WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
18 October  2022 
(22-7772) Page: 1/43 
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries   
 
  
MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST  
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 4 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  5 
3   LDCS' TRADE PROFILE  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 6 
3.1   Trends in Goods and Commercial Services Trade  ................................ .............................  6 
3.2   Merchandise Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ..................  8 
3.2.1    Commodity price movements  ................................ ................................ .................... 10 
3.2.2    Major LDC traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....10 
3.2.3    Trends in product composition  ................................ ................................ ................... 11 
3.2.4    Major markets of LDCs  ................................ ................................ ............................. 14 
3.3   Services Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ...................... 16 
3.3.1    Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 16 
3.3.2    Exports by main services sector  ................................ ................................ ................. 19 
4   MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  .............................  24 
4.1   Duty-Free Market Access Granted  by Selected Members  ................................ .................. 24 
4.2   Recent Initiatives to Improve Market Access for LDCs  ................................ ..................... 27 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  30 
 
 
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
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  List of Tables  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2017 -2021 ...........................  6 
Table 2: LDCs' top ten  export markets, 2017 and 2021  ................................ .......................... 15 
Table 3: Duty -free tariff lines under MFN and LDC schemes in selected Members,  
2020 or latest a vailable year  ................................ ................................ ............................... 24 
Table 4: Imports of selected Members from LDCs, 2020 or latest available year  ........................ 26 
Table 5: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  ................................ ............................. 28 
 
List of Charts  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2017 -2021 .......................  6 
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2017, 2020 and 2021  ................................ ........................  7 
Chart 3: LDCs' shares in total world trade of goods and commercial services, 2017 -2021 ............  7 
Chart 4: M erchandise trade of LDCs, 2017 -2021 ................................ ................................ ..... 8 
Chart 5: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2017 -2021 ................................ .........................  9 
Chart 6: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub -grouping, 2017 -2021 ................................ ..........  9 
Chart 7: Export prices of primary commodities, 2017 -2021 ................................ ..................... 10 
Chart 8: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2017 and 2021  ................................ ............... 11 
Chart 9: Merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2017 and 2021  ................................ ............... 12 
Chart 10: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2017 and 2021  ................................ ..13 
Chart 11: Top 20 products of LDCs' exports with the highest shares in world  
export market, 2021  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 14 
Chart 12: LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2017 -2021 ................................ ................... 16 
Chart 13: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2017 -2021 ............................... 16 
Chart 14: Exports of commercial services of selected LDCs, 2021 vs 2019  ................................ 18 
Chart 15: Leading LDC exporters of commercial services, 2021 and 2017  ................................ .19 
Chart 16: Structure of LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2021 and 2019  ............................ 19 
Chart 17: Travel exports of selected LDCs, 2021 vs 2019  ................................ ........................ 20 
Chart 18: LDCs' transport exports by mode of transport, 2021 vs 2019  ................................ ....21 
Chart 19: LDCs' transport serv ices exports by mode, 2019 and 2021  ................................ .......22 
Chart 20: LDCs' services exports of other commercial services, 2017 –2021 .............................. 23 
 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
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  List of Annex Tables  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2021  ....30 
Annex Table 2: Indices of market prices for non -fuel and fuel commodities, 2017 -2022 .............. 32 
Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2017 -2021 ............... 35 
Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2021  ................................ ...................... 37 
Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2021  .......................... 40 
Annex Table 6: Major non -reciprocal preference schemes benefitting LDCs  
undertaken by Members, 2022 or latest available year  ................................ ........................... 41 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
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  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1. This Note, prepared by the Secretariat on an annual basis, provides an update on the trends 
in the least developed countries' (LDCs) trade and market access conditions . Between 201 7 and 
2021, exports of goods and services of the LDCs increased at an average annual rate of 5.1%, more 
than total world  exports ( +4.9% per year) . During the peak of the pandemic, in 2020, LD Cs' exports 
of goods were particularly affected by low energy prices, while  services exports were hit even 
stronger by the pandemic -related travel restrictions . In 2021, LDCs' exports of goods and 
commercial services were on the rise again, with a year -on-year increase of 24.6 %. LDCs' goods 
exports benefitted from rising  energy p rices. At the same time,  exports of commercial services 
lagged behind (9.1%) due to pandemic -related travel restrictions.  
2. During the period from 2017 to 2021, LDCs' overall trade deficit reached a new high in 2021 
with USD 113.1  billion . Back in 2017, the deficit had amounted to USD 92.4 billion; i n 2020, it was 
USD 92.2 billion . 
3. The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services remained static between 
2020 and 2021, standing at 0.93 %, slightly higher than back in 2017 (0.92 %). The same applies 
for imports side, with a stable share of 1.39 % in 2021.  
4. Merchandise exports of LDCs increased  from USD 179 billion in 2017 to USD 235 billion in 
2021. The growth of LDC exports was on par with that of w orld exports in 2021  (27% year-on-year). 
LDCs' merchandise imports of 2021 reached a value of USD 311 billion , representing a year -on-year 
growth of 26.6%.  
5.  The LDCs' share in world merchandise exports went up from 1.04 % in 2017 to 1.08 % in 
2021, the share in world imports from 1. 39% in 2017 to 1.41 % in 2021.  
6. The share of primary products in total exports of LDCs remained broadly  stable between 2017 
and 2021 ( 53%). While the share of fuels decreased from 25 % (2017) to 21 % (2021), the shares 
of non -ferrous metals and of ores and min erals grew from 7 % to 11 % and from 5 % to 7% 
respectively . The shares of food and agricultural raw materials remained unchanged, 11% and 3% 
respectively in 2021 . The composition  of manufactures exports  also did not change between 2017 
and 2021:  clothing (27 %), textiles (1 %) and semi -manufactures (3 %). 
7. In 2021,  China was the top destination for total LDC merchandise exports  (26%), followed by 
the European  Union (20 %), the United Arab Emirates (12%), t he United States (10 %), and India 
(7%). The top ten importers accounted for 87 % of LDCs ' total exports in 2021, compared to 80 % 
in 2017.  
8. Following strong export performance in the period 2017 -2019, largely driven by tourism, LDCs' 
services exports dropped by 38% in 2020 due to the COVID -19 pandemic and associated travel 
restrictions. In value terms, LDCs' services exports contracted to USD 27 billion from 
USD 43.2 billion in 20 20. The impact of pandemic was more pronounced for LDCs than in the rest 
of the world ( -18%). Trade started to recover in 2021. H owever, the LDCs recorded a sluggish upturn 
with services exports expanding only by 9% to USD 29.4 billion  in 2021 , roughly half the growth 
recorded in the rest of the world (+17%). Overall, in 2021, the value of LDCs' services exports 
remained depressed, 32% below pre -pandemic levels . The LDC share in world commercial services 
exports declined from 0.53% in 2020 to 0.49% in 2021.  
9. Most developed country Members, and a number of developing country Members,  offer full or 
almost full duty -free acces s to the beneficiaries of their LDC scheme s. Australia, New Zealand, 
Norway  and Switzerland offer 100% duty -free market access to  LDCs. Chile, the European  Union, 
Iceland and the United Kingdom  offer over 99% duty -free market access to LDCs. In addition, t hree 
Members grant duty-free market access to around  97% of their tariff lines: Canada (98.5%), China 
(96.6%), and Japan (97.8%). Meanwhile, some  other Members grant duty -free access to around 
90% or more of their tariff lines , including  India, the Republi c of Korea and Montenegro.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
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  2  INTRODUCTION  
2.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretariat responds to paragraph  8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for the Least Developed Countries, which mandates annual reviews of market access for products 
originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD /LDC/11/Rev.1) . It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions.  
2.2.  The Note is divided into two main chapters, in addition to the executive summary and the 
introduction . Chapter 3 provides a description of recent trends for LDCs' trade flows, both in goods 
and commercial services . Chapter 4 contains information on trends in market access conditions for 
LDC exports, including duty -free market access for LDC products and rece nt initiatives undertaken 
by Members to improve market access for LDCs, mainly based on Members' notifications . The Note 
does not attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for 
LDC products . It should therefore be read  in conjunction with previous Secretariat notes prepared 
on this topic, to gauge the different factors that determine market access for LDCs.  
2.3.  Despite improvements in the production of national data, the statistical coverage of LDCs 
remains incomplete . The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available . 
In many instances, it was still necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e.  data reported by LDCs' 
trading partners . The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow ta king trade among 
the LDCs  into consideration , as well as trade with non -reporting developing economies.  
2.4.  The definition of geographical and other groupings in this report serves only statistical 
purposes ; it does not imply an expression of opinion by the Se cretariat concerning the status of any 
country or territory, the delimitation of its frontiers, nor the rights and obligations of any 
WTO Member in respect of WTO agreements.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
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  3  LDCS' TRADE PROFILE  
3.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  Trade  
3.1.  Between 2017 a nd 2021, LDC exports of goods and services grew somewhat  faster  than world 
exports, with  an average annual rate of +5.1% (versus +4.9 % for world) . During the peak of the 
pandemic, in 2020, LD Cs' exports of goods were particularly affected by low energy pri ces and 
dropped by 7.8 % (world : -7.4%), while services exports were hit even stronger ( -37.6%; 
world: -17.8%) by the pandemic -related travel restrictions  (Chart 1) . In 2021, LDCs' exports of 
goods and commercial services were on the rise, with a year -on-year increase of 24.6 % (versus 
24.5% for world exports)  – see Table 1 . LDCs' goods exports benefitted again from rising  energy 
prices , leading to an annual growth of 26.9 % (world : 26.6%). At the same time,  exports of 
commercial services lagged behind (9.1% ) due to pandemic -related travel restrictions (world : 
17.4%). 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 20 17-2021 
(Index, 20 17 = 100 ; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services , 2017-2021 
(Billion US dollars and percentage ; BOP/BPM6)  
  Value ( USD bn) Annual percentage change (%)  
  2017  2021  2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  2017 -2021  
Exports  
Total goods and commercial services  211.8  258.9  13.6 13.1 0.0 -13.2 24.6 5.1 
Goods  177.5  229.5  14.9 12.5 -1.8 -7.8 26.9 6.6 
Commercial services  34.3 29.4 7.4 16.0 8.5 -37.6 9.1 -3.8 
Imports  
Total goods and commercial services  302.9  372.0  8.6 11.6 -0.7 -10.6 24.0 5.3 
Goods  237.5  305.2  9.7 12.8 0.0 -10.1 26.8 6.5 
Commercial services  65.4 66.8 4.8 7.5 -3.6 -12.5 12.6 0.5 
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.2.  During the period 2017 to 2021, LDCs' overall trade deficit reached a new high in 2021 with 
USD 113.1  billion . Back in 2017, the deficit had amounted to USD 92.4 billion; i n 2020, it was 
USD 92.2 billion. R egarding goods, i mports exceeded exports by USD 75.7 billion  in 202 1, and 
regarding commercial services, imports were higher than exports by USD 37.4 billion (Chart  2).  
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  Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 20 17, 2020  and 20 21 
(Billion US dollars ; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.3.  The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services remained static between 
2020 and 2021, standing at 0.93 %, slightly higher than back in 2017 (0.92 %), see Chart 3 . The 
same applies for imports side, with a stable share of 1.39 % in 2021 . Consequently, also the 
respective share for total trade (exports and imports combined) didn't change against 2020 (1.15 %; 
up from 1.14 % in 2017) . 
Chart 3: LDCs' shares in total world trade of goods and commercial services, 2017 -2021  
(Percentage shares ; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  Merchandise Trade Developments2 
  
 
2 Differences between Balance of Payments (BOP) (BPM6) and International Merc handise Trade 
Statistics are explained in the International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 
(IMTS  2010), Chapter XXIV Section B "Goods to be recorded differently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" 
(p. 288). ( https://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/EG -IMTS/IMTS2010 -CM%20 -
%20white%20cover%20version.pdf ). 
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  3.2  Merchandise Trade Developments3 
3.4.  Merchandise exports of LDCs rose from USD 179 billion in 20 17 to USD 235 billion in 20 21 
(Chart  4, left-hand side) , the highest value since 2018 ( USD 206 billion ) - corresponding to an 
average annual increase  of 7.0%. They grew faster  than world exports, i.e. 26.9% versus 26.5%  
3.5.  Between 2017 and 2021, LDCs' m erchandise imports had increased more than world im ports, 
with an  average of +6.2 % per year (compared to +5.9 % per year for world imports) . In 2021, LDCs' 
merchandise imports reached a value of USD 311 billion  (up from USD 244 billion  in 2017) – the 
highest value since 2019 ( USD 273 billion ).  
3.6.  In 2021, t he LDCs' share in world merchandise exports4 increased to 1.08% ( from 1.0 4% in 
2017). The share in world imports  increased to  1.41% in 202 1(from 1.39% in 2017 ). (Chart 4, 
right-hand side ). Among developing economies4, the LDCs' share of exports increased  to 2.4 % in 
2021 (from 2. 3% in 201 7) and for imports  decreased  to 3.3% (from 3. 4% in 2017 ). The share of 
LDCs in world exports of manufactures4 grew from 0. 54% in 201 7 to 0.5 8% in 202 1. 
Chart 4: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 20 17-2021 
(Billion US dollars and percentages)  
 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD (totals) ; WTO estimates (manufactures).  
3.7.  The merchandise trade deficit of LDCs  (Chart 5)  increased in 202 1 (from USD 65 billion  in 2017 
to USD 76 billion in 20 21). Even though exports grew more than imports in percentage terms, the 
nominal year -on-year growth of the value of imports amounted to USD 66 billion  in 2021 and to 
'only' USD 50 billion  of exports . In 202 1 both the LDC non -fuel exporters and the LDC oil exporters 
showed a trade surplus  (of USD 14 billion  and of USD 12 billion  respectively) . The trade deficit of 
LDC exporters of manufactures almost doubled between 2020 and 2021, from USD 34 billion to 
USD 66 billion, and expanded for LDC exporters of agriculture from USD 28 billion in 20 20 to 
USD 31 billion in 202 1. 
3.8.  In 202 1, merchandise exports of the economies that benefitted most from recent price 
developments (especially oil and minerals) grew the most  (Chart 6) . Exports of  the LDC non -fuel 
minerals exporters increased the most , notably by 35.9 % against 2020, followed by the group of oil 
exporters (+27.3 %) and 'other LDCs' (+26.3 %; Djibouti, Senegal, Tuvalu) . The lowest year -on-year 
growth rate was observed for the agricultu re exporters with +15.8 %. It should be taken  into 
consideration though that exports of agricultural products proved to be rather resilient to the effects 
of the pandemic in 2020, while most other products groups had suffered distinctly more . 
Annex Table  1 provides details on the value and growth of exports and imports for individual LDCs.  
 
3 Differences between Balance of Payments (BOP) (BPM6) and International Merchandi se Trade 
Statistics are explained in the International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 
(IMTS  2010), Chapter XXIV Section B "Goods to be recorded differently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" 
(p. 288). ( https://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/EG -IMTS/IMTS2010 -CM%20 -
%20white%20cover%20version.pdf ). 
4 Excluding re -exports of Hong Kong, China.  
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  Chart 5: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 20 17-2021 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD.  
Chart 6: Merchandise exp orts of LDCs by sub-grouping , 2017-2021 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD.  
  
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  3.2.1   Commodity price movements  
3.9.  Exchange rates and commodity prices strongly influence nominal d ollar values of international 
trade flows . As Chart 7 shows,  2021 was characterised by upward trend s for all groups of primary 
commodities shown . Energy export prices practically doubled between 2020 and 2021, and prices 
of non -precious metals jumped by almost 50 %. Prices of food and beverages soared by 26 %, prices  
of agricultural raw materials by 15 %. The lowest annual growth was observed for prices of precious 
metals (+4 %) – but whose prices had already  markedly  increased during the pandemic in 2020.  
3.10.   The price levels of all product groups in 202 1 were above their respective  2017 and 2019 
pre-pandemic levels . Prices o f non-precious metals were 68 % above the level of 2017, while energy 
prices  were 49% above . Prices of agricultural raw materials and of food and beverages had remained 
stable over the period . For more details on commodity price developments see Annex Table 2.  
Chart 7: Export prices of primary commodities, 20 17-2021 
(Indices, 20 17 = 100)  
 
Source:  IMF Primary Commodity Price System.  
3.2.2   Major LDC traders  
3.11.   The top 10 exporters represented a share of 75% of all LDCs' merchandise exports in 2017 
and a share of 74% in 2021.  Chart  8 shows t he top ten individual merchandise exporters and 
importers of the LDCs for both 20 17 and 20 21. Bangladesh was the top merchan dise exporter 
amongst the group of LDCs, covering 20 % of all LDCs' exports in 2017 and 19 % in 2021 . Bangladesh 
was followed by Angola, on second position in 2017 and 2021, with shares of 19 % and 14 % 
respectively . While Myanmar was on third position in 2017  (share of 8 %), it fell to fifth position in 
2021 (6 %) – being overtaken by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) on third position 
in 2021 (10 %) and Cambodia on fourth (7 %). Amongst the top ten exporters in 2021, the economies 
whose shares incre ased most were the DR Congo (+3.1 percentage points), Guinea 
(+1.9  percentage points) and Cambodia (+1.1 percentage points) .  
3.12.   Around two thirds of all LDCs' merchandise imports were accounted for by  the top 10 
importers in both 2017 and 2021.  In 201 7, the three leading importers were Bangladesh ( 22%), 
Myanmar  (8%) and Ethiopia  (6%). Four years later , the top three consisted of Bangladesh ( 26%), 
Cambodia ( 9%) and Ethiopia  (7%).  
  
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  3.13.   Among the top 15 LDC  exporters (in terms of export value), the highest  year-on-year growth  
rates in 2021 exports w ere recorded for the DR Congo (+66%) [exporter of non -fuel minerals], 
Angola  (+60%) [oil exporter ] and Mozambique  (+55%) [exporter of non -fuel minerals] . Of the top 
15, only two economies (Myanmar, -9%; Cambodia, -2%) had export declines in 2021 . 
Chart 8: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 20 17 and 20 21 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD.  
3.2.3   Trends in product composition  
3.14.   Chart 9 shows t he evolution in the commodity composition  of LDCs between 20 17 and 20 21. 
The share of primary products in total exports of LDCs remained quite stable between 2017 (52 %) 
and 2021 (5 3%).5 While the share of fuels decreased from 25 % (2017) to 21 % (2021), the shares  
of non -ferrous metals and of ores and minerals grew from 7 % to 11 % and from 5 % to 7% 
respectively . The shares of food (12 % in 2017, 11 % in 2021) and agricultural raw materials (3 % in 
both years) remained rather unchanged . As regards to the manufactures part in LDCs' export, there 
was not much movement in terms of composition between 2017 and 2021 . The shares of clothing 
(27%), textiles (1 %) and semi -manufactures (3 %) stayed at the same levels, only the share of 
'other manuf actures'  grew from 7 % in 2017 to 9 % in 2021.6 
 
 
5 These shares are derived according to the  WTO product according to the Standard International Trade 
Classification (SITC). Following this definition, diamonds and non -monetary gold are not part of mineral 
products – as opposed to the Harmonized System (HS). As a result, the shares of fuels and mi ning products in 
this presentation differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products presented in the Annex of 
this report.  
6 SITC rev. 3 codes: 81, 82, 83, 85, 87, 88, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899.  
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  Chart 9: Merchandise export structure of LDCs, 20 17 and 20 21 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source : WTO estimates based on Comtrade  (20217) and Trade Data Monitor (2021) [importer data].  
3.15.   Chart 10  provides a  more detailed view (products in a breakdown by HS -4-digits -level) on 
the top ten exported products by LDCs in 2017 and 2021 . 7 Crude petroleum oils and gold were t he 
two most -exported products by the LDCs, with shares of 19 % (2017) and 15% (2021) and 8 % 
(2017) and 6% (2021) respectively.  The overall share of petroleum products decreased from 22% 
(2017) to 18% (2021).  In 2021, 'refined copper...' (HS 74.03) had moved to the third position . 
3.16.   Among the top ten products c lothing represents another important export category  for LDCs, 
(notably HS 62.03, HS 61.09, HS 61.10, HS 62.04 and HS 61.04) ; while in 2017 the first clothing 
product ('men's or boys' suits', HS 62.03) appeared on th ird position with a share of 4 %, it was on 
fourth position in 2021 ('Sweaters, pullovers…', HS 61.10) with the same share .  
 
7 Annex Table 4 provides statist ics on the top 50 export products by HS -4-digits -level.  
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  Chart 10: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 20 17 and 20 21 
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)  
 
Source:  WTO estimates based on Comtrade (2017) and Trade Data Monitor (2021) [importer data].  
3.17.   Chart 11 shows the LDC  products with the highest shares in world exports . LDC s cover over  
half of world exports of the following product s: 'yarn of jute or of other textile bast fibres'  (93%) ,'jute 
and other textile bast fibers , nesoi, raw or processed ' (86%),'cobalt ores and concentrates ' 
(80%),'vanilla ' (73%), 'cobalt mattes […] ' (62%),'tin ores and concentrates'  (58%), and 'aluminium 
ores and concentrates' ( 51%). 
  
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  Chart 11: Top 20 products of LDCs' exports with the highest shares in world export 
market, 2021  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  Trade Data Monitor [importer data].  
3.2.4   Major markets of LDCs  
3.18.   The top  ten importers accounted for 87% of LDCs'  total exports in 2021, compared to 80% 
in 2017.  Table 2 shows LDCs' top ten markets by product groups for 20 17 and 20 21.8 In 2021, over 
quarter of LDC  merchandise exports went to China, followed by the European Union (20%), the 
United Arab Emirates (12%), the United States (10%), and India (7%).  
3.19.   The top ten destinations accounted for 80% of LDCs' exports of agricultural products in 2021 
(up from 71% in  2017).  In 2021,  China was the main destination of LDC agricultural exports (22%), 
followed by India (17%), European Union (16%), Viet Nam (6%) and Thailand (5%) .  
3.20.   The top ten destinations accounted for  90% of all LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products  
in 2017 and 2021 . In 2021 , over half of LDC exports of fuels and mining products went to China, 
followed by the European Union (10%), Thailand (8%), India (6%) and the United States (2%).  
3.21.   In 2021, nearly 90% of LDC exports of manufactures went to the top ten markets  (up from 
83% in 2017). The European  Union  and the United  States  were the most important destinations for 
LDC exports of manufactured goods in both 20 17 and 20 21. In 2021, the European  Union  imported 
37% of LDC s' manufacturing exports , followed by the United  States  (22%), China ( 7%), the United 
Kingdom (5%), and Japan (4%).   
 
 
8 Annex Table 3 shows trade statistics for a greater number of destination markets.  
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
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Table 2: LDCs' top ten export markets, 20 17 and 20 21 
(Billion US dollars and percentage shares)  
 Total trade  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
 Market  USD bn. % Share  Market  USD bn. % Share  Market  USD bn. % Share  Market  USD bn. % Share  2017  China  43.5 22.8%  European Union  4.9 17.5%  China  35.8 50.1%  European Union  29.7 40.2%  
European Union  40.6 21.3%  China  3.9 14.1%  India 6.4 9.0%  USA 11.4 15.4%  
USA 16.2 8.5%  India 3.2 11.5%  European Union  5.8 8.2%  United Kingdom  5.2 7.0%  
India 13.8 7.2%  Viet Nam  2.5 8.9%  Thailand  4.3 6.0%  Japan  3.4 4.6%  
United Arab Emirates  12.9 6.8%  Saudi Arabia  1.3 4.5%  USA 3.5 4.8%  China  2.5 3.4%  
Thailand  6.6 3.5%  USA 1.2 4.2%  South Africa  2.3 3.3%  Canada  2.4 3.3%  
United Kingdom  5.8 3.0%  Thailand  1.1 4.0%  Chinese Taipei  1.8 2.5%  India 2.4 3.2%  
Japan  5.0 2.6%  Japan  0.8 2.7%  Korea, Rep. of  1.4 2.0%  United Arab Emirates  2.2 2.9%  
Switzerland  4.2 2.2%  Kenya  0.6 2.1%  Zambia  1.1 1.5%  Russian Federation  1.1 1.5%  
South Africa  3.3 1.7%  Pakistan  0.5 1.7%  Japan  0.8 1.2%  Korea, Rep. of  1.0 1.4%  
Top 10 export markets  152.0  79.7%  Sum of above  19.8 71.3%  Sum of above  63.3 88.7%  Sum of above  61.4 83.1%  
All markets*  190.6  100.0%  All markets*  27.8 100.0%  All markets*  71.4 100.0%  All markets*  73.8 100.0%  
 Market  USD bn. % Share  Market  USD bn. % Share  Market  USD bn. % Share  Market  USD bn. % Share  2021  China  63.4 25.6%  China  6.7 21.8%  China  49.0 59.0%  European Union  35.5 37.0%  
European Union  48.7 19.7%  India 5.2 16.9%  European Union  8.0 9.6%  USA 21.5 22.5%  
United Arab Emirates  29.0 11.7%  European Union  4.8 15.7%  Thailand  6.9 8.3%  China  6.3 6.5%  
USA 24.8 10.0%  Viet Nam a  1.9 6.2%  India 5.0 6.0%  United Kingdom  4.4 4.6%  
India 17.0 6.9%  Thailand  1.6 5.2%  USA 1.6 1.9%  Japan  4.1 4.3%  
Thailand  10.0 4.0%  USA 1.3 4.3%  Korea, Rep. of  1.5 1.8%  Canada  3.2 3.3%  
Switzerland  8.5 3.4%  Saudi Arabia  1.0 3.4%  United Arab Emirates  1.4 1.7%  United Arab Emirates  2.8 2.9%  
Japan  5.4 2.2%  Pakistan  0.8 2.7%  South Africa  1.2 1.5%  India 2.7 2.8%  
United Kingdom  4.9 2.0%  Kenya  0.6 2.1%  Chinese Taipei  1.1 1.3%  Russia  1.6 1.7%  
Canada  4.2 1.7%  Japan  0.6 1.9%  Singapore  1.1 1.3%  Switzerland  1.6 1.7%  
Top 10 export markets  216.1  87.3%  Sum of above  24.6 80.0%  Sum of above  76.7 92.4%  Sum of above  83.7 87.3%  
All markets*  247.4  100.0%  All markets*  30.7 100.0%  All markets*  83.0 100.0%  All markets*  95.9 100.0%  
a Estimate.  
* Aggregated export values for all markets may not coincide with total trade figures reported by LDCs.  
Source:  WTO estimates based on Comtrade (2017/21) and Trade Data Monitor (2021) [importer data].  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 16 - 
  3.3  Services Trade Developments  
3.3.1   Overall  trend 
3.22.   Following strong export performance in the period 2017 -2019, largely driven by tourism, 
LDCs' services exports dropped by 38% in 2020 due to the COVID -19 pandemic and associated 
travel restrictions. In value terms, LDCs' services exports contracted to USD 27 billion from 
USD 43.2 billion in 20 20. The impact of pandemic was more pronounced for LDCs than in the rest 
of the world ( -18%)  (Chart 12) .  
3.23.   Trade started to recover in 2021. However, the LDCs  recorded a sluggish upturn with services 
exports expanding only by 9% to USD 29.4 billion, roughly half the growth recorded in the rest of 
the (+17%). Overall, in 2021, the value of LDCs' services exports remained depressed, 32% below 
pre-pandemic levels.  The LDC share in world commercial services exports declined from 0.53% in 
2020 to 0.49% in 2021.  Annex Table 5 provides data on total commercial services for individual 
LDCs.  
Chart  12: LDCs' exports of commercial services, 201 7-2021 
(Billion dollars  and a nnual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.   
3.24.   Services exports recovery varied across LDC regions. LDCs in Africa, which accounted for 
more than half of LDCs' exports in 2019, saw a 26% increase in 2021 to USD 19.2 billi on (Chart 13) . 
While services exports growth in African LDCs lagged behind LDCs in Asia prior to the pandemic, 
they rebounded faster in 2021 due to a rise in transport exports (+21%) as well as resumption of 
tourism exports (+45%) . 
Chart 13: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2017 -2021  
(Billion dollars  and annual percentage change ) 
 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 17 - 
  Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.25.   In Asian LDCs, which host the largest LDC  tourism exporters, travel receipts dropped 76% in 
in 2020. In 2021, travellers' expenditure exports contracted further due to lack of tourist arrivals 
from main source countries in the region such as China. Thus, Asian LDCs' travel exports remained 
92% be low pre -pandemic levels. Exports of transport services and other commercial services were 
relatively more resilient ( -10% and -9% in 2021 vs 2019 respectively). Overall, Asian LDCs recorded 
the sharpest drop in services exports in 2021 ( -13%), decreasing t heir contribution to LDCs exports 
from 44.1% in 2019 ( USD 19.1 billion) to 32.1% in 2021 to USD 9.4 billion.  
3.26.   In LDC Islands, services exports fell from USD 2.3 billion in 2019 to USD 816 million , a 65% 
decline. Travel accounted for 67.4% of the group's exp orts in 2018. Travel exports already begun 
to slow down in 2019 ( -10%). During the two years of the global health crisis, LDC Islands lost 
USD 2.3 billion in travel receipts. Although their exports of commercial services recorded growth 
(6%) in 2020, in 20 21 they remained 6% below their pre -pandemic value.  
3.27.   Chart  14 shows the recovery of selected LDC s' exports in 2021 versus their pre -pandemic 
levels in 2019. The few economies that have recorded growth rely on transport services or other 
commercial services.  Growth was most rapid in Bangladesh (+53% as compared to 2019) due to 
computer services exports which were up 60% compared with 2019.  
813
2
-3026
-70-50-30-10103050
2017 2018 2019 2020 202172219
-43-13
-70-50-30-10103050
2017 2018 2019 2020 202184
-5
-62-7
-70-50-30-10103050
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021LDCs in Africa LDCs in Asia LDCs IslandsWT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 18 - 
  Chart  14: Exports  of commercial services  of selected LDCs,  2021 vs 2019  
(Percentage change ) 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.28.   Loss of services export revenue due to the COVID -19 pandemic have affected countries' 
individual shares in LDCs' overall services exports (Chart  15). Cambodia , having previously led the 
group in 2017, fell out from the top -10 exporters in 2021. Sustained by air transport services, 
Ethiopia had the largest share (18.3%), closely followed by Bangladesh (16.6%). Myanmar saw its 
share contract from 10.9% in 2017 to 7.1% in 2021. Overall, the top ten  leading exp orters 
accounted for 74.3% of the group's services receipts in 202 1. The contribution  of other LDCs in total 
services exports declined from 28.8%  in 201 7 to 25.7%. 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 19 - 
  Chart 15: Leading LDC exporters of commercial services, 20 21 and 201 7 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.3.2   Exports by main services sector  
3.29.   In 2021, the share of travel in LDCs ' exports, which formed the bulk prior to the pandemic, 
collapsed to 26.8% in 2021 from 48.0% in 2019 (Chart 16). The sector was worth USD 7.9 billion 
in 2021, 62% less than its the pre -pandemic value. Driven by high prices of freight transport 
worldwide, LDCs' transport revenues expanded by 21% to USD 10.9 billion, increasing the share of 
the sector in the group's services exports from 25.1% in 2019 to 37.1% in 2021. The relative share 
of LDCs' other commercial services also expanded, although exports were  down 7% compared to 
the pre -pandemic period.  
Chart  16: Structure of LDCs' exports  of commercial services, 20 21 and 2019 
(Percentage share ) 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.   
3.30.   According to the UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), in 2021 tourist inflows to LDCs 
contracted on average by 8 6% compared with the pre -pandemic period.9 Travel  exports, covering 
foreign tourists' expenditure in services and goods during their stay in L DCs, grew by 8% in 2021 to 
USD 7.9 billion , after plummeting by 65% to USD 7.3 billion in 2020. This is an estimated revenue 
loss of  USD 26.2 billion during the pandemic since  2019 for the LDCs group ( USD 13.4 billion in 
2020 and USD 12.8 billion in 2021) . Nevertheless, LDC participation in global travel exports 
remained stable at 1. 3% in 202 1, as sharp declines affected all economies worldwide.  For LDCs, 
 
9 Global and regional tourism performance (unwto.org)  
Travel
48.0%Transport 
25.1%
Other 
commercial 
services
21.5%
Goods -related 
services
5.4%Transport
37.1%Other 
commercial 
services
29.4%
Travel
26.8%
Goods -related 
services
6.6%2021 2019WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 20 - 
  international tourism is the most important services export sector, in which micro, small and 
medium -sized enterprises (MSMEs) are predominant.  
3.31.   In LDCs in Asia, the average decline of travel exports in 2021 compared with 2019 was 70%. 
Cambodia lost its position  as the leading LDCs travel exporter  as well,  as its export revenue 
contracted by 82% in 2021 and remained 96% below its pre -pandemic value in 2019  (Chart 17) . 
Other  prominent touristic destinations in the region such as Myanmar were the most depressed since 
2019 among the selected LDCs ( -99%), thereby, leading to a drop being the 3rd largest travel 
exporter in 2019 to 34th in 2021, according to WTO estimates. Myanmar's share in LDCs travel 
exports also collapsed from 12% to 0.22% during this period.  
3.32.   According to estimates, t ourism for LDCs in Africa  is also mainly intra -regional , repr esenting 
some 65% of all arrivals. However, European tourists, whose travel -related spending is higher, are 
important in several LDCs, representing one third of total arrivals in Tanzania, almost half in 
Madagascar, and two  thirds in Comoros.  Resumption of  tourist arrivals in 2021 resulted in a 95% 
increase of Tanzania's travel exports, making the economy the LDC group's largest travel exporter. 
In 2021, African LDCs' travel exports overall rose by 45% but remained 30% below pre -pandemic 
levels . 
3.33.  UNWTO  estim ates also indicate that during  period January -July 2022, global international 
tourist arrivals were still 43% below their 2019 pre -pandemic levels  but almost  tripled compared 
to the same period  2021.10 While cross -border travel has resumed in most parts of  the world, the 
sector continues to face difficulties due to the persisting effects of the pandemic and the 
accompanying uncertainty. Travel industry trends suggest that tourists have an increased 
expectation of hygienic, digital, and flexible services to ensure safety during their travels, which 
will require investment and innovation in the sector.11 
Chart 17: Travel exports of selected LDCs , 2021 vs 2019  
(Percentage change)  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.34.   Transport exports were also hit hard by the pandemic  but recovered swiftly in 2021 as 
consumer demand for goods started rising worldwide . In 2020, LDCs transport exports declined by 
17% to USD 9 billion. In the following year, they were the fastest growing services sector , risin g by 
21% to USD 10.9 billion, such that they were marginally more than their pre -pandemic value in 
2019 (by 0.5%) . This was due to the boost in sea freight revenues (9% higher than pre -pandemic 
 
10 Barometer | UNWTO  
11 2022 Travel Industry Outlook | Deloitte US  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 21 - 
  value) as freight prices escalated globally (Chart 18). In thi s sector, the group was led by Ethiopia's 
exports which were worth USD 4 billion in 2021, attributing to 37% of LDCs transport services 
receipts. Tanzania followed with the value of its exports 11% higher than pre -pandemic levels, 
equivalent to USD 1.5 bil lion in 2021.  
3.35.   In Ethiopia, the first African LDC services exporter, air transport exports rose 34% in 2021, 
up 13% compared with 2019. Despite a contraction in passenger transport services ( -39%), 
Ethiopia's air freight transport services exports were 150%  above pre -pandemic levels. Cargo has 
been essential to ship rapidly Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and other medical products 
worldwide during the pandemic. In addition, global demand has been fostered by e -commerce, and 
in 2021, by the need to distr ibute rapidly COVID -19 vaccines. This has resulted in an increase in 
global air freight rates due to lack of capacity. Air cargo has represented  an important alternative to 
maritime transport due to port delays and a global misallocation of containers.  
3.36.   In LDCs, air transport services, which accounted for 58% of total transport exports in 2019,  
were 4% below their pre -pandemic level. This can be attributed to the  substantial drop in passenger 
transport  (-47% in 2021 vs 2019)  due to border closures and quaran tine measures imposed by 
countries worldwide  (Chart 18) . However, air freight services rose by 122 %, while auxiliary services 
in airports such as cargo handling and storage were also up 6 5% versus their value in 2019. An 
expansion of the combined share of air freight and airport services from 19% to 35% was recorded 
in the last two years (Chart 19). Air freight transport offers export opportunities also for LDCs.  
Ethiopia remained the largest exporter since 2019, with air freight receipts amounting to 
USD 1.5 billion. In Bangladesh, air freight services exports in 2021 were almost 2.5 times their value 
in 2019, while in Nepal expanded from USD 732 thousand to USD 3 million . 
Chart 18: LDCs' transport exports by mode of transport, 2021 vs 2019  
(Percentage change)  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.37.   On the other hand, sea transport services and other modes of transport were 9% and 6% 
higher than in 2019 (Chart 18). These were moderate trends in contrast with the world w here sea 
transport exports grew strongly by 37% and other modes of transport services exports were up by 
22% in 2021 as compared to 2019.  
3.38.   Sea transport  (mainly, sea freight transport)  represented only 17.5% of LDC transport exports 
prior to the pandemic, a s many LDCs are landlocked  (Chart 19) . In 2021, LDC exports of maritime 
transport services increased by 20% after falling by 9% in 2020 . Freight shipping revenue was up  
14%, and other port services expanded by 6% since 2019. Various LDCs benefitted from hi gh 
demand for sea transportation services including Togo where maritime transport exports increased 
from USD 66 million  in 2019 to USD 78 million  in 2021.  
-4
-47122
65
-100-50050100150
Air
transport,
of which:Passenger Freight Other
airport
services9
-31146
-100-50050100150
Sea
transport,
of which:Passenger Freight Other port
services6
-417 10
-100-50050100150
Other
modes of
transport,
of which:Passenger Freight Other
supporting
servicesAir Transport Sea Transport Other Modes of TransportWT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 22 - 
  Chart  19: LDCs' transport services exports by mode, 201 9 and 2021  
(Percentage  share)  
 
Source: WTO -UNCTAD estimates . 
3.39.   Between 2017 and 2021 , other commercial services exports of LDCs expanded by 3% on 
annual average. While they were more resilient to the crisis in 2020, they remained 7% below their 
pre-pandemic levels  (Chart 20) . LDCs' contribution to global exports of other commercial services 
was negligible, decreasing from 0.26% in 2019 to 0.24%  in 2021 . Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Nepal 
confirmed their leading position as the main exporters together accounting for 45% of the group's 
exports of other commercial services in 2021.  
3.40.   Within other commercial services, "o ther business services ", a mixed category  which  include s 
inter alia professional, technical  and trade -related services , is the main subsector . Boosted by 
exports of technical and trade -related services, Tanzania witnessed an export rebound of 80% in 
2021. Comoros also saw significant growth of other bu siness services, which increased almost four 
times from USD 300 thousand in 2019 to USD 1.1 million  in 2021. However, overall LDCs exports 
of other business services remained 16% below pre -pandemic levels.  
3.41.   LDCs' exports of computer  services exports grew by  37% in 2021 to USD 713 million . 
Bangladesh alone accounted for 59.1% of exports, followed by Madagascar, which saw exports rise 
by 41% compared with 2019.  
3.42.   Construction exports recorded a notable increase  in the post -pandemic period, up by 45% in 
2021 to a lmost USD 1.5 billion. Bangladesh exported three times more services in 2021 compared 
with 2019, accounting alone for  68% of LDCs' construction exports . This was due to various 
infrastructure projects that are nearing completion in the country.  
Sea Transport 
Services , 18%Other 
Transport 
Services , 24%Postal and courier 
services , 0%
Passenger 
transport 
services 
(air), 39%Freight transport 
services (air) , 7%
Other transport 
services (air) , 12%58%2019
Sea Transport 
Services , 19%Other Transport 
Services , 26%Postal and courier 
services , 0%
Passenger 
transport services 
(air), 20%Freight transport 
services (air) , 15%
Other transport 
services (air) , 20%55%2021Air Transport 
services,
Air Transport 
services,WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 23 - 
  Chart 20: LDCs' services exports of other commercial services, 2017 –2021  
(Billion US Dollars)  
Source: WTO -UNCTAD estimates . 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 24 - 
  4  MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
4.1  Duty -Free Market Access Granted by Selected Members  
4.1.  Table 3 provides statistics on duty -free market access accorded to LDCs by selected Members  
that have mostly  notified LDC preference schemes to the WTO.  
4.2.  Several WTO Members offer full or almost full duty -free market access to LDCs. Australia, 
New Zealand,  Norway  and Switzerland offer 100% duty -free market access to  LDCs. Chile, the 
European Union, Iceland and the United Kingdom offer over 99% duty -free market access to LDCs. 
In addition, three Members grant duty -free market access to around 97% of their ta riff lines: Canada 
(98.5%), China (96.6%), and Japan (97.8%). Meanwhile, some other Members grant duty -free 
access to around 90% or more of their tariff lines, including India, the Republic of Korea and 
Montenegro.  Furthermore, Hong Kong, China and Macao, China offer full duty -free access to all 
products on an MFN basis ; similarly, 99.9% of tariff lines enter Singapore  MFN duty-free. 
4.3.  In 2020, under the  LDC preferential schemes , the highest number of products was exported to 
the European Union (4,397 nationa l tariff lines , close to 46% of its total tariff lines ). LDCs registered 
exports to nearly 35% of Canada's total tariff lines, while the share was slightly more than 20% for 
China and the United States.  
4.4.  In 2020, LDCs enjoyed high average preferential margin (i.e. difference between average MFN 
duty and the average duty under the LDC scheme) in India (16.5 percentage points). For agricultural 
products, the margin was even larger  (32.9). The other market with significant preference margin 
for agricultural products was Norway (19.5)  and Thailand (18.4) . The overall pre ference margin was 
above five  percentage points for Chile (6,0), China (6.7) and the Republic of Korea (5.9).  
Table 3: Duty -free tariff lines under MFN and LDC schemes in selected Members, 2020 or  
latest available year  
Market  Sector MFN LDC Number of tariff lines  
% lines 
DFQF  Simple 
avg. duty  % lines 
DFQF  Simple 
avg. duty  Total  with 
imports 
from LDCs  
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 
Armeniaa Total  19.6 6.1 - -  12,178  -  
Ag 8.0 8.2 - -  2,703  - 
  Non-Ag 22.9 5.6 - -  9,475  - 
Australia  Total  49.4 2.5 100 0  6,480  1,107   
Ag 72.8 1.3 100 0  856  170 
  Non-Ag 45.8 2.7 100 0  5,624  937 
Canada  Total  69.4 2.7 98.5 0.1  6,986  2,436   
Ag 51.6 3.5 92.6 0.6  1,425  457 
  Non-Ag 73.9 2.5 100.0  0  5,561  1,979  
Chile  Total  0.4 6.0 99.5 0  8,561  516  
Ag 0 6.0 97.2 0  1,465  46 
  Non-Ag 0.5 6.0 100 0  7,096  470 
Chinab Total  10.2 7.3 96.6 0.6  8,549  1,907   
Ag 7.8 13.0 93.5 2.3  1,169  175 
  Non-Ag 10.5 6.4 97.1 0.3  7,380  1,732  
European Union  Total  26.6 4.7 99.8 0  9,483  4,397   
Ag 19.0 7.7 100 0  2,101  827 
  Non-Ag 28.8 4.3 99.8 0  7,382  3,570  
Hong Kong, China  Total  100 0 - -  7,584  -  
Ag 100 0 - -  1,044  - 
  Non-Ag 100 0 - -  6,540  - 
Iceland  Total  88.9 1.3 91.3 1.0  8,931  829  
Ag 57.2 6.4 62 5.3  2,046  115 
  Non-Ag 98.3 0.2 100 0.0  6,885  714 
India  Total  1.8 18.1 94.1 1.6  11,903  1,560   
Ag 2.4 43.4 76.4 10.5  1,523  240 
  Non-Ag 1.7 14.1 96.7 0.3  10,380  1,320  
Japan  Total  40.1 4.6 97.8 0.2  9,371  1,138   
Ag 24.3 10.6 96.2 0.4  1,978  207 
  Non-Ag 44.3 3.2 98.2 0.2  7,393  931 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 25 - 
  Market  Sector MFN LDC Number of tariff lines  
% lines 
DFQF  Simple 
avg. duty  % lines 
DFQF  Simple 
avg. duty  Total  with 
imports 
from LDCs  
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 
Kazakhstan  Total  18.1 5.6 62.8 2.9  12,284  -  
Ag 7 8.1 70.5 1.9  2,703  - 
  Non-Ag 21.3 5.0 60.6 3.2  9,581  - 
Korea, Rep. of  Total  19.2 12.7 89.9 6.8  12,234  1,764   
Ag 5.4 53.1 59.3 44.8  1,726  258 
  Non-Ag 21.5 6.3 94.9 0.7  10,508  1,506  
Kyrgyz Rep.  Total  15.5 6.5 57.6 3.6  12,285  -  
Ag 6.3 8.8 51.9 3.0  2,703  - 
  Non-Ag 18.1 6.1 59.2 3.7  9,582  - 
Macao, China  Total  100 0 - -  6,641  -  
Ag 100 0 - -  900  - 
  Non-Ag 100 0 - -  5,741  - 
Montenegro  Total  29.3 4.9 93.5 0.6  10,019  419  
Ag 17 11.6 93.3 0.9  2,315  34 
  Non-Ag 32.9 3.0 93.5 0.6  7,704  385 
Morocco  Total  0.1 13.3 1.6 13.2  18,280  -  
Ag 0 30.6 5.5 30.0  2,580  - 
  Non-Ag 0.1 10.5 1 10.4  15,700  - 
New Zealand  Total  61.1 2.2 100 0  7,926  1,139   
Ag 64.6 1.8 100 0  1,082  149 
  Non-Ag 60.5 2.3 100 0  6,844  990 
Norway  Total  84.4 2.6 100 0  7,175  -  
Ag 43.5 19.5 100 0  1,410  - 
  Non-Ag 94.4 0.4 100 0  5,765  - 
Russian Federation  Total  15.9 6.4 61.2 3.3  12,288  -  
Ag 7.6 8.1 70.6 1.9  2,703  - 
  Non-Ag 18.3 6.1 58.6 3.7  9,585  - 
Singapore  Total  99.9 0 - -  10,813  -  
Ag 99.4 0 - -  1,369  - 
  Non-Ag 100 0 - -  9,444  - 
Switzerland  Total  26 - 100 0  8,843  1,720   
Ag 17.4 - 100 0  2,464  360 
  Non-Ag 29.3 - 100 0  6,379  1,360  
Chinese Taipei  Total  30.5 6.3 32.1 6.2  9,136  707  
Ag 22.4 13.8 23.3 13.7  1,505  97 
  Non-Ag 32.1 4.9 33.8 4.8  7,631  610 
Tajikistanc Total  11.7 7.8 11.7 3.9  11,442  -  
Ag 0.4 10.5 0.4 5.3  2,508  - 
  Non-Ag 14.9 7.1 14.9 3.6  8,934  - 
Thailand  Total  30.4 13.7 71.1 8.6  10,813  -  
Ag 9.9 31.6 75.7 13.2  1,369  - 
  Non-Ag 33.4 11.7 70.4 8.0  9,444  - 
Türkiye  Total  22.6 14.2 78.7 11.1  11,800  987  
Ag 14.1 48.8 27.1 47.4  2,271  122 
  Non-Ag 24.7 5.9 91 2.4  9,529  865 
United Kingdom  Total  26.6 4.7 99.8 0  9,483  1,473   
Ag 19 7.7 100 0  2,101  316 
  Non-Ag 28.8 4.3 99.8 0  7,382  1,157  
United States  Total  37.8 4.8 82.4 2.6  11,111  2,358   
Ag 20.6 9.4 85.7 5.2  1,911  337 
  Non-Ag 41.4 3.8 81.7 2.0  9,200  2,021  
Notes:  Simple average duties e xclude non -ad valorem  duties, except for the United  States, for which 
ad valorem  equivalents are available.  Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; 
some UN -LDC countries may be excluded.  
a 2018 
b  China has submitted data on preferences for three different groups, i.e. (i) 38 LDCs; (ii) Benin, 
Myanmar and Timor -Leste; and (iii) Banglades h. The data for the number of tariff lines for the 
LDC preferences relate to the group of 38 beneficiaries.  
c  2019 
Source:   WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 26 - 
  4.5.  Table 4  provides an overview of imports from LDCs  and the share of imports that would enter 
duty-free under MFN or LDC schemes respectively, under the assumption that the preferences were 
fully utilized.  
4.6.  All the imports from LDCs would be eligible to duty -free access in Australia, Canada, Chile, 
New Zealand, Norway, and Switzerland . For the European  Union, Iceland, Japan , Montenegro  and 
the United  Kingdom  the share was above 97%. Less than half of non -agricultural imports were 
eligible for duty -free access in Kazakhstan, Morocco and the United States.  
4.7.  Regarding the actually imported products, t he availability of LDC schemes have enabled LDCs  
exporters  to enjoy high preference margin s in certain markets and particularly for certain products. 
For example, for Canada, in the absence of LDC trade preferences,  the trade -weighted average MFN 
would have been 11% vs 0% under LDC scheme. Similar trends can be observed in the case of the 
European Union (8.5% vs. 0%) , India (20.8% vs 6.2%)  and United Kingdom (11% vs 0%) . For 
agricultural products, the trade-weighted average  MFN would have been 62.8% vs 0% for Norway. 
More than 98% of imports of the United States of agricultural products from LDCs ent ered duty  free 
under its LDC scheme.  
Table 4: Imports of selected Members from LDCs, 20 20 or latest available year  
Market  Sector  Imports  MFN LDC scheme  
(million 
USD)  % DFQF  Trade -
weighted avg. 
duty % DFQF  Trade -
weighted avg. 
duty 
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 
Australia  Total  1,711.8  46.5 2.7 100 0  
Ag 79.6 79.9 1 100 0  
Non-Ag 1,632.2  44.9 2.8 100 0 
Canada  Total  3,727.3  35.4 11.1 100 0  
Ag 130.1  91 0.6 100 0  
Non-Ag 3,597.2  33.4 11.5 100 0 
Chile  Total  243.9  0 6 100 0  
Ag 3.2 0 6 100 0  
Non-Ag 240.6  0 6 100 0 
China  Total  49,580.4  60.9 2.8 96.2 1.2  
Ag 3,578.1  0.3 21.7 68.1 14.1  
Non-Ag 46,002.3  65.6 1.3 98.4 0.2 
European Union  Total  35,219.2  24.3 8.5 99.7 0  
Ag 3,344.6  44.4 2.6 96.6 0  
Non-Ag 31,874.6  22.2 8.9 100 0 
Hong Kong, China  Total  1,833.8  100 0 100 0  
Ag 42.5 100 0 100 0  
Non-Ag 1,791.3  100 0 100 0 
Iceland  Total  24.1 98.6 0.3 98.8 0.2  
Ag 1.4 78.7 4.5 78.8 4.5  
Non-Ag 22.7 99.8 0 100 0 
India  Total  10,775.4  0 20.8 65.3 6.2  
Ag 3,187.8  0 43.4 70.7 14.1  
Non-Ag 7,587.6  0 10.7 63 2.9 
Japan  Total  5,145.6  19.2 7.1 98.1 0.1  
Ag 375.8  90.1 0.9 100 0  
Non-Ag 4,769.8  13.6 7.6 98 0.2 
Kazakhstana Total  71.8 29.7 2.1 38.9 1.0  
Ag 4.8 10.8 4.3 100 0  
Non-Ag 67.0 31.1 1.7 34.5 1.2 
Korea, Republic of  Total  2,567.0  16.5 8.2 90.7 1.8  
Ag 177.9  1 25.1 71.6 18.3  
Non-Ag 2,389.1  17.7 7.1 92.1 0.6 
Kyrgyz Republica Total  4.5 0.4 12.5 0.8 12.3  
Ag 0.0 19.1 3.6 63.2 0.2  
Non-Ag 4.5 0.3 12.9 0.3 12.9 
Macao, China  Total  14.9 100 0 100 0  
Ag 2.5 100 0 100 0  
Non-Ag 12.4 100 0 100 0 
Montenegr o Total  10.5 1.1 9.3 99.3 0.1  
Ag 0.1 6.1 14.3 98.2 0.1  
Non-Ag 10.4 1.1 9.2 99.3 0.1 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 27 - 
  Market  Sector  Imports  MFN LDC scheme  
(million 
USD)  % DFQF  Trade -
weighted avg. 
duty % DFQF  Trade -
weighted avg. 
duty 
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 
Moroccob Total  256.8  0 12.1 30.7 7.8  
Ag 103.1  0 7.8 64.3 1.5  
Non-Ag 153.7  0 14.9 8.2 12.1 
New Zealand  Total  164.3  22.1 7.5 100 0  
Ag 14.9 88.8 0.6 100 0  
Non-Ag 149.4  15.5 8.2 100 0 
Norwaya Total  769.0  51.7 6.8 100 0  
Ag 29.2 62.1 62.8 100 0  
Non-Ag 739.7  51.3 4.8 100 0 
Singapore  Total  3,813.0  100 0 100 0  
Ag 91.7 99.4 0 99.4 0  
Non-Ag 3,721.3  100 0 100 0 
Switzerland  Total  8,129.2  84.4 - 100 0  
Ag 160.6  56.9 - 100 0  
Non-Ag 7,968.7  84.9 - 100 0 
Chinese Taipei  Total  1,249.1  77.9 2.4 80.5 2.2  
Ag 78.9 41.3 7.4 41.3 7.4  
Non-Ag 1,170.2  80.4 2.1 83.1 1.9 
Thailanda Total  9,184.4  84.1 4.3 92.8 2.3  
Ag 710.0  5.5 41.1 70.4 20.3  
Non-Ag 8,474.4  90.7 1.4 94.7 0.8 
Türkiye  Total  1,410.1  52.1 6.2 76.9 3.6  
Ag 344.9  15.9 13.9 15.9 13.9  
Non-Ag 1,065.1  63.9 3.7 96.6 0.2 
United Kingdom  Total  4,736.1  4.3 11.1 99.9 0  
Ag 278.6  46.5 3 97.6 0  
Non-Ag 4,457.6  1.6 11.5 100 0 
United States  Total  17,323.6  14.3 12.4 34.1 10.8  
Ag 898.2  85.1 0.6 98.3 0.1 
  Non-Ag 16,425.5  10.4 13.1 30.6 11.4 
Note:  MFN and LDC trade -weighted averages  exclude non -ad valorem  duties, except for the United States  
where ad valorem  equivalents are provided . 
a 2019 
b 2018 
Source:  WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB).  
4.2  Recent Initiatives to Improve Market Access for LDCs  
4.8.  Annex Table  6 updates  the previous year's information based on Members' notifications at the 
WTO as well as submissions mad e to the WTO's Integrated Data Base (IDB). The table does not 
include regional or bilateral initiatives under which LDCs receive preferences  as well . 
4.9.  Since the last report, three notifications  have been received  under the aegis of the Committee 
on Trade an d Development (CTD) . These concern  changes related to the United States' GSP scheme, 
the list of beneficiaries of the GSP schemes of Norway and Japan.  
4.10.   In February 2022, the United States notified changes to its GSP scheme 
(WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.12). It notified , among others, that t he legal authorization for duty -free 
treatment under the GSP program me lapsed on 1 January 2021.  
4.11.   In February 2022, Norway notified changes its GSP scheme (WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.8). These 
concerned, inter alia, the re -categorisation of bene ficiaries based on the OECD's DAC list of ODA 
recipients and adjustments of Norway's provisions regarding the entry into force of a change in the 
GSP category following a change of the OECD's DAC list. No LDCs were re -categorised in the 
beneficiary list (" GSP zero"). Furthermore, the notification indicated that  seven LDCs, among them 
four WTO Members (Central African Republic, Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo and Djibouti) , 
were still to apply the Registered Exporter System.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 28 - 
  4.12.   In June 2022, Japan made a notification mainly concerning  the additional criteria for partial 
graduation and entire graduation from its GSP scheme (WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.18).12 No LDC was 
affected.  
4.13.   China reported to the CTD meetings in 2022 that it had issued a  notice in December 2021 
which improved the duty -free market access for LDCs having diplomatic relations with China from 
previously 97% to 98% of tariff lines. By June 2022, 14 LDCs had completed the notes exchanging 
procedures. China would continue to wor k towards the early entry into force of the latest preferential 
treatment.13 
4.14.   Since the last report, Japan submitted a revised notification in the Committee on Rules of 
Origin  (CRO)  of its preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from LDCs  using t he established 
procedures and  notification template ( G/RO/LDC/N/JPN/1/Rev.1 ). The European  Union reported on 
improvements of the Rules of Origin Self -Assessment (ROSA) tool, which should help exporters in 
determin ing the rules of origin for their products , at the formal meeting of the CRO in April 2022.14 
4.15.   At the meeting of the Committee on Rules of Origin held on 13 October 2022, the 
representative of the United Kingdom informed Members that a new Developing Countries Trading 
Scheme (DCTS) would come into f orce in early 2023, offering generous preferences to LDCs and 
developing countries, building on its current scheme.  
4.16.   Since the last report, no new notifications were received with regard to preferential treatment 
to services and services suppliers of LDCs u nder the LDC Services Waiver  (Table 5 ).15 The 
operationalization of the Services Waiver remains a standing agenda item of the Council for Trade 
in Services (CTS) .16 
Table 5: Notifications under the LDC  Services Waiver  
Notifying Member  Date of Notification  References  
Australia  29-May-15 S/C/N/805  
Brazil  04-Nov-15 S/C/N/839  
Canada  14-Dec-15 S/C/N/792/Rev.1  
Chile 08-Oct-15 S/C/N/834  
China  22-Jul-15 S/C/N/809  
European Union  16-Nov-15 S/C/N/840  
Hong Kong, China  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/810  
Iceland  09-Oct-15 S/C/N/835  
India 29-Sep-15 S/C/N/833  
Japan  31-Jul-15 S/C/N/820  
Korea, Rep. of  10-Jul-15 S/C/N/808  
Liechtenstein  30-Nov-15 S/C/N/841  
Mexico  20-Aug-15 S/C/N/821  
New Zealand  28-Jul-15 S/C/N/813  
Norway  25-Jun-15 S/C/N/806  
Panama  4-May-17 S/C/N/890  
 
12 These changes, effective since April 2018 and April 2019, respectively, affect upper -middle income 
countries whose exports exc eed 1% of the total value of the world exports in the WTO World Trade Statistics 
Review. Hence, LDCs are unaffected by these additional criteria.  
13 The Minutes of the meetings of the CTD on 25 March 2022 and 10 June 2022 are contained in 
documents WT/COMTD /M/117 and WT/COMTD/M/118, respectively.  
14 See: https://trade.ec.europa.eu/access -to-markets/en/content/presenting -rosa The Minutes of the 
meeting are contained in docu ment G/RO/M/78.  
15 See 2011 Decision on the Services Waiver (WT/L/847), and subsequent Decisions taken at the Bali 
(WT/L/918) and Nairobi Ministerial Conferences (WT/L/982) in 2013 and 2015, respectively.  
16 The Minutes of the meetings of the CTS on 22 October 2021, 11  March 2022, and 16  May 2022 are 
contained in documents S/C/M/147, S/C/M/148 and S/C/M/149, respectively.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 29 - 
  Notifying Member  Date of Notification  References  
Singapore  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/812  
South Africa  02-Dec-15 S/C/N/853  
Switzerland  30-Jul-15 S/C/N/819  
Chinese Taipei  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/811  
Thailand  17-Feb-16 S/C/N/860  
Turkey  14-Jun-16 S/C/N/824/Rev.1  
United Kingdom  1-Jan-21 S/C/N/1038  
United States  03-Sep-15 S/C/N/825  
Uruguay  12-Jan-16 S/C/N/857  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 30 - 
 
ANNEX  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs  by selected country grouping, 20 21 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
 2021 2017-21 2019 2020 2021 2021 2017-21 2019 2020 2021 
LDCs  235,103  7.0 -4.0 -6.4 26.9 311,426  6.2 0.4 -10.0 26.6 
Exporters of agricultural products  24,498  9.8 1.0 10.9 15.8 55,446  3.5 -0.9 -3.6 12.2 
Afghanistan  1,037  9.4 -1.3 -10.1 33.5 5,574  -5.8 -8.5 -3.5 -14.7 
Benin  3,445  11.7 -8.8 -1.8 15.0 4,333  5.5 -10.1 -9.6 21.9 
Burkina Faso  5,043  15.1 -0.5 35.0 15.3 4,614  4.6 -0.4 -3.7 11.8 
Burundi  156 -2.4 -0.2 -9.9 -3.6 1,030  8.1 11.8 2.5 13.2 
Central African Republic  162 3.6 -10.3 -10.0 21.9 590 4.9 -0.4 -1.7 -0.5 
Comoros  34 -3.0 -4.9 -47.4 66.8 328 6.7 8.7 5.8 17.0 
Ethiopia  3,949  6.9 1.4 18.8 21.2 15,973  0.3 -4.9 -9.9 21.8 
Gambia  32 -28.9 -4.7 -54.2 -48.1 607 2.6 -8.4 -6.3 4.4 
Guinea -Bissau  215 -10.8 -26.7 -14.0 0.3 355 5.1 18.0 -10.9 18.8 
Kiribati  9 -12.0 49.3 -24.1 -1.6 176 7.6 8.3 1.0 32.2 
Liberia, Republic of  879 25.1 -1.0 11.9 44.6 1,478  7.9 -9.6 6.7 34.1 
Malawi  1,007  3.3 3.7 -14.5 28.9 3,257  6.3 8.7 -7.3 19.5 
Rwanda  1,530  10.2 10.6 13.4 8.7 2,895  7.0 7.9 -4.4 13.9 
Sao Tomé and Principe  21 8.2 -18.0 5.9 49.2 166 3.1 -0.4 -6.5 20.5 
Solomon Islands  371 -7.2 -19.0 -17.8 -2.0 562 -0.4 -1.9 -18.8 17.3 
Somalia  450 -1.6 -2.1 -27.7 32.4 1,220  1.1 -3.4 2.6 3.4 
Timor -Leste  616 126.3  239.7  71.4 133.6  873 12.0 13.6 5.9 39.5 
Togo 1,350  7.4 -2.3 14.4 11.8 2,632  8.9 -1.2 7.7 16.9 
Uganda  4,193  9.6 15.4 16.4 1.1 8,784  11.9 14.4 7.2 6.5 
Fuel exportersa 57,498  0.0 -6.3 -27.3 27.3 45,633  -2.0 0.1 -9.1 -2.0 
Angola  33,581  -0.8 -14.8 -39.7 60.4 11,795  -5.0 -10.6 -32.4 23.6 
Bhutan  784 8.2 11.4 -3.4 20.4 1,220  4.4 -6.3 -8.4 35.7 
Chad 2,560  -0.6 2.6 -30.4 34.3 2,745  10.3 -15.1 -1.8 3.8 
Myanmar  15,145  2.2 8.3 -7.3 -9.3 14,322  -7.1 -3.9 -3.4 -20.2 
South Sudan  486 -21.2 1.4 -51.4 -37.9 1,109  12.6 28.3 23.8 8.5 
Sudan  4,279  1.1 7.4 1.8 12.5 9,238  0.3 18.3 5.9 -6.1 
Yemen  662 12.2 14.4 -38.0 63.9 5,204  13.9 42.5 -0.7 11.1   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 31 - 
 
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
 2021 2017-21 2019 2020 2021 2021 2017-21 2019 2020 2021 
Manufacture exporters  68,020  6.6 3.3 -7.1 21.9 134,400  11.5 0.4 -12.1 49.7 
Bangladesh  44,223  5.4 0.2 -14.6 31.6 80,448  11.1 -2.3 -10.6 52.4 
Cambodia  17,362  11.4 16.7 19.5 -2.0 28,369  18.7 16.0 -5.7 48.4 
Haiti 960 -0.5 11.3 -39.9 33.1 3,232  -4.5 -6.4 -34.2 8.8 
Lesotho  1,064  0.9 -12.9 -16.5 19.8 2,051  -0.2 -7.7 -10.2 13.3 
Madagascar  2,726  -1.1 -13.3 -24.8 34.6 4,408  4.7 -2.9 -18.3 36.9 
Nepal  1,684  22.7 23.1 -11.6 96.8 15,893  11.3 -2.9 -20.1 61.3 
Exporters of non -fuel mineralsb 76,604  13.7 -13.0 16.6 35.9 62,203  6.1 0.9 -12.2 26.0 
Congo, Democratic  Republic  of 23,500  17.6 -33.1 5.5 66.4 10,300  15.4 11.3 -24.5 54.6 
Eritrea  600 0.7 14.8 -27.6 7.9 1,154  3.0 7.6 -14.5 17.8 
Guinea  10,433  22.8 -0.8 126.4  16.8 4,094  4.1 2.5 7.4 9.8 
Lao People's Democratic  Republic  7,695  12.1 7.4 5.3 25.8 6,275  2.6 -0.7 -14.4 16.8 
Mali 5,015  14.7 2.6 30.4 4.6 6,530  11.1 8.7 -0.5 27.9 
Mauritania  4,343  21.6 10.5 24.8 53.5 3,564  0.3 10.6 -22.0 29.9 
Mozambique  5,579  4.2 -6.9 -23.1 55.5 8,621  10.7 7.0 -12.9 33.2 
Niger  1,211  0.1 -6.4 -0.9 8.5 2,741  8.9 2.0 3.8 13.5 
Sierra Leone  697 5.3 14.6 -33.4 64.8 1,803  8.5 11.0 42.8 -16.0 
Tanzania  6,391  11.6 23.8 21.1 5.4 10,024  4.8 3.6 -10.7 18.8 
Zambia  11,141  8.6 -22.0 11.0 42.4 7,096  -2.9 -24.1 -25.9 33.3 
Diversified and othersc 8,482  8.4 14.4 -17.9 26.3 13,744  7.4 5.3 -12.6 27.8 
Djibouti  3,280  0.9 13.5 -30.3 17.8 4,011  2.9 14.9 -29.6 37.8 
Senegal  5,202  14.9 15.3 -6.0 32.4 9,699  9.6 0.9 -4.1 24.1 
Tuvalu  0.33 12.2 51.1 -82.9 589.6  34 6.5 28.1 3.9 1.0 
Worldd 21,678,402  5.9 -2.6 -7.4 26.5 22,034,355  5.9 -2.3 -7.7 26.3 
 a Includes  exporters of electricity (Bhutan).  
 b Includes  exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s.  according to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamonds  (normally  included in  
 manufactures according to the UN classification).  
 c Includes  exporters without a clear specialization in a specific category of goods.  
 d Excluding  re-exports of Hong Kong, China ; including EU -intra trade.  
 Source:  WTO-UNCTAD.    
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 32 - 
 
Annex Table 2: Indices of market prices for non-fuel and fuel commodities, 201 7-2022 
(Indices 2016 = 100)  
 
2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  2021  2022    
 Q3 Q4 Q1 
All commodities and Energy  113 126 117 106 161 166 187 211 
Energy  123 153 129 92 183 193 244 279 
Coal 133 157 114 95 200 232 270 388 
Australian, export markets  134 162 117 88 205 245 285 408 
South African, export markets  131 152 111 101 194 220 254 368 
Natural Gas  116 145 92 72 254 266 461 446 
Indonesian in Japan  97 132 73 59 250 246 468 418 
Netherlands TFF  132 182 102 73 365 383 724 740 
US, domestic market  118 120 99 83 146 169 190 179 
Spot Crude  123 150 143 96 157 162 180 221 
Dubai  128 167 152 103 166 172 187 227 
U.K. Brent  122 159 142 96 157 162 177 216 
West Texas Intermediate  117 134 131 92 159 164 181 222 
Propane  158 181 112 96 217 242 259 270 
Non-Fuel Commodities  106 108 108 116 146 148 147 164 
Agricultural raw materials  105 107 102 98 113 110 114 120 
Cotton  113 123 105 97 136 136 163 185 
Hides  94 82 56 46 65 74 78 79 
Rubber  122 95 100 107 127 113 117 128 
Timber  98 104 102 103 108 105 102 102 
Hardwood  96 98 96 97 101 101 98 97 
Logs 97 98 100 102 99 99 95 93 
Sawn wood  95 99 94 95 101 102 99 99 
Softwood  100 108 107 108 113 109 105 105 
Logs 104 116 102 110 130 133 135 134 
Sawn wood  98 106 109 107 109 102 96 97 
Wool 118 149 133 87 100 100 99 101 
Coarse  107 149 137 85 89 87 89 91 
Fine 129 150 128 88 110 112 108 111 
Metals  122 130 135 140 205 214 189 220 
Aluminium  123 131 112 106 154 165 172 203 
Cobalt  219 286 130 123 201 203 242 291 
Copper  127 134 123 127 191 193 199 205 
Iron Ore  121 120 160 185 270 279 179 239 
Lead 124 120 107 98 118 125 125 125 
Molybdenum  111 163 183 140 249 305 308 302   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 33 - 
 
 
2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  2021  2022    
 Q3 Q4 Q1 
Nickel  108 137 145 144 192 199 206 279 
Tin 112 112 104 95 181 193 216 241 
Uranium  83 93 98 111 124 138 133 149 
Zinc 138 140 122 108 144 143 161 178 
Precious Metal  102 102 113 144 149 148 146 154 
Gold 101 102 112 142 144 143 144 150 
Palladium  142 168 251 358 391 401 317 379 
Platinum  96 89 88 90 111 104 101 104 
Silver  100 92 95 120 147 142 136 140 
Food and Beverages  103 101 98 100 126 128 130 146 
Beverages  96 87 82 84 103 108 122 124 
Cocoa Beans  70 79 81 82 84 85 85 86 
Coffee  103 88 81 85 113 121 140 143 
Other milds  92 81 80 92 125 132 156 165 
Robusta  114 96 83 78 101 110 123 122 
Tea 126 104 93 88 93 90 110 105 
Food 104 103 99 101 127 129 130 148 
Cereals  101 115 110 119 168 164 181 206 
Barley  104 107 113 107 182 179 229 258 
Maize  97 103 107 104 163 161 158 190 
Oats 128 130 146 151 245 246 357 354 
Rice 103 104 102 123 114 102 99 105 
Sorghum  104 108 104 130 220 212 207 229 
Wheat  101 130 114 130 186 183 218 247 
Meat 110 107 112 103 136 146 137 153 
Beef 107 103 118 112 132 139 144 151 
Lamb  119 127 127 127 160 165 176 183 
Poultry  113 118 107 89 122 127 135 162 
Swine Meat  109 100 104 94 146 165 122 142 
Other Food                  
Apple  107 118 109 114 124 134 116 113 
Bananas  107 114 114 121 121 122 115 127 
Chana  78 56 58 57 64 65 62 60 
Fish meal  82 95 88 91 102 104 102 105 
Groundnuts  108 114 103 108 116 115 127 132 
Milk 108 99 114 121 120 122 140 180 
Orange Juice  91 89 63 68 73 81 76 86 
Tomato  112 111 110 114 123 119 116 143 
Seafood  105 103 95 86 94 93 97 113 
Salmon  104 105 97 85 96 93 96 123   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 34 - 
 
 
2017  2018  2019  2020  2021  2021  2022    
 Q3 Q4 Q1 
Shrimp  106 99 92 86 90 94 98 97 
Sugar  89 70 71 74 101 106 110 105 
Free market  87 68 68 71 98 104 108 102 
United States  101 92 95 98 122 129 134 129 
Vegetable oils and protein meals  101 95 91 99 147 146 148 173 
Olive oil  114 98 80 66 105 111 106 108 
Palm oil  101 87 82 104 168 166 194 229 
Rapeseed oil  106 101 104 108 154 165 162 159 
Soybean meal  100 107 96 100 121 111 111 141 
Soybean oil  102 91 89 96 177 189 179 207 
Soybeans  99 94 90 96 139 138 127 158 
Sunflower Oil  94 89 87 105 170 160 171 199 
Fertilizer  98 112 102 89 173 164 241 281 
Diammonium Phosphate  103 125 99 99 191 198 228 256 
Potassium Fertilizer  87 88 95 89 86 87 90 160 
Urea 102 122 109 84 220 196 346 373 
Energy Transition Metal Index  122 134 125 124 179 184 198 217 
Aluminium  123 131 112 106 154 165 172 203 
Chromium  109 133 115 84 111 114 138 132 
Cobalt  219 286 130 123 201 203 242 291 
Copper  127 134 123 127 191 193 199 205 
Lead 124 120 107 98 118 125 125 125 
Lithium  124 139 106 77 114 110 167 368 
Manganese  111 134 107 96 228 233 366 403 
Molybdenum  111 163 183 140 249 305 308 302 
Nickel  108 137 145 144 192 199 206 279 
Palladium  142 168 251 358 391 401 317 379 
Platinum  96 89 88 90 111 104 101 104 
Rare Earth Elements  100 103 99 91 185 205 282 373 
Silicon  116 128 106 102 155 135 254 271 
Silver  100 92 95 120 147 142 136 140 
Vanadium  198 506 383 180 227 256 258 270 
Zinc 138 140 122 108 144 143 161 178 
Source:  IMF Primary Commodity Price System .   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 35 - 
 
Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 20 17-2021 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
 Regions* and major markets  All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  
Africa  9149  8064  100 - -3 2258  2686  33 - 4 4896  3140  39 - -11 1990  2231  28 - 3 
South Africa  3309 2253 100 50 -9 302 328 15 22 2 2349 1212 54 66 -15 655 713 32 41 2 
Mali (2019 for 2021)  1137 1442 100 - 13 87 80 6 - -4 763 1080 75 - 19 286 281 20 - -1 
Kenya  781 1004 100 48 6 577 631 63 53 2 45 77 8 80 14 159 296 29 35 17 
Egypt  544 661 100 21 5 204 303 46 17 10 284 293 44 24 1 56 65 10 29 4 
Côte d'Ivoire  633 506 100 -15 -5 353 393 78 1 3 211 28 6 -80 -40 68 85 17 30 6 
Zambia  1380 472 100 107 -24 7 23 5 -8 34 1093 248 52 147 -31 280 198 42 93 -8 
Malawi (2020 for 2021)  202 275 100 - 11 80 130 47 - 17 16 15 6 - -1 105 130 47 - 7 
United Rep. of Tanzania  137 272 100 63 19 71 96 35 41 8 13 41 15 226 32 52 134 50 57 27 
Nigeria  154 259 100 -9 14 112 145 56 -17 7 12 43 17 -40 37 29 71 27 93 25 
Morocco  161 250 100 23 12 85 121 48 4 9 10 55 22 132 55 67 74 30 17 3 
Ethiopia  126 197 100 53 12 37 188 96 124 50 58 1 0 -96 -67 30 8 4 -73 -29 
Sudan (2018 for 2021)  168 170 100 - 1 91 97 57 - 7 1 3 2 - 224 77 70 41 - -9 
Ghana  251 121 100 -8 -17 136 68 56 -4 -16 29 10 8 -7 -23 86 43 35 -14 -16 
Senegal  48 110 100 -17 23 22 42 38 -48 18 11 33 30 4 30 15 32 29 54 21 
Mauritius  118 73 100 36 -11 94 40 55 14 -19 0 1 1 840 94 24 32 43 77 7 
Americas  20812  32225  100 35 12 1382  1616  5 17 4 4277  3389  11  
-6 14907  26465  82 33 15 
North America  19592  29906  100 32 11 1341 1566 5 18 4 3727 2071 7 92 -14 14278  25514  85 32 16 
USA 16248  24806  100 36 11 1178 1322 5 15 3 3456 1591 6 117 -18 11400  21537  87 34 17 
Canada  2837 4240 100 13 11 145 244 6 37 14 244 480 11 41 18 2436 3179 75 20 7 
Mexico  507 859 100 41 14 18 0 0 -60 -62 26 0 0 -98 -74 442 798 93 41 16 
South and Central America  1220 2320 100 79 17 41 50 2 -7 5 550 1318 57  
24 629 951 41 44 11 
Chile 150 737 100 201 49 11 15 2 -27 7 0 537 73 611 732 139 185 25 24 7 
Brazil  664 708 100 46 2 13 14 2 10 1 445 487 69 72 2 206 208 29 9 0 
Uruguay  17 313 100 28 108 1 1 0 -63 -11 2 284 91 33 231 13 28 9 -3 21 
Costa Rica  21 196 100 895 75 1 1 1 2021 7 0 0 0 62287  177 20 195 99 891 76 
Colombia  90 138 100 46 11 4 6 5 146 13 3 0 0 -81 -50 83 132 95 44 12 
Peru 156 106 100 4 -9 2 2 1 0 -7 76 0 0 -47 -85 78 104 98 4 8 
Argentina  79 46 100 -21 -13 4 5 10 -31 2 23 9 20 13 -20 52 32 70 -26 -11 
Ecuador  23 37 100 38 12 0 4 12 -3 112 0 0 0  
50 23 32 87 44 9 
El Salvador  17 22 100 64 6 3 2 9 -29 -11 1 1 3  
-14 13 19 87 83 11 
Guatemala  3 17 100 495 60 1 1 5 -24 1 0 0 0  
27 2 16 95 798 72 
Asia and Pacific  79972  110322  100 31 8 11238  16871  15 20 11 52007  67291  61 38 7 13355  19059  17 34 9 
China  43515  63426  100 37 10 3925 6686 11 14 14 35786  48968  77 37 8 2540 6251 10 99 25 
India 13774  16994  100 67 5 3202 5184 31 43 13 6435 4984 29 33 -6 2383 2679 16 74 3 
Thailand  6608 10016  100 16 11 1105 1604 16 13 10 4311 6914 69 24 13 1027 1199 12 29 4   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 36 - 
 
 Regions* and major markets  All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2021  2021  2017 -2021  
Japan  4992 5398 100 5 2 752 571 11 -10 -7 823 720 13 131 -3 3396 4093 76 -3 5 
Rep. of Korea  2858 3209 100 26 3 366 362 11 -1 0 1447 1521 47 49 1 1044 1325 41 14 6 
Australia  991 2436 100 37 25 66 104 4 6 12 71 175 7 38 25 852 1212 50 27 9 
Singapore  1062 1825 100 -52 14 193 122 7 16 -11 226 1051 58 75 47 486 586 32 -1 5 
Pakistan  706 1590 100 73 22 474 822 52 10 15 185 695 44 415 39 47 73 5 86 12 
Chinese Taipei  2072 1445 100 15 -9 118 117 8 -1 0 1781 1083 75 19 -12 170 244 17 6 9 
Malaysia  874 1411 100 37 13 343 469 33 25 8 211 572 41 73 28 317 367 26 16 4 
Indonesia  1279 1134 100 83 -3 397 331 29 40 -4 712 558 49 273 -6 170 245 22 5 10 
Hong Kong, China  911 836 100 -33 -2 203 235 28 1 4 4 9 1 249 20 703 488 58 -22 -9 
Philippines  197 375 100 35 17 73 240 64 52 35 13 14 4 -55 2 111 121 32 39 2 
New Zealand  133 227 100 37 14 21 24 11 16 3 0 25 11 152 232 111 177 78 32 12 
Europe and CIS(1) 53168  65419  100 12 5 6148  5857  9 12 -1 6154  8415  13 15 8 37429  43942  67 14 4 
European Union  40616  48724  100 14 5 4864 4805 10 13 0 5824 7966 16 16 8 29697  35480  73 13 5 
Switzerland  4224 8490 100 4 19 182 188 2 19 1 1 0 0 927 -42 847 1601 19 32 17 
United Kingdom  5778 4948 100 3 -4 416 407 8 3 -1 168 84 2 135 -16 5182 4438 90 2 -4 
Norway  501 673 100 4 8 53 83 12 3 12 45 82 12 -51 16 403 508 75 28 6 
Ukraine  275 450 100 12 13 72 96 21 -9 8 110 142 32 -2 7 93 208 46 41 22 
CIS (1) 1775 2134 100 28 5 562 278 13 15 -16 6 141 7 25 123 1206 1707 80 30 9 
Russian Federation  1381 2017 100 29 10 266 263 13 14 0 2 132 7 32 182 1112 1614 80 32 10 
Kazakhstan  64 55 100 4 -4 7 6 12 88 -3 3 5 9 -43 9 53 43 79 8 -5 
Belarus  312 40 100 -3 -40 288 5 13 8 -63 0 4 10 11 174 24 31 77 -7 6 
Azerbaijan  15 18 100 31 5 2 2 12 1 6 0 0 0 -85 - 13 16 88 37 5 
* Regional totals are based on the information available and  may not coincide with aggregated trade figures.  
(1) including certain associate and former member States.  
- Not applicable . 
Source s: UN Comtrade database and Trade Data Monitor . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 37 - 
  Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 20 21 
(Million dollars and percentage shares)  
HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share 
in world 
exports (%)  
2017  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2017  2021  
2709 Petroleum Oils And Oils From 
Bituminous Minerals, Crude  36,485  32,615  -2.8 19.1 15.3 4.1 3.1 
7108 Gold (Including Gold Plated With 
Platinum), Unwrought Or In 
Semimanufactured Forms, Or In 
Powder Form  15,673  13,017  -4.5 8.2 6.1 4.5 3.4 
7403 Refined Copper And Copper 
Alloys (Other Than Master Alloys 
Of Heading 7405), Unwrought  5,228  10,680  19.6 2.7 5.0 8.7 12.0 
6110 Sweaters, Pullovers, Sweatshirts, 
Waistcoats (Vests) And Similar 
Articles, Knitted Or Crocheted  7,613  8,573  3.0 4.0 4.0 14.9 14.4 
6109 T-Shirts, Singlets, Tank Tops 
And Similar Garments, Knitted 
Or Crocheted  7,802  7,642  -0.5 4.1 3.6 20.8 18.5 
6203 Men's Or Boy' s Suits, Ensembles, 
Suit-Type Jackets, Blazers, 
Trousers, Bib And Brace 
Overalls, Breeches, Etc. (No 
Swimwear), Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted  7,931  7,351  -1.9 4.2 3.4 19.7 19.8 
6204 Women' s Or Girls' Suits, 
Ensembles, Suit -Type Jackets, 
Dresses, Skirts, Divided Skirts, 
Trousers, Etc. (No Swimwear), 
Not Knitted Or Crocheted  6,005  6,484  1.9 3.2 3.0 11.7 11.9 
2711 Petroleum Gases And Other 
Gaseous Hydrocarbons  5,201  6,411  5.4 2.7 3.0 1.8 1.6 
7402 Unrefined Copper ; Copper 
Anodes For Electrolytic Refining  4,232  5,681  7.6 2.2 2.7 41.1 38.0 
6104 Women' s Or Girls' Suits, 
Ensembles, Suit -Type Jackets, 
Blazers, Dresses, Skirts, Divided 
Skirts, Trousers, Etc. (No 
Swimwear), Knitted Or 
Crocheted  3,803  5,064  7.4 2.0 2.4 15.0 16.0 
8105 Cobalt Mattes And Other 
Intermediate Products Of Cobalt 
Metallurgy ; Cobalt And Articles 
Thereof, Including Waste And 
Scrap  2,127  4,564  21.0 1.1 2.1 45.8 62.1 
2606 Aluminum  Ores And 
Concentrates  2,177  3,594  13.4 1.1 1.7 42.8 51.0 
2601 Iron Ores And Concentrates, 
Including Roasted Iron Pyrites  1,160  3,249  29.4 0.6 1.5 1.0 1.3 
4202 Travel Goods, Vanity Cases, 
Binocular And Camera Cases, 
Handbags, Wallets, Cutlery 
Cases And Similar Containers, Of 
Various Specified Materials  835 2,935  36.9 0.4 1.4 1.4 4.4 
2716 Electrical Energy  1,601  2,730  14.3 0.8 1.3 5.3 4.3 
7103 Precious And Semiprecious 
Stones (No Diamonds), Not 
Strung, Mounted Etc. ; Ungraded 
Precious And Semiprecious 
Stones (No Diamonds) Strung 
For Transport  950 2,353  25.5 0.5 1.1 10.4 26.5 
901 Coffee, Whether Or Not Roasted 
Or Decaffeinated ; Coffee Husks 
And Skins ; Coffee Substitutes 
Containing Coffee  1,911  2,195  3.5 1.0 1.0 6.0 6.2 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 38 - 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share 
in world 
exports (%)  
2017  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2017  2021  
6108 Women' s Or Girls' Slips, 
Petticoats, Briefs, Panties, 
Nightdresses, Pyjamas , 
Negligees, Bathrobes And Similar 
Articles, Knitted Or Crocheted  1,481  2,098  9.1 0.8 1.0 13.7 16.3 
1207 Oil Seeds And Oleaginous Fruits 
Nesoi, Whether Or Not Broken  1,377  2,061  10.6 0.7 1.0 31.9 37.1 
6205 Men's  Or Boys' Shirts, Not 
Knitted Or Crocheted  2,865  2,007  -8.5 1.5 0.9 21.4 21.4 
6103 Men's  Or Boys' Suits, Ensembles, 
Suit-Type Jackets, Blazers, 
Trousers, Bib And Brace 
Overalls, Breeches And Shorts 
(No Swimwear), Knitted Or 
Crocheted  1,054  1,949  16.6 0.6 0.9 13.9 16.9 
713 Leguminous Vegetables, Dried 
Shelled  1,541  1,902  5.4 0.8 0.9 11.9 18.0 
2603 Copper Ores And Concentrates  1,835  1,869  0.5 1.0 0.9 3.2 2.0 
6403 Footwear, With Outer Soles Of 
Rubber, Plastics, Leather Or 
Composition Leather And Uppers 
Of Leather  1,648  1,716  1.0 0.9 0.8 3.3 3.3 
2701 Coal; Briquettes, Ovoids And 
Similar Solid Fuels Manufactured 
From Coal  2,011  1,660  -4.7 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.1 
6111 Babies' Garments And Clothing 
Accessories, Knitted Or 
Crocheted  1,363  1,648  4.9 0.7 0.8 18.2 20.8 
6202 Women's  Or Girls' Overcoats, 
Raincoats, Cloaks, Anoraks 
(Including Ski -Jackets) And 
Similar Articles, Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted, Nesoi  1,346  1,596  4.3 0.7 0.7 7.9 8.5 
6201 Men's  Or Boys' Overcoats, 
Raincoats, Cloaks, Anoraks 
(Including Ski -Jackets) And 
Similar Articles, Not Knitted Or 
Crocheted, Nesoi  1,196  1,595  7.5 0.6 0.7 9.1 10.7 
7102 Diamonds, Whether Or Not 
Worked, But Not Mounted Or Set  3,652  1,405  -21.2 1.9 0.7 2.8 1.4 
6107 Men's  Or Boys' Underpants, 
Briefs, Nightshirts, Pyjamas , 
Bathrobes, Dressing Gowns And 
Similar Articles, Knitted Or 
Crocheted  906 1,316  9.8 0.5 0.6 14.4 16.7 
6210 Garments, Made -Up Of Fabrics 
Of Felt Or Nonwovens And 
Garments Of Textile Fabrics (Not 
Knit Etc.) Rubberized Or 
Impregnated, Coated Etc. W ith 
Plastics  800 1,280  12.5 0.4 0.6 9.1 10.3 
6404 Footwear, With Outer Soles Of 
Rubber, Plastics, Leather Or 
Composition Leather And Uppers 
Of Textile Materials  908 1,214  7.5 0.5 0.6 2.4 2.8 
2614 Titanium Ores And Concentrates  499 1,182  24.0 0.3 0.6 19.2 31.5 
2401 Tobacco, Unmanufactured 
(Whether Or Not Threshed Or 
Similarly Processed) ; Tobacco 
Refuse  1,362  1,145  -4.2 0.7 0.5 12.7 11.8 
2609 Tin Ores And Concentrates  1,068  1,143  1.7 0.6 0.5 71.1 58.5 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 39 - 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share 
in world 
exports (%)  
2017  2021  2017 -2021  2017  2021  2017  2021  
1006 Rice 760 1,143  10.7 0.4 0.5 3.7 6.0 
6105 Men's  Or Boys' Shirts, Knitted Or 
Crocheted  1,338  1,102  -4.7 0.7 0.5 17.5 16.6 
4403 Wood In The Rough, Whether Or 
Not Stripped Of Bark Or 
Sapwood, Or Roughly Squared  1,679  1,067  -10.7 0.9 0.5 9.3 5.3 
303 Fish, Frozen, Excluding Fish 
Fillets And Other Fish Meat 
Without Bones ; Fish Livers And 
Roes, Frozen  1,371  1,026  -7.0 0.7 0.5 5.7 4.5 
6402 Footwear, With Outer Soles And 
Uppers Of Rubber Or Plastics, 
Nesoi  733 932 6.2 0.4 0.4 2.7 3.2 
1202 Peanuts (Ground -Nuts), Not 
Roasted Or Otherwise Cooked, 
Whether Or Not Shelled Or 
Broken  252 925 38.4 0.1 0.4 7.8 22.7 
306 Crustaceans, Live Fresh Chilled 
Frozen Dried Etc ; Smoked ; In 
Shell, Cooked By Steam Or 
Boiling Water ; Flours, Meals & 
Pellets For Human Consumption  871 915 1.2 0.5 0.4 3.8 2.7 
7601 Aluminum, Unwrought  998 912 -2.2 0.5 0.4 1.7 1.1 
5201 Cotton, Not Carded Or Combed  1,131  911 -5.3 0.6 0.4 9.4 7.2 
6212 Brassieres, Girdles, Corsets, 
Braces, Suspenders, Garters And 
Similar Articles And Parts 
Thereof, Whether Or Not Knitted 
Or Crocheted  712 908 6.3 0.4 0.4 6.1 7.8 
8712 Bicycles And Other Cycles 
(Including Delivery Tricycles), 
Not Motorized  458 886 17.9 0.2 0.4 5.9 8.1 
2710 Petroleum Oils& Oils From 
Bituminous Mins (Other Than 
Crude)& Products Therefrom, 
Nesoi, Containing 70% (By 
Weight) Or More Of These Oils ; 
Waste Oils  2,809  884 -25.1 1.5 0.4 0.5 0.1 
6114 Garments Nesoi, Knitted Or 
Crocheted  537 854 12.3 0.3 0.4 7.7 10.7 
7202 Ferroalloys  518 838 12.8 0.3 0.4 1.8 1.9 
4001 Natural Rubber, Balata, 
Gutta -Percha, Guayule, Chicle 
And Similar Natural Gums, In 
Primary Forms Or In Plates, 
Sheets Or Strip  913 820 -2.7 0.5 0.4 5.2 4.7 
Source:  WTO estimates based on Comtrade (2017) and Trade Data Monitor (2021) [importer data].  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 40 - 
  Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 20 21 
(Million dollars and annual percentage change)  
  Exports  Imports  
Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
2021  2017 -
2021  2019  2020  2021  2021  2017 -
2021  2019  2020  2021  
LDCs  29,421  -4 9 -38 9 66,799 1 -4 -13 13 
Afghanistan  693 22 -19 18 16 1,243 1 -12 -10 19 
Angola  94 -44 -28 -85 40 6,769 -15 -18 -32 25 
Bangladesh  4,870  21 7 -3 58 10,491 6 1 -19 39 
Benin  463 9 5 -17 9 981 9 5 -2 25 
Bhutan  81 -16 -8 -20 -39 210 1 -6 3 -2 
Burkina Faso  508 3 -3 -8 13 1,484 2 -3 -15 20 
Burundi  20 3 -25 10 -2 288 8 15 -6 23 
Cambodia  648 -38 12 -72 -60 2,088 -6 7 -38 4 
Central African  
Republic  38 -5 -45 34 0 356 -1 19 -25 1 
Chad 197 7 -1 -30 5 2,050 24 5 6 10 
Comoros  46 -14 -4 -57 10 112 5 4 -8 9 
Democratic Rep . of 
the Congo  135 23 42 -9 17 3,662 24 -20 17 47 
Djibouti  676 0 11 -21 8 523 -7 7 -19 8 
Eritrea  442 16 -1 5 71 193 9 -5 -7 47 
Ethiopia  5,386  13 3 -7 25 6,640 7 -1 -12 24 
The Gambia  104 -7 0 -49 -2 119 7 -4 1 9 
Guinea  23 -19 -6 -32 -65 1,165 11 7 204 -55 
Guinea -Bissau  20 -11 8 -56 10 147 -1 0 -21 12 
Haiti 101 -37 -27 -75 -16 583 -5 -17 -35 41 
Kiribati  2 -38 25 -86 20 35 -13 -1 -51 30 
Lao People 's 
Democratic Rep . 125 -37 20 -71 -64 252 -31 0 -64 -43 
Lesotho  17 -14 -10 -58 51 400 -2 -7 -15 8 
Liberia  4 -33 6 -2 -60 202 -2 9 3 -10 
Madagascar  562 -19 8 -57 -9 934 -3 -9 -30 31 
Malawi  204 10 7 -7 2 247 -2 11 -19 -26 
Mali 398 -3 38 -54 28 1,530 4 10 -13 14 
Mauritania  112 -4 9 -10 0 713 1 16 -2 -2 
Mozambique  761 4 19 -16 -3 2,359 -6 -35 -15 0 
Myanmar  2,081  -14 46 -38 -48 1,782 -11 6 -11 -44 
Nepal  708 -15 2 -46 -12 1,514 -1 -3 -36 41 
Niger  149 -8 5 -14 -26 1,023 1 -2 1 -4 
Rwanda  347 -13 15 -63 26 612 -10 -3 -49 31 
Sao Tomé and Principe  38 -15 -34 -51 60 47 -6 -2 -30 15 
Senegal  833 -7 -1 -44 23 2,991 19 10 43 16 
Sierra Leone  49 -15 -31 -17 -8 197 -15 9 -53 4 
Solomon Islands  44 -22 -10 -65 2 141 -9 18 -44 10 
Somalia  437 3 3 -25 40 1,791 5 4 -5 23 
South Sudan  153 -6 -22 35 3 1,521 28 47 29 5 
Sudan  1,838  1 -9 -7 46 1,305 0 22 -8 9 
Tanzania  3,222  -4 7 -49 48 1,568 -6 -9 -30 33 
Timor -Leste  17 -32 -7 -64 -38 229 -8 -7 -36 12 
Togo 570 2 -2 -17 19 461 2 -4 -3 6 
Tuvalu  7 -6 15 -40 14 31 -1 -8 -18 14 
Uganda  1,478  2 -7 -49 51 3,172 11 10 8 2 
Yemen  224 9 22 2 0 1,390 3 0 3 0 
Zambia  500 -13 6 -45 -10 1,249 -3 -9 -31 24 
Memorandum item:   
                  
World  5,994,334  2 3 -18 17 5,538,666  1 4 -19 15 
Note:  Data include preliminary estimates for 20 21. 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD  estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 41 - 
  Annex Table 6: Major non -reciprocal preference schemes benefitting LDCs undertaken 
by Members, 20 22 or latest available  year 
Preference -granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)a References  
Armenia (2016)  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
6 April 2016 43.9% (electrical 
machinery, chemicals, 
iron and steel products, 
alcoholic beverages)  IDB 
Australia  Duty- and quota -free 
entry for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada   GSP – Least  
developed Countries' 
Tariff Programme 
(LDCT)  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000. 
Extended until 
31 December  2024. 98.5% (dairy and other 
animal products, meat, 
meat preparations, 
cereal products)  WT/COMTD/N/15  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3  
Chile  DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
28 February  2014 99.5% (cereals, sugar, 
milling products)  WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD /PTA/2/1  
China  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2010 96.2% (chemicals, 
transport vehicles, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, electrical 
machinery, paper)  WT/COMTD/N/39  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2  
European Union  GSP – Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative  
Entry into force:  
5 March  2001 99.8% (arms and 
ammunition)  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7  
Iceland  GSP – Tariff 
preferences for the 
world 's poorest 
countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January  2002 99.7% (meat, food 
preparations, dairy and 
other animal products, 
plants)  WT/COMTD/N/17  
WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1  
India (20 21) Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP)  
Entry into force:  
13 August  2008 94.1% (plastics, coffee 
and tea, alcoholic 
beverages, tobacco, food 
residues)  WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1  
Japan  
(2021) GSP – Enhanced 
duty- and quota -free 
market access  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007.  
Extended until 
31 March  2031 97.8% (fish and 
crustaceans, footwear, 
milling products, cereal 
products, sugar)  WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.15  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.17  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.18  
Kazakhstan  
(2020) GSP – Tariff 
Treatment for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2010 62.8% (vehicles, 
machinery, beverages, 
articles of iron and steel)  WT/COMTD/PTA3/N/1/Add.1  
IDB 
Korea, Republic of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000 89.3% (fish and 
crustaceans, mineral 
fuels, oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, wood 
products, vegetables)  WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1  
Kyrgyz Republic 
(2020)  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
29 March  2006 57.6% (meat, fruits, 
chemicals, wood and 
paper, machinery)  IDB WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 42 - 
  Preference -granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)a References  
Montenegro  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2017 93.6% (fish and 
crustaceans, alcoholic 
beverages, meat and 
dairy products)  IDB 
New Zealand  GSP – Tariff 
Treatment for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 100%  WT/COMTD/27  
Norway  GSP – Duty- and 
quota -free market 
access  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.8  
Russian Federation  
(2021) GSP scheme in the 
context of the 
Eurasian Economic 
Union between 
Armenia, Kazakhstan, 
Kyrgyz Republic and 
the Russian 
Federation  
Entry into force : 
10 October  2016 61.2% (transport 
vehicles, machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
beverages, iron and steel 
products, electrical 
machinery, meat 
products, articles of 
wood)  WT/COMTD/PTA1/N/1  
Switzerland  GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 100%  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5  
Chinese Taipei  Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
17 December  2003 32.2% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical 
machinery, fish and 
crustaceans, plastics)  WT/COMTD/N/40  
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1  
Tajikistan (201 9) Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs 
Entry into force:  
25 October  2003 11.7% (Duty -free access 
includes machinery, 
glass products, 
petroleum products)  IDB 
Thailand (2020)  DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
9 April 2015; the 
scheme  has been 
extended until 
31 December 202 6 71.1% (transport 
vehicles, electrical 
machinery, machinery 
and mechanical 
appliances, iron and 
steel products, apparel 
and clothing)  WT/COMTD/N/46  
G/RO/LDC/N/THA/1/Rev.1  
Türkiye  (2021) GSP 
Entry into force:  
31 December  2005 78.1% (iron and steel 
products, fish and 
crustaceans, food 
preparations, meat, oil 
seeds and oleaginous 
fruits)  WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1  
United Kingdom  GSP and DFQF 
scheme for LDCs  99.8% (some arms and 
ammunitions)  WT/COMTD/PTA4/N/1  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/70  
- 43 - 
  Preference -granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)a References  
United States   GSP for 
least-developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC).  
The Trade Preferences 
Extension Act of 2015 
(Title II) authorizes 
GSP until 
31 December  2020 
and makes GSP 
retroactive to 
1 January  2018. Legal 
authorization for 
duty-free tre atment 
under the GSP 
program lapsed on 
1 January  2021 82.1% (apparel and 
clothing, cotton, fibres, 
footwear, dairy and 
other animal products)  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.9  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.12  
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act 
(AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000. 
Extended until 
30 September  2025 
(Title I) 96.9% WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/970  
WT/L/1045  
WT/L/1045/Corr.1  
a The duty -free tariff line coverage can slightly differ with the one shown in Table 3 due to different 
reference years . Major exclusions refer to HS Chapter descriptions.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
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