accept their assigned plantation conditions and circumstances”.<fnref n="221" /> In fact, the number of convictions were high, in 1896 close to 25% of indentured labourers were convicted.<fnref n="222" /> The most common reasons for labourers to be convicted were if they missed a day of work, escaped from the plantation, faked sickness, if they breached their contract and other various reasons. Thus, the number of convictions are a way of showing the indentured labourers did attempt to resist the planters and the system of indenture, and that they were numerous to resist.

One of the most important and well recorded indentured revolt happened on the Plantation Devonshire Castle Revolt in 1872 where five indentured labourers were killed and nine were wounded when police opened fire on the crowd.<fnref n="223" /> An entire report from the Parliamentary papers was dedicated to this particular revolt. It states that after the labourers complained because of the low wages, the length they had to work everyday but also of abuses against a particular labourer. In fact, one labourer was sent to prison because of “ill-conduct” however he was rescued by others who were then under warrant for saving him. These series of events led to around 200 labourers to march towards Georgetown to see the Governor and complain.<fnref n="224" /> After marching 10 miles, they returned towards their colony and were met with soldiers which ended up with a confrontation between the soldiers and the labourers, the report states that that:

<footnote n="221">²²¹ Lomarsh Roopnarine, “Resistance and Adaptation among Indentured Indian Labourers in British Guiana during Indentureship” in *Resistance and Indian Indenture Experience Comparative Perspectives*, ed. Maurits S. Hassankhan, Brij V. Lal, and Doug Munro (New Delhi: Manohar, 2014), 67.</footnote>

<footnote n="222">²²² Tinker, 194.</footnote>

<footnote n="223">²²³ While this work did not allow for a systematic study of moments of resistance by indentured labourers, several cases have been gleaned from archives. However they remain already studied by other historians such as Lomarsh Roopnarine.</footnote>

<footnote>See: *Correspondence respecting Disturbance among Indian Emigrants employed on Devonshire Castle Estate, Command Papers (1873), XLIX.935(C.879)*, 1.</footnote>

<footnote n="224">²²⁴ Ibid, 1-2.</footnote>
(...) a deplorable accident occurred. When the police charged, the Coolies rushed at them with their hackia sticks, one of which struck two of the rifles on the hammer, and they exploded. Some seven more of the men, thinking, I presume, that an order had been given to fire, discharged their guns. The effect was most disastrous. Five men were killed, and some eight wounded.

(...) two of the ringleaders have escaped to the bush. One of the worst men was shot dead.<fnref n="225" />

At the same time that the revolt on the Devonshire Castle happened, another revolt on the Anna Regina plantation (only six miles from Devonshire) took place. The complaints of immigrants were similar to those on the Devonshire estate and they also tried to go to Georgetown to complain to the Immigration Office, they were met with the Acting Inspector-General of Police and 50 policemen and were ordered to go back to their estate. However, it is unclear if both revolts were linked, while the Governor argued that there were chances of both being linked, it is later argued that "the Coolies on Anna Regina had no connection with those of the Devonshire Castle Coolies".<fnref n="226" /> These two brief examples of revolts by indentured labourers shed light on the resistance of Indian immigrants in British Guiana, they are also an alternative way of thinking about suspensions of the system. Indeed, even if the system of indenture and immigration was not suspended officially by the Colonial power in the second half of the nineteenth century, indentured immigrants' resistance could be thought as another form of suspension of the system.

<footnote n="225">²²⁵ Ibid, 2.</footnote>

<footnote n="226">²²⁶ Ibid, 3.</footnote>
***

To conclude this chapter, even if there was no official interruption of the system after 1851, other forms of suspensions happened. First of all for British Guiana and the British West Indies in general voices were raised against immigration. While some were against the system of indenture itself, most were motivated by racial and religious beliefs to end East-Indian (and African) immigration to the Caribbean. Indeed, it was argued that immigration jeopardised the work of missionaries and planters in civilising emancipated Creoles. Still, as argued three important figures in British Guiana appeared in the 1860s and actively fought against the system in the colony even if they were met with fierce opposition by the Governor.

Around the same time, it has been shown that the British also agreed with the French and the Dutch that Indian subjects could be recruited by foreign empires. This added to the different levels of governance around indenture which were previously mentioned, indentured labourers who went to foreign colonies were difficult to protect and it left them in a grey judiciary area. Even if the system was not questioned in British Guiana, it would be suspended in French Guiana and Suriname. Most importantly the health of immigrants would be a problem in both colonies, whereas immigration would be ended to French Guiana in 1878, in Surinam immigration would continue until 1916 only a year before the British ended indenture. The question of interruptions and indenture in general on a trans-imperial level should be further explored in future research as the subject has not been properly investigated yet. Finally, resistance from indentured immigrants themselves should be discussed but also thought of a form of interruption of the plantation
system. Even if an important historical research has been done on resistance from Surinam, there seems to be a historical gap for resistance in French Guiana and it is believed that this would be of interest for historians.
**Conclusion.**

The final suspension of indentured immigration to British Guiana would take
place in 1917 during the First World War, this time immigration would never be
renewed to the British West Indies. It took a strong national campaign in India to put
an end to indenture immigration which would be banned by the British in 1920. Other
parts of the British empire had already begun banning Indian immigration. Yet, as
argued during the last chapter this was not done as an opposition to the system itself
but because of racial motivations such as in Australia with the Pacific Islanders Act
and the White Australia Policy of 1901.

In 1912, Gopal Krishna Gokhale brought a motion to the Legislative Council of
India to propose the suspension of indentured immigration from India. He built his
discourse on British abolitionists of the nineteenth-century such as John Scoble and
Edward Jenkins.<fnref n="227" /> Gokhale used the same arguments as those which had been
raised at the system's commencement. Indeed, he argued that deceit, the
ineffectiveness of Protectors and Immigration Agents, the high mortality of
immigrants, the low numbers of women and the degradation of Indians as “coolies”,
were all arguments against the system and proved in his view why it should be
abolished.<fnref n="228" /> However, his resolution and the one proposed by Madan Mohan
Malaviya in 1916 would be defeated.

At the same time, the indentured system was being criticised not only by
Indian elites and nationalists but also by ordinary people. This can be seen through
organisations such as the Coolie Protection Society and the Anti-Indentured

<footnote n="227">²²⁷ Madhavi Kale, *Fragments of Empire: Capital, Slavery, and Indian Indentured Labor Migration in the British Caribbean*, Critical Histories (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 167.</footnote>

<footnote n="228">²²⁸ R.P. Patwardhan and D.V. Ambekar (ed.), *Speeches And Writings Of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Vol. 1 - Economic* (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962), 352-356.</footnote>
Emigration League. Indeed, they toured provinces and districts around Calcutta where immigrants were the most recruited and tried to prevent immigration and alerted on what would await future immigrants on the true work and voyage conditions.<fnref n="229" />

Overall, the system of immigration would only be terminated in 1917 under the Defence of India Ordinances, in order to favour the transport of Indians to Europe and Mesopotamia to fight during WW1. Still, colonies such as Guiana sought to revive immigration from India by sending delegations to discuss “assisted emigration” schemes. In this sense, Mrinalini Sinha has argued that indenture was only really abolished with the Indian Emigration Act of 1922 as it: “made illegal (...) any scheme of assisted migration of unskilled labor from India without a special act of exemption issued by the legislature”.<fnref n="230" /> Still, even if these laws prevented “unskilled labourers” to emigrate, one could ask if they really abolished indentured migration?

Other forms of bonded labour continued during the twentieth century in areas which had participated in Indian indentured labour. For example, there were reports of France bringing indentured labourers from Madagascar and Rodrigues to the island of Réunion until the 1930s.<fnref n="231" /> In addition, the Dutch only put an end to Javanese immigration to Suriname with World War 2. Moreover, other forms of bonded labour remained common: Julia Martinez has shown that the pearling industry in Australia continued to employ indentured labourers from Asia until the 1970s.<fnref n="232" /> Finally, bonded labour in India has persisted as a result of class relations

<footnote n="229">²²⁹ Radica Mahase, *Why Should We Be Called ‘Coolies’? The End of Indian Indentured Labour* (London: Routledge, 2020), 152.</footnote>

<footnote n="230">²³⁰ Mrinalini Sinha, « Premonitions of the Past », *The Journal of Asian Studies* 74, n° 4 (2015): 831.</footnote>

<footnote n="231">²³¹ Florence Callandre and Christian Barat, ‘Traces de l’engagisme de 1933 à La Réunion et à Rodrigues’, *Études Océan Indien*, no. 49–50 (2013): 1–28.</footnote>

<footnote n="232">²³² Julia Martínez, “The End of Indenture? Asian Workers in the Australian Pearling Industry, 1901–1972”, *International labour and Working-Class History* 67 (2005): 126.</footnote>
and colonial history, even if it is prohibited by the Bonded Labour System (Abolition)
Act of 1976, this system of labour still exists today. Thus, not only Indians but also
other populations continued to be subject to disguised forms of indenture contracts
and bondage until today.

***

This dissertation attempted to shed light on indenture from a fresh
perspective: the suspensions and interruptions of Indian immigration to British
Guiana (and to a certain extent Dutch and French Guiana). As demonstrated the first
suspension of indentured immigration was primarily influenced by the conditions of
labourers in Mauritius. Abolitionists and anti-indenture newspapers in India were the
first to alert the dangers and abuses of the system before these same arguments
were then expressed by British figures. On the other hand, even if the abuses of the
system remained, the second suspension of immigration was a result of the
economic and political crisis in the West Indies due to the passing of the Sugar
Duties Act. Still, immigration was renewed. Finally, it was argued that the voices of
immigrants themselves should be taken into account and how resistance and
stoppages on plantations may be considered as a form of interruption of the system.
Thus, nineteenth-century indenture should be understood as a colonial system built
upon racial, labour and patriarchal power structures which was punctuated by
suspensions. The system itself reduced Indian immigrants to simple “coolies” and
thus only seen as a part of the work-force necessary for the sugar plantations.<fnref n="233" />

<footnote n="233">²³³ Thomas R. Metcalf, *Imperial Connections : India in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860-1920*. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 23.</footnote>
By focusing on suspensions and interruptions of the system of indentured immigration, the primary aim was to uncover how they revealed how indenture was administered. The different episodes of suspensions of the system reveal a complex administrative system and the overlapping of the different powers involved. Governance of indenture as a system and of labourers themselves was confronted by multiple actors all across the British Empire: India, the sugar-colonies and London (and in some cases Foreign Powers like France and the Netherlands). As explored during this study the power of India to protect its emigrants was often difficult to put in place because of the power of the West Indian plantocracy and the distance between both parts of the Empire. In other words, from India to the colonies to which immigrants were transported, whether it be to the British empire or not, different overlapping powers tried to control labourers.

Yet, certain areas of this study remain incomplete and should be further explored in future research. The complexity of politics in Guiana during the second interruption and their confrontation towards the imperial power could be an area to be explored more thoroughly. Moreover, the question of French Guiana in general as a colony that received indentured immigrants seems to have been overlooked by historians as it received less labourers than other French colonies such as Martinique and Guadeloupe. Various questions concerning this colony should be further explored. For example, the suspension to French Guiana which remains unclear and merits more attention whether it be by French or Anglophone historians. But also, the resistance of indentured labourers in the colony seems to have not been researched enough.
Finally, the history of indenture is still deeply rooted in embattled politics/memories whether it be in Guyana or all other corners of the globe that received indentured immigration. As a whole, indenture and immigration has impacted the whole Guyanese culture and political scene. The question of memorialisation of indenture, is still in the process of being done today by the descendants of indentured immigrants. Different forms of representation have been used to depict the experience of indenture. The image cover of this dissertation is an illustration by Sancintya Mohini Simpson, an artist who is a descendent of indentured labourers in South Africa now based in Australia. As she puts it her work “navigates the complexities of migration, memory and trauma—addressing gaps and silences within the colonial archive”.<fnref n="234" /> This was one of the objectives behind this research project: to uncover historiographical gaps and silences, in particular the suspensions of the system itself but also to give a modest visibility to the system of indenture and those who were and have been impacted by it, to the readers of this dissertation.

Memorialisation has also been done for example through statues and monuments in Guyana. In memory of the Devonshire Castle revolt (which has been mentioned in the third chapter), a memorial has been built on the old sugar estate. Moreover, the Indian Arrival Monument was completed in 2019, in East Berbice Village, close to the first plantation where indentured labourers were brought to in 1838. The celebration of their arrival can be considered a “compromise” which was necessary for the construction of an Indo-Guyanese identity. Moreover, the resistance of labourers against the system of indenture itself, and the monuments which remember the resistance of slaves on Guyanese plantations, also serve as a way of building a common sense of unity against British colonists.

<footnote n="234">²³⁴ Simpson, Sancintya M. "Sancintya", 2022. https://sancintya.com/about/</footnote>
Other methods of memorialising indenture are in the process of being made, with projects being developed by UNESCO for example. Author Khal Torabully known for his theorisation of “coolitude” has actively participated in making an International Indentured Labour Route Project with UNESCO since 1994. Still, only sites in Mauritius have been recognised by UNESCO, thus leaving on the side the entire West Indies and in particular British Guiana the second British colony to receive the most indentured immigrants. However, in 2014 and 2017 further announcements have been made about the Route Project which should contribute to making Indian indenture and its history more widely known but most importantly participate in reconstructing the history of all those who were displaced under indentureship.

Most importantly, memorialisation is being done by descendants of indentured immigration. In conclusion, indentured immigration has shaped the lives of the Indian diaspora it created all over the globe. Since, their descendants have been in the process of rebuilding the memory of those who were displaced and trying to reconstruct the lives of the subaltern who have left little traces in history. Shadowed by other studies in historiography, indenture and the displacement of labour within the British empire has been overlooked by historians even if this seems to be changing overtime.
# Bibliography.

## Primary Sources:

### British Colonial Papers (CO), National Archives, Kew, London:

- CO 111/21.

- CO 111/163.

- CO 111/164.

- CO 111/215.

- CO 111/250.

- CO 111/275.

- CO 112/31.

- CO 113/1.

- CO 113/2.

- CO 318/162.

### Newspapers:

- *The Antigua Observer*, (Saint-John's, Antigua).

- *The Bengal Hurkaru*, (Calcutta, India).

- *The Bermuda Royal Gazette*, (Hamilton, Bermuda).

- *The British Emancipator*, (London, UK).

- *The British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter*, (London, UK).

- *The Friend of India*, (Calcutta, India).

- *The India Gazette*, (Calcutta, India).

- *The Morning Advertiser*, (London, UK).

- *The Royal Gazette of British Guiana*, (Georgetown, Guyana).

- *The San Fernando Gazette*, (San Fernando, Trinidad).

- *The Times*, (London, UK).
*Command Papers of the British Parliament (unless stated otherwise)*:

Colonial Land and Emigration Coms. Eleventh General Report, Command Papers (1851), XXII.333 (1383).

Correspondence between Secretary of State for Colonies and Governor of British Guiana, respecting Immigration of Labourers, House of Common Papers (1840), XXXIV.121 (151).

Correspondence relative to Emigration of Labourers to W. Indies and Mauritius, from W. Coast of Africa, E. Indies and China (1844) XXXV.297 (530).

Correspondence relating to the condition of Hill coolies and of other labourers, House of Commons Papers (1839) XXXIX.55 (463).

Correspondence relative to the Supply of Labour to W. Indies and Mauritius, House of Commons Papers (1847), XXXIX.115 (325).

Correspondence respecting Discontinuance of Coolie Importation from India to French Guiana, Command Papers (1878), LXVII.425 (C.2053).

Correspondence respecting Disturbance among Indian Emigrants employed on Devonshire Castle Estate, Command Papers (1873), XLIX.935 (C.879).

Despatches on Condition of Sugar-growing Colonies. Part I. British Guiana, House of Commons Papers (1851), XXXIX.1 (624).

Further Papers Respecting East-India Labourers, East India Company. London, 1842.
Letter from Secretary to Government of India to Committee on Exportation of Hill Coolies; Report of Committee and Evidence, House of Commons Papers (1841), XVI.287 (45).

Mr. Geogheghan's Report on Coolie Emigration from India, House of Commons Papers (1874), XLVII.421 (314).

Papers Relative to the West Indies: 1841, Command Papers (1841) XVI.1 (321).

Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Enquire into the Treatment of Immigrants in British Guiana, Command Papers (1871), XX.483, 691, 751 (C.393 C.393-I C.393-II).

Report of the Committee Appointed by the Supreme Government of India, to Enquire Into the Abuses Alleged to Exist in Exporting from Bengal Hill Coolies and Indian Labourers, of various classes, to other countries; together with an appendix, containing the oral and written evidence taken by the Committee and official documents laid before them (Calcutta: G.H. Huttmann, Bengal Military Orphan Press, 1839).

Report of the Committee on Emigration from India to the Crown colonies and protectorates. Part III. Papers laid before the Committee, Command Papers (1910), XXVII.563 (Cd. 5194).

Reports respecting Condition of Coolies in Surinam, Command Papers (1877), LXXVIII.407 (C.1861).

Return of Number of Immigrants and Liberated Africans admitted into British W. India Colonies and Mauritius, 1834-49, House of Commons Papers (1850), XXXIX.283 (228).
Abolitionist pamphlets and books on Guiana:

Beaumont, Joseph. *The New Slavery, An Account of the Indian and Chinese Immigrants in British Guiana*. London: W. Ridgway, 1871.

Barrett, William G. *Immigration to the British West Indies*. London: Gray and Warren, 1859.

Bayley, George D. *Handbook of British Guiana, 1909. Comprising general and statistical information concerning the colony*. Georgetown: « The Argosy » Company, 1909.

Dalton, Henry G. *The History of British Guiana: Comprising a General Description of the Colony; a Narrative of Some of the Principal Events from the Earliest Period of Its Discovery to the Present Time; Together with an Account of Its Climate, Geology, Staple Products, and Natural History*. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1855.

Des Voeux, William G. *My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with interludes*. London: J. Murray, 1903.

Hue, François. *La Guyane Française*. Paris: Lecène, Oudin et Cie., 1892.

Jenkins, Edward. *The Coolie: His Rights and Wrongs*, Caribbean Press 2010 (Guyana, 1871).

Madden, James *The Case of the Free-labour British Colonies*. London: Thompson and Davidson, 1852.

Rivière, Léon. *La Guyane française en 1865 : aperçu géographique, historique, législatif, agricole, industriel et commercial*. Cayenne: Impr. du Gouvernement, 1866.
Rodway, James. *History of British Guiana, from the Year 1668 to the Present Time: 1833-1893, Vol III.* Georgetown: J. Thomson, 1894.

Schœlcher, Victor. *Restauration de la traite des Noirs à Natal*. Paris: E. Brière, 1877.

Scoble, John. *Speech delivered at the Anti-Slavery Meeting in Exeter Hall, on Wednesday, the 4th of April 1838*. London: Central Negro Emancipation Committee, 1838.

—. *British Guiana: facts! Facts!! Facts!!!* London: Johnston & Barrett, 1840.

—. *Hill Coolies: a Brief Exposure of the Deplorable Condition of the Hill Coolies in British Guiana and Mauritius and of the nefarious means by which they were induced to resort to these colonies*. London: Harvey & Darton, 1840.

Sturge, Joseph and Harvey, Thomas. *The West Indies in 1837*. London: Hamilton, Adams, and Co., 1838.

Wallbridge, Edwin A. *The Demerara Martyr: Memoirs of the Rev. John Smith, Missionary to Demerara*. London: Charles Gilpin, 1848.

**Secondary Sources:**

*Article and Books on Indenture:*

Allen, Richard B. "Re-Conceptualizing: The "New System of Slavery"". *Man in India* 92, n° 2 (2012): 225-245.
Anderson, Richard. "The Diaspora of Sierra Leone's Liberated Africans: Enlistment, Forced Migration, and "Liberation" at Freetown, 1808-1863". *African Economic History* 41 (2013): 101–138.

Bahadur, Gaiutra. *Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture*. London: Hurst & Company, 2013.

Brizan, George. "The Colonial Land and Emigration Commission and Immigration to Jamaica 1840–1860". *Caribbean Quarterly* 20, n° 3-4 (1974): 39–58.

Caïlachon, Jack. "L'immigration indienne en Guadeloupe et dans la Caraïbe Française. La même... et une autre qu'à Trinidad! 1848[1853-1889]1923". *Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire de la Guadeloupe*, n° 179 (2018): 67–76.

Callandre, Florence, and Christian Barat. "Traces de l'engagisme de 1933 à La Réunion et à Rodrigues". *Études Océan Indien*, n° 49-50 (2013): 1–28.

Cassels, Nancy G. *Social Legislation of the East India Company: Public Justice Versus Public Instruction*. New York: Sage Publications, 2010.

Chambers, Ian. *Postcolonial Interruptions, Unauthorised Modernities*. London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017.

Cumpston, I. M. *Indians Overseas in British Territories, 1834-1854*. London: Oxford University Press, 1953.

Drescher, Seymour. *Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery*. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Farley, Rawle. "The Rise of the Peasantry in British Guiana". *Social and Economic Studies* 2, n° 4 (1954): 87–103.
Ferreira, Jo-Anne S. "Madeiran Portuguese Migration to Guyana, St. Vincent, Antigua and Trinidad: A Comparative Overview". *Portuguese Studies Review* 14, n° 2 (2006): 63–85.

Ghosh, Kaushik. "A Market for Aboriginality: Primitivism and Race Classification in the Indentured Labour Market of colonial India". In *Subaltern Studies*, (ed.) Gautam Bhadra, Gyan Prakash, and Susie Tharu, 8-46. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Guha, Ranajit (ed.). *Subaltern Studies—I: Writings on South Asian History and Society*. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Green, William A. *British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment, 1830-1865*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.

———. "Emancipation to Indenture: A Question of Imperial Morality". *Journal of British Studies* 22, n° 2 (1983): 98–121.

Harling, Phillip. "Sugar wars: the culture of free-trade versus the culture of anti-slavery in Britain and the British Caribbean, 1840-50" in *The cultural construction of the British world*, (ed.) Barry Crosbie and Mark Hampton, 59-77. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016.

Hartog, François. *Régimes d'historicité, Présentisme et expériences du temps*. Paris: Le Seuil, 2003.

Hassankhan, Maurits S. 'The Indian indentured experience in Suriname. Control, accommodation and resistance 1873-1916', in *Resistance and Indian indenture experience. Comparative perspectives*, (eds.) Maurits S. Hassankhan, Brij V. Lal, Doug Munro, 199-241. New Delhi: Manohar, 2014.

Hoefte, Rosemarijn. *In Place of Slavery, A Social History of British Indian and Javanese Laborers in Suriname*. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998.
——. "Plantations and Labour in the Caribbean in the Long Nineteenth Century". *International Review of Social History* 57, n° 2 (2012): 257–268.

Hossain, Purba. "‘A Matter of Doubt and Uncertainty’: John Gladstone and the Post-Slavery Framework of Labour in the British Empire". *The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History*, 25 novembre 2021, 1–29.

——. "Protests at the Colonial Capital: Calcutta and the Global Debates on Indenture, 1836–42". *South Asian Studies* 33, n° 1 (2017): 37–51.

Jung, Moon-Ho. "Outlawing "Coolies": Race, Nation, and Empire in the Age of Emancipation". *American Quarterly* 57, n° 3 (2005): 677–701.

Kale, Madhavi. *Fragments of Empire: Capital, Slavery, and Indian Indentured Labor Migration in the British Caribbean*. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998.

Koya, Riyad S. "The Regulation, Division, and Multiplication of Emigrant Labor: The Border between Land and Sea in Colonial India, 1834-1922". *Journal of World History* 32, n° 1 (2021): 45–63.

Kumar, Ashutosh. *Coolies of the Empire: Indentured Indians in the Sugar Colonies, 1830-1920*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Lang, Michael. "Evolution, rupture, and periodization", in *The Cambridge World History. Volume 1, Introducing World History, to 10,000 BCE*. (ed.) David Christian, 84-109. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.

Laurence, K. O. *Immigration into the West Indies in the 19th century*. London: Caribbean University Press, 1971.
———. *A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration into Trinidad and British Guiana, 1875-1917*. London: James Curry Publishers, 1994.

———. "Opposition to Indentured Immigration in Trinidad (1845-1917)". *Bulletin de La Société d'Histoire de La Guadeloupe*, n° 138 (2004): 59-78.

Look Lai, Walton. *Indentured Labor, Caribbean Sugar: Chinese and Indian Migrants to the British West Indies, 1838-1918*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.

Mahase, Radica. *Why Should We Be Called ‘Coolies’? The End of Indian Indentured Labour*. London: Routledge, 2020.

Mangru, Basdeo. "The Hincks-Beaumont Imbroglio Partisans Politics in British Guiana in the 1860s". *Boletín de Estudios Latinoamericanos y Del Caribe*, n° 43 (1987): 99-114.

Marsh, Kate. "‘Rights of the Individual’, Indentured Labour and Indian Workers: The French Antilles and the Rhetoric of Slavery Post 1848". *Slavery & Abolition* 33, n° 2 (2012): 221-231.

Martínez, Julia. "The End of Indenture? Asian Workers in the Australian Pearling Industry, 1901-1972". *International Labor and Working-Class History* 67 (2005): 125-147.

Metcalf, Thomas R. *Imperial Connections : India in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860-1920*. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.

Mishra, Amit Kumar. "Indian Indentured Labourers in Mauritius: Reassessing the 'New System of Slavery' vs Free Labour Debate". *Studies in History* 25, n° 2 (2009): 229-251.

Mitra Sudipto and Purba Hossain, "Protests in Print: Resistance against Indian Indentured Labour in Nineteenth Century Bengal", in *The Nation and its*
*Margins: Rethinking Community*, (ed.) Aditi Chandra and Vinita Chandra, 90-109.
Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019.

Mongia, Radhika. *Indian Migration and Empire: A Colonial Genealogy of the Modern State*. Durham: Duke University Press, 2018.

Moore, Brian L. *Race, Power and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana after Slavery 1838-1891*. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1987.

———. “The Social Impact of Portuguese Immigration into British Guiana after Emancipation”. *Boletín de Estudios Latinoamericanos y Del Caribe*, n° 19 (1975): 3-15.

Narain, Frank A. “Historical Information Events & Dates on the Parliament of Guyana from 1718 to 2006”, *Parliament of Guyana*, (2007).

Northrup, David. "Indentured Indians in the French Antilles. Les Immigrants Indiens Engagés Aux Antilles Françaises". *Revue Française d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer* 87, n° 326-327 (2000): 245-271.

Ostrom, Vincent, Charles M. Tiebout, and Robert Warren. "The Organization of Government in Metropolitan Areas: A Theoretical Inquiry." *The American Political Science Review* 55, no. 4 (1961): 831-42.

Page, Sebastian N. *Black Resettlement and the American Civil War*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021.

Patwardhan R.P. and D.V. Ambekar (ed.), *Speeches And Writings Of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Vol. 1 - Economic*. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962.

Pilar Kaladeen, Maria del, and David Dabydeen. “Introduction.” *Journal of Indentureship and Its Legacies* 1, no. 1 (2021): xi–xvi.
Potter, Simon J., and Jonathan Saha. "Global History, Imperial History and Connected Histories of Empire". *Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History* 16, no 1 (2015): 1–37.

Ramnarine, Tyran. "Over a Hundred Years of East Indian Disturbances on the Sugar-Estates of Guyana, 1869-1978: An Historical Review" in *India in the Caribbean*, ed. David Dabydeen, London: Hansib Publishing, 1987.

Roberts, G W. "Some Observations on the Population of British Guiana". *Population Studies* 2, no 2 (1948): 185–218.

Roberts, G W, and J Byrne. "Summary Statistics on Indenture and Associated Migration Affecting the West Indies, 1834-1918". *Population Studies* 20, no 1 (1966): 125–134.

Rodney, Walter. "Plantation Society in Guyana". *Review (Fernand Braudel Center)* 4, no 4 (1981): 643–666.

Roopnarine, Lomarsh. "East Indian Indentured Emigration to the Caribbean: Beyond the Push and Pull Model". *Caribbean Studies* 31, no 2 (2003): 97–134.

——. "East Indian Women and Leadership Roles During Indentured Servitude in British Guiana 1838-1920". *Journal of International Women's Studies* 16, no 3 (2015): 174–185.

——. "Indian Migration during Indentured Servitude in British Guiana and Trinidad, 1850-1920". *Labor History* 52, no 2 (2011): 173–191.

——. *Indo-Caribbean Indenture, Resistance and Accommodation, 1838-1920*. Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2007.

——. "Resistance and Adaptation among Indentured Indian Labourers in British Guiana during Indentureship" in *Resistance and Indian Indenture Experience*
*Comparative Perspectives*, ed. Maurits S. Hassankhan, Brij V. Lal, and Doug Munro, 157-183. New Delhi: Manohar, 2014.

Sahaï, Jude. « De l'immigration tamoule à la Guyane ». *CARBET*, n° 9 (1989): 101-108.

Schmidt, Nelly. "Les migrations de main-d'œuvre dans la politique coloniale française aux Caraïbes pendant la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle". *Le Mouvement Social*, n° 151 (1990): 11-37.

Schuler, Monica. "Kru emigration to British and French Guiana 1841-1857" in *Africans in Bondage: Studies in Slavery and the Slave Trade*, (ed.) Paul E. Lovejoy, 155-201. Madison: African Studies Program, University of Wisconsin, 1986.

Scott, James. "Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance." *Journal of Peasant Studies* 13, no.2 (1986): 5-35.

Sen, Sunanda. "Indentured Labour from India in the Age of Empire". *Social Scientist* 44, n° 1/2 (2016): 35-74.

Sinha, Mrinalini. "Premonitions of the Past". *The Journal of Asian Studies* 74, n° 4 (2015): 821-841.

Spivak, Gayatri C. "Can the Subaltern Speak?" in *Can the Subaltern Speak?: Reflections on the History of an Idea*. (ed.) Rosalind Morris, 13-64. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.

Stanziani, Alessandro. *Bondage: Labor and Rights in Eurasia from the Sixteenth to the Early Twentieth Centuries*. Berghahn Books, 2014.

——. *Labor on the Fringes of Empire*. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018.

Stoler, Ann Laura. *Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense*. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010.
Tinker, Hugh. *A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830-1920*. London: Hansib, 1974.

Online resources:

"Engagisme et immigration", Département de la Réunion 974, Accessed April 9, 2022.

https://www.departement974.fr/sites-culturels/index.php/Archives/pr%C3%A9sentati on-archives/archives-en-ligne-engagisme-et-immigration.html

Gijzen, Hubert. "Indentured Labour Route Project", UNESCO, 2021.

https://en.unesco.org/news/first-inter-ministerial-committee-indentured-labour-route-p roject, Accessed November 20, 2022.

Harris, Arlen. "Oral History Project", Ameena Gafoor Institute, 2020.

https://ameenagafoorinstitute.org/oral-history-project

Hergash, Harry. "The Protectors of the Rights of the Indians under Indentureship in British Guiana", May 6, 2019.

https://www.stabroeknews.com/2019/05/06/features/in-the-diaspora/the-protectors-of -the-rights-of-the-indians-under-indentureship-in-british-guiana/

Oberlé, Michèle M. "Indentured labour from India in 19th century Reunion Island", *Portail Esclavage Réunion*.

https://www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr/en/documentaires/abolition-slavery/after-abo lition/indentured-labour-from-india-in-19th-century-reunion-island/, Accessed April 5, 2022.

Roopnarine, Lomarsh. "Chinese Indentured Servitude in the Atlantic World", *Oxford Bibliographies*, 2018.

https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-978 0199730414-0294.xml

Simpson, Sancintya M. "Sancintya", 2022.

https://sancintya.com/about/
A/Sources of Immigration to British Guiana, 1841-1851.

<caption>TABLE B.</caption>

Showing the Number of Immigrants introduced into British Guiana, under Colonial Bounty and at the Public Expense, from the taking of a Census on the 15th October, 1841, to the taking of a Census on the 31st March 1851.

<table><thead><tr><th>Where from.</th><th>From 15th Oct., 1841.</th><th>1842.</th><th>1843.</th><th>1844.</th><th>1845.</th><th>1846.</th><th>1847.</th><th>1848.</th><th>1849.</th><th>1850.</th><th>To 31st Mar., 1851.</th><th>Total.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>St. Vincent</td><td>2</td><td>41</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>Barbadoes</td><td>178</td><td>176</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>555</td><td>357</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>1,266</td></tr><tr><td>St. Lucia</td><td>....</td><td>25</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>25</td></tr><tr><td>Dominica</td><td>32</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>32</td></tr><tr><td>Antigua</td><td>21</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>Tobago</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Montserrat</td><td>14</td><td>122</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>136</td></tr><tr><td>Nevis</td><td>....</td><td>32</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>32</td></tr><tr><td>St. Kitts</td><td>....</td><td>21</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>Anguilla</td><td>137</td><td>52</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>189</td></tr><tr><td>New Providence</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>37</td><td>....</td><td>167</td><td>71</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>275</td></tr><tr><td>Calcutta</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>584</td><td>1,513</td><td>1,698</td><td>1,449</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>5,244</td></tr><tr><td>Madras</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>233</td><td>2,546</td><td>1,779</td><td>2,096</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>6,654</td></tr><tr><td>St. Helena</td><td>....</td><td>1,112</td><td>86</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>819</td><td>10</td><td>665</td><td>....</td><td>318</td><td>....</td><td>3,010</td></tr><tr><td>Sierra Leone</td><td>....</td><td>148</td><td>239</td><td>378</td><td>1,425</td><td>278</td><td>457</td><td>281</td><td>....</td><td>430</td><td>452</td><td>4,088</td></tr><tr><td>Kroo Coast</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>108</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>108</td></tr><tr><td>St. Thomas</td><td>....</td><td>13</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Madeira</td><td>1,361</td><td>348</td><td>45</td><td>140</td><td>668</td><td>5,975</td><td>3,755</td><td>259</td><td>86</td><td>1,469</td><td>163</td><td>14,269</td></tr><tr><td>Rio Janeiro</td><td>299</td><td>563</td><td>....</td><td>145</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>104</td><td>72</td><td>....</td><td>1,183</td></tr><tr><td>Surinam</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>31</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique and Guada-loupe</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>112</td><td>255</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>....</td><td>367</td></tr><tr><td>Totals</td><td>2,046</td><td>2,655</td><td>550</td><td>918</td><td>3,632</td><td>11,559</td><td>7,807</td><td>4,750</td><td>190</td><td>2,289</td><td>615</td><td>37,011</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Source:** Earl Grey, "On the Population of the Colony of British Guiana, as Enumerated on the 31st of March, 1851. Being the Substance of a Despatch from Governor Barkly, presented to the Society of the Right Hon. Earl Grey, Her Majesty's late Secretary of State for the Colonies" *Journal of the Statistical Society of London* 15, no. 3 1852, 228-249.
B/ Immigration figures to British Guiana and Costs, 1834-1849.

BRITISH GUIANA.

<table><thead><tr><th>WHEN EMIGRATING.</th><th>1834</th><th>1835</th><th>1836</th><th>1837</th><th>1838</th><th>1839</th><th>1840</th><th>1841</th><th>1842</th><th>1843</th><th>1844</th><th>1845</th><th>1846</th><th>1847</th><th>1848</th><th>1849</th><th>TOTAL.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>British West Indies</td><td>-</td><td>157</td><td>607</td><td>698</td><td>653</td><td>-</td><td>809</td><td>2740</td><td>471</td><td>37</td><td>-</td><td>722</td><td>428</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>7,582</td></tr><tr><td>East Indies</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>406</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>816</td><td>4,019</td><td>3477</td><td>3,545</td><td>-</td><td>12,263</td></tr><tr><td>St. Helena</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>1112</td><td>86</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>819</td><td>10</td><td>266</td><td>-</td><td>2,323</td></tr><tr><td>Sierra Leone</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>415</td><td>148</td><td>239</td><td>378</td><td>1425</td><td>278</td><td>457</td><td>755</td><td>-</td><td>4,095</td></tr><tr><td>Kroo Coast</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>108</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>108</td></tr><tr><td>Foreign West Indies</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>174</td><td>713</td><td>314</td><td>37</td><td>2</td><td>51</td><td>13</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>1,304</td></tr><tr><td>Madeira</td><td>-</td><td>420</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>4312</td><td>349</td><td>45</td><td>140</td><td>668</td><td>5,975</td><td>3755</td><td>259</td><td>-</td><td>15,031</td></tr><tr><td>Rio Janeiro</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>91</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>578</td><td>563</td><td>-</td><td>145</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>111</td><td>1,488</td></tr><tr><td>Surinam</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>252</td><td>58</td><td>-</td><td>4</td><td>-</td><td>31</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>345</td></tr><tr><td>Not stated</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>143</td><td>132</td><td>388</td><td>155</td><td>1</td><td>-</td><td>112</td><td>255</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>1,186</td></tr><tr><td>TOTAL</td><td>-</td><td>586</td><td>1124</td><td>1795</td><td>1910</td><td>192</td><td>876</td><td>8096</td><td>2655</td><td>550</td><td>918</td><td>3631</td><td>11,519</td><td>7807</td><td>4,855</td><td>111</td><td>46,625</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Return of Number of Immigrants and Liberated Africans admitted into British W. India Colonies and Mauritius, 1834-49, House of Commons Papers (1850) XXXIX.283 (228).
C/ Chinese Indentured Immigration to the West Indies in 1843.

<table><caption>LIST of LICENCES granted for the conveyance of Chinese Labourers from the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca to Jamaica, British Guiana, and Trinidad.</caption><thead><tr><th>Date of Licence.</th><th>To whom granted.</th><th>Colony:</th><th>Number of Labourers.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="7">1843<br>November 3</td><td>Messrs. Cavan Brothers and Co.</td><td>Trinidad</td><td>300</td></tr><tr><td>Messrs. Reid, Irving, and Co.</td><td>British Guiana</td><td>400</td></tr><tr><td>Messrs. Cavan Brothers and Co.</td><td>British Guiana</td><td>500</td></tr><tr><td>G. Anderson, Esq.</td><td>Jamaica</td><td>400</td></tr><tr><td>Neill Malcolm, Esq.</td><td>British Guiana</td><td>250</td></tr><tr><td>Messrs. Cavan Brothers and Co.</td><td>Ditto</td><td>500</td></tr><tr><td>G. Labalmondiere</td><td>Ditto</td><td>250</td></tr><tr><td>1844<br>January 1</td><td>Messrs. Bosanquet and Naghton</td><td>Ditto</td><td>250</td></tr></tbody><tfoot><tr><td colspan="3"></td><td>2850</td></tr></tfoot></table>

Colonial Office, March 6, 1844.

Source: Correspondence relative to Emigration of Labourers to W. Indies and Mauritius, from W. Coast of Africa, E. Indies and China (1844) XXXV.297 (530).
D/ Comparative Sugar Prices. British West Indies, Cuba & Brazil (1841-1846).

<table><caption>Table 12 Comparative Sugar Prices, 1841-1846 (per cwt.)</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Year</th><th colspan="2">British West Indian</th><th colspan="2">Cuban</th><th colspan="2">Brazilian</th></tr><tr><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1841</td><td>39</td><td></td><td>8 21</td><td>6</td><td>20</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>1842</td><td>36</td><td></td><td>11 20</td><td>1</td><td>18</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>1843</td><td>33</td><td></td><td>9 21</td><td>2</td><td>17</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>1844</td><td>33</td><td></td><td>8 21</td><td>8</td><td>17</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>1845</td><td>32</td><td></td><td>11 26</td><td>4</td><td>20</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>1846</td><td>34</td><td></td><td>5 24</td><td>6</td><td>19</td><td>11</td></tr></tbody></table>

Sources: P.P. 1847-8, LVIII (422); P.P. 1866, LXVI (193).

**Source:** William A. Green, *British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment, 1830-1865* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 219.
E/ Number of Immigrants to the British Caribbean, including Guiana, 1838-1918.

<table><caption>TABLE 2. East Indians introduced into the British Caribbean mainly under indenture, 1838-1918</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Period</th><th colspan="7">Destination of migrants</th><th rowspan="2">Total migrants</th></tr><tr><th>British Guiana</th><th>Trinidad</th><th>Jamaica</th><th>St. Lucia</th><th>Grenada</th><th>St. Vincent</th><th>St. Kitts</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1838</td><td>396</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>396</td></tr><tr><td>1845-50</td><td>12,374</td><td>5,568</td><td>4,551</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>22,493</td></tr><tr><td>1851-55</td><td>9,981</td><td>5,054</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>15,035</td></tr><tr><td>1856-60</td><td>16,206</td><td>11,208</td><td>2,121</td><td>1,215</td><td>944</td><td>260</td><td>—</td><td>31,954</td></tr><tr><td>1861-65</td><td>15,654</td><td>7,474</td><td>2,524</td><td>320</td><td>1,357</td><td>521</td><td>337</td><td>28,187</td></tr><tr><td>1866-70</td><td>22,436</td><td>11,836</td><td>5,279</td><td>—</td><td>269</td><td>1,145</td><td>—</td><td>40,965</td></tr><tr><td>1871-75</td><td>24,355</td><td>11,868</td><td>6,079</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>333</td><td>—</td><td>42,635</td></tr><tr><td>1876-80</td><td>27,374</td><td>12,763</td><td>2,313</td><td>1,184</td><td>458</td><td>213</td><td>—</td><td>44,305</td></tr><tr><td>1881-85</td><td>20,500</td><td>11,551</td><td>966</td><td>925</td><td>172</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>34,114</td></tr><tr><td>1886-90</td><td>20,471</td><td>13,988</td><td>2,135</td><td>554</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>37,148</td></tr><tr><td>1891-95</td><td>21,397</td><td>13,565</td><td>1,651</td><td>156</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>36,769</td></tr><tr><td>1896-1900</td><td>14,780</td><td>7,414</td><td>1,276</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>23,470</td></tr><tr><td>1901-05</td><td>13,177</td><td>12,433</td><td>1,471</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>27,081</td></tr><tr><td>1906-10</td><td>10,592</td><td>12,547</td><td>2,955</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>26,094</td></tr><tr><td>1911-15</td><td>7,304</td><td>4,051</td><td>3,091</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>14,446</td></tr><tr><td>1916-18</td><td>1,912</td><td>2,619</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>4,531</td></tr></tbody><tfoot><tr><td>Total</td><td>238,909</td><td>143,939</td><td>36,412</td><td>4,354</td><td>3,200</td><td>2,472</td><td>337</td><td>429,623</td></tr></tfoot></table>

Source: G. W. Roberts & J. Byrne. "Summary Statistics on Indenture and Associated Migration Affecting the West Indies, 1834-1918". *Population Studies* 20, n° 1 (1966): 132.
F/ Indentured labourers emigrating to French Guiana 1856-1867.

<table><caption>TABLE H.—Showing the Number of Men, Women, and Children Emigrating, &c.—continued.</caption><caption>FRENCH GUIANA.*</caption><thead><tr><th>YEAR.</th><th>Port of Embarkation.</th><th>Men.</th><th>Women.</th><th>Children.</th><th>TOTAL.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1864</td><td>French Ports</td><td>209</td><td>54</td><td>14</td><td>277</td></tr><tr><td>1865</td><td>ditto</td><td>271</td><td>93</td><td>28</td><td>392</td></tr><tr><td>1866</td><td>ditto</td><td>500</td><td>166</td><td>82</td><td>748</td></tr><tr><td>1867</td><td>ditto</td><td>340</td><td>108</td><td>41</td><td>489</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>TOTAL</td><td>1,320</td><td>421</td><td>165</td><td>1,906</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>GRAND TOTAL</td><td>10,800</td><td>4,118</td><td>1,423</td><td>10,341</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Men.</th><th>Women.</th><th>Children.</th><th>TOTAL.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1856</td><td>430</td><td>72</td><td>23</td><td>525</td></tr><tr><td>1860</td><td>513</td><td>276</td><td>135</td><td>1,224</td></tr><tr><td>1861</td><td>374</td><td>109</td><td>50</td><td>533</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Mr. Geogheghan's Report on Coolie Emigration from India, House of Commons Papers (1874), XLVII.421 (314), 80.

<footnote>* A statement lately received gives also the following figures of emigration from Pondicherry to French Guiana. If the emigration thus recorded consisted of British subjects, it can hardly have been legal.</footnote>
G/ Ethnic composition of the British Guyanese population, 1911-1931.

<table><caption>Table 1. Racial composition of the population</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Racial group</th><th colspan="3">Population</th><th colspan="3">Percentage distribution</th></tr><tr><th>1911</th><th>1921</th><th>1931</th><th>1911</th><th>1921</th><th>1931</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>East Indian</td><td>126,517</td><td>124,938</td><td>130,540</td><td>42.7</td><td>42.0</td><td>42.0</td></tr><tr><td>Negro</td><td>115,486</td><td>117,169</td><td>124,203</td><td>39.0</td><td>39.4</td><td>39.9</td></tr><tr><td>Mixed</td><td>30,251</td><td>30,587</td><td>33,800</td><td>10.2</td><td>10.3</td><td>10.9</td></tr><tr><td>Portuguese</td><td>10,084</td><td>9,175</td><td>8,612</td><td>3.4</td><td>3.1</td><td>2.8</td></tr><tr><td>Aborigine*</td><td>6,901</td><td>9,150</td><td>8,348</td><td>2.3</td><td>3.1</td><td>2.7</td></tr><tr><td>European</td><td>3,937</td><td>3,291</td><td>2,127</td><td>1.3</td><td>1.1</td><td>0.7</td></tr><tr><td>Chinese</td><td>2,622</td><td>2,722</td><td>2,951</td><td>0.9</td><td>0.9</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Not stated</td><td>243</td><td>659</td><td>352</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.1</td></tr></tbody><tfoot><tr><td>Total</td><td>296,041</td><td>297,691</td><td>310,933</td><td>100.0</td><td>100.0</td><td>100.0</td></tr></tfoot></table>

Source: G. W. Roberts, "Some Observations on the Population of British Guiana", *Population Studies* 2, n° 2 (1948): 186.

<footnote>* Only Aborigines living in settled areas on the coastland.</footnote>