# African farmers have amazing allies in their cashew plantations

Jean-François Vayssières, Florence M. Anato, Antonio Alain Coffi Sinzogan, Appolinaire Adandonon, Rosine Wargui, Hermance Houngbo, Issa Ouagoussounon, Anaïs Chailleux, Pascal Danthu, Georg Goergen, et al.

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## ► To cite this version:

Jean-François Vayssières, Florence M. Anato, Antonio Alain Coffi Sinzogan, Appolinaire Adandonon, Rosine Wargui, et al.. African farmers have amazing allies in their cashew plantations. Colloque International d'Echanges Scientifiques sur l'Anacarde (CIESA), Conseil du Coton et de l'Anacarde, Oct 2017, Bassam, Côte d'Ivoire. pp.143-149. [hal-05174788](https://hal.science/hal-05174788v1)

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# 15. African farmers have amazing allies in their cashew plantations

Jean-François Vayssières(1,2)*, Florence Anato(3), Antonio Sinzogan(3), Appolinaire Adandonon(4), Rosine Wargui(3), Hermance Houngbo(3), Issa Ouagoussounon(3), Anaïs Chailleux(5), Pascal Danthu(2), Georg Goergen(6), Achille Adopo(7), Manuele Tamo(6), Joachim Offenberg(8)

**Description.** In West Africa, fruit trees are a crucial but often neglected component of people's lives and more than 50% of fruit crops are thought to be lost to insect pests every year. The relatively low adoption rate of old-IPM practices underpins the need to take up challenges and propose new pioneering control methods, such as using weaver ants in cashew plantations.

**Literature.** The genus *Oecophylla* is represented by two tropical species, *Oecophylla longinoda* (Latreille) and *Oecophylla smaragdina* (Fabricius), occurring in sub-Saharan Africa and Australasia, respectively. In southern China, but also in Vietnam, weaver ant husbandry is a centuries-old tradition. Positive ant-managing experiences from Asia have generated some recent interest in Africa. In sub-Saharan Africa, cashew production is severely constrained by infestations of several insect pests. Sap-sucking bugs, leaf miners and trunk-branch borers are pests that adversely affect yields (total losses of up to 80%) and the quality of harvestable nuts. Recent studies have highlighted the positive role of weaver ants against these insect pests in cashew plantations of Benin, Ghana and Tanzania. Finally, *O. longinoda* provided four comparative advantages for cashew production i) better yields, ii) larger nuts, iii) higher proportions of marketable kernel mass and iv) a potential fertilization effect.

**Conclusions.** The “weaver ant technology” could be more widely used in sub-Saharan Africa because it is i) effective, ii) low-cost, iii) labour-saving, iv) self-regenerating. It is thus particularly suitable for low-resource smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan cashew plantations and also for mango, citrus, guava plantations.

## Les planteurs africains ont des alliées étonnant dans leurs plantations d'anacardiers

**Description.** En Afrique de l'Ouest, les fruitiers constituent une composante cruciale pour le développement des populations rurales mais une composante souvent sous-valorisée avec plus de 50% de pertes dues aux insectes. Le taux d'adoption relativement faible des anciennes méthodes de lutte intégrée pourrait être un argument supplémentaire pour faire face aux défis et proposer de nouvelles méthodes de lutte novatrices comme la gestion des fourmis oecophylles dans les plantations d'anacardiers.

**Littérature.** Le genre *Oecophylla* est représenté par deux espèces tropicales *Oecophylla longinoda* (Latreille) et *Oecophylla smaragdina* (Fabricius), d'Afrique sub-Saharienne et d'Australasie, respectivement. Dans le sud de la Chine mais aussi au Vietnam l'élevage des oecophylles est une très vieille tradition (pluri-centenaire). Les expériences asiatiques positives d'utilisation des oecophylles ont éveillé l'intérêt du secteur rural Africain. En Afrique sub-Saharienne, la production d'anacarde est sévèrement pénalisée par les infestations de plusieurs types de ravageurs dont les punaises piqueuses des fruits, les mineuses des feuilles, les foreurs de troncs et branches, ravageurs qui affectent négativement les rendements (pertes globales jusqu'à 80%) et la qualité des noix. Des études récentes ont mis en évidence qu'O. longinoda était un agent de contrôle biologique efficace contre ces ravageurs au Bénin, au Ghana et en Tanzanie. Au final, O. longinoda fournit quatre avantages comparatifs aux producteurs d'anacardes à savoir i) l'augmentation des rendements, ii) une taille plus importante des noix, iii) une proportion plus importante des amandes commercialisables, et iv) une amélioration potentielle de la fertilisation.

<footnote>(1) Campus agronomique de Kourou, CIRAD, Kourou-Pariacabo, 97310, France</footnote>

<footnote>(2) MUSE, Université de Montpellier - CIRAD, UPR HortSys, 34398 - Montpellier, France</footnote>

<footnote>(3) UAC, Université d'Abomey Calavi, FSA, 03BP 2819, Cotonou, Bénin</footnote>

<footnote>(4) ENSTA - Kétou, Université d'Agriculture de Kétou, BP 43, Kétou, Bénin</footnote>

<footnote>(5) MUSE - CIRAD, UPR HortSys, Biopass, ISRA-IRD, BP 1386, Dakar, Sénégal</footnote>

<footnote>(6) IITA, Biological Control Unit for Africa, 08 BP 0932, Cotonou, Bénin</footnote>

<footnote>(7) CNRA, 01 BP 1740 Abidjan 01, Côte d'Ivoire</footnote>

<footnote>(8) Université d'Aarhus, Vejlsoevej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Danemark</footnote>

<footnote>*E-mail corresponding author: jean-francois.vayssieres@cirad.fr</footnote>
**Conclusions.** La «technologie des fourmis oecophylles» pourrait être mieux valorisée en Afrique car elle est i) effective, ii) efficiente, iii) elle économise le travail du planteur, iv) elle s'auto-entretient. Elle est donc particulièrement adaptée aux plantations d'anacardiers comme à d'autres cultures fruitières (manguiers, agrumes, goyaviers) d'Afrique subsaharienne.

# 1. SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS STUDY

*What is already known on this subject?*

- There is a very ancient interest in using Asian weaver ants in Southeast Asia.

- A relatively recent interest in using African weaver ants has emerged in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in West Africa.

*What are the new findings?*

- In West Africa, several insect pests of economic significance were significantly controlled by weaver ants in cashew plantations.

- Both cashew yields and quality of the nuts were significantly improved in cashew plantations harboring weaver ants.

*What is the expected impact on horticulture?*

This review provides useful information that could be used by growers in pest management targeting cashew bio-agressors with weaver ants.

# 2. INTRODUCTION

The cashew tree, *Anacardium occidentale* L. (Sapindales: Anacardiaceae) is an important crop for West African growers, mainly because of strong international demand. It originates from South America (Brazil) and was introduced into Benin in the sixteenth century by Europeans (McLaughlin et al., 2008), spreading widely thereafter throughout the agro-ecological zones of the country. It was planted in West Africa as it could mainly serve as i) a cash crop (Monteiro et al., 2017), ii) a way of controlling desertification (Soro et al., 2011), iii) a sign of land occupancy in association with mango trees (Vayssières et al., 2008), and iv) because it had proven hardiness. Above all, West African growers attribute particular importance to the nuts, but also to the apples and shells for those also involved in processing. Cashew is an important value chain in West Africa and, in economic terms, it is a highly profitable cash crop for a number of African countries.

Over the 2010-2014 period, the African continent supplied almost 50% of world cashew nut production (FAO, 2017). These statistics highlight the major effort made over the last decade by the producing countries of sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Benin, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Burkina, Mozambique, Tanzania, etc.) to increase their production. International demand for the West African cashew nut lies in its particular flavour appreciated by consumers, and the absence of pesticide treatments, as in Benin (Tanjiékpon et al., 2010).

Unfortunately, the vegetative organs and fruits of the cashew tree are severely affected by many insect pests (Dwomoh et al., 2009; Agboton et al., 2014; Anato et al., 2015). These Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera pests belong to the families Miridae (damage to the annual flush), Coreidae-Alydidae (damage to nuts and apples), Bostrichidae (damage to branches and trunks), and Thripidae and Gracillariidae (damage to leaves); they cause cashew nut losses each year in West Africa, seriously penalizing the growers involved.

Outside China, the effectiveness of weaver ants as natural control agents in protecting cashew trees has been shown in Australia (Peng et al., 1995; Peng et al., 1997a), Vietnam (Peng et al., 2014) and very recently in some African countries. These last data are relatively new. A map of the world (Figure 1) indicates the main cashew nut producing zones and the potential for their protection using the two species of weaver ants.

To date, the cashew supply chain in West Africa has remained of the Organic Farming type, or in certain zones a sector with very few pesticide applications. This opportunity may enable better use to be made of the potential offered by biological control agents. This involves weaver ants, or *Oecophylla* ants, which are of great interest for protecting West African fruit crops using the African weaver ant (*Oecophylla longinoda* (Latreille)).

This documentary research was aided by the fact that we have been working on this subject for around ten years in West Africa, focusing on fruit fly control with African weaver ants (Vayssières et al., 2016).
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Distribution of two weaver ant species, *O. longinoda* and *O. smaragdina*, depending on world cashew production zones (•) (update of a map by R. Peng) – *Distribution des deux espèces d'æcophylles, O. longinoda et O. smaragdina, en fonction des zones mondiales de production d'anacardier (•)*.</figcaption></figure>

**3. LITERATURE**

Weaver ants are dominant as predators of many arthropods in terrestrial and arboreal ecosystems of tropical and sub-tropical zones (Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990). The members of a colony constantly interact and work together in their own territory by way of different types of pheromones. Like most ant species, weaver ants live in a society, in trees including fruit trees (Figures 2a, b, c, d), inside nests made of leaves woven together by their larvae. The members of a colony (tens of thousands of individuals) live in several nests built in several trees.

They chase off other invertebrates from their trees, but also over an area of several hundred m² below their canopies. Weaver ants are generalist predators that feed especially on insects, particularly crop pests such as tephritid larvae (Figure 3) or cashew bugs (Figure 4). For a colony of twelve nests, Dejean (1991) estimated that weaver ants brought back 45,000 prey per year in Cameroon.

It is even more interesting that the predation practised by weaver ants on other invertebrates is the repellent effect against pests that they generate in fruit crops (Adandonon et al., 2009; Van Mele et al., 2009a). Among the complex signals emitted by weaver ants, it would particularly seem to be their semiochemical signals that play a major role in protecting tropical fruit crops.

Weaver ants are especially fond of biotopes with abundant rainfall and a luxuriant perennial vegetation. Trees with broad, supple leaves, or trees with small but abundant leaves, are preferred for building their silken nests.

**Traditional use of weaver ants (O. smaragdina) in Asia.** The Asian weaver ant, *O. smaragdina*, also called "living insecticide", is the most ancient example of biological control in the world, in Southeast Asia (Groff & Howard 1924; Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990). Two thousand years ago, the Asian weaver ant was already being used in southern China to control Citrus pests (Chen, 1962; Yang, 1982; Huang & Yang, 1987). Its use was abandoned in the 1960s when synthetic insecticides came onto the market in Southeast Asia.

However, this beneficial insect acquired its credentials later in Australia than in China or Vietnam. In Australian cashew orchards, the University of Darwin demonstrated that *O. smaragdina* effectively controlled some major pests, such as the bugs *Helopeltis pernicialis* Stonedahl Malipatil & Houston, *Amblypelta lutescens* Distant, as well as the moth *Anigraea ochrobasis* (Hampson) (Peng et al., 1997b; Peng & Christian, 2005).
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

**Figure 2.** *O. longinoda* nests on a) mango (Anacardiaceae), b) pomelo (Rutaceae), c) cashew (Anacardiaceae), d) guava (Myrtaceae) (Jean-François Vayssières, credit) – *Nids d'O. longinoda* sur a) manguier, b) pomelo, c) anacardier, d) goyavier.

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**Figure 3.** Capture of mango fruit fly larvae (Diptera: Tephritidae) on a mango cv Eldon in the department of Borgou - Benin (Jean-François Vayssières, credit) – *Capture de larves de Tephritidae sur une mangue cv Eldon dans le département du Borgou-Bénin*.

**Figure 4.** Capture of *Pseudotheraptus devastans* (Hemiptera: Coreidae) on cashew inflorescences in the department of Borgou - Benin (Jean-François Vayssières, credit) – *Capture de Pseudotheraptus devastans (Hem. : Coreidae) sur des inflorescences d'anacardier dans le département du Borgou-Bénin*.

**Relatively recent interest in using weaver ants (O. longinoda) in sub-Saharan Africa.** In sub-Saharan Africa, studies on *O. longinoda* effectiveness against pests have existed for several decades, but on fruit trees other than cashew. In Ghana, Room (1971) and Majer (1972) showed that *O. longinoda* significantly reduced damage by *Distantiella theobroma* (Distant) in cacao trees. In Tanzania, Way (1951) and Vanderplank (1960) also highlighted the efficiency of *O. longinoda* against *Pseudotheraptus wayi* Brown in coconut palms. Some studies undertaken in Ghana showed that the presence of *O. longinoda* reduced the incidence of two major cacao diseases transmitted by mirid bugs captured by weaver ants (Leston, 1973).

More recently, some studies have shown the very important role played by *O. longinoda* in fruit tree plantations as a biological control agent against various pests in Ghana, Tanzania, Senegal and Benin (Van Mele et al., 2007; Ativor et al., 2012; Olatu et al., 2013; Diamé et al., 2015; Anato et al., 2015).

Let us consider cashew:

In Ghana, Dwomoh et al. (2008) and Aidoo (2009) showed the fundamental role played by *O. longinoda* in controlling cashew bugs. The bugs targeted by *O. longinoda* were *Anoplocnemis curvipes* (Fabricius), *Helopeltis schoutedeni* Reuter, and *Pseudotheraptus devastans* (Distant).

In Tanzania, Oluthu et al. (2013) and Abdullah et al. (2016) showed the fundamental role played by *O. longinoda* in controlling cashew bugs. The bugs targeted by *O. longinoda* were *Helopeltis* spp. and *Pseudotheraptus wayi* Brown.
In Benin, studies repeated over two years showed that 3 treatments of cashew trees with weaver ants produced 78%, 122% and 151% more nuts than the control cashew trees, i.e. without weaver ants (Anato et al., 2015). In addition, the quality of the nuts produced on the cashew trees with weaver ants was better than on the control trees, and their average size was larger (Anato et al., 2015; Anato et al., 2017). The cashew bugs targeted by *O. longinoda* were *A. curvipes*, *H. schoutedeni*, *Mirperus jaculus* (Thnb.), *P. devastans*, and *Tupalus fasciatus* (Dallas).

**Other advantages.** Apart from insects (Vayssières et al., 2015), weaver ants attack and/or put off other types of pests, such as rats, snakes, fruit bats and.... thieves, as reported in Guinea (Van Mele et al., 2009b) and Benin. Indeed, some Beninese planters from Borgou have introduced these splendid weaver ants into their orchards to protect their fruits from unscrupulous people.

The consequences for fruit quality and yields are substantial. According to some women harvesters (in Guinea and Benin), fruits from trees with weaver ants keep better and are sweeter. For instance, mangoes picked from trees with weaver ant nests are of better quality, as was shown in Cotonou by Houngbo (2011), who launched a PhD thesis on this subject. Along the same lines, Asian producers have found the fruits of Citrus trees harbouring weaver ants to be juicier, sweeter and glossier.

Another expected advantage of weaver ants in cashew trees concerns the fertilization of trees harbouring weaver ant nests. It was recently shown that host trees could recover nitrogen via their leaves from the faeces of weaver ants, thereby increasing their leaf nitrogen content (Vidkjaer et al., 2015; Pinkalski et al., 2015). Some studies have revealed important nutrient flows (nitrogen, carbon, etc.) between weaver ants and their host plants, as a fundamental component of ant-plant mutualism (Pinkalski et al., 2016).

**Economic costs.** In Australia, results from field experiments (1998-1999) showed that the cost of chemical insecticide treatments was 515 A$/ha/year (excluding labour, machinery and fuel costs), while the cost of introducing and managing weaver ants was 360 A$/ha/year (including the cost of labour, various materials and local transportation of colonies). The saving was therefore 155 A$/ha/year (Peng et al., 2004).

To be complete, it needs to be added that once colonies had been introduced into cashew plantations, they remained there for several years running, meaning that the cost of introducing and managing weaver ants was much cheaper than annual chemical insecticide treatments. Taking yields into account, orchards protected by weaver ants earned profits of a little over 1,000 A$/ha/year, compared to orchards protected by chemical pesticides (Peng et al., 2004).

The cost-benefit ratio, like other financial indicators, was positive in plots with weaver ants in Tanzania (William et al., 2015).

## 4. CONCLUSIONS

Using weaver ants as a biological control agent is taking on increasing importance in sub-Saharan Africa and may thus bring an Organic Farming label for cashew crops (Abdullah et al., 2016), as for mangoes or Citrus fruits (Van Mele & Vayssières, 2007a). One of our main aims is to provide all stakeholders in the fruit supply chains, at different levels, with practical information on using weaver ants to control cashew pests.

Managing and using weaver ant colonies is a means of action that is well suited to the sustainable development of perennial fruit systems (cashew, but also mango and Citrus, etc.) in sub-Saharan Africa, thanks to their effectiveness, constant availability, and their wide distribution (Van Mele & Vayssières, 2007b; William et al., 2015). In fact, they are biological control agents that are as efficient as they are effective. In addition, it is not inconceivable to imagine the potential rearing of queens and workers of this African species for food purposes, as has been the case for several decades in Asia (Offenberg & Wiwatwitaya, 2010).

Using weaver ants offers many comparative advantages: i) very low cost, ii) enables labour savings in plantations, iii) self-maintaining, iv) requires very little intervention and v) its efficiency is crucial. These conservation biological control advantages have been developed over the last decade in Benin, as well as in Ghana and Tanzania, through different R4D projects funded by EU-WTO, WAEMU and DANIDA.

## Acknowledgements

We thank the West African Fruit Fly Initiative (WAFFI) staff of Benin and Peter Biggins for translation. Thanks are also due to donors EU-WTO, WAEMU, DANIDA and institutions of IITA and CIRAD.
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