38. Bell CM, Zack DJ, Berlinicke CA. Human organoids for the study of retinal development and disease. Annu Rev Vis Sc. 2020;6:91–114.

39. Eldred KC, Reh TA. Human retinal model systems: Strengths, weaknesses, and future directions. Dev Biol. 2021;480:114–22.

40. Wang J, He Q, Zhang K, Sun H, Zhang G, Liang H, et al. Quick commitment and efficient reprogramming route of direct induction of retinal ganglion cell-like neurons. Stem Cell Rep. 2020;15:1095–110.

41. Oliveira-Valença VM, Bosco A, Vetter ML, Silveira MS. On the generation and regeneration of retinal ganglion cells. Frontiers Cell Dev Biology. 2020;8:581136.

42. Xiao D, Deng Q, Guo Y, Huang X, Zou M, Zhong J, et al. Generation of self-organized sensory ganglion organoids and retinal ganglion cells from fibroblasts. Sci Adv. 2020;6:eazaz5858.

43. Singhal S, Bhatia B, Jayaram H, Becker S, Jones MF, Cottrill PB, et al. Human müller glia with stem cell characteristics differentiate into Retinal Ganglion Cell (RGC) precursors in vitro and partially restore RGC function in vivo following transplantation. Stem Cells Transl Med. 2012;1:188–99.

44. Gill KP, Hewitt AW, Davidson KC, Pébay A, Wong RCB. Methods of retinal ganglion cell differentiation from pluripotent stem cells. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2014;3:7.

45. Kayama M, Kurokawa MS, Ueda Y, Ueno H, Kumagai Y, Chiba S, et al. Transfection with pax6 gene of mouse embryonic stem cells and subsequent cell cloning induced retinal neuron progenitors, including retinal ganglion cell-like cells, in vitro. Ophthalmic Res. 2010;43:79–91.

46. Parameswaran S, Balasubramanian S, Babai N, Qiu F, Eudy JD, Thoreson WB, et al. Induced pluripotent stem cells generate both retinal ganglion cells and photoreceptors: therapeutic implications in degenerative changes in glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration. Stem Cells. 2010;28:695–703.

47. Suzuki N, Shimizu J, Takai K, Arimitsu N, Ueda Y, Takada E, et al. Establishment of retinal progenitor cell clones by transfection with Pax6 gene of mouse induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. Neurosci Lett. 2012;509:116–20.

48. Aoki H, Hara A, Niwa M, Motohashi T, Suzuki T, Kunisada T. Transplantation of cells from eye-like structures differentiated from embryonic stem cells in vitro and in vivo regeneration of retinal ganglion-like cells. Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246:255–65.

49. Meyer JS, Howden SE, Wallace KA, Verhoeven AD, Wright LS, Capowski EE, et al. Optic vesicle-like structures derived from human pluripotent stem cells facilitate a customized approach to retinal disease treatment. Stem Cells. 2011;29:1206–18.

50. Riazifar H, Jia Y, Chen J, Lynch G, Huang T. Chemically induced specification of retinal ganglion cells from human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cells Transl Med. 2014;3:424–32.

51. Sridhar A, Steward MM, Meyer JS. Nonxenogeneic growth and retinal differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells. STEM CELLS Transl Med. 2013;2:255–64.

52. Osakada F, Jin Z-B, Hirami Y, Ikeda H, Danjyo T, Watanabe K, et al. In vitro differentiation of retinal cells from human pluripotent stem cells by small-molecule induction. J Cell Sci. 2009;122:3169–79.

53. Hirami Y, Osakada F, Takahashi K, Okita K, Yamanaka S, Ikeda H, et al. Generation of retinal cells from mouse and human induced pluripotent stem cells. Neurosci Lett. 2009;458:126–31.

54. Oswald J, Kegeles E, Minelli T, Volchkov P, Baranov P. Transplantation of miPSC/mESC-derived retinal ganglion cells into healthy and glaucomatous retinas. Mol Ther - Methods Clin Dev. 2021;21:180–98.

55. Langer KB, Ohlemacher SK, Phillips MJ, Fligor CM, Jiang P, Gamm DM, et al. Retinal Ganglion Cell Diversity and Subtype Specification from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells. Stem Cell Rep. 2018;10:1282–93.

56. Amin D, Kuwajima T. Differential retinal ganglion cell vulnerability, a critical clue for the identification of neuroprotective genes in glaucoma. Front Ophthalmol. 2022;2:905352.

57. Achberger K, Probst C, Haderspeck J, Bolz S, Rogal J, Chuchuy J, et al. Merging organoid and organ-on-a-chip technology to generate complex multi-layer tissue models in a human Retina-on-a-Chip platform. eLife. 2019;8:e46188.

58. Achberger K, Cipriano M, Düchs MJ, Schön C, Michelfelder S, Stierstorfer B, et al. Human stem cell-based retina on chip as new translational model for validation of AAV retinal gene therapy vectors. Stem Cell Rep. 2021;16:2242–56.

59. Sridhar A, Hoshino A, Finkbeiner CR, Chitsazan A, Dai L, Haugan AK, et al. Single-cell transcriptomic comparison of human fetal retina, hPSC-derived retinal organoids, and long-term retinal cultures. Cell Rep. 2020;30:1644–1659.e4.

60. Zhong X, Gutierrez C, Xue T, Hampton C, Vergara MN, Cao L-H, et al. Generation of three-dimensional retinal tissue with functional photoreceptors from human iPSCs. Nat Commun. 2014;5:4047.

61. Brodie-Kommit J, Clark BS, Shi Q, Shiau F, Kim DW, Langel J, et al. Atoh7-independent specification of retinal ganglion cell identity. Sci Adv. 2021;7:eabe4983.

62. Wu F, Bard JE, Kann J, Yergeau D, Sapkota D, Ge Y, et al. Single cell transcriptomics reveals lineage trajectory of retinal ganglion cells in wild-type and Atoh7-null retinas. Nat Commun. 2021;12:1465.

63. Gan L, Wang SW, Huang Z, Klein WH. POU domain factor Brn-3b is essential for retinal ganglion cell differentiation and survival but not for initial cell fate specification. Dev Biol. 1999;210:469–80.

64. Elshatory Y, Deng M, Xie X, Gan L. Expression of the LIM-homeodomain protein Isl1 in the developing and mature mouse retina. J Comp Neurol. 2007;503:182–97.

65. Fernández-Nogales M, López-Cascales MT, Murcia-Belmonte V, Escalante A, Fernández-Albert J, Muñoz-Viana R, et al. Multiomic analysis of neurons with divergent projection patterns identifies novel regulators of axon pathfinding. Adv Sci. 2022;9:2200615.

66. Wu F, Kaczynski TJ, Sethuramanujam S, Li R, Jain V, Slaughter M, et al. Two transcription factors, Pou4f2 and Isl1, are sufficient to specify the retinal ganglion cell fate. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2015;112:E1559–68.

67. Zhang X-M, Yang X-J. Regulation of retinal ganglion cell production by Sonic hedgehog. Development. 2001;128:943–57.

68. Osborne A, Khatib TZ, Songra L, Barber AC, Hall K, Kong GYX, et al. Neuropetection of retinal ganglion cells by a novel gene therapy construct that achieves sustained enhancement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor/tropomyosin-related kinase receptor-B signaling. Cell Death Dis. 2018;9:1007.

69. Lambuk L, Lazaldin MAM, Ahmad S, lezhitsa I, Agarwal R, Usokoković V, et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated neuroprotection in glaucoma: a review of current state of the art. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:875662.

70. Vecino E, Heller JP, Veiga-Crespo P, Martin KR, Fawcett JW. Influence of extracellular matrix components on the expression of integrins and regeneration of adult retinal ganglion cells. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0125250.

71. Bao Z-Z. Intraretinal projection of retinal ganglion cell axons as a model system for studying axon navigation. Brain Res. 2008;1192:165–77.

72. Randlett O, Poggi L, Zolelli FR, Harris WA. The oriented emergence of axons from retinal ganglion cells is directed by laminin contact in vivo. Neuron. 2011;70:266–80.

73. Cheng J, Li S, Berlinicke C, Zhang P, Chang X, Welsbie DS, et al. Histone deacetylase and myosin inhibitors promote neurite outgrowth in injured retinal ganglion cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2022;63:2445–F0389–2445–F0389.

74. Schwechter BR, Millet LE, Levin LA. Histone deacetylase inhibition-mediated differentiation of RGC-5 cells and interaction with survival. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48:2845.

75. Lu Y, Brommer B, Tian X, Krishnan A, Meer M, Wang C, et al. Reprogramming to recover youthful epigenetic information and restore vision. Nature. 2020;588:124–9.

76. Rheaume BA, Xing J, Lukomska A, Theune WC, Damania A, Sjogren G, et al. PTEN inhibition dedifferentiates long-distance axon-regenerating intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells and upregulates mitochondria-associated DYNLT1A and LARS2. Development. 2023;150:dev201644.

77. Mertens J, Paquola ACM, Ku M, Hatch E, Böhnke L, Ladjevardi S, et al. Directly reprogrammed human neurons retain aging-associated transcriptomic signatures and reveal age-related nucleocytoplasmic defects. Cell Stem Cell. 2015;17:705–18.

78. Sanes JR, Masland RH. The types of retinal ganglion cells: current status and implications for neuronal classification. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2015;38:1–26.

79. Goetz J, Jessen ZF, Jacobi A, Mani A, Cooler S, Greer D, et al. Unified classification of mouse retinal ganglion cells using function, morphology, and gene expression. Cell Rep. 2022;40:111040.
80. Kölsch Y, Hahn J, Sappington A, Stemmer M, Fernandes AM, Helmbrecht TO, et al. Molecular classification of zebrafish retinal ganglion cells links genes to cell types to behavior. *Neuron*. 2021;109:645–662.e9.

81. Tran NM, Shekhar K, Whitney IE, Jacobi A, Benhar I, Hong G, et al. Single-cell profiles of retinal ganglion cells differing in resilience to injury reveal neuroprotective genes. *Neuron*. 2019;104:1039–1055.e12.

82. Yan W, Peng Y-R, van Zyl T, Regev A, Shekhar K, Juric D, et al. Cell atlas of the human fovea and peripheral retina. *Sci Rep-uk*. 2020;10:9802.

83. Ramos OM, Barker D, Ferrier DEK. Ghost loci imply hox and para-hox existence in the last common ancestor of animals. *Curr Biol*. 2012;22:1951–6.

84. Jeon CJ, Strettoi E, Masland RH. The major cell populations of the mouse retina. *J Neurosci*. 1998;18:8936–46.

85. Masland RH. The neuronal organization of the retina. *Neuron*. 2012;76:266–80.

86. Lipovsek M, Bardy C, Cadwell CR, Hadley K, Kobak D, Tripathy SJ. Patch-seq: past, present, and future. *J Neurosci*. 2021;41:937–46.

87. Williams CG, Lee HJ, Asatsuma T, Vento-Tormo R, Haque A. An introduction to spatial transcriptomics for biomedical research. *Genome Med*. 2022;14:68.

88. Zhang M, Eichhorn SW, Zingg B, Yao Z, Cotter K, Zeng H, et al. Spatially resolved cell atlas of the mouse primary motor cortex by MERFISH. *Nature*. 2021;598:137–43.

89. Choi J, Li J, Ferrous S, Liang Q, Moffitt JR, Chen R. Spatial organization of the mouse retina at single cell resolution. *Biorxiv*. 2022;2022.12.04.518972.

90. Havens SJ, Ghate DA, Gulati V. Neuroimmune Pharmacology. 2016. p. 533–52.

91. Harada T, Harada C, Parada LF. Molecular regulation of visual system development: more than meets the eye. *Genes Dev*. 2007;21:367–78.

92. Quigley HA, Dunkelberger GR, Green WR. Chronic human glaucoma causing selectively greater loss of large optic nerve fibers. *Ophthalmology*. 1988;95:357–63.

93. Quigley HA, Dunkelberger GR, Green WR. Retinal ganglion cell atrophy correlated with automated perimetry in human eyes with glaucoma. *Am J Ophthalmol*. 1989;107:453–64.

94. Howe JW, Mitchell KW. Electrophysiologically determined contrast sensitivity in patients with ocular hypertension and chronic glaucoma. *Doc Ophthalmol*. 1992;80:31–41.

95. Chaturvedi N, Hedley-Whyte ET, Dreyer EB. Lateral geniculate nucleus in glaucoma. *Am J Ophthalmol*. 1993;116:182–8.

96. Anderson RS, O'Brien C. Psychophysical evidence for a selective loss of m ganglion cells in glaucoma. *Vision Res*. 1997;37:1079–83.

97. Klistorner AI, Graham SL. Early magnocellular loss in glaucoma demonstrated using the pseudorandomly stimulated flash visual evoked potential. *J Glaucoma*. 1999;8:140–8.

98. Kerrigan-Baumrind LA, Quigley HA, Pease ME, Kerrigan DF, Mitchell RS. Number of ganglion cells in glaucoma eyes compared with threshold visual field tests in the same persons. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 2000;41:741–8.

99. Sun H, Swanson WH, Arvidson B, Dul MW. Assessment of contrast gain signature in inferred magnocellular and parvocellular pathways in patients with glaucoma. *Vision Res*. 2008;48:2633–41.

100. Zhang P, Wen W, Sun X, He S. Selective reduction of fMRI responses to transient achromatic stimuli in the magnocellular layers of the LGN and the superficial layer of the SC of early glaucoma patients. *Hum Brain Mapp*. 2016;37:558–69.

101. Casson EJ, Johnson CA, Shapiro LR. Longitudinal comparison of temporal-modulation perimetry with white-on-white and blue-on-yellow perimetry in ocular hypertension and early glaucoma. *J Opt Soc Am*. 1993;10:1792.

102. Sample PA, Bosworth CF, Weinreb RN. Short-wavelength automated perimetry and motion automated perimetry in patients with glaucoma. *Arch Ophthalmol-chic*. 1997;115:1129–33.

103. Sample PA, Bosworth CF, Blumenthal EZ, Girkin C, Weinreb RN. Visual function-specific perimetry for indirect comparison of different ganglion cell populations in glaucoma. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 2000;41:1783–90.

104. Landers JA, Goldberg I, Graham SL. Detection of early visual field loss in glaucoma using frequency-doubling perimetry and short-wavelength automated perimetry. *Arch Ophthalmol-chic*. 2003;121:1705–10.

105. McKendrick AM, Badcock DR, Morgan WH. Psychophysical measurement of neural adaptation abnormalities in magnocellular and parvocellular pathways in glaucoma. *Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci*. 2004;45:1846.

106. McKendrick AM, Sampson GP, Walland MJ, Badcock DR. Contrast sensitivity changes due to glaucoma and normal aging: low-spatial-frequency losses in both magnocellular and parvocellular pathways. *Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci*. 2007;48:2115.

107. Battista J, Badcock DR, McKendrick AM. Spatial summation properties for magnocellular and parvocellular pathways in glaucoma. *Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci*. 2009;50:1221.

108. Mikelberg FS, Yidegiligne HM, Schulzer M. Optic nerve axon count and won diameter in patients with ocular hypertension and normal visual fields. *Ophthalmology*. 1995;102:342–8.

109. Quigley HA, Sanchez RM, Dunkelberger GR, L'Hernault NL, Baginski TA. Chronic glaucoma selectively damages large optic nerve fibers. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 1987;28:913–20.

110. Glovinsky Y, Quigley HA, Dunkelberger GR. Retinal ganglion cell loss is size dependent in experimental glaucoma. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 1991;32:484–91.

111. Dandona L, Hendrickson A, Quigley HA. Selective effects of experimental glaucoma on axonal transport by retinal ganglion cells to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 1991;32:1593–9.

112. Glovinsky Y, Quigley HA, Pease ME. Foveal ganglion cell loss is size dependent in experimental glaucoma. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 1993;34:395–400.

113. Vickers JC, Schumer RA, Podos SM, Wang RF, Riederer BM, Morrison JH. Differential vulnerability of neurochemically identified subpopulations of retinal neurons in a monkey model of glaucoma. *Brain Res*. 1995;680:23–35.

114. Weber AJ, Kaufman PL, Hubbard WC. Morphology of single ganglion cells in the glaucomatous primate retina. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 1998;39:2304–20.

115. Weber AJ, Chen H, Hubbard WC, Kaufman PL. Experimental glaucoma and cell size, density, and number in the primate lateral geniculate nucleus. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 2000;41:1370–9.

116. Ito Y, Shimazawa M, Chen Y-N, Tsuruma K, Yamashima T, Araie M, et al. Morphological changes in the visual pathway induced by experimental glaucoma in Japanese monkeys. *Exp Eye Res*. 2009;89:246–55.

117. Ruiz-Ederra J, García M, Hernández M, Urcola H, Hernández-Barbáchano E, Araiz J, et al. The pig eye as a novel model of glaucoma. *Exp Eye Res*. 2005;81:561–9.

118. Kalloniatis M, Harwertah RS, Smith EL, DeSantis L. Colour vision anomalies following experimental glaucoma in monkeys. *Ophthal Physl Opt*. 1993;13:56–67.

119. Smith E, Chino Y, Harwerth R, Ridder W, Crawford MJ, DeSantis L. Retinal inputs to the monkey's lateral geniculate nucleus in experimental glaucoma. *Clin Vis Sci*. 1993;8:113–39.

120. Vickers J, Hof P, Schumer R, Wang R, Podos S, Morrison J. Magnocellular and parvocellular visual pathways are both affected in a macaque monkey model of glaucoma. *Aust N Z J Ophthalmol*. 1997;25:239–43.

121. Yücel YH, Zhang Q, Gupta N, Kaufman PL, Weinreb RN. Loss of neurons in magnocellular and parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus in glaucoma. *Arch Ophthalmol-chic*. 2000;118:378–84.

122. Morgan JE, Uchida H, Caprioli J. Retinal ganglion cell death in experimental glaucoma. *Brit J Ophthalmol*. 2000;84:303.

123. Crawford ML, Harwerth RS, Smith EL, Shen F, Carter-Dawson L. Glaucoma in primates: cytochrome oxidase reactivity in parvo- and magnocellular pathways. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 2000;41:1791–802.

124. Yücel YH, Zhang Q, Weinreb RN, Kaufman PL, Gupta N. Effects of retinal ganglion cell loss on magno-, parvo-, koniocellular pathways in the lateral geniculate nucleus and visual cortex in glaucoma. *Prog Retin Eye Res*. 2003;22:465–81.

125. Shou T, Liu J, Wang W, Zhou Y, Zhao K. Differential dendritic shrinkage of α and β retinal ganglion cells in cats with chronic glaucoma. *Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci*. 2003;44:3005.

126. Shou TD, Zhou YF. Y cells in the cat retina are more tolerant than X cells to brief elevation of IOP. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 1989;30:2093–8.

127. Zhou Y, Wang W, Ren B, Shou T. Receptive field properties of cat retinal ganglion cells during short-term IOP elevation. *Invest Ophth Vis Sci*. 1994;35:2758–64.
128. Watanabe M, Fukuda Y. Survival and axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells in adult cats. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2002;21:529-53.

129. Watanabe M, Sawai H, Fukuda Y. Number and dendritic morphology of retinal ganglion cells that survived after axotomy in adult cats. J Neurobiol. 1995;27:189-203.

130. Vorwerk CK, Kreutz MR, Böckers TM, Brosz M, Dreyer EB, Sabel BA. Susceptibility of retinal ganglion cells to excitotoxicity depends on soma size and retinal eccentricity. Curr Eye Res. 1999;19:59-65.

131. Li RS, Chen B-Y, Tay DK, Chan HHL, Pu M-L, So K-F. Melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells are more injury-resistant in a chronic ocular hypertension model. Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47:2951.

132. Li SY, Yau SY, Chen BY, Tay DK, Lee VWH, Pu ML, et al. Enhanced survival of melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells after injury is associated with the PI3 K/Akt pathway. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2008;28:1095-107.

133. de Zavalía N, Plano SA, Fernandez DC, Lanzani MF, Salido E, Belforte N, et al. Effect of experimental glaucoma on the non-image forming visual system. J Neurochem. 2011;117:904-14.

134. Müller LP de S, Sargoy A, Rodriguez AR, Brecha NC. Melanopsin Ganglion Cells Are the Most Resistant Retinal Ganglion Cell Type to Axonal Injury in the Rat Retina. PLoS One. 2014;9:e93274.

135. Nadal-Nicolás FM, Sobrado-Calvo P, Jiménez-López M, Vidal-Sanz M, Agudo-Barriuso M. Long-term effect of optic nerve axotomy on the retinal ganglion cell layer. Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56:6095.

136. Rovere G, Nadal-Nicolás FM, Wang J, Bernal-Garro JM, García-Carrillo N, Villegas-Pérez MP, et al. Melanopsin-containing or non-melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells response to acute ocular hypertension with or without brain-derived neurotrophic factor neuroprotection. Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;57:6652.

137. Vidal-Villegas B, Pierdomenico JD, de Imperial-Ollero JAM, Ortín-Martínez A, Nadal-Nicolás FM, Bernal-Garro JM, et al. Melanopsin+RGCs Are fully Resistant to NMDA-Induced Excitotoxicity. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:3012.

138. VanderWall KB, Lu B, Alfaro JS, Allsop AR, Carr AS, Wang S, et al. Differential susceptibility of retinal ganglion cell subtypes in acute and chronic models of injury and disease. Sci Rep-uk. 2020;10:17359.

139. Robinson GA, Madison RD. Axotomized mouse retinal ganglion cells containing melanopsin show enhanced survival, but not enhanced axon regrowth into a peripheral nerve graft. Vision Res. 2004;44:2667-74.

140. Yang N, Young BK, Wang P, Tian N. The susceptibility of retinal ganglion cells to optic nerve injury is type specific. Cells. 2020;9:677.

141. Daniel S, Meyer KJ, Clark AF, Anderson MG, McDowell CM. Effect of ocular hypertension on the pattern of retinal ganglion cell subtype loss in a mouse model of early-onset glaucoma. Exp Eye Res. 2019;185:107703.

142. Christensen I, Lu B, Yang N, Huang K, Wang P, Tian N. The susceptibility of retinal ganglion cells to glutamatergic excitotoxicity is type-specific. Front Neurosci-switz. 2019;13:219.

143. Wang S, Gu D, Zhang P, Chen J, Li Y, Xiao H, et al. Melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells are relatively resistant to excitotoxicity induced by N-methyl-d-aspartate. Neurosci Lett. 2018;662:368-73.

144. Daniel S, Clark A, McDowell C. Subtype-specific response of retinal ganglion cells to optic nerve crush. Cell Death Discov. 2018;4:67.

145. Sabharwal J, Seilheimer RL, Tao X, Cowan CS, Frankfort BJ, Wu SM. Elevated IOP alters the space-time profiles in the center and surround of both ON and OFF RGCs in mouse. Proc National Acad Sci. 2017;114:8859-64.

146. Puyang Z, Gong HQ, He SG, Troy JB, Liu X, Liang PJ. Different functional susceptibilities of mouse retinal ganglion cell subtypes to optic nerve crush injury. Exp Eye Res. 2017;162:97-103.

147. Ou Y, Jo RE, Ullian EM, Wong ROL, Santina LD. Selective vulnerability of specific retinal ganglion cell types and synapses after transient ocular hypertension. J Neurosci. 2016;36:9240-52.

148. Chen H, Zhao Y, Liu M, Feng L, Puyang Z, Yi J, et al. Progressive degeneration of retinal and superior collicular functions in mice with sustained ocular hypertension. Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56:1971.

149. Duan X, Qiao M, Bei F, Kim I-J, He Z, Sanes JR. Subtype-specific regeneration of retinal ganglion cells following axotomy: effects of osteopontin and mTOR signaling. Neuron. 2015;85:1244-56.

150. El-Danaf RN, Huberman AD. Characteristic patterns of dendritic remodeling in early-stage glaucoma: evidence from genetically identified retinal ganglion cell types. J Neurosci. 2015;35:2329-43.

151. Perganta G, Barnard AR, Katti C, Vachtsevanos A, Douglas RH, MacLaren RE, et al. Non-image-forming light driven functions are preserved in a mouse model of autosomal dominant optic atrophy. PLoS One. 2013;8:e56350.

152. Zhang Q, Vuong H, Huang X, Wang Y, Brecha NC, Pu M, et al. Melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cell loss and behavioral analysis in the Thy1-CPF-DBA/2J mouse model of glaucoma. Sci China Life Sci. 2013;56:720-30.

153. Feng L, Zhao Y, Yoshida M, Chen H, Yang JF, Kim TS, et al. Sustained ocular hypertension induces dendritic degeneration of mouse retinal ganglion cells that depends on cell type and location. Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci. 2013;54:1106.

154. Santina LD, Inman DM, Lupien CB, Horner PJ, Wong ROL. Differential progression of structural and functional alterations in distinct retinal ganglion cell types in a mouse model of glaucoma. J Neurosci. 2013;33:17444-57.

155. DeParis S, Caprara C, Grimm C. Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells are resistant to N-methyl-D-aspartic acid excitotoxicity. Mol Vis. 2012;18:2814-27.

156. Leung CK, Weinreb RN, Li ZW, Liu S, Lindsey JD, Choi N, et al. Long-term in vivo imaging and measurement of dendritic shrinkage of retinal ganglion cells. Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52:1539.

157. Jakobs TC, Libby RT, Ben Y, John SWM, Masland RH. Retinal ganglion cell degeneration is topological but not cell type specific in DBA/2J mice. J Cell Biology. 2005;171:313-25.

158. Risner ML, Pasini S, Cooper ML, Lambert WS, Calkins DJ. Axogenic mechanism enhances retinal ganglion cell excitability during early progression in glaucoma. Proc National Acad Sci. 2018;115:E2393-402.

159. Urcola JH, Hernández M, Vecino E. Three experimental glaucoma models in rats: Comparison of the effects of intraocular pressure elevation on retinal ganglion cell size and death. Exp Eye Res. 2006;83:429-37.

160. Vecino E, Urcola H, Bayon A, Sharma SC. Glaucoma, Methods and Protocols. Methods Mol Biol. 2017;1695:41-8.

161. Laquis S, Chaudhary P, Sharma SC. The patterns of retinal ganglion cell death in hypertensive eyes. Brain Res. 1998;784:100-4.

162. Ahmed FAKM, Chaudhary P, Sharma SC. Effects of increased intraocular pressure on rat retinal ganglion cells. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2001;19:209-18.

163. Santina LD, Ou Y. Who's lost first? Susceptibility of retinal ganglion cell types in experimental glaucoma. Exp Eye Res. 2017;158:43-50.

164. Wareham LK, Risner ML, Calkins DJ. Protect, repair, and regenerate: towards restoring vision in glaucoma. Curr Ophthalmol Reports. 2020;8:301-10.

165. Pollard DA. Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL), methods and protocols. Methods Mol Biol. 2012;871:31-9.

166. Rao A, Padhy D, Pal A, Roy AK. Visual function tests for glaucoma practice - What is relevant? Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022;70:749-58.

167. Teotia P, Niu M, Ahmad I. Mapping developmental trajectories and subtype diversity of normal and glaucomatous human retinal ganglion cells by single-cell transcriptome analysis. Stem Cells. 2020;38:1279-91.

168. Qi X-R, Verwer RWH, Bao A-M, Balesar RA, Luchetti S, Zhou J-N, et al. Human brain slice culture: a useful tool to study brain disorders and potential therapeutic compounds. Neurosci Bull. 2019;35:244-52.

169. McKinnon SJ, Schlamp CL, Nickells RW. Mouse models of retinal ganglion cell death and glaucoma. Exp Eye Res. 2009;88:816-24.

170. Johnson TV, Tomarev SI. Rodent models of glaucoma. Brain Res Bull. 2010;81:349-58.

171. Kimura A, Noro T, Harada T. Role of animal models in glaucoma research. Neural Regen Res. 2020;15:1257-8.

172. Niwa M, Aoki H, Hirata A, Tomita H, Green PG, Hara A. Retinal cell degeneration in animal models. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17:110.

173. Wu G, Harp CP, Shindler K. Optic neuritis: a model for the immunopathogenesis of central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating diseases. Curr Immunol Rev. 2015;11:85-92.

174. Tao W, Dvoriantchikova G, Tse BC, Pappas S, Chou TH, Tapia M, et al. A novel mouse model of traumatic optic neuropathy using external ultrasound energy to achieve focal. Indirect Optic Nerve Injury Sci Rep-uk. 2017;7:11779.

175. Bernstein SL, Miller NR. Ischemic optic neuropathies and their models: disease comparisons, model strengths and weaknesses. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2015;59:135-47.
176. Manogaran P, Samardzija M, Schad AN, Wicki CA, Walker-Egger C, Rudin M, et al. Correction to: retinal pathology in experimental optic neuritis is characterized by retrograde degeneration and gliosis. Acta Neuro-pathologica Commun. 2019;7:157.

177. Orgül S, Cioffi GA, Wilson DJ, Bacon DR, Buskirk EMV. An endothelin-1 induced model of optic nerve ischemia in the rabbit. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 1996;37:1860–9.

178. Hartsock MJ, Cho H, Wu L, Chen W-J, Gong J, Duh EJ. A Mouse Model of Retinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Through Elevation of Intraocular Pressure. J Vis Exp. 2016;14:e54065.

179. Borrás T. Gene therapy strategies in glaucoma and application for steroid-induced hypertension. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2011;25:353–62.

180. Chandra A, Smith J, Wang BZ, Kurniawan E, Kam J, Sandhu SS, et al. Post-Vitrectomy Endophthalmitis in Victoria. Australia Asia-pacific J Ophthalmol. 2017;6:80–93.

181. Pang I-H, Clark AF. Inducible rodent models of glaucoma. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2020;75:100799.

182. Zhang J, Li L, Huang H, Fang F, Webber HC, Zhuang P, et al. Silicone oil-induced ocular hypertension and glaucomatous neurodegeneration in mouse. Elife. 2019;8:e45881.

183. Shareef SR, Garcia-Valenzuela E, Salerno A, Walsh J, Sharma SC. Chronic ocular hypertension following episcleral venous occlusion in rats. Exp Eye Res. 1995;61:379–82.

184. Jayaram H. Intraocular pressure reduction in glaucoma: Does every mmHg count? Taiwan J Ophthalmol. 2020;10:255–8.

185. Killer H, Pircher A. Normal tension glaucoma: review of current understanding and mechanisms of the pathogenesis. Eye. 2018;32:924–30.

186. Swarup G, Sayyad Z. Altered Functions and Interactions of Glaucoma-Associated Mutants of Optineurin. Front Immunol. 2018;9:1287.

187. Ghinia MG, Novelli E, Sajgo S, Badea TC, Strettoi E. Brn3a and Brn3b knockout mice display unvaried retinal fine structure despite major morphological and numerical alterations of ganglion cells. J Comp Neurol. 2019;527:187–211.

188. Charalambakis NE, Govindaiah G, Campbell PW, Guido W. Developmental remodeling of thalamic interneurons requires retinal signaling. J Neurosci. 2019;39:3856–66.

189. Toonen JA, Ma Y, Gutmann DH. Defining the temporal course of murine neurofibromatosis-1 optic gliomagenesis reveals a therapeutic window to attenuate retinal dysfunction. Neuro-Oncol. 2016;19:808–19.

190. Diggs-Andrews KA, Brown JA, Gianino SM, Rubin JB, Wozniak DF, Gutmann DH. Sex is a major determinant of neuronal dysfunction in neurofibromatosis type 1. Ann Neurol. 2014;75:309–16.

191. de Blank PMK, Fisher MJ, Liu GT, Gutmann DH, Listernick R, Ferner RE, et al. Optic pathway gliomas in neurofibromatosis type 1. J Neuro-Ophthalmol. 2017;37:S23–32.

192. Brown JA, Gianino SM, Gutmann DH. Defective cAMP generation underlies the sensitivity of CNS neurons to neurofibromatosis-1 heterozygosity. J Neurosci. 2010;30:5579–89.

193. Toonen JA, Solga AC, Ma Y, Gutmann DH. Estrogen activation of microglia underlies the sexually dimorphic differences in Nf1 optic glioma-induced retinal pathology. J Exp Med. 2017;214:17–25.

194. Freret ME, Gutmann DH. Insights into optic pathway glioma vision loss from mouse models of neurofibromatosis type 1. J Neurosci Res. 2019;97:45–56.

195. Richardson R, Tracey-White D, Webster A, Moosajee M. The zebrafish eye—a paradigm for investigating human ocular genetics. Eye. 2017;31:68–86.

196. Hong Y, Luo Y. Zebrafish model in ophthalmology to study disease mechanism and drug discovery. Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14:716.

197. Link BA, Gray MP, Smith RS, John SWM. Intraocular pressure in zebrafish: comparison of inbred strains and identification of a reduced melanin mutant with raised IOP. Investig Ophthalmology Vis Sci. 2004;45:4415.

198. Veth KN, Willer JR, Collery RF, Gray MP, Willer GB, Wagner DS, et al. Mutations in zebrafish Irp2 result in adult-onset ocular pathogenesis that models myopia and other risk factors for glaucoma. PLoS Genet. 2011;7:e1001310.

199. Bouhenni RA, Dunmire J, Sewell A, Edward DP. Animal models of glaucoma. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2012;2012:692609.

200. Volland S, Esteve-Rudd J, Hoo J, Yee C, Williams DS. A Comparison of some organizational characteristics of the mouse central retina and the human macula. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0125631.

201. Quigley HA, Green WR. The histology of human glaucoma cupping and optic nerve damage: clinicopathologic correlation in 21 eyes. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:1803–27.

202. Sajdak BS, Salmon AE, Cava JA, Allen KP, Freling S, Ramamirtham R, et al. Noninvasive imaging of the tree shrew eye: wavefront analysis and retinal imaging with correlative histology. Exp Eye Res. 2019;185:107683.

203. Samuels BC, Siegwart JT, Zhan W, Hethcox L, Chimento M, Whitley R, et al. A Novel Tree Shrew (Tupaia belangeri) Model of Glaucoma. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 2018;59:3136–43.

204. McLellan GJ, Miller PE. Feline glaucoma—a comprehensive review. Vet Ophthalmol. 2011;14:15–29.

205. Park SA, Sledge D, Monahan C, Bartoe JT, Komáromy AM. Primary angle-closure glaucoma with goniodysgenesis in a Beagle dog. Bmc Vet Res. 2019;15:75.

206. Kuehn MH, Lipsett KA, Menotti-Raymond M, Whitmore SS, Scheetz TE, David VA, et al. A mutation in LTBP2 causes congenital glaucoma in domestic cats (Felis catus). PLoS One. 2016;11:e0154412.

207. Adelman SA, Oikawa K, Senthilkumar G, Trane RM, Teixeira LBC, McLellan GJ. Mapping retinal ganglion cell somas in a large-eyed glaucoma model. Mol Vis. 2020;27:608–21.

208. Oikawa K, Teixeira LBC, Keikhosravi A, Eliceiri KW, McLellan GJ. Microstructure and resident cell-types of the feline optic nerve head resemble that of humans. Exp Eye Res. 2021;202:108315.

209. Middleton S. Porcine ophthalmology. Vet Clin North Am Food Animal Pract. 2010;26:557–72.

210. García M, Ruiz-Ederra J, Hernández-Barbáchano H, Vecino E. Topography of pig retinal ganglion cells. J Comp Neurol. 2005;486:361–72.

211. Ruiz-Ederra J, García M, Hicks D, Vecino E. Comparative study of the three neurofilament subunits within pig and human retinal ganglion cells. Mol Vis. 2004;10:83–92.

212. Veiga-Crespo P, del Río P, Blindert M, Ueffing M, Hauck SM, Vecino E. Phenotypic map of porcine retinal ganglion cells. Mol Vis. 2012;19:904–16.

213. Galdos M, Bayón A, Rodriguez FD, Micó C, Sharma SC, Vecino E. Morphology of retinal vessels in the optic disk in a Göttingen minipig experimental glaucoma model. Vet Ophthalmol. 2012;15:36–46.

214. Suarez T, Vecino E. Expression of endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule 1 in the aqueous outflow pathway of porcine eyes with induced glaucoma. Mol Vis. 2006;12:1467–72.

215. SC VES. Elevated Intraocular Pressure induces Ultrastructural Changes in the Trabecular Meshwork. J Cytol Histol. 2015;S3:007.

216. Cassina M, Frizziero L, Opocher E, Parozzani R, Sorrentino U, Viscardi E, et al. Optic pathway glioma in type 1 neurofibromatosis: review of its pathogenesis, diagnostic assessment, and treatment recommendations. Cancers. 2019;11:1790.

217. Solga AC, Toonen JA, Pan Y, Cimino PJ, Ma Y, Castillon GA, et al. The cell of origin dictates the temporal course of neurofibromatosis-1 (Nf1) low-grade glioma formation. Oncotarget. 2017;8:47206–15.

218. Toonen JA, Anastasaki C, Smithson LJ, Gianino SM, Li K, Kesterson RA, et al. NF1 germline mutation differentially dictates optic glioma formation and growth in neurofibromatosis-1. Hum Mol Genet. 2016;25:1703–13.

219. Kaul A, Toonen JA, Gianino SM, Gutmann DH. The impact of coexisting genetic mutations on murine optic glioma biology. Neuro-Oncol. 2015;17:670–7.

220. Isakson SH, Rizzardi AE, Coutts AW, Carlson DF, Kirstein MN, Fisher J, et al. Genetically engineered minipigs model the major clinical features of human neurofibromatosis type 1. Commun Biol. 2018;1:158.

221. Mitra S, Devi S, Lee M-S, Jui J, Sahu A, Goldman D. Vegf signaling between Müller glia and vascular endothelial cells is regulated by immune cells and stimulates retina regeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2022;119:e2211690119.

222. Zhang KY, Aguzzi EA, Johnson TV. Retinal ganglion cell transplantation: approaches for overcoming challenges to functional integration. Cells. 2021;10:1426.

223. Wu S, Chang K-C, Nahmou M, Goldberg JL. Induced pluripotent stem cells promote retinal ganglion cell survival after transplant. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 2018;59:1571–6.

224. Abud MB, Baranov P, Patel S, Hicks CA, Isaac DLC, Louzada RN, et al. In vivo study to assess dosage of allogeneic pig retinal progenitor cells:
Long-term survival, engraftment, differentiation and safety. *J Cell Mol Medicine.* 2022;26:3254–68.

225. Mead B, Scheven BA. Mesenchymal stem cell therapy for retinal ganglion cell neuroprotection and axon regeneration. *Neural Regen Res.* 2015;10:371–3.

226. Chichagova V, Georgiou M, Carter M, Dorgau B, Hilgen G, Collin J, et al. Incorporating microglia-like cells in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal organoids. *J Cell Mol Med.* 2023;27:435–45.

227. VanderWall KB, Vij R, Ohlemacher SK, Sridhar A, Fligor CM, Feder EM, et al. Astrocytes regulate the development and maturation of retinal ganglion cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells. *Stem Cell Rep.* 2019;12:201–12.

228. Xu H, Chen M, Forrester JV. Para-inflammation in the aging retina. *Prog Retin Eye Res.* 2009;28:348–68.

229. Baudouin C, Kolko M, Melik-Parsadaniantz S, Messmer EM. Inflammation in Glaucoma: from the back to the front of the eye, and beyond. *Prog Retin Eye Res.* 2021;83:100916.

230. Andries L, Kancheva D, Masin L, Scheyltjens J, Hove HV, Vlaminck KD, et al. Immune stimulation recruits a subset of pro-regenerative macrophages to the retina that promotes axonal regrowth of injured neurons. *Acta Neuropathol Commun.* 2023;11:85.

231. Pierdomenico JD, Henderson DCM, Giammaria S, Smith VL, Jamet AJ, Smith CA, et al. Age and intraocular pressure in murine experimental glaucoma. *Prog Retin Eye Res.* 2022;88:101021.

232. Hoffelen SJV, Young MJ, Shatos MA, Sakaguchi DS. Incorporation of murine brain progenitor cells into the developing mammalian retina. *Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci.* 2003;44:426.

233. Sakaguchi DS, van Hoffelen SJ, Theusch E, Parker E, Orasky J, Harper MM, et al. Transplantation of neural progenitor cells into the developing retina of the Brazilian opossum: an in vivo system for studying stem/progenitor cell plasticity. *Dev Neurosci-basel.* 2005;26:336–45.

234. Yao J, Feathers KL, Khanna H, Thompson D, Tsilfidis C, Hauswirth WW, et al. XIAP therapy increases survival of transplanted rod precursors in a degenerating host retina. *Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci.* 2011;52:1567.

235. Eberle D, Santos-Ferreira T, Grahl S, Ader M. Subretinal Transplantation of MACS Purified Photoreceptor Precursor Cells into the Adult Mouse Retina. *J Vis Exp.* 2014;e50932.

236. Soucy JR, Todd L, Kriukov E, Phay M, Reh TA, Baranov P. Introduced chemokine gradients guide transplanted and regenerated retinal neurons toward their natural position in the retina. *Biorxiv.* 2022;2022.09.29.510158.

237. Xu Q, Boylan NJ, Suk JS, Wang Y-Y, Nance EA, Yang J-C, et al. Nanoparticle diffusion in, and microheology of, the bovine vitreous ex vivo. *J Control Release.* 2013;167:76–84.

238. Xian B, Huang B. The immune response of stem cells in subretinal transplantation. *Stem Cell Res Ther.* 2015;6:161.

239. Forrester JV, Xu H. Good news–bad news: the Yin and Yang of immune privilege in the eye. *Front Immunol.* 2012;3:338.

240. Peynshaert K, Devoldere J, Minnaert AK, Smedt SCD, Remaut K. Morphology and Composition of the Inner Limiting Membrane: Species-Specific Variations and Relevance toward Drug Delivery Research. *Curr Eye Res.* 2019;44:465–75.

241. Johnson TV, Bull ND, Martin KR. Identification of barriers to retinal engraftment of transplanted stem cells. *Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci.* 2010;51:960.

242. Zhang KY, Tuffy C, Mertz JL, Quillen S, Wechsler L, Quigley HA, et al. Role of the internal limiting membrane in structural engraftment and topographic spacing of transplanted human stem cell-derived retinal ganglion cells. *Stem Cell Rep.* 2021;16:149–67.

243. Aguzzi EA, Zhang KY, Nagalingam A, Quillen S, Hariharakumar S, Chetla N, et al. Internal limiting membrane disruption facilitates engraftment of transplanted human stem cell derived retinal ganglion cells. *Biorxiv.* 2022;2022.12.13.519327.

244. Teo KYC, Lee SY, Barathi AV, Tun SBB, Tan L, Constable IJ. Surgical removal of internal limiting membrane and layering of AAV vector on the retina under air enhances gene transfection in a nonhuman primate. *Investig Opthalmol Vis Sci.* 2018;59:3574.

245. Peynshaert K, Vanluchene H, Clerck KD, Minnaert A-K, Verhoeven M, Gouspillou N, et al. ICG-mediated photodisruption of the inner limiting membrane enhances retinal drug delivery. *J Control Release.* 2022;349:315–26.

246. Becker S, Eastlake K, Jayaram H, Jones MF, Brown RA, McLellan GJ, et al. Allogeneic transplantation of müller-derived retinal ganglion cells improves retinal function in a feline model of ganglion cell depletion. *Stem Cell Transl Med.* 2016;5:192–205.

247. Luo Z, Xian B, Li K, Li K, Yang R, Chen M, et al. Biodegradable scaffolds facilitate epiretinal transplantation of hiPSC-Derived retinal neurons in nonhuman primates. *Acta Biomater.* 2021;134:289–301.

248. Dromel PC, Singh D, Andres E, Likes M, Kurisawa M, Alexander-Katz A, et al. A bioinspired gelatin-hyaluronic acid-based hybrid interpenetrating network for the enhancement of retinal ganglion cells replacement therapy. *Npj Regen Medicine.* 2021;6:85.

249. Dromel PC, Singh D, Alexander-Katz A, Kurisawa M, Spector M, Young M. Mechano-chemical effect of gelatin- and HA-based hydrogels on human retinal progenitor cells. *Prog Coll Pol Sci.* 2023;9:58.

250. Kador KE, Montero RB, Venugopalan P, Hertz J, Zindell AN, Valenzuela DA, et al. Tissue engineering the retinal ganglion cell nerve fiber layer. *Biomaterials.* 2013;34:4242–50.

251. Gamlin PD, Alexander JJ, Boye SL, Witherspoon CD, Boye SE. Aden-associated virus vectors, design and delivery. *Methods Mol Biol.* 2019;1950:249–62.

252. Malagobadan S, Nagoor NH. Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences. 2017.

253. Golan N, Cafferty WB. Dissociation of intact adult mouse cortical projection neurons for single-cell RNA-seq. *STAR Protoc.* 2021;2:100941.

254. Lin KT, Wang A, Nguyen AB, Iyer J, Tran SD. Recent advances in hydrogels: ophthalmic applications in cell delivery, vitreous substitutes, and ocular adhesives. *Biomed.* 2021;9:1203.

255. Wang J, Chu R, Ni N, Nan G. The effect of Matrigel as scaffold material for neural stem cell transplantation for treating spinal cord injury. *Sci Rep.* 2020;10:2576.

256. Carlson AL, Bennett NK, Francis NL, Halikere A, Clarke S, Moore JC, et al. Generation and transplantation of reprogrammed human neurons in the brain using 3D microtopographic scaffolds. *Nat Commun.* 2016;7:10862.

257. Moeinabadi-Bidgoli K, Babajani A, Yazdanpanah G, Farhadihosseinabadi B, Jamshidi E, Bahrami S, et al. Translational insights into stem cell preconditioning: from molecular mechanisms to preclinical applications. *Biomed Pharmacother.* 2021;142:112026.

258. Hasel P, Aisenberg WH, Bennett FC, Liddelow SA. Molecular and metabolic heterogeneity of astrocytes and microglia. *Cell Metab.* 2023;35:555–70.

259. Hasel P, Rose IVL, Sadick JS, Kim RD, Liddelow SA. Neuroinflammatory astrocyte subtypes in the mouse brain. *Nat Neurosci.* 2021;24:1475–87.

260. Hammond TR, Dufort C, Dissing-Olesen L, Giera S, Young A, Wysoker A, et al. Single-cell RNA sequencing of microglia throughout the mouse lifespan and in the injured brain reveals complex cell-state changes. *Immunity.* 2019;50:253–271.e6.

261. Paolicelli RC, Sierra A, Stevens B, Tremblay M-E, Aguzzi A, Ajami B, et al. Microglia states and nomenclature: a field at its crossroads. *Neuron.* 2022;110:3458–83.

262. Ceyzériat K, Abjean L, Sauvage MAC, Haim LB, Escartin C. The complex STATes of astrocyte reactivity: How are they controlled by the JAK–STAT3 pathway? *Neurosci.* 2016;330:205–18.

263. Yan Z, Gibson SA, Buckley JA, Qin H, Benveniste EN. Role of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway in regulation of innate immunity in neuroinflammatory diseases. *Clin Immunol.* 2018;189:4–13.

264. Liddelow SA, Guttenplan KA, Clarke LE, Bennett FC, Bohlen CJ, Schirmer L, et al. Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia. *Nature.* 2017;541:481–7.

265. Liu L, Liu J, Bao J, Bai Q, Wang G. Interaction of microglia and astrocytes in the neurovascular unit. *Front Immunol.* 2020;11:1024.

266. Guttenplan KA, Stafford BK, El-Danaf RN, Adler DI, Münch AE, Weigel MK, et al. Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes drive neuronal death after retinal injury. *Cell Rep.* 2020;31:107776.

267. Sterling JK, Adetunji MO, Guttha S, Bargoud AR, Uyhazi KE, Ross AG, et al. GLP-1 receptor agonist NLY01 reduces retinal inflammation and neuron death secondary to ocular hypertension. *Cell Rep.* 2020;33:108271.

268. Lawrence ECN, Guo M, Schwartz TD, Wu J, Lu J, Nikonov S, et al. Topical and systemic GLP-1R agonist administration both rescue retinal ganglion cells in hypertensive glaucoma. *Front Cell Neurosci.* 2023;17:1156829.
269. Guttenplan KA, Weigel MK, Prakash P, Wijewardhane PR, Hasel P, Rufen-Blanchette U, et al. Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes induce cell death via saturated lipids. Nature. 2021;599:102–7.

270. Anderson MA, Burda JE, Ren Y, Ao Y, O'Shea TM, Kawaguchi R, et al. Astrocyte scar formation aids central nervous system axon regeneration. Nature. 2016;532:195–200.

271. Gomes C, VanderWall KB, Pan Y, Lu X, Lavekar SS, Huang K-C, et al. Astrocytes modulate neurodegenerative phenotypes associated with glaucoma in OPTN(E50K) human stem cell-derived retinal ganglion cells. Stem Cell Rep. 2022;17:1636–49.

272. Zhao X, Sun R, Luo X, Wang F, Sun X. The interaction between microglia and macroglia in glaucoma. Front Neurosci-switz. 2021;15:610788.

273. Ransom BR, Orkand RK. Glial-neuronal interactions in non-synaptic areas of the brain: studies in the optic nerve. Trends Neurosci. 1996;19:352–8.

274. Ridet JL, Privat A, Malhotra SK, Gage FH. Reactive astrocytes: cellular and molecular cues to biological function. Trends Neurosci. 1997;20:570–7.

275. Linnerbauer M, Rothhammer V. Protective functions of reactive astrocytes following central nervous system insult. Front Immunol. 2020;11:573256.

276. Tezel G. Molecular regulation of neuroinflammation in glaucoma: Current knowledge and the ongoing search for new treatment targets. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2022;87:100998.

277. Cooper ML, Crish SD, Inman DM, Horner PJ, Calkins DJ. Early astrocyte redistribution in the optic nerve precedes axonopathy in the DBA/2J mouse model of glaucoma. Exp Eye Res. 2016;150:22–33.

278. Cooper ML, Collyer JW, Calkins DJ. Astrocyte remodeling without gliosis precedes optic nerve axonopathy. Acta Neuropathologica Commun. 2018;6:38.

279. Paschalis EI, Lei F, Zhou C, Kapoulea V, Thanos A, Dana R, et al. The role of microglia and peripheral monocytes in retinal damage after corneal chemical injury. Am J Pathology. 2018;188:1580–96.

280. García-Bermúdez MY, Freude KK, Mouhammad ZA, van Wijngaarden P, Martin KK, Kolko M. Glial cells in glaucoma: friends, foes, and potential therapeutic targets. Front Neurol. 2021;12:624983.

281. Bessoles S, Grandclément C, Alari-Pahissa E, Gehrig J, Jeevan-Raj B, Held W. Adaptations of Natural Killer Cells to Self-MHC Class I. Front Immunol. 2014;5:349.

282. Taylor AL, Negus SL, Negus M, Bolton EM, Bradley JA, Pettigrew GJ. Pathways of helper CD4 T cell allorecognition in generating alloantibody and CD8 T cell alloimmunity. Transplantation. 2007;83:931–7.

283. Diehl R, Ferrara F, Müller C, Dreyer AY, McLeod DD, Fricke S, et al. Immunosuppression for in vivo research: state-of-the-art protocols and experimental approaches. Cell Mol Immunol. 2017;14:146–79.

284. Lilienfeld BG, Crew MD, Forte P, Baumann BC, Seebach JD. Transgenic expression of HLA-E single chain trimer protects porcine endothelial cells against human natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Xenotransplantation. 2007;14:126–34.

285. Morizane A, Doi D, Kikuchi T, Okita K, Hotta A, Kawasaki T, et al. Direct comparison of autologous and allogeneic transplantation of iPSC-derived neural cells in the brain of a nonhuman primate. Stem Cell Rep. 2013;1:283–92.

286. de Rham C, Villard J. Potential and limitation of HLA-based banking of human pluripotent stem cells for cell therapy. J Immunol Res. 2014;2014:518135.

287. Madrid M, Sumen C, Aivio S, Saklayen N. autologous induced pluripotent stem cell-based cell therapies: promise, progress, and challenges. Curr Protoc. 2021;1:e88.

288. Yin Y, Cui Q, Gilbert H, Yang Y, Yang Z, Berlinicke C, et al. Oncomodulin links inflammation to optic nerve regeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2009;106:19587–92.

289. Chang Y-C, Walston ST, Chow RH, Weiland JD. GCaMP expression in retinal ganglion cells characterized using a low-cost fundus imaging system. J Neural Eng. 2017;14:056018.

290. Smith CA, Chauhan BC. In vivo imaging of adeno-associated viral vector labelled retinal ganglion cells. Sci Rep-uk. 2018;8:1490.

291. Hong G, Fu TM, Qiao M, Viveros RD, Yang X, Zhou T, et al. A method for single-neuron chronic recording from the retina in awake mice. Science. 2018;360:1447–51.

292. Smith CA, Vianna JR, Chauhan BC. Assessing retinal ganglion cell damage Eye. 2017;31:209–17.

293. Smith BJ, Wang X, Chauhan BC, Côté PD, Tremblay F. Contribution of retinal ganglion cells to the mouse electroretinogram. Doc Ophthalmol. 2014;128:155–68.

294. Liu Z, Kurokawa K, Zhang F, Lee JJ, Miller DT. Imaging and quantifying ganglion cells and other transparent neurons in the living human retina. Proc National Acad Sci. 2017;114:12803–8.

295. Rossi EA, Granger CE, Sharma R, Yang Q, Saito K, Schwarz C, et al. Imaging individual neurons in the retinal ganglion cell layer of the living eye. Proc National Acad Sci. 2017;114:586–91.

296. Miller DT, Kurokawa K. Cellular scale imaging of transparent retinal structures and processes using adaptive optics optical coherence tomography. Annu Rev Vis Sc. 2020;6:1–34.

297. Takagi S, Mandai M, Gocho K, Hirami Y, Yamamoto M, Fujihara M, et al. Evaluation of transplanted autologous induced pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal pigment epithelium in exudative age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmol Retin. 2019;3:850–9.

298. Aboualizadeh E, Phillips MJ, McGregor JE, DiLoreto DA, Strazzeri JM, Dhakal KR, et al. Imaging transplanted photoreceptors in living nonhuman primates with single-cell resolution. Stem Cell Rep. 2020;15:482–97.

299. Walters S, Feeks JA, Huynh KT, Hunter JJ. Adaptive optics two-photon excited fluorescence lifetime imaging ophthalmoscopy of photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium in the living non-human primate eye. Biomed Opt Express. 2021;13:389–3.

300. Geng Y, Schery LA, Sharma R, Dubra A, Ahmad K, Libby RT, et al. Optical properties of the mouse eye. Biomed Opt Express. 2011;2:717–38.

301. Lu GJ, Chou L, Malounda D, Patel AK, Welsbie DS, Chao DL, et al. Genetically encodable contrast agents for optical coherence tomography. ACS Nano. 2020;14:7823–31.

302. Yang C. Molecular contrast optical coherence tomography: a review. Photochem Photobiol. 2004;81:215–37.

303. Ehlers JP, Gupta PK, Farsiu S, Maldonado R, Kim T, Toth CA, et al. Evaluation of contrast agents for enhanced visualization in optical coherence tomography. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51:6614.

304. Yuan S, Roney CA, Wierwille J, Chen C-W, Xu B, Griffiths G, et al. Co-registered optical coherence tomography and fluorescence molecular imaging for simultaneous morphological and molecular imaging. Phys Med Biol. 2009;55:191–206.

305. Li X, Zhang W, Li Y, Wu X, Wang M, Tan X, et al. In vivo cell tracking using multimodality imaging. Biophotonics Congress: Biomedical Optics 2022. Paper OS4D.5. https://doi.org/10.1364/OTS.2022.OS4D.5.

306. Liba O, SoRelle ED, Sen D, de la Zerda A. Contrast-enhanced optical coherence tomography with picomolar sensitivity for functional in vivo imaging. Sci Rep-uk. 2016;6:23337.

307. Vrathasha V, Nikonov S, Bell BA, He J, Bungatavula Y, Uyhaike KE, et al. Transplanted human induced pluripotent stem cells-derived retinal ganglion cells embed within mouse retinas and are electrophysiologically functional. Iscience. 2022;25:105308.

308. Singh MS, Balmer J, Barnard AR, Aslam SA, Moralli D, Green CM, et al. Transplanted photoreceptor precursors transfer proteins to host photoreceptors by a mechanism of cytoplasmic fusion. Nat Commun. 2016;7:13537.

309. Kim I-J, Zhang Y, Yamagata M, Meister M, Sanes JR. Molecular identification of a retinal cell type that responds to upward motion. Nature. 2008;452:478–82.

310. Field GD, Gauthier JL, Sher A, Greschner M, Machado T, Jepson LH, et al. Functional connectivity in the retina at the resolution of photoreceptors. Nature. 2010;467:673–7.

311. Baden T, Berens P, Franke K, Rosón MR, Bethge M, Euler T. The functional diversity of retinal ganglion cells in the mouse. Nature. 2016;529:345–50.

312. Porciatti V. Electrophysiological assessment of retinal ganglion cell function. Exp Eye Res. 2015;141:164–70.

313. He XY, Zhao CJ, Xu H, Chen K, Bian BSJ, Gong Y, et al. Synaptic repair and vision restoration in advanced degenerating eyes by transplantation of retinal progenitor cells. Stem Cell Rep. 2021;16:1805–17.

314. Pfäffle C, Spahr H, Kutzner L, Burhan S, Hilge F, Miura Y, et al. Simultaneous functional imaging of neuronal and photoreceptor layers in living human retina. Opt Lett. 2019;44:5671.

315. Hilgen G, Kartsaki E, Kartysh V, Cessac B, Sernagor E. A novel approach to the functional classification of retinal ganglion cells. Open Biol. 2022;12:210367.
316. Milosavljevic N, Storchi R, Eleftheriou CG, Colins A, Petersen RS, Lucas RJ. Photoreceptive retinal ganglion cells control the information rate of the optic nerve. Proc National Acad Sci. 2018;115:201810701.

317. Li Y, Xia X, Paulus YM. Advances in retinal optical imaging. Photonics. 2018;5:9.

318. Tribble JR, Hui F, Quintero H, Hajji SE, Bell K, Polo AD, et al. Neuroprotection in glaucoma: mechanisms beyond intraocular pressure lowering. Mol Asp Med. 2023;92:101193.

319. Chao JR, Lamba DA, Klesert TR, Torre AL, Hoshino A, Taylor RJ, et al. Transplantation of human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal cells into the subretinal space of a non-human primate. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2017;6:4.

320. Yu-Wai-Man P, Griffiths PG, Chinnery PF. Mitochondrial optic neuropathies – disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2011;30:81–114.

321. Rajala RVS. Aerobic glycolysis in the retina: functional roles of pyruvate kinase isoforms. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2020;8:266.

322. Williams PA, Harder JM, Foxworth NE, Cochran KE, Philip VM, Porciatti V, et al. Vitamin B3 modulates mitochondrial vulnerability and prevents glaucoma in aged mice. Science. 2017;355:756–60.

323. Tribble JR, Otmani A, Sun S, Ellis SA, Cimaglia G, Vohra R, et al. Nicotinamide provides neuroprotection in glaucoma by protecting against mitochondrial and metabolic dysfunction. Redox Biol. 2021;43:101988.

324. Hui F, Tang J, Williams PA, McGuinness MB, Hadoux X, Casson RJ, et al. Improvement in inner retinal function in glaucoma with nicotinamide (vitamin B3) supplementation: a crossover randomized clinical trial. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2020;48:903–14.

325. Yu DY, Cringle SJ. Oxygen distribution and consumption within the retina in vascularised and avascular retinas and in animal models of retinal disease. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2001;20:175–208.

326. Harder JM, Guymer C, Wood JPM, Daskalaki E, Chidlow G, Zhang C, et al. Disturbed glucose and pyruvate metabolism in glaucoma with neuroprotection by pyruvate or rapamycin. Proc National Acad Sci. 2020;117:33619–27.

327. Moraes CGD, John SWM, Williams PA, Blumberg DM, Cioffi GA, Liebmann JM. Nicotinamide and pyruvate for neuroenhancement in open-angle glaucoma. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2022;140:11–8.

328. Philips T, Rothstein JD. Oligodendroglia: metabolic supporters of neurons. J Clin Investig. 2017;127:3271–80.

329. Benedetto MM, Contin MA. Oxidative Stress in Retinal Degeneration Promoted by Constant LED Light. Front Cell Neurosci. 2019;13:139.

330. Boia R, Ruzafa N, Aires ID, Pereiro X, Ambrósio AF, Vecino E, et al. Neuroprotective strategies for retinal ganglion cell degeneration: current status and challenges ahead. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:2262.

331. Sánchez-Migallón MC, Valiente-Soriano FJ, Nadal-Nicolás FM, Vidal-Sanz M, Agudo-Barriuso M. Apoptotic retinal ganglion cell death after optic nerve transection or crush in mice: delayed RGC loss with BDNF or a caspase 3 inhibitor. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;57:81.

332. Ahmed Z, Kalinski H, Berry M, Almasieh M, Ashush H, Slager N, et al. Ocular neuroprotection by siRNA targeting caspase-2. Cell Death Dis. 2011;2:e173–e173.

333. Thomas CN, Bernardo-Colón A, Courtie E, Essex G, Rex TS, Blanch RJ, et al. Effects of intravitreal injection of siRNA against caspase-2 on retinal and optic nerve degeneration in air blast induced ocular trauma. Sci Rep-uk. 2021;11:16839.

334. Fatokun AA, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Players in parthanatos. Brit. J Pharmacol. 2014;171:2000–16.

335. Chen L, Zhang X, Ou Y, Liu M, Yu D, Song Z, et al. Advances in RIPK1 kinase inhibitors. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:976435.

336. Welsbie DS, Yang Z, Ge Y, Mitchell KL, Zhou X, Martin SE, et al. Functional genomic screening identifies dual leucine zipper kinase as a key mediator of retinal ganglion cell death. Proc National Acad Sci. 2013;110:4045–50.

337. Lindsten T, Ross AJ, King A, Zong W-X, Rathmell JC, Shiels HA, et al. The combined functions of proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members bak and bax are essential for normal development of multiple tissues. Mol Cell. 2000;6:1389–99.

338. Donahue RJ, Maes ME, Grosser JA, Nickells RW. BAX-depleted retinal ganglion cells survive and become quiescent following optic nerve damage. Mol Neurobiol. 2020;57:1070–84.

339. Welsbie DS, Ziogas NK, Xu L, Kim B-J, Ge Y, Patel AK, et al. Targeted disruption of dual leucine zipper kinase and leucine zipper kinase promotes neuronal survival in a model of diffuse traumatic brain injury. Mol Neurodegener. 2019;14:44.

340. Watkins TA, Wang B, Huntwork-Rodriguez S, Yang J, Jiang Z, Eastham-Anderson J, et al. DLK initiates a transcriptional program that couples apoptotic and regenerative responses to axonal injury. Proc National Acad Sci. 2013;110:4039–44.

341. Luo Z, Chang K-C, Wu S, Sun C, Xia X, Nahmou M, et al. Directly induced human retinal ganglion cells mimic fetal RGCs and are neuroprotective after transplantation in vivo. Stem Cell Rep. 2022;17:2690–703.

342. Lucci C, Groef LD. On the other end of the line: extracellular vesicle-mediated communication in glaucoma. Front Neuroanat. 2023;17:1148956.

343. Bartsch U, Oriyakhel W, Kenna PF, Linke S, Richard G, Petrowitz B, et al. Retinal cells integrate into the outer nuclear layer and differentiate into mature photoreceptors after subretinal transplantation into adult mice. Exp Eye Res. 2008;86:691–700.

344. Daniszewski M, Senabouth A, Nguyen QH, Crombie DE, Lukowski SW, Kulkarni T, et al. Single cell RNA sequencing of stem cell-derived retinal ganglion cells. Sci Data. 2018;5:e180013.

345. Liu YV, Santiago CP, Sogunro A, Konar GJ, Hu M, McNally MM, et al. Single-cell transcriptome analysis of xenotransplanted human retinal organoids defines two migratory cell populations of nonretinal origin. Stem Cell Rep. 2023;18:1138–54.

346. Tyssowski KM, DeStefino NR, Cho JH, Dunn CJ, Poston RG, Carty CE, et al. Different neuronal activity patterns induce different gene expression programs. Neuron. 2018;98:530–546.e11.

347. Blankenship AG, Feller MB. Mechanisms underlying spontaneous patterned activity in developing neural circuits. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2010;11:18–29.

348. Tehrani S, Davis L, Cepurna WO, Choe TE, Lozano DC, Monfared A, et al. Astrocyte structural and molecular response to elevated intraocular pressure occurs rapidly and precedes axonal tubulin rearrangement within the optic nerve head in a rat model. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0167364.

349. Howell GR, Soto I, Zhu X, Ryan M, Macalinao DG, Sousa GL, et al. Radiation treatment inhibits monocyte entry into the optic nerve head and prevents neuronal damage in a mouse model of glaucoma. J Clin Invest. 2012;122:1246–61.

350. Bosco A, Inman DM, Steele MR, Wu G, Soto I, Marsh-Armstrong N, et al. Reduced retina microglial activation and improved optic nerve integrity with minocycline treatment in the DBA/2J mouse model of glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:1437.

351. Chung W-S, Clarke LE, Wang GX, Stafford BK, Sher A, Chakraborty C, et al. Astrocytes mediate synapse elimination through MEGF10 and MERTK pathways. Nature. 2013;504:394–400.

352. Anderson SR, Zhang J, Steele MR, Romero CO, Kautzman AG, Schafer DP, et al. Complement targets newborn retinal ganglion cells for phagocytic elimination by microglia. J Neurosci. 2019;39:2025–40.

353. Paisley CE, Kay JN. Seeing stars: development and function of retinal astrocytes. Dev Biol. 2021;478:144–54.

354. Vecino E, Rodriguez FD, Ruzafa N, Pereiro X, Sharma SC. Glia-neuron interactions in the mammalian retina. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2016;51:1–40.

355. Nair CEM, Nickells RW. Chapter twenty neuroinflammation in glaucoma and optic nerve damage. Prog Mol Biol Transl. 2015;134:343–63.

356. Chen H, Cho K-S, Yu THK, Shen C-H, Kaur M, Chen G, et al. Commensal microflora-induced T cell responses mediate progressive neurodegeneration in glaucoma. Nat Commun. 2018;9:3209.

357. Levraud J-P, Rawls JF, Clatworthy AE. Using zebrafish to understand reciprocal interactions between the nervous and immune systems and the microbial world. J Neuroinflammation. 2022;19:170.

358. Jiang S, Kametani M, Chen DF. Adaptive immunity: new aspects of pathogenesis underlying neurodegeneration in glaucoma and optic neuropathy. Front Immunol. 2020;11:65.

359. West EL, Pearson RA, Tschernutter M, Sowden JC, MacLaren RE, Ali RR. Pharmacological disruption of the outer limiting membrane leads to increased retinal integration of transplanted photoreceptor precursors. Exp Eye Res. 2008;86:601–11.
360. Kinouchi R, Takeda M, Yang L, Wilhelmsson U, Lundkvist A, Pekny M, et al. Robust neural integration from retinal transplants in mice deficient in GFAP and vimentin. *Nat Neurosci.* 2003;6:863–8.

361. Fisher MJ, Loguidice M, Gutmann DH, Listernick R, Ferner RE, Ullrich NJ, et al. Gender as a disease modifier in neurofibromatosis type 1 optic pathway glioma. *Ann Neurol.* 2014;75:799–800.

362. Phay MH, Bauer SG, Baranov PY. Masking the "eat me" signal drastically increases the short-term survival of donor human retinal ganglion cells after xenotransplantation. *Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.* 2022;63:11117–1117.

363. Demb JB, Singer JH. Functional circuitry of the retina. *Ann Rev Vis Sci.* 2015;1:263–89.

364. Ludwig AL, Mayerl SJ, Gao Y, Banghart M, Bacig C, Zepeda MAF, et al. Re-formation of synaptic connectivity in dissociated human stem cell-derived retinal organoid cultures. *Proc National Acad Sci.* 2023;120:e2213418120.

365. Bardy C, van den Hurk M, Eames T, Marchand C, Hernandez RV, Kellogg M, et al. Neuronal medium that supports basic synaptic functions and activity of human neurons in vitro. *Proc National Acad Sci.* 2015;112:E2725–34.

366. Matsuoka RL, Nguyen-Ba-Charvet KT, Parray A, Badea TC, Chédotal A, Kolodkin AL. Transmembrane semaphorin signalling controls laminar stratification in the mammalian retina. *Nature* 2011;470:259–63.

367. Agostinone J, Alarcon-Martinez L, Gamlin C, Yu WQ, Wong ROL, Di_Polo A. Insulin signalling promotes dendrite and synapse regeneration and restores circuit function after axonal injury. *Brain* 2018;141:1963–80.

368. Ray TA, Roy S, Kozlowski C, Wang J, Cafaro J, Hulbert SW, et al. Formation of retinal direction-selective circuitry initiated by starburst amacrine cell homotopic contact. *Elife.* 2018;7:e34241.

369. Vrabec F. "Displaced nerve cells" in the human retina. *Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol.* 1986;224:143–6.

370. Curcio CA, Allen KA. Topography of ganglion cells in human retina. *J Comp Neurol.* 1990;300:5–25.

371. Nadal-Nicolás FM, Salinas-Navarro M, Jiménez-López M, Sobrado-Calvo P, Villegas-Pérez MP, Vidal-Sanz M, et al. Displaced retinal ganglion cells in albino and pigmented rats. *Front Neuroanat.* 2014;8:99.

372. Dumitrescu ON, Pucci FG, Wong KY, Berson DM. Ectopic retinal ON bipolar cell synapses in the OFF inner plexiform layer: Contacts with dopaminergic amacrine cells and melanopsin ganglion cells. *J Comp Neurol.* 2009;517:226–44.

373. Chen M, Wang K, Lin B. Development and degeneration of cone bipolar cells are independent of cone photoreceptors in a mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa. *PLoS One.* 2012;7:e44036.

374. Jacobi A, Tran NM, Yan W, Benhar I, Tian F, Schaffer R, et al. Overlapping transcriptional programs promote survival and axonal regeneration of injured retinal ganglion cells. *Neuron.* 2022;110:2625–2645.e7.

375. Li L, Fang F, Feng X, Zhuang P, Huang H, Liu P, et al. Single-cell transcriptome analysis of regenerating RGCs reveals potent glaucoma neural repair genes. *Neuron.* 2022;110:2646–2663.e6.

376. Tian F, Cheng Y, Zhou S, Wang Q, Monavarfeshani A, Gao K, et al. Core transcription programs controlling injury-induced neurodegeneration of retinal ganglion cells. *Neuron.* 2022;110:2607–2624.e8.

377. Varadarajan SG, Hunyara JL, Hamilton NR, Kolodkin AL, Huberman AD. Central nervous system regeneration. *Cell.* 2022;185:77–94.

378. Pearson RA, Hippert C, Graca AB, Barber AC. Photoreceptor replacement therapy: challenges presented by the diseased recipient retinal environment. *Visual Neurosci.* 2014;31:333–44.

379. Riccomagno MM, Sun LO, Brady CM, Alexandropoulos K, Seo S, Kurokawa M, et al. Cas adaptor proteins organize the retinal ganglion cell layer downstream of integrin signaling. *Neuron.* 2014;81:779–86.

380. Moons L. Fueling axonal regeneration: dendritic energy to the rescue? *Acta Ophthalmol.* 2019;97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-3768.2019.8239.

381. Santina LD, Yu AK, Harris SC, Soliño M, Ruiz TG, Most J, et al. Disassembly and rewiring of a mature converging excitatory circuit following injury. *Cell Rep.* 2021;36:109463.

382. Hernandez M, Rodriguez FD, Sharma SC, Vecino E. Immunohistochemical changes in rat retinas at various time periods of elevated intraocular pressure. *Mol Vis.* 2008;15:2696–709.

383. Lee H, Oh WC, Seong J, Kim J. Advanced fluorescence protein-based synapse-detectors. *Front Synaptic Neurosci.* 2016;8:16.

384. Bleckert A, Schwartz GW, Turner MH, Rieke F, Wong ROL. Visual space is represented by nonmatching topographies of distinct mouse retinal ganglion cell types. *Curr Biol.* 2014;24:310–5.

385. Bringmann A, Wiedemann P. Müller glial cells in retinal disease. *Ophthalmologica.* 2011;227:1–19.

386. Hippert C, Graca AB, Barber AC, West EL, Smith AJ, Ali RR, et al. Müller glia activation in response to inherited retinal degeneration is highly varied and disease-specific. *PLoS One.* 2015;10:e0120415.

387. Bull ND, Limb GA, Martin KR. Human Müller Stem Cell (MIO-M1) transplantation in a rat model of glaucoma: survival, differentiation, and integration. *Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci.* 2008;49:3449.

388. Singhal S, Lawrence JM, Bhatia B, Ellis JS, Kwan AS, MacNeil A, et al. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and microglia prevent migration and integration of grafted müller stem cells into degenerating retina. * Stem Cells.* 2008;26:1074–82.

389. Ma J, Chen M, Ai J, Young MJ, Ge J. Enhanced migration of engrafted retinal progenitor cells into the host retina via disruption of glial barriers. *Molecular Vision.* 2021;27:300–8.

390. Suzuki T, Akimoto M, Imai H, Ueda Y, Mandai M, Yoshimura N, et al. Chondroitinase ABC treatment enhances synaptogenesis between transplant and host neurons in model of retinal degeneration. *Cell Transplant.* 2007;16:493–503.

391. Singh RK, Occelli LM, Binette F, Petersen-Jones SM, Nasonkin IO. Transplantation of human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal tissue in the subretinal space of the cat eye. *Stem Cells Dev.* 2019;28:1151–66.

392. Ramirez AI, de Hoz R, Salobrar-Garcia E, Salazar JJ, Rojas B, Ajoy D, et al. The role of microglia in retinal neurodegeneration: Alzheimer's disease, parkinson, and glaucoma. *Front Aging Neurosci.* 2017;9:214.

393. Rashid K, Akhtar-Schaefer I, Langmann T. Microglia in retinal degeneration. *Front Immunol.* 2019;10:1975.

394. Montilla A, Zabala A, Er-Lukowiak M, Rissiek B, Magnus T, Rodriguez-Iglesias N, et al. Microglia and meningeal macrophages depletion delays the onset of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. *Cell Death Dis.* 2023;14:16.

395. Araque A, Navarrete M. Glial cells in neuronal network function. *Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci.* 2010;365:2375–81.

396. Benfey N, Foubert D, Ruthazer ES. Glia regulate the development, function, and plasticity of the visual system from retina to cortex. *Front Neural Circuit.* 2022;16:826664.

397. Rubino SJ, Mayo L, Wimmer I, Siedler V, Brunner F, Hametner S, et al. Acute microglia ablation induces neurodegeneration in the somatosensory system. *Nat Commun.* 2018;9:4578.

398. Roy S, Wang D, Rudzite AM, Perry B, Scalabrino ML, Thapa M, et al. Large-scale interrogation of retinal cell functions by 1-photon light-sheet microscopy. *Cell Reports Methods.* 2023;3:100453.

399. Khabou H, Orendorff E, Trapani F, Rucli M, Desrosiers M, Yger P, et al. Optogenetic Targeting of All Amacrine Cells restores Retinal Computations performed by the Inner Retina. *Biorxiv.* 2022;2022.07.28.501925.

400. Rodgers J, Hughes S, Lindner M, Allen AE, Ebrahimi AS, Storchi R, et al. Functional integrity of visual coding following advanced photoreceptor degeneration. *Curr Biol.* 2023;33:474–486.e5.

401. Gilhooley MJ, Lindner M, Palumaa T, Hughes S, Peirson SN, Hankins MW. A systematic comparison of optogenetic approaches to visual restoration. *Mol Ther - Methods Clin Dev.* 2022;25:111–23.

402. So K-F, Aguayo AJ. Lengthy regrowth of cut axons from ganglion cells after peripheral nerve transplantation into the retina of adult rats. *Brain Res.* 1985;328:349–54.

403. Vidal-Sanz M, Bray G, Villegas-Perez M, Thanos S, Aguayo A. Axonal regeneration and synapse formation in the superior colliculus by retinal ganglion cells in the adult rat. *J Neurosci.* 1987;7:2894–909.

404. Vidal-Sanz M, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ. Regenerated synapses persist in the superior colliculus after the regrowth of retinal ganglion cell axons. *J Neurocytol.* 1991;20:940–52.

405. Laha B, Stafford BK, Huberman AD. Regenerating optic pathways from the eye to the brain. *Science.* 2017;356:1031–4.

406. Benowitz LI, He Z, Goldberg JL. Reaching the brain: advances in optic nerve regeneration. *Exp Neurol.* 2017;287:365–73.

407. Williams PR, Benowitz LI, Goldberg JL, He Z. Axon Regeneration in the Mammalian Optic Nerve. *Annu Rev Vis Sci.* 2020;6:195–213.
408. Trakhtenberg EF, Li Y, Feng Q, Tso J, Rosenberg PA, Goldberg JL, et al. Zinc chelation and Klf9 knockdown cooperatively promote axon regeneration after optic nerve injury. Exp Neurol. 2018;300:22–9.

409. Trakhtenberg EF, Wang Y, Morkin MJ, Fernandez SG, Mlacker GM, Shechter JM, et al. Regulating Set-β's Subcellular Localization Toggles Its Function between Inhibiting and Promoting Axon Growth and Regeneration. J Neurosci. 2014;34:7361–74.

410. Lukomska A, Theune WC, Xing J, Frost MP, Damania A, Gupta M, et al. Experimental gene expression of developmentally down-regulated Crmp1, Crmp4, and Crmp5 promotes axon regeneration and retinal ganglion cell survival after optic nerve injury. Brain Res. 2023;1809:148368.

411. Lukomska A, Kim J, Rheaume BA, Xing J, Hoyt A, Lecky E, et al. Developmentally upregulated transcriptional elongation factor a like 3 suppresses axon regeneration after optic nerve injury. Neurosci Lett. 2021;765:136260.

412. Huebner EA, Strittmatter SM. Cell biology of the axon. Results Problems Cell Differ. 2009;48:305–60.

413. Bonilla IE, Tanabe K, Strittmatter SM. Small proline-rich repeat protein 1A is expressed by axotomized neurons and promotes axonal outgrowth. J Neurosci. 2002;22:1303–15.

414. Wong KA, Benowitz LI. Retinal ganglion cell survival and axon regeneration after optic nerve injury: role of inflammation and other factors. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:10179.

415. Moore DL, Blackmore MG, Hu Y, Kaestner KH, Bixby JL, Lemmon VP, et al. KLF family members regulate intrinsic axon regeneration ability. Science. 2009;326:298–301.

416. Apara A, Galvao J, Wang Y, Blackmore M, Trillo A, Iwao K, et al. KLF9 and JNK3 interact to suppress axon regeneration in the adult CNS. J Neurosci. 2017;37:9632–44.

417. Koh S, Roy S, Eroglu O, Strader S, Chen WJ, Kay JN, et al. Thrombospondin-1 Promotes Circuit-Specific Synapse Formation via β1-Integrin. Biorxiv. 2019;866590.

418. Bray ER, Yungher BJ, Levay K, Ribeiro M, Dvoryanchikov G, Ayupe AC, et al. Thrombospondin-1 Mediates Axon Regeneration in Retinal Ganglion Cells. Neuron. 2019;103:642–657.e7.

419. Yin Y, Henzl MT, Lorber B, Nakazawa T, Thomas TT, Jiang F, et al. Oncomodulin is a macrophage-derived signal for axon regeneration in retinal ganglion cells. Nat Neurosci. 2006;9:843–52.

420. Vance JE, Campenot RB, Vance DE. The synthesis and transport of lipids for axonal growth and nerve regeneration. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta Bba - Mol Cell Biology Lipids. 2000;1486:84–96.

421. Yang C, Wang X, Wang J, Wang X, Chen W, Lu N, et al. Rewiring neuronal glycerolipid metabolism determines the extent of axon regeneration. Neuron. 2020;105:276–292.e5.

422. Schuster CM, Davis GW, Fetter RD, Goodman CS. Genetic Dissection of Structural and Functional Components of Synaptic Plasticity. I. Fasciclin II Controls Synaptic Stabilization and Growth. Neuron. 1996;17:641–54.

423. Erskine L, Herrera E. Connecting the retina to the brain. ASN Neuro. 2014;6:1759091414562107.

424. Murcia-Belmonte V, Erskine L. Wiring the binocular visual pathways. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:3282.

425. Subramani M, Hook MV, Rajamoroorthy M, Qiu F, Ahmad I. Human Retinal Ganglion Cells Respond to Evolutionarily Conserved Chemo-tropic Cues for Intra Retinal Guidance and Regeneration. Biorxiv. 2023;2023.02.01.526677.

426. Harada C, Kimura A, Guo X, Namekata K, Harada T. Recent advances in genetically modified animal models of glaucoma and their roles in drug repositioning. Br J Ophthalmol. 2019;103:161–6.

427. Patel M, Ahn S, Koh WG. Topographical pattern for neuronal tissue engineering. J Ind Eng Chem. 2022;114:19–32.

428. Hoffman-Kim D, Mitchel JA, Bellamkonda RV. Topography, cell response, and nerve regeneration. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2010;12:203–31.

429. Kuwajima T, Yoshida Y, Takegahara N, Petros TJ, Kumanogoh A, Jessell TM, et al. Optic Chiasm Presentation of Semaphorin6D in the Context of Plexin-A1 and Nr-CAM Promotes Retinal Axon Midline Crossing. Neuron. 2012;74:676–90.

430. Conceição R, Evans RS, Pearson CS, Hänzi B, Osborne A, Deshpande SS, et al. Expression of developmentally important axon guidance cues in the adult optic chiasm. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 2019;60:4727–39.

431. Knickmeyer MD, Mateo JL, Heermann S. BMP signaling interferes with optic chiasm formation and retinal ganglion cell pathfinding in zebrafish. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:4560.

432. Erskine L, Herrera E. The retinal ganglion cell axon's journey: Insights into molecular mechanisms of axon guidance. Dev Biol. 2007;308:1–14.

433. Mason C, Slavi N. Retinal ganglion cell axon wiring establishing the binocular circuit. Annu Rev Vis Sci. 2020;6:215–36.

434. Lim JHA, Stafford BK, Nguyen PL, Lien BV, Wang C, Zukor K, et al. Neural activity promotes long-distance, target-specific regeneration of adult retinal axons. Nat Neurosci. 2016;19:1073–84.

435. Varadarajan SG, Huberman AD. Assembly and repair of eye-to-brain connections. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2018;53:198–209.

436. Li S, Yang C, Zhang L, Gao X, Wang X, Liu W, et al. Promoting axon regeneration in the adult CNS by modulation of the melanopsin/GPCR signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2016;113:1937–42.

437. Graham DM, Wong KY. Melanopsin-expressing, Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs). Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System. 2016.

438. Li Y, He X, Kawaguchi R, Zhang Y, Wang Q, Monavarfeshani A, et al. Microglia-organized scar-free spinal cord repair in neonatal mice. Nature. 2020;587:613–8.

439. Fu H, Zhao Y, Hu D, Wang S, Yu T, Zhang L. Depletion of microglia exacerbates injury and impairs function recovery after spinal cord injury in mice. Cell Death Dis. 2020;11:528.

440. Reichenbach A, Bringmann A. Glia of the human retina. Glia. 2020;68:768–96.

441. García M, Forster V, Hicks D, Vecino E. Effects of müller glia on cell survival and neuritogenesis in adult porcine retina in vitro. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002;43:3735–43.

442. Kugler EC, Greenwood J, MacDonald RB. The "Neuro-Glial-Vascular" Unit: The Role of Glia in Neurovascular Unit Formation and Dysfunction. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2021;9:732820.

443. Toy D, Namgung U. Role of glial cells in axonal regeneration. Exp Neurobiology. 2013;22:68–76.

444. Yuan Y, Wang Y, Wu S, Zhao MY. Review: Myelin clearance is critical for regeneration after peripheral nerve injury. Front Neurol. 2022;13:908148.

445. Provis JM, Diaz CM, Penfold PL. Microglia in human retina: a heterogeneous population with distinct ontogenies. Perspect Dev Neurobi. 1996;3:213–22.

446. Li F, Sami A, Noristani HN, Slattery K, Qiu J, Groves T, et al. Glial metabolic rewiring promotes axon regeneration and functional recovery in the central nervous system. Cell Metab. 2020;32:767–785.e7.

447. Xing J, Lukomska A, Rheaume BA, Kim J, Sajid MS, Damania A, et al. Post-injury born oligodendrocytes incorporate into the glial scar and contribute to the inhibition of axon regeneration. Development. 2023;150:201311.

448. Fague L, Liu YA, Marsh-Armstrong N. The basic science of optic nerve regeneration. Ann Transl Med. 2021;9:1276.

449. Stevenson R, Samokhina E, Rossetti I, Morley JW, Buskila Y. Neuromodulation of glial function during neurodegeneration. Front Cell Neurosci. 2020;14:278.

450. Patani R, Hardingham GE, Liddelow SA. Functional roles of reactive astrocytes in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Nat Rev Neurol. 2023;19:395–409.

451. Gallego BJ, Salazar JJ, de Hoz R, Rojas B, Ramírez AI, Salinas-Navarro M, et al. IOP induces upregulation of GFAP and MHC-II and microglia reactivity in mice retina contralateral to experimental glaucoma. J Neuroinflammation. 2012;9:92.

452. Rojas B, Gallego BJ, Ramírez AI, Salazar JJ, de Hoz R, Valiente-Soriano FJ, et al. Microglia in mouse retina contralateral to experimental glaucoma exhibit multiple signs of activation in all retinal layers. J Neuroinflammation. 2014;11:133.

453. Zhou M, Bear J, Roberts PA, Janiak FK, Semmelhack J, Yoshimatsu T, et al. Zebrafish retinal ganglion cells asymmetrically encode spectral and temporal information across visual space. Curr Biol. 2020;30:2927–2942.e7.

454. Gestri G, Link BA, Neuhaus SCF. The visual system of zebrafish and its use to model human ocular diseases. Dev Neurobiol. 2012;72:302–27.

455. Sharf T, Kalakuntla T, Lee DJ, Gokoffski KK. Electrical devices for visual restoration. Surv Ophthalmol. 2022;67:793–800.
456. Gokoffski KK, Jia X, Shvarts D, Xia G, Zhao M. Physiologic electrical fields direct retinal ganglion cell axon growth in vitro. Invest Ophth Vis Sci. 2019;60:3659–68.

457. Paknahad J, Machnoor M, Lazzi G, Gokoffski KK. The influence of electrode properties on induced voltage gradient along the rat optic nerve. Ieee J Electromagn Rf Microwaves Medicine Biology. 2022;6:321–30.

458. Varadarajan SG, Wang F, Dhande OS, Le P, Duan X, Huberman AD. Post-synaptic neuronal activity promotes regeneration of retinal axons. Cell Rep. 2023;42:112476.

459. Noble M, Tseng KC (Chris), Li H, Elfar JC. 4-Aminopyridine as a Single Agent Diagnostic and Treatment for Severe Nerve Crush Injury. Mil Med. 2019;184:379–85.

460. Tseng K, Li H, Clark A, Sundem L, Zuscik M, Noble M, et al. 4-Aminopyridine promotes functional recovery and remyelination in acute peripheral nerve injury. Embo Mol Med. 2016;8:1409–20.

461. Sabel BA. Restoration of vision I: neurobiological mechanisms of restoration and plasticity after brain damage - a review. Restor Neurol Neuros. 1999;15:177–200.

462. Ito Y, Shimazawa M, Hara H. Review: an approach for neuroprotective therapies of secondary brain damage after excitotoxic retinal injury in mice. Cns Neurosci Ther. 2010;16:e169–79.

463. Joly O, Frankó E. Neuroimaging of amblyopia and binocular vision: a review. Frontiers Integr Neurosci. 2014;8:62.

464. You Y, Gupta VK, Graham SL, Klistorner A. Anterograde degeneration along the visual pathway after optic nerve injury. PLoS One. 2012;7:e52061.

465. Tanaka H, Ito Y, Nakamura S, Shimazawa M, Hara H. Involvement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in time-dependent neurodegeneration in the murine superior colliculus after intravitreal injection of N-methyl-D-aspartate. Mol Vis. 2008;15:662–9.

466. Duncan RO, Sample PA, Weinreb RN, Bowd C, Zangwill LM. Retinotopic organization of primary visual cortex in glaucoma: Comparing fMRI measurements of cortical function with visual field loss. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2007;26:38–56.

467. Wang J, Li T, Sabel BA, Chen Z, Wen H, Li J, et al. Structural brain alterations in primary open angle glaucoma: a 3T MRI study. Sci Rep. 2016;6:18969.

468. Chapman GB, Tarboush R, Connaughton VP. The effects of rearing light level and duration differences on the optic nerve, brain, and associated structures in developing zebrafish larvae: a light and transmission electron microscope study. Anat Rec: Adv Integr Anat Evol Biol. 2012;295:515–31.

469. de Lima S, Koriyama Y, Kurimoto T, Oliveira JT, Yin Y, Li Y, et al. Full-length axon regeneration in the adult mouse optic nerve and partial recovery of simple visual behaviors. Proc National Acad Sci. 2012;109:9149–54.

470. Hong G, Yang X, Zhou T, Lieber CM. Mesh electronics: a new paradigm for tissue-like brain probes. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2018;50:33–41.

471. Zhou T, Hong G, Fu T-M, Yang X, Schuhmann TG, Viveros RD, et al. Syringe-injectable mesh electronics integrate seamlessly with minimal chronic immune response in the brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2017;114:5894–9.

472. Ross JW, de Castro JPF, Zhao J, Samuel M, Walters E, Rios C, et al. Generation of an inbred miniature pig model of retinitis pigmentosa. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53:501.

473. Shrader SM, Greentree WF. Göttingen minipigs in ocular research. Toxicol Pathol. 2018;46:403–7.

474. Weber AJ, Harman CD. BDNF treatment and extended recovery from optic nerve trauma in the cat. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2013;54:6594.

475. Diekmann H, Kalbhen P, Fischer D. Characterization of optic nerve regeneration using transgenic zebrafish. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015;9:118.

476. Williams DL. Regenerating reptile retinas: a comparative approach to restoring retinal ganglion cell function. Eye. 2017;31:167–72.

477. Vergara MN, Rio-Tsonis KD. Retinal regeneration in the Xenopus laevis tadpole: a new model system. Mol Vis. 2008;15:1000–13.

478. Belrose JL, Prasad A, Sammons MA, Gibbs KM, Szaro BG. Comparative gene expression profiling between optic nerve and spinal cord injury in Xenopus laevis reveals a core set of genes inherent in successful regeneration of vertebrate central nervous system axons. BMC Genomics. 2020;21:540.

479. Beckers A, Masin L, Dyck AV, Bergmans S, Vanhunsel S, Zhang A, et al. Optic nerve injury-induced regeneration in the adult zebrafish is

accompanied by spatiotemporal changes in mitochondrial dynamics. Neural Regen Res. 2022;18:219–25.

480. Whitworth GB, Misaghi BC, Rosenthal DM, Mills EA, Heinen DJ, Watson AH, et al. Translational profiling of retinal ganglion cell optic nerve regeneration in Xenopus laevis. Dev Biol. 2017;426:360–73.

481. Templeton JP, Geisert EE. A practical approach to optic nerve crush in the mouse. Mol Vis. 2011;18:2147–52.

482. Fischer D, Harvey AR, Pernet V, Lemmon VP, Park KK. Optic nerve regeneration in mammals: regenerated or spared axons? Exp Neurol. 2017;296:83–8.

483. Sun W, Chao G, Shang M, Wu Q, Xia Y, Wei Q, et al. Optic nerve injury models under varying forces. Int Ophthalmol. 2023;43:757–69.

484. Cameron E, Xia X, Galvao J, Ashouri M, Kapiloff M, Goldberg J. Optic Nerve Crush in Mice to Study Retinal Ganglion Cell Survival and Regeneration. Bio-protocol. 2020;10:e3559.

485. Yao F, Zhang E, Gao Z, Ji H, Marmouri M, Xia X. Did you choose appropriate tracer for retrograde tracing of retinal ganglion cells? The differences between cholera toxin subunit B and Fluorogold. PLoS ONE. 2018;13:e0205133.

486. Yin Y, Benowitz LI. Glaucoma, methods and protocols. Methods Mol Biol. 2017;1695:187–205.

487. Zor F, Polat M, Kulahci Y, Sahin H, Aral AM, Erbas VE, et al. Demonstration of technical feasibility and viability of whole eye transplantation in a rodent model. J Plastic Reconstr Aesthetic Surg. 2019;72:1640–50.

488. Bourne D, Li Y, Komatsu C, Miller MR, Davidson EH, He L, et al. Whole-eye transplantation: a look into the past and vision for the future. Eye. 2017;31:179–84.

489. Gramlich OW, Joachim SC, Gottschling PF, Laspas P, Cuny CS, Pfeiffer N, et al. Ophthalmopathology in rats with MBP-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2011;249:1009–20.

490. Bernstein SL, Johnson MA, Miller NR. Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) and its experimental models. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2011;30:167–87.

491. Grinsell D, Keating CP. Peripheral nerve reconstruction after injury: a review of clinical and experimental therapies. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:1–13.

## Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.