Revue internationale des technologies en pédagogie universitaire
International Journal of Technologies in Higher Education

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# Distance Education in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of the Perceptions of 2,416 Students

Thierry Karsenti et Simon Collin

Volume 10, numéro 3, 2013

Special issue on Web 2.0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.7202/1035580ar

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CRIFPE

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## Citer cet article

Karsenti, T. & Collin, S. (2013). Distance Education in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of the Perceptions of 2,416 Students. *Revue internationale des technologies en pédagogie universitaire / International Journal of Technologies in Higher Education, 10*(3), 76-90. https://doi.org/10.7202/1035580ar

## Résumé de l'article

Les formations à distance semblent comporter de très nombreux avantages pour l'Afrique, où les systèmes d'éducation font face à une multitude de défis. Néanmoins, malgré le potentiel des formations à distance, la mise en place de ces dernières arrivent également avec son lot d'obstacles, comme par exemple l'équipement informatique inadéquat et les compétences professionnelles. Ce texte présente les résultats d'une étude longitudinale sur des formations à distances universitaires proposées à quelque 2416 étudiants en Afrique. À partir de l'analyse quantitative de questionnaires et de l'analyse qualitative d'entrevues, nous examinons comment les formations à distance sont en mesure de participer au développement professionnel d'étudiants d'Afrique. Nous avons aussi cherché à mieux comprendre les avantages et les défis rencontrés par les étudiants participant à de telles formations.

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Distance Education in Africa:
A Longitudinal Study of the
Perceptions of 2,416 Students

Thierry KARSENTI

Universit de Montréal
[thierry.karsenti@umontreal.ca](mailto:thierry.karsenti@umontreal.ca)

Simon COLLIN

Universit du Québec à Montréal
[collin.simon@uqam.ca](mailto:collin.simon@uqam.ca)

Abstract

Distance Education (DE) holds particular promise
for Africa, where higher education systems must
cope with multiple constraints. However, there are
many obstacles to the development of DE, inclu-
ding inadequate computer equipment and lack of
professional skills. Against this background, this
article presents the results of a longitudinal study
on DE programs¹ offered to students in Africa.
Using quantitative analyses of questionnaires and
qualitative analyses of interviews, the contributions
of DE to the professional development of Africans
are examined in the aim of gaining a deeper un-
derstanding of the dynamics at play when students
enroll in a DE program.

Keywords

distance education, Africa, higher education, pro-
fessional development, enrollment

Résumé

Les formations à distance semblent comporter de très
nombreux avantages pour l'Afrique, où les systèmes
d'éducation font face à une multitude de défis. Néan-
moins, malgré le potentiel des formations à distance,
la mise en place de ces dernières arrivent également
avec son lot d'obstacles, comme par exemple l'équi-
pement informatique inadéquat et les compétences
professionnelles. Ce texte présente les résultats
d'une étude longitudinale sur des formations à dis-
tances universitaires proposées à quelque 2416 étu-
diants en Afrique¹. À partir de l'analyse quantitative
de questionnaires et de l'analyse qualitative d'entre-
vues, nous examinons comment les formations à dis-
tance sont en mesure de participer au développement
professionnel d'étudiants d'Afrique. Nous avons
aussi cherché à mieux comprendre les avantages et
les défis rencontrés par les étudiants participant à de
telles formations.

Mots-clés

formation à distance, Afrique, enseignement supé-
rieur, développement professionnel, recrutement

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

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**Distance Education in Africa:
A Longitudinal Study of the
Perceptions of 2,416 Students**

Distance education (DE) programs have made a sig-
nificant contribution to the development of higher
education, even though the progress made to date
lags behind expectations (Altbach, Reisberg, &
Rumbley, 2009). DE “refers to approaches to learn-
ing that focus on freeing learners from constraints
of time and place while offering flexible learning
opportunities [...] to both individual home-based
learners and groups of learners in remote class-
rooms” (UNESCO, 2010). They hold particular
educational promise for Africa, where universities
are facing many challenges such as rapidly expand-
ing enrollment, tight budgets, overcrowded class-
rooms and dismal job prospects (Butcher, Latchem,
Mawoyo, & Levey, 2011). As a result, university
education in Africa is lagging far behind the rest
of the world: although the gross university enroll-
ment rate was 26% worldwide in 2007, it stood at
only 6% in sub-Saharan Africa (UNESCO Institute
for Statistics [UIS], 2010). In this perspective, DE
is often perceived as a viable alternative. DE de-
ivery systems allow larger numbers of people to
study at lower cost than in face-to-face classrooms
(Evoh, 2010). The spatial and temporal flexibil-
ity also encourage a diversity of candidates, from
university freshmen to working professionals
(Aderinoye, Siaciwena, & Wright, 2009). In so-
cioprofessional terms, distance education can help
mitigate a longstanding and problematic trend in
Africa (Muhirwa, 2012), namely the flight of Af-
rican professionals to the North once they gradu-
ate (World Bank, 2009). Called the “brain drain”
(Freitas, Levatino, & Pécoud, 2012), this trend is
sometimes voluntary and other times not, and it is
encouraged by grants and scholarships that enable
African students to pursue their studies in West-
ern countries. Whereas the original purpose of this
funding was to reinvest African skills at home, the
actual result has been the reverse: African countries
have been deprived of a qualified workforce (Tes-
sema, 2010). In this respect, distance education can
make a radical change, because it allows learners

to enroll in programs administered from outside
their sociocultural environment while remaining at
home, facilitating skills reinvestment within local
communities (Jacquinot, 1993; Moughli, Semporé,
& Koné, 2008). DE therefore has instrumental po-
tential for training a qualified African workforce,
as well as socioprofessional potential for building
a qualified African workforce (Mufutumari, 2010),
which explains why it features prominently in the
2006–2015 Action Plan for higher education de-
veloped by *Seconde décennie de l’éducation pour
l’Afrique* [second decade of education in Africa].
However, progress has been hampered by multiple
obstructions: substandard computer equipment,
disorganization, and lack of professional skills
(Basaza, Milman, & Wright, 2010; Visser-Valfrey,
Visser, & Moos, 2012).

Against this background, this article presents the
results of a longitudinal study that targeted five ob-
jectives:

* Describe the sociological and technological profile of the participants

* Assess their motivations to take a DE pro-
program

* Identify the participants’ representations of DE

* Identify the challenges involved in DE as
well as the areas of satisfaction

* Identify the benefits derived by graduates
from a DE program.

Method

Participants

As mentioned above, we surveyed two populations:
1750 students enrolled in a DE program and 666 re-
cent graduates from a DE program. A total of 2,416
individuals participated in the survey (1,571 males
and 845 females in each of three study years). In
addition, 24 individuals (12 students and 12 gra-
duates) were interviewed via Skype.
## Procedure

To achieve the research objectives, two survey questionnaires were developed and administered during each of the three study years: one for students enrolled in a DE program and one for graduates of a DE program. In addition, telephone interviews (supported by Skype) were conducted in the second study year. For the data compilation, two separate populations were surveyed: students enrolled in a DE program during each of the three study years and students who had graduated from a DE program at the end of each of the three study years.

## Analysis

The quantitative survey data were analyzed using SPSS version 20. Descriptive analyses as well as cross analyses of the data were conducted using a series of variables that were relevant to the research objectives. Some questionnaire items were designed to elicit open-ended responses, which were analyzed qualitatively using QDA Miner. The conducted interviews were also analyzed using QDA Miner. This allowed coding text segments for content analysis using an approach inspired by L'Écuyer (1990) and Huberman and Miles (1991, 1994).

## Results

### Sociological and technological profile of participants

In terms of place of residence, the surveyed population was majoritively representative of Africa: about 75% lived in the sub-Saharan region and 8% in the Maghreb. The other geographic regions represented were the Indian Ocean (6%), the Middle East (2.5%), the Caribbean islands (2%), Central and Eastern Europe (1%), and Asia-Pacific (<1%).

In terms of gender, despite the well-meaning and proactive policies of universities, women were largely underrepresented. In fact, as mentioned above, the distribution across all samples was about one-third women to two-thirds men.

In all samples, most participants were in the age range from 31 to 40 years (41–49% across study years), followed by 30 years or less (31–36%) and 41 years and older (15–22%). This distribution reflects the recruitment policies of the universities, which prefer younger students who at the same time already have some background in the study field.

A large percentage of respondents had earned a graduate university degree, and this percentage varied from one-third to over one-half across the samples. However, professional experience was relatively thin: half the respondents had less than five years' experience and almost 80% had less than 10 years' experience. In sum, in terms of sociological characteristics, we may consider that the participants entered the DE programs towards the start of their professional career, at an average age of 35 years, and many among them had earned a graduate university degree.

The technological profile of the respondents appeared to be related more to the year of graduation. For example, in the first two study years, about 75% of respondents said they had access to a computer at home, but this percentage rose to 94% in year three. A similar trend was found for Internet access at home, with about 50% for the first two years and 68% for the third. Independently of these fluctuations across years, the rates were consistently higher than expected, given the student-to-computer ratios in the participants' regions. When asked about where they most frequently went to access the Internet, the first place was the workplace, followed by home, and finally the university computer centers.

Some of the questions also addressed Web-use skills. The most popular tool by far was Wikipedia (almost 50% used it frequently or very frequently), followed by MSN-Messenger and Skype. Websites
such as Facebook and YouTube were used signifi-
cantly less often. However, use of these Websites
showed an effect of age, with younger respondents
using them more often for social exchanges and
sharing, and older respondents making more use
of technologies that directly met their learning or
professional needs.

When participants’ age is taken into account in
the technological profile, a number of interesting
differences can be identified, again depending on
the study year. Thus, for year 2009–2010, younger
participants (aged 30 years or less) accessed the
Internet more often at work, whereas those aged
from 31 to 40 years accessed it more often at cyber-
cafés. The opposite trend was observed for years
2007–2008 and 2008–2009: the older and more ex-
perienced the participants, the more they tended to
have computers at home, along with greater access
to DE courses from home. In contrast, younger,
less experienced participants made up for their lack

of equipment by going to the university computer
centers (years 2007–2008 and 2008–2009) or using
the equipment available at their workplace (year
2009–2010).

Participants' motivations to enroll in a DE
program

The analyses of the three years of data show clear
and convergent motivations for enrolling in a DE
program. As seen in the 2009–2010 data in Figure
1, the main intention was to pursue individual pro-
fessional development and the professional promo-
tions that come with further qualifications. Practi-
cal considerations also came into play, such as the
possibility of combining education and work, the
prestige conferred by a university diploma, and the
fact that the diploma program was not offered lo-
cally.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. Motivating factors for enrolling in a DE program (2009–2010)2</figcaption></figure>
Although factors such as university prestige or the
hope of pursuing studies at a northern university
appear to have played a non-negligible role in the
decision to enroll in a DE program, they had less
weight. A case in point was that the hope to study at
a university abroad was rarely realized, given that,
depending on the graduation year, only 13 to 20%
of the participants left their country after gradua-
tion.

In confirmation of the results on the questionnaire
responses, the interview results revealed that the
development of professional competencies was far
from the primary motivation reported by partici-
pants, and it generally applied only to working pro-
fessionals who wanted to continue their training:

S2:³ "I'm not looking to get a degree, but simply to acquire some more skills, some more assets, so I can upgrade my professional qualifications."

This is not to say that enrolling in a DE pro-
gram was not devoid of ambition. For most par-
ticipants, it was meant to make up for a lack
of training or to meet circumstantial needs:

S1: "Since I'm a teacher, I was aware of
the importance of communication techni-
ques, because in our university culture, un-
fortunately, we receive purely agronomic
training only, and the pedagogical aspect is
completely neglected."

In this respect, the motivation to take a DE course
was not just the “added value” it would confer.
The students also took the courses to earn higher
salaries. In addition to professional development,
whether out of a desire to improve or out of ne-
cessity, increased employment opportunities pro-
vided a further reason for taking a DE program:

G7: "I wanted to come out as a qualified person, with degrees, not only to find a job in my country, but also abroad. They can give me more job opportunities."

S3: "I visualize a goal that I have set for
myself; that is, I want to have a degree."

According to the respondents' expressed views, we
may posit that both intrinsic and extrinsic motiva-
tion played a role in their decision. Thus, the most
frequently stated positions reveal either intrinsic
motivation (personal growth) or extrinsic motiva-
tion (professional advancement).

Moreover, although they are not negligible, it is
worth mentioning that the DE-specific factors
follow behind in third and fourth place. In other
words, the decision to take a DE over a face-to-
face program appears to have been made only after
the decision was made to pursue professional deve-
lopment. Therefore, it was not the DE program it-
self—with all its advantages—that motivated them
to enroll, but instead the need for further training.
The DE program was selected subsequently, for its
particular advantages.

Depending on the study year, some interesting indi-
cations were obtained by crossing certain variables.
For example, according to the 2009–2010 data, the
hope to pursue studies at a northern university and
university prestige appeared to be stronger decision
factors for men than for women. Age also influen-
ced the desire to pursue studies in the North, which
was mentioned much less often by participants over
40 years old (2008–2009 data), probably due to the
greater obligations associated with a more solidly
established social status.

When comparing the opinions of participants en-
rolled in programs delivered by universities in the
North versus the South, the main distinguishing
characteristic was that students in northern-delive-
red programs were more inclined to enroll because
the equivalent degree was not available in their re-
gion. The prestige of the university and the hope
to continue studying at a northern university were
also significantly more influential on the decision to
take a program delivered by a northern university.
Participants' representations of DE

We also note a strong convergence in representa-
tions of DE among the different samples across the
three study years.

In all cases, the first six perceptions are reported
in the same order of priority, with the remainder
showing only minor differences. The data presen-
ted in Figure 2 are for year 2009–2010.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2. Representations of DE programs (2009–2010).</figcaption></figure>
The representation with which most respondents agreed, “DE reduces the travelling time for participants,” was the most immediate and widely acknowledged benefit of DE.

The next most frequent representation concerns the teaching and learning methods associated with DE, expressed as, “With DE, we learn differently.” This underscores that the benefits of DE exceeded the organizational framework, and that the differences with respect to face-to-face education influenced how the participants learned. Some representations concerned the role of other learners in the DE process: “With DE, I was frequently in contact with other students.” This is in line with the previous representation, and it appears to indicate that DE was perceived as a collective rather than an individual learning mode. This is confirmed by the statements, “With DE, other people are important for my academic success,” and “With DE, I contribute a lot to other people’s learning.” Moreover, respondents agreed less with the fact that, “With DE, we learn on our own,” which reinforces the view of DE as primarily a collective activity.

Finally, a look at the remaining representations (“With DE, it is easier to learn,” “A university education is more prestigious than a DE program,” “DE is easier than a traditional university education,” and “With DE, the learning pace is more relaxed”) suggests that the workload and value of a DE program were perceived as more or less equivalent to those of face-to-face education. In other words, DE may offer different teaching and learning methods (“With DE, we learn differently”), but it requires about the same amount of work, and the outcome is a roughly equivalent set of qualifications.

When the expressed opinions were crossed with variables such as gender and age, some shades of difference were revealed in the trends. For example, it appears that men placed more emphasis on collectivity and collaboration in DE, showing higher agreement than women with the statements that addressed these aspects. In contrast, women compared to men tended to perceive DE more as

an individual learning mode. For year 2009–2010, younger respondents (30 years or less) compared to older respondents (31 years and older) tended to perceive DE as an individual learning mode, while older respondents perceived that DE had more benefits for their learning.

Another interesting differentiation concerns the organizing university. Respondents who took a DE program delivered by a university in the South had a more collective perception: they agreed significantly more with the statements, “With DE, I was frequently in contact with other students,” “With DE, other people are important for my academic success,” and “With DE, I contribute a lot to other people’s learning.” Inversely, respondents who took a DE program delivered by a university in the North had a significantly more individualized perception of DE, expressed as “DE is individualized teaching.” Again concerning the organizing university, students enrolled in a northern program gave more weight to the contribution of technologies to their training, in contrast to students enrolled in a southern program.

Concerning participants’ preconceptions about DE, two scenarios were identified from the interview analysis:

* Either they had not had preconceptions, that is, they did not have a clear idea of what a DE program was before they experienced it:
  S5: “Before, I didn’t know what would happen.”

* Or they had erroneous preconceptions:
  S1: “For me, distance learning, well, you’re very free; nobody tells you what to do; you can take the courses whenever you want.”

We may therefore posit that when students begin a DE program, there is usually a period of adjustment, when they must reassess their initial perceptions in addition to familiarizing themselves with how the DE program works.
## Challenges encountered and the degree of satisfaction with DE

In terms of technological challenges, a considerable proportion of the respondents, which varied across the samples, reported that they had to cope with frequent or very frequent power failures, ranging from 30% in 1997–1998 to 18.6% in 2009–2010. Internet crashes were about equally frequent: from 28% in 2008–2009 to 22% for 2009–2010. These are significant disruptions, interfering directly with course progress. Moreover, the students were rarely able to resolve these problems by themselves, given that they were burdened with poor-quality infrastructures throughout the region or even the entire country. Looking at the change in percentages over time, note that these crashes become less frequent. However, given the time span between surveys, we should be cautious in attributing this positive trend to overall improvements in services.

The great majority of respondents were at ease using the latest software applications. In fact, over 80% said that they had few or very few problems using basic programs for word processing, spreadsheets, or presentations. Less than 5% said that they had major problems.

Furthermore, the education platforms, which were almost all the same across the training programs, generally caused no problems. Depending on the study year, from 60 to 80% of users found them easy or very easy to use. Only the more specialized applications, such as Web page design software, posed appreciable difficulty.

As for the computers themselves, from 64% (in 2008–2009) to 73% (in 2009–2010) of respondents felt that their equipment was satisfactory or very satisfactory at work and at home. Of those attending a digital campus, 80% felt that the available equipment was satisfactory or very satisfactory.

Concerning assistance for resolving technical problems, about 65% reported that a resource person at the delivering university was frequently or always available. However, in practice, they usually asked for help from another DE staff such as a tutor or professor. Alternatively, 50% of respondents sou-

ight help from a colleague on site or from another student. Problem solving appeared to follow a gradient: the participants’ first strategy was individual trial and error, followed by help from peers (students, colleagues, acquaintances), and finally remote help by a professor, technician, or tutor, whom they contacted by phone or via the platform.

In light of these results, it appears that the vast majority of participants enjoyed highly satisfactory learning conditions when it came to the materials and technical assistance. Apart from power blackouts and Internet crashes, which the educators had no way of controlling, there were very few technical problems, and the support provided to resolve them was generally deemed adequate.

Concerning the pedagogical aspects, some were viewed as positive or even very positive, but others were perceived more negatively. Among the positive aspects were the support materials and documentation for the courses, the teaching methods, and the assessments and exams, which were reported as appropriate or very appropriate by a large majority of respondents (over 80% in 2008–2009 and slightly less in 2009–2010). On the other hand, some aspects related to program organization appeared to be considerably less satisfactory. Thus, from 60% (in 2009–2010) to 74% (in 2008–2009) of respondents felt that the learning pace was intense or very intense (the descriptor “too intense” was not offered as a response choice).

In addition, the results on workloads and deadlines for handing in assignments appear to differ considerably among respondents. Regardless of study year, about 34% of respondents felt that the workload was reasonable or less than expected, whereas 62% found it heavy or very heavy. A similar trend was found for assignment deadlines, which from 34 to 37% considered convenient or very convenient (depending on the year), whereas 39% considered them more or less difficult to meet, and 27% considered them difficult or very difficult to meet. On this point, we should mention that time management and work planning are key factors in DE, because they determine the regularity and
intensity of produced work. Accordingly, these aspects featured frequently in the qualitative analysis of the open-ended responses:

S4: "At first, I didn't know enough about the tools we were working with. [...] After a while, everything went well."

However, this first type of familiarization appears to vary across participants, depending on their computer skills and those of their family or acquaintances:

S10: "It [managing the platform] didn't take long because I had taken some computer training."

The second type of familiarization involved in the DE programs was pedagogical. Aside from learning how to use the technologies, taking a DE course required learning how to use new learning methods, which not all the students were used to:

G1: "Of course, when it's a machine, sometimes, they're hesitant to talk to a machine or to write with a machine. [...] So they're introduced to a new culture. Some of them aren't used to that."

Thistwo-fold familiarization highlightstheimportanceofinitiatingstudentsintoDEfunctions,bothtechnological and pedagogical, prior to beginning a course:

G2: "[...] organize a return to university where everybody assembles. You get to know all the people who are going to take the program, and that way you can learn things that you didn't know before, and who you can go to for help."

Concluding with the organizational aspects, the length of the program was generally judged appropriate or very appropriate by about 80% of respondents, and the availability of a resource person for assistance was judged frequent or constant by over 65% of respondents.

The relational aspects of the DE system were generally assessed very positively, in terms of both peer-to-peer communication (over 80% satisfaction) as well as communications with professors

and tutors (about 70% satisfaction). In addition, 89% of respondents in 2008–2009 considered the work atmosphere of the program satisfactory or very satisfactory, with 66% in 2009–2010.

In summary, an overwhelming majority of respondents perceived the pedagogical and relational aspects of the DE program as satisfactory. However, a number of organizational aspects, such as workload, learning pace, and assignment deadlines, appeared to be more problematic, and they taxed some respondents to their limits. These problems would be largely explained by the fact that most of the students were working at the same time, and might even have a second job as well as additional responsibilities (e.g., childcare).

Nevertheless, participants who had taken an introductory course on DE found the DE experience significantly more satisfying in terms of work atmosphere and exchanges with professors and tutors. With the same ranking of aspects, participants who had opportunities to attend synchronous meetings with course instructors appeared to be more satisfied with the relational climate of the program, although they did not show significantly more satisfaction with organizational aspects.

By accounting for certain variables such as gender, age, and some organizational aspects, we were able to deepen our understanding of some of the pedagogical and technical aspects of the programs.

With respect to gender differences, the 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 data converge to indicate that women more than men consistently contacted a resource person to help resolve technical problems. However, no apparent difference emerged between men and women in terms of the technical skills required to follow a DE program.

The effect of age range is seen on the degree of satisfaction with the program. Thus, older learners (40 and up) appeared to be significantly more satisfied with the training, whereas younger learners were less satisfied, and they more frequently reported having technical problems during the program.
It is also interesting to note that when problems arose, respondents enrolled in a southern university more frequently appealed to a tutor or another student. Moreover, they were significantly more satisfied with the workload and reported significantly fewer conflicts with other students and professors. However, they were also significantly less satisfied with the assessment and examination system than students in a northern university. This suggests that for the southern universities, the cultural proximity between students and professors facilitated relational aspects of the training and acted to intensify and enrich relationships with tutors.

Results of the qualitative analysis reveal that, generally speaking, the tutors were perceived to have played a positive role, particularly when they intervened rapidly, comprehensively, and in an individualized manner:

S1: "Personally, last year, I was greatly helped by two or three of my tutors, who were sympathetic about the problems I had during my training. So I feel that the tutors did an excellent job."

Of course, the tutors could not play such a positive role if they were unavailable. Therefore, participants clearly identified the unavailability of the tutors as the most serious drawback:

S10: "In my case, my tutor wasn't there for me."

In addition, we may conclude that the tutor's role was perceived positively overall, as long as they were available to coach the students. That said, they usually provided assistance quickly, comprehensively, and in an individualized manner.

## Benefits associated with earning a DE diploma

The benefits of earning a DE diploma were investigated in the students who had completed a training program the previous year, that is, in 2008 for the 2008–2009 survey and in 2009 for the 2009–2010 survey.

Regardless of the graduation year, the benefits associated with obtaining a DE diploma were revealed as very significant, particularly in terms of feelings of professional competence (see Figure 3). Thus, in the graduating class of 2008, 75% of respondents agreed that they had greater feelings of professional competence, with over 94% agreement for the class of 2009.

Aside from feelings of professional competence, the impacts on employability and professional development were also appreciated. Thus, around 32% of graduates in 2008 and 45% in 2009 felt that the diploma contributed positively to their professional career, in the form of a promotion or the assignment of additional responsibilities.

Moreover, as shown in Figure 3, 22% of graduates in 2008 agreed that their diploma had contributed to finding a new job which corresponded better to their personal aspirations. For the 2009 graduates, this percentage was much higher, at 53%. Furthermore, about 22% and 25% of graduates in 2008 and 2009, respectively, felt that their diploma gave them opportunities to earn a higher salary.

In addition, respondents associated their diploma with other benefits, including the following:

- The skills they developed through their DE program helped them find a number of solutions to problems at work (95%, for both graduating classes).

- DE was useful for their professional career (85%, for both graduating classes).

- They were satisfied with their progress in developing new competencies (92% for 2008 and 73% for 2009).

- More job opportunities were available to them (72% for 2009).

- Their diploma was recognized in their professional community (74% for 2009).

- They were satisfied with the success they had in their career (73% for 2009).

- They were satisfied with their progress in achieving career goals (74% for 2008).
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** Benefits associated with earning a DE diploma.</figcaption></figure>

The results of the qualitative analysis reveal that the benefits of the DE programs were felt mainly in terms of professional outcomes. The two main benefits corresponded point by point with participants' motivations to enroll in the program (see section on "Participants' motivations to enroll in a DE program"), which suggests that DE programs can respond adequately to learners' expectations. The positive outcomes included:

* Benefits for the development of professional competencies:

S5: "In any case, it enabled me to developed competencies."

* Increased employability:

G2: "The profs got me involved in a lot of things, because quite simply, they felt that I had more skills, and those skills, I acquired them through those courses."

Increased employability, translated concretely into job promotions:

S4: "I'm still getting offers, job offers that people give me."

Another benefit of DE, although less often reported, was its contribution to the development of a qualified workforce that could serve African countries:

G2: "I realized that this should be an irreversible process, so African countries can improve the quality of their workforces without fear of the brain drain."
Given the benefits it provided, participants over-
rwhelmingly reported a highly positive view of
DE:

S10: “On the whole, I appreciated it. For me, it was a rewarding experience.”

In summary, it appears that the greatest benefits
of the training were associated with feelings of
professional competence, along with considerable
benefits in terms of career progress, including addi-
tional skills, higher salaries, and greater professio-
nal recognition.

Furthermore, the high agreement with the item ad-
dressing willingness to continue DE training (76%
for 2008 and 73% for 2009) indicates strong inten-
tions among the graduates to acquire more qualifi-
cations. In view of the overall positive views ex-
pressed about DE in the questionnaire responses,
we could assume that the training programs had a
positive effect on these intentions.

Conclusion

We conclude by recalling that distance education (DE) proffers two main benefits for Africa. First, it provides a low-cost way to ease the congestion in African universities, which are struggling to accommodate excessive numbers of students in inadequate facilities. Thus, online courses can broaden the education offer without the construction of new national academic networks and institutions. Furthermore, because it does not require students to travel abroad, distance education can facilitate the reinvestment of graduates' skills into their own communities. They can thereby contribute to the development of a qualified workforce attuned to local and regional needs. However, the current state of technological development in African countries casts doubt on the possibility of fully realizing the potential of distance education at this time.

In relation to the research objectives, we unders-
core some overall trends in order to provide a broad
overview of the training programs, and we identify
certain findings that could be useful for guiding fu-
ture policy decisions.

In the participants’ sociological profile, we found
that the three successive samples of participants
who were enrolled in or had completed a DE pro-
gram were fairly homogenous in terms of gender
and age as well as marital, family, and sociocul-
tural status. The same may be said in term of their
jobs and years of professional experience. Conse-
quently, there were few differences among the co-
horts between students who were taking courses
and graduates, aside from program progress (on-
going versus completed). There is no question that
the sociological portrait that emerges was strongly
influenced by the universities’ selection criteria,
which favored equity for women and candidates
younger than 40 years old. That said, the average
participant profile is a man about 35 year old on
average, living and working in an urban, French-
speaking region of Africa, with a university degree
in education at the bachelor’s, master’s, or docto-
ral level, and currently working. Accordingly, the
DE programs would have been undertaken mainly
in the first half of the participants’ professional
careers, with the purpose of continuing education
beyond initial training.

With respect to the technological profile, we note
first of all that the participants enrolled in a DE pro-
gram in 2009–2010 appeared to be better equipped
technologically than those surveyed in 2008–2009.
As mentioned above, we noted an overall impro-
vement in the available equipment (i.e., computer
and Internet access) from the first to the third study
year. We also found differences in the technological
profile in terms of age and professional experience.
Thus, when participants’ age is accounted for in
the analysis of the technological profile, some inte-
resting differences emerge, although they fluctuate
with the study year.

Certain particularly discriminatory age-related
factors then came to light. For instance, younger
respondents had fewer problems with the compu-
ters compared to older respondents. One possible
explanation for this is that younger respondents
had more opportunities to practice their technology
skills than older respondents, who were therefore
less experienced in these matters, probably due to
recent technological innovations at the universities
and in professional and personal lives. Other noti-
ceable age-related differences were observed in the
degree of satisfaction with the relational aspects of
the training, where older participants were more
satisfied, and in satisfaction with the training requi-
rements, which older participants perceived more
negatively.

Aside from the job- and age-related variables,
which appear to be closely associated, some inte-
resting gender differences were uncovered, notably
in technical and relational aspects. Although no
appreciable difference was found between study
years in men's and women's technical skills, wo-
men more frequently asked a resource person for
help to resolve technical problems.

Generally speaking, the technical problems invol-
ving the DE Web platforms were most often resol-
ved using strategies that would be considered in-
formal: asking for help from other students, more
experienced colleagues, peers, or family members.
For example, one student said, “My little sister is
an engineer, and she helps me too.” All three sur-
veys showed that this was a routine and frequent
strategy.

The results also show that men perceived the col-
lective aspects of DE more positively than women,
who perceived it more as an individual learning
mode.

These differences in appreciation of the collective
versus individual aspects of DE were also seen
between students in programs delivered by northern
versus southern universities. Thus, respondents en-
rolled in a northern program had a more individua-
lized perception of DE, whereas respondents enrol-
led in a southern program placed less emphasis on
the role of technologies in their learning.

In terms of the benefits obtained from a DE pro-
gram, the results show overwhelmingly positive
perceptions by all participants. Although the gra-
duates in year 2008 reported a certain shortfall

between the benefits for their professional devel-
lopment and the tangible benefits for their professio-
nal advancement, the graduates of 2009 appeared
to have a more positive appreciation of the tangi-
ble impacts of DE on their job status. However, we
should emphasize that the benefits derived from the
DE programs were not the same for all participants.
For instance, men experienced greater feelings of
competence, as did respondents who had taken
an OLD program delivered by a university in the
South. In addition, younger and less experienced
respondents reported a greater salary impact.

Finally, it is worth noting that 87% of respondents remained in their country of residence once they had obtained their diploma. The motivations to enroll in a DE program therefore appear to be more for purposes of social and professional advancement at home than for migrating to a richer country. In addition, the hope to pursue one's studies at a university in the North seems to be a secondary reason, overshadowed by motivations such as personal development and professional advancement. In light of the opinions expressed, it would seem that the decision to take a DE program over a face-to-face program comes into play only after the decision was made to advance one's professional career.

From the results reported here on three successive
cohorts, comprising a total of 2,416 individuals
who followed a DE program, we may reasonably
conclude that the programs as delivered were per-
ceived highly positively by the vast majority of
participants, who derived considerable and diver-
sified benefits for their personal and professional
development.

In conclusion, we may add that, even though the
workload and tight deadlines sometimes taxed the
limits of the participants, who had to contend with
jobs at the same time, the great majority retained a
positive perspective of this form of education deli-
very, as expressed by their general satisfaction.
Notes

1 All programs were offered by the Agence universitaire de la francophonie / Association of Universities of the Francophonie (AUF), a global network of French-speaking universities which includes l'Université de Montréal.

2 Rated 1 = "completely disagree," 5 = "completely agree."

3 Throughout this text, the letter S refers to participants who were enrolled in a DE program at the time of the interview (i.e., students), and the letter G refers to participants who had graduated from a DE program at the time of the interview (i.e., graduates).

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