# Beef quality

Jean-François J.-F. Hocquette, Dominique Bauchart, Didier Micol, R. J.

Polkinghorne, Brigitte Picard

► To cite this version:

Jean-François J.-F. Hocquette, Dominique Bauchart, Didier Micol, R. J. Polkinghorne, Brigitte Picard. Beef quality. Meat Quality: Genetic and Environmental Factors, CRC Press (Taylor Francis Group), 2015, Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components Series. hal-01602115

HAL Id: hal-01602115

https://hal.science/hal-01602115

Submitted on 5 Jun 2020

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>
Chemical and Functional Properties
of Food Components Series

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

# Meat Quality
Genetic and
Environmental
Factors

EDITED BY

Wiesław Przybylski, PhD
David Hopkins, PhD

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
# 11 Beef Quality

Jean-François Hocquette, Dominique Bauchart, Didier Micol, Rod Polkinghorne, and Brigitte Picard

## CONTENTS

<table><tr><td>11.1 Introduction</td><td>333</td></tr><tr><td>11.2 Main Quality Criteria of Beef</td><td>335</td></tr><tr><td>11.2.1 Sensory Quality of Beef</td><td>335</td></tr><tr><td>11.2.2 Fatty Acid Composition of Beef</td><td>336</td></tr><tr><td>11.2.3 Health Benefits of Beef</td><td>337</td></tr><tr><td>11.3 Effects of Animal Characteristics on Sensory Quality</td><td>337</td></tr><tr><td>11.3.1 Effect of Breed Type</td><td>339</td></tr><tr><td>11.3.2 Effect of Age</td><td>341</td></tr><tr><td>11.3.3 Effect of Gender</td><td>342</td></tr><tr><td>11.3.4 Recent Research to Better Understand the Determinism of Tenderness</td><td>342</td></tr><tr><td>11.4 Effects of Livestock Practices on Sensory Quality of Beef</td><td>343</td></tr><tr><td>11.4.1 Effect of Feeding Level on Sensory Qualities</td><td>343</td></tr><tr><td>11.4.2 Effect of Compensatory Growth on Sensory Qualities</td><td>344</td></tr><tr><td>11.4.3 Effect of the Nature and Composition of the Diet</td><td>344</td></tr><tr><td>11.5 Effects of Animal Nutrition on Nutritional Quality of Beef</td><td>346</td></tr><tr><td>11.5.1 Compared Effects of Grass Feeding with Concentrate-Based Diets</td><td>346</td></tr><tr><td>11.5.2 Effects of Dietary Lipid Supplements</td><td>349</td></tr><tr><td>11.5.2.1 Oleaginous Seeds</td><td>349</td></tr><tr><td>11.5.2.2 Combined Supply of Linseed Rich in n-3 PUFA and Vitamin E</td><td>350</td></tr><tr><td>11.5.2.3 Supply of Protected Lipids</td><td>351</td></tr><tr><td>11.6 Meat Labels</td><td>352</td></tr><tr><td>11.6.1 Carcass Grading and Branding Systems</td><td>352</td></tr><tr><td>11.6.2 Examples of Meat Labeling Systems</td><td>352</td></tr><tr><td>11.7 Take-Home Messages</td><td>356</td></tr><tr><td>References</td><td>358</td></tr></table>
11.8. References

Alfnes, F., Rickertsen, K., and Ueland, Ø. 2008. Experimental evidence of risk aversion in consumer markets: the case of beef. *Appl. Econ.* 40:3039–3049.

Banovic, M., Grunert, K. G., Barreira, M. M., and Fontes, M.A. 2009. Beef quality perception at the point of purchase: A study from Portugal. *Food Qual. Prefer.* 20:335–342.

Bastien D 2003. Inventory of tests conducted on the production of young cattle. Compte rendu Institut de l'Elevage n 2033225.

Bauchart, D., Durand, D., and Gruffat, D. 2003. Effects of linseed-supplemented diets on specific fatty acids in total lipids and in neutral and polar components of lipids of *Rectus abdominis* and *Longissimus thoracis* muscles and of intermuscular adipose tissue of finishing crossbred Charolais x Salers steers, In: Proceedings of 6th Scientific Meeting of the European Program "HealthyBeef" (5th PCRD), 10 pp, June 2003, Dublin (Ireland).

Bauchart, D., Durand, D., Gruffat-Mouty, D., Dozias, D., Ortigues-Marty, I., and Micol, D. 2001. Concentration and fatty acid composition of lipids in muscles and liver of fattening steers fed a fresh grass based diet. *Renc. Rech. Ruminants* 8:108.

Bauchart, D., Durand, D., Martin, J.F., Jailler, Rd., Geay, Y., and Picard, B., 2002a. Effects of breed and age on lipids in muscles *Longissimus thoracis*, *Triceps brachii* and *Semitendinosus* of bulls. *Renc. Rech. Ruminants* 9:268.

Bauchart, D., Durand, D., Martin, J.F., Jailler, Rd., Picard, B., and Geay, Y. 2002b. Effects of age and production type on lipids in *Longissimus thoracis*, *Triceps brachii* and *Semitendinosus* muscles of purebred Charolais animals. 9èmes Journées des Sciences du Muscle et Technologie de la Viande, Clermont-Fd, 15-16 Oct. 2002. *Viandes Prod. Carnés* 9 (Hors série) :127-128.

Bauchart, D., Gladine, C., Gruffat, D., Leloutre, L., and Durand, D. 2005. Effects of diets supplemented with oil seeds and vitamin E on specific fatty acids of *rectus abdominis* muscle in charolais fattening bulls. 55th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, Bled (Slovenia). In Indicators of milk and beef quality; EAAP Publication 112, J.F. Hocquette and S. Gigli (eds), pp. 431-436. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Bauchart, D., Roy, A., Lorenz, S., Ferlay, A., Gruffat, D., Chardigny, J.M., Sébédio, J.L., Chilliard, Y., and Durand, D. 2007. Dietary supply of butter rich in *trans* 18:1 isomers or in *9cis*, *11trans* conjugated linoleic acid affects plasma lipoproteins in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. *Lipids* 42:123-133.

Bernard, C., Cassar-Malek, I., Le Cunff, M., Dubroeucq, H., Renand, G., and Hocquette, J.F. 2007. New indicators of beef sensory quality revealed by expression of specific genes. *J. Agric. Food Chem.* 55:5229-5237.

Bispo-Villar, E., Thomas, A., Lyan, B., Gruffat, D., Durand, D., and Bauchart, D. 2009. Lipid supplements rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids deeply modify *trans* 18:1 isomers in the *Longissimus thoracis* muscle of finishing
bovine. In the Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Ruminant Physiology, pp. 464-466, 6-9th
September 2009, Clermont-Ferrand, France.

Bonny, S.P.F., Legrand, I., Polkinghorne, R.J., Gardner, G.E., Pethick, D.W., and Hocquette, J.F., 2013. The EUROP carcase grading system does not predict the eating quality of beef. Abstracts of the 64th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, pp 96 (Session 12, Theatre 8), Nantes, France.

Cassar-Malek, I., Picard, B., Bernard, C., and Hocquette, J.F. 2008. Application of gene expression studies in livestock production systems: a European perspective. *Aust. J. Exp. Agric.* 48:701-710.

Chriki, S., Gardner, G.E., Jurie, C., Picard, B., Micol, D., Brun, J.P., Journaux, L., and Hocquette, J.F., 2012. Cluster analysis application in search of muscle biochemical determinants for beef tenderness. *BMC Biochem.* 13:29.

Clinquart, A., Micol, D., Brundseaux, C., Dufrasne, I., and Istasse, L 1995. Use of fat in fattening diets for cattle. *INRA Prod. Anim.* 8:29-42.

Coulon, J.B., and Priolo, A. 2002. Sensory properties of meat and dairy products are affected by the forages consumed by the animals. *INRA Prod. Anim.* 15:333-342.

Cross H.R. 1988. Factors affecting sensory properties of meat. In: *Meat Science, Milk Science and Technology*. H.R. Cross (ed). pp.158-161, Elsevier Science Publisher BV, Amsterdam.

Dannenberger, D, Nürnberg, K., Nürnberg, G., Scollan, N., Steinhart, H., and Ender, K. 2005. Effect of pasture vs concentrate diet on CLA isomer distribution in different tissue lipids of beef cattle. *Lipids* 40:589-598.

Dannenberger, D., Nürnberg, G., Scollan, N., Schabbel, W., Steinhart, H., Ender, K, and Nürnberg, K. 2004. Effect of diet on the deposition of n-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic and C18:1 *trans* fatty acid isomers in muscle lipids of German Holstein bulls. *J. Agric. Food Chem.* 52:6607-6615.

De La Torre, A., Debiton, E., Durand, D., Juanéda, P., Durand, D., Chardigny, J.M., Barthomeuf, C., Bauchart, D., and Gruffat, D. 2006. Beef conjugated linoleic acid isomers reduce human cancer cell growth even when associated to other beef fatty acids. *Brit. J. Nutr.* 95:346-352.

De Smet, S., Raes, K., and Demeyer, D. 2004. Meat fatty acid composition as affected by genetic factors. *Anim. Res.* 53:81-88.

Dransfield, E., Martin, J.F., Bauchart, D., Abouelkaram, S., Lepetit, J., Culioli, J, Jurie, C., and Picard, B. 2003. Meat quality and composition of three muscles from French cull cows and young bulls. *Anim. Sci.* 76:387-399.

Dransfield, E., Nute, G.R. and Roberts, T.A. 1984. Beef quality assessed at European research centres. *Meat Sci.* 10:1-20.

Dumont, R., Teissier, J.H., Bonnemaire, J., and Roux, M. 1987. Early calving heifers versus maiden heifers for beef production from dairy herd. II. Physicochemical and sensorial characteristics of meat. *Livest. Prod. Sci.* 16:21-35.
Durand, D., Scislowski, V., Chilliard, Y., Gruffat, D., and Bauchart, D. 2005. High fat rations and lipid peroxidation in ruminants; consequences on animal health and quality of products. 55th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, Bled (Slovenia). In *Indicators of milk and beef quality*; EAAP Publication 112, J.F. Hocquette and S. Gigli (eds), pp. 135-150. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Farmer, L.J., Devlin, D.J., Gault, N.F.S., Gee, A., Gordon, A.W., Moss, B.W., Polkinghorne, R., Thompson, J., Tolland, E.L.C., and Tollerton, I.J. 2009. Prediction of eating quality using the Meat Standards Australia system for Northern Ireland. *Proceedings of the 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology*, pp. PE7.34, Copenhagen (pp. PE7.34) (August 2009).

Firestine M. http://animalsciencenews.blogspot.fr/2009/07/prime-choice-select-beef-what-does-it.html.

Fischell, V.K., Abelery, E.D., Judge, M.D., and Perry, T.W. 1985. Palabibity and muscles properties of beef influenced by preslaughter growth rate. *J. Anim. Sci.* 61:151-157.

Fortin, M., Julien, P., Couture, Y., Dubreuil, P., Chouinard, P.Y., Latulippe, C., Davis, T.A., and Thivierge, M.C., 2010. Regulation of glucose and protein metabolism in growing steers by long-chain n-3 fatty acids in muscle membrane phospholipids is dose-dependent. *Animal* 1:89-101.

Geay, Y., Bauchart, D., Hocquette, J.F., and Culioli, J. 2001. Effect of nutritional factors on biochemical structural and metabolic characteristics of muscles in ruminaants, consequences on dietetic value and sensorial qualities of meat. *Reprod. Nutr. Dev.* 41:1-26. Erratum, 41:377.

Gobert, M., Gruffat, D., Hăbeanu, M., Parafita, E., Bauchart, D., and Durand, D. 2010. Plant extracts combined with vitamin E in PUFA-rich diets of cull cows protect beef against lipid oxidation. *Meat Sci.* 85:676-683.

Guillemin, N, Meunier, B, Jurie, C, Cassar-Malek, I, Hocquette, JF, Levéziel, H and Picard, B 2009. Validation of a Dot-Blot quantitative technique for large-scale analysis of beef tenderness biomarkers. *J. Physiol. Pharmacol.* 60:91-97.

Guillemin, N., Bonnet, M., Jurie, C., and Picard, B., 2011. Functional analysis of beef tenderness. *J. Proteomics* 75:352-365.

Gulati, S.K., Garq, M.R., and Scott, T.W. 2005. Rumen protected protein and fat produced from oil seeds and/or meals by formaldehyde treatment; their role in ruminant production and product quality. *Aust. J. Exp. Agric.* 45:1189-1203.

Habeanu, M., Thomas, A., Bispo Villar, E., Gobert, M., Gruffat, D., Durand, D., and Bauchart, D. 2014. Extruded linseed and rapeseed both influenced fatty acid composition of total lipids and their polar and neutral fractions in *longissimus thoracis* and *semitendinosus* muscles of finishing Normand cows. *Meat Sci.* 96:99-107.

Harper, G.S., Allingham, P.G., and Le Feuvre R.P. 1999. Changes in connective tissue of *M. semitendinosus* as a response to different growth paths in steers. *Meat Sci.* 53:107-114.
Hoch, T., Begon, C., Cassr-Malek, I., Picard, B., and Savary-Auzeloux, I. 2003. Mechanisms and consequences of compensatory growth in ruminants. *INRA Prod. Anim.* 16:49-59.

Hocquette J.F., Jacquet A., Giraud G., Legrand I., Sans P., Mainsant P., Verbeke W., 2013. Quality of food products and consumer attitudes in France. In *Consumer attitudes to food quality products*, EAAP Publication 133, M. Klopcic, A. Kuipers, J.F. Hocquette (eds.), pp. 67-82. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Hocquette, J.-F., Bernard-Capel, C., Vidal, V., Jesson, B., Levéziel, H., and Cassar-Malek, I., 2012a. The GENOTEND chip: a new tool to analyse gene expression in muscles of beef cattle for beef quality prediction. *BMC Vet. Res.* 8:135.

Hocquette, J.F., Botreau, R., Picard, B., Jacquet, A., Pethick, D.W., and Scollan, N.D., 2012b. Opportunities for predicting and manipulating beef quality. *Meat Sci.* 92:197-209.

Hocquette, J.F., Legrand, I., Jurie, C., Pethick, D. W., and Micol, D. 2011b. Perception in France of the Australian system for the prediction of beef quality (MSA) with perspectives for the European beef sector. *Anim. Prod. Sci.* 51:30-36.

Hocquette, J.F., Lehnert, S., Barendse, W., Cassar-Malek, I., and Picard, B. 2007. Recent advances in cattle functional genomics and their application to beef quality. *Animal* 1:159-173.

Hocquette, J.F., Meurice, P., Brun, J.P., Jurie, C., Denoyelle, C., Bauchart, D., Renand, G., Nute, G.R. and Picard, B., 2011a. The challenge and limitations of combining data: a case study examining the relationship between intramuscular fat content and flavour intensity based on the BIF-BEEF database. *Anim. Prod. Sci.* 51:975-981.

Hocquette, J.F., Van Wezemael, L., Chriki, S., Legrand, I., Verbeke, W., Farmer, L., Scollan, N.D., Polkinghorne, R., Rødbotten, R., Allen, P., and Pethick, D.W., 2014. Modelling of beef sensory quality for a better prediction of palatability. *Meat Sci.*, 97:316-322.

INAO leaflet 2010. Ministère de l'Agriculture et Institut National de l'Origine et de la Qualité. The official quality and origin signs.

http://www.inao.gouv.fr/public/home.php?pageFromIndex=textesPages/Supports_de_presentation412.php~mnu=412

Juarez, M., Basarab, J. A., Baron, V. S., Valera, M., Larsen, I. L., and Aalhus, J. L. 2012. Quantifying the relative contribution of *ante-* and *post-mortem* factors to the variability in beef texture. *Animal* 6:1878-1887.

Jurie, C., Cassar-Malek, I., Bonnet, M., Leroux, C., Bauchart, D., Boulesteix, P., Pethick, D.W., and Hocquette, J.F. 2007. Adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein and mitochondrial enzyme activities in muscles as relevant indicators of marbling in cattle. *J. Anim. Sci.* 85:2660-2669.

Jurie, C., Martin, J.-F., Listrat, A., Jailler, R., Culioli, J., and Picard, B., 2006a. Carcass and muscle characteristics of beef cull cows between 4 and 9 years of age. *Anim. Sci.* 82:415-421.
Jurie, C., Ortigues-Marty, I., Picard, B., Micol, D., and Hocquette, J.F. 2006b. The separate effect of the nature of diet and grazing mobility on metabolic potential of muscles from Charolais steers. *Livest. Prod. Sci.* 104:182-192.

Keane, M.G., and Allen, P. 1998. Effects of production system intensity on performance, carcass composition and meat quality of beef cattle. *Livest. Prod. Sci.* 56:203-214.

Koohmaraie, M., Kent, M.P., Shackelford, S.D., Veiseth, E., and Wheeler, T.L., 2002. Meat tenderness and muscle growth: Is there any relationship? *Meat Sci.* 62:345-352.

Larick, D.K., and Turner, B.E. 1989. Influence of finishing diet on phospholipid composition and fatty acid profile of individual phospholipids in lean muscles of beef cattle. *J. Anim. Sci.* 67:2282-2293.

Legrand, I., Hocquette, J.-F., Polkinghorne, R. J., and Pethick, D. W. 2013. Prediction of beef eating quality in France using the Meat Standards Australia system. *Animal* 7:524-529.

Listrat, A., Rakadjiyski, N., Jurie, C., Picard, B., Touraille, C. and Geay, Y. 1999. Effect of the type of diet on muscle characteristics and meat palatability of growing Salers bulls. *Meat Sci.* 53:115-124.

McCormick, R.J. 1994. The flexibility of the collagen compartment of muscle. *Meat Sci.* 36:79-91.

Melton, S.L., 1990. Effects of feeds on flavor of red meat: a review. *J. Anim. Sci.* 68:4421-4435.

Micol, D., Jurie, C., and Hocquette, J.F., 2010. Chapitre 13. Sensory qualities of beef. Impacts of livestock factors. In "Muscle and meat from ruminants". D. Bauchart & B. Picard (coordinateurs). Editions Quae, collections synthèses, France, Versailles, pp. 165-174.

Miller, R.K., Cross, H.R., Crouse, J.D., and Tatum, J.D. 1987. The influence of diet and time on feed on carcass traits and quality. *Meat Sci.* 19:303-313.

Modzelewska-Kapituła, M., Dąbrowska, E., Jankowska, B., Kwiatkowska, A., and Cierach, M. 2012. The effect of muscle, cooking method and final internal temperature on quality parameters of beef roast. *Meat Sci.* 91:195-202.

Moreno, J., and Mitjavila, M.T. 2003. The degree of unsaturation of dietary fatty acids and the development of atherosclerosis (Review). *J. Nutr. Biochem.* 14:182-195.

Nishimura, T., Hattori, A., Takahashi, K., 1999. Structural changes in intramuscular connective tissue during the fattening of Japanese Black cattle: Effect of marbling on beef tenderization. *J. Anim. Sci.* 77:93-104.

Noci, F., Monahan, F.J., French, P., and Moloney, A.P. 2005. The fatty acid composition of muscle fat and subcutaneous adipose tissue of pasture-fed beef heifers: Influence of the duration of grazing. *J. Anim. Sci.* 83:1167-1178.

Nürnberg, K., Dannenberger, D., Nürnberg, G., Ender, K., Voigt, J., Scollan, N., Wood, J.D., Nute, G., and Richardson, I. 2005. Effect of a grass-based and a concentrate feeding systems on meat quality characteristics and fatty acid composition of *longissimus* muscle in different cattle breeds. *Livest. Prod. Sci.* 94:137-147.
Oddy, V. H., Harper, G. S., Greenwood, P. L. and McDonagh, M. B. 2001. Nutritional and developmental effects on the intrinsic properties of muscles as they relate to the eating quality of beef. *Aust. J Exp. Agric.* 41:921-942.

Olleta, J.L., Sañudo, C., Monsón, F., Campo, M.M., Panea, B., Albertí, P., Christensen, M., Ertbjerg, P., Failla, S., Gigli, S., Hocquette, J.F., Hughes, S.I., Williams, J.L., and Nute, G.R. 2006. Sensory evaluation of several european cattle breeds. In Mediterranean livestock production: uncertainties and opportunities, A. Olaizola, J.P. Boutonnet, A. Bernues (eds.). pp. 297-300. Second Seminar of the Scientific-Professional Network on Mediterranean Livestock Farming (RME), 2006/05/18-20, Zaragoza, (Spain). Options Méditerranéennes: Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens ; n. 78. CIHEAM-IAMZ / CITA.

Ouali, A., Gagaoua, M., Boudida, Y., Becila, S., Boudjellal, A., Herrera-Mendez, C. H., and Sentandreu, M. A. 2013. Biomarkers of meat tenderness: Present knowledge and perspectives in regards to our current understanding of the mechanisms involved. *Meat Sci.* 95:854-870.

Oury, M.P., Agabriel, J., Agabriel, C., Micol, D., Picard, B., Blanquet, J., Laboure, H., Roux, M., and Dumont, R. 2007a. Relationship between rearing practices and eating quality traits of the muscle *rectus abdominis* of Charolais heifers. *Livest. Sci.* 111:242-254.

Oury, M.P., Picard, B., Istasse, L., Micol, D., and Dumont, R. 2007b. Effect of rearing management practices on tenderness of bovine meat. *INRA Prod. Anim.* 20:309-326.

Paterson, D.C., Moore, C.A., Moss, B.W., and Kilpartrick, D.J. 2002. Parity associated changes in slaughter weight and carcass characteristics of Charolais crossbred cows kept on a lowland grass/grass silage feeding and management system. *Anim. Sci.* 75:221-235.

Picard, B., Jurie, C., Bauchart, D., Dransfield, E., Ouali, A., Martin, J.F., Jailler, R., Lepetit, J., and Culioli, J., 2007. Muscle and meat characteristics from the main beef breeds of the Massif Central. *Sci. Alim.* 27:168-180.

Picard, B., Lefèvre, F., and Lebret, B. 2012. Meat and fish flesh quality improvement with proteomic applications. *Anim. Frontiers* 2: 18-25.

Picard, B., Robelin, J., and Geay, Y. 1995. Influence of castration and postnatal energy restriction on the contractile and metabolic characteristics of bovine muscle. *Ann. Zootech.* 44:347-357.

Polkinghorne, R. J., and Thompson, J. M. 2010. Meat standards and grading: A world view. *Meat Sci.* 86:227-235.

Polkinghorne, R., Nishimura, T., Neath, K. E., and Watson, R. 2011. Japanese consumer categorisation of beef into quality grades, based on Meat Standards Australia methodology. *Anim. Sci. J.* 82:325-333.

Polkinghorne, R., Thompson, J. M., Watson, R., Gee, A., and Porter, M. 2008. Evolution of the Meat Standards System (MSA) beef grading system. *Aust. J. Exp. Agric.* 48:1351-1359.

Priolo, A., Micol, D., and Agabriel, J. 2001. Effects of grass feeding systems on ruminant meat color and flavor. A review. *Anim. Res.* 50:185-200.
Razminowicz, R.H., Kreuzer, M., and Scheeder, M.R.L. 2006. Quality of retail beef from two grass-based production systems in comparison with conventional beef. *Meat Sci.* 73:351-361.

Renand, G. 1988. Genetic variability of muscle growth and consequences on meat quality of cattle. *INRA Prod. Anim.* 1:115-121.

Renerre, M. 1982a. La couleur de la viande – Les principaux types de production de viande. *Bull. Tech. CRZV Theix* 48:42-46.

Renerre, M. 1982b. Effects of age and slaughter weight on the colour of beef (Friesian and Charolais breeds). *Sci. Aliments* 2:17-30.

Richardson, R.I., Hallett, K., Robinson, A.M., Nute, G.R., Enser, M., Wood, J.D., and Scollan, N.D. 2004. Effect of free and ruminally-protected fish oils on fatty acid composition, sensory and oxidative characteristics of beef loin muscle. In: Proceedings of the 50th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Helsinki, Finland.

Salter, A. M. 2013. Dietary fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. *Animal* 7:163-171.

Scollan, N., Enser, M., Gulati, S., Hallett, K.G., Nute, G. R., and Wood J.D. 2004. The effects of ruminally protected dietary lipids on the fatty acid composition and quality of beef muscle. In: Proceedings of the 50th International Congress of Meat science and Technology, Helsinki, Finland.

Scollan, N., Hocquette, J.F., Nuernberg, K., Dannenberger, D., Richardson, I., and Moloney A., 2006. Innovations in beef production systems that enhance the nutritional and health value of beef lipids and their relationship with meat quality. *Meat Sci.* 74:17-33.

Scollan, N., Richardson, I., De Smet, S., Moloney, A.P., Doreau, M., Bauchart, D., and Nürnberg, K. 2005. Enhancing the content of beneficial fatty acids in beef and consequences for meat quality. 55th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, Bled (Slovenia). In Indicators of milk and beef quality; EAAP Publication 112, J.F. Hocquette and S. Gigli (eds), pp. 151-162. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Simopoulos, A. P. 1991. Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development. *Am. J. Clin. Nutr.* 54:438-463.

Smith, G.C., Tatum, J.D., and Belk, K.E. 2008. International perspective: characterisation of United States Department of Agriculture and Meat Standards Australia systems for assessing beef quality. *Aust. J Exp. Agric.* 48:1465-1480.

Sullivan, G. A., and Calkins, C. R. 2011. Ranking beef muscles from Warner–Bratzler shear force and trained sensory panel ratings from published literature. *J. Food Quality* 34:195–203.

Thompson, J. M. 2002. Managing meat tenderness. *Meat Sci.* 60:365–369.
Thompson, J., Polkinghorne, R., Gee, A., Motiang, D., Strydom, P., Mashau, M., Ng'ambi, J., deKock, R., and Burrow, H. 2010. Beef palatability in the Republic of South Africa: Implications for niche-marketing strategies. ACIAR Technical Report 72Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.

Thompson, J.M., Polkinghorne, R., Hwang, I. H., Gee, A.M., Cho, S. H., Park, B.Y., and Lee, J.M. 2008. Beef quality grades as determined by Korean and Australian consumers. *Aust. J Exp. Agric.* 48:1380–1386.

Thompson, JM. 2004. The effects of marbling on flavour and juiciness scores of cooked beef, after adjusting to a constant tenderness. *Aust. J Exp. Agric.* 44:645–652.

Touraille, C. 1982. Influence du sexe et de l'âge à l'abattage sur les qualités organoleptiques des viandes de bovins limousins abattus entre 16 et 33 mois. *Bull. Tech. CRZV Theix* 48, 83-89.

Troy, D.J., and Kerry, J.P. 2010. Consumer perception and the role of science in the meat industry. *Meat Sci.* 86:214–226.

Verbeke, W., VanWezemael, L., de Barcellos, M.D., Kügler, J.O., Hocquette, J.-F., Ueland, Ø., and Grunert, K. G. 2010. European beef consumers' interest in a beef eating-quality guarantee: Insights from a qualitative study in four EU countries. *Appetite* 54:289–296.

Vestergaard, M., Therkildsen, M., Henckel, P., Jensen, L.R., Andersen, H.R., and Sejrsen, K. 2000. Influence of feeding intensity, grazing and finishing feeding on meat and eating quality of young bulls and the relationship between muscle fibre characteristics, fibre, fragmentation and meat tenderness. *Meat Sci.* 54:187-196.

Watson, R., Gee, A., Polkinghorne, R., and Porter, M. 2008a. Consumer assessment of eating quality-Development of protocols for Meat Standards Australia (MSA) testing. *Aust. J Exp. Agric.* 48:1360–1367.

Watson, R., Polkinghorne, R., and Thompson, J. M. 2008b. Development of the Meat Standards Australia (MSA) prediction model for beef palatability. *Aust. J Exp. Agric.* 48:1368–1379.

World Health Organisation. 2003. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. Report of the joint WHO/FAO expert consultation. In WHO Technical Report