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IV. TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR
(1) OVERVIEW
1. The economic development of Trinidad and Tobago is dependent on oil and natural gas.
While the Government has used trade policies and incentives schemes to promote non-petroleum
sectors, such as manufacturing and agriculture, petroleum and petroleum-related sectors still account
for over one quarter of the domestic economy and about three-quarters of exports.
2. Agriculture was the main source of economic devel opment before the discovery of oil.  It still
employs a large share of labour and the Government considers it an important source of employment.
Sugar production has traditionally dominated the agricultural sector, although agro-processing has
played an important role in recent years.  Agriculture and food products as well as beverages are
subject to higher tariffs than the average (Chart IV.1).
3. The mining and quarrying sector is dominated by hydrocarbons.  Remaining oil reserves are
estimated at another 12 years of supply.  Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered and they
are sufficient to supply another 55 years.  Due to this discovery, energy policy has shifted its focus to
the development of the natural gas subsector.
4. The services sector accounts for the largest share in both GDP and employment.  Recent
liberalization and reform efforts have had the greatest impact on financial services and
telecommunications.  In other subsectors, the Go vernment is in the process of reviewing the
legislation.
(2) AGRICULTURE AND FOOD PRODUCTS AND FISHING
5. Agriculture was the major force of the economy until the commercialization of petroleum in
the 1960s.  Since then, the importance of the sector has diminished, despite the Government's attempts
to offset the decline by heavily protecting activities.  Agriculture remains, however, an importantprovider of employment:  including fishing and forestry but excluding food products, it employed
9.6% of the labour force in 1996, while accounting for just 2.3% of total GDP.  The production of
processed agricultural goods is less labour-intensive, accounting for an additional 3% of employment
and 4.2% of GDP (Chart IV.2).
6. The cornerstone of traditional agriculture has been sugar production; sugar cane accounted for
more than one third of non-processed agricultural products in 1996.  Other major traditional crops
include cocoa, coffee, coconut and bananas, though exports of coffee have been negligible in recent
years.  The main exports of processed products are beverages and prepared cereals.  Trinidad and
Tobago is a net importer of agricultural products, with imports about 50% larger than exports in 1993.
The main imported agricultural products are cereals, dairy products, oil seeds and vegetables.  Inrecent years, government policies have encouraged diversification into the production of
non-traditional crops such as citrus, rice and vegetables.WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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05101520253035
111 122 210 230 311 313 321 323 331 341 351 353 355 361 369 372 382 384 390
Source :  Data provided by the authorities of Jamaica; and estimates by the WTO Secretariat.ISIC        Major groups
111          Agriculture and livestock production
121          Forestry  122          Logging130          Fishing  
210          Coal mining
220          Crude petroleum and natural gas                   production230          Metal ore mining290          Other mining
311-312   Food products
313          Beverages
314          Tobacco321          Textiles322          Clothing323          Leather products324          Footwear331          Wood productsISIC       Major groups
332         Furniture except metal
341         Paper products342         Printing and publishing351         Industrial chemicals352         Other chemical products353         Petroleum refineries354         Petroleum and coal products355         Rubber products356         Plastic products361         Pottery and china362         Glass and glass products369         Other non-metallic mineral products
371         Iron and steel
372         Non-ferrous metal381         Fabricated metal products382         Non-electrical machinery incl. computers 383         Electrical machinery384         Transport equipment385         Professional and scientific equipment 390         Other manufactured products 121     130     220    290     312     314    322     324     332    342     352     354    356     362     371    381     383     385 Chart IV.1                                              
Average tariffs by ISIC classification, 1998
Per centTrinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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1992Per cent
Source :  Central Statistical Office.Chart IV.2
Agriculture GDP by sector, 1992 and 1996
Poultry & eggs 2.5
Bananas & root 
crops  6.4
Sugarcane
13.2
Total:  TT$ 1,635.4 million Total:  TT$ 2,015.5 millionFood, beverages 
& tobacco
64.2Fishing
4.5
Cocoa & coffee
2.1Food, beverages 
& tobacco
65.9Other   2.8Fishing
4.3 Dairy, beef, pork 
& other meat  2.5
Poultry & eggs  3.4
Sugarcane
12.3Bananas & root
crops  6.81996
Other 4.0
Cocoa & coffee
1.3Dairy, beef, pork 
& other meat  3.1
7. The Government considers agriculture to have great potential for income, employment
growth and foreign exchange generation, and therefor e plays a major role in the development of the
sector. It owns more than half of the countr y's agricultural land, partly through state-owned
enterprises.  The Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources (MALMR) formulates the
overall policy framework and sector-specific policy measures, including subsidies and incentives.
There are several large public enterprises operating in the sector, including Caroni, National Flour
Mills, the National Agricultural Marketing and Development Company, Non Pareil Estate, NationalAgro-Chemicals, and the Agricultural Development Bank (Table IV.1).   Until recently, some of these
enterprises were granted monopoly over the purchase and import of their products.  The MALMR
provides policy guidelines for the state corporations  and, in some cases, subsidies for their operation.
The MALMR also has representation on the Boards of Directors of these enterprises.
Table IV.1
Main state enterprises in the agricultural sector
Company Government holding Activities
Caroni 100% Major producer and sole processor of sugar products.  Now
diversified to include citrus and rice.
National Flour Mills 80% Sole producer of flour and major producer of rice, edible oil and
soybean.
National Agricultural Marketing andDevelopment Company100% Provision of market information and administration of wholesale
markets.
Agricultural Development Bank 100% Provision of loans to farmers and fishermen.
Non Pareil Estate 100 % Production of cocoa.
Source: Information provided by the authorities of Trinidad and Tobago.
8. After decades of heavy protection of the agricultural sector, reforms were undertaken in the
context of a comprehensive structural adjustment programme with support from the Inter-American
Development Bank.  Prior to these reforms, agricultural products were protected by various measuresWT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 72
such as price supports, quantitative restrictions, tariffs, stamp duties, exchange and price controls, as
well as stringent licensing requirements (for products in the Negative List).  The reform programme
aimed at removing or reducing distortions and at rationalizing incentives, and included measures such
as the divestment of state-owned agricultural en terprises, the restructuring of the dominant sugar
sector, and the diversification of agricultural production.
9. As identified by the Government, the major constraints affecting agricultural production
include an inadequate water supply for dry season production, the high cost of inputs, a lack of
adequate facilities, poor market organization, pr edial larceny, weak linkages between primary
production and the agro-industrial sector and poor soil management.1
(i) Market access
10. There are no quantitative restrictions on the importation of agricultural products.
Quantity-based measures were converted to equivalent tariffs in accordance with the Uruguay Round
Agreement on Agriculture.  Agricultural products , with the exception of a few items, were also
removed from the licensing requirements set by the Import Negative List, and are now subject to
import surcharges, some of which are to be eliminated by 1999.  Licences are still required for
imports of livestock, fish, crustaceans, molluscs, and oils and fats (Table III.7).
11. In the Uruguay Round, Trinidad and Tobago bound its tariffs on all agricultural products at
ceiling rates of 100%, with the exception of seven items bound at higher levels; these include poultry,
cabbage, lettuce and coffee (Table III.2).  Other duties and charges were bound at 15%.
12. The 1998 applied MFN tariff on imports of agricultural products (HS Chapters 1-24)
averaged 19.1%, with a maximum rate of 40% (Table IV.2).  There is considerable dispersion of
MFN rates by product groups in the agricultural sector.  The highest tariffs are applied to edible fruit
and nuts (33.6%), fish products (29.2%), edible vegetables (24.4%), animal and vegetable fat and oil(23.8%), meat and edible meat offal (23.4%), and live animals (21.9%), while gums and resins, and
vegetable plaiting materials are granted duty-free access.
13. Several agricultural products are subject to additional import surcharges, which are subject to
a phasing-out timetable.  In 1998, import surcharges are applied to various parts of poultry (100%),
sugar and icing sugar (60-70%), vegetables (15%) and fruit (5%).  The surcharges on the latter twoitems are to be removed by 1999.  Rates on poultry parts are to be reduced to 86% in 2004; those on
sugar and icing sugar are not subject to reduction  (Table III.5).  Import duties on alcoholic beverages
are set at specific rates, ranging from TT$4.75 per litre for beer to TT$40.00 per litre for cordials and
liqueurs.  Alcoholic beverages which are locally and regionally produced face excise duties
(Table III.6).
(ii) Sanitary and phytosanitary regulations
14. The main sanitary and phytosanitary regulations are listed in the Animals (Diseases and
Importation) Act 1954 and the Plant Protection Regulations 1953, both most recently amended
in 1997.  However, according to the authorities, the amendments did not address compliance with the
WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.
                                                     
1MALMR (1997).Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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Table IV.2
Trade and tariff data for agricultural products, 1998
(Per cent and US'000)
Unweighted
MFN average Imports
(US$ '000) Exports
(US$ '000) HS Description
(%)Min. (%) Max. (%)
1996
01-24 Agricultural products 19.1 0 40 302,088.2 203,769.6
01 Live animals 21.9 0 40 570.6 16.7
02 Meat and edible meat offal 23.4 0 40 13,964.1 517.8
03 Fish & crustaceans, molluscs & other aquatic invertebrate 29.2 0 40 2,986.3 12,033.5
04 Dairy products;  birds eggs;  natural honey;  edible prod.
n.e.s.19.6 0 40 46,240.6 4,453.7
05 Products of animal origin, n.e.s. or included 0.0 0 0 76.7 0.1
06 Live trees & other plants;  bulbs, roots; cut flowers etc. 21.6 0 40 416.5 1,743.9
07 Edible vegetables and certain roots and tubers 24.4 0 40 20,933.8 2,124.2
08 Edible fruit and nuts;  peel of citrus fruit or melons 33.6 0 40 4,542.2 1,286.2
09 Coffee, tea, mate and spices 21.7 0 40 3,196.7 1,725.0
10 Cereals 14.5 0 40 58,899.9 1,235.2
11 Prod. mill. industry;  malt;  starches;  inulin;  wheat gluten 6.4 0 40 9,730.4 600.5
12 Oil-seed, oleagi. fruit;  miscell. grain, seed, fruit, etc. 2.5 0 40 33,551.4 53.4
13 Lac;  gums, resins & other vegetable saps & extracts 0.0 0 0 961.7 0.8
14 Vegetable plaiting materials;  vegetable products n.e.s.. 0.0 0 0 114.0 0.2
15 Animal/veg. fats & oils & their cleavage products; etc. 23.8 0 40 15,386.4 9,141.0
16 Prep. of meat, fish or crustaceans, molluscs etc. 16.4 0 20 7,117.4 2,357.5
17 Sugars and sugar confectionery 21.5 0 40 17,691.7 34,014.7
18 Cocoa and cocoa preparations 9.2 0 20 3,178.3 6,942.9
19 Prep. of cereal, four, starch/milk 16.0 0 20 11,453.2 29,376.7
20 Prep. of vegetables, fruit, nuts or other parts of plants 15.9 0 40 10,441.5 8,196.6
21 Misc. edible preparations 17.0 0 20 16,630.8 9,247.2
22 Beverages, spirits and vinegar 16.5 5 20 7,668.9 60,223.8
23 Residues & waste from the food industry.;  prep. animal
fodder4.4 0 20 12,076.7 16,603.3
24 Tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes 21.0 0 30 4,258.3 1,874.9
Source: WTO calculations based on data provided by the authorities of Trinidad and Tobago and UNSD, Comtrade database.
15. All live animals imported into the country re quire an import permit, issued by the Animal
Protection and Health Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, prior to
the arrival of the animal.  They are also subject to quarantine regulations, which may differ according
to the country of origin of the imported animal.
16. Imports of all plants, fruits and vegetables also need to obtain an import permit, issued by the
Plant Quarantine Division of the Ministry of  Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources. Import
requirements vary depending on the country's pest status.
17. Trinidad and Tobago notified the WTO in 1995 that the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and
Marine Resources had introduced an emergency measure on imports of fruit and vegetables from
Grenada and other islands in the Caribbean which w ould be subject to controls to prevent the import
of mealy bug-infested vegetable material.2
                                                     
2WTO, G/SPS/N/TTO/1, 10 October 1995WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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(iii) Domestic support
18. Incentives available to the agricultural sector are listed in the Agricultural Incentive
Programme which has been in place since 1985.  The Government's domestic support policy is to
provide incentives which result in minimal market distortions, and which comply with the WTO
Agreement on Agriculture.3  Agricultural incentives in Trinidad and Tobago include price supports
(e.g. guaranteed prices), and subsidies for soil conservation, equipment and machinery, agriculturalvehicles and wheel tractors.  Commodities under the price support scheme include sugarcane, coffee,
cocoa, milk, oranges, grapefruit, paddy, copra and sorrel (Table IV.3).  In 1996, the Government
granted payments totalling TT$45.9 million for price support and TT$1.4 million for input subsidies,
altogether accounting for 6.8% of agricultural GDP (Table IV.4).  According to the authorities, in
1997, the Government granted payments totalling TT$35.97 million for price support andTT$0.4 million for input subsidies.
Table IV.3
Price support programme:  guaranteed prices, 1997
Commodity Guaranteed price (TT$)
Sugarcane 153.77/tonne
Cocoa 9.55/kg.
Coffee 8.36/kg.
Milk 2.00/litre
Oranges 20.00/cratea
Grapefruit 12.00/crateb
Paddy 0.66-2.02/kg.
Copra 2.66/kg.
Sorrel 0.25/kg.
a Crate of oranges = 40.9 kg.
b Crate of grapefruit = 36.4 kg.
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources.
Table IV.4
Price support programme:  subsidy payments
(TT$ million)
Commodity 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Sugarcane 14.4 5.4 9.3 16.7 15.7
Cocoa and coffee 5.0 - 3.2 3.2 5.7
Milk 6.1 7.7 11.3 8.1 8.4
Paddy - - 9.0 12.7 14.7
Copra  2.5 1.9 2.9 4.7 1.1
Other input subsidiesa5.6 1.2 0.9 0.5  1.4
Total subsidy payments 33.6 16.2 36.6 45.9 47.0
Agricultural GDP 586.2 607.9 651.4 627.2 688.1
Subsidy as % of agricultural GDP 5.7 2.7 5.6 7.3 6.8
a Includes soil conservation, equipment and machinery, vehicles, wheel tractors, and rebates.
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources.
                                                     
3The Agreement on Agriculture Article 6:4(b) allows a developing country Member to provide
domestic support up to a limit not exceeding 10% of the value of its total agricultural production.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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19. Fiscal incentives available to the agricultural sector include import duty concessions and VAT
exemptions.  Under the Customs Act Section 56, approved agricultural enterprises, (including fishery
and forestry), are exempted from import duty on a range of agricultural inputs and  equipment
including wheel tractors, agricultural chemicals (e.g. insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, vitamin and
drug preparations), hand tools and machinery. A range of agricultural inputs and equipment is also
exempted from VAT.  In addition, an income tax exemption is provided for a maximum period often years for approved agricultural holdings of less than or equal to 40.5 hectares. The food
processing, beverages and tobacco sub-sectors are eligible to apply for the same incentives available
to the manufacturing sector (section II).
(iv) Export assistance
20. Trinidad and Tobago does not subsidize its exports of agricultural goods.
21. Export financing is made available through the Agricultural Development Bank, which was
set up in 1968 as a wholly government-owned institution.  The bank lends to individuals, companies
and co-operatives for a wide range of agricultural activities, including crop and livestock production,
floriculture, agro-processing and commercial fishing.  In 1996, total loans of TT$37.0 million were
disbursed, while loan repayments amounted to TT$42.0 million.  Prior to 1987, the ADB providedmost of its finance at concessional rates;
4  this policy led to negative real interest rates and triggered
problems of capital depletion, which made it necessary to bring rates more in line with market values.
Since 1993 the interest rate for approved loans has been 12%.5  Access to financing is also available
through the Small Business Development Company, which provides a loan guarantee scheme to small
businesses including agricultural and agro-processing companies.
(v) Crop production and livestock
(a) Sugar
22. Sugar has been the single most important agricultural subsector, accounting for a third of non-
processed agricultural GDP in 1996 and over a quart er of employment.  In 1997, exports of raw sugar
reached 109,300 tonnes.
Table IV.5
Sugar production and exports('000 tonnes)
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Production ..
Cane 1,292 1,210 1,398 1,327 1,404 -
Raw sugar 110.4 104.7 131.1 117.1 92.0 90.8
Refined sugar 34.3 32.9 38.0 41.9 42.0 45.9
Exports
Raw sugar 59.2 51.4 57.1 68.1 71.5 109.3
.. Not available.
Source: Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.
                                                     
4Loans to agricultural credit societies were made at interest rates of 1% and those to individuals at 3%
and 6.5% according to the type of activity, Forde and Joseph et al. (1997).
5Forde and Joseph et al. (1997).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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23. Sugar exports depend primarily on the quota arrangements with the European Union and the
United States, which offer guaranteed prices above the world-market price.  Trinidad and Tobago was
allocated an export quota of 47,556 tons of raw sugar by the European Union under the Sugar
Protocol to the Lomé Convention, and an additional 10,000 tonnes under the Special Preferential
Sugar Arrangement.  The United States allocated Trinidad and Tobago a quota of 14,201 tonnes of
raw sugar for fiscal year 1997, of which 13,576 tonnes were exported.  Prices paid by theEuropean Union (£403 a tonne in 1997 for imports under the Protocol, and £308.5 a tonne for imports
under the Special Preferential Agreement) and the United States (some US$421 a tonne) are well
above world-market prices.  Refined suga r is exported to other CARICOM countries.
24. While sugar is Trinidad and Tobago's main agricultural export, it is imported when domestic
production is insufficient to meet export quotas and domestic demand.  This makes economic sensefor Trinidad as a small supplier, since exports to the EU receive a price higher than the world price,
while imports are acquired at lower prices.
6  Some 29,000 tonnes of raw sugar and 9,105 tonnes of
refined sugar were imported in 1997.  Imports of raw sugar are subject to a customs duty of 40%, and
an additional charge of 60%.  Imports of refined sugar face a 15% import tariff.
25. The sugar industry is dominated by Caroni, the la rgest state-owned enterprise in Trinidad and
Tobago.  Caroni is also the largest employer and owner of fertile land and generates about 2% of
GDP.  Caroni produces about half of the country' s cane, and has a de facto monopoly in refining and
operations monopoly milling.7  The company purchases sugar cane from private farmers at a
guaranteed price based on production costs.  The guaranteed price applies only when it is higher than
the price determined by the Seemungal Formula8, which reflects international prices.  Both prices
have increased since the beginning of the 1990s, but the Seemungal Formula price has exceeded the
guaranteed price since 1993 (Table IV.6).  There was no price support in 1996, only an input subsidypayment (TT$15.7 million).  Caroni has traditionally handled all sugar exports and imports.  In 1998,
however, industrial manufacturers have been allowed to import sugar.
Table  IV.6
Guaranteed prices, Seemungal formula prices and price support payments, 1992-96
Guaranteed  prices/tonne
(TT$)Seemungal formula price/tonne
(TT$)Price support payment
(TT$ million)
1992 126 100.59 16.0
1993 126 128.94 0.0
1994 126 139.25 0.0
1995 136 161.63 0.0
1996 136 157.57 0.0
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources.
26. With a view to reviving the viability of Caroni, which accumulated deficits between 1977 and
1991, the Cabinet appointed a Tripartite Committee, composed of representatives of the Government,
Caroni and labour, which developed a comprehensive reform programme for the sugar industry in
1992.  The reform programme included: increased reliance on private cane production to reach
                                                     
6 According to the authorities, import prices for raw sugar in 1997 ranged between US$282.6 and
US$308.4 a tonne, while prices for refined sugar range between US$380 and US$387.7 per tonne.
7In recent years it has diversified into the produc tion of other crops including rice, citrus fruits,
aquaculture and vegetables.
8 The Seemungal Formula seeks to calculate two prices :  (i) the price of cane purchased at factory gate;
(ii) the price of cane purchased at outside purchasing point s.  The formula subtracts the costs of distribution and
storage from average revenue obtained in the previous year, and accrues by 75% the resulting value.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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60-75% of supply, modernization of capital equipment, diversification into other agricultural
products, rationalization of land-holding, increased mechanization of the cane harvest, and reduction
of surplus labour.  Under the terms of the Tripartite Committee programme, Caroni is to reach the
break-even point in 1999 or 2000, and operate at a profit thereafter.  While the share of cane produced
by private farmers did increase from 47.3% in 1992 to 52.2% in 1996, the implementation of the
programme appears to have been difficult.9  In 1998, the Government is to introduce a new cane
pricing system based on quality, which is expected to encourage further private cane production.
(b) Cocoa and coffee
27. Along with sugar, cocoa and coffee have historically been exported, although in declining
amounts.10  In 1997, the production of cocoa reached 1.74 million kg., of which 1.55 million kg. were
exported;  the production of coffee was 1.10 million kg., mostly consumed at home.  There have beenvirtually no exports of coffee since 1995 (Table IV.7).
Table IV.7
Production and exports of selected agricultural commodities, 1993-97
 ('000 kg. )
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Production
Cocoa 1,578 1,489 1,694 2,292 1740
Coffee 874  1015 830 353 1,102
Citrus 8,620 10,418 10,255 11,798 10,423
Rice 16,204 17,514 10,193 17,858 8,990
Exports
Cocoa 1,503 1,342 1,595 1,741 1545
Coffee 445 42 3 0 0
Source: Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.
28. The Cocoa and Coffee Industry Board is a state agency administered by the MALMR.  There
are no laws or regulations that force growers to se ll their crops to the Board;  however, the Board buys
up some 85% of domestic production.  The crops are purchased from farmers at the guaranteed prices,
TT$9.55/kg. for cocoa and TT$8.36/kg. for coffee, whenever international prices fall below
guaranteed levels.11  In recent years, international prices have been higher than guaranteed prices.
(c) Citrus fruit
29. The production of citrus fruit has increased substantially in recent years from 8.62 million kg.
in 1993 to 10.42 million kg. in 1997 (Table IV.7).  All the citrus production is domestically
consumed.  Imports of citrus face a 40% tariff  and an additional 5% import surcharge, which is to be
eliminated in 1999.
                                                     
9World Bank (1996).
10Trinidad and Tobago is a signatory to the International Cocoa Agreement and its successor
agreements.
11A 1992 study estimated that the costs of producing one kilogram of cocoa was TT$9.41 since then
production costs have increased.  The Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources is currentlyconsidering an increase in guaranteed prices, which have remained fixed for over ten years, to TT$11.55/kg. forcocoa and TT$10.36/kg. for coffee (MALMR, 1997).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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30. The Co-operative Citrus Growers' Associati on (CCGA), a private association, is the major
local citrus purchaser and processor.  Of the fruits delivered to the CCGA in 1996/97, 46% were
processed into single strength juice, while the remaining 54% were used in the production of frozen
concentrate in 1996/97.  Caroni accounted for over 80% of total fruit delivered to the CCGA.  Citrus
producers who deliver to the CCGA are entitled to receive a guaranteed price of TT$20/crate
(equivalent to 40.9kg.) for oranges and TT$12/crate (equivalent to 36.4kg.) for grapefruit. Guaranteedprices have been below market rates over the last ten years.
12  Direct sales to the fresh fruit market by
smaller producers have been expanding since they receive higher prices than those offered by the
CCGA.
(d) Rice
31. Rice is an important domestic staple in Trinidad and Tobago.   Annual paddy production has
fluctuated considerably over the period 1993-97 (Tab le IV.7).  Local production of paddy satisfies
approximately a fourth of domestic demand for rice, with the remainder being met through imports
from the United States, Guyana and India.  Rice imports face a tariff of 25%.
32. Farmers currently receive guaranteed prices ranging between TT$0.66/kg. and TT$2.02/kg.,
depending on the grade, for paddy delivered to the majority government-owned National Flour Mills.Until recently, National Flour Mills had exclusive rights to purchase, import and distribute rice.   The
subsidy incorporated in the guaranteed price (calculated based on the cost of production) is:
TT$1.25/kg., TT$1.06/kg., TT$0.72 and TT$0.09 for grades I, II, III and IV respectively.   An average
TT$10.85 million of subsidies have been paid annually by the Government since 1994 when the
grading system was introduced.  By providing a higher subsidy to higher quality rice, the introduction
of the grading system has improved the overall quality of paddy production, with 80% of the paddy
delivered to National Flour Mills falling in or above the grade II category.  The share of Grade Ipaddy in total rice deliveries increased from 40% in 1996 to 55% in 1997.
(e) Coconut/copra
33. Production of copra has varied between 2,600 and 3,000 metric tonnes in the 1994-96 period.
Imports of coconut/copra are subject to a licensing requirement and the maximum tariff rate of 40%.
34. A guaranteed price of TT$2.66/kg. is paid to coconut producers.  TT$2.00 is paid by the
Coconut Growers Association, the major purchaser of  coconut in the country, and TT$0.66 is paid by
the Ministry of Trade and Industry as a subsidy.  Annual payments averaged TT$2.6 million in the
period 1992-96.  Currently, guaranteed prices are below market prices.
(f) Meat and dairy products
35. Domestic meat production, excluding poultry, accounted for 35.6% of total meat supply in the
period 1993-1997, with the rest being imported.  While pork meat is mainly supplied by local
producers, beef and sheep supplies are dependent on imports.  Imports of beef and mutton face a 15%
tariff, and pork and poultry face the maximum rate of 40%.  While import surcharges on beef, mutton
and pork were eliminated in 1998, poultry continues to be subject to a 100% import surcharge, which
is to be reduced to 86% in 2004.  Domestic poultry production is further protected by licensingrequirements for imported poultry.  Imports of milk supplied roughly 60% of domestic requirements
in the 1993-95 period.  The average MFN tariff for dairy products (HS04) is at 20.2%; fresh milk
carries a tariff of 40%.  An import surcharge of 20% on liquid milk was abolished at the beginning of
1998.
                                                     
12CCGA paid TT$24.50/crate for oranges and TT$19.70/crate for grapefruit in 1997.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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36. The guaranteed price for milk is TT$2.45/kg., of which TT$0.90/kg. is paid by the
Government as a subsidy and TT$1.55/kg. is paid by Nestlé, the main milk processor.  An informal
arrangement exists between the Government and Nestlé, by which the Government pays a subsidy to
the farmers who sell their milk to Nestlé.  This financial arrangement is managed by Nestlé and is not
extended to any other milk processor.  The Government paid annual average subsidies of
TT$8.4 million in the period 1992-97.13   Approximately 600 dairy farmers benefit from the subsidy.
To benefit under the present arrangement, farmers must be registered as regular suppliers to Nestlé.
Despite subsidization, supply of milk to Nestlé for processing declined from 10.2 to 9.8 million kg. in
the 1992-97 period.
(g) Beverages and tobacco
37. Tobacco and breweries accounted for about 45% of agricultural GDP in 1997.  Beverages,
spirits and vinegar are by far the largest agricultural export, totalling US$75.1 million in 1997.  Rum
is exported to the EU market under the Lomé Convention's  Rum Protocol.  Specific customs duties
are levied on alcoholic beverages, while excise duties are levied on local and CARICOM production.
In the case of beer and wine, customs duties are higher than excise duties on local and CARICOM
goods; for spirits they are generally lower.  Imports of most tobacco products are subject to a 30%tariff, while local and CARICOM tobacco products are subject to excise duties (Chapter III(2)(iv) and
Table III.6).  A tobacco tax is applied on all tobacco products.
(vi) Fisheries
38. The fishing industry accounted for 4.3% of agricultural GDP in 1996.  Exports of fish
products reached US$10 million, while imports totalled about US$5.8 million in the same year.
Imports of fish products face an average tariff rate 29.2%.  In general, fish imported for processing
purposes is duty-free, while fish imported for consumption faces tariffs between 25 to 40%
39. The Government has provided subsides since 1977 to encourage growth in the fishing
industry, which include a fuel rebate of TT$0.05/litre for gasoline and a rebate of 25% of the value up
to a maximum of TT$2,500 for the construction of locally built fishing boats.  Fishing activities
benefit from VAT and import duty exemption.  In 1996, the subsidies paid by the Government
amounted to TT$0.6 million.  In December 1997, a new Fishing Agreement was signed between theRepublics of Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago.  Essentially, the Agreement delineated a shared
fishing area where fishermen from both countries could fish without permits provided they followed
the terms of the Agreement, such as flying the flag of their country or being registered in one of the
countries.
(3) M
INING AND QUARRYING
40. The mining and quarrying sector makes a large contribution to the economy of Trinidad and
Tobago.  While the sector employed only 3.8% of  total labour, it produced 14.4% of GDP in 1996.
The hydrocarbon subsector accounts for 99% of the sector's total output.
(i) Hydrocarbons
41. While Trinidad and Tobago is a relatively small producer of hydrocarbon products in the
world market, they have played a significant role in shaping the economy since 1908, when
production of crude oil started.  The discovery of large reserves of crude oil in the late 1960s and
                                                     
13This amount is within the TT$10 million limit negotiated between the Government of Trinidad and
Tobago and the Inter-American Development Bank for the Agricultural Sector Loan (MALMR, 1997).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 80
early 1970s allowed Trinidad and Tobago to benefit from the price rises caused by the two oil shocks.
Oil production peaked at 229,500 barrels per day (b/d) in 1978.  In 1997, oil production reached
123,874 b/d.  Natural gas production has been increasing since 1978;  in 1997, production reached
884 million cubic feet per day (mmcf/d) (Table IV.8).
Table IV.8
Crude oila and natural gas production, 1993-97
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Crude Oil ('000 barrels)
Total Production 45,203 47,814 47,698 47,171 45,174
Daily Average 123.9 131.0 130.7 128.9 123.9
Imports 11,195 11,621 12,682 14,634 10,700
Exports 21,806 22,025 21,414 21,516 20,300
Natural Gas (million cubic feet/day)
Production 684.7 744.0 773.6 874.0 884.0
Utilization 506.0 575.0 592.0 682.0 714.0
of which: Petrochemicals 287.0 334.0 335.0 416.1 407.7
TTEC 136.0 139.0 149.0 154.8 167.3
a Also includes condensates.
Source: Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, Ministry of  Energy and Energy Industries.
42. Dependence on the energy sector - which, according to the definition used by the authorities
of Trinidad and Tobago, consists of exploration and production, refining, marketing and distributionof petroleum products, petroleum-related services, petrochemicals, as well as asphalt - has gradually
declined over time.  However, the sector still accounted for 26.6% of GDP, 22% of government
revenue and 73% of foreign exchange earnings in 1997 (Table IV.9).  The sector also accounts for
most of the foreign investment flowing into Trinidad and Tobago.  Foreign investment in energy-
related projects is estimated over the next four years  at over US$2.5 billion, a large amount relative to
the size of the economy.
Table IV.9
Contribution of the energy sectora to the economy, 1970-97
(Per cent)
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1997
Share in GDP 21.5 41.3 42.1 26.8 31.8 26.6
Share in government revenue 23.1 69.4 58.9 42.1 40.9 22.0
Share in foreign exchange earnings --- 77.2 90.6 79.7 82.5 73.0
a Also includes refineries, petrochemicals, and marketing and distribution of petroleum products.
Source: Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries.
43. The Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries has overall responsibility for managing and
regulating the energy sector and is also responsible for the operational and commercial aspects of thestate petroleum and energy-based industries.  Policy initiatives taken since 1993 include:  a reduction
in direct state participation in the industry;  the merging and restructuring of state-owned oil
companies;  a review of the petroleum taxation system; increased exploration and production
activities, particularly in deep waters;  and development of downstream natural gas-based industries.
44. As oil reserves are relatively limited, the focus of energy policy has been shifting from oil to
natural gas.  Proven oil reserves were estimated at 534 million barrels at the beginning of 1998,Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 81
equivalent to 12 years of output at the current level of production.  Proven reserves of natural gas have
been estimated at 18 trillion cubit feet (equivalent to 3,155 million barrels of oil) in 1998, sufficient
for another 55 years of output.  In addition, probable and possible gas reserves are estimated at
6.37 trillion cubic feet.  Natural gas is mainly used in the petrochemical industry.
45. The Petroleum Act of 1969 established a framework for the granting of licences/contracts for
the conduct of petroleum operations on land and submarine areas.  The Ministry of Energy andEnergy Industries is responsible for determining the areas available for exploration and production,
and through prior competitive bidding, grants the rights of exploration and production of petroleum.
The following types of licences/contracts are issued:  (a) an exploration licence which grants the
licensee the non-exclusive right to carry out the pe troleum operations stated in the licence;  (b) an
exploration and production licence which grants the licensee the exclusive right to explore for,produce and dispose of petroleum in accordance with the terms of the licence;  (c) a
production-sharing contract for the conduct of petroleum operations relating to the exploration,
production and disposition of petroleum within a prescribed contract area.  Since 1995,
production-sharing contracts have been issued on the basis of a system of three-phased competitive
bidding rounds.  Over the 1995-98 period, production-sharing contracts were granted for 13 offshoreblocks, with a total acreage of 1,108,172 hectares
14
46. The tax regime in the petroleum industry is governed by the Petroleum Act, the Petroleum
Taxes Act, the Petroleum Production Levy and Subsidy Act, the Income Tax (In Aid of Industry) Act,
and the Unemployment Levy Act.  The regime, which was most recently revised in 1992, is based on
a three-tier system consisting of two profit-based corporation taxes (the Petroleum Profits Tax (PPT)
and an Unemployment Levy), of three production-based taxes (a Royalty, a Petroleum Production
Levy, a Petroleum Impost) and of an income-based tax, (the Supplemental Petroleum Tax)(Table IV.10).  Petroleum operations are classified into three types of businesses for taxation
purposes:  exploration and production, refining, and marketing.  While the first two types of
businesses have remained subject to the Petroleum Taxes Act, the Finance Act of 1997 removed the
taxation of petroleum marketing businesses from the Act's scope and placed it under the Corporation
Taxes Act.  As a result, the state-owned National Petroleum Marketing Company, of Trinidad andTobago and the National Gas Company, which have a monopoly on the marketing and distribution of
petroleum products and gas, are now taxed at a rate of 35%, instead of 50%.  A company engaging in
more than one type of petroleum business may not offset losses incurred in one type of business
against profits earned in another for the purposes of PPT.
15
47. Incentives and tax allowances are used to encourage investment in the energy sector.  Various
expenses incurred in petroleum operations may be deducted from income in computing
petroleum-related taxes.  Capital expenditures incurred on workovers, heavy oil projects and on a
development dry hole are deductible for the computation of the PPT (Table IV.10).  Additionally,
capital allowances under the Income Tax (In Aid of Industry) Act are also applicable to the
calculation of the PPT for petroleum production businesses.  These include initial and first yearallowances on plant and machinery expenditure of 20% each, and an additional annual deduction of
20% for each of the five years following the initia l investment.  Allowances for the computation of
the Supplement Petroleum Tax include geological and geophysical allowances, up to 50%;  an
exploration allowance, of up to 100% of direct dr illing costs;  a royalty payment allowance;  and an
investment allowance of up to 40% of tangible and intangible drilling costs (Table IV.10).  Finally,
import duty and VAT exemptions are also granted under the Customs Act and the VAT Act
(Chapter III).
                                                     
14Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries, http://www. meei.gov.tt.
15TIDCO (1998).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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Table IV.10
Petroleum taxation in Trinidad and Tobago
Tax category Content Deduction and Allowance
Royalty 12.5% of the value of all petroleum produced
Petroleum Profits Tax 50% of taxable profits (i)  100% on the expenditure incurred on workovers,
maintenance or repair work on completed wells and
qualifying side tracks;
(ii)  100% on capital expenditure on a heavy oil project;
(iii)  expenditure on a dry hole or a development dry hole
with the Minister's approval.
Supplemental Petroleum
TaxSliding scale of tax rates based on oil prices,
ranging from 0 for crude prices under US$13.01 abarrel, to a maximum of 35% for crude prices over
US$49.50 a barrel.(i)  50% of geological and geophysical costs;
(ii)  100% of direct cost of drilling exploration wells;(iii)  royalty payment;(iv)  100% of capital expenditure incurred in the drilling
of wells and the acquisition of plant and machinery for use
in marine thermal recovery schemes for heavy oil;
(v)  40% of direct intangible drilling cost and 40% of
tangible costs incurred in a development activity.
Petroleum Production
LevyUp to 3% of gross income from crude oil.  The
levy provides the subsidy for petroleum products
on the domestic market.
Petroleum Impost Rates based on petroleum produced in the
previous year.  The impost is a payment to cover
administrative costs of the Ministry of Energy and
Energy Industries.
Unemployment Levy 5% of taxable profits (i)  Operating and administrative expense
(ii)  Royalty(iii)  Petroleum Production Levy(iv)  Supplemental Petroleum Tax
Source: Information provided by the Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries and TIDCO.
(ii) Oil
48. Since 1990 oil production has been declining at an average annual rate of 2.7%.  Crude oil
production recorded 123,874 b/d in 1997, 46% less than in the peak year, 1978.  Over three quarters
of production originated in marine operations.  Proven reserves (24% of which are heavy oil reserves)are estimated to be just sufficient for another 12 years of supply at the current rate of production.
While probable and possible reserves are estimated at up to 2.5 billion barrels or 50 years of supply,
they are not considered to be economically recoverable under current market conditions since they are
composed of heavy oil.
16
49. Approximately 46% of the crude oil produced in the period 1993-97 was exported;  the rest
was refined locally.  To maintain optimal refinery levels,  some crude oil is also imported.  In 1997,
10.7 million barrels of crude oil were imported while 20.3 million barrels were exported (Table IV.8).
Imports of crude oil are duty free.
50. The production of crude oil is dominated by multinationals and state-owned enterprises.  The
largest producer is Amoco Trinidad Oil Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of U.S.-based Amoco
Corporation, which accounted for 44% of total oil and condensate production in 1997.  The majority
state-owned Trinmar17 and the wholly state-owned Petroleum Company of Trinidad and Tobago
                                                     
16Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries, http://www.meei.gov.tt.
17Trinmar is 66 2/3% owned by Petrotrin and 33 1/3% by Texaco Trinidad.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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(Petrotrin) accounted for 25% and 26% of production, respectively.  Petrotrin was created in 1993 as a
result of the merger of two fully state-owned enterp rises, Trinidad and Tobago Oil Company (Trintoc)
and Trinidad and Tobago Petroleum Company (Trintopec).  Petrotrin owns and operates the country's
only operating refinery at Pointe-à-Pierre, which manufactures petroleum products for local
consumption and for export to regional and international markets.  The Government is currently
considering the possible privatization of Petrotrin.18
(iii) Natural gas
51. The production of natural gas reached 884 mmcf/d in 1997, of which over 90% was in the
hands of multinational oil/gas producers.  The state-owned Trinidad and Tobago Marine Petroleum
Company (Trintomar), a joint venture between the National Gas Company (NGC) and Petrotrin, does
not seem to have succeeded in reaching the goal of reducing dependence on foreign suppliers.Natural gas is not only used in the production of petrochemicals (ammonia, methanol and urea)  and
electricity, but also in the production of iron and steel, natural gas liquids (propane, butane and natural
gas gasoline), cement, iron carbide, as well as in a number of light industries.  In 1997,
petrochemicals accounted for 57.1% of gas usage with power generation accounting for a further
23.4%.  While it is presently not exported, liquified natural gas (LNG) is expected to become a majorexport once the construction of a LNG plant at Point Fortin is completed in 1999.
19
52. NGC is a state-owned company which has a monopoly over the purchase, transmission and
sale of natural gas.  It is also responsible for the development of downstream gas-based industries, and
for the supervision of investment projects.  NGC negotiates gas purchasing contracts with suppliers as
needed and separate gas supply contracts with consumers.  Pricing is set on a case-by-case basis and
each contract is negotiated with the proposed user.  Suppliers may obtain incentives under the Fiscal
Incentives Act.
53. Currently, there is no formal legislation nor a regulatory body governing the natural gas
subsector.  The Government is trying to establish a formal framework, including the establishment of
a regulatory body for natural gas, the enactment of a Natural Gas Act, the standardization of royalties
and fiscal incentives, the introduction of a licensing system for petrochemicals and the creation of a
more transparent pricing structure.
(iv) Other minerals and quarrying
54. Non-petroleum minerals produced for commercial use include:  asphalt, andesite, argillite,
clay, limestone, sand and gravel, plastering sand, silica sand, oil sand, quartzite and porcellanite.  Of
these, clay is the most abundant and extensively used.  Other non-petroleum minerals found in
Trinidad and Tobago, but not produced commercially include:  magnetite (iron ore), gypsum andfluorite.  There are 52 active quarries.  Imports of non-petroleum minerals include course sand for use
in petroleum operations, gypsum, iron ore and limestone for use in the manufacture of glass.
55. Trinidad and Tobago has one of the largest natural deposits of asphalt in the world.  The latest
available figures show that asphalt production reached 15,396 tonnes and exports 12,278 tonnes in
1997.
56. There are nine separate pieces of legislation regulating the mineral and quarrying industries,
each of which is administrated by a different government agency.  The Ministry of Energy and Energy
                                                     
18Divestment Secretariat (1998).
19Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries (1997).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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Industries has been given the task to come up with new legislation to bring together all quarry-related
legislation.
(v) Electricity
57. The prime source of energy is natural gas.  Electricity generation accounts for 23.4% of total
natural gas utilization;  it increased from 3,852 million kilowatt hours (kWh) to 4,841 million kWh in
the 1992-97 period.  (Between 10-13% of total electr icity generated is estimated to be lost in the
transmission process.)  The demand for electricity increased from 609 megawatts (MW) in 1993 to
746MW in 1997 and is expected to reach 930MW in the year 2000 (production is estimated at
5,964 million kWh).
58. The Trinidad and Tobago Electricity Commission (TTEC), which falls under the purview of
the Ministry of Public Utilities, has exclusive control over the generation, transmission, distributionand sale of electricity in Trinidad and Tobago.  In 1994, the generation operations of TTEC became a
separate company, the Power Generation Company of Trinidad and Tobago (PowerGen), which is
51% owned by TTEC, jointly with two private co mpanies.  The company is responsible for the
operation and maintenance of the three thermal power plants which use natural gas as the principal
fuel.  TTEC serves some 298,000 customers, including businesses, industries and residents.
59. Electricity rates, which are the lowest in the Caribbean
20, are set by the Public Utilities
Commission, which is to be replaced by the Regulated Industries Commission.  The financial
difficulties of TTEC, which reported a deficit of over TT$276 million in 1996, has urged the setting
up of the Regulated Industries Commission, which will operate under a price-cap system, expected to
provide greater incentives for cost reduction and reduce cross-subsidization.  As part of the
Government's divestment programme,  the private sector already participates in generation activities.
(4) MANUFACTURING
60. The manufacturing sector accounted for only 12.4% of GDP in 1996.  Despite the
Government's efforts to diversify production, the manufacturing sector remains heavily dependent on
the oil refinery and petrochemical sub-sectors.  The share of petroleum-related manufacturing
increased from 41.5 to 66.4% of total manufacturing GDP in the 1992-96 period (Chart IV.3).  Most
the rest of the manufacturing sector consists of steel and cement, wood products, paper, printing andpublishing, industrial gas, and metal building.
(i) Market access
61. The 1998 average MFN tariff on imports of industrial products (HS chapters 25-97, covering
both manufacturing and mining) was seven, with  a peak of 30% (HS chapters 27, 40, 71, 84, 85, 87,
91, 93) (Table IV.11).  In all HS chapters, with the exception of chapters 37, 57, 74, 91, 92, 94, 96 and97, the minimum tariff rate was zero (Chapter III(2)(iii)).  The highest tariffs are applied on arms and
ammunition, clocks and watches, works of art, clothing and apparel articles, carpets, furniture, toys,
footwear, soap and leather goods.
                                                     
20For instance, the industrial rate is 2.45 US cents per kWh in Trinidad and Tobago, 16.72 US cents
per kWh in Barbados, 16.30 US cents per kWh in Grenada, and 10.67 US cents per kWh in Jamaica.(Trinidad Express, 21 July 1997)Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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1992Per cent
Source :  Central Statistical Office.Chart IV.3
Manufacturing GDP by activity, 1992 and 1996
Printing, publishing
 & paper converters
9.2
Textiles & clothing
3.6
Other chemicals & 
non-metallic minerals
14.0.
Total:  TT$ 1,985.5 million Total:  TT$ 4,075.2 millionPetrochemicals
26.4Oil refineries
19.5
Assembly type & 
related industries
12.1Petrochemicals
38.8
Other 
2.7Oil refineries
27.6
Wood & related 
products  2.6
Printing, publishing 
& paper converters
5.1
Other chemicals & 
non-metallic minerals
9.9Textiles & clothing
1.11996
Other
4.4Assembly type & 
related industries
20.6Wood & related 
products  2.4
62. Under its Uruguay Round commitments, Trinidad  and Tobago bound virtually all of its
industrial tariffs at ceiling rates of 50%;  as exceptions, a few items were bound at 70%.  Other dutiesand charges were bound at 15%.
(ii) Incentives schemes
63. A number of incentive schemes are available for manufacturers.  The Customs Act Section 56
allows customs duty concessions of imports of mach inery, equipment and materials for a wide range
of approved manufacturing activities - including petroleum-related manufacturing - listed in the ThirdSchedule of the Act (Chapter III(2)(iii)(e)).  The Fiscal Incentives Act grants tax relief from corporate
tax and customs duties to approved enterprises for a period of up to ten years (Chapter III(4)(ii)).  A
number of free zones have been established to encourage the development of export-oriented
manufacturing.  In order to be eligible for free-zone status, and enjoy various tax exemptions, firms
must export more than 80% of their producti on outside of CARICOM (Chapter III(3)(vii)).
Accelerated tax depreciation is granted in the form of an initial allowance (10% of capital expenditure
for general manufacturing and 20% for petrochemicals) and an annual allowance (10% of capital
expenditure).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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Table IV.11
Trade and tariff data for industrial products, 1998
(Per cent and US$'000)
Import
(US$ '000)Exports
(US$ '000) HS DescriptionUnweighted
MFN average
(%)Min.
(%)Max.
(%)
1996
25-97 Industrial products 7.0 0 30 1,894,551.1 2,253,401.0
25 Slat; sulphur; earth & stone;  plastering mat.;
lime & cem.1.7 0 20  12,985.4  21,278.5
26 Ores, slag and ash 1.1 0 10  59,658.4  188.4
27 Mineral fuels, oils & products of their
distillation;  etc.11.0 0 30  422,734.9  1,291,836.2
28 Inorg. chem;  compds. of prec. met., radioact.
elements, etc.0.7 0 15  21,855.6  301,580.5
29 Organic chemicals 0.1 0 15  14,946.4  123,235.6
30 Pharmaceutical products 7.5 0 15  35,351.4  1,693.5
31 Fertilizers 0.4 0 10  2,901.9  115,601.8
32 Tanning/dyeing extract; tannins & derivs;  pigm.
etc.8.0 0 25  11,721.7  6,664.5
33 Essential oils & resinoids;  perf, cosmetic/toilet
prep.11.7 0 20  13,177.2  5,469.9
34 Soap, organic surface-active agents, washing
prep. etc.14.9 0 20  9,364.8  16,532.3
35 Albuminoidal subs;  modified starches;  glues;
enzymes3.9 0 15  2,582.9  630.8
36 Explosives;  pyrotechnic prod;  matches;  pyrop
alloy;  etc.11.2 0 20  1,479.1  770.3
37 Photographic or cinematographic goods 11.6 5 20  4,292.6  2.1
38 Miscellaneous chemical products 2.7 0 20  58,298.6  4,077.3
39 Plastics and articles thereof 7.7 0 20  78,000.6  16,760.8
40 Rubber and articles thereof 5.9 0 30  21,557.3  48.8
41 Raw hides and skins (other than furskins) and
leather0.1 0 5  523.6  -
42 Articles of leather; saddlery/harness;  travel
goods etc.18.0 0 20  1,379.9  217.1
43 Furskins and artificial fur;  manufactures thereof 3.0 0 20  1.4 -
44 Wood and articles of wood;  wood charcoal 7.6 0 20  26,575.6  10,901.3
45 Cork and articles of cork 4.2 0 20  79.3  0.1
46 Manufactures of straw, esparto/other plaiting
mat.;  etc.12.5 0 20  75.6  2.1
47 Pulp of wood/of other fibrous cellulosic mat.;
waste etc.0.0 0 0  2,051.8  1,735.2
48 Paper & paperboard; art of paper pulp,
paper/paperboard6.3 0 20  69,840.8  38,000.5
49 Printed books, newspapers, pictures & other
products etc.6.9 0 20  14,942.7  2,793.6
50 Silk 0.5 0 5  32.0  -
51 Wool, fine/coarse animal hair, horsehair yarn &
fabric0.3 0 5  164.4  -
52 Cotton 0.1 0 5  6,011.9  23.8
53 Other vegetable textile fibres; paper yarn &
woven fab.0.0 0 0  26.3  0.4
54 Man-made filaments 0.3 0 5  526.6  4.2
55 Man-made staple fibres 0.2 0 5  22,709.4  235.1
56 Wadding, felt & non-woven;  yarns; twine,
cordage, etc.6.5 0 20  4,634.6  1,025.7
57 Carpets and other textile floor coverings 20.0 20 20  2,212.6  44.5
58 Special woven fab.;  tufted tex. fab.;  lace;
tapestries etc.0.9 0 15  5,554.8  8.1
Table IV.11 (cont'd)Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 87
Import
(US$ '000)Exports
(US$ '000) HS DescriptionUnweighted
MFN average
(%)Min.
(%)Max.
(%)
1996
59 Impregnated, coated, cover/laminated textile fabric
etc.3.2 0 20  2,964.8  0.6
60 Knitted or crocheted fabrics 0.0 0 0  6,203.9  10.8
61 Art of apparel & clothing access, knitted or crocheted 19.9 0 20  1,910.5  4,470.3
62 Art of apparel & clothing access, not
knitted/crocheted19.8 0 20  4,254.6  5,348.1
63 Other made up textile articles;  sets; worn clothing
etc.17 0 20  2,953.1  1,101.4
64 Footwear, gaiters and the like;  parts of such articles 16.3 0 20  11,532.7  552.5
65 Headgear and parts thereof 14.6 0 20  536.7  250.3
66 Umbrellas, walking-sticks, seat-sticks, whips, etc. 11.4 0 20  205.4  7.1
67 Prep. feathers & down;  arti.flower; articles human
hair16.3 0 20  387.1  0.7
68 Art of stone, plaster, cement, asbestos, mica/sim.mat. 10.7 0 25  4,476.2  2,244.0
69 Ceramic products 13.8 0 25  17,026.3  1,450.4
70 Glass and glassware 7 0 25  8,143.9  9,214.8
71 Natural/cultured pearls, prec.stones & metals, coins
etc.15.9 0 30  735.0  672.9
72 Iron and steel 4.6 0 15  47,521.3  209,842.6
73 Articles of iron or steel 9.7 0 25  69,926.9  11,810.4
74 Copper and articles thereof 3 5 20  7,634.1  5,914.6
75 Nickel and articles thereof 1.7 0 5  30.7  60.3
76 Aluminium and articles thereof 6.6 0 20  20,748.1  4,166.3
78 Lead and articles thereof 0.8 0 5  301.9  31.2
79 Zinc and articles thereof 0.9 0 5  279.6  8.1
80 Tin and articles thereof 0.8 0 5  186.3  -
81 Other base metals;  cements; articles thereof 0.0 0 0  400.6  0.1
82 Tool, implement, cutlery,  spoons & forks, of base
met. etc.6.6 0 20  9,919.9  40.8
83 Miscellaneous articles of base metal 7.7 0 20  9,598.7  1,277.8
84 Nuclear reactors, boilers, mchy. & mech. appliances;
parts2.8 0 30  346,769.7  10,928.9
85 Electrical mchy. equip. parts thereof;  sound recorders
etc.10 0 30  104,196.1  9,079.7
86 Railw./tramw. locom., rolling-stock & parts thereof;
etc.0.3 0 5  716.1  7.8
87 Vehicles o/t railw./tramw. roll-stock, pts. &
accessories.10.8 0 30  113,494.7  784.5
88 Aircraft, spacecraft, and parts thereof 4.7 0 20  74,476.7  -
89 Ships, boats and floating structures 3.9 0 20  37,364.8  1,180.6
90 Optical, photo, cine, meas., checking, precision, etc. 6.4 0 25  39,659.7  2,322.3
91 Clocks and watches and parts thereof 20.1 2.5 30  759.4  9.6
92 Musical instruments; parts and access. of such articles 10.4 10 20  345.1  556.2
93 Arms and ammunition;  parts and accessories thereof 21.4 0 30  522.3  -
94 Furniture; bedding, mattresses, matt. supports,
cushions etc17.3 2.5 20  10,872.3  6,497.7
95 Toys, games & sports requisites;  parts & access.
thereof14.2 0 20  4,847.0  261.6
96 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 14.4 2.5 20  4,355.6  924.1
97 Works of art, collectors, pieces and antiques 20 20 20  41.2  9.9
Note: Trade data applied for 1996.
Source: WTO calculations based on data provided by the authorities of Trinidad and Tobago and UNSD, Comtrade database.WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 88
64. The majority of petroleum-related manufacturing companies are located at the (natural-gas
abundant) Point Lisas Industrial Estate, which enjoys free-zone privileges.  The Industrial Estate is
managed by the majority state-owned Point Lisas Industrial Port Development Corporation
(PLIPDECO).21  The Trinidad and Tobago Free Zones Act was amended in 1995 to expand the
definition of free-zone activities and to include petroleum-related manufacturing (Chapter III(3)(vii)).
Petrochemical companies, as well as steel plants and medium-sized manufacturers, located in theIndustrial Estate, enjoy exemptions from customs duties, income and corporate taxes, business levies,
withholding taxes on remittance of profits, dividends and other distributions, and land and building
taxes.  The Industrial Estate is also equipped with the second largest port in Trinidad and Tobago, Port
Point Lisas, which specializes in industrial cargo, including petrochemicals, iron and steel products.
(iii) Petroleum-related manufacturing
65. The petroleum-related manufacturing subsector consists of one refinery, thirteen
petrochemical plants, a natural gas liquid recovery plant and electricity power plants.  In recent years,
the abundance of natural gas reserves has attracted a large number of investment in gas utilization
projects including petrochemicals and liquified natural gas.  In 1997, the production of petrochemicals
(fertilizer, methanol) accounted for 57% of gas utilization (Chart IV.4).  The construction of aliquified natural gas (LNG) plant, to be completed in 1999, will increase utilization of natural gas by
another 450 mcf/d, and LNG is expected to become a major export.
22  The development of
downstream natural gas sub-sectors altogether will increase gas utilization from the current 900 mcf/d
to 1400 mcf/d in the year 2000.23
(a) Crude oil refining
66. Trinidad and Tobago has an important oil refining industry which manufactures petroleum
products such as motor gasoline, gas/diesel oil,  fuel oil, kerosene, and aviation turbine fuel.  Refinerycapacity, which attained 450,000 b/d, in the1960s, declined to 100,000 b/d in the early 1990s, before
increasing to 160,000 b/d in 1998, after the completion of a project which upgraded the only operating
refinery at Point-à-Pierre.
24  Refinery output is expected to average 125,000 b/d in 1998, increasing to
160,000 b/d in 2000.
67. The Pointe-à-Pierre refinery, owned by the state-controlled Petrotrin, has access to 75,000 b/d
of low-cost indigenous crude oil, with the rest of its refining capacity met by imported oil.  In the
1993-96 period, an annual average 12.5 million barrels were imported.  Petrotrin has a processing
agreement with Venezuela under which Venezuela provides crude oil for Petrotrin's surplus refinery
capacity.  In 1996, 58% of crude oil was imported under the agreement.   All imports of crude oil enter
duty free.  In 1996, Trinidad and Tobago produced 41 million barrels of various petroleum productsand exported 28.2 million barrels to regional and international markets (Table IV.12).
                                                     
21PLIPDECO is 43% owned by the Government, 8% by Caroni (100% government-owned agricultural
enterprise), with the rest of the shares traded on the stock exchange.  It also manages the Port of Point Lisas, thesecond largest port, which specializes in industrial car go including petrochemicals, iron and steel products.
22In 1993, a project of the construction of a LNG plant at Point Fortin was agreed by five partners,
NGC and four multinationals.  It is the single largest investment in downstream industries in the country with a
cost estimated at US$1 billion.  LNG is  expected to start being delivered to the United States and Spain in 1999.
23The Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries (1997).
24The second refinery, Point Fortin, is at present idle.  The Government is trying to privatize it, so far
unsuccessfully.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
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Mmcf/d stands for million cubic feet per day.   
Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries.Per cent
Total:  714.0 mmcf/d
Note:
Source :Power generation
23.4
Fertilizer manufacture
37.0
Methanol manufacture
20.1Iron and steel manufacture
6.8Refinery manufacture
6.9Small consumers 1.7
Gas processing  2.4
Cement manufacture  1.6Chart IV. 4
Utilization of natural gas, 1997
Table IV.12
Oil refinery output and exports, 1993-97
('000 barrels)
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Refinery throughput 38,229.3 37,839.3 37,001.9 40,249.3 34,263.8
Refinery output 37,269 36,227 34,391 41,067 ..
Of which: Motor gasoline 6,466.9 6,983.0 7,799.7 5,708.3 7,547.2
Gas/diesel oil 6,397.4 6,780.5 7,489.5 7,793.0 8,338.4
Fuel oil 19,640.1 17,909.1 14,774.4 17,008.9 14,271.4
Kerosene and aviation
turbine fuel3,629.1 4,452.9 3,660.0 4,068.9 3,287.2
Refinery exports 23,899 27,179 31,877 28,203 ..
.. Not available.
Source: Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.
68. For refining operations, a refinery throughput tax is levied at US$0.05/barrel for full refining
and US$0.02 for light refining.25
69. The domestic distribution of petroleum products is handled by the National Petroleum
Marketing Company, a state-owned company which had a monopoly right until recently.  In 1997, its
monopoly status was eliminated;  distribution activities are now open for entry, initially by domestic
companies only.
                                                     
25The refinery throughput tax is deductible when computing the profits of a refining business for the
purpose of the PPT.WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
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(b) Petrochemicals (including fertilizers)
70. The production of petrochemicals increase d from TT$523.4 million in 1992 to TT$1580.1 
million in 1996.  The hub of the country's petrochemical industry is located at the Point Lisas
Industrial Estate, which is governed by the Point Lisas Industrial Port Development Corporation
(PLIPDECO).
71. Trinidad and Tobago is the world's second largest producer of ammonia and the third largest
producer of urea.  There are eight ammonia plants and one urea plant, with total capacities of
3.54 million tonnes per year for ammonia and 0.58 million tonnes per year for urea.  Fertilizer
production, combining production of ammonia and urea  together, amounted to 2.7 million tonnes in
1997, with exports reaching 2.3 million tonnes (Table  IV.13).  An ongoing construction project of a
new ammonia plant with a production capacity of  620,000 tonnes per year will further enhance
capacity for fertilizer production.
Table IV.13
Petroleum-related production and exports, 1993-97
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Production
Fertilizers ('000 tonnes) 2,292 2,453 2,631 2,674 2,691
Methanol ('000 tonnes) 493 1,020 963 1,355 1,520
Natural gas liquidsa ('000 barrels) 3,257 3,485 3,750 4,460 4,111
Exports
Fertilizers ('000 tonnes) 1,946 2,185 2,268 2,336 2,292
Methanol ('000 tonnes) 456 1,009 963 1,317 1,580
Natural gas liquids ('000 barrels) 2,315 2,718 3,715 4,310 4,145
a Natural gas liquids include propane, butane and natural gasoline.
Source: Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.
72. There are four methanol plants, with a production capacity of 2.9 million tonnes per annum
(up from 0.45 million tonnes in 1991).  In 1997, methanol production amounted to 1.52 million tonnes
and exports to 1.58 million tonnes.  A fifth methanol plant with a capacity of 0.86 million tonnes per
annum is presently under construction.
73. State involvement in the petrochemicals sub-sector has declined since the beginning of the
decade, when the Government held 100% of the Tr inidad and Tobago Urea Company (TTUC) and the
Trinidad and Tobago Methanol Company (TTMC) and 51% of Fertilizers of Trinidad and
Tobago, Ltd. (Fertrin).  As part of a divestment exercise, TTUC and Fertrin were sold to foreign
investors in 1993, and TTMC to a consortium comprising local and foreign investors in 1997.
(c) Natural gas liquids
74. A natural gas liquid recovery plant, Phoenix Park Gas Processors Limited (PPGPL), jointly
owned by NGC (49%) and two other partners (C omoco, 41% and Pan West Constructors 10%),
extracts propane, butane and natural gas gasoline from local natural gas production.26  The production
of natural gas liquids commenced in 1991 and has been growing since.  In 1997, some 4.1 million
tonnes of gas extracts were produced and all export ed (Table IV.13).  A new PPGPL facility, which is
                                                     
26Propane and butane are used as inputs in the manufacture of petrochemicals, plastics and textiles
while natural gas is used as a gasoline blending product and chemical feedstock.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 91
to be completed by the end of 1998, will increase gas processing capacity from the existing
750 mmcf/d to 1,350 mmcf/d.
(iv) Non-petroleum manufacturing
(a) Cement
75. Production of cement increased from 527,200 tonnes to 652,500 tonnes in 1993-97 period.
Exports of cement, mainly to CARICOM member states, reached 282,200 tonnes in 1997(Table IV.14).
Table IV.14
Production and exports of selected manufacturing, 1993-97
('000 tonnes)
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Production
Steel Products
Direct reduced iron 714.5 946.7 1,039.9 954.5 1,133.8
Billets 492.1 630.3 676.1 643.6 747.0
Wire rods 413.0 521.1 594.4 575.4 668.0
Cement 527.2 582.9 558.5 617.1 652.5
Exports 
Steel
Direct reduced iron 223.9 292.3 270.5 272.9 344.9
Billets 15.7 12.6 21.0 8.2 12.7
Wire rods 357.8 495.2 564.3 551.9 603.7
Cement 297.5 334.0 296.0 323.2 298.3
Source:  Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.
76. Trinidad Cement Limited (TCL) is the sole producer of cement in Trinidad and Tobago.  The
Government acquired the company in 1976, and retained 100% ownership until 1989 when it was
partly divested.  The Government kept the price of cement affordable to the population, often at a
price below the cost of production, and thus TCL experienced large financial losses.  After three
phases of divestment between 1989 and 1994, the Gove rnment at present holds 9.1% of the shares in
the company, which is also expected to be sold in 1998.  In 1994, TCL purchased the assets ofArawak Cement Company which was jointly established by the Governments of Barbados and
Trinidad and Tobago (51% and 49%, respectively) in 1981.
(b) Iron and steel
77. Production as well as exports of steel products have increased in the 1992-97 period
(Table IV.14).
78. The Iron and Steel Company of Trinidad and Tobago (ISCOTT) was established by the
Government in 1981 to undertake the production and marketing of steel products, including direct
reduced iron, billets and wire.  In 1989, after years of financial losses, ISCOTT was leased to a
foreign operator at a rental of US$10.84 million a year for a period of ten years.  In 1994, the lease
operator, Caribbean Ispat Limited, purchased the assets of ISCOTT and agreed to sell 40% of its sharecapital to nationals of Trinidad and Tobago within three years.  The company, now called Caribbean
Ispat, is the tenth largest steel producer in the world.WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 92
79. Trinidad and Tobago has become the only exporter  of iron carbide in the world.  Its first iron
carbide production plant with 1,000 tonnes per day was built in the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in
1993.  The plant produces iron carbide by processing iron ore from Brazil with locally available
natural gas.  The first shipment was delivered to the United States in 1995.  Three additional plants
are expected to be built.
(5) SERVICES
(i) Overview
80. The services sector accounted for 61% of GDP and 75% of total employment in 1996.
81. Under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), Trinidad and Tobago's Schedule
provides for horizontal commitments on two modes of supply: commercial presence and the presence
of natural persons.  With respect to "commercial presence", the acquisition of over 30% of the equityof publicly-traded companies is subject to approval, as is foreign purchase of over five acres of land
for commercial and residential purposes.  In the case of the "presence of natural persons", the
employment of a foreigner, includin g a CARICOM national, in excess of thirty days is subject to the
obtention of a work permit, which is granted on a case-by-case basis.
27
82. In the Uruguay Round, Trinidad and Tobago made sector-specific commitments with respect
to business services (professional services, computer and related services, research and development
services, other business services); communication services (telecommunications services); educational
services; financial services (insurance); health-related services; tourism and travel related services;
recreational, cultural and sporting services;  and transport services (maritime transport services).28
(ii) Financial services
83. Financial services, including real estate and business services, accounted for 11.5% of GDP
and  8.2% of total employment in 1997.  The financial system comprises various financial institutions,including commercial banks, non-banking financial institutions, the stock exchange and insurance
companies (Table IV.15).  Total assets in the system amounted to TT$47 billion in 1996.  A number
of liberalization measures taken in 1993, including the removal of the Trinidad and Tobago dollar
from its peg to the US dollar and of exchange restrictions on current and capital transactions, have set
the stage for the local financial services sector to interact with global financial markets.  At the same
time, a new piece of legislation, the Financial Institutions Act, was introduced to modernize and
strengthen prudential regulations.
84. Under the WTO negotiations on Financial Services, Trinidad and Tobago made commitments
in reinsurance, but not in other sub-sectors .
(a) Banking
85. At the end of 1997 there were five commercial  banks with 120 branches operating in Trinidad
and Tobago.  Since the beginning of the 1990s, market consolidation has taken place in banking as the
number of banks decreased from eight in 1992 to five in 1997.  Out of the five commercial banks,
four are either wholly or majority locally owned and one wholly foreign owned.  Collectively, the five
commercial banks held assets of TT$23 billion in 1996, accounting for about half the financial
sector's total assets.  The three largest institutions held almost two thirds of the banking system's
                                                     
27GATS/SC/86, 15 April 1994.
28GATS/SC/86, 15 April 1994, GATS/SC/86/Suppl.1, 11 April 1997.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 93
assets.29  Total deposits grew from TT$8.6 million in 1992 to TT$12.4 million in 1996, mainly due to
the rise in foreign currency deposits as a result of the removal of foreign exchange controls in 1993.
The share of foreign currency deposits in total deposits increased from zero in early 1993 to 24% in
1996.
Table IV.15
The financial system in Trinidad and Tobago, 1996
Institutions Number of institutions
(Branches)Total assetsa
(TT$ million)
Central Bank 1 8,418
Commercial Banks 6 (121) 22,960
Financial Companies & Merchant Banks 10 (13) 2,204
Trust & Mortgage Financial Companies 6 (10) 4,452
Thrift Institutionsb38 0
Development Banksc29 9 3
Unit Trust Corporation 1 1,352
Credit Unions 1 2,000
National Insurance Board 1 3,588
Insurance Companies 34 [...]
Development Insurance Corporation 1 229
Home Mortgage Bank 1 777
Trinidad and Tobago Stock Exchange 1 11
Total 68 47,064
a Provisional.
b Include the Post Office Savings Bank and three Building Societies.
c Include the Agricultural Development Bank and the Trinidad and Tobago Mortgage Finance Company.
Source:  Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.
86. The legislative framework governing the banking sector is the Financial Institutions Act of
1993.  The Act repealed and replaced the Banking Act of 1964 and the Financial Institutions
(Non-Banking) Act of 1979 that had separately governed commercial banks and deposit-taking non-
bank financial institutions.30  The two types of financial institutions were brought for the first time
under a single legislative umbrella which granted them greater freedom to offer a wider range of
financial services.  While commercial banks may engage in all types of financial activities, non-bank
financial institutions can carry out only the businesses specified in their licenses (Table IV.16).  The
Central Bank is responsible for the examination of applications for licences for both commercial
banks and non-bank financial institutions.31  If a non-bank financial institution wishes to vary or
increase its activities, it must first obtain the approval of the Central Bank which may require the
                                                     
29Forde and Joseph et al. (1997).
30According to the definition used by the Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, non-bank financial
institutions include finance companies and merchant banks, and trust and mortgage financial companies.  The
major distinctions between commercial banks and non-bank financial institutions under the previous Acts were
that non-bank financial institutions were not allowed to take demand deposits or to provide loans withrepayment periods of less than one year, and that their licences specified the types of financial services theycould offer.
31Under the previous legislation, these tasks were handled by the Ministry of Finance.WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 94
licensee to increase its paid-up capital above the stipulated minimum.  Under the Financial Institutions
Act, all financial institutions are required to have a minimum paid-up capital of TT$15 million to
carry out financial business specified in the Act.
Table IV.16
Types of licences and activities covered by the Financial Institutions Act
Type of  license Activities
Business of  banking
(Commercial banks)Receiving deposits of money from the public which may be withdrawn on demand,
by cheque, draft, order or notice;  and the making of loans, or the granting of credit
facilities, and generally the undertaking of any business pertaining to the business ofcommercial banking.
Business of a financial nature
(Non-bank financial institutions)
1. Confirming house or acceptance house Confirming, accepting or financing import and export bills.
2. Finance house or finance company Hire purchase and instalment credit;  trade and inventory financing; factoring; block
financing.
3. Leasing corporation Lease financing.
4. Merchant bank Floating and undertaking stocks, shares and bonds; loans syndication; dealing in
gold; providing consultancy and investment management services and corporateadvisory services;  project development; lease financing; foreign exchange dealing;
inter-bank financing.
5. Mortgage institutions Mortgage lending.
6. Trust company Managing trust funds; performing duties of trustees, executor or administrator and
attorney.
7. Union trust Providing facilities for the participation by persons as beneficiaries under a trust or
other schemes, in profits or income arising from the acquisition, holding,
management or disposal of securiti es or any other property whatever.
8. Credit card business Issuing payment, credit or charge credit cards and, in cooperation with others
including other financial institutions, operating a payment, credit or charge card
plan.
9. Financial services Providing financial services relating to future and contingent liabilities in relation to
foreign exchange and commodities.
Source: Financial Institutions Act, 1993.
87. The Financial Institutions Act of 1993, together with the Financial Institutions (Prudential
Criteria) Regulations of 1994, was legislated to enhance prudential standards in an increasingly liberal
economic environment.  The 8% capital adequacy ratio was established as the minimum, with arecommendation of 12% or more.  The ceiling on unsecured loans to a single borrower was lowered
from 10 to 5% of total bank capital, while such ceiling on secured loans was lifted from 10 to 25% for
a single person or to 32% for a single borrowing group, including related parties.  The Act required
that banks hold reserves in a fixed ratio to their deposits liabilities.  For local currency deposits, the
reserve-requirement ratio is 24%, held in a non-interest-bearing account at the Central Bank; another
5% of deposits must be held in government bonds.  For foreign currency deposits, there is a liquidity
requirement ratio of 25%.
32  The Act also established minimum accounting standards as well as
criteria for analysing loan performance, asset classification, interest on non-performing loans,
treatment of foreign exchange losses, dividend payments, loan provisioning and disclosure
requirements.  The enforcement of these prudential standards is monitored by the Central Bank whose
supervisory power was strengthened by the Financial Institutions Act and the Central Bank
(Amendment) Act of 1994.  The Central Bank may impose conditions or restrictions and use the formof 'cease and desist' orders to curb conduct that is in violation of prudential standards.  Overall
assessment of the financial sector reform has been positive.  The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
                                                     
32Liquid reserves comprise selected foreign government securities of up to six-month maturity, bank
deposits and cash.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 95
reported that commercial bank performance was overall healthy, with a very high average ratio of
capital to assets, low non-performing loans and adequate provisioning (Table IV.7).33
Table IV.17
Commercial bank performance indicators, 1993-96
(Per cent at end of period)
1993 1994 1995 1996
Profitability ratio
Ratios to average total assets
Total operating income 12.4 10.9 10.2 10.9
Interest Income 9.4 8.4 8.0 8.4
Non-interest income 3.1 2.4 2.2 2.4
Net interest margin 4.2 3.8 3.6 3.3
Net profits after tax 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.3
Ratios to equity capital
Net profits before tax
Net profits after tax 15.5 13.4 15.3 17.1
Assets quality ratio
Ratios to average total loans
Non-performing loans 13.2 10.0 9.7 9.5
Accumulated loan loss provision 6.7 5.2 5.4 4.8
Liquidity ratio
Ratios to average total deposits
Total loans 81.3 69.7 61.5 61.6
Total liquid assets 23.5 27.7 27.6 26.7
Capital adequacy ratio
 Ratios to average total assetsa14.0 14.7 15.7 ..
.. Not available.
a Ratio of qualifying capital to total risk-adjusted assets.
Source: Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.
88. On the other hand, the IMF has also argued that the local commercial banks were operating
with a high degree of monopolistic power.34  Large bank profits, which more than doubled from
TT$123 million in 1992 to TT$ 279 million in 1996, the report said, were achieved by large interest
rate spreads of seven to eight percentage points that could not be explained solely by high reserve
requirements (Chart IV.5).35  While none of the commercial banks was large enough to exercise
monopoly power, their relatively small number and lack of new entrants over many years suggested acapacity for monopolistic pricing.  Local bankers argued that the report did not take into consideration
the banks' high administrative and other costs, as well as critical high-risk lending.  These
considerations would, they argued, reduce effective spreads to between 4% and 5%.
36
                                                     
33IMF (1997).
34IMF (1997).
35The IMF report identified two major factors that may contribute to a wide spread of interest rates.
One is a high statutory reserve requirement.  In recent years, the statutory reserve requirement in Trinidad and
Tobago has been between 21 and 24%.  The other factor is a high level of non-performing loans.  In Trinidadand Tobago, however, the share of non-performing loans in total loans has declined from 14.2% in 1992 to 9.5%in 1996.
36EIU (1997).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 96
0246810121416
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996Per cent
Estimates
Data provided by the authorities of Trinidad and Tobago.Chart IV.5
Commercial bank interest rates in Trinidad and Tobago, 1992-96
a
Source :Weighted avera ge rate on loans
Weighted average rate on deposits
a
89. Despite the predominance of commercial banks, non-bank financial institutions have also
played a role in the financial sector.  At the end of 1997, there were ten financial companies and
merchant banks and six trust and mortgage finance companies.  Their total assets amounted to
TT$7.9 million in 1997, up from TT$3.4 million in 1992.  In 1997, non-bank financial institutions
granted 26% of loans and managed 20% of the deposits in the banking sector.  In comparison with
commercial banks, non-bank financial institutions offer lower lending rates and higher deposit rates,and thus smaller interest rate spreads.  This is  partly because non-bank financial institutions face
lower reserve ratio requirements than commercial banks; an 8% reserve requirement currently
operates for non-bank financial institutions in co ntrast to the 23% for commercial banks.  The
difference also reflects greater public confidence in the solvency of commercial banks, a larger range
of services provided, and easier access to services (more bank branches).
37
(b) Securities trading
90. The Stock Exchange of Trinidad and Tobago was established under the provision of the
Securities Industry Act of 1981 and began operating under the auspices of the Ministry of Finance.
At the end of 1997, there were 25 companies listed on the Exchange, with a total market capitalization
of TT$19.64 billion, up from TT$2.85 billion at the end of 1993.  Trading has increased from
34.2 million shares valued at TT$94.6 million in 1993 to 100.7 million shares valued at
TT$846.1 million in 1997.  Equities in the banking industry tend to be the most active in terms ofvolume and value, followed by the conglomerates and then the manufacturing sector.
91. The Securities Industry Act of 1995, which repealed and replaced the obsolete Securities
Industry Act of 1981, governs securities trading in Trinidad and Tobago.  In addition to stipulating the
conditions for the issue and listing of securities on the stock exchange, the Act established a Securities
and Exchange Commission which assumed the authority "to maintain surveillance over the securities
                                                     
37IMF (1997).Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 97
market and ensure orderly, fair and equitable dealings in securities."38  All market actors, i.e. issuers,
underwriters, investment advisers, stockbrokers and dealers, must register with the Commission
which is responsible for controlling and supervising their activities.  The Commission is equipped
with investigative and dispute settlement powers to enforce rules and regulations.
92. Cross-border trading among three regional stock exchanges - Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad
and Tobago - started in 1991.  Despite initial enthusiasm, trading remains insignificant.  In 1996,Trinidad and Tobago investors bought 25,000 sh ares valued at J$587,500 on the Jamaican stock
market, while Barbados investors purchased 3,062 shares valued at TT$18,372 on the Trinidad and
Tobago Stock Exchange.
(c) Insurance
93. At the beginning of 1998, the insurance industry was comprised of 43 firms, 36 of which
were locally owned and seven of which were foreign-owned;  25 of these companies handled non-life
insurance.  The local insurance industry is heavily concentrated: in 1996, the six largest life insurance
firms accounted for 93.1% of total assets in the life insurance sub-sector, and the ten largest firms
accounted for 86.1% of total assets in the non-life sub-sector.
39  Gross premium income in the
insurance sector increased from TT$1,155 million in 1992 to TT$1,571.4 million in 1996.  Long-terminsurance amounted to TT$841.4 million;  motor-vehicle insurance to TT$216 million;  property
insurance to TT$307 million, and other insurance to TT$207 million.
94. In recent years, cross-ownership in banking and insurance has been rising.
40  Neither the
Insurance Act nor the Financial Institutions Act prohibit cross-ownership, but approval from the
Central Bank is required.  A bank may not acquire any part of the share of an insurance company in
excess of 100% of its capital base, and shareholding must not exceed 25% of the bank's paid-up share
capital and statutory reserve.
95. There are no limitations on national treatment and market access for foreign companies
wishing to carry out insurance business in Trinidad and Tobago, though a foreign company must
incorporate locally and establish itself as a subsidiary.  In the Uruguay Round negotiations, Trinidad
and Tobago only bound commitments in the reinsurance sector.  The country's only reinsurance
company, Reinsurance Company of Trinidad and Tobago, partly owned by the Government until1995 when it became foreign-controlled, has ceased to offer reinsurance and now offers only
long-term and general insurance services.  The rein surance market is now totally foreign-controlled.
There are no restrictions on the purchase of insurance abroad by local residents.  Nor does the
Government impose any obligation on traders to buy freight insurance locally.
96. The main regulatory framework governing the insurance sector is the Insurance Act of 1980.
The registration of insurance companies and intermediaries is the responsibility of the Supervisor of
Insurance at the Ministry of Finance.  The principal criteria for approval include minimum capital
requirements - TT$3 million for life insurance and TT$1 million for non-life insurance - and
                                                     
38Trinidad and Tobago Stock Exchange, http://stockex.co.tt.
39Price Waterhouse (1997).
40 The country's largest insurance company, Colonial Insurance Company (CLICO), owns 34% of the
shares of the largest bank, Republic Bank.  Royal Bank, the second largest, owns 29% of Guardian Holdings,which is the owner of Guardian Life, CLICO's main competitor in the local insurance market, and 10% ofRepublic Bank.  In turn, Guardian Holdings owns 20% of Royal Bank.  These developments have led to theGovernment's fear of over-concentration of ownership in financial services. (EIU, 1997).WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 98
assessment of insurance policies and financial health in terms of solvency.41  All insurance companies,
including foreign-owned ones, must hold at least 80% of their investment assets locally.  All insurers
are required to arrange adequate reinsurance.  In addition, life and motor insurers must maintain
statutory funds to support policy holders' liabilities, and all general insurance business must maintain
statutory deposits.  The Supervisor of Insurance reviews annual returns which are submitted by
insurance companies to assess compliance with these statutory requirements.  The Minister of Financehas the power under the Insurance Act to prescribe minimum rates of premium in respect of motor
vehicle insurance business.
97. According to the authorities, changes leading to stricter rules on the operations of insurance
companies are envisaged for 1998.  Proposed changes include increasing the level of minimum paid-
up capital to TT$10 million for life insurance and non-life insurance companies, and to TT$20 millionfor composite insurance companies.
(iii) Telecommunications
98. The telecommunications subsector has grown in line with economic development in the last
several years: between 1990 and 1995, value added grew from US$122 million to US$163 million,
investment from US$19 million to US$37 million, equipment imports from US$0.9 million toUS$1.4 million, and equipment exports from US$4.9 million to US$28.7 million.
42  A t  t h e  e n d  o f
1997, there were 208,927 telephone lines in service, of which 92% were digital.43
Telecommunications value added accounted for 3.1% of GDP in 1997 (Table IV.18).
Table IV.18
Telecommunications value added, 1993-97
(TT$ '000)
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Telecommunications Value Added 758.1 815.6 925.3 1,035.9 1,111.2
Share in GDP (per cent) 3.1 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1
Source: Government of Trinidad and Tobago.
99. The telecommunications system is operated by the Telecommunication Services of Trinidad
and Tobago Limited (TSTT), at present 51% owned by the Government.44  In 1989, TSTT was
granted an exclusive license by the Government for 20 years to provide both local and international
telecommunication services.  TSTT's monopoly is de facto , not de jure , i.e. it is not granted by any
domestic legislation.
100. The legislation governing the telecommunicatio ns sector is the Telecommunications Act of
1991, amending the preceding Trinidad and Tobago Telephone Act.  The 1991 Act was approved by
Parliament,  however, it is not in effect since it has yet to be assented to by the President.45  The law is
currently under revision including changes necessary to meet GATS obligations.  The
Telecommunications Act proposes the establishment of the Trinidad and Tobago Telecommunications
Authority which is to be responsible for the form ulation of telecommunications policies, development
                                                     
41 Solvency requirements only apply to general insurance companies.  The margin of solvency is the
greater of 20% of the general premium income of the company.  With TT$250,000 respect to life insurancecompanies, an actuarial certificate is provided annually by the actuary of the company.
42ITU (1997).
43http://www.ttst.net.tt.
44Cable & Wireless of the West Indies holds the remaining 49%.
45The main reason for the delay in assent by the President is said to be the change in the Government
leadership in December 1991 (McCormick, 1994).Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 99
and implementation of national telecommunications standards and regulations, the setting of tariffs for
both internal and external communication services, and for issuing of licenses and the granting of
concessions.  Since the Act has not received the President's assent,  the Authority is not yet in place.
At present, the regulatory authority is the Telecommunications Division in the Office of the Prime
Minister.  Rates for the provision of domestic communications services are established through the
regulating authority, the Public Utilities Commission, under the Ministry of Public Utilities, whileinternational rates are set by the Telephone Act, Section 16.  Regulations governing the  setting of
rates for domestic services are based on the Wireless Telegraphy Ordinance of 1959.  Relative costs
of telecommunications for international services include accounting rates, overhead coverage, sales,
adjustments for fluctuations in the exchange rate, etc.
101. While basic telecommunications services are in the hands of TSTT, there are no restrictions
on the provisions of value-added services using the network of the exclusive service provider.  Such
services include on-line information and data base retrieval, electronic data interchange, enhanced
facsimile services, code and protocol conversion, and on-line data processing.  Currently, paging
services are being provided by a number of operators other than TSTT, who must apply for license
from TSTT.  The criteria used for granting licences, inter alia , are technical compatibility with
existing systems and availability of frequencies.  Currently there are 12 companies providing these
services.  Cellular mobile telephone service was introduced by TSTT in 1991 and TSTT is still the
single operator, serving 13,000 customers as of July 1998.  Private networks are allowed on
self-provided or leased facilities for a company's own use and are not normally permitted to connect
to the public network (i.e. no interconnection or resale).  There are no restrictions on the sale, rental,
connection, maintenance and repairs of customer-premised equipment but previous approval is
required.
102. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago participated in the GATS negotiations on Basic
Telecommunications.  Trinidad and Tobago bound full competition in value-added services, using
TSTT's network, full competition on satellite-based mobile services and fixed satellite services for
public use.  Those who wish to provide the public terrestrial-based mobile services, internet and
internet access and teleconferencing for private use through cross-border and commercial-presencemodes must negotiate with TSTT.  Trinidad and Tobago bound full competition in
telecommunications equipment sales, rental, maintenance, connection, repair and consulting services,
as noted above.  Finally, as additional commitment under GATS Article XVIII, Trinidad and Tobago
agreed to abide by all the regulatory principles described in the Reference Paper.
46
103. In 1997, a Telecommunications Policy Committee was established with representatives from
both the public and private sectors to prepare a national policy for telecommunications.  The policy is
intended to provide a framework to create a comp etitive environment in the industry.  A Working
Group, appointed in June 1997 by the Cabinet, submitted recommendations for the establishment of a
National Policy on Telecommunications.  Some of these include:  amendments to the
Telecommunications Authority Act 1991 prior to proclamation;  the creation of a new regulatorybody, the Telecommunications Authority;  the esta blishment of an appropriate telecommunications
regulatory framework;  the development of a policy on divestment and competition;  identification of
the requirements for optimum network expansion;  and the provision of universal service.
(iv) Maritime transport
104. The ports of Port of Spain in Trinidad, and Scarborough in Tobago, are owned and
administered by the state-owned Port Authority of Trinidad and Tobago.  The Port Authority was set
                                                     
46The Reference Paper outlines a set of pro-competitive regulatory principles such as competition
safeguards, interconnection guarantees, transparent licensing processes, and the independence of regulators.WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 100
up in 1961 to manage ports as well as to provide cargo-handling services, towage and dredging
services, and inter-island ferry services.  Port of Spain, the country's largest, Port of Spain, handles all
major dry cargoes, containers and general cargo, break bulk cargo, liquid bulk cargo and passenger
traffic, and in recent years it has increasingly become a major regional hub for transhipment. The
country's second largest port, Point Lisas, is managed by PLIPDECO, which also manages the Point
Lisas Industrial Estate and Free Trade Zone.47  Point Lisas specializes in industrial cargo including
steel, ammonia, methanol, urea, iron carbide and iron ore.48  The third largest port, Scarborough, is
used mainly for inter-island passenger and cargo transport, and international cruise ships.  Approval
from the Port Authority is required to discharge and load general cargo at any port in the country,
other than Point Lisas.
105. The Shipping Act of 1987 governs the registration and licensing of ships.  The Maritime
Services Division was set up within the Ministry of Works and Transport to administrate and enforce
all the provisions of the law.  The Act limits registration to ships owned by nationals of Trinidad and
Tobago and other CARICOM member States, by foreigners engaged in bareboat charters and in joint
venture shipping arrangements with Trinidad and Tobago nationals.  Local shipowners are not
required to fly the national flag;  nor is there much incentive to do so: in 1997, only 42 vesselsregistered in Trinidad and Tobago.  One reason why locally owned oil and gas carriers do not register
locally is the Government's failure to ratify the Marpol Convention, the international marine pollution
treaty.  However, according to the authorities, legi slation to give effect to MARPOL and other major
pollution prevention, liability and compensation treaties have been prepared and should be
promulgated by the end of 1998.  The Government is currently reviewing the Act with a view to
improving shipping legislation and regulatory mechanisms
49, and providing new incentives to
legislation.
106. There are no restrictions on the entry of ships into the waters of Trinidad and Tobago.
Vessels are, however, expected to comply with applicable standards of safety and pollution
prevention.  However, inter-island routes between Trinidad and Tobago are protected by a cabotage
policy and are operated by the Port Authority.   Vessels wishing to engage in coastal trade between
the islands of Trinidad and Tobago are required to obtain a license;  this requirement is applied toboth local and foreign operators.
107. The geographical location of Trinidad and Tobago - 15km off the coast of Venezuela - has
made its ports attractive as container transhipment  centres between North Am erica/Europe and South
America.  In Port of Spain, transhipment container traffic increased by 261% between 1992 and 1997.
In 1997, 49% of the 209,530 TEU (twenty- foot equivalent unit) container cargo entering the port was
in transit.  Transshipment container handling charges of US$74 a box are the lowest in the region with
a 21-day free storage period.
50
108. After decades of losses, the Port Authority's operations have been profitable since 1994,
recording TT$40 million in operating profits in 1997.  Plans are under way to commercialize
operations, which will involve setting up separate companies for cargo-handing and marine services.The Port Authority would initially hold 100% of the shares, which would subsequently be sold to
local and foreign investors.
                                                     
47The Point Lisas Port Development Company manages the Container Examination Stations (CES) on
behalf of the Customs and Excise Department.
48In recent years, Point Lisas has also handled containers and general cargo.
49Ministry of Finance (1997).
50 Lloyd's List, 28 August 1996.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 101
109. Trinidad and Tobago's commitments on maritime transport services under the GATS include:
no limitations on any of the four modes of supply regarding dry docking/ship repairs, boat building
and ship management/freight and transportation;  no limitations on navigation aid and
communications/meteorological services (for maritime purposes);  no limitations on commercial
presence and presence of natural persons for ship surveys, subject to registration and certification
requirements.
(v) Civil aviation
110. There are two international airports, the Piarco Airport in Trinidad and the Crown Point
Airport in Tobago, which are owned and managed by the Government-controlled Airport Authority of
Trinidad and Tobago.  A US$80 million project to upgrade the Piarco Airport is under way, including
the construction of a new terminal and facilities, and improvements of air cargo handling, storage,aircraft maintenance and airline catering.  The airport's capacity is expected to increase up to 1,500
passengers per hour as a result of the upgrading project.
51
111. The Trinidad and Tobago Airways Corporation (BWIA International), the national carrier,
was partly divested in February 1995, after incurring losses of TT$1.9 billion over the period
1980-94.52  With a view to improving BWIA's financial performance, 51% of the shares were sold to
private investors, while the Government retained 33.5% and allocated 15.5% to the airline's
employees.53  BWIA is a member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA).
112. The regulatory framework governing the civil aviation sector is embodied in the Civil
Aviation Order of 1995.  With the issuance of the Act, Trinidad and Tobago meets the requirements
of the International Civil Aviation Organization.  The registration of aircraft is handled by the Civil
Aviation Division within the Ministry of Works and Transport, which issues aircraft operating
certificates.  The principal criteria for the registration is safety.  Those aircraft which are registeredabroad and hold operating certificates simply need clearance from the Division.  In September 1997,
there were 45 locally-registered aircraft and two foreign-registered aircraft based and operating in
Trinidad and Tobago.  The country has bilateral air services agreements with 17 countries and 17
airlines are registered to operate in Trinidad and Tobago.
54  Only four operators carry passengers on
international routes (excluding regional routes).  Inter-island traffic is protected by a cabotage policyand operated by a domestic privately owned airline, Air Caribbean, and by BWIA.
113. Air cargo handling services are in the hands of private sector companies, both foreign and
domestic.  Airline facilities and repair services are open to foreigners but there is no actual foreign
presence; these services are provided by BWIA and Air Caribbean.
114. A CARICOM Multilateral Air Services Agreement has been finalized and signed by most of
the member states, except the Bahamas, Jamaica and Montserrat.
55  The Agreement allows those
CARICOM designated air carriers to offer all types of air services within the Community.  Domestic
traffic, however, would be reserved for national carriers.  The Agreement also establishes guidelines
                                                     
51Recently it was reported that the project was temporally halted (EIU, 1997).
52Ministry of Finance (1995).
53BWIA was bought by the Government from the British Overseas Airways Corporation  (BOAC) in
1961.  In 1980, BWIA was transformed into Trinidad and Tobago Airways Corporation, by Parliament Act.
54Trinidad and Tobago has bilateral aviation agreements with:  Aruba, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados,
Belgium, Canada, Cuba, Denmark, France, Jamaica, the Netherlands, Poland, St. Lucia, St. Kitt and Nevis,Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States.
55 The Governments of the Bahamas and Jamaica have indicated their wish not to be parties to the
Agreement at this time.WT/TPR/S/49 Trade Policies Review
Page 102
on competition, fares and security.  Furthermore, CARICOM and the United States at the 1997
CARICOM-United States Summit agreed to set up a regional aviation system including the
establishment of safety standards and other regula tions.  CARICOM is pursuing the establishment of a
Regional Aviation Safety Oversight mechanism.  The objective is to provide for the utilization by all
participating members of Flight Operations and Airworthiness Inspectors employed by individual
states, so as to make available their services in a manner consistent with the Standards of Safety set bythe International Civil Aviation Organization.
(vi) Tourism
115. Although the tourism sector in Trinidad and Tobago makes a relatively small contribution to
the economy in comparison with other Caribbean islands, the Government recognizes that it has
considerable potential to generate employment as well as foreign exchange.  The sector accounted for1.0% of GDP and 1.5% of total employment in 1997.  Tourist arrivals increased from 219,836 in 1991
to 324,293 in 1997, during the same period, the number of rooms increased from 2,141 to 3,652.
116. With a view to encouraging the development of the hotel industry, the Hotel Development
Act was enacted in 1963 and subsequently amende d to provide incentives to hotel owners and
operators.  These incentives include: a tax holiday for a period of five to ten years; an accelerateddepreciation for equipment owned by the hotelier; a capital allowance in respect of approved capital
expenditure; carry-over of losses incurred by owners and/or operators during the tax holiday period;
and tax exemption on dividends accruing to the owner/operator.  Customs and excise duty exemptions
are also granted on building materials and articles of hotel equipment used in connection with the
construction and equipping of a hotel project.  To be eligible for the incentives, any hotel project with
a minimum ten guestrooms, must be approved by the Ministry of Tourism, which grants approval on a
discretionary basis depending on the size of the project.  The Ministry is responsible for overalltourism policy formulation, monitoring and regulation.  TIDCO is responsible for the overall
coordination and marketing of Trinidad and Tobago as an international tourist destination, as well as
the promotion of  investment opportunities and private sector participation.
117. With a view to promoting the tourism industry as a whole, including the hotel industry, a
Tourism Development Bill, repealing the Hotel Devel opment Act, is to be implemented in the latter
half of 1998, extending investment incentives to a wide range of activities in the tourism industry.
The activities include land and marine transportation, historical site development, production of
feature films and international artistic and sports events, marina, diving, water sports and charterboat
cruise developments as well as the operation of restaurants, night-clubs and other entertainment
facilities that cater mainly to tourists.Trinidad and Tobago WT/TPR/S/49
Page 103
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Clarke, L and H. Leon, eds. (1996), Liquidity Management in Liberalizing Economies: Some
Experiences from the Caribbean, Caribbean Center for Monetary Studies, University of the West
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Divestment Secretariat (1998), Me morandum on Status of Divestment Secretariat, Port of Spain
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Forde, P. and A. Joseph et al . (1997), "The Evolution of the Financial Sector in Trinidad and
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International Monetary Fund (1997), "Trinidad and Tobago: Selected Issues", IMF Staff Country
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