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III. TRADE POLICIES BYMEASURE
(1) Overview
1. Since 1989ElSalvador hasmoved fromapolicy ofinward orientation tooneofmuch greater
outward orientation, based onimport liberalization, domestic deregulation andexport-led growth policy.
Under thereform programme, bothimport andexport procedures havebeensimplified, thetariff
structure hasundergone asubstantial reform andmostnon-tariff barriers havedisappeared. Measures
havealsobeenintroduced toderegulate thedomestic economy. However, someimport licences remain;
inaddition, import formalities continue tobesomewhat cumbersome. Further effort seems necessary
inthefields ofintellectual property andcompetition (anti-trust) policy.
(2) Measures Directly Affecting Imports
(i) Registration, documentation, andrules oforigin
2. Allimports toElSalvador require thefollowing documents: animport certificate (póliza de
importación ),which isasworn declaration oftheimported goods; aninvoice (factura comercial );and
acertificate ofshipment orbilloflading (conocimiento deembarque ).Acertificate oforigin isonly
required incertain cases.
3. Commercial invoices, together withpertinent billsoflading, aresentdirectly totheimporter,
whopresentsthedocumentstothecorrespondingcustomshouse.Ifconsularauthentication(legalización)
ofinvoices isrequired, oneoriginal andseven copies (inSpanish) havetobepresented tothecertifying
consulate. Thebilloflading (oneoriginal andtwocopies), signed bytheshipping company, should
contain atleasttheprincipal items ofinformation required onthecommercial invoice. Aircargo
shipments require airway bills(instead ofbillsoflading) withthenumber ofcopies issued based on
requirements oftheindividual importer andairline.
4. Rules oforigin: Certificates oforigin areonlyrequired ongoods subject topreferential tariff
treatment, namely goods originating inCACM countries andPanama. Therulesoforigin applied to
Central American countries arethose stipulated intheGeneral Treaty ofCentral American Integration
(Tratado General deIntegración Económica deCentroamérica )andintheCentral American Regulation
ontheOrigin ofGoods (Reglamento Centroamericano sobre elOrigen delasMercancías ).1Themethod
usedtoestablish origin isthatofsubstantial transformation (i.e., achange intariff classification).
Therequired change intariff classification could beatthelevel oftwo,four, sixoreight digits of
theCentral American Tariff System (Arancel Centroamericano deImportación ,SAC). Rules oforigin
forgoods originating inPanama arestipulated intheFree-Trade Treaty withPanama (Tratado deLibre
Comercio ydeIntercambio Preferencial conlaRepública dePanamá ).
5. Thelength ofthecustoms procedures andthetimefortherelease oftheimported merchandise
varies fromonetofourdays, depending uponthecustoms house. TheGovernment hasindicated that,
normally, procedures attheaircustoms house should takeamaximum ofoneday,atthemaritime
customs house, three days, and,atanyother customs house, fourdays.
6. Goods intransit areexempt fromthepayment ofcustoms duties ifadeclaration ordocument
valid inother countries oftheregion ispresented. Thecarrier isresponsible forthehanding ofsuch
1Executive Agreement No.799, Diario Oficial No.329, 21December 1995.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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goods through tothefinaldestination, andisalsoresponsible forcomplying withalltherequirements
ofthetransit régime. Ifgoods arenotconveyed intotality totheirfinaldestination, thecarrier isliable
fortheduties andtariffs tobepaidonthemissing goods. Goods intransit maybetransferred toanother
import régime aslongasallthelegalrequirements ofthatother régime arefulfilled, e.g.,theymay
clear customs fordomestic saleonpayment ofdutyandanyborder taxes.
7. Temporary admission ofimports: under certain defined circumstances, thecustoms authorities
mayauthorize thetemporary importation ofgoods withpartial ortotalsuspension ofduties, taxes and
other changes, forinstance, goods fordisplay inatrade show. Itisacondition ofthisrégime that
thegoodsbere-exportedwithinsixmonthswithouthavingundergoneanymodificationortransformation,
withtheexception ofthenormal depreciation caused byuse.Aguarantee mustbeposted, equivalent
toallduties, taxes andother charges which would needtobesettled ifthegoods werenotre-exported
within thespecified timelimit. Theguarantee isreturned when themerchandise isre-exported.
8. Goods tobeimported intothenational territory canbestored inpublic orprivate bonded
warehouses under thesupervision ofcustoms, freeofanyduties andanyother charges.
(ii) Customs valuation
9. Valuation ofimported goods iscurrently based onAnnex BoftheCentral American Agreement
ontheTariff andCustoms Régime which isinturnbased ontheBrussels System ofValuation. The
customs value ofgoods inElSalvador isthe"normal" price ofmerchandise, which isdefined asthe
price determined bysupply anddemand under freecompetition atthetimethatthemerchandise is
imported.2Thepriceshown ontheinvoice isusually taken asthe"normal" price3,unless thetransaction
iscarried outunder conditions ofimperfect competition. Inthiscase, theauthorities areentitled to
impute the"normal" price onthebasis oftheprice setunder perfect competition, theprobable sales
price, theactual priceofthetransaction andprices setonacontractual basis.4Newlegislation isbeing
drafted toallow fortheapplication oftheprovisions oftheUruguay Round Agreement onCustoms
Valuation within thefive-year delay allowed fordeveloping countries.5
10. Customs decisions canbeappealed totheDirector ofCustoms within 30daysfrom thedate
onwhich thedecision istaken, andtheDirector must reach aconclusion within 30daysfollowing
thelodging oftheappeal. IftheDirector cannot come toaconclusion within theestablished period,
theplaintiffmayresorttotheNationalCommitteeofCustomsValuation(ComitéNacionaldeValoración
2Article 1,Anexo BdelConvenio sobre elRégimen Arancelario yAduanero Centroamericano: Legislación
Centroamericana sobre elValor Aduanero delasMercancías .
3Article 4,Anexo BdelConvenio sobre elRégimen Arancelario yAduanero Centroamericano: Legislación
Centroamericana sobre elValor Aduanero delasMercancías .
4Article 13,Anexo BdelConvenio sobre elRégimen Arancelario yAduanero Centroamericano: Legislación
CentroamericanasobreelValorAduanerodelasMercancías.Forathoroughdefinitionoftheseprices,seeGATT
document L/6391, 22September 1988, Provisional Accession ofElSalvador.
5Article 20.1, WTO Agreement ontheImplementation ofArticle VIIoftheGATT 1994.WT/TPR/S/23
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Aduanera ).6TheCommittee isrequired toreach adecision within 60daysofthedateoftheappeal.
Iftheplaintiff stilldisagrees withthisdecision, hemaystartlegalproceedings through thenational
courts.7
11. According totheauthorities, there arenostipulated procedures fortheverification ofvalues
except inthecaseofusedcars. Ifthere isdoubt about thevalue ofthemerchandise, asample issent
totheDepartment ofValuation, where thevalue isassessed. However, themerchandise isnormally
released from customs immediately andanydiscrepancies inthepayment ofduties aresettled later.
12. Minimum import prices: Central American Legislation ontheCustoms Valuation ofGoods
(Annex B)allows fortheuseofminimum prices orreference prices. Forthedetermination ofvaluation
forduty.
13. Thevaluation ofanewcarisbased ontheprice atwhich themanufacturer sellstothedealer,
i.e.,thewholesale price. Thevaluation procedure forusedcarsisdetermined based ontheprices
collected inspecialized publications suchas:theAutomobile RedBook, theOlder CarRedBook,
theTruck BlueBook, theTractor andImplement BlueBook, theMotorcycle RedBook, etc.8Ifa
reference price isnotstipulated inthemanuals thenthecarwould bepriced according totheprice
ofthesame vehicle inthecountry oforigin. Specifically, forvehicles falling within tarifflines87.03,
87.04.21 and87.04.31, thevalue tobeusedisthemanufacturer 'srecommended retail priceforanew
vehicle, minus 12percentanddepreciation. Forallother usedvehicles thevalue tobeusedisthe
average value attheretaillevelwithout taking intoaccount thedepreciation, transportation andinsurance
costs.9
14. Inthelastfiveyears, customs hasbeencomputerized inorder make procedures faster. The
aimistocreate aone-stop window similar tothatwhich already exists forexports (Section (3))in
order toexpedite import procedures. According totheWorld Bank, thelengthy, complicated import
procedures (verification ofdocuments, acquisition ofcertificates andvaluation ofmerchandise) are
themostimportant remaining obstacles totrade -hence theneedtoaccelerate theprocess ofcustoms
reform.10
(iii) Tariffs
(a) Structure
15. In1993, ElSalvador adopted theCentral American Tariff System (SAC), based onthe
Harmonized System (HS), withsome 5,800 linesattheeight-digit level. TheSAC isdivided into
three parts: PartIincludes thelinesforwhich auniform tariff wasnegotiated; PartIIcomprises all
6Article 23,Anexo BdelConvenio sobre elRégimen Arancelario yAduanero Centroamericano: Legislación
Centroamericana sobre elValor Aduanero delasMercancías .
7Article 25,Anexo BdelConvenio sobre elRégimen Arencelario yAduanero Centroamericano: Legislación
Centroamericana sobre elValor Aduanero delasMercancías .
8Article 3,Decree No.383, Diario Oficial No.125.
9Decree No.383, Diario Oficial No.125, July71995.
10World Bank (1995).ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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tariffs thatareintheprocess ofharmonization andPartIIIoftheSACincorporates those goods for
which tariff ratesarenotharmonized andwhich canbechanged atthenational level.
16. Thecurrent tariff applied byElSalvador hasseven tiers, comprising ratesof1,5,10,15,
20,25and30percent. Alltariffs areadvalorem, applied onthec.i.f. value ofimported goods.
They apply throughout theyear, withnoseasonal variations.
(b) Average tariff levels andtariff range
17. Rationalization ofthetariffstructure wasinitiated inElSalvador in1989, continuing through
to1995. Previously, tariffs ranged from 5to290percent, withanaverage of21.9percent. Asa
result ofcontinuing reforms, thesimple average wasfurther reduced from 12.3in1992 to10.1in
1995 andtherange ofduties wasalsoreduced from 0-35percentto1-30percent.11
18. Chart III.1shows thatthemajor change inthetariff structure during thisperiod hasbeenthe
substantial increase oftariff linesthatbeararateof1percent, levied oncapital goods. There has
alsobeenaconsiderable decrease inthenumber oflineswitharateof20percent. Inaddition, the
30percentrate,which previously applied to5.3percentofalltarifflines, applied toonly0.8percent
ofalltarifflinesin1995. Thishigher tariff applies mainly totextiles, alcoholic beverages, cosmetics
andmotor vehicles. Within themanufacturing sector, thetwosub-sectors mostheavily protected by
tariffs aretextiles, wearing apparel andleather goods; andfood, beverages andtobacco. Tariff
protection oftheagricultural sector ishigher thanthatofmanufacturing; agriculture andlivestock
haveanaverage tariffrateof12.7percent,while manufacturing hasanaverage rateof10.1percent
(Chart III.2). Thisdifference would beevengreater iffood, beverages andtobacco -withanaverage
rateof15.2percent-wereincluded withagriculture. While substantial progress hasbeenmade in
reducing tariff dispersion since 1989, thecoefficient ofvariation of75.2percentshows thattariff
dispersion isstillsubstantial. Thiswillbeaddressed bythecurrently planned reduction oftariff rates
anddispersion toarange of0-15percentby1999.12
(c) Tariff escalation
19. Under thecurrent applied tariff, theaverage tariffforinputs is7.6percent,forsemi-processed
goods 8.4percentandforfullyprocessed goods is12.5percent. Asshown inTable AIII.1, tariff
escalation isstronger insectors suchastextiles, leather products, wood products, andpaper products,
where thereisatleasta10percentincrease inprotection fromthefirsttothefinalstageofproduction.
Thistypeoftariff escalation normally implies thatvalue-added inprocessing benefits from higher
effective protection thanindicated bythenominal protection.
11The1992 average isbased onNAUCA II,thenomenclature used inCentral America upto1993 when
theharmonized system wasadopted.
12Consideration hadbeen given early in1996 toreducing tariffs toarange of1-6percentby1999, but
thisproposal wassubsequently rejected.WT/TPR/S/23
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(d) Tariff bindings intheUruguay Round
20. IntheUruguay Round, ElSalvador bound alltariff linescontained inChapters 1to97ofthe
Harmonized System at40percent,withtheexception ofagricultural goods andtheexceptions stipulated
atthetimeofaccession inAnnexes AandBtotheAccession Protocol. Theoverall average bound
rate,withtheseexceptions, is37.8percent. Asshown inChart III.3, some 72percentofthetariff
linesarebound at40percent, some 22.3percentarebound atlower rates, andonly5.8percent
oflinesarebound atrateshigher than40percent. These higher bound ratesapply mainly tothe
exceptions included inAnnex Bandtoagricultural products thathavebeen through theprocess of
tariffication. Forinstance, thehighest bound rateof164.4 percentapplies topoultry (applicable
from theyear2004). Thesectors thathavebeenbound atahigher thanaverage ratearemainly
manufacturing suchasfood, beverages andtobacco, wood andwood products, andnon-metallic
minerals.Fishingalsoshowsahighpotentialprotectionwithaboundrateof42.8percent.ElSalvador's
currently applied tariff issubstantially below thebound tariff rateforalltariff lines(Chart III.2).ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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WT/TPR/S/23
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21. In1993, ElSalvador requested therighttomodify itsschedule LXXXVII during thethree-year
period which started on1January 1994.13
(e) Seasonal tariffs
22. ElSalvador hasnoseasonal tariffs atpresent. However, theimposition ofaseasonal duty
foryellow maize (HSitem1005.90.20) isanoption under consideration. Should suchanoption be
adopted, theprecise variation inrateswould depend uponthedomestic supply ofsorghum inthecountry
sincesorghum andyellow maize aresubstitutes intheproduction ofanimal feed,especially forpoultry.
(f) Concessional entry
23. According toArticle 21oftheCentral American Agreement ontheTariff andCustoms Régime
(Convenio sobre elRégimen Arancelario yAduanero Centroamericano ),tariff concessions areonly
allowed incertain well-defined cases, suchastheentry ofpersonal effects ofnationals returning
permanentlytothecountryandgoodscoveredunderregionalorbilateralpreferentialtradingagreements.
Tariffconcessionsarealsograntedtoindustriesproducingunderthefree-zoneandtax-freeareasrégimes.
13GATT document TAR/250, 23December 1993.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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(g) Tariff preferences
24. Ingeneral, ElSalvador applies theSACtoallcountries except theCentral American countries.
Products originating from, orproduced in,therestofCentral America, enter ElSalvador dutyfree
aspartoftheCACM. Exceptions todutyfreeentry arestipulated inAnnex A.However, some of
thegoods included inthisAnnex could enter dutyfreeonthegranting ofanimport licence. Some
products from Panama enter ElSalvador under preferential treatment under theFree Trade and
Preferential Exchange Treaty withPanama (Tratado deLibre Comercio ydeIntercambio Preferencial
conPanamá ).However, ElSalvador hasbeentrying tore-negotiate thisTreaty since 1995.
25. ElSalvador doesnotapply tariff treatment which islessfavourable thanm.f.n. treatment to
anycountry.
(iv) Tariff quotas
26. Tariff quotas existonlyforthose agricultural products thathavebeenthrough theprocess of
tariffication asaresult oftheUruguay Round. In-quota rates have been setat20,30,40and
50percent. However, above-quota ratesaresubstantially higher butthesehavenotbeenused, imports
nothaving exceeded thequota levels sofar.ElSalvador hasnotyetsubmitted anotification tothe
WTOontheadministrationoftariffquotas,sincethemannerinwhichtariffquotasaretobeadministered
hasnotbeendetermined.
(v) Variable import levies
27. ElSalvador doesnotapply variable import levies.
(vi) Other levies andcharges
28. Most imports aresubject tothe13percentvalue-added tax(VAT). TheVAT islevied on
thefinalduty-paid value oftheimport.14Goods exempt from thepayment ofVAT include: beans,
maize, rice,milk, medicines, andbasicservices (Chapter I).Allimports made byinstitutions ornatural
persons thathavediplomatic status arealsoexempt from payment ofVAT.15
29. Afewimported (ordomestically produced) items aresubject toadditional taxes. Empty sacks
andbagsofsynthetic fibrearesubject toan80percenttaxcalculated ontheprice ofsacks andbags
made ofnatural fibres. Synthetic bagsorsacks tostoredomestically produced sugar, saltandanimal
feedareexempt fromthistax16,asarebagsandsacks usedaspackaging material ofimported goods.
30. Carbonated orsweetened (non-alcoholic) beverages aresubject toa10percentadvalorem
tax,based ontheprice suggested bytheproducer, importer orretailer.17Importers paythistaxat
thetimeoftheimportation. Thisfeeappears ontheimport certificate (póliza deimportación ).The
14Decree No.495, 31March 1993.
15Decree No.296,LeydeImpuesto alaTransferencia deBienes Muebles yalaPrestación deServicios ,
24July1992.
16Decree No.235, 23December 1985.
17Decree No.641,LeydelImpuesto sobre lasBebidas Gaseosas Simples oEndulzadas ,22February 1996.WT/TPR/S/23
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standard 13percentVAT forsuchbeverages iscalculated onthec.i.f. value plusimport dutyplus
the10percentadvalorem tax.18
31. Alcoholic beverages aresubject totwoadditional taxes. First, ataxbased onthealcoholic
content ofthebeverage; thisispresently charged attherateofC0.05oneachpercentage byvolume
ofalcoholic content. Second, there isanadvalorem taxof30percent(25percentforbeer) based
ontheretail price declared bytheproducer orimporter. These taxes arecharged atthetimeof
importation.
32. Consular fees,which wereformerly charged attheSalvadorian consulates, arecurrently charged
directly bycustoms fortheauthentification ofthecommercial invoice andthebilloflading. Thefee
toauthenticate thecommercial invoice (derecho consular )isafixed feeofUS$2. According tothe
authorities, thefeecharged toauthenticate thebilloflading (factura consular )varies according tothe
value oftheimport stipulated inthecommercial invoice; US$1 ischarged forevery US$500 ofvalue,
uptoamaximum ofUS$30. Thecostofaletter ofcredit depends uponthetypeoffinancing granted
bytheprivate banktotheimporter (Table III.1).
Table III.1
Structure ofcharges levied onimports ofselected products, 1995
(PercentandUS$)
Yellow maize
1005.90.20Flat-rolled stainless steel
7219.24.00Cars
8703.23.91
Description Percent Value Percent Value Percent Value
1. Value f.o.b. 309.50 2,000.00 25,232.00
2. Freight
(onitem1)15.33 47.45 18.00 361.12 13.58 3,428.46
3. Insurance
(onitem1)1.27 3.93 1.30 25.97 1.25 315.26
4. Value c.i.f.
(items 1,2and3)360.88 2,387.89 28,975.72
5. Import duty
(onitem4)5.00 18.04 5.00 119.35 25.00 7,243.93
6. Sub-total 378.92 2,506.44 36,219.65
7. Costofletter ofcredit
(onitem1)13.83 42.82 2.56 51.28 0.72 180.63
8. Costofcustoms procedures
(onitem1)3.30 10.21 0.51 10.21 0.04 10.21
9. Consular feesa17.60 54.50b0.45 9.00 0.40 102.50b
10. Final value ofimports 486.45 2,576.93 36,512.99
11. Value-added tax
(onitem11)13.00 63.39 12.90c332.50 13.00 4,708.56
12. Wholesale costin
ElSalvador549.68 2,909.43 41,221.55
Advalorem equivalent ofall
charges combined onthef.o.b.
value69.33 40.72 53.99
a Consular feesconsist ofUS$2 forthecertification ofeachcommercial invoice andUS$1 foreachUS$500 ofthef.o.b. value
uptoamaximum ofUS$30.
b According totheinformation provided totheSecretariat, consular feesshould amount toamaximum ofUS$30.
c Percentage re-calculated bytheSecretariat based onthevalues provided bytheGovernment.
Source: Customs authorithies, Government ofElSalvador.
18Instruction No.2093, Ministry ofFinance,11 March 1996.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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(vii) Import prohibitions
33. Import prohibitions inElSalvador affect anumber ofproducts including: subversive and
pornographic material; abortifacient substances; gambling machines; opium withlessthan9percent
ofmorphine, opium slagandash,andanyartifacts tosmoke opium; paper torollcigarettes without
theproper stamp; machines ortoolstofabricate coins, counterfeit currency, smooth silver coins of
lessthan0.9ofwidth, andanysortoftoken thatcould circulate ascoin19;andcoffee thatcould be
usedasseedforplanting.20
34. Some goods aresubject toa"limited import prohibition" meaning thatonlytheStatecanimport
them. These goods include: munitions, military airplanes andships, weapons andsilencers, andgas
masks formilitary use; eau-de-vie made withsugar cane(aguardiente decaña deazúcar );nitrate
potassium (nitrate salt,saltpetre, kalium nitrocum); stamped paper tomake cigarettes; fiscal, municipal
andpostage stamps; andnickel coins forlegalcirculation.21
(viii) Import licensing andauthorization
35. Overthelasttenyears ElSalvador haseliminated import permits forawiderange ofproducts.
However, import licences arestillrequired forsome products ifimported fromCentral America (see
below). Imports ofjutesacks andsalt,originating inanycountry aresubject tolicence, while sugar
requires an"authorization".22
36. According to"Annex A"oftheCentral American General Integration Treaty animport licence
isrequired forcertain goods toenter dutyfree. These goods include: sugar (HSitems 17.01,
1701.11.00, 1701.91.00, and1701.99.00) originating inanyoftheCACM member countries; wheat
flour (HSitem1101.00.00) imported from Guatemala, Honduras andNicaragua; andethyl alcohol
(HSitems 22.07 and22.08.90.10) imported fromGuatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua andCosta Rica.23
These import controls within theCACM arereciprocal. Iftheimport licence isnotgranted, imports
aresubject tothedutystipulated intheSAC.
37. Theimport licence requirement forethyl alcohol hasrecently beenannulled andallimports
ofalcohol, nomatter theorigin, aresubject toimport duty (i.e., imports fromCentral America may
nolonger enter dutyfree).24
19Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990 (Rule X,literal "A").
20Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990 (Chapter 12).
21Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990 (Rule X,literal “B”).
22Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990 (Chapter 17).
23Agreement No.577,Diario Oficial No.204,6November 1995. Thelimitations onduty-free entry for
imports from Central American countries aresaidtohavebeenimposed forthree main reasons: first, thatsome
ofthese products donotoriginate inCACM countries; second, thatsome products areproduced withsubsidized
inputs, asinthecaseofwheat flour produced withwheat imported under PL-480 from theUnited States; third,
thatitisdesired toprovide protection forthedomestic market, asinthecaseofsugar andcoffee. (Torres-Rivas,
etal.(1975).
24Decree No.640, LeyReguladora delaProducción yComercialización delAlcohol ydelasBebidas
Alcohólicas ,22February 1996, Article 60.WT/TPR/S/23
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38. Imports ofsacks usedtostoresugar (usually ofcloth) havetobeapproved bytheSalvadorian
Commission fortheDevelopment oftheSugar Sector (Comisión Salvadoreña para elDesarrollo
Azucarero ,CDA).25These import restrictions havenotbeennotified totheTextile Monitoring Body
(TMB), asrequired under theArticle 3oftheAgreement onTextile andClothing. According tothe
authorities, theserestrictions havenotbeennotified astheyhavenotbeenenforced sinceElSalvador 's
accession totheGATT in1991. Theimplementing decree (No.647)isexpected tobeamended shortly.
39. Theauthorizationrequirementforsugarimportswasoriginallyintroducedbecauseofdistortions
intheworld sugar market andbecause oftheimportance ofthesector interms ofdomestic employment.
According totheauthorities, requests foranauthorization toimport sugar aremanaged bytheMinistry
ofEconomy, which consults withtheCDA before issuing suchanauthorization. Since 1989 only
fiveapplications foranauthorization havebeenpresented totheMinistry ofEconomy. TheSecretariat
wasnotinformed oftheoutcome ofthese cases, butreported tradedatashow practically noimports;26
theauthorities attribute theabsence ofimports tothefactthatElSalvador isanetexporter ofsugar.
40. Such anauthorization oralicence system mayberequired inthefuture toadminister the
allocation oftariff quotas forsugar, should imports appear likely toexceed theinitial in-quota level
of3,887.33 tonnes, dutiable at40percent.27Pending adecision howthismight work, nonotification
ontheadministration ofthetariff quotas hasbeenmade totheWTO.
41. TheGovernment iscurrently considering removing theauthorization andreducing the
out-of-quota ratefrom 88percentin1996 to55percent. Anearlier proposal alsoinvolved the
possibility ofincreasing thecurrent applied tariff rateof20percentto55percentonallimports of
sugar. Thisratewould havebeenabove thein-quota bound rateof40percent, negotiated inthe
Uruguay Round, andwould haverequired anArticle XXVIII renegotiation.
42. Animport licence isrequired toimport salt,which isgranted bytheMinistry ofHealth once
theiodine content inthemineral hasbeenestablished.
(ix) Import quotas
43. Saccharine andsimilar products canonlybeimported inlimited quantities orformedical use
withthepermission oftheSuperior Council forPublic Health (Consejo Superior deSalud Pública ).
Thispermit hastobevalidated bytheSalvadorian Commission fortheDevelopment oftheSugar Sector.
44. Bylawthere isaquantitative import restriction ondairy products, since these canonlybe
imported incaseofdomestic shortage.28However, thislaw,which isstillonthestatute books, seems
tohavefallen intodisuse since, according totheauthorities, ElSalvador imports dairyproducts without
anyrestrictions.
25Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990. (Chapter 62).
26UNSTAT, Comtrade datafortheperiod 1980-95.
27Thequotaistobeexpandedto6,478.89tonnesby2004atanin-quotarateof40percentandtheabove-quota
final ratewillremain at70percent.
28LawNo.3144, LeydeFomento deProducción Higiénica delaLeche yProductos Lácteos ydeRegulación
desuExpendio, Diario Oficial No.185, 1960.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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(x) Import surveillance
45. There arenoimport surveillance mechanisms inElSalvador.
(xi) Import cartels
46. Animport cartel existforimports ofcrude oil,butimports ofrefined petroleum products were
liberalized in1993.29In1995, imports ofcrude oilwere alsoliberalized30,andthere arenolegal
restrictions forother refineries toenter themarket.
(xii) State-owned enterprises
47. Since 1989, aspartoftheoverall economic reform process, thescope ofState activities in
ElSalvador hasbeenreduced. Prior tothereforms, theStatehadanimportant rôleinthemarketing
ofthemajor export crops, cotton, sugar andcoffee, andintheprovision ofservices. Theprivatization
ofthenational coffee roasting company (Coffee Roasting Tower S.A.) wasfinalized in1995 andthe
Coffee Institute (Instituto delCafé,INCAFE), theformer marketing board, wasdismantled in1989,
sothatthewhole marketing process forcoffee isnowinthehands oftheprivate sector. TheNational
SugarInstitute(InstitutoNacionaldelAzúcar,INAZUCAR),whichheldthemonopolyforthemarketing
ofsugar, isintheprocess ofbeing privatized. Inaddition, eight ofthe11operating sugar mills have
beenprivatized; theremaining three areintheprocess. ElSalvador 'smain freezone, SanBartolo,
formerly owned totally bytheState, isnow70percentprivate. TheHotel Presidente ,oneofthe
major hotels inSanSalvador, wasalsoprivatized in1991. Coffee Roasting Tower S.A., SanBartolo
andtheHotel Presidente belonged totheState-owned Salvadorian Investment Corporation (Corporación
Salvadoreña deInversiones ,CORSAIN). Most ofthecompanies thatbelonged toCORSAIN have
beenprivatized. Today CORSAIN owns onlyasugar millandafisheries project, anditholds shares
inthree manufacturing companies.31
48. Intheservices sector theStateremains important, butinmostsub-sectors thereareeither plans
toprivatize ortheprocess ofprivatization isalready under way. Most banks, except Banco Hipotecario
yBanco deFomento Agrícola, havebeenprivatized. TheNational Telecommunications Administration
(Administración Nacional deTelecomunicaciones ,ANTEL) isintheprocess ofbeing privatized. The
company willbedivided intotwo,tobesoldseparately inorder toavoid thecreation ofaprivate
monopoly. Anindependent regulatory body willbecreated. Some oftheservices thatareprovided
bytheAutonomous Executive Commission forPorts (Comisión Ejecutiva Portuaria Autónoma ,CEPA)
willalsobeprivatized. There donotseem tobeanyplans toprivatize theExecutive Commission
ofRioLempa (Comisión Ejecutiva delRíoLempa ,CEL) incharge ofthegeneration andprovision
ofelectricity, buttheStatedoesnothaveamonopoly inthisarea. Regarding theprovision ofwater,
theNational Administration ofAqueducts andSewers Systems (Administración Nacional deAcueductos
yAlcantarillados ,ANDA) isstillamonopoly.
29Agreement No.277, Diario Oficial No.92,20March 1993.
30Acuerdo Ejecutivo ,No.10,5January 1995.
31CORSAIN holds 50percentofIndustrias Sintéticas deCentroamérica S.A.(INSINCA), 22percentof
shares inConductores Eléctricos deCentroamérica S.A. (CONELCA), and4.95percentofSociedad Quality
Food S.A..WT/TPR/S/23
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49. Thedeclining rôleoftheStateoverthelasttenyears issymptomatic ofthewider move towards
amarket economy, and,according totheauthorities, thisprocess istocontinue since itforms part
oftheoverall economic reform programme begun in1989. Uptonow, themain obstacles to
privatization havebeenthelackofexperience inimplementing suchaprogramme andthelackof
financial resources. Inthepast, privatizations were notcarried outwithin aclear framework of
procedure. However, following theprivatization ofthenational coffee roasting company, thefirst
undertaken through thestock market, procedures wereputinplace forsubsequent privatization ofother
State-owned enterprises; thishasalsohelped toattract foreign capital.
(xiii) Countertrade
50. ElSalvador 'sbarter andcountertrade regulations aregoverned bytheLawfortheReactivation
ofExports.32Countertrade transactions aresubject toCentral Bank approval. However, these
transactions arenotcommon.
(xiv) Standards andother technical requirements
(a) Standards, testing andcertification
51. TheLawontheNational Council ofScience andTechnology (LeydeConsejo Nacional de
Ciencia yTecnología ,CONACYT)33created theorganization incharge ofco-ordinating theelaboration
andadoption ofnorms inElSalvador. According toDecree 287,where noofficial technical norms
havebeenspecifically approved, ElSalvador willapply international norms. Forinstance, atpresent
ElSalvador usesthenorms established bytheCentral American Institute ofResearch andTechnology
(Instituto Centroamericano deInvestigación yTecnología ,ICITI), theCodex Alimentarius established
byFAO/WHO, and,asalastresort, those established bytheCouncil onthespecifications under which
theproducts werelegally registered. TheCONACYT isdrafting legislation establishing Salvadorian
technical norms andregulations, according totheCode ofGood Practice forthePreparation, Adoption
andApplication ofStandards oftheWTO.34Inthedraftnorms andregulations, nodistinction isbeing
made between imported anddomestically produced goods.
52. CONACYT isalsoincharge ofcarrying outstandards testing and/or approving testresults
carried outintheexporting country. There is,however, noestablished mechanism torecognize specific
testscarried outintheexporting country. Nevertheless, CONACYT requires acertification extended
bytheauthorities oftheexporting country. Thecertification isthenevaluated byCONACYT inorder
toapprove testscarried outintheexporting country. Atpresent, regulations concerning therecognition
oftestscarried outinexporting countries arebeing drafted. Inthepast,there havebeennoinstances
inwhich ElSalvador hasconsidered international norms inadequate.
53. Specific standards forimports ofsugar, saltandwheat flourexistinElSalvador. Since 1994,
ithasbeenrequired bylawthatallsugar produced fordomestic consumption befortified withvitamin A
(15microgrammes (50IU/G).35Inaddition, fortified sugar mustbepackaged insuchawaythatthe
32Decree No.460, 15March 1990. (Article 9).
33Legislative Decree No.287.
34Annex 3,WTO Agreement onTechnical Barriers toTrade.
35Decree No.843,LeydeFortificación delAzúcar conVitamina "A",Diario Oficial No.323,25May1994.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
Page 47
vitamin isprotected. Allimports ofsugar mustalsocomply withthisrequirement, which ischecked
bytheMinistry ofEconomy. Non-fortified sugar canbeexported andsoldinthelocalmarket only
ifitcanbeproven that,inthespecific instance, fortification isnotrecommended.
54. Tocombat thehighincidence ofthyroid disorders inElSalvador36,ithasbeenestablished
thatsaltbothforhuman consumption andforanimal feedmust beiodized.37Therefore, imports of
saltmust contain 30to100milligrams ofiodine perkg.38Saltwithout iodine canbeimported for
industrial use.
55. Inorder toimport saltwithorwithout iodine alicence isrequired; thisisissued bytheMinistry
ofPublic Health, provided thatthenecessary certificates areproduced bytheimporter.39Acertificate
issued inthecountry oforigin specifying theprocedures usedtoiodize thesaltandthequantity of
iodine isrequired. Fornon-iodized salt,theimporter requires certification oftheneedtousesuch
non-iodized saltinanindustry. Thiscertificate isissued bytheGeneral Directory ofHealth (Dirección
General deSalud ).Ifthesalthastobeanalyzed toconfirm theamount ofiodine, theimporter must
payforthecostofthetests.
56. Imported anddomestically produced wheat flour(HSitem1101.00.00) hastobeenriched with
vitamin B,iron, andfolicacidtocombat malnutrition, especially inchildren.40
57. Products derived from petroleum require acertificate ofanalysis todetermine thequality.
Importers require thiscertificate onlythefirsttimethattheyimport.
(b) Sanitary andphytosanitary regulations
58. Table III.2shows thelegislation thatstipulates andregulates thesanitary andphytosanitary
requirements applied todomestically produced andimported goods inElSalvador. TheMinistry of
Public Health andSocial Assistance (Ministerio deSalud Pública yAsistencia Social )andtheMinistry
ofAgriculture areresponsible forimplementing these regulations.
36Thelastnutritional survey of1990 determined thatatleast 25percentofthepopulation suffered from
thyroid disorder (Bocio Endémico ).
37Decree No.449, LeydeYodación deSal,27January 1993.
38Decree No.449, LeydeYodación deSal,27January 1993.
39Information supplied bytheMinistry ofPublic Health andSocial Assistance.
40G/TBT/Notif.95.324.WT/TPR/S/23
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Table III.2
Sanitary andphytosanitary regulations
Law Area Date
Phytosanitary Zoosanitary Food
inspection
Lawcreating plant andanimal health services
(Decree Legislative No.2690)X X July1958
Lawpromoting thehygienic production ofmilk
anddairy products, andregulating themarketing of
these products
(Decree No.3144)X X October 1960
Plant andanimal health law
(Executive Decree No.229)X X August 1961
Lawregulating thesanitary inspection ofmeat
(Decree No.588)X X January 1970
Certification ofseeds andplants
(Decree No.229)X February 1971
Lawtocertify seeds andplants
(Legislative Decree No.279)X February 1971
Control ofpesticides, fertilizers andagricultural
products
(Legislative Decree No.315)X X X May1973
Regulation forproduction andcommercialization of
certified seeds
(Executive Decree No.60X September 1979
Health code
(Legislative Decree No.955)X May1988
Plant andanimal health law
(Decree No.524)X X X December 1995
Source: Government ofElSalvador.
59. Pharmaceutical products orpatent medicines mustbeaccompanied atthetimeofimportation
byasanitary certificate, issued byaChamber ofCommerce, orbyaBoard ofHealth, orarecognized
organization entitled toissue suchcertificates inthecountry oforigin. Thiscertificate doesnotneed
toaccompany eachshipment oftheproduct inquestion; however, itneeds tobepresented tothe
Salvadorian authorities atthetimeofapplying forregistration ofthepharmaceutical products; once
registered,furthershipmentsoftheseproductsarenotrequiredtobeaccompaniedbysanitarycertificates.
60. Chemical products andpharmaceuticals canonlybeimported iftheirconsumption inthecountry
oforigin isallowed. Alltherequired import documents mustbecertified bytheMinistry ofAgriculture.
Acertificate ofanalysis isrequired forfertilizers inorder toprevent theimportation ofdangerous
chemicals which bytheirnature aredifficult tohandle ordispose ofintheevent thattheycannot be
sold. Thecertificate mustspecify thecontent oftheproduct anditsorigin. Thisanalysis canbedone
incustoms laboratories orinadesignated, specialized laboratory atthecostoftheimporter.
61. Certificates ofanalysis todetermine purity arerequired forcertain products: purelard,wheat
andryeflour, codliveroilandalcoholic beverages. Asasubstitute forthecertificate inanyofthese
cases, asample oftheshipment maybeanalysed bythecustoms laboratory, orotherapproved laboratoryElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
Page 49
inElSalvador.41Inthecaseofalcoholic beverages, thecertificate ofpurity canbeissued inthecountry
oforigin, butimports mustalsoberegistered attheMinistry ofPublic Health andSocial Assistance.42
62. Sanitary certificates issued bytheagricultural authorities ofthecountry oforigin, arerequired
forinedible seeds, roots, bulbs, andplants. Ifthesanitary certificate ismissing theMinistry of
Agriculture willfumigate ordisinfect theproducts atthetimeofentry intothecountry.43Used sacks
orbagsofhemp, henequen, jute,andsimilar fibres require acertificate offumigation.44
(c) Marking, labelling andpackaging
63. Presently therules followed onthesubject ofmarking, labelling andpackaging aremainly
those stipulated intheLawforConsumer Protection (LeydeProtección alConsumidor ),which in
itsArticles 8and12states thatallproducts (imported ordomestically produced) must carry labels
indicating theingredients usedfortheirpreparation andtheprice.45
64. Inaddition, imported cigarettes must havealabel indicating thattheyhavebeenimported
(importación aElSalvador ).46Alcoholic beverages musthavelabels thatspecify thevolume ofalcohol,
theexpiration date, thenumber oftheSanitary registry, ifproduced domestically, orthename and
registry number oftheimporter, ifimported, aswellasalabelstating: "Excessive consumption of
thisproduct ishazardous tohealth andleadstoaddiction. Itisforbidden tosellthisproduct tominors"
(Elconsumo excesivo deesteproducto esdañino paralasalud ycreaadicción. Seprohibe suventa
amenores de18años).
65. Inaccordance withtheHealth Code (Código deSalud ),special labelling requirements, apply
alsotoimports ofmedicines andpharmaceuticals; fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, repellents,
herbicides; andmedicines, serums, vaccines andother biological products forveterinary use.47
(xv) Government procurement
66. ElSalvador hasnotadopted theWTO Plurilateral Agreement onGovernment Procurement.
67. TheGeneral Budget Law(LeyGeneral delPresupuesto )regulates thepurchases ofboththe
central Government andtheautonomous institutions. However, central government purchases arealso
ruled bytheProcurement Law(LeydeSuministro )andInstruction 6023A (Instructivo 6023A), while
theautonomous institutions areruled bylawsspecific toeach. These specific lawsestablish different
41Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990 (Regla VIII).
42Decree No.640, LeyReguladora delaProducción yComercialización delAlcohol ydelasBebidas
Alcohólicas ,22February 1996.
43Exporter 'sEncyclopedia (1994).
44Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990 (Capítulo 62).
45Decree No.267, Diario Oficial No.219, 27November 1992.
46Chapter 24,Decree No.647, Diario Oficial No.113, 20December 1990.
47Dun&Bradstreet Information Service (1994).WT/TPR/S/23
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thresholds thanthose established forthepurchases oftheCentral Government. They alsoestablish
adifferent methodology ontendering procedures which seems topromote more competition.
68. Central government contracts forplanned purchases whose value exceeds C50,000 areput
outtopublic tender forbothdomestic andforeign suppliers. Foreigners need tohave alegal
representation inElSalvador andhaveaVAT registration. According totheauthorities, there are
noother requirements forforeigners andnodiscrimination among nationals andforeigners.
69. Purchases byautonomous institutions suchastheNational Telecommunications Administration
(AdministraciónNacionaldeTelecomunicaciones,ANTEL),theNationalAqueductsandSewersSystems
Administration(AdministraciónNacionaldeAcueductosyAlcantarillados,ANDA),andtheSalvadorian
Institute ofSocial Security (Instituto Salvadoreño delSeguro Social ,ISSS) areregulated byspecific
lawswhich setminimum thresholds foropentenders. Inthese cases, bidsmaybeeither private or
public, andbothnationals andforeigners mayparticipate. Inaddition, theautonomous institutions
areallowed tocallinternational tenders when thepurchase involves goods notlocally produced and
thecontract exceeds aminimum threshold.
70. TheGovernmenthasrecentlydecentralizedtheprocessofpurchasing,givingmoreindependence
totheministries andother government institutions.48More independence hasbeengranted through
theformationofpurchasingcommittees(Comisionesdecompras).Inthesecommittees,theprocurement
department ofeachinstitution hasanactive rôlesince itisbetter abletodetermine theneeds ofthe
institution. Thecommittees alsoinitiate theprocess ofcalling fortenders andthen award
(adjudicaciones ).TheGovernment Accounting Office (Corte deCuentas delaRepública )audits the
process. Where theaward iscontested, anadministrative process isavailable, aswellasrecourse
tothejudicial system.
(xvi) Local-content schemes
71. According totheauthorities, thereisnolegalregulation establishing local-content requirements
fordomestic production.
(xvii) Anti-dumping andcountervailing measures
72. Anti-dumping andcountervailing procedures arespecified intheCentral American Regulation
onUnfair Trade Practices (Reglamento Centroamericano sobre Prácticas Desleales deComercio )49,
which hassuperseded theRegulation onUnfair Trade Practices andSafeguard Clauses (Reglamento
Centroamericano sobre Prácticas deComercio Desleal yCláusulas deSalvaguardia ).50According
totheauthorities, these procedures havebeenestablished inaccordance withtheWTO Agreements.
73. TheMinistry ofEconomy, through theDirectorate ofTrade Policy processes complaints about
unfair trade practices andundertakes investigations todetermine whether itisappropriate totake
anti-dumping orcountervailing measures. Anti-dumping andcountervailing duties canbeapplied when
unfair trade practices cause, orthreaten tocause, injury toasector ordelay inthedevelopment of
asector, inaccordance withtheWTO Agreement.
48Instruction 6023A, asamended.
49Agreement No.808, Diario Oficial No.237, 21/12/1995.
50Agreement No.110, Diario Oficial No.40,26/02/1993.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
Page 51
74. Anynational producer orgroup ofproducers thatconsiders itself orthemselves tohavebeen
injured canasktheauthorities tostartaninvestigation. Ifpetitions toadopt anti-dumping and
countervailing duties arenotincompliance withtheWTO Agreements ordonothavesufficient proof
ofinjury, theauthorities willnotcarry outtheinvestigation.
75. Provisional measures maybeadopted during theprocess ofinvestigation ifthereisapreliminary
affirmative determination ofdumping orsubsidy thatisinjuring ormayinjure asector. Provisional
measures canbeapplied foramaximum period ofninemonths. Theprocess isterminated ifdetermined
thatthemargin ofdumping orsubsidy isminimal, orthatthevolume ofimports orinjury isinsignificant.
76. Forproducts originating inCentral America, theDirectorate ofTrade Policy alsocarries out
investigations todetermine theexistence ofdumping orsubsidies. TheCentral American Secretariat
forEconomic Integration (Secretaría para laIntegración Económica deCentroamérica ,SIECA)
intervenes onlyiftheexistence ofunfair tradepractices counteract thepreferential treatment stipulated
intheCentral American Treaty ofEconomic Integration, andtheauthorities oftheimporting country
donotundertake theinvestigation.
77. Anymeasurestobeimposedaftertheinvestigationaretobetransitoryandexceptional,remaining
inforce onlyaslongasthesituation thatmotivated them prevails. Definitive measures maylasta
maximum offiveyears afterthedateofthefinalresolution. Thisperiod canbeextended onlyifthe
conditions thatmotivated themeasure stillexist.
78. Anti-dumping andcountervailing duties should beapplied onlytothedumped orsubsidized
imports. Itis,therefore, necessary tospecify thesupplier orsuppliers oftheproduct sothatthemeasure
isnotapplied toallsuppliers.
79. According totheauthorities, inconformity withArticle 25oftheAgreement ontheCentral
American Tariff andCustoms Régime (Convenio sobre elRégimen Arancelario yAduanero
Centroamericano)51acountervailing dutyof10percentwasimposed onimports ofmilkoriginating
inCosta Rica. Therationale wasthatCosta Ricahadatariff of5percentforyellow maize, below
theagreed Central American common tariff of20percent. ElSalvador considered thatthistariff
reduction provided asubsidy tomilkproduction. However, under Resolution No.101,ElSalvador
hasnowreduced thetariff foryellow maize to1percent,equivalent tothecurrent Costa Rican rate,
andthereason forthemeasure nolonger exists.52Inthelastfiveyears, noother anti-dumping or
countervailing measures havebeenapplied byElSalvador.
(xviii) Safeguard actions
80. Newlegislation onsafeguards wasapproved attheCentral American levelinJune1996-the
Central American Regulation onSafeguard Measures (Reglamento Centroamericano sobre Medidas
deSalvaguardia ).53ThegoalofthisRegulation istoestablish theprocedures toapply Article XIX
51Articles25oftheAgreemen tontheCentralAmericanTariffandCustomsRégime(29January1993)regulated
Unfair Trade Practices andSafeguard Clauses within theCentral American countries. TheArticle hasbeen
superseded bytheCentral American Regulations onUnfair Trade Practices (Reglamento Centroamericano sobre
Prácticas Desleales deComercio )of5December 1995.
52Resolution No.101, Ministry ofEconomics, Diario Oficial No.53,15March 1996.
53Executive Agreement No.213, Diario Oficial No.110, 14June 1996.WT/TPR/S/23
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ofGATT 1994, theWTO Agreement, theProtocol ofGuatemala andtheCentral American Agreement
ontheTariff andCustoms Régime.
81. According tothelegislation, before safeguard measures canbetaken ithastobeestablished
thatimports fromathirdcountry haveincreased tosuchalevel(either inabsolute terms orrelative
tothenational production) andtakeplace under conditions thatcause orthreaten tocause serious injury
toasector oftheeconomy thatproduces similar goods orisadirect competitor. Acausal relationship
hastobedemonstrated between theincrease inimports andtheinjury forasafeguard measure tobe
adopted.
82. Provisional safeguard measures canbeadopted, consisting ofanincrease intariff, guaranteed
byadeposit which isreturned ifinjury isnotestablished. Thistemporary measure isnottobeapplied
formore than200days. Safeguard measures maybeapplied togoods ofallorigin. However, safeguard
measures would beapplied toadeveloping country inconformity oftherequirements oftheWTO
Agreement.
83. Before prorogating ortaking adefinitive safeguard measure, athirty-day period isallowed
forconsultations withinterested WTO Members. Safeguard measures should beconsidered exceptional
andtemporary, sincetheywould beinplace onlywhile theyarenecessary toprevent injury ortorepair
serious injury andallow forreadjustment. Permanent safeguard measures should notexceed amaximum
offouryears however theymaybeprorogated according totheWTO Agreement.
84. Theadoption ofallsafeguard measures mustbenotified totheExecutive Council ofEconomic
Integration (Consejo Ejecutivo deIntegración Económica )andtheWTO.
85. Special Safeguards Provisions oftheUruguay Round Agreement onAgriculture, allowing for
theimposition ofanadditional dutyabove thebound tariff level atadetermined trigger volume or
price level, cover 84tariff lines.
(xix) Measures implemented inexporting countries
86. ElSalvador doesnothaveagreements limiting merchandise exports byforeign tradepartners.
(xx) Balance-of-payments measures
87. ElSalvador doesnotmaintain import restrictions forbalance-of-payments purposes.
(xxi) Import privileges extended tofreezones
88. Goods suchasmachinery, equipment, tools, spare partsandutensils required fortheinstallation
andfunctioning ofcompanies established inthefreezones andthose qualified astax-free areas(recintos
fiscales )enterthesecustoms areas duty-free.54Companies thatexport 100percentoftheirproduction
canimport alltheaforementioned goods, inaddition tothenecessary inputs usedintheproduction
process, freeofduties.55
54Article 11,Decree No.461, LeydelRégimen deZonas Francas yRecintos Fiscales ,15March 1990.
55Article 19,Decree No.461, LeydelRégimen deZonas Francas yRecintos Fiscales ,15March 1990.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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(3) Measures Directly Affecting Exports
89. ElSalvador 'sexport policy isfocused onthepromotion ofexports ofnon-traditional goods
(i.e., allgoods except coffee, cotton andsugar) tomarkets outside Central America. Thispolicy is
applied mainly through aspecial legalframework, constituted bytheLawfortheReactivation ofExports
(LeydeReactivación delasExportaciones ),theLawforFreeZones andTax-Free Areas (Leydel
Régimen deZonas Francas yRecintos Fiscales )andtheirregulations. Theprocess forobtaining export
authorizations hasbeensimplified through theinstallation ofa"single window" attheCentre forExport
Documentation (Centro deTrámites deExportación ,CENTREX) intheCentral Bank (Box III.1).
These reforms, together withtheabolition ofexchange ratecontrols, theprivatization ofthebanking
system andtherationalization oftheimport régime should reduce theexisting anti-export bias.
BoxIII.1: Centre forExport Requirements (CENTREX)
CENTREX wasestablished in1987 asaninstitution tocentralize allpermit requirements forimports and
exports. Before itsestablishment thepreparation ofdocumentation tookfrom eight toten(oreven 15)
days. Initially, theCentre didnotfunction wellsince itwasstillnecessary tovisitanumber ofother
institutions. Onaverage 25documents hadtobeprovided tothedifferent institutions andtheprocess
tookabout 2days.
Inorder tosimplify formalities, CENTREX wasrestructured in1989. Since then theinstitution,
administered bytheCentral Reserve Bank under the jurisdiction oftheMinistry ofEconomy, has
functioned asaone-stop window where allexport formalities canbecarried out.CENTREX, therefore,
carries outthefunctions ofthethree main institutions directly responsible fortheissue ofexport
documentation: theMinistry ofAgriculture andLivestock (Direction ofPlant andAnimal Health andthe
Centre fortheDevelopment ofFisheries), theMinistry ofEconomy (Direction ofInvestment andTrade),
andtheCentral Bank. Other institutions, such asCustoms andtheMinistry ofFinance, collaborate
closely withCENTREX.
InDecember 1995, Centrex established theElectronic System forExports (Sistema Electrónico de
Exportaciones ,SIEX) tospeed-up export formalities. Thisservice allows enterprises toobtain automatic
export permits (póliza deexportación )on-line seven days aweek. Ifthere isaneed forasanitary
certificate thathastobesigned, thiswould beprepared thesame day,orthefirstworking dayfollowing
therequest. Theintroduction ofSIEX hasreduced thetimeforthepreparation ofexport documentation
tolessthanoneday.
(i) Registration anddocumentation
90. Allexporters mustregister bycompleting anExport Registration Card(Tarjeta deInscripción
deExportador ).Once registered, theCENTREX issues export documents toregistered exporters on
presentation ofanexport application andacommercial invoice; thisprocedure isthesame forboth
traditional andnon-traditional exports.56Export documents include theexport registry and/or acustoms
form(forexportswithintheCACM);and,wherenecessary,certificatesrequiredbyimportingcountries,
56Exportsarefurtherclassifiedintodefinitiveandnon-definitiveexports.Definitiveexportsarethosecultivated
orfabricated inElSalvador withatleast a35percentofvalue added, andnon-definitive include temporary
exports, re-exports, barter, donations orcommercial samples, andassembly operations (maquila ).Thelatter
aresubject todifferent formalities atthetimeofexporting.WT/TPR/S/23
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e.g.,certificates oforigin orsanitary certificates. Since August 1996, exports tootherCACM countries
have required theCentral American Single Customs Form (Formulario Aduanero Único
Centroamericano ),which isalsoacertificate oforigin.
91. Exports ofagro-chemicals, medicines, animal feed, meat, fish,coffee andmachinery require
sanitary certificates issued bytheMinistry ofAgriculture.
(ii) Export taxes, charges andlevies
92. Noexport taxes arenowlevied. Export taxes onsugar andshrimp wereabolished in198957,
andoncoffee in1992.58
(iii) Minimum prices
93. Nominimum prices areapplied onexports.
(iv) Export prohibitions andother controls
94. Anexport prohibition applies toliquid gasandanexport control applies todiesel, since these
goods aresubsidized. Diesel issubsidized forpublic transportation andgasfordomestic consumption.
Non-subsidized diesel (i.e., diesel usedforother thanpublic transportation) canbeexported ifitis
produced bythelocalrefinery orconsists ofthere-export ofimported diesel. However, forexports
ofthisdiesel tobepossible anassessment ofthedomestic supply ofdiesel isrequired. Exportation
ofplants andanimals indanger ofextinction isalsoprohibited inaccordance withtheConvention on
International Trade ofEndangered Species (CITES), ratified byElSalvador in1986.59
95. Export permits arerequired forcertain goods; forexample, exports ofPortland cement, clinker,
andsugar canemust beauthorized bytheMinistry ofEconomy toensure domestic availability. In
thecaseofsugar, thepermit isalsousedtoensure thefilling ofthein-quota amount allowed preferred
access totheUnited States market. Exports oftextiles produced inthefreezones subject toaquota
intheUnited States market alsorequire apermit issued bytheMinistry ofEconomy.
(v) Export licensing
96. Export licences, perse,arenotrequired. Items whose importation isconstrained byother
countries (such astextiles andsugar) mayneedanexport document showing anentitlement toquota,
asnoted above.
(vi) Export quotas
97. ElSalvador restrained thevolume ofcoffee exports from the1993/94, the1994/95 andthe
1995/96 crop, inorder tocomply withitscommitments under theretention planoftheAssociation
57Legislative Decree No.396, Diario Oficial No.231, 13December 1989.
58Legislative Decree No.422, Diario Oficial No.236, 22December 1992.
59Diario Oficial No.93,23May 1986.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
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ofCoffee Producing Countries (Asociación dePaíses Productores deCafé,APPC).60Forthe1996/97
crop, ElSalvador 'sexport quota, established bytheAPPC, willamount to3million quintals. The
objective oftheplanistomaintain theinternational price ofcoffee through supply control. Adecree
isissued eachyeartodetermine theamount oftheexport quota anditsdistribution among national
producers.61Theallocation ofexport quotas isadminister bytheSalvadorian Coffee Council (Consejo
Salvadoreño deCafé,CSC).
(vii) Export cartels
98. There arenoexport cartels inElSalvador.
(viii) Voluntary restraints, surveillance andsimilar measures
99. Under theMultifibre Arrangement (MFA), which expired attheendof1994, ElSalvador had
signed abilateral export agreement withUnited States. Theagreement provided forquotas inthe
United States 'market formen'sandboys'cotton andman-made fibre shirts, notknitted
(categories 340/640). Thisquota wascarried overintotheWTO Agreement onTextiles andClothing.62
In1995 and1996, ElSalvador concluded additional bilateral agreements withtheUnited States on
imports ofcotton andman-made fibre underwear (categories 352/652), cotton andman-made fibre
sleepwear (categories 351/651), andcotton andnon-made fibre skirts (categories 342/642). These
export quotas aredistributed bytheMinistry oftheEconomy according tothepercentage oftotal
production ofeachcompany.
(ix) Measures maintained byimporting countries
100. Sugar exports totheUnited States preferential market aresubject toquotas. TheMinistry
ofEconomy isresponsible forassigning these quotas among thesugar mills; theprecise allocation
ofquotas isbased ontheproportion oftotalsugar produced byeachmill. TheSalvadorian Commission
fortheDevelopment oftheSugar Sector advises theGovernment.
(x) Export subsidies
101. Noexplicit export subsidies aregranted inElSalvador. However, thedutydrawback granted
toexporters ofgoods under theLawfortheReactivation ofExports involves areimbursement which
maybemoreorlessthantheactual dutypaidontheinputs associated witheachspecific export shipment
(seebelow).
60Decree No.26,Diario Oficial No.148, 15August 1994.
61Decree No.667,Diario Oficial No.186, 6October 1993 andDecree No.241,Diario Oficial No.15,
23January 1995 aretransitory lawsstipulating theamount ofcoffee harvested during 1993/94 and1994/95 that
maybeexported. Decree No.414,Diario Oficial No.141, 29July1995, another transitory law,setsoutthe
allocation oftheexport quota among producers .
62G/TMB/N/63/Add.2.WT/TPR/S/23
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(xi) Duty andtaxconcessions
102. TheLawfortheReactivation ofExports, modified byseveral decrees63,establishes aseries
oftaxexemptions andadrawback system forexporters ofnon-traditional products (i.e., other than
coffee, sugar andcotton) tomarkets outside Central America. These exporters areeligible toreceive
afixed reimbursement equivalent to6percentofthef.o.b. value ofexports tocompensate forthe
payment ofimport duties. Toobtain thereimbursement, theexporter mustprove thatthegoods were
exported andthatimport duties were paid.
103. Exporters oftraditional products (i.e., coffee, cotton andsugar) withaminimum domestic
value added of30percentarealsoeligible forreimbursement of6percentofthef.o.b. value ofthe
exports.
104. Enterprises engaged partially ortemporarily inassembly operations (maquila )canalsobenefit
fromthe6percentreimbursementbasedondomesticvalueadded,despiteimportingunderthetemporary
admission régime (i.e., freeofduty).
105. Allexports areexempt from payment ofVAT.
(xii) Export finance
106. TheMultisectoral Investment Bank isincharge ofaspecial fundforinvestment withdifferent
finance programmes fortheexport sector. Specific credit linesexistforprojects thatexport more
than50percentoftheirproduction,forindustriesandagro-industriesthatexportnon-traditionalproducts
outside Central America, forthedevelopment ofprivate freezones, andforexports ofservices outside
Central America.
107. Interest ratesforthese linesofcredit arenotpreferential. Interest ratesforloans indomestic
currency aresetevery threemonths, based onthe180-day market rate.Interest onloans inU.S.dollars
aresetbased ontheratesthatprevail intheinternational market, plusapercentage tocover financial
andadministrative costs andrisk.
(xiii) Export insurance andguarantees
108. TheGovernment doesnotfinance anyexport insurance andguarantee schemes.
(xiv) Export promotion andmarketing assistance
109. Theinstitutions incharge ofthepromotion ofexports andofproviding marketing assistance
aretheDirectorate ofCommerce andInvestment (Dirección deComercio eInversión )oftheMinistry
ofEconomy, theCorporation ofSalvadorian Exporters (Corporación deExportadores deElSalvador ,
COEXPORT), theProgramme toPromote Investment andDiversification ofExports (Programa de
Promoción deInversiones yDiversificación deExportaciones ,PRIDEX/FUSADES), theChamber
ofCommerce andIndustry ofElSalvador (Cámara deComercio eIndustria deElSalvador ),andthe
Salvadorian Association ofIndustrialists (Asociación Salvadoreña deIndustriales ,ASI).
63DecreeNo.460,DiarioOficialNo.88,18April1990,modifiedbyDecreeNo.381,DiarioOficialNo.225,
7December 1992 andDecree No.749(date notprovided).ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
Page 57
110. In1995 theMinistry ofEconomy established theCouncil forCompetitiveness (Consejo de
Competitividad ),which, interalia,istoprovide support toinvestment andexport promotion projects.
(xv) Export performance requirements
111. ElSalvador doesnothaveexport performance requirements.
(xvi) Freezones andtax-free areas
112. In1974 thefirstfreezone, SanBartolo, wasbuiltbytheGovernment withtheobjective of
stimulating exports; itisintheprocess ofbeing privatized.64Atpresent fiveother private freezones
areinoperation andanother fourarecurrently under construction (Table III.3). Ofthe45firms in
operation under thisrégime, 37(around 82percent) produce textiles andclothing; theremaining
eightproduceelectronics,paperproducts,jewelleryboxes,ceramicproducts,furgloves,plasticproducts,
andoffer services torepair toys.
Table III.3
Free-zone activity, May 1996
Free Zones
San
BartoloSan
MarcosEl
ProgresoEl
PedregalExporsalva American
ParkTotal
Area (m2) 224,393 48,000 14,740 166,480 120,000 125,000 698,613
Area occupied (percent) 35.0 73.0 100 29.3 20.3 ... 40.0
Number ofEnterprises 12 9 5 11 7 1 45
Textiles 8 9 4 8 7 1 37
Leather products 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Electrical components 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Paper bags 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Gloves 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Ceramic Statues 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Jewellery boxes 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Plastic products 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Services torepair toys 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Direct employment 7,875 5,169 3,525 4,240 3,179 188 24,176
Indirect employment 15,750 10.338 7,050 8,480 6,358 376 43,352
... Notavailable.
Source: Departamento dezonas francas .
113. Despite theconcentration ofproduction inrelatively fewgoods, theauthorities consider that
thefreezones haveadded dynamism totheSalvadorian economy bypromoting non-traditional exports
andgenerating employment (Table III.3). Atpresent, freezones employ some 67,500 people andthe
Department ofFreeZones (Departamento deZonas Francas )hasestimated thatthefreezones under
construction willgenerate nearly 79,000 newjobs. Exports fromthefreezones (maquiladoras )have
beengrowing strongly from 18percentofthetotalin1991 to39percentin1995 (Table III.4).
64Dijkstra andRivera Alemán, (undated).WT/TPR/S/23
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Table III.4
ElSalvador exports bytype, 1991-95
(US$ million)
Traditional Non-traditional Free zone (Maquila) Total
1991 272.1 315.9 132.0 720.0
1992 217.3 380.2 198.0 795.5
1993 295.7 446.3 290.1 1,032.1
1994 321.2 496.5 431.4 1,249.1
1995a370.9 479.0 537.8 1,387.6
a January-October.
Source: Banco Central delaReserva deElSalvador (1995).
114. Theoperation offreezones andtax-free areas isgoverned byDecree No.461of1990 and
itsRegulation.65Inaddition, other domestic lawssuchassocial security requirements andthose of
thelabour codeoperate inthefree-zone andtax-free areas, asintheSalvadorian customs territory.
National andforeign companies canbenefit fromtheincentives provided under thefree-zone régime
if100percentoftheirproduction ofnon-traditional goods and/or services isexported tomarkets outside
Central America. Thedesignation oftax-free areas covers those companies thatfortechnical reasons
cannot beestablished inafreezone, butwhich would otherwise qualify forbenefits under therégime.
Allthecompanies established inafreezoneorcovered byatax-free area,regardless oftheirlocation,
areexempt fromtheduties andtaxes shown inTable III.5. However, these enterprises arenoteligible
toobtain thebenefits stipulated intheLawfortheReactivation ofExports; thetwoschemes aremutually
exclusive.
Table III.5
Exemptions granted tofreezones andtax-free areas
TaxorOther charge
Income taxa
Value-Added Tax(VAT)
Import duties formachinery, equipment, tools andother necessary inputs
Import duties forpackaging material andsimilar goods
Import duties forfuelandlubricantsa,ifnotavailable inthecountry.
Municipal taxes
a Thisbenefit isforarenewable period oftenyears, counted from thefirstdayofproduction.
Source: LawonFreeZones andTax-Free Areas, Decree No.461.
65LawontheFreeZone andTax-Free Area Régime, Decree No.461,Diario Oficial No.88,18April 1990.
Regulation fortheLaw onFree Zones and Tax-Free Areas, Decree No. 56, Diario Oficial
No.241,16 October 1990.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
Page 59
115. Theprivileges offered tofreezones andtax-free areas arenotavailable totravel agencies,
airlines companies, air,landormaritime transportation companies, ortoanycompany thatprovides
services thataregoverned bytheSalvadorian banking andfinancial laws. Other activities thatcannot
bedeveloped inafreezoneinclude theexploitation ofpetroleum, natural gas,andminerals; fisheries;
hotels; processing ofexplosives orradioactive materials; production ofmaterials thatcause pollution;
thebreeding, cultivation, processing andsaleofendangered orprohibited plants andspecies; and
services notlinked toforeign trade.
116. Enterprises under either ofthesetworégimes cansub-contract services inElSalvador. Goods
canalsobetransferred fromElSalvador toafreezoneortax-free areaforimprovement, transformation,
orrepair. However, theenterprises located inthefreezoneortax-free areahavetopaytheimport
duties onthegoods acquired inthisway.
117. An"export" fromElSalvador tooneofitsfreezones ortax-free areas isconsidered anexport
outside Central America, withtheexception ofthesub-contracting ofservices. Theincentives provided
under theLawfortheReactivation ofExports areavailable toSalvadorian exporters tothefreezones
and/or tax-free areas.
118. Fifteenpercentofthefree-zoneproductioncanbeexportedtoElSalvadorandCentralAmerica,
withtheexception oftextiles, paying allduties andtaxes.
(4) Measures Affecting Production andTrade
119. Aspartofthereform programme started in1989, ElSalvador hasadopted aseries ofdomestic
policies toallow greater playformarket forces within thedomestic economy, while theStateprovides
theregulatory framework. Themajor steps taken inthisrespect havebeentheelimination ofmost
pricecontrols (although prices ofsome oilproducts remain controlled), thedismantling ofagricultural
marketing boards, sothattheprivate sector isnowincharge ofmarketing major crops; andthe
privatization ofcertain services, including banking andtelecommunications.
120. Efforts arebeing made tostrengthen theimplementation ofexisting lawintheareaofintellectual
property rights. Thisshould assist development efforts, astheprotection ofintellectual property rights
isoften apre-condition fortechnological innovation andtechnology transfer.
121. Consideration should begiven totheintroduction ofaneffective competition policy (anti-trust)
framework, which islacking except fortheregulatory andsupervisory frameworks forcertain service
industries. Theexistence ofcertain anti-competitive practices could beadeterrent tobroader-based
private sector development andtoefforts toattract foreign capital.
(i) Adjustment assistance
122. According totheauthorities, there arenospecific policies ormeasures intended tosupport
therestructuring ofthedifferent sectors orindustries thathavebeennegatively affected bythestructural
adjustment programme started in1989. There are,however, more general programmes oftechnical
assistance andfinancial support forallindustries. Theprogrammes areadministered bytheprivate
sector Salvadorian Association ofIndustrialists (Asociación Salvadoreña deIndustriales ,ASI)andthe
Multisectorial Investment Bank (Banco Multisectorial deInversiones ,BMI).WT/TPR/S/23
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123. There arenospecific programmes toassist labour displaced bystructural change. Nevertheless,
theMinistry ofEducation andtheManagerial Foundation forEducational Development (Fundación
Empresarial para elDesarrollo Educativo ,FEPADE) design andoffer technical courses forthe
population asawhole.
(ii) Assistance forresearch anddevelopment
124. There isnoassistance forresearch anddevelopment inElSalvador.
(iii) Production subsidies andtaxconcessions
125. In1989, theextensive legislation thatprovided fordutyandtaxconcessions toavariety of
productiveactivitieswasabolished.66Theauthoritiesconsideredthattheeliminationoftheseconcessions
wasnecessary tocreate amore neutral incentive system across sectors andtoincrease fiscal revenues.
(iv) Competition rules
126. TheConstitution inArticle 110prohibits monopolistic practices, butthereisnocomplementary
legislation topromote freecompetition orregulate competition conditions intheSalvadorian market.
According totheWorld Bank, there isaneedforacomprehensive anti-trust lawsince theweakness
ofcompetition within theSalvadorian market seems tobeaserious problem.67
127. Inaddition, some policies havecontributed topromoting anti-competitive behaviour. For
instance, theimport licensing requirement forjutesacks andtheadditional taxlevied onsynthetic sacks
havecontributed tothecreation ofaduopoly inthismarket. Intheservices sector, several areas are
affected byuncompetitive behaviour. Even though theState telecommunication monopoly isbeing
dismantled, thecompany istobesoldinthefirstinstance toonlytwocompanies. Thegeneration
ofelectricity isstillmainly inthehands ofthepublic sector. Inthefinancial sector thelimitations
onforeign ownership forbanks andfinance companies, which forces foreign banks tobecome minority
partners, serves asadeterrent toforeign competition inthesector; infact,there arenoforeign banks
inElSalvador.
(v) Pricing andmarketing arrangements
128. In1989, 240price controls onconsumer goods were removed andthenational monopolies
forthemarketing ofcoffee, sugar, andcotton wereabolished.68However, theMinistry ofEconomy
isstillempowered, incaseofnational emergency, tofixandmodify theminimum andmaximum prices
ofintermediate andfinalstaple goods.69
129. Inpractice, theonlygoods currently subject toprice controls arepetroleum products. An
automatic mechanism hasbeeninoperation since1995todetermine themaximum pricethatimporters
66Decree No.385, Diario Oficial No.227, 1November 1989.
67TheWorld Bank (1995).
68Business America, 25March 1991, "Market Reforms inElSalvador Mean New Opportunities forUS
Business".
69Article 5,Decree No.666, LeydeProtección alConsumidor ,14March 1996.ElSalvador WT/TPR/S/23
Page 61
andrefineries areallowed tocharge distributors ofpetroleum products.70TheMinistry ofEconomy
determines thisprice andcommunicates itinwriting periodically toimporters anddistributors; the
retail prices ofdiesel andliquid gasarealsoset.71
130. During 1980-1989, marketing ofthemostimportant agricultural products wascontrolled by
theState. However since 1989, themarketing boards forcoffee, sugar, cotton, powdered milkand
basic grains havebeendismantled, andtheprivate sector hasbeenallowed tosellthese products both
inthedomestic andinternational markets.
(vi) Trade-related investment measures (TRIMs)
131. ElSalvadorhasmadenonotificationsunderArticle5.1oftheWTOAgreementonTrade-Related
Investment Measures. ElSalvador doesnotpursue policies inconsistent withtheobligation ofnational
treatment (e.g., local-content schemes, export-performance requirements, etc.)orwiththegeneral
elimination ofquantitative restrictions onimports andexports (i.e., ElSalvador doesnotapply any
TRIM).
(vii) Intellectual property protection
132. In1993, anewLawtoPromote andProtect Intellectual Property Rights (LeydeFomento y
Protección alaPropiedad Intelectual )came intoforce.72Theenforcement ofthislawhas,however,
beendifficultbecausetheNationalCivilPolice(PolicíaNacionalCivil,PNC)doesnothavetheresources
tocheck every suspicious establishment andisoftenunaware thatthelawisbeing infringed. According
totheauthorities,thePublicProsecutor'sOffice(FiscalíaGeneraldelaRepública)andNationalRegistry
Centre (Centro Nacional deRegistro )aregiving special support tothePNC inorder tostrengthen
enforcement ofthelaw.Moreover, those affected byviolations ofcopyrights, patents, etc.apparently
donotalways make formal complaints. Nonetheless, inthose instances where complaints havebeen
made, themerchandise hasbeenconfiscated andtheproducers convicted. Forexample, in1995illegal
users oftrademarks suchasLevi's,Reebok andBurger King were prosecuted.
133. Atpresent, themajor problem withcopyright violations isthepiracy ofmusic andvideo-tapes.
Piracy ofthese goods became especially significant during thecivilwarandhasdeveloped mainly
atthemicro-enterprise levelintheinformal sector. These micro-enterprises havedifficulty inqualifying
forthelicences required tousetrademarks, etc.. Thus, thestrict enforcement ofthislawcould have
important social implications. Despite theseimplications, sincethebeginning of1996, theauthorities
seem tobemore committed toenforcing thislaw.73Forinstance, during themonth ofFebruary
severalthousandmusicandvideo-tapeswereconfiscated,establishmentsclosedandownersprosecuted.74
70Agreement No.46,27January 1995.
71Agreement No.463,Diario Oficial No.161, 1September 1995.
72Decree No.604, Diario Oficial No.150. 16August 1993.
73Itappears thattheUnited States haspushed forthecompliance withcopyrights bythreatening towithdraw
Generalized System ofPreferences (GSP) preferential treatment (LaPrensa Gráfica ,26February 1996, p.32-A).
74LaPrensa Gráfica ,29February 1996, p.6-A.WT/TPR/S/23
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134. Inaddition, theAuthorities areenforcing therequirement ofregistering attheRegistry of
Commerce (Registro deComercio ),theentity incharge ofsupervising those persons thatmake use
ofprotected material. According toArticle 11oftheimplementing regulations, contracts orlicences
withmusic orvideo companies granting therightforreproducing material must beregistered atthe
Registry. However, noSalvadorian music orvideo enterprise isyetregistered.75
135. According totheAuthorities, thenewlaw,isincompliance withtheTRIPS Agreement.
Article 109oftheLawtoPromote andProtect Intellectual Property Rights stipulates thatapatent has
aduration of20years forallproducts other thanmedicines, while theWTO Agreement stipulates
20years forallpatents. ElSalvador hasuntiltheyear2000 tomake anynecessary changes, but,in
anyevent, under Salvadorian law,theTRIPS Agreement, asaninternational treaty, would supersede
thenational legislation.
136. ElSalvador hasalsosigned several international copyright conventions, forexample, theParis
Convention,theUniversalCopyrightConventionandtheBerneConventionfortheProtectionofLiterary
andArtistic Works.
75ElDiario deHoy,23February 1996, p.24.