<figure><img src="image_53.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 49.** Wavelength dependent microbiological efficacy function for different microorganism (dotted lines, with indicated efficacy on the left y-axis) and emission spectra for a low pressure Hg lamp as well as a 265 nm UVC-LED (full lines, with indicated intensities on the right y-axis) [650].</figcaption></figure>

wavelengths have not yet been taken into account. Nevertheless, there are currently enormous efforts in regulatory bodies and standardization committees to close these gaps and to create specifications for carrying out the biodosimetric evaluation of UVC-LED-based water disinfection systems. The small form factor of UVC-LEDs and the much greater freedom for the design of UVC-LED radiation sources leads to another regulatory challenge. While almost all Hg lamps have a similar footprint and radiation pattern, even when produced by different manufacturers, UVC-LEDs offer many more possibilities in terms of array design and are UVC-LED modules are currently always customized products. On the one hand, this is advantageous because the radiation source can be optimally adapted to the irradiation problem, but it also leads to the fact that standardization is more difficult. In addition monitoring UVC-LED based systems is more challenging or at least different from mercury lamps which emit almost uniformly over their entire length. For example, in UVC-LED arrays devices can individually fail or age differently leading to a change in the spatial distribution of the radiated power. To remedy the use of multiple UV sensors, their optimal quantity, and their placement within the reactor is currently being investigated. In addition, monitoring of the electrical parameters such as operating voltage or currents might allow failure detection of individual devices.

### Advances in science and technology to meet challenges

As can be seen from figure 50 within the past decade the performance characteristic of AlGaN-based UVC-LEDs has significantly improved with WPE in the range from 5%–8% and output power levels exceeding 100 mW for the current generation of commercial devices [651, 652]. These steady improvements have been made possible by gradual advances in group III-nitride materials and device technology, which led to improvements in the radiative recombination efficiency (RRE), the carrier injection efficiency (CIE), the light extraction efficiency (LEE), and operating voltages V [653, 654]. Explaining all the details of the different technological advances would require much more space that this short paragraph provides, but just to list a few. For example, the RRE of UVC light emitter has greatly increased by the development of low defect density templates utilizing high temperature annealing of sputtered AlN base layers on sapphire substrates [655, 656]. In addition, the design and growth of high quality AlGaN materials and QWs by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) has considerably progressed, e.g. by reducing the point defect densities, by controlling the optical polarization of light emission as well as by maximizing the radiative recombination rate, thus contributing to the further improvement of RRE. The CIE has also gradually improved by optimizing the electron blocking heterostructure and utilizing polarization doped hole injection layers. Finally, increases in LEE have been achieved via the development of UV-reflective metal contacts as well as utilizing UV-transparent and UV-stable encapsulates [657]. Operating voltages have been reduced and are now typically ranging between 5.5 V and 7 V for commercial grade devices that are driven at dc currents between 250 mA and 500 mA. Taken all together, the currently most advanced commercial UVC-LEDs in the 265 nm wavelength band are reaching WPE and external quantum efficiency (EQE) around 8% and 12%, respectively, which can be attributed to a high internal quantum efficiency (IQE).
<figure><img src="image_54.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 50.** Improvement of wall-plug efficiency WPE (and price-per-Watt) for commercially available UVC-LEDs in the 250 nm—285 nm disinfection band. The dotted lines are a guide to the eye.</figcaption></figure>

~80%, i.e. the product of the RRE and CIE [658]. Despite all the progress, however, the LEE is still lagging, with maximum values still ranging well below 20%. Therefore, the development of novel approaches to enhance the light extraction will be crucial for future improvements of the WPE and output power of UVC-LEDs. On the upside, the lifetimes of UVC-LEDs have already reached sufficiently high values for real-world-applications with major manufacturers quoting L₇₀ numbers of 10.000 h and higher.

**Concluding remarks**

Despite a number of remaining challenges to the realization of high performance UVC-LEDs, it is clear that the next few years will provide a steady improvement in all UVC-LED WPE, output power, and device lifetimes. These advances are driven by big players, like Nichia and ams-Osram, as well as start-ups entering the UVC-LED market. Extrapolating from the past performance development trends and the aggressive roadmaps provided by device manufacturers one can anticipate that the WPE of UVC-LEDs will reach the 20% mark well before the end of this decade. It is clear that semiconductor-based UVC emitters are poised to further advance in all areas of water disinfection, especially in light of an impending ban for mercury-based UV sources.

**Acknowledgment**

This work was partially supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within the 'Advanced UV for Life' consortium.
Concluding remarks

Lien Smeesters<fnref n="1" />, Francesca Venturini<fnref n="2" />,<fnref n="3" /> and Anna Grazia Mignani<fnref n="4" />

E-mail: lien.smeesters@vub.be, vent@zhaw.ch and a.g.mignani@ifac.cnr.it

Photonics is a key enabling technology driving the increased digitalization and smart farming within the agrifood industry. A continued transformation from traditional food systems to Agriculture 5.0 is indispensable to evolve towards a sustainable food and agriculture production. This roadmap aims therefore to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art photonics technologies benefitting agrifood applications.

Optical monitoring and sensing devices, including both imaging and spectrometry systems, have shown promising performances along the full supply chain. In general, advances are observed along different spectral bands from the UV to the terahertz wavelength range, and considering different technologies, including absorption, fluorescence, Raman, and Fourier-transform spectroscopy. A trend towards multimodal sensors is observed, combining different sensing technologies within a single unit or device, offering an improved sensitivity and broader use, while also benefitting the data quality and increasing the sensor robustness. In addition, miniaturization towards handheld devices and PICs is a key innovation field, offering the potential for robust, low cost, low power, easily integrable and operatable sensors.
Miniaturization of the optical sensors currently often goes at the expense of the sensitivity and genericity, which can be tackled by combining different precise sensing functionalities.

ML and AI are boosting the processing of optical data. The generation of clear and reliable data is key, while efforts should be made to standardize data enhancing sensor-data fusion. Co-optimization of the sensor hardware and processing algorithms is considered as key to excelling, while care needs to be taken to ensure a successful integration within the application devices (e.g. drones, robots).

The synergy between photonic technologies and data processing presented in this roadmap is a powerful toolset for addressing environmental challenges comprehensively. This integrated approach allows a better conservation of environmental resources as well as mitigation of wastes, thus reducing the environmental impact of food production, and fostering a more sustainable and resilient ecosystem.

New farming strategies, including vertical farming, are becoming a reality, and are benefitting from novel sensing and lighting technologies. Indeed, energy-efficient LEDs and lighting algorithms have indicated to optimize growth and yield, while the combination with spectral imaging systems offers the potential to monitor crop health.

Concluding, this roadmap indicates the revolutionizing capabilities of the photonics technologies inspiring future applications and developments towards a sustainable planet by enabling resource optimization, increased crop yields, stopping land degradation and reduction of food waste.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the authors.

ORCID iDs

Francesca Venturini https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2562-9932

David Perpetuini https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1903-0501

Stephane Perrin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2470-7636

Luiz Poffo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6238-4191

Antoine Fournier https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4764-5845

Mathias Vanwolleghem https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1759-459X

Aparajita Bandyopadhyay https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1661-1266

Karl Bertling https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1087-2315

Dolores Pérez Marín https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6629-4003

Marietta Fodor https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8647-3201

Simona M Cristescu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9012-4119

Ewa Sikorska https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0425-5807

<footnote n="1">¹ Department of Applied Physics and Photonics, Brussels Photonics (B-PHOT), Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Flanders Make, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² School of Engineering, ZHAW Zurich University of Applied Sciences, 8401 Winterthur, Switzerland</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ TOELT LLC, Research and Development, 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ CNR—Istituto di Fisica Applicata ‘Nello Carrara’, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy</footnote>
Kay Sowoidnich https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7173-2677

Martin Maiwald https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1166-5529

Bernd Sumpf https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5044-955X

Boris Mizaikoff https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5583-7962

Faisal Ahmed https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7483-0264

Ioanna Zergioti https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6341-4495

André Müller https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8496-3004

Diellza Bajrami https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5424-5175

Arturo B Soro https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6378-9334

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