<table><caption>**Table 1** (Continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Location</th><th>Key features</th><th>Applications to other systems</th><th>Unsolved problems</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Dayside magneto-pause reconnection</td><td><strong>Electron scale:</strong><ul><li>Dayside electron diffusion region (EDR) characterized by a perpendicular crescent of electron distribution functions and positive Ohmic energy exchange</li><li>Outer EDR characterized by parallel crescents and negative Ohmic energy exchange, with Hall electron flows leading to magnetic pileup affecting the opening angle (reconnection rate).</li><li>Electron vortex and phase space holes along the magnetospheric separatrix</li><li>EDR detected at the interface of interacting flux ropes or interlinked flux tubes</li></ul><strong>Ion scale:</strong><ul><li>Density asymmetry across the current sheet, leading to the displacement of the flow stagnant point from the X-line, symmetric Hall electric field, and bipolar Hall magnetic field</li><li>Multiple ion components implying the location of the X-line and magnetic field topologies</li><li>Formation of ion-scale secondary islands/flux ropes/flux transfer events (FTEs)</li><li>Coalescence or interaction of secondary islands/flux ropes</li></ul><strong>MHD scale:</strong><ul><li>The extent and orientation of X-lines depend on background magnetic field topologies and a guide field.</li><li>Time-varying upstream conditions lead to the formation of secondary X-lines to adjust the orientation.</li><li>Generation of interlinked flux tubes that evolve their magnetic connectivity via localized reconnection</li><li>Magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling processes caused by unsteady dayside reconnection or FTEs</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Planetary magneto-spheres with the dayside magnetopause across which magnetic shear and density gradient co-exist</li><li>Solar/heliospheric/astro-physical current sheets undergoing asymmetric reconnection with a guide field</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Detailed 3-D topology including the orientation of the X-line(s) with controlling parameters</li><li>Mechanisms determining the generation of primary and secondary X-lines and resultant reconnection rates</li><li>Evolution and fate of various types of flux ropes/flux transfer events generated on the dayside magnetopause via multiple X-lines</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>

**Funding** Open access funding provided by Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

**Declarations**

**Competing Interests** All the authors declare that the work was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as potential conflicts of interest.

**Open Access** This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is
<table><caption>**Table 1 (Continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Location</th><th>Key features</th><th>Applications to other systems</th><th>Unsolved problems</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Flankside magneto-pause reconnection</td><td><strong>Electron scale:</strong><ul><li>Current sheet thinning to electron scales via a velocity shear leading to Vortex-Induced Reconnection (Type-1 VIR)</li><li>Highly swirled field lines via the flow vortex leading to secondary reconnection (Type-II VIR)</li><li>In-situ observations of EDR during VIR</li></ul><strong>Ion scale:</strong><ul><li>X-line drift due to the upstream magnetosheath flow</li><li>Asymmetric exhaust region due to the combined effects of density gradient and velocity shear across the current sheet</li><li>Formation of ion-scale flux ropes along the Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH) vortex boundary</li></ul><strong>MHD scale:</strong><ul><li>In-situ evidence for mid-latitude reconnection that occurs due to a 3-D twist of magnetospheric and magnetosheath fields induced by KH vortices</li><li>The latitudinal extent of both in-plane (VIR) and mid-latitude reconnection that becomes wider with nonlinear KH instability evolution</li><li>VIR-driven turbulence forming a mixing boundary layer and large-scale mass transport beyond the boundary layer toward the central magnetosphere</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Planetary magneto-spheres with the flankside magnetopause across which density gradient and velocity shear co-exist</li><li>Solar/heliospheric/astro-physical current sheets undergoing asymmetric reconnection with a velocity shear</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>The combined effects of density asymmetry, velocity shear, and a guide field (parametric study)</li><li>In-plane (VIR) and out-of-plane (mid-latitude) reconnection occurrence with their combined effect on the solar wind transport</li><li>The propagation of flankside VIR-driven fluctuations and their impact on the central plasma sheet behavior</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Magnetotail reconnection</td><td><strong>Electron scale:</strong><ul><li>Nightside EDR characterized by multiple (perpendicular) crescents, positive Ohmic energy exchange, and large electron vorticity</li><li>Laminar EDR detected during both 2-D laminar and turbulent reconnection</li><li>EDR detected at the interface of interacting flux ropes or at the leading edge of a flux rope (re-reconnection)</li><li>Electron-scale structures embedded within the dipolarization front</li></ul><strong>Ion scale:</strong><ul><li>Existence of multiple ion scales in association with cold and/or heavy ion components</li><li>Ion-scale flapping current sheet enhancing the mixing of demagnetized ions</li><li>Transient structures shown in the exhaust region, such as ion-scale flux ropes and both earthward and tailward dipolarization fronts</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Planetary magneto-spheres with the nightside current sheet along which plasma and magnetic field gradients co-exist</li><li>Solar/heliospheric/astro-physical current sheets undergoing symmetric reconnection</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Onset mechanism of the triggering of reconnection in a marginally stable magnetotail current sheet</li><li>Local or ambient parameters determining the consequences of reconnection (e.g., reconnection rate)</li><li>Causality between reconnection and current sheet flapping</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 1 (Continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Location</th><th>Key features</th><th>Applications to other systems</th><th>Unsolved problems</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Flankside magneto-pause reconnection</td><td><strong>Electron scale:</strong><ul><li>Current sheet thinning to electron scales via a velocity shear leading to Vortex-Induced Reconnection (Type-1 VIR)</li><li>Highly swirled field lines via the flow vortex leading to secondary reconnection (Type-II VIR)</li><li>In-situ observations of EDR during VIR</li></ul><strong>Ion scale:</strong><ul><li>X-line drift due to the upstream magnetosheath flow</li><li>Asymmetric exhaust region due to the combined effects of density gradient and velocity shear across the current sheet</li><li>Formation of ion-scale flux ropes along the Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH) vortex boundary</li></ul><strong>MHD scale:</strong><ul><li>In-situ evidence for mid-latitude reconnection that occurs due to a 3-D twist of magnetospheric and magnetosheath fields induced by KH vortices</li><li>The latitudinal extent of both in-plane (VIR) and mid-latitude reconnection that becomes wider with nonlinear KH instability evolution</li><li>VIR-driven turbulence forming a mixing boundary layer and large-scale mass transport beyond the boundary layer toward the central magnetosphere</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Planetary magneto-spheres with the flankside magnetopause across which density gradient and velocity shear co-exist</li><li>Solar/heliospheric/astro-physical current sheets undergoing asymmetric reconnection with a velocity shear</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>The combined effects of density asymmetry, velocity shear, and a guide field (parametric study)</li><li>In-plane (VIR) and out-of-plane (mid-latitude) reconnection occurrence with their combined effect on the solar wind transport</li><li>The propagation of flankside VIR-driven fluctuations and their impact on the central plasma sheet behavior</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Magnetotail reconnection</td><td><strong>Electron scale:</strong><ul><li>Nightside EDR characterized by multiple (perpendicular) crescents, positive Ohmic energy exchange, and large electron vorticity</li><li>Laminar EDR detected during both 2-D laminar and turbulent reconnection</li><li>EDR detected at the interface of interacting flux ropes or at the leading edge of a flux rope (re-reconnection)</li><li>Electron-scale structures embedded within the dipolarization front</li></ul><strong>Ion scale:</strong><ul><li>Existence of multiple ion scales in association with cold and/or heavy ion components</li><li>Ion-scale flapping current sheet enhancing the mixing of demagnetized ions</li><li>Transient structures shown in the exhaust region, such as ion-scale flux ropes and both earthward and tailward dipolarization fronts</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Planetary magneto-spheres with the nightside current sheet along which plasma and magnetic field gradients co-exist</li><li>Solar/heliospheric/astro-physical current sheets undergoing symmetric reconnection</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Onset mechanism of the triggering of reconnection in a marginally stable magnetotail current sheet</li><li>Local or ambient parameters determining the consequences of reconnection (e.g., reconnection rate)</li><li>Causality between reconnection and current sheet flapping</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 1** (Continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Location</th><th>Key features</th><th>Applications to other systems</th><th>Unsolved problems</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td><strong>MHD scale:</strong><ul><li>Dawn-dusk extent of the magnetotail X-line implied by BBFs</li><li>Current sheet thinning after an earthward-moving dipolarization front, triggering reconnection</li><li>Current sheet flapping with low to high frequency (similar to lower-hybrid frequency)</li><li>Remote sensing of tail reconnection location using both electron and ion dispersion signatures</li><li>Re-reconnection influencing the high-latitude ionospheric currents</li></ul></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

## References

Ahmadi N, Eriksson S, Newman D, Andersson L, Ergun RE et al (2022) J Geophys Res Space Phys 127(8):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JA030702

Akhavan-Tafti M, Palmroth M, Slavin JA, Battarbee M, Ganse U et al (2020) J Geophys Res Space Phys 125(7):e2019JA027410. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JA027410

Alexandrova A, Nakamura R, Semenov VS, Nakamura TKM (2015) Geophys Res Lett 42(12):4685–4693. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL064421

Angelopoulos V, Baumjohann W, Kennel CF, Coroniti FV, Kivelson MG et al (1992) J Geophys Res 97(A4):4027. https://doi.org/10.1029/91JA02701

Angelopoulos V, Runov A, Zhou XZ, Turner DL, Kiehas SA et al (2013) Science 341(6153):1478–1482. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1236992

Archer MO, Turner DL, Eastwood JP, Schwartz SJ, Horbury TS (2015) Planet Space Sci 106:56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2014.11.026

Artemyev AV, Angelopoulos V, Runov A, Petrokovich AA (2016) J Geophys Res Space Phys. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA022779

Artemyev AV, Angelopoulos V, Liu J, Runov A (2017) Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072011

Artemyev AV, Angelopoulos V, Runov A, Petrukovich AA (2019) J Geophys Res Space Phys 124(1):264–278. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA026113

Artemyev A, Lu S, El-Alaoui M, Lin Y, Angelopoulos V et al (2021) Geophys Res Lett 48(6):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL092153

Bai SC, Shi Q, Liu TZ, Zhang H, Yue C et al (2020) Geophys Res Lett 47(5):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085933

Balogh A, Treumann RA (2013) Physics of collisionless shocks. ISSI scientific report series, vol 12. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6099-2

Baumjohann W, Roux A, Le Contel O, Nakamura R, Birn J et al (2007) Ann Geophys 25(6):1365–1389. https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-25-1365-2007

Berchem J, Russell CT (1982) J Geophys Res 87(A4):2108. https://doi.org/10.1029/JA087iA04p02108

Bessho N, Chen L-J, Wang S, Hesse M, Wilson LB (2019) Geophys Res Lett 46(16):9352–9361. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL083397

Bessho N, Chen L-J, Wang S, Hesse M, Wilson LB et al (2020) Phys Plasmas 27(9):092901. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0012443

Bessho N, Chen L-J, Stawarz JE, Wang S, Hesse M et al (2022) Phys Plasmas 29(4):042304. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0077529
<table><caption>**Table 1** (Continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Location</th><th>Key features</th><th>Applications to other systems</th><th>Unsolved problems</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td><em>MHD scale:</em><ul><li>Dawn-dusk extent of the magnetotail X-line implied by BBFs</li><li>Current sheet thinning after an earthward-moving dipolarization front, triggering reconnection</li><li>Current sheet flapping with low to high frequency (similar to lower-hybrid frequency)</li><li>Remote sensing of tail reconnection location using both electron and ion dispersion signatures</li><li>Re-reconnection influencing the high-latitude ionospheric currents</li></ul></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

## References

Ahmadi N, Eriksson S, Newman D, Andersson L, Ergun RE et al (2022) J Geophys Res Space Phys 127(8):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JA030702

Akhavan-Tafti M, Palmroth M, Slavin JA, Battarbee M, Ganse U et al (2020) J Geophys Res Space Phys 125(7):e2019JA027410. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JA027410

Alexandrova A, Nakamura R, Semenov VS, Nakamura TKM (2015) Geophys Res Lett 42(12):4685–4693. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL064421

Angelopoulos V, Baumjohann W, Kennel CF, Coroniti FV, Kivelson MG et al (1992) J Geophys Res 97(A4):4027. https://doi.org/10.1029/91JA02701

Angelopoulos V, Runov A, Zhou XZ, Turner DL, Kiehas SA et al (2013) Science 341(6153):1478–1482. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1236992

Archer MO, Turner DL, Eastwood JP, Schwartz SJ, Horbury TS (2015) Planet Space Sci 106:56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2014.11.026

Artemyev AV, Angelopoulos V, Runov A, Petrokovich AA (2016) J Geophys Res Space Phys. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA022779

Artemyev AV, Angelopoulos V, Liu J, Runov A (2017) Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072011

Artemyev AV, Angelopoulos V, Runov A, Petrukovich AA (2019) J Geophys Res Space Phys 124(1):264–278. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA026113

Artemyev A, Lu S, El-Alaoui M, Lin Y, Angelopoulos V et al (2021) Geophys Res Lett 48(6):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL092153

Bai SC, Shi Q, Liu TZ, Zhang H, Yue C et al (2020) Geophys Res Lett 47(5):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085933

Balogh A, Treumann RA (2013) Physics of collisionless shocks. ISSI scientific report series, vol 12. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6099-2

Baumjohann W, Roux A, Le Contel O, Nakamura R, Birn J et al (2007) Ann Geophys 25(6):1365–1389. https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-25-1365-2007

Berchem J, Russell CT (1982) J Geophys Res 87(A4):2108. https://doi.org/10.1029/JA087iA04p02108

Bessho N, Chen L-J, Wang S, Hesse M, Wilson LB (2019) Geophys Res Lett 46(16):9352–9361. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL083397

Bessho N, Chen L-J, Wang S, Hesse M, Wilson LB et al (2020) Phys Plasmas 27(9):092901. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0012443

Bessho N, Chen L-J, Stawarz JE, Wang S, Hesse M et al (2022) Phys Plasmas 29(4):042304. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0077529
Birn J, Schindler K (2002) J Geophys Res 107(A7):1117. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JA000291

Birn J, Raeder J, Wang YL, Wolf RA, Hesse M (2004) Ann Geophys. https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-22-1773-2004

Bohdan A, Pohl M, Niemiec J, Vafin S, Matsumoto Y et al (2020) Astrophys J 893(1):6. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab7cd6

Borgogno D, Califano F, Faganello M, Pegoraro F (2015) Phys Plasmas. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4913578

Burch JL, Reiff PH, Heelis RA, Winningham JD, Hanson WB et al (1982) Geophys Res Lett 9(9):921-924. https://doi.org/10.1029/GL009i009p00921

Burch JL, Torbert RB, Phan TD, Chen LJ, Moore TE et al (2016) Science 352(6290):aaf2939. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf2939

Cassak PA, Otto A (2011) Phys Plasmas 18(7):074501. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3609771

Chandrasekhar S (1961) Oxford University Press, London

Chang C, Huang K, Lu Q, Sang L, Lu S et al (2021) J Geophys Res Space Phys 126(7):1-11. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029290

Chen XL, Morrison PJ (1990) Phys Fluids, B Plasma Phys 2(3):495-507. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.859339

Chen LJ, Hesse M, Wang S, Bessho N, Daughton W (2016) Geophys Res Lett 43(6):2405-2412. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL068243

Chen ZZ, Fu HS, Wang Z, Liu CM, Xu Y (2019) Geophys Res Lett 46(17-18):10209-10218. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL084360

Cozzani G, Khotyaintsev YV, Graham DB, Egedal J, André M et al (2021) Phys Rev Lett 127(21):1-8. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.215101

Daughton W, Roytershteyn V, Karimabadi H, Yin L, Albright BJ et al (2011) Nat Phys 7(7):539-542. https://doi.org/10.1038/nphys1965

Denton RE, Torbert RB, Hasegawa H, Dors I, Genestreti KJ et al (2020) J Geophys Res Space Phys 125(2):1-28. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019ja027481

Divin A, Khotyaintsev YV, Vaivads A, André M (2015) J Geophys Res Space Phys 120(2):1124-1132. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JA020528

Doss CE, Komar CM, Cassak PA, Wilder FD, Eriksson S et al (2015) J Geophys Res Space Phys 120(9):7748-7763. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JA021489

Dubyagin S, Sergeev V, Apatenkov S, Angelopoulos V, Runov A et al (2011) Geophys Res Lett 38(8):L08102. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL047016

Dunlop MW, Zhang QH, Bogdanova YV, Trattner KJ, Pu Z et al (2011) Ann Geophys 29(9):1693-1697. https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-29-1683-2011

Eastwood JP (2005) Geophys Res Lett 32(11):L11105. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL022509

Eastwood JP, Mistry R, Phan TD, Schwartz SJ, Ergun RE et al (2018) Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL077670

Egedal J, Fox W, Katz N, Porkolab M, Øieroset M et al (2008) J Geophys Res Space Phys 113:A12207. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JA013520

Ergun RE, Goodrich KA, Wilder FD, Ahmadi N, Holmes JC et al (2018) Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1002/2018GL076993

Ergun RE, Pathak N, Usanova ME, Qi Y, Vo T et al (2022) Astrophys J Lett 935(1):L8. https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac81d4

Eriksson S, Lavraud B, Wilder FD, Stawarz JE, Giles BL et al (2016) Geophys Res Lett 43(11):5606-5615. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL068783

Fadanelli S, Faganello M, Califano F, Cerri SS, Pegoraro F et al (2018) J Geophys Res Space Phys 123(11):9340-9356. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA025626

Faganello M, Califano F (2017) J Plasma Phys 83(6):535830601. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377817000770

Faganello M, Califano F, Pegoraro F (2008) Phys Rev Lett 101(10):105001. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.105001

Faganello M, Califano F, Pegoraro F, Andreussi T (2012) Europhys Lett 100(6):69001. https://doi.org/10.1209/0295-5075/100/69001

Faganello M, Sisti M, Califano F, Lavraud B (2022) Plasma Phys Control Fusion 64(4):044014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/ac43f0

Fargette N, Lavraud B, Øieroset M, Phan TD, Toledo-Redondo S et al (2020) Geophys Res Lett 47(6):1-9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086726

Fermo R, Drake J, Swisdak M (2012) Phys Rev Lett 108(25):255005. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.255005

Fu HS, Vaivads A, Khotyaintsev YV, Olshevsky V, André M et al (2015) J Geophys Res Space Phys. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JA021082

Fujimoto K (2016) Geophys Res Lett 43(20):10557-10564. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070810
Birn J, Schindler K (2002) J Geophys Res 107(A7):1117. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JA000291

Birn J, Raeder J, Wang YL, Wolf RA, Hesse M (2004) Ann Geophys. https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-22-1773-2004

Bohdan A, Pohl M, Niemiec J, Vafin S, Matsumoto Y et al (2020) Astrophys J 893(1):6. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab7cd6

Borgogno D, Califano F, Faganello M, Pegoraro F (2015) Phys Plasmas. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4913578

Burch JL, Reiff PH, Heelis RA, Winningham JD, Hanson WB et al (1982) Geophys Res Lett 9(9):921–924. https://doi.org/10.1029/GL009i009p00921

Burch JL, Torbert RB, Phan TD, Chen LJ, Moore TE et al (2016) Science 352(6290):aaf2939. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf2939

Cassak PA, Otto A (2011) Phys Plasmas 18(7):074501. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3609771

Chandrasekhar S (1961) Oxford University Press, London

Chang C, Huang K, Lu Q, Sang L, Lu S et al (2021) J Geophys Res Space Phys 126(7):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029290

Chen XL, Morrison PJ (1990) Phys Fluids, B Plasma Phys 2(3):495–507. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.859339

Chen LJ, Hesse M, Wang S, Bessho N, Daughton W (2016) Geophys Res Lett 43(6):2405–2412. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL068243

Chen ZZ, Fu HS, Wang Z, Liu CM, Xu Y (2019) Geophys Res Lett 46(17–18):10209–10218. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL084360

Cozzani G, Khotyaintsev YV, Graham DB, Egedal J, André M et al (2021) Phys Rev Lett 127(21):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.215101

Daughton W, Roytershteyn V, Karimabadi H, Yin L, Albright BJ et al (2011) Nat Phys 7(7):539–542. https://doi.org/10.1038/nphys1965

Denton RE, Torbert RB, Hasegawa H, Dors I, Genestreti KJ et al (2020) J Geophys Res Space Phys 125(2):1–28. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019ja027481

Divin A, Khotyaintsev YV, Vaivads A, André M (2015) J Geophys Res Space Phys 120(2):1124–1132. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JA020528

Doss CE, Komar CM, Cassak PA, Wilder FD, Eriksson S et al (2015) J Geophys Res Space Phys 120(9):7748–7763. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JA021489

Dubyagin S, Sergeev V, Apatenkov S, Angelopoulos V, Runov A et al (2011) Geophys Res Lett 38(8):L08102. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL047016

Dunlop MW, Zhang QH, Bogdanova YV, Trattner KJ, Pu Z et al (2011) Ann Geophys 29(9):1693–1697. https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-29-1683-2011

Eastwood JP (2005) Geophys Res Lett 32(11):L11105. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL022509

Eastwood JP, Mistry R, Phan TD, Schwartz SJ, Ergun RE et al (2018) Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL077670

Egedal J, Fox W, Katz N, Porkolab M, Øieroset M et al (2008) J Geophys Res Space Phys 113:A12207. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JA013520

Ergun RE, Goodrich KA, Wilder FD, Ahmadi N, Holmes JC et al (2018) Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1002/2018GL076993

Ergun RE, Pathak N, Usanova ME, Qi Y, Vo T et al (2022) Astrophys J Lett 935(1):L8. https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac81d4

Eriksson S, Lavraud B, Wilder FD, Stawarz JE, Giles BL et al (2016) Geophys Res Lett 43(11):5606–5615. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL068783

Fadanelli S, Faganello M, Califano F, Cerri SS, Pegoraro F et al (2018) J Geophys Res Space Phys 123(11):9340–9356. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA025626

Faganello M, Califano F (2017) J Plasma Phys 83(6):535830601. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377817000770

Faganello M, Califano F, Pegoraro F (2008) Phys Rev Lett 101(10):105001. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.105001

Faganello M, Califano F, Pegoraro F, Andreussi T (2012) Europhys Lett 100(6):69001. https://doi.org/10.1209/0295-5075/100/69001

Faganello M, Sisti M, Califano F, Lavraud B (2022) Plasma Phys Control Fusion 64(4):044014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/ac43f0

Fargette N, Lavraud B, Øieroset M, Phan TD, Toledo-Redondo S et al (2020) Geophys Res Lett 47(6):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086726

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## Authors and Affiliations

K.-J. Hwang<fnref n="1" /> Ⓓ R. Nakamura<fnref n="2" /> Ⓓ J.P. Eastwood<fnref n="3" /> Ⓓ S.A. Fuselier<fnref n="1" /> Ⓓ H. Hasegawa⁴ Ⓓ

T. Nakamura⁵,⁶ Ⓓ B. Lavraud⁷ Ⓓ K. Dokgo<fnref n="1" /> Ⓓ D.L. Turner⁸ Ⓓ R.E. Ergun⁹ Ⓓ P.H. Reiff¹⁰

K.-J. Hwang
joo.hwang@swri.org

R. Nakamura
rumi.nakamura@aeaw.ac.at

<footnote n="1">¹ Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences ÖAW, Graz, Austria</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Imperial College, London, UK</footnote>
Torbert RB, Burch JL, Phan TD, Hesse M, Argall MR et al (2018) Science 362(6421):1391-1395. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat2998

Trattner KJ, Mulcock JS, Petrinec SM, Fuselier SA (2007) J Geophys Res Space Phys 112(A8):A08210. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JA012270

Trattner KJ, Fuselier SA, Petrinec SM, Burch JL, Ergun R et al (2021a) J Geophys Res Space Phys 126(4):e2020JA028926. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JA028926

Trattner KJ, Petrinec SM, Fuselier SA (2021b) Space Sci Rev 217(3):41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-021-00817-8

Varsani A, Nakamura R, Sergeev VA, Baumjohann W, Owen CJ et al (2017) J Geophys Res Space Phys 122(11):10891-10909. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JA024547

Vernisse Y, Lavraud B, Eriksson S, Gershman DJ, Dorelli J et al (2016) J Geophys Res Space Phys 121(10):9926-9939. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA023051

Vernisse Y, Lavraud B, Faganello M, Fadanelli S, Sisti M et al (2020) J Geophys Res Space Phys 125(5):e2019JA027333. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JA027333

Wang R, Lu Q, Nakamura R, Baumjohann W, Russell CT et al (2017) J Geophys Res Space Phys 122(10):10436-10447. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JA024482

Wang R, Lu Q, Nakamura R, Baumjohann W, Huang C et al (2018) Geophys Res Lett 45(10):4542-4549. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL076330

Wang S, Chen L, Bessho N, Hesse M, Wilson LB et al (2019) Geophys Res Lett 46(2):562-570. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL080944

Webster JM, Burch JL, Reiff PH, Daou AG, Genestreti KJ et al (2018) J Geophys Res Space Phys 123(6):4858-4878. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA025245

Wei YY, Huang SY, Rong ZJ, Yuan ZG, Jiang K et al (2019) Astrophys J 874(2):L18. https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab0f28

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## Authors and Affiliations

K.-J. Hwang<fnref n="1" /> · R. Nakamura<fnref n="2" /> · J.P. Eastwood<fnref n="3" /> · S.A. Fuselier<fnref n="1" /> · H. Hasegawa⁴ ·

T. Nakamura⁵,⁶ · B. Lavraud⁷ · K. Dokgo<fnref n="1" /> · D.L. Turner⁸ · R.E. Ergun⁹ · P.H. Reiff¹⁰

K.-J. Hwang
joo.hwang@swri.org

R. Nakamura
rumi.nakamura@aeaw.ac.at

<footnote n="1">¹ Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences ÖAW, Graz, Austria</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Imperial College, London, UK</footnote>
⁴ Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Sagamihara, Japan

⁵ Austrian Academy of Sciences ÖAW, Space Research Institute, Vienna, Austria

⁶ Kringen LLC, 732-0828, Hiroshima, Japan

⁷ Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie, CNRS, UPS, CNES, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

⁸ The Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD, USA

⁹ Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA

¹⁰ Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
⁴ Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Sagamihara, Japan

⁵ Austrian Academy of Sciences ÖAW, Space Research Institute, Vienna, Austria

⁶ Kringen LLC, 732-0828, Hiroshima, Japan

⁷ Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie, CNRS, UPS, CNES, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

⁸ The Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD, USA

⁹ Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA

¹⁰ Rice University, Houston, TX, USA