WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
30 October  2023 
(23-7296) Page: 1/32 
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries    
 
  
MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST  
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 3 
2   LDC'S TRADE PROFILE  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 5 
2.1   Trends in Goods and Commercial Services Trade  ................................ ............................  5 
2.2   Merchandise Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ................  7 
2.2.1   Commodity price movements  ................................ ................................ ...................  8 
2.2.2   Major LDC exporters  ................................ ................................ ...............................  9 
2.2.3   Trends in product composition and export markets  ................................ .....................  10 
2.3   Services Trade Development  ................................ ................................ ......................  14 
2.3.1   Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  14 
2.3.2   Exports by main services sector  ................................ ................................ ...............  15 
3   MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  .............................  16 
3.1   Duty-Free Market Access Granted by Selected Members  ................................ .................  16 
3.2   Recent Initiatives to Improve Market Access for LDCs  ................................ ....................  18 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  19 
 
 
  
 
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 2 - 
 
  List of Tables  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2018 -2022 ...........................  5 
Table 2: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2018 and 2022  ................................ .........................  13 
Table 3: Duty -free tariff lines under MFN and LDC schemes in selected Members, 2021 or 
latest available year  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  16 
 
List of Charts  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2018 -2022 .......................  5 
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2018, 2021 and 2022  ................................ .......................  6 
Chart 3: LDCs' shares in total world trade of goods and commercial services, 2018 -2022 ............  6 
Chart 4: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 2018 -2022 ................................ ................................ ... 7 
Chart 5: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2018 -2022 ................................ ........................  8 
Chart 6: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub -grouping, 2018 -2022 ................................ .........  8 
Chart 7: Export prices of primary commodities, 2018 -2022 ................................ .....................  9 
Chart 8: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2018 and 2022  ................................ ..............  10 
Chart 9: Merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2018 and 2022  ................................ ..............  11 
Chart 10: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2018 and 2022  ................................ . 12 
Chart 11: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2018 -2022 ..............................  14 
Chart 12: Structure of LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2022 and 2019  ...........................  15 
Chart 13: LDCs' services exports of other commercial services, 2018 –2022 ..............................  16 
 
List of Annex Tables  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2022  .... 19 
Annex Table 2: Indices of market prices for non -fuel and fuel commodities, 2018 -2023 .............  21 
Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2018 -2022 ...............  24 
Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2022  ................................ .....................  26 
Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2022  .........................  29 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2023 or latest available year  ................................ ................................ ...............  30 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 3 - 
 
  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1. This Note, prepared by the Secretariat on an annual basis, provides an update on the trends 
in the l east developed countries' (LDCs) trade and market access conditions.2, 3 The note covers the 
period of 2018 -2022, and includes recent trends in LDCs' trade flows in goods and commercial 
services, as well as information on duty -free market access for LDC products and recent initiatives 
undertaken by Members to improve market access for LDCs.  
2. Between 2018 and 2022, LDCs' exports of goods and services increased at an 
average annual rate of 7.1% . In 2022,  LDCs' goods exports particularly benefitted from h igh 
energy prices, leading to an annual growth of 17.4%.  Exports of commercial services registered  an 
annual year -on-year growth rate of 27%. Despite this strong  growth , LDCs' commercial services 
exports have not yet  recovered to pre -pandemic levels . 
3. LDCs'  share in world exports of goods and commercial services increased from 
0.95% in 2021 to 1.02% in 2022  – the highest share recorded during the reporting period. A 
similar development was observed on the imports side, with a 1.45% share in 2022 – up from 1. 41% 
in 2021 . LDCs' share in world merchandise exports stood at 1.15% in 2022, while LDCs' share in 
global commercial services exports was 0.53%.  
4. LDCs' overall trade deficit continued to widen in the reporting period, reaching a 
new high in 2022 at USD 124. 1 billion . LDCs' overall trade deficit amounted to USD 115.8 billion 
in 2021, and USD 9 9.3 billion in 2018.  
5. Merchandise exports of LDCs reached USD 279 billion in 2022 , up from 
USD 206 billion in 2018 , representing an average annual increase of 7.9%. Merchandise 
imports reached a new record value of USD 354 billion in 2022, representing an increase of 14.7% 
compared to 2021 . The share of primary products in total LDCs' merchandise exports remained 
stable  between 2018 and 2022 , at 54% and 5 5% respectively. While the share of fuels decreased 
from 27% in 2018 to 25% in 2022, the shares of non -ferrous metals and that of ores and minerals 
grew from 9% to 11% , and from 5% to 7% , respectively. In the reporting p eriod, the shares of food 
and agricultural raw materials remained stable, and the manufactures composition of LDCs' exports 
did not experience substantial  change.  
6. LDCs' merchandise exports remain highly concentrated among a few exporters and 
markets . The t op ten LDC exporters represented a share of 77% of all LDCs' merchandise exports 
in 2022, up from 75% in 2018. Bangladesh was the top merchandise exporter amongst the group 
of LDCs in 2022, covering 20% of all LDCs' exports ; followed by Angola (18%), the 
Democratic  Republic of the Congo (10%), Cambodia (8%), and Myanmar ( 6%). China was the top 
destination for LDC merchandise exports in 2022 (24%), followed by the European Union (21%), 
the United  Arab Emirates (11%), the United States (10%), and India (7%). The top ten importers 
accounted for 85% of LDCs' total exports in 2022, compared to 81% in 2018.  
7. LDCs' exports of commercial services continue to grow but have not yet fully 
recovered from the COVID -19 pandemic . In 2022, LDCs' exports of commercial services rose to 
USD 37 billion, and experienc ed a higher year -on-year growth (27%) , than the rest of the world 
(15%). Nonetheless, LDCs' export of commercial services could not recover to pre -pandemic level s. 
LDCs' share in global commercial se rvices exports contracted from 0. 66% in 2019, to 0.53% in 
2022. In contrast, LDCs' participation in world services imports rose from 1.13% in 2019, to 1.25% 
in 2022. In 2022, Ethiopia was the largest exporter of LDCs' commercial services, accounting for 
18%, followed by Bangladesh (15%), and Tanzania (13%).  
 
2 Despite improvements in the production of national data, the st atistical coverage of LDCs remains 
incomplete. The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available. In many instances, it 
was still necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs' trading partners. The disadvantag e of 
using mirror data is that it does not allow taking trade among the LDCs into consideration, as well as trade 
with non -reporting developing economies.  
3 The definition of geographical and other groupings in this report serves only statistical purposes;  it 
does not imply an expression of opinion by the Secretariat concerning the status of any country or territory, 
the delimitation of its frontiers, nor the rights and obligations of any WTO Member in respect of WTO 
agreements.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 4 - 
 
  8. Several developed and developing country Members continue to provide full or 
almost full duty -free access to the LDC s. Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and Switzerland offer 
100% duty -free market access to LDCs. Chile, the European Union, and the United Kingdom offer 
over 99% duty -free market access to LDCs. Since the last report, the United Kingdom notified its 
Developing Countries Trading Scheme (DCTS) to the WTO, which entered into force on 19 June 
2023.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 5 - 
 
  2  LDC'S TRADE PROFILE  
2.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services Trade  
2.1.  Between 201 8 and 202 2, exports of goods and services of LDCs increased at an average annual 
rate of 7.1%, more than total world exports (+ 5.5% per year). During the peak of the pandemic, in 
2020, LD Cs' exports of goods were particularly affected by low energy prices, while services exports 
were hit even stronger by the pandemic -related travel restrictions. In 2022, LDCs' goods exports 
particularly benefitted again  (as in 2021)  from high energy prices, contributing  to an annual growth 
of 17.4%. Exports of commercial services registered a  year-on-year growth of 2 7%. Nevertheless , 
LDCs' commercial services exports have not  recovered to pre -COVID -19 levels.  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2018 -2022  
(Index, 201 8 = 100; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 201 8-2022 
(Billion US dollars  and percentage; BOP/BPM6)  
  Value ( USD bn) Annual percentage change (%)  
  2018  2022  2018  2019  2020  2021  2022  2018 -2022  
Exports  
Total goods and commercial services  239.1  314.1  12.8 0.1 -13.1 27.5 18.4 7.1 
Goods  199.3  276.6  12.3 -1.8 -7.7 30.4 17.4 8.5 
Commercial services  39.8 37.5 15.9 9.9 -37.6 8.3 26.6 -1.5 
Imports  
Total goods and commercial services  338.4  438.2  11.7 -0.6 -10.1 26.1 15.0 6.7 
Goods  268.0  356.4  12.8 0.1 -10.1 29.7 14.0 7.4 
Commercial services  70.4 81.8 7.7 -3.5 -10.1 11.9 19.8 3.8 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
2.2.  During the period 2018 to 2022, LDCs' overall trade deficit reached a new high in 2022 with 
USD 124.1 billion. Back in 2018, the deficit had amounted to USD 9 9.3 billion; in 2021, it was 
USD 115.8  billion  (Chart 2). 
60708090100110120130140150
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Commercial services Goods Total trade (goods and commercial services)WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 6 - 
 
  Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 201 8, 202 1 and 202 2 
(Billion US dollars; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
2.3.  In 2022, the share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services increased from 
0.95% in 2021 to 1.02% in 2022 – the highest share recorded during the five years in focus . A 
similar development could be observed on the imports side, with a 1.45 % share in 2022 – up from 
1.41% in 2021  (Chart 3).  
Chart 3: LDCs' shares in total world trade of goods and commercial services, 201 8-2022 
(Percentage shares; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
-30.5
-38.7
-44.3
-68.7
-77.2-79.8-90-80-70-60-50-40-30-20-1002018 2021 2022USD billion
Commercial services Goods
0.95% 0.96%0.93%0.95%1.02%1.38% 1.39% 1.39%1.41%1.45%
1.16% 1.17% 1.16%1.18%1.23%
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Exports Imports Total trade (exports+imports)WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 7 - 
 
  2.2  Merchandise Trade Developments4 
2.4.  Merchandise exports of LDCs rose from USD 206 billion in 2018 to USD 279 billion in 2022, the 
highest value for the period 2018-22, corresponding to an average an nual increase of 7.9%  
(Chart  4 left). They grew distinctly faster than world exports in 2022, i.e. 17.4% year -on-year versus 
11.4% . Merchandise imports reached a new record value of USD 354 billion (up from USD 272 billion 
in 2018), up 14.7% compared to 20 21 (see also Annex Table 1).  
2.5.  In 2022, the LDCs' share in world merchandise exports increased to 1.15% (from 1.08% in 
2018)  (Chart  4 right) . The share in world imports increased slightly to 1.41% in 2022 (from 1.40% 
in 2018).  The share of LDCs in world exports of manufactures grew from 0.56% in 2018 to 0.74% 
in 2022.  
Chart 4: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 201 8-2022 
(Billion US dollars and percentages)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD (totals); WTO estimates (manufactures).  
2.6.  The merchandise trade deficit of LDCs  (Chart 5) increased in 2022 (from USD 66 billion in 2018 
to USD 75 billion in 2022). In 2022 both the LDC oil exporters and the LDC non -fuel exporters 
showed a trade surplus (of USD 22 billion and of USD 4 billion respectively). The trade deficit of 
LDC exporters of manufactures decreased between 2021 and 2022, from USD 65 billion to 
USD 59 billion, and expanded for LDC exporters of agriculture  goods  from USD 30 billion in 2021 to 
USD 35 billion in 2022.  
2.7.  In 2022, merchandise exports (Chart 6) of LDC oil exporters grew the most (+32.1% against 
2021), benefitting from the recent energy price hikes. On second place were the LDC exporters of 
manufactures with a year -on-year increase of 20.3%, followed by the group of non -fuel minerals 
exporters (+10.1%). Exports of 'other LDCs' (Djibouti, Senegal, Tuvalu) grew by 6.0%, while the 
export values of the agricultural exporters remained stable against 2021 (+0.1%)  (see Annex 
Table  1). In 20 22, 30% of LDCs total exports were accounted for  by the manufactures exporters, 
while the share of oil exporters was 28% . 
 
4 Differences between Balance of Payments (BOP) (BPM6) and International Merchandise Trade 
Statistics are explained in the International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 
(IMTS  2010), Chapter XXIV Section B "Goods to be recorded dif ferently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" 
(p. 288). ( https://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/EG -IMTS/IMTS2010 -CM%20 -
%20white%20cover%20version.pdf ). 
206198186238279272 272
245309354
73 786987114
050100150200250300350400
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022USD billionExportsImports
Exports of 
manufactures
1.08 1.07 1.09 1.101.151.401.441.40 1.40 1.41
0.560.610.57 0.580.74
0.40.60.81.01.21.41.6
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022Share in world trade, %ExportsImports
Exports of 
manufacturesWT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 8 - 
 
  Chart 5: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 201 8-2022 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD.  
Chart 6: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub -grouping, 201 8-2022 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD.  
2.2.1   Commodity price movements  
2.8.  The price levels of all considered product groups in 2022 were above their respective 2018 and 
2019 pre -pandemic levels. In comparison to 2018 levels, energy prices were up 91%. Similar hike 
was observed in non -precious metals (49%), precious metals (43%), and food and beverages 
(43%) . Prices of agricultural raw materials had remained stable over the period, though  showed a 
22% price increase in 2022 against 2018  (Chart 7 and Annex Table 2).  
 
-33 -32-28-30-35
-44-42-34
-65-591612
11522
-1
-8715
4
-5 -4 -4 -5 -6
-66-74-58
-71-75-80-60-40-2002040
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022USD billion
LDC exporters of agriculture LDC exporters of manufactures
LDC oil exporters LDC exporters of non-fuel minerals
Other LDCs LDC (Least developed countries)
Other LDCsLDC exporters of agricultureLDC oil exportersLDC exporters of non-fuel mineralsLDC exporters of manufactures
020406080100
201820192020
2021
20221025798284US$ billion
Other LDCs LDC exporters of agriculture LDC oil exporters
LDC exporters of non-fuel minerals LDC exporters of manufacturesWT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 9 - 
 
  Chart 7: Export prices of primary commodities, 201 8-2022 
(Indices, 201 8 = 100)  
 
Source:  IMF Primary Commodity Price System.  
2.2.2   Major LDC exporters  
2.9.  The top ten exporters represented a share of 75% of all LDCs' merchandise exports in 2018 
and a share of 77% in 2022  (Chart 8). Bangladesh was the top merchandise exporter amongst the 
group of LDCs in 2022 covering 19% of all LDCs' exports in 2018 and 20% in 2022. Bangladesh was 
followed by Angola  with shares of 20%  (2018) and 18% (2022) respectively. The DR Congo remained 
at third position with 7.8% in 2018 and 10% in 2022. While Myanmar was on fourth  position in 2018 
(share of 7%), it fell to fifth position in 2022 (6%). Amongst the top ten exporters in 2022, the 
economies whose shares increased most in comparison to 2018 were the DR Congo 
(+2.3  percentage points) and Cambodia (+1.7 percentage points).   
  
406080100120140160180200
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Energy Food and Beverages Agricultural raw materials
Metals (excl. precious) Precious MetalsWT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 10 - 
 
  Chart 8: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 201 8 and 202 2 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Sourc e: WTO-UNCTAD.  
2.2.3   Trends in product composition  and export markets  
2.10.  The share of primary products in total merchandise exports of LDCs (Chart 9) remained stable 
between 201 8 (54%) and 202 2 (55%). While the share of fuels decreased from 27% (2018) to 25% 
(2022), the shares of non -ferrous metals and of ores and minerals grew from 9% to 11% and from 
5% to 7% respectively. The shares of food (10% in 2018 and 2021) and  agricultural raw materials 
(2% in both years) remained stable. As regards to the manufactures part in LDCs' export, there was 
not much movement in terms of composition between 2018 and 2022. The share of clothing fell 
slightly (from 27% in 2018 to 26% in 2022), the shares of textiles (1%) and semi manufactures 
(3%) stayed at the same levels, and the share of 'other manufactures' grew from 7% in 2018 to 9% 
in 2022 . 
2.11.  Crude petroleum oils remained the single most important export product for LDCs, albeit with 
a declining percentage from 20% in 2018 to 17% in 2022 ( Chart 10). Gold and copper (both refined 
and unrefined) remained important export products in 2022. Finall y, clothing such as sweaters, 
T-shirts and men and women suits were among the top export products in both 2018 and 2022. For 
a more detailed list of products, see also Annex Table 4.  
2.12.  In 202 2, China was the top destination for total LDC merchandise exports  (24%), followed by 
the European  Union (2 1%), the United Arab Emirates (1 1%), t he United States (10%), and India 
(7%). The top ten importers accounted for 8 5% of LDCs ' total exports in 202 2, compared to 8 1% 
in 201 8, indicating an increase in concentration of export markets and thus increased dependence 
on those destinations (see also  Table 2 and Annex Table 3).  
2.13.  For the agricultural products , as well as  fuels and mining products, China was t he largest 
destination market in 2022 with  a share of  19.4%, followed by the European Union with 15.4%. In 
the case of fuels and mining products, China imported almost half of all LDC exports. For 
manufactured goods, the largest importers in 2022 were the European Union with a share of 31.5% 
and the United States  with 24.4%.  
Angola
20.0%
Bangladesh
19.3%
DR Congo
7.8% Myanmar
6.9%Cambodia
6.3%Zambia
4.5%Lao PDR
2.7%Mozambique
2.6%Tanzania
2.6%Guinea
2.3%Other LDCs
25.0%2018 (Exports)
Bangladesh
19.6%
Angola
18.3%
DR Congo
10.1%Cambodia
8.0%Myanmar
6.1%Zambia, 4.3%Mozambique
3.0%Lao PDR
2.9%Guinea
2.7%Tanzania
2.4%Other LDCs
22.6%2022 (Exports)
Bangladesh
22.3%
Myanmar
7.1%
Cambodia
6.4%
Angola
5.8%
Ethiopia
5.6%Nepal
4.7%Zambia
3.5%Tanzania
3.4%Senegal
3.0%DR Congo
2.9%Other LDCs
35.3%2018 (Imports)
Bangladesh
24.9%
Cambodia
8.4%
Ethiopia
5.3%
Angola
5.0%Myanmar
4.9%Mozambique
4.1%Tanzania
4.0%Nepal
3.9%Sudan
3.1%DR Congo
3.1%Other LDCs
33.2%2022 (Imports)WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 11 - 
 
  Chart 9: Merchandise export structure of LDCs, 201 8 and 202 2 
(Percentage shares)  
 
 
Source : WTO estimates based on Comtrade (201 8) and Trade Data Monitor (202 2) [importer data].  
Textiles 1%Clothing 27%Semi -manufactures
3%Other manufactures
7%Residual (n.e.s.) 8%
Food 10%Agr. raw materials
2%Fuels 27%
Ores and minerals
5%
Non -ferrous metals
9%54%2018
Primary
products
Textiles 1%Clothing 26%Semi -manufactures
3%Other manufactures
9%Residual (n.e.s.) 5%
Food 10%Agr. raw materials
2%Fuels 25%
Ores and minerals
7%
Non -ferrous metals
11%55%2022
Primary
productsWT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 12 - 
 
  Chart 10: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 201 8 and 202 2 
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)  
 
Source:  WTO estimates based on Comtrade (201 8) and Trade Data Monitor (202 2) [importer data].  
2709 / Petroleum oils, 
crude , 20%
7108 / Gold, 
unwrought/semi -
manuf./powder , 7%
6110 / Sweaters, Pullovers, 
similar art., Knitted Or 
Crocheted , 4.0%
6109 / T -shirts, 
singlets/oth.vests, knitted 
or crocheted. , 4%
6203 / Men's or boys' suits , 
4.0%
7403 / Refined Copper and 
alloys, unwrought , 3%6204 / Women's or girls' 
suits, woven , 3%2711 / Petroleum gases , 3%
7402 / Unrefined copper; 
copper anodes , 3%6104 / Women's or girls' 
suits, knitted or crocheted. , 
2.0%Others , 46%2018
2709 / Petroleum oils, 
crude , 17%7403 / Refined Copper and 
alloys, unwrought , 5%
7108 / Gold, 
unwrought/semi -
manuf./powder , 5%
2711 / Petroleum gases , 
4.2%
6110 / Sweaters, 
Pullovers, similar 
art., Knitted Or 
Crocheted , 3.9%
6109 / T -shirts, 
singlets/oth.vests, knitted 
or crocheted. , 4% 6203 / Men's or boys' suits , 
3%6204 / Women's or girls' 
suits, woven , 2.9%7402 / Unrefined copper; 
copper anodes , 2.9%6104 / Women's or girls' 
suits, knitted or crocheted. , 
2%Others , 50%2022  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 13 - Table 2: LDCs' top ten export markets, 201 8 and 202 2 
(Billion US dollars and percentage shares)  
 Total trade  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
 Market  USD bn.  % Share  Market  USD bn.  % Share  Market  USD 
bn. % Share  Market  USD bn.  % Share  2018  China  55.3 25.3%  European Union  5.1 18% China  46.5 51.7%  European Union  34.4 41.0%  
European Union  48.0 22.0%  China  4.5 17% European Union  8.4 9.3%  USA 13.2 15.8%  
USA 18.3 8.4%  India 2.8 10% India 7.5 8.4%  United Kingdom  5.4 6.5%  
India 14.1 6.5%  Viet Nam  1.6 6% Thailand  5.8 6.4%  Japan  4.3 5.2%  
United Arab Emirates  13.2 6.0%  USA 1.3 5% USA 3.5 3.9%  China  2.8 3.4%  
Thailand  8.0 3.7%  Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 1.1 4% South Africa  2.3 2.6%  United Arab Emirates  2.7 3.2%  
Japan  6.1 2.8%  Thailand  1.0 4% Korea, Rep. of  1.5 1.7%  Canada  2.7 3.2%  
United Kingdom  6.1 2.8%  Japan  0.8 3% Zambia  1.5 1.6%  India 2.3 2.7%  
Switzerland  5.3 2.4%  Kenya  0.6 2% Namibia  1.2 1.3%  Thailand  1.2 1.4%  
South Africa  3.3 1.5%  Pakistan  0.6 2% Indonesia  1.2 1.3%  Russian Federation  1.2 1.4%  
Top 10 export markets  177.7  81.4%  Sum of above  19.4 71%  Sum of above  79.3 88.2%  Sum of above  70.2 83.8%  
All markets*  218.3  100%  All markets*  27.4 100%  All markets*  89.9 100%  All markets*  83.7 100%  
 Market  USD bn.  % Share  Market  USD bn.  % Share  Market  USD 
bn. % Share  Market  USD bn.  % Share  2022  China  78.0 23.7%  China  8.1 19.4%  China  60.0 48.5%  European Union  37.6 31.5%  
European Union  67.6 20.5%  European Union  6.5 15.4%  European Union  23.3 18.9%  USA 29.1 24.4%  
United Arab Emirates a 35.1 10.7%  Viet Nam a 6.2 14.7%  India 8.6 7.0%  China  8.9 7.5%  
USA 33.2 10.1%  India 5.2 12.3%  Thailand  8.0 6.5%  United Kingdom  7.1 6.0%  
India 21.6 6.6%  Thailand  1.9 4.4%  Korea, Rep. of  2.1 1.7%  Japan  5.0 4.2%  
Thailand  11.4 3.5%  USA 1.8 4.3%  USA 1.9 1.6%  Canada  4.2 3.5%  
United Kingdom  9.6 2.9%  Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 1.3 3.1%  Chinese Taipei  1.9 1.5%  India 3.7 3.1%  
Switzerland  8.5 2.6%  Pakistan  1.0 2.3%  United Kingdom  1.9 1.5%  United Arab Emirates a 3.4 2.9%  
Japan  6.9 2.1%  Japan  0.8 2.0%  South Africa  1.8 1.5%  Switzerland  1.7 1.4%  
Viet Nam a 6.9 2.1%  Türkiye  0.7 1.7%  United Arab Emirates a 1.7 1.4%  Korea, Rep. of  1.7 1.4%  
Top 10 export markets  278.7  84.6%  Sum of above  33.4 79.6%  Sum of above  111.4  90.0%  Sum of above  102.4  85.9%  
All markets*  329.5  100.0%  All markets*  42.0 100.0%  All markets*  123.8  100.0%  All markets*  119.2  100.0%  
a Estimate.  
* Aggregated export values for all markets may not coincide with total trade figures reported by LDCs.  
Source:  WTO estimates based on Comtrade  (2018) and Trade Data Monitor (2022) [importer data].  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 14 - 
 
  2.3  Services Trade Development  
2.3.1   Overall trend  
2.14.  In 2022, LDCs ' exports of commercial services rose to USD 37  billion, up 27% year -on-year, 
yet 14% below their pre -pandemic level. Subdued performance was due to the weak recovery of 
international tourism, particularly in Asian LDCs, due to continuing pandemic -related measures in 
Asia in 2022. As a result, between 2019 and 2022  the LDCs' share in global commercial services 
exports contracted from 0.66% to 0.53%.  In contrast, the group's  participation  in world services 
imports rose from 1. 13% in 201 9 to 1.25% in 2022 . Imports reached USD 82 billion in 2022, up by 
20%.  
2.15.  LDCs in Africa, which accounted for more than half of the group's exports over the years , saw 
a 22% increase in 2022 to USD 23.9 billion  (Chart 11). Travel export s of African LDCs performed 
relatively well compared with Asian LDCs, at only 7% below pre -COVID -19 levels. Growth was also 
sustained by tr ansport exports which expanded by 23% in 2022.   
2.16.  Recovery in Asian LDCs in 2022 lagged behind, with services exports 3 8% lower than in 2019, 
due to significant loss of travel revenues. On the other hand, Asian LDCs' exports of other commercial 
services rose 16% in 2022, increasing their relative share in LDCs' services exports to 47.7%.  
2.17.  In LDC Islands, services exports fe ll from USD 2.3 billion in 2019 to USD 1.5 billion  in 2022 , 
a 36% decline  (Chart 11). Travel accounted for 64% of the group's exports in 2019. However, travel 
exports remained 49% below the pre -pandemic value in 2019. Exports of other commercial services 
rose by 36% in 2022 since prior to the pandemic and were estimated at USD 416 million.  
2.18.  Among LDCs, Ethiopia was the largest exporter of commercial services (18%), follo wed by 
Bangladesh (15%) and Tanzania (13%) in 2022.  For a detailed of LDCs' services imports and 
exports, see also Annex Table 5.  
Chart 11: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2018 -2022  
(Billion dollars and annual percentage change)  
 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
133
-302722
-70-50-30-1010305070
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022LDCs in Africa
22 21
-44-1734
-70-50-30-1010305070
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022LDCs in Asia
4
-5
-62363
-70-50-30-1010305070
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022LDCs IslandsWT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 15 - 
 
  Chart 12: Structure of LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2022 and 2019  
(Percentage share)  
 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
2.3.2   Exports by main services sector  
2.19.  In 2022, the relative share of travel, which formed the bulk of LDCs' services exports prior to 
the pandemic, contracted to 33.1% from 48.3% in 2019  (Chart 12). Receipts from the sector were 
estimated at USD 12.4 billion, 41% below their pre -pandemic value. Transport exports continued to 
grow in  2022, rising by 23% to USD 13.7 billion, increasing its share in the group's services exports 
from 25.1% in 2019 to 36.7% in 2022 . The relative share of other commercial services also 
expanded between 2019 -2022, as exports were 6% higher as compared to the pre -pandemic period.  
2.20.  Travel exports, covering foreign tourists' expenditure in services and goods during their stay 
in LDCs, fol lowing an upward trend, increasing by 60% in 2022 , mirroring global trends. LDCs' share 
in global travel exports has marginally declined  to 1.1% in 2022 from 1.4% in 2019. Tanzania led 
the group in this sector with an annual growth of 93% in 2022, followed  by Cambodia which recorded 
a sharp rebound in travel receipts, registering  USD 1.4 billion in 2022.  
2.21.  In 2022, growth of transport exports was sustained by rising air transport services, the bulk 
of the sector's exports. Air transport revenues were up 24% since 2019 due to high prices of air 
freight and resumption in demand for air passenger services in 2022. LDC group's revenue from sea 
transport and other modes of transport also grew strongly by 17% and 13% respectively. Ethiopia 
remained the largest expo rter in this category followed by Tanzania and Bangladesh.  
2.22.  Between 2019 and 2022 , other commercial services exports from LDCs, on average, grew by 
2% annually  (Chart 13). In 2022, they were estimated at USD 9.8 billion, 6% higher than their 
pre-pandemic levels. Within other commercial services, "other business services", a mixed category 
which includes inter alia professional, technical, and trade -related services, is the main subsector. 
Exports from this sector  rose by 11%, but they were 12% lower than in 2019. Bangladesh's exports , 
which accounted for almost one third of LDC s' other commercial services exports , amounted to 
USD 3.1 billion, boosted by computer services  which have more than doubled since 2019.   
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 16 - 
 
  Chart 13: LDCs' services exports of other commercial services, 2018 –2022  
(Billion US Dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3  MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
3.1  Duty -Free Market Access Granted by Selected Members  
3.1.  Table 3 provides statistics on duty -free market access accorded to LDCs by selected Members  
that have mostly  notified LDC preference schemes to the WTO.  
3.2.  Several WTO Members offer full or almost full duty -free market access to LDCs. Australia, 
New Zealand, Norway  and Switzerland offer 100% duty -free market access to  LDCs. Chile, the 
European Union  and the United Kingdom offer over 99% duty -free market access to LDCs. In 
addition, four Members grant duty -free market access for 96% or more  of their tariff lines: 
Canada  (98.5%), Japan (97.8%) , Iceland (96.6%) and China (96. 1%). Meanwhile, some other 
Members grant duty -free access to around 90% or more of their tariff lines, including India, the 
Republic of Korea and Montenegro.   
3.3.  In 202 1, under the  LDC preferential schemes , the highest number of products was exported to 
the European Union (4, 900 national  tariff lines , more than 51%  of its total tariff lines ). LDCs 
registered exports to around  35% of Canada's total tariff lines, while the share was around 25% for 
the United States and slightly more than 20% for China.  
3.4.  In 202 1, LDCs enjoyed high average pr eferential margin (i.e. , difference between average 
most-favoured -nation (M FN) duty and the average duty under the LDC scheme) in India (16.5 
percentage points). For agricultural products, the margin was even larger (32. 8). The other market 
with significan t preference margin for agricultural products was Norway (19.5) and Thailand (18.4). 
Apart from India, t he overall preference margin was above five  percentage points for Chile (6 .0), 
China (6.7) , the Republic of Korea ( 6.0) and Thailand (5.1) .  
Table 3: Duty -free tariff lines under MFN and LDC schemes in selected Members, 2021 or 
latest available year  
Market  Sector  MFN LDC Number of tariff lines  
% lines 
DFQF  Simple 
avg. duty  % lines 
DFQF  Simple avg. 
duty in tariff 
schedule  with imports 
from LDCs  
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 
Australia  Total  49.4 2.5 100 0 6,480  1,142  
Ag 72.8 1.3 100 0 856 188 
Non-Ag 45.8 2.7 100 0 5,624  954 
4.04.7 4.4
3.74.12.42.4
2.2
2.62.71.01.1
1.01.41.50.60.5
0.50.70.7
0.30.3
0.20.20.3
0.30.38.69.2
8.69.19.8
0246810
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022USD BillionReceipts of charges for the
use of intellectual property
n.i.e.
Personal, cultural and
recreational services
Insurance and pension
services
Financial services
Construction
Telecommunications,
computer and information
services
Other business services
Other commercial servicesWT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 17 - 
 
  Market  Sector  MFN LDC Number of tariff lines  
% lines 
DFQF  Simple 
avg. duty  % lines 
DFQF  Simple avg. 
duty in tariff 
schedule  with imports 
from LDCs  
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 
Canada  Total  69.4 2.7 98.5 0.1 6,986  2,499  
Ag 51.6 3.5 92.6 0.6 1,425  520 
Non-Ag 73.9 2.5 100 0 5,561  1,979  
Chile  Total  0.4 6 99.5 0 8,561  503 
Ag 0 6 97.2 0 1,465  48 
Non-Ag 0.5 6 100 0 7,096  455 
China  Total  10.2 7.3 96.1 0.6 8,580  1,931  
Ag 7.7 13.1 93.5 2.3 1,175  195 
Non-Ag 10.5 6.4 96.6 0.3 7,405  1,736  
European Union  Total  26.7 4.7 99.8 0 9,494  4,900  
Ag 19 7.7 100 0 2,101  889 
Non-Ag 28.9 4.3 99.8 0 7,393  4,011  
Hong Kong, China  Total  100 0     7,588  1,077  
Ag 100 0     1,044  99 
Non-Ag 100 0     6,544  978 
Iceland  Total  88.9 1.3 96.6 - 8,914  951 
Ag 57.2 6.4 85.3 - 2,041  142 
Non-Ag 98.3 0.2 100 - 6,873  809 
India  Total  1.8 18.1 94.1 1.6 11,908  2,105  
Ag 2.4 43.3 76.4 10.5 1,524  337 
Non-Ag 1.7 14.2 96.7 0.3 10,384  1,768  
Japan  Total  40.1 4.6 97.8 0.2 9,386  1,182  
Ag 24.3 10.6 96.2 0.4 1,978  217 
Non-Ag 44.3 3.2 98.2 0.2 7,408  965 
Kazakhstan  Total  27.8 5.3 65.1 2.8 12,309  610 
Ag 8.3 8.3 70.6 1.9 2,709  61 
Non-Ag 33.3 4.7 63.6 3.1 9,600  549 
Korea, Republic of  Total  19.6 12.8 89.9 6.8 12,242  1,959  
Ag 5.4 53.5 59.3 45.2 1,726  284 
Non-Ag 22 6.3 94.9 0.7 10,516  1,675  
Macao, China  Total  100 0     6,641  306 
Ag 100 0     900 82 
Non-Ag 100 0     5,741  224 
Montenegro  Total  29.3 4.9 93.5 0.6 10,035  475 
Ag 16.9 11.6 93.3 1 2,315  43 
Non-Ag 33 3 93.6 0.6 7,720  432 
New Zealand  Total  61.1 2.2 100 0 7,927  1,113  
Ag 64.6 1.8 100 0 1,082  142 
Non-Ag 60.6 2.3 100 0 6,845  971 
Norwaya Total  84.4 2.6 100 0 7,175    
Ag 43.5 19.5 100 0 1,410    
Non-Ag 94.4 0.4 100 0 5,765    
Russian Federation  Total  16 6.4 61.2 3.3 12,310    
Ag 7.6 8.1 70.7 1.9 2,709    
Non-Ag 18.3 6.1 58.6 3.7 9,601    
Singapore  Total  100 0     10,813  2,026  
Ag 99.7 0     1,369  385 
Non-Ag 100 0     9,444  1,641  
Switzerland  Total  25.9 - 100 0 8,845  1,837  
Ag 17.1 - 100 0 2,466  373 
Non-Ag 29.3 - 100 0 6,379  1,464  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 18 - 
 
  Market  Sector  MFN LDC Number of tariff lines  
% lines 
DFQF  Simple 
avg. duty  % lines 
DFQF  Simple avg. 
duty in tariff 
schedule  with imports 
from LDCs  
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 
Chinese Taipei  Total  30.5 6.3 32.1 6.2 9,136  751 
Ag 22.4 13.8 23.3 13.7 1,505  107 
Non-Ag 32.1 4.9 33.8 4.8 7,631  644 
Tajikistanb Total  11.7 7.8 11.7 3.9 11,442    
Ag 0.4 10.5 0.4 5.3 2,508    
Non-Ag 14.9 7.1 14.9 3.6 8,934    
Thailanda Total  30.4 13.7 71.1 8.6 10,813  2,294  
Ag 9.9 31.6 75.7 13.2 1,369  235 
Non-Ag 33.4 11.7 70.4 8 9,444  2,059  
Türkiye  Total  23.2 14.4 78.1 11.4 11,502    
Ag 14 48.8 27.1 47.4 2,272    
Non-Ag 25.5 5.9 90.7 2.5 9,230    
United Kingdom  Total  47 3.6 99.8 0 9,494  1,647  
Ag 24.8 6.7 100 0 2,101  387 
Non-Ag 53.3 3.1 99.8 0 7,393  1,260  
United States of 
America  Total  37.8 4.7 82.5 2.6 11,111  2,848  
Ag 20.6 9 85.9 5.2 1,911  417 
Non-Ag 41.4 3.8 81.8 2 9,200  2,431  
Notes:  Simple average duties exclude non-ad valorem  duties, except for the United  States, for which 
ad valorem  equivalents are available. Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; 
some UN ‑LDC countries may be excluded.  
a:  2020 
b:  2019 
Source: WTO -Integrated DataBase ( IDB). 
3.2  Recent Initiatives to Improve Market Access for LDCs  
3.5.  Annex Table 6 updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications at the 
WTO as well as submissions made to the WTO's Integrated Data base (IDB). The table does not 
include regio nal or bilateral initiatives under which LDCs receive preferences as well.  
3.6.  Since the last report, the new  Generalized System of Preferences ( GSP) scheme of the 
United  Kingdom titled "Developing Countries Trading Scheme" (DCTS) entered into force on 19 June 
2023. This was informed by the delegation of the United Kingdom in the Committee on Trade and 
Development (CTD) and the Committee on Rules of Origin (CRO).5 Subseque ntly, t he 
United  Kingdom submitted a notification (WT/COMTD/PTA6/N/1 ) containing relevant  information on 
the DCTS. The scheme offers duty -free and quota -free coverage to LDCs on all products except arms 
and ammunition. The rules of origin co nditions associated with the new scheme are designed to 
facilitate exports from LDCs including by simplifying product -specific  rules. Over 6,700 products now 
allow for up to 75% non -local content in the product -specific rules  of origin . In addition, the DC TS 
allows LDCs to cumulate with up to 95 eligible countries.6  
3.7.  Thailand submitted a revised notification in the CRO concerning the preferential rules of origin 
under its Duty -Free Quota -Free scheme (DFQF) for LDCs (notification G/RO/LDC/N/THA/1/Rev.1 ). 
A total of 7,535 products would be  exempt from duties and quotas, which accounted for 65.9% of 
Thailand's tariff lines. Thailand's notification, among others, specifies the required calculation for 
determining originating goods, identified as those with a qualifying value content of not le ss than 
50% of free -on-board value and having its final process of production within an LDC.  
 
5 The Minutes of the meeting of the CTD Dedicated Session on Preferential Trade Arrangements on 
11 July 2023, and the Minutes of the meetings of the CRO on 13 October 2022 and 6 June 2023 are contained 
in documents WT/COMTD/PTA/ M/12, G/RO/M/79, and G/RO/M/80 respectively.  
6 Details on DCTS can be accessed at the following website: 
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/developing -countries -trading -scheme -dcts-new-policy -
report/developing -countries -trading -scheme -government -policy -response .   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 19 - ANNEX  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 202 2 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change    Value  Annual percentage change    
  2022  2018 -22 2020  2021  2022  2022  2018 -22 2020  2021  2022  
LDCs  279,442  7.9 -5.9 27.7 17.4 354,309  6.9 -10.0 26.3 14.7 
Exporters of agricultural products  24,533  6.8 10.9 15.9 0.1 59,712  3.6 -4.0 11.5 8.7 
Afghanistan  992 3.2 -10.1 33.2 -4.2 5,762  -6.1 -3.5 -15.1 3.8 
Benin  3,547  1.5 -1.8 14.6 3.3 4,784  2.3 -9.6 22.9 9.5 
Burkina Faso  4,518  8.6 35.0 15.3 -10.4 5,504  6.4 -3.7 11.8 19.3 
Burundi  199 2.5 -9.9 1.6 21.0 1,206  11.0 2.5 13.2 17.1 
Central African Republic  143 -3.5 -9.7 -2.9 9.6 496 -4.9 -17.5 -10.8 9.9 
Comoros  54 7.1 -47.4 66.8 57.5 348 9.3 5.8 16.9 6.1 
Ethiopia  3,970  10.1 18.8 21.2 0.5 18,663  5.1 -9.9 21.8 16.8 
Gambia  40 -26.8 -54.2 -46.2 22.3 694 0.6 -6.3 4.4 14.3 
Guinea -Bissau  213 -11.0 -14.0 40.2 -28.9 474 8.3 -6.2 13.9 15.1 
Kiribati  11 8.8 -24.1 -1.6 25.5 106 -3.5 1.0 32.2 -39.9 
Liberia, Republic of  1,058  17.9 11.9 45.0 20.1 1,528  7.5 -3.4 34.0 14.2 
Malawi  800 -1.1 -14.2 30.8 -20.7 1,520  -13.3 -7.4 14.7 -50.5 
Rwanda  2,111  17.1 13.4 8.8 37.9 3,569  9.7 -4.4 13.9 23.3 
Sao Tomé and Principe  22 8.1 8.3 46.0 5.2 196 7.3 -6.5 20.5 18.1 
Solomon Islands  335 -12.4 -17.8 -2.0 -9.8 648 1.9 -18.8 16.0 16.6 
Somalia  630 7.0 -27.7 26.5 46.5 1,250  1.2 2.6 3.4 2.5 
Timor -Leste  473 79.8 71.4 133.6  -23.2 934 15.8 5.9 39.5 7.0 
Togo 1,443  7.5 14.4 10.3 8.3 2,666  5.9 7.7 10.8 6.8 
Uganda  3,973  6.5 16.4 0.7 -4.9 9,366  8.6 7.2 6.6 6.5 
Fuel exportersa 78,716  4.4 -26.3 29.1 32.1 56,480  3.1 -10.1 -0.7 25.9 
Angola  51,275  5.9 -37.5 55.7 48.7 17,803  3.0 -33.1 21.9 56.5 
Bhutan  724 4.6 -3.4 20.4 -7.7 1,511  9.6 -8.4 35.7 23.9 
Chad 3,500  7.0 -33.8 57.3 29.9 2,100  1.6 -20.1 25.4 9.0 
Myanmar  17,085  0.7 -7.3 -9.2 12.7 17,403  -2.6 -3.4 -20.2 21.5 
South Sudan  873 -13.9 -51.4 3.6 7.6 1,255  18.2 23.4 9.8 16.3 
Sudan  4,357  5.8 1.8 32.2 -13.3 11,095  9.0 5.9 0.6 12.1 
Yemen  903 12.2 -38.0 63.9 36.4 5,312  12.5 -1.3 8.4 5.2   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 20 -   Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change    Value  Annual percentage change    
  2022  2018 -22 2020  2021  2022  2022  2018 -22 2020  2021  2022  
Manufacture exporters  84,248  9.7 -6.7 25.2 20.3 143,724  9.0 -11.5 50.6 6.1 
Bangladesh  54,695  8.6 -14.6 31.6 23.7 88,234  9.9 -10.6 52.4 9.7 
Cambodia  22,472  15.3 19.5 9.0 16.4 29,805  14.3 -5.7 49.5 4.3 
Haiti 1,282  4.4 -26.3 27.7 13.5 4,622  -1.1 -15.1 21.3 7.4 
Lesotho  894 -7.5 -8.1 10.7 -4.4 1,856  -4.0 -20.4 32.1 1.8 
Madagascar  3,609  3.8 -24.8 34.6 32.4 5,471  7.7 -18.3 36.9 24.1 
Nepal  1,296  13.3 -11.6 96.8 -23.1 13,735  2.0 -20.1 61.3 -13.6 
Exporters of non -fuel mineralsb 82,036  10.2 17.2 32.3 10.1 78,152  8.5 -12.0 19.3 32.2 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of  28,200  9.0 5.5 70.8 16.9 11,000  8.5 -24.5 14.9 43.6 
Eritrea  578 -3.6 -15.6 7.9 19.8 726 -9.1 -14.5 21.7 23.5 
Guinea  7,650  17.8 126.4  14.6 -25.3 4,679  8.4 7.4 12.3 11.7 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  8,198  11.0 5.3 25.8 6.5 7,244  3.5 -14.4 16.8 15.4 
Mali 5,069  9.1 30.4 -0.9 6.7 6,185  7.0 -0.5 19.6 1.3 
Mauritania  3,204  11.8 24.8 15.5 -1.9 4,618  9.8 -22.0 40.7 19.6 
Mozambique  8,281  13.4 -23.1 55.6 48.3 14,665  20.6 -12.9 33.2 70.2 
Niger  1,256  1.1 -0.9 8.6 3.7 3,802  7.2 6.1 14.4 6.9 
Sierra Leone  1,124  19.4 -33.4 64.8 61.3 1,966  9.8 42.8 -16.0 9.0 
Tanzania  6,825  14.0 21.1 5.4 6.8 14,219  11.7 -10.7 18.8 41.8 
Zambia  11,651  6.6 12.6 27.5 15.3 9,047  -1.1 -26.3 21.8 40.6 
Diversified and othersc 9,910  8.5 -17.9 39.3 6.0 16,242  8.5 -12.6 35.7 11.2 
Djibouti  4,497  6.3 -30.3 48.9 8.4 5,405  10.7 -29.6 67.3 11.0 
Senegal  5,413  10.6 -6.0 32.4 4.1 10,802  7.6 -4.1 24.1 11.4 
Tuvalu  0.05 -27.6 -82.9 587.5  -84.5 34 7.3 3.9 1.0 -1.3 
Worldd 24,333,511  6.4 -7.3 26.7 12.1 25,166,681  6.8 -7.7 26.4 14.1 
a  Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan).  
b Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) an d diamonds (normally included in 
manufactures according to the UN classification).  
c  Includes exporters without a clear specializa tion in a specific category of goods.  
d  Excluding re -exports of Hong Kong, China; including EU -intra trade.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD.  
    
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 21 - Annex Table 2: Indices of market prices for non-fuel and fuel commodities, 201 8-2023 
(Indices 2 016 = 100)  
  
  2018  2019  2020  2021  2022  2022  2023  
Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
All commodities and Energy  128 117 106 161 216 230 193 175 161 
Energy  157 129 92 183 300 350 258 204 176 
Coal 157 114 95 200 485 567 456 314 210 
Australian, export markets  162 117 88 205 548 642 582 402 247 
South African, export markets  152 111 101 194 421 493 330 225 174 
Natural Gas  145 92 72 254 522 762 425 240 165 
Indonesian in Japan  132 73 59 250 448 627 384 224 143 
Netherlands TFF  182 102 73 365 862 1350 651 387 260 
US, domestic market  120 99 83 146 255 310 239 109 91 
Spot Crude  156 143 96 156 231 235 210 191 183 
Dubai  167 152 103 166 230 230 203 193 187 
U.K. Brent  159 142 96 157 220 217 197 183 173 
West Texas Intermediate  150 132 91 157 219 216 191 176 170 
Propane  181 112 96 217 230 224 166 170 142 
Non-Fuel Commodities  108 109 116 147 158 148 147 155 151 
Agricultural raw materials  107 102 98 113 120 116 105 103 100 
Cotton  123 105 97 136 175 168 136 133 126 
Hides  82 56 46 65 79 78 79 80 82 
Rubber  95 100 107 127 112 100 91 98 94 
Timber  104 102 103 108 111 111 105 96 94 
Hardwood  98 96 97 101 89 84 84 87 89 
Logs 98 100 102 99 83 79 77 82 79 
Sawn wood  99 94 95 101 91 87 87 90 92 
Softwood  108 107 107 113 129 132 122 103 98 
Logs 116 102 109 129 148 149 141 123 115 
Sawn wood  106 109 107 109 123 127 117 97 93 
Wool 149 133 87 100 95 92 86 97 90 
Coarse  149 137 85 89 87 85 79 91 86 
Fine 150 128 88 110 104 100 92 104 93 
Metals  130 135 140 205 194 171 172 204 185 
Aluminium  131 112 106 154 169 147 146 150 141 
Cobalt  286 130 123 201 250 205 202 156 127 
Copper  134 123 127 191 181 159 165 184 174 
Iron Ore  120 160 185 270 206 182 171 215 191 
Lead 120 107 98 118 115 106 113 115 114 
Molybdenum  163 183 140 249 279 253 266 506 416 
Nickel  137 145 144 192 270 230 266 272 233 
Tin 112 104 95 181 175 132 120 147 146   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 22 -   
  2018  2019  2020  2021  2022  2022  2023  
Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Uranium  93 98 111 124 154 151 153 154 178 
Zinc 140 122 108 144 167 157 144 150 122 
Precious Metal  102 113 144 149 147 140 141 151 157 
Gold 102 112 142 144 144 138 139 151 158 
Palladium  168 251 358 391 344 338 315 256 236 
Platinum  89 88 90 111 97 90 98 101 104 
Silver  92 95 120 147 127 112 124 132 142 
Food and Beverages  101 98 100 126 145 138 135 140 139 
Beverages  87 82 84 103 118 119 108 112 123 
Cocoa Beans  79 81 82 84 82 78 82 90 102 
Coffee  88 81 85 113 136 141 122 125 137 
Other milds  81 80 92 125 156 161 135 134 134 
Robusta  96 83 78 101 117 121 108 115 139 
Tea 104 93 88 93 97 92 96 94 92 
Food 103 99 101 128 147 140 138 142 141 
Cereals  115 110 119 168 209 196 200 191 181 
Barley  107 113 107 182 230 216 182 187 185 
Maize  103 107 104 163 200 192 202 185 173 
Oats 130 146 151 245 282 234 192 185 176 
Rice 104 102 123 114 108 107 110 122 126 
Sorghum  108 104 130 219 238 225 237 233 225 
Wheat  130 114 130 186 252 231 238 224 208 
Meat 107 112 103 136 152 156 135 127 135 
Beef 103 118 112 132 143 141 128 125 134 
Lamb  127 127 127 160 152 144 116 106 118 
Poultry  118 107 89 122 169 162 151 149 160 
Swine Meat  100 104 94 146 154 174 137 119 123 
Other Food                    
Apple  118 109 114 124 110 109 106 113 120 
Bananas  114 114 121 121 149 160 164 165 162 
Chana  56 58 57 64 57 55 54 56 55 
Fish meal  95 88 91 102 100 97 94 102 115 
Groundnuts  114 103 108 116 135 135 142 141 145 
Milk 99 114 121 120 185 190 177 145 137 
Orange Juice  89 63 68 73 104 103 123 140 161 
Tomato  111 110 114 123 125 99 124 161 145 
Seafood  103 95 86 94 109 101 99 119 119 
Salmon  105 97 85 96 118 105 101 140 141 
Shrimp  99 92 86 90 94 94 95 82 81 
Sugar  70 71 74 101 106 103 108 116 139 
Free market  68 68 71 98 104 100 106 114 138   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 23 -   
  2018  2019  2020  2021  2022  2022  2023  
Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
United States  92 95 98 122 129 127 129 134 151 
Vegetable oils and protein meals  95 91 100 151 172 158 147 148 136 
Olive oil  98 80 66 105 112 106 132 149 170 
Palm oil  87 82 104 168 184 137 133 141 132 
Rapeseed oil  101 104 110 184 215 200 160 136 115 
Soybean meal  107 96 100 121 139 145 134 153 134 
Soybean oil  91 89 96 177 217 203 215 184 163 
Soybeans  94 90 96 139 157 155 145 153 145 
Sunflower Oil  89 87 105 170 192 173 157 139 116 
Fertilizer  112 105 92 180 312 279 323 266 212 
Diammonium Phosphate  125 99 99 191 248 242 221 199 174 
Potassium Fertilizer  88 104 97 109 290 269 346 358 311 
Urea 122 109 84 220 360 304 362 240 168 
Energy Transition Metal Index  134 125 124 179 189 166 170 189 174 
Aluminium  131 112 106 154 169 147 146 150 141 
Chromium  133 115 84 111 132 130 122 134 123 
Cobalt  286 130 123 201 250 205 202 156 127 
Copper  134 123 127 191 181 159 165 184 174 
Lead 120 107 98 118 115 106 113 115 114 
Lithium  139 106 77 114 427 442 423 409 256 
Manganese  134 107 96 228 253 145 134 137 133 
Molybdenum  163 183 140 249 279 253 266 506 416 
Nickel  137 145 144 192 270 230 266 272 233 
Palladium  168 251 358 391 344 338 315 256 236 
Platinum  89 88 90 111 97 90 98 101 104 
Rare Earth Elements  103 99 91 185 295 255 226 235 164 
Silicon  128 106 102 155 217 199 189 189 179 
Silver  92 95 120 147 127 112 124 132 142 
Vanadium  506 383 180 227 305 317 317 307 282 
Zinc 140 122 108 144 167 157 144 150 122 
Source:  IMF Primary Commodity Price System . 
    
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 24 - Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 201 8-2022 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  
Africa  9354  10930  100 55 4 2498  3275  30 19 7 4890  5044  46 133 1 1947  2593  24 22 7 
South Africa  3302 2963 100 32 -3 255 332 11 1 7 2322 1792 60 48 -6 722 839 28 18 4 
Egypt  886 1282 100 94 10 380 572 45 89 11 416 617 48 110 10 89 77 6 20 -4 
Ghana  312 1281 100 957 42 160 100 8 46 -11 56 1104 86 10680  110 94 77 6 82 -5 
Kenya  869 1040 100 4 5 605 632 61 0 1 66 118 11 54 15 189 290 28 -2 11 
Côte d'Ivoire  666 880 100 74 7 429 332 38 -16 -6 171 483 55 1624 30 67 65 7 -23 -1 
Zambia  1751 808 100 87 -18 15 13 2 -37 -4 1458 424 52 83 -27 276 371 46 106 8 
Zimbabwe  342 654 100 27 18 123 257 39 6 20 127 185 28 122 10 91 210 32 12 23 
Ethiopia  98 417 100 85 44 30 357 85 66 86 40 2 0 110 -53 28 59 14 564 20 
Tanzania, United Rep. of  174 363 100 34 20 72 114 31 19 12 20 58 16 41 30 83 192 53 42 23 
Nigeria  219 346 100 34 12 137 182 53 26 7 49 118 34 173 24 30 45 13 -36 11 
Morocco  258 282 100 12 2 124 160 57 31 7 57 27 10 -51 -17 77 95 34 26 5 
Malawi (2021 for 2022)  203 254 100 - 8 62 82 32 - 10 10 15 6 - 13 130 157 62 - 6 
Senegal  109 125 100 13 3 20 39 31 -7 18 73 63 50 92 -4 16 23 18 -28 10 
Mauritius  87 123 100 68 9 68 75 62 86 3 0 1 1 58 81 18 46 37 44 25 
Mozambique  77 112 100 -14 10 16 27 24 -9 13 24 37 33 -20 12 36 48 43 -10 7 
Americas  23703  43020  100 34 16 1578  2183  5 35 8 4446  4006  9 18 -3 17368  35689  83 36 20 
North America  21993  40379  100 35 16 1529 2122 5 35 9 3642 2674 7 29 -7 16511  34441  85 35 20 
USA 18267  33218  100 34 16 1315 1789 5 35 8 3462 1931 6 21 -14 13217  29121  88 35 22 
Canada  3052 5855 100 38 18 190 330 6 35 15 171 729 12 52 44 2680 4124 70 30 11 
Mexico  674 1307 100 52 18 24 3 0 793 -38 9 14 1 12597  11 614 1196 91 50 18 
South and Central America  1710 2641 100 22 11 50 61 2 25 5 804 1332 50 0 13 857 1248 47 59 10 
Brazil  739 1219 100 72 13 18 16 1 19 -3 436 923 76 90 21 285 280 23 35 0 
Chile 187 745 100 1 41 11 16 2 11 11 0 391 52 -27 … 176 338 45 83 18 
Colombia  129 212 100 53 13 8 5 2 -18 -12 3 15 7 8802 52 118 192 90 46 13 
Peru 104 178 100 73 15 3 2 1 22 -11 1 0 0 -100 -89 100 176 99 74 15 
Ecuador  33 58 100 58 16 4 7 12 61 12 0 0 0 -96 21 28 51 88 59 16 
Uruguay  387 56 100 -83 -38 2 1 2 46 -12 363 0 0 -100 -100 22 55 98 70 25 
Argentina  87 54 100 18 -11 1 3 6 -26 33 0 0 1 -96 84 85 50 93 57 -12 
Guatemala  4 53 100 207 92 1 7 13 734 73 0 0 0 5175 757 3 46 87 181 96 
Costa Rica  25 37 100 26 10 0 0 0 -56 18 0 0 0 -99 … 25 37 100 27 10 
El Salvador  15 28 100 32 17 1 3 10 81 19 0 2 8 237 483 14 23 81 21 14 
Asia and Pacific  94497  136831  100 24 10 11510  19490  14 16 14 65115  85573  63 27 7 14884  24857  18 30 14 
China  55301  78270  100 23 9 4543 8124 10 22 16 46472  60250  77 23 7 2836 8939 11 43 33 
India 14105  21377  100 26 11 2838 5169 24 0 16 7542 8500 40 71 3 2271 3710 17 38 13 
Thailand  7996 11402  100 14 9 1004 1860 16 18 17 5766 8049 71 16 9 1207 1196 10 0 0 
Japan  6120 6930 100 28 3 751 822 12 44 2 1004 1058 15 47 1 4333 5022 72 23 4 
Korea, Rep. of  3075 4239 100 32 8 360 468 11 29 7 1542 2113 50 39 8 1171 1657 39 25 9   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71  
 
- 25 -   All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  2018  2022  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  
Australia  1077 2924 100 20 28 74 117 4 13 12 76 225 8 28 31 927 1402 48 16 11 
Chinese Taipei  905 2397 100 66 28 117 147 6 25 6 584 1917 80 77 35 202 332 14 36 13 
Indonesia  1749 2147 100 89 5 413 541 25 64 7 1154 1166 54 109 0 182 439 20 80 25 
Pakistan  942 1847 100 16 18 555 986 53 20 15 347 787 43 13 23 39 74 4 1 17 
Malaysia  1082 1668 100 18 11 323 498 30 6 11 372 660 40 15 15 383 506 30 38 7 
Singapore  926 1558 100 -15 14 168 182 12 49 2 246 752 48 -29 32 495 575 37 -2 4 
Hong Kong, China  858 1276 100 53 10 254 229 18 -2 -3 3 4 0 -52 5 596 647 51 33 2 
Philippines  202 542 100 45 28 78 321 59 34 43 7 60 11 313 73 118 161 30 34 8 
New Zealand  159 254 100 12 12 33 25 10 3 -7 1 31 12 24 149 125 197 78 11 12 
Europe and CIS  62019  88725  100 31 9 6149  7628  9 28 6 8947  25512  29 196 30 42611  48858  55 6 3 
European Union  48004  67550  100 32 9 5062 6462 10 31 6 8399 23335  35 186 29 34350  37577  56 0 2 
United Kingdom  6112 9554 100 93 12 405 512 5 26 6 287 1861 19 2122 60 5410 7172 75 62 7 
Switzerland  5287 8450 100 0 12 164 227 3 21 8 0 18 0 10848  434 1014 1674 20 5 13 
Norway  525 740 100 10 9 68 75 10 -10 2 44 95 13 15 21 412 568 77 12 8 
Ukraine  323 214 100 -52 -10 79 65 31 -32 -5 122 31 14 -78 -29 123 118 55 -43 -1 
CIS 1767 2217 100 4 6 371 287 13 3 -6 94 172 8 23 16 1301 1749 79 2 8 
Russia (2021 for 2022)  1508 2017 100 - 10 238 263 13 - 3 82 132 7 - 17 1188 1614 80 - 11 
Kazakhstan  77 125 100 127 13 6 14 11 107 21 12 37 30 636 33 59 74 59 71 6 
Belarus (2021 for 2022)  159 40 100 - -37 126 5 13 - -65 0 4 10 - 151 33 31 77 - -3 
Azerbaijan  18 27 100 52 10 1 2 8 8 20 0 0 0 89 … 17 25 92 58 10 
Kyrgyzstan  5 8 100 80 15 0 3 40 101 215 0 0 0 … 62 4 5 60 69 1 
- Not applicable.  
… Data not available  
Sources:  UN Comtrade database and Trade Data Monitor .  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
- 26 - 
 
  Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 202 2 
(Million dollars and percentage shares)  
HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
2018  2022  2018 -2022  2018  2022  2018  2022  
2709 Petroleum Oils And Oils From 
Bituminous Minerals, Crude  44,721  49,032  2.3 20.5 17.2 3.8 3.1 
7403 Refined Copper And Copper Alloys 
(Other Than Master Alloys Of 
Heading 7405), Unwrought  7,472  13,718  16.4 3.4 4.8 11.2 15.7 
7108 Gold (Including Gold Plated With 
Platinum), Unwrought Or In 
Semimanufactured Forms, Or In 
Powder Form  15,361  13,487  -3.2 7.0 4.7 4.8 3.2 
2711 Petroleum Gases And Other 
Gaseous Hydrocarbons  6,720  12,006  15.6 3.1 4.2 1.9 1.5 
6110 Sweaters, Pullovers, Sweatshirts, 
Waistcoats (Vests) And Similar 
Articles, Knitted Or Crocheted  8,825  11,044  5.8 4.0 3.9 15.8 16.6 
6109 T-Shirts, Singlets, Tank Tops And 
Similar Garments, Knitted Or 
Crocheted  8,672  10,038  3.7 4.0 3.5 21.4 21.0 
6203 Men's  Or Boys' Suits, Ensembles, 
Suit-Type Jackets, Blazers, 
Trousers, Bib And Brace Overalls, 
Breeches, Etc. (No Swimwear), 
Not Knitted Or Crocheted  8,636  9,981  3.7 4.0 3.5 20.4 22.2 
6204 Women's  Or Girls' Suits, 
Ensembles, Suit -Type Jackets, 
Dresses, Skirts, Divided Skirts, 
Trousers, Etc. (No Swimwear), Not 
Knitted Or Crocheted  7,109  8,348  4.1 3.3 2.9 12.8 13.3 
7402 Unrefined Copper; Copper Anodes 
For Electrolytic Refining  5,600  8,224  10.1 2.6 2.9 47.7 47.0 
6104 Women's  Or Girls' Suits, 
Ensembles, Suit -Type Jackets, 
Blazers, Dresses, Skirts, Divided 
Skirts, Trousers, Etc. (No 
Swimwear), Knitted Or Crocheted  4,432  6,140  8.5 2.0 2.1 16.3 18.0 
8105 Cobalt Mattes And Other 
Intermediate Products Of Cobalt 
Metallurgy; Cobalt And Articles 
Thereof, Including Waste And 
Scrap  3,737  5,899  12.1 1.7 2.1 49.3 62.1 
7103 Precious And Semiprecious Stones 
(No Diamonds), Not Strung, 
Mounted Etc.; Ungraded Precious 
And Semiprecious Stones (No 
Diamonds) Strung For Transport  993 5,404  52.7 0.5 1.9 11.3 35.7 
2606 Aluminum Ores And Concentrates  3,029  5,394  15.5 1.4 1.9 48.2 58.2 
4202 Travel Goods, Vanity Cases, 
Binocular And Camera Cases, 
Handbags, Wallets, Cutlery Cases 
And Similar Containers, Of Various 
Specified Materials  1,386  4,153  31.6 0.6 1.5 2.0 5.4 
2701 Coal; Briquettes, Ovoids And 
Similar Solid Fuels Manufactured 
From Coal  2,221  3,839  14.7 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.4 
0901 Coffee, Whether Or Not Roasted 
Or Decaffeinated; Coffee Husks 
And Skins; Coffee Substitutes 
Containing Coffee  1,785  3,150  15.3 0.8 1.1 5.8 6.7 
6205 Men's Or Boys' Shirts, Not Knitted 
Or Crocheted  3,077  3,000  -0.6 1.4 1.1 22.3 24.5 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
- 27 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
2018  2022  2018 -2022  2018  2022  2018  2022  
2710 Petroleum Oils& Oils From 
Bituminous Mins (Other Than 
Crude)& Products Therefrom, 
Nesoi, Containing 70% (By 
Weight) Or More Of These Oils; 
Waste Oils  3,547  2,916  -4.8 1.6 1.0 0.5 0.3 
2716 Electrical Energy  1,990  2,877  9.6 0.9 1.0 5.5 2.2 
2603 Copper Ores And Concentrates  2,151  2,758  6.4 1.0 1.0 3.4 2.9 
2601 Iron Ores And Concentrates, 
Including Roasted Iron Pyrites  1,111  2,706  24.9 0.5 0.9 1.0 1.5 
6103 Men's  Or Boys' Suits, Ensembles, 
Suit-Type Jackets, Blazers, 
Trousers, Bib And Brace Overalls, 
Breeches And Shorts (No 
Swimwear), Knitted Or Crocheted  1,310  2,493  17.5 0.6 0.9 15.3 19.1 
1207 Oil Seeds And Oleaginous Fruits 
Nesoi, Whether Or Not Broken  1,857  2,425  6.9 0.9 0.8 36.4 37.1 
6403 Footwear, With Outer Soles Of 
Rubber, Plastics, Leather Or 
Composition Leather And Uppers 
Of Leather  1,842  2,382  6.6 0.8 0.8 3.4 4.0 
0713 Leguminous Vegetables, Dried 
Shelled  1,185  2,373  18.9 0.5 0.8 13.6 19.7 
6108 Women's  Or Girls' Slips, 
Petticoats, Briefs, Panties, 
Nightdresses, Pyjamas , Negligees, 
Bathrobes And Similar Articles, 
Knitted Or Crocheted  1,720  2,347  8.1 0.8 0.8 15.2 17.7 
6201 Men's  Or Boys' Overcoats, 
Raincoats, Cloaks, Anoraks 
(Including Ski -Jackets) And 
Similar Articles, Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted, Nesoi  1,642  2,343  9.3 0.8 0.8 10.6 13.6 
6202 Women's  Or Girls' Overcoats, 
Raincoats, Cloaks, Anoraks 
(Including Ski -Jackets) And 
Similar Articles, Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted, Nesoi  1,903  2,313  5.0 0.9 0.8 9.7 11.0 
7601 Aluminum, Unwrought  1,187  1,946  13.2 0.5 0.7 1.9 2.0 
7102 Diamonds, Whether Or Not 
Worked, But Not Mounted Or Set  3,805  1,871  -16.3 1.7 0.7 2.9 1.7 
6404 Footwear, With Outer Soles Of 
Rubber, Plastics, Leather Or 
Composition Leather And Uppers 
Of Textile Materials  1,107  1,850  13.7 0.5 0.6 2.7 3.6 
6111 Babies' Garments And Clothing 
Accessories, Knitted Or Crocheted  1,543  1,836  4.4 0.7 0.6 20.3 21.5 
2609 Tin Ores And Concentrates  886 1,767  18.8 0.4 0.6 67.0 64.4 
6105 Men's Or Boys' Shirts, Knitted Or 
Crocheted  1,439  1,733  4.8 0.7 0.6 17.9 19.5 
6210 Garments, Made -Up Of Fabrics Of 
Felt Or Nonwovens And Garments 
Of Textile Fabrics (Not Knit Etc.) 
Rubberized Or Impregnated, 
Coated Etc. With Plastics  957 1,560  13.0 0.4 0.5 10.1 13.3 
6107 Men's Or Boys' Underpants, Briefs, 
Nightshirts, Pyjamas , Bathrobes, 
Dressing Gowns And Similar 
Articles, Knitted Or Crocheted  1,072  1,525  9.2 0.5 0.5 15.8 17.9 
2614 Titanium Ores And Concentrates  552 1,475  27.9 0.3 0.5 20.1 33.0 
1006 Rice 908 1,426  12.0 0.4 0.5 3.9 6.0 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
- 28 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
2018  2022  2018 -2022  2018  2022  2018  2022  
6402 Footwear, With Outer Soles And 
Uppers Of Rubber Or Plastics, 
Nesoi  817 1,411  14.6 0.4 0.5 2.8 3.9 
5201 Cotton, Not Carded Or Combed  714 1,339  17.0 0.3 0.5 5.1 8.0 
8712 Bicycles And Other Cycles 
(Including Delivery Tricycles), Not 
Motorized  481 1,203  25.8 0.2 0.4 5.7 11.0 
4001 Natural Rubber, Balata, Gutta -
Percha, Guayule, Chicle And 
Similar Natural Gums, In Primary 
Forms Or In Plates, Sheets Or 
Strip 859 1,183  8.3 0.4 0.4 5.9 6.5 
2809 Diphosphorus Pentaoxide; 
Phosphoric Acid And 
Polyphosphoric Acids  519 1,181  22.8 0.2 0.4 11.1 12.9 
6206 Women' s Or Girl s' Blouses, Shirts 
And Shirt -Blouses, Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted  1,295  1,164  -2.6 0.6 0.4 8.3 9.6 
2401 Tobacco, Unmanufactured 
(Whether Or Not Threshed Or 
Similarly Processed); Tobacco 
Refuse  1,411  1,159  -4.8 0.6 0.4 12.9 12.0 
0801 Coconuts, Brazil Nuts And Cashew 
Nuts, Fresh Or Dried  1,686  1,149  -9.1 0.8 0.4 16.6 14.7 
6211 Track Suits, Ski -Suits And 
Swimwear, Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted  700 1,101  12.0 0.3 0.4 6.3 8.6 
7502 Nickel, Unwrought  436 1,069  25.2 0.2 0.4 3.7 5.4 
6212 Brassieres, Girdles, Corsets, 
Braces, Suspenders, Garters And 
Similar Articles And Parts Thereof, 
Whether Or Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted  851 1,026  4.8 0.4 0.4 7.4 8.7 
6114 Garments Nesoi, Knitted Or 
Crocheted  609 1,019  13.7 0.3 0.4 8.4 11.6 
Source:   WTO estimates based on Comtrade (201 8) and Trade Data Monitor (202 2) [importer data].  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
- 29 - 
 
  Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 20 22 
(Million dollars and annual percentage change)  
 Exports  Imports  
Value  Annual percentage change   Value  Annual percentage change  
2022  2018 -
2022  2020  2021  2022  2022  2018 -
2022  2020  2021  2022  
LDCs  37,452  -2 -38 8 27 81,771  4 -10 12 20 
Afghanistan  … … … … … … … … … … 
Angola  82 -40 -85 40 -12 11023  3 -32 25 63 
Bangladesh  5,666  17 -3 60 15 11715  6 -19 38 12 
Benin  500 1 -17 11 6 979 6 -2 18 5 
Bhutan  20 -42 -20 -85 -2 198 -3 3 -40 55 
Burkina Faso  433 -4 -8 8 -11 1559 1 -15 12 12 
Burundi  29 5 29 25 -22 316 10 -8 18 15 
Cambodia  2,246  -19 -72 -60 246 2730 -3 -38 4 32 
Central African 
Republic  34 -10 34 0 -11 339 -4 -25 1 -5 
Chad 239 -3 -30 5 21 3085 17 6 10 50 
Comoros  100 0 -57 135 2 155 10 -8 42 6 
Democratic Republic 
of the Congo  89 0 -9 20 -35 4192 12 17 48 14 
Djibouti  764 2 -21 11 10 598 2 -19 20 3 
Eritrea  … … … … … … … … … … 
Ethiopia  6,821  11 -7 24 27 7447 5 -12 21 14 
The Gambia  182 -3 -49 -2 76 152 8 1 9 28 
Guinea  137 8 -32 -65 503 906 3 204 -55 -22 
Guinea -Bissau  33 -3 -56 94 -5 157 -1 -21 28 -6 
Haiti 96 -38 -75 -16 -5 644 -4 -35 41 10 
Kiribati  12 12 -86 -10 927 37 -10 -51 34 2 
Lao People's 
Democratic Republic  405 -20 -71 -64 224 528 -19 -64 -43 110 
Lesotho  12 -21 -58 51 -32 436 -2 -15 8 9 
Liberia  12 6 -2 -51 143 206 1 3 -12 4 
Madagascar  1,100  -5 -58 -2 83 1630 10 -33 42 69 
Malawi  352 22 25 4 -10 1290 37 28 1 125 
Mali 295 -12 -54 34 -29 1566 3 -13 29 -9 
Mauritania  104 -2 -10 14 -18 1257 18 -2 1 71 
Mozambique  1,128  10 -16 5 37 2493 -13 -2 -9 2 
Myanmar  1,505  -24 -37 -61 -6 1668 -16 -11 -39 -15 
Nepal  1,138  -6 -46 -9 55 1967 3 -36 43 28 
Niger  266 4 -14 24 6 1228 3 1 12 3 
Rwanda  686 1 -63 26 98 837 -3 -49 31 37 
Sao Tomé and 
Principe  46 -11 -51 62 20 47 -6 -30 16 -1 
Senegal  969 -6 -44 56 -8 3501 21 44 43 -6 
Sierra Leone  37 -20 -17 28 -45 287 -6 -61 31 39 
Solomon Islands  61 -19 -65 -16 69 190 -1 -44 6 40 
Somalia  635 12 -25 40 7 2088 9 -5 26 8 
South Sudan  318 23 35 114 0 1713 22 29 -6 26 
Sudan  1,522  1 -7 27 -4 1386 7 -8 8 7 
Tanzania  4,753  4 -49 43 53 2242 5 -30 22 56 
Timor -Leste  44 -14 -64 -38 163 526 11 -36 175 -6 
Togo 511 -3 -17 11 -4 461 0 -3 2 4 
Tuvalu  3 -26 -71 -27 22 17 -6 -30 1 -6 
Uganda  1,569  -7 -50 52 7 3191 5 5 2 2 
Yemen  271 11 2 16 4 1129 -4 3 -20 2 
Zambia  933 -1 -45 -5 77 1845 3 51 -43 46 
Memorandum item:            
World  7,043,483  4 -17 19 15 6,508,700  3 -18 16 15 
Note:  Data include preliminary estimates  for 2022 .  
…  Data not available  
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD estimates . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
- 30 - 
 
  Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2023  or latest available yeara 
Preference -granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions) b References  
Armenia (2016)  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
6 April 2016 43.9% (electrical 
machinery, chemicals, 
iron and steel products, 
alcoholic beverages)  IDB 
Australia  Duty- and quota -free 
entry for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada  GSP – Least 
developed Countries' 
Tariff Programme 
(LDCT)  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000. 
Extended until 
31 December  2024 98.5% (dairy and other 
animal products, meat, 
meat preparations, 
cereal products)  WT/COMTD/N/15  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3  
Chile (2022)  DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
28 February  2014 99.5% (cereals, sugar, 
milling products)  WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1  
China  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2010 96.3% (chemicals, 
transport vehicles, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, electrical 
machinery, paper)  WT/COMTD/N/39  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2  
European Union  GSP – Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative  
Entry into force:  
5 March  2001 99.8% (arms and 
ammunition)  WT/COMTD/N /4/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7  
Iceland  GSP – Tariff 
preferences for the 
world's poorest 
countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January  2002 96.7% (meat, food 
preparations, vegetables, 
dairy and other animal 
products, plants and 
trees)  WT/COMTD/N/17  
WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1  
India (2021)  Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP)  
Entry into force:  
13 August  2008 94.1% (plastics, coffee 
and tea, alcoholic 
beverages, tobacco, food 
residues)  WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1  
Japan  GSP – Enhanced 
duty- and quota -free 
market access  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007.  
Extended until 
31 March  2031 97.8% (fish and 
crustaceans, footwear, 
milling products, cereal 
products, sugar)  WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.15  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.17  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.18  
Kazakhstan  
(2022) GSP – Tariff 
Treatment for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2010 63.4% (vehicles, 
machinery, beverages, 
articles of iron and steel)  WT/COMTD/PTA3/N/1/Add.1  
IDB 
Korea, Republic of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000 89.4% (fish and 
crustaceans, mineral 
fuels, oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, wood 
products, vegetables)  WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1  
Kyrgyz Republic 
(2020)  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
29 March  2006 57.6% (meat, fruits, 
chemicals, wood and 
paper, machinery)  IDB WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
- 31 - 
 
  Preference -granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions) b References  
Montenegro  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2017 93.6% (fish and 
crustaceans, alcoholic 
beverages, meat and 
dairy products)  IDB 
New Zealand  GSP – Tariff 
Treatment for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 100%  WT/COMTD/27  
Norway  GSP – Duty- and 
quota -free market 
access  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.8  
Russian Federation  
(2021) GSP scheme in the 
context of the 
Eurasian Economic 
Union between 
Armenia, Kazakhstan, 
Kyrgyz Republic and 
the Russian 
Federation  
Entry into force: 
10 October  2016 61.2% (transport 
vehicles, machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
beverages, iron and steel 
products, electrical 
machinery, meat 
products , articles of 
wood)  WT/C OMTD/PTA1/N/1  
Switzerland  GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 100%  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5  
Chinese Taipei  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
17 December  2003 32.2% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical 
machinery, fish and 
crustaceans, plastics)  WT/COMTD/N/40  
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1  
Tajikistan (201 9) Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
25 October  2003 11.7% (Duty -free access 
includes machinery, 
glass products, 
petroleum products)  IDB 
Thailand (2022)  DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
9 April 2015; the 
scheme lapsed on 31 
December 2020  67.8% (transport 
vehicles, electrical 
machinery, machinery 
and mechanical 
appliances, iron and 
steel products, apparel 
and clothing)  WT/COMTD/N/46  
Türkiye  GSP 
Entry into force:  
31 December  2005 78.2% (iron and steel 
products, fish and 
crustaceans, food 
preparations, meat, oil 
seeds and oleaginous 
fruits)  WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1  
United Kingdom  GSP and DFQF 
scheme for LDCs  99.7% (some arms and 
ammunitions)  WT/COMTD/PTA4/N/1  
WT/COMTD/PTA6/N/1  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 71 
 
- 32 - 
 
  Preference -granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions) b References  
United States  GSP for 
least-developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC).  
Legal authorization 
for duty -free 
treatment under the 
GSP program lapsed 
on January 1, 2021 . 
The renewal  of the 
GSP is being 
considered by the 
Congress  of the 
United States  82.8% (apparel and 
clothing, cotton, fibres, 
footwear, dairy and 
other animal products)  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.9  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.12   
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act 
(AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000.  
Extended until 
30 September  2025 
(Title I) 96.9% WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/970  
WT/L/104 5 
WT/L/1045/Corr.1  
a This table represents a non -exhaustive list of non -reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b The duty -free tariff line coverage can slightly differ with the one shown in Table 3 due to different 
reference years. Major exclusions refer to HS Chapter descriptions.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
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