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1 March  2021 
(21-1690) Page: 1/49 
Sub-Committee on Cotton  Original: English  
 
DIRECTOR GENERAL'S CONSULTATIVE FRAMEWORK MECHANISM ON COTTON  
BEYOND THE FIBRE  
CAPTURING COTTON 'S FULL VALUE IN AFRICA  
Communication from the International Trade Centre (ITC)  
The following communication, received on 21 December  2020, is being circulated at the request of 
the ITC. 
 
_______________  
 
 
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  About the paper  
Cotton by -products – such as cottonseed oil and oilcakes – can contribute meaningfully to reducing 
poverty, creat ing jobs and increasing economic growth in Africa. These derivatives can represent up 
to 30% of the value of seed cotton. Yet oil and cakes have not been fully exploited, despite a potential 
of 400,000 tons of oil and 500,000 tons of protein – vital for th e growing livestock industry. Stalks 
and other by -products have also been neglected.  
This paper explores ways of capturing the full value of cotton in Africa. It illustrates the benefits of 
a more systematic way of exploiting the substantial untapped potential of cotton by -products.  
Citation International Trade Center (2020). Beyond the Fibre: Capturing cotton 's full value in Africa. 
ITC, Geneva.  
For more information, contact: Matthias Knappe, knappe@intracen.org.  
ITC encourages the reprintin g and translation of its publications to achieve wider dissemination. 
Short extracts of this paper may be freely reproduced, with due acknowledgement of the source. 
Permission should be requested for more extensive reproduction or translation. A copy of th e 
reprinted or translated material should be sent to ITC.  
Digital image(s) on the cover: ©  Shutterstock.  
© International Trade Centre (ITC).  
ITC is the joint agency of the World Trade Organization and the United Nations.  
 
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  Foreword  
Cotton is a strategic crop for many African economies, generating income and employment for 
millions of rural families, as well as export revenues for producing countries. Cotton is grown mainly 
for its fibre, the raw material to manufacture textiles and apparel.  
 
Faced with l ow margins, high volatility in seed cotton prices and weather risks, farmers switch to 
and from cotton, depending on the previous season 's price relative to other crops.  
 
To grow cotton sustainably, farmers need year -round, income -generating opportunities . For 
example, they can use cotton fibre for hand -spun yarn, weaving it into fabrics they can use 
themselves, and also sell in domestic, regional and international markets. They can also add value 
to products stemming from the plant and the seeds, referred  to as cotton by -products.  
 
However, cotton stakeholders in Africa – from farmers to ginners to regulatory bodies – lack vital 
information on ways to add value to parts of the cotton plant other than the fibre.  
 
This publication provides an overview of u ses for cotton by -products in Africa. It offers 
recommendations for cotton stakeholders, starting with farmers, to benefit from more systematic 
use of cotton by -products.  
 
For example,  cotton plant biomass (mainly stalks) can be used instead of firewood, reducing 
deforestation. Cottonseed oil, oilcakes and meals have many uses.  
 
In many African countries, the price farmers receive for their product, called seedcotton, is based 
on the fibre 's value. With an increased value of the seeds, farmers could captu re this value for an 
overall higher price.  
 
There are activities that can raise value, boost awareness among private and public stakeholders, 
and increase transparency in the cotton sector. Financial and technical assistance from funders and 
partners is n eeded to promote this value addition. Support for businesses that process by -products 
is essential, along with building capacity to set up industry clusters and encourage South -South 
cooperation.  
 
This report forms part of the International Trade Centre 's contribution to the cotton by -product value 
addition in partnership with the WTO and UNCTAD. The initiative is a direct response to a request 
from the Cotton Four – Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad and Mali – and other African countries. The paper 
also undersco res the International Trade Centre 's close engagement with the Cotton Four and its 
goals to develop cotton in Africa.  
 
 
 
Pamela Coke -Hamilton  
Executive Director  
International Trade Centre  
 
  
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  Acknowledgements  
ITC commissioned this report as part of its joint initiative with the World Trade Organization and the 
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development  to support the development of cotton 
by-products in Africa.  
 
Gérald Estur, International Consultant, wrote this publication under the supervision of Matthias 
Knappe, Senior Officer and Programme Manager, Fibres, Textiles and Clothing  (ITC).  
 
We are grateful to the ind ustry stakeholders, South-South cooperation partners in India and Turkey , 
and farmers and entrepreneurs in Africa and India who shared t heir experiences and lessons learned.  
 
Special thanks  go to Keshav Kranthi, Head of the Technical Information Section at the International 
Cotton Advisory Committee; Kris Terauds, Economist  at the United Nations Conference on Trade and 
Development , for in volving ITC i n some activities re lated to its Promoting Cotton B y-products in 
Eastern and Southern Africa  project;  and P.G. Patel, Director  of the  Central Institute for Research 
on Cotton Technology in India, with whom ITC has a long -standing collaboration  on cotton 
development in Africa.  
 
Jayna Kika, Senior Programme Assistant for Fibres, Textiles and Clothing  (ITC), and Mariana 
Tavares, International Consultant  (ITC), reviewed  the paper in its final stages . 
 
We would also like to thank  Natalie Domeisen and Anne Griffin  (both ITC) , who oversaw the editing 
and production process; Jennifer Freedman, who edited the report; and Franco Iacovino  (ITC), who 
provided graphic and printing support.  
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  CONTENTS  
FOREWORD  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................  3 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 4 
ACRONYMS  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................  7 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 8 
1   MARKETS FOR COTTONSEED OIL AND CAKES  ................................ ............................  10 
1.1   Few international markets or price indications  ................................ ................................ 10 
1.2   Global trade of selected cotton by-products  ................................ ................................ ...14 
1.3   Evolution of oilseed and vegetable oil prices ................................ ................................ ...15 
2   HOW DOES AFRICA USE COTTON BY -PRODUCTS?  ................................ .....................  19 
2.1   African cotton produ cers: Similar traits and challenges  ................................ .................... 20 
2.2   Western and Central Africa: Top producers  ................................ ................................ ....22 
2.3   Eastern and Southern Africa: Concentrated and competitive  ................................ ............ 24 
2.4   Constraints and challenges in developing cotton by -products  ................................ ........... 26 
3   CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES TO DEVELOP COTTON BY -PRODUCTS  ................  28 
3.1   Cotton by -products can help alleviate poverty  ................................ ................................ 28 
3.2   Cottonseed oil can replace oil imports  ................................ ................................ ........... 29 
3.3   Farmers could boost income with cotton by -products  ................................ ...................... 30 
4   RECOMMENDATIONS  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 32 
4.1   Enormous untapped potential  ................................ ................................ ....................... 32 
4.2   The way forward  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 33 
APPENDIX - COTTON BY -PRODUCT USES  ................................ ................................ ....... 36 
Cottonseed  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 36 
The issue of gossypol  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 37 
Fuzzy seeds  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 37 
Linters  ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 38 
Absorbent cotton  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 41 
Hulls ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 41 
Cottonseed oil  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 42 
Cottonseed cake/meal  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 43 
Cotton gin waste  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 45 
Cotton stalks  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 45 
References  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 46 
 
Figures, Tables, Boxes  
Figure 1: Soybeans dominate oilseed production  ................................ ................................ ....12 
Figure 2: Palm and soybean are the leading vegetable  oils ................................ ...................... 13 
Figure 3: Soybean and rapeseed are the top protein meals  ................................ ..................... 13 
Figure 4: United States, Côte d'Ivoire lead cottonseed exports  ................................ ................ 14 
Figure 5: India and Turkey paced cotton linter exports in 2019  ................................ ................ 15 WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  Figure 6: Oil and meal prices mirror commodity price trends  ................................ ................... 16 
Figure 7: Lint price trails palm oil and  soybean meal prices  ................................ ..................... 16 
Figure 8: Cottonseed is one of the lowest -priced oilseeds  ................................ ........................ 17 
Figure 9: Cottonseed oil price tops soybean and corn oil prices  ................................ ................ 18 
Figure 10: Cottonseed meal averages USD 300 a ton in US market  ................................ .......... 18 
Figure 11: Africa is sixth -biggest p roducer of cottonseeds  ................................ ....................... 20 
Figure 12: Evolution of cotton production in Africa  ................................ ................................ .22 
Figure 13: Benin and Mali are top African cottonseed producers  ................................ ............... 26 
Figure 14: Meal constitutes almost half of ginned cottonseed  ................................ .................. 36 
Figure 15: Linters have a range of uses  ................................ ................................ ................ 40 
Figure 16: Hulls used as livestock feed and fertilizer  ................................ ............................... 42 
Figure 17: Kernel is used to produce cake and meal, crude oil  ................................ ................. 44 
 
Table 1: India, China and United States are top lint producers  ................................ ................. 20 
Table 2: Mali and Burkina Faso have dozens of oil mills  ................................ .......................... 24 
Table 3: Benin and Mali lead regional lint and oilseed production  ................................ ............. 25 
Table 4: Sub -Saharan Africa consumes about 5% of world's edible oil  ................................ ......29 
 
Box 1: What are the characteristics of cottonseed oil?  ................................ ............................ 43 
Box 2: Cotton stalk -based by -products have many benefits ................................ ..................... 46 
 
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  Acronyms  
Unless otherwise specified, all references to dollars (USD) are to United States dollars, and all 
references to  tons are to metric tons. Percentages in some graphics may not total 100% due to 
rounding.  
 
ICAC  International Cotton Advisory Committee  
ITC  International Trade Centre  
USDA   United States Department of Agriculture  
 
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  Executive summary  
1.1.  About 35% of the co tton lint produced across the world is traded internationally. Yet the global 
market for cotton by -products is very thin, as these goods are typically consumed where they are 
produced. This is also one reason that no recognized benchmarks for international  prices of cotton 
by-products exist.  
1.2.  Nevertheless, the market for cotton by -products is growing in Africa and they could be an 
important complementary source of revenue for the cotton sector.  
1.3.  Despite their potential, cotton by -products have received litt le attention in sub -Saharan Africa. 
This potential has yet to be maximized, and African markets for by -products such as cottonseed oil 
and oilcake are not well developed.  
1.4.  The status of cotton by -products is similar across all producing countries in sub -Saharan Africa, 
as they share common characteristics and face the same constraints and challenges. Cottonseeds, 
oil, cake and meal are used to some extent, while linters and ginning waste are rarely used. Fewer 
than 10% of African cottonseeds are treated for  use as planting seeds. Most oilseeds that are 
produced are sold to oil crushers.  
1.5.  This means the full potential of cottonseeds as an additional source of income to reduce poverty 
and fight climate change has not been exploited. There is potential in Africa to further commercialize 
cotton by -products in the following areas:  
• Cottonseed oil, which competes with other vegetable oils, is typically used for human 
consumption (sometimes for soap manufacturing and other industrial uses such as plastics 
and ph armaceuticals);  
• Cottonseed hulls are used either to generate energy for the processing facility or are blended 
with meal for animal feed and, less often, as fertilizer;  
• Cottonseed cake, which competes with other meals, is used as animal feed;  
• Linters are a  source of cellulose used in goods such as yarn, plastics and filling material;  
• Unprocessed cottonseed is sometimes used for animal feed;  
• Cotton stalks can be used for compost, boiler fuel (briquettes, pellets) or particle boards, or 
to prepare pulp and cr aft paper.  
• Edible mushrooms can be grown on cotton stalks.  
1.6.  Most cotton -producing countries in Africa have industries that process cottonseed into edible 
oil and livestock feed. Still, technologies to add value to other cotton by -products are underused on  
the continent due to a lack of information about modern and adapted tools available in other 
countries, insufficient data to assess the viability of investments in these products and inadequate 
policies to support the development of cotton by -product indu stries. Therefore, there is considerable 
scope to add value to such cotton by -products.  
1.7.  In recent years, the value of cotton by -products has increased faster than the value of lint. 
This trend is likely to continue as demand for edible oil and livestock an d poultry feeds is growing in 
Africa, exceeding domestic production. This means cotton by -products may be able to compete with 
lint as income sources for many stakeholders and contribute significantly to the profitability of the 
cotton subsector as well as  to income generation, employment and poverty reduction.  
1.8.  This paper offers several recommendations on how to capture additional value from cotton 
by-products. They include:  
• Identify and assess value addition activities (processing and marketing of cotton by-products) 
in the national context;  
• Raise awareness among private and public stakeholders (farmers, ginners, crushers, 
government officials) on the potential of cotton by -products for value addition;  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  • Increase transparency in the cotton sector, including on the full value of seed cotton, lint and 
seeds, and the opportunities and cost -benefit analysis to add further value;  
• Promote financial and/or technical assistance from government or funders to add value to 
cotton by -products;  
• Ensure government support f or the establishment of cotton by -product processing businesses, 
for example by:  
− including by -products in national cotton sector development strategies, with action plans 
aiming to add more value to cotton;  
− implementing clear national policy guidance on t he development of both the edible oil and 
meal production industries, with favourable tax regimes;  
− putting in place policy incentives to encourage investment (local and/or foreign direct 
investment) in or adoption of technologies to add value to cotton by -products; and  
− enforcing tariffs and taxes on imported oils and meals.  
• Build capacity to establish well -organized industry groups (farmer associations/cooperatives, 
ginner associations, oilseed processor associations, inter -professional organizations and 
cotton boards);  
• Promote South -South cooperation, including with countries such as Brazil, China, Egypt, India 
or Turkey.  
1.9.  This paper also provides a comprehensive overview of cotton by -products and their uses in 
African and other . 
 
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  1  MARKETS FOR COTTONSEED OIL AND CAKES  
 
Cotton field (©  ITC) 
 
1.1.  About 35% of the global cotton lint production is traded internationally. Yet the global market 
for cotton by -products is very thin, as these goods are typically consumed where they are produced. 
This is also one reason there are no recognized benchmarks f or international prices of cotton by -
products.  
1.1  Few international markets or price indications  
1.2.  The only indication of international market prices exists for cottonseed oil and, to a lesser 
extent, oilcakes. For all other cotton by -products, there are no in ternational markets or comparable 
price indications.  
1.3.  The production of cottonseed is relatively low compared to other major oilseeds such as 
soybean, rape or sunflower. As a result, the evolution of prices for these oilseeds strongly influence 
the prices for cottonseed oils and cakes.  
1.4.  To better understand the market potential for cottonseed oil and cakes, this chapter examines 
the production and trade of cottonseed oils and cakes, as well as prices for oilseeds, vegetable oils 
and protein meals. As these are commodity prices, the chapter mainly refers to prices in the United 
States as reported by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).  
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Cottonseeds (© Shutterstock / Alf Ribeiro)   Cotton oil (© Shutterstock / Tolikoff  Photography)  
  
 
Cottonseed cake to feed animals (© Shutterstock / Dineshahir)   Shepard feeding his animal with cottonseed cake 
(© Shutterstock / Riccardo Mayer)  
 
Production  
 
1.5.  Global production of the seven major oilseeds – soybeans, rapeseed, sunflower, peanut, 
cottonseed, palm kernel and coconut – averaged 585 million tons in the period 2016/17 through 
2018/19. Cottonseed ranked fifth, averaging 42.5 million tons1 (7%), behind soybean (350 million 
tons, 60%), rapeseed (72 million tons, 12%), sunflower (49.5 million tons, 9%) and peanut 
(46 million tons, 8%), followed by palm kernel (19 million tons, 3%) and coconut (6 million tons, 
1%). 
 
1 According to statistics from the International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC), world production of 
lint averaged 23.8 mil lion tons from 2015/16 through 2017/18.  
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  Figure 1: Soybeans dominate oilseed production  
 
Source:  USDA.  
 
1.6.  Ranked by oil  content, cottonseeds are the lowest among the seven major oilseeds.2 As such, 
production of cottonseed oil is relatively low compared to other vegetable oils.  
1.7.  Furthermore, cottonseed is also used as livestock feed, so not all the cottonseed produced is 
actually crushed. USDA data show that a yearly average of 32 million tons of cottonseeds, or 75% 
of the global production, were crushed in 2016/17 to 2018/19. As a result, the global production of 
cottonseed oil averaged 4.8 million tons, accounting for on ly 2.5% of the global production of the 
nine major vegetable oils, estimated at 197 million tons.  
1.8.  Palm oil (70 million tons) and soybean oil (55 million tons) dominate the world market.  
 
 
2 Cottonseed oil content is about 16%, compared to about 54% for sunflower, 50% for palm kernel and 
groundnuts, and 20% for soybean.  
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  Figure 2: Palm and soybean are the leading vegetable oils  
 
Source:  USDA.  
 
1.9.  The second most important cotton by -product coming from the seed is oilcake or protein meals 
that remain when the oil is extracted. From 2016/17 through 2018/19, global production of the eight 
major protein meals averaged 328 million tons. Cottonseed ranked fourth, averaging 14.5 million 
tons (4.5%), behind soybean (230 million tons, 70%), rapeseed (39 million tons, 12%) and 
sunflower (20 million tons, 6%).  
Figure 3: Soybean and rapeseed ar e the top protein meals  
 
Source:  USDA.  
 
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  1.2  Global trade of selected cotton by -products  
1.10.   As previously noted, cotton by -products are essentially consumed in their respective domestic 
markets. In contrast, the share of cotton lint traded internationally average d 35% of the global 
production from 2016/17 through 2018/19.3  
1.11.   Total exports of the seven major oilseeds averaged 173 million tons, or 30% of global 
production, over the three years from 2016/17 through 2018/19, according to USDA data. Soybeans 
dominated the market, (149 million tons or 86%), followed by rapeseeds (15 million tons or 9%). 
Exports of cottonseeds averaged 850,000 tons over the three -year period, only 0.5% of the 
estimated global trade.4  
1.12.   Cottonseed exports (excluding for sowing) topped 1 mi llion tons in 2019, for a total value of 
USD 200 million.5 Five countries accounted for 95% of the total: the United States (301,000 tons) ; 
Côte d 'Ivoire (259,000 tons) ; Greece (232,000 tons) ; Benin (129,000 tons) and Brazil (53,000 tons). 
The largest importers were the Repub lic of Korea (154,000 tons) ; Italy (136,000 tons) ; 
Mali (131,000  tons); Saudi  Arabia , Kingdom of  (123,000 tons) ; Mexico (100,000 tons) ; 
Japan  (93,000  tons) and Burkina Faso  (87,000 tons).  
Figure 4: United States, Côte d 'Ivoire lead cottonseed exports  
 
Source:  ITC Trade Map.  
 
1.13.   Exports of the nine major vegetable oils averaged 82 million tons, or 42% of global production, 
in 2019. Exports of palm oil ( 50 million tons) and soybean oil (11 million tons) accounted for 61% 
and 13% of the market, respectively .6 Exports of refined cottonseed oil were marginal, at an 
estimated 100,000 tons.7 
 
3 Exports of lint averaged 8.2 million tons over this three -year period, according to ICAC.  
4 Exports of soybeans accounted for 43% of the average production, and exports of rapeseeds for 20% 
of the production.  
5 ITC Trade Map.  
6 Exports of palm oil accounted for 72% of the average production, and exports of soybean oil for 20% . 
7 About 20,000 tons of crude cottonseed oil (exporters: Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan) and about 
100,000 tons of refined cottonseed oil (top exporters: United States, Benin; top importers: Mexico, Nigeria).  
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  1.14.   Exports of the eight major protein meals averaged 90 million tons, or 27% of global 
production. Exports of soybean meal (66 million tons) accounted for 73% of the global market. 
Exports of cottonseed meal are marginal, at about 400,000 tons.  
1.15.   Total exports  of cotton linters amounted to 158,000 tons in 2019 for a total value of 
USD 98 million .8 The top exporters were India (46,000 tons), Turkey (28,000 tons), Brazil 
(23,000  tons), South Africa (23,000 tons), Turkmenistan (12,000 tons) and the United States and 
Uzbekistan (9,000 tons each).The largest importers were China (88,000 tons), Japan (25,000 tons) 
Spain (15,000 tons) and Bangladesh (7,500 tons).9 
Figure 5: India and Turkey paced cotton linter exports in 2019  
 
Source:  ITC Trade Map . 
 
1.3  Evolution of oilseed and vegetable oil prices  
1.16.   As most edible oils are close substitutes for each other, their markets are highly integrated. 
This includes the market for cottonseed oil, of which only a low percentage of global production is 
traded internationally. As a result, cottonseed prices historically follow the prices of other major 
oilseeds, and cottonseed oil prices follow those of major other vegetable oils.  
1.17.   In addition, changing production and consumption patterns influence the relat ive prices of 
edible oils.10 Prices for vegetable oils and meals follow those of other agricultural commodities.  
 
 
8 ITC Trade Map. Average price USD 0.68/kilogram,  up from USD 0.54/kilogram in 2016.  
9 Ibid. 
10 For example, the substitution by farmers of soybean meal with maize for animal feed, or the 
substitution of soybean oil with palm and rapeseed oils for human consumption.  
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  Figure 6: Oil and meal prices mirror commodity price trends  
 
Source:  World Bank.  
 
1.18.   Prices of palm oil and soybean meal have increased faster than cotton lint since 2000. 
According to World Bank commodity price forecasts in April 2020, cotton prices in constant 2010 
dollars are expected to increase from USD 1.72 per kilogram in 2019 to USD 2.10 per kilogram 
in 2030.  
1.19.   Meanwhile, palm oil prices are forecast to climb 19% in this period, while the price of soybean 
meal is expected to rise 4%. This should translate into relatively higher cottonseed prices, as 
cottonseed oil would increase alon g with palm oil prices, as both are potential substitutes.  
Figure 7: Lint price trails palm oil and soybean meal prices  
 
Source:  World Bank.  
 
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  1.20.   As there is no recognized benchmark for the international prices of cotton by -products, the 
trading prices in the US market can give an indication of price development. The farm price of 
cottonseeds in the United States is lower than those of soybeans, sunflower seeds and peanuts.  
1.21.   The farm price for a ton of cottonseeds fluctuated from USD 140 to USD 220 in the last three 
seasons. It stood at about USD 168 a ton in the marketing season 2019/20.11 
Figure 8: Cottonseed is one of the lowest -priced oilseeds  
 
Source:  USDA.  
 
1.22.   Cottonseed oil is generally traded at a lower price in the United States than peanut and 
sunflower oils. It has a similar price to corn oil and it trades at a higher price than soybean and palm 
oils. 
 
11 Average monthly farm prices fell from a peak of USD 356 per ton of seed cotton in January 2012 to a 
low of USD 157 in November 2017, according to the USDA.  
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  Figure 9: Cottonseed oil price tops soybean and corn oil prices  
 
Sourc e: USDA.  
 
1.23.   Cottonseed meal trades lower than soybean meal, but higher than sunflower seed meal, 
averaging around USD 300 a ton in the US market.  
Figure 10: Cottonseed meal averages USD 300 a ton in US market  
 
Source:  USDA.  
 
1.24.   While cottonseed prices have not shown a strong upward trend in recent years, cottonseed 
oil and cakes still provide an important revenue stream for oil mills and cotton companies that also 
crush the seeds. As the same process is used to produce oil and ca ke from the cottonseed, their 
market potential must be considered together.  
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  1.25.   Cottonseed cakes draw a much higher price than soybean or sunflower seed cakes due to 
their relatively high protein content. They are therefore the preferred fodder for animal hus bandry 
and cattle farms.  
1.26.   Demand for animal feed and especially cottonseed cakes is growing in Africa. Oil mills and 
cotton companies must increase the crushing rates of cottonseed and improve the quality further to 
meet this demand and benefit from relati vely good prices (compared to other oilcakes). As oilcake 
is a coproduct of the seed, together with oil, the oil will also need to be marketed.  
1.27.   Potential exists to market and promote cottonseed oil in local markets. This oil is an import -
competing crop, a s all sub -Saharan African countries are net importers of edible oil (mostly palm 
oil). Cottonseed oil is more nutritious than imported palm oil, so there is potential for both marketing 
and branding. Annex 1 offers more information about cottonseed oil and  cakes.  
2  HOW DOES AFRICA USE COTTON BY -PRODUCTS?  
 
 
Cotton harvest  (© ITC). 
 
2.1.  Production of cottonseed is directly linked to the production of lint, as both are coproducts of 
the ginning operation. As a result, the top producers of lint, or raw cotton, are also the top producers 
of cottonseeds.  
2.2.  India outpaced China as world 's largest cotton producer from 2014/15 to 2017/18. The United 
States is the third -biggest producer and the No. 1 exporter of lint. Brazil overtook Pakistan as the 
fourth -largest producer in 2017/18.  
2.3.  The percentage of unprocessed cottonseeds that are used for cattle feed12 varies across 
countries. Feeding cattle directly is a missed opportunity, as no oil is produced from the seeds. 
However, high protein cake or meal could still  be fed to cattle.  
 
12 Whole cottonseeds are increasingly used in the dairy industry, because adding them to the diet of 
early-lactation cows usually boosts energy intake, which often leads to bigger milk yields.  
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  2.4.  The eight largest cotton -growing countries produced more than 21.7 million tons of lint in 
2016/17 through 2018/19. India overshadows all other countries in terms of its planted cotton area, 
with almost 12 million acres planted. It is al so the biggest producer of line, oilseeds and meal.  
Table 1: India, China and United States are top lint producers  
 Cotton area  
(000 hectares)  Lint  
(000 tons)  Oilseeds  
(000 tons)  Oil 
(000 tons)  Meal  
(000 tons)  
India 11,893  5,855  11,334  1,213  3,939  
China  3,272  5,610  9,894  1,259  3,749  
United States  4,157  4,099  5,303  262 789 
Brazil  1,244  2,105  3,165  461 1,368  
Pakistan  2,495  1,709  3,446  465 1,409  
Turkey  467 824 1,242  232 679 
Australia  470 807 1,142  110 319 
Uzebekistan  1,119  743 1,351  302 594 
Note:  Three -year averages (2016/17 –2018/19).  
Source:  ICAC and USDA.  
Figure 11: Africa is sixth -biggest producer of cottonseeds  
 
Source:  USDA.  
 
2.1  African cotton producers: Similar traits and challenges  
2.5.  The status of cotton by -products is very similar across all producing countries in sub -Saharan 
Africa, as they share common characteristics and must grapple with the same limitations and 
challenges.  
2.6.  Desk review and stakeholder interviews conduct ed in 2018 show little evolution from findings 
of previous studies on the African oilseed sector commissioned by the World Bank (2009) and 
USAID  (2010).  
2.7.  Cottonseed oil and cake represented up to 30% of the total value of seed cotton in sub -Saharan 
Africa. Growing demand for edible oil and animal feed has bolstered cottonseed prices, so the 
contribution of cottonseed by -products to the overall value of cotton fibre and seed has increased in 
the last decade.  
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  2.8.  With few exceptions,13 cotton is a smallholder crop in Africa. As seed cotton is sold to ginning 
companies or to traders, the ginners own both the lint and the cottonseeds.  
2.9.  The only by -products that are used are cottonseeds, oil, cake, meal and, to a lesser extent, 
linters and ginning (lint -cleaner) waste. The contribution of cottonseed to the total value of cotton 
depends on the ginning ratios, the lint and seed prices.  
2.10.   Fewer than 10% of cottonseeds are treated for use as planting seeds. Most oilseeds are sold 
to oil crushers in the domesti c market or in neighbouring countries. Whole cottonseeds can also be 
sold as feedstuff to the livestock sector.  
2.11.   All sub -Saharan African countries have an oilseed -processing industry, with varying mixes of 
the three types of processing (artisanal, semi -industrial and industrial) competing on the domestic 
market with imports of edible oil and meal. The number of oil processors varies across countries, 
from one to about 100, and few are integrated with ginning.  
2.12.   Small -scale traditional mills produce crude or se mi-refined oil of lower quality that is cheaper 
than the refined oil processed by large -scale modern mills. Virtually all cottonseed oil produced is 
used for human consumption in the domestic market.  
2.13.   Cotton meals and cakes are sold for animal feed. Demand for whole cottonseeds and 
cottonseed meal is much stronger in countries with a large cattle population, such as the Sahelian 
countries.  
2.14.   Linters are generally exported due to the absence of local value -added industries .14 Gin motes 
are mostly treated as was te products. Some ginners sell lint -cleaner waste.  
2.15.   There are no commercial uses for cotton stalks. Farmers usually cut and dry the stalks before 
burning them. Stalks are sometimes used as fuel, as cattle feed or to make fertilizer.  
2.16.   Cottonseed prices are hi gher in producing regions or countries that are landlocked. This is 
due to the high cost of transporting imported edible oils into these areas, which makes them more 
expensive.  
2.17.   The value of cotton by -products varies according to:  
• prices and market conditio ns; 
• location of cotton production;  
• demand by livestock sector/dairy industry;  
• availability of competing oilseeds, oil and meals;  
• ginning and seed -crushing technologies used, which affect the processing rates.  
2.18.   Despite the overall similarities, beyond the common features, there are differences between 
countries that are mostly related to the structure of the cotton sector.  
 
13 Ethiopia and South Africa.  
14 According to ITC Trade Map, African countries exporting linters are South Africa (9,042 tons in 2018); 
Zambia (5,271 tons in 2018); M alawi (1,096 tons in 2017 and 5,275 tons in 2014); United Republic of 
Tanzania (four -year average 950 tons; only 10 tons in 2018).  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 22 - 
 
  Figure 12: Evolution of cotton production in Africa  
 
Source:  ICAC.  
 
2.2  Western and Central Africa: Top producers  
2.19.   Eight countries of the 14 -nation CFA franc zone produce cotton, including the four largest 
producers in Africa (Mali,15 Burkina Faso, Benin and Côte d 'Ivoire) as well as Cameroon, Togo, Chad 
and Senegal. Franc zone16 countries account for more than 70% of African cotton production.  
2.20.   The organizational model of the cotton sector has been successful in promoting cotton 
production. Strong government support has been a key driver in the development of cotton in the 
franc zone. The cotton production support syst em fostered agricultural innovation in rural areas.  
2.21.   Parastatal or private cotton companies have played a role as both economic operators and in 
promoting social development in cotton production zones. Vertically integrated cotton firms ensured 
the coordin ation of the subsector, from providing inputs to producers to collecting seed cotton, 
ginning and marketing lint and seeds, and processing oilseeds. Cotton companies assisted in the 
formation and training of cotton producer organizations or cooperatives.  
2.22.   While private entry has been allowed to some extent in Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte 
d'Ivoire and Senegal, in practice markets remain strongly regulated. Ginning companies have never 
been allowed to compete for the purchase of seed cotton. Governments ret ain a share in the capital 
of most companies. There is only one ginning company in Cameroon, Chad, Mali, Senegal and Togo. 
National cotton producer unions or cooperatives have a minority share in most cotton businesses.  
2.23.   Cotton has been an engine for develo pment in rural areas, where it has helped improve 
incomes, livelihoods and access to social facilities, with positive impacts on poverty and food 
security. Unlike their counterparts in East and Southern Africa, cotton producers in franc zone 
countries bene fit from a pan -seasonal and pan -territorial minimum guaranteed price for seed cotton 
announced before planting. The price of inputs delivered on credit is announced at the same time.  
2.24.   Until the mid -1980s, most cottonseed went to waste with no value attached . Until the 1990s, 
the development model for the national cotton sectors in Western and Central Africa integrated a 
 
15 Mali ranked 11th in the world in 2017/18.  
16 The CFA franc zone includes 14 sub -Saharan countries sharing a common currency,  the CFA franc, 
which is pegged to the euro by a fixed parity (EUR 1 = 655,957 XOF).  
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  large-scale oil processing plant within the parastatal cotton company. Oil -processing activities were 
privatized in most countries.  
2.25.   Cameroon  and Chad17 are the only African countries where the initial structure of the cotton 
sector has remained unchanged, with oil processing fully integrated with ginning in the cotton 
company.  
2.26.   Cotton oil constitutes the main source of edible oil for the popula tions in the cotton areas in 
Western and Central African countries.  
2.27.   The wholesale and retail markets for oil and meal are generally liberalized and competitive, 
with prices fluctuating seasonally. In both Mali and Burkina Faso, large modern processing plan ts 
face increasing competition from low -cost Indian - or Chinese -manufactured pressing equipment.  
2.28.   Whole cottonseeds are increasingly used as cattle feed in landlocked Sahelian countries, thus 
limiting the possibility of value addition in terms of oil and ca ke production.  
2.29.   Farmers, along with other stakeholders, help decide the prices of seed cotton and cotton 
inputs. However, the value of the seed and the by -products derived from it are not or hardly factored 
into the price for seedcotton. Seedcoton prices, t herefore, mainly refelect the projected value of the 
lint but are not very trasparentwith regard to the value iof the seed.  
2.30.   Formal cotton interprofessions comprising producer and ginner organizations have been 
established in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d 'Ivoire and Mali. In the four other franc zone countries, 
national producer organizations are involved in the pricing negotiations.  
 
17 Oil processing was briefly privatized in Chad in 2000, but returned to Société cotonnière du Tchad, 
also called Cotontchad, after privatization failed. In 2018, the ente rprise was privatized to OLAM, a global 
leading agribusiness company, trading more than 45 agri -commodity products including edible oil, and the 
largest private ginner in the world (according to its website).  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  Table 2: Mali and Burkina Faso have dozens of oil mills  
Country  Cotton 
companies  Interprofession  Farmer representative 
bodies  Oil mills  
Mali 1 Interprofession du coton du 
Mali (Compagnie malienne de 
développement des textiles  + 
Confédération des sociétés 
coopératives de producteurs 
de coton du Mali ) Confédération des sociétés 
coopérat ives de 
producteurs de coton du 
Mali +/-100 
Burkina Faso  3 Association 
interprofessionnelle du coton 
du Burkina Faso  
(Association professionnelle 
des sociétés cotonnières du 
Burkina Faso + Union 
nationale des producteurs de 
coton du Burkina Faso ) Union Nationale des 
Producturs de Coton du 
Burkina Faso  +/-60 
Benin  4 Association 
interprofessionnelle du coton 
du Bénin  (Conseil national des 
égreneurs de coton du Bénin  
+ Fédération nationale des 
coopératives villageoises de 
producteurs de coton du 
Bénin ) Fédération nationale des 
coopératives villageoises 
de producteurs de coton 
du Bénin  2 
Côte d 'Ivoire  6 Intercoton ( Association 
professionnelle des sociétés 
cotonnières de Côte d 'Ivoire  + 
Fédération des unions des 
sociétés coopératives des 
producteurs de la filière coton 
de Côte d 'Ivoire  + Association 
des triturateurs de graines 
oléagineuses de Côte d 'Ivoire ) Fédération  des unions des 
sociétés coopératives des 
producteurs de la filière 
coton de Côte d 'Ivoire  2 
Cameroon  1  Confédération Nationale 
des Producteurs de Coton 
du Cameroun  1 
Togo 1  Fédération nationale des 
groupements de 
producteurs de coton du 
Togo 1 
Chad 1  Union Nationale des 
Producteurs de Coton du 
Tchad  1 
Senegal  1  Fédération nationale des 
producteurs de coton du 
Sénégal  1 
 
2.3  Eastern and Southern Africa: Concentrated and competitive  
2.31.   In declining order of lint production in 2017/18, the largest cotton -producing countries in 
Eastern and Southern Africa are the United Republic of Tanzania, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, 
Uganda, South Africa, Mozambique and Malawi.  
2.32.   The Eastern and Southern A frican cotton sectors are concentrated and competitive, as ginners 
and their agents can compete to buy seed cotton from farmers,18 (except in Mozambique, which 
operates local monopolies in concession zones).  
2.33.   Competition for volume, which is critical for ginners to break even, undermines the 
coordination needed to provide services such as input credit, extension, quality control and r esearch. 
 
18 With a risk of side -selling by producers to g inners who have not prefinanced the inputs.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  This tends to generate suboptimal yields and, hence, relatively low incomes. Competition also affects 
seed cotton and lint quality, which limits the price that ginners can pass on to farmers.  
2.34.   The producer price is determined almost entirely by the  international price of lint and the 
domestic price of cottonseed prevailing at the beginning of the marketing season. Setting the price 
before marketing increases producer price volatility and fluctuations in production.  
2.35.   Price elasticity of cotton product ion is very high. Because the producer price is not set and 
guaranteed before planting – like in Western and Central African countries – Eastern and Southern 
Africa cotton farmers base their decision to plant on the prior year 's price.  
2.36.   Smallholder farmers in Eastern and Southern Africa are the most exposed to the risk of cotton 
price volatility and are among the least protected in the world.19 
2.37.   The volatility of cotton prices has a major impact on cotton production in Eastern and Southern 
Africa. Many farmers enter and exit cotton production depending on prevailing prices, so they fail to 
amass the knowledge and skills that would lead them to increased yields and profits.  
2.38.   Ginners drive the Eastern and Southern African cotton sectors. Farmers are less or ganized 
and their associations are much weaker compared to the franc zone countries.  
2.39.   As cotton production is much lower and more volatile than in Western and Central African 
countries, the quantity of by -products is not sufficient and is too unstable to ac hieve economies of 
scale and to justify investments into large -scale and modern processing facilities.  
2.40.   Cottonseed oil production accounts for a rather small proportion of local edible oil 
consumption.  
2.41.   Cottonseeds are occasionally fed to livestock. This is not a common practice, however, 
because the relatively small production of seeds tends to be reserved for oil processing.20 
2.42.   The production of cotton oilseeds21 in the table below has been calculated using ICAC data on 
lint production and the estimated seed -to-lint ratio for each African country. There are no reliable 
data on cotton oil and meal production.  
Table 3: Benin and Mali lead regional lint and oilseed production  
 Cotton area  
(000 hectares)  Lint  
(000 tons)  Oilseeds  
(000 to ns) 
Western and Central Africa  
Benin  656 295 330 
Mali 698 276 325 
Côte d 'Ivoire   392 198 224 
Burkina Faso  646 189 215 
Cameroon  204 133 158 
Togo 180 56 68 
Chad 60 9 12 
Senegal  22 6 7 
Nigeria  250 51 68 
Southern and Eastern Africa  
United Republic of Tanzania  420 81 132 
Ethiopia  78 57 83 
South Africa   42 48 67 
Zambia  197 47 58 
Zimbabwe  121 45 55 
 
19 Compared to India, China, the United States, Pakistan and West and Central Africa countries.  
20 In contrast, all cotton oilseeds are used as cattle feed in South Africa (the price in early 2019 was 
around 300 ZA R/ton or just over USD 200).  
21 USDA -published data on cotton oilseeds production are inconsistent with data on lint production, 
which are more reliable.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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   Cotton area  
(000 hectares)  Lint  
(000 tons)  Oilseeds  
(000 to ns) 
Uganda  81 35 45 
Mozambique  140 21 29 
Malawi  86 21 28 
Kenya  13 2  
Northern Africa  
Sudan  142 104 133 
Egypt  180 111 194 
Note:  Data from 2018/19.  
Sources:  ICAC, USDA, stakeholders ' interviews, consultant 's calculations.  
 
Figure 13: Benin and Mali are top African cottonseed producers  
 
Source:  Consultant 's calculations.  
 
2.4  Constraints and challenges in developing cotton by -products  
2.43.   All sub -Saharan African countries face similar obstacles to the development of the cotton by -
product value chain. Markets for semin and refined oil as wel l as cakes and meals are poorly 
understood and prices are not well docum ented. As a result, there is little transparency about the 
way the value of cottonseed is accounted for in seed cotton prices.  
2.44.   Policies that influence the prices of seed cotton, cottonseed, oil and cake affect the 
performance of the cotton sector. Taxes on  by-products sold in local markets and tariffs on imports 
affect competitiveness.  
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  2.45.   The oilseed sector is poorly integrated into the cotton sector. No crushing firms in Africa, 
excluding Côte d 'Ivoire,22 are members of cotton interprofessional organizations or cotton boards.  
2.46.   Moreover, mills using traditional pressing process aren 't efficient in terms of oil extraction 
rates. They produce poor -quality crude or semi -refined oils, but at a lower cost and at a cheaper 
price than refined oil processed by mills usi ng solvent -extraction technologies.  
2.47.   Weak enforcement of food safety and quality norms for cotton by -products for human and 
animal consumption can create unfair competition between artisanal or semi -industrial oil mills and 
large industrial modern mills.  
2.48.   Like other edible oils produced domestically, cottonseed oil suffers from fierce and often unfair 
(smuggling) competition from imported oils, mostly palm oil (crude, semi -refined or refined).  
2.49.   The presence of gossypol in cottonseeds is a major impediment to h uman and animal 
(nonruminants) consumption, as it is toxic to both. Although there are solutions to remove this 
yellow pigment23 – for instance, refining the oil removes gossypol almost completely – the oil -
processing equipment needed to reduce gossypol co ntent in refined cottonseed oil is capital -
intensive and not easily accessible in Africa.  
2.50.   Gossypol is non -toxic for ruminants. To use cottonseed meal as fodder for nonruminants, 
gossypol would need to be extracted through a chemical process. Appendix prov ides more details.  
2.51.   Cottonseed has a relatively low oil content compared to most other oilseeds. This is partly 
because research efforts focused on maximizing the quantity (ginning outturn) and quality of lint, 
rather than the oil or meal content.  
2.52.   Technolo gies for processing by -products to add value to cotton exist but they are not well -
known or readily available in Africa. All actors in the cotton value chain (farmers, ginners, crushers, 
potential investors) lack knowledge about the potential uses of cotto n by-products – especially stalks 
– and the value they could add. As a result, local markets for cotton by -products other than oil and 
meal are underdeveloped.  
2.53.   The lack of linkages among the cotton, oil and livestock sectors is an obstacle to the wider 
use of agribusiness by -products.  
Eastern and Southern African countries face unique barriers  
 
2.54.   In addition to challenges listed above, Eastern and Southern African countries must contend 
with other obstacles to the development of their cotton by -product value chain.  
2.55.   Limited and volatile cotton production hinders the development of downstream activities in 
the cotton value chain. Consequently, fluctuations in supply may deter potential investment 
decisions in the sector. Also, low production aggravates overcapac ity and prevents economies of 
scale, increasing production costs.  
2.56.   The relative weakness of farmer organizations compared to Western and Central African 
countries makes it difficult to create a cost -effective cotton by -product supply chain.  
2.57.   Inflation rates and interest rates in Eastern and Southern African countries are usually 
substantially higher than in franc zone countries. That puts companies in Eastern and Southen Africa 
at a disadvantage, as it is more difficult for them to obtain capi tal and invest in cotton by -products.  
 
22 The Association des triturateurs de graines oléagineuses de Côte d 'Ivoire is a member of the sectoral  
professional association, Intercoton.  
23 Gossypol toxicity limits the use of cottonseed in animal feed.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  3  CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES TO DEVELOP COTTON BY -PRODUCTS  
 
Local women working in a cotton farmer (©  ITC). 
 
3.1.  Cotton lint is one of the key commodities for generating household incomes, creating 
employment and easing p overty in sub -Saharan African countries.  
3.2.  Consumer demand for oilseed products is growing across the continent. This includes edible 
oils for human consumption and animal feeds for dairy, livestock and poultry sectors.  
3.1  Cotton by -products can help alleviate poverty  
3.3.  Cottonseed oil and cake typically represent up to 30% of the total value of seed cotton. Despite 
their numerous and diverse potential uses, by -products including cottonseed, the coproduct of lint, 
are underused, or even neglected, in Africa. If val ue addition activities could be expanded and fully 
exploited, cotton by -products could contribute much more to economic growth, employment and 
poverty alleviation.  
3.4.  Processing gin waste into fuel pellets could provide a renewable source of energy that could  
become a viable source of revenue for cotton gins.  
3.5.  Cottonseed production in sub -Saharan Africa, estimated at about 2.2 million tons today, is the 
equivalent of 400,000 tons of oil based on an optimized extraction rate of 18% and 500,000 tons of 
protein (2 3%). 
3.6.  The use of cotton oil to produce biofuel is unlikely to be economically viable as long as sub -
Saharan African countries are not self -sufficient in edible oil.  
3.7.  With a total cotton area of about 4.5 million hectares in sub -Saharan Africa, more than 10 
million tons of biomass could be produced from cotton stalks.  
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  3.8.  All countries on the continent, especially those in Western and Central Africa, need organic 
fertilizer to improve soil fertility and ensure production sustainability in the context of climate 
change.  
3.9.  Products made from cotton stalks (biomass briquettes/pellets and mushrooms) could help 
address the policy priorities in many African countries, creating income opportunities for farmers, 
small -scale business in rural areas (including women) and entr epreneurs that invest in valorizing 
by-products. Growing mushrooms would also contribute to improving nutrition for many 
stakeholders, especially farmers.  
3.10.   Biomass fuels respond to policy priorities on forest conservation, the reduction of carbon -
dioxide em issions and substitution for wood charcoal and fossil fuels.  
3.11.   Cotton agribusiness by -products could improve the quality of livestock in sub -Saharan Africa, 
especially in the arid and semi -arid agroecological zones, to meet increasing demand amid growing 
population and urbanization rates.   
3.2  Cottonseed oil can replace oil imports  
3.12.   Global per capita consumption of edible oil averaged 19 kilograms in 2012 –14, according to 
the Organisation for Economic Co -operation and Development and the Food and Agricultural 
Organization of the United Nations (2015). They predicted that total consumption would grow by 
1.8% a year in 2015 –2024.  
3.13.   Per capita consumption in sub -Saharan Africa is forecast to rise to 10.3 kilograms from 9.8 
kilograms. Total consumption is expected to in crease at an annual rate of 3.2%, to exceed 12 million 
tons of edible oil by 2024.  
Table 4: Sub-Saharan Africa consumes about 5% of world 's edible oil  
Countries  kiloton/year  
(2012 -2014)  kilogram/capita/  
year 
(2012 -2014)  % 
growth/year  
(2015 -2024)  kiloton/year  
(proj. 2024)  kilogram/capita/  
year 
(proj. 2024)  
Developed  48.8 25.8 0.13%  50.3 26 
Developing  118.7  17.5 2.4%  160 20 
World  167.5  19.1 1.81%  210.4  21 
United States  14.7 39.2 0.87%  16 39.9 
European Union  22.5 24 -0.86%  21 21.5 
China  31.3 22.2 1.73%  38.8 26.3 
India 18.9 14.8 3.15%  27.3 19 
Sub-Saharan 
Africa 
excluding 
South Africa  8.9 9.8 3.16%  12.4 10.3 
South Africa  1.25 22 2.79%  1.6 23.4 
Northern Africa  3.5 20.1 1.96%  4.5 22.2 
Source:  Organisation for Economic Co -operation and Development and the Food and Agriculture Organization 
of the United Nations.  
 
3.14.   No country in sub -Saharan Africa is self -sufficient in edible oil.  
3.15.   The oil content in cottonseed is lower than in most oilseeds. In add ition, use of the 
expander -press method24 to extract oil limits both the quantity and the quality of cottonseed oil 
 
24 This traditional method of cottonseed oil extraction uses a circular mortar or more advanced 
technology, such as a hydraulic press or a screw press (e xpeller). The cotton seeds may be dehulled, cracked, 
dried or heated before being fed into the press. Mechanical extraction is not very efficient, and up to 20% of 
the seed oil may remain in the pressed cake, depending on the technology used.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  production. With this traditional method, 100 kilograms of cottonseed produce just 10 litres of oil, 
which is at least half of the potential with modern technologies.  
3.16.   The application of tariffs and other taxes on imported oils is a major challenge for the 
regulation of liberalized oil markets. African cottonseed oil and other edible oils face considerable 
competition from South Asian palm oil, which is often smuggled or imported without paying tariffs 
designed to protect domestically produced oils.  
3.17.   Competition from imports has less effect on edible oil prices in landlocked regions or countries, 
where demand for cotton meals is also gen erally stronger.25 
3.18.   Cottonseed oil is highly nutritious and healthier than palm oil, as it consists of 70% 
unsaturated fatty acids. Palm oil is highly saturated in fatty acids.  
3.19.   The oil produced by small industrial and artisanal mills is less refined than oils processed in 
large industrial mills. As long as basic food safety requirements are met, however, consumers with 
limited incomes are willing to accept the lower quality of unrefined and semi -refined oils because 
they cost less.  
3.20.   For example, Ethiopia, the largest exporter of sesame oilseeds,26 also imports large quantities 
of palm oil, which is widely used for cooking because its price -to-quality ratio is superior compared 
to domestically produced oils, including cottonseed oil.  
3.21.   Yet cottonseed oil can be successfully brande d and promoted, and fetch a premium over 
imported palm oil. In Burkina Faso and Cameroon, for instance, refined cottonseed is preferred over 
palm oil for frying.  
3.22.   Cottonseed oil has the potential to replace some palm oil imports in African cotton -producing 
countries. However, even if seed cotton production increases and better technology results in a 
higher oil extraction rate, domestic production of cottonseed alone is unlikely to fill the gap between 
supply and demand.27 
3.3  Farmers could boost income with cot ton by -products  
3.23.   The market for cotton by -products is growing, which means they could offer cotton growers 
an important complementary source of revenue.  
3.24.   However, few African farmers own cottonseed,28 as seed cotton is sold to ginners. As a result, 
they kno w little about the potential uses of the cottonseed produced at the gin and are unaware of 
the cottonseed price or the value of by -products such as oil and meal. Farmers are generally at a 
disadvantage when it comes to price negotiations because they lack access to the same information 
as ginners and oil millers.  
3.25.   Cotton stalks are the only by -product that could be valorized at the farmer level. Cotton stalk -
based goods provide for an opportunity to create new sources of income for small -scale farmers.  
3.26.   Encou raging farmers to add value to their cotton by moving into by -products creates resilience 
against price and weather shocks, as well as additional income that can be earned between growing 
seasons. Farmers can use cotton stalks as a source of fuel for their  households, saving on expenses 
and/or preserving forest wood. They can also use cotton stalks as a source of organic fertilizer to 
improve soil fertility.  
3.27.   Converting cotton stalks into briquettes or pellets or using them to grow mushrooms can be 
a low-capital and profitable multifamily cottage activity. Farmers can invest directly in the production 
of briquettes/pellets or earn extra money by selling chipped stalks to entrepreneurs. However, 
 
25 Inland transportation costs are a major component in the price of oil.  
26 Sesame is the second -biggest source of export earnings in Ethiopia after coffee.  
27 The potential cottonseed oil production of Mali, the largest producer in Africa, estimated at 65,000  
tons with an optimized oil extraction rate of 18%, would represent 44% of the national edible oil consumption 
(estimated at 150,000 tons based on an average consumption of 8 kilograms per person).  
28 To own the seeds, farmers must own a gin or to have thei r production toll ginned.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 31 - 
 
  briquette and pellet plants require a supply chain organized aro und mobile chipping machines.29 If 
farmers or farmer organizations cannot find an investor or invest in a machine or pellet factory 
themselves, farmers can sell cotton stalks as raw material for wood -based industries.  
3.28.   Few farmers know what to do to add val ue to the stalks, so there is a need to raise awareness, 
build capacity and share knowledge with then on the full potential of cotton stalks. Farmers can be 
taught to explore opportunities for farm -level value addition either individually or (preferably) 
collectively, with village groups or cooperatives.  
3.29.   Farmers also must be able to finance their own production. Value -added activities for cotton 
stalks probably won 't develop without deliberate policy incentives to encourage investment in or 
adoption of tech nologies to add value.  
3.30.   The top challenge in operating a briquetting or pelleting factory is to ensure a reliable, 
inexpensive supply of suitable agricultural residues from nearby areas. Other challenges include 
reliable power supply, availability of skille d labour and access to end users.  
3.31.   Logistics for cotton stalk collection is a key success factor. The supply model developed in 
India involves the following steps:  
• uproot cotton stalks;  
• dry by sun in the field for 7 –10 days;  
• aggregate the stalks in a centr al location, no further than 5 kilometers from where they were 
grown;  
• chip using a tractor -operated chipper.30 
3.32.   It is also important to provide proper storage conditions for chipped stalks.31 
 
29 A briquetting plant of four tons a day requires about 1,000 tons of biomass a year, equivalent to 300 –
400 hectares on average, or a catchment radius of 25 –30 kilometers, according to the United Nations 
Conference on Trade and De velopment.  
30 Up to 1.3 tons of stalks can be obtained from one hectare under rain -fed conditions.  
31 Unchipped stalks stored in the open are more susceptible to degradation by insects, whereas chipped 
stalks stored in shaded or covered conditions suffer no insect damage and preserve their chemical and quality 
characteristics.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  4  RECOMMENDATIONS  
 
Oil cake as animal fodder (©  Shutterstock) . 
 
4.1.  There is a growing market for cotton by -products in Africa, and they could become an important 
complementary source of revenue for the cotton sector. Yet they have received little attention to 
date. This means the potential of cotton by -products is far from fully exploited and their markets 
are not well developed in sub -Saharan Africa.  
4.1  Enormous untapped potential  
4.2.  Cottonseed is a source of many useful products, from oil and hulls to cake and linters. While 
most cotton -producing countries in A frica have industries to process cottonseed into edible oil and 
livestock feed, technologies to add value to other by -products are underused across the continent. 
This means there is considerable scope for value addition to these goods.  
4.3.  Successfully develo ping cotton by -products will depend on the following factors:  
• cost of raw material in a usable form, delivered to the processing industry gate;  
• development of supply chain logistics for collection, preparation, storage and transportation 
from field to indu stry; 
• production costs;  
• affordability and simplicity of the processing technology;  
• level of capital investment;  
• existence of a market for the by -products;  
• cost and quality competi tiveness.   
 
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  4.2  The way forward  
4.4.  The following steps are necessary to develop cot ton by -product value chains in sub -Saharan 
Africa:  
• Identify and assess value -addition activities (processing and marketing of cotton by -products) 
in the national context. This includes evaluating the economic performance of different types 
of oil processin g (small -scale, labour -intensive and traditional versus large, capital -intensive 
and technologically efficient), including the indirect benefits for the national economy in terms 
of job creation and value added.  
• Raise awareness among private and public sta keholders (farmers, ginners, crushers and 
government officials) about the potential of cotton by -products for value addition:  
− Build awareness among farmers and farmer associations about the potential of cotton 
stalks to create additional income;  
− Build awareness among entrepreneurs, nongovernmental organizations, financial 
institutions, government agencies and other stakeholders about uses of cotton stalks as a 
raw material for producing briquettes, pellets, compost and edible mushrooms.  
• Increase t ransparency in the cotton sector:  
− Collect and disseminate market information on prices, production, imports and exports of 
products of the oilseed complex and cotton by -products;  
− Build the capacity of farmer associations to negotiate the price of seed cott on, including 
the true value of cottonseeds.  
The first step is raising farmer awareness and increasing transparency about the 
contribution of cottonseeds in the total revenue of ginners. Producers and ginners in 
Eastern and Southern Africa (like in franc z one countries) would benefit from setting a 
minimum producer price for seed cotton, taking into account the contribution of 
cottonseeds before planting. This would reduce producer price volatility and fluctuations 
in production. However, such a pricing sys tem is only possible within a framework of strict 
contract farming agreements.  
− Consider using an objective formula to calculate the price of cottonseed.32 
• Promote value addition to cotton by -products with financial and technical assistance from 
governments  or donors:  
− Establish contact with manufacturers of processing equipment;  
− Set up a pilot demonstration plant operating cotton by -product processing technologies;  
− Establish supply chain centres in clusters of cotton growing areas for the collection, 
chippin g and supply of cotton stalks from field to factory;  
− Study new varieties focused on oil and meal content of cottonseed (without compromising 
the quantity and quality of lint) and the reduction of the gossypol content in seeds.  
 
32 Such as the cottonseed value calculator recommended by Cotton Inc. Because cottonseed contains 
energy, protein and fibre, the substitution value of whole cottonseeds is equa l to 0.9 x price of corn + 0.25 x 
price of soybean meal + 0.5 x price of hay.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 34 - 
 
   
  
 
Cotton plant with cotton balls 
(© Shutterstock/EGxperience)  Cotton stalk bales (©  C.F. Nielsen A/S)  
 
 
  
 
 
Cotton thrash  (© C.F. Nielsen A/S)  Cotton briquettes (©  C.F. Nielsen A/S)  
 
• Ensure government support for the establishment of cotton by -product processing businesses:  
− Include by -products in national cotton sector development strategies, with action plans 
aiming to increase value addition to cotton;  
− Implement clear national policy guidance on the development of both the edible oil and 
meal producti on industry with a favourable tax regime;  
− Put in place policy incentives to encourage investment (local and/or foreign direct 
investment) in or adoption of technologies to add value to cotton by -products;  
− Enforce tariffs and taxes on imported oils and meal s. 
• Build capacity to establish well -organized industry groups (farmer associations/cooperatives, 
ginner associations, oilseed processor association, interprofessions, cotton boards):  
− Share knowledge and experiences related to cotton by -products;  
− Ensure eff ective linkage between cotton, oilseeds and livestock sectors.  
• Promote South -South cooperation:  
− Value -added technologies developed in other cotton -producing developing countries – by 
the Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology in India, for ins tance – are often 
well suited to the African context. They have the potential to empower African cotton 
farmers and entrepreneurs to benefit economically from using cotton by -products.  
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 35 - 
 
  − Sub-Saharan African countries can also learn from the experiences of Eg ypt in developing 
uses of cotton stalks as organic fertilizer (compost), animal feed, wood, cellulose 
derivatives and charcoal.  
− In Turkey, cooperative unions own and operate oil mills, which could provide important 
insights to African farmers to add value to their cotton. Other countries, including Brazil, 
China and Pakistan, provide South -South cooperation support to African countries that 
could also target cotton by -products.  
 
 
 WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 36 - 
 
  APPENDIX  - COTTON BY -PRODUCT USES  
 
The following section presents an overview of cotton by -products and their uses.  
 
Cottonseed  
Cotton is mainly cultivated for its fibre and is often considered synonymous with cotton lint, a raw 
material for cotton textiles.  
 
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fibre that grows in a  boll around the seeds of cotton plants. The cotton 
plant is much more than just a source of lint. The ginning process of seed cotton separates the 
cotton lint from the seeds. Cottonseed constitute more than half of the weight of the harvested seed 
cotton .1 
 
Until the late nineteenth century, there was no use for cottonseed, which was burned or thrown 
away. Today, there are many uses for the by -products derived from the non -lint parts of the cotton 
plant.  
 
As cottonseed is an oilseed, cotton is both a fibr e crop and a food crop. The variety of 
cottonseed -based by -products means cottonseed should be considered a coproduct,2 rather than 
just a by -product of cotton lint.  
 
According to ICAC 's 'Cotton Facts ', ginned cottonseed is generally composed of about 46% meal, 
27% hull, 16% oil, 8% linter and 3% waste. Cottonseed is used for planting seeds or feeding cattle, 
or it is further processed to produce hulls, oil, meal, and linters in case cottonseed is mecha nically 
delinted.  
 
Figure 14: Meal constitutes almost half of ginned cottonseed  
 
Source:  ICAC.  
 
 
 
1 Depending on the cotton variety, and to a lesser extent on the technology, the ginning outturn (lint 
ratio) ranges from 30% –45% of the weight of seed cotton.  
2 A coproduct is p roduced along with and carries equal importance as a main product. A by -product is a 
secondary product, derived from the production process aiming at a main product.  
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
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  The issue of gossypol  
Gossypol is a yellow polyphenolic 'poisonous ' pigment produced in the glands of whole cottonseeds 
and all other  parts of the cotton plant. This toxin3 is a natural pest repellent that protects the plant 
from insect damage. Gossypol -free (glandless) varieties have been developed in many countries, 
but they are less resistant to insects.4 
 
Gossypol is toxic to mono gastric nonruminants such as poultry and pigs, which that are unable to 
metabolize it like ruminants.5 
 
Historically, cottonseed has not been a viable source of protein for humans due to gossypol. 
However, bioengineering research conducted at Texas A&M University has successfully silenced the 
gene responsible for gossypol production in the cottonseed.6 Regulatory approvals will take time, 
but the potential for ultra -low gossypol cottonseed as a human protein source is huge.  
 
Cottonseeds contain about 0. 7%–1.5% free gossypol and 2% –4% bound gossypol. Crude oil 
contains around 0.6% gossypol with solvent extraction, 0.14% of the expander -solvent method and 
about 0.06% if the extraction process involves mechanical pressure and heat treatment.  
 
Refining the oil removes gossypol almost completely, so refined cottonseed oil contains undetectable 
levels of the pigment. A very minute amount of gossypol is actually preferred in the refined oil, as it 
helps in the keeping quality in extended storage because gossypo l is a strong antioxidant. These 
trace amounts were found to have no toxic effects in humans.  
 
Cottonseed meal contains 0.08% –0.12% free gossypol and 1% –1.5% bound gossypol. Gossypol is 
partially removed from cottonseed meal by extraction with aqueous acet one solvent or with 
phosphoric acid in acetone (heated and refluxed), liquid cyclone process, ferrous sulphate treatment, 
calcium hydroxide treatment and solid -state microbial fermentation. These processes have the 
potential to reduce free gossypol by up t o 80% (example: fermentation) and even up to 95% with 
a combination of methods.  
 
Free gossypol is toxic, but bound gossypol is not. The maximum permissible content of free gossypol 
in complete feed is 0.05% (500 ppm) for cattle, 0.03% (300 ppm) for sheep and goats, 0.01% (100 
ppm) for poultry and calves, and 0.006% (60 ppm) for lambs, pigs and kids.7 
 
Fuzzy seeds  
The primary use of cottonseeds is for plantings. Cotton is cultivated as an annual crop; each season, 
3%–10%8 of the fuzzy seeds produced are used as planting seeds for the subsequent crop.  
 
The use of delinted seed is highly recommended to facilitate planting operations and improve the 
germination rate. Yet many developing countries still plant undelinted fuzzy seeds.9 
 
 
3 During the U.S. slavery period, cotton root bark was used in folk remedies to induce a m iscarriage. 
Gossypol appears to inhibit the development of sperm or even restrict the mobility of sperm and is thought to 
interfere with the menstrual cycle by restricting the release of certain hormones.  In a recent study, researchers 
found that gossypol supports the chemotherapy in patients suffering from cancers. It may block certain 
proteins that create resistance to chemical treatments and may also limit tumor growth.  
4 A glandless variety (GL7) was planted on a large scale for a few seasons during the  1990s in Côte 
d'Ivoire because of its very high ginning outturn (45%+), but had to be discontinued due to pest infestations.  
5 The saliva of ruminants contains a complex of enzymes that can detoxify gossypol.  
6 The new variety contains gossypol only in th e stem, flowers and leaves, keeping only ultra -low (and 
digestible) levels of the pigment in the seed.  
7 Keshav Kranthi, ICAC.  
8 The share used for plantings depends on the variety, the sowing method, the plant density and the 
seed cotton yield.  
9 The seed  rate per hectare is higher for fuzzy seeds. Fuzzy cottonseed can be planted manually, but it 
is unsuitable for mechanized agriculture. Fuzzy cottonseed needs to be delinted (i.e. linters must be removed 
from seed) to facilitate grading ad cleaning, allow for more uniform application of seed treatment, and for the 
seed to flow through the planter and be properly handled by the seed metering mechanism.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 38 - 
 
  Fuzzy seed, or whole cottonseed, is a suitable and valuable feedstuff for beef cattle, especially dairy 
cows,10 with relatively high concentrations of protein, energy and fibre.11 
 
Whole cottonseed can be fed without processing or may be pelleted  before feeding, which is more 
expensive but easier to handle.  
 
Gossypol,12 high fat content and the potential for aflatoxin are limiting factors of intake.  
 
Linters  
Linters are the residual short fibres that adhere to the fuzzy seed after ginning.13 These  fibres are 
typically less than 1/8 -inch (3.2 mm) long and unsuitable for spinning.  
 
The process of removing fuzz from seed is called delinting. Two methods are used for delinting 
cottonseed: mechanical and acid.14 
 
Mechanical delinting occurs as the fuzzy  seed is scrubbed by brushes through the interior of a 
perforated screen cylinder. The mechanical process leaves 1% –2% residual linters and it may 
damage the seed.15 Mechanically delinted cottonseed tends to have a slightly slower germination 
rate compared  to acid -delinted seed, but brush -delinted seeds have an extended shelf life. 
Mechanical brush delinting requires more energy than acid delinting and is not as thorough.16 
 
Mechanical delinting  is a more cost -effective and environmentally friendly way to delint cottonseed, 
as it can produce useable low -grade lint as a by -product and does not use any chemicals. Recovery 
of linters from cottonseed17 ranges from 5% –10% of the seed weight.  
 
Acid del inting removes all linters and is primarily used for producing quality seeds for mechanized 
planting. The use of acid for delinting planting seed reduces microbial contamination and controls 
various diseases.  
 
Sulphuric is the most common wet acid used, wh ile hydrochloric is the most common acid gas.  
 
Acid delinting is the most widely used method and is efficient in removing linters. However, it is a 
relatively expensive process that reduces the shelf life of the planting seed and destroys the value 
of the linters. The use of an acid raises regulatory (environmental and safety) and maintenance 
issues (corrosiveness) and is not desirable if the seed is to be used as a source of protein for 
humans.18  
 
Dilute acid delinting is the most efficient method used to  remove residual lint from cotton planting 
seed.19 Hydrochloric acid delinting is a more primitive method used to remove residual lint from 
cotton planting seed.20 
 
10 Cottonseed contains galactose, contributing to lactation.  
11 Whole cottonseed contains 85% –90% of total digestible nutrients, 15% –23% crude protein, 15% –
20% fat and 20% –25% cellulose (linters) on a dry matter basis.  
12 Although whole cottonseed has higher amounts of gossypol than cottonseed meal, the gossypol in 
cottonseed meal is more readily available . 
13 After ginning, the seeds of the most commonly cultivated species in the world, Gossypium hirsutum 
(so-called upland cotton), are usually covered with short hairs called fuzz.  
14 Flame operations have also been used or to make delinted ( 'naked ' or 'black') seeds for planting.  
15 Crushing the seedcoat due to the abrasive action of the brushes or reducing germination due to 
mechanical heat.  
16 Brush technology is improving through a variety of new brushes that offer effective mechanical 
delinting with lower h eat generation.  
17 Linters are known as first cut, second cut or third cut (mill cut or defibrated) linters, depending on the 
number of fuzz removals.  
18 Mechanical means should be used for delinting low -gossypol or gossypol -free seed as a potential 
protein source for humans.  
19 A precisely controlled amount of specially formulated sulphuric acid mix solution is applied to the 
fuzzy seed in a stainless -steel reactor, which reduces noxious residues and enhances production of black seed.  
20 Fuzzy cottonseed is fi rst dried and warmed in a continuous drier and then conveyed into a preheated 
and rotating delinting drum where vaporized and pressurized hydrochloric gas is injected. The hydrochloric gas 
reacts with the lint and weakens the fibre. Cottonseed is transferr ed to buffing drums, where lint is removed 
through a mechanical scrubbing action that separates the weakened fibres from the hard seed coat. Delinted 
seed is neutralized with ammonia before conditioning and treating.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 39 - 
 
  Every ton of cottonseed can generate around 75 kilograms of linters. In the United States, l inters 
cost roughly 50 cents per kilogram.  
 
Linters are about 75% –80% cellulose. They have many uses as stuffing material21 and for the 
manufacture of low -grade yarns,22 pharmaceuticals,23 paper products24 and chemicals.25 Linters with 
longer fibres are of ten used for medical supplies, while those with shorter fibres are used in items 
ranging from gunpowder26 to cotton balls and even X -ray film.27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
21 For pads, cushions, comforters, mattr esses, upholstery and automobiles.  
22 For carpets, twine, rope and candles.  
23 Absorbent cotton for surgical dressings, bandages, cotton balls and cotton swabs.  
24 Including high -grade bond paper, bank notes and filter paper.  
25 Rayon, acetate, cellophane, pho tographic film, explosives, etc.  
26 During World War II and the Korean War, almost all U.S. production of linters was used to 
manufacture smokeless powder for artillery shells.  
27 Cotton linters are used as part of the construction process for flat -screen TV s. WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 40 - 
 
  Figure 15: Linters have a range of uses  
 
Source:  ICAC.  
 
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 41 - 
 
  Absorbent cotton  
Cotton is very efficient at absorbing water.28 However, the outer wall29 of the cotton fibre somewhat 
restricts its capacity to soak up water.  
 
Absorbent cotton30 has medical, cosmetic, dental and many other practical uses.  
 
The first step  in the production process of absorbent cotton is the removal of the external protective 
layer from the fibre.31 Linters and short staple32 cotton can be used as raw material to produce 
absorbent cotton. The production process requires a considerable quant ity of water and there is 
need for an appropriate effluent treatment plant as per environmental regulations.  
 
End products, such as cotton balls, cotton pads and cotton swabs, must meet certain health 
standards.  
 
Despite their name, most modern cotton balls and pads (outside of specifically labelled '100% 
Cotton ' organic brands) are not made out of cotton but of cheaper, synthetic fibres such as polyester 
and nylon.33 
 
Hulls  
Hulls are the outer covering (seedcoat) of the cottonseed. They are a direct by -product of the 
dehulling process to expose the kernel. Recovery of hulls from cottonseed ranges from 20% –30% 
of the seed weight.34 
 
The main uses of hulls are in the livestock feed,35 fertilizer and soil conditioner industries,36 as oil -
well packing material, in furfural production37 and as a raw material for various chemical industries.38 
 
 
 
28 Cotton an absorb up to 27 times its weight in water, according to Cotton Inc., as cellulose, which 
constitutes about 90% of the dry weight of fibre, is 'hydrophilic '. 
29 The outer wall consists of oil, wax and other cuticle layer.  
30 Absorbent cotton is also known as ''cotton wool '' or ''surgical cotton ''. 
31 The process involves mechanical opening of the cotton, followed by chemical scouring and bleaching. 
The cotton is then washed to remove the chemicals and dried. Once dry, the cotto n goes through the following 
processing steps: fibre opening, lap formation, carding, rolling and packaging.  
32 Any cotton with staple length shorter than 22 millemetre and micronaire above 5 micrograms per inch 
can be used to produce absorbent cotton. Comb er noil (a by -product of the spinning industry) and cotton with 
lower micronaire can also be used.  
33 In the United States , these products can be labelled as 'cotton balls ' becau se non -woven products are 
excluded from the Federal Trade Commission 's more stringent labelling requirements for textile  products.  
34 The seed hull contains 35% –60% alpha cellulose, 19% –27% pentosans, 15% –20% lignin and 5% 
ash, proteins, fat, etc.  
35 Hulls are often mixed with cottonseed cake for producing compound cattle feed with higher densi ty 
and lower protein content.  
36 Hulls are useful in restoring potash and minerals in depleted soils (mulch/compost).  
37 Furfural is a liquid made from the hulls used in the plastics industry; the remaining mash is used for 
livestock feed.  
38 Hulls are very r ich in cellulose.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 42 - 
 
  Figure 16: Hulls used as livestock feed and fertilizer  
 
Source:  ICAC.  
 
Cottonseed oil  
In most cultivated varieties, the oil content of the whole seed ranges from 5% –22% of fuzzy seed. 
The kernel has an oil content of 28 –35%.39 
 
The cottonseed 's most valuable by -product is oil, which is obtained by crushing the cottonseed 
kernel. Oil can be extracte d either mechanically (expeller -pressing) or chemically by adding solvents  
The traditional mechanical method uses a circular mortar, or a more advanced technology, such as 
a hydraulic press or a screw press (expeller). The cottonseeds may be dehulled,40 cracked, dried or 
heated before being fed to the press. Cottonseeds are pressed, squeezed and crushed under high 
pressure to extract oil. The resulting cake is dried, ground and then processed into large pellets.  
 
In the direct solvent -extracti on process, the oil is extracted by solvent (usually hexane41) alone. The 
resulting cake is heated to eliminate the solvent and then typically ground into meal.  
 
The prepress solvent -extraction process combines mechanical and chemical methods. In a first s tep, 
the dehulled, cracked, dried, heated or flaked cottonseeds are screw -pressed or expanded, and the 
pressed flakes or pellets are then solvent -extracted.  
 
The expeller -pressing method is relatively simple and not capital intensive.42 The expeller -pressi ng 
method retains most of the natural qualities (colours, flavours and nutritional qualities) of cottonseed 
oil, which is free of solvent or chemical residues. However, even the most powerful presses cannot 
remove more than 70% –80% of the oil from the cott onseed, and the level of residual oil in cakes 
cannot be reduced below 3% –5%.  
 
The solvent -extraction method is far more efficient, as it can recover up to 97% –99% of the 
cottonseed oil. However, this technology is only suitable for large processing capac ities because it is 
more sophisticated and more capital intensive. Eliminating the remaining traces of chemical solvents 
tends to affect the natural qualities of the oil.  
 
Crude cottonseed oil is refined to make it more edible. The process of oil refining involves hydration, 
neutralizing, degossypolization, bleaching and deodorization to remove impurities. A semi -solid 
residue from the refining process called soap stock provides fatty acids for various industrial uses.43  
 
 
39 There is a negative correlation between oil and protein levels.  
40 Traditional oil -expeller technologies crush the entire fuzzy cottonseed, recovering oil and meal. In the 
expeller process, valuable by -products, such as linters and hulls , are wasted, and the quality of oil and meal is 
also poor.  
41 The use of hexane, the most widely used solvent, is criticized due to concerns about environment, 
health and safety. Ethanol has valuable solvent properties.  
42 Expellers are available within a large range of processing capacities.  
43 Such as insulation materials, soaps, linoleum, oilcloth and waterproofing materials, and as a paint 
base.  
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 43 - 
 
  Cottonseed oil is used as a cookin g oil.44 Refined cottonseed oil is used for cooking and salad dressing 
and as ingredient in a variety of prepared foods,45 as well as cosmetics, nitroglycerine, composition 
roofing and other products.  
 
Box 1: What are the characterist ics of cottonseed oil?  
Cottonseed oil is a neutral -flavoured cooking oil. In fact, cottonseed oil is the reference standard 
mostly used in tests evaluating the taste and the odour of other edible oils. The oil has a non -oily 
consistency, is shelf -stable an d has a high smoking point of 220°C to 230°C.  
 
Cottonseed oil has one of the healthiest nutritional profiles among vegetable oils. Like other 
vegetable oils, it does not contain cholesterol in its natural unhydrogenated state. However, it 
does contain more  than 50% Omega -6 fatty acids and trace amounts of Omega -3 fatty acids. It 
also contains about 1% sterculic acids and malvalic acids in its crude form, in addition to linoleic 
(49% –58%), palmitic (22% –26%), oleic (15% –20%), arachidic/behenic and lignoceric  (10%) 
acids. It contains around 9 kcal/gram, with an average digestibility of about 98%. Cotton oil has 
low levels of saturated fats, 70% mono - or polyunsaturated fatty acids and no trans -fatty acids. 
It is cholesterol -free and rich in vitamins.  
 
Including cottonseed oil in a diet can help prevent malnutrition.  
 
The quality of cottonseed oil reflects the degree of processing.  
 
Cottonseed oil is naturally darker in colour than most other edible oils, but light colour can be 
obtained by refining and bleaching techniques.  
 
Refined cottonseed oil (deodorized, neutralized, cleaned, bleached, with low gossypol content) 
has a 'mild and nutty ' flavour.  
 
Source: USDA, ICAC.  
 
Cottonseed oil can also be used as biofuel, as an alternative to diesel. It is dire ctly usable pure or 
mixed with fuel in certain diesel engines.46 However, as direct fuel -injection engines do not accept 
natural vegetable oils, cottonseed oil must undergo etherification to be transformed into biodiesel.  
 
Cottonseed cake/meal47 
After the oil is extracted from the seeds, the solid residues of crushing are the cottonseed cake and 
cottonseed meal,48 which are joint products or coproducts of the oil extraction process.  
 
Cottonseed meal has a high protein content and can be used to feed liv estock, particularly dairy and 
beef cattle, goats and sheep, as well as natural fertilizer for lawns, gardens and flowerbeds.  
 
Cottonseed meal is mostly used to feed adult ruminants, which are relatively tolerant to gossypol, 
and generally unsuitable for n onruminants, such as poultry and pigs.49 The chemical composition 
and nutritional value of cottonseed meals are highly variable depending on the seeds and the oil 
manufacturing processes used. Meals can be available as cakes, flakes or pellets.  
 
With a protein content of about 40%, cottonseed me al contains less protein and energy than peanut 
meal or soybean meal.50 
 
44 Deep frying (fish, doughnuts, croquettes), pastry.  
45 Shortening, mayonnaise, margarine, cereals, br eads, snacks, etc.  
46 Ranging in power from 5 kilowatts to 100 kilowatts.  
47 Although both terms are generally used as synonyms, they correspond to different products. 
Cottonseed cakes (not ground; high residual oil); resulting from crushing whole seeds, hav e a protein content 
of about 40% of the total nutrient content and a fat content of 5% –7%. Cottonseed meal (ground, dried and 
pulverized cottonseed cake; low residual oil) resulting from crushing kernels have a higher protein content of 
about 50%, and fat content of 1% –2%. 
48 Cottonseed meal (ground, dried and pulverized cottonseed cake; low residual oil) resulting from 
crushing kernels has a higher protein content of about 50%.  
49 Glandless cottonseed meal is virtually free of gossypol.  
50 Standard soybean me al contains 44% protein.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 44 - 
 
  Meals obtained from undecorticated or partially dehulled cottonseeds meals are rich in fibre (more 
than 20%). Mechanically extracted cottonseed cakes and meals are richer in oil.51 
 
Due to the presence of gossypol in the cottonseed meals generated by the expeller -pressed 
technology, cottonseed meals cannot be used without restrictions in all feed or food products.52 
Solvents used in modern mills using expander technology reduce the free  gossypol in cake and meal.  
 
Microbial fermentation is an effective method for degossypolization of cottonseed meal because 
gossypol biodegrades during the solid -state fermentation process.53 
 
Figure 17: Kernel is used to produce c ake and meal, crude oil  
 
Source:  ICAC.  
 
51 Cake issued from the expeller -pressed method is often subject to further oil extraction.  
52 During processing, some of the glands are ruptured and the gossypol released. It may become bound 
with various compounds of the seed. The remaining gossypol, called free gossypol, is harmful when fed at high 
levels; the bound gossypol is less harmful.  
53 The fermented meal has reduced bound and free gossypol levels and is enriched with enzymes, 
vitamins and other active substances.  
WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 45 - 
 
  Cotton gin waste  
The ginning process results in a cotton by -product known as motes, which are small, broken or 
immature seeds with attached fibres.54 
 
The volume of such waste is substantial, especially with machine -picked cottons.55 
 
Most the waste (or trash) generated by the gins was traditionally discarded back to the fields at a 
cost, becoming a soil additive. However, motes (semi -processed or eventually reginned) can be used 
to produce some of the same nonwoven p roducts that are produced using linters. Cotton waste can 
also be used as a source of roughage to feed the livestock, for making gardening compost, making 
bedding for dairy cattle and as soil amendment.  
 
Cotton stalks  
Apart from cottonseeds, which are a de facto coproduct of the ginning process, stalks are the only 
by-product of cotton cultivation.  
 
Cotton cultivation generates an estimated two to three tons of stalks per hectare. In most countries, 
cotton stalks are burned.56 In those where cotton cultiv ation is mechanized, farmers destroy stalks 
at the end of each season by cutting them at ground level and then shredding and incorporating 
them into the soil.  
 
Agricultural residues can be:  
 
• processed into a high -energy roughage for ruminant livestock;  
• made into a fuel source for residential and industrial applications;  
• made into products for erosion control and grass seed establishment;  
• used as raw materials for various composite materials.  
The fibrous structure of cotton stalks is comparable to that of most species of hard wood.57 
Therefore, the stalks can be used as a source of fuel, or as an alternative raw material for the 
manufacture of particle boards,58 the preparation of pulp and paper, hard boards, corrugated boards 
and boxes, microcrystalline ce llulose and cellulose derivatives, and as a substrate for growing edible 
mushrooms.  
 
Biomass briquetting and pelleting technologies have been in operation for more than 20 years.  
 
Briquetting is a simple process59 and the pelleting process is not very sophisticated. The power 
requirement, energy consumption and labour requirement for a pelleting plant depend on its 
production capacity.60 
 
Trained workers can easily maintain and repair the factory as well as the mac hinery61 used in it.  
 
 
54 The term  gin motes refers to any gin waste usable for its fibre content. It consists primarily of lint 
cleaner waste, but may include motes from the gin stand (the gin separates the motes from the mature, whole 
seeds).  
55 Mechanical harvesting increases the need fo r seed cotton and lint cleaning. A typical gin in the United 
States produces about 180 kilograms of waste by -products for each bale (217.7 kilograms).  
56 Burning destroys the habitat on which some cotton pests and diseases survive between crops.  
57 The cotton plant stalk contain about 68% holocellulose, 45% cellulose, 26% lignin and 5% ash.  
58 Particle boards are used as door panel inserts, partitions, wall panels, marking furniture items, floor 
and ceiling tiles, etc.  
59 Briquettes are prepared by fee ding 10 –15 millimetre cotton stalk chips at 10% –12% moisture content 
through a briquetting press, which requires 90 horsepower of connected load and six to eight workers per shift 
for its operation.  
60 In the pelleting process, up to 3 millimetre milled cot ton stalks with 12% –14% moisture content are 
fed through pelleting machines. A pelleting plant of 20 metric tons per day requires about 150 horsepower of 
connected load, 50 –60 kilowatt hours of energy and six to eight workers per shift for its operation.  
61 There are several manufacturers of briquetting and pelleting machinery in China and India.  WT/CFMC/W/90  
 
- 46 - 
 
  Pellets are used for power generation and industrial and large -scale heating purposes in many 
developed and developing countries. Pellets are easy to handle and burn easily in boilers because of 
their uniform shape, size and high ener gy density.  
 
Processing cotton stalks as raw material to produce particle boards involves the following steps:  
• chipping stalks;  
• drying chips;  
• hammering chips into finer grade;  
• separation of coarser and finer grades;  
• mixing with glue and spreading it out in a parallel and uniform way;  
• Cold pressing followed by hot pressing to obtain boards.  
Box 2: Cotton stalk -based by -products have many benefits  
Benefits of pellets:  
• priced one -third of commerci al gas (cheaper than coal);  
• renewable energy;  
• pollution -free (no sulphur content);  
• higher thermal value;  
• lower ash content compared to coal (1% –3% vs 20% –25%);  
• no ashes flying while burning;  
• lower moisture than coal (2% –3% vs 20% –25%);  
• produc es white smoke;  
• high burning efficiency;  
• low transportation cost (produced locally).  
Recycling cotton stalks into organic fertilizer (compost) can:  
• create a potential source of revenue;  
• provide employment to non -qualified persons;  
• reduce use and imports of mineral fertilizers;  
• prevent emission of carbon dioxide generated by burning stalks.  
 
Source : Author, based on inputs from ICA R (Indian Council for Agricultural Research) , USDA and 
the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.  
 
 
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