# Parametric Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Power Modules

Li Fang, Lucas Riondet, Fatimata-Fatim Diarrassouba, Maud Rio, Pierre Lefranc, Jean-Christophe Crébier

► To cite this version:

Li Fang, Lucas Riondet, Fatimata-Fatim Diarrassouba, Maud Rio, Pierre Lefranc, et al., Parametric Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Power Modules. Power Electronic Devices and Components, 2025, 12, pp.100105. 10.34746/epe2025-0287. hal-05082184

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Submitted on 8 Oct 2025

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# Parametric Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Power Modules

Li Fang<sup>a,b,*</sup>, Lucas Riondet<sup>a,b</sup>, Fatimata-Fatim Diarrassouba<sup>b</sup>, Maud Rio<sup>a</sup>, Pierre Lefranc<sup>b</sup>,
Jean-Christophe Crébier<sup>b</sup>

## Acknowledgements

This research work is supported by ANR VIVAE and EECONE and ARCHIMEDES projects, supported by the Chips Joint Undertaking and its members, including the top-up funding by National Authorities under grant agreements 101112065 and 101112295 and BPI France, and funding from Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) under the project ANR-21-CE10-0010-01.

## Keywords

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), Power module, Modelling, Sustainable system, Parameter identification

## Abstract

Power Electronics is a key factor in the electrification of our modern society. In the attempt of massive decarbonation, this fast-growing industry is going to put pressure on the environment. Life Cycle Assessment is used to identify the main impacts of products and services. The paper presents an open-source method to carry on a parametric LCA of power modules to help power electronics designers and engineers assess the environmental impacts of such devices when used in power converters. After recalling how is derived the open access LCI of a type of power modules, the method to implement Parametric LCA for this kind of device is introduced. It is then applied on a specific case study for automotive applications and main LCA results are provided to illustrate the method. The last section is dedicated to introduce several perspectives and applications of Parametric LCA to support ecodesign.

## Nomenclature

EI Environmental Impacts

GHG Greenhouse Gases

LCA Life Cycle Assessment

LCI Life Cycle Inventory

LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment

PLCA Parametric LCA

PE Power Electronics

PM Power Modules

## 1. Introduction

De-carbonation of many of our human activities such as renewable electricity production, but also heating, cooling as well as all types of transportation, are ongoing with massive electrification. Power electronics is a key player for supporting the adaptation of an optimal way to produce electricity subject to various loads. Voltage source inverters are one of the best success stories of power electronics, allowing connecting to the main most renewable energy production systems and to drive 3~ phase motors under variables speed under very high efficiency to address mobility needs, but also industrial and heating and cooling applications. With first order approximations, it is quite easy to forecast the increasing amount of power converters that is going to be produced, used and then wasted over the next decades to reduce our Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions [1].

Facing this, it is urgent to assess and to take into account in our design and development roadmaps the Environmental Impacts (EI) that power electronics may induce. If decarbonation is a must-have, we have to ensure that the induced pressure on material resources, manufacturing pollution and ultimately wastes remain sustainable for our planet with limited transfer impacts. In this perspective, it is important to develop methods and data to assess the variety of EI of any power electronics converter. To carry on this, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a well-matured method. It is based on a precise Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of all what is needed and released in terms of EI over the entire life of a product. For a power converter, made out of numerous different materials, components and assembly

<footnote><sup>a</sup>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, G-SCOP, 38000 Grenoble, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, G2Elab, F-38000 Grenoble, France</footnote>
technologies, the LCI is a critical first step. Then, the LCA activity is another important step in linking the LCI with EI, with the objective of evaluation and analysis to identify options for reducing the EI of a product.

This paper deals with Parametric LCA (PLCA) of power modules, an essential and specific power component, always part of voltage source inverters. The main contribution of the paper is related to (1) Development of a Parametric LCA (PLCA) applied to a power module, (2) Illustration of a PLCA based ecodesign process.

## 2. LCA Approach for ecodesign

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is one of the quantitative methodologies supporting the life cycle and multicriteria vision. The related ISO standard [2] defines LCA as a method to compile the material, energy and waste flows involved during the product life cycle stages and to evaluate the potential environmental impacts of a product system. In this view, several in-depth investigations have been conducted in the Power Electronic (PE) field to assess the environmental impacts of PE converter systems over their entire life cycle using LCAs [3-5]

Before deciding which parameters to optimize, an

identified and defined with the PE design team. This is essential for identifying all potential ecodesign levers across the product's life cycle, as well as recognizing and visualizing potential trade-offs between different environmental aspects occurring at each life cycle stage.

However, the traditional four-step LCA methodology is designed from a post-design evaluation perspective and is inefficient for supporting ecodesign decisions. The LCA process requires the acquisition of vast amounts of heterogeneous data, making it challenging and time-consuming for product designers to generate alternative ecodesign scenarios and repeatedly evaluate the reduction of environmental hotspots using this method.

> The research question to be answered is then:
> How to make LCA a proactive ecodesign tool
> instead of a post-design evaluation?

To address this issue, the authors proposed a Parametric Life Cycle Assessment (PLCA) based ecodesign approach in the previous research [6,7]. This approach involves establishing a parametric model for the reference product (existing or future products). By parameterizing

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1 - Parametric LCA approach applied to the case study (power module for electric vehicles [15]): Simplified schematic compared to classic LCA (top), Detailed Parametric LCA approach for ecodesign (bottom-left), illustration of the case study on which the approach is applied, i.e. power module lifecycle (bottom-right).</figcaption></figure>

overview of the parameters that control the environmental impacts of products (refer as control parameters) should be discussed,

the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data required for the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) before the design process, the PLCA approach
transforms LCA from a post-design evaluation
tool into a design support tool. From a design
standpoint, this approach makes all parameters
that control environmental impacts transparent to
the PE design team. This dynamic transparency of
parameters and environmental consequences
enable more informed decision-making
throughout the PE design process. Closing the
loop between product design and simulation
(Figure 1, top image) enables consideration of the
impact of ecodesign choices on the overall
performance of converter/component
characteristics. This helps avoid decisions that
may result in environmental impact (EI) transfers,
such as reducing the size of a component at the
expense of increased energy losses.

3. Overview of the PLCA
Approach for PE

The PLCA based ecodesign process consists of
three stages : (1) PLCA modeling, (2) Conceptual
design and (3) Detailed design [6]. Figure 1
represents the process of the first two stages.

In this article, we will focus on the presentation
of the first stage - PLCA modeling, then we will
illustrate how the integration of the PLCA model
in the design process can support ecodesigning
from the beginning of the design stage.

**3.1 Step 1: PLCA Modeling**

In the previous research, the authors developed a
PLCA meta-model for PE [6] that identified all
the parameters that control the general life cycle
of power electronics and the mathematical
equations for modeling the life cycle phases:
manufacturing, transport, use, repair, reuse, end-
of-life (formal treatment and informal treatment).
In this research, this general PLCA meta-model
for PE products is implemented in Python using
the Brightway library within the lca_algebraic
environment [8].

The process to adapt the general PLCA model for
the specific PEC ecodesign is detailed in three
steps:

**3.1.1 Determine the Focused Life Cycle Stages**

The initial step involves clarifying the ecodesign
scope in alignment with the PE ecodesign project
objectives. Based on the selected scope, different
life cycle stages may be chosen by the design
team. It is recommended to employ the
comprehensive model encompassing all life cycle

stages to mitigate the risk of problem shifting
between stages and to explore potential
environmental gains, such as those associated
with material reduction (manufacture stage),
efficiency (use stage) or repair and reuse
scenarios (EOL stage). Alternatively, the general
model can be selectively applied to focus
optimization efforts on a specific life cycle stage.
However, it is essential to acknowledge that local
optimization of a single stage may inadvertently
lead to adverse environmental impacts in other
stages, potentially negating the intended
environmental gains.

**3.1.2 Identification of Control Parameters**
**and their Actors**

Upon establishing the ecodesign scope and
selecting the target life cycle phase, a PLCA
meta-model will be derived. The classification of
background and foreground parameters
influencing environmental impacts are suggested
by the PLCA meta-model. The subsequent task
for life cycle engineer is to confirm the
foreground parameters regarding the project
context. The aim is to identify the parameters that
the design team can directly act on (e.g. product
energy efficiency) and those that are beyond their
control (e.g. the electricity mix of the country
where the product is used). This differentiation is
crucial for identifying effective ecodesign levers.
Additionally, the life cycle engineer must identify
the relevant actors for each parameter, including
members of the design team (e.g. for product
design-related parameters) and other value chain
participants (e.g. for process-related parameters).
In addition, several possible changes in PE
converter characteristics induced by selected
parameters must be identified and designers must
check that they are considered in the PE design
and simulation steps.

**3.1.3 Data Collection for PLCA Model**
**Parameter**

The life cycle engineer needs to collect data from
both the PE design team and value chain actors.
The design team is responsible for constructing
the product's functional block diagram. They
must also provide the primary bill of materials for
the technical blocks.

The product-related information provided by the
design team will support the data collection of
foreground parameters. For background
parameters, the life cycle engineer must
coordinate with value chain actors to obtain
process-related data across the product's life cycle stages. These actors may be from other departments within the company (e.g. manufacturing factory, supply chain services, customer service) or external entities (e.g. component manufacturers, distributors, energy providers, repair services, e-waste collectors). If background data is unavailable, assumptions can be made based on Product Category Rules (PCR) and Product Specific Rules (PSR), which provide guidelines for conducting Life Cycle Assessments of electrical, electronic, and HVAC-R products [9].

By following these three steps, the PLCA model for the PE product will be developed, allowing for the simulation of environmental performance across various ecodesign scenarios at all stages of the design process. This PLCA model will then be integrated into the design process to simulate the environmental performance of different design scenarios, enabling designers to generate, control, and monitor the development of ecodesign scenarios.

## 3.2 Step 2: Conceptual design

During the conceptual design phase, various ecodesign scenarios will be generated by redesigning key parameters that significantly influence environmental performance. The potential environmental impacts of these scenarios will be systematically evaluated as well as its associated possible impact transfers. By comparing the different ecodesign scenarios, the most effective design for environmental impacts reduction will be selected for the project, and be implemented in the detailed design phase.

The conceptual design stage consists of the four main stages: LCIA, identification of key design parameters, scenarios generations and scenarios comparisons.

# 4. Illustrative case study with a power module

The object of this study is to identify the contribution of each sub-parts of power modules to the environmental impacts over its lifecycle. Only one configuration will be detailed in this article. However the methodology enables users to test different design configurations. The open-source Python code implementing the PLCA models of the power module is provided in the supplementary materials.

## 4.1 PLCA modeling

### 4.1.1 Determine the Focused Life Cycle Stage

The ecodesign scope: from Cradle to Grave, i.e. including the raw material collection, manufacturing and assembly, usage and finally end-of-life treatments after a lifespan of 15 years.

The functional unit, meaning the reference service to which the environmental assessment results will be reported, is as follows:

> "Regulate the flow of electrical power between the EV battery and traction motor for one phase of a 100kW inverter, for 2h of functioning per day for 15 years and following the mission profile described in the table below".

<table><caption>Table I: Mission profile of the power module</caption><thead><tr><td>Power (W)</td><td>Efficiency (%)</td><td>Usage Share (%)</td><td>Losses (W)</td><td>Converter Energy (Wh)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>100000</td><td>98</td><td>0.05</td><td>100</td><td>5000</td></tr><tr><td>50000</td><td>97</td><td>0.05</td><td>75</td><td>2500</td></tr><tr><td>25000</td><td>96</td><td>0.4</td><td>400</td><td>10000</td></tr><tr><td>10000</td><td>95</td><td>0.3</td><td>150</td><td>3000</td></tr><tr><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0.2</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>

The mission profile considered here as an example is voluntary simplified in order to maintain focus on the methodology.

The reference flow is one power module 1200 V, 150 A.

### 4.1.2 Identify Control Parameters and Actors

The control parameters are classified into foreground parameters and background parameters.

Foreground parameters are those controlled by the product design team: the product's functional requirement providers and the product engineers:

* Manufacturing: the technology, material, and dimensions of components.

* Transport: Product's mass.

* Use: Total operation time, power loss.

* End-of-life: Design's compatibility for recycling, reuse, energy recovery.
Background parameters are those beyond the control of the product design team and are controlled by actors in the value chain:

*   **Manufacturing:** Unit impacts of material extraction, component manufacturing, and product assembly processes.

*   **Transport:** Type of transportation, transport distance.

*   **Use:** Electrical mix, mission profile, usage intensity, maintenance and repair costs.

*   **End-of-Life:** End-of-life collection rate, Unit impacts of EoL treatment processes (e.g. metal/plastic/ electronics scrap recycling, product/subpart reuse, energy recovery, incineration, landfill).

Acquiring more precise data and redesigning the background parameters require the product design team to collaborate with value chain actors for data acquisition, measurement, and decision-making processes.

### 4.1.3 Data Collection for PLCA Model Parameter

In order to carry on the PLCA of the power module, it is first necessary to derive the LCI of the device over its entire file cycle. Four stages are considered and presented below.

#### Manufacturing

Regarding the manufacture stage, which is a complex stage of the LCI, the method used for the inventory is developed in detail in [14]. It is based on the full-element dimensions inventory of a typical power module completed with material definition and processes inventory coming from Chalmers University of Technology [10].

#### Transport

Transport phase includes all the transportation involved in the different life cycle stages, from manufacturing to the end-of-life. In the absence of specific data for the transport stage (distance and transport modes), default values from the Product Category Rules for Electrical and Electronic products [9] were considered. These default assumptions include 19,000 km by boat and 1,000 km by lorry for international transport, 3,500 km by lorry for intercontinental transport, and 1,000 km by lorry for local or domestic transport from the manufacturing stage to end-of-life treatment.

For the manufacturing stage, international transport is assumed to consist of 19,000 km by boat and 1,000 km by lorry. For the end-of-life

stage, based on the French e-waste data [11], it is assumed that 44.3% of the product is treated locally within the French e-waste management system, requiring 1,000 km of transport by lorry. The remaining 55.7% of the product is assumed to be exported, involving 19,000 km by boat and an additional 1,000 km by lorry.

#### Use

Regarding the usage stage, application-related LCI (Life Cycle Inventory) is critical. The mission profile for usage over 15 years is detailed in Table 1. The deduced average power losses in the power module are 485Wh per day, leading to a total energy consumption of about 2,650 kWh over the usage period. Assumptions consider one 100kW three phase voltage source inverter (made out of three inverters leg power modules), 2 hours' drive per day, heavy drive with an average speed of 80km/hour including 50% of energy flow from breaking energy recovery.

#### End of Life

As no available specific data on Power Module's end-of-life, the French E-waste treatment data in 2021 is adopted initially for simulation, which considered power modules follow the waste stream of e-waste [12]. It is assumed that the formal end-of-use collection rate is 44.3%, within which the recycling rate is 75.2%, PE products today is shredded and post-processed, with a very small quantity of the materials being recovered [12]. The Ecoinvent "treatment of waste electric and electronic equipment, shredding" process was employed here since it effectively represents today's EoL treatment of a power converter, and it is also applied in the recent research article on LCA study of an inverter [3]. This dataset describes the energy required and the facilities required in the depollution processes and mechanical treatments. These processes separate the waste into fractions: ferrous materials, aluminum, copper, and residues. The further recycling treatments of these fractions have not been considered in this case study. Additionally, energy recovery through incineration accounts for 9.8% of the end-of-life treatment. Furthermore, in the absence of specific data for the distribution between landfill and incineration without energy recovery, which together account for 13.3% of formal disposal, these processes are estimated to be equally split, with each representing 6.65%. Additionally, the whole product reuse rate is assumed to be 1.8%, with one reuse cycle. In this scenario, the environmental impacts of
product manufacturing allocated to this life cycle are divided by two.

The remaining 55.7% of waste is undocumented and presumed to be informally disposed of. For this project, it is assumed that 100% of informal treatment is exported abroad and processed in waste management systems lacking developed WEEE infrastructure, with 50% incinerated and 50% sent to landfill.

The complete PLCA model, populated with LCI data and the associated hypotheses, for the power module is available via the link in the supplementary materials.

## 4.2 LCIA Results for the reference design

### 4.2.1 Target Environmental Indicators

In the LCIA, the characterization factors of the PEF method are favored. Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of normalized environmental impacts derived from the LCIA, utilizing the EF 3.0 method and the corresponding normalization factors developed by the European Commission (2023) [13]. This figure enables users to select a set of key indicators considering hotspots.

In our case, the set of indicators is composed of the three most contributing indicators; Ecotoxicity: freshwater [CTUe], Energy resources: non-renewable [MJ] and Ionizing radiation: human health [kBq U235-Eq]. The indicator Climate change [kg CO2-eq] is included by default even if the normalization makes its contribution not significant.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2 - Normalized impacts distribution of the power module based on global normalization factors for environmental footprint recommended by the European Commission.</figcaption></figure>

### 4.2.2 Potential Ecodesign Scenarios

PLCA modeling is the first step of the ecodesign process. These LCIA results for the reference product serve as the input for the ecodesign process planned for future work. This section discusses potential ecodesign scenarios that can be further explored by the design team and relevant value chain actors. Parameters can be prioritized based on the impact of their redesign

on global LCA results through a sensitivity analysis, also planned for future work.

**Manufacturing Phase:** Figure 3 shows the distribution of manufacturing impacts across technical blocks, ranked by the average environmental impact distribution (without weighting factors). Ecodesign scenarios could be built for the three control parameters for each technical block:

* Component dimensions

* Component technology

* Unit impact of the component's manufacturing

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3 - Environmental impacts in relative value, for the manufacturing phase, distributed by sub-parts of the power module.</figcaption></figure>

As the 'Chip' and 'Frame and Lid' emerged as two of the most impactful technical blocks (see Figure 3), they were selected as examples for analysis in this study.

For the chip, the data used in this study for the unit impact of wafer production comes from the Ecoinvent V3.10 database, specifically the process flow “wafer production, fabricated, for integrated circuits.” Since this dataset has not been updated since 2000 and does not correspond to the actual type of semiconductor device used in PMs, further investigation to obtain more up-to-date data should be conducted in future studies. Based on up-to-date data, the ecodesign space for the chip’s size (m²) and the materials used for the chip can be explored by the PM design team. It is interesting also to consider the PM ecodesign optimization without the impacts of the power dies themselves. This is left to another illustration.

Regarding the frame and lid, their contribution to the ADP [kg Sb-eq] indicator is entirely due to its antimony content. Antimony trioxide is used as flame retardants in the frame and lid. The amount was calculated following [10]. Further research
could refine this modeling. The quantity of
antimony used or the alternative solution to
replace antimony in the frame and lid are the
potential ecodesign scenarios to be explored.
However, it is important to note that all
dimensional parameters of the current design (e.g.
thicknesses, surface area) are meticulously
optimized to maximize density, reliability, and
efficiency. Therefore, any changes to these
parameters could have a significant impact
transfer and must be carefully assessed, from the
technical and environmental perspectives.

**Use Phase:** The three parameters controlling the use phase are total operation time, power loss, and electrical mix. PE design team could focus on reducing power loss. Although redesigning the use scenario to reduce total operational time could be an option, it would be better to mutualize the automotive to increase its usage phase, making the option to reduce operation time not very attractive. Meanwhile, the stakeholders involved in the background energy system of society need to be engaged to promote the transition to a less impactful electrical mix.

**End-of-Life Phase:** The control parameters for the end-of-life phase are the design's compatibility with recycling, reuse and repair, the end-of-life collection rate that contributes together to the percentages of recycling, reuse, energy recovery, incineration, and landfill, as well as the unit impacts of these processes. To reduce the impact of the end-of-life phase, promoting circularity scenarios that reintroduce the product's residual value into the value chain should be considered. This requires collaboration between the PE design team and value chain actors (e.g. repairer, recycler) to improve the design's compatibility with circularity scenarios, and the efficiency of industrial processes.

One scenario that could enhance the product's
recyclability is to facilitate the disassembly and
separation of the two primary components of
power modules—the lid and the baseplate. To
reduce heterogeneity and improve recycling
efficiency, an effective approach is to prioritize
the use of eyelets instead of adhesives between
these components. While the addition of eyelets
may slightly increase the initial cost, it simplifies
separation and significantly enhances the
recyclability of the product.

4.2.3 Simulation of End-of-life Ecodesign
Scenario

Once ecodesign scenarios are generated by the PE
design team, the PLCA model enables simulation
before implementation. As an example, we will
introduce an ecodesign scenario for redesigning
the end-of-life stage of the product:

A power-module specific recycling scenario is
considered:

* Plastic recycling (100%): Frame and Lid

* Copper recycling (100%): Baseplate, Power terminals, Auxiliary terminals, Screws and washers

* Electronic scraps recycling (80%): DBC, Dies, Wire bondings, solder

* Incineration and landfill (100%): Silicon adhesive and gel

The resulting LCIA comparison is presented in
Figure 4 for the set of selected indicators. The
reference scenario (computed in previous
sections) is compared to a baseline scenario
provided by the French environmental agency
(ADEME) for the WEEE recycling (in blue), and
the proposed specific scenario (in yellow).

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 4 - LCIA comparison for three scenarios of end-of-life treatments</figcaption></figure>

Negative values correspond to avoided pollutant
emissions. For the Material resources [kg Sb-eq]
indicator, this reflects, for instance, the secondary
materials produced through recycling processes.
This LCIA comparison highlights the benefits of
implementing a power module-specific recycling
process, particularly in avoiding significant
environmental impacts and providing materials
back into the system, and confirm the recycling
rate as one of the critical control parameters to be
focused on in ecodesign scenario development.

5. Conclusion

This paper presents the preliminary steps of a
parametric LCA-based ecodesign methodology.
The focus consists of the first step of the
methodology, which involves developing a Parametric Life Cycle Impact Assessment (PLCA) model for a reference product. This methodology is applied to a case study of a power module for electric vehicle applications. An overview of the parameters controlling environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of the power module, along with their responsible actors, is provided. Data for these parameters were collected based on the parametric LCI constructed in the project. Analysis of the LCIA results for the reference product highlights potential ecodesign scenarios that address the control parameters at different life cycle stages. This work on PLCA modeling serves as a foundation for initiating the ecodesign process in the future research, generating ecodesign scenarios, conducting sensitivity analysis to prioritize critical design parameters, and selecting the optimal scenario for detail implementation.

## Supplementary Materials

Fang, L., Riondet, L., Diarrassouba, F.-. fatim., Rio, M., Lefranc, P., & Crebier, J.-C. (2025). Parametric LCA Model for Power Modules [Data set]. 26th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE), Paris. Zenodo.

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