JOB/TE/63  
 
10 June 2020  
(20-4129) Page: 1/11 
Committee on Trade and Environment  Original: English  
 
COMMUNICATION ON TRA DE IN PLASTICS, SUST AINABILITY AND DEVEL OPMENT BY 
THE UNITED NATIONS C ONFERENCE ON TRADE A ND DEVELOPMENT (UNCT AD) 
 
_______________  
 
 
 
This document is circulated at the request  of the delegation s of Fiji and China . 
The following communication, dated 8 June  2020,  was received from the United Nations 
Conference on Trade and Development  (UNCTAD) secretariat, represented by the Division on 
International Trade and Commodities.  
 
 
_______________  
 
  JOB/TE/63  
 
- 2 - 
 
  1  INTRODUCTION  
1. I have the honour to submit the following contribution to the WTO Committee on Trade and 
Environment (CTE), in order to provide information and analysis to Members when discussing “trade, 
plastic pollution and a sustainable plastics economy” and transitions to a more circular economy. 
This submission also seeks to complement and respond to some of the topics listed in a recent 
concept note by Fiji and China on “creating a sustainable plastics economy: a WTO role in reducing 
plastics pollution” presented in a speci al workshop at the margins of the WTO Committee on Trade 
and Environment in November 20191 and in other follow -up events.2 This submission has been 
prepared  within the context of paragraph 55 (f) of UNCTAD’s Maafikiano Mandate, which invites 
UNCTAD “to co ntinue to address the nexus between trade, development and environment , and of 
UNCTAD’s ongoing work to advance Sustainable Development Goals 9 (industry, innovation and 
infrastructure), 12 (responsible consumption and production), 13 (climate action), 14 (life below 
water), 15 (life on land), and 17 (partnership for sustainable development). It addresses a number 
of specific  aspects of ongoing discussions, including: trade in plastics and sustainability challenges; 
recent multilateral developments; develo pment considerations relating to trade in plastics and 
sustainability challenges; a synopsis of the geography of trade and trade -related plastic policies; the 
case for plastic substitutes; and the current UNCTAD contribution toward reducing plastic polluti on 
and a more circular, sustainable plastics economy.  
2  TRADE IN PLASTICS AN D SUSTAINABILITY CHA LLENGES  
2. Plastics is a term commonly used to describe a wide range of organic, synthetic and semi -
synthetic materials that are used in a vast and growing range of  applications. In chemical terms, all 
plastics, including synthetic fibres (i.e. nylon) and elastomers (i.e. rubber bands), are polymers; 
large molecules composed of multiple units. The production of plastic and other polymers today 
embraces a wide set of upstream sectors closely linked to oil and gas refining, and petrochemical 
industries. Plastic can also be produced from non -fossil fuel inputs, such as cellulose and other 
biomaterials, but such production today is marginal.  
3. Plastics have become importan t across all industries due to characteristics including 
versatility; durability; diversity in density; solidity; lightweight; insulating properties; low production 
costs; and colourful presentations. The recent COVID -19 pandemic emergency measures have 
underlined the contribution and benefits of plastics used in prophylactic, testing, medical materials 
and devices, and in food conservation. The short -term rise in demand for plastics in the context of 
this medical emergency does not, however, negate the end uring need to pursue greater 
sustainability in the plastics economy and reduced plastic pollution.3  
4. The plastics industry makes over 30 different types of plastic polymers, which have distinctive 
properties  and applications, and are mixed with other mater ials in different degrees . Depending on 
their composition and purity  – and their combination with other materials in final products – they 
also have different levels of potential for recycling and reuse. When linked to trade, plastics c an be 
clustered in six main groups:4  
a. Primary plastics  (e.g. resin pellets, powders, plates, sheets or strip);  
b. Plastic -based inputs (e.g. synthetic fibres, foils, pipes, gooses, parts of other 
manufactured products, etc);  
c. Plastic -based finished goods  (e.g. toys, clothes, and furniture);  
d. Plastic packaging materials  (e.g. bottles, bags, and boxes);  
e. Plastic waste/scrapped plastics  (e.g. already utilised plastic goods or packaging, 
pure, mix recyclable or not);  
f. Secondary plastic waste materials (e.g., recycled plastic inputs).  
 
1 What role for the WTO in addressing plastics pollution?  Workshop co -organized by China, Sri Lanka 
and Morocco , 25 November 2019. Room S1  of the WTO, Geneva, Switzerland. See:  
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/envir_e/cte_week_251119_e/china_251119.pdf . 
2 Informal consultations held at the WTO on 19 February 2020, co -hosted by China, Fiji and the 
Graduate Institute.  
3 Barrowclough, D. and C. Deere, Birkbeck (2020)  “Transforming the Global Plastics Economy:  
The Political Economy and Governance of Plastics  Production and Pollution,” Global Economic Governance 
Programme and SNIS Working Paper 2020, University of Oxford  and Swiss Network of International Studies.  
4 Deere Birkbeck, C  (2020). Strengthening International Cooperation to tackle plastics pollution:  options 
for the WTO.  Graduate Institute (2020).  JOB/TE/63  
 
- 3 - 
 
   
5. Each of these six groups can  be traced to a certain degree  through international trade 
statistics . However , there are important ‘hidden’ trade flows of plastics , such as those embedded in 
other highly -trade goods, used in transportation and distribution, and  which form part of the 
packaging associated with branded products, especially for cosmetics and personal hygiene 
products, as well as processed, packaged foods.  In such cases, the usual classifications for the 
purposes of generating trade statistics do no t readily enable an assessment of the value or volume 
of associated plastic that is exported or imported.5 
6. Globally, 8.3 billion tonnes of virgin (non -recycled) plastic has been produced to date. From 
this amount, 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste had be en generated .6 Plastic production exceeds 300 
million tonnes annually and if current trends continue, another 33 billion tonnes will have 
accumulated around the planet by 2050. Over two -thirds of plastic consumption comes in the form 
of packaging , such as containers and bags , and building inputs , such as plastic pipes and vinyl 
siding .7 
7. Plastic pollution is considered one of the most pressing global environmental challenges 
alongside climate change and biodiversity loss. This is mainly due to the polluting effects of plastics 
production and disposal processes on the air, water and ecosystems, as well as on human and animal 
health. Plastic production, disposal and waste management are responsible for significant 
greenhouse gas emissions, including t hrough open -air incineration and energy intensive recycling 
and incineration facilities.  For example, it has been estimated that plastic -related greenhouse gas 
emissions may represent more than 1 per cent of the global annual carbon budget8 and could 
repre sent up to 15 percent of it by 2050, if no action is taken.9  
8. About 75 per cent of all plastic ever produced has become waste .10 It is estimated that the 
cost of plastic waste externalities plus the cost associated with greenhouse gas emissions from 
plastic  production is US $40 billion annually.11 Increase s in the production and use of plastic s plus 
unmanaged plastic waste disposal is generating significant concerns for developing countries, as 
they are large producers, consumers, exporters, and importers of d ifferent forms of plastic.  
9. Main developing as well as developed countries concerns about the plastic economy relate to 
ecosystem pollution (air, water, and land); health and safety impacts for all living organisms; 
imports of hazardous and other plastic wa stes without prior informed consent; lack of waste 
management capacity and costs of building capacity and clean -up; impacts on infrastructure (rivers, 
roads, sewage and water systems); participation in plastic supply chains; opportunities for 
diversificati on and more value -added in the context of demands for greater sustainability; business 
opportunities linked to provision  of waste management services; impacts that plastic pollution 
policies will have on key exports; and product substitute shifting challen ges, among others.  
 
5 The available data are likely to significantly under -estimate the true volume of plastics produced and 
traded. Deere Birkbeck, C.  Barrowclough D and Christen, J (forthcoming). Global trade Flows in the  Plastics 
Sector , Global Economic Governance Programme and SNIS Working Paper 2020, University of Oxford  and 
Swiss Network of International Studies. Data based on the United Nations International Trade Statistics 
Database (UN Comtrade) , UNCTADstat's Merchandise Trade Matrix , and the Base pour l'Analyse du Comm erce 
International (BACI database).  
6 Geyer, Jambeck , and Law (2017). Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made . Science 
Advances, July 2017. See https://advances.sciencemag.org /content/3/7/e1700782 . 
7 GRID -Arendal (2018). Trade in Plastic Waste.   
8 A carbon budget  refers to the tolerable quantity of greenhouse gas emissions that can be emitted in 
total over a specified time.  
9 Barra, Ricardo and Sunday , Leonard  (2018). Plastics and the circular economy . STAP, GE F and UNEP. 
See: https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/PLASTICS%20for%20posting.pdf .   
10 United Nations (2019).  Advancing Sustainable Development Goal 14: Sustainable fish, seafood value 
chains, trade and climate.  See: https://unctad.org/en/pages/Public ationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=2576 .    
11 UNEP  (2014).  Valuing Plastic: The Business Case for Measuring, Managing and Disclosing Plastic Use 
in the Consumer Goods Industry . See: file:///C:/Temp/ -Valuing  per cent 20plastic_  per cent 20the  per 
cent20business  per cent 20case  per cent 20for  per cent 20measuring,  per cent 20managing  per cent 20and  per 
cent20disclosing  per cent 20plastic  per cent 20use  per cent 20in per cent 20the  per cent 20consumer  per 
cent20goods  per cent 20industry -2014Valuing  per cent 20plasticsF.pdf .   JOB/TE/63  
 
- 4 - 
 
  3  RECENT MULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENTS ON PLAS TICS WASTE AND MICRO PLASTICS  
10. At the 14th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention (COP -14, April –
May 2019), Parties adopted amendments to Annexes II, VIII and IX12 to the C onvention (the so -
called plastic amendments) with the objective of better regulating the transboundary movements of 
hazardous plastic wastes and other plastic wastes, including mixtures of such wastes, and therefore 
subject to its Prior Informed Consent (P IC) procedure. The plastic amendments also clarify that 
plastic wastes destined for recycling and almost free from contamination (e.g. certain single 
polymers or mixtures ) remain excluded from the PIC procedure, allowing such flows to serve as 
inputs for t he recycling business. With the entry into force the Basel Convention Ban13 and Plastic 
Waste amendments, respectively in 2019 and 2021, it will be more difficult for to Parties to the Basel 
Convention  trade hazardous plastics and other plastic wastes unles s destined for environmentally 
sound ly managed recycling or disposal. The amendments show that Parties’ action s can allow the 
adaptation of existing multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) in  response to evolving 
sustainability challenges, including those related to trade. As the Basel Convention plastic waste 
amendments have not yet entered into force, it is too early to assess its impact on trade flows of 
plastic waste and scrap. However, it  is expected that the amendments will contribute to curbing 
flows internationally due to PIC requirements among Parties to the convention.  
11. In November 2019, the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) adopted a resolution 
on marine plastic litter and m icroplastics14 that include the development of guidelines for the use 
and production of plastics, development and implementation of national or regional action plans, 
and the compilation of assessments on the effectiveness of relevant strategies and approac hes to 
combat marine plastic litter and microplastics.  
4  THE DEVELOPMENT DIME NSION OF TRADE IN PL ASTICS.  
12. Developing countries are key players in the global plastics economy. They are not only among 
the world’s largest producers and consumers of plastics and  plastic products, but also key suppliers 
of feedstocks used in plastics manufacturing, the main destination for plastic waste exports, and an 
important source of plastic leakage into the environment.  
13. Plastic production in the developing countries grew at rates significantly above the world 
average in the first two decades of the 21st century.15 As a result, the Global South  (including China)  
has surpassed the developed world in overall plastics production. The combined share of developing 
countries in globa l plastics output rose from 43.5 per cent in 2009 to 58 per cent in 2018, while the 
participation of developed countries contracted from 52.5 per cent to 39 per cent and the stake of 
transition economies remained unchanged at 3 per cent.16 Two in every thre e jobs in the 
manufacture of plastic products are now concentra ted in the Global South: the industry is estimated 
to generate 7.7 million direct jobs in developing countries, compared to 2.9 million jobs in developed 
nations and 500,000 in transition econo mies.17 Plastics manufacturing and processing operations 
 
12 Amendments to Annex II (new entry Y 48), annex VIII (new entry A3210), and annex IX (new entry 
B3011 replacing existing entry B3010). See 
http://www.basel.int/Implementation/Plasticwaste/Amend ments/tabid/8339/Default.aspx .   
13 The Basel Convention “Ban Amendment” provides for the prohibition by each Party included in the 
proposed new Annex VII (Parties and other States which are members of the OECD, the European Union , 
Liechtenstein) of all tra nsboundary movements to States not included in Annex VII of hazardous wastes 
covered by the Convention that are intended for final disposal, and of all transboundary movements to States 
not included in Annex VII of hazardous wastes covered by paragraph 1 ( a) of Article 1 of the Convention that 
are destined for reuse, recycling or recovery operations.  Ban Amendment was a way to address challenges 
faced by developing countries and countries with economies in transition in controlling imports of hazardous 
and other wastes they were unable to manage in an environmentally sound manner but continued to receive. 
See: http://www.basel.int/Implementation/Leg alMatters/BanAmendment/Overview/tabid/1484/Default.aspx . 
14 UNEA (2019). UNEP/EA.4/Res.6 . This is part of the UNEA resolutions on marine litter and 
microplastics . UNEP/AHEG/2019/3/INF/2 . See: 
https://papersmart.unon.org/resolution/uploads/unep.aheg_.2019.3.inf_.2_compilation_of_resolutions.pdf .   
15 PlasticsEurope  (2019). Plastics – the Facts 2019 . Figures include thermoplastics, polyurethanes, 
thermosets, elastomers, adhesives, coatings and sealants and PP -fibres, but exclude PET -fibres, PA -fibres and 
polyacrylic -fibres.  
16 Ibid.  
17 UNCTAD  (forthcoming ). The Development Dimension of Trade in Plastics.  JOB/TE/63  
 
- 5 - 
 
  are unevenly distributed among developing regions, with developing Asia18 alone accounting for 53 
per cent of the industry’s global employment in 2018.19 
14. Developing countries accounted for half of the w orld’s plastics consumption in 2016, closely 
followed  by developed nations (44 per cent) and transition economies (6 per cent).20 The prominent 
role of developing countries as plastics consumers is due mainly to their large populations, as annual 
per capita  plastic consumption in the Global South (27 kg) is low compared to the levels observed 
in North America (139 kg), Western Europe (136 kg) and  Japan (108 kg).21 Nevertheless, per capita 
consumption is growing rapidly in many developing countries due to risi ng incomes, increased 
urbanization and shifts in consumption patterns.  
15. Developing countries are key suppliers of raw materials to the global plastics industry. This is 
especially true for countries with large crude oil and natural gas sectors, as 99.5 per cent of plastics 
are derived from petrochemical feedstocks.22 As demand for fossil fuels for energy is  expected to 
decline in the future, the industry forecasts that petrochemicals  will become a key driver of demand 
for oil and gas, largely in the form of feedstocks for the manufacture of plastics.23 Notably, 27 
developing countries and 5 transition economi es derived more than a third of total merchandise 
export revenues from fossil fuels in 2017.24 In particular, five developing countries (Algeria, Angola, 
Brunei Darussalam, Iraq and Nigeria) derived over 90 per cent of total merchandise export revenues 
from oil and gas alone. Now more than ever before, fossil fuel dependent countries face the urgent 
challenge of diversifying their economies towards more sustainable and inclusive sectors  due to 
historically low oil prices, less travel demand due to the COVID -19 pandemic, and national policies 
to curb greenhouse gas emissions.   
16. Industrialised nations and emerging economies both play a key role in global plastics trade. 
Total exports in primary plastics are preliminarily estimated to amount to US$343.5 billion in 2018 .25 
The United States  of America  and Saudi Arabia each represented approximately a tenth of the global 
export market.26 The m ain importers of primary plastics were China, Germany and the United States. 
Total exports of synt hetic fibres, the biggest co mponent of the plastic -based inputs group, was 
estimated at US$475 billion in 2018. China was the main exporter, with a 40 per cent share, followed 
by Germany and Viet Nam, and the United States was the main importer.27 Exports of ‘empty’ plastic 
packaging materials (as products in their own right) were dominated by China with US$52 billion 
exported in 2018 (19 per cent of total exports) and Germany (10 per cent) .28 In addition to this 
trade in empty plastic packaging, tens of millions of ton nes of additional  plastic packaging are 
integral in thousands of products traded internationally .    
17. Exports of plastic waste, parings and scrap were estimated at US$4.3 billion in 2017 (excluding 
re-exports), with 71 per cent originating in developed countries, most notab ly in the European Union 
(40 per cent), the United States (15 per cent) and Japan (12 per cent).29 Imports were concentrated 
in the developing world (75 per cent), particularly in China (64 per cent). As imported waste plastics 
can cause serious and irreversible environmental pollution, China banned the import of non -
industrial plastic waste in 2018. L ater other trading partners in developing Asia, including Indonesia, 
Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Taiwan Province of China also imposed 
 
18 Developing A sia excludes Japan, the Caucasus, Central Asia and Western Asia.  
19 PlasticsEurope (2019) and UNCTAD (forthcoming). Latin America and the Caribbean come at a distant 
second place (10 per cent), followed by the Middle East and Northern Africa (5 per cent) an d sub -Saharan 
Africa (1 per cent).  
20 UN Environment (2018). Mapping of global plastics value chain and plastics losses to the environment 
(with a particular focus on marine environment) . 
21 Ibid. Substantial variance exists among developing regions, with La tin America and the Caribbean and 
China having the highest rates (56 kg and 45 kg, respectively), and Africa and India the lowest (both at 
13 kg). 
22 European Bioplastics  (2017). Bioplastics market data . 
23 BP (2018). BP Energy Outlook 2018 . 
24 UNCTAD  (2019). Commodities and Development Report 2019: Commodity Dependence, Climate 
Change and the Paris Agreement . 
25 Deere Birkbeck, C.  Barrowclough D and Christen, J (forthcoming). Global trade Flows in the Plastics 
Sector , Global Economic Governance Programme  and SNIS Working Paper 2020, University of Oxford  and 
Swiss Network of International Studies.  
26 Ibid.  
27 Ibid. 
28 Ibid. This is an under -estimat ion as packaging can be used in other applications . 
29 UNCTAD calculations based on UN Comtrade . JOB/TE/63  
 
- 6 - 
 
  their import restrictions due to the limited capacity of local waste management systems and following 
public outcry, when some incoming shipments were also revealed to contain hazardous plastic waste. 
In 2019, global trade in plastic waste was 46 per cent lower than before the introduction of those 
import bans30.  
18. Development -related constraints on the capacity of developing countries to manage waste are 
a major source of plastic pollution. Nearly 93 per cent of global macroplastic leakage into the 
environment is estimated to originate in developing countries, mostl y through the mismanagement 
of solid waste (open dumping and inadequate landfilling) and littering.31 In addition, developing 
countries are estimated to be the source of 62 per cent of global microplastic leakage, from sources 
as varied as laundry, cosmetic s, personal care products, tyres and city dust.32 Improved solid waste 
managem ent and wastewater treatment coverage could help prevent the leakage of macroplastics 
and microplastics into inland waterways and oceans.  
19. SDG 12 on sustainable consumption and pro duction is of particular relevance to the plastics 
economy. A change of paradigm away from linear production models and towards a circular economy 
entails both reduced production and increased reuse and recycling of plastics and plastic products. 
To promot e international circular supply chain s and prevent developing countries from becoming a 
dumping ground for undesirable wastes , challenges at hand include  greater transparency on the 
treatment of waste export s, improved measures to prevent illegal or unsust ainable waste shipments, 
and international agreement on definitions of key terms, such as “recyclable” and “biodegradable” 
products.  
20. The proliferation of restrictions on the sale and consumption of certain types of plastics also 
affects trade in downstrea m industries that use or incorporate plastics and that are of importance to 
developing countries. For example, restrictions on plastic use could make it more burdensome and 
expensive for exporters to ensure product freshness and meet sanitary and phytosani tary 
requirements, and also for recycling companies to find reliable sources for inputs.  
5  THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRA DE AND TRADE -RELATED  PLASTIC POLICIES  
21. Awareness of and policy action on plastic pollution as a systemic issue linked to global trade 
is increasing . Over the past decade, the number of WTO notifications of trade measures involving 
plastics increased at a rate of 28  per cent  annually.33 From 2015 onwards, members have 
progressively shifted to plastic -selective policies as opposed to horizontal measures  including 
plastics, for which notifications have been diminishing (figure 1). Plastic -selective policies made up 
86 per cent of plastic -related measures notified to the WTO in the biennium 2017 -18 compared to 
56 per cent in 2015 -16. This trend may have fu rther accelerated in recent times following 
international and national policy developments, including the recent Basel Convention’s amendments 
related to plastic waste and the implementation of extraordinary measures in response to the 
COVID -19 pandemic, e specially when related to medical materials and devices.34 
  
 
30 Ibid. 
31 UN Environment (2018).  
32 Ibid. 
33 Compound annual growth rate (CAGR).  
34 At the time of writing, s ome trade restrictions in the form of import and export bans and controls 
were starting to emerge on certai n vital medical materials and devi ces (among which a number of plastic 
products such as personal protective equipment (PPE) , animal trade and certain food stocks in order to avoid 
shortages or further transmission vectors by some countries. See WTO notific ations on COVID -19 at 
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/Covid19_e/Covid19_e.htm .   JOB/TE/63  
 
- 7 - 
 
  Figure 1. Plastics trade and trade -related measures notified to the WTO, 2009 -18 
 
Number of notified measures, plastic -selective vs. horizontal incl. plastics  
 
Source:  UNCTAD analysis on data from the WTO Environmental Database (2020).  
Note:  Analysis conducted on a sample of 127 measures listed in 104 notifications by 43 Members . The 
sample was derived from a bulk extraction of notifications containing the keyword “plastic” (n=128). 
Measu res regulating non -plastic goods whose notification only incidentally mentions  plastics, or 
whose primary objective is not to address plastic pollution or plastic -related environmental and 
health concerns were excluded. Selective measures are policies with  a clear and unequivocal focus 
on plastics in terms of object (product) or purpose, while horizontal measures are policies that apply 
to a basket of goods or material inputs, including but not limited to plastics.  
 
22. The mix of plastics trade and trade -related environmental measures notified by members 
changes with development status. At the global level, technical barriers to trade (TBTs) - in the form 
of technical regulations and specifications (45 per cent) or conformity assessment procedures (12 
per cent)  - make up the bulk of notifications (57 per cent) (table 1). Import licenses, notified as 
licensing procedures (17 per cent) or quantitative restrictions (3 per cent), are also widely used 
trade measures, as is the case for import bans and prohibitions (1 0 per cent). Developed economies 
rely to a larger extent on technical regulations or specifications (67 per cent of notified measures), 
provide subsidies to private firms in the form of direct transfers (14 per cent) and have public 
procurement schemes in place (14 per cent). By contrast, policy tools such as import licenses and 
bans/prohibitions are  commonly used  by developing countries and they account for 27 per cent and 
10 per cent of notified measures respectively. One out of four measures notified by least developed 
countries (LDCs) is a conformity assessment procedure.  
  
JOB/TE/63  
 
- 8 - 
 
   
Table 1. Plastics trade and trade -related measures notified to the WTO, 2009 -18 
Number and share  of notified me asures , by type  of measure  and development status of reporter  
 
Source:  UNCTAD analysis based on data from WTO Environmental Database (2020)  
Note:  See note to figure 1. Totals may not some up to 100 due to rounding.  
 
23. The policy spectrum of trade -related environmental measures notified to the WTO is diverse 
and reflects the comparative advantage of developed vs. developing economies in the production 
and export of different plastic goods. Measures range from product sta ndards for limiting leakage of 
microplastics into the environment (e.g. cosmetics, textiles and toys) to bans on imports of single -
use plastic bags. In general, developing countries tend to rely more on “defensive” policies with a 
strong import focus. Proh ibitions on import of certain types of plastic waste are a case in point. On 
the other hand, policies by developed economies tend to focus on regulating or supporting economic 
activities in a way that encourages shift to green or circular business models. These include, for 
example, schemes for public procurement of eco -friendly products and incentives for the use of 
plastic waste as inputs.  
6  A CASE FOR PLASTIC S UBSTITUTES : OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR 
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES  
24. A key area of interest for pro moting a more sustainable plastic economy is to make use of 
existing substitutes that can perform the same or similar functions than plastic but without its 
negative health or environmental impacts. Here, when referring to plastic substitutes, the focus is  
on non -fossil fuels based plastic materials from mineral or organic/biomass origins. Such non -plastic 
substitutes could allow the reduction and/or phase out chemically based polymers used in certain 
value chains, if sufficient incentives and demand emerge , and/or if the imposition of restrictions on 
plastics and requirements for use of non -plastic substitutes continue to increase.  
25. Developing countries are key suppliers of materials that may substitute plastics in some of 
their functions, while reducing ne gative impacts on the environment and human health, including 
materials such as jute, cotton, natural rubber, milk protein, and paper and cardboard. Increased 
demand for these products could create trade and investment opportunities and promote sustainable  
development in the Global South. For example, jute production is concentrated in developing 
countries, which accounted for 92 per cent of exports in 2019, with Bangladesh (74 per cent) and  
Number Share Number Share Number Share Number Share
Government Procurement Public procurement 3 2% 3 14% - - - -
Import licences 21 17% - - 21 23% - -
Import quotas 3 2% - - 3 3% - -
Export licences 1 1% - - 1 1% - -
Ban/Prohibition 7 6% - - 6 7% 1 6%
Import licences 4 3% - - 4 4% - -
Export licences 1 1% - - 1 1% - -
Ban/Prohibition 1 1% - - 1 1% - -
Technical regulation or specifications 1 1% - - 1 1% - -
Grants and direct payments 4 3% 3 14% 1 1% - -
Tax concessions 3 2% - - 3 3% - -
Ban/Prohibition 5 4% 1 5% 2 2% 2 13%
Conformity assessment procedures 15 12% - - 11 12% 4 25%
Technical regulation or specifications 57 45% 14 67% 34 38% 9 56%
Risk assessment 1 1% - - 1 1% - -
Country group 127 100% 21 100% 90 100% 16 100%
All sample 100% 17% 71% 13%TotalTechnical Barriers to TradeHarmonized types of measuresWorld Developed economies
Subsidies and Countervailing 
MeasuresDeveloping and 
transition economiesLeast developed 
countries (LDCs)
Import Licensing Procedures
Quantitative Restrictions
Sanitary and Phytosanitary 
MeasuresWTO AgreementJOB/TE/63  
 
- 9 - 
 
  India (9 per cent) being the main suppliers.35 Likewise, developing  countries accounted for 94 per 
cent of natural rubber exports in 2019, with Thailand (31.5 per cent), Indonesia (30 per cent) and 
Côte d’Ivoire (8.5 per cent) being the principal suppliers.  
Table 2 below presents an illustrative list of some of the top po tential plastic substitutes 
that could be identified for analysis and further research.  
 
Table 2 : Illustrative list of potential top plastic substitutes  
Product  Origin  Main uses  Properties  Health 
impact  Environmental impact  
Glass  Sand 
based  Food and 
pharmaceutical 
products 
containers, and 
construction 
material  Solid, fragile, 
flexible, 
insulating, 
microwavable, 
heavy but 
tradable  Very good 
insulating 
material and 
non-toxic36  It does not contain chemicals 
or carbon (only minerals), 
reusable, 100 per ce nt 
biodegradable and recyclable  
Pottery 
and 
ceramics  Mineral 
and water 
based  Tableware, 
container and 
ornamental uses  Solid, fragile, 
flexible, 
supports heat, 
heavy but 
tradable  Non-toxic 
material  Reusable, 100 per cent 
biodegradable and recyclable  
Natural 
fibres  Plant- 
based 
(e.g. jute, 
cotton, 
coconut, 
palm)  Textiles, 
packaging, 
ropes, clothes, 
furniture, etc  Strong, 
flexible, light, 
and fully 
tradable  Non-toxic. 
Production can 
allow carbon 
stocks  Reusable, 100 per cent 
biodegradable and recyclable.   
Paper 
and 
carboard  Cellulose 
based  Bags, boxes, 
packaging, 
decoration, 
inputs industrial 
products  Flexible, light, 
and fully 
tradable  Non-toxic Reusable, 100 per cent 
biodegradable and recyclable. 
Increase in use may generate 
pressure on timber 
extraction, unless from 
managed or certified forests 
or from recycling.  
Rice 
husks & 
other 
organic 
wastes  Organic 
wastes  Cups, cutlery, 
dishes, 
construction 
components and 
inputs for 
composite 
materials  Flexible and 
light, and 
tradable.  Non-toxic with 
insulation 
properties  100 per cent biodegradable  
Milk 
protein  Casein -
based  Furniture 
cushions, 
jewels, and 
packaging   Flexible and 
light, and 
tradable.  Non-toxic with 
insulation 
properties  100 per cent biodegradable  
Natural 
rubber  Plant 
based 
latex (a 
natural 
polymer)  Used before 
plastics as the 
main 
elastomer .37 
Shoes, toys, 
containers, 
tubes, auto  Strong, 
flexible, light, 
insulating, 
microwavable, 
and fully 
tradable  Natural rubber 
is not toxic. 
Toxicity comes 
from chemical 
additives 
applied in 
manufacture  Pollution effects after 
disposal. It can be reused, 
recovered and recycled with 
certain limitations (e.g. after 
vulcanisation38 and use but 
some polluting effects). Level 
of recyclability depends on 
process used and chemical  
 
35 UNCTAD calculations based on UN Comtrade.  
36 Of the material itself. It is assumed it not mi xed with toxic chemicals.  
37 A polymer with viscoelasticity .  
38 Vulcanization refers to a range of processes for hardening rubbers . JOB/TE/63  
 
- 10 - 
 
  Table 2 : Illustrative list of potential top plastic substitutes  
Product  Origin  Main uses  Properties  Health 
impact  Environmental impact  
  parts, and 
clothing.   of by-
products.  additives applied. Slow 
biodegradability. Rebuilding 
caoutchouc tree farms can 
increase carbon stocks.  
Source:  UNCTAD compilation (2020) based on literature review. Additional research would be needed to 
better understand current trade flows of these baskets of nature based plastic substitutes and how 
demand and production could be scale up in order to reduce plast ic use in relevant value chains.  
 
26. Table 2 clearly shows that these types of substitutes  do not generate health risks and can 
directly assist in the creation circular economy circuits by reducing plastic use and by enabling  the 
reuse and recyclability of m aterials. Importantly, each of these are environmentally friendlier or 
preferable if compared to the plastic alternative (perhaps apart from by -products of natural rubber). 
Many additional plastic substitutes  exist, but the ones listed above are among thos e environment 
friendly products and commodities that are highly traded and where production within existing value 
chains could be expanded. Many of these products are also key exports from developing countries 
that could play a larger role in shifting from  a less plastic intensive or non -plastic economy. Further, 
it is also important to note tha t plastic substitutes offer important employment and livelihood 
opportunities with developing countries, and likely more than in plastic value chains  as the former 
are labour intensive. Also, production and processing of natural fibres can have positive employment 
opportunities for women. The value of  global jute exports stood at above US$210 billion in 2018 ,39 
for instance,  with considerable further  opportunity for gr owth, value addition and innovation. 
Bangladesh recently presented to the WTO on the importance of trade in jute for sustainable 
development as a versatile and complementary response the impacts of plastic pollution both on the 
terrestrial and marine envir onment.40 Currently, the Bangladesh jute industry employs about 
500,000 people and earns annual revenue of US$620 million.41 Exploring the production and 
commercial of non -fossil fuel plastics substitutes could allow substitutability, emergence of new 
busine ss, local employment and opportunities for development in many cases with existing 
technologies.  
7  UNCTAD’S CONTRIBUTIO N TO THE TRADE IN PL ASTIC AND SUSTAINABI LITY DEBATE  
27. At UNCTAD, plastic pollution and waste management have been identified as challenges t o be 
addressed when promoting sustainable manufacturing, circular economy, and sustainable blue 
economy approaches. Research and policy dialogue on plastic pollution and waste have been 
developed within the context of UNCTAD’s work stream s on oceans econom y,42 circular 
economy ,43,financing a global green deal, and statistics. Efforts are also being deployed to analys e  
trends on trade in plastics and identify plastic substitutes that can reduce plastic use and support 
the growth of related  industries in devel oping countries. In addition, UNCTAD is partnering with the 
United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) to deliver some aspects of the 
Sustainable Manufacturing and Environmental Pollution (SMEP) programme,44 which will generate 
evidence and identify practical solutions for reducing plastic pollution.   
28. UNCTAD is also contributing to initiatives on the transformation of the global plastic economy  
in partnership with the Graduate Institute of International and D evelopment Studies , on the role of 
financia l, institutiona l and industrial policies and synergies with efforts to promote a Global Green 
 
39 Global Trade (2019). Global Jute Market 2019 – Bangladesh Continues to Dominate Exports, Despite 
Decline in the Past Few Ye ars. See: https://www.globaltrademag.com/global -jute-market -2019-bangladesh -
continues -to-dominate -exports -despite -decline -in-the-past-few-years/ . 
40 Presentation by the Permanent Mission of Bangladesh to the WTO, 27 November 2019.  
41 ILO (2016). Jute means jobs in Ban gladesh.  See: 
https://www.ilo.org/dhaka/Informationresources/Publicinformation/features/WCMS_511710/lang --
en/index.htm . 
42 See https://u nctad.org/en/Pages/DITC/Trade -and-Environment/Oceans -Economy.aspx . 
43 See https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DITC/Trade -and-Environment/Circular -Economy.aspx . 
44 See https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DITC/Trade -and-Environment/Sustainable -Manufacturing -
Environmental -Pollution.aspx .   JOB/TE/63  
 
- 11 - 
 
  New Deal to address the climate crisis ,45 and on the impacts of marine plastic pollution with the 
International Oceans I nstitute.  
29. UNCTAD stands ready to support Member States under its traditional pillars of policy research, 
technical cooperation and consensus building in the trade in plastics realm. At the request of Member 
States, a more precise mandate could be given to the UNCTAD secretariat at the forthcoming 
UNCTAD 15 Ministerial Conference to cooperate with the WTO, UNEP, the Basel, Rotterdam and 
Stockholm Conventions Secretariats, FAO and UNECE in supporting Member’s actions on trade in 
plastics and sustainability, i ncluding on plastic substitutes.  
 
__________  
 
45 See UNCTAD (2019). Trade and Development Report: Financing a Global Green New Deal. Geneva 
and New York. ISBN:978 -92-1-112953 -3.