WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
15 October  2019 
(19-6661) Page: 1/46 
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries    
 
- 1 - 
 
MARK ET ACCESS FOR PRODUC TS AND SERVICES OF E XPORT INTEREST  
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUN TRIES  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMAR Y ................................ ................................ ................................ . 4 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  6 
3   LDCS' TRADE PROF ILE ................................ ................................ ................................ . 7 
3.1   Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  ................................ ................................ ...... 7 
3.2   Merchandise Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ................. 11 
3.2.1    Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 11 
3.2.2    Commodity price movements  ................................ ................................ .................... 13 
3.2.3    Major LDC traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....13 
3.2.4    Trends in product composition and concentration of LDCs  ................................ ............. 14 
3.2.5    Major markets of LDCs  ................................ ................................ ............................. 19 
3.3   Services Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ...................... 21 
3.3.1    Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 21 
3.3.2    Direction of trade  ................................ ................................ ................................ .....23 
4   MARKET ACCESS FO R PRODUCTS OF EXPORT  INTEREST TO  LDCS  .............................  25 
4.1   Duty-free market access granted by selected Members  ................................ ................... 25 
4.2   Utilization of preferential market access granted to LDCs  ................................ ................. 28 
4.3   Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  ................................ ...................... 32 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  34 
 
 
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's o wn responsibility and is without prejudice to 
the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 2 - 
  
  List of T ables  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2011 -2018 ...........................  7 
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 2011 -2018 ........................... 10 
Table 3: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2011 and 2018  ................................ .......................... 20 
Table 4: Duty free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 2017  ..................... 26 
Table 5: Imports of LDC products receiving MFN duty free or preferential tariff treatment,  in 
% of total LDC product imports, 2018 (or latest available year)  ................................ ............... 31 
Table 6: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  ................................ ............................. 33 
 
List of C harts  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2011 -2018 .......................  7 
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2011 and 2018  ................................ ................................ . 8 
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 
2011-2018 ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  8 
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2011 -2018 ................................ ................................ . 9 
Chart 5: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 2011 -2018 ................................ ................................ ....11 
Chart 6: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2011 -2018 ................................ ........................ 12 
Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub -grouping, 2011 -2018 ................................ ......... 12 
Chart 8: Export prices of primary commodities, 2011 -2018 ................................ ..................... 13 
Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and importe rs, 2011 and 2018  ................................ ............... 14 
Chart 10: Evolution of merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2011 and 2018  ........................... 15 
Chart 11: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2011 and 2018  ................................ ..16 
Chart 12: Product concentration index of LDCs' exports (map view), 2017  ................................ 17 
Chart 13: Product concentration index of LDCs' exports (detailed view), 2017  ........................... 18 
Chart 14: Changes in the product concentrati on index of LDCs' exports, 2017 vs. 2011  .............. 19 
Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2011 -2018 ................................ ................... 21 
Chart 16: LDCs' exports of commercial services by category, 2011 -2018 ................................ ..22 
Chart 17: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2011 -2018 ............................... 22 
Chart 18: Leading LDC exporters of commercial services, 2018 and 2011  ................................ .23 
Chart 19: Bangladesh – Exports of commercial services by destination, fiscal years 
2016-2017 and 2017 -2018 ................................ ................................ ................................ .24 
Chart 20: European Union (28) – Imports of total service s from LDCs, 2011 -2017 ..................... 24 
Chart 21: Russian Federation – Imports of commercial services from LDCs, 2011 -2017 .............. 25 
Chart 22: Imports from least developed countries by duty category, 2018 (or latest available 
year)   ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 29 
Chart 23: Exports of LDCs to preference -granting Members by duty category, 2018 (or latest 
available year)  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 30 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 3 - 
 
  List of Annex Tables  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping,  
2018  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 34 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2011 -2019 Q1 ................................ ......36 
Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2011 -2018 ............... 38 
Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2018  ................................ ...................... 40 
Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2018  .......................... 43 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2019 or latest available year  ................................ ................................ ................. 44 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 4 - 
  
  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1.1.  This Note, which is prepared by the Secretariat on an annual basis,  provides an update on the 
trends in the least developed countries ' (LDCs) trade and market access conditions . Between 2011 
and 2018, exports of goods and services of the 47 LDCs increased at an average annual rate of 
1.4%, less than the growth of exports of other developing economies during this period  (2.0% per 
year). Low energy prices had an adverse impact on  LDC exports of goods during 2014 to 2016, while 
LDC exports of services showed a more stable development during this period. In 2018, LDC exports 
of goods and commercial services grew by 12% compared to 2017, reaching a nominal value of 
US$235.4 billion. The  share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services increased 
slightly, from 0.92% in 2017 to 0.94% in 2018.  
1.2.  LDCs' overall trade deficit deteriorated from US$94.0 billion in 2017 to US$98.2 billion in 2018 , 
which was more than twice the defici t in 2011, when the trade balance of goods was equalized.  Close 
to two thirds of the LDC s' trade deficit in 201 8 can be attributed  to their deficit in goods trade 
(US$64.4 billion), while about one third was due to their deficit in commercial services trade 
(US$33. 8 billion).  
1.3.  Merchandise exports of LDCs have grown  at an average annual rate of 0.3% since 2011, slower 
than world merchandise exports (0.8%). In 2018, LDC exports increased  by 12.7% compared with 
10.0% at the world level . As a result,  the LDCs' share of world merchandise exports  reached 1.02%. 
The LDCs' share in merchandise i mports remained at 1.4%  in 2018 . 
1.4.  Exports of LDCs continue to be concentrated in primary products. In 201 8, primary products 
accounted for 5 8% of LDC  merchandise exports, which is however significantly lower than in 201 1 
(73%). The share of manufactured products in LDC merchandise exports increased from 22% in 
2011 to 37% in 201 8, mainly reflecting an increase in the share of clothing products from 1 3% in 
2011 to 27% in 201 8. The share of agricultural products (agricultural raw materials and food) in LDC 
exports increased from 8% in 201 1 to 13% in 201 8. 
1.5.  The European Union was the top destination for LDC merchandise exports in 2018 (28.5%) , 
closely followed by China (27.8%) , which had been the top destination in 2017,  and the United 
States (9.3%) . The top ten importers accounted for 87.5% of LDC  merchandise  exports in 2018, a 
slight increase compared to 85.4% in 2011. 
1.6.  In 2018, the LDCs recorded the most rapid export growth in services since 2012 (over 16%) 
reaching US$39.8 billion. Services exports grew faster than in developed economies (7%) and in 
other developing economies (9%). As a result, the LDCs' share in global services exports  increased 
to 0.69%. However, p articipation remained concentrated within a few economies, in particular in 
Asia, with most LDCs struggling to participate in services exports.  
1.7.  Travel  exports , which cover foreign tourists' expenditure on goods and services , remains the 
leading service export sector for LDCs (49.8% of total commercial services), with a share in world 
exports of 1.4%. However, transport exports rose by 22% to US$10.1 billion and, for the first time, 
the LDCs' contribution to global transport ex ports reached 1.0 %. Despite a 12% rise, LDCs' 
contribution to world expor ts of other commercial services was negligible at 0.27%.  
1.8.  At present, it is difficult to determine the direction of LDCs' exports of services due to limited 
availability  of data. Scatt ered mirror statistics available for some large economies confirm that 
services imports from LDCs are, in general, marginal and only from a few countries, and the 
dynamism of intra -regional services trade of LDCs  in Asia .  
1.9.  LDCs continue to benefit from preferential market access to both developed and developing 
Members. The share of imports  that are eligible for preferential treatment but enter developed 
country markets Most Favoured Nation (MFN) dutiable ranges around 5% to 15%. The proportion of 
imports that are eligible for preferences, but do no t utilize them,  is somewhat higher in a few 
developing markets.  
1.10.   New notifications on LDC market access in recent years have been limited. Since the last 
report, only one new notificati on on duty-free and quota -free (DFQF ) market access has been 
received. The Russian Federation submitted a notification on its Generalized System  of Preferences  
(GSP) scheme, including the sub -scheme for LDCs, which  it has been implement ing in the context 
of the Eurasian Economic Union since 10 October 2016.  Most of the developed Members accord either WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 5 - 
 
  full or nearly  full DFQF market access to LDC products. A number of developing Members have 
significantly expanded their DFQF coverage  over th e last decade  and now offer almost comprehensive 
DFQF market access to LDC s.  
1.11.   As for  preferential rules of origin , some progress has been made.  Since the last report,  six 
preference -granting Members (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz  Republic, Montenegro, the Russian Fed eration, 
Tajikistan and Turkey) have submitted  notifications on their  rules of origin requirement s. This brings 
the number of notifications to twenty (20), with only two preference -granting Members left to notify 
their preferential origin requirements for LDCs. 
1.12.   No new notification under the LDC Services Waiver has been received  since the last report . 
The number of notifications stood at twenty -four (24) at the end of September  2019. Efforts are 
being made by Members  to advance the discussion on preferences for LDC services and service 
suppliers, including  review ing the operation of preferences notified under the LDC Services Waiver.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 6 - 
  
  2  INTRODUCTION  
2.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretariat responds to paragraph 8 of the WT O Work Programme 
for the Least Developed Countries, which mandates annual reviews of market access for products 
originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade an d market access conditions.  
2.2.  The Note is divided into two main chapters, in addition to the executive summary and the 
introduction. Chapter 3, on trade profile, provides a description of the recent trends of LDCs' trade 
flows, both in goods and commercial s ervices. Chapter 4 contains information on trends in market 
access conditions for LDC exports, including duty free market access for LDC products and recent 
initiatives undertaken by Members to improve market access for LDCs, mainly based on Members' 
notifications. The Note does not attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition 
market access for LDC products. It should therefore be read in conjunction with previous Secretariat 
notes prepared on this topic, to gauge the different factors  that determine market access for LDCs.  
2.3.  Despite improvements in the production of national data, the statistical coverage of LDCs 
remains incomplete. The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available. 
In many instances, it was sti ll necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs' trading 
partners. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow taking into consideration 
trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non -reporting developing economies . 
2.4.  The definition of geographical and other groupings in this report serves only statistical 
purposes; it does not imply an expression of opinion by the Secretariat concerning the status of any 
country or territory, the delimitation of its frontiers, nor th e rights and obligations of any WTO 
Member in respect of WTO agreements.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 7 - 
 
  3  LDCS'  TRADE PROFILE  
3.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  
3.1.  Between 2011 and 2018 , LDC exports of goods and services increased  at an average annual 
rate of 1.4%, less than the export s of other developing economies ( +2.0% per year ). Low energy 
prices influenced LDC exports of goods  negatively  during 2014 to 2016, while LDC exports of services 
showed a  more stable  development  during this period  (see Chart 1). Commodity -dependent LDCs 
were particularly hit by  this price development , which  constitutes the main reason for  the 
less-favourable development in terms of average annual export growth  of the LD Cs vis-à-vis the 
other developing economies . 
Chart 1: Evolution  of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 20 11-2018 
(Index, 20 11 = 100; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
 
Table 1: Trends in LDC  exports of goods and commercial services , 2011-2018 
(Billion dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)  
  Value ( US$bn)  Annual percentage change (%)  
  2011 2018  2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2011-2018 
Exports  
Total goods and commercial services  212.9  235.4  6.3 -0.1 -19.1 -3.1 14.8 12.2 1.4 
Goods  187.4  195.7  5.4 -1.6 -21.6 -3.0 16.3 11.4 0.6 
Commercial services  25.5 39.8 12.0 9.3 -4.7 -3.2 7.4 16.2 6.5 
Imports  
Total goods and commercial services  253.6  333.6  9.1 7.8 -10.3 -5.9 10.1 9.8 4.0 
Goods 187.4  260.0  9.5 7.5 -8.8 -5.1 11.3 9.9 4.8 
Commercial services  66.2 73.6 7.9 8.9 -14.9 -8.4 5.9 9.4 1.5 
 
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
 
3.2.  In 2018, LDC exports of goods and commercial services grew by 12% compared to 2017 , 
reaching a nominal value of US$235.4 billion. The LDC's imports went up  by 10% to US$333.6  billion  
(see Table  1). After three years (2014 to 2016) of negative developments, LDCs  were able to 
continue the strong trade growth of 2017, though on a slightly lower level . In nominal  terms, goods 
exports continue  dominating services exports. LDC commercial services  exports reached a value of  
US$3 9.8 billion  in 201 8, which represented a share of only  17% of LDC goods and commercial 
services exports. At the world level, services constituted 23% of world total exports in 201 8. 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 8 - 
  
  3.3.  LDCs' overall trade deficit deteriorate d from US$94.0 billion in 2017 to US$98.2 billion in 2018. 
Regarding goods, i mports exceeded exports by US$ 64.4 billion , and regarding commercial services, 
imports were higher than exports by US$33.8 billion (see Chart 2).  LDCs' 2018  trade deficit was 
more t han two times higher than in 20 11 (US$40.7 billion), when the trade balance of goods was 
equalized . 
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 20 11 and 201 8 
(Billion dollars; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
 
3.4.  Price fluctuati ons have a marked influence on the value of LDC  trade . Chart 3 shows 
developments in the volume of merchandise trade for LDCs  and other economies to give a picture 
of the physical level of trade. In 2018, LDC merchandise exports grew by 0.3% in volume terms, 
while merchandise imports increased by 3%. These growth rates are distinctly below the respective 
figures for trade in nom inal terms (13% for exports and 10% for imports) – reflecting  the high impact 
of price developments on the nominal trade figures of LDCs' merchandise trade. In comparison to 
2011, the export volume increased by more than 1.5 times and the import volume by almost 1.5 
times. LDCs' total trade volume (turnover, i.e. exports plus imports) increased by 1.7% in 2018 
while the volume of total trade of other developing economies decreased by 2.7%.  
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade vo lume of LDCs and developing economies, 
2011-2018 
(Indices, 2011 = 100)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 9 - 
 
  3.5.  Chart 4 shows t he development of the LDCs' share in world exports from 20 11 to 2018. The 
share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services increased slightly, from 0.92% in 
2017 to 0.94% in 2018. However, the share was still below the levels of 2011 to 2014.  In comparison 
to 2017, the shares of both exports of goods and exports of co mmercial services went up, for goods 
to 1.02% (from 1.00%) and for services to 0.69% (from 0.64%).   
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 20 11-2018 
(Percentage shares; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.6.  Table 2 shows t he respective shares  for total trade, exports and i mports for all years since 
2011 – including the values for world and LDC trade used for the calculation of the shares.  
 
 
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 10 - Table 2: LDCs and world trade in go ods and commercial services, 20 11-2018 
(Billion dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)   
Value ( US$bn)  Annual 
percentage  
change  
 2011 2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2011 -2018  
Total trade in  goods and commercial servicesa         
  
   World  21,993 22,370 23,012 23,453 20,874 20,459 22,501 24,645 1.6 
   LDC 466 497 536 560 482 459 514 569 2.9 
     Share in world  1.06 1.11 1.17 1.20 1.16 1.12 1.14 1.16 ... 
Total trade in goods  a          
   World  17,742 17,968 18,324 18,394 16,047 15,575 17,268 19,018 1.0 
   LDC 375 400 430 444 379 363 412 456 2.8 
     Share in world  1.06 1.11 1.17 1.21 1.19 1.17 1.20 1.20 ... 
Total trade in commercial services  a          
   World  4,251 4,402 4,688 5,060 4,827 4,884 5,233 5,627 4.1 
   LDC 92 98 106 116 102 95 101 113 3.1 
     Share in world  1.09 1.11 1.14 1.15 1.06 0.98 0.98 1.02 ... 
Goods exports           
   World  17,981 18,238 18,637 18,671 16,238 15,766 17,483 19,201 0.9 
   LDC 187 191 202 198 156 151 176 196 0.6 
     Share in world  1.04 1.05 1.08 1.06 0.96 0.96 1.00 1.02 ... 
Commercial services exports           
   World  4,334 4,462 4,765 5,121 4,891 4,961 5,358 5,770 4.2 
   LDC 26 28 32 35 33 32 34 40 6.5 
     Share in world  0.59 0.63 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.64 0.69 ... 
Goods imports           
   World  17,503 17,699 18,012 18,116 15,856 15,384 17,053 18,834 1.1 
   LDC 187 208 228 245 224 212 237 260 4.8 
     Share in world  1.07 1.18 1.27 1.35 1.41 1.38 1.39 1.38 ... 
Commercial services imports           
   World  4,168 4,341 4,611 4,999 4,763 4,806 5,108 5,485 4.0 
   LDC 66 69 75 81 69 63 67 74 1.5 
     Share in world  1.59 1.60 1.62 1.63 1.45 1.32 1.32 1.34 ... 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world exports and imports , according to the BOP presentation (BPM 6) . Total LDC trade in this table is 
approximated as the sum of their exports and imports. Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the corresponding wor ld exports plus imports.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 11 - 
 
  3.2  Merchandise Trade Developments2 
3.2.1   Overall trend  
3.7.  Merchandise exports of LDCs rose from US$1 89 billion in 20 11 to US$193  billion in 2018 
(see  Chart 5) , corresponding to an average annual increase  of 0.3% (compared to  0.8% for World 
exports ). In 2018,  LDC merchandise  exports , benefitting from an increase in prices for fuels and 
mining products , grew by 1 2.7% compared with world growth of 10 .0%. Merchandise imports of 
LDCs increased at a lower rate (+10 .4%).  
Chart 5: Merchandise trade of LDCs , 2011-2018 
(Billion dollars and percentages)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD  estimates . 
 
3.8.  For the first time since 2014, the LDCs' share of world merchandise exports exceeded 1 % in 
2018, reaching 1.02 % (see Chart 5). The LDCs' share of world merchandise imports remained at 
the same level as in both 2016 and 2017, namely at 1.4 %. Among developing economies, the LDCs' 
share of exports slightly increased (from 2.30 % in 2017 to 2.34 % in 2018) while it decreased for 
imports (from 3.46 % in 2017 to 3.43 % in 2018).  The share of LDC s in world exports of manufactures 
increased slightly from 0 .53% in 2017 to 0.55% in 2018.  
3.9.  The merchandise trade deficit of LDCs increased slightly in 2018 (to US$80 billion) but 
remained below the record deficit of 2015 (US$89 billion – see Chart 6). The deficit in 2018 was 
mainly due to a significant increase in the deficit of LDC exporters of manufactured goods 
(US$45  billion in 2018 versus US$35 billion in 2017). Apart from Lesotho, all countries in this 
category saw their imports increase more than their exports. The largest increase in the trade deficit 
was recorded by Cambodia ( +39%), followed by Bangladesh ( +31%), Nepal ( +31%), Haiti ( +30%), 
and Madagascar ( +19%). The trade deficits of both LDC exporters of non -fuel minerals (from 
US$6  billion in 2017 to US$9 billion in 2018) and other LDCs (from US$4 billi on to US$5 billion) also 
increased, while the trade deficit of LDC exporters of agriculture remained stable at US$33 billion. 
Only LDC oil exporters recorded a trade surplus (US$12 billion) in 2018.  
 
2 Differences between Balance of Payments (BOP) (BPM6) and International Merc handise Trade 
Statistics are explained in the International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 (IMTS 
2010), Chapter XXIV Section B "Goods to be recorded differently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" (p. 
288).  
(http://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/eg -imts/imts2010 -final-22march2011.pdf ). 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 12 - 
 
  Chart 6: Merchandise trade balan ce of LDCs , 2011-2018 
(Billion dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
 
3.10.   All LDC exporter categories (see Chart 7) recorded positive growth rates, with LDC  oil 
exporters showing the largest increase in 2018 ( +20%). The lowest growth rate was recorded by 
LDC exporters of non -fuel minerals ( +6%). The exports of "other LDCs" (Djibouti, Senegal and 
Tuvalu) increased by 18 %. LDC exporters of manufactured goods sa w a 12 % increase and LDC 
exporters of agriculture grew by 8 %. Annex Table 1 provides details on the value and growth of 
exports and imports for individual LDCs.  
Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub-grouping , 2011-2018 
(Billio n dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 13 - 
 
  3.2.2   Commodity price movements  
3.11.   Exchange rates and commodity prices strongly influence nominal d ollar values of international 
trade flows . As Chart 8 shows , energy price s continued to increase strongly in  2018 (+27.3% in 
comparison to 2017) , following their low point in 2016.  Prices of minerals and non -ferrous metals 
grew by 3.7% and prices of agricultural raw materials by 1.9%. Only food and beverages were 
subject to a slight decrease in terms of import prices (-1.1%).  
3.12.   Despite these price increases in 2018 , the price levels of all product groups remained under 
the level s of 2011 . Prices of food and beverages reached 81% of the level of 2011, energy 70% of 
2011's  level, and the remaining two commodities (agricult ural raw materials and minerals and 
non- ferrous metals) were even below 70% of the level of 2011.  
Chart 8: Export prices of primary commodities, 2011-2018 
(Indices, 20 11 = 100)  
 
Source:  IMF. 
 
3.2.3   Major LDC traders  
3.13.   Chart 9 shows t he top ten individual merchandise exporters and importers of the LDCs for 
both 20 11 and 201 8. While Angola was the top exporter in both years, its share in LDC merchandise 
exports decreased from 35% in 2011 to 22% in 2018. In contrast, Bangladesh , which wa s the 
second -biggest exporter in both years,  increased its share in LDC exports from 13% in 2011 to 20% 
in 2018.  Also Myanmar (9%) and Cambodia (7%) , which were on third and fourth place in 2018, 
saw their shares in LDC merchandise exports increase  signifi cantly since 2011. While the top ten 
exporters represented more than  80% of LDCs' exports in 20 11, this share went down to around 
77% in 201 8 – a slight decrease in terms of country concentration among the LDCs. Nevertheless, 
the fact that the remaining (non -top ten) 3 7 LDCs accounted for only 2 3% of LDC merchandise 
exports in 201 8 shows  that exports are still concentrated in a relatively few LDCs.  
3.14.   In 201 1, the three leading importers were Bangladesh (share of 1 8%), Angola (10%) and 
Yemen  (6%). Seven years later , the top three consisted of Bangladesh ( 22%), Myanmar (7%) and 
Cambodia (7%) . Almost two thirds (6 5%) of LDC  merchandise  imports in 201 8 were cove red by the  
top ten importers (up from 63% in 20 11). Hence, the country concentration for imports is not as 
high as for exports . 
3.15.   Among the top 15 LDC exporters (in terms of export value), the highest growth in exports in 
2018 was recorded by Angola ( +22%) and Myanmar ( +21%), which are both oil exporters, and 
Cambodia ( +19%), an exporter of manufactured goods. Declines were recorded by Sudan ( -15%), 
an oil exporter, and by Tanzania ( -12%) and Guinea ( -11%), exporters of non -fuel minerals.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 14 - 
 
  Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 20 11 and 201 8 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
 
3.2.4   Trends in product composition  and concentration  of LDCs  
3.16.   The evolution in the commodity mix of the LDCs between 20 11 and 201 8 can be seen in 
Chart  10. The share of primary products in total exports of LDCs increased from 55% in 201 7 to 
58% in 201 8 – due to a higher  value of fuel exports  – but remained  distinctly under the respective 
share in 201 1 (73%) .3 The share of manufactured products increased from 2 2% in 20 11 to 37% in 
2018. This was mainly due to a higher share of clothing products in LDC  merchandise exports, which 
increased from 1 3% in 2011 to 27% in 201 8. The share of agricultural products (agricultural raw 
materials and food) in LDC exports increased from 10% in 20 11 to 13% in 201 8. 
 
3 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product and destination compiled 
according to the Unite d Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this 
classification, diamonds and non -monetary gold are not part of mineral products  – as opposed to the 
Harmonized System (HS) . As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product in total LDC s' exports derived 
from the LDC network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products presented in the annex  
of this report.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 15 - 
 
  Chart 10: Evolution of merchan dise export structure  of LDCs , 2011 and 201 8 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source : WTO Secretariat (20 11), WTO estimates based on Trade Data Monitor  (2018). 
 
3.17.   Chart 11 shows t he evo lution of the top ten products – and their respective shares – exported 
by LDCs between 20 11 and 201 8 (Annex Table 4 provides statistics on the top 50 export products). 
Back i n 201 1, petroleum products (HS 27.09, 27.11 and 27.10) clearly dominated exports with a 
share of half (5 0%) of LD C merchandise  exports. In 201 8, these three products accounted for only 
slightly more than one  quarter (2 7%) of LDC exp orts. While crude petroleum (HS  27.09) was still 
the top export product, petroleum gases and other gaseous hydrocarbons  (HS 27.11) fell f rom the 
second position in 201 1 down to position s even in 201 8. Petroleum oils, other than crude, (HS 27.10) 
was not even in the top ten products anymore in 201 8 (position eight in 201 1, position 39 in 201 8). 
At the same time, the share of clothing products within the top ten increased from 1 0% in 20 11 to 
15% in 201 8. 
3.18.   In 201 1, gold was in fifth position with a share of 2. 9% in LDC exports, seven years later i t 
had fallen to the eighth position but increased its share to 3.1%. Refined copper (HS 74.03) fell from 
the third position in 201 1 (share of 3. 5%) down to the fifth position in 201 8 (share of 3.3%). 
Unrefined coppe r (HS 74.02) increased its share from 1 .2% in 201 1 to 3.0% in 201 8 and moved 
from the tenth  position in 201 1 up to the ninth position in 201 8. 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 16 - 
 
  Chart 11: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 20 11 and 201 8 
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)   
 
Source:  UN Comtrade  database (201 1), Trade Data Monitor (201 8); mirror data.  
 
3.19.   Chart s 12 and 13 show the degrees of product concentration of the LDCs in 2017.4 They are 
based on index data retrieved from UNCTAD's concentration index .5 If the  index value is closer to 1 , 
it indicates that a country's exports are highly concentrated on a few products. Values closer to 0 
indicate a more homogeneous distribut ion among a series of products.  
3.20.   The LDCs as a group  had an index value of 0.225 in 2017 (down from 0.425 in 2011) which 
was 3.6  times higher than the respective concentration index of world exports (0.063 in 2017, down 
 
4 Data for 2018 not available yet.  
5 The c oncentration index, also named Herfindahl -Hirschmann Index  (Product HHI), is a measure of the 
degree of product concentration.  It is calculated by UNCTAD at 3-digit group level  of the SITC rev. 3. See 
https://unctadstat.unctad.org  and https://stats.unctad.org/handbook/MerchandiseTrade/Indicators.html . 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 17 - 
 
  from 0.083 in 2011). LDC merchandise export s are thus distinctly more concentrated in a few 
products compared to world exports; nevertheless, the factor diffe rence between LDCs and world 
fell from 5.1  times in 2011 down to 3.6 times in 2017. While the degree of product concentration 
decreased by 24 % between 2011 and 2017 for world exports, it dropped by 47 % for LDCs.  
3.21.   Among the LDCs, Angola showed the highest pr oduct concentration of exports in 2017, with 
an index value of 0.93 – quite close to the theoretical maximum (1.0), followed by Kiribati (index of 
0.90), Guinea -Bissau (0.88) and Chad (0.77). The lowest degrees of product concentration in 2017 
were observe d for Nepal (index of 0.15), Djibouti (0.16) and Uganda (0.21).  Still, the exports of the 
country with the lowest index value, i.e. Nepal, were more th an two times more concentrated th an 
world exports on average.  
Chart 12: Product c oncentration index of LDC s' exports  (map view), 2017  
(Index ) 
 
Source:  Map based on data from UNCTADstat.  
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 18 - 
 
  Chart 13: Product concentration index of LDC s' exports  (detailed view), 2017  
(Index )  
 
Source:  UNCTADstat.  
Note:  An index value close to 1 indicate s a high concentration of exports in a few products, while an index  
value close to  0 indicates an equal distribution of export shares across products.  
 
3.22.   Chart 14 shows the percentage changes regarding the degrees of export concentration 
between 2011 and 2017. Twenty -eight out of 4 6 LDCs6 were able to increase the product 
diversification (i.e. decrease the product concentration) of their exports between the se two years, 
while the exports of the 18 others became more concentrat ed in terms of products.  
3.23.   Vanuatu (decrease of 44% in terms of product concentration), Djibouti ( -41%) and Sudan  
(-40%) were the economies whose export concentration decreased the most between 2017 and 
2011 – while the exports of Gambia (increase of 73% in terms of product concentration), 
Timor - Leste (+55%) and Madagascar (+45%) became much more concentrated then back in 2011.  
  
 
6 No data available for South Sudan.  
0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.901.00
Angola
Kiribati
Guinea-Bissau
Chad
Zambia
Solomon Islands
Comoros
Burkina Faso
Sao Tome and Principe
Mali
Timor-Leste
Tuvalu
Somalia
Haiti
Sudan
Liberia
Malawi
Guinea
Eritrea
Gambia
Vanuatu
Bangladesh
Burundi
Bhutan
Yemen
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Central African Republic
Mauritania
Niger
Afghanistan
Madagascar
Rwanda
Sierra Leone
Benin
Cambodia
Mozambique
Ethiopia
United Republic of Tanzania
Lesotho
Togo
Myanmar
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Senegal
Uganda
Djibouti
NepalWT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 19 - 
 
  Chart 14: Changes in the p roduct c oncentration index of LDC s' exports , 2017  vs. 2011  
(Percentage change )  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat based on data from UNCTADstat.  
 
 
3.2.5   Major markets of LDCs  
3.24.   LDCs' top ten markets by product groups for both 20 11 and 201 8 are listed in Table 3  (Annex 
Table  3 shows trade statistics for a greater number of destination markets). While China  was the 
top destination for total LDC merchandise exports in 2011 (share of 2 6%), it was overtaken by the 
European Union in 2018 with a share of 28.5%. China w as second  destination in 2018 with a share 
of 27.8% in total LDCs' exports. One year before (2017) China was still the top destination . The top 
ten importers accounted for 8 7.5% of LDCs' total exports  in 201 8, more than  in 201 1 (85.4%). 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 20 - 
 
  3.25.   Regarding agricultural products, the European Union was the main destination of LDCs' 
exports in both 20 11 (share of  25.8%) and 201 8 (24.7%). China, in position two, increased  its 
market share for LDC agricultural products from 1 3.1% in 20 11 to 18.4% in 20 18. India was in third 
position , as in 201 1, followed by the United States  in fourth position . The top ten destinations 
accounted for 78.3% of LDC exports of agricultural products in 201 8 (up from 7 3.6% in 20 11). 
3.26.   In both 2011 and 2018 , China was the most i mportant destination for LDC exports of fuels 
and mining products  and e xpand ed its share in LDC exports of this product group to 53.9% in 201 8 
(up from 38.8% in 20 11). The United States dropped from second position in 20 11 to fifth position 
in 201 7 (share of 15.5% in 20 11 and of 4.1% in 201 8). The European Union went from third position 
in 2011 (share of 12.0%) up to second position in 2018 (10.3%). India followed on third position 
(share of 8.9% in 2018, up from 6.7% in 2011 ). In both years, the top ten destinations imported 
more than 90% (91.8% in 201 1 and 93 .1% in 201 8) of all LDCs' exports of fuels and mining 
products.  
3.27.   The European Union and the United States were the most important destinations for LDC 
exports of manufactured go ods in both 20 11 and 201 8. In 201 8, the European Union imported more 
than one half (53.3%) of LDC manufacturing exports (up from 4 5.3% in 20 11). The share of LDC 
exports of manufactures to the United States decreased from 20.3% in 20 11 to 17.3% in 201 8. 
Japan was the third most important  destination for LDC manufacturing exports  in 201 8, reaching a 
share of 5 .7% (up from 3.0% in 20 11). The share of the top ten destinations in LDC exports of 
manufactures increased markedly  from 8 5.6% in 201 1 to 92.4% in 2018. 
Table 3: LDCs ' top ten export markets , 2011 and 2018 
(Billion dollars and percentage shares)  
 Total trade  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining 
products  Manufactures  
 Value (US$bn)  2011 China  51.0 EU (28)  6.0 China  46.5 EU (28)  20.9 
EU (28)  41.7 China  3.1 USA 18.6 USA 9.4 
USA 28.8 India 2.7 EU (28)  14.3 Canada  1.8 
India 12.1 Viet Nam  1.1 India 8.1 China  1.4 
United Arab 
Emirates  6.8 Saudi Arabia  1.0 Chinese Taipei  6.0 Japan  1.4 
Thailand  6.5 Japan  0.7 Thailand  5.7 India 1.3 
Chinese Taipei  6.2 USA 0.7 Japan  3.1 Congo  1.1 
Japan  5.3 Indonesia  0.7 South Africa  3.0 Turkey  1.0 
Canada  4.9 Thailand  0.7 Canada  2.6 United Arab 
Emirates  0.7 
South Africa  3.8 Malaysia  0.5 Korea, Rep. of  2.0 South Africa  0.5 
Sum of above  167.1  Sum of above  17.2 Sum of above  109.9  Sum of above  39.5 
Share of top 10:  85.4%  Share of top 10:  73.6%  Share of top 10:  91.8%  Share of top 10:  85.6%    Value ( US$bn) 2018 EU (28)  55.9 EU (28)  6.1 China  45.7 EU (28)  40.8 
China  54.6 China  4.6 EU (28)  8.8 USA 13.2 
USA 18.3 India 2.8 India 7.5 Japan  4.3 
India 14.1 USA 1.3 Thailand  5.8 China  2.8 
Thailand  8.0 Saudi Arabia  1.1 USA 3.5 Canada  2.7 
Japan  6.2 Thailand  1.0 South Africa  2.3 India 2.3 
Switzerland  5.3 Japan  0.8 Korea, Rep. of  1.5 Thailand  1.2 
South Africa  3.3 Kenya  0.6 Zambia  1.5 Russian Fed . 1.2 
Korea, Rep. of  3.1 Pakistan  0.6 Namibia  1.2 Korea, Rep. of  1.2 
Canada  3.0 Viet Nama 0.5 Indonesia  1.2 Switzerland  1.0 
Sum of above  171.8  Sum of above  19.4 Sum of above  78.9 Sum of above  70.7 
Share of top 10:  87.5%  Share of top 10:  78.3%  Share of top 10:  93.1%  Share of top 10:  92.4%  
a Estimate . 
Source:  UN Comtrade , Trade Data Monitor (importer data).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 21 - 
 
  3.3  Services Trade Developments  
3.3.1   Overall trend  
3.28.   In 2018, LDCs' exports of commercial services reached US$39.8 billion, their highest level on 
record, expanding by 16%, the most rapid growth since 2012  (Chart 15) . Unlike in recent years, 
services exports grew faster in LDCs than in developed  economies (7%)  and in other developing 
economies  (9%). As a result, the LDCs' share in global services exports increased to 0.69%.  
Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services, 201 1-2018 
(Annual percentage change and b illion dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.29.   Transport exports rose by 22 % to US$10.1 billion reflecting swift growth not only in Ethiopia 
(+25%) , the LDCs' largest transport exporter, but also in several other countries  such as Afghanistan 
(+58%),  Bhutan (+57%), Bangladesh (+49%) and Cambodia (+22%) . In Myanmar, transport 
exports tripled. For the first time, the LDCs' contribution to global transport exports reached 1 .0% 
up from 0. 6% in 20 11. Air transport, mainly of passengers, account ed for more than half of the 
LDCs' transport exports.  
3.30.   Travel  exports, covering foreign t ourists' expenditure on goods and services during their stay 
in LDCs, expanded by 11 %, reaching US$19.8 billion  in 2018 . Travel remains  the leading service 
export sector for LDCs (49.8 % of total commercial services), with a share in world exports of 1.4 %, 
the highest participation by the group. Tourism in LDCs is predominantly intra -regional. In 2018, 
dynamic growth was recorded in Cambodia (+ 20%),  the main exporter, as well as in Zambia 
(+14%) , Nepal (+23%) , Mozambique (+61%) and  in other countries .  
3.31.   In 2018, LDCs' exports of other commercial services totalled US$8.4 billion. Despite a 12 % 
rise, the double than in developed economies, LDCs' co ntribution to global exports of other 
commercial services remained stagnant at 0.27 %, down from 0.35% in 2011 . Growth was led by 
LDCs in Asia which saw an increase of 26% in their exports. In LDC islands, exports rose by 11%. 
By contrast LDCs in Africa, ex ports declined ( -3%). Within other commercial services , LDCs' 
participation in world exports was the highest in construction (0.79%), telecommunications, 
computer and information services (0.42%), and in other business services (0.32%). Bangladesh, 
Myanmar , Nepal and Senegal were the main exporters accounting together for 54% of the group's 
exports of other commercial services in 2018.  
25.528.231.634.5
32.9
31.934.239.8
5.010.015.020.025.030.035.040.0
-10-50510152025
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Billion US$Annual percentage change (%) Value (US$ billion)Percentage (%)WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 22 - 
 
  Chart 16: LDC s' exports of commercial services by category, 201 1-2018 
(Billion dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.32.   In 2018, e xports of LDCs in Africa continued to account for half of LDCs' total commercial 
services exports , growing by 9% but in comparison with LDCs in other regions, they lagged behind  
(see Chart 1 6). Services exports of LDCs in Asia continued to lead growth (+27%). Thanks to a 
remarkable performance, these eight Asian economies accounted together for 42.3% of 
LDCs'  commercial services exports in 2018. For LDC islands, services export growth peaked to  14% 
in 201 8 led by travel, which accounted for 60% of services exports. In 2018, Timor -Leste's travel 
exports tripled, while in the Solomon Islands and Sao Tome and Principe annual growth was above 
20%.  
Chart 17: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2011 -2018  
(Billion dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.33.   In 2018, LDCs' s ervices exports  remained  concentrated within a few economies (see 
Chart  17). Cambodia was the largest exporter  with a 13.2% share, followed by Myanmar (12.8%) 
and Ethiopia (11.3%). T he top ten leading exporters accounted for 7 2.8% of the group's services 
receipts . Apart from two exceptions, the same countries ranked as leading exporters also in 2011. 
In comparison with 2011, t he share of other LDCs in total exports declined by almost  5 five 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 23 - 
 
  percentage points. Thus, while some LDCs were able to progressively expand their services exports, 
others continued to face challenges in integrating in global services markets.  
Chart 18: Leading LDC exporters of commercial  services, 201 8 and 2011  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.3.2   Direction of trade  
3.34.   At present, it is difficult to determine the direction of LDCs' exports of services. Althoug h an 
increasing number of developing economies  have started  bilateral data collection, according to 
information available to the Secretariat, bilateral statistics for LDCs are available only for  
Bangladesh .  
3.35.   In the fiscal year 2017 -2018, Bangladesh's expor ted commercial services to the 
European  Union for US$512 million, increasing by 30%. The most exported services were transport 
services (30.9%), in particular air transport, business services (26.7%), Information and 
Communication Technology ( ICT) services (15.6%) and financial services (11.4%).  
3.36.   Travel (27.7%), ICT services (22.8%) business services (20.3%) and transport (20.3%) were 
the main services exported to the United States, the second largest partner. Unlike other partners, 
services export s to the United States declined by 11% to US$373 million. Finally, exports to 
Singapore rose by 38% to US$312 million. Transport services (44.5%), predominantly maritime 
transport, ICT services (31.6%), and business services (15.5%) were the main sectors.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 24 - 
 
  Chart 19: Bangladesh – Exports of commercial services by destination, fiscal years 
2016 -2017 and 2017 -2018  
(Million dollars and percentage shares)  
 
Source:  Bangladesh Bank. The fiscal year refers to 1 July -30 June.  
 
3.37.   To analyse the  direction of services exports of the LDCs, it is necessary to use available mirror 
statistics  of other economies . However, often no information is available on the type of imported 
services. In 2017, the European Union's  services imports from the LDCs amo unted to almost  
US$12  billion, representing  0.59% of its total services imports, down from 0.65% in 2011 . LDCs in 
Africa accounted for around  75% of imports from LDCs , with a  value of US$8.8 billion, while imports 
from LDCs in Asia stood at US$2. 4 billion , and from LDC islands at US$0.6 billion.  
3.38.   The value of E uropean Union imports represented 30. 5% of the LDCs' estimated services 
exports in 2017 , thereby being relatively less important  as destination market compared with 2011 
(36.5%) . The top five European Union partners within the  LDC Group were Liberia (27.4%), Angola 
(7.5%) Senegal ( 6.0%), Tanzania (5.6%) and Bangladesh (5.5%), accounting for more than half of 
the European Union's total services imports from  the LDCs.  
Chart 20: European Union (28) – Imports of total services from LDCs, 2011 -2017  
(Billion US dollars and percentage shares)  
 
Source:  Eurostat.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 25 - 
 
   
3.39.   The Russian Federation's commercial services imports from LDCs  reached US$71 million in 
2017 up from US$18 million in 2011, but mostly related to construction imports from Bangladesh. 
Other partners were Myanmar, Mauritania and Cambodia. Overall, imports from LDCs accounted for 
0.2% of the Russian Federation's servic es imports in 2017.  
Chart 21: Russian Federation  – Imports of commercial services from LDCs, 2011 -2017  
(Million US dollars)  
 
Source:  Central Bank of the Russian Federation.  
 
3.40.   Scattered mirror statistics available for some economies  confirm the dynamism of 
intra-regional services trade of LDCs  in Asia . For example, in 2017, Malaysia's services imports from 
Nepal (US$52 million) and Lao People's Democratic Republic  (US$28 million) had doubled compared 
with 2011, from Cambodia  (US$79  million ) were close to doubling, while from Myanmar  
(US$105  million)  and Bangladesh  (US$29 million ) remained somewhat stable. Services imports from 
these five LDCs in Asia accounted for 0.69% of Malaysia's total services imports.  
3.41.   Singapore's service s imports from Myanmar tripled since 2011, to reach US$188 million in 
2017, while China's imports from the country in 2016, the only available year, totalled 
US$330  million. Finally, Hong Kong, China's imports from Bangladesh reached US$98 million up 
from US$89 million in 2011.  
4  MARKET ACCESS FOR PR ODUCTS OF EXPORT INT EREST TO LDCS  
4.1  Duty -free market access granted by selected Members  
4.1.  Table 4 provides statistics on duty -free market access accorded to LDCs by selected Members  
that have mostly  notified LDC prefe rence schemes to the WTO. The first set of columns focuses on 
the LDC scheme provided by individual Members while the last three columns list information on 
exports of the 47 LDCs. 
4.2.  The preferential LDC schemes of Australia, New Zealand, Norway  and Switzerl and provide full 
duty free access to their beneficiaries. For Canada, Chile, the E urpean Union and Japan, more than 
97% of their tariff lines are free of duty for products originating from LDCs; five other Members 
grant duty  free access to around 90% or mo re of their tariff lines: China, Iceland, India, Korea and 
Montenegro.  
4.3.  Three WTO Members do not have any LDC scheme ; however,  all or most of  the imports 
originating from LDCs are free of import duty. Hong  Kong, China and Macao, China offer duty free 
access  to all products on an MFN basis and therefore to LDCs as well. In the case of Singapore, only 
6 tariff lines out of 9,558 are dutiable on an MFN basis and less than 0.1 % of LDC exports enter ing 
the Singaporean market are dutiable . 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 26 - 
 
  4.4.  Less than one tariff line out of three is duty free under the LDC scheme of Chinese Taipei. 
However, over 90% of the imports from LDCs enter the market free of duty, resulting in an overall 
trade -weighted duty of 1. 0%; the share of duty -free imports for ag ricultural products is however 
substantially lower and translates into a higher trade -weighted average ( 6.5%). 
4.5.  In 201 7, LDCs exported the highest number of products (in terms of national tariff lines) to the 
European Union . Their export basket is also rel atively diversified in Canada, Thailand and the United 
States . In dollar terms, some 60% of LDC exports were dutiable under the United States' GSP LDC 
scheme, with a trade -weighted average tariff of over 10%. However, eligible LDCs enjoy significant 
duty-free access to the United States under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and the 
Caribbean Basin Initiative  (CBI) .  
Table 4: Duty  free market access under LDC  schemes in selected Members, 201 7 
Market  Sector  LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN -LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff 
lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  TOTAL  Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyc 
Armeniad Total  6,438  43.9 351 330 296 21.3 51.0 0.6 
Ag 731 71.1 29 23 2 10.6 99.0 0.2 
Non-ag 5,707  36.2 322 307 294 10.8 4.0 5.9 
Australia  Total  0 100.0  1,068  677 0 959.6  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  163 52 0 42.1 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  905 625 0 917.4  100.0  0.0 
Canada  Total  105 98.6 2,224  945 0 2,824.7  100.0  0.0 
Ag 105 92.7 366 122 0 100.4  100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  1,858  823 0 2,724.2  100.0  0.0 
Chiled Total  41 99.5 576 576 0 109.8  100.0  0.0 
Ag 41 97.1 12 12 0 1.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  564 564 0 108.8  100.0  0.0 
Chinae Total  293 96.6 1,634  1,438  181 42,295.7  97.2 0.8 
Ag 76 93.5 158 148 31 1,638.8  64.4 14.5 
Non-ag 217 97.1 1,476  1,290  150 40,657.0  98.5 0.2 
European 
Union  Total  18 99.8 6,118  4,590  7 39,701.6  100 0.0 
Ag 0 100 1,005  770 0 3,905.5  100 0.0 
Non-ag 18 99.8 5,113  3,820  7 35,796.1  100 0.0 
Hong Kong, 
China  Total    - - - 1,336.0  100.0  0.0 
Ag   - - - 39.5 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag   - - - 1,296.5  100.0  0.0 
Iceland  Total  736 91.8 - - - - - - 
Ag 736 63.2 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 0 100.0  - - - - - - 
Indiad Total  676 94.1 1,612  1,556  190 10,449.9  94.9 1.6 
Ag 344 77.0 295 277 88 3,343.3  91.2 4.7 
Non-ag 332 96.7 1,317  1,279  102 7,106.6  96.7 0.1 
Japan  Total  205 97.8 1,178  790 24 5,039.8  98.3 0.1 
Ag 69 96.4 177 116 2 420.2  100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 136 98.2 1,001  674 22 4,619.6  98.1 0.2 
Kazakhstan  Total  7,698  36.8 619 559 496 63.7 23.7 1.0 
Ag 1,029  61.9 42 34 1 7.3 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 6,669  29.6 577 525 495 56.4 13.8 1.7 
Korea, 
Republic of  Total  1,232  89.9 1,524  1,337  160 2,849.9  93.8 1.1 
Ag 702 59.3 212 202 89 202.9  78.3 7.8 
Non-ag 530 95.0 1,312  1,135  71 2,647.0  95.0 0.5 
Macao, China  Total  - - - - - 12.7 100.0  0.0 
Ag - - - - - 2.3 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag - - - - - 10.4 100.0  0.0 
Montenegro  Total  679 92.9 452 401 13 11.2 98.7 0.1 
Ag 211 89.9 28 20 2 0.0 84.5 0.1 
Non-ag 468 93.7 424 381 11 11.2 98.7 0.1 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 27 - 
 
  Market  Sector  LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN -LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff 
lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  TOTAL  Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyc 
Morocco  Total  18,030  1.3 437 437 402 161.6  34.0 8.7 
Ag 2,424  5.9 80 80 53 68.9 68.5 1.3 
Non-ag 15,606  0.6 357 357 349 92.7 8.3 14.1 
New Zealand  Total  0 100.0  1,058  701 0 133.4  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  134 59 0 15.7 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  924 642 0 117.7  100.0  0.0 
Norway  Total  0 100.0  1,120  314 0 483.4  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  221 73 0 31.8 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  899 241 0 451.5  100.0  0.0 
Russian 
Federationd Total  7,307  37.1 - - - - - - 
Ag 1,034  61.5 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 6,273  29.7 - - - - - - 
Singapore  Total  - - - - - 1,059.2  99.9 0.0 
Ag - - - - - 173.0  99.6 0.0 
Non-ag - - - - - 886.2  100.0  0.0 
Switzerland  Total  0 100.0  1,567  1,298  0 4,250.0  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  311 240 0 185.4  100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  1,256  1,058  0 4,064.6  100.0  0.0 
Chinese 
Taipei  Total  6,316  30.8 890 675 617 2,073.4  91.1 1.0 
Ag 1,151  23.2 112 81 78 76.1 50.1 6.5 
Non-ag 5,165  32.3 778 594 539 1,997.3  92.7 0.8 
Tajikistand Total 10,553  3.7 - - - - - - 
Ag 2,455  0.4 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 8,098  4.7 - - - - - - 
Thailand  Total 3,135  71.0 2,456  1,855  720 6,622.8  93.6 1.0 
Ag 333 75.7 224 193 55 696.2  88.6 1.5 
Non-ag 2,802  70.3 2,232  1,662  665 5,926.6  94.2 0.9 
Turkeyd Total 3,223  80.5 - - - - - - 
Ag 2,249  19.8 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 974 92.9 - - - - - - 
United 
States  Total 1,951  82.4 2,160  1,417  641 15,738.6  38.8 10.5 
Ag 272 85.8 288 187 3 1,006.1  98.5 0.1 
Non-ag 1,679  81.7 1,872  1,230  638 14,732.4  34.8 11.2 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; some UN -LDC countries may be 
excluded.  
b 47 LDCs as listed by the UN in 2017. Full utilization of LDC schemes is assumed when calculating the 
share of duty -free imports and the trade -weighted applied duty.  
c Excludes non-ad valorem  duties.  
d 2016.  
e China has submitted data  on preferences  for three  different groups, i.e. i) 35 LDCs; ii) Benin, 
Myanmar and Timor -Leste; and iii) Bangladesh . The data for the number of tariff lines for the LDC 
preference relate to the  group  of 35 beneficiaries. Information on LDC imports assume full 
preference utilization for all beneficiaries . 
Source:  WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB).  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 28 - 
 
  4.2  Utilization of preferential market access granted to LDCs  
4.6.  This section discusses to what extent LDC exports in  terms of value enter markets duty  free 
and make use of preferences granted. Chart 2 2 presents a decomposition of LDC exports into four 
duty categories for importing preference -granting Members which have submitted  import data to 
the WTO Secretariat.7 The first category is the share of imports from LDCs that enters the market 
MFN duty free. The second category comprises the share of imports from LDCs that makes use of 
any preferential import scheme, either LDC -specific schemes or other preferential trade 
arrangements, available to LDC exporters. These two categories together can be referred to as 
"utility ratio", the proportion of imports subject to no – or a reduced level – of tariff duties. The third 
category covers imports that are eligible for preferenti al treatment, but are not utilizing the granted 
preferences. These products enter henceforth paying MFN duties. Finally, some Members exclude 
certain products from DFQF market access ; the corresponding share of imports is presented as the 
fourth category i n the chart . 
4.7.  The predominant share of LDC exports enter most developed markets duty  free. For example, 
Australia's imports statistics reveal that in the year 2018, 89% of imports from LDCs entered the 
Australian market duty  free, i.e. 14% entered MFN duty free and 75% entered duty free by using a 
preferential trade arrangement. The data also reveals that some 11% of imports paid MFN duties, 
despite being eligible to preferential duty  free rates. Import data from Japan offer a similar picture: 
30% of imports  from LDCs entered MFN duty free, 63% made use of Japan's preferential tariff 
arrangements for LDCs, and around 5% of imports from LDCs did not make use of preferential 
treatment despite being eligibl e. The data also shows that around 2% of LDC imports wer e subject 
to MFN duties . The data for Switzerland shows a large proportion of imports from LDCs taking place 
that are MFN duty free, i.e. 80%, and additional 7% of imports enjoying preferential market access. 
About 13% of LDCs products exported to Switzerl and are not capable of utilizing the granted 
preferences.  
4.8.  The utilization of preferential market access by LDCs  is similar for other developed markets, 
including Canada, European Union, Norway, Switzerland and the United States: t he share of imports 
eligible for preferential treatment but entering MFN dutiable ranges around 5 -15%. In the case of 
the United States ' GSP-LDC scheme , the relatively higher share of MFN dutiable imports from LDCs 
reflects that a significant amount of imports takes place in products that are not covered by its GSP 
scheme for LDCs. In the case of  AGOA, more than 90% of imports from LDC bene ficiaries enter the 
United States  duty free.  
4.9.  Data from developing Members present a more diverse picture. Imports from LDCs entered 
Chinese Taipei and Thailand to a large extent on an MFN duty -free basis. Chile and India show a 
large proportion of imports that were eligible for preferential tariff treatment but where LDC 
exporters did not take advantage of it. The data also reveal for example that around 19% of Korea's 
LDC imports were not covered by preferences and therefore subject to MFN duties.  
  
 
7 Analysis based on import data submitted to the WTO Secretariat through the Preferential Trade 
Arrangements (PTA) Transparency Mechanism  (WT/L/806). For further information on measuring utilization of 
preferential tariffs and data limitation, please consu lt the World Tariff Profiles 2018, pp. 211 -221 
(https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/publications_e/world_tariff_profiles18_e.htm ). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 29 - 
 
  Chart 22: Imports from least developed countries by duty categor y, 201 8 (or latest 
available year)8 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO Integrated Database, September 2019.  
Note:  While Table 4 assumes full utilization of preferences, Chart 22 distinguishes which imports have used 
preferences and which not.  
 
4.10.   Chart 23 p resents a decomposition of LDC exports into four duty categories for each WTO 
LDC Member  based on import data of preference -granting Members . The chart shows that there are 
substantial differences across LDCs with regard to the type of duties applied to their exports when 
entering preference -granting markets . For a number of LDCs, particularl y those export ing primary 
commodities, a large share of exports enter preference -granting Members MFN duty free. There are 
also a number of LDCs that make good use of LDC preferences or other preference schemes. For a 
few LDCs, the share of exports that  do not utilize available preferences is relatively high.  
 
8 The data for Canada and Chines e Taipei refer to the year 2018, data for Australia, the European Union, 
Japan, the Republic of Korea, Norway, Switzerland and the United States to the year 2017, data for Chile and 
Thailand to the year 2016, and data for India to the year 2015.  
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%USA AGOAUSA GSP/LDCThailandChinese TaipeiSwitzerlandNorwayKorea, Republic ofJapanIndiaEuropean UnionChinaChileCanadaAustralia
MFN duty-free LDC scheme or other preference used
Preference eligible but entering MFN dutiable MFN dutiableWT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 30 - 
 
  Chart 23: Exports of LDCs to preference -granting Members  by duty categor y, 2018 (or 
latest available year)  
 
Source:  WTO Integrated Database, September 2019.  
 
4.11.   Table 5 presents utility ratios for LDC exports across 22 product categories9 and 
preference -granting Members. The percentage shares reflect the proportion of imports of a particular 
product that enter either MFN duty free or receive any preferential tarif f treatment. The shares range 
from 0% to 100%. The numerical difference to 100% therefore represents the share of imports 
paying MFN duties. Empty cells refer to product groups where no trade has been recorded.  
4.12.   The presented shares suggest that duty  free or preferential market access for LDCs is often 
very significan t across preference -granting M embers and product groups. For example, 97.2% of 
"animal products" exported by LDCs to Japan are either MFN duty free or make use of one or various 
 
9 For more  information on product categories and HS concordance, see World Tariff Profiles 2019, 
pp. 40-41 (https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/publications_e/world_tariff_profiles19_e.htm ) 
 
 
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%ZambiaYemenVanuatuUgandaTogoThe GambiaTanzaniaSolomon IslandsSierra LeoneSenegalRwandaNigerNepalMyanmarMozambiqueMauritaniaMaliMalawiMadagascarLiberiaLesothoLao People's Democratic RepublicHaitiGuinea-BissauGuineaDjiboutiDemocratic Republic of the CongoChadCentral African RepublicCambodiaBurundiBurkina FasoBeninBangladeshAngolaAfghanistan
 MFN duty free  LDC scheme or other preference used
 Preference eligible but entering MFN dutiable  MFN dutiableWT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 31 - 
 
  preferenti al tariff regimes. At the same time, the results show that for some products , LDC exports 
are not benefitting that much from  duty free market access: either because the products are 
excluded from PTA  or the LDC exporter was unable to meet the necessary  requirements, including 
preferential rules of origin, to obtain preferential tariff treatment.10 
Table 5: Imports of LDC products receiving MFN duty  free or preferential tariff treatment,  
in % of total LDC product imports, 2018  (or lat est available year )11 
(Percentage shares)  
Product Description   
Australia  
Canada  
Chile  
China 
European Union  
India  
Japan  
Korea, Rep. of  
Norway  
Switzerland  
Chinese Taipei  
Thailand  
USA AGOA  
USA GSP/LDC  
Animal products  0 100 0 13.7 91.5 0.8 97.2 42.1 -  100 -  0 100 100 
Dairy products  100 -  0 0 0 -  99.7 -  100 -  -  0.3 -  36.6 
Fruits, vegetables, 
plants  98.8 95.6 0 68.4 96.5 32.8 99.7 5.8 100 50.3 6.6 0.2 96.2 96.1 
Coffee, tea  99.2 100 0 83.7 99.9 0 97.9 88.2 100 98.3 95.7 0 99.9 100 
Cereals and 
preparations  97.5 96.1 0.6 32.1 97.7 2.4 70.5 4.7 100 83.2 10.3 0 91.6 81.5 
Oilseeds, fats and oils  100 97.8 0 95.1 98.8 50.9 99.9 4.5 100 98.5 4 0 97.1 99.9 
Sugars and 
confectionery  99.2 42.4 0.2 0.2 11.2 0 80.3 93.3 100 97.8 -  0 6.4 92 
Beverages and 
tobacco  98.2 86.6 0 0.4 97.1 0 100 92.9 94.6 99.7 0.7 0 95.7 97.6 
Cotton  -  100 0 0.3 100 100 100 -  100 100 100 100 -  -  
Other agricultural 
products  100 99.6 0 13.6 98 60.4 99.3 28.4 100 75.6 80.2 13.3 98.9 99.8 
Fish and fish products  100 99.7 0 77.1 97 10.2 65.3 14.6 36.1 99.8 32.5 78 65 99.6 
Minerals and metals  95.8 98.7 0.3 36.6 99.5 20.1 99.8 93.6 100 97.4 99.7 82.8 99.3 98.4 
Petroleum  100 22.2 0 100 100 99.7 99.8 -  -  -  100 100 85.8 90.5 
Chemicals  70.4 89.5 1.2 82.2 83 0.1 94.5 98.2 100 58.1 3.3 37.2 98.2 69.1 
Wood, paper, etc  78.4 94.7 0 99.9 91.8 39.1 99.2 94.2 100 70.1 99.7 63.6 98.9 53.2 
Textiles  86.2 82.5 3.4 67.1 92.4 0 84 90.6 100 40.2 6.3 3.1 37.8 68 
Clothing  91.7 89.9 14.1 19.4 96.7 0.3 96.4 91.5 100 35.5 0 0 97.7 0.6 
Leather, footwear, etc  38.9 83.9 5.8 69.7 97.3 2 80.4 93.3 100 20.2 25.5 0.1 98.7 20.1 
Non-electrical 
machinery  32.9 99.7 0 2.1 21.2 1.7 100 34.8 100 35.9 91.1 50.3 98.5 87.4 
Electrical machinery  97.6 93.6 52.1 22.2 72.8 9.5 100 94.5 100 62.7 54.4 70.1 84 87.9 
Transport equipment  72.7 90 0 0 92.6 3.4 100 83.2 100 26.4 48.9 12.2 98.2 84.1 
Manufactures n.e.s.  78.8 79.3 6.2 14.9 81.5 0.2 97 67.7 100 62.1 18.1 98 95.7 91.9 
Source:  WTO Integrated Database, September 2019  
 
  
 
10 Discussions on utilization rates and their links to rules or origin requirements are being conducted in 
the Committee on Rules of Origin. For example, at the meeting on 15 -16 May 2019, Members considered a 
Secretariat Note ( G/RO/W/1 85) on the utilization of preferences for agricultur al products.  
11 The data for Canada and Chinese Taipei refer to the year 2018, data for Australia, the 
European   Union, Japan, the Republic of Kor ea, Norway, Switzerland and the United States to the year 2017, 
data for Chile and Thailand to the year 2016, and data for India to the year 2015.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 32 - 
 
  4.3  Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  
4.13.   Regarding market access in goods, Annex Table 6 provides a non -exhaustive list of major 
non-reciprocal preferential market access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs. It 
updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications at the WTO as well as 
submissions made to WTO's Integrated Data Base ( IDB).12 The Table does not include regional or 
bilateral initiatives under which, too, LDCs receive preferences.  
4.14.   Since the last report, one new notification has been received. In June 2019, the 
Russian   Federation submitted a notification ( WT/COMTD/PTA1/N/1 ) on its GSP scheme, including 
the sub-scheme fo r LDCs, which  it has been implement ing in the context of the Eurasian Economic 
Union  since 10 October 2016 . The duty -free coverage offered by the Russian Federation to LDCs 
under this scheme is 61.4%, up from 37.1% duty free coverage under the previous sch eme.13 
4.15.   As has been reported in the past, most of the developed Members grant either full or nearly 
full DFQF  market access. Developing Members, namely Chile, China, India, Republic of Korea, 
Chinese Taipei and Thailand have made notifications concerning their respective DFQF schemes for 
LDCs. Most  of them grant a significant degree of DFQF market access to LDC p roducts, and a number 
of them have reached or are in the process of attaining comprehensive DFQF coverage for LDCs.  
The review of DFQF implementation continues to be a standing item on the agenda of the Committee 
on Trade and Development.  
4.16.   Progress has been  made in the implementation of the Nairobi Decision on Prefere ntial Rules 
of Origin for LDCs ( WT/L/917/Add.1 ). Since the last report, six preference -granting  Members 
(Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz  Republic , Montenegro,  the Russian Federation , Tajikistan  and Turkey) have 
submitted information on their rules of origin using the new notification template  (G/RO/84) . This 
brings the number of notifications to twenty (20), with only two preference -granting Members left 
to notify their preferential origin requirements for LD Cs.14 
4.17.   Table 6  provides  the list of Members that have submitted notifications of their preferential 
treatment to services and services suppliers of LDCs  under the LDC Services Waiver .15 Since the last 
report, the number of notifications has remained the same,  standing at twenty -four (24)  at the end 
of September  2019. Discussion s concerning the implementation of the LDC Services Waiver takes 
place in the Council for Trade and Services ( CTS) where the operationalization of the Waiver remains  
a standing agenda item . The CTS will hold a dedicated session on 29 -30 October 2019 to review the 
operation of notified preferences.16    
 
12 Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Montenegro, Tajikistan and Turkey  have submitted data to 
WTO's IDB, b ut are yet to make a notification pursuant to the PTA Transparency Mechanism ( WT/L/806).  
13 Information on the previous GSP scheme is contained in last year's report (Secretariat Note 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66 ). 
14 Notifications are submitted under the document seri es G/RO/LDC/N/*. Armenia and Iceland are yet to 
notify their preferential origin requirements for LDCs . 
15 See 2011 Decision on the Services Waiver (WT/L/847), and subsequent D ecisions taken at the Bali 
(WT/L/918) and Nairobi Ministerial Conferences (WT/L/9 82) in 2013 and 2015, respectively.  
16 The CTS agreed to the date and format of the dedicated session at its meeting in June 2019 
(S/C/M/139).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 33 - 
 
  Table 6: Notification s under the LDC Servic es Waiver  
Notifying Member  Date of notification  References  
Australia  29-May-15 S/C/N/805  
Brazil  04-Nov-15 S/C/N/839  
Canada  14-Dec-15 S/C/N/792/Rev.1  
Chile 08-Oct-15 S/C/N/834  
China  22-Jul-15 S/C/N/809  
European Union  16-Nov-15 S/C/N/840  
Hong Kong, China  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/810  
Iceland  09-Oct-15 S/C/N/835  
India 29-Sep-15 S/C/N/833  
Japan  31-Jul-15 S/C/N/820  
Korea, Rep. of  10-Jul-15 S/C/N/808  
Liechtenstein  30-Nov-15 S/C/N/841  
Mexico  20-Aug-15 S/C/N/821  
New Zealand  28-Jul-15 S/C/N/813  
Norway  25-Jun-15 S/C/N/806  
Panama  4-May-17 S/C/N/890  
Singapore  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/812  
South Africa  02-Dec-15 S/C/N/853  
Switzerland  30-Jul-15 S/C/N/819  
Chinese Taipei  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/811  
Thailand  17-Feb-16 S/C/N/860  
Turkey  14-Jun-16 S/C/N/824/Rev.1  
United States  03-Sep-15 S/C/N/825  
Uruguay  12-Jan-16 S/C/N/857  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 34 - ANNEX  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 201 8 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2018 2011-18 2016 2017 2018 2018 2011-18 2016 2017 2018 
LDCs  192,814  0.3 -0.8 17.0 12.7 273,227  4.3 -5.3 10.7 10.4 
Exporters of agricultural products  17,957  3.2 4.8 11.4 7.7 51,310  4.5 -4.3 5.7 3.1 
Afghanistan  875 12.8 4.4 30.8 12.2 7,407  1.8 -15.4 16.0 -2.3 
Benin  2,249  6.9 5.5 11.6 13.6 3,808  8.7 12.2 23.8 7.1 
Burkina Faso  3,231  4.3 15.3 14.6 12.4 4,347  8.8 8.6 16.4 11.6 
Burundi  161 3.8 3.2 38.0 -6.5 811 1.1 -14.8 22.6 7.3 
Central African Republic  178 -0.9 34.0 22.2 26.9 419 4.4 16.6 -8.8 13.9 
Comoros  52 10.5 80.8 29.1 31.6 301 1.2 2.7 14.7 19.5 
Ethiopia  2,803  -0.4 -4.3 8.4 -11.4 15,195  7.9 -1.7 -3.8 -5.1 
Gambia  153 7.0 4.3 12.6 44.3 553 7.2 -4.3 42.8 0.7 
Guinea -Bissau  348 5.3 15.7 12.6 5.8 326 4.5 11.2 21.6 16.4 
Kiribati  11 3.6 5.0 28.4 -18.5 100 1.2 6.0 -6.3 -9.1 
Liberia  490 4.2 -1.4 28.2 36.9 1,100  0.7 -22.8 -16.4 1.0 
Malawi  1,013  -4.8 -5.4 -13.5 14.6 2,825  2.2 -4.4 15.3 10.9 
Rwanda  1,108  13.2 6.5 44.5 5.5 2,588  3.5 4.2 -4.7 9.4 
Sao Tom e and Principe  15 4.9 20.6 14.3 -0.9 153 1.9 -1.8 5.5 4.1 
Solomon Islands  620 5.8 9.2 14.3 24.1 585 3.2 -2.6 26.0 2.3 
Somalia  340 -5.9 0.0 -40.9 30.8 1,210  0.1 -1.8 13.9 -1.6 
Timor -Leste  47 19.8 11.1 17.1 99.3 565 8.5 -5.4 1.4 1.9 
Togo 1,105  -0.9 2.5 0.2 6.5 2,095  -0.6 -3.2 -13.5 7.1 
Uganda  3,088  5.2 9.5 16.9 6.4 6,574  2.2 -12.6 15.9 17.5 
Vanuatu  70 0.6 29.2 -6.9 49.8 350 2.0 15.0 -12.2 -5.5 
           
Fuel exportersa 67,424  -5.7 -13.7 24.1 19.8 55,222  0.3 -17.7 12.5 2.1 
Angola  42,124  -6.5 -16.9 25.5 21.7 15,442  -3.8 -37.0 10.9 6.8 
Bhutan  620 -1.2 -4.5 9.2 8.3 1,020  -0.3 -5.5 2.6 -0.9 
Chad 1,900  -12.4 -18.2 -11.1 18.8 3,000  -1.4 -32.4 8.0 11.1 
Myanmar  16,795  8.9 3.5 17.3 21.0 19,510  11.7 -7.0 22.6 1.3 
Sudan  3,485  -14.2 -2.4 32.5 -15.0 7,850  -2.3 -12.6 9.9 -14.1  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 35 -   Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2018 2011-18 2016 2017 2018 2018 2011-18 2016 2017 2018 
Yemen  2,500  -17.6 -75.0 200.0  66.7 8,400  -4.1 14.1 0.0 12.0 
           
Manufacture exporters  59,802  7.7 9.7 7.5 11.7 105,181  8.4 8.0 16.0 19.1 
Bangladesh  39,252  7.0 7.8 2.7 9.5 61,500  7.9 6.6 17.9 16.4 
Cambodia  14,350  11.5 17.9 20.1 18.7 19,070  10.8 6.3 9.9 23.1 
Haiti 1,078  5.0 18.2 -4.1 7.9 4,822  6.9 -7.1 13.3 24.4 
Lesotho  1,230  0.7 4.7 16.3 19.7 2,294  -1.2 -7.8 13.2 8.8 
Madagascar  3,052  9.8 10.0 26.4 7.1 4,031  4.8 6.1 23.8 9.8 
Nepal  840 -1.3 -3.4 6.7 13.2 13,465  12.9 34.3 15.8 30.2 
           
Exporters of non -fuel mineralsb 43,946  3.4 2.6 24.7 6.2 52,869  2.3 -10.3 3.5 10.6 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of  8,800  4.2 -6.9 46.3 11.4 5,200  -0.8 -23.8 2.1 6.1 
Eritrea  573 4.2 -12.5 10.4 19.1 1,170  3.0 2.9 6.7 4.5 
Guinea  4,085  16.1 35.5 90.3 -11.1 3,790  8.8 102.1  -21.3 8.8 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  5,260  13.3 16.2 13.6 9.1 6,340  14.9 -5.3 4.9 12.5 
Mali 2,943  3.1 4.0 2.9 1.2 4,920  5.6 6.6 5.8 14.8 
Mauritania  1,931  -4.9 0.9 23.0 12.1 2,578  0.6 -2.5 10.2 23.1 
Mozambique  5,196  5.4 -2.5 42.0 10.0 6,786  1.0 -37.5 10.4 18.1 
Niger  1,427  1.9 -5.1 16.9 18.3 2,391  1.3 -13.2 13.8 22.5 
Sierra Leone  826 13.1 17.3 6.5 29.2 1,429  -2.6 -30.2 21.8 9.9 
Tanzania  3,853  -2.9 5.2 -14.6 -12.3 8,803  -2.9 -13.8 0.0 -5.4 
Zambia  9,052  0.1 -3.5 25.6 13.1 9,462  4.0 -8.2 9.5 18.5 
Diversified and othersc 3,686  4.9 1.2 12.7 17.7 8,644  4.3 -4.5 21.3 14.7 
Djibouti  168 8.9 4.0 2.4 18.3 804 6.7 -19.0 8.9 4.8 
Senegal  3,517  4.8 1.1 13.2 17.7 7,805  4.1 -2.1 22.8 16.0 
Tuvalu  0 -6.2 8.5 -56.5 60.0 35 3.7 -24.0 42.9 -12.5 
Worldd 18,919,024  0.8 -3.1 10.7 10.0 19,393,603  1.0 -3.0 10.9 10.2 
 a Includes  exporters of electricity (Bhutan).  
 b Includes  exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamond s (normally  included in  
 manufactures according to the UN classification).  
 c Includes  exporters without a clear specialization i n a specific category of goods.  
 d Excluding  re-exports of Hong Kong, China; including EU -intra trade.  
 Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates .  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 36 - Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2011-2019 Q1 
(Indices 20 16 = 100)  
         2018  2019  
 2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 
         
Food and beverages  126 120 120 119 100 100 103 102 105 106 99 98 101 
Food 126 121 122 120 100 100 104 103 107 107 100 99 101 
Cereals  183 187 170 141 115 100 101 115 111 119 116 114 99 
Barley  212 244 205 135 103 100 104 107 108 113 100 106 101 
Maize  183 187 163 121 107 100 97 103 103 109 99 102 103 
Oats 180 176 187 190 127 100 128 130 130 120 126 145 97 
Rice 142 149 134 110 98 100 103 104 107 110 98 100 100 
Sorghum  172 180 171 125 129 100 104 108 117 111 102 103 105 
Wheat  196 193 186 170 130 100 101 130 119 132 139 130 95 
Vegetable oils and protein 
meals  143 143 132 119 96 100 101 95 102 100 91 89 102 
Palm oil  168 147 119 116 88 100 101 87 99 94 83 74 109 
Soybeans  134 148 143 126 96 100 99 94 102 101 86 89 103 
Meat 114 110 113 134 110 100 110 107 111 114 103 99 104 
Beef 103 105 103 126 113 100 107 103 108 106 101 98 109 
Lamb  163 111 116 149 114 100 119 127 135 133 121 117 100 
Swine meat  143 133 139 165 109 100 109 100 106 104 95 93 95 
Poultry  78 85 93 99 103 100 113 118 115 139 112 105 108 
Seafood  92 75 106 113 94 100 106 109 110 119 104 103 105 
Fish 83 66 94 92 74 100 104 105 107 120 98 96 108 
Shrimp  108 91 127 150 128 100 108 115 114 116 116 116 100 
Sugar  144 116 96 94 75 100 89 70 76 68 63 73 99 
Bananas  97 98 92 93 96 100 107 114 118 115 112 113 102 
Groundnuts  96 94 129 119 108 100 108 114 117 120 116 102 92 
Citrus fruit and Orange Juice  104 83 80 88 76 100 91 89 85 93 95 82 87 
Vegetables (Tomato)  120 122 121 123 108 100 112 111 125 106 95 116 105 
Beverages  131 107 93 111 103 100 95 87 90 92 83 85 98 
Coffee  145 116 96 118 99 100 102 89 92 91 84 87 96 
Cocoa beans  103 83 84 106 108 100 70 79 76 89 78 75 103 
Tea 120 121 92 83 118 100 126 104 116 104 98 97 98 
Agricultural raw materials  161 128 122 113 100 100 105 107 110 110 106 102 102 
Timber  110 107 107 108 102 100 98 104 106 105 102 101 101 
Cotton  209 120 122 112 95 100 113 123 122 128 126 117 95 
Wool 133 120 109 99 91 100 118 149 142 151 158 147 104 
Rubber  293 206 170 119 95 100 122 95 104 100 88 85 118  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 37 -          2018  2019  
 2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 
         
Hides and skins  111 113 132 149 117 100 92 79 89 84 75 67 86 
Fertilizers  190 199 153 148 133 100 97 112 108 105 116 119 91 
All metals  171 155 141 125 100 100 112 116 121 120 112 112 106 
Precious Metals  132 137 116 104 94 100 102 102 107 105 98 99 107 
Gold 126 134 113 101 93 100 101 102 106 105 97 98 106 
Palladium  120 105 118 131 113 100 142 168 169 160 156 189 124 
Platinum  174 157 151 140 107 100 96 89 99 92 82 83 100 
Silver  205 182 139 112 92 100 100 92 98 97 88 85 107 
Base Metals  209 172 165 145 106 100 122 130 135 134 125 125 105 
Copper  181 163 151 141 113 100 127 134 143 141 126 127 101 
Alumin ium 150 126 115 116 104 100 123 131 134 141 128 122 95 
Iron ore  287 219 231 166 96 100 121 120 128 114 116 121 117 
Tin 145 118 124 122 90 100 112 112 118 117 108 107 110 
Nickel  239 183 157 176 124 100 108 137 138 151 138 119 108 
Zinc 105 93 91 103 92 100 138 140 163 149 121 126 103 
Lead 129 111 115 112 96 100 124 120 135 128 112 105 104 
Uranium  212 185 146 126 139 100 82 77 70 69 80 89 99 
Total of above  148 136 129 122 101 100 107 108 112 112 105 105 103 
Energy  225 223 217 203 120 100 124 158 147 157 167 152 89 
Natural gas  204 210 213 215 140 100 116 147 146 134 151 157 74 
Crude petroleum  231 235 228 208 118 100 124 157 145 162 169 150 94 
Coal 183 145 127 110 89 100 133 157 151 157 167 152 90 
Propane  301 207 206 214 95 100 158 180 175 179 204 164 84 
All primary commodities  180 172 165 155 109 100 114 128 126 130 130 124 96 
Note:  Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil price index is computed excluding West Texas Intermediate (WTI), in order to better reflect prices in  
international trade. The price of WTI, which accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oil index, became largely dis located from international markets 
in early 2011. Although suited fo r measuring oil price worldwide, the WTI inclusion in a crude oil price index would however considerably distort an index 
meant to measure oil prices in international trade.  
Source:  IMF commodity prices .  
  WT/COMTD/LDC /W/67  
 
- 38 - Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2011-2018 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining p roducts  Manufactures  
Regions * and major 
markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  
Africa  9,631 10,364 100 5 1 1,772 2,558 25 14 5 5,810 5,526 53 11 -1 2,041 2261  22 -16 1 
South Africa  3,761 3,300 100 0 -2 259 255 8 -16 0 2,981 2,321 70 -1 -4 521 722 22 10 5 
Zambia  1,429 1,749 100 -19 3 22 15 1 107 -5 1,140 1,454 83 24 4 266 278 16 -72 1 
Mali (2017)  1,045 1,137 100 23 1 62 87 8 -4 6 739 763 67 38 1 244 286 25 4 3 
Kenya (2010)  341 869 100 11 12 178 605 70 5 17 51 66 8 49 3 112 189 22 19 7 
Egypt  664 835 100 54 3 205 375 45 84 9 438 373 45 31 -2 21 88 11 58 22 
Côte d'Ivoire  437 667 100 6 6 338 430 64 22 4 36 171 26 -19 25 57 67 10 -2 2 
Senegal  75 314 100 557 23 3 37 12 70 45 34 142 45 1,160 23 38 135 43 818 20 
Ghana  320 312 100 24 0 147 160 52 18 1 8 56 18 96 33 166 94 30 10 -8 
Morocco  91 257 100 59 16 75 124 48 47 8 1 56 22 483 90 15 77 30 14 26 
Nigeria  553 220 100 43 -12 181 137 62 22 -4 34 49 22 300 6 339 31 14 5 -29 
Malawi (2017)  233 202 100 -27 -2 89 80 40 -56 -2 13 16 8 -4 3 130 105 52 37 -3 
Tanzania, United Rep. of  170 174 100 27 0 74 72 41 1 -1 45 20 11 48 -11 51 83 47 58 7 
Sudan (2017)  241 168 100 … -6 46 91 54 … 12 139 1 0 … -58 56 77 46 … 6 
Mauritius  98 87 100 -27 -2 70 68 79 -27 0 18 0 0 109 -51 11 18 21 -24 8 
Ethiopia  172 72 100 -30 -12 24 22 30 -31 -2 132 39 55 -34 -16 15 11 15 -2 -5 
Americas  36,552 23,727 100 14 -6 955 1,603 7 13 8 23,305 4,457 19 4 -21 11,764 17,369 73 16 6 
North America  34,139 22,045 100 12 -6 877 1,554 7 13 9 21,299 3,666 17 -2 -22 11,435 16,527 75 16 5 
USA 28,763 18,275 100 12 -6 725 1,322 7 12 9 18,581 3,462 19 0 -21 9,376 13,217 72 16 5 
Canada  4,919 3,037 100 7 -7 112 190 6 31 8 2,583 156 5 -36 -33 1,782 2,679 88 10 6 
Mexico  456 734 100 30 7 40 43 6 -6 1 135 48 7 -8 -14 277 631 86 38 12 
South & Central America  2,413 1,682 100 41 -5 78 49 3 22 -6 2,006 791 47 48 -12 329 842 50 36 14 
Brazil  759 713 100 12 -1 28 17 2 40 -7 544 424 59 -1 -4 186 272 38 38 6 
Uruguay  7 387 100 2,235 77 1 2 0 57 5 1 363 94 15,194 125 5 22 6 70 25 
Chile 738 188 100 25 -18 1 11 6 -4 41 706 0 0 -100 - 32 177 94 27 28 
Colombia  31 129 100 44 23 6 9 7 117 4 0 3 2 5 39 25 118 91 41 25 
Peru 726 104 100 -34 -24 1 3 3 37 26 713 1 1 -99 -61 13 100 96 27 34 
Argentina  44 87 100 10 10 6 1 1 -74 -22 0 0 0 -100 -29 37 85 99 65 13 
Ecuador  62 33 100 40 -9 17 4 13 1,290 -18 39 0 0 -91 -77 7 28 87 23 23 
Costa Rica  11 23 100 7 11 1 0 0 -96 -37 3 0 0 -100 -100 7 23 100 11 18 
El Salvador  20 15 100 -11 -4 13 1 10 -54 -27 0 0 0 -100 - 7 14 90 9 11 
Guatemala  3 4 100 46 2 3 1 20 -4 -17 0 0 0 -97 -64 1 3 80 66 26 
Venezuela , Bolivarian 
Republic of  11 0 100 -92 -54 1 0 0 -100 -100 0 0 0 - -100 10 0 100 -91 -54  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 39 -   All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining p roducts  Manufactures  
Regions * and major 
markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  2011  2018  2018  2018  2011 -
2018  
Asia and Pacific  88,291 93,873 100  
1 9,591 11,643 12  
3 72,676 64,366 69  
-2 5,803 14,876 16  
14 
China  51,001 54,562 100 25 1 3,061 4,563 8 16 6 46,503 45,717 84 28 0 1,438 2,831 5 11 10 
India 12,063 14,105 100 2 2 2,698 2,838 20 -11 1 8,056 7,542 53 17 -1 1,272 2,271 16 -5 9 
Thailand  6,498 8,012 100 20 3 652 1,019 13 -10 7 5,688 5,766 72 32 0 159 1,207 15 17 34 
Japan  5,278 6,182 100 22 2 731 818 13 0 2 3,131 1,004 16 20 -15 1,363 4,329 70 28 18 
Korea, Rep. of  2,751 3,089 100 8 2 230 373 12 0 7 2,018 1,542 50 7 -4 503 1,171 38 12 13 
Indonesia  1,049 1,750 100 37 8 701 414 24 4 -7 275 1,154 66 62 23 72 182 10 7 14 
Malaysia  700 1,083 100 23 6 495 326 30 -7 -6 159 370 34 76 13 43 383 35 21 37 
Australia  457 1,078 100 9 13 49 74 7 10 6 15 76 7 6 26 326 927 86 9 16 
Pakistan  585 942 100 33 7 367 555 59 17 6 192 347 37 87 9 25 40 4 -15 7 
Singapore  1,064 927 100 -13 -2 243 168 18 -14 -5 588 246 27 9 -12 178 495 53 2 16 
Chinese Taipei  6,230 915 100 -56 -24 133 120 13 0 -1 6,005 591 65 -67 -28 91 202 22 18 12 
Hong Kong, China  450 859 100 -6 10 148 256 30 26 8 25 3 0 -17 -24 276 596 69 -15 12 
Philippines  93 210 100 -3 12 62 86 41 -8 5 19 7 3 -50 -14 9 118 56 7 44 
New Zealand  71 159 100 19 12 20 34 21 54 7 2 1 1 280 -13 48 125 78 12 15 
Europe and CIS  43,721 63,827 100 16 6 6,638 6,812 11 1 0 14,654 9,030 14 46 -7 21,901 43,679 68 14 10 
EU (28)  41,742 55,925 100 16 4 6,011 6,130 11 5 0 14,327 8,770 16 46 -7 20,879 40,828 73 14 10 
Switzerland  426 5,287 100 25 43 146 164 3 -10 2 0 0 0 -98 -28 278 1,014 19 20 20 
Norway  262 525 100 5 10 28 68 13 30 14 20 44 8 -2 12 214 412 78 2 10 
CIS 1,290 2,090 100 2 7 454 450 22 -34 0 306 216 10 87 -5 530 1,424 68 14 15 
Russian Federation  1,002 1,508 100 9 6 350 238 16 -24 -5 192 82 5 3,859 -11 460 1,188 79 12 15 
Ukraine  209 323 100 17 6 57 79 24 10 5 109 122 38 11 2 43 123 38 31 16 
Belarus  46 159 100 -49 19 34 126 79 -56 21 0 0 0 257 - 12 33 21 36 15 
Kazakhstan  31 77 100 21 14 12 6 8 -12 -8 4 12 15 238 15 15 59 76 11 22 
Azerbaijan , Rep. of  1 18 100 26 47 1 1 6 -33 0 0 0 0 - - 0 17 94 34 99 
Kyrgyz  Republic  1 5 100 22 22 1 0 1 3 -35 0 0 0 -75 3 0 4 99 22 38 
* Regional totals are based on the information available and  may not coincide with aggregated trade figures.  
… Not available.  
- Not applicable . 
Source : UN Comtrade database and Trade Data Monitor . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 40 - 
 
  Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 201 8 
(Million dollars and percentage shares)  
HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2011 2018  2011 -2018  2011  2018  2011  2018  
2709 Petroleum oils and oils from 
bituminous minerals, crude  86,761  44,690  -9.0 44.4 23.7 5.3 3.8 
6203 Men's  or boy's suits, 
ensembles, suit -type jackets, 
blazers, trousers, bib and brace 
overalls, breeches, etc. (no 
swimwear), not knitted or 
crocheted  4,961  7,679  6.4 2.5 4.1 12.0 18.5 
6110 Sweaters, pullovers, 
sweatshirts, waistcoats (vests) 
and similar articles, knitted or 
crocheted  6,032  7,575  3.3 3.1 4.0 11.2 13.7 
6109 T-Shirts, singlets, tank tops 
and similar garments, knitted 
or crocheted  5,319  7,335  4.7 2.7 3.9 15.0 18.4 
7403 Refined copper and copper 
alloys (other than master alloys 
of heading 7405), unwrought  6,881  6,166  -1.6 3.5 3.3 9.2 9.7 
6204 Women's  or girls' suits, 
ensembles, suit -type jackets, 
dresses, skirts, divided skirts, 
trousers, etc. (no swimwear), 
not knitted or crocheted  3,066  5,997  10.1 1.6 3.2 5.7 11.0 
2711 Petroleum gases and other 
gaseous hydrocarbons  7,101  5,899  -2.6 3.6 3.1 1.7 1.8 
7108 Gold ( including gold plated with 
platinum), unwrought or in 
semi manufactured forms, or in 
powder form  5,727  5,846  0.3 2.9 3.1 2.7 2.0 
7402 Unrefined copper; copper 
anodes for electrolytic refining  2,280  5,589  13.7 1.2 3.0 24.2 47.5 
8105 Cobalt mattes and other 
intermediate products of cobalt 
metallurgy; cobalt and articles 
thereof, including waste and 
scrap  658 3,840  28.6 0.3 2.0 23.2 47.8 
6104 Women's  or girls' suits, 
ensembles, suit -type jackets, 
blazers, dresses, skirts, divided 
skirts, trousers, etc. (no 
swimwear), knitted or 
crocheted  1,636  3,658  12.2 0.8 1.9 8.1 13.6 
2606 Aluminium  ores and 
concentrates  750 3,013  22.0 0.4 1.6 18.2 48.0 
6205 Men's  or boys' shirts, not 
knitted or crocheted  2,173  2,822  3.8 1.1 1.5 14.0 21.0 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates  2,035  2,201  1.1 1.0 1.2 3.9 3.5 
2701 Coal; briquettes, ovoids  and 
similar solid fuels manufactured 
from coal  131 2,125  48.9 0.1 1.1 0.1 1.4 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not 
worked, but not mounted or set  1,839  2,019  1.3 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.7 
2716 Electrical energy  947 1,829  9.9 0.5 1.0 2.6 5.5 
1207 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits 
nesoi, whether or not broken  862 1,753  10.7 0.4 0.9 21.1 37.4 
901 Coffee, whether or not  roasted 
or decaffeinated; coffee husks 
and skins; coffee substitutes 
containing coffee  2,194  1,748  -3.2 1.1 0.9 6.1 5.7 
6403 Footwear, with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of leather  911 1,643  8.8 0.5 0.9 1.7 3.1 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 41 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2011 2018  2011 -2018  2011  2018  2011  2018  
6202 Women's or girls' overcoats, 
raincoats, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets) and 
similar articles, not knitted or 
crocheted, nesoi  446 1,598  20.0 0.2 0.8 3.0 8.2 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or 
not stripped of bark or 
sapwood, or roughly squared  2,177  1,527  -4.9 1.1 0.8 11.7 7.9 
6108 Women' s or girls' slips, 
petticoats, briefs, panties, 
nightdresses, pyjamas, 
negligees, bathrobes and 
similar articles, knitted or 
crocheted  746 1,511  10.6 0.4 0.8 6.8 13.8 
6201 Men's or boys' overcoats, 
raincoats, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets) and 
similar articles, not knitted or 
crocheted, nesoi  638 1,462  12.6 0.3 0.8 5.4 9.5 
2401 Tobacco, unmanufactured 
(whether or not  threshed or 
similarly processed); tobacco 
refuse  1,604  1,409  -1.8 0.8 0.7 12.7 13.0 
6111 Babies' garments and clothing 
accessories, knitted or 
crocheted  620 1,329  11.5 0.3 0.7 8.2 18.2 
4202 Travel goods, vanity cases, 
binocular and camera cases, 
handbags, wallets, cutlery 
cases and similar containers, of 
various specified materials  45 1,322  61.9 0.0 0.7 0.1 2.0 
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or 
crocheted  1,151  1,275  1.5 0.6 0.7 13.7 16.2 
7601 Alumin ium, unwrought  1,651  1,204  -4.4 0.8 0.6 2.9 1.9 
6103 Men's or boys' suits, 
ensembles, suit -type jackets, 
blazers, trousers, bib and brace 
overalls, breeches and shorts 
(no swimwear), knitted or 
crocheted  357 1,198  18.9 0.2 0.6 7.8 14.5 
7103 Precious and semiprecious 
stones (no diamonds), not 
strung, mounted etc.; 
ungraded precious and 
semiprecious stones (no 
diamonds) strung for transport  949 1,180  3.2 0.5 0.6 17.9 13.8 
303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish 
fillets and other fish meat 
without bones; fish livers and 
roes, frozen  1,277  1,178  -1.1 0.7 0.6 5.4 5.1 
905 Vanilla  71 1,154  48.8 0.0 0.6 57.3 78.3 
6206 Women's or girl's blouses, 
shirts and shirt -blouses, not 
knitted or crocheted  552 1,091  10.2 0.3 0.6 4.1 7.2 
2822 Cobalt oxides and hydroxides; 
commercial cobalt oxides  194 1,068  27.6 0.1 0.6 26.9 42.8 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, 
including roasted iron pyrites  1,904  1,047  -8.2 1.0 0.6 1.0 0.9 
713 Leguminous vegetables, dried 
shelled  1,183  1,040  -1.8 0.6 0.6 13.9 13.3 
2710 Petroleum oils  & oils from 
bituminous mins (other than 
crude)  & products therefrom, 
nesoi, containing 70% (by 
weight) or more of these oils; 
waste oils  3,801  1,020  -17.1 1.9 0.5 0.4 0.2 
801 Coconuts, brazil nuts and 
cashew nuts, fresh or dried  896 996 1.5 0.5 0.5 15.8 12.6 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 42 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2011 2018  2011 -2018  2011  2018  2011  2018  
6107 Men's or boys' underpants, 
briefs, nightshirts, p yjamas, 
bathrobes, dressing gowns and 
similar articles, knitted or 
crocheted  390 942 13.4 0.2 0.5 6.8 14.2 
6404 Footwear, with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of textile materials  225 927 22.4 0.1 0.5 1.3 2.2 
306 Crustaceans, live fresh chilled 
frozen dried etc; smoked; in 
shell, cooked by steam or 
boiling water; flours, meals & 
pellets for human consumption  958 904 -0.8 0.5 0.5 4.8 3.4 
6210 Garments, made -up of fabrics 
of felt or nonwovens and 
garments of textile fabrics (not 
knitted etc.) rubberized or 
impregnated, coated etc. with 
plastics  302 881 16.5 0.2 0.5 3.5 9.7 
2609 Tin ores and concentrates  162 872 27.2 0.1 0.5 27.6 66.6 
2605 Cobalt ores and concentrates  900 867 -0.5 0.5 0.5 81.7 93.3 
1006 Rice 415 858 10.9 0.2 0.5 2.1 4.9 
307 Molluscs, live, fresh, chilled, 
frozen, dried, salted or in 
brine; smoked; flours, meals 
and pellets, fit for human 
consumption  478 819 8.0 0.2 0.4 4.2 6.2 
6402 Footwear, with outer soles and 
uppers of rubber or plastics, 
nesoi 195 667 19.2 0.1 0.4 0.7 2.4 
6212 Brassieres, girdles, corsets, 
braces, suspenders, garters 
and similar articles and parts 
thereof, whether or not knitted 
or crocheted  209 665 17.9 0.1 0.4 2.0 5.9 
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed  1,501  660 -11.1 0.8 0.4 6.2 6.0 
Source:  UN Comtrade database (201 1), Trade Data Monitor (201 8) [importer data based on available 
 reporters].  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 43 - 
 
  Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2018  
(Million dollars and annual percentage change)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2018 2011-
2018 2016 2017 2018 2018 2011-
2018 2016 2017 2018 
LDCs  39,770 7 -3 7 16 73,589 2 -8 6 9 
Afghanistan  482 -21 -48 -34 91 1,196 -3 -11 19 13 
Angola  631 -2 -43 38 -36 9,769 -11 -27 6 -24 
Bangladesh  2,981 11 20 13 32 10,437 11 3 19 16 
Benin  557 5 -7 2 72 734 6 -1 -12 27 
Bhutan  183 13 17 11 15 230 4 6 1 13 
Burkina Faso  500 3 16 7 10 1,493 4 6 10 10 
Burundi  17 -2 -9 -2 1 188 0 -12 14 -9 
Cambodia  5,249 11 2 14 20 2,982 12 9 13 10 
Central African 
Republic  52 5 6 -15 15 218 1 -9 4 7 
Chad 196 -6 -14 8 14 2,976 3 -7 -2 20 
Comoros  93 6 -3 9 15 109 0 3 9 19 
Democratic Republic 
of the Congo  58 -22 -25 -30 -3 2,257 -2 -19 15 27 
Djibouti  209 5 -21 6 8 202 5 -15 8 5 
Eritrea  331 5 -21 13 35 161 10 -4 12 16 
Ethiopia  4,498 8 -6 19 38 6,695 11 7 -6 38 
The Gambia  169 3 -12 -1 24 138 9 13 -7 13 
Guinea  94 4 -33 -1 80 766 5 41 7 1 
Guinea -Bissau  29 -6 -41 58 -10 172 8 -38 89 12 
Haiti 495 0 -15 -15 1 1,019 4 -3 2 3 
Kiribati  12 0 31 4 4 61 2 5 -15 0 
Lao People’s 
Democratic Republic  915 8 -1 5 4 1,149 20 -5 11 1 
Lesotho  30 -5 32 -46 -4 330 -5 -4 13 3 
Liberia  25 -29 229 -29 17 212 -10 -30 11 -2 
Madagascar  1,323 2 9 9 6 1,299 1 -8 12 19 
Malawi  151 9 -1 19 16 336 6 -15 17 12 
Mali 446 2 5 3 1 1,607 5 10 5 21 
Mauritania  164 -2 11 -41 23 746 0 -6 24 7 
Mozambique  673 9 -39 49 2 4,138 9 4 -5 40 
Myanmar  5,084 32 -1 1 35 3,873 20 4 15 35 
Nepal  1,780 13 0 30 29 2,275 17 5 28 43 
Niger  232 20 -16 11 14 1,076 3 -17 21 11 
Rwanda  798 12 1 27 9 931 8 3 -7 3 
Sao Tome and 
Principe  82 24 6 -13 14 61 12 -3 -2 3 
Senegal  1,251 3 2 7 11 1,639 4 1 13 12 
Sierra Leone  151 -1 36 -46 4 357 -2 -49 -5 -15 
Solomon Islands  150 5 16 17 11 183 0 12 3 -10 
Somalia  405 … 5 5 3 1,478 … 1 9 2 
South Sudan  217 … 97 10 11 596 … -40 -9 7 
Sudan  1,486 26 -7 18 -15 1,063 -12 -9 -1 -20 
Tanzania  3,749 8 6 7 -2 1,985 -1 -17 -10 2 
Timor -Leste  223 36 8 25 189 349 -10 18 -29 10 
Togo 548 2 13 6 3 435 -1 7 7 2 
Tuvalu  2 -5 0 -8 -8 14 -12 -19 5 7 
Uganda  1,562 0 -8 -17 14 2,528 0 -15 2 23 
Vanuatu  377 4 17 11 5 178 3 -16 4 15 
Yemen  156 -24 -45 -56 14 1,325 -6 16 -18 12 
Zambia  957 5 3 -2 11 1,626 6 -3 10 11 
Memorandum item:            
World  5,769,671  4 1 8 8 5,485 ,181 4 1 6 7 
… Not available.  
Note:  Data include preliminary estimates  for 2018 . 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 44 - 
 
  Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC  preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2019  or latest available  yeara 
Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Armenia 
(2016)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
6 April 2016 43.9%  (electrical machinery, 
chemicals, iron and steel 
products, alcoholic beverages)  IDB 
Australia  Duty- and quota -free 
entry for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada  GSP – Least -developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT)  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000. Extended 
until 31 December 2024.  98.5% (dairy and other animal 
products, meat, meat 
preparations, cereal products)  WT/COMTD/N/15  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1  
WT/COMTD /N/15/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3  
Chile 
(2018) DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
28 February 2014  99.5% (cereals, sugar, milling 
products)  WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1  
China 
(2017)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2010 96.6% (chemicals, transport 
vehicles, machinery and 
mechanical appliances, electrical 
machinery, paper)  WT/COMTD/N/39  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2  
European 
Union  GSP – Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative  
Entry into force:  
5 March  2001 99.8% (arms and ammunition)  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7  
Iceland  
(2018)  GSP – Tariff preferences 
for the world’s poorest 
countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January 2002  91.8% (meat, food 
preparations, vegetables, dairy 
and other animal products, 
plants and trees)  WT/COMTD/N/17  
WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1  
India 
(2016)  Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP)  
Entry into force:  
13 August  2008 94.1% (plastics, coffee and 
tea, alcoholic beverages, 
tobacco, food residues)  WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1  
Japan 
(2018) GSP – Enhanced 
duty- and quota -free 
market access  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007.  
Extended until 
31 March  2021 97.8% (fish and crustaceans, 
footwear, milling products, 
cereal products, sugar)  WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
WT/COMTD/N/2/ Add.15  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16  
Kazakhstan  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2010  62.9% (vehicles, machinery, 
beverages, articles of iron and 
steel)  IDB 
Korea, 
Republic of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000  89.9% (fish and crustaceans, 
mineral fuels, oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, wood 
products, vegetables)  WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1  
Kyrgyz 
Republic 
(2013)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
29 March 2006 99.9% ( meat, fruits, 
chemicals, wood and paper, 
machinery)  IDB 
Montenegro  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2017  93.9% (fish and crustaceans, 
alcoholic beverages, meat and 
dairy products)  IDB 
New 
Zealand  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 100%  WT/COMTD/27  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 45 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Norway  GSP – Duty- and quota -
free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6  
Russian 
Federation  GSP scheme in the 
context of the Eurasian 
Economic Union between 
Armenia, Kazakhstan, 
Kyrgyz Republic and the 
Russian Federation  
Entry into force: 
10 October 2016  61.4% (transport vehicles, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, beverages, iron 
and steel products,  electrical 
machinery, meat products, 
articles of wood ) WT/COMTD/PTA1/N/1  
Switzerland  GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 100%  WT/COMTD /N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5  
Chinese 
Taipei  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
17 December 2003  30.8% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical 
machinery, fish and 
crustaceans, plastics)  WT/COMTD /N/40  
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1  
Tajikistan 
(2017) Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
25 October 2003  3.7% (Duty -free access 
includes machinery, glass 
products, petroleum products)  IDB 
Thailand 
(2017)  DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
9 April 2015  71.0% (transport vehicles, 
electrical machinery, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, iron and steel 
products, apparel and clothing)  WT/COMTD/N/46  
Turkey 
(2016)  GSP 
Entry into force:  
31 December  2005 80.5% (iron and steel 
products, fish and crustaceans, 
food preparations, meat, oil 
seeds and oleaginous fruits)  WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1  
United 
States 
(2018) GSP for least -developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC).  
The Trade Preferences 
Extension Act of 2015 
(Title II) authorizes GSP 
until 31 December 2020  
and makes GSP 
retroactive to 
1 January  2018.  82.2% (apparel and clothing, 
cotton, fibres, footwear, dairy 
and other animal products)  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/ 1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.9  
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act (AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000.  
Extended until 
30 September  2025 
(Title I) 96.5% WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/970  
WT/L/10 45  
WT/L/10 45/Corr.1  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/67  
 
- 46 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
United 
States 
(2018) Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act (CBTPA)  
Entry into force:  
1 October 2000.  
Extended until 
30 September 2025 
(Title III) Duty free for most products, 
including textiles and apparels. 
The Haitian Hemispheric 
Opportunity through 
Partnership Encouragement  
(HOPE) Act of 2006 provided 
new trade benefits, especially 
of apparel imports from Haiti. 
The HOPE II Act of 2008 
enhanced duty -free treatment 
for qualifying apparel imports 
from Haiti. The Haiti Economic 
Lift Program (HELP) Act of 
2010 provided duty -free 
treatment for additional textile 
and apparel products from 
Haiti.  WT/L/950  
WT/L/10 63 
G/C/W/765  
a This table represents a non -exhaustive list of non -reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b The duty-free tariff line coverage can slightly differ with the one shown in Table 4 due to different 
reference years. Major exclusions refer to HS Chapter descriptions.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
__________