WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
22 March 2024  
(24-2435) Page: 1/42 
Committee on Trade and Development  
   
 
  
PARTICIPATION OF DEVELOPING  ECONOMIES IN THE GLOBAL TRADING SYSTEM  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
TABLE OF CONTENTS  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 3 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  3 
3   MERCHANDISE TRADE  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 4 
3.1   Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................  4 
3.2   Major traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  6 
3.3   Pre-pandemic comparison  ................................ ................................ ...........................  8 
3.4   Merchandise trade by product category  ................................ ................................ .........  9 
3.5   Major trading partners  ................................ ................................ ..............................  11 
3.6   South -South trade  ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 12 
4   COMMERCIAL SERVICES TRADE  ................................ ................................ ................  12 
4.1   Overview  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................  12 
4.2   Major traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  13 
4.3   Pre-pandemic comparison  ................................ ................................ ..........................  15 
4.4   Commercial services trade by sector  ................................ ................................ ...........  16 
4.5   Major trading partners  ................................ ................................ ..............................  17 
4.6   South -South trade  ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 18 
5   CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPING ECONOMIES' 
PARTICIPATION IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE  ................................ ................................ . 19 
6   ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................  23 
6.1   Merchandise  exports of developing economies and regions, 2020 ‑2022 ............................  23 
6.2   Merchandise imports of developing economies and regions, 2020 ‑2022 ............................  27 
6.3   Commercial services exports of developing e conomies and regions, 2020 ‑2022 .................  31 
6.4   Commercial services imports of developing economies and  regions, 2020 ‑2022 .................  35 
6.5   Top 20 developing economies' agricultural exports  ................................ ........................  39 
6.6   Top 20 developing economies' non -agricultural exports  ................................ ..................  40 
6.7   Composition of reporter and partner groups  ................................ ................................ . 41 
  
 
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.   WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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  Table of Charts  
Chart 1: Merchandise trade developments over recent years, in volume  ................................ .. 4 
Chart 2: Drivers of developing economies' merchandise trade, in volume  ................................ . 5 
Chart 3: Merchandise trade developments over recent years, in value  ................................ ..... 6 
Chart 4: Major developing economies merchandise traders  ................................ ....................  7 
Chart 5: Changes in merchandise trade, by economy  ................................ ............................  8 
Chart 6: Merchandise export developments through the COVID -19 pandemic  ...........................  8 
Chart 7: Developing economies' merchandise exports, 2022 compared to 2019  ........................  9 
Chart 8: Developing economies' merchandise exports, by product category  ............................  10 
Chart 9: Developing economies' merchandise imports, by product category  ............................  11 
Chart 10: Major destinations for developing economies' merchandise exports  .........................  11 
Chart 11: Merchandise South -South trade in comparison  ................................ .....................  12 
Chart 12: Commercial services trade developments over recent years  ................................ ... 13 
Chart 13: Major developing economies commercial services traders  ................................ ...... 14 
Chart 14: Changes in commercial services trade, by economy  ................................ ..............  15 
Chart 15: Commercial services export developments through the COVID -19 pandemic  ............  15 
Chart 16: Developing economies' commercial services exports, 2022 compared to 2019  ..........  16 
Chart 17: Examples of developing economies' commercial services exports  ............................  17 
Chart 18: Major destinations for developing economies' commercial services exports  ...............  18 
Chart 19: Commercial services South -South trade in comparison  ................................ ..........  18 
Chart 20: Commercial services South -South trade by region  ................................ ................  19 
Chart 21: Major exported products and price developments of selected products  .....................  20 
Chart 22: Comparison of trade costs across time and between regions  ................................ .. 21 
Chart 23: Digitally delivered trade and digital connectivity by country group  ...........................  22 
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  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
Developing economies ' trade in merchandise products as well as in commercial services 
recovered from the pandemic -induced slump. Merchandise exports from developing economies 
increased by 10.8% in 2021 and 1.6% in  2022 in volume terms . Developing Asia was the main 
driver for the strong merchandise trade volume recovery of developing economies in 2021 . China, 
the largest developing economy exporter, registered a merchandise export volume  growth of 17.3% 
in 2021, and experienced a decline by 2% in 2022.  
In value terms, merchandise exports of developing economies increased substantially  from 
USD 7.7 trillion  in 2020 to USD  11.3 trillion  in 2022, partly supported by price increases in major 
commodities such as crude oil . The share of developing economies  in global exports  increased from 
44.7% in 2020 to 46.6% in 2022 , respectively . China, the Republic of Korea and Mexico continued 
to be the largest merchandise exporters among developing econo mies, accounting for 15%, 2.8%, 
and 2.4% of global merchandise exports in 2022. The largest 15 developing economy exporters 
were responsible for 38% of global merchandise exports and 82% of developing economy 
merchandise export s. While semiconductors conti nued to be the largest product category in 
developing economies' exports, t he importance of crude oil exports increased substantially in value 
terms between 2020 to 2022. As in 2020, the United States of America, the European  Union and 
China were the large st destinations for developing economies' merchandise exports in 2022, 
accounting for 17%, 16% and 13%, respectively. During 2020 -2022, South -South trade  continued 
to represent more than 50% of developing economies ' merchandise  exports.  
Since the pandemic -induced slump, developing economies' commercial services exports picked 
up from USD  1.5 trillion in 202 0 to USD  2.3 trillion in 2022. Developing economies accounted for 
33% of global commercial services exports  in 2022 , up from 29% in 20 20. The three largest 
exporters continued to be China  (6%), India (4.4%)  and Singapore  (4.1%) . The largest 
15 developing economy exporters were responsible for 26% of global commercial services exports 
and 80% of developing economy commercial services expo rts. The European  Union, the 
United  States of America and China were the largest destinations for developing economies' 
commercial services exports in 202 1, accounting for 19%, 15% and 1 0%, respectively.  In recent 
years n early half of commercial services export represent South -South trade, with Developing Asia 
continuing to account for the largest share. While some types of services exports proved 
comparatively  resilient  during the pandemic, travel exports in 2022 still la gged significantly behind 
their 2019 level.  
Even though as a whole, developing economies increased their share in global merchandise 
and services exports, many economies struggle to bolster their participation in international trade. 
One challenge is the dependence on commodity exports by several developing economies. Given 
that many commodities experience high price fluctuations, this can subject exporters to large swings  
in their revenues . Furthermore, f irms in developing economies face higher trade cost s than firms in 
developed economies , in all major sectors including services . Certain services , however, can present 
an opportunity for some developing economies to improve the resilience of their exports. For 
instance, between 2014 and 2022, developing ec onomies' digitally delivered services exports 
increased from USD  500 billion to USD  1 trillion , and proved significantly more resilient during the 
pandemic. In a considerable number of developing economies, less than half of the population has 
online acces s and thus cannot seize the opportunities digital trade can bring.  
2  INTRODUCTION  
This document has been prepared by the Secretariat to assist the Committee on Trade and 
Development (CTD) in meeting its requirement to continuously review the participation o f developing 
economy Members in the multilateral trading system (MTS). It updates previous studies on this topic 
produced for the Committee since 1997. The last report was produced in 20 21.2  
The first part of the report provides an overview of developing  economies' merchandise  trade. 
The second part gives some detail on developing economies' commercial services trade . Both 
sections have a special focus on changes since 2020 and pre -pandemic  comparisons. This report 
contains a brief section on  challenges and opportunities for developing economies in international 
 
2 The 20 21 document was circulated under the document symbol WT/COMTD/W/2 62. WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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  trade. Finally, a statistical appendix concludes this report.3 This includes an overview of merchandise 
and commercial services trade developments by economy, the most important export products, and 
the classification of economies into regional groups as used specifically for the purpose of this report.  
3  MERCHANDISE TRADE  
3.1  Overview  
Since 2015, merchandise exports in volume terms by developing economies and CIS4 have 
grown faster than exports by de veloped economies (see Chart 1). The drop in exports due to the 
COVID -19 pandemic was less pronounced in developing  economies. Merchandise export volumes 
from develop ing economies and CIS hit their most recent  high in Q 1 2022 and receded somewhat 
during  the rest of the year , with another uptick in the first quarters of 2023. Merchandise import 
volumes on the other hand largely  have grown at a similar pace since 2015 among developed and 
developing economies . Since the drop in 2020, there seems to be some divergence. Developing 
economies' import volumes rebound ed quicker and proved more stable  recently than imports by 
developed economies, which recorded a reduction in  imports between Q3 2022 and Q3  2023.  
Chart 1: Merchandise trade developments over recent years, in volume  
(Index, 2015=100, seasonally adjusted)  
 
Note:  CIS refer s to the Commonwealth of Independent States, including certain associate and former 
member  States.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
 
3 Data published in this document (unless otherwise indicated) are derived from the WTO World Trade 
Statistical Review 202 3 and the WTO Stats portal ( WTO Stats ). For more information on the definitions of 
indicators and detailed sources of data, see the Technical Notes in the above -mentioned report or the 
WTO Statistics website.   
4 CIS refers to the Commonwealth of Independent States, including certain associate and former 
member  States.  
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As the largest economic region within the analysed developing economies, Developing Asia ha d 
the largest effect o n changes in overall developing economies' export and import volume growth . 
Having been an important driver of export growth prior to the pandemic, Developing Asia's 
contribution to developing economies' export growth remained comparatively low in 2019  (see Chart 
2, left). It shot up in 2021, but almost ground to a halt again in 2022. Exports from this region are 
dominated by China , whose merchandise export volume grew by  17.3% in 2021 , while it declined 
by 2% in 2022. Crude oil being  a major export commodity of economies in the Middle East , export 
volumes from the region declined in 2020 in the wake of the COVID -19-induced demand shock when 
industrial activity fell , but i ncreased again in 2022 . Regarding developing economies' merchandise 
import volumes  (see Chart 2, right) , the decline in 2020 and the rebound in 2021 each were more 
pronounced tha n on the exports side. Imports in 2020 most notably contracted in Latin  America and 
the Caribbean , and Africa. While Latin American import volumes rebound ed strongly  in 2021, they 
increased by far less for Africa n economies .  
Chart 2: Drivers of developing economies' merchandise trade, in volume  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
When considering trade flows in value terms  instead of volume , developments are more easily  
comparable between product categories, but  depending on the goods considered, price effects can 
play a n important  (or even crucial ) role. The outbreak of COVID -19, for instance , significantly 
decreased the demand for oil in 2020, with substantially subdued prices in much of that  year. 
Moreover, many economies have witnessed inflation  rates in recent years not seen for decades. 
These important price effects on the value of merchandise trade shou ld be kept in mind in the 
ensuing analysis.  
Merchandise i mports and exports in value terms declined in 2020, for both developing 
economies and the rest of the world (which includes developed economies and CIS countrie s) 
(see Chart 3, left). Both flows already saw some decline from 2018 to 2019. From 2020 to 2022, 
however, merchandise trade experienced  a substantial increase, partly explained by the price effects 
mentio ned above. Merchandise exports of developing economies increased substantially from 
USD 7.7 trillion in 2020 to USD  11.3 trillion in 2022  
As a share of global exports and imports, respectively, merchandise trade by developing 
economies exceeded values seen in the decade 2010 -20. The share of merchandise exports 
increased since 2016 to more than 46% in 2022 ( Chart 3, right). Similarly, albeit receding  a bit f rom 
its recent high in 2021, developing economies' share of merchandise imports stood at above 42%.  
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LDCs' share of exports likewise increased slightly in recent years. While it stood at 1.07% 
in 2019 and 1.09% in 2020, it reached 1.15% in 2022. Exports of  manufactured goods from LDCs 
particularly increased its share, reaching 0.74% in 2022, up from 0.58% a year earlier.5 
Chart 3: Merchandise t rade developments over recent years , in value  
Trade developments in absolute USD terms (left) and share of developing economies in global merchandise 
trade for exports and imports, respectively  (right)  
 
Note:  RoW stands for "Rest of the World", which includes developed and CIS economies . CIS refers to the 
Commonwealth of Independent  States, including certain associate and former member States.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
3.2  Major traders  
As the largest economy among developing Members, China continues to be the largest exporter 
of merchandise prod ucts by a large margin  (Chart 4, left) . The country exported around 15% of all 
goods by value globally in 2022. China is followed by the Republic of Korea and Mexico, which 
exported around 2.8% and 2.4% , respectively,  of all goods exported in 2022. Together, in 2022 the 
top 15 developing economies accounted for  38% of global merchandise exports, and 82% of 
developing economies' exports.  Comparing export shares in 2020 and 2022, the increase for oil 
exporters such as Saudi  Arabia, Iraq and, to a lesser extent, the United  Arab Emirates is noticeable, 
which comes along a recovery of oil prices during that period.6 Data show that in the case of 
Saudi  Arabia, for whom  crude oil exports were responsible for more than half of all exports in 20217, 
unit prices for oil exports were approximately twice as high in 2022 than in 2020.8  
Regarding merchandise imports, China similarly leads the group of developing economies, as 
it account ed for 10.8% of global  merchandise imports  in 2022  (Chart 4, right) , one percentage point 
less than in 2020 (11.8%) . China was followed by  the Republic of  Korea and India, both of which 
recorded a share of approximately 3%. Notably, India increased its share from 2% in 2020 . This 
comes with a strong rebound in  the country's  GDP growth of 9.1 % and 7.2% in 2021 and 2022, 
respectively, after a contraction of 5 .8% in 2020.9 Other major importers mostly either maintained 
their share or slightly increased it. Together, the top 15 developing economies made up 33% of 
 
5 For more information specifically about LDCs ' participation in global trade, see the Note by the 
Secretariat titled "Market Access for Products and Services of Export Interest to Least Developed Countries" 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71 ). 
6 According to IMF commodity price indices, crude oil was more than twice as expensive in 2022 than 
in 2020. https://www.imf.org/en/Research/commodity -prices  
7 Based on UN Comtrade  data. 
8 Based on UN Comtrade data us ing mirror statistics.  
9 World Bank  World Development Indicators . 
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  global imports, and 77.7% of developing economies ' imports  in 2022. Imports thus continue to be 
less concentrated among the top traders than exports.  
Chart 4: Major developing economies merchandise traders  
15 largest exporters (left) and importers (right) among developing economies in 2022 (blue) 
and 2020 (green) , in percent of global exports and imports, respectively  
 
Note:  The chart shows the largest exporters  and importers  among developing economies in 202 2, with 
reference values for 2020 for comparison. Share for 2020 in green, shares for 2022 in blue. 
Hong Kong, China  imports are retained imports.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -UNCTAD estimates .  
The post -2020 recovery was marked by a  significant increase in the value of exports by all 
top 15 developing economy  exporters. Indeed, 2021 saw a double digit increase of merchandise 
exports by value for all economies in that group compared to 2020. The pace slowed somewhat for 
all those econ omies in 2022, but every Member nevertheless still recorded an increase. The recovery 
of oil prices and corresponding increases in export values by major oil exporters is again clearly 
visible. For instance, Iraq's exports of crude oil more than doubled fr om 2020 to 2022.10 Overall, all 
the top 15 exporters bounced back from the pandemic -related weak exports in 2020, and all exceed 
their export values from 2019.  
 
10 Based on UN Comtrade, mirror statistics. The latest available value for direct export data in 
UN Comtrade is 2016 and shows that Iraq's exports were almost exclusively crude oil.  
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  Chart 5: Changes in m erchandise t rade, by economy  
15 largest exporters  (left) and importers (right) among developing economies in 2022, i ncrease in percent in the 
value of exports /imports  compared to previous year  
 
Note:  Grey dots show the percentage change  in exports by economy from 2020 to 2021, while blue dots 
show the percentage change in exports by economy from 2021 to 2022. Hong Kong, China imports 
are retained imports.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO-UNCTAD estimates .  
3.3  Pre-pandemic  comparison  
Not all economies, however, bounced back  like the major exporters  from the 
COVID -19-related decline in exports.  Looking only at developments for top exporters naturally paints 
a somewhat over ly optimistic picture. When all developing economies  are included , it has to be noted 
that while most indeed did recover, there are some individual economies that in 2022 were  still 
lagging  behind the pre -pandemic  level of exports.11 Most developing -economies' exports declined 
in 2020 from their 20 19 levels, for some more than 50%. The recovery in 2021 and 2022 has been 
uneven, with many exceeding their 2019 levels of export, but some still at significantly lower levels 
(see Chart 6).  
Chart 6: Merchandise e xport developments through  the COVID -19 pandemic  
Grey lines show individual developing economies  
 
Note:  Every grey line shows the export development for an individual developing economy, indexed at 100 
in the year 2019. The red and green line show the developments for all developing economies and 
for the world, respectively. Four economies are excluded in th e graph because  their index value 
exceeded 220 at some point over the considered period .  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO-UNCTAD estimates .  
 
11 The analysis presented takes 2019 as a reference year. Results remain qualitatively similar when 
using an average over several pre -pandemic  years.  
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A more detailed analysis shows that in each of the regions considered, there is a wide 
dispersion of how well merchandise exports recovered  (see Chart 7). There is  indeed a considerable 
number of economies in Africa, Developing Asia and Latin America that lagged behind the world 
average in export development from 2019 to 2022, with a sizeable minority  not having exceeded 
their pre -pandemic  value of exports.  
Chart 7: Developing economies ' merchandise  exports , 2022 compared to 20 19 
2022 vs. 2019 index, e ach dot representing an individual developing economy, grouped by region  
 
Note:  Every dot shows the  indexed  export value for an individual developing economy in 2022 compared 
to this economy's  export in 2019 indexed at 100. The dashed  vertical bar shows the reference value 
for total world exports. The graph excludes three economies whose 2022 index value exceed ed 250.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO-UNCTAD estimates .  
3.4  Merchandise trade by product  category  
The group of developing economies export a great variety  of products. At the same time, 
many individual economies' exports largely depend on a small range of exported goods. An 
aggregate assessment of developing economy exports by product category thus misses some detail, 
but nevertheless gives a macro picture.12 Accounting for almost 12% of agricultural exports each  
in 2022, vegetable fats and oils , and fruits were the main agricultural products exported by 
developing economies  (see Chart  8, left) . Cereals and oilseeds follow ed with a share of almost 10 %. 
These four  categories alone thus already account ed for more than  40% of developing economies' 
agricultural exports.  
Non-agricultural m erchandise exports are dominated by semiconductors and crude oils  
(see Chart  8, right) . These are largely concentrated in  a small number of economies . In 2022, China; 
the Republic of Korea; Hong  Kong, China ; Singapore; and Chinese Taipei account ed for  more than 
75% of developing economies' semiconductor exports, while Saudi  Arabia alone was  responsible for  
more than 25% of developing economies'  crude oil exports. Compared to shares in 2020, one can 
clearly see the effect that the rebound in oil prices had, with the categories crude oils, mineral fuels , 
and petroleum oils all registering a siz eable  increase in their export share s. In contrast, the share of 
exports attributable to telecommunication equipment dropped significantly from 2020 to 2022.  
 
12 Products are here classified in Multilateral Trade Negotiation (MTN) categories, which allows for a 
concise but informative overview of the  traded  product groups. A detailed list of the main export products at 
HS 6-digit level can be found in the Annex.  
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  Chart  8: Developing economies'  merchandise exports, by product  category  
In % of all developing economies' agricultural exports (left) and non -agriculture exports (right) , respectively. 
Shares for 2020 in green, shares for 2022 in blue 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on UN Comtrade , importer  data, classified in MTN categories.  
With developing economies exporting to a large extent to other developing economies, as will 
be outlined below, it is not surprising that major export ed product categories are also important 
imports. Regarding agricultural imports  in 2022 , cereals and oilseeds were the largest imported 
categories , accounting for 15% and 12% of agricultural imports , respectively  (see Chart 9, left) . 
They were followed by vegetable fats and oils, and meat, both of which represented approximately 
10% of agricultural imports . Concerning non -agricultural imports, semiconductors and crude oils 
registered the highest shares in 2022  with 13% and 10% , respectively  (see Chart 9, right) . Notably, 
these are also the two most prominent  exported product categories.  
Despite these similarities between imports and exports, there are also interesting differences. 
Some categories appear in both the top exports and imports but  vary significantly  in their 
percentages . Fruits are one such examp le, which in 2022 accounted for 12% of exports but 6% of 
imports. Other important export  products do not even appear among the top imports at all, and 
vice versa . For example, spices are within the top 15 agricultural exports of developing economies' 
expor ts, but not among the top imports. Contrarily, dairy products make up 5% of their agricultural 
imports but do not show up among the top exports. Somewhat similar differences can be observed 
in non -agricultural products. Clothing and other textile products are major exported categories but 
do not feature among the largest imports, while pharmaceuticals, power generating machinery and 
measuring instruments are important imports but no t among the largest  exports.  
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  Chart 9: Developing economies'  merchandise imports, by product category  
In % of all developing economies' agricultural imports  (left) and non -agriculture imports  (right), respectively. 
Shares for 2020 in green, shares for 2022 in blue 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on UN Comtrade, classified in MTN categories.  
3.5  Major trading partners  
As might be expected , the world's largest economies are also the m ajor export destinations 
for merchandise products from developing economies  (see Chart 10). In 2022, t he United States of 
America imported around 17% of all products exported by developing economies. The 
European  Union significantly increased its share from 14% in 2020 to 16% in 2022 . Among other 
major economies with increases the most notable is  India, which went from 3.4% to 4.4 %. Japan 
on the other  hand stayed  largely stable at 5%, while the shares of China and Hong Kong, China 
declined, from 13.5% and 5.8% in 2020 to 12.9%  and 4.6%  in 2022,  respectively. In total, around 
80% of developing economies' merchandise exports went to those top 15 destinat ions.  
Chart 10: Major destinations for developing economies' merchandise exports  
Share s for 2020 in green, shares for 2022 in blue 
 
Note:  Data exclude re -imports . 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on UN Comtrade, importer  data. 
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  3.6  South -South trade  
Many of the largest importers of developing economies' merchandise products are developing 
economies themselves. In value terms, South -South trade in 2021 and 2022 exceeded  pre-pandemic 
levels  (see Chart 11) and stood at approximately USD  6 trillion . At the same time, developing 
economies' exports to developed economies increased as well over the same period  to more than 
USD 4 trillion in 2022 . The share of developing economies' exports destined for other developing 
economies continues to stay clearly above 50%. It increased slightly in 2021 but receded again 
somewhat in 2022.  
Chart 11: Merchandise South -South trade in c omparison  
Exports to each group in absolute values (left) and in percent of developing economies ' exports (right)  
 
Note:  Data exclude Hong Kong, China re-exports . 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on UN Comtrade . 
4  COMMERCIAL SERVICES TRADE  
4.1  Overview  
Commercial s ervices trade trended upwards in the three years prior to the pandemic  (see Chart 
12). This was true for both developing economies and the rest of the world (including developed and 
CIS economies). In 2020 , commercial services exports fell to levels not seen for several years , 
particularly for developing economies. In the two ensuing years, 2021 and 2022, however, exports 
and imports recovered and in 2022 exceeded their previous levels for both developing economies 
and, even more so, the rest of the world. Developing economies ' commercial services exports picked 
up from USD  1.5 trillion in 2020 to USD  2.3 trillion in 2022.  
Developing economies increased their share in exports and imports since the slump in 2020. 
Pre-pandemic, exports hovered at a level of slightly above 30%, and declined to 29% in 2020, 
showing that developing economies were more severely hit  than developed economies . Since then, 
their share recovered, and in 2022 developing economies accounted for 33% of global commercial 
services exports. Developing economies ' share of commercial  services imports on the other hand 
already registered a decline  before 2020. Since then, the share increased again slightly to 3 6% 
in 2022.  
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Despite a strong increase in LDCs' exports of commercial services in 2022, they remained 
at 14% below pre -pandemic level. LDCs' share in global commercial services exports contracted 
to 0.53%, while services imports accounted for 1.25% in 2022.13  
Chart 12: Comme rcial s ervices trade developments over recent years  
Trade developments in absolute USD terms (left) and share of developing economies in global commercial 
services trade for exports and imports, respectively  (right)  
 
Note:  RoW means "Rest of the World" . 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -UNCTAD estimates . 
4.2  Major traders  
Services exports among the top 15 developing economies exporters are less concentrated 
compared to merchandise exports and  account ed for 26 % of 2022 global services e xports (compared 
to 38% for merchandise exports). China and India took the lead  in this category  and account ed 
for 6% and 4.4% of global services exports , respectively , in 2022 . Both countries increased their 
share compared to 2020. Singapore was on third place with an unchanged share of 4.1%. On the 
importer side, t he top  3 commercial services importers were China, Singapore and India, and thus 
the same (albeit in different ord er) as the major service exporters.  
 
13 For more information specifically about LDCs ' participation in global trade, see the Note by the 
Secretariat titled "Market Access for Products and Services of Export Interest to Least Developed Countries" 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/71 ). 
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  Chart 13: Major developing economies commercial services traders  
15 largest commercial services exporters (left) and importers (right) among developing economies in 2022 
and 2020, in percent of global exports and imports, respectively  
 
Note:  The chart shows the largest exporters and importers among developing economies in 2022, with 
reference values for 2020 for comparison. Share for 2020 in green, shares for 2022 in blue.  
Source:  WTO Secretar iat calculations based on WTO -UNCTAD estimates . 
All of the major services exporters experienced increases in 2022, many of them in the double 
digits. Especially noticeable is the doubling of Saudi Arabian services exports from 2021 to 2022, 
which came along  a sharp rebound  in tourist arrivals .14 Malaysia and Thailand , on the other hand, 
were the only top service s exporters that exp erienced a decline in 2021. Their exports were thus  hit 
especially hard by the pandemic, since the previous report alr eady found that those  economies  had 
the largest declines among large services exporters from 2019 to 2020. On the importer side, all 
major  commercial services importers registered an increase in their imports in both 2021 and 2022  
compared to the previous year .  
 
14 See data from the World Tourism Organisation  at https://www.unwto.org/tourism -statistics/key -
tourism -statistics  (last accessed 12 March 2024) . 
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  Chart 14: Changes in c ommercial services trade , by economy  
15 largest exporters (left) and importers (right) among developing economies in 2022, increase in percent in 
the value of exports/imports compared to previous year  
 
Note:  Grey dots show the percentage change in exports by economy from 2020 to 2021, while blue dots 
show the percentage change in exports by economy from 2021 to 2022. Indian commercial services 
imports grew at the same rate in both years, so that only one dot i s visible.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -UNCTAD estimates . 
4.3  Pre-pandemic  comparison  
Commercial services exports by developing economies declined more than the global average 
in 2020, with more than just a few economies  registering drops  of more than 50% (see Chart 15). 
While services exports by developing economies in the aggregate recovered and in 2022 exceeded 
pre-pandemic  levels, t his recovery was highly uneven,  and a majority of developing economies  still 
struggled in 2022 to reach their pre -pandemic levels.  
Chart 15: Commercial services export developments through the C OVID -19 pandemic  
Grey lines show individual developing economies  
 
Note:  Every grey line shows the export development for an individual developing economy, indexed at 100 
in the year 2019. The red and green line show the developments for all developing economies and 
for the world, respect ively. One economy is excluded in the graph because its index value 
exceeded  220 at some point over the considered period.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -UNCTAD estimates .  
WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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A comparison by region shows interesting patterns in the recove ry of commercial services 
exports  (see Chart 16). A particularly large part of economies  in Africa and Developing Asia in 2022 
did not again  reach 2019 levels . Difference s in the composition of commercial services exports are 
likely to explain a n important part of the differences in th is development since the pandemic  
(see next sub-section) .  
Chart 16: Developing econo mies ' commercial services exports , 2022 compared to 2019  
2022 vs. 2019 index, each dot representing an individual developing economy, grouped by region  
 
Note:  Every dot shows the indexed export value for an individual developing economy in 2022 compared 
to this economy's export in 2019 indexed at 100.  The dotted vertical line shows the reference value 
for total world exports. The graph excludes one economy whose 2022 index value exceeded 250.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -UNCTAD estimates . 
4.4  Commercial s ervices trade by sector  
The pandemic had very different effects on the various forms of commercial services  exports 
by developing economies . The category "other commercial services " proved to be comparatively 
resilient  in 2020  (see Chart 17, left) , as already noted in the previous version of this report . 
Transport exports increased as well a fter a slight dip in 2020, w hich might partly be driven by an 
increase in fr eight rates. Compared to that, exports of goods -related services remained relative ly 
stable. Travel  exports , however, declined heavily in 2020 and indeed have by far not recovered 
in 2022 to their pre-pandemic  levels.  
Higher d ependence on travel exports by some develo ping economies was clearly correlated 
with a weaker recovery of their  total commercial services exports. Chart 17, right, compares the 
percentage of travel exports as a share of total commercial services exports in 2019 on the horizontal 
axis with the development of commercial services exports in 2022 compared to 2019 on the vertical 
axis. The downward -sloping fitted  line shows that there is a clear correlation between larger 
pre-pandemic dependence on travel exports and slower recovery of overall commercial services 
exports. In the short period of time between 2020 and 2022, many economies were thus apparently 
not ab le to compensate their reliance on travel with the expansion of other commercial services 
exports.  
WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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  Chart 17: Examples of developing economies' commercial services exports  
Selected commercial services exports (left), dependence on travel compared to the development of commercial 
services exports 2022 compared to 2019 (right ) 
 
Note: The graph on the right-hand side shows a horizontal  line at 100 % for reference, above/below which 
2022 commercial services exports are higher/lower than in 2019.  Each dot represents one 
developing economy.  The downward -sloping line shows a linear regression line with the grey area 
denoting a 95% confidence interval .  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -UNCTAD estimates . 
4.5  Major trading partners  
Similarly to what can be observed for merchandise trade , the largest economies are also the 
top destinations for developing economies' services exports , with t he Euro pean Union import ing 
almost 20%  and the United States of America 15% in 2021 .15 They were followed by China with 
almost 10% and Hong  Kong, China with approximately 6%. Together, the 15  top destinations are 
market to almost 80% of developing economies' serv ices exports.  
 
15 In contrast to other comparisons that use data until 2022, the WTO-OECD Balanced Trade in Services 
(BaTiS) dataset  used for these calculations was available up until 2021 at the time of writing. Therefore, the 
years 2019 and 20 21 are used in this particular instance.  
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  Chart 18: Major destinations for developing economies' commercial services exports  
Share s for 2019 in green, shares for 2021 in blue 
  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -OECD Balanced Trade in Services (BaT iS) dataset, 
April 2023 update.  
4.6  South -South trade 
With many developing economies among the top destinations for developing economies' 
commercial services exports, this group account ed for almost 50% of those exports  in 2021, a share 
slightly higher than in 2020 . Exports to developed economies similarly hover around 50%, with the 
rest accounted for by exports to CIS economies. While the share of exports to developing economies  
somewhat increased at the start of the last decade, it declined again slightly between 2018 
and 2020. Over the past several years, however, the respective share of exports to these 
three  destination groups (developed, developing and CIS economies) appears  to remain relatively 
constant.  
Chart 19: Commercial services South -South trade in comparison  
 
Note:  CIS economies includes certain associate and former member States.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO-OECD Balanced Trade in Services (BaT iS) dataset , 
April 2023 update .  
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When considering specifically South -South trade, Developing Asia continues to account for 
the largest part as both the largest exporter and the largest importer of commercial services  among 
the five regions considered  (see Chart 20). Furthermore, among all developing economy exporters, 
Developing Asia is also the largest source of services imports for all developing regions considered, 
accounting for at least 40% of imp orts in each of them . Finally, among developing economies, 
Developing Asia is the largest export destination of commercial services for each region.  
Chart 20: Commercial services South-South trade  by region  
Exports to and imports from other developing economies, by region . Height of each region correspond to  that 
region's exports and imports, respectively.  
 
Note:  Only South -South trade is displayed, i.e. exports and imports by developing economies with other 
developing economies. Latin America includes the Caribbean.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on WTO -OECD Balanced Trade in Services (BaTiS) dataset, 
April 2023 update.  
5  CHALLENGES AND OPPORT UNITIES FOR DEVELOPING ECONOMIE S' PARTICIPATION  IN 
INTERNATIONAL TRADE  
As a whole , developing economies increased their share in global merchandise and services 
exports in 2022. However, many individual countries  struggle to strengthen  their exports and th us 
their participation in international trade. The following  section  attempts to spotlight some of the 
challenges countries face. It should not be understood as an exhaustive list, but merely provides 
some illustrative examples .  
The d ependence of many developing economies on commodity exports, and the shocks that 
this can bring  given price volatilities and changes in exchange rates , is one of those challenges . 
Chart 21, left,  shows the average share that certain product categor ies account for in total exports, 
by developing and developed economies respectively.16 Product categories with the largest 
differen ce in importance in the export mix between developing and developed economies are 
shown.17 On average, g oods from extractive industries are significantly more important in the 
exports by developing economies, while motor cars and medicaments are relatively  more prominent  
in the exports from developed economies.  These averages, however, hide significant variation 
 
16 On an individual country level , one c ould also consider  the revealed comparative advantage (RCA), 
calculated as the share of a product in a country's total exports in relation to that product's global export share 
in total global exports of all products. However, averaging across economies  might risk distortin g the picture. 
For instance, if there is one country with half and one with double the share of exports compared to world 
average , the average among those would be (0.5+2)/2=1.25. This is why the average of simple shares was 
used in the graph.  
17 These are  average s. There are other  economies  that focus significantly  on certain products 
e.g. cotton, which do not appear in the chart because it only considers the average over all developing 
economies . There is of course a lot more variation on the level of ind ividual economies.  
WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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  especially among developing economies. There are several commodity -dependent exporters, for 
whom more than half of all exports hinge on one single commodity.18  
Price volatility in these commodities can expose developing economies to shocks. The possible 
extent of these price swings became evident again especially in recent years. The price of crude oil, 
for example, fell by around one third  from 2019 to 2020, before increasing again in 2021 by 
approximately 60 % year -on-year. This has  not been an exception, however. Commodities (such as 
copper, crude oil, gold, and uranium) have seen significant price volatility in the last decade and 
seem to  have gone through a cycle, with comparatively higher prices in the early years of the last 
decade, followed by a largely synchronous decline and then another upward trend  (see Chart 21 
right) . Compared to those fluctuations in commodities, price movements for manufactured products 
have been much less pronounced.19 Since 2010, those prices trended slowly upwards, followed by a 
quicker rise after 2020  (see Chart 21 right).  It is evident that exporters of manufactured products 
faced much lower price fluctuations than commodity exporters .  
Chart 21: Major exported products and p rice developments of selected products  
Average share of exports by selected category (left), p rice developments for selected product groups, indexed 
at 100 in 2019  (right)  
 
Note:  Left: Product categories are defined as  HS 4-digit. Only those categories where the average share of 
exports between developed and developing economies differs by more than 2.5  percentage points 
are shown.  
Right: For commodities, m onthly data was used to arrive at average annual values . 
Source s: Left: WTO Secretariat calculations based on UN  Comtrade;  
Right: WTO Secretariat calculations based on IMF Primary Commodity Price Index, available at 
https://www.imf.org/en/Research/commodity -prices , and OECD domestic producer price index 
(manufacturing) for OECD countries, available at https://doi.org/10.1787/mei -data-en. 
Even when successfully diversifying into manufacturing industries, however, developing 
economies have to confront additional obstacles. As the WTO World Trade Report 2023 remarked, 
importers and exporters in developing economies face higher trade costs than t heir counterparts in 
developed economies . These  trade costs comprise all costs that make foreign sales more 
burdensome than domestic sales and can  include transportation costs, costs to comply with foreign 
regulations, communication costs, transaction cost s or costs of obtaining information.20 While trade 
costs among low - and middle -income economies have decreased substantially since 1995 and fell 
 
18 For more information on commodity dependence, see for instance: UNCTAD (2023) The State of 
Commodity Dependence 2023 , https://unctad.org/publication/state -commodity -dependence -2023. 
19 Prices for manufactur ed products are approximated by a manufacturing producer price index  that 
includes all OECD economies.  
20 WTO (2021), WTO Trade Cost Index: Evolution, Incidence and Determinants, 
http://tradecosts.wto.org/docs/Trade_Cost_Index_Background_Note_24 -03-2021.pdf  (last accessed 
15 March  2024) . 
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  more than for other groups (see Chart 22, left), South -South trade is still confronted with 
considerable  trade costs  (see Chart 22, right).21 Overall, trade costs for low-income countries are 
nearly 30% higher than for high-income economies ( WTO World Trade Report 2023 ), and estimates 
show that they remain markedly higher in low-income  economies in all main sectors , including 
services.  
Chart 22: Comparison of trade costs across time and between regions  
Development of trade costs since 1995 (left), trade costs by country group  in 2018  (right)  
 
Note:  The Trade Cost Index indicates the ratio of international trade costs to domestic trade costs. For 
more details see WTO World Trade Report  2023. "Among North" and "among South" represents 
international trade costs between high -income economies, and between low - and middle income 
economies, respectively.  
Source:  WTO Trade Cost Index based on the OECD Inter -Country Input -Output tables 2021 edition.  
As discussed in this report, the resilience of commercial services  exports  against recent shocks 
depended largely on the type of services exported . While the category of other commercial services 
(which includes for example computer services and insurance and pension services ) overall increased 
steadily over recent years, exports of travel services had not recovered to their pre -pandemic level 
in 2022. With technological progress, many services that previously could only be traded by close 
proximity between  buyer and seller can today be exchanged through Information and 
Communications Technology  (ICT) networks. These digitally delivered services saw a meteoric rise  
over the last ten years (see Chart 23, left). Export s of digitally delivered services increased from 
USD 1.7 trillion  in 2014 to USD  2.7 trillion in 2022 in developed economies. Developing economies 
saw an even higher growth rate with a doubling of digitally de livered services exports over the same 
period from USD  500 billion to USD  1 trillion . Additionally, digitally deliver ed services  helped cushion 
the impact on services exports  during the pandemic. For example, while global services exports 
dropped by almost  20% in 2020, digitally deliver ed services instead increased by 14%.22  
Exports of digitally deliver ed services remain highly uneven, however.  For instance,  LDCs 
accounted for less than 0.2% of global services exports in that category.23 Challenges  to increase 
that share  are manifold and include  the necessity for  appropriate regulatory frameworks , skills 
requirements , and adequate network infrastructure .24 Internet access across the globe increased 
 
21 This analysis and the graph are based on World Bank classification of low -, middle - and high -income 
economies in 2018. For convenience and readability, low - and middle -income economies are denoted as 
"South" in the graph, while high -income economies are summarised as "North".  
22 2023 WTO estimates for digitally delivered services, see  
https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/trade_outlook23_digital_e.xlsx . 
23 Ibid. 
24 UNCTAD, 2022, Digital trade: Opportunities and ac tions for developing countries, Policy Brief No. 92 , 
https://unctad.org/system/files/official -document/presspb2021d10_en.pdf  (last acce ssed 5 March 2024).  
WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 22 - 
 
  substantially  over recent years , with 67% of the world population using the internet  in 2023 .25 At 
the same time , the International Telecommunication Union estimates that 2.6  billion people remain 
without online acc ess26, most of whom are living  in developing economies. In several low -income 
economies , less than half of the population are using the internet  (see Chart 23, right) . WTO research 
shows that i mprovements in digital connectivity can help lower trade costs , especially for digitally 
deliverable services .27 In order to effectively engage in digital tr ade, economies need to , among 
other things, ensure reliable connectivity, adapt education systems to include ICT skills and enact 
appropriate policies.28 
Chart 23: Digitally delivered trade and digital connectivity by country group  
Growth of digitally delivered services  (left), internet usage  of individuals by country category  (right)  
 
Note:  Right: each dot represents one economy , 2022 (or latest available year after 2019, otherwise not 
shown ); horizontal line shows global average . 
Source:  WTO estimates  (left), WTO based on International Telecommunication Union  data (right) . 
 
  
 
25 Data from International Telecommunication Union, see https://www.itu.int/en/ITU -
D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx  (last accessed 4 March 2024) . 
26 Ibid. 
27 Bellucci, Rubínová, Piermartini (2023) : Better Together: How Digital Connectivity and Regulation 
Reduce Trade Costs (WTO Staff Working Paper) .  
28 UNCTAD, 2022, Digital trade: Opportunities and actions for developing countries, Policy Brief No. 92, 
https://unctad.org/system/files/offici al-document/presspb2021d10_en.pdf  (last accessed 5 March 2024).  
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  6  ANNEX  
6.1  Merchandise exports of developing economies and regions, 2020 ‑2022  
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
World  24333.51  100.000  100.000  - - 
Developing 
Economies  11342.59  46.613  44.669  100.000  100.000  
Africa  665.30  2.734  2.319  5.866  5.190  
Developing Asia  7321.77  30.089  30.558  64.551  68.409  
Developing Europe  355.41  1.461  1.497  3.133  3.350  
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  1414.56  5.813  5.550  12.471  12.424  
Middle East  1585.54  6.516  4.747  13.979  10.626  
Afghanistan  0.99 0.004  0.005  0.009  0.010  
Albania  4.31 0.018  0.015  0.038  0.033  
Algeria  60.92  0.250  0.128  0.537  0.286  
American Samoa  0.37 0.002  0.002  0.003  0.005  
Angola  51.27  0.211  0.129  0.452  0.289  
Anguilla  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Antigua and Barbuda  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Argentina  88.44  0.363  0.320  0.780  0.717  
Bahamas  0.84 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.006  
Bahrain, Kingdom of 30.19  0.124  0.082  0.266  0.184  
Bangladesh  54.70  0.225  0.196  0.482  0.439  
Barbados  0.50 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.005  
Belize  0.49 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.004  
Benin  3.55 0.015  0.017  0.031  0.039  
Bhutan  0.72 0.003  0.004  0.006  0.009  
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of 13.65  0.056  0.041  0.120  0.092  
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius 
and Saba  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Bosnia and Herzegovina  9.67 0.040  0.036  0.085  0.080  
Botswana  8.32 0.034  0.025  0.073  0.056  
Brazil  334.14  1.373  1.220  2.946  2.732  
Brunei Darussalam  14.23  0.058  0.039  0.125  0.086  
Burkina Faso  4.52 0.019  0.026  0.040  0.057  
Burundi  0.20 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Cabo Verde  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  
Cambodia  22.47  0.092  0.103  0.198  0.231  
Cameroon  5.90 0.024  0.018  0.052  0.041  
Cayman Islands  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Central African Republic  0.14 0.001  0.001  0.001  0.002  
Chad 3.50 0.014  0.010  0.031  0.022  
Chile 98.55  0.405  0.432  0.869  0.967  
China  3593.52  14.768  15.111  31.682  33.828  
Colombia  57.00  0.234  0.181  0.503  0.405  
Comoros  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Congo  10.66  0.044  0.029  0.094  0.064  
Cook Islands  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Costa Rica  17.75  0.073  0.072  0.157  0.161  
Côte d'Ivoire  16.44  0.068  0.073  0.145  0.163  
Cuba 1.76 0.007  0.010  0.016  0.022  
Curaçao  0.55 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.004  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  28.20  0.116  0.082  0.249  0.184  
Djibouti  4.50 0.018  0.016  0.040  0.036  
Dominica  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Dominican Republic  13.78  0.057  0.060  0.121  0.135  
Ecuador  32.66  0.134  0.119  0.288  0.266  
Egypt  48.84  0.201  0.158  0.431  0.354  
El Salvador  7.12 0.029  0.028  0.063  0.063  
Equatorial Guinea  7.50 0.031  0.019  0.066  0.042  
Eritrea  0.58 0.002  0.003  0.005  0.006  
Eswatini  2.03 0.008  0.010  0.018  0.023  
Ethiopia  3.97 0.016  0.019  0.035  0.043  
Fiji 1.06 0.004  0.005  0.009  0.011  
French Polynesia  0.13 0.001  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Gabon  9.20 0.038  0.036  0.081  0.081  
The Gambia  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  
Ghana  17.49  0.072  0.084  0.154  0.189  
Grenada  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Guam  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Guatemala  15.69  0.064  0.067  0.138  0.150  
Guinea  7.65 0.031  0.052  0.067  0.117  
Guinea -Bissau  0.21 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  
Guyana  11.30  0.046  0.015  0.100  0.034  
Haiti 1.28 0.005  0.005  0.011  0.012  
Honduras  12.17  0.050  0.045  0.107  0.100  
Hong Kong, China  17.67  0.073  0.207  0.156  0.463  
India 453.40  1.863  1.613  3.997  3.610  
Indonesia  291.98  1.200  0.953  2.574  2.133  
Iran 77.20  0.317  0.274  0.681  0.613  
Iraq 138.29  0.568  0.295  1.219  0.661  
Israel  73.59  0.302  0.293  0.649  0.655  
Jamaica  1.90 0.008  0.007  0.017  0.016  
Jordan  12.38  0.051  0.046  0.109  0.104  
Kenya  7.41 0.030  0.035  0.065  0.079  
Kiribati  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Korea, Democratic 
People's Republic of  0.12 0.001  0.001  0.001  0.001  
Korea, Republic of  683.58  2.809  2.990  6.027  6.694  
Kuwait, the State of  101.27  0.416  0.234  0.893  0.524  
Lao People's Democratic 
Republic  8.20 0.034  0.036  0.072  0.080  
Lebanese Republic  4.37 0.018  0.024  0.039  0.053  
Lesotho  0.89 0.004  0.005  0.008  0.011  
Liberia  1.06 0.004  0.004  0.009  0.008  
Libya  37.69  0.155  0.054  0.332  0.122  
Macao, China  1.68 0.007  0.008  0.015  0.018  
Madagascar  3.61 0.015  0.012  0.032  0.026  
Malawi  0.80 0.003  0.005  0.007  0.010  
Malaysia  352.47  1.449  1.370  3.108  3.066  
Maldives  0.40 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.004  
Mali 5.07 0.021  0.028  0.045  0.063  
Marshall Islands  0.09 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Mauritania  3.20 0.013  0.017  0.028  0.037  
Mauritius  2.39 0.010  0.010  0.021  0.023  
Mexico  578.19  2.376  2.434  5.098  5.449  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.07 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Moldova, Republic of  4.34 0.018  0.014  0.038  0.032  
Mongolia  12.54  0.052  0.044  0.111  0.099  
Montenegro  0.74 0.003  0.002  0.007  0.005  
Montserrat  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Morocco  41.48  0.170  0.158  0.366  0.355  
Mozambique  8.28 0.034  0.021  0.073  0.047  
Myanmar  17.08  0.070  0.097  0.151  0.218  
Namibia  6.34 0.026  0.033  0.056  0.073  
Nauru  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Nepal  1.30 0.005  0.005  0.011  0.011  
Aruba, the Netherlands 
with respect to  0.21 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.001  
New Caledonia  2.53 0.010  0.010  0.022  0.022  
Nicaragua  7.36 0.030  0.030  0.065  0.066  
Niger  1.26 0.005  0.007  0.011  0.015  
Nigeria  63.08  0.259  0.208  0.556  0.465  
Niue 0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
North Macedonia  8.73 0.036  0.039  0.077  0.087  
Northern Mariana 
Islands  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Oman  66.46  0.273  0.195  0.586  0.437  
Pakistan  30.94  0.127  0.128  0.273  0.287  
Palau  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Panama  15.28  0.063  0.055  0.135  0.124  
Papua New Guinea  14.52  0.060  0.053  0.128  0.119  
Paraguay  9.96 0.041  0.050  0.088  0.111  
Peru 61.31  0.252  0.231  0.541  0.517  
Philippines  78.93  0.324  0.373  0.696  0.834  
Qatar  130.96  0.538  0.300  1.155  0.673  
Rwanda  2.11 0.009  0.008  0.019  0.018  
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  
Saint Lucia  0.08 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  
Samoa  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Sao Tomé and Principe  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 411.18  1.690  1.014  3.625  2.271  
Senegal  5.41 0.022  0.023  0.048  0.051  
Serbia  29.06  0.119  0.114  0.256  0.255  
Seychelles  0.54 0.002  0.003  0.005  0.006  
Sierra Leone  1.12 0.005  0.002  0.010  0.006  
Singapore  515.80  2.120  2.115  4.547  4.735  
Sint Maarten  0.21 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Solomon Islands  0.33 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.005  
Somalia  … … … … … 
South Africa  122.90  0.505  0.501  1.084  1.121  
South Sudan  0.87 0.004  0.005  0.008  0.010  
Sri Lanka  13.11  0.054  0.059  0.116  0.131  
Sudan  4.36 0.018  0.022  0.038  0.050  
Suriname  2.58 0.011  0.013  0.023  0.029  
Syrian Arab Republic  4.51 0.019  0.024  0.040  0.054  
Chinese Taipei  477.78  1.963  2.026  4.212  4.535  
Tanzania  6.82 0.028  0.035  0.060  0.079  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 26 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Thailand  287.07  1.180  1.351  2.531  3.025  
Timor -Leste  0.47 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.003  
Togo 1.44 0.006  0.007  0.013  0.016  
Tokelau  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Tonga  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Trinidad and Tobago  13.29  0.055  0.032  0.117  0.072  
Tunisia  18.56  0.076  0.081  0.164  0.180  
Türkiye  254.19  1.045  0.990  2.241  2.216  
Turks and Caicos 
Islands  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Tuvalu  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Uganda  3.97 0.016  0.024  0.035  0.054  
Ukraine  44.38  0.182  0.287  0.391  0.643  
United Arab Emirates  532.80  2.190  1.956  4.697  4.379  
Uruguay  11.18  0.046  0.040  0.099  0.090  
Vanuatu  0.06 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Republic of  4.75 0.020  0.029  0.042  0.065  
Viet Nam  371.29  1.526  1.649  3.273  3.691  
Wallis and Futuna 
Islands  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Yemen  0.90 0.004  0.002  0.008  0.005  
Zambia  11.65  0.048  0.046  0.103  0.103  
Zimbabwe  6.59 0.027  0.026  0.058  0.057  
Totals and Hong Kong, China exports are without Hong Kong, China re -exports.  
- Not applicable.  
… Not available.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 27 - 
 
  6.2  Merchandise imports of developing economies and regions, 2020 ‑2022  
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
World  25166.68  100.000  100.000  - - 
Developing Economies  10727.32  42.625  41.216  100.000  100.000  
Africa  735.93  2.924  2.806  6.860  6.809  
Developing Asia  6895.09  27.398  27.311  64.276  66.264  
Developing Europe  509.55  2.025  1.904  4.750  4.619  
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  1540.36  6.121  5.259  14.359  12.761  
Middle East  1046.39  4.158  3.935  9.754  9.547  
Afghanistan  5.76 0.023  0.037  0.054  0.091  
Albania  8.40 0.033  0.032  0.078  0.077  
Algeria  39.03  0.155  0.204  0.364  0.494  
American Samoa  0.79 0.003  0.004  0.007  0.010  
Angola  a 17.80  0.071  0.054  0.166  0.130  
Anguilla  0.30 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  
Antigua and Barbuda  0.82 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.007  
Argentina  81.52  0.324  0.243  0.760  0.589  
Bahamas  3.75 0.015  0.012  0.035  0.028  
Bahrain, Kingdom of  15.54  0.062  0.073  0.145  0.176  
Bangladesh  88.23  0.351  0.303  0.823  0.735  
Barbados  2.15 0.009  0.009  0.020  0.021  
Belize  1.38 0.005  0.005  0.013  0.011  
Benin  4.78 0.019  0.020  0.045  0.049  
Bhutan  1.51 0.006  0.005  0.014  0.013  
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of  13.05  0.052  0.041  0.122  0.098  
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius 
and Saba  0.12 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Bosnia and Herzegovina  15.38  0.061  0.057  0.143  0.137  
Botswana  8.09 0.032  0.037  0.075  0.091  
Brazil  292.24  1.161  0.954  2.724  2.314  
Brunei Darussalam  9.18 0.036  0.031  0.086  0.074  
Burkina Faso  5.50 0.022  0.024  0.051  0.057  
Burundi  1.21 0.005  0.005  0.011  0.013  
Cabo Verde  0.88 0.004  0.004  0.008  0.010  
Cambodia  a 29.81  0.118  0.110  0.278  0.266  
Cameroon  7.80 0.031  0.032  0.073  0.077  
Cayman Islands  1.91 0.008  0.008  0.018  0.019  
Central African Republic  a 0.50 0.002  0.003  0.005  0.007  
Chad a 2.10 0.008  0.009  0.020  0.021  
Chile 104.53  0.415  0.339  0.974  0.824  
China  2716.15  10.793  11.845  25.320  28.738  
Colombia  77.41  0.308  0.249  0.722  0.605  
Comoros  0.35 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.004  
Congo  a 3.06 0.012  0.011  0.029  0.027  
Cook Islands  0.12 0.000  0.001  0.001  0.001  
Costa Rica  22.68  0.090  0.086  0.211  0.208  
Côte d'Ivoire  17.95  0.071  0.060  0.167  0.146  
Cuba … … 0.041  … 0.101  
Curaçao  2.02 0.008  0.007  0.019  0.017  
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  a 11.00  0.044  0.038  0.103  0.093  
Djibouti  a 5.41 0.021  0.017  0.050  0.040  
Dominica  0.27 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 28 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Dominican Republic  a 30.74  0.122  0.098  0.287  0.238  
Ecuador  33.05  0.131  0.103  0.308  0.249  
Egypt  85.84  0.341  0.344  0.800  0.834  
El Salvador  17.11  0.068  0.057  0.159  0.138  
Equatorial Guinea  a 2.80 0.011  0.007  0.026  0.018  
Eritrea  0.73 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.007  
Eswatini  1.97 0.008  0.009  0.018  0.022  
Ethiopia  18.66  0.074  0.075  0.174  0.182  
Fiji 3.00 0.012  0.010  0.028  0.024  
French Polynesia  2.20 0.009  0.010  0.020  0.024  
Gabon  4.60 0.018  0.020  0.043  0.048  
The Gambia  0.69 0.003  0.003  0.006  0.008  
Ghana  14.62  0.058  0.071  0.136  0.173  
Grenada  0.59 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  
Guam  1.24 0.005  0.003  0.012  0.008  
Guatemala  32.12  0.128  0.104  0.299  0.253  
Guinea  4.68 0.019  0.021  0.044  0.052  
Guinea -Bissau  a 0.47 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.005  
Guyana  3.62 0.014  0.013  0.034  0.031  
Haiti 4.62 0.018  0.020  0.043  0.049  
Honduras  17.58  0.070  0.059  0.164  0.143  
Hong Kong, China  164.14  0.652  0.765  1.530  1.856  
India 720.44  2.863  2.140  6.716  5.191  
Indonesia  237.45  0.943  0.812  2.213  1.970  
Iran 55.45  0.220  0.222  0.517  0.539  
Iraq 87.22  0.347  0.314  0.813  0.761  
Israel  107.27  0.426  0.397  1.000  0.963  
Jamaica  7.73 0.031  0.027  0.072  0.066  
Jordan  27.29  0.108  0.099  0.254  0.240  
Kenya  21.17  0.084  0.088  0.197  0.215  
Kiribati  0.11 0.000  0.001  0.001  0.002  
Korea, Democratic 
People's Republic of  1.34 0.005  0.004  0.013  0.011  
Korea, Republic of  731.37  2.906  2.681  6.818  6.505  
Kuwait, the State of  32.36  0.129  0.159  0.302  0.386  
Lao People's Democratic 
Republic  7.24 0.029  0.031  0.068  0.075  
Lebanese Republic  19.50  0.077  0.065  0.182  0.158  
Lesotho  1.86 0.007  0.008  0.017  0.019  
Liberia  1.53 0.006  0.006  0.014  0.014  
Libya  29.63  0.118  0.074  0.276  0.180  
Macao, China  17.34  0.069  0.066  0.162  0.161  
Madagascar  5.47 0.022  0.018  0.051  0.045  
Malawi  1.52 0.006  0.015  0.014  0.037  
Malaysia  294.32  1.169  1.094  2.744  2.655  
Maldives  3.52 0.014  0.011  0.033  0.026  
Mali 6.18 0.025  0.029  0.058  0.071  
Marshall Islands  0.09 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Mauritania  4.62 0.018  0.016  0.043  0.038  
Mauritius  6.61 0.026  0.024  0.062  0.059  
Mexico  626.32  2.489  2.255  5.839  5.471  
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.22 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  
Moldova, Republic of  9.22 0.037  0.031  0.086  0.075  
Mongolia  8.70 0.035  0.030  0.081  0.074  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 29 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Montenegro  3.70 0.015  0.014  0.035  0.033  
Montserrat  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Morocco  71.81  0.285  0.251  0.669  0.610  
Mozambique  14.67  0.058  0.037  0.137  0.090  
Myanmar  17.40  0.069  0.103  0.162  0.250  
Namibia  7.90 0.031  0.039  0.074  0.095  
Nauru  0.08 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Nepal  13.74  0.055  0.057  0.128  0.137  
Aruba, the Netherlands 
with respect to  1.37 0.005  0.005  0.013  0.012  
New Caledonia  3.39 0.013  0.015  0.032  0.036  
Nicaragua  11.25  0.045  0.037  0.105  0.089  
Niger  3.80 0.015  0.018  0.035  0.043  
Nigeria  60.35  0.240  0.205  0.563  0.497  
Niue 0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
North Macedonia  12.76  0.051  0.050  0.119  0.121  
Northern Mariana Islands  0.55 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  
Oman  38.70  0.154  0.163  0.361  0.397  
Pakistan  71.07  0.282  0.263  0.663  0.638  
Palau  0.21 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Panama  29.25  0.116  0.085  0.273  0.205  
Papua New Guinea  a 3.58 0.014  0.021  0.033  0.051  
Paraguay  15.85  0.063  0.059  0.148  0.142  
Peru 60.96  0.242  0.207  0.568  0.503  
Philippines  145.87  0.580  0.520  1.360  1.262  
Qatar  33.48  0.133  0.148  0.312  0.359  
Rwanda  3.57 0.014  0.015  0.033  0.035  
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.33 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.004  
Saint Lucia  0.83 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.007  
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.44 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.004  
Samoa  0.44 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.004  
Sao Tomé and Principe  0.20 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  189.88  0.754  0.791  1.770  1.920  
Senegal  10.80  0.043  0.045  0.101  0.109  
Serbia  41.15  0.164  0.150  0.384  0.365  
Seychelles  1.36 0.005  0.006  0.013  0.014  
Sierra Leone  1.97 0.008  0.012  0.018  0.030  
Singapore  475.58  1.890  1.891  4.433  4.588  
Sint Maarten  1.08 0.004  0.003  0.010  0.008  
Solomon Islands  0.65 0.003  0.003  0.006  0.007  
Somalia  … … … … … 
South Africa  136.21  0.541  0.482  1.270  1.169  
South Sudan  1.26 0.005  0.006  0.012  0.014  
Sri Lanka  18.29  0.073  0.092  0.171  0.223  
Sudan  11.09  0.044  0.056  0.103  0.137  
Suriname  1.80 0.007  0.009  0.017  0.021  
Syrian Arab Republic  5.85 0.023  0.026  0.054  0.064  
Chinese Taipei  435.84  1.732  1.651  4.063  4.007  
Tanzania  14.22  0.056  0.048  0.133  0.117  
Thailand  303.19  1.205  1.182  2.826  2.868  
Timor -Leste  0.93 0.004  0.004  0.009  0.009  
Togo 2.67 0.011  0.013  0.025  0.031  
Tokelau  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Tonga  0.25 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 30 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Trinidad and Tobago  6.23 0.025  0.028  0.058  0.068  
Tunisia  26.66  0.106  0.105  0.248  0.255  
Türkiye  363.71  1.445  1.259  3.391  3.054  
Turks and Caicos Islands  0.47 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.005  
Tuvalu  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
Uganda  9.37 0.037  0.047  0.087  0.115  
Ukraine  55.24  0.219  0.312  0.515  0.756  
United Arab Emirates  420.51  1.671  1.416  3.920  3.435  
Uruguay  12.97  0.052  0.043  0.121  0.105  
Vanuatu  0.48 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.004  
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Republic of  10.10  0.040  0.038  0.094  0.092  
Viet Nam  359.15  1.427  1.506  3.348  3.654  
Wallis and Futuna Islands  0.08 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Yemen  5.31 0.021  0.027  0.050  0.065  
Zambia  9.05 0.036  0.030  0.084  0.074  
Zimbabwe  8.63 0.034  0.029  0.080  0.070  
Totals and Hong Kong, China imports exclude Hong Kong, China imports for re -exports.  
a Imports are valued f.o.b.  
- Not applicable.  
… Not available.  
Source:  WTO/UNCTAD estimates  
  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 31 - 
 
  6.3  Commercial services exports of developing economies and regions, 2020 ‑2022  
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
World  7043.48  100.000  100.000  - - 
Developing 
Economies  2313.27  32.843  28.932  100.000  100.000  
Africa  124.57  1.769  1.512  5.385  5.225  
Developing Asia  1485.66  21.093  19.975  64.223  69.041  
Developing Europe  116.61  1.656  1.016  5.041  3.511  
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  210.37  2.987  2.363  9.094  8.168  
Middle East  360.45  5.117  3.770  15.582  13.031  
Afghanistan  0.80 0.011  0.012  0.035  0.040  
Albania  4.96 0.070  0.048  0.215  0.165  
Algeria  3.52 0.050  0.057  0.152  0.197  
Angola  0.08 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.004  
Anguilla  0.16 0.002  0.001  0.007  0.005  
Antigua and Barbuda  0.97 0.014  0.011  0.042  0.037  
Argentina  14.24  0.202  0.181  0.615  0.625  
Bahamas  3.62 0.051  0.024  0.157  0.082  
Bahrain, Kingdom of  11.57  0.164  0.223  0.500  0.771  
Bangladesh  5.67 0.080  0.060  0.245  0.206  
Barbados  1.14 0.016  0.015  0.049  0.050  
Belize  0.81 0.012  0.007  0.035  0.025  
Benin  0.50 0.007  0.008  0.022  0.029  
Bhutan  0.02 0.000  0.003  0.001  0.009  
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of  0.93 0.013  0.008  0.040  0.028  
Bosnia and Herzegovina  2.83 0.040  0.028  0.122  0.096  
Botswana  0.59 0.008  0.007  0.025  0.024  
Brazil  38.72  0.550  0.522  1.674  1.804  
Brunei Darussalam  0.26 0.004  0.006  0.011  0.022  
Burkina Faso  0.43 0.006  0.009  0.019  0.030  
Burundi  0.03 0.000  0.001  0.001  0.002  
Cabo Verde  0.54 0.008  0.005  0.023  0.018  
Cambodia  2.25 0.032  0.032  0.097  0.110  
Cameroon  1.77 0.025  0.031  0.076  0.108  
Cayman Islands  4.30 0.061  0.059  0.186  0.204  
Central African Republic  0.03 0.000  0.001  0.001  0.003  
Chad 0.24 0.003  0.004  0.010  0.013  
Chile 8.51 0.121  0.110  0.368  0.379  
China  422.33  5.996  5.394  18.257  18.644  
Colombia  12.03  0.171  0.111  0.520  0.382  
Comoros  0.10 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.003  
Congo  0.55 0.008  0.004  0.024  0.015  
Cook Islands  0.08 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.004  
Costa Rica  11.75  0.167  0.153  0.508  0.530  
Côte d'Ivoire  0.92 0.013  0.014  0.040  0.047  
Cuba 6.88 0.098  0.135  0.298  0.468  
Curaçao  1.55 0.022  0.014  0.067  0.048  
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  0.09 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.008  
Djibouti  0.76 0.011  0.012  0.033  0.042  
Dominica  0.17 0.002  0.001  0.007  0.005  
Dominican Republic  11.01  0.156  0.083  0.476  0.286  
Ecuador  2.76 0.039  0.033  0.119  0.113  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 32 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Egypt  28.40  0.403  0.279  1.228  0.964  
El Salvador  4.23 0.060  0.040  0.183  0.137  
Equatorial Guinea  0.17 0.002  0.004  0.007  0.012  
Eritrea  0.49 0.007  0.005  0.021  0.017  
Eswatini  0.06 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.004  
Ethiopia  6.82 0.097  0.084  0.295  0.290  
Fiji 1.24 0.018  0.007  0.054  0.023  
French Polynesia  0.77 0.011  0.009  0.033  0.031  
Gabon  0.14 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.005  
The Gambia  0.18 0.003  0.002  0.008  0.007  
Ghana  8.28 0.118  0.147  0.358  0.509  
Grenada  0.66 0.009  0.008  0.028  0.026  
Guatemala  3.81 0.054  0.049  0.165  0.168  
Guinea  0.14 0.002  0.001  0.006  0.004  
Guinea -Bissau  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Guyana  0.21 0.003  0.004  0.009  0.014  
Haiti 0.10 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.008  
Honduras  3.05 0.043  0.037  0.132  0.129  
Hong Kong, China  82.82  1.176  1.296  3.580  4.481  
India 308.68  4.382  3.928  13.344  13.576  
Indonesia  22.72  0.323  0.279  0.982  0.963  
Iran 6.34 0.090  0.090  0.274  0.311  
Iraq 5.92 0.084  0.068  0.256  0.235  
Israel  90.83  1.290  1.039  3.927  3.590  
Jamaica  4.49 0.064  0.038  0.194  0.132  
Jordan  7.83 0.111  0.046  0.339  0.158  
Kenya  5.87 0.083  0.056  0.254  0.193  
Kiribati  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.000  
Korea, Republic of  132.32  1.879  1.723  5.720  5.957  
Kuwait, the State of  10.05  0.143  0.128  0.435  0.444  
Lao People's Democratic 
Republic  0.40 0.006  0.007  0.017  0.023  
Lebanese Republic  8.86 0.126  0.096  0.383  0.331  
Lesotho  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  
Liberia  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Libya  0.30 0.004  0.004  0.013  0.013  
Macao, China  12.31  0.175  0.222  0.532  0.766  
Madagascar  1.10 0.016  0.012  0.048  0.041  
Malawi  0.35 0.005  0.007  0.015  0.025  
Malaysia  31.60  0.449  0.428  1.366  1.480  
Maldives  4.69 0.067  0.029  0.203  0.102  
Mali 0.29 0.004  0.006  0.013  0.021  
Marshall Islands  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Mauritania  0.10 0.001  0.002  0.005  0.007  
Mauritius  2.62 0.037  0.025  0.113  0.087  
Mexico  35.81  0.508  0.327  1.548  1.131  
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.06 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  
Moldova, Republic of  2.23 0.032  0.024  0.096  0.084  
Mongolia  1.13 0.016  0.013  0.049  0.044  
Montenegro  2.34 0.033  0.015  0.101  0.051  
Montserrat  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  
Morocco  21.56  0.306  0.258  0.932  0.890  
Mozambique  1.13 0.016  0.015  0.049  0.052  
Myanmar  1.50 0.021  0.079  0.065  0.274  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 33 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Namibia  0.88 0.012  0.012  0.038  0.042  
Nauru  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  
Nepal  1.14 0.016  0.016  0.049  0.054  
Aruba, the Netherlands 
with respect to  2.77 0.039  0.026  0.120  0.089  
New Caledonia  0.14 0.002  0.004  0.006  0.013  
Nicaragua  1.45 0.021  0.017  0.063  0.059  
Niger  0.27 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.014  
Nigeria  4.41 0.063  0.069  0.191  0.237  
Niue 0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
North Macedonia  2.43 0.034  0.032  0.105  0.111  
Oman  2.79 0.040  0.043  0.120  0.150  
Pakistan  6.24 0.089  0.086  0.270  0.296  
Palau  0.01 0.000  0.001  0.001  0.003  
Panama  15.87  0.225  0.158  0.686  0.545  
Papua New Guinea  0.10 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.006  
Paraguay  1.96 0.028  0.023  0.085  0.081  
Peru 4.78 0.068  0.049  0.207  0.171  
Philippines  41.05  0.583  0.617  1.775  2.132  
Qatar  29.80  0.423  0.356  1.288  1.232  
Rwanda  0.69 0.010  0.005  0.030  0.019  
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.35 0.005  0.005  0.015  0.018  
Saint Lucia  1.13 0.016  0.007  0.049  0.026  
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.20 0.003  0.002  0.009  0.008  
Samoa  0.13 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.005  
Sao Tomé and Principe  0.05 0.001  0.000  0.002  0.002  
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 31.27  0.444  0.162  1.352  0.561  
Senegal  0.97 0.014  0.013  0.042  0.045  
Serbia  11.59  0.165  0.137  0.501  0.474  
Seychelles  1.66 0.024  0.015  0.072  0.050  
Sierra Leone  0.04 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.004  
Singapore  290.93  4.131  4.147  12.577  14.334  
Sint Maarten  1.63 0.023  0.007  0.071  0.026  
Solomon Islands  0.06 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  
Somalia  0.64 0.009  0.008  0.027  0.028  
South Africa  12.37  0.176  0.163  0.535  0.564  
South Sudan  0.32 0.005  0.003  0.014  0.010  
Sri Lanka  3.04 0.043  0.058  0.132  0.202  
Sudan  1.52 0.022  0.024  0.066  0.084  
Suriname  0.14 0.002  0.002  0.006  0.007  
Syrian Arab Republic  0.35 0.005  0.003  0.015  0.012  
Chinese Taipei  58.18  0.826  0.796  2.515  2.751  
Tanzania  4.75 0.067  0.042  0.205  0.146  
Thailand  40.22  0.571  0.596  1.739  2.059  
Timor -Leste  0.04 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Togo 0.51 0.007  0.009  0.022  0.032  
Tonga  0.04 0.001  0.002  0.002  0.005  
Trinidad and Tobago  0.88 0.013  0.008  0.038  0.028  
Tunisia  4.34 0.062  0.040  0.188  0.138  
Türkiye  89.89  1.276  0.735  3.886  2.539  
Turks and Caicos 
Islands  1.19 0.017  0.007  0.051  0.026  
Tuvalu  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 34 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Uganda  1.57 0.022  0.019  0.068  0.064  
Ukraine  15.63  0.222  0.296  0.675  1.024  
United Arab Emirates  153.66  2.182  1.498  6.643  5.179  
Uruguay  5.39 0.076  0.071  0.233  0.246  
Vanuatu  0.02 0.000  0.002  0.001  0.006  
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Republic of  0.70 0.010  0.006  0.030  0.021  
Viet Nam  12.60  0.179  0.119  0.545  0.410  
Yemen  0.27 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.015  
Zambia  0.93 0.013  0.011  0.040  0.037  
Zimbabwe  0.42 0.006  0.006  0.018  0.021  
Note:  Recent figures for several countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  
- Not applicable.  
… Not available.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates  
 
  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 35 - 
 
  6.4  Commercial services imports of developing economies and regions, 2020 ‑2022  
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
World  6508.70  100.000  100.000  - - 
Developing Economies  2332.98  35.844  34.358  100.000  100.000  
Africa  178.73  2.746  2.796  7.661  8.137  
Developing Asia  1460.65  22.442  22.793  62.609  66.338  
Developing Europe  55.57  0.854  0.673  2.382  1.958  
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  271.98  4.179  3.346  11.658  9.740  
Middle East  341.71  5.250  4.544  14.647  13.225  
Afghanistan  1.62 0.025  0.021  0.069  0.062  
Albania  2.47 0.038  0.026  0.106  0.075  
Algeria  7.68 0.118  0.146  0.329  0.426  
Angola  11.02  0.169  0.111  0.472  0.324  
Anguilla  0.08 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  
Antigua and Barbuda  0.46 0.007  0.006  0.020  0.018  
Argentina  21.07  0.324  0.243  0.903  0.706  
Bahamas  1.79 0.027  0.024  0.077  0.070  
Bahrain, Kingdom of  8.58 0.132  0.190  0.368  0.552  
Bangladesh  11.71  0.180  0.155  0.502  0.451  
Barbados  0.41 0.006  0.006  0.018  0.016  
Belize  0.33 0.005  0.003  0.014  0.009  
Benin  0.98 0.015  0.016  0.042  0.047  
Bhutan  0.20 0.003  0.004  0.008  0.013  
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of  2.71 0.042  0.035  0.116  0.102  
Bosnia and Herzegovina  0.90 0.014  0.011  0.039  0.033  
Botswana  0.94 0.014  0.026  0.040  0.075  
Brazil  77.56  1.192  1.032  3.325  3.003  
Brunei Darussalam  1.10 0.017  0.024  0.047  0.070  
Burkina Faso  1.56 0.024  0.025  0.067  0.074  
Burundi  0.32 0.005  0.005  0.014  0.014  
Cabo Verde  0.23 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.012  
Cambodia  2.73 0.042  0.041  0.117  0.119  
Cameroon  2.69 0.041  0.042  0.115  0.123  
Cayman Islands  1.86 0.029  0.026  0.080  0.075  
Central African Republic  0.34 0.005  0.007  0.015  0.021  
Chad 3.08 0.047  0.038  0.132  0.111  
Chile 22.89  0.352  0.266  0.981  0.775  
China  461.45  7.090  7.726  19.779  22.487  
Colombia  17.42  0.268  0.205  0.747  0.597  
Comoros  0.16 0.002  0.002  0.007  0.006  
Congo  2.96 0.046  0.021  0.127  0.062  
Cook Islands  0.07 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  
Costa Rica  5.48 0.084  0.070  0.235  0.203  
Côte d'Ivoire  3.77 0.058  0.063  0.162  0.183  
Cuba 2.35 0.036  0.031  0.101  0.092  
Curaçao  0.85 0.013  0.010  0.036  0.029  
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  4.19 0.064  0.051  0.180  0.149  
Djibouti  0.60 0.009  0.010  0.026  0.029  
Dominica  0.11 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.007  
Dominican Republic  5.46 0.084  0.063  0.234  0.182  
Ecuador  5.45 0.084  0.055  0.234  0.161  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 36 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Egypt  23.59  0.362  0.351  1.011  1.020  
El Salvador  2.70 0.042  0.029  0.116  0.085  
Equatorial Guinea  2.08 0.032  0.021  0.089  0.062  
Eritrea  0.19 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.008  
Eswatini  0.29 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.010  
Ethiopia  7.45 0.114  0.110  0.319  0.320  
Fiji 0.74 0.011  0.010  0.032  0.029  
French Polynesia  0.39 0.006  0.007  0.017  0.019  
Gabon  1.62 0.025  0.028  0.069  0.083  
The Gambia  0.15 0.002  0.002  0.007  0.007  
Ghana  10.13  0.156  0.210  0.434  0.610  
Grenada  0.30 0.005  0.005  0.013  0.014  
Guatemala  5.33 0.082  0.057  0.228  0.165  
Guinea  0.91 0.014  0.053  0.039  0.154  
Guinea -Bissau  0.16 0.002  0.003  0.007  0.008  
Guyana  3.83 0.059  0.037  0.164  0.107  
Haiti 0.64 0.010  0.008  0.028  0.025  
Honduras  3.19 0.049  0.037  0.137  0.107  
Hong Kong, China  62.94  0.967  1.122  2.698  3.266  
India 248.54  3.819  3.124  10.653  9.094  
Indonesia  43.34  0.666  0.506  1.858  1.472  
Iran 11.40  0.175  0.142  0.489  0.413  
Iraq 23.19  0.356  0.280  0.994  0.815  
Israel  42.92  0.659  0.484  1.840  1.408  
Jamaica  3.16 0.048  0.034  0.135  0.098  
Jordan  5.57 0.086  0.061  0.239  0.177  
Kenya  4.75 0.073  0.065  0.204  0.189  
Kiribati  0.04 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Korea, Republic of  134.81  2.071  2.106  5.779  6.131  
Kuwait, the State of  26.13  0.401  0.351  1.120  1.023  
Lao People's Democratic 
Republic  0.53 0.008  0.009  0.023  0.026  
Lebanese Republic  6.40 0.098  0.097  0.274  0.283  
Lesotho  0.44 0.007  0.008  0.019  0.022  
Liberia  0.21 0.003  0.005  0.009  0.013  
Libya  4.78 0.073  0.067  0.205  0.194  
Macao, China  4.10 0.063  0.064  0.176  0.185  
Madagascar  1.63 0.025  0.014  0.070  0.041  
Malawi  1.29 0.020  0.012  0.055  0.034  
Malaysia  44.36  0.681  0.679  1.901  1.975  
Maldives  1.57 0.024  0.015  0.067  0.043  
Mali 1.57 0.024  0.027  0.067  0.080  
Marshall Islands  0.04 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  
Mauritania  1.26 0.019  0.015  0.054  0.043  
Mauritius  2.03 0.031  0.027  0.087  0.078  
Mexico  46.50  0.714  0.574  1.993  1.670  
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.11 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  
Moldova, Republic of  1.33 0.020  0.017  0.057  0.051  
Mongolia  3.46 0.053  0.043  0.149  0.124  
Montenegro  1.01 0.015  0.011  0.043  0.033  
Montserrat  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Morocco  9.90 0.152  0.127  0.424  0.368  
Mozambique  2.49 0.038  0.055  0.107  0.159  
Myanmar  1.67 0.026  0.065  0.071  0.190  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 37 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
Namibia  0.82 0.013  0.014  0.035  0.041  
Nauru  0.05 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Nepal  1.97 0.030  0.022  0.084  0.064  
Aruba, the Netherlands 
with respect to  1.02 0.016  0.016  0.044  0.045  
New Caledonia  1.20 0.018  0.021  0.051  0.061  
Nicaragua  1.09 0.017  0.012  0.047  0.035  
Niger  1.23 0.019  0.022  0.053  0.064  
Nigeria  18.50  0.284  0.401  0.793  1.167  
Niue 0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  
North Macedonia  1.58 0.024  0.023  0.068  0.068  
Oman  10.61  0.163  0.167  0.455  0.487  
Pakistan  10.10  0.155  0.156  0.433  0.455  
Palau  0.05 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  
Panama  5.90 0.091  0.064  0.253  0.188  
Papua New Guinea  1.98 0.030  0.035  0.085  0.101  
Paraguay  2.33 0.036  0.025  0.100  0.072  
Peru 13.41  0.206  0.151  0.575  0.440  
Philippines  25.07  0.385  0.359  1.074  1.045  
Qatar  37.45  0.575  0.673  1.605  1.959  
Rwanda  0.84 0.013  0.010  0.036  0.028  
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.21 0.003  0.003  0.009  0.009  
Saint Lucia 0.46 0.007  0.005  0.020  0.013  
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.11 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  
Samoa  0.10 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.005  
Sao Tomé and Principe  0.05 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  70.08  1.077  0.789  3.004  2.295  
Senegal  3.50 0.054  0.053  0.150  0.154  
Serbia  9.11 0.140  0.118  0.390  0.343  
Seychelles  0.95 0.015  0.010  0.041  0.030  
Sierra Leone  0.29 0.004  0.003  0.012  0.009  
Singapore  258.38  3.970  4.330  11.075  12.603  
Sint Maarten  0.22 0.003  0.003  0.009  0.009  
Solomon Islands  0.19 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.008  
Somalia  2.09 0.032  0.031  0.089  0.091  
South Africa  17.85  0.274  0.226  0.765  0.658  
South Sudan  1.71 0.026  0.030  0.073  0.086  
Sri Lanka  2.73 0.042  0.077  0.117  0.223  
Sudan  1.39 0.021  0.024  0.059  0.071  
Suriname  0.64 0.010  0.011  0.027  0.033  
Syrian Arab Republic  0.80 0.012  0.012  0.034  0.034  
Chinese Taipei  44.62  0.686  0.755  1.913  2.198  
Tanzania  2.24 0.034  0.024  0.096  0.070  
Thailand  62.47  0.960  0.924  2.678  2.691  
Timor -Leste  0.53 0.008  0.004  0.023  0.012  
Togo 0.46 0.007  0.009  0.020  0.026  
Tonga  0.10 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.006  
Trinidad and Tobago  3.17 0.049  0.035  0.136  0.102  
Tunisia  3.09 0.047  0.042  0.133  0.122  
Türkiye  39.36  0.605  0.469  1.687  1.366  
Turks and Caicos Islands  0.10 0.002  0.001  0.004  0.003  
Tuvalu  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  
Uganda  3.19 0.049  0.063  0.137  0.183  
Ukraine  24.33  0.374  0.207  1.043  0.603  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 38 - 
 
  Economy  Value in 
2022  Share in 
World 2022  Share in 
World 2020  Share in developing 
economies 2022  Share in developing 
economies 2020  
United Arab Emirates  95.33  1.465  1.238  4.086  3.604  
Uruguay  5.06 0.078  0.070  0.217  0.203  
Vanuatu  0.27 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.010  
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Republic of  6.31 0.097  0.089  0.270  0.259  
Viet Nam  25.29  0.389  0.371  1.084  1.080  
Yemen  1.13 0.017  0.028  0.048  0.083  
Zambia  1.85 0.028  0.045  0.079  0.132  
Zimbabwe  1.27 0.020  0.015  0.055  0.044  
Note:  Recent figures for several countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  
- Not applicable.  
… Not available.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates  
 
  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 39 - 
 
  6.5  Top 20 developing economies' a gricultural exports  
HS2017 
code Product description  Value (USD 
billion) 2022  Percentage in 
2022 
120190  Soya beans, whether or not broken (excl. seed for sowing)  57 7.6%  
151190  Palm oil and its fractions, whether or not refined (excl. chemically 
modified and crude)  32 4.3%  
090111  Coffee (excl. roasted and decaffeinated)  28 3.7%  
100590  Maize (excl. seed for sowing)  28 3.7%  
230400  Oilcake and other solid residues, whether or not ground or in the 
form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of soya -bean oil  23 3.0%  
020230  Frozen, boneless meat of bovine animals  19 2.5%  
210690  Food preparations, n.e.s.  18 2.4%  
151110  Crude palm oil  16 2.1%  
100630  Semi-milled or wholly milled rice, whether or not polished or 
glazed  14 1.8%  
170114  Raw cane sugar, in solid form, not containing added flavouring or 
colouring matter (excl. cane sugar of 1701  13) 13 1.7%  
080390  Fresh or dried bananas (excl. plantains)  11 1.5%  
150710  Crude soya -bean oil, whether or not degummed  10 1.3%  
100199  Wheat and meslin (excl. seed for sowing, and durum wheat)  9 1.2%  
020714  Frozen cuts and edible offal of fowls of the species Gallus 
domesticus  8 1.1%  
382319  Fatty acids, industrial, monocarboxylic; acid oils from refining 
(excl. stearic acid, oleic acid and tall oil fatty acids)  8 1.1%  
220300  Beer made from malt  8 1.0%  
220890  Ethyl alcohol of an alcoholic strength of < 80% vol, not denatured; 
spirits and other spirituous beverages (excl. compound alcoholic 
preparations of a kind used for the manufacture of beverages, 
spirits obtained by distilling grape wine or grape marc, whiskies, 
rum and other spirits obtained by distilling fermented sugar -cane 
products, gin, geneva, vodka, liqueurs and cordials)  7 1.0%  
180100  Cocoa beans, whole or broken, raw or roasted  7 1.0%  
151211  Crude sunflower -seed or safflower oil  7 1.0%  
080610  Fresh grapes  7 0.9%  
Note:  Trade data  reported  in other HS editions  were converted to HS 2017 using conversion tables. 
Percentage refers to percentage of developing economies' agricultural exports.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on UN Comtrade , importer data . 
  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
- 40 - 
 
  6.6  Top 20 developing economies' n on-agricultural export s  
HS2017 code  Product description  Value (USD 
billion) 2022  Percentage in 
2022 
270900  Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous minerals, 
crude  1047 10.5%  
854231  Electronic integrated circuits as processors and controllers, 
whether or not combined with memories, converters, logic 
circuits, amplifiers, clock and timing circuits, or other circuits  447 4.5%  
854239  Electronic integrated circuits (excl. such as processors, 
controllers, memories and amplifiers)  325 3.2%  
271019  Medium oils and preparations, of petroleum or bituminous 
minerals, not containing biodiesel, n.e.s.  292 2.9%  
854232  Electronic integrated circuits as memories  215 2.1%  
271012  Light oils and preparations, of petroleum or bituminous minerals 
which >= 90% by volume "incl. losses" distil at 210°C "ASTM D 
86 method" (excl. containing biodiesel)  189 1.9%  
271111  Natural gas, liquefied  181 1.8%  
710812  Gold, incl. gold plated with platinum, unwrought, for non -
monetary purposes (excl. gold in powder form)  178 1.8%  
847130  Data-processing machines, automatic, portable, weighing <= 
10 kg, consisting of at least a central processing unit, a keyboard 
and a display (excl. peripheral units)  167 1.7%  
851762  Machines for the reception, conversion and transmission or 
regeneration of voice, images or other data, incl. switching and 
routing apparatus (excl. telephone sets, telephones for cellular 
networks or for other wireless networks)  162 1.6%  
847330  Parts and accessories of automatic data -processing machines or 
for other machines of heading 8471, n.e.s.  135 1.4%  
271121  Natural gas in gaseous state  114 1.1%  
260300  Copper ores and concentrates  76 0.8%  
847150  Processing units for automatic data -processing machines, 
whether or not containing in the same housing one or two of the 
following types of unit: storage units, input units, output units 
(excl. those of heading 8471.41 or 8471.49 and excl. peripheral 
units)  75 0.8%  
847170  Storage units for automatic data -processing machines  64 0.6%  
850760  Lithium -ion accumulators (excl. spent)  60 0.6%  
710239  Diamonds, worked, but not mounted or set (excl. industrial 
diamonds)  58 0.6%  
850440  Static converters  57 0.6%  
260111  Non-agglomerated iron ores and concentrates (excl. roasted 
iron pyrites)  57 0.6%  
870323  Motor cars and other motor vehicles principally designed for the 
transport of <10 persons, incl. station wagons and racing cars, 
with only spark -ignition internal combustion reciprocating piston 
engine of a cylinder capacity > 1.500 cm³ but <= 3.000 cm³ 
(excl. vehicles for travelling on snow and other specially 
designed vehicles of subheading 8703.10)  54 0.5%  
Note:  Trade data  reported  in other HS editions were converted to HS 2017 using conversion tables. 
Percentage refers to percentage of developing econo mies' non -agricultural exports.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations based on UN Comtrade , importer data . 
  WT/COMTD/W/289  
 
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  6.7  Composition of reporter and partner groups  
DEVELOPING ECONOMIES include  
 
Latin America (including the Caribbean):  
 
• Mexico (classified within North America in the World Trade Statistical Review 
publication);  
• Central America : Belize ; Costa Rica ; El Salvador ; Guatemala ; Honduras ; Nicaragua ; 
and Panama;  
• South America : Argentina; Bolivia, Plurinational State of; Brazil; Chile; Colombia; 
Ecuador; Guy ana; Paraguay; Peru; Suriname; Uruguay; Venezuela, 
Bolivarian  Republic  of; 
• The Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda ; Aruba (the Netherlands with respect to), 
Bahamas ; Barbados ; Cayman Islands; Cuba ; Curaçao ; Dominica ; Dominican Republic ;, 
Grenada ; Haiti; Jamaica ; Saint Kitts and Nevis ; Saint Lucia; Sint Maarten ; 
Saint Vincent  and the Grenadines; and Trinidad and Tobago ; 
• Other countries and territories in Latin America n.e.s.  
 
Developing Europe:  
 
Albania; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Moldova, Republic of; Montenegro; North Macedonia; 
Serbia; Türkiye ; and Ukraine.  
 
Africa:  
 
• North Africa : Algeria ; Egypt ; Libya ; Morocco ; and Tunisia.  
• Sub-Saharan Africa : Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cameroon; 
Cape Verde; Central African Republic; Chad; Congo; Comoros; Côte d'Ivoire; 
Democratic Republic of the Congo; Djibouti; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Eswatini; 
Ethiopia; Gabon; The Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea -Bissau; Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; 
Madagascar; Mali; Malawi; Mauritania; Mauri tius; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; 
Nigeria; Rwanda; Sao Tom é and Principe; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Somalia; 
South Africa; South  Sudan; Sudan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Togo; Uganda; 
Zambia; and Zimbabwe.  
 
Middle East:  
 
Bahrain, Kingdom of; Ir aq; Iran; Israel; Jordan; Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of; Kuwait, 
the State of; Lebanese Republic; Oman; Qatar; Syrian Arab Republic; 
United  Arab Emirates; and Yemen.  
 
Developing Asia:  
 
Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China; Fiji; 
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China (Hong Kong, China); India; 
Indonesia; Kiribati; Korea, Republic of; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Maldives; 
Macau, China; Malaysia; Micronesia, Federated States of; Mongolia; Myanmar; Nepal; 
Pakist an; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Samoa; Singapore; Solomon Islands; 
Sri Lanka; Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and 
Matsu  (Chinese  Taipei); Thailand; Tonga; Tuvalu; Vanuatu; Viet Nam; and other 
countries and territories in Asia and th e Pacific n.e.s.  
 
DEVELOPED ECONOMIES include:  
 
North America (excluding Mexico for this report):  
 
Bermuda ; Canada ; United States of America ; and territories in North America n.e.s.  
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  Developed Europe:  
 
Andorra ; Austria ; Belgium ; Bulgaria ; Croatia ; Cyprus ; Czech Republic ; Denmark ; 
Estonia ; Finland ; France ; Germany ; Greece ; Hungary ; Iceland ; Ireland ; Italy; Latvia ; 
Liechtenstein ; Lithuania ; Luxembourg ; Malta ; Netherlands ; Norway ; Poland ; Portugal ; 
Romania ; Slovak Republic ; Slovenia ; Spain ; Sweden ; Switzerland ; United Kingdom ; 
and territories in Europe n.e.s.  
 
Developed Asia:  
 
Australia ;; Japan ; and New Zealand.  
 
THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES including certain associate and former 
member  States (CIS) include:  
 
Armenia; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Geor gia; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyz Republic; 
Russian  Federation; Tajikistan; Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.  
 
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