# Geospatial Technologies: A Comprehensive Guide for Geographers

Jean Doumit

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# Geospatial Technologies:

A Comprehensive Guide for Geographers

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

Prof. Jean Doumit
2025
# Geospatial Technologies:
A Comprehensive Guide for Geographers

Prof. Jean Doumit
(2025)
Editor Jean Doumit

Lebanon, Fanar, Fouad Afram El Boustany BLDG,

LEBANESE UNIVERSITY, Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences, Branch 2, Geospatial Lab,
jeandoumit@gmail.com
## Acknowledgments

This book would not have been possible without the support and collaboration of many individuals, to whom I am deeply grateful. First and foremost, I want to express my heartfelt thanks to my colleagues in the Department of Geography at Lebanese University and the entire Geospatial Lab team. Your expertise, commitment, and camaraderie have been essential throughout this journey, and I feel fortunate to be part of such an inspiring academic community. I am incredibly thankful to my family for their unwavering support and encouragement, which has continuously motivated me. Their patience and belief in my work have made this project possible, and I profoundly appreciate their presence by my side. To everyone who contributed, whether through direct involvement or moral support, thank you for helping turn this book from an idea into reality.
Preface

In an age where geographic information profoundly shapes our understanding of the world, the importance of geospatial technologies has never been more pronounced. Geospatial Technologies: A Comprehensive Guide for Geographers seeks to illuminate the many ways these tools can enhance research, analysis, and decision-making within the field of geography. This book caters to aspiring and seasoned geographers eager to enhance their understanding of geospatial technologies. It covers various topics, from foundational concepts to advanced applications, ensuring readers develop a robust understanding of the subject. Each chapter explores various tools and techniques, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and spatial analysis. We are fortunate to have unprecedented access to geospatial data, which presents unique opportunities to explore complex environmental, social, and economic issues. However, with this wealth of information comes the responsibility to use it effectively and ethically. This guide addresses the technical aspects of geospatial technologies while emphasizing critical thinking and responsible data usage. I dedicate this book to my students who inspire curiosity and passion in studying geography. Through their enthusiasm and innovative ideas, they remind us of the importance of understanding our world and the interconnectedness of its systems. I hope this guide serves as a valuable resource for current and future geographers as they embark on their journeys of discovery and analysis.
Through their enthusiasm and innovative ideas, they remind us of the importance of understanding our world and the interconnectedness of its systems. I hope this guide is a valuable resource for current and future geographers as they embark on their journeys of discovery and analysis.

Through their enthusiasm and innovative ideas, they remind us of the importance of understanding our world and the interconnectedness of its systems. I hope this guide is a valuable resource for current and future geographers as they embark on their journeys of discovery and analysis.

May this guide serve as a valuable resource on your journey to understanding the world through the lens of geospatial technologies as you explore these chapters.

**Chapter 1:** Overview of Geographic Information Systems This chapter introduces several tools and techniques for gathering, evaluating, visualizing, and understanding spatial data. By mapping and examining the complex relationships between people, places, and phenomena, technologies like GIS and remote sensing enable geographers to address urgent global issues.

**Chapter 2:** Information Technology This multidisciplinary area combines geography and information technology. It focuses on gathering, evaluating, and managing geographical data. As technology advances, geoinformatics improves our comprehension and visualization of geographic phenomena, enabling specialists to tackle challenging spatial issues.

**Chapter 3:** Thinking Spatial Understanding and adjusting the connections between items and environments is a component of spatial thinking. This essential ability helps people efficiently visualize, evaluate, and comprehend spatial data, which improves decision-making and problem-solving in various domains.

**Chapter 4:** Acquisition of Geospatial Data This fundamental aspect of spatial analysis entails using techniques and technology to collect rich datasets. Gaining proficiency in data-gathering methods is crucial for tackling today's issues as the need for spatial data increases.

**Chapter 5:** Types of Geospatial Data Comprehending the many types of geospatial data, including vector, raster, and attribute data, is essential for practical analysis and decision-making.
Professionals can learn about intricate correlations and patterns thanks to each type's many
functions and applications.

**Chapter 6:** Software for GIS Anyone working with spatial data needs access to GIS software. Many options exist, from open-source substitutes like QGIS to commercial applications like ArcGIS. Gaining proficiency with these tools enables people to make well-informed decisions and interpret geographic data efficiently.

**Chapter 7:** Utilizing Digital Spatial Information covers the collection, processing, analysis, and visualization of digital geographical data and outlines essential ideas, techniques, and best practices. Professionals can gain essential insights that improve teamwork and decision-making by becoming proficient in these strategies.

**Chapter 8:** Digital Landscaping Using technology, digital landscaping enhances landscape management, analysis, and design. Experts may produce aesthetically beautiful and sustainable settings by combining data collection, GIS, 3D modeling, and visualization methods.

**Chapter 9:** Visualization of Geodata Geovisualization improves communication and comprehension of spatial information. Integrating sophisticated visualization tools with geospatial data empowers users to examine and interact with intricate geographic phenomena.

**Chapter 10:** Online Maps Web cartography uses contemporary technology to produce accessible and interactive maps. By emphasizing user experience and combining various data sources, we can better comprehend and interact with spatial data, which increases the possibility of creative mapping solutions.
Table of Contents

<table><tr><td>Chapter 1: Introduction to Geospatial Technologies.</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 2: Geoinformatics</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 3: Spatial Thinking</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 4: Geospatial data acquisition.</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 5: Geospatial Data Type</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 6: GIS Software</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 7: Working with Digital Spatial Data.</td><td>37</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 8: Digital Landscaping.</td><td>42</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 9: Geovisualization Introduction.</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 10: Web Cartography Web Mapping Systems.</td><td>51</td></tr></table>
# Chapter 1: Introduction to Geospatial Technologies.

When people ask me what I teach, I say “geospatial technology.” The usual response to this statement is a blank stare, a baffled “What? When I explain that I teach "technologies like GPS, taking images from satellites, and using online tools like Google Earth," people typically respond with "GPS is great," "Google Earth is so cool," or even "Why do I get the wrong directions from that thing in my car?" I hope that Introduction to Geospatial Technologies will help remedy this situation. This course aims to introduce geography students to several aspects of geospatial technologies. Geospatial Lab Applications: Each chapter in Introduction to Geospatial Technologies delves into a specific aspect of geospatial technology, accompanied by a Geospatial Lab Application.

* Google Earth

* NASA World Wind

* SAS planet

* GPS receivers

* QGIS

## 1. What Is Geospatial Technology?

Today, numerous fields utilize "geospatial technology." While terms such as "satellite images" or "Google Earth" and acronyms like "GIS" or "GPS" are becoming more common, the term "geospatial technology" remains relatively unknown. Geospatial technology describes using several high-tech systems and tools that acquire, analyze, manage, store, or visualize various types of location-based data (spatial data). Geospatial technology encompasses various fields and techniques, such as:

* Geographic Information System (GIS) involves computer-based mapping, analyzing, and retrieving location-based data.

* Remote sensing refers to acquiring data and imagery from satellites (satellite imagery) or aircraft (aerial photography).

* GPS Satellites in Earth's orbit provide real-time location information through the Global Positioning System (GPS).

## 2. Who Uses Geospatial Technology?

Various fields utilize geospatial technology, such as state and local government, forestry, law enforcement, public health, biology, and environmental studies. Geospatial technology quickly and efficiently renders archeological techniques such as pinpointing the location of artifacts uncovered on a dig, constructing a map of the area, and searching for patterns on the site. Archeologists can utilize historical maps, aerial photography or satellite imagery, and location information.

City Planning: Urban planners manage utilities, wastewater, green space, traffic, roads, zoning, and housing. Environmental Monitoring Geospatial technology can track and assess processes
that affect the Earth’s environment in various ways. This includes information about land use
change, pollution, air quality, water quality, and global temperature levels. Forestry geospatial
technology can aid in forest monitoring, management, and protection. It can model animal
habitats and the pressures placed upon them, examine the spatial dimensions of forest
fragmentation and manage fires. Homeland Security Geospatial technology is critical to
examining vulnerable areas of homeland security. Risk assessment, etc.

Current satellite imagery and location-based capabilities can significantly enhance current satellite imagery and location-based recovery efforts.

Law Enforcement GIS can plot the locations of various types of crimes. Law enforcement officials can use this information to analyze patterns and determine potential new crime areas. Health and Human Services: Geospatial technology serves various health-related functions, including disease monitoring, source tracking, and mapping health-related issues like the spread of COVID-19.

Real estate: Through geospatial technology, realtors (and home buyers and sellers) can create and examine maps of homes and quickly compare the housing prices and values of nearby or similar properties.

What is geospatial data?

Geospatial data (also called spatial data) refers to location-based data at the heart of geospatial
technology applications. Geospatial data items are tied to a specific real-world location, while
non-spatial data (such as tabular data) are not directly linked to a spatial location.

What Is Google Earth?

An example of a widespread geospatial technology application is the popular Google Earth software program. Google Earth is a virtual globe—a program that provides an interactive three-dimensional (3D) representation of the Earth.

What Does All This Have to Do with Geography?

Geography deals with concepts of the spatial characteristics of our planet and the spatial relationships and interactions of the people and features that populate it. Today, the use of geospatial information is tightly interwoven with the discipline of geography. Courses in GIS, remote sensing, GPS, and various applications of these technologies are critical components of a geography curriculum at the higher education level. Certificate programs in Geographic Information Science (GISci) or Geospatial Technologies are becoming increasingly common in colleges and universities. Geospatial degree programs at the bachelor's, master's, or doctoral level have been developed at numerous universities.

3. Introduction to Geospatial Concepts and Google Earth.

This chapter's Geospatial Lab Application will introduce you to some basic concepts of geospatial technology using the Google Earth software program. This lab also introduces you to Google Earth and will help you familiarize yourself with its features. However, the Geospatial
Lab Applications in later chapters will use a variety of software packages. Finding Your Way Around with Google Earth

* Using Google Earth to Examine Landscapes

* Using Google Earth to Save Imagery

* Using Google Earth to Make Placemarks and Measurements

* Using Google Earth to Examine Coordinates.
# Chapter 2: Geoinformatics

## 1. What is geoinformatics?

Geoinformatics is a crucial technology for decision-makers in various fields, businesses, and organizations. Thanks to it, they can obtain, process, analyze, visualize, and generate outputs. Geo (Earth) and informatics (the science of information processing) make up geoinformatics. Geoinformatics is the combination of informatics and earth sciences. It uses information technology to collect, analyze, store, retrieve, represent, and disseminate information about the Earth. Geoinformatics integrates three disciplines: photogrammetry, remote sensing, and geographic information systems. Another term, 'geomatics,' was first used in Canada at Laval University in the early 1980s to describe the abovementioned disciplines. The Geomatics Industry Association of Canada (GIAC) defines geomatics "as a technology and service sector focusing on the acquisition, storage, analysis, dissemination, and management of geographically referenced information for improved decision-making." Geomatics is more commonly used in North America, whereas geoinformatics seems more popular in Europe.

## 2. Components of Geoinformatics

Geoinformatics encompasses various disciplines, including surveying and mapping, remote sensing, geographical information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), geodesy, and computer science.

Various components of geoinformatics are the following:

* Computer Science

* Geodesy

* Cartography

* Photogrammetry

* Remote Sensing (RS)

* Global Positioning System (GPS)

* Geographic Information System (GIS)

**Computer Science** As a discipline, informatics comprises computer technologies, i.e., hardware and software. The application and usage of computer science in geoinformatics go together. You will come across various aspects of the application of computer science to geoinformatics, such as acquisition, processing, product generation, data visualization, dissemination, etc.

Geodesy is the discipline that deals with measuring and representing the Earth. It is defined as the science concerned with studying the shape and area of the Earth through its two branches: gravimetry and positioning astronomy.
Gravimetry determines the Earth's gravity and anomalies, and gravity determines its shape. Positioning astronomy determines the position of the points on the globe through observing stars and artificial satellites.

Cartography is generally considered the science and art of designing, constructing, and producing maps.

Photogrammetry is the technology developed to determine the geometric properties of objects from their photographic images. It is concerned with measuring the position and shape of objects using photographs. Photogrammetry is helpful in various fields, including topographic mapping, architecture, engineering, manufacturing, quality control, police investigation, and geology.

Archeologists use photogrammetry to produce plans of large or complex sites. Meteorologists use it to determine the actual wind speed of a tornado in places where objective weather data cannot be obtained. In movie.

**Remote Sensing:** Remote sensing is data collection about an object from a distance. Scientists use this technique to monitor or measure the phenomena of Earth's lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

**Global Positioning System:** Real-world applications of GPS fall into the following five broad categories:

* Location: determining an essential position.

* Navigation: getting from one location to another.

* Tracking: monitoring the movement of people, animals, and goods.

* Mapping: creating maps of the world.

One of the applications of GPS that is gaining momentum is Location-Based Services (LBS).

**Geographic Information Systems (GIS)** integrate hardware, software, and data to capture, manage, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS has been defined based on its different aspects, namely, the tools, the organization, and the spatial database. GIS = You are using GIS to help with task examples, such as "Hydrology." GI Sciences improves the capability of the computer to solve a geographic problem or answer a geographic question. Some think GI Science is a GIS engineer in development and design.

Some advantages of geoinformatics are listed below:

* can acquire geospatial data in a timely and cost-effective manner.

* can provide synoptic views and multi-date information of an area in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

* it helps collect data on an area without disturbing or destroying it.
* it can answer where, when, what, and why scenarios, which is impossible with any other software system.

* it assists in predicting events/outcomes based on multi-criteria analyses.

* it helps visualize the scenarios under a given situation and its consequences.

* It helps to create a comprehensive solution to a problem to arrive at an appropriate decision or solution.

* It assists in planning strategies and is especially useful in cases where disastrous events demand quick decision-making.

### 3. The evolution of geoinformatics as a multidisciplinary discipline

Geoinformatics is multidisciplinary by nature. You have already read that it integrates methodologies from computer science, geodesy, geography, cartography, remote sensing, GIS, GPS, digital image processing, artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, etc., to understand Earth's features and processes and solve its problems. Using geoinformatics, we can study Earth's surface features, such as human settlement, road networks, water bodies, forests, wildlife, and demography. After reading the above sections, you will agree that the complexity of geoinformatics technologies depends on the skills of other disciplines.

### 4. Applications of geoinformatics technologies

applications of geoinformatics have increased multifold for a range of applications related to emergency services, public health and epidemiology, transportation and infrastructure, mineral exploration, urban planning and land use management, in-car navigation systems, environmental modeling and analysis, military, agriculture, meteorology, climate change, oceanography and atmosphere modeling, business location planning, telecommunications, crime mapping, Animal migration, habitat destruction and biodiversity. Geoinformatics products Geoinformatics encompasses various applications, mapping agencies, satellite images, and service providers, all involving combining digital maps and georeferenced data.

Results of geospatial analysis are presented in different forms, known as geoinformatics products. The products include tabular text data, thematic maps, animations, information systems, spatial decision support systems, etc.

### 5. Geoinformatics output

* Cartographic products

* non-cartographic products

Cartographic outputs include hard and soft copy maps prepared to adhere to cartographic conventions. Complex copy maps can be printed from a GIS system using a simple printing machine or a complex system like a plotter. Non-cartographic outputs include map models such as Digital Elevation Models (DEM) and information systems, primarily used for visualization. An information system is a set of written, electronic, or graphical communication methods.
# Chapter 3: Spatial Thinking

## 1. Spatial Thinking

The Analytical Skills of the Geography Primary goals of studying geographical conditions at places: why people act the way they do and Connections between places 8 Modes of Spatial Thinking, Comparison, Aura, Region, Transition, Hierarchy, Analog, Pattern, Association.

### Spatial Comparison

Are places the same or different?

Does one place have more or less than another place?

What places are higher (mountainous), more significant, wetter, drier, nicer, colder, or safer?

### Spatial Aura: Finding places with an influence over this place, how does this place influence other places?

How does a significant city influence nearby places?

### Spatial Region: Putting similar places together in a group. What places are near each other and alike (with similar conditions)?

### Spatial Transition Arranging places in a sequence How do conditions change as we move along a journey? Is the change gradual, or is the change abrupt?

### Spatial Hierarchy: Is a place a part of something larger?

Putting small places inside prominent places, Moscow is inside Russia; Russia is inside Eurasia. Spatial Analogy identifies places in similar positions. What features or conditions occur in similar positions?

Do they have other features in common?

### Spatial Pattern noting alignments, arcs, clusters, rings, and other arrangements that are not random. Are features arranged in a line or a cluster?

Are features spread out evenly vs. randomly?

Are features spread out balanced or unbalanced, with more on one side?

### Spatial Association noting features that occur together (in the same places): What features or conditions arise together?

Why do they occur together?

## 2. Spatio-Temporal Dimensions

### Change: How has this place changed over time?

### Movement: How do things change position through time?
**Diffusion:** How has something expanded through time?

**Building Spatial Models:** A scientific statement of how things might be related to space.

Usually, it involves applying several spatial thinking skills to different aspects of a big problem.

**Long-distance connections:** Things that happen in 1 part of the world can affect other places.

**Spatial Model:** What processes allow conditions or events in one place to affect other areas, perhaps far away? **Exceptions:** Where are the places things do not "follow a rule" observed elsewhere?
# Chapter 4: Geospatial data acquisition.

## 1. Data collection

Data collection is one of the most time-consuming, expensive, yet important tasks associated with geospatial analysis. Many geospatial data sources and methods are available for entering them into a geographical system. The two primary data collection methods are

* data capture (direct measurement).

* Data transfer (derivation from other sources).

It is helpful to distinguish between primary (direct measurement) and secondary (derivation from other sources) data capture for both raster and vector data types. Data transfer involves importing digital data from scanners, geo-portals, etc. Data capture includes:

* Remote sensing measures objects' physical, chemical, and biological properties without direct contact.

* Ground surveying is based on the principle that the 3-D location of any point can be determined by surveying instruments (GPS or Total Stations).

* Photogrammetry is used to capture measurements from photographs and other image sources.

### Global Positioning System (GPS).

GPS receivers have become so widespread that they seem to be used everywhere. In-car navigation systems have become standard. GPS equipment is common at sporting events and used by campers, hikers, fishing enthusiasts, and golfers. GPS, the Global Positioning System, uses satellite signals to navigate and determine positions on Earth. Smartphones often have GPS capability as a standard function. GPS use is free for everyone and available worldwide.

### Who Made GPS?

The term “GPS” originated with the initial designers and developers of the setup, the U.S. Department of Defense, and is part of the official name of the system, called NAVSTAR GPS. Other countries besides the United States have developed or are engaged in developing systems like the NAVSTAR GPS; since the United States isn’t the only nation with this technology, the more accurate way of describing things would be the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).

### What Does the Global Positioning System Consist of?

#### Space Segment

Numerous GPS satellites orbit Earth in fixed paths, which make up the space segment. The constellation's design allows people to receive enough GPS signals to find their location anywhere.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

## Control Segment

GPS control segments represent worldwide ground stations that track and monitor the signals transmitted by satellites. These ground stations are spread out to enable continuous monitoring of the satellites.

## User Segment

The user segment represents a GPS unit on Earth receiving satellite signals. The receiver can then use this information to compute its position on the Earth. A vital component of a GPS receiver is its number of channels—the number of channels reflects the number of satellites the receiver can obtain signals from at one time.

Thus, a 12-channel receiver can pick up signals from up to 12 satellites. The unit affects which frequency it can receive—either a single-frequency receiver (which can pick up the L1 frequency) or a dual-frequency model (which can read both L1 and L2).

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

## How GPS Works?

* Accurate Timing

* Satellite Positioning

* Satellite Distance Ranging

* Trilateration

* Error Correction
## How GPS Works 3D?

24+ operational satellites located in 6 orbital planes. To determine position signals from at least four satellites are needed if no other information is available.

Accurate Timing Ensures accurate calculation of distance atomic clocks on each satellite are accurate to the nanosecond (one billionth of a second) 0.000000001 second (1.0 x 10⁻⁹ sec) –

* use the resonance frequencies of atoms

* -e.g., an atom of cesium resonates at an exact frequency

## Satellite Positioning

The satellites must know where they are. Radar from the ground station constantly checks each satellite to monitor changes in orbit

## Satellite Ranging

Measuring the distance from the satellites to the receiver D = STD is the Distance between the satellite and the receiver. S is the Speed of signal: 299 792 458 m / s (in vacuum), T is the Time it takes for the signal to be sent and received.

## How Does GPS Find Your Position?

The signals sent from the satellites are the key to the whole process—the signals contain information about the satellite's status, orbit, and location (called the almanac) that's sending them and more precise data about satellite location (this information is called the ephemeris). The signals are transmitted from space using high-frequency radio waves (the L1 and L2 carrier frequencies). If you know how long the transmission time (t) was and that the radio waves are moving at the speed of light (c), then the distance between you and that one satellite can be calculated by multiplying t by c. This result will give you the pseudo-range (or distance) between your receiver and the satellite transmitting the signal.

## Why isn't GPS perfectly accurate?

If GPS can find a location on Earth's surface, the next question is, “Just how accurate is GPS?” Using pseudo-range measurements from four satellites, the system should only give the user one accurately measured location.

## How Can You Get Better Accuracy from GPS?

What Other GNSS Are There Beyond GPS? GLONASS was the Russian counterpart to GPS and operated similarly. Galileo is the European Union's version of GPS, which, when completed, is projected to have a constellation of 30 satellites and operate similarly to GPS.

*Beidou—an SBAS operating in China*

*GAGAN—an SBAS in development for India*
IRNSS—an Indian satellite navigation system consisting of seven satellites in development.
QZSS—an expanded SBAS based in Japan that is in development.

What Are Some Applications of GPS?

Emergency Response: When you call the police, firefighters, or ambulances, the call center can fix your location and route emergency services to your location.

Farming Precision farming relies on accurate location data about watering levels, crops, or soils. The ability to map this data gives farmers information about what areas need attention. Transportation GPS provides a means of continuously tracking travel, whether on the road, in the water, or in the air. Since GPS receivers can constantly receive signals from satellites, travel progress can be monitored to ensure you stay on track.

Wildlife Management Similarly, to track a vehicle, wildlife, and endangered species, they can be tagged with a GPS receiver that monitors their location and transmits it to a source capable of tracking their movements. In this way, animal migration patterns can be determined, and patterns of wildlife movements can be observed. Vehicle Navigation Hiking Aids for Visually Impaired Disaster Relief Autonomous Vehicles Cartography Cellular Telephony Clock Synchronization Geofencing: Tracking Geotagging Mining Robotics Sports Surveying Tectonics Military Applications GPS accuracy Under ideal conditions ~3 meters Error can increase to ~10 meters Sources of error: Atmospheric interference Multipath error (interference from ground or artificial structures) Clock Timing Number of Satellites in View Satellite Geometry Behavior of Signal Under Canopy

Issues of Precision

Clock Timing Clocks running fast or slow can affect distance calculation. Ground stations control them. – Special Relativity Clocks will tick at different speeds due to gravitational changes Atmospheric Effects The assumption is the speed of light in a vacuum Reality: travels through gases in the atmosphere More atmosphere, more delay Atmospheric “Elevation Mask” Error under certain geometric situations good range fix Poor range fix Multipath Correct for by using quality antennas that block signals from incorrect angles

Smartphone versus. GPS Units

Low-end GPS receivers have been replaced with smart devices. Smartphone technology has a consumer-grade GPS receiver-assisted Global positioning system (AGPS) that your smartphone uses to ping cell towers for triangulation to geolocate. At least 3+ cell towers should be visible from your phone so your phone company can locate where you are.

The accuracy will depend on the strength of your phone and the cell tower. Professional-grade precision GPS units have a much higher degree of accuracy. Smartphones currently cannot replace professional GPS

Geospatial Data

* Primary data – collected in digital format specifically for GIS Example of primary GIS data used by a Ski Resort… GIS database showing the number of passes purchased at
each ski lift GIS database showing the GPS locations of avalanches recorded by ski patrol
Meteorological data collected by ski patrol in a geodatabase

* Secondary data – data that must be adapted for a GIS Example: Data used by a Ski Resort... Historical topographic paper maps provided by local historian Meteorological maps published as a jpg without spatial referencing

## Data Dimensions

All data have three “modes” or “dimensions” Temporal – when data were collected, Thematic – descriptive information about data, Spatial location of the observed feature. GIS data must have a mathematical spatial reference (e.g., coordinates) to locate the position of the feature

Where do Geospatial data come from?

Remote Sensing Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) Digitization Where can I find GIS data?? ArcGIS Online: a web portal for working with maps and other kinds of DataBase maps: non-editable background maps Groups: can collaborate, discuss, and share work Operational Layers: layers the user can manipulate Mashup: layers of info from different sources Layer package captures the data, symbology, and other specific authored properties Earth Explorer GeoPlatform

## Methods of data entry

1. Transfer of data from existing digital sources

2. Manual digitizing and scanning of maps

3. Image data input and conversion to a GIS (aerial photography, satellite imagery)

4. Direct data entry: GPS Chapter
# Chapter 5: Geospatial data type

## 1. Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

The earliest geographical systems were based on very simple data models derived from work in CAD (computer-aided design), computer cartography, and image analysis.

In a CAD system, real-world entities are represented symbolically as simple point, line, and area vectors. This basic CAD data model never became widely popular for geospatial applications because of three severe problems for most applications at geographic scales.

* First, CAD models typically represent objects using local drawing coordinates instead of real-world coordinates.

* Second, because individual objects do not have unique identifiers, it is difficult to tag them with attributes, which is a key requirement for geospatial applications.

* Third, because CAD data models focus on the graphical representation of objects, they cannot store details of any relationships between objects (e.g., topology or networks).

## 2. Spatial Data Models

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

* The Vector Data Model is better for displaying discrete objects.

* The Raster Data Model is used to display continuous data.

### Vector Feature Types

* Points: A combination of two numbers [X-Y or Lat-Long] representing locations with zero dimensions.

e.g., Wells, crime scenes, cities, electric pole

* lines: the shortest distance connecting 2 points—lines have a beginning and an ending point, and therefore, a left and right side. Lines may also have vertices between the beginning and ending points and are represented as X-Y coordinate pair strings.

e.g., Roads, Streams, Pipelines, Shorelines.

* Polygons: A set of points connected by line segments that close back to the first vertex, represented by a closed loop of X-Y coordinate pairs. By definition, a polygon cannot contain intersections. e.g., lakes, building footprints, and census tracts.
## Points

An explicit *x* represents a point, and *y* coordinates in vector format, but as a raster, it is represented as a single cell—the smallest raster unit.

By definition, a point has no area but is converted to a cell representing area. Therefore, the smaller the cell size, the smaller the area, and thus, the closer the representation of the point feature.

For example, it is assumed that a well, a telephone pole, or the location of an endangered plant occupies the entire area covered by a cell.

## Lines

In vector format, a line is an ordered list of *x* and *y* coordinates, but in raster format, it is represented as a chain of spatially connected cells with the same value.

## Polygon

* A vector polygon is an enclosed area defined by an ordered list of *x* and *y* coordinates in which the first and last coordinates represent the same area. By contrast, a raster polygon is a group of contiguous cells with the same value that most accurately portrays the shape of the area.

* Polygonal, or area, data best represents a series of connected cells. Polygonal features include buildings, ponds, soils, forests, swamps, and fields.

## Vector Data Manipulation

### OGR (OGR Simple Features Library)

* Reads ~60 vector data formats, writes to ~30

* common formats supported

* ESRI Shapefile (read/write)

* ESRI Personal GeoDatabase (read-only)

* ArcInfo Binary Coverage (read-only)

* GML, KML (read/write)

* Spatial Databases (PostGIS, Informix, SQL Server—all r/w) ■ Command-line utilities ogrinfo, ogr2ogr, ogrtindex

When copying a shapefile, you need to move all files with the same prefix to their new location for the shapefile to function properly. Shapefile files (with extensions such as.shp, .shx, and.dbf) comprise one vector data layer.

### What is raster data?

In its simplest form, a raster consists of a matrix of cells (or pixels) organized into rows and columns (or a grid). Each cell contains a value representing information, such as temperature. Examples of raster's are:

* digital aerial photographs,
* satellite imagery,

* digital pictures,

* and scanned maps.

## Raster Data Model:

The raster data model uses an array of cells, or pixels, to represent real-world objects; the cells can hold attribute values based on one of several encoding schemes, including categories and integer and floating-point numbers. Raster data are usually stored as an array of grid values with metadata. Typical metadata includes the geographic coordinate of the upper-left corner of the grid, the cell size, the number of row and column elements, and the projection. One of the most common forms of raster data comes from remote sensing and photogrammetry. The grid cells of the raster data model. Raster representation. Each color represents a different nominal-scale variable value denoting land cover class.

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

## Raster Data Manipulation

* GDAL (Geospatial Data Abstraction Layer)

* Translator library for raster GIS data formats

* Reads over 120 raster data formats and writes to ~60

* Common formats supported

* GeoTIFF (read/write)

* ArcInfo binary grid (read-only)

* ArcInfo ASCII grid (read/write)

* ENVI and ESRI. hdr labeled (read/write BSQ/BIP/BIL)

## Discrete versus continuous data

Discrete data, sometimes called categorical data, most often represents objects. It is easy to define precisely where the object begins and where it ends. These objects usually belong to a class (for example, rock type), a category (for example, land-use type), or a group (for example, Cambrian rocks). A categorical object has known and definable boundaries. Ordinal or nominal numbers best represent discrete data.

A continuous dataset or surface can be represented by a raster with floating-point values (referred to as a floating-point raster dataset) or integer values. The value for each cell in the dataset is based on a fixed point (such as sea level), a compass direction, or the distance of
each location from a phenomenon in a specified measurement system (such as the noise in decibels at various sites near an airport).

Examples of continuous surfaces are elevation, aspect, slope, the radiation levels from a nuclear plant, and the salt concentration from a salt marsh as it moves inland.

Continuous data is best represented by ratio and interval values.

Often, meaningless results occur when combining discrete and continuous data, for instance, adding land use (discrete data) to elevation (continuous data). A value of 104 on the resulting raster dataset could have been derived from adding a single-family housing land use type, with a value of "4," to an elevation of 100.

Raster data is more commonly used for continuous data.

## Progressively varying continuous data

Another type of continuous surface includes phenomena that progressively vary as they move across a surface from a source (e.g., fluid and air movement).

These surfaces are characterized by the type or way the phenomenon moves. The first type of movement is through diffusion or any other locomotion, in which the phenomenon moves from areas with high concentration to those with less concentration until the concentration level evens out.

Surface characteristics of this type of movement include salt concentration moving through either the ground or water, contamination level moving away from a hazardous spill or a nuclear reactor, and heat from a forest fire. There must be a source in this type of continuous surface. The concentration is always greater near the source and diminishes as a function of distance and the medium through which the substance moves.

## Discrete or continuous?

When representing and modeling many features, the boundaries are not continuous or discrete. A continuum is created to represent geographic features, with the extremes being pure discrete and pure continuous features.

Most features fall somewhere between the extremes. Soil types, forest edges, and wetland boundaries fall along the continuum.

When making decisions based on the resulting values, it is important to understand the data type you are modeling, whether continuous or discrete. The exact site for a building should not be solely based on the soil map. The square area of a forest cannot be the primary factor when determining available deer habitat. The validity and accuracy of the boundaries of the input data must be understood.

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

### Resolution and Cell Size

#### Smaller cell Size

* Higher resolution

* Higher feature
* Slower display

* Slower processing

* Larger file size

## Larger cell size

* Lower resolution

* Lower feature spatial accuracy

* Faster display

* Faster processing

* Smaller file size

* Resolution and Cell Size

## Raster Data Formats

Grid Cell Width = 30 m

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

Grid Cell Width = 300 m

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

* GRID is ESRI's proprietary format for storing and processing raster data.

* Standard industry formats for image data, such as JPEG, TIFF, and MrSID, can display raster data but not for analysis (you must convert to GRID).

* Georeferencing information is required to display images with mapped vector data.

* Requires an accompanying “world” file which provides locational information

### Why store data as a raster?

Sometimes, you cannot store your data as a vector or raster; for example, imagery is only available as a raster.

The advantages of storing your data as a raster are:

* a simple data structure: a matrix of cells with values representing a coordinate and sometimes linked to an attribute table.

* a powerful format for advanced spatial and statistical analysis.

* the ability to represent dense, continuous surfaces and to perform surface analysis.

* the ability to uniformly store points, lines, polygons, and surfaces.

* the ability to perform fast overlays with complex datasets.

### How Can You Represent the Real World as Continuous Fields?

The three vector objects (point, line, and polygon) are often not the best data representations when representing these continuous fields. Instead, a different conceptualization, the raster
data model, is usually used. This model represents data with equally spaced and sized grid
cells.

Raster vs. Vector

Raster is faster, but raster is vaster, and vector seems correct.

Objects and attributes:

The object in geospatial data stores the geometry of the spatial phenomenon being modeled.
The attribute stores the descriptive information related to the object part of the geospatial
data model.

The power of GIS lies not only in the pretty maps it can make but also in the quality and
amount of attribute data behind the map.

The referenced attributes can be used to:

Drive thematic displays, perform spatial analyses, derive new data,

How Is Non-Spatial Data Handled by GIS?

Each layer in the GIS has an associated attribute table that stores additional information
about the features that make up that layer. The attribute table is like a spreadsheet where
each object is stored as a record (a row), and the information associated with the records—
the attributes—is stored as fields (columns).

Geographic data can be divided into geometric data and attribute data.

Attribute data can, in turn, be subdivided into qualitative and quantitative data.

Type of attribute data

1. Nominal or named: names objects but does not allow comparisons between the different objects. Examples: Types of trees: maple, ash, oak, and pine trees. Names of Cities: Fargo, Orlando, Oklahoma City, Denver, Sacramento

2. Ordinal: classification based on a single spectrum representing a single set of circumstances. Examples: Trees provide a comfortable picnic setting: Pine - Fair Ash - Good Maple - Excellent

3. Interval: Numbers are assigned to the items measured; data can be compared with more precise estimates than the ordinal level; arbitrary starting point; not performing meaningful ratio operations. Examples: Soil temperatures in Fahrenheit across a study area with different soil types. The yearly average daytime temperature of each city in Fahrenheit

4. Ratio: Numbers are assigned to the items measured, the actual starting point; it is possible to perform meaningful ratio operations. When representing attribute data in GIS, these values can take one of four forms: Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data. Examples: Income data Yearly average daytime temperature in Celsius
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

The ratio scale is the only one that allows direct comparisons, or ratios, between values.
$50,000 in income is twice as much as $25,000. Measurement levels for cartographic objects.
Point, line, area, and surface features at the nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio levels.

## Field Types

### 1. Short Integer

2 bytes (28 per byte times 2 bytes = 65,536) Note the highest value is NOT 65,536 The RANGE of values is +/- 32767, and 0

### 2. Long Integer

4 bytes (28 per byte times 4 bytes = 4,294,967,296) Minimum and Maximum are HALF of that number. The RANGE of values is +/- 2,147,483,647, and 0.

## The Paper Map

Paper maps have long been a powerful and effective means of communicating geographic information. In a paper map, part of the world is scaled to fit the size of the paper; a key property of a paper map is its scale or representative fraction, defined as the ratio of distance on the map to distance on the Earth's surface. For example, a map with a scale of 1:24,000 reduces everything on the Earth to one-24,000th of its real size. This is misleading because the Earth's surface is curved, and a paper map is flat, so the scale cannot be constant.

A paper map is a source of data production for geospatial databases.

### Geospatial data production methods (data capture)

Instruments for Digitization, or numerization, is the operation that turns the data on hardcopy into numerical data with digitizers: manual vector digitizers. Automatic scanning raster digitizers.

Heads-down digitizing tablets are used to digitize hard copy maps into GIS and transform wire intersections into coordinates of the tablet's coordinate system. They comprise three main elements:

* a plain surface (table) where the map lies.

* pointing and acquisition device (cursor).

* interface connecting to a computer.

The table is constituted by a plastic support over which a grid of linear conductors, run through by electric power, is overlaid; the cursor indicates a solenoid whose center is represented by the pointing cross that defines its position regarding the absolute reference that is the table. An appropriate interface transfers the position information to the computer that records it. Before performing this acquisition, the operator must orient the map, namely
defining the planar roto-translation parameters with a four-parameter scale variation (most
common transformation) to make the table coordinates (X, Y) coincide with the cartographic
coordinates (E, N). This operation requires identifying at least two control points on the map,
their acquisition, and assigning the corresponding cartographic coordinates. The number of
points to be used in this phase (possibly belonging to the frame) is defined in the lists of rules
and the highest residual differences acceptable after the orientation (generally < 0.3 graphical
mm).

Raster Scanners:

A scanner is an automatic digitization system for which numerical data are expressed as a
matrix, like in a digital image, and not as an archive of coded coordinates or vector mode.
The resolution of the scanned image is measured in dpi (dots per inch); the instruments on
the market perform resolutions variable between 300 and 4000 dpi corresponding to cells' A
sampling device (analogical/digital converter) must proceed to the transformation at the end
of the digitization. This can be performed according to different modes:

* binary digitization: The recorded signal is represented by one bit only, determining the assignment of a value between 0 and 1 to each cell of the image matrix.

* Grey tone digitization: the signal is represented by a higher number of bits (4, 8, 12) to ensure an image of several degrading gray tones depending on the number of bits employed.

* Color digitization: Color images can be generated through 8-bit single scanning followed by the assignment of a codified RGB palette or by a scanning process characterized by separated RGB bands (24 bits) to be reconstructed in additive synthesis.
# Chapter 6: GIS Software

## 1. Geographic Information System

The Geographic Information System (GIS) forms the backbone of numerous daily applications that businesses and individual users encounter. A GIS combines geographic data (geospatial data per location) with further tabular-form location information (attribute data). It provides a detailed representation of the characteristics of a particular 'spatial' complex. GIS forms the framework for organizations to create maps of various locations globally, perform spatial analytics at places, and provide tools for data collaboration through in-built statistical tools. GIS software helps businesses solve complicated geospatial problems, provides ecological and process sustainability insight on specific locations, predicts and derives value from trend analytics, and integrates various data types.

## 2. Types of GIS Software

The most important types of GIS software, which help extract value from geospatial information, are as follows:

**Desktop GIS**—One of the most fundamental types of GIS software, desktop GIS is used to create, analyze, extrapolate, label, and share geographic data through maps and other tools.

**Web GIS**—These GIS software solutions use an internet browser to help users connect with a GIS system over the internet and solve queries and problems remotely.

**Server GIS**—The spatial database is a chief example of server GIS, used primarily in complicated, wide-ranging, and information-heavy mapping efforts.

**What is open-source software?**

Normally, software is licensed and proprietary. Open-source software is licensed so that everyone can use it, copy it, study it, edit it, and access the source code.

Generally, users are encouraged to improve the design and functionality of the software voluntarily.

Proprietary software or commercial software is software licensed so that the source code is not available; use is restricted in some way:

* Limiting the number of computers on which it can be installed

* Limiting the period in which the software can be used.

* Limiting the amount of data that can be processed.

* Limiting the number of features available.

* Limiting the fields of endeavor: educational and non-commercial.

Therefore, we had to create accounts to use our Esri ArcGIS Pro or ArcGIS Online software. The university pays for your access to this proprietary software.
## Free Software (FS)

Richard Stallman conceived the free software movement in 1983 to benefit computer users from "software freedom."

Stallman founded the Free Software Foundation in 1985 to provide the organizational structure to advance his Free Software ideas. "Free" refers to the freedom to copy and re-use the software rather than its financial cost. The Four Kinds of Freedom (for software users) is:

1. the freedom to run the program for any purpose.

2. The freedom to study how the program works and adapt it to your needs.

3. The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor.

4. The freedom to improve the program and release your improvements to the public so the whole community benefits.

## Open-source software (OSS)

was coined by Eric Raymond in 1998, who thought the term "free" would be misunderstood. The source code and other rights usually reserved for copyright holders are provided under a software license that meets the Open-Source Definition or is in the public domain. This license permits users to use, change, and improve the software and to redistribute it in modified or unmodified forms.

## Open-source software vs. free software

Open-source software and free software are different terms for software that gives the user certain rights or freedoms. They describe two approaches and philosophies towards free software. Most open-source software is "free," and most free software is "open source." Other Related Terms:

**Freeware:** software available at no monetary cost. It is considered neither free nor open-source software.

**Source Available/Shared Source:** The source is available for viewing, but it may not legally be modified or redistributed. Microsoft has used it.

**Closed Source:** Most proprietary software.

## FOSS-Free Open-Source Software

### Software Examples: FOSS vs. Proprietary

<table><thead><tr><th>FOSS</th><th>Proprietary</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Operating Systems</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Linux</td><td>Windows / Mac</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Mobile Operating Systems</strong></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Android</td><td>iOS / Windows Mobile</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Office Software</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Open Office</td><td>Microsoft Office</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Image Manipulation</strong></td></tr><tr><td>GIMP</td><td>Adobe Photoshop</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Vector Drawing</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Inkscape</td><td>Adobe Illustrator</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Web Browsers</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Chrome/FireFox</td><td>Internet Explorer</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Web Servers</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Apache</td><td>IIS</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Databases</strong></td></tr><tr><td>mySQL</td><td>Oracle</td></tr><tr><td>PostgreSQL</td><td>SQL Server</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Statistics</strong></td></tr><tr><td>R</td><td>S</td></tr></table>

GIS Software Examples: FOSS vs. Proprietary

<table><thead><tr><th>FOSS</th><th>Proprietary</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>GeoSpatial Desktop</strong></td></tr><tr><td><strong>QGIS</strong></td><td>ArcGIS</td></tr><tr><td>MapWindow</td><td>MapInfo</td></tr><tr><td>gvSIG</td><td>Manifold GIS</td></tr><tr><td>GRASS GIS</td><td>IDRISI</td></tr><tr><td>uDig</td><td>Intergraph</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th colspan="2">Field GIS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>BeeGIS / Geopaparazzi</td><td>ArcPAD</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Remote Sensing</th></tr><tr><td>OSSIM</td><td>ERDAS</td></tr><tr><td>GRASS GIS</td><td>ENVI</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Web Mapping</th></tr><tr><td>MapServer</td><td>ArcIMS</td></tr><tr><td>MapGuide</td><td>MapGuide</td></tr><tr><td>GeoServer</td><td>ArcGIS Server</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Spatial Databases</th></tr><tr><td>SpatiaLite</td><td>ESRI File Geodatabase</td></tr><tr><td>PostGIS</td><td>ArcSDE</td></tr></tbody></table>

Why Use Open Source for GIS?

It is free to try.

GIS is a tool, so why not have a full toolbox? Learn a new skill set to increase your marketability. Eliminate licensing fees. QGIS will run on multiple operating systems. You can have more direct involvement in software development.

The Open-Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGeo) non-profit was formed in 2006.

The goal is to support and build the best open-source geospatial tools.

Provides financial, organizational, and legal support to the broader Free and Open-Source geospatial community.

It is an independent legal entity to which community members can contribute code, funding, and other resources.

Maintains these contributions for the public benefit.

It provides a common forum.

Differences Between Commercial and Open-Source GIS Software

## 1. Pricing

Many commercial GIS software is quite expensive. It costs thousands of dollars for an initial purchase. This does not include the yearly maintenance fee. While for open-source software, it is the complete opposite. Open-source software is free on initial download, with no licensing or maintenance fee. The no-cost tag of open-source GIS software gives it an edge over commercial
GIS software. Quality of support Since most commercial GIS software is owned and distributed by reputable software development companies, they do everything possible to give users value for their money. To achieve that, their customer support is top-notch. They also have excellent technical support to guide users through the software and assist with problems. The support quality for open-source software is inferior to that for commercial software. What you get is individual support in the form of blog posts, forums, and YouTube videos.

## 2. Flexibility:

Commercial GIS software possesses excellent spatial analysis tools and geoprocessing functionality. However, though it is enriched with top-notch tools for analysis, it is not flexible. By flexibility, we are editing and upgrading the software to suit your needs. For instance, if an analyst needs a feature that the software does not possess, he/she will have to wait until the owners of the software add it. This hinders creativity, flexibility, and innovation. On the other hand, it is the opposite of open-source GIS software. An analyst using open-source GIS software can add features that do not exist. He is not dependent on a third party. It gives room for creativity and flexibility.

## 3. User-friendly

commercial GIS software has diverse mapping tools for quick and efficient analysis. The analyst is also welcomed with easy-to-use interfaces for each geospatial tool, making it more suitable for newbies in geospatial analysis. For open-source GIS software, it is not so easy. Open-source GIS software is more suitable for seasoned professionals in the field of geospatial analysis.

## 4. Simplicity:

Commercial GIS software is all about simplicity and ease of work. It makes tasks such as network analysis and land analysis easy to perform. Open-source software does not add to the complexity of the task, nor does it provide much to make analysis easier. It leaves the analyst unprepared.

## 5. Customer base

Commercial and open-source GIS software have their own customer base or users. Each has its own customers. For commercial software, their customer base consists of rich clients and customers with difficulties no other person can solve. On the other hand, open source's customer base consists of genius users who can help expand the software's functionality and users who provide monetary donations.

## 6. Funding

The source of funds for both parties is different. Most often, open-source GIS software relies on donations. Donations are the major source of funds for open-source software. Other sources of funds include consulting sales and software as a service/hosting. Commercial software also has its own unique source of funds. It includes product sales, licenses, renewals, software as a service/hosting, and consulting sales. It is important to remember that commercial GIS software owners have a wider source of funds than open GIS software.
### 7. Application development:

both actively develop GIS apps, but open-source software leads the way. Analysts develop open-source GIS software apps to meet their specific needs at a low cost, and most importantly, there are no licensing fees to worry about. Commercial software charges a licensing fee in addition to the cost of the developed apps. Commercial software charges a licensing fee in addition to the cost of the developed apps. Because of this, its apps are not as popular as the ones developed by its open-source counterparts,

#### QGIS.

It has been genetically tailored to break the mold of commercial GIS, not least because it is now in 3D. However, QGIS plugins still give you the power to analyze with almost endless capabilities. Examples of open-source GIS software for all-around capabilities:

#### gvSIG

is free and open-source GIS software. Its features may surprise you. For example, it has a field app, 3D capabilities, and a desktop application. However, it is light on documentation, especially in English.

GRASS GIS is a site that lets you load your geoprocessing guns with sophisticated tools. It is so powerful that you can unleash GRASS GIS in QGIS as a separate toolbox.

#### Whitebox GAT

WhiteBox GAT is a superb choice for terrain and hydrological analysis. It also has 360+ plugin tools, which deserve a higher ranking. However, it is not strong in mapping, editing, or data management.

#### Cad Corp.

meshes GIS with CAD. It adds rich functionality for mapping and styling nearly flawlessly. In a ribbon interface, interoperability and web mapping shine in Cad Corp.

#### Manifold GIS.

The Manifold System is easy to learn and accustomed to quickly. Its highlights are its intuitive interface, programmability, and 64-bit processing. Manifold GIS has a solid set of tools without the high price tag.

#### TatukGIS

TatukGIS is straightforward and well-rounded. Its leading features include state-of-the-art editing, format support, and a scripting environment. Fun fact:

#### ILWIS
ILWIS is still embracing the era; it is a decent place to look if you need remote sensing tools. It also offers 3D visualizations and stereo imaging. Despite its desperate need for a makeover, ILWIS is versatile in specific niches.

## SAGA GIS

The name of the game for SAGA GIS is geoscience. If you go down this rabbit hole, you may get lost. Documentation lacks so much that you do not know the input and output. However, it has some of the rarest tools you will ever find in GIS software.

## GeoDa

GeoDa is a specialist in statistical tools. As you work in this open-source GIS software, you explore spatial statistics. Through state-of-the-art visualizations and simulations, it is the ultimate tool for spatial modeling.

## MapWindow

MapWindow is an open-source project that does about 90% of what GIS users need. It specializes in hydrology and still struggles with some basics, but it is a decent volunteer effort.

## uDig

Volunteers worldwide work on this open-source desktop application, uDig. The application's focus is on database viewing and editing.

## Jump GIS

Jump GIS is good at doing the basics. It started as a tool for data conflation. Despite its light functionality, developers still support the project.

## OrbisGIS

OrbisGIS is still a work in progress. It is now released as a cross-platform open-source GIS software package. Specifically, it is designed for and for research.

## Diva GIS

Diva GIS is an open-source, simple, lightweight GIS software package. Biologists use it to map biological richness and diversity distribution. It is functional, but there is not much here for mapping and functionality.

Businesses and GIS users around the world are embracing commercial GIS software. Sometimes, choosing a commercial GIS software package makes more business sense. Why? Some of the reasons are that software and GIS file formats have become the industry's de facto standard. Less training is required because universities select it for teaching.

ArcGIS Pro modernizes GIS with a ribbon interface, 64-bit processing, and 3D integration. It is a massive overhaul focusing on quickness, ingenuity, and cartography. Even though ArcGIS Pro is a big machine with many moving parts, it earns the top spot. ArcGIS (Esri) Esri bustled onto
the geospatial scene in the 1970s. They have emerged as the market leader in commercial GIS software and have not looked back since. The fine-tuned Esri ArcGIS is the industry's most innovative, cutting-edge GIS software. When you look at the amazing features in the ArcGIS suite, it begins to make sense why they are so good at what they do. FME® Feature Manipulation Engine FME® is not a full-fledged GIS package. Instead, it wrangles and slays your data like a Jedi. It is extremely powerful and has a surprisingly active community. The yearly World Tour is a blast to attend. However, do not use FME® to make maps.

## Geomedia (Hexagon Geospatial)

Geomedia has been ArcGIS's main rival for years, even decades. Previously owned by Intergraph, Hexagon Geospatial Geomedia has a 40-year history in the GIS industry. Government, infrastructure, and military groups are embracing Geomedia's solution-driven approach. MapInfo Professional MapInfo Professional has made great strides in proprietary GIS software. Its clear focus is on location intelligence.

## Global Mapper (Blue Marble):

The USGS originally developed Global Mapper and has evolved into a commercial GIS software product competing with industry giants. If there were a "Swiss army knife" for GIS software, Global Mapper would be it. Its core applications reach back to its roots of working with elevation data. These specialized tools include 3D rendering, watershed delineation, and LiDAR handling. Global Mapper offers decent interoperability and map publishing tools in a flexible viewer interface. It reads many geospatial formats.

## Manifold GIS

How awesome would it be to get all the features in a full-blown GIS package but pay half the price? Manifold GIS is all about delivering world-class GIS commercial software. It can be picked up quickly. Its intuitive interface enables GIS users to seamlessly work endlessly in a 64-bit GIS environment. Manifold GIS combines mapping, CAD, DBMS, and image processing. It's stable and has a wide range of functions. Although limited to cartography options, you can still deliver spectacular map products. The 3D bar charts in Manifold GIS are drool-worthy. GIS bargain hunters like its unbeatable price/value ratio. Manifold GIS may be the only GIS software you need.

## Surfer (Golden Software):

Meet the Golden Software family of GIS commercial software for your geospatial needs. Surfer is a powerful mapping package designed for contouring and gridding surfaces. Its versatility lets you create some unique maps in XYZ directions.

## AutoCAD Map 3D (Autodesk)

AutoCAD is not just about drafting; AutoCAD Map 3D bridges the gap between CAD and GIS. This commercial GIS software provides Autodesk users a familiar interface for managing spatial data and underlying asset information. With its growing range of tools, you can also produce
beautiful cartographic output. Major open GIS server products (WebMap servers): Mapnik-C++/python library for rendering used by open street map

Geoserver MapGuide Open Source-Web-based mapping server MapServer is a web-based mapping server developed by the University of Minnesota. Even two decades ago, analysts would not have predicted the evolution of GIS systems and software solutions in terms of scale and scope. Since the commercialization of GIS software solutions, the GIS market has grown exponentially and is expected to be worth $14.5 billion in 2025.
# Chapter 7: Working with Digital Spatial Data

## 1. File Systems and Databases

What is a database, what does it do, and why is database design important?

How have modern databases evolved from files and file systems?

About flaws in file system data management

What is a DBMS, what does it do, and how does it fit into the database system?

About types of database systems and database models

Data versus Information

Data constitute building blocks of information

Information produced by processing data

- Information reveals the meaning of data

- Good, timely, relevant information key to decision making

- Good decision-making is key to organizational survival

Database Management

- Database is shared, integrated computer structure housing:

End user data

Metadata

- Database Management System (DBMS)

Manages Database structure

Controls access to data

Contains query language

Importance of DBMS

It makes data management more efficient and effective

Query language allows quick answers to *ad hoc* queries

Provides better access to more and better-managed data

Promotes an integrated view of the organization's operations

Reduces the probability of inconsistent data

DBMS Manages Interaction

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

Database Design

- Importance of Good Design

Poor design results in unwanted *data redundancy*

Poor design generates errors, leading to *bad decisions*
* **Practical Approach**

Focus on principles and concepts of database design

Importance of logical design

File Terminology

* **Data**

Raw Facts

Field

* **Group of characters with specific meaning**

* **Record**

* **Logically connected fields that describe a person, place, or thing**

* **File**

* **Collection of related records**

The database consists of logically related data stored in a single repository

Provides advantages over file system management approach

Eliminates inconsistency, data anomalies, data dependency, and structural dependency problems

Stores data structures, relationships, and access paths

## 2. File Systems vs. Database

<table><thead><tr><td>Characteristics of a data file</td><td>Characteristics of a database</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>A collection of records usually of the same data type and format description</td><td>A collection of interrelated records, organized in one or more data files, that may have different data types and format descriptions</td></tr><tr><td>Data file processing is usually associated with computer programming that aims at solving a particular problem, i.e., it stops when an answer is obtained</td><td>Database processing is always associated with database management systems that aim at solving the operation or production needs of an organization, i.e., it involves routine, largely repetitive applications executed repeatedly</td></tr><tr><td>Mainly used in support of the information need of an ad hoc application</td><td>Mainly used in support of the day-to-day operation of business (transaction processing) but increasingly used in decision support (management decision making)</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Geographic Databases

* **Single user vs. Multiuser Database**

Desktop
Workgroup

Enterprise

Centralized vs. Distributed

Use

Production or transactional

Decision support or data warehouse

**DBMS Functions**

Data dictionary management

Data storage management

Data transformation and presentation

Security management

Multiuser access control

Backup and recovery management

Data integrity management

Database language and application programming interfaces

Database communication interfaces

The database is the most important part of a GIS because it costs the most to collect and maintain and supports all queries, analysis, and decision-making.

All large GIS implementations store data in a database management system (DBMS), a specialist software designed to handle multi-user access to an integrated data set. Object database ODBMS have not proven to be as commercially successful as some predicted because of the massive installed base of RDBMS.

The ideal geographic ORDBMS has been extended to support geographic object types and functions by adding a geographic query parser, a geographic query optimizer, a geographic query language, multidimensional indexing services, storage management for large files, long transaction services, and replication services.

Geographic DBMS extensions

Two of the commercial DBMS vendors have released spatial database extensions to their standard ORDBMS products

* IBM - DB2 Spatial Extender and Informix Spatial Database

* Oracle Spatial

* spatial capabilities in the core of Microsoft SQL Server or Open source DBMS PostgreSQL have also been extended with spatial types and functions (PostGIS).
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

## Entity Relationship Database Model

Databases must be designed, carefully structured, and indexed to provide efficient query and transaction performance.

A comprehensive security and transactional access model are necessary to ensure multiple users can access the database simultaneously.

Geographic databases contain geographic data for a particular area and subject.

* The advantages of the geodatabase:

* Storing massive geographic data.

* Decreasing costs,

* allowing multiple applications,

* transfer of knowledge,

* data sharing,

* security

* standards,

* concurrent users

## The disadvantages of the geodatabase

include cost,

complexity,

Single-user performance decreased

Database management systems

A DBMS software application is designed to organize efficient and effective data storage and access.

DBMS capabilities include a data model, a data load capability, indexes, a query language, security, controlled updates, backup and recovery, database administration tools, and applications.

This list of DBMS capabilities is beautiful to geospatial users, and so, not surprisingly, virtually all large geospatial databases are based on DBMS technology.
## Types of database management system

There are three main types of geospatial DBMS: relational (RDBMS), object (ODBMS), and object-relational (ORDBMS).

A relational database comprises a set of tables, each a two-dimensional list (or array) of records containing attributes about the objects under study.

Object database management systems (ODBMS) were initially designed to address weaknesses of RDBMS, including the inability to store complete objects directly in the database (both object state and behavior) and poor performance for many types of geographic queries.

### Types of DBMS

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

Databases can be organized in different ways, known as *database models*. The conventional database models are *relational, network, hierarchical, and object-oriented*.

*relational data are organized by records in relations that resemble a table*

Network data are organized by records, which are classified into record types, with 1: n pointers linking associated records

records organize hierarchical data on parent-child one-to-many relations
object-oriented data are uniquely identified as individual objects classified into object types or classes according to the object's characteristics (attributes and operations).

Complements the relational data model concepts

Represented in an entity relationship diagram (ERD)

Based on entities, attributes, and relationships

Database Models and the Internet

*Characteristics of “Internet age” databases*

Flexible, efficient, and secure Internet access

Easily used, developed, and supported

Supports complex data types and relationships

Seamless interfaces with multiple data sources and structures

Simplicity of conceptual database model

Many databases design, implementation, and application development tools

Powerful DBMS GUI makes the DBA job easier
# Chapter 8: Digital Landscaping

## 1. Symbols

Symbols used to represent elements and shapes of natural landscapes are much more numerous than geodetic and topographic ones and can be grouped into the following categories:

* Orography (Mountains and valleys).

* Continental hydrography (rivers and lakes).

* Marine hydrography (oceans and seas).

* Natural vegetation (forests and vegetation).

Orography is a non-flat region relief and can be represented using several techniques and system variables in map type and scale function, like

* altimetric zonation.

* dash, stroke, or line.

* herringbone system.

* Hillshading

* hatching.

* contour line system.

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

### Herring-bone system

The shapes that contribute to representing orography can be grouped differently, for example, according to the phenomena they represent (glaciers, volcanic phenomena, etc.) or specific objects (rocks, debris, peaks, etc.). Digital topographic maps, contours, digital terrain modeling, digital elevation models (DEMs), NED, SRTM, LIDAR, and 3D. One significant element missing in geospatial technology that we have not yet dealt with is the terrain and surface of Earth. All the maps, imagery, and coordinates have dealt with two-dimensional (2D) images of the land's surface or developed or natural features. We have not yet described how the actual landscape can be modeled with geospatial technology. Foremost, when examining landforms on Earth's surface, each location must have an elevation assigned to it. In terms of coordinates, each x/y pair will now have a z-value that indicates that location's elevation.
## 2. How Can Terrain Be Represented?

1. The topographic map is a standard (and widely available) method of representing terrain features. Topo maps model the landscape using contour lines. Numerous contour lines drawn on the map represent the elevations on the surface. This elevation (or vertical) difference between contour lines is called the contour interval and is set up according to the constraints of the map and the area being measured. A wider contour interval is selected when mapping more mountainous terrain, and a narrower contour interval is used when mapping flatter terrain.

## 2) Digital Elevation Models

Digital Terrain Models (DEMs) are increasingly crucial in geographical data processing and analysis. They allow the modeling, analysis, and visualization of phenomena related to territory morphology. The third dimension is a fundamental element of visualization and plays an essential role in the virtual visualization of the territory. Explore the meaning of the commonly used terms and understand how digital models of the Earth's surface can be produced. The classification of digital models, generally defined as the representation in digital format of a portion of a terrestrial surface, is referred to in the bibliography in different ways. The most used terms are:

* A Digital Surface Model (DSM) describes the terrestrial surface, including the objects covering it, such as buildings and vegetation, using known geometric primitives (rectangles or triangles).

* The Digital Terrain Model (DTM) describes the surface just at ground level.

* Digital Elevation Model (DEM), in geometrical terms, equals the DTM.

It can be defined as a regular grid of height measurement (generally with a squared cell) organized in a raster. Anyway, the DEM is usually used as a synonym of DTM. Afterward, and in the text, where possible, it will be generically referred to by the acronym DEM.

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

## 3) Altimetric Data Acquisition:

A 3D point survey is the most complex and expensive step in the DEM production process. Ground surveys are the techniques used to measure 3D points.

* digitization of existing maps.
* aerial and satellite

* photogrammetric methods.

* radar interferometry.

* Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS).

Ground Surveys provide very accurate measurements, producing high geometric resolution DEMs. As they are expensive in terms of both money and time, they are carried out to detect the topography of small areas, such as contaminated sites, quarries, landslides, and volume variations.

## Thinking Critically with Geospatial Technology

**If Everything is Digital, Do We Still Need Printed Topo Maps?** If all topographic maps are available digitally and in easily accessible formats, is there still a need to have printed copies on hand? For instance, do surveyors, geologists, botanists, or archeologists need to carry printed topo maps with them? Is there a need for geographers to have printed versions when seamless digital copies can be easily obtained?

## How Can Geospatial Technology Represent Terrain?

In geospatial technology, terrain and landscape features can be represented by more than just contour lines on a map. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is the name given to a landscape model used with GIS or remotely sensed imagery. A DEM accurately represents the features of the landscape and helps analyze the terrain itself. A DEM's key is properly representing a z-value for x and y locations.

With a z-value, the model can be shown from a perspective view to demonstrate the appearance of the terrain, but this does not make it a three-dimensional model. A DTM is usually best described as a two-and-a-half-dimensional model. In a two-dimensional (2D) model, all coordinates are measured with x and y values without a number for z at these coordinates. In a full three-dimensional (3D) model, multiple z-values can be assigned to each x/y coordinate.

## What is a map?

A map is a representation, usually to scale and on a flat medium, of a selection of material or abstract features on or about the surface of the Earth.

## Role of Maps

* Data display maps provide helpful ways to display information meaningfully.

* Data storage - as a means of storing data.

* Spatial indexes: A map can show the boundaries of areas (e.g., land use zones, soil, or rock types) and identify each area with a label.

* Data analysis tool: Maps are used to make or test hypotheses and examine the relationship between two distributions using simple, transparent overlays.

## Cartographic Abstraction

Production of a map requires selecting the few features in the real world to include, classifying selected features (e.g., bridges, houses, railways), simplifying jagged lines
like coastlines, exaggerating features to be included that are too small to show at the scale of the map, and symbolizing the different classes of features chosen.

The Changeover to Computer Mapping began in two communities, Scientists wish to make maps quickly to see the modeling results or to display data from extensive archives already in digital form, e.g., census tables.

Cartographers seek to reduce map production and editing costs and time.

## Computer Cartography

Computer cartography's primary goal is producing maps; systems have advanced tools for map layout, label placement, prominent symbol and font libraries, and interfaces for expensive, high-quality output devices. However, it is not an analytical tool; therefore, unlike data for GIS, cartographic data does not need to be stored in ways that allow, for example, analysis of relationships between different themes such as population density and housing prices or the routing of flows along connecting highway or river segments.

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Mapping Software</th><th colspan="4">Capabilities</th></tr><tr><th>Means of data input</th><th>Database management system (DBMS)</th><th>Analysis capability</th><th>Graphics output</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>CAD</strong><br>Computer Assisting Drawing, e.g.,</td><td>Yes</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><strong>GDS</strong><br>Graphic Design Systems, e.g., CorelDraw, Illustrator</td><td>Yes</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><strong>DBMS</strong><br>Database Management System, e.g. Oracle, Sybase</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td><strong>DIPS</strong><br>Digital Image Processing System, e.g. PCI, Erdas</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><strong>GIS</strong><br>Geographical Information Systems, e.g., ArcGis, Ilwis, MapInfo</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><td>Advantages</td><td>Disadvantages</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Lower cost for simple maps, faster production</td><td>Relatively few full-scale systems have been shown</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>To be genuinely cost-effective in practice.</td></tr><tr><td>Greater flexibility in output easy scale</td><td>Computer methods do not ensure production.</td></tr><tr><td>or projection change maps can be tailored to</td><td>of maps of high quality. There is a perceived</td></tr><tr><td>user needs</td><td>loss of regard for the ‘cartographic tradition’ with the</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Consequent production of ‘chartjunk.’</td></tr><tr><td>Other uses for digital data</td><td>High capital cost, though this is now much reduced.</td></tr></tbody></table>

•
# Chapter 9: Geovisualization Introduction

## 1. Introduction

### What is Geovisualization?

Geovisualization is the pattern recognition and information extracting abilities of the eye-brain system "Visual Thinking" - tools to 'see' and explore complex geospatial data sets influencing:

* Interactivity

* Dynamic displays

* Decision support

* Revealing unknowns

* Personalizing views

### What are the applications and uses of geovisualization?

Geovisualization explores, analyzes, synthesizes, and presents spatial data.

Today's geovisualization is much more than conventional map design. It has developed into an applied activity area to meet various scientific and social needs. It is also a research field developing new visual methods and tools to facilitate better user interaction with such data.

Geovisualization develops and extends several new and innovative ways in pursuit of these objectives:

### Exploration

**Synthesis:** Good Geovisualization should enable the user to differentiate the “wood from the trees” and may be necessary for highlighting the time dimension.

**Presentation:** to enable the user to understand the likely overall quality of the representation.

**Analysis:** to provide methods and techniques of spatial analysis. Geovisualization allows users to explore, synthesize, present, and analyze their data

Geoinformation asks generic spatial and temporal questions such as:

* Where is...?

* What is a location...?

* What is the spatial relation between...?

* What is similar to...?

* Where has... occurred?

* What has changed since...?

Is there a general spatial pattern, and what are the anomalies?

These questions are articulated through graphical user interfaces (GUIs) based on windows, icons, menus, and pointers.

Visualization is an inherently human activity. What is visualization?

* a process, a methodology

* an activity of interaction between a human and a computer

### 3D Modeling: How Can You Make Terrain Look More Realistic?

Digital terrain models DEMs are 2.5D models, and since they have a z-value, that z-value can be visualized in a 3D view.
This way, mountain peaks can be seen jutting up from the surface.

In many geospatial technology applications, the model becomes interactive, allowing the user to move or “fly” over the terrain, skimming the surface and banking past mountains.

Numerous ways exist to make the terrain more realistic, such as artificially altering its appearance or draping imagery over the surface. For example, consider a terrain surface in perspective view with a digital topographic map.

## 2. Modeling and animations

### What Is 3D Modeling?

3D modeling (in geospatial terms) refers to the design of spatial data in a three-dimensional form. Designing a 3D version of a city's buildings or the Eiffel Tower would be examples of 3D modeling of geospatial data.

Like all spatial data, 3D models should be Georeferenced to use real-world coordinate systems and measurements.

By digitizing the house's footprint, you have a polygon with two dimensions (x and y). However, to work with 3D, it must have a third dimension or a z-dimension. This z-value will be the height of the object above the surface.

Volume mapping and rendering Components of a 3D Raster grid (Voxel, volumetric elements, iso-volumes, cross-sections, horizontal slices, cut elements).

Geospatial data could also be visualized in 4D (x, y, z, Time), Adding time variation and possibly animation.

### Animation

In most people's minds, the mention of the word computer animation is **Hollywood** or entertainment. It has become synonymous with big-screen movies such as Star Wars, Toy Story, and Titanic (Parent & Parent, 2001). It is also associated with advertisements and special effects in films, and its use now encroaches on domains in multimedia, interactive games, and virtual reality (Thalmann & Thalmann, 1996).

Cartographic animation focuses on changes in the geographical data components of location, thematic qualities, and time. Their strength is demonstrating how these three elements are interrelated (Kraak & Klomp, 1995; Ogao, 2002).

The components' variations can be categorized as follows: • Temporal animation, • Animation with a gradual build-up,

Changing representation animation from a geospatial perspective, the visualization process is the translation or conversion of geospatial data from a database into graphics by applying appropriate cartographic methods and techniques - a kind of grammar that allows for the optimal design, production, and use of maps, depending on the

Cartographic visualization is emerging as a visual technique that enables a direct depiction of movement and change, multiple views of the same data, user interaction with the image on display, realism, and multimedia components. The keywords that stand out in these developments are interaction and dynamics. Of course, interactivity has now been widely embedded in virtually every other cartographic technique in both presentational and exploratory realms of map use. As such, one wonders whether it can be used as a distinguishing trait between the two realms of Computer animation.
When they hear computer animation, most people think of Hollywood or entertainment. It has become synonymous with big-screen movies such as Star Wars, Toy Story, and Titanic. It is also associated with advertisements and special effects in films, and its uses now encroach on domains in multimedia, interactive games, and virtual reality. The word animation also bears the meanings of “motion” or “to give life to.”

Traditional animation is “a technique in which the illusion of movement is created by photographing a series of individual drawings on successive frames of film” (Halas & Manwell, 1968). Computer-generated animation is a technique in which the illusion of movement is created by displaying it on a screen.

Various modeling techniques, including geometric, kinematic, physical, behavioral, and cognitive models, can be used to generate animation.

Cartographic animation is about changes in geospatial data components of location, thematic attributes, and time.

Animation formats include Apple's QuickTime, Moving Pictures Expert Groups (MPEG), Microsoft's Audio Video Interleave (AVI), Macromedia's Shockwave file (SWF), and Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML).

The changes in the components can be classified into temporal animation, animation with a successive build-up, and animation of changing representations.

These animations allow geo-scientists to deal with and monitor real-world processes. The types of animation mentioned above can be used in mapping dynamic environmental processes based on the user goals and the nature of the data. Temporal animation can be used to view environmental transitions as they happen in time as opposed to simply viewing the snapshots of the processes or their end states.

### (a) Temporal animation

Classification of animation (a) temporal animation showing the location changes of the growth of a town,

### (c) Animation of changing representation

animation of changing representations by manipulating data through varying the classification methods used; animation can have a narrative character. They often tell a story. The flow of the story can be influenced by applying dynamic variables. The most prominent variables are *duration* and *order*, which strongly impact the animation's narrative character. They define the time an individual frame is visible and the order of the frames. In the case of a temporal cartographic animation, order presents the viewer with the link to world time. For the user of a cartographic animation, it is essential to have tools available that allow for interaction while viewing the animation. In this animation, a direct relation exists between display time and world time; world time is displayed in a temporal sequence, and a transition between individual frames indicates a change in the geospatial data's location and/or thematic attribute component.

These animations allow geo-scientists to deal with and monitor real-world processes. For example, the website “visme.co”
Manipulating temporal geospatial structure

<table><thead><tr><th>VISUALIZATION OPERATOR</th><th>VISUALIZATION SUBOPERATOR</th><th>EXAMPLE OF DEFINITIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF RESULTS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">IDENTIFY</td><td>Geospatial Identification</td><td>Length, area, irregularity Minimum, maximum, range, distance, pattern of distribution</td></tr><tr><td>Temporal Identification</td><td>Extent - most extended, shortest Sequence - first, last Category - nominal, ordinal, interval/Ratio Movement - continuous, cyclical, intermittent</td></tr><tr><td>Thematic Identification</td><td>Name, symbols (legend)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">LOCATE</td><td>Geospatial location</td><td>(x,y), grid locations (rows, columns) Near, within, between, above, below, neighborhood of</td></tr><tr><td>Temporal location</td><td>Event/Valid time t, Observed Interval (t1-t2) Before, after, together, next</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">ASSOCIATE/ COMPARE</td><td>Geospatial association / Geospatial comparison</td><td>Topological relations, geospatial collocation, covariance, correlation</td></tr><tr><td>Temporal association / Temporal comparison</td><td>Temporal collocation, time between objects, orientation (before, after), adjacency (just before, just after), causality (correlation)</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3. Model for visual interactivity in cartographic animation

Adding interactivity to visualization helps overcome some inherent hurdles common in static displays by allowing multiple and related visualization options. In animation, this should significantly improve expert user's ability to understand data, **perceive trends, and visualize real or imaginary objects** (Foley et al., (1990), DiBiase et al., (1994)).

Typical tools that interactivity offers include selection, transformation, **query, navigation, orientation, multi-scale views, re-expression, linked views, and animation** (Kraak, (1998), Dix & Ellis (1998), Peterson, (1995), Shepherd (1994) and Cartwright (1996)).

Interactive visualization tools can **steer processes, track changes, and identify features that change** because of variations in specific parameters in real-time, modeled, or simulated processes (MacEachren, 1995).
# Chapter 10: Web Cartography Web Mapping Systems

## 1. Web Mapping Systems

Geospatial on the Web has a comparatively long history, dating back to 1993 when researchers at Xerox PARC in California created the first map server to be accessed over the Internet. Since then, several significant milestones have been reached in developmental and organizational terms: the introduction of major mapping sites by Google, Yahoo!, and Microsoft (among others) and the rise of computer mashups and neogeography.

Web mapping means integrated Web-accessible software, a 2-D database comprising one or more base maps, and an associated collection of services.

Web access is provided via easily accessible, open interfaces. Typically, image tiles—each containing a map fragment—are returned in response to a user request for a map of a given area. Requests can be issued, and responses can be processed and visualized in standard web browsers and web-accessible devices (e.g., phones and tablets). Web mapping sites have proven to be very popular.

In addition to providing maps, the service offers a gazetteer to find places of interest, multipoint driving directions, a choice of image and street map base maps, and the ability to overlay or mash up many other datasets.

Some of the successes of web mapping sites are also due to their ability to be easily accessed programmatically via well-defined APIs. An example is KML and the API that interacts with Google Maps. Web APIs have spawned many add-ons and have allowed Web maps to be integrated or mashed up with many other Web services.

OpenStreetMap is a base-map service collected by volunteers and published on the Web using a copyright-free license. The software used to edit, access, and view the data is open source (including Mapnik for map rendering, JOSM and Potlatch for editing, and PostGIS for data management). In certain cities, OpenStreetMap rivals and exceeds the content and coverage of commercial online base-map databases.

**Server System:** Map Guide Open Source is used to develop and deploy Web mapping applications and services. It is licensed under the open-source GNU Lesser General Public License. Map Guide allows users to leverage their existing Geospatial information investment by publishing dynamic, intelligent maps at the point at which they are most valuable—in the field, at the job site, or on the desks, with clients, and with the public.

## 2. Map Guide

**There are three critical components of the Map Guide:**

The viewer is a browser-style Web application that is comparatively simple to use.

Using The Author, a menu-driven authoring environment, a site can be created and published for client access. The administration software server handles requests from several clients and other databases and tracks site activity.

Map Guide works directly with Web browsers and servers and uses the HTTP (Internet protocol) for communication.

### Web mapping

Web mapping is designing, implementing, generating, and delivering maps on the World Wide Web.
Web GIS emphasizes the analysis and processing of project-specific geodata and exploratory aspects.

**Mobile web mapping:** Using mobile computing devices can provide location-sensitive information.

**Challenges:** low display resolution, limited bandwidth, copyright, security, reliability, technical complexity.

## Type of web maps by increasing sophistication

- Static web maps.

- Dynamic created web maps (from databases).

- Distributed web maps (various data sources).

- She animated web maps.

- Real-time web maps (weather or traffic maps).

- Personalized web maps (user-defined styling and data filtering).

- Personalized web maps (user-defined styling and data filtering).

- Interactive web maps.

- Analytic web maps (GIS Analysis).

- Collaborative web maps (Distributed data acquisition and maintenance).

## Web mapping technologies

- Web server: handles HTTP requests by web browsers and other user agents.

- CGI: (familiar gateway interface)

- Scripting language: PHP, Perl, ASP, python

- Web application server: a middleware that connects various software components with the web server and a programming language

- Spatial database: usually object-relational databases enhanced with geographic data types, methods, and properties( PostGIS, MySQL, Oracle Spatial, etc).

- WMS server: specialized web mapping servers implemented as a CGI application, Java Servlet, or other web application server.

## Client-side technologies

- Web browser: supports the display of HTML and raster images (JPEG, PNG, and GIF format).

- Network request: get and post HTTP requests and provide feedback on the data loading state.

- DOM support: The Document Object Model provides a language-independent API for manipulating the webpage's document tree. DOM support and scripting are also known as DHTML or Dynamic HTML.

**SVG support or SVG image support** integrates vector graphics, raster graphics, and text. It supports animation, internationalization, interactivity, scripting, and XML-based extension mechanisms.

**Java Support:** The Java2D and Java3D libraries support 2D and 3D vector graphics. Java support is required for the creation of Java-based web maps.

## Web browser plugins:

- **Adobe Acrobat** - provides vector graphics and high-quality printing support.

- **Adobe Flash** - provides vector graphics, animation, and multimedia support.

- **Apple Quicktime—This** version supports additional image formats, video, audio, and Quicktime VR (Panorama Images).
**Adobe SVG viewer** - provide SVG 1.0 support for web browsers

**Sun Java plugin** provides support for newer and advanced Java Features.

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

## Google Maps functionality

- Google Maps website

- Google Maps API

- Street View

- Satellite images

- Geocoding capability

- Traffic information: Include real-time traffic flow conditions in the maps of major cities in the United States.

- Driving direction

## 3. Geo-libraries and Geoportals

Using digital technology to support search and discovery opens many options not available in the earlier world of library catalogs and bookshelves. Books must be placed in a library permanently, and there is no possibility of reordering their sequence—but in a digital catalog, it is possible to reorder the sequence of holdings in a collection almost instantaneously.

Similarly, the traditional card catalog allowed only three properties to be sorted— author, title, and subject—and discouraged sorting by multiple subjects. However, the digital catalog can support any number of subjects of relevance to geospatial users, such as the possibility of sorting a collection by the coverage properties: location and time.

The term geo-library has been coined to describe digital libraries that can be searched for information about any user-defined geographic location.

A geo-library can be searched for information about a specific geographic location. Although geo-libraries are beneficial data sources, it is often difficult for the user to predict which geo-library is most likely to contain a given dataset or its closest approximation.

This is the goal of a geoportal, which can be defined as a single point of entry to a distributed collection of geo-libraries with a single catalog. Many networks of libraries provide a single union catalog for all their holdings, like the way Web search engines such as Google provide a single point of entry for search over a large proportion of the entire Web.

However, conventional search engines are not well designed for finding geographic datasets. The Geospatial One-Stop, now incorporated into data.gov and accessible at geo.data.gov, is an excellent example of a geoportal, and it represents the state of the art in searching for geographic data. The U.S. government initiated it as a single point of entry to the holdings of government agencies. However, it also catalogs many other geo-libraries (though its coverage is limited to the United States). A user visiting geo.data.gov is presented with several ways of specifying requirements and is provided with a list of datasets that appear to satisfy them, with
links to the geo-libraries that contain the data. Mechanisms are provided for handling datasets with usage restrictions, which may require licensing or the payment of fees.

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

## 4. Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality

Virtual environments can place the user in distant locations.

More elaborate VR systems can immerse the user by presenting the contents of a database in a three-dimensional environment using special eyeglasses or by projecting information onto walls surrounding the user and effectively transporting the user into the environment represented in the database. However, even the standard personal computer can create remarkably close approximations to the physical appearance of the geographic landscape, and services such as Google Earth and Microsoft's Bing Maps have pushed the limits dramatically in recent years. Such geo-browsers or virtual globes create three-dimensional renderings of the Earth and rely on powerful graphics capabilities.

A computing device that knows where it is provides a location-based service.

OpenStreetMap is a digital map of the world (www.openstreetmap.org).

Interactive Mapping using MapBox Tile Mill (www.mapbox.com/tilemill/) is open-source software for creating interactive maps with pan and zoom functionality. Users can create map tiles assembled into a single portable database (MBTiles— www.mapbox.com/developers/mbtiles/) hosted by Mapbox or on the user's server.

Handheld Computing and Augmented Reality

Still, other media and software immerse users in the artificial worlds of virtual reality. Although not mainstream geospatial system applications, such tools can help users better understand geographic real-world patterns and processes.

Immersive and semi-immersive systems have essential implications for participation by a broad user base because they allow

allow Users to access virtual environments and select different views of phenomena.

Incremental changes in these perspectives permit real-time flythroughs.

Repositioning or rearrangement of the objects that make up virtual scenes.
Users are to be represented graphically as avatars—digital representations of themselves.
Engagement with avatars connected at different remote locations in a networked virtual world.
The development, using avatars, of new kinds of representation and modeling.
The linkage of networked virtual worlds with virtual reality (VR) systems.

References:

1. Bradley A. Shellito, (2012). Introduction to Geospatial Technologies
Youngstown State University p.469.

2. DiBiase, D., MacEachren, A. M., Krygier, J. B., & Reeves, C. (1992).
Animation and the role of map design in scientific visualization. Cartography
and geographic information systems, 19(4), 201-214.

3. Gomarasca M.A., Basics of Geomatics (2009), DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9014-1_1, pp.656.

4. Jachimski, J. (2001), Dyskusja panelowa poswiecona zagadnieniom
terminologicznym geoinformatyki [Panel discussion devoted to matters of
terminology in geoinformatics; in Polish], **Geoinformatyka Polonica**,
Krakow, No. 3, pp.57-79. Crossreferenced from Oledzki, J. R. (2004).

5. Ogao, P., & Kraak, M. (2001). Geospatial Data Exploration Using Interactive and Intelligent Cartographic Animations.
https://core.ac.uk/download/572115393.pdf

6. Kraak, M. J., & Klomp, A. (1995). A classification of cartographic animations: towards a tool for the design of dynamic maps in a GIS environment.
In *Proceedings of the seminar on teaching animated cartography* (pp. 29-35)

7. Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., Rhind, D.W. (2015).
Geographic Information Science and System.4th edition.

8. MacEachren, A. M. (1995). How Maps Work, Representation, Visualization and Design. New York: The Guilford Press.

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19. Zainuddin, K., Mokhtar, E. S., & Yusof, K. (2011). Developing a UiTM (Perlis) Web-Based Building Space Management System: A Preliminary Study in Locating a Specified Space/Room Area Using Open Source GIS Tool. Procedia Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.150
Prof. Jean Doumit received his Ph.D. in geosciences from Kuban State University in the Russian Federation. He has since worked as a part-time faculty member at several universities throughout Lebanon. Currently, Prof. Doumit is a full Professor of Geography in the faculty of Letters and Human Sciences at Lebanese University.

He teaches subjects in Remote Sensing and Geospatial Information Science and Technology. His research interests include Digital Cartography, Geospatial Data Analysis, Remote Sensing, and GIS, among others.

Prof. Doumit has received multiple international awards for his success and findings in scientific research and is the author or coauthor of several scientific books and publications.

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