -1 8 948 13 1 1 -2 
Sao Tome and 
Principe  43 14 -13 3 -41 54 12 -2 -1 -8 
Senegal  1,213 2 7 7 0 1,948 6 13 12 19 
Sierra Leone  224 4 -63 4 116 464 -2 -14 3 19 
Solomon Islands  122 1 17 3 -12 215 2 3 -5 13 
Somalia  415 … 5 3 2 1,555 … 9 2 5 
South Sudan  169 … 10 -28 20 811 … -9 37 6 
Sudan  1,353 7 18 -15 -9 1,298 -6 -1 -20 22 
Tanzania  4,104 6 7 5 3 1,882 -3 -7 5 -9 
Timor -Leste  76 14 25 6 -7 320 -5 -29 9 -7 
Togo 607 6 6 11 3 508 2 7 8 10 
Tuvalu  5 4 -3 1 78 15 -7 21 8 -5 
Uganda  1,752 -2 -17 16 9 2,653 1 2 24 5 
Vanuatu  395 4 5 14 8 156 1 3 0 3 
Yemen  162 -27 -49 -16 22 1,415 -7 -15 4 10 
Zambia  1,014 0 -2 10 6 1,473 2 6 14 -9 
Memorandum item:            
World  6,065,637  4 9 9 2 5,730,627  4 8 8 2 
… Not available.  
Note:  Data include preliminary estimates  for 2019. 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates in cooperation with ITC and UNSD.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 50 - 
 
  Annex Table 8: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC  preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2020  or latest available  yeara 
Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Armenia 
(2016)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
6 April 2016 43.9%  (electrical machinery, 
chemicals, iron and steel 
products, alcoholic beverages)  IDB 
Australia  Duty- and quota -free 
entry for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada  GSP – Least -developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT)  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000. Extended 
until 31 December 2024.  98.5% (dairy and other animal 
products, meat, meat 
preparations, cereal products)  WT/COMTD/N/15  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3  
Chile 
(2019) DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
28 February 2014  99.5% (cereals, sugar, milling 
products)  WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1  
China 
(2017)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2010 96.6% (chemicals, transport 
vehicles, machinery and 
mechanical appliances, electrical 
machinery, paper)  WT/COMTD/N/39  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2  
European 
Union  GSP – Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative  
Entry into force:  
5 March  2001 99.8% (arms and ammunition)  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7  
Iceland  
(2018) GSP – Tariff preferences 
for the world’s poorest 
countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January 2002  91.8% (meat, food 
preparations, vegetables, dairy 
and other animal products, 
plants and trees)  WT/COMTD/N/17  
WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1  
India 
(2016)  Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP)  
Entry into force:  
13 August  2008 94.1% (plastics, coffee and 
tea, alcoholic beverages, 
tobacco, food residues)  WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1  
Japan  GSP – Enhanced 
duty- and quota -free 
market access  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007.  
Extended until 
31 March  2021 97.8% (fish and crustaceans, 
footwear, milling products, 
cereal products, sugar)  WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
WT/COMTD/N/2/ Add.15  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16  
Kazakhstan 
(2019)  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2010  62.9% (vehicles, machinery, 
beverages, articles of iron and 
steel)  WT/COMTD/PTA3/N/1  
Korea, 
Republic of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000  89.9% (fish and crustaceans, 
mineral fuels, oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, wood 
products, vegetables)  WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1  
Kyrgyz 
Republic  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
29 March 2006 57.6% (motor vehicles, meat 
products, wine, sugar ) IDB 
Montenegro  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
20 January 201 6 93.5% (fish and crustaceans, 
alcoholic beverages, meat and 
dairy products)  WT/COMTD/PTA2/N/1  
New 
Zealand  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 100%  WT/COMTD/27  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 51 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Norway  GSP – Duty- and quota -
free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6  
Russian 
Federation  GSP scheme in the 
context of the Eurasian 
Economic Union between 
Armenia, Kazakhstan, 
Kyrgyz Republic and the 
Russian Federation  
Entry into force: 
10 October 2016  61.2% (transport vehicles, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, beverages,  iron 
and steel products,  electrical 
machinery, meat products, 
articles of wood ) WT/COMTD/PTA1/N/1  
Switzerland  GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 100%  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4  
WT/COMTD /N/7/Add.5  
Chinese 
Taipei  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
17 December 2003  32.1% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical 
machinery, fish and 
crustaceans, plastics)  WT/COMTD/N/40  
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1  
Tajikistan 
(2017) Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
25 October 2003  3.7% (Duty -free access 
includes machinery, glass 
products, petroleum products)  IDB 
Thailand  DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
9 April 2015  71.0% (transport vehicles, 
electrical machinery, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, iron and steel 
products, apparel and clothing)  WT/COMTD/N/46  
Turkey 
(2019) GSP 
Entry into force:  
31 December  2005 78.7% (iron and steel 
products, fish and crustaceans, 
food preparations, meat, oil 
seeds and oleaginous fruits)  IDB 
United 
States  GSP for least -developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC).  
The Trade Preferences 
Extension Act of 2015 
(Title II) authorizes GSP 
until 31 December 2020  
and makes GSP 
retroactive to 
1 January  2019. 79.7% (apparel and clothing, 
cotton, fibres, footwear, dairy 
and other animal products)  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/ 1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.9  
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act (AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000.  
Extended until 
30 September  2025 
(Title I) 97.0% WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/970  (Decision)  
WT/L/10 73 (Government 
report)  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/68  
 
- 52 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
United 
States  Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act (CBTPA)  
Entry into force:  
1 October 2000.  
Extended until 
30 September 2025 
(Title III) Duty free for most products, 
including textiles and apparels. 
The Haitian Hemispheric 
Opportunity through 
Partnershi p Encouragement 
(HOPE) Act of 2006 provided 
new trade benefits, especially 
of apparel imports from Haiti. 
The HOPE II Act of 2008 
enhanced duty -free treatment 
for qualifying apparel imports 
from Haiti. The Haiti Economic 
Lift Program (HELP) Act of 
2010 pro vided duty -free 
treatment for additional textile 
and apparel products from 
Haiti.  WT/L/1070  (Decision)  
WT/L/1063  (Government 
report)   
a This table represents a non -exhaustive list of non -reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b Based on data submitted to WTO IDB. The duty -free tariff line coverage can slightly differ with the 
one shown in Table 5 due to different reference years. Major exclusions refer to HS Chapter 
descriptions.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
__________