/Crop Protection Compendium
Datasheet report for Raoiella indica (red palm mite)
Pictures
Picture Title Caption Copyright
Adult
miteThe red palm mite (Raoiella indica), an invasive species in the Caribbean, may threaten
several important palms found in the southern USA. (Original magnified approx. 300x.)
Photo by Eric Erbe; Digital colourization by Chris Pooley .USDA-
ARS
Colony
of
mitesColony of red palm mites (Raoiella indica) on coconut leaflet, from India. Bryony
Taylor
Colony
of
mitesClose-up of a colony of red palm mites (Raoiella indica) on coconut leaflet, from India. Bryony
TaylorTop of page
Identity
Preferred Scientific Name
Raoiella indica Hirst (1924)
Preferred Common Name
red palm mite
International Common Names
English: coconut red mite; frond crimson mite; leaflet false spider mite; red date palm mite; scarlet mite
EPPO code
RAOIIN (Raoiella indica)Top of page
Taxonomic T reeTop of page
Domain: Eukaryota
    Kingdom: Metazoa
        Phylum: Arthropoda
            Subphylum: Chelicerata
                Class: Arachnida
                    Subclass: Acari
                        Superorder: Acariformes
                            Suborder: Prostigmata
                                Family: T enuipalpidae
                                    Genus: Raoiella
                                        Species: Raoiella indica/Notes on T axonomy and Nomenclature
R. indica  was first described in the district of Coimbatore (India) by Hirst in 1924 on coconut leaflets [ Cocos nucifera ]. A
comprehensive taxonomic review of the genus and species was carried out by Mesa et al . (2009), which lists all
suspected junior synonyms of R. indica,  including Raoiella camur  (Chaudhri and Akbar) , Raoiella empedos  (Chaudhri and
Akbar) , Raoiella obelias (Hasan and Akbar) , Raoiella pandanae (Mohanasundaram), Raoiella phoenica  (Meyer) and
Raoiella rahii (Akbar and Chaudhri) . The review also highlighted synonymy with Rarosiella cocosae found on coconut in
the Philippines. The review by Mesa et al . (2009) also lists the redescriptions by several authors.Top of page
Description
R. indica  is a small red mite, which is characterized by the presence of long spatulate setae on its dorsum, often with a
drop of liquid on the end. The body shape is oval and flattened and the male can be distinguished from the female by the
distinct triangular abdomen ( Kane and Ochoa, 2006 ; Welbourn, 2006 ). All stages of the mite are red; however , the adult
females often have darkened areas on their abdomen. There are five distinct life stages: egg, larva, protonymph,
deutonymph and adult. The original description by Hirst (1924)  stated that the length of the adult female (including palpi) is
0.29-0.30 mm and the male is 0.21 mm. Redescriptions have quoted the length of the adult female as between 267-300
µm and the width between 178 and 215 µm ( Hirst, 1924 ; Taher Sayed, 1942 ; Sadana, 1997 ). The eggs are approximately
0.117 mm long, red/orange and smooth and shiny in appearance ( Moutia, 1958 ) and are found attached to the leaf by a
stipe that is roughly twice as long as the egg ( Kane and Ochoa, 2006 ). Zaher et al. (1969)  stated that the length of the
larva was 125 µm long and 93 µm wide, the protonymph 210 µm long and 159 µm wide, and the deutonymph 272 µm
long and 179 µm wide. Welbourn (2006)  stated that the dorsal and lateral setae of nymphs are distinctly shorter than
those of the adult, and dorsal setae are not set in tubercules (projecting setal bases).Top of page
Summary of Invasiveness
R. indica was first described in India in 1924 (Hirst) and has since been reported in several Old W orld countries. The
species became of recent significance in 2004 when it was first reported in the Caribbean (Flechtmann and Étienne,
2004). Since then the mite has successfully spread throughout the islands of the Caribbean and has expanded its range
into southern Florida ( USDA-APHIS, 2007 ), South America (northern V enezuela, Vásquez et al., 2008 ; Brazil, Navia et al.,
2010 ; Colombia, Carrillo et al., 201 1) and Mexico ( Estrada-V enegas et al., 2010 ). The mite has been reported on a wide
range of palm hosts of the family Arecaceae and apparent new associations with members of the order Zingiberales,
including the families Musaceae, Heliconiaceae, Zingiberaceae and Strelitziaceae have been reported. The success of the
mite in the invasive range may be attributed to its ability to colonize many dif ferent host plant species, its apparent lack of
co-evolved natural enemies in its new habitat and its rapid dispersal in its new range.Top of page/Distribution
The majority of literature on R. indica , previous to its introduction into the Caribbean, was published in India, where the
mite was first described ( Hirst, 1924 ). R. indica  is a well-established pest throughout palm growing areas of India and
reported mainly on Cocos nucifera  (Hirst, 1924 ) and Areca catechu  (Daniel, 1979 ; Yadavbabu and Manjunatha 2007 ).
Outside India, older literature reported R. indica  in Egypt, UAR, ( Taher Sayed, 1942 ; Zaher et al., 1969 ), Sudan ( Couland,
1938 , cited in Pritchard and Baker , 1958 ) Mauritius ( Moutia, 1958 ) and Saudi Arabia ( Soliman and Al-Y ousif, 1979 ). More
recently , further countries throughout Asia have been reported (see Distribution table). However , it is unknown how long
the mite has been present in these countries. Dowling et al. (2010)  have carried out a detailed molecular analysis with the
aim to track the phylogenetic history of R. indica . They found the most primitive haplotypes of R. indica  were found in the
Middle East and these appear to have spread throughout the Old W orld and eventually to the Caribbean, indicating that
perhaps the mite has been present in the Asian region for some time. R. indica  was first reported in the New W orld in
Martinique (Flechtmann and Étienne, 2004) and has since spread rapidly throughout the Caribbean archipelago into
Southern Florida ( Smith and Dixon, 2008 ) and South America ( Vásquez et al., 2008 ) and has now spread further into
Mexico ( Estrada-V enegas et al., 2010 ), Brazil ( Navia et al., 2010 ) and Colombia ( Carrillo, 201 1). It has become of interest
as an invasive in these countries due to the high population numbers and diverse range of host plants the mite has been
recorded on.Top of page/Distribution T able
The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they
may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution
Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last
ReportedOrigin First
ReportedInvasive Reference Notes
Asia
Cambodia
(/cpc/datasheet/108472)Absent,
unreliable
recordEPPO, 2014
India
(/cpc/datasheet/108459)Present CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
-Goa
(/cpc/datasheet/108731)Present Raju, 1983 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
-Karnataka
(/cpc/datasheet/108738)Widespread Puttaswamy
and
Rangaswamy ,
1976 ; Daniel,
1979 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
-Kerala
(/cpc/datasheet/108737)Widespread Kapur , 1961 ;
Saradamma,
1973 ;
Sathiamma,
1996 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
-Madhya Pradesh
(/cpc/datasheet/108743)Present Gupta and
Gupta, 1979 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
-Tamil Nadu
(/cpc/datasheet/108751)Widespread Introduced 1924 Hirst, 1924 ;
Loganathan et
al., 2000 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014Top of page/Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last
ReportedOrigin First
ReportedInvasive Reference Notes
-West Bengal
(/cpc/datasheet/108755)Widespread Sarkar and
Somchoudhury ,
1989a ; Sarkar
and
Somchoudhury ,
1989b ; Sarkar
and
Somchoudhury ,
1988 ; Senapati
and Biswas,
1990 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Iran
(/cpc/datasheet/108462)Present Arbabi et al.,
2002 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014Sistan-
Baluchestan
and
Hormozgan
Provinces
Israel
(/cpc/datasheet/108457)Absent,
formerly
presentKane et al.,
2005 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Oman
(/cpc/datasheet/108529)Present Elwan, 2000 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014Al-Dakhliya
region
Pakistan
(/cpc/datasheet/108537)Present Mansoor-ul-
Hassan, and
Shamshad,
2000;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014Punjab
Philippines
(/cpc/datasheet/108535)Present Kane et al.,
2005 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014Synonym
Rarosiella
cocosae
reported
Saudi Arabia
(/cpc/datasheet/108552)Present Soliman and Al-
Yousif, 1979 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Sri Lanka
(/cpc/datasheet/108485)Present Introduced 1977 FAO, 1977 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Thailand
(/cpc/datasheet/108580)Present Kane et al.,
2005Pattaya and
Bangkok
United Arab Emirates
(/cpc/datasheet/108350)Present Gassouma,
2004 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Africa/Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last
ReportedOrigin First
ReportedInvasive Reference Notes
Benin
(/cpc/datasheet/108375)Present 2010 Zannou et al.,
2010Surveys found
it between
2004 and 2010
Egypt
(/cpc/datasheet/108418)Present Taher Sayed,
1942 ; Zaher et
al., 1969 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014First reported
in 1942. Found
in lower and
upper areas of
Egypt, but
rather confined
to certain areas
(Sayed,1942).
Recorded on
date palm,
Phoenix
dactylifera
Mauritius
(/cpc/datasheet/108510)Present Moutia, 1958 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Namibia
(/cpc/datasheet/108516)Present Giliomee and
Ueckermann,
2016
Réunion
(/cpc/datasheet/108546)Present Ueckermann,
2004 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
South Africa
(/cpc/datasheet/108613)Restricted
distributionIPPC, 2016 Detected in the
Northern Cape
Province near
the town of
Upington.
Sudan
(/cpc/datasheet/108555)Present Baker and
Pritchard, 1960 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Tanzania
(/cpc/datasheet/108591)Present 2010 Zannou et al.,
2010Reported in
coconut
orchards
between 2004
and 2010
North America
Mexico
(/cpc/datasheet/108513)Localised Introduced 2009 Invasive Estrada-
Venegas et al.,
2010 ; EPPO,
2014Quintana Roo
(state)
USA
(/cpc/datasheet/108597)Transient:
actionable,
under
eradicationEPPO, 2014
-Florida
(/cpc/datasheet/108804)Transient:
actionable,
under
eradicationIntroduced Invasive Smith and
Dixon, 2008 ;
EPPO, 2014
Central America and Caribbean/Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last
ReportedOrigin First
ReportedInvasive Reference Notes
Barbados
(/cpc/datasheet/108368)Restricted
distributionIPPC, 2010 ;
EPPO, 2014
Cuba
(/cpc/datasheet/108405)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive Rodríguez et
al., 2007 ;
EPPO, 2014
Dominica
(/cpc/datasheet/108413)Present Introduced 2005 Invasive IPPC, 2005 ;
Kane et al.,
2005 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Dominican Republic
(/cpc/datasheet/108414)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Grenada
(/cpc/datasheet/108432)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive Welbourn,
2006 ; IPPC,
2007; EPPO,
2014
Guadeloupe
(/cpc/datasheet/108441)Present Introduced 2005 Invasive Flechtmann and
Étienne, 2004;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
Guatemala
(/cpc/datasheet/108445)Present Introduced 2018 Garcia
Ochaeta, 2018
Haiti
(/cpc/datasheet/108453)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive Welbourn,
2006 ; EPPO,
2014
Jamaica
(/cpc/datasheet/108465)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive Welbourn,
2006 ; IPPC,
2007; EPPO,
2014
Martinique
(/cpc/datasheet/108506)Present Introduced 2004 Invasive Flechtmann and
Étienne, 2004;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014Reported on
Veitchia merrillii
and Cocos
nucifera
Puerto Rico
(/cpc/datasheet/108541)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive CABI/EPPO,
2007 ;
Rodrigues et
al., 2007 ;
EPPO, 2014
Saint Lucia
(/cpc/datasheet/108483)Present Introduced 2005 Invasive Kane et al.,
2005 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; Jn Pierre,
2008 ; EPPO,
2014
Saint V incent and the
Grenadines
(/cpc/datasheet/108600)Restricted
distributionIPPC, 2009 ;
EPPO, 2014
Trinidad and T obago
(/cpc/datasheet/108588)Present Introduced 2006 Invasive Kane et al.,
2005 ;
CABI/EPPO,
2007 ; EPPO,
2014
United States V irgin Islands
(/cpc/datasheet/108603)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive Welbourn,
2006 ; EPPO,
2014/Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last
ReportedOrigin First
ReportedInvasive Reference Notes
South America
Brazil
(/cpc/datasheet/108381)Present Present based
on regional
distribution.
-Amazonas
(/cpc/datasheet/108628)Present Rodrigues and
Antony , 2011
-Roraima
(/cpc/datasheet/108647)Localised Introduced 2009 Invasive Navia et al.,
2010 ; Navia et
al., 2011Boa V ista and
neighbouring
municipalities
Colombia
(/cpc/datasheet/108399)Restricted
distributionIntroduced Invasive Carrillo et al.,
2011
Venezuela
(/cpc/datasheet/108601)Present Introduced 2007 Invasive Vásquez et al.,
2008 ; EPPO,
2014High
infestations
found on
banana and
coconut leaflets
in Sucre and
Monagas
Europe
Russian Federation
(/cpc/datasheet/108550)Absent,
unreliable
recordEPPO, 2014
History of Introduction and Spread
Although the exact area of origin is unknown for R. indica, the mite is well established in the reported areas in Asia and
Africa. Current theories hypothesize that the mite has gradually spread west via natural dispersal and on infested material
transported via trading routes. It is believed that the pest was first introduced into the Caribbean via shipping lanes from
Africa (most probably Réunion), and since its introduction, the mite has spread widely through the islands of the
Caribbean spreading northwards into Florida and southwards into V enezuela. Welbourn (2006)  stated that the spread of
the mite throughout the islands of the Caribbean may have been facilitated by the transport of infested plants and
handicrafts made from palm material. W elbourn also stated that the natural dispersal method of the mite on wind currents
may also be aided by tropical storms or hurricanes.Top of page/Risk of Introduction
Authorities in the USA and Europe have carried out a risk assessment to identify the potential threat posed by R. indica
and to model its future spread throughout palm-growing regions. A USDA risk assessment ( Borchert, 2007 ) indicates that
the spread of the mite may be limited by climatic factors, therefore limiting it to tropical and sub-tropical regions.
Recommendations from the report were that movement of infested material should be restricted and not distributed to
uninfested areas. This includes the transport of palm handicrafts between islands in the Caribbean. The USDA-APHIS
and the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services have carried out surveys throughout Florida and have
set up sentinel sites to monitor the spread of R. indica  (Smith and Dixon, 2008 ). Literature was also produced in 2007
outlining the symptoms of infestation and a description of R. indica.  In Europe, EPPO has produced a report citing that
more data would be required on infestations in Israel and Egypt, and that currently there are no indications of the mite
disseminating or causing high levels of damage. Vásquez et al. (2008) stated that quarantine measures have been
implemented by SASA to prevent the further spread of R. indica  to other parts of V enezuela; however , the mite has since
been reported in Brazil ( Navia et al., 2010 ) and Mexico ( Estrada-V enegas et al., 2010 ).Top of page
Habitat
In literature originating from the Old W orld prior to the introduction of the mite to the Caribbean, the host plants reported
were Cocos nucifera, Areca catechu, Phoenix dactylifera (date palms) and Dictyosperma album.  Since the introduction
into the Caribbean, the number of host plants reported has increased substantially , most notably bananas [ Musa sp.],
plantains ( Musa sp.) and other members of the order Zingiberales. It is not known whether these plants are unreported
hosts in the Old W orld, or whether the host range has expanded in the invasive range. There are several new associations
reported on hosts believed to have origins in the New W orld.Top of page
Habitat List
Category Sub-Category Habitat Presence Status
Terrestrial Terrestrial –
ManagedManaged forests, plantations and
orchardsPresent, no further
detailsHarmful (pest or
invasive)Top of page
Hosts/Species Affected
The Host Plant list in this datasheet is compiled from Cocco and Hoy (2009)  and Goldsmith (2009) . It is noted in Cocco
and Hoy (2009)  that there is often no information on the life stage found on the host plant and therefore the list reflects
which host plant species R. indica has been recorded on. Population levels on each of the host plants have not been
recorded/published to date; therefore data on the ability of R. indica to complete a full lifecycle on each species is not
available currently . In Cocco and Hoy (2009) , laboratory assays to ascertain this on several varieties of Musa sp.  were
carried out and it was found that populations were more easily established on Cocos nucifera.  However , reports from the
eastern Caribbean confirm that multi-generational colonies do occur in the field on certain varieties of Musa sp. including
Dwarf Cavendish, Giant Cavendish, Robusta and Williams, and for plantain varieties: Apem; Cents Livre; Ordinary; Dwarf
French; and Horn. The dif ference between laboratory and field observations warrants further investigation.Top of page/Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Plant name Family Context
Acer (maples)  (/cpc/datasheet/2800) Aceraceae Other
Acoelorrhaphe wrightii (Everglades palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/2768) Arecaceae Wild host
Adonidia arecina  (/cpc/datasheet/109763) Arecaceae Wild host
Aiphanes minima  (/cpc/datasheet/109764) Arecaceae Wild host
Alpinia purpurata (red ginger)  (/cpc/datasheet/4377) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Alpinia vittata  (/cpc/datasheet/109800) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Alpinia zerumbet (shell ginger)  (/cpc/datasheet/109799) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Archontophoenix alexandrae  (/cpc/datasheet/6726) Arecaceae Wild host
Areca catechu (betelnut palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/6981) Arecaceae Main
Arenga pinnata (sugar palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/3568) Arecaceae Wild host
Bactris plumeriana Arecaceae Wild host
Beccariophoenix madagascariensis  (/cpc/datasheet/109766) Arecaceae Wild host
Bismarckia nobilis  (/cpc/datasheet/9226) Arecaceae Wild host
Butia capitata  (/cpc/datasheet/10462) Arecaceae Wild host
Calathea arundinacea (variegated calatea)  (/cpc/datasheet/109925) Marantaceae Wild host
Calathea lutea (calathea)  (/cpc/datasheet/109806) Marantaceae Wild host
Caryota mitis  (/cpc/datasheet/1 1581) Arecaceae Wild host
Chamaedorea  (/cpc/datasheet/14344) Arecaceae Wild host
Coccothrinax argentata  (/cpc/datasheet/109767) Arecaceae Wild host
Coccothrinax miraguama  (/cpc/datasheet/109768) Arecaceae Wild host
Cocos nucifera (coconut)  (/cpc/datasheet/1 1788) Arecaceae Main
Corypha umbraculifera  (/cpc/datasheet/15320) Arecaceae Wild host
Curcuma longa (turmeric)  (/cpc/datasheet/17014) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Cycas  (/cpc/datasheet/1 1832) Cycadaceae Other
Cyrtostachys renda  (/cpc/datasheet/109770) Arecaceae Wild host
Dictyosperma album  (/cpc/datasheet/18808) Arecaceae Main
Dypsis decaryi  (/cpc/datasheet/109771) Arecaceae Wild host
Dypsis lutescens  (/cpc/datasheet/109772) Arecaceae Wild host
Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/20295) Arecaceae Wild host
Elaeodendron transvaalense Salacia Wild host
Etlingera elatior (torch ginger)  (/cpc/datasheet/109802) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Eucalyptus deglupta (kamarere)  (/cpc/datasheet/22622) Myrtaceae Wild host
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry)  (/cpc/datasheet/23099) Myrtaceae Wild host
Heliconia  (/cpc/datasheet/26639) Heliconiaceae Main
Heliconia bihai (macaw flower)  (/cpc/datasheet/109790) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia caribaea  (/cpc/datasheet/26640) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia caribaea x bihai  (/cpc/datasheet/109791) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia chartacea  (/cpc/datasheet/109793) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia episcopalis  (/cpc/datasheet/109794) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia latispatha  (/cpc/datasheet/109795) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia marginata  (/cpc/datasheet/109796) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia psittacorum  (/cpc/datasheet/26641) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Heliconia rostrata  (/cpc/datasheet/109792) Heliconiaceae Wild host
Latania lontaroides  (/cpc/datasheet/109773) Arecaceae Wild host
Licuala grandis  (/cpc/datasheet/30714) Arecaceae Wild host
Licuala spinosa  (/cpc/datasheet/109774) Arecaceae Wild host
Livistona chinensis (Chinese fan palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/31059) Arecaceae Wild host
Microcycas calocoma Zamiaceae Other
Musa (banana)  (/cpc/datasheet/35124) Musaceae MainTop of page/Plant name Family Context
Musa acuminata (wild banana)  (/cpc/datasheet/35125) Musaceae Main
Musa balbisiana  (/cpc/datasheet/35126) Musaceae Main
Musa corniculata  (/cpc/datasheet/109776) Musaceae Wild host
Musa ornata (flowering banana)  (/cpc/datasheet/109778) Musaceae Wild host
Musa uranoscopos  (/cpc/datasheet/109775) Musaceae Wild host
Ocimum basilicum (basil)  (/cpc/datasheet/36858) Lamiaceae Wild host
Pandanus utilis  (/cpc/datasheet/38450) Pandanaceae Wild host
Phaseolus (beans)  (/cpc/datasheet/40612) Fabaceae Wild host
Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island date palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/40697) Arecaceae Wild host
Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/40698) Arecaceae Main
Phoenix reclinata (senegal date palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/40705) Arecaceae Wild host
Phoenix roebelenii Arecaceae Wild host
Phoenix rupicola  (/cpc/datasheet/109779) Arecaceae Wild host
Pritchardia pacifica  (/cpc/datasheet/109780) Arecaceae Wild host
Pritchardia vuylstekeana  (/cpc/datasheet/109781) Arecaceae Wild host
Pseudophoenix vinifera Arecaceae Wild host
Ptychosperma elegans  (/cpc/datasheet/109782) Arecaceae Wild host
Ptychosperma macarthurii (Macarthur palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/45714) Arecaceae Wild host
Ravenala madagascariensis  (/cpc/datasheet/109798) Strelitziaceae Wild host
Renealmia alpinia  (/cpc/datasheet/109804) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Renealmia aurantifera  (/cpc/datasheet/109805) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Rhapis excelsa Arecaceae Wild host
Roystonea borinquena  (/cpc/datasheet/109783) Arecaceae Wild host
Sabal blackburniana Arecaceae Wild host
Sabal mauritiiformis  (/cpc/datasheet/109784) Arecaceae Wild host
Schippia concolor Arecaceae Wild host
Schippia concolor Arecaceae Wild host
Strelitzia reginae (Queens bird-of-paradise)  (/cpc/datasheet/52050) Strelitziaceae Wild host
Syagrus romanzof fianum (queen palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/109785) Arecaceae Wild host
Syagrus schizophylla  (/cpc/datasheet/109786) Arecaceae Wild host
Thrinax radiata  (/cpc/datasheet/53708) Arecaceae Wild host
Veitchia arecina  (/cpc/datasheet/109787) Arecaceae Wild host
Veitchia merrillii (christmas palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/56193) Arecaceae Wild host
Washingtonia filifera (desert fanpalm)  (/cpc/datasheet/56706) Arecaceae Wild host
Washingtonia robusta (mexican washington-palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/56708) Arecaceae Wild host
Wodyetia bifurcata (foxtail palm)  (/cpc/datasheet/109789) Arecaceae Wild host
Zingiber (ginger)  (/cpc/datasheet/57534) Zingiberaceae Wild host
Growth Stages
Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, V egetative growing stageTop of page/Symptoms
The presence of colonies of R. indica on leaflets or leaves initially causes localized yellowing, which may spread to form
larger chlorotic patches. This can result in yellowing of the leaflet and potentially necrosis. In general, lower leaflets of
palms are more severely af fected and may appear yellow in colour . Infestations on bananas [ Musa paradisiaca ] and
plantain often cause yellowing along the margins of the leaf ( USDA-APHIS, 2007 ). On coconuts [ Cocos nucifera ] in the
Caribbean it has been reported that flowers and small nuts may abort following the yellowing of the leaflets. Y oung
seedlings appear to be most af fected and the fronds most af fected by the mite are generally in the lower third of the
canopy (Hoy et al. , 2006). Peña et al. (2009)  stated that heavy infestations may result in death of young plants.Top of page
List of Symptoms/Signs
Sign Life Stages Type
Fruit / premature drop
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / external feeding
Leaves / necrotic areas
Leaves / yellowed or dead
Whole plant / discoloration
Whole plant / external feedingTop of page/Biology and Ecology
Genetics
R. indica  is a haplo-diploid bisexual species confirmed by the presence of two classes of eggs; one class containing two
chromosomes and one class containing four chromosomes (Helle et al. , 1972). Little information is known about the
genetic diversity of the species. Dowling et al. (2010)  carried out a biogeographical study of R. indica  and discovered that
the most primitive haplotypes tended to be found in the Middle East.
Reproductive Biology
The life history of R. indica was described by Moutia (1958)  and Zaher et al. (1969) on Cocos nucifera (coconut) and
Phoenix  dactylifera,  respectively . The eggs are laid in groups, often near the midrib or depressions in the leaflet, and on
hatching, the larvae emerge and start feeding on leaf tissue. The number of eggs laid varies from individual to individual;
however , Moutia (1958)  recorded that on average, 28.1 eggs were laid on leaf discs during the average adult female life
span of 27 days. As the larvae and nymphs pass through each stage, they enter a quiescent stage for 36-48 hours,
whereby they enter ecdysis and withdraw posteriorly from the exuviae ( Zaher et al., 1969 ). The duration of each stage on
coconut at 24.2°C in Mauritius was egg: 4-6 days; larva: 6-8 days; protonymph: 4-7 days; deutonymph: 4-5 days;
however , the duration of stages increases with lower average temperatures ( Moutia, 1958 ). Hoy et al. (2006)  highlighted
findings by Nageshachandra and ChannaBasavanna (1984) , stating that both mated and unmated females lay eggs, with
males emerging from the eggs laid by unmated females and the eggs from mated females emerging as female.
Physiology and Phenology
No studies to date (2010) have been carried out on this subject.
Nutrition
Studies on the nutritional requirements of R. indica  have not been carried out; however , a study was conducted looking at
the correlation of leaf nutrients to R. indica populations. Sarkar and Somchoudhury (1989b)  investigated correlations of
mite populations in association with crude protein, nitrogen, moisture, calcium and phosphorus content of coconut leaflets.
They found that coconut varieties with higher levels of nitrogen and crude protein had higher population densities of the
mite; no significant ef fect of calcium or phosphorus content was found in association with mite incidence. They reported
that varieties of coconut with higher moisture content in leaflets were more susceptible to herbivory by R. indica;  however ,
other reports suggest that poorly irrigated host plants are more susceptible to attack by the mite ( Devasahayam and Nair ,
1982 ).
Environmental Requirements
The exact range of tolerance of temperature is unknown; however , Sarkar and Somchoudhury (1989a)  showed that as
temperatures peak toward 40°C in W est Bengal, populations of R. indica also peak. Yadavbabu and Manjunatha (2007)
also reported that populations on Areca catechu were positively correlated to temperature, with highest average
populations recorded alongside the highest maximum temperature at 39.9°C. Data consistently shows that populations
build up in hot dry conditions and reduce with the onset of the monsoon in the Old W orld ( Moutia, 1958 ; Daniel, 1979 ;
Sarkar and Somchoudhury , 1989a ; Sathiamma, 1996 ; Yadavbabu and Manjunatha, 2007 ). Yadavbabu and Manjunatha
(2007)  reported a negative correlation between mite populations and rainfall and humidity , and Moutia (1958)  noted a
decline in populations with the onset of heavy rain. Sarkar and Somchoudhury (1989a)  found no relationship between
rainfall and mite population size. A recent paper by Carillo et al. (2010)  described the successful culture of R. indica  at
30°C (±1°C), 60% (± 5%) RH and a 12:12 L:D photophase on the abaxial leaflet of Malayan Dwarf coconut palms [ Cocos
nucifera ].Top of page/Notes on Natural Enemies
Several studies have been conducted to identify natural enemies of R. indica . As a mite, all the natural enemies recorded
have been predators including phytoseiid mites, Coccinellids, Staphylinids, Neuropterans, Dipterans and Thysanopterans.
Several studies have been carried out in the field to observe the levels of natural enemies in comparison to those of R.
indica , as well as laboratory studies to assess the voracity of the predators.
Moutia (1958)  carried out a comprehensive survey of natural enemies in Mauritius and recorded that Typhlodromus
caudatus was an active predator of R. indica  during the study . The mite reportedly predated on the egg stage, feeding on
up to five to six mites successively and up to a maximum of 16.9 in a day . The predator was found in high abundance on
coconut [ Cocos nucifera ] leaflets.
Somchoudhury and Sarkar (1989)  carried out a study in W est Bengal, India, and found the predominant predators to be a
staphylinid beetle, Oligota sp. and two predatory mites, Phytoseius sp  and Amblyseius sp. Oligota sp. and Phytoseius sp.
showed a correlation in population growth with R. indica throughout the season. In Karanataka, India, the predatory mite,
Amblyseius channabasavanni  and the coccinellid, Stethorus keralicus have been reported to prey upon R. indica  and
biological studies have shown that S. keralicus can feed and reproduce solely on a diet of R. indica , completing
development from egg to adult in 12-14 days, feeding on all stages of the mite ( Daniel, 1976 ).
The most abundant predators of R. indica appear to be phytoseiid mites. A recent study by T aylor et al. (CABI, UK, paper
in preparation 201 1) in Kerala, India, found that by far the most abundant predators were phytoseiid mites ( IDs underway
2009 ) and from the literature, the most widely reported genus of predator is Amblyseius.  Daniel (1981, cited in Gupta,
2003 ) reported that A. channabasavanni, feeding on R. indica eggs, had a total development time of 84-1 13hrs (3.5-4.7
days) for adult females, consuming on average 26.5 eggs. Amblyseius largoensis has also frequently been reported in
association with R. indica  in countries such as Mauritius (MA Hoy , [address available from CABI], personal
communication, 2009) and throughout the Caribbean and Florida ( Hosein, 2008 ; Peña et al., 2009 ).
In Florida, a study has been carried out to assess the response of native natural enemies to the introduction of the mite.
Several species have been shown to be associated with R. indica, but by far the most abundant predator was found to be
A. largoensis, which accounted for 77.2% of total predators collected in a study by Peña et al. (2009)  followed by
Aleurodothrips fasciapennis . Subsequent laboratory studies by Carrillo et al. (2010)  have shown that  A. largoensis  can
feed and reproduce solely on R. indica .Top of page/Natural enemies
Natural enemy Type Life stages Specificity References Biological
control inBiological
control
on
Aleurodothrips
fasciapennis
(/cpc/datasheet/41 19)Predator Adults/Eggs/Nymphs
Amblyseius
channabasavanni
(/cpc/datasheet/4741)Predator Daniel, 1979
Amblyseius largoensis
(/cpc/datasheet/4760)Predator Adults/Eggs/Nymphs Carrillo et al., 2011
Amblyseius longispinus
(/cpc/datasheet/109752)Predator Gupta, 2003
Amblyseius raoiellus
(/cpc/datasheet/109753)Predator Gupta, 2003
Armascirus taurus
(/cpc/datasheet/6989)Predator
Bdella distincta
(/cpc/datasheet/109760)Predator
Ceraechrysa
(/cpc/datasheet/109759)Predator
Chrysopa
(/cpc/datasheet/16448)Predator Daniel, 1979
Chrysoperla
(/cpc/datasheet/13182)Predator
Cunaxidae
(/cpc/datasheet/750)Predator
Cybocephalus semiflavus
(/cpc/datasheet/109757)Predator Daniel, 1979
Evorinea indica
(/cpc/datasheet/109924)Predator
Feltiella
(/cpc/datasheet/24261)Predator Daniel, 1979
Jauravia soror
(/cpc/datasheet/29247)Predator Daniel, 1979
Oligota
(/cpc/datasheet/37253)Predator Somchoudhury and
Sarkar , 1989
Phytoseius
(/cpc/datasheet/45644)Predator Somchoudhury and
Sarkar , 1989
Spilocaria bissellata
(/cpc/datasheet/50960)Predator Daniel, 1979
Stethorus keralicus
(/cpc/datasheet/51958)Predator Daniel, 1976 ; Daniel,
1979 ; Kapur , 1961 ;
Puttaswamy and
Rangaswamy , 1976
Stethorus parcepunctatus
(/cpc/datasheet/109756)Predator Daniel, 1979
Stethorus tetranychi
(/cpc/datasheet/109755)Predator Daniel, 1979
Stethorus utilis
(/cpc/datasheet/109761)Predator
Telsimia ephippiger
(/cpc/datasheet/109758)Predator
Typhlodromus caudatus
(/cpc/datasheet/109754)Predator Moutia, 1958Top of page/Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Welbourn (2006)  stated that wind dispersal was the most likely method of natural dispersal, and Hoy et al. (2006)  stated
that the presence of mites on older palms on islands adjacent to Martinique within a year of introduction, indicate that wind
dispersal was the primary dispersal method.
Accidental Introduction
It is believed that R. indica was first accidentally introduced to the Caribbean via infested material imported via shipping
lanes from the Old W orld. No research to date has identified whether this was a single or multiple introduction. Accidental
spread to new areas is via the introduction of infested plants or plant material or via palm handicrafts infested with mites or
eggs ( Welbourn, 2006 ), which are common tourist souvenirs and readily transported. Quarantine measures are in place to
prevent the transfer of mites via palm handicrafts, cut flower and leaf arrangements from host plants and coconut seed.Top of page
Pathway Causes
Cause Notes Long
DistanceLocal References
Cut flower trade Phytosanitary certificates required when transported between
Caribbean islandsYes
Garden waste
disposalInvestigated as one of the pathways in Florida Yes
Nursery trade PPQ Plant Inspection required for untreated shipments in N.
Atlantic/N.Pacific ports, USAYes
Ornamental
purposesDept. of Homeland Security Custom and Border Control found palm
handicrafts to carry eggs and adultsYes
Seed trade Coconut seed found to carry R. indica when transported between
regionsYes YesTop of page
Pathway V ectors
Vector Notes Long
DistanceLocal References
Consumables On palm handicrafts between islands in the Caribbean Yes
Mulch, straw ,
baskets and sodOn palm handicrafts between islands in the Caribbean Yes
Plants or parts of
plantsOn palm handicrafts between islands in the Caribbean & on cut
flower & host plant leaf arrangementsYes Yes
Wind Thought to aid dispersal locally or between islands in the
CaribbeanYes Yes Hoy et al.,
2006Top of page/Plant T rade
Plant parts liable to carry the pest
in trade/transportPest stages Borne
internallyBorne
externallyVisibility of pest or symptoms
Fruits (inc. pods) Yes Pest or symptoms usually visible
to the naked eye
Leaves adults; eggs;
larvae; nymphsYes Pest or symptoms usually visible
to the naked eye
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants adults; larvae;
nymphsYes Pest or symptoms usually visible
to the naked eye
Stems (above
ground)/Shoots/T runks/Branchesadults; larvae;
nymphsYes Pest or symptoms usually visible
to the naked eye
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/T ubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Growing medium accompanying plants
Roots
True seeds (inc. grain)
WoodTop of page
Impact Summary
Category Impact
Cultural/amenity Negative
Economic/livelihood Negative
Environment (generally) NegativeTop of page
Impact: Economic
Little empirical data has been gathered on the economic impact of the introduction of R. indica  to the Caribbean, USA and
South America. Peña et al. (2009)  quoted that coconut [ Cocos nucifera ] growers have reported a 70% drop in coconut
production since the introduction of the mite and F AO figures have shown a drop to date in coconut production from
Caribbean countries since 2004, when the mite was first identified in the region. Empirical studies are required to confirm
these figures/correlations; however , officials are concerned that this may lead to job losses and major socio-economic
problems. In Florida, it was feared possible economical impacts could come from quarantine restrictions if R. indica was
detected in palm nurseries. However , Bronson (2009)  stated that R. indica population levels were lower than expected in
Florida and quarantine would not to be enforced unless infestation levels were found to be high. Extra costs for
implementing regulatory actions in Florida have been quoted to be as much as half a million US dollars extra per year for
palm nursery producers ( Peña et al., 2009 ).Top of page
Impact: Environmental
Impact on habitats
The amenity value of many ornamental plants and palms is severely af fected by the yellowing that the mite causes.Top of page/Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Abundant in its native range
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerant of shade
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Host damage
Negatively impacts forestry
Reduced amenity values
Damages animal/plant products
Negatively impacts trade/international relations
Impact mechanisms
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to controlTop of page
Detection and Inspection
Colonies of R. indica  are usually found on the underside of leaves/leaflets of the host plants. Colonies often contain mites
of all stages as well as exuvial remains (white cast skins) and can have up to 300 individuals ( Kane and Ochoa, 2006 ).
Inspection of the underside of leaflets of host plants using a hand lens, or removal of material and inspection under a
dissecting microscope can confirm the presence of mites ( Hoy et al., 2006 ). Affected host plants will generally display
symptoms under heavy infestations. T ypical damage symptoms include localized yellowing of the leaf, which can spread
into larger chlorotic patches. Heavy infestations may be found along the midrib of coconut leaflets and damage may
progress from localized yellowing to necrosis ( Rodríguez et al., 2007 ). Infestations on bananas [ Musa paradisiaca ] and
plantain often cause yellowing along the margins of the leaf ( USDA-APHIS, 2007 ). If there are heavy infestations, persons
inspecting the host plant may find they pick up red on their fingers from the mites on the underside of leaves.
A diagnostic Lucid key to 20 species of Raoiella is available in Flat Mites of the W orld (http://idtools.org/id/mites/flatmites/) .Top of page/Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
R. indica  may be distinguished from other red mites on hosts as it is found in colonies that lack the webbing associated
with spider mites (T etranychidae). Other distinguishing features are the presence of white cast skins among the colony ,
red legs, long dorsal setae (often with droplets of liquid on) and flattened bodies ( Kane and Ochoa, 2006 ; Welbourn,
2006 ). Couplets may be observed between the male and females in most colonies. Couplets are formed between the
male and the female deutonymph as the female moults to adult and R. indica is the only species of T etranychoid mite to
display this behaviour ( Welbourn, 2006 ). Damage symptoms can be confused with nutrient deficiency or the disease,
Lethal Y ellowing ( USDA-APHIS, 2007 ). Zaher et al. (1969)  stated that damage caused by R. indica  could be distinguished
from that caused by another leaflet infesting mite, Phyllotetranychus aegyptiacus , as R. indica  causes ‘dark reddish
blotches’ to appear on date palms [ Phoenix dactylifera ]; whereas the other species cause ‘dirty white’ patches.Top of page/Prevention and Control
Public A wareness
USDA have produced public awareness leaflets ( USDA-APHIS, 2007 ) highlighting the signs and symptoms to look out for
and which authorities to contact in the case of the presence of the mite. Red palm mite updates and guidelines are
available at http://www .doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/red_palm_mite.html
(http://www .doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/red_palm_mite.html) .
Movement Control
Quarantine measures are in place to restrict the movement of infested material. For example, the movement of palm
handicrafts, cut flowers, etc, in the Caribbean. In Florida, there is no longer mandatory quarantine for infested palms;
however , quarantine measures are enforced if population levels increase ( Bronson, 2009 ). Host palms originating from
infested countries are not permitted entry into the USA without a phytosanitary certificate. In addition, palm handicrafts are
not permitted to enter Florida.
Biological Control
Biological control is seen as the best way to tackle the introduction of the mite, due to its widespread presence throughout
the Caribbean and now Florida and South America. Chemical control is dif ficult as palms can grow incredibly tall and are
difficult to treat. Several routes of biological control are being investigated. Peña et al. (2009)  have investigated the
response of native and commercially-produced predators to the introduction of R. indica  into Florida. Predator density was
observed to increase 6 months after the introduction of R. indica  into Florida with the most common association found to
be with Amblyseius largoensis . Laboratory studies by Carrillo et al. (2010)  have shown that A. largoensis  can play a role in
controlling R. indica  in Florida, and observations from the field have shown this predator to increase in density on
introduction of R. indica  to the area ( Peña et al., 2009 ). A. largoensis  has been reported in association with R. indica  in
several of the countries where the mite is invasive, including Puerto Rico, T rinidad and T obago ( Peña et al., 2009 ),
and Cuba ( Ramos-Lima et al., 2010 ).  Interest has arisen in the possibility of classical biological control due to the
abundance of predators reported in the Old W orld. Preliminary investigations by CABI (B T aylor , CABI, 2009 , personal
observation) into the possibility of classical biological control have been funded by USDA. The study has looked at the
abundance of predators associated with R. indica  in India, and studies have confirmed that phytoseiid mites are the most
commonly-occurring predator associated with the mite (species ID underway). However , suitability as biological control
agents has not been investigated and further research is required before the importation of an exotic predator would be
possible.
Chemical Control
Several trials have been carried out in India regarding the control of R. indica,  the most recent including Nadarajan et al.
(1980) ; Sarkar and Somchoudhury (1988); Jalaluddin and Mohanasundaram (1990) ; Senapati and Biswas (1990)  and
Jayaraj et al. (1991) . Nadarajan et al. (1980)  tested several compounds including the systemic pesticides dimethoate
and formothion, which were applied through stem injection; results showed that all treatments significantly reduced R.
indica  numbers. The most recent trials have been carried out by Peña et al. (2008) , and Peña and Rodrigues (2010)  in
Florida and Puerto Rico. Results showed significant reduction in mite density for several chemicals including spiromesifen,
dicofol, acequinocyl and etoxazole. Sarkar and Somchoudhury (1988)  reported 69.2% mortality with dicofol in India. Peña
and Rodrigues (2010)  tested further compounds and found that Sanmite [pyridaben] and A vid [avermectin] + Glacial gave
the best results for keeping R. indica  densities low on coconut seedlings and on bananas good control was observed
using T etraSan [etoxazole] and acequinocyl. However , it is proposed that the best results for the control of R. indica  will
come from implementing an IPM programme. Acaricides that are currently available do not give 100% control of R. indica
and a programme using chemicals to initially suppress high pest populations and the subsequent use of biological control
agents to keep populations low is thought to be the best approach for control ( Bronson, 2009 ).Top of page/References
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Links to W ebsites
Website URL Comment
Detection &
Identification of
the red palm
mite (Raoiella
indica)http://www .sel.barc.usda.gov/acari/PDF/indicaGuide.pdf
(http://www .sel.barc.usda.gov/acari/PDF/indicaGuide.pdf)
Florida
Department of
Agriculture &
Consumer
Services -
Division of
Plant Industryhttp://www .doacs.state.fl.us  (http://www .doacs.state.fl.us)
GISD/IASPMR:
Invasive Alien
Species
Pathway
Management
Resource and
DAISIE
European
Invasive Alien
Species
Gatewayhttps://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6  (https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6) Data
source for
updated
system
data
added to
species
habitat
list.
USDA
Program Aid
no. 1935 -
Look out for
the red palm
mitehttp://www .aphis.usda.gov/publications/plant_health/content/printable_version/RedPalmMite_6-
20-7.pdf
(http://www .aphis.usda.gov/publications/plant_health/content/printable_version/RedPalmMite_6-
20-7.pdf)Top of page
Organizations
USA: United States Department of Agriculture, 1400 Independence A venue, W ashingon DC 20250, www .usda.gov
(www .usda.gov)Top of page
Contributors
23/11/09 Original text by:
Bryony T aylor , CABI Europe - UK, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY , UKTop of page/World Map///Africa///Asia///Europe//Date of report: 19 December , 2019Pacific
North America
Central America
South America