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# Effects of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and misinformation paradigms

Frédérique Robin, Emmanuelle Ménétrier, Brice Beffara Bret

► To cite this version:

Frédérique Robin, Emmanuelle Ménétrier, Brice Beffara Bret. Effects of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and misinformation paradigms. Memory, 2021, pp.1-8. 10.1080/09658211.2021.1895221. hal-03596532

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# Effects of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and misinformation paradigms

Frédérique Robin, Emmanuelle Ménétrier, Brice Beffara Bret

► To cite this version:

Frédérique Robin, Emmanuelle Ménétrier, Brice Beffara Bret. Effects of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and misinformation paradigms. Memory, 2021, 30 (6), pp.725-732. 10.1080/09658211.2021.1895221. hal-03596532v2

HAL Id: hal-03596532

https://nantes-universite.hal.science/hal-03596532v2

Submitted on 16 Dec 2024

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

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Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
This is an Author's Original Manuscript. This article has been accepted for publication (19 Feb 2021) in Memory published by Taylor & Francis. The final version of the article is available online: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09658211.2021.1895221.

50 free online copies of the final version of the article are available at https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/GZSWHQ5IAKF7SCZCTYMJ/full?target=10.1080/09658211.2021.1895221

Effect of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and Misinformation paradigms

Frédérique Robin<fnref n="1" />

Emmanuelle Ménétrier<fnref n="2" />

Brice Beffara Bret<fnref n="1" />

Correspondence concerning this manuscript should be addressed to: Frédérique ROBIN,
Faculté de Psychologie, LPPL - Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire, Université
de Nantes, Chemin de la Censive du Tertre, BP 81227, 44312 Nantes Cedex 3, France. E-
Mail: [frederique.robin@univ-nantres.fr](mailto:frederique.robin@univ-nantres.fr)

<footnote n="1">¹ Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL-EA4638), Université de Nantes,
Nantes 44000, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL-EA4638), Université d'Angers,
Angers 49045, France</footnote>
# Effects of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and Misinformation paradigms

Frédérique Robin¹

Emmanuelle Ménétrier²

Brice Beffara Bret¹

¹ Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL-EA4638), Université de Nantes,
Nantes 44000, France

² Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL-EA4638), Université d'Angers,
Angers 49045, France

Correspondence concerning this manuscript should be addressed to: Frédérique ROBIN, LPPL
– Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire, Université de Nantes,
frederique.robin@univ-nantres.fr
This study is an extension of recent research, which examined the possibility that false
memories in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm predict the occurrence of false
memories in misinformation paradigm. The purpose was to determine in which extent an
imaging instruction reduces false memories in DRM and Misinformation paradigms. A sample
of young adults was assigned to the DRM or the misinformation tasks, either in control
conditions or in conditions including an imaging instruction. Findings confirm that an imaging
instruction decreases false memories in DRM whereas it is not possible to conclude about such
a reduction in the misinformation task. Overall, this pilot study suggests that the nature of the
stimuli in each paradigm gives rise to quality differences in encoding processes, which in turn
have consequences on the monitoring process at retrieval, leading to a weaker misinformation
effect than DRM false recognition. In conclusion, while one has argued that the monitoring
process is common to both paradigms, false memories in the DRM paradigm would be based
on semantic association of words that is, on activation processes in semantic memory, whereas
misinformation would rather rely on recollection process in episodic memory. Nevertheless,
this hypothesis should be specifically tested in further experiments.

(200 words)

**Keywords: DRM; false memories; imagery; imaging instruction; misinformation**
This study examined the possibility that moderators of false memories in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm affect the occurrence of false memories in the misinformation paradigm. More precisely, the purpose was to determine to what extent an imaging instruction modulates false memories in the DRM and misinformation paradigms. A sample of young adults was assigned to the DRM or the misinformation tasks, either in control conditions or in conditions including an imaging instruction. Findings revealed that an imaging instruction decreases false memories in DRM whereas there is no evidence about imaging effects in the misinformation task. These observations tally with previous studies, reporting a weak or no correlation between false memories in these paradigms, and are discussed in the light of current theories.

(122 words)

**Keywords:** DRM; false memories; imagery; imaging instruction; misinformation
Effect of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and Misinformation paradigms

After numerous demonstrations of false memories in Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM, Roediger & McDermott, 1995) and Misinformation paradigms (Loftus & Palmer, 1978), the cognitive processes involved in these phenomena are becoming better known. Notably, it was demonstrated that the Activation Monitoring Theory (AMT, Roediger, Balota & Watson, 2001) or the Fuzzy Trace Theory (FTT, Brainerd & Reyna, 2005) would be the best explanation of the DRM illusions. In return, the FTT or the Source Monitoring Framework (SMF, Johnson & Raye, 2000) would be more appropriate for describing false memories in the misinformation paradigm.

Recently, few researchers as James Ost put into question whether one of these
theoretical models is more likely to convincingly explain false memories whatever the
experimental paradigm (Ost, Blank, Davies, Jones, Lambert, & Salmon, 2013; Patihis, Frenda,
& Loftus, 2018; Zhu, Chen, Loftus, Lin, & Dong, 2013). Merits of Ost's work was to point out
that the mechanisms underlying false memories seem to be specific to each paradigm.

Based on this finding we may wonder whether the factors that modulate false memories
have the same impact whatever the experimental paradigm in which false memories are
examined. More precisely, results have shown a reduction of false memories in conditions in
which participants encoded DRM lists with the instruction to generate a visual image of object
designated by each word (Foley, 2012; Foley et al., 2006; 2009; Robin, 2011; Robin & Mahé,
2015; Robin, Ménétrier, & El Haj, 2019). In contrast, studies that have examined the effects of
visual imaging on misinformation are still sparse. Therefore, we have to be cautious concerning
the hypothesis that imaging encoding would be a good candidate for reducing every sort of false
memories of events. Indeed, at the opposite, numerous studies using imaging instruction in false
events induction have revealed the negative role of visual images on source recognition with an
Effects of visual imagery on false memories in DRM and misinformation paradigms

After numerous demonstrations of the presence of false memories in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM, Roediger & McDermott, 1995) and the misinformation paradigms (Loftus, Miller, & Burns, 1978), the cognitive processes involved in these phenomena are becoming better known. It has notably been demonstrated that the Activation Monitoring Theory (AMT, Roediger, Balota, & Watson, 2001) could be one of the best explanations of the DRM illusions, while the Source Monitoring Framework (SMF, Johnson & Raye, 2000) is probably the most appropriate for describing false memories in the misinformation paradigm.

The DRM paradigm consists of presenting a series of lists of words that are semantically associated with a thematic word, called the critical lure (the most strongly associated word), which is never presented. According to the AMT, DRM illusions result from the activation of words highly associated with the word lists and a failure in monitoring during retrieval, impeding the possibility to distinguish between the words on the lists and those generated during encoding.

Source monitoring (Lyle & Johnson, 2007) refers to the ability to remember and correctly attribute the origin of information retrieved from memory. Remembering the source refers to the original context in which the information was presented. According to the SMT, memories, which contain specific details (sensorial, contextual, or linked to the mental operations that produced them), are more easily distinguished as having been seen or imagined.

Nevertheless, despite their differences, some researchers suggested that the false memories in these paradigms (DRM and misinformation) may rely on similar mechanisms: “both types of errors could be seen as source monitoring failures” (Ost, Blank, Davies, Jones, Lambert, & Salmon, 2003, p. 5). However, findings have shown that individuals prone to false DRM memories are not as likely to produce misinformation effects (Ost et al., 2013; Patihis,
imagination inflation effect or false autobiographical memories (Goff & Roediger, 1998; Mazzoni & Memon, 2003; for a review, see Robin, 2010).

In the majority of interviews, eyewitnesses are asked to remember the scene while evoking an image and describing it in detail. However, the presence of vivid and detailed images does not guarantee the veracity of the information collected (whether the images are deliberate or suggested). Hence, the pending issue is to know whether false memories reduction obtained via imagery instructions in the DRM task might be extended to ecological contexts such as eyewitness testimony. Therefore, our aim was to compare the imaging instruction effect in DRM and misinformation paradigms, by using the same kinds of imaging instruction and of memory task (recognition test) in a between-subject design. Participants were randomly assigned to five groups: a control group or a group with imaging instruction during DRM lists encoding for the DRM task or a control group, a group with imaging instructions when presenting misleading information or a group with imaging instructions at the recognition test for the misinformation task.

We expected to replicate previous results showing that imaginal encoding reduces false DRM memories. In the misinformation paradigm, we expected that imaging instruction given during the misinformation questionnaire would amplify the real and plausible nature of the misleading suggestions. This should decrease the amount of correct answers and increase the incorrect answers rates. These performances should be accompanied by a higher feeling of certainty in misleading information. In return, when the imaging instruction was proposed during the recognition task, likely it should reduce the reliability of the suggestions in favor of better discrimination of the source, in similar way to what was generally observed with DRM tasks.

Method
Frenda, & Loftus, 2018; Zhu, Chen, Loftus, Lin, & Dong, 2013). James Ost's research was the first study published on this issue. This author and his colleagues compared false memories in a within-subject experimental design using DRM word lists and a short video footage, with recall and recognition tests. Although false memory rates were of the same magnitude, they were not correlated. The merit of Ost's work was to point out that the mechanisms underlying false memories seem to be specific to each paradigm.

Based on this finding, we may wonder whether false memories might be affected by the
same factors, independently of the experimental paradigm in which they are examined. For
instance, findings have shown a reduction of false memories when participants encode DRM
lists with the instruction to generate a visual image of the object designated by each word
(Foley, 2012; Robin & Mahé, 2015). With respect to the AMT (Roediger, Watson, McDermott,
& Gallo, 2001), imaging instructions lead participants to focus on the visual characteristics of
the objects corresponding to the words studied that are depicted in their visual images, thus
reducing the activation of associated words. During retrieval, visual images enable reliable
source monitoring based on visual characteristics. The retrieval of these distinctive details (i.e.
visual images) allowed participants to accept an item as previously seen or heard. Alternatively,
in accordance with the distinctiveness heuristic hypothesis (Dodson & Schacter, 2001; Israel &
Schacter, 1997), visual images built during encoding help monitor cues during the retrieval test
in order to distinguish lures from the words studied. This decision strategy is based on the
distinctive characteristics of the encoding condition. Building visual images during encoding
becomes a decision criterion at the time of retrieval, with the lures not being associated with
the images rejected (Robin & Mahé, 2015).

In contrast, studies that have examined the effects of visual imaging on misinformation are
still sparse. Therefore, caution is required regarding the hypothesis that visual imaging encoding
may be a good candidate for reducing every sort of false memory of an event. The
## Participants and design

Two hundred students (81% women), with a mean age of 19.77 years (SD = 1.87), voluntarily participated in the experiment. They were first-year psychology students in Nantes and Angers Universities, who were never taught about the topics of the study (i.e., false memories, DRM and misinformation paradigms).

In the DRM paradigm, two conditions were examined in which words were presented orally with an explicit imaging instruction asking participants to generate a visual image of the object corresponding to each word of DRM lists (the imagery condition) or without such instruction (the control condition). The methodology followed was that of the standard DRM paradigm that is an intentional memory condition (Roediger & McDermott, 1995; Stadler, Roediger, & McDermott, 1999). Eighty participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions of the DRM paradigm. The groups comprised 40 participants both in the control and in the imagery condition (*mean age* = 20.62; *SD* = 2.42; *range*: 18-28 years). All were native speakers of French.

In the misinformation paradigm, three conditions were examined: the control condition (as the one used in Mahé, Corson, Verrier, & Payoux, 2015) and two imagery conditions (with an explicit visual imaging instruction during the misinformation phase or during the recognition phase). The methodology followed was a French adaptation of Loftus' work including three steps: (1) visualization of an event (a short movie sequence); (2) answering to an unexpected questionnaire containing misleading suggestions about the movie sequence; (3) performing a recognition task about details on the original event (Loftus, Miller, & Burns, 1978; see, Mahé et al., 2015). One hundred and twenty participants were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions of the Misinformation paradigm. The groups consisted of 40 participants in the control condition and in each of the imagery conditions (*mean age* = 18.92, *SD* = 1.32; *range* was from 17 to 26 years). All were native speakers of French.
misinformation paradigm is quite similar to the interviews in which eyewitnesses are asked to remember a scene while evoking an image and describing it in detail. Yet the presence of vivid and detailed images does not guarantee the veracity of the information collected (whether the images are accurate or suggested). Hence, the pending issue is to discover whether the reduction in false memories obtained via imagery instructions in the DRM task might be extended to ecological contexts such as eyewitness testimonies. Therefore, our aim was to investigate the impact of imaging instructions on false memories across the DRM and misinformation paradigms, by using the same kinds of imaging instructions and memory tasks (recognition tests) in a between-subject design. Five groups of participants completed the experiment. Two groups in the DRM task: (1) an experimental group with an imaging instruction; (2) a standard control group without the imagery instruction. Three groups in the misinformation task: (1) a standard control group without the imagery instruction; (2) a first experimental group with an imagery instruction during the misleading questionnaire; (3) a second experimental group with an imagery instruction during the recognition test.

In the DRM paradigm, the instruction to imagine the words studied, implemented at encoding, should reduce the activation of critical lures, producing distinctive memory traces supporting subsequent source monitoring. Therefore, we expected to replicate previous results showing that imaginal coding reduces false DRM memories (Foley, 2012; Robin & Mahé, 2015).

In the misinformation paradigm, imagery processes during the completion of the post-event questionnaire were expected to amplify the real and plausible nature of the inaccurate events suggested, and thus increase their similarity with the original event. This should result in increasing source confusion and therefore heightening the misinformation effect. Therefore, we expected a fall in the number of correct answers to true information and a rise in incorrect answers to the inaccurate information. These performances should be accompanied by a higher
## Materials

The DRM task was composed of 10 lists of eight words strongly associated with a critical lure. These lists were originally developed by Corson, Verrier and Bucic (2009), using the same criteria as the lists of Roediger and McDermott (1995). The words were presented in order of decreasing associative strength to the non-presented related word. The eight highest associates that could be depicted in a visual image were included in the ten lists (see Robin, 2011; Robin & Mahé, 2015). In previous studies, it was ensured that the imagery value of critical words was high and the same as the imagery value of all the studied words. Each of the study items was presented for 3 seconds. The lists of words were recorded in a female voice and presented to the subjects through headphones. Two presentation orders of lists were used.

A subset of the words presented during the encoding phase was included in the recognition test. This one consisted of 64 words including: 30 of the *studied words* selected from the presented items in each list (and occurring in the first, third and seventh positions in the lists); 10 non-presented *critical words* each being a high associate of the words presented in the lists; 24 *distractors* selected from six other DRM lists that were not presented and unrelated to the studied and critical words. Items on the recognition list appeared in alphabetical order. Every word was rated with a 4-point scale with 1 for “*sure it is new*”, 2 for “*probably new*”, 3 for “*probably studied*” and 4 for “*sure that the item was studied*”.

The misinformation task consisted of the projection of a short video composed of scenes selected from the film “Z” (Perrin, Rachedi, & Gavras, 1969) initially tested by Mahé et al. (2015), and which had been first used by Loftus, Levidow, and Duensing (1992). The short video of 6 min. 19 sec described an assassination attempt of a politician who decided to organize a political rally. The old “Z” film is generally unknown to young participants.
feeling of confidence in the misleading information. Studies examining the effects of visual imaging in misinformation paradigm are scant. However, numerous studies regarding the paradigm of false autobiographical memories have shown that imagination increases the participant's confidence in suggestions of erroneous events (for a review, see Robin, 2010). This phenomenon, known as inflation of the imagination, occurs when an imagined event reinforces the individual's certainty or belief that the event actually happened (Mazzoni & Memon, 2003).

In contrast, the imagery processes during the recognition task were expected to enhance memory monitoring. This hypothesis is based on imagery theories (Paivio, 2007) which claim that figurative materials are automatically depicted in a visual image. Therefore, the imaging instruction should refresh the visual images of the original event. This should increase correct answers and reduce the reliability of inaccurate suggestions. Consequently, in this condition, we should obtain better discrimination of source information, i.e. a reduction in false memories.

## Method

### Participants and design

Two hundred students (81% women, 19% men), with a mean age of 19.77 years (SD = 1.87), participated in the experiment. They were first-year psychology students from the Universities of Nantes and Angers, who had never studied the main topics of this experiment before. All were French native speakers.

Regarding the DRM paradigm, two conditions were examined in which words were presented orally, with an explicit imaging instruction asking participants to generate a visual image of the object corresponding to each word of the DRM lists (the imagery condition) or without any such instruction (the control condition). The methodology followed was that of the standard DRM paradigm, that is an intentional memory condition (Roediger & McDermott,
1995). Eighty participants (mean age = 20.62; SD = 2.42; range: 18-28) were randomly, and in equal number (n = 40), assigned to one of the two conditions.

**For the misinformation paradigm,** the chosen methodology was a French adaptation of Loftus' work, including three steps: (1) visualization of an event (a short movie sequence); (2) answering an unexpected questionnaire containing misleading suggestions about the movie sequence; (3) performing a recognition task about details of the original event (Loftus et al., 1978; Mahé, Corson, Verrier, & Payoux, 2015). As previously mentioned, the video footage automatically induces a visual processing leading to the production of visual images of the events. Therefore, adding an explicit imagery instruction during the encoding stage was not relevant. Thus, the three following conditions were examined: a control condition without an explicit imaging instruction, and two experimental conditions with an imaging instruction either during the misinformation phase or during the recognition phase.

120 participants were randomly assigned in equal number (n = 40) to one of the three conditions of the misinformation paradigm (mean age = 18.92, SD = 1.32; range: 17-26). None of the participants who took part in the DRM task participated in the misinformation task, and conversely.

## Materials

**The DRM task** was composed of ten lists of eight words strongly associated with a critical lure. These lists were originally developed by Corson, Verrier, and Bucic (2009), using the same criteria as Roediger and McDermott (1995). The words were presented in order of decreasing associative strength to the non-presented related word. The eight highest associates that could be depicted in a visual image were included in the ten lists (see Robin & Mahé, 2015). In previous studies, it was ensured that the imagery value of critical lures was high and the same as the imagery value of all the words studied. The word lists were recorded in a female voice
Moreover, two additional questions allowed to ensure that participants had not seen the film
before, which was the case for each of them, and had not understood the objectives of the
experiment.

## Procedure

In the DRM task, participants completed the experiment individually. Following their consent, they received the study instructions. In the control condition, participants were simply instructed to pay careful attention to each word in order to carry out another task later on these words. In the imaginal condition, participants were instructed to imagine each object depicting the word and to rate the vividness of their image on a 1-7 scale ("no image" to "an image as vivid as real vision"). After studying the 10 lists, all participants performed the incident recognition test and then completed the VVIQ.

In the misinformation task, participants were divided in three conditions. The experimentation comprised three phases and had been done during a 1st year university work methodology course. In each condition, the 40 participants watched the movie all together. They were only instructed to pay full attention to this event. One hour and a half after having seen the event, without participants being warned, the experimenter came back in the course and students were invited to answer the 12 open questions of the misinformation questionnaire. Then after having answered to these questions, they were told, this time the experiment was closed. Nevertheless, one week later, the participants had to perform the forced-choice recognition test about the movie sequence they watched before during the same course. Participants had to choose between the right (leading question) or the false answers (misleading question). For each answer, they estimated their feeling of confidence on a five-points scale (from *not sure at all* [1] to *very sure* [5]). They were asked to answer to all questions. In the three conditions, the procedure was exactly the same, excepted that in the imaging-
and presented to the subjects through headphones. Two presentation orders of the lists were used. In each condition, each of the study items was presented for three seconds, meaning that encoding time was the same in both experimental conditions.

A subset of the words presented during the encoding phase was included in the recognition test. The latter consisted of 64 words including: 30 of the *studied words* selected from the presented items in each list (and occurring in the first, third and seventh positions in the lists); 10 non-presented *critical lures*, each being a high associate of the words presented in the lists; 24 *distractors* selected from six other DRM lists that were not presented and unrelated to the studied and critical lures. Items on the recognition list appeared in alphabetical order. Every word was rated with a four-point scale with 1: “*sure it is new*”, 2: “*probably new*”, 3: “*probably studied*” and 4: “*sure that the item was studied*”.

**The misinformation task** consisted of the projection of a short video composed of scenes selected from the film “Z” (Perrin, Rachedi, & Gavras, 1969), initially tested by Mahé et al. (2015), and first used by Loftus, Levidow, and Duensing (1992). The short video, of a duration of 6 minutes 19 seconds, describes the assassination attempt of a politician who decided to organize a political rally. As “Z” is an old film, it is generally unknown to young participants.

The misinformation questionnaire used in this research was similar to the one developed by Mahé et al. (2015), according to Loftus' studies (Loftus et al., 1978, 1992). Twelve open questions on the video sequence were presented in chronological order. Most of them concerned the visual aspects of the events. Four questions suggested consistent information (e.g. at the end of the film, when everyone is gathered in the public square, *a blue vehicle* arrives at high speed. What type of vehicle is it?), four misleading questions suggested inaccurate information (e.g. *blue* was replaced by *white*), and four neutral questions suggested no information concerning
misinformation or imaging-recognition conditions, participants were instructed to imagine the
scene described in each question as vividly as possible (i.e., as if the scene were unfolding
before their eyes) during the misinformation or recognition phases, respectively. After
performing the recognition test, all participants completed the VVIQ. Then, all participants
received debriefing about experiment's aims.

Data analyses

The analyses were conducted to ensure that false memories in the DRM task as well as
a misinformation effect were observed; to determine whether there was an effect of imaging
instruction in both of these tasks and if so, what the pattern of this effect was. We performed
conventional (metric and frequentist) analyses on all of measures of interest in order to be able
to compare our results to previous studies on the topic. We also applied multilevel Bayesian
ordinal analyses on our main outcome (false memories) in order to i) increase the number of
observations used in the analyses, ii) fit more precise models (e.g. see Bürkner & Vuorre, 2019;
Liddell & Kruschke, 2018) and iii) model varying effects for both participants and items.

Results

1. DRM and imagery effect

***Frequentist analyses***

The mean proportions of “old” responses (i.e., responses 3 and 4 of the rating scale) associated to each item type are shown in Table 1. These answers correspond to items identified as previously studied, and thus refer to correctly recognized *studied items*; false recognitions of *critical lures* (non-studied, associated with the studied words); and false recognitions of *distractors* (non-studied, not associated with the studied and critical words), respectively.
the event (e.g. *a vehicle* arrives at high speed ...). There were three versions of the questionnaire so that every question was presented to the participants the same number of times in a consistent, misleading, or neutral way. The effect of question order was controlled by making sure no questions of the same type (consistent, misleading, or neutral) followed each other. The number of participants was similar for each version of the questionnaire.

The recognition test contained 12 questions regarding the consistent, inaccurate and neutral information to which the participants were exposed during the misinformation phase. The questionnaire administered consisted of a two-alternative forced choice task, for which the participants had to choose between two answers referring to the consistent or inaccurate information. For each question, participants had to indicate their confidence rating on a five-point Likert scale (from *not sure at all* [1] to *completely sure* [5]). All participants received the same version of the recognition test, in which the questions were presented according to the chronological order of events occurring in the movie. The correct response was systematically the first of the two alternatives proposed. Moreover, two additional questions ensured that participants had not seen the film before (none of them had), and had not guessed that the study concerned false memories or any related subject.

## Procedure

In the DRM task, participants completed the experiment individually. Following their consent, they received the instructions. In the control condition, participants were simply instructed to pay careful attention to each word in order to carry out another task using these words later on. In the imaging condition, participants were instructed to imagine each object depicting the word and rate the vividness of their image on a 1 to 7 point scale (ranging from “no image” to “an image as vivid as real vision”). After studying the ten lists, all the participants performed the incidental recognition test.
<table><caption>**Table 1.** Mean proportion (standard deviation) of « old » responses (3-4) for each item type (studied; lures; distractors) in each experimental condition (control vs imagery)</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Studied words</th><th>Lures</th><th>Distractors</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Control</td><td>.81 (.11)</td><td>.54 (.28)</td><td>.08 (.07)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery</td><td>.91 (.07)</td><td>.35 (.24)</td><td>.03 (.04)</td></tr></tbody></table>

An ANOVA with repeated measures was carried out with Item type as a within-subject factor (studied words, lures and distractors) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control vs imagery). The analyses revealed a significant effect of Condition, $F(1, 78) = 5.11, p = .02$, $n^2_p = .06$; a significant effect of Item, $F(2, 156) = 478.47, p < .001$, $n^2_p = .86$, which indicated the presence of false memories in the DRM paradigm. Indeed, post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) indicated that rates of veridical recognition for the studied words ($M = .86; SD = .11$) were significantly higher than false recognitions of lures ($M = .45; SD = .28$), $t(78) = 15.92, p < .001$, Cohen's $d = 3.461$. False recognitions of lures were higher than false recognitions of distractors ($M = .05; SD = .06$), $t(78) = 15.02, p < .001$, Cohen's $d = 1.680$. The analyses also reported a significant Condition x Item interaction effect, with $F(2, 156) = 16.03, p < .001$, $n^2_p = .17$. Post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) showed that correct recognitions rates of studied words were slightly higher in the imagery than in the control condition, $t(78) = 2.81, p = .07$ (see Table 1). In return, false recognitions of distractors were the lowest and of equivalent proportion in both imagery and control conditions, $p = 1.000$. Then, false recognitions of lures were significantly reduced in the imagery compared to the control condition, $t(78) = 5.20, p < .001$.
**In the misinformation task,** participants were divided in three conditions. In each condition, the experimentation comprised three phases and was led during a first-year methodology course at the university. In each group, the participants watched the movie together. Their sole instruction was to pay full attention to the video. Although the conditions were identical to those used in Mahé et al.'s study (2015), we ensured that the viewing conditions of the film sequence were optimal and rigorously identical for all participants regardless of the experimental conditions (same screen size, same lighting, sound, etc.). An hour and a half after viewing the film extract, and without prior warning, participants were invited to answer the twelve open questions of the misinformation questionnaire. One week later, during the same class, the participants performed the forced-choice recognition test about the film sequence they had watched before. Participants had to choose between the right answers (consistent) or the false answers (inaccurate). For each answer, they estimated their feeling of confidence on the five-point scale described previously. In the three conditions, the procedure was exactly the same, except that in the imaging-misinformation and the imaging-recognition conditions, participants were instructed to imagine the scene described in each question as vividly as possible (i.e. as if the scene were unfolding before their eyes) during the misinformation or the recognition phases respectively. Then, all participants were debriefed about the experiment's objectives.

## Data analyses

Analyses were conducted to ensure that false memories were observed in the DRM task, as well as in the misinformation paradigm. We also led analyses to determine whether the imaging instruction had an impact on any of these tasks and if so, what the pattern of this effect was. We performed conventional analyses (metric and frequentist) on all of the measures of interest so as to compare our results with previous studies on the topic. We also applied
To further investigate the effect of imagery on DRM false memories, the mean confidence ratings were compared for the two conditions (control vs imagery) on the 4-point scale. Table 2 presents the mean rating confidence for each encoding condition and each item type. The analyses revealed a significant effect of Condition, $F(1, 78) = 9.77, p = .002, n_p^2 = .11$; a significant effect of Item, $F(2, 156) = 422.29, p < .001, n_p^2 = .84$. Post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) indicated that confidence rates for the studied words were significantly higher than false recognitions of lures, $t(78) = 11.46, p < .001$, Cohen's $d = 1.280$. Confidence rates for lures were higher than confidence for distractors, $t(78) = 12.14, p < .001$, Cohen's $d = 1.358$. The analyses also reported a significant Condition x Item interaction effect, with $F(2, 156) = 13.98, p < .001, n_p^2 = .15$. Post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) showed that confidence rates for studied words were equivalent in the two conditions, $t(78) = 2.40, p = .25$ (see Table 2). In return, false recognitions of distractors were lower in the imagery condition, $t(78) = 2.98, p = .05$. Then, false confidence of lures were significantly reduced in the imagery compared to the control condition, $t(78) = 4.81, p < .001$.

<table><caption>**Table 2.** Mean confidence ratings (standard deviation) on 4-point scale for each item type (studied; lures; distractors) in each experimental condition (control vs imagery)</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Studied words</th><th>Lures</th><th>Distractors</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Control</td><td>3.41 (.03)</td><td>2.61 (.08)</td><td>1.50 (.03)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery</td><td>3.66 (.03)</td><td>2.10 (.06)</td><td>1.18 (.02)</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Bayesian analyses

A multilevel Bayesian ordinal regression was fitted with Item type as a within-subject factor (studied words, lures and distractors, respectively coded as a linear contrast 1, 0 and -1)
multilevel Bayesian ordinal analyses on our main outcome (false memories) in order to i) increase the number of observations used in the analyses, ii) fit more precise models (e.g. see Bürkner & Vuorre, 2019; Liddell & Kruschke, 2018) and iii) model any varying effects for both participants and items.

# Results

## 1. DRM and imagery effects

### *Frequentist analyses*

The mean ratings of responses on the 4-point scale were compared for both conditions (control vs imagery). Table 1 presents the mean ratings of responses (from 1 to 4) for each encoding condition and each item type. An ANOVA with repeated measures was carried out with Item type as a within-subject factor (studied words, lures and distractors) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control vs imagery). The analyses revealed a significant effect of Condition, $F(1, 78) = 9.77, p = .002, n_p^2 = .11$, and a significant effect of Item, $F(2, 156) = 422.29, p < .001, n_p^2 = .84$, which indicated the presence of false memories in the DRM paradigm. Indeed, post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) indicated that recognition rates of studied words were significantly higher than the recognition rate of lures, $t(78) = 15.56, p < .001$, Cohen's *d* = 1.741. False recognitions of lures were higher than false recognitions of distractors ($M = .05; SD = .06), $t(78) = 13.488, p < .001$, Cohen's *d* = 1.506.

The analyses also reported a significant Condition x Item interaction effect, with $F(2, 156) = 13.98, p < .001, n_p^2 = .15$. Post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) showed that mean ratings for studied words were not significantly different in the two conditions, $t(78) = 2.40, p = .25$. However, mean ratings for lures were significantly lower in the imagery condition compared to the control condition, $t(78) = 4.81, p < .001$, confirming better rejection of lures when they were
and Condition as a between-subject factor (control vs imagery, respectively coded 0.5 and -0.5) as well as their interaction as fixed factors and varying intercepts for participants and items (words) in the model. The dependent variable was the response of the participants (1, 2, 3, or 4). Data analysis was performed with the brms R package (Bürkner, 2018). Dispersion of each participant's responses as a function of item type and experimental condition is depicted in Figure 1.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Responses as a function of item type and experimental condition.</figcaption></figure>

In Figure 1, each small dot represents one response of a participant (the position of each dot was slightly modified for readability). Larger dots above represent estimates of responses probability and are presented along with their 95% CI (credibility interval) as estimated by the model. Dashed lines link the sum of the responses x their probability as estimated by the model.

The analyses did not allow to conclude about an (absence of) effect of Condition, $β = 0.03$, 95% CI [-0.13, 0.19], but a substantial effect of Item type, $β = 1.28$, 95% CI [1.18, 1.37] was found, indicating that rates of veridical recognition for the studied words were higher than
not studied with an imaging instruction. Mean ratings for distractors were lower in the imagery condition, *t*(78) = 2.98, *p* = .05, revealing fewer intrusions with an imagery encoding.

<table><caption>**Table 1.** Ratings of responses on a 4-point scale for each item type in each experimental condition</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="4">Mean ratings (standard deviation) of responses (1-4)</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Studied words</th><th>Lures</th><th>Distractors</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Control</th><td>3.41 (.03)</td><td>2.61 (.08)</td><td>1.50 (.03)</td></tr><tr><th>Imagery</th><td>3.66 (.03)</td><td>2.10 (.06)</td><td>1.18 (.02)</td></tr></tbody></table><table><thead><tr><th colspan="4">Mean proportions (standard deviation) of “old” responses (3-4)</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Studied words</th><th>Lures</th><th>Distractors</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Control</th><td>.81 (.11)</td><td>.54 (.28)</td><td>.08 (.07)</td></tr><tr><th>Imagery</th><td>.91 (.07)</td><td>.35 (.24)</td><td>.03 (.04)</td></tr></tbody></table>

*Note.* The mean proportions of “old” responses (i.e. responses 3 and 4 on the rating scale) associated to each item type correspond to items identified as previously studied, and thus refer to correctly recognized *studied words*; false recognitions of *lures* (non-studied, associated with the studied words); and false recognitions of *distractors* (non-studied, not associated with the studied and critical lures).

## Bayesian analyses

A multilevel Bayesian ordinal regression was fitted with Item type as a within-subject factor (studied words, lures and distractors, respectively coded 1, 0 and -1 as a linear contrast) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control vs imagery, respectively coded 0.5 and -0.5) as well as their interaction as fixed factors and varying intercepts for participants and items (words) in the model. The dependent variable corresponded to the response of the participants
false recognitions of lures, which were higher than false recognitions of distractors. When the item type variable was coded as an orthogonal contrast (-1, 2, -1), we could not conclude about an (absence of) effect of this variable, $β = -0.04$, 95% CI [-0.32, 0.25], suggesting that the linear contrast was the best model. The analyses also reported a substantial Condition x Item type interaction effect, $β = -0.52$, 95% CI [-0.60, -0.44], suggesting that the effect of imagery (vs. control condition) on accuracy was more important for higher values of the linear contrast (see Figure 1).

These results replicated those found in previous studies showing a constant reduction in false memories with an imaging instruction (Burns, Jenkins, & Dean, 2007, exp.2; Foley, 2012; Foley Wozniak, & Gillum, 2006; Gunter, Bodner, & Azad, 2007; Olszewska & Ulatowska, 2013; Perez-Mata, Read, & Diges, 2002; Robin & Mahé, 2015; Robin et al., 2019).

## 2. Misinformation and imagery effect

As a reminder of our hypotheses, in the control condition, the misinformation effect should be reflected in the difference of correct answers between suggestive conditions, that is, with a higher rate of correct responses in leading or neutral conditions than in misleading condition (see Mahé et al., 2015). Nevertheless, compared to the control condition, the imaging instruction should increase the misinformation effect when participants were encouraged to imagine false information during the misinformation questionnaire. At the opposite, imaging instruction should reduce the misinformation effect when participants were invited to visualize the scene for each question of the recognition test. To sum up, false memories rates should be lower in the imagery-recognition condition than in the control one. In return, false memories should be higher in the imagery-misinformation condition than in the control condition.

### *Frequentist analyses*
(1, 2, 3, or 4). Data analysis was performed with the brms R package (Bürkner, 2018).

Dispersion of each participant's responses as a function of item type and experimental condition
is depicted in Figure 1.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Responses as a function of item type and experimental condition.</figcaption></figure>

In Figure 1, each small dot represents a participant's response (the position of each dot was slightly modified for readability). Above, the larger dots represent estimates of response probability and are presented along with their 95% CI (credibility interval) as estimated by the model. Dashed lines link the weighted average response in each condition computed from the probability of each response (by condition) estimated by the model.

There was no evidence of an (absence of) effect of Condition, $\beta = 0.03$, 95% CI [-0.13, 0.19], but a substantial effect of Item type, $\beta = 1.28$, 95% CI [1.18, 1.37], was found, indicating that rates of veridical recognition for the studied words were higher than false recognitions of lures, which were higher than false recognitions of distractors. When the Item type variable was coded as an orthogonal contrast (-1, 2, -1), there was no evidence of an (absence of) effect of
The mean proportions of correct answers collected for each question type as a function of experimental condition are shown in Table 3.

<table><caption>**Table 3.** Mean proportions (standard deviation) of correct answers for each Question type (leading, neutral, misleading) in each experimental condition (control; imagery-misinformation; imagery-recognition)</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Leading question</th><th>Neutral question</th><th>Misleading question</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Control</td><td>.89 (.16)</td><td>.85 (.19)</td><td>.64 (.18)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery-misinformation</td><td>.84 (.18)</td><td>.82 (.16)</td><td>.69 (.21)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery-recognition</td><td>.85 (.21)</td><td>.84 (.18)</td><td>.67 (.26)</td></tr></tbody></table>

An ANOVA with repeated measures was carried out with Question type as a within-subject factor (leading, misleading, neutral) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control, imagery-misinformation, imagery-recognition). The analyses were conducted on the mean proportions of correct responses (correct and incorrect answers being complementary in the forced-choice recognition test). The analyses revealed a significant effect of Question type, $F(2,234) = 37.47, p < .001$, $n^2_p = .24$. Post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) showed that correct answers reached the lowest rates in the misleading ($M = .67; SD = .22$) condition compared to the neutral ($M = .84; SD = .18$) and leading ($M = .86; SD = .18$) conditions, all *ps* < .001. Rates of correct answers were high and of the same magnitude in the neutral and leading conditions, *p* = 1.000. These results replicated the misinformation effect reported in previous studies (see Mahé et al., 2015). However, the analyses did not allow to conclude about an (absence of) effect of Condition effect, $F(2,117) = 0.05, p = .94$, nor about an (absence of) Condition x Question type interaction effect, $F(4,234) = 0.98, p = .41$. Hence, it is possible to conclude that imaging
this variable, $\beta$ = -0.04, 95% CI [-0.32, 0.25], suggesting that the linear contrast was the best model. The analyses also reported a substantial Condition x Item type interaction effect, $\beta$ = -0.52, 95% CI [-0.60, -0.44], suggesting that the effect of imagery (vs. control condition) on accuracy was more significant for higher values of the linear contrast (see Figure 1).

These results replicated those found in previous studies showing a constant reduction in false memories with an imaging instruction (Foley, 2012; Robin & Mahé, 2015).

## 2. Misinformation and imagery effect

In the control condition, we expected a higher rate of correct responses for consistent and neutral information than for misleading/inaccurate information (see Mahé et al., 2015). The imaging instruction during the misinformation questionnaire should increase the misinformation effect. In contrast, the imaging instruction during the recognition test should reduce the misinformation effect, as participants refresh their mental images of the original scenes.

### *Frequentist analyses*

The mean proportions of correct answers collected for each question type as a function of the experimental condition are shown in Table 2.

<table><caption>**Table 2.** Mean proportions (standard deviation) of correct answers for each Question type (consistent, neutral, misleading) in each experimental condition (control; imagery-misinformation; imagery-recognition)</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Consistent question</th><th>Neutral question</th><th>Misleading question</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Control</td><td>.89 (.16)</td><td>.85 (.19)</td><td>.64 (.18)</td></tr></tbody></table>
instruction reduce or increase false memories in the misinformation paradigm whereas it
reduced significantly false memories in the DRM paradigm.

Bayesian analyses

A multilevel Bayesian logistic regression was fitted with Question type as a within-subject factor (leading, misleading, neutral, respectively coded as a quadratic contrast 1, -2 and 1) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control, imagery-misinformation, imagery-recognition, respectively coded as a linear contrast 0, -1 and 1) as well as their interaction as fixed factors and varying intercepts for participants and items (words) in the model. The dependent variable was the response of the participants (0 for incorrect or 1 for correct answers, correct and incorrect answers being complementary in the force-choice recognition test). Data analysis was performed with the brms R package (Bürkner, 2018). Dispersion of each participant's responses as a function of item type and experimental condition is depicted in Figure 2.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** Answers as a function of item type and experimental condition.</figcaption></figure>
<table><tr><td>Imagery-misinformation</td><td>.84 (.18)</td><td>.82 (.16)</td><td>.69 (.21)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery-recognition</td><td>.85 (.21)</td><td>.84 (.18)</td><td>.67 (.26)</td></tr></table>

A repeated-measures ANOVA was carried out with Question type as a within-subject factor (consistent, misleading, neutral) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control, imagery-misinformation, imagery-recognition). The analyses were conducted on the basis of the mean proportions of correct responses (correct and incorrect answers being complementary in the forced-choice recognition test). The analyses revealed a significant effect of Question type, $F(2, 234) = 37.47, p < .001$, $n_p^2 = .24$. Post-hoc analyses (Bonferroni) showed that correct answers reached the lowest rates in the misleading condition ($M = .67; SD = .22$) compared to the neutral ($M = .84; SD = .18$) and consistent ($M = .86; SD = .18$) conditions, all $p < .001$. Rates of correct answers were high and of equivalent magnitude in the neutral and consistent conditions, $p = 1.000$. These results replicated the misinformation effect reported in previous studies (see Mahé et al., 2015). However, there was neither a significant effect of Condition, $F(2, 117) = 0.05, p = .95$, nor a Condition x Question type interaction effect, $F(4, 234) = 0.98, p = .42$. Hence, there is no evidence that imaging instructions affect false memories in the misinformation paradigm, whereas it significantly reduced false memories in the DRM paradigm.

## Bayesian analyses

A multilevel Bayesian logistic regression was fitted with Question type as a within-subject factor (consistent, misleading, neutral, respectively coded 1, -2 and 1 as a quadratic contrast) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control, imagery-misinformation, imagery-recognition, respectively coded 0, -1 and 1 as a linear contrast) as well as their interaction as fixed factors and varying intercepts for participants and items (words) in the model. The
Each small dot represents one answer of a participant (the position of each dot is slightly modified for readability). Larger dots in the middle represent median estimates of responses probability and are presented along with their 95% CI as estimated by the model.

The analyses revealed a substantial effect of Question type, $β = 0.35$, 95% CI [0.00, 0.69]. Correct answers reached the lowest rates in the misleading condition compared to the neutral and leading conditions. When the question type variable was coded as a linear contrast (1, 0, -1), there it was not possible to conclude about an (absence of) effect of this variable, $β = 0.14$, 95% CI [-0.61, 0.90], suggesting that the quadratic contrast was the best model. The analyses did not allow to conclude about a (absence of) Condition effect, $β = 0.01$, 95% CI [-0.16, 0.19], nor a Condition x Question type interaction effect, $β = 0.02$, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.13]. This was also true when the question type variable and the condition variable were coded as orthogonal contrasts (linear and quadratic respectively), with a $β = 0.02$, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.12] for the Condition effect and a $β = 0.04$, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.17] for the interaction effect.

## 2.1. Confidence in the answers

During the recognition test, participants estimated their level of confidence on a five-points scale (from not sure at all [1] to very sure [5]). Mean rates of confidence level reported in correct answers are shown in Table 4. An ANOVA with repeated measures was carried out with Question type as a within-subject factor (leading, misleading, neutral) and Condition as a between-subject factor (control, imagery-misinformation, imagery-recognition). Analyses computed on each participants' mean confidence ratings (correct answers) revealed neither an effect of Question type, $F(2, 230) = .44, p = .64$, nor of Condition, $F(2, 115) = .48, p = .61$. Moreover, the interaction between these two variables was not significant, $F(4, 230) = .58, p = .67$.
dependent variable was the participants' response (0 for incorrect answers or 1 for correct answers, correct and incorrect answers being complementary in the forced-choice recognition test). Data analysis was performed with the brms R package (Bürkner, 2018). Dispersion of each participant's responses as a function of Item type and experimental Condition is depicted in Figure 2.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** Answers as a function of Item type and experimental Condition.</figcaption></figure>

Each small dot represents a participant's answer (the position of each dot is slightly modified for readability). Larger dots in the middle represent median estimates of response probability and are presented along with their 95% CI as estimated by the model.

The analyses revealed a substantial effect of Question type, $β = 0.35$, 95% CI [0.00, 0.69]. Correct answers reached the lowest rates in the misleading condition compared to the neutral and consistent conditions. When the question type variable was coded as a linear contrast (1, 0, -1), there was no evidence of an (absence of) effect of this variable, $β = 0.14$, 95% CI [-0.61, 0.90], suggesting that the quadratic contrast was the best model. There was no
<table><caption>**Table 4.** Mean confidence rates (standard deviation) for each question type and each condition in misinformation paradigm</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Leading question</th><th>Neutral question</th><th>Misleading question</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>All conditions</td><td>3.87 (0.81)</td><td>3.79 (0.74)</td><td>3.79 (0.99)</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>3.85 (0.83)</td><td>3.79 (0.79)</td><td>3.78 (1.01)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery-misinformation</td><td>4.04 (0.75)</td><td>3.87 (0.69)</td><td>3.76 (1.05)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery-recognition</td><td>3.70 (0.84)</td><td>3.71 (0.74)</td><td>3.82 (0.93)</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 2.2. Relationships between correct answers and confidence rates

To determine whether there was a relationship between giving correct answers at the recognition test and confidence rate, Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated between the total confidence rates scores observed for each participant and the number of corresponding correct answers for each question type (leading, misleading and neutral). Correlation coefficients are shown in Table 5. Correlations were significant, indicating that the higher the number of correct answers, the more confident the participants were in their answers whatever the question type. This analysis was run by eliminating participants with missing values (N = 117).

<table><caption>**Table 5.** Pearson's correlation coefficients between total confidence score for correct answers as a function of question type (leading, misleading and neutral).</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="3">Number of correct answers for each question type</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Leading</th><th>Misleading</th><th>Neutral</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Confidence Correct question</td><td><strong>.662***</strong></td><td>-------</td><td>-------</td></tr></tbody></table>
evidence about a (absence of) Condition effect, $\beta$ = 0.01, 95% CI [-0.16, 0.19], and neither of
a Condition x Question type interaction effect, $\beta$ = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.13]. This was also
true when the Question type variable and the Condition variable were coded as orthogonal
contrasts (linear and quadratic respectively), with a $\beta$ = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.12] for the
Condition effect and a $\beta$ = 0.04, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.17] for the interaction effect.

**2.1. Confidence in the answers**

During the recognition test, participants estimated their level of confidence for each
response on a five-point scale. Mean rates of confidence levels reported for correct answers are
shown in Table 3. A 3*3 (Question type * Condition) mixed-design ANOVA computed on each
participant's mean confidence rating reported for correct answers revealed neither a significant
effect of Question type, $F(2, 230) = .44, p = .64$, nor of Condition, $F(2, 115) = .48, p = .62$.
Moreover, the interaction between these two variables was not significant, $F(4, 230) = .58, p = .67$.
For misleading questions, participants' confidence in misinformation should be
heightened compared to the consistent or neutral questions, and therefore their confidence in
the corresponding correct answers should be lower. Nevertheless, Pearson's correlation
coefficients calculated between confidence scores for correct answers (total confidence rate
scores observed for each participant) and the number of corresponding correct answers for each
question type (consistent, misleading and neutral) were significant ($r = .662; r = .680; r = .658$,
all ps < .001, respectively; analysis was run by eliminating participants with missing values, N = 117).
These results indicate a high level of participants' confidence in their correct answers
whatever the question type.

<caption>**Table 3.** Mean confidence rates for correct answers (standard deviation) for each question type and condition in misinformation paradigm</caption>
<table><tr><td>Confidence Neutral question</td><td>-------</td><td>-------</td><td>.658***</td></tr><tr><td>Confidence Misleading question</td><td>-------</td><td>.680***</td><td>-------</td></tr></table>

Notes: N = 117; *** p < .001

### 3. Imagery ability check

To ensure that there was no bias due to individuals' imagery ability, we considered the effect of individual imagery capacities on the basis of the Vividness of Visual Images Questionnaire (VVIQ, Marks, 1973). The analyses carried out on scores for the VVIQ as a function of experimental condition in the DRM task were not significant, t(78) = 1.19, p = .23; all participants had relatively moderate VVIQ scores (see Table 5). This imagery propensity for all participants is a new element corroborating the imaging instruction effect on the reduction of false memories in the DRM paradigm. Therefore, reduction in false memories observed in the DRM task results from imagery coding during encoding and not from natural higher imagery abilities in the imagery group compared to the control group.

In the same vein, all participants in the misinformation condition had relatively moderate imagery abilities. The analyses of VVIQ scores as a function of experimental condition were not significant (see, Table 5). Nevertheless, the failure to find an effect of imagery ability on misinformation false memories such as it was also the case for DRM false memories underlines the VVIQ limits.

<table><caption>**Table 5.** Mean scores (standard deviation) of VVIQ in each condition of the DRM and misinformation paradigms</caption><thead><tr><td></td><td>VVIQ</td><td>Means comparisons tests</td></tr></thead></table>

DRM paradigm
<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Consistent question</th><th>Neutral question</th><th>Misleading question</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>All conditions</td><td>3.87 (0.81)</td><td>3.79 (0.74)</td><td>3.79 (0.99)</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>3.85 (0.83)</td><td>3.79 (0.79)</td><td>3.78 (1.01)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery-misinformation</td><td>4.04 (0.75)</td><td>3.87 (0.69)</td><td>3.76 (1.05)</td></tr><tr><td>Imagery-recognition</td><td>3.70 (0.84)</td><td>3.71 (0.74)</td><td>3.82 (0.93)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Discussion

This study aimed to test the effects of an imaging instruction on false memories in the DRM and the misinformation paradigms. While we know that false memories collected across these paradigms are not correlated, this study investigated whether modulators of false memories have a similar impact on both paradigms. Specifically, we expected to replicate previous results showing that imaging instructions during the encoding phase reduced the amount of false memories in the DRM. In the misinformation paradigm, we suggested that imaging instruction given during the misinformation questionnaire could amplify the real and plausible nature of the misleading suggestions. In addition, we suggested that imaging instruction given during the recognition task could reduce the suggestions' reliability, bringing better source discrimination as previously observed in DRM tasks. Therefore, the main question was whether, under certain circumstances, imaging instructions could affect false memories in these paradigms. This question was intended to provide further support in favor of the similarities or differences between these kinds of false memories, as some past findings have shown that they may rely on different mechanisms (Ost et al., 2013; Patihis et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2013).
Control 61.75 (8.42)
Imagery 59.35 (9.42)
$t(78) = 1.19, p = .23$

Misinformation paradigm

Control 59.35 (8.03)
Imagery-misinformation 57.47 (9.55)
Imagery-Recognition 58.97 (8.96)
$F(2,117) = 0.50, p = .61$

Discussion

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of an imaging instruction on false memories in the DRM and misinformation paradigms. Specifically, we expected to replicate previous results showing that imaging instructions during encoding reduced false DRM memories. In the misinformation paradigm, we suggested that imaging instruction given during the misinformation questionnaire should amplify the real and plausible nature of the misleading suggestions (i.e., decrease the rates of correct responses and increase rates of incorrect responses). On the other hand, the imaging instruction given during the recognition task should reduce the reliability of the suggestions for better source discrimination as it was previously observed in DRM tasks. Therefore, the main question was whether, under certain circumstances, the imaging instruction could reduce false memories in both paradigms. This question was intended to provide further support in favor of the similarity or differences between the two paradigms, as a few past findings have shown that they may rely on different mechanisms (Monds, Paterson, & Kemp, 2016; Ost et al., 2013; Patihis et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2013).

Our findings revealed false memories effect in DRM and misinformation tasks replicating previous studies (Roediger & McDermott, 1995; Loftus et al., 1978). We found that
Our findings revealed false memory effects in the DRM and misinformation tasks, replicating previous studies (Roediger & McDermott, 1995; Loftus et al., 1978). In addition, the imaging instruction reduced DRM false memories, in line with past findings (e.g. Foley, 2012). In contrast, as the findings were not significant, there was no evidence that the imaging instruction affected false memories in the misinformation task. Although our experimental design (between-subject) did not allow us to compute correlations, our results were in accordance with past within-subject design studies (e.g. Ost et al., 2013). Indeed, the absence of relationship reported by Ost et al. is corroborated here by the fact that the impact of imagery manifested itself differently across the two paradigms, supporting the idea that the memory errors which they generate refer to false memories of a different nature.

Nevertheless, how can the lack of evidence regarding an imagery effect in the misinformation task be explained? Although we remain inconclusive, one explanation (which must be interpreted with caution) could be found from the way in which the imaging instruction was implemented in the study. It was explicitly induced at the DRM encoding phase and during post-encoding or the retrieval stages of the misinformation task. An imagery instruction during the encoding phase of the misinformation paradigm was not appropriate in this case because processing the video footage led to a visual processing. Therefore, according to the visual imagery approaches (Paivio, 1986), imaginal coding might be automatically and implicitly elicited by the visual processing of the video footage in the misinformation task. This hypothesis relies on false recognition rates that seem to be lower in the standard misinformation task compared to the standard DRM paradigm. Therefore, visual images corresponding to the video footage might provide a sufficiently distinctive cue to cause less misattribution between the original event and any misleading information (Israel & Schacter, 1997). Hence, the absence of evidence regarding the imaging instruction could result from visual processing leading to
imaging instruction reduced DRM false memories in line with past findings (Foley, 2012; 2009; 2006; Gunter et al., 2007; Robin, Ménétrier, & El Haj, 2019; Robin & Mahé, 2015; Robin, 2011; 2010). In contrast, it was not possible to conclude that the imaging instruction decreases or increases false memories in the misinformation task. Although our results were obtained with between-subject design, they were in accordance with within-subject design past studies, as one conducted by Ost et al., (2013). In addition, Wilkinson & Hyman (1998; Qin, Ogle, & Goodman, 2008) found that false memories in the DRM did not correlate with distortions of imagined autobiographical events.

The imagery effect on DRM lists could be explained in two ways. According to the Activation Monitoring Theory (McDermott & Watson, 2001; Roediger, Watson, McDermott, & Gallo, 2001), imaging instruction leads participants to focus on the visual characteristics of the objects corresponding to the studied words that are depicted in their visual images. Hence, the imaging instruction focused attention on studied words and reduced the activation of associated words. At retrieval, visual images enabled a reliable source monitoring based on visual characteristics whose lures were not provided. The retrieval of these distinctive details (i.e., visual images) allowed participants to accept an item as previously seen or heard. Alternatively, conforming to the distinctiveness heuristic hypothesis (Dodson & Schacter, 2001; 2002; Israel & Schacter, 1997; Schacter, Israel, & Racine, 1999), visual images built during encoding help monitor cues during the retrieval test to distinguish lures from the studied words. This decision strategy would be based on a strict criterion using distinctive characteristics of the encoding condition. Overall, these theoretical explanations consider that building visual images at encoding becomes a criterion of decision at the time of recovery, with the lures not provided with images being rejected (Foley, 2012; Gunter et al., 2007; Robin & Mahé, 2015).
more distinctive memory traces of the original event, supporting source monitoring. This
hypothesis could also explain the absence of correlation between both paradigms.

This visual processing effect is in line with past studies showing a reduction of false
recognitions when encoding conditions favor the processing of perceptual details like drawings
(Israel & Schacter, 1997). In this view, the distinctive characteristics of the perceived events
(e.g. video footage; drawings; visual images) may enable consistent memories to be
distinguished from inaccurate ones, thus favoring the discrimination process during the
recovery phase. In DRM tasks, semantic network activation and verbal coding lead to a
semantic representation that is poor in distinctive details, the latter nonetheless proving useful
for efficient source monitoring. In the misinformation paradigm, visual and verbal encoding
lead to an episodic representation rich in distinctive details, increasing source monitoring
efficiency (Zhu et al., 2013). In conclusion, the creation of false memories in each paradigm is
likely to hinge on different processes. Therefore, false memories in the DRM may not predict
memory distortions in the misinformation task. These conclusions are in line with James Ost's
findings and past studies that found no reliable relationship between false memories in these
two paradigms (Falzarano & Siedlecki, 2019; Nichols & Loftus, 2019).

This exploratory study may be considered as an extension of James Ost's conception of
false memory paradigms, for which the only common mechanism between both paradigms
would be the monitoring process. Ost et al. (2013) have discarded several explanations
regarding the absence of relationship between these two paradigms, such as unreliable
measurements of recognitions between each paradigm, sample differences, or lack of power.
We may add that neither the interference effect between tasks performed by the same
participants, nor the cognitive load resulting from successive tasks explained these differences.
In our study, these effects were controlled with a between-subject design. Ost suggested (2013,
p. 5) that DRM false memories result from an internal and implicit activation and a failure of
Now, how to explain the lack of imagery effect in misinformation task? These null findings must be interpreted with caution; nevertheless, they could have several potential explanations that create new research perspectives. One explanation could provide from the nature of stimuli used in the misinformation task and a fortiori result from difference in encoding processes between DRM and misinformation tasks. Indeed, relying on the dual coding theory (Paivio, 1973; 1991), we may hypothesize that the video footage as audio-visual stimulus, automatically and implicitly, has elicited perceptual processing leading to elaboration of visual images. Dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986; 2007) assumes that imaging code plus verbal code improved memory performance and reduced interference. In the misinformation task, the video footage automatically induces an imaginal coding plus a verbal coding. Hence, in the control condition of the misinformation paradigm, correct memories seem to be higher and false memories lower than in DRM control condition. Although results providing from recognition test in DRM and misinformation tasks are not statistically comparable, they tend to corroborate this hypothesis. Indeed, in control conditions, false memories rates are lower in the misinformation task (M = .36) than in the DRM one (M = .54), the latter implying implicitly and automatically a verbal encoding only. As Paivio suggested (2007), imaginal code for words relies on intentional processes due to a lower probability of evocation of a visual image for concrete words relative to drawings. Hence, dual coding for visual materials is more efficient than for verbal materials. However, false memories rates reached the same magnitude when participants in DRM intentionally added to the verbal coding, of word lists, an imaging coding via an explicit imagery instruction (M = .35). In the DRM imagery-condition, participants performed a dual coding (verbal plus imaginal).

An alternative explanation is that visual images corresponding to the video footage would provide a sufficiently distinctive cue to cause less misattribution between original event and suggested events, without to preclude the creation of false memories. This interpretation
source monitoring increased by the presence of lures in the recognition test. The misinformation
effect, in contrast, results from an external and explicit misleading suggestion (post-encoding
event). In addition, the stimuli's nature may also affect the encoding process and, a fortiori, the
role of visual imaging in these paradigms, hence the consequences on the monitoring processes.
In the DRM, false memories are based on semantic associations of verbal stimuli and implicit
activation mechanisms. In contrast, misinformation relies on visual and verbal stimuli and
recollection processes in episodic memory, i.e. explicit mechanisms. All these variables could
explain the differences between such paradigms and should be tested in further experiments.

Our study has some limitations: the between-subject design precluded the analyses on
the relationships between both paradigms. Nonetheless, a within-subject design has the
inconvenience that imaging instructions in a given task may contaminate the subsequent task.
It remains that this pilot study was crucial for establishing statistical models by shedding light
on the data patterns in these paradigms. Considering these limitations, further research will be
needed.

References

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*The R Journal*, **10**(1), 395. https://doi.org/10.32614/RJ-2018-017

Bürkner, P.-C., & Vuorre, M. (2019). Ordinal Regression Models in Psychology: A Tutorial.
*Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science*, **2**(1), 77–101.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918823199

Corson, Y., Verrier, N., & Bucic, A. (2009). False memories and individual variations: The
role of Field Dependence-Independence. *Personality and Individual Differences*, *47*, 1, 8-
11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.036
should be confronted to the past studies having shown a reduction of DRM false memories in which words were presented with corresponding drawing. Indeed, it was suggested that drawings processing gave rise to visual images reducing false memories. Schacter and Israel (1997; Norman & Schacter, 1997) assumed that false recognition was reduced by creating conditions favoring the encoding of perceptual details distinctive to each item. Therefore, the heuristic of distinctiveness that explains the reduction of false memories in the DRM could also explain the implicit imagery effect in misinformation paradigm and hence our null effects of explicit imagery instruction, imaging coding being automatic. In this view, source monitoring would be more effective in the misinformation task whereas successful monitoring in DRM would depend more on contextual support provided during the encoding like pictures or explicit imaging instruction (Foley, 2012; Robin & Mahé, 2015; Schacter & Israel, 1997). The distinctive characteristics of the perceived events (e.g. video footage; drawings; visual images) enables to distinguish them from activated or inferred memories, thus favoring the process of discrimination during the recovery phase. Therefore, we may assume that it is the nature of the encoding applied to the events that contributes to reduce false memories.

In DRM tasks, the semantic networks activation and verbal coding lead to a semantic representation poor in distinctive details useful for an efficient source monitoring. In misinformation, visual and verbal encoding lead to an episodic representation rich in distinctive details, increasing source monitoring efficiency (Zhu et al., 2013). In this view, creation of false memories in each paradigm likely hinges on different encoding processes. Therefore, false memories in DRM may not predict memory distortions in the misinformation task. These conclusions are in line with James Ost's work and past studies that found no reliable relationship between false memories in these both paradigms (Falzarano & Siedlecki, 2019; Nichols & Loftus, 2019; Patihis et al., 2018; Ost et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2013).
Dodson, C. S., & Schacter, D. L. (2001). "If I had said it I would have remembered it": Reducing false memories with a distinctiveness-heuristic. *Psychonomic Bulletin & Review*, 8, 155-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03196152

Falzarano, F., & Siedlecki, K. L. (2019). Investigating the relations among different measures of false memory. *Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 15*(4), 290–300.

https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0276-0

Foley, M.A. (2012). Imagery encoding and false recognition errors: exploring boundary conditions of imagery is enhancing effects. *Memory, 20*(7), 700-716.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2012.697172

Israel, L., & Schacter, D. L. (1997). Pictorial encoding reduces false recognition of semantic associates. *Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 4*, 577-581.

http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03214352

Johnson, M. K., & Raye, C. L. (2000). *Cognitive and brain mechanisms of false memories and beliefs*. In D. L. Schacter & E. Scarry (Eds.), *Memory, brain, and belief* (p. 35–86).
Harvard University Press.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.08.009

Loftus, E. F. Levidow, B., & Duensing, S. (1992). Who remembers best? Individual differences in memory for events that occurred in a science museum. *Applied Cognitive Psychology, 6*, 93-107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350060202

Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4*(1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.4.1.19
Although our study was purely exploratory, it may be considered as an extension of James Ost's conception about false memories paradigms, for who the only common mechanism between both paradigms would be the monitoring process. Indeed, as he suggested, both types of false memories "could also [...] be seen as source monitoring failures" (Ost et al., 2013, p.5).

James Ost and his colleagues questioned the concept of false memories by showing that individuals prone to false DRM memories were not just as likely to produce effects of misinformation. It was the first study on this issue. These authors compared false memories in within-subject design with five DRM word lists and a short video footage on recall and recognition tests. Although false memories rates were in the same magnitude, they were not correlated as well as sensitivity measured with signal detection indices. Ost et al. (2013) have discarded several explanations like unreliable measurement between recognition in each paradigm, difference in the samples or lack of power. We may add that neither the contamination bias between tasks performed by the same participants, nor the cognitive load resulting from successive tasks explained these differences. Although, in our study, these potential effects were controlled with between-subject design, the imaging instruction led to mixed results: a significant effect in DRM and no significant effect in misinformation. In accordance with James Ost et al. suggestions (2013, p.5), DRM false memories could be classified as "naturally occurring" and referring to a "normal associative and reconstructive process". Indeed, false memories in DRM result from an internal and implicit activation during the encoding and from a failure of source monitoring increased by the presence of lures in the recognition test. These lures automatically reinforce semantic associations with studied words, and hence endorse the likelihood to judge that they have been encountered before. In contrast, misinformation effect will be classified as "suggestion dependent" resulting from an external and explicit misleading suggestion (post encoding event). Nevertheless, differences in encoding processing between both paradigms discussed before, question the robustness of false memories
Mahé, A., Corson, Y., Verrier, N., & Payoux, M. (2015). Misinformation effect and centrality. *European Review of Applied Psychology, 65*(3), 155-162.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2015.03.001

Nichols, R. M. & Loftus, E. F. (2019). Who is susceptible in three false memory tasks? *Memory*, 27(7), 962-984. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2019.1611862

Ost, J., Blank, H., Davies, J., Jones, G., Lambert, K., & Salmon, K. (2013). False Memory ≠ False Memory: DRM Errors Are Unrelated to the Misinformation Effect. *PLoS ONE*, 8(4), e57939. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057939

Paivio, A. (2007). *Mind and its evolution: a dual coding theoretical approach*. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates

Patihis, L., Frenda, S. J., & Loftus, E. F. (2018). False memory tasks do not reliably predict other false memories. *Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5*(2), 140-160. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000147

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*Imagination, Cognition and Personality*, 35(1), 26-46.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236615574488

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based on implicit activation mechanisms (DRM task) compared to suggestions prompting a
recollection of events and based on explicit mechanisms. To conclude, both kinds of false
memories may hinge on different encoding processes. Therefore, we must be particularly
attentive, as James Ost suggested, when we seek to identify memory errors like false memories.
Until proven otherwise, it should be clarified whether it is a DRM false memory or a
misinformation effect.

Several limitations of the present study need to be mentioned. First, we compared the imaging instruction effect with a between-subject design, which has precluded the analyses about relationships between both paradigms. We did not choose within-subject design because it requires a larger number of participants and it was not the objective of this pilot study. Moreover, a within-subject design would have likely increased the cognitive load, participants having to perform several successive memory tasks. In addition, it would be likely that the imaging instruction included in a task would have amplified its effect in a subsequent task. This restriction has limited the potential analyses. Second, our current sample size did not allow to detect our effect of interest with a satisfying power. Indeed, interaction effects require larger sample sizes in order to be tested, even when targeting medium to large effect sizes. Nevertheless, the current pilot study was crucial for setting the statistical models by shedding light on the patterns of data in these paradigms. Consequently, we will replicate this exploratory pilot work in future research. Our objective is i) to cross-check the data from two paradigms carried out independently in order to shed light on the processes involved in false memories first and ii) underline the methodological limits with a view to a more rigorous study. The aim is therefore to collect more data in the future with clean power analysis thanks to simulations based on the models we fitted in this study. We will also perform sequential analysis in order to optimize our sample size. Third, we used in each task different formats for the encoding and retrieval phases. Like in standard procedure, misinformation effect consisted to see a video
Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 21*, 803-814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803

Roediger, H. L., Watson, J. M., McDermott, K. B., & Gallo, D. A. (2001). Factors that determine false recall: A multiple regression analysis. *Psychonomic Bulletin & Review*, 8(3), 385-407. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196177

Stadler, M. A., Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1999a). Norms for word lists that create false memories. *Memory & Cognition, 27*(3), 494–500.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211543

Zhu, B., Chen, C., Loftus, E. F., Lin, C., & Dong, Q. (2013). The relationship between DRM and misinformation false memories. *Memory & Cognition, 41*(6), 832–838.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-013-0300-2

Total: 5 924 words

**Compliance with Ethical Standards**

The data has not been previously published, and it is not under simultaneous consideration by another journal. Research ethics were applied in accordance with the APA's ethical standards.

My coauthors and I do not have any interests that might be interpreted as influencing the research. Participants were fully informed of the current research, freely consented to participate and were able to withdraw whenever they wished.

**Open Practices**

Data (for frequentist and Bayesian analyses) and scripts for the Bayesian analyses have been made publicly available via the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/zsh3b/.
footage whereas DRM word lists were presented orally. The formats of recognition tests also varied: a forced-test choice and a confident scale on 5 points in misinformation task, while DRM used confident scale on 4 points. Future studies should distinguish between yes/no responses and confident scales in order that, all other things being equal, both paradigms should be comparable. Indeed, we want to underline that a significant result in a paradigm and a non-significant result in the other is not statistically sufficient (nor necessary) to conclude that the difference between the two paradigms is significant. We will need to make the paradigms statistically comparable in order to specifically test the difference between the two.

Considering these limitations, the results of this pilot study should be taken with caution.

Further research is needed to compare more rigorously, on a larger sample, the effect of visual vs. verbal information on false memories in these paradigms. Notably, with a within-subject design, it will be interesting to compare combined DRM picture-word lists with video footage misinformation. Dual coding (visual images plus verbal) does affect false memories in similar way in both paradigms.

Conclusion

In line to James Ost's works and his colleagues (DePrince, Allard, Oh, & Freyd, 2004; Pezdek & Lam, 2007), we may conclude that false memories refer to novel events that have never been experienced before (more often traumatic events like childhood sexual abuse), which are completely different from word lists memory errors. Misinformation paradigm remains likely closer to natural situations of testimonies, which are mostly based on visual and auditory details. Nevertheless, DRM may be considered as an interesting tool for the exploration of memory illusion, which is mnemonic dysfunctions in neurologic or psychiatric disorders (e.g. Korsakoff syndrome; schizophrenia; Alzheimer disease).

(6588 words including Tables and Figures)
## Compliance with Ethical Standards

The data has not been previously published, and it is not under simultaneous consideration by another journal. Research ethics were applied in accord with the APA ethical standards. My coauthors and I do not have any interests that might be interpreted as influencing the research. Participants were fully informed of the current research, freely consented to participate and were able to withdraw whenever they wished.

## Open Practices

Data (for frequentist and Bayesian analyses) and scripts for (Bayesian) analyses have been made publicly available via the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/zsh3b/.

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