12.9.

Quality assessment for intermediate and end users

As described in Chapter 4, PQ assessment is an essential ser-
vice component for any operational oceanographic centre. In
the case of climate and short-term forecasting services, val-
idation of ocean models (physical and biogeochemical) is a
crucial issue. Despite the continuous progress of the services
towards providing regularly updated quality information, there
are still gaps and deficiencies in the operational capacity to
assess model solutions. It is still challenging to properly quan-
tify the uncertainties in real time and in a way that is directly
understandable and useful to the users. Capet et al. (2020), in
their review of the operational modelling capacity in European
Seas, pointed out that only 20% of operational coastal model
services provide a dynamic uncertainty together with the fore-
cast products. This deficit in terms of operational model vali-
dation processes may be mainly linked to the lack of real-time
access to a local ocean observation network.

This limitation seems to be partially alleviated within core
services that have a regional or global focus. In these ser-
vices, the PQ processes seems to be favoured by: 1) a wid-
er scope (services dealing not only with forecast models but
also with the monitoring component and observational data
products); 2) a more integrated data use (for instance through
data assimilation in ocean analysis and reanalysis products);
and 3) wider spatial coverages (allowing the use of a higher
number of observational data sources to validate model pre-
dictions). The Copernicus Marine Service is one of these core
comprehensive services and in recent years has built some
standards for model assessments and delivery of PQ infor-
mation to end-users. This service, and its evolution roadmap
in terms of PQ processes, can illustrate the main expectations
for the future evolution of validation and quality information
on operational oceanography products.

As described in Sotillo et al. (2021), the Copernicus Marine
Service ensures:

* Standardised processes to assess each product's scientific quality against appropriate metrics;

* Product quality information regularly updated and avail-
able from a central website, called the “PQ-Dashboard”
(https://pqd.mercator-ocean.fr/);

* Specific PQ documentation delivered with each Copernicus Marine Service product, completed by regularly updated quality summaries, including fit for purpose information, and evolving towards peer reviewed technical reports.

From this baseline, the Copernicus Marine Service Prod-
uct Quality Strategic Plan <fnref n="10" />, identified a list of developments,
challenges and opportunities foreseen for the next Coperni-
cus-2 service phase period (2022-2028). The availability of an
increasing number of ocean observations should enable and
support new developments, and eventually improve the infor-
mation quality associated with oceanographic products. The
three main working lines along which the plan will unfold
are discussed in the following subsections and shown in Fig-
ure 12.5: future observations, future developments in OO cen-
tres, and future quality information. These lines are the way
forward for the future development of model validation and
quality assessment techniques.

12.9.1. New observations for improved quality
assessment

The use of new satellite products (e.g. from next Sentinel
missions or wide swath altimetry) will enable a significant
increase of data coverage towards higher resolution, allow-
ing not only a quality increase but also more validation op-
portunities for a wide range of operational oceanography
products. The continuation of the BGC-Argo and Deep Argo
missions and networks are crucial for providing quality in-
formation in areas and on variables that are still highly un-
dersampled. The potential extension of Argo coverage to-
wards coastal areas may also be essential for its important
socio-economic impact and the benefit for coastal model as-
sessments. In that sense, there are some on-going initiatives
in the framework of R&D Projects (such as the Euro-Argo RISE
H2020 one) to test Argo on shelf extensions, targeting shal-
lower waters in European marginal seas.

Additionally, operational oceanography centres should im-
prove the effective use of existing observing products and
networks through:

* Upgrade of PQ processes to properly assess high frequency datasets: PQ metrics are generally computed daily. However, currently, and to a greater extent in the future, some near real-time (NRT) model product datasets that are delivered with higher frequency (i.e. every 15 minutes) would need a dedicated assessment.

<figure><img src="image_630.png" /></figure>

<footnote n="10">10. https://marine.copernicus.eu/about/service-evolu-
tion-strategy</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_631.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 12.5.** New observations enable new developments in operational oceanography centres, which will also benefit from growing computational resources and advanced AI and big data techniques. This will allow significant improvements of the quality information, improving its relevance and its frequency.</figcaption></figure>

* Enhancement of water mass assessment at synoptic scales: at present, sampled only partially. To improve their characterisation in the upper ocean, it is necessary to extend the use of available observational platforms (i.e. more ship of opportunity measurements, thermosalinograph/ferry box data, new glider opportunities, sea mammals). Below 2000m, water mass distributions are still poorly understood, and historical data do not guarantee the reliability of existing climatologies. Deep floats and deep ocean observations also need to be considered to support global prediction assessment.

* Promote the use of data from specific multi-platform campaigns (specially in hot spots): regular and periodic campaigns in the same waters are necessary for climate monitoring and periodic model assessments (i.e. glider periodic missions along straits); current measurements are also much needed (both Lagrangian and Eulerian observations), not only for temperature and salinity.

* Ensure easy access to historic observations: there are large amounts of data from research surveys that are either not available or available only in operational catalogues. These independent data (in the sense of not assimilated) can be crucial for assessing model performance. A progressive integration of this kind of data will be advantageous for forecasters, and its "discovery" is foreseen to increase. Access to these sources should be automated, data loss reduced, and the investment on data collection will be recovered. In the context of Compericus Marine Service, EMODNET, EuroGOOS alliances or other networks, it is crucial for OO centres and data providers to connect initiatives and efforts to better integrate the existing ocean observing systems, as well as the new expected instruments/observations.

## 12.9.2. Expected development of quality assessment techniques

The use of ensemble data assimilation methods and the expected increase in the use of prediction systems based on model ensembles should significantly improve the quantification of model product uncertainty using probabilistic scores, the evaluation of error propagation, and of model systematic errors and attractors. An increasing number of high-resolution observations will be used to characterise model skill at all observed scales, while advanced statistical techniques (such as deep learning) should contribute to improve cross-validation capabilities between different types of observations, and between observations and models.

Errors in the ocean circulation models, in particular on vertical transport and mixing, strongly impact the coupled biogeochemical model solutions. Thus, monitoring errors in key parameters of the physical forcing should characterise errors (their causes) and subsequent impacts in biogeochemical solutions. The mixed layer depth variable is a typical example of this due to its impact on biogeochemistry processes.

Quality assessment of model downscaling should be eased in the future by advances in integrated systems (following on the idea of monitoring uncertainties "propagating" along the value chain). The added value of downscaling (higher resolution with better representation of the ocean processes) needs to be assessed through a more systematic comparison of global vs. regional and coastal models. To this aim, alternative/innovative validation metrics are needed for

<figure><img src="image_632.png" /></figure>
model assessment that avoid double penalty when compar-
ing different resolution models (Ebert, 2009). More relevant
skill scores are needed for forecasting, implementing new
approaches to validate and inter-compare new physical, and
biogeochemical model products at very high-resolution.

Finally, there is a growing need to identify and understand long-term trends in ocean parameters and their impact at regional to coastal scale. The validation of such signals is challenging for physical and even more for biogeochemical parameters, such as carbon, oxygen, and ocean acidification, which are of great interest on both regional and global scales. It is crucial to improve the validation methodology and to increase the number of reference observations as much as possible.

12.9.3. Quality information communication improvements

There is an increasing demand for regional fit for purpose
assessments, especially in coastal areas. The quality infor-
mation content must evolve following users' needs. The cur-
rent OceanPredict product quality metric monitoring has to
be complemented with process- (and user-) oriented met-
rics, and better quantification of uncertainties. Probabilis-
tic scores and robustness assessments with multi-product

(model and observed) intercomparisons should help an-
swer many user requirements. The use of application-ori-
ented metrics, such as Lagrangian drift metrics or "event
oriented" metrics (e.g. categorical scores based on thresh-
olds) should also be generalised.

The collaboration among forecasting services to agree on in-
ternational validation standards must continue. Collabora-
tion between forecast services and users should result in the
introduction of new user-oriented metrics to be considered
as local case studies and validation "benchmarks".

Operational oceanography centres will have to develop both
high-level summarised quality information and high-resolution
uncertainty estimates to be delivered alongside the products
following FAIR guidelines, as initiated by Peng et al. (2021a,
2021b).

High-level quality summaries, such as product “maturity
matrices”, will guide users to choose the most appropriate
product for a given use, while the uncertainty information
delivered alongside the product will enable the access to tai-
lored product quality information, as a valuable addition to
many oceanographic applications.

<figure><img src="image_633.png" /></figure>

12.10.

Expected future evolution of Copernicus Marine Service
products and services

The first operational phase 2014-2021 of the Copernicus Marine Service has successfully implemented a service chain devoted to ocean information, involving committed producers throughout Europe, and serving expert users worldwide. The Copernicus Marine Service will develop an ambitious 7-year plan (Copernicus 2, 2021-2027) with staged implementation that answers to increasing user and policy (e.g. EU Green Deal) needs. The objective is to fully embrace the capabilities of new digital services and implement the next generation of ocean monitoring and forecasting for the Blue/White/Green ocean.

Copernicus Marine Service products and services are deliv-
ered by means of state-of-the-art, user-oriented, scientific
and technical methodologies, which induces openness to
newly developing ideas and associated capacities. Apart
from guaranteeing service continuity, the Copernicus Marine
Service is continuously evolving to ensure that its services
and products remain state-of-the-art and meet a wide range

of existing and emerging user and policy needs related to
all marine and maritime sectors: maritime safety, coastal en-
vironment monitoring, trade and marine navigation, fishery,
aquaculture, marine renewable energy, marine conservation
and biodiversity, ocean health, climate and climate adapta-
tion, recreation, education, science and innovation.

The following major improvements of current products, as
well as new products benefiting from science and technology
advances, are already planned to ensure an enhanced con-
tinuity of the service, keeping the service at the state-of-art
and at internationally competitive and fit for purpose stan-
dards, considering the European policies' priorities (Green
Deal, Common Fisheries Policy, Marine Strategy Framework
Directive, and Convention on Biological Diversity):

* High resolution monitoring, modelling, and forecasting of the blue ocean with an increase of the horizontal

<figure><img src="image_634.png" /></figure>
resolutions of the current systems by a factor of at least 3 (e.g. global 1/36°, regional 1/108°). Coupling and interaction with waves, sea ice, atmosphere, biogeochemistry, and rivers will also be implemented for improved ocean forecasts. New high-resolution sea level observations from the SWOT wide swath altimeter mission, new ocean topography, sea surface temperature, salinity from the Sentinel, HPMC, CRISTAL, and CIMR missions will be included as observational products. These improvements will impact the different Copernicus Marine Service areas and their key applications: maritime security and safety, maritime transport, pollution monitoring and offshore operations, and coastal zone monitoring and forecasting.

* Probabilistic forecasting and extended (1-month) forecasts based on model ensembles, allowing a better characterization of model uncertainties in analyses and forecast. Data assimilation techniques will evolve toward more multivariate schemes to constrain in a more extended and coherent way the different inanimate components of the marine environment (physics, sea ice, and biogeochemistry). Coupled ocean/atmosphere data assimilation will also be implemented. Probabilistic forecasts will be instrumental for early warning systems, and to support decision-making based on operational products by better characterising the confidence level associated with the provided information.

* Reanalyses of the 20th century physical and biogeochemical data for the global ocean and the European regional seas, assimilating historical in-situ observations (e.g. sea surface temperature and tige gauges mainly for the first half of the century and temperature and salinity profiles from 1950 onwards). The purpose of these reanalyses is to better assess the past evolution of the ocean in response to climate change and to better monitor Essential Ocean Variables and Essential Climate Variables related to the ocean.

* Step changes in Arctic Ocean monitoring, modelling, and forecasting through upgrade in sea-ice models, improved coupling with the atmosphere and hydrology (river discharge and nutrient loads), higher-resolution, extended forecasting ranges from a week to a month, and ensemble forecasting for an improved characterization of forecasting uncertainties. Provision of icebergs' forecasts will complement the information produced for ice services. Improved satellite products on sea-ice detection and a pan-Arctic ice chart will complete the offer. These evolutions will address user needs regarding maritime transport (e.g. ship routine) and marine safety in sea-ice and iceberg infested regions, marine resources (fisheries and conservation) and climate change impact in the Arctic.

* Air/sea fluxes of CO₂ monitoring and modelling, including advanced modelling/data assimilation systems at global and regional scales as well as including error estimations. Foreseen developments also include processing and quality control of novel in-situ observations from the BGC Argo array and improvement of observation-based products derived from Neural Network methods. These evolutions are required by the Copernicus anthropogenic CO₂ service as well as for blue carbon monitoring.

* Coastal zone monitoring and forecasting with improved capacities to link and co-production between coastal systems with Copernicus Marine Service upstream systems. Consistency and river-ocean continuity will be ensured by using standardised methods to couple hydrological models (for river run-offs) with global, regional, and coastal ocean models. Time-series (past, present, forecasts) of standardised modelled river discharges of freshwater, nutrients, particulate, and dissolved matter will be provided. Coastal zone monitoring will also be enhanced through satellite observations - based on Sentinel (especially S1, S2, S3, and S6) and other missions - for nearshore bathymetry and shoreline position and their evolution, high-resolution winds, spectral wave information, detection of plastic debris, monitoring of marine litter, ecosystems, water quality, and sea surface temperature. Given the huge social, economic, and biological value of coastal zones, these improvements will contribute to a wide range of applications (coastal zone management, climate adaptation, coastal modelling, aquaculture and fisheries, navigation and shipping, marine renewable energy, oil spill management and search and rescue), supporting various policies and resilience to climate change.

* Marine biology monitoring and forecasting with major improvement in numerical models to represent processes (e.g. benthic/pelagic coupling, riverine inputs) increasing accuracy, advanced data assimilation techniques (e.g. combining state and parameter estimation), and new modules linking optical properties in the near-surface ocean to biomass to better couple ocean colour and subsurface data from in-situ such as BGC Argo. End-to-end ecosystem modelling will also be included to link along the food web low trophic levels (e.g. plankton) to mid-trophic levels (e.g. micronekton), and to high-trophic levels (e.g. predator fishes and marine mammals). Marine biology monitoring will also be enhanced through the improvement of gathering, processing, quality control, and characterization of biogeochemical and marine biology in-situ (e.g. optical and acoustic sensors) and satellite (e.g. S2, S3 and hyperspectral) observations in open and coastal oceans. These products will support international and European

<figure><img src="image_635.png" /></figure>
Union objectives in terms of biodiversity, development of sustainable food resources, water quality, assessment of blue carbon in the overall carbon stake accounting.

* Long-term projections of the marine environment (both physics, biogeochemistry, and marine ecosystems) under climate change from global to regional scales (downscaling of climate scenarios), and associated consequences for main stocks of exploited fishes. These products will support climate assessments for decision-making on adaptation and mitigation of climate risks (e.g. coastal floods, surges, etc.).

* Enhanced digital services with online cloud processing capabilities for manipulating and processing data with advanced analytics and scientific computing software (e.g.

artificial intelligence toolboxes), access to Sentinel Level 1&2 data, marine data (e.g. from EMODnet, SAF, etc.), and connection to HPC computing nodes. This will consolidate the Copernicus Marine Service as a one-stop shop for operational and digital ocean services.

A document 🌐<fnref n="11" /> presenting the Copernicus Marine Service Evolution Strategy for R&D priorities has been prepared by its STAC 🌐<fnref n="12" /> and reviewed by MOI. This document details the expected future products and services by Copernicus Marine Service and the required developments. It is a living document, as it is updated periodically according to feedback from users and policy needs, the status of scientific developments achieved within and outside the Copernicus Marine Service community, and to the high-level Copernicus Marine Service evolution strategy.

<figure><img src="image_636.png" /></figure>

## 12.11. The United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development

At the beginning of the third millennium, ocean science was largely competent for diagnosing problems. However, its ability to offer solutions of direct relevance to sustainable development requires a massive upgrade.

The world needed a large-scale and adequately resourced campaign to transform ocean science empowering and engaging stakeholders across disciplines, geographies, generations, and genders, and of sufficiently long duration to deliver the lasting change that is required. In 2016, the IOC of UNESCO ( Federation of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030 (referred to as 'the Ocean Decade'). UNGA called on the IOC to prepare an Implementation Plan for the Ocean Decade in consultation with Member States, United Nations partners, and diverse stakeholder groups.

In 2021, the United Nations launched the Ocean Decade (2021-2030) ( Federation of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030) whose aim is to 'support efforts to reverse the

cycle of decline in ocean health and gather ocean stakeholders worldwide behind a common framework that will ensure ocean science can fully support countries in creating improved conditions for sustainable development of the Ocean'. In this framework, the IOC plays an important role: it coordinates the Decade's design and preparation, identifies programmatic contributions, and implements the Decade.

The vision of the Ocean Decade is 'the science we need for the ocean we want'. The mission is 'to catalyse transformative ocean science solutions for sustainable development, connecting people and our ocean'.

Seven outcomes describe what should be the 'ocean we want' at the end of the Ocean Decade:

1. A clean ocean where sources of pollution are identified and reduced or removed.

2. A healthy and resilient ocean where marine ecosystems are understood, protected, restored and managed.

3. A productive ocean supporting sustainable food supply and a sustainable ocean economy.

4. A predicted ocean where society understands and can respond to changing ocean conditions.

5. A safe ocean where life and livelihoods are protected from ocean-related hazards.

6. An accessible ocean with open and equitable access to data, information and technology and innovation.

<figure><img src="image_637.png" /></figure>

<footnote n="11">11. https://marine.copernicus.eu/sites/default/files/media/pdf/2021-09/CMEMS%20Service_evolution_strategy_RDPriorities_v5-June-2021.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="12">12. http://marine.copernicus.eu/science-learning/service-evolution/about-stac</footnote>

<footnote n="13">13. https://ioc.unesco.org/</footnote>

<footnote n="14">14. https://www.oceandecade.org</footnote>
7. An inspiring and engaging ocean where society understands and values the ocean in relation to human wellbeing and sustainable development.

The decade will be implemented via “Actions”, which are the tangible initiatives that will be carried out across the globe over the next ten years to fulfil the Ocean Decade vision. They will be implemented by a wide range of proponents, including research institutes and universities, governments, UN agencies, intergovernmental organisations, other international and regional organisations, business and industry, philanthropic and corporate foundations, NGOs, educators, community groups or individuals. Actions can be implemented by promoting Activities, Contributions, specific Programs or Projects.

The Ocean Decade will involve a large number of partners and actors around the world, and hence it cannot be rigidly governed. A simple, robust coordination structure will manage day-to-day implementation. The DCU, to be located at the IOC Secretariat, will be the central hub for the coordination of Ocean Decade activities. Governments or partners will host a number of Decade Coordination Offices and DCCs – referred to as decentralised coordination structures – that will be located in different regions around the world. These structures will help to coordinate efforts between national, regional, and global initiatives, share knowledge and tools developed through the Ocean Decade, create links between potential Decade partners, and monitor and report on the impact of the Decade. One DCC will be devoted to Ocean Prediction 15.

The following subsections describe some examples of Actions and Collaborative Centres that will be linked to OOFS.

## 12.11.1. The Decade Collaborative Centre for Ocean Prediction

DCCs serve as the main interface between Decade Actions and the DCU at the IOC-UNESCO Secretariat. MOI has been selected to host the DCC for Ocean Prediction. It will provide:

* A communication and collaboration hub bringing together Decade programmes with ocean prediction activities, institutes, and organisations outside of the Decade;

* A global technical and organisational structure to establish a pilot for a Global Ocean Data Processing, Modelling, and Forecasting System, building on the innovations generated by the Decade programmes and other national, regional, and international partners.

The DCC for Ocean Prediction will ensure that the efforts of multiple Decade programmes combine to meet Decade objectives and that innovations are integrated into operational ocean forecasting systems through a harmonised global network with shared information and services.

## 12.11.2. CoastPredict Program

The University of Bologna (Italy) was selected for another thematic DCC which will focus on coastal resilience in a changing climate. The same University is also leading the CoastPredict Programme that was endorsed as a Decade Programme of Ocean Science in June 2021.

CoastPredict is one of the 3 Programmes co-designed with GOOS, and it has the purpose of revolutionising the global coastal ocean observing and forecasting sector (16). The high-level objectives of CoastPredict are:

1. A predicted global coastal ocean;

2. The upgrade to a fit for purpose oceanographic information infrastructure;

3. Co-design and implementation of an integrated coastal ocean observing and forecasting system adhering to best practices and standards, designed as a global framework, and implemented locally.

The Global Coastal Ocean is a concept central to the transformative science pursued by CoastPredict. CoastPredict will re-define the concept of the Global Coastal Ocean that was firstly described as follows by Robinson and Brink (2006; concept developed in volumes 10 to 14 of “The Sea” series): 'the coastal ocean - that area, extending inshore from the estuarine mouths to river catchments affected by salt waters and offshore from the surf zone to the continental shelf and slope where waters of continental origins meet open ocean currents.'

According to this concept, all coastal ocean regions are an interface area where atmosphere, land, ice, hydrology, coastal ecosystems, open ocean, and humans interact on a multiplicity of space and time scales that need to be resolved with a proper observing and downscaling methodology, including the consideration of uncertainties.

The legacy of CoastPredict will be new science for the observing systems, and new methods for the development of reliable predictions extending as far as possible into the future to solve problems co-defined with stakeholders. Additionally, it will enhance the capacity to formulate R2O practices, a new set of coastal observing and modelling standards for all. This will go hand-in-hand with the organisation and upgrade of the basic global ocean information infrastructure for open

<figure><img src="image_638.png" /></figure>

<footnote n="15">15. https://www.oceandecade.org/news/decade-collaborative-centres-to-provide-focused-regional-and-thermal-support-for-decade-actions/</footnote>

<footnote n="16">16. https://www.coastpredict.org/</footnote>
and free access to coastal information using standards and best practices.

CoastPredict will capitalise on three previous major international initiatives:

1. GOOS Coastal observation panels (i.e. COOP and succeeding PICO). COOP started in 2000 to define a strategy for integrated observing and forecasting in the coastal areas. One of the main outcomes was the recommendation that a global network of observations, data communications, data management, and data analysis/forecasting should be secured providing economies of scale. Another important COOP/PICO outcome was the initial definition of common variables to be monitored and forecasted in the coastal areas. However, PICO's work did not continue because the international ocean observing network was not adequately organised and technology was not yet ready for data collection on biogeochemistry, biodiversity, and other marine environmental variables. Furthermore, the satellite observing system for coastal areas was still under development (except for coastal ocean colour).

2. OceanPredict and its COSS-TT. OceanPredict organised the global ocean observation uptake for the development of global and regional forecasting systems. In addition, OceanPredict/COSS-TT defined the international quality control standards for ocean analyses, reanalyses, and forecasts in the coastal ocean and shelf seas. COSS-TT promoted the use of OceanPredict large scale products for seamless integration of ocean to coastal forecasting, defined the state-of-the-art methodology for downscaling, data assimilation, array design in the coastal/shelf areas. COSS-TT focuses on advancing science in support of coastal forecasting and is one of the backbones of CoastPredict.

3. The JCOMM. From 2000 to 2019, JCOMM has coordinated ocean observing networks, in particular the GLOSS network for tide gauges and the HF radar network. Furthermore, it started to develop coastal services for wave and storm surges by meteorological offices in developing countries. Moreover, it has coordinated the development of marine environmental emergency services. However, such developments led by JCOMM were not fully integrated and connected with the growing oceanographic research communities of OceanPredict and COSS-TT. While the observing systems and the large-scale ocean forecasting systems are now coordinated in GOOS, the coastal downscaling and forecasting research developments are not currently connected to coastal services.

All these activities have been partly disconnected and have not produced a global international network bringing to-

gether the fragmented scientific communities for advancing the research on the global coastal ocean. New advances that make a science-focused programme such as CoastPredict urgent and achievable are: a) operational oceanography is now implemented from the global to the regional scales, making available open and free data for coastal downscaling; and b) major technology advancements have taken place in observing, from satellites to in-situ robotics to the use of Artificial Intelligence, which makes the monitoring of the coastal ocean practical and feasible. CoastPredict will capitalise on this game-changing operational oceanography framework and extend to coastal predictive capabilities, including the land-water cycle (rivers, underground and transitional waters) and, for the first time, integrating the coastal ocean, through estuaries and rivers, with the “urban ocean” (waters within and around coastal cities).

CoastPredict will be implemented through several projects focusing on 6 areas:

* **Focus Area 1** - Integrated Observing and Modelling for short term coastal forecasting and early warnings. This area will contribute to Ocean Decade Challenge 6 ‘Increase community resilience to ocean hazards’: enhance multi-hazard early warning services for all geophysical, ecological, biological, weather, climate and anthropogenic related ocean and coastal hazards, and mainstream community preparedness and resilience (¹⁷).

* **Focus Area 2** - Future Coastal Ocean climates: Earth system observing and modelling. This area will contribute to Challenge 5 ‘Unlock ocean-based solutions to climate change’: enhance understanding of the ocean-climate nexus and generate knowledge and solutions to mitigate, adapt and build resilience to the effects of climate change across all geographies and at all scales, and to improve services including predictions for the ocean, climate and weather.

* **Focus Area 3** - Solutions for Integrated Coastal Management. This area will contribute to Challenge 8 ‘Create a digital representation of the Ocean’: through multi-stakeholder collaboration, develop a comprehensive digital representation of the ocean, including a dynamic ocean map, which provides free and open access for exploring, discovering, and visualising past, current, and future ocean conditions in a manner relevant to diverse stakeholders.

* **Focus Area 4** - Coastal Ocean and Human Health. This area does not match with a specific Decade Challenge but it is cross-cutting to all the 10 Challenges.

<figure><img src="image_639.png" /></figure>

<footnote n="17">17. https://www.oceandecade.org/challenges/</footnote>
* **Focus Area 5** - Coastal Information integrated in the open and free exchange international infrastructure. This area will contribute to Challenge 7 'Expand the Global Ocean Observing System': ensure a sustainable ocean observing system across all ocean basins that delivers accessible, timely, and actionable data and information to all users.

* **Focus Area 6** - Equitable coastal ocean capacity. This area will contribute to Challenge 9 'Skills, knowledge and technology for all': ensure comprehensive capacity development and equitable access to data, information, knowledge and technology across all aspects of ocean science and for all stakeholders.

### 12.11.3. ForeSea Program

ForeSea is hosted by OceanPredict (OI¹⁸), a science programme for the coordination and improvement of global and regional ocean analysis and forecasting systems. ForeSea aims to build the next generation of ocean predictions pursuing a strong coordination of the scientific community and institutes at the international level (ICI¹⁹). Its main goals are:

* To improve the science, efficiency, use, and impact of ocean prediction systems;

* To build a seamless ocean information value chain, from observations to end users, able to support the economy and society.

ForeSea OI²⁰ focuses on 2 main themes:

1. Catalysing transformative ocean prediction science solutions for sustainable development, connecting people and ocean prediction;

2. Increasing impact and relevance: improving science and science capacity for the ocean we want.

Such themes are developed through a number of items. In theme 1 they span from integrating forecasts of ocean hazards with socioeconomic forecasts for supporting policy and management to maximisation of the impact and value of observations, from capacity building and training to contribution to a digital ocean. In theme 2, they cover from usage of advanced ocean prediction technologies in weather and climate predictions to coupled systems (in partnership with CoastPredict), from usage of Earth system models (ESM) to development of limited ESM areas with coupled components to improve model predictability (in collaboration with CoastPredict).

Expected outcomes²¹ are considerable as ForeSea should contribute to:

* An operational oceanography information value-chain where verified/certified information and knowledge are exchanged freely enabling all operational oceanographic components, integrated from the open ocean to the coastal areas, to effectively synergize;

* A continuously optimised ocean observing system integrated from the open ocean to the coastal areas that provides maximum information benefit with manageable cost; An ocean information delivery system that provides the right information at the right time for facilitating marine decisions in support of human safety and environmental safety, and an efficient and sustainable blue economy;

* Improved extended range forecasting capabilities for ocean prediction systems;

* Better assessment and prediction of the ocean state (including reliable uncertainty estimates) and ocean impact on forecasts of other earth system components (e.g. atmosphere, ice, waves, marine ecosystems, estuaries, etc.);

* An informed ocean literate society and global economy;

* Coordinated capacity building across all elements of the operational oceanography value chain to sustain production and delivery of ocean prediction;

* Demonstrated impact and value of predictions for coastal communities;

* Effective use of ocean prediction technologies for weather and climate predictions.

To facilitate realisation of the expected outcomes, ForeSea established through OceanPredict connections with GOOS, WMO, IOC, JCOMM, Argo, GHRSSST, GEO, and GEO BluePlanet.

18. https://oceanpredict.org/

19. https://oceanpredict.org/foresea/

20. https://oceanpredict.org/foresea/foresea-planned-activities/

21. https://oceanpredict.org/foresea/foresea-expect-ed-outcomes/

<figure><img src="image_640.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_641.png" /></figure>

12.12.
References

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# Editors and Authors

Editors: Enrique Alvarez Fanjul¹, Stefania Ciliberti², Pierre Bahurel³

Editorial support: Romane Zufic³

<table><tr><td>Chapter 1</td><td>Author: Enrique Alvarez Fanjul¹</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 2</td><td>Authors: Pierre Bahurel³ and Enrique Alvarez Fanjul¹</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 3</td><td>Coordinator: Enrique Alvarez Fanjul¹<br>Authors: Marcos Garcia Sotillo⁴ and John Wilkin⁵</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 4</td><td>Coordinator: Avichal Mehra⁶<br>Authors: Roland Aznar⁷, Stefania Ciliberti², Laurence Crosnier³, Marie Drevillon³, Yann Drillet³, Begoña Pérez Gómez⁸, Antonio Reppucci³, Joseph Sudheer⁹, Marcos Garcia Sotillo⁴, Marina Tonani¹, P. N. Vinaychandranand¹⁰, and Aihong Zhong¹¹</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 5</td><td>Coordinator: Stefania Ciliberti²<br>Authors: Nadia Ayoub¹², Jérômenut³, Mauro Cirano¹³, Anne Delamarche³, Pierre De Mey-Frémaux¹², Marie Drevillon³, Yann Drillet³, Helene Hewitt¹⁴, Simona Masina¹⁵, Clemente Tanajura¹³, Vassilios Vervatis¹⁶, and Liying Wan¹⁷</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 6</td><td>Coordinator: Laurent Bertino¹⁸<br>Authors: Ed Blockley¹⁴, Johnny A. Johannessen¹⁸, and Einar Örn Ólason¹⁸</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 7</td><td>Coordinator: Fujiang Yu¹⁷<br>Authors: David Byrne¹⁹, Jianxi Dong¹⁷, Shichao Liu¹⁷, and Begoña Pérez Gómez⁸</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 8</td><td>Coordinators: Gabriel Diaz-Hernandez²⁰, Lotfi Aouf²¹<br>Authors: Alexander Babanin²², Jean Bidlot²³, Andy Saulter¹⁴, and Joanna Staneva²⁴</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 9</td><td>Coordinator: Elodie Gutknecht³<br>Authors: Laurent Bertino¹⁸, Pierre Brasseur²⁵, Stefano Ciavatta²⁶, Gianpiero Cossarini²⁷, Katja Fennel²⁸, David Ford¹⁴, Marilaure Gregoire²⁹, Diane Lavoie³⁰, and Patrick Lehodey³¹</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 10</td><td>Coordinator: John Siddorn¹⁹<br>Authors: Øyvind Breivik³², Natacha B. Bernier³⁴, Kai H. Christensen³², Stephen G. Penny³⁶, Keguang Wang³²</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 11</td><td>Coordinator: Giovanni Coppini²<br>Authors: Enrique Alvarez Fanjul¹, José Chambel Leitão³⁸, Laurence Crosnier³, Pierre Daniel²¹, Tomasz Dabrowski³⁹, Svitlana Liubartseva², Gianandrea Mannarini², and Glen Nolan³⁹</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 12</td><td>Coordinator: Fraser Davidson⁴⁰<br>Authors: Enrique Alvarez Fanjul¹, Alain Arnaud³, Stefania Ciliberti², Marie Drevillon³, Ronan Fablet⁴¹, Yosuke Fujii⁴², Isabel Garcia-Hermosa³, Marcos Garcia Sotillo⁴, Stéphanie Guinehut³, Emma Heslop⁴³, Villy Kourafalou⁴⁴, Julien Le Sommer⁴⁵, Matt Martin¹⁴, Andrew M. Moore⁴⁶, Nadia Pinardi⁴⁷, Elizabeth Remy³, Paul Sandery⁴⁸, Jun She⁴⁹, and Joaquin Tintorè⁵⁰</td></tr></table>

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1) Mercator Ocean International, France - previously at Puertos del Estado, Spain

2) Ocean Predictions and Applications Division, Fondazione Centro Euro-Mediterraneo sui Cambiamenti Climatici, Lecce, Italy

3) Mercator Ocean International, France

4) Nologin Ocean Weather Systems, Spain - previously at Puertos del Estado, Spain

5) Rutgers University, USA

6) NWS/NOAA, USA

7) Nologin Ocean Weather Systems, Spain

8) Puertos del Estado, Spain

9) Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, India

10) Indian Institute of Science, India

11) Bureau of Meteorology, Canada

12) LEGOS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, CNES, and IRD, France

13) Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

14) Met Office, UK

15) Ocean modelling and Data Assimilation Division, Fondazione Centro Euro-Mediterraneo sui Cambiamenti Climatici, Bologna, Italy

16) University of Athens, Department of Physics, Greece

17) National Marine Environmental Forecasting Center, China

18) Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Norway

19) National Oceanography Centre, UK

20) IHCantabria - Instituto de Hidráulica Ambiental de la Universidad de Cantabria, Spain

21) MeteoFrance, France

22) University of Melbourne, Australia

23) ECMWF, UK

24) HEREON, Germany

25) Institute for Geosciences and Environmental research, France

26) Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK

27) National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics, Italy

28) Dalhousie University, Canada

29) Liege University, Belgium

30) Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Canada

31) Collecte Localisation Satellites - CLS, France

32) Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Norway

33) University of Bergen, Norway

34) Environment and Climate Change, Canada

35) University of Oslo, Norway

36) NOAA Physical Sciences Laboratory (PSL), USA

37) Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder

38) Hidromod, Portugal

39) Marine Institute, Ireland

40) Dynamic Hydrographic Products with Fisheries and Oceans, Canada

41) IMT Atlantique, France

42) MRI/JMA, Japan

43) IOC/UNESCO, France

44) University of Miami, USA

45) CNRS, France

46) Ocean Sciences Department, Institute of Marine Sciences, USA

47) University of Bologna, Italy

48) CSIRO Australia's National Science Agency, Australia

49) Danish Meteorological Institute, Denmark

50) SOCIB, Spain

GOOS / ETOOFS Secretariat: Denis Chang Seng

Corresponding author: Enrique Alvarez Fanjul (ealvarez@mercator-ocean.fr)

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<table><tr><td>ACNFS</td><td>Arctic Cap Nowcast/Forecast System</td></tr><tr><td>ADCIRC</td><td>Advanced CIRCulation Model For Oceanic, Coastal And Estuarine Waters</td></tr><tr><td>ADCP</td><td>Acoustic doppler current profilers</td></tr><tr><td>AGRIF</td><td>Adaptive Grid Refinement in Fortran</td></tr><tr><td>AHI</td><td>Advanced Himawari Infrared</td></tr><tr><td>AI</td><td>Artificial Intelligence</td></tr><tr><td>AMR</td><td>Adaptive Mesh Refinement</td></tr><tr><td>AMSR-E</td><td>Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for EOS</td></tr><tr><td>AMSR2</td><td>Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2</td></tr><tr><td>AO</td><td>Arctic Oscillation</td></tr><tr><td>AOGCM</td><td>Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Model</td></tr><tr><td>AUV</td><td>Autonomous Underwater Vehicle</td></tr><tr><td>AVHRR</td><td>Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer</td></tr><tr><td>AWO</td><td>Atmosphere-Waves-Ocean</td></tr><tr><td>BAM</td><td>Bayesian Model Average</td></tr><tr><td>BAMHBI</td><td>Biogeochemical Model for Hypoxic and Benthic Influenced areas</td></tr><tr><td>BATS</td><td>Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study</td></tr><tr><td>BBM</td><td>Brittle Bingham-Maxwell</td></tr><tr><td>BE</td><td>Boussinesq Equations</td></tr><tr><td>BFM</td><td>Biogeochemical Flux Model</td></tr><tr><td>BGC</td><td>Biogeochemistry</td></tr><tr><td>BSFS</td><td>Black Sea Forecasting System</td></tr><tr><td>BUFR</td><td>Binary Universal Form for the Representation</td></tr><tr><td>CCS</td><td>California Current System</td></tr><tr><td>CCSM</td><td>Community Climate System Model</td></tr><tr><td>CDOM</td><td>Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter</td></tr><tr><td>CERA</td><td>Coupled ECMWF ReAnalysis</td></tr><tr><td>CF</td><td>Climate and Forecast</td></tr><tr><td>CFD</td><td>Computational Fluid Dynamics</td></tr><tr><td>CFL</td><td>Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy</td></tr><tr><td>CFOSAT</td><td>Chinese-French Oceanography Satellite</td></tr><tr><td>CFSR</td><td>Climate Forecast System Reanalysis</td></tr><tr><td>CHL</td><td>Chlorophyll</td></tr><tr><td>CIMR</td><td>Copernicus Imaging Microwave Radiometer</td></tr><tr><td>CMA</td><td>Cuadro de Mando Ambiental</td></tr><tr><td>CMCC</td><td>Fondazione Centro Euro-Mediterraneo sui Cambiamenti Climatici</td></tr><tr><td>CMIP</td><td>Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</td></tr><tr><td>CO-OPS</td><td>Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>COARDS</td><td>Cooperative Ocean/Atmosphere Research Data Service</td></tr><tr><td>COAWST</td><td>Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere-Wave-Sediment Transport system</td></tr><tr><td>COE</td><td>Coefficient of Efficiency</td></tr><tr><td>COOP</td><td>Coastal Ocean Observing Panel</td></tr><tr><td>CORA</td><td>Coriolis Ocean Dataset for Reanalysis</td></tr><tr><td>COSMoS</td><td>Canadian Oil Spill Modelling Suite</td></tr><tr><td>COSS-TT</td><td>Coastal and Shelf Seas Task Team</td></tr><tr><td>CPU</td><td>Central processing unit</td></tr><tr><td>CROCO</td><td>Coastal and Regional Ocean Community Model</td></tr><tr><td>CRPS</td><td>Continuous Rank Probability Score</td></tr><tr><td>CRPS</td><td>Continuous Rank Probability Score</td></tr><tr><td>CTD</td><td>Conductivity-Temperature Depth</td></tr><tr><td>DA</td><td>Data assimilation</td></tr><tr><td>DART</td><td>Data Assimilation Research Testbed</td></tr><tr><td>DAS</td><td>Data assimilation scheme</td></tr><tr><td>DBCP</td><td>Data Buoy Cooperation Panel</td></tr><tr><td>DCCs</td><td>Decade Collaborative Centres</td></tr><tr><td>DCM</td><td>Deep Chlorophyll Maximum</td></tr><tr><td>DCSM</td><td>Dutch Continental Shelf Model</td></tr><tr><td>DCU</td><td>Decade Coordination Unit</td></tr><tr><td>DDE</td><td>Deep Differentiable Emulator</td></tr><tr><td>DEM</td><td>Digital Elevation Model</td></tr><tr><td>DEnKF</td><td>Deterministic EnKF</td></tr><tr><td>DEOS</td><td>Delft Institute for Earth-Oriented Space Research</td></tr><tr><td>DIAS</td><td>Data and Information Access Service</td></tr><tr><td>DIC</td><td>Dissolved inorganic carbon</td></tr><tr><td>DM</td><td>Delayed mode</td></tr><tr><td>DMS</td><td>Data Management System</td></tr><tr><td>DMSP</td><td>Defense Meteorological Satellite Program</td></tr><tr><td>DNS</td><td>Direct Numerical Simulation</td></tr><tr><td>DTO</td><td>Digital Twins for the Ocean</td></tr><tr><td>DUACS</td><td>Data Unification and Altimeter Combination System</td></tr><tr><td>EAP</td><td>Elastic-Anisotropic-Plastic</td></tr><tr><td>ECMWF</td><td>European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</td></tr><tr><td>ECOSMO</td><td>ECOSystem Model</td></tr><tr><td>ECV</td><td>Essential Climate Variable</td></tr><tr><td>EFAS</td><td>European Flood Awareness System</td></tr><tr><td>EFI</td><td>Extreme Forecast Index</td></tr><tr><td>EKF</td><td>Extended Kalman Filter</td></tr></table>

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<table><tr><td>EMODnet</td><td>European Marine Observation and Data Network</td></tr><tr><td>EnKF</td><td>Ensemble Kalman Filter</td></tr><tr><td>EnOI</td><td>Ensemble Optimal Interpolation</td></tr><tr><td>ENSO</td><td>El Niño-Southern Oscillation</td></tr><tr><td>ENSURF</td><td>ENsemble SURge Forecast</td></tr><tr><td>EORC</td><td>Earth Observation Research Centre</td></tr><tr><td>EOV</td><td>Essential Ocean Variable</td></tr><tr><td>EPS</td><td>Ensemble prediction systems</td></tr><tr><td>ERSEM</td><td>European Regional Seas Ecosystem Model</td></tr><tr><td>ESA</td><td>European Space Agency</td></tr><tr><td>ESM</td><td>Earth system model</td></tr><tr><td>ESMF</td><td>Earth System Modelling Framework</td></tr><tr><td>ESP</td><td>Earth System Prediction</td></tr><tr><td>ESTKF</td><td>Error-Subspace Transform Kalman Filter</td></tr><tr><td>ETOOFS</td><td>Expert Team on Operational Ocean Forecasting Systems</td></tr><tr><td>EU</td><td>European Union</td></tr><tr><td>EUMETSAT</td><td>European Operational Satellite Agency</td></tr><tr><td>EuroGOOS</td><td>European component of the Global Ocean Observing System</td></tr><tr><td>EVP</td><td>Elastic-Viscous-Plastic</td></tr><tr><td>FABM</td><td>Framework for Aquatic Biogeochemical Models</td></tr><tr><td>FAIR</td><td>Findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability</td></tr><tr><td>FAO</td><td>Food and Agriculture Organisation</td></tr><tr><td>FDM</td><td>Finite Difference Method</td></tr><tr><td>FEM</td><td>Finite Element Method</td></tr><tr><td>FESOM</td><td>Finite-Element/volumE Sea ice-Ocean Model</td></tr><tr><td>FESOM</td><td>Finite Element Solution</td></tr><tr><td>FNMOC</td><td>Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Centre</td></tr><tr><td>FRAC</td><td>Full Resolution Area Coverage</td></tr><tr><td>FSS</td><td>Fraction of Skill Score</td></tr><tr><td>FVCOM</td><td>Finite Volume Community Ocean Model</td></tr><tr><td>FVCOM</td><td>Finite-Volume Coastal Ocean Model</td></tr><tr><td>FVM</td><td>Finite Volume Method</td></tr><tr><td>FYI</td><td>First-year Ice</td></tr><tr><td>GAC</td><td>Global Area Coverage</td></tr><tr><td>GBN</td><td>Global Buoy Network</td></tr><tr><td>GCOS</td><td>Global Climate Observing System</td></tr><tr><td>GDAC</td><td>Global Data Assembly Centre</td></tr><tr><td>GDP</td><td>Global Drifter Program</td></tr><tr><td>GDP</td><td>Gross Domestic Product</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>GEO</td><td>Group on Earth Observations</td></tr><tr><td>GFDL</td><td>Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory</td></tr><tr><td>GFLOPS</td><td>giga FLOPS</td></tr><tr><td>GFS</td><td>Global Forecasting System</td></tr><tr><td>GHFRN</td><td>Global High Frequency Radar Network</td></tr><tr><td>GHG</td><td>Greenhouse Gas</td></tr><tr><td>GHRSSST</td><td>Group for High Resolution Sea Surface Temperature</td></tr><tr><td>GIS</td><td>Geographic Information System</td></tr><tr><td>GLO-PHY</td><td>Global Ocean Forecasting System</td></tr><tr><td>GLODAP</td><td>Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</td></tr><tr><td>GLOFAS</td><td>Global Flood Awareness System</td></tr><tr><td>GLOSS</td><td>Global Sea Level Observing System</td></tr><tr><td>GNOME</td><td>General NOAA Operational Modelling Environment</td></tr><tr><td>GNSS</td><td>Global Navigation Satellite System</td></tr><tr><td>GODAE</td><td>Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment</td></tr><tr><td>GOOS</td><td>Global Ocean Observing System</td></tr><tr><td>GPU</td><td>Graphics Processing Unit</td></tr><tr><td>GRDC</td><td>Global Runoff Data Centre</td></tr><tr><td>GSHHG</td><td>Global Self-consistent, Hierarchical, High-resolution Geography Database</td></tr><tr><td>GTS</td><td>Global Telecommunication System</td></tr><tr><td>HAB</td><td>Harmful Algal Bloom</td></tr><tr><td>HadOCC</td><td>Hadley Centre Ocean Carbon Cycle Model</td></tr><tr><td>HF</td><td>High Frequency</td></tr><tr><td>HPC</td><td>High Performance Computing</td></tr><tr><td>HTL</td><td>Higher Trophic Level</td></tr><tr><td>HYCOM</td><td>Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model</td></tr><tr><td>I/O</td><td>Input/Output</td></tr><tr><td>IABP</td><td>International Arctic Buoy Program</td></tr><tr><td>IBI</td><td>Iberian-Biscay-Irish</td></tr><tr><td>IBM</td><td>Individual-Based Model</td></tr><tr><td>ICCAT</td><td>International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas</td></tr><tr><td>ICESat</td><td>Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite</td></tr><tr><td>ICZM</td><td>Integrated Coastal Zone Management</td></tr><tr><td>IEO</td><td>Instituto Español de Oceanografía</td></tr><tr><td>IFS</td><td>Integrated Forecasting System</td></tr><tr><td>IHO</td><td>International Hydrographic Organization</td></tr><tr><td>IIEE</td><td>Integrated Ice Edge Error</td></tr><tr><td>IMO</td><td>International Maritime Organization</td></tr><tr><td>INCOIS</td><td>Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services</td></tr><tr><td>INS</td><td>In-Situ</td></tr></table>

<figure><img src="image_651.png" /></figure>
ANNEX 2: ACRONYMS

<table><tr><td>IOCCG</td><td>International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group</td></tr><tr><td>IOCCP</td><td>International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project</td></tr><tr><td>IOC</td><td>Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</td></tr><tr><td>IOOS</td><td>Integrated Ocean Observing System</td></tr><tr><td>IOP</td><td>Inherent Optical Property</td></tr><tr><td>IoT</td><td>Internet of Things</td></tr><tr><td>IPCC</td><td>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</td></tr><tr><td>ITD</td><td>Ice Thickness Distribution</td></tr><tr><td>ITIC</td><td>International Tsunami Information Center</td></tr><tr><td>ITU</td><td>International Telecommunications Union</td></tr><tr><td>JAXA</td><td>Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</td></tr><tr><td>JCOMM</td><td>Joint Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology</td></tr><tr><td>JEDI</td><td>Joint Effort for Data assimilation Integration</td></tr><tr><td>JMA</td><td>Japan Meteorological Agency</td></tr><tr><td>JPL</td><td>Jet Propulsion Laboratory</td></tr><tr><td>JPSS</td><td>Joint Polar Satellite System</td></tr><tr><td>KPI</td><td>Key performance indicators</td></tr><tr><td>LEO</td><td>Low Earth Orbit</td></tr><tr><td>LiDAR</td><td>Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging</td></tr><tr><td>LKF</td><td>Linear Kinematic Features</td></tr><tr><td>LOCEAN</td><td>Laboratoire d'Océanographie et du Climat: Expérimentation et Approches Numériques</td></tr><tr><td>MEAP-TT</td><td>Marine Ecosystem Analysis and Prediction Task Team</td></tr><tr><td>MedFS</td><td>Mediterranean Forecast System</td></tr><tr><td>MEDUSA</td><td>Model of Ecosystem Dynamics, nutrient Utilisation, Sequestration and Acidification</td></tr><tr><td>MEOP</td><td>Marine Mammals Exploring the Oceans Pole to Pole</td></tr><tr><td>MFC</td><td>Monitoring and Forecasting Centre</td></tr><tr><td>MFWAM</td><td>Météo-France WAve Model</td></tr><tr><td>MISST</td><td>Multi-sensor Improved Sea Surface Temperature</td></tr><tr><td>MITgcm</td><td>MIT general circulation model</td></tr><tr><td>MIZ</td><td>Marginal Ice Zone</td></tr><tr><td>MJO</td><td>Madden-Julian Oscillation</td></tr><tr><td>ML</td><td>Machine Learning</td></tr><tr><td>MLD</td><td>Mixed Layer Depth</td></tr><tr><td>MODIS</td><td>Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer</td></tr><tr><td>MOI</td><td>Mercator Ocean International</td></tr><tr><td>MOM</td><td>Modular Ocean Model</td></tr><tr><td>MOTHY</td><td>Modèle Océanique de Transport d'Hydrocarbures</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>MPA</td><td>Marine Protected Area</td></tr><tr><td>MPAS</td><td>Model for Prediction Across Scales</td></tr><tr><td>MPQ</td><td>Model product quality</td></tr><tr><td>MSaaS</td><td>Modelling and Simulation as a Service</td></tr><tr><td>MSE</td><td>Mild-slope equation</td></tr><tr><td>MSP</td><td>Maritime Spatial Planning</td></tr><tr><td>MTCSWA</td><td>Multi-platform Tropical Cyclone Surface Winds Analysis</td></tr><tr><td>MY</td><td>Multi Year</td></tr><tr><td>MYI</td><td>Multiyear Ice</td></tr><tr><td>NAO</td><td>North Atlantic Oscillation</td></tr><tr><td>NAVOCEANO</td><td>US Naval Oceanographic Office</td></tr><tr><td>NcML</td><td>NetCDF Markup Language</td></tr><tr><td>NDBC</td><td>National Data Buoy Center</td></tr><tr><td>NEMO</td><td>Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean</td></tr><tr><td>NGO</td><td>Non-governmental organization</td></tr><tr><td>NIVA</td><td>Norwegian Institute for Water Research</td></tr><tr><td>NOAA</td><td>National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</td></tr><tr><td>NODC</td><td>National Oceanographic Data Centres</td></tr><tr><td>NORWECOM</td><td>Norwegian Ecological Model</td></tr><tr><td>NPP</td><td>Net Primary Production</td></tr><tr><td>NRT</td><td>Near-Real-Time</td></tr><tr><td>NSIDC DAAC</td><td>National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center</td></tr><tr><td>NSR</td><td>Northern Sea Route</td></tr><tr><td>NSWE</td><td>Non-linear Shallow Water Equations</td></tr><tr><td>NWP</td><td>Numerical weather prediction</td></tr><tr><td>NWS</td><td>North West Shelf</td></tr><tr><td>OBC</td><td>Open Boundary Condition</td></tr><tr><td>OC</td><td>Ocean Colour</td></tr><tr><td>OC</td><td>Ocean Colour</td></tr><tr><td>ODV</td><td>Ocean Data View</td></tr><tr><td>OGCM</td><td>Ocean general circulation model</td></tr><tr><td>OI</td><td>Optimal Interpolation</td></tr><tr><td>OMI</td><td>Ocean Monitoring Indicator</td></tr><tr><td>ONR</td><td>Office of Naval Research</td></tr><tr><td>OO</td><td>Operational Oceanography</td></tr><tr><td>OOFS</td><td>Operational Ocean Monitoring and Forecasting Systems</td></tr><tr><td>OOPC</td><td>Ocean Observations Physics and Climate</td></tr><tr><td>OOPS</td><td>Object-Oriented Prediction System</td></tr><tr><td>OpenFOAM</td><td>Open source Field Operation and Manipulation</td></tr></table>

<figure><img src="image_652.png" /></figure>
<table><tr><td>OS-Eval</td><td>Observing System Evaluation</td></tr><tr><td>OSCAR</td><td>Oil Spill Contingency and Response</td></tr><tr><td>OSE</td><td>Observing System Experiment</td></tr><tr><td>OSI SAF</td><td>Ocean and Sea Ice Satellite Applications Facility</td></tr><tr><td>OSPO</td><td>Office of Satellite and Product Operations</td></tr><tr><td>OSR</td><td>Ocean State Report</td></tr><tr><td>OSSE</td><td>Observing System Simulation Experiment</td></tr><tr><td>PAR</td><td>Photosynthetically Available Radiation</td></tr><tr><td>PDAF</td><td>Parallel Data Assimilation Framework</td></tr><tr><td>PDF</td><td>Probability density function</td></tr><tr><td>PFT</td><td>Phytoplankton Functional Type</td></tr><tr><td>PICO</td><td>Panel for Integrated Coastal Observations</td></tr><tr><td>PISCES</td><td>Pelagic Interactions Scheme for Carbon and Ecosystem Studies</td></tr><tr><td>PMOST</td><td>Parallel Model Of Surge from Typhoon</td></tr><tr><td>PNA</td><td>Pacific-North American Pattern</td></tr><tr><td>PO.DAAC</td><td>Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Centre</td></tr><tr><td>POC</td><td>Particulate Organic Carbon</td></tr><tr><td>POM</td><td>Princeton Ocean Model</td></tr><tr><td>PQ</td><td>Product Quality</td></tr><tr><td>PSMSL</td><td>Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level</td></tr><tr><td>PSS</td><td>Practical Salinity Scale</td></tr><tr><td>QBO</td><td>Quasi-Biennial Oscillation</td></tr><tr><td>QC</td><td>Quality Control</td></tr><tr><td>QUID</td><td>Quality Information Document</td></tr><tr><td>R/COFS</td><td>Regional/Coastal Ocean Forecasting Systems</td></tr><tr><td>R2O</td><td>Research to Operations</td></tr><tr><td>RADS</td><td>Radar Altimeter Database System</td></tr><tr><td>RANS</td><td>Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes</td></tr><tr><td>RCP</td><td>Representative Concentration Pathways</td></tr><tr><td>RFMOs</td><td>Regional Fisheries Management Organisations</td></tr><tr><td>RHS</td><td>Right Hand Side</td></tr><tr><td>RIOPS</td><td>Regional Ice Ocean Prediction System</td></tr><tr><td>RMSD</td><td>Root Mean Square Difference</td></tr><tr><td>ROC</td><td>Receiver Operator Characteristic</td></tr><tr><td>ROMS</td><td>Regional Ocean Modeling System</td></tr><tr><td>ROSE-L</td><td>Copernicus Radar Observation System for Europe in L-band</td></tr><tr><td>RRR</td><td>Rolling Review of Requirements</td></tr><tr><td>Rrs</td><td>Remote Sensing Reflectance</td></tr><tr><td>SAMOA</td><td>System of Meteorological and Oceanographic Support for Port Authorities</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>SANGOMA</td><td>Stochastic Assimilation for the Next Generation Ocean Model Applications</td></tr><tr><td>SANIFS</td><td>Southern Adriatic - Northern Ionian Forecasting System</td></tr><tr><td>SARAL</td><td>Satellite with ARgos and ALTika</td></tr><tr><td>SAR</td><td>Synthetic Aperture Radar</td></tr><tr><td>SCDA</td><td>Strongly Coupled Data Assimilation</td></tr><tr><td>SCHISM</td><td>Semi-implicit Cross-scale Hydroscience Integrated System Model</td></tr><tr><td>SCOBI</td><td>Swedish Coastal and Ocean Biogeochemical Model</td></tr><tr><td>SCVTs</td><td>Spherical Centroidal Voronoi Tessellations</td></tr><tr><td>SD</td><td>Standard Deviation</td></tr><tr><td>SDGs</td><td>Sustainable Development Goals</td></tr><tr><td>SEEK</td><td>Singular Evolutive Extended Kalman filter</td></tr><tr><td>SHYFEM</td><td>Shallow water HYdrodynamic Finite Element Model</td></tr><tr><td>SI</td><td>Scatter Index</td></tr><tr><td>SI</td><td>International System of Units</td></tr><tr><td>SIDFEx</td><td>Sea Ice Drift Forecast Experiment</td></tr><tr><td>SIS</td><td>Sea Ice Simulator</td></tr><tr><td>SIT</td><td>System Information Table</td></tr><tr><td>SKEB</td><td>Stochastic Kinetic Energy Backscatter</td></tr><tr><td>SLA</td><td>Sea Level Anomaly</td></tr><tr><td>SLOSH</td><td>Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from Hurricanes</td></tr><tr><td>SMAP</td><td>Soil Moisture Active Passive</td></tr><tr><td>SMMR</td><td>Scanning Multi-channel Microwave Radiometer</td></tr><tr><td>SMOS</td><td>Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission</td></tr><tr><td>SOCAT</td><td>Surface Ocean CO<sub>2</sub> Atlas</td></tr><tr><td>SOCIB</td><td>Balearic Islands Coastal Observing and Forecasting System</td></tr><tr><td>SONEL</td><td>Système d'Observation du Niveau des Eaux Littorales</td></tr><tr><td>SOOP</td><td>Ship-of-opportunity</td></tr><tr><td>SPM</td><td>Suspended Particulate Matter</td></tr><tr><td>SPOT</td><td>Satellite pour l'Observation de la Terre</td></tr><tr><td>SPP</td><td>Stochastic Perturbed Parameters</td></tr><tr><td>SPPT</td><td>Stochastic Perturbed Parametrized Tendencies</td></tr><tr><td>SPUF</td><td>Stochastic Parameterization of Unresolved Fluctuations</td></tr><tr><td>SSES</td><td>Sensor Specific Error Statistics</td></tr><tr><td>SSH</td><td>Sea Surface Height</td></tr><tr><td>SSM/I</td><td>Special Sensor Microwave Imager</td></tr><tr><td>SSS</td><td>Sea surface salinity</td></tr><tr><td>SST</td><td>Sea surface temperature</td></tr></table>

<figure><img src="image_653.png" /></figure>
<table><tr><td>STAC</td><td>Science and Technological Advisory Committee</td></tr><tr><td>SURF</td><td>Structured and Unstructured Relocatable Ocean Model for Forecasting</td></tr><tr><td>SWAN</td><td>Simulating WAves Nearshore</td></tr><tr><td>SWASH</td><td>Simulating WAves till SHore model</td></tr><tr><td>SWE</td><td>Shallow Water Equations</td></tr><tr><td>SWH, or Hs</td><td>Significant Wave Height</td></tr><tr><td>SWOT</td><td>Surface Water and Ocean Topography</td></tr><tr><td>TAC</td><td>Thematic Assembly Center</td></tr><tr><td>TGTT</td><td>Tide Gauge Task Team</td></tr><tr><td>TSG</td><td>Thermosalinographs</td></tr><tr><td>TVD</td><td>Total Variation Diminishing</td></tr><tr><td>UHSLC</td><td>University of Hawaii Sea Level Centre</td></tr><tr><td>UKMO</td><td>UK Met Office</td></tr><tr><td>UN</td><td>United Nations</td></tr><tr><td>UNCTAD</td><td>United Nations Conference on Trade and Development</td></tr><tr><td>UNDP</td><td>United Nations Development Programme</td></tr><tr><td>UNFCCC</td><td>United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</td></tr><tr><td>UNGA</td><td>United Nations General Assembly</td></tr><tr><td>UOM</td><td>Unified Ocean system Model</td></tr><tr><td>US</td><td>United States</td></tr><tr><td>USA</td><td>United States of America</td></tr><tr><td>USSR</td><td>Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</td></tr><tr><td>VARANS</td><td>Volume-Averaged Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes</td></tr><tr><td>VIIRS</td><td>Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite</td></tr><tr><td>VISIR</td><td>DiscoVerIng Safe and efflcient Routes</td></tr><tr><td>VOF</td><td>Volume-O-Fluid</td></tr><tr><td>VP</td><td>Viscous-plastic</td></tr><tr><td>WAM</td><td>Wave prediction Model</td></tr><tr><td>WAVERYS</td><td>Global Ocean Waves Reanalysis</td></tr><tr><td>WCDA</td><td>weakly coupled data assimilation</td></tr><tr><td>WCOFS</td><td>West Coast Operational Forecasting System</td></tr><tr><td>WMO</td><td>World Meteorological Organization</td></tr><tr><td>WMO/LC-WFV</td><td>World Meteorological Organisation Lead Centre for Wave Forecast Verification</td></tr><tr><td>WOA</td><td>World Ocean Atlas</td></tr><tr><td>WOD</td><td>World Ocean Database</td></tr><tr><td>WRF</td><td>Weather Research and Forecasting Model</td></tr><tr><td>XBT</td><td>Expendable bathythermograph</td></tr></table>

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This guide hopes to be a guideline and inspiration to professionals all around the globe, stimulating the reader to research deeper knowledge on this vast field. If this objective is achieved, this publication is expected to foster the generation of valuable information that will be used in decision making processes and, therefore, to advocate a wiser and more sustainable relation with our always generous ocean.

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unesco

Intergovernmental
Oceanographic
Commission

The Global Ocean
Observing System

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MERCATOR
OCEAN

INTERNATIONAL