# The Stylistic Treatment of the Sculpture of Goddess Chamunda in the Kamakhya Temple, Assam, India

Priyanka Tamta, Sukanya Sharma

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## To cite this version:

Priyanka Tamta, Sukanya Sharma. The Stylistic Treatment of the Sculpture of Goddess Chamunda in the Kamakhya Temple, Assam, India. Puratattva. Journal of the Indian Archaeological Society, 2023, 53, pp.104-115. hal-05196139

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Number 53

2023

JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Editors

K. N. DIKSHIT AND B. R. MANI

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THE INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
NEW DELHI
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Purātattva
No. 53, 2023

# The Stylistic Treatment of the Sculpture of Goddess Chamunda in the Kamakhya Temple, Assam, India

PRIYANKA TAMTA* AND SUKANYA SHARMA**

In the temple site of Kamakhya, two finished Chamunda sculptures depict the transformation of the goddess from a fearsome goddess of death to a divine majestic and graceful goddess. As one of the seven forms of *shakti*, the *Saptamatrika*, Chamunda is not known in Kamakhya, as the form of the deity here is worshipped as *Dasa-Mahavidyas*. The sculptures are carved in individual rectangular panels or *Silapatta*. One depicts ‘majestic’ sitting in *Padmasana* posture while another depicts ‘simplicity’. The *Kritimukha* and *Gandharva* on the panel bring these sculptures closer to the broad Brahmanical tradition from its origin in the non-Brahmanical tradition of India. Did the Goddess Chamunda gain individuality in Kamakhya, making her the principal deity separated from *Dasa-Mahavidyas* and *Saptamatrika*? Did the snake adorned headdress, the *Kritimukha*, the full-blown lotus seat without the *Bhutas*, enhance her individuality? Is it a regional development of the Kamarupa School of Art?

The sculptures found from different archaeological and temple sites indicate the presence of a highly skilled sculptor's (Shilpi's) guild or community. The sculptors followed iconographic detail mentioned in different legends and scriptures. Among different scriptures, the *Silpa sastra* was mainly associated with the art and craft of ancient India. The *Silpa sastra* consists of several ancient texts of art and crafts and has become a guiding source or a manual for sculptures and idols making art in India since ancient times. The detailed iconographic description with the exact size or proposition of sculpted figures is highly emphasised in these texts.

Thus, a piece of sculpture becomes a significant source for understanding the dynamics of ancient Indian artistic evolution. Political shifts, dynastic patronisation, artistic influence from different regions, and even the influence and amalgamation of different faiths can be considered crucial factors for bringing changes in the sculptural art of India. As mentioned earlier, the magnitude of such changes can be seen in sculptures carved on the mountain face, stone slabs, and temple walls. The same changes can be seen in the sculptural art of Goddess Chamunda. The religious transformation of Goddess Chamunda from a cult deity to the mainstream Hindu pantheon is easily noted in sculptural art. This malevolent deity was earlier portrayed with a group of *Matrikas* and among the *Yoginis* and later transformed into an individual entity as a *Sakta* goddess. These types of transformation happened gradually after centuries of amalgamation of the different small village and community-level faiths into the Hindu religion (Shin 2010). The earliest description of Goddess Chamunda as a mainstream deity comes from the text *Devimahtmya*, dated to the sixth to seventh century CE. The sculptural evidence of Goddess Chamunda as one of the *Saptamatrika* comes from different temple sites of fifth to eighth century CE, such as Aihole, Elephanta and the *Saptamatrika* panel of *Kailashnath* temple of Ellora (Hatley 2012). Undoubtedly, the transformation of Goddess Chamunda from a village deity to a *Sakta* deity took place somewhere around the fifth century CE and gradually moved to the rest of India (Hatley 2012). This wave of transformation must have reached Assam somewhere around the eighth to eleventh century CE as is evident from the two Chamunda sculptures of Kamakhya.

<footnote>*Project Scientist, The Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, Assam. Email: priyanka.ltamta@gmail.com</footnote>

<footnote>** HOD, The Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, Assam. Email: sukanya@iitg.ac.in</footnote>
We have also found several architectural evidences of *Nagara* temples, Central Indian in character, constructed in Assam during this period (Sarma 2007). On the two sculptures of Goddess Chamunda in Kamakhya, these multi-cultural influences over the sculptural art of the archaeological site of Kamakhya are clearly seen.

The Kamakhya temple played a very important role during this transformation. On the one hand, it established *Shaktism* in this part of the country, and on the other, it provided a connective link to the rest of India, South Asia, and even South-East Asia. The archaeological site of the Kamakhya temple is an abode of different Gods and goddesses of the *Sakta* and *Saivite* sects. Here, in the Kamakhya temple, the vulva-shaped (yoni) depression on the flatbed of granite rock is worshipped as Goddess Kamakhya. This depression always remains moist because of perennial underground streams. The Goddess Kamakhya is revered as a goddess of wealth and prosperity, a kind-hearted mother fulfilling all the wishes of her devotees. Goddess Kamakhya is accompanied by the *Dasa-Mahavidyas*, a group of goddesses which include Goddess *Kali*, *Tara*, *Sodasi*, *Bhuvanesvari*, *Bhairavai*, *Chhinnamasta*, *Dhumavati*, *Bagalamukhi*, *Matangi*, and *Kamala* (Borah 2010). Among the *Dasa-Mahavidyas*, goddesses like *Kali*, *Bhairvai*, *Chinnamasta*, *Dhumavati*, and *Matangi* are the ferocious manifestation of the Goddess *Adi-parasakti*. The word ‘Mahavidya’ is understood as the goddess of great knowledge or wisdom. A detailed description of each goddess is mentioned in different texts like *Devibhagvata Purana*, *Devimahtmya*, *Kalika Purana*, *Chandi Purana*, *Agni Purana*, *Matsya Purana* and so on. All the *Dasa-Mahavidyas*, whether gentle or ferocious, are worshipped as benevolent mother. Even the most ferocious form of goddess poses no harm to her devotee and acts as a protector from adversary and danger. Apart from the *Dasa-Mahavidyas*, the two sculptural remains of Goddess Chamunda indicate the presence of the *Matrikas* cult in the complex.

The *Matrikas* or *Matri* (mother) cult includes seven different goddesses, namely Goddess *Brahmani*, *Maheshwari*, *Kaumari*, *Vaishnavi*, *Varahi*, *Indrani*, and Chamunda. They are collectively called *Sapta-Matrikas* or sometimes *Eshta-Matrikas* based on the number of

goddesses in the group. They are also considered tantric deities. The first six goddesses are the female counterpart (*shakti*) of the respective Gods: *Brahma*, *Shiva*, *Kumara* (*Karttikeya*), *Vishnu*, *Varaha* (one of the incarnations of the God *Vishnu*) and *Indra* (Hatley 2012; Saraswati 2014). In this group, Chamunda is the only goddess without any male counterpart. However, the name and numbers of the goddess in the *Matrikas* cult vary from text to text. One steatite seal from Mohenjo-Daro (DK 6847) (Mackay 1938) was considered to be the earliest depiction of the *Saptamatrika* cult. However, due to a lack of deciphered script, its accurate interpretation is still questioned.

One of the earliest textual descriptions of the *Matrikas* came from the epic *Mahabharata* (*Vana-Parva*, 215.16-18 and *Salya-Parvan* 45.29-40), where the *Matrikas* are described as a group of malevolent goddesses who cause harm to children and pregnant women (Hatley 2012: 3). *Skanda Purana* mentions a group of dangerous goddesses adopted by *Skanda* (*Karttikeya*) as his mother. Later texts like *Devimahatmya*, *Kalika-Purana*, *Devi-Bhagavata Purana*, *Matsya-Purana*, and the *Vamana-Purana* mention *Matrikas* as ferocious goddesses collectively originated to help *Devi* and *Shiva* to establish peace and stability in the universe (Kinsley 1988: 151). They are still considered dangerous and malevolent goddesses, but now they are amalgamated as a manifestation of the great Mother Goddess acquiring the Brahmanical identities (Hatley 2012). These texts highlight the apparent transition of a malevolent local goddess cult (village goddesses) to the mainstream cult of Mother Goddess, also known as a *Sakta* cult.

In Assam, sculptural evidence shows the presence of two forms of *Matrikas*, one is the Goddess *Varahi*, and the second is Goddess Chamunda. Only a few sculptural specimens are found in Assam, mostly portraying these two *Matrikas* as independent deities. The sculptural evidence of the Goddess *Varahi* and Chamunda is currently on display at the Assam State Museum. The other three sculptures of Chamunda were found in a different part of Assam. The two sculptural specimens are found in the Kamakhya temple premises, while the third specimen is found at the site of *Na-bhanga* in the Nagaon district of Assam (Saraswati 2014: 372; Ahmed 1994: 132).
The main focus of this paper is on the two sculptural specimens of Goddess Chamunda found in the Kamakhya temple premises. These beautifully carved sculptural specimens are the standing example of the earliest sculptural art of Assam and also throw light on the history of amalgamation of the *Yoginis* or *Matrikas* sect into the *Mahavidyas* sect in the complex (Shin 2010). In this paper, we will try to understand the iconographic characteristics of the Goddess Chamunda in sculptural art with the help of textual references and the sculptural specimens found in the archaeological site of the Kamakhya temple.

## A Brief History of the Archaeological site of Kamakhya Temple

The Kamakhya temple is one of the famous *Sakti Pitha* in India and is also considered an important centre of Tantrism (Goswami 1998). The archaeological site of Kamakhya temple is situated on Nilachala Hill in the western part of Guwahati in Assam, India. The temple site covers approximately 1.25 sq. km or 308.9 acres of land. In the archaeological site of Kamakhya, more than twenty-two temples are dedicated to different deities. The majority of the temples belong to the *Sakta* tradition, dedicated to the *Dasa-Mahavidyas*. The rest of the temples are dedicated to the various forms of *Siva*, known as *Bhairavas*, such as *Aghora* (or *Heruka Siva*), *Amratakeswara* (*Sadyojata Siva*), *Kamesvara* (or *Vamadeva Siva*), *Kotilinga* (or *Tatpurusa Siva*) and *Siddheswara* (or *Isana Siva*) (Bhuyan and Nayak 2010; Sarma 2010a). The main Kamakhya temple is about 180m above the surrounding plains, extending from Lat. 26°09'59.9" N to Long. 91°42'19.7" E. Other temples are located near one another except the *Bhuvaneshwari* temple, situated at the highest peak of Nilachala Hill (Sarma 2010b: 1).

The earliest descriptions of the temple building activity in Nilachala Hill are found in the Umachal hill rock inscription, dating back to the fifth century CE. This inscription mentions the construction of a cave temple for Lord *Balabhadra* (one of the forms of Lord *Vishnu*) under the patronage of Maharajadhiraja Sri Surendravarmana, whose name is not found in the list of names of the kings of the Varman dynasty. The earliest reference to the main Kamakhya temple is found on a stone inscription dated

1565 CE at Kamakhya temple. This inscription mentions the renovation work of the Kamakhya temple completed under the patronage of Koch King Naranarayana and his brother Chilarai (Bhuyan and Nayak 2010; Sarma and Borah 2010).

The feature that makes Kamakhya temple distinct from other *Sakti Pitha* in India is that the complex houses various sets of faiths, as is evident from the presence of temples dedicated to *Siva*, *Vishnu* and *Ganesha* temple along with the *Sakta* temples. One temple is also dedicated to the Buddhist Goddess *Tara*, who enjoyed a strong position among the other *Sakta* goddesses on the site. The presence of *Surya*, *Daksha*, and different *Vaishnavite* sculptures on the site further validate this fact. As Choudhury (1959) mentioned in his work, "*in Assam, one cannot find any compartmentalisation between the different faiths in the temple art and architecture. Every temple carries traits and characteristics of one another*" (Choudhury 1959: 461).

Another feature that separates the Kamakhya temple from the rest of the *Sakti Pitha* in India is that the Goddess Kamakhya is worshipped in an iconic form, not anthropomorphic form. Here in the Kamakhya, the sanctum consists of a vulva-shaped depression with water. We do not find this feature in any other *Sakti Pitha* in India except the temple of Goddess *Samleswari* at Sambalpur in Orissa and *Ugra Tara* temple in Assam where a sanctified water pit and a large block of flat rock are worshipped inside the temple sanctum *sanctorum* (*Grabhagriha*) (Shastri 2005).

## Methodology

A systematic pedestrian survey was performed for the sculptural documentation of the archaeological site of the Kamakhya temple (Tamta and Sharma 2020). The sculptural documentation included creating an artefact database with detailed photographic documentation supported by the GPS reference point database. In the documentation, we have recorded a total of four hundred twenty-six sculptures, of which two hundred thirty-four (55%) stone sculptures are installed on the body of the temples, gateways, and boundary wall. Fifty-seven (13%)
are rock-cut sculptures, and one hundred thirty-five (32%) are sculptural fragments scattered around the site. Among them, one hundred seventy-five (41%) are religious sculptures, sixty-four (15%) are secular sculptures, one hundred twenty (28%) are sculptures on relief with floral and faunal motifs and geometrical designs, and sixty-seven (16%) are miscellaneous sculptures. Out of the one hundred seventy-five religious sculptures, sixty-two (35%) are *Sakta* and *Saivite* sculptures combined. Eighteen (10%) are *Vaishnavite* sculptures, twenty-eight (17%) are *Ganesha* sculptures, and sixty-six (38%) are other divine and semi-divine sculptures (Tamta 2019).

## Result and Discussion

The two sculptural specimens of Goddess Chamunda are carved in granite stone block and placed inside the compound of a small temple dedicated to Lord *Kedareswara* (one of the forms of *Bhairavas*) with some other sculptural and structural fragments (Plate 1).

Both Chamunda sculptures are almost identical in appearance, with slight variations in the carving style and ornamentation (Plate 2a and b). The Chamunda sculpture on the left side (CL1) is stylistically carved with intricate detailing, while the Chamunda sculpture on the right (CR1) is plain. Both the sculptures depicted the goddess in a ferocious form. Based on carving style, Saraswati

(2014) assigned the first Chamunda sculpture (CL1) to the ninth century CE and the second sculpture (CR1) belongs to a later period. On the basis of stylistic dating, Ahmed (1994), in his work “The art and architecture of Assam,” placed them in the time period between the eleventh to twelfth century CE.

## Chamunda Sculpture (CL1)

The Goddess Chamunda sculpture is carved on a stone panel or *silapatta* (a stone slab), depicting the goddess in her fierce form (Table 1; Plate 2a). Two pillars have been carved on the lateral edges of the panel. These pillars support an arch within a *Kritimukha* (face of glory) on the top centre position and two flying *Vidyadhara* (semi-gods: wisdom-holders), holding flower creepers in their hands above the head of the fiery goddess. In this sculpture, Goddess Chamunda is depicted sitting on a prostrate corpse (*Pretasana*) in *Padmasana* over a double petal lotus. Her hair is neatly tied in a *Jatamakuta* with two snake heads spreading out from each side. She has a skeleton-like body with three sunken eyes and an open mouth with fangs. The four-handed goddess is wearing *kundala* (earrings) and snakes as ornaments. She carries a *kartari* (sharp knife) and a *kapala* (skull cup) in her left hand. She is holding a sword and a severed head in her right hand. Numerous *bhutas* (ghosts) can be seen on the pedestal of this stone block.

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Detailed Iconographic Description of the Kamakhya's Goddess Chamunda Sculpture CL1 (Plate 2a)</caption><thead><tr><td>S. No.</td><td>Iconographic Attributes</td><td>Description</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td></td><td><strong>The Face of Glory (Kirtimukha)</strong><br/>The first stylised feature noticed in the sculpture block is the *Kirtimukha* on the trefoil arch. Here, the *kirtimukha* has been used as a decorative element rather than its functional role, as mentioned in the *Agama* and *Manasara*. The *kirtimukha* as a decorative motif is also popular in South Indian sculptural art. Similar uses of the *kirtimukha* are also prevalent in the Ambari sculptural art (eleventh to fourteenth century CE).</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><tr><td>2.</td><td><img src="" alt="A stone statue of a woman holding a flower, possibly a flower creeper."></td><td><strong>The Flying Celestial beings (Vidyadhara)</strong><br/>Two flying <i>Vidyadhara</i> holding flower creepers in their hands are beautifully carved on the top of the stone block. A flower pattern base (or cloud?) can be seen on which the <i>vidyadhara</i> are depicted flying.</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td><img src="" alt="A stone statue of a woman holding a flower, possibly a flower creeper."></td><td><strong>The Headdress (Jatamakuta)</strong><br/>Goddess Chamunda's hair is neatly tied in a <i>jatamakuta</i> (matted hair bun) with two snake heads spreading out from each side. The headdress is decorated with a crescent moon and a band of skulls. The matted hair (<i>jatamakuta</i>) and crescent moon are often associated with the iconography of Lord Siva. The only difference between the crescent moon of Goddess Chamunda from Lord Siva is that the crescent moon is horizontally placed in the centre of the <i>jatamakuta</i>. In contrast, Lord Siva's crescent moon is placed vertically on the side of the <i>jatamakuta</i>.</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td><img src="" alt="A stone statue of a woman holding a flower, possibly a flower creeper."></td><td><strong>Facial Features</strong><br/>The goddess's skeleton face is depicted with a fierce expression. Her eyeballs protrude manically from her eye sockets, with a third eye placed on the forehead. Interestingly, she is depicted with a small shrunken face, almost like a skeleton, but her ears are big and beautifully carved, adorned with big skull earrings. On the top of each ear, one small skull is depicted. Her mouth is open with fangs out as if she wants to devour ferociously.</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td><img src="" alt="A stone statue of a woman holding a flower, possibly a flower creeper."></td><td><strong>Torso of the Goddess</strong><br/>The goddess is depicted with a skeleton body with an exposed ribcage. Eight ribs on each side with two collarbones can be easily identified in the sculpture. A garland made out of human skulls (<i>Mundamala</i>) is placed on the torso of the sculpture as an ornament.</td></tr></table>

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<table><tr><td>6.</td><td><img src="image_0_0.png" alt="A statue of a four-handed goddess, depicted carrying different implements (ayudhas) with no hand gesture (hasta-mudras). On her first front set of hands, she is holding a skull cup (kapala) and a sword on the left and right hand, respectively. She is holding a dagger (kartari) in her back left hand and a severed head in her right backhand. Every hand is adorned with a single piece of the bangle."></td><td><strong>Implements and Hand-Gesture (Ayudhas and Hasta-Mudras)</strong><br>The four-handed goddess is depicted carrying different implements (ayudhas) with no hand gesture (hasta-mudras). On her first front set of hands, she is holding a skull cup (kapala) and a sword on the left and right hand, respectively. She is holding a dagger (kartari) in her back left hand and a severed head in her right backhand. Every hand is adorned with a single piece of the bangle.</td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td><img src="image_0_1.png" alt="A statue of a four-handed goddess, depicted sitting on a prostrate corpse over a double-petal lotus in a cross-legged sitting posture (Padmasana). The Goddess Chamunda is quite often portrayed in the Pretasana (Seated on a defeated demon or corpse), but sometimes, the goddess is also depicted standing or sitting on a smiling fat or plump boy. The absence of any vehicle (vahana) of the goddess in this sculptural block is completed by depicting the number of ghostly figures (bhutas) on the pedestal. The feature achieved the iconoplastic representation of the Goddess Chamunda as a terrifying goddess of death and destruction."></td><td><strong>Lower Portion of the Sculpture</strong><br>The goddess is sitting on a prostrate corpse over a double-petal lotus in a cross-legged sitting posture (Padmasana). The Goddess Chamunda is quite often portrayed in the Pretasana (Seated on a defeated demon or corpse), but sometimes, the goddess is also depicted standing or sitting on a smiling fat or plump boy. The absence of any vehicle (vahana) of the goddess in this sculptural block is completed by depicting the number of ghostly figures (bhutas) on the pedestal. The feature achieved the iconoplastic representation of the Goddess Chamunda as a terrifying goddess of death and destruction.</td></tr></table>

### Chamunda Sculpture (CR 1)

The sculpture is identical to the CL1 sculpture. The fundamental difference between these two sculptures is in the preparation of the panel or *silapatta*. While CL1 is a square panel, in CR1, the top corners have been rounded. The head is placed inside a circle or disc (halo), the edges of which are decorated with floral designs. In Indian sculpture art, this particular type of halo is known as *Prabhamandala* or *Shirashcakra*. The halo placement in the sculptures can be noticed in both Buddhist and Brahmanical sculptural art (Bhattasali 1929). There is no *Kritimukha* (face of glory), *Vidyadharas* (semi-gods: wisdom-holders), and *Bhutas* (ghost) carved in this panel. Here also, the goddess is depicted in her ferocious form with a skeleton body and exposed ribcage. She sits on a prostrate corpse (*pretasana*) over a double-petal lotus. Her hair is neatly tied in a *Jatamakuta* with two snake heads spreading out from each side. She has a skeleton-like body

with three sunken eyes and an open mouth with fangs. The four-handed goddess carries a skull cup (*kapala*) and a dagger (*kartari*) in her left hand. She holds a trishula and a severed head in her right hand. She is depicted wearing a garland of skulls (*mundamala*) and big earrings (*kundala*) as ornaments.

Scholars have dated CR1 sculpture to the later period in comparison to CL1 on the basis of the absence of *Kritimukha*, flying *Vidyadhara*, and ghostly figures (*Bhutas*) (Saraswati 2014; Ahmed 1994). However, as the panel is complete and there is no indication of any attempt to include these decorative elements, it is difficult to accept this as a marker of dating.

### Goddess Chamunda in the Texts

The earliest iconographic description of the Goddess Chamunda is mentioned in *Devimahtmya* of *Markandeya*.
*Purana*. Texts like *Matsya-Purana*, *Agni-Purana*, and *Vishnudharmottara Purana* also provide a detailed description of the feature and nature of the Goddess Chamunda. In these texts, the Goddess Chamunda is described as a ferocious goddess originating from the anger of Goddess *Kaushiki* (one of the manifestations of Goddess *Adi Parasakti*) during the battle against the demon *Sumbha* and *Nisumbha*. According to the texts, the Goddess *Kaushiki* is the one who gives the goddess the epithet ‘*Chamunda*’ after her victory against the two demon brothers *Chanda* and *Munda* (Bhattasali 1929).

These texts describe the characteristics of Goddess Chamunda as a ferocious goddess with a skeleton-like appearance and sunken red eyes. She often depicted black and dark blue colour, but blood-red coloured Chamunda is also mentioned in many texts. She has an emaciated body, her flesh is dried, and her ribcage is fully exposed. She is often depicted with the third eye on her forehead. She is depicted roaring and horribly laughing over demons *Chanda* and *Munda* with her teeth and protruding tongue out. She is depicted wearing the garland of human skulls (*mundamala*) and bones and dressed in tiger skin with conch shell earrings (*Shankha Kundala*). In these texts, Goddess Chamunda is considered as a goddess of death who resides in the funeral ground under a banyan tree (*Vata-Vriksha*). She is often depicted standing, squatting, and sitting on a corpse (*Pretasana*) with a *vahana* like an owl, jackal, and vulture standing next to her and feasting on the dead body (Rao 1914: 386; Bhattasali 1929: 207-212; Saraswati 2014: 371-375; Hatley 2012: 99-129; Kinsley 1988: 51).

Each text depicts Goddess Chamunda with different numbers of hands and different weapons and implements (*ayudhas*). In the *Matsya-Purana* (Ch. 261, 33-37), there is a reference to the two-handed Chamunda holding a human skull (*kapala*) in her left hand and a sword in her right hand. The *Agni-Purana* (Ch. 50, 21-22, 30-37 and Ch.144, 30-37) mentioned the four-handed Chamunda, carrying a human skull (*kapala*), spear (*pattisha*) in her two left hands and javelin (*shula*) and dagger/knife (*kartari*) in her two right hands. While the four-handed Chamunda mentioned in the South Indian *Agamas* carrying a human skull (*kapala*) and javelin (*shula*) with two hand gestures

of a boon (*varadamudra*) and assurance of protection (*abhayamudra*). The ten-handed Chamunda is described in the *Vishnudharmottara* (Ch.7) text, in which the goddess is portrayed carrying a club (*kheta*), noose (*pasa*), bow (*dhanus*), staff (*danda*) and dagger (*kartari*) in left hands. A wooden pestle (*musala*), shield (*khetaka*), javelin (*shula*), elephant goad (*ankusa*) and sword (*khadga*) in right hands (Rao 1914; Bhattasali 1929; Saraswati 2014).

Bhattasali (1929: 209), in his work “*Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum*”, provided the reference to eight different forms of Goddess Chamunda (*Rudra-Carcika*, *Rudra Chamunda*, *Mahalakshmi*, *Siddha-Chamunda*, *Siddha-Yogishwari*, *Rupa-Vidya*, *Ksama*, and *Dantura*) from *Agni-Purana*. These *Chamunda* are also known as *Astamatrika* (eight mothers) with unique characteristics and traits, not to be confused with *Saptamatrika* (seven mothers). The description of Goddess *Dantura* mentioned in *Agni-Purana* perfectly matches the iconographic characteristics of one of the sculptures displayed in the sculpture gallery of Assam State Museum Guwahati (Plate 3). According to the *Agni-Purana*, Goddess *Dantura* is one the form of Goddess Chamunda. She is depicted with an emaciated body in a squatting position with both hands on her knee. Among these eight Goddesses, *Siddha-Yogiswari* and *Rupa-Vidya* are depicted with twelve hands, while *Ksama* and *Dantura* are the only goddesses portrayed with two arms (Bhattasali 1929: 210-11).

## Iconographic Characteristics of Goddess Chamunda in the Sculptural Art

The sculptural art of Chamunda does not need to follow every iconographic feature described in the texts. However, some standard characteristics or traits are commonly found in the sculptures of Chamunda throughout the Indian subcontinents. These features include (Saraswati 2014; Hatley 2012; Bhattasali 1929; Rao 1914):

1. **Fierce in appearance:** Goddess Chamunda is often portrayed as a ferocious goddess. The anger in her facial expression is beautifully carved out in the sculpture by the sculptors in stone and bronze images. Goddess is often portrayed with a slightly
open mouth, laughing with protruding fangs and
tongue. In the text, she is often depicted in black or
dark blue colour, and even there are references to
the red-coloured Chamunda in *Agni-Purana* (Shastri
1998: Ch. 50, 21-22).

2. **Skeleton body:** One of the key features that differentiate Goddess Chamunda from other ferocious goddesses, such as Goddess Kali and Chandi, is that the goddess is always portrayed as an old lady with a dried-up body and pendulum breast (Plates 2a-b, 3, 4, 5 and 7). The goddess is commonly portrayed with sunken eyes and a belly with an exposed ribcage. There is only a few sculptural evidence of the Goddess Chamunda, where the goddess was portrayed as young and healthy. One example of this type of sculpture is displayed in the National Museum Delhi, which belongs to the twelfth century CE Parmar period from Madhya Pradesh (Plate 6).

3. **Arms:** The goddess is often portrayed with four arms (Plates 2a-b and 4), but ten and eight-armed Chamunda sculptures are also found (Plates 5 and 6). One sculpture of ten and eight handed Chamunda is displayed in the sculpture gallery of the National Museum Delhi. The example of the Chamunda sculpture with only two hands is on display in the Assam state museum (Plate 3).

4. **Hand gesture or Hasta-Mudras:** In the *Agni-Purana*, two hand gestures (*Hasta-Mudras*) are described with the Goddess Chamunda. The first is *Abhaya-Mudra* (assurance of protection), and the second is *Varada-Mudra* (boon bestowing and blessing pose). Being a goddess of death and destruction, these two hand gestures make the goddess a warden of evil, offer boons and protection to her devotees, and indicate a softer side to the ferocious goddess. In sculptural art, apart from the *Abhayamudras*, the goddess is often portrayed with one particular hand gesture. In this hand gesture, the goddess's right-hand small finger is raised to the lips as in biting the nails or just placed near her lips (Plates 4, 5, 7 and 8).

5. **Holding kapala in her left hand:** This is the most common feature of Goddess Chamunda. The goddess is depicted holding a *kapala* (human skull cup) in her left hand.

6. **Ornamentation:** The goddess is often portrayed wearing a garland of human skulls or *mundamala*. Other ornaments like big earrings, anklets, bangles, and even snakes are depicted as ornaments. To make the goddess look fiercer, the sculptor used the human skull as her main ornaments in the form of garlands and earrings.

7. **Headdress or Jatamakuta:** Goddess Chamunda has often portrayed with *jatamakuta* or her hair tied up in a bun. The *jatamakuta* is piled-up matted hair tied with snakes or human skull ornaments. Sometimes the goddess is shown with minimal hair, like an older woman. A fan-shaped hairdo is also seen in some of the sculptures (Plates 4 and 7). Goddess Chamunda is rarely seen wearing any headdress. One example of Goddess Chamunda wearing a headdress is displayed in the National Museum, Delhi (Plate 6).

8. **The corpse in her asana:** The goddess is depicted sitting or standing on a prostrate corpse (*pretasana*) (Plates 2a-b and 5). The goddess is often depicted standing at a smiling plump boy with the attitude of assurance (*Abhaya Mudras*).

9. **Weapon or Ayudha:** The Chamunda sculpture with two hands is mostly depicted carrying a sword and a *kapala*. The two-handed Chamunda sculpture displayed in the Assam state Museum is holding a severed head in her right hand and a *kapala* (skull cup) in her left hand (Plate 3). The four-handed Chamunda sculpture is depicted carrying the *ayudhas* such as *kartari* (sharp knife), *trishula* (trident), *kapala* (skull cup), and a severed head (Plate 2a-b). The ten-handed Chamunda sculpture is often depicted carrying *musala* (wooden pestle), *shula* (javelin), *ankusa* (elephant goad), and *khadga* (sword) in her right hand and *khetaka* (shield), *pasa* (noose), *dhanus* (bow), *danda* (staff), and *kuthara* (dagger) in her left hand.

10. **Accompanying with Gana and Bhutas:** In many sculptures, the goddess is depicted with *bhutas* and *gana*. One of the Chamunda sculptures displayed in the National Museum Delhi depicts a goddess sitting
under a banyan (vata) tree surrounded by ghosts (bhutas) (Plate 5).

11. **Vahana or Vehicles:** In most sculptures, the Goddess Chamunda is not depicted with any *vahana* (vehicles). However, in some sculptures presence of birds like owls and vultures and animals like jackals and ass are considered her *vahana* (Plates 5 and 9).

## Goddess Chamunda in the Sculptural Art of Assam

In Assam, there are only a few surviving remains of Chamunda sculptures. Besides the two Kamakhya Chamunda sculptures, there are two other Chamunda sculptures found in the Na-bhanga (Nagaon) and Borpathar (Golaghat) archaeological sites (Ahmed 1994; Saraswati 2014).

The Chamunda sculpture from Na-bhanga in the Nagaon district of Assam is identical to the sculptural specimens found in the archaeological site of the Kamakhya temple. However, in the Chamunda sculpture from *Na-bhanga*, the goddess is depicted with six hands. The sculpture is carved on a stone, in which the six-handed Chamunda sits on a corpse in her ferocious form. Here, the goddess is shown holding a bow and arrow in her uppermost hands. There is an image of a vulture on the pedestal on her right side, and on the left side is a jackal. There is also a depiction of a human skull and bones on the pedestal of Goddess Chamunda. This sculpture is badly mutilated (Ahmed 1994; Saraswati 2014).

The sculptural specimen recovered from the Borpathar in the Golaghat district of Assam is currently on display in the Assam State Museum, Guwahati (Plate 3). The Borpathar's sculpture is a very simplistic depiction of Goddess Chamunda in the sculpture art. The sandstone sculpture of a two-handed goddess is depicted in a seated posture, known as *Utkatikasana*, with an open mouth. Here, the goddess is depicted with sunken eyes, a belly and exposed ribs. The *ayudhas* of this two-handed goddess are unclear; however, a *kapala* can be seen on the left hand of the Goddess. The goddess is depicted without any *vahana* (Choudhury 1998: 5).

## Discussion

The sculpture of Chamunda (CL1) covers most of the features described in the above-mentioned iconographic characteristics. There are also certain features which are added to the Chamunda sculpture art of the Kamakhya temple. The presence of *Kritimukha* and *Vidyadhara* on the sculptured panel brings it closer to the broad Brahmanical tradition from the non-Brahmanical tradition of India, including the custom of the village goddess.

Based on the style of carving sculpture, CL1 can be dated to an earlier period. However, Saraswati (2014) assigned the Chamunda sculpture (CL1) to the ninth century CE and the second sculpture (CR1) to a later period. On the basis of stylistic dating, Ahmed (1994) in his work placed them in the time period between the eleventh to twelfth century CE. Previous studies have stated that the absence of many decorative features in CR1 is an indicator that the artist preparing CR1 tried to replicate CL1 but was not able to achieve that level of precision in design. This study states that the perception of the artist in preparing both sculptures was different. The lines and curves of CL1 and CR1 followed the primary grammar of making Chamunda sculptures but were combined to evoke two different aesthetic senses (Flöistad 2007). If CL1 depicted 'majestic,' CR1 depicted 'simplicity.' The sharp edges of CR1 indicate order, organisation, and efficiency, while the rounded edges of CR1 tend to be pleasing and comforting (Achari 2015). The halo inside which the deity's head is placed in an attempt to add the element of 'grace' and the rounded edges of the panel or *silapatta* make it feminine, warm, comforting, and maybe a sense of sensuality and love. The halo is complete, which, according to the meaning of shapes or visual grammar, suggests unity, harmony, community, integrity, and perfection. It should be noticed that the halo of the CR1 Chamunda sculpture is slightly bigger in size as compared to other sculptures.

The decorative elements like *Kritimukha* and flying *Vidyadhara* are considered part of royal court sculptural art (Panda 2005). These two decorative elements are also commonly found in the Ambari collection of sculptures
(seventh to twelfth century CE), which belong to the Pala or Pala-Sena school of art, indicating the presence of royal aided guilds of sculptors working this part of the region (Mukherjee 2007). From this evidence and the meaning of shapes, it can be said that the Chamunda sculpture (CL) was made for royalty. During the tenth to eleventh century CE, the Pala Dynasty rulers ruled Assam. The Pala dynasty, founded by King Brahmapala (900-920 CE), ruled the ancient Assam known as *Pragjyotisapura-Kamarupa*. They traced their origin to the *Bhuma Naraka* dynasty and described themselves as the king of the dynasty of Earth (*Avani-Kula*). Most of the information regarding the Pala dynasty has come from the different copper plate grants issued in the reign of King Ratnapala (920-960 CE), Indrapala (960-990 CE), and Dharmapala (1036-60 CE) (Sircar 2014; Barua 1933). The sculptural art that evolved during this period is known as the Pala-Sena school of art (ninth to twelfth century CE). The artistic influence of the Pala-Sena school of art was later assimilated into the Kamarupa School of art (Mukherjee 2007).

On the other hand, the Chamunda sculpture (CR1) might have been designed for community worship, where a graceful Tantric goddess with elements of Buddhist iconography carved in it would instil unity and harmony in the community. The halo on the head of the sculptures unites this Tantric deity with the ideology of Buddhist iconography, especially to the early medieval Tantric Buddhism (Hatley 2012; Bhattasali 1929).

During our study, we also notice the absence of sculptural evidence portraying the *Matrikas* in a group. The *Matrikas* are considered tantric deities, represented in a composite image of seven or sometimes eight goddesses. The absence of such composite sculptures or sculptural panels raised a question about the existence of the *Matrika* cult in Assam. As major texts like *Devimahtmya* and *Kalika Purana* mentioned *Kamarupa* (the ancient capital of Assam) as the centre of Tantrism, the absence of such images raises many questions upfront.

However, the presence of Goddess Chamunda sculpture again indicates the transformation of Goddess Chamunda from *Matrikas* to *Dasa-Mahavidyas* or, moreover, the development of Chamunda as an individual (principal)

deity. However, there are no temples dedicated to Goddess Chamunda on the site today. That makes the occurrence of these two sculptures even more intriguing. These two sculptures must have been part of some structure which no longer exists today. Even today, they are not placed in any temple. They are lying outside in the doorway of a *Saiva* temple called *Kedareswara* temple (Plate 1).

The reference to the transformation of the goddess from its malevolent to its benevolent form is also mentioned in texts like *Devimahtmya* of *Markandeya Purana*, where Chamunda is considered an epithet of Goddess *Kali* in the episode of the *Chanda-Munda* confrontation. Another reference in the same text mentions her as only a manifestation of Goddess *Kaushiki* (*Ambika* or *Adi Parashakti*) (Kinsley 1988). However, how this transformation took place, when and where it started, is still a topic of further study.

In the Kamakhya sculptures over the course of time or due to the artistic influence of this region, certain features are incorporated in Chamunda sculptural art. For example, in CL1 (Table 1), decorative elements like *kritimukha*, flying *vidyadhara* on the sculptural panel, and the decorated arch with supporting pillars on each side while the halo on the backside of the deity signifies its divinity as in CR1. The goddess portrayed as the goddess of death and destruction, a goddess to be feared and furious with an open devouring mouth and sunken eyes always in a rage, is portrayed as a divine majestic Goddess as in CL1 and as a divine graceful Goddess as in CR1. *Kritimukha* is not seen in other Chamunda sculptures of Assam or India. However, these two decorative features were also popular in the Ambari sculptural art of this region (eleventh to fourteen century CE). The use of *kritimukha* in the decoration of sculptures, pillars, and temples is very common in South Indian temple art, especially in the sculptural art of the Chalukya period (sixth to twelfth century CE) (Panda 2005). Maybe this is a regional development making this trait an essential part of the Kamarupa School of Art, which assimilated the stylistic traits of different regions and royal court art of the Gupta and Pala periods (Mukherjee 2007).

In the Kamakhya temple, Goddess Chamunda gains her individuality, making her the principal deity of its
own cult, separated from *Dasa-Mahavidyas* and *Matrikas*. This shows the deep-rooted tantric origin of the cult in the *Kamakhya* temple, which was slightly forgotten over the course of time during the process of amalgamation of different faiths under one broad umbrella of *Saktism*. The lack of evidence of any composite images of Goddess Chamunda with other goddesses in the *Saptamatrika* cult indicated the absence of this faith in this part of the country. Even the popularity of the Goddess Chamunda seems reduced, as the number of Chamunda sculptures and temples is limited in numbers.

During our study of these two sculptures, we have noticed that the artist has incorporated many important features associated with the Goddess Chamunda as described in the different texts but has designed the sculptures using two different philosophies. The peculiarity of snake adorning headdresses and *kritimukha* are added to these sculptures in order to encompass these sculptures into the broad *Sakta* and *Saivite* sect of Hinduism. The carving of a full-blown lotus as the seat of the goddess in

CR1 indicates a deliberate attempt to remove the *bhutas*, an element indicating her association with death, from the sculpture. This was a harmonious look of the Chamunda that the sculptors in Kamakhya developed. On the stylistic ground, these sculptures are much more different than the sculptures found in the rest of India, but the presence of important iconographic features as described in different texts connected these two to the prevailing sculptural art of Goddess Chamunda.

## Acknowledgements

We are deeply grateful to a few individuals and organizations for their help in preparing this paper. First and foremost, we sincerely thank the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Guwahati, for providing us with essential requirements. At last, we are also thankful for the Kamakhya temple committee's support in documenting the site at best.

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<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 1:** *Kedareswara* temple in the archaeological site of Kamakhya, Guwahati, Assam</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 2a-b:** Sculpture of Goddess Chamunda (CL1 and CR2) placed inside the compound of the *Kedareswara* temple, Guwahati, Assam</figcaption></figure>
**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 3:** A small sculpture of Goddess Dantura is on display in the Sculpture Gallery of the Assam State Museum, Guwahati, eighth century CE from Borpathar, Golaghat, Assam

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 5:** The sculpture of Goddess Chamunda is on display in the Sculpture Gallery of the National Museum Delhi, Sena dynasty, eleventh to twelfth century CE from Eastern India

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 4:** The broken sculpture of Goddess Chamunda is on display in the Sculpture Gallery of the Assam State Museum, Guwahati, twelfth century CE from Madhya Pradesh
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 6:** The sculpture of Goddess Chamunda is on display in the Sculpture Gallery of the National Museum Delhi, Paramara dynasty, twelfth century CE from Madhya Pradesh</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 7:** The sculpture of Goddess Chamunda is on display in the Sculpture Gallery of the National Museum Delhi, Paramara dynasty, twelfth century CE from Madhya Pradesh</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 8:** The sculpture of Goddess Chamunda is on display in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, tenth century CE from Bihar</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>**Tamta and Sharma, Pl. 9:** The sculpture of Goddess Chamunda is on display in the Odisha State Museum, ninth century CE from Jaipur</figcaption></figure>