WORLD TRADE
ORGANIZATIONIP/C/W/398
WT/WGTTT/W/5
14 February 2003
(03-0972)
Council for Trade-Related Aspects
of Intellectual Property Rights
Working Group on Trade and Transfer of TechnologyOriginal:  English
REFLECTION PAPER ON TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY TO DEVELOPING
AND LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
Communication from the European Communities and their member States
The following communication, dated 12 February 2003, has been received from the
Permanent Delegation of the European Commission with the request that it be circulated to theCouncil for TRIPS and the Working Group on Trade and Transfer of Technology.
_______________
1. At the Ministerial Conference in Doha, WTO Members underlined the importance of
technology transfer (TT) for development.  The European Communities and their member States (EC)
consider that this question is crucial and intend to contribute actively to the two exercises decided in
Doha:  first, examination of the relationship be tween trade and transfer of technology in the
framework of a new Working Group;  second, notification and monitoring of the implementation of
(TRIPS) Article 66.2.
2. This Reflection Paper is conceived as both a complement to the recent notification made by
the EC on the implementation of Article 66.2 and a preliminary contribution to the discussion on its
monitoring.  It primarily aims at clarifying how "technology transfer" takes place and at identifying
the problems faced by least-developed countries (LDCs).  Its intention is not to draw operational
conclusions at this stage.
3. The following analysis is based on the clear understanding that obligations for developed
country Members under (TRIPS) Article 66.2 to provide incentives to enterprises and institutions in
their territories for the purpose of promoting and encouraging technology transfer only applies to
least-developed country Members.  It nevertheless appeared appropriate to look at the issue of
technology transfer from a broader perspective for reasons of methodology, because little data isavailable that exclusively refers to LDCs.  Therefore, the paper has to rely to a certain extent on
surveys and experiences related to more advanced developing countries (DCs).  In addition, taking
into account the important and more comprehensive ro le of technology transfer, the EC considered it
useful to situate this reflection paper in a broader context by providing a general overview of the
issues, including the role played by intellectual property rights (IPRs).IP/C/W/398
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I. PRELIMINARY REMARKS
4. It is widely recognised that new technologies, if successfully incorporated into the production
system, lead to improvements in productivity, and as a consequence to a higher growth rate.
However, research and development activities generating such technologies are usually carried out bycompanies and organizations originating from industrialized countries, and to a very large extent from
the most developed ones.  For the DCs, and in particular the LDCs which have little or no research
capacity, the question is how to access these technologies and use them to achieve sustainable
development.
5. The concept of TT, as discussed for decades in the context of development policy, is based on
the assumption that DCs, and in particular LDCs, ne ed the techniques invented and used in developed
countries to acquire technological capacity, on the basis of which development can be achieved morerapidly and the so-called "technology gap" can be filled.
i  The difficulty has always been to translate
this assessment into concrete results.ii
6. As the EC underlined in its recent Communication to the above mentioned Working Group
(Communication from the EC, WT/WGTTT/1 of 10 June  2002), the first step is to move towards a
common and precise understanding of TT and examine it in the new context of growing liberalizationand globalisation of world markets.  What is technology made of?  What are the channels through
which TT occurs, and under what conditions?  What are the practical barriers that economic players
have to face?
7. Examination of these questions may help us to find out the parameters that make TT more or
less successful and in particular to clarify the specific role played by IPRs.  Finally, it may help toidentify the most useful incentives developed countries give to their enterprises and institutions in
order to contribute to a "sound and viable technological base" in LDCs, in accordance with
Article 66.2 of the TRIPS Agreement.
II. TYPES OF TECHNOLOGIES THAT CAN BE TRANSFERED
8. "In its original sense, technology implies a k nowledge both theoretical and empirical of given
techniques.  Products and machines constitute its visible and tangible aspects, but technology also has
an intangible component that is present in the minds and memories of the individuals, in the
organization structures and in the behaviour".
iii  This intangible component is usually called
"know-how" and is crucial for the creation of a technological base.  Although the term "transfer"
gives the impression of a simple process, the successful introduction of a new machine into the
production system in reality requires some scientific, organizational and managerial knowledge.
9. A clearer idea of the different components that constitute the technology is contained in a
definition that was used by the United Nations:  "It is commonly argued that there are four key aspects
to technology transfer:  technoware,  or the physical objects or equipment;  humanwar e, which
includes skills and human aspects of technology management and learning;  infoware , including
designs, blueprints which constitute the document-embodied knowledge on information and
technology;  and orgaware , which covers production arrangement linkages within which the
technology is operated".iv
10. The private sector is undoubtedly the main source of technologies, in particular because it is
not only in a position to transfer physical objects a nd equipment, but also to accompany them with the
necessary skills.  However, public institutions and non-commercial organizations may also be able to
provide some technologies, in particular in public utility sectors.  Another example is agriculture,IP/C/W/398
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where research institutions supported by public and non-commercial organizations are a key source
for technology development in, and technology diffusion to, DCs and LDCs.v
11. Before elaborating on the different types of technologies and on the ways and means of
transferring them, it should be emphasized that the willingness of isolated players - whethertechnology owners or beneficiary firms - is not the only crucial factor.  The absorption capacity of the
beneficiary country is also a key element.  It is limited by the quality of the education system and the
technical skills of the workers, the existing infras tructures and the characteristics of the production
system, the effectiveness of the banking system, the commercial environment, and so on.  As a
consequence, not every technology is appropriate to every domestic situation and the local
environment needs to be carefully evaluated before acquiring or transferring a new technology.
12. This is particularly true for LDCs, who are co nstrained in their absorption capacity with over
50 per cent of the total population living in extreme poverty, literacy rates of only 51 per cent, low
installed electricity capacity and poor communication infrastructures, including access to the internet,
a key facilitator of technology transfer (e.g. only 1.1 fixed or mobile telephone lines per
100 inhabitants, and 0.2 Internet connections per 100 inhabitants).
vi  In the medium-long term, it is
therefore crucial to improve global absorption capacity by means of appropriate domestic policies andcapacity building.  The education aspect is particularly important for the capability of the local
workers to adapt the technologies, upgrade them as time goes by and reach a higher grade of
technological autonomy.
13. Finally, the environmental dimension of technolo gy transfer should be borne in mind:  the
challenge is not only to attract as much technology as possible in LDCs and more generally in DCs,but also to make sure that such transfer best contributes to the objective of sustainable development.
As recalled in paragraph 6 of the Doha Ministerial Declaration, the objective of sustainable
development is a common overarching commitment of WTO Members.
vii
III. WAYS OF ACQUIRING TECHNO LOGIES AND CONSTRAINTS ON TT
14. There are several channels through which the technologies mentioned in paragraph 9 are
usually transferred, and in each case there are some practical difficulties which DCs, and in particular
the least developed ones, may have to overcome.
A. PHYSICAL OBJECTS AND EQUIPMENT :  ACQUISITION BY IMPORTATION AND BUSINESS
PARTNERSHIP
15. For the purpose of reaching a higher technolog ical level, the physical objects needed by DC
firms, and in particular those in LDCs, are basica lly machines and intermediate goods, that will help
them to produce in a better, cheaper and environmentally-sounder way.
(a) Importation of machines and intermediate goods
16. Importation of machines and intermediate g oods is a major channel for international
technology transfer.  The purchase of technological goods is a way to appropriate the innovation that
was carried out by others.  It is key for firms that cannot afford long-term investment in research and
that need already tested equipment or material.viii
17. However, it must be recognised that machines or intermediate goods that required high levels
of research may be expensive.  Buyers have no control over competition among supplying industries.
However, countries in need of technology transfer can usefully adapt their trade (and especially
customs) policies with a view to achieving their public objectives and preferences.  As a matter ofIP/C/W/398
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fact, DCs and LDCs are in a position to actively seek reductions of tariffs and the removal of
unjustified non-tariff barriers, in order to facilitate access to technological goods by their companies
and, in particular, favour the acquisition of clean technologies and pollution control and measurement
equipment.ix
18. DC and LDC firms may also face difficulties in identifying the products that are:
(a) available on the market;  and (b) appropriate to their production system. Evaluating local needs,
finding the right technology supplier, drafting a contract, etc. have a cost that may be high, especially
for LDC firms.  These firms may need to have simplified access to technological information as well
as expertise.
19. In this context, initiatives that give informa tion about the "state of the art", team up partners
or finance relevant studies are welcome.  One could also mention projects that assist DC and/or LDC
firms or institutions at each stage of the technology selection process, and provide training in
equipment management and maintenance.
(b) Business partnership
20. In addition to importation, several business partnerships are worth mentioning in this context:
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Built Operate Transfer (BOT) agreements, subcontracting, licensingand franchising, etc. may give the opportunity to acquire machines and intermediate goods.
21. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is indeed often accompanied by the transfer of production
factors.  It offers the advantage of involving th e foreign investors directly and in the long term.
Before embarking on operations such as the creation of a subsidiary or a joint venture, investors
carefully analyse the economic structure of the host country, its production system, and other factorsrelevant to the strategic decision to invest.  In so doing, they assess the local needs and identify
technologies suited to the local environment.  In most cases, they also provide training and ensure
both maintenance and improvement of the equipment.
22. In this context, the particular problems of the LDCs in attracting FDI must be recognized.
Over the past decade, whilst global FDI figures have increased almost five times over, only0.5 per cent of global FDI flows have been invested in 49 LDCs.
x
B. ACCESS TO DOCUMENT -EMBODIED KNOWLEDGE AND LICENSING
23. In countries with a patent systemxi, information on technology is freely available in
databasesxii, as patent applicants are required to disclose the technical elements on which their patent
is based.  Most registers of patents provide, inter alia , a description of the patent, a list of the claims,
the drawings, an abstract and the names and addresses of the right holders.  This has practical
consequences, not only for scientists wishing to undertake further research, but also for firms orinstitutions wishing to acquire a technology:  they can contact the right holder if the innovation is still
patented and seek a licence;  or they may decide to imitate it if the database indicates that the
innovation has already entered the public domain.  Patents do not only protect inventors, they also
diffuse the technical information, according to the objectives enshrined in Article 7 of the TRIPS
Agreement.
24. Where the technology is a recent invention protected by a patent, the transfer takes place via a
licence, i.e., authorisation to make use of the technology.  Right holders will be reluctant to licence
their technology if they have no confidence in the IPR system of a given country.  This reluctance is
particularly significant in high-technology industries, such as chemicals, pharmaceuticals, machineryIP/C/W/398
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and electrical equipment.xiii  In such cases, protection and enforcement of IPRs may be prerequisites
for the legal transfer of technology.
25. Alongside patent databases, other documents provide for technical knowledge:  scientific
journals, business publications in specific sectors, general literature on management and organizationof production, etc.
26. However, the question still remains whether or not DC firms, and in particular those in LDCs,
can easily identify the very particular innovations they need amongst the complex information
sources, or whether additional expertise is needed.  Apart from using external advisers or benefiting
from the expertise of foreign investors, domestic policy has a role to play in the education of
technicians capable of giving advice to domestic firms and having the technological background that
is often necessary to operate innovations on the ground.
27. As already mentioned in paragraph 18, searching for partners and drafting contracts also
requires some experience and often appropriate assistance.  It is particularly important to negotiate
clauses that are not too restrictive, i.e. that allow the licensee some flexibility.  Articles 8.2 and 40 of
the TRIPS Agreement are windows of opportunity in this field.
28. For the DCs, and especially the LDCs, another crucial problem may, of course, be the price to
pay for certain licences.  But in fact, many of the technologies needed by LDC firms are already in the
public domain, in which case price and negotiation costs are no longer a parameter.  Since legal
restrictions on the imitation of such innovations have ceased to apply, the real obstacle often lies
elsewhere, in particular in a shortage of human resources.
C. 
ACQUISITION OF SKILLS AND KNOW -HOW :  TRADE IN SERVICES , TRAINING , JOINT -RESEARCH
AND LEARNING -BY-DOING
29. Mastering a new technique, introducing it into local methods of production, and obtaining
commercial benefit from it requires time and know-how, in particular management ("humanware")
and organizational knowledge ("orgaware ").  Such knowledge is rarely codified and may be acquired
through trade in services, or informally via training, joint research and learning-by-doing.
30. Trade in services can involve skill building and access to knowledge amongst local service
providers and other economic operators being users of services.  Trade in services, in particular when
taking place through commercial establishment, can serve as a channel for technology transfer, e.g. by
creating a subsidiary or a joint-venture in the host country to provide a service either in relation to
own production or to service the local market, and/or linked to a licensing arrangement.
31. In the context of development cooperation, public-funded projects may also deliver a whole
package of knowledge and know-how with the help of professionals from very specific sectors.  In
some cases, NGOs can also be involved.  In the health sector, for example, some of them not only
provide general advice on public health policy options but also conduct an array of activities, such as
training for professionals (doctors, managers, technicians) and advice on how to organize health care
infrastructures, to manage the equipment, to administrate services, etc.
32. In addition, joint-research programmes may contribute to a higher level of knowledge
amongst local scientists and to the sharing of the benefits of research and development.  There are
some successful examples of public-funded research programmes that investigate new technologies
aimed at tackling the specific challenges posed to DCs and LDCs:  the European Community
Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development has an important international
dimension aimed at promoting research collaborati on and mobility of researchers between the EU andIP/C/W/398
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third countries including LDCs in areas of common interest.  Through projects involving public
research organizations and firms from the EU and these countries, it helps the latter to increase their
technology development and absorption capacity and it facilitates technology transfer.
33. In the commercial sector however, it has been  noted by many that research programmes are
often limited to strategic alliances between companies from the major industrial countries since such
linkages are based on the technological knowledge brought by each partner.
34. In fact, no private firm will be willing to transfer its know-how unless it has a direct interest in
doing so.  Possible mechanisms include making l ong-term investments or subcontracting out part of
its production and these operations are of particular interest to DCs and LDCs: they allow local
workers to be trained and to "learn by doing", i. e. to acquire know-how on the ground in contact with
foreign colleagues.  Indeed, foreign companies may transfer much know-how in the framework of aFDI, such as organizational and management skills, production and marketing methods, etc. and also
provide training.
35. In addition, the contribution of international subcontracting should not be under-estimated,
since it may also provide useful know-how:  Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) outsourcing part of
their production to DCs or LDCs have an interest in ensuring the quality of the output provided by
sub-contractees and may transfer part of their k nowledge and methods together with specifications,
designs, drawings, etc.  This can result in a partnership that goes further than just trade in intermediate
goods, as has been the case for some newly industrialised countries in Asia in the late 70s.
xiv
36. One can debate the relative advantages of FDI, subcontracting and other business partnership,
but it is generally accepted that the long term dimension of FDI may have enhanced effects onappropriation and upgrading of knowledge by domestic workers.
37. With a view to creating growth opportunities, public authorities of the host countries should
of course give consideration to the dissemina tion of the knowledge within the country through
workers mobility, backward and forward linkages, and other spillovers.
IV. THE ROLE OF IPRS IN TT CONTEXT
38. IPRs affect TT through licensing and dissemination of information.  However, licensing alone
is rarely enough, since it often requires licensees to master some complementary technologies.
Neither is public dissemination of information enough as it may still require adequate scientific
knowledge and expertise.  Trade in goods is much more appropriate, but here again expertise and
know-how are needed to convert technological input into growth opportunities.  In the end, it seems
that apart from a limited number of research projects and public-funded initiatives, FDI (and to a
lesser extent subcontracting) is more fruitful since, in the long term, it also provides skills and adaptedproduction methods.
39. An issue for consideration is how to attract both FDI and subcontracting, to optimize their
benefit to the host country's economy and to ensure sustainable development in that context.  Key
conditions for FDI are, inter alia, good governance and stable, transparent and predictable regulatory
frameworks.  The protection and efficient enforcement of IPRs, including not only patent protectionbut also trade secrets, are surely important criteria for the investors.  Mansfield
xv established that, in
high-technology sectors, developed countries' decision-makers are often sensitive to the level of IPR
protection.  IPRs are less important for standardised products or for second grade technology, for
which protection weaknesses may be compensated by other advantages (such as the size of the
market, the availability of infrastructure, etc).  Ne vertheless, it is widely recognized that the level of
IPR protection and enforcement influences the mode  of technology transfer: subsidiaries are, forIP/C/W/398
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example, supposed to allow a better control both on information and intellectual assets than
subcontracting agreements.xvi  However, if the risk of being imitated is too high, the investment may
not take place at all.
40. To sum up, IPR protection is generally both a tool and a precondition for TT.
V. WHICH INCENTIVES CAN PROMOTE AND ENCOURAGE TECHNOLOGY
TRANSFER TO LDCs?
41. We have seen that public authorities in developed countries can encourage the transfer of
technology by different means, but that FDI is to  be considered as a privileged channel for the
acquisition of technologies.
42. The enabling environment (human capital, infrastructure, legal framework, macroeconomic
conditions) of host countries is the key element th at determines FDI inflows and TT, especially in
LDCs.
43. Thus, the most appropriate policies are those aimed at tackling directly the domestic structural
deficiencies.  Developed countries can help through capacity-building programmes, training, technical
assistance on macroeconomic reforms, etc.xvii  Regional integration should also be fostered, since it is
instrumental in securing larger markets and prov iding a more stable framework for investment.  A
good example is the Cotonou Agreement with AC P Countries and its strong regional dimension.
44. The developed world can also try to facilitate business partnerships involving direct
investment, and to a lesser extent, licensing and subcontracting with partner firms in LDCs by:
(a) establishing non-financial incentives (i.e., support for national (EU) firms in identifying potential
partners – advice, contacts, etc. – and support for LDC firms in the form of expertise on local needs,contacts, technological information, drafting of contracts, etc.);  (b) providing financial incentives for
national firms (which could include financing or insuring prospective activities, covering part of the
economic or political risk, or facilitating loans).
xviii
45. In addition, it is important to encourage good business practices.  The OECD Guidelines for
Multinational Enterprisesxix represent a useful step in the direction towards enhanced investors'
responsibilities both in OECD and non-OECD countries.  Among other aspects, the Guidelines
encourage MNEs "to perform science and technology development work in host countries", to grant
licences "on reasonable terms and conditions and in a manner that contributes to the long term
development prospects of the host country", to participate in cooperative research projects with local
partners, etc. and generally speaking, to adopt "practices that permit the transfer and rapid diffusion of
technology and know-how, with due regard to the protection of intellectual property rights".  One can
also mention comparable and purely private Corporate Social Responsibility practices implementedon a company or sectoral basis.
46. Public authorities of developed countries should also be encouraged to transfer part of their
know-how in public utility sectors through joint projects and assistance to LDCs.
47. Developed countries, together with relevant international and regional organizations, can
facilitate the access of LDCs to the technological in formation available, in particular by improving the
quality and interlinkage of databases.IP/C/W/398
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48. But one should not forget that TT in the commercial sector depends on both:  (a) the
objectives and strategies of each enterprise - and governments cannot alter these;  and (b) the
domestic policy of the beneficiary country (liberalization of investment, implementation of an IPR
system, etc.).
49. Moreover, it is still the responsibility of al l WTO Members to:  (a) facilitate FDI flows
through common international rules (the multilateral framework envisaged in the WTO to secure
transparent, stable and predictable conditions for long-term cross-border investment would do much
to increase FDI flows, and the commitments to simplifying trade procedures in the context of the
WTO agenda on trade facilitation could also help establish a suitably transparent and predictable trade
and investment environment);  (b) reduce tariffs and unjustified non-tariff barriers, which could foster
flows of technological goods;  (c) ensure that ther e is competition between suppliers of technological
goods (the multilateral framework envisaged in the WTO to enhance the contribution of competition
policy to international trade and development, and the one envisaged on transparency of government
procurement are important factors in this context).
50. Consideration should also be given to the impact of liberalization in relevant service sectors
and how to maximise the technology transfer benefit of service liberalization.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
51. "Technology" has several components that are complementary and interact with each other.
Indeed, a technological base is not only made of machines, but also of knowledge, know-how and
specific production arrangements.  The latter are particularly crucial for least-developed countries.
52. In practice, there are several mechanisms through which companies or institutions may
acquire technology from abroad: machines and intermediate goods can be acquired through the
channel of importation, but also as part of a business partnership; information and knowledge are
more and more accessible, in particular through the patent databases, that both serve as a technical
source (especially where the patent protection has expired) and a way to identify inventors and
partners;  skills and know-how, that are rarely codified, have to be acquired on the ground throughtraining, learning-by-doing or joint-research activities.
53. In their attempt to introduce new technologies into their domestic production system, DC and
in particular LDC firms may suffer from a lack of expertise, problems in making use of the available
information, costs of entering into a partnership, and difficulty in adapting foreign technology to the
local context.  For these reasons, advice and expertise are key at all stages.
54. It is clear that the private - and particularly the commercial - sector is nowadays the main
source of technologies and, in this context, technology transfer is often one component of a morecomplex project, rather than a stand alone activity.
55. Among the possible business partnerships, it appears that Foreign Direct Investment is a
privileged channel for TT, since it generally provides not only a whole package of technologies (from
equipment to training of workers) but also expertise on the most appropriate technologies.  In
addition, it usually implies the long term involvement of the investor.
56. Useful incentives to TT may therefore include initiatives that foster business partnership
(thereby putting technology owners and technology ta kers in contact) and in particular encourage
FDI.IP/C/W/398
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57. In parallel, it is essential to improve the global capacity of LDCs and to create an enabling
environment for FDI by means of appropriate domestic policies and capacity-building programmes.
Here, Developed Countries' authorities also have a role to play through cooperation activities, support
to joint-research initiatives, expertise on public utility sectors, support to regional integration, etc.
58. In this context, intellectual property rights are instrumental in making technological
knowledge accessible and securing business partners and foreign investors, but they are only one of
the many factors that determine whether technology transfer occurs or not.IP/C/W/398
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i Michael Blakeney makes a historical and critical presentation of the TT concept in : "Trade-related aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights : A concise guide to the TRIPS Agreement" , Appendix 1: "The Role of Intellectual
Property in Economic Development ", Ed. Sweet & Maxwell, London, 1996.
ii While several international arrangements include provisions relating to incentives in favour of technology
transfer, such as the TRIPS  Agreement, it has to be borne in mind that some economists consider technology
transfer as a spontaneous mechanism, that occurs gradually and in the long term.
iii Carliene Brenner, OECD, Cahiers de Politique Econom ique du Centre de Développement n°14, Paris, 1997.
iv UN ESCAP, 1989. Cited by Ajay Mathur, Preety M.Bhandari and Sharmila B. Srikanth in " Effective
technology transfer: issues and options" , in: Positive measures for technology transfer under the climate change
convention , Tim Forsyth (ed.), The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1997.
v See for example the GCIAR ( Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) , an informal
association of sixty-two members that supports agricultural research and related activities carried out by sixteenautonomous research centres, mainly located in DC s, including LDCs. Members of the CGIAR include
industrial and developing countries, foundations, and international and regional organizations.
vi Source : International Telecommunications Union, 2001.
vii The issue is also present in paragraph 31(iii) of the Ministerial Declaration, that deals with
reduction/elimination of tariff and non-tariff barriers to environmental goods and services. In addition, the
transfer of environmentally-sound technologies is addressed in several texts and fora, such as Agenda 21(chapter 34), the Action Plan of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, to which all WTO Memberscommitted themselves, as well as in several Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs).
viii Carliene Brenner, op.cit.
ix See also footnote (vii).
x UNCTAD, World Investment Report.
xi The main focus here will be on patents  as a major source of innovation, but it must be remembered of course
that other rights are also relevant, such as copyright fo r software and trade secrets. Franchising can also provide
much know-how.
xii As already indicated in paragraph 12, Internet connect ions are crucial, especial ly when it comes to access to
Internet patent databases.
xiii E.Mansfield examined the extent to which the level of IPR protection in a given country influences the
decision of major US, German and Japanese firms to embark on FDI or licensing operations in this country, aswell as the kinds of technology transferred. He established that the role played by IPR protection is moreimportant in high-technology industries than in industries using second-grade technology.
See : " Intellectual Property Protection, Foreign Direct Investment and Technology Transfer" , IFC Discussion
Paper n° 19, 1994, and " Intellectual Property Protection, Direct Investment and Technology Transfer:
Germany, Japan, and the United States " , IFC Discussion Paper n°27, 1995, publ. by World Bank.
xiv See Howard Pack and Kamal Saggi: "Exporting, externalities and technology transfer ", February 23,1999,
and Nagesh Kumar: " International linkages, Technology and Ex ports of Developing Countries : trends and
policy implications" , United Nations University, Institute for New Technologies, August 1995.
xv See : paragraph 24 and footnote (xiii) above.
xvi Kamal Saggi, " Trade, Foreign Direct Investment and International Technology Transfer : a Survey ", World
Bank, May 2000.
xvii The annual notifications of technical assistance that are circulated by Developed Country Members to the
TRIPS  Council refer only to IPR-related activities. The European Communities offer their partners many other
technical cooperation activities in the WTO and development aid context.
xviii Indeed, an important component of Community development cooperation includes measures to support
private sector development in the countries concerned, as well as support to the EU private sector to buildpartnerships and to invest in developing countries.IP/C/W/398
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xix These Guidelines were adopted on 27th June 2000 as part of a revised Declaration on International Investment
and Multinational Enterprises, which is a global package on international investment. Chapter VIII on "Science
and Technology" is particularly relevant with respect to TT issues.
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