**Introduction**

Museums are fundamental institu-
tions in modern society. They shape
realities, *Zeitgeists* and communi-
ties, representing and reflecting
power dynamics and historical in-
justices. The processes of reparation
in museums are complex, nonlinear
and involve a tangled web of inter-
ests surrounding objects and their
social meanings. This complexity is
especially evident when consider-
ing religious objects, particularly Af-
ro-Brazilian items from *Candomblé*¹
and *Umbanda*² traditions, where the
conventional Western notion of an
“object” is challenged.

In this article, it is explored the case
study of the Collection Nosso Sagra-
do and the multiple intersections
involving its participants. Before
and after the abolition of slavery,
countless objects from Afro-Bra-
zilian religious communities were
forcibly taken and added to collec-
tions in Brazilian museums³. One
particularly complex case involves
a group of 519 afro-brazilian reli-
gious objects seized from various
*Candomblé* and *Umbanda* temples
between 1890 and 1946 in Rio de
Janeiro. These sacred objects, first
designated as cultural heritage in
1938 under the label “Museum of
Black Magic”, were held in the Mu-
seu da Polícia Civil do Estado do
Rio de Janeiro (Museum of the Civil
Police of the State of Rio de Janei-
ro) until 2020. In September 2020,
the sacred objects were transferred
to the Museu da República, where
curatorial responsibilities are now
shared with representatives from
different *Candomblé* and *Umbanda*
communities. The collection was
not only physically relocated but
also symbolically transformed as it

moved from one museological con-
text to another. This shift can be
seen as the construction of a new
narrative for the collection. The in-
itial musealization by the police in
Rio de Janeiro is subverted by the
shared authority of the Museu da
República with *Candomblé* and *Um-
banda* leaders. The objects are thus
“re-musealized” within an ethical
framework that prioritises life⁴and
care.

It is not an easy task to write about
unique cultural manifestations in
Brazil for an international audi-
ence. Translating the complexity of
*Candomblé* and *Umbanda* - cosmo-
visions that offer extremely sophis-
ticated perspectives on reality - is a
significant challenge. The collection
Nosso Sagrado points to crossroads
of interpretation, reevaluation, and,
perhaps, healing regarding the mu-
seum's role in addressing sensitive
aspects of contemporary society.

Examining the non-linear museali-
zation process of these “objects” re-
veals how the agency surrounding
the collection enables new inter-
pretations, even with the same ma-
terial foundation. This dynamic of
intention and perception, both ma-
terial and immaterial, as displayed
in the museum’s exhibits, is the fo-
cus of the present analysis accord-
ing to the Collection Nosso Sagrado.
How do the possibilities for museo-
logical reparation emerge through
decentralisation? In what ways can
agency be distributed? How can
museums become spaces for ex-
perimenting with participation and
shared authority?
## The history of the Collection Nosso Sagrado

Before examining the group of sacred objects itself, it is essential to recognize that Brazil was the first, largest, and most enduring slave-based society in the Americas. The social inequalities and racial hierarchies established during slavery persisted after abolition, permeating both legal and cultural spheres.⁵ Brazilian museums are closely linked to this legacy of slavery, directly or indirectly.⁶

As noted by Julio Braga, police repression of *Candomblé* cannot be reduced to a societal reaction against a religious practice of marginalised classes. It was an ambitious effort to undermine a form of citizenship that existed outside the Western ideological framework.⁷ Since the colonial period, religious practices with African roots were persecuted and repressed – referred to as *calunду*⁸ and punished by the Catholic Church as heresy. In the Imperial period, the 1824 Constitution did not recognize Afro-Brazilian practices as religions but as sects.⁹

It is also worth noting that in Imperial Brazil, the Polícia da Corte was responsible for confiscating various objects from Afro-Brazilian religions. Afro-Brazilian temples, known as ‘Zungus’ and ‘Casas de dar fortuna’, were invaded, with people being arrested and religious objects looted. Between 1880 and 1887, during the last decade of slavery in Brazil, the director of the Museu Nacional, Ladislau Netto, negotiated with the police to have some of these looted objects transferred to the museum for study. A total of 93 objects, violently taken from various *terreiros*,¹⁰ were brought to the

museum to ‘contribute to the advancement of ethnological studies.’ These objects now form part of the “Kumbukumbu” collection at the Museu Nacional.¹¹

Analysing Collection Nosso Sagrado involves acknowledging the pervasive impact of institutionalised racism in Brazilian society, deeply tied to its historical context. As Luiz Augusto Alves writes, the 1890 Brazilian Criminal Code, which predated the first Republican Constitution of 1891, criminalised “magic,” “witchcraft,” and “sorcery”. Despite the 1891 Constitution establishing a secular state, this Criminal Code was used to target and violate Afro-Brazilian religious communities and their heritage. In 1912, the Rio de Janeiro Police Academy was established to identify criminal artefacts, creating a museum of crime that included bladed weapons, gambling paraphernalia, and sacred objects from Afro-Brazilian temples. In 1934, the museum underwent reorganisation, and the collection of objects was named the “Museum of Black Magic”. In 1938, it became the first collection officially recognized as ethnographic heritage by SPHAN.¹²

Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum, Mãe Nilce de Iansã, Mário Chagas and Maria Helena Versiani recount that the objects were seized during police raids on various *Candomblé* and *Umbanda* temples between 1890 and 1946. Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum, the *Iyalorixá* of Ilê Omolu Oxum, stated: “This is not a collection. These are our sacred things. They were stolen from us”.¹³

The authors explain that these objects were stripped of their original, essential meanings twice: first, by
being violently removed from their
temples and, second, by being dis-
missed as mere criminal evidence
by the police. The sacred objects
were stored in boxes, inaccessible
even to researchers, for many years.
In 2017, the campaign “Liberte Nos-
so Sagrado” led by Candomblé and
Umbanda leaders and supported by
academics, politicians, museologists
and museums was launched. This
campaign resulted in the collection
being transferred to the Museu da
República in September 2020, amid
the COVID-19 pandemic. Mario Cha-
gas, the museum director from 2017
to 2024, emphasised that receiving
the sacred objects was not an act of
favour but a social responsibility –
an expression of care and an active
response to the racism embedded in
Brazilian history.¹⁴

In 2017, Pamela de Oliveira Pereira interviewed Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum about the photos of imprisoned objects documented by Yvonne Maggie in the Museu da Polícia. During the interview, Mãe Meninazinha highlighted several errors, including misnaming entities and incorrect identification of certain objects.¹⁵ Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum emphasises that the collection was stolen by the police and the Brazilian State, an action taken against the *terreiros*. Pereira, in her text, highlights this contradiction or inversion of roles. Who, in fact, is the criminal? What, in fact, is the crime?¹⁶

In her doctoral thesis, Pamela de Ol-
iveira Pereira writes that for 8 dec-
ades the sacred objects remained
under the Museu da Polícia as “Mu-
seum of Black Magic”, however
some religious objects, and here spe-
cifically in afro-brazilian cosmovi-

sions, are people, they have agency
and life. Since the late 1980s, there
have been efforts to reclaim the re-
ligious objects, and since 2014 other
museums were open to receive the
objects, such as Museu Nacional and
Museu do Ingá. The author contin-
ues to state that different religious
leaders had different perceptions of
Nosso Sagrado, to Mãe Meninazinha
de Oxum the very perception of
“collection” is questionable due to
how they were obtained, and to the
Balalawô Ivanir dos Santos none of
the museums should had the collec-
tion, instead a new museum should
be created for the afro-brazilian re-
ligions.¹⁷

The group of the shared curator-
ship has the following terreiros: Ilê
Omolu Oxum; Instituição Filant-
rópica Abassá Lumyjacarê; Asso-
ciação Espírita Senhor do Bonfim
Oxalá Kupapa Unsaba/Bate Folha;
Comunidade de Terreiro Afro-Indí-
gena Casa do Perdão; Ilê Omon Oya
Legy; Ilê Axé Omiojuaro; Templo do
Vale do Sol e da Lua; Associação Be-
neficente Ilê Axé Ofá/Axé Iyá Nasso
Oká Ilê Oxum/Sociedade N. Sra. das
Candeias; Ilê Axé Iyá Omí Layó Egbé
Obá Aganju; Tenda Espírita Cabob-
lo Flecheiro Cobra Coral; and Tenda
de Umbandista Caboclo Urucutum e
Pai Zacarias. Alongside the museo-
logical staff of Museu da República,
the role of the museum is to medi-
ate the sacred experience with the
material and immaterial integrity
of the pieces.

In the first meeting between the
Museu da República and the reli-
gious leaders, three conditions for
the preservation the collection were
established:
1. The objects must be received through the lens of reparation. It is understood that the preservation of the collection advocates for religious freedom, life and memory of afro-brazilian religious traditions;

2. The guard of the collection must be shared. The museum recognizes that the specificities of this collection require orientations of *Iyalorixás, Babalorixás* and other leaders beyond museological theories and practices;

3. The passage from Museu da Polícia Civil to Museu da República must be led primarily by the *terreiro* communities, with the museum serving in a supporting capacity throughout the process.

On March 21st 2023, the name of the
collection was officially changed to
Nosso Sagrado.¹⁸

Although it is not the focus of this
paper, it is worth noting the histor-
ical context of the Museu da Repú-
blica. The museum building, Palácio
do Catete, was constructed by Antô-
nio Clemente Pinto, Baron of Nova
Friburgo (1795–1869), one of the
wealthiest men in 19th-century Bra-
zil. According to Rodrigo Marretto,
the Baron participated in the trans-
atlantic slave trade between 1827
and 1830, a period when the trade
of enslaved people was legal in Im-
perial Brazil.¹⁹ During these four
years, he brought 3.074 men, wom-
en, and children from West Africa
to be sold in the slave trade and to
work on his plantations. In 1854,
he was granted the title of “Baron”
and continued to purchase enslaved
people until the year of his death in

1869. At that time, he owned 2.180
enslaved people across his planta-
tions, most of whom worked in cof-
fee production.²⁰

The Palácio do Catete, built between 1858 and 1866, served as the official residence and office of the Brazilian president from 1897 to 1960. In 1960, it was converted into the Museu da República. As a *lieux de mémoire*,²¹ the Museu da República has become a place where collective memory is revisited, reflected upon, and reframed. It now operates under a new museological ethic that opposes the objectification of Afro-Brazilian communities and their cultural heritage.

Analysis of three pieces of the collection

The following analysis highlights the specific needs and careful attention required for the documentation and custody of these sacred objects. This analysis is based on cross-referencing various readings, conference presentations, and interviews with Mario Chagas and Maria Heleena Versiani. When the objects were entrusted to the Museu da República, various terreiro leaders advised Mario Chagas to care for them with respect and affection, as though they were still within the terreiro.

The representation of Nosso Sagra-
do collection, now managed through
a shared curatorship process, intro-
duces a new dynamic in the social
construction of Brazilian history.
By presenting three examples of
pieces from the *Nosso Sagrado* col-
lection, we aim to illustrate possible
methodologies for participation and
shared curatorship between tradi-
tional museums and communities
historically targeted by religious racism. Through the establishment of shared authority and by challenging the historical silencing of these communities by national institutions, the leadership of Candomblé and Umbanda groups creates opportunities to explore new realities through musealization.

Although the collection was received by the leaders of the terreiros at the Museu da República in September 2020, it has yet to be fully exhibited to the public. There has been an online page in Google Arts and Culture²² and a small exhibition in the museum gardens, but the exhibition is scheduled to open in March 2025. For nearly two years, the exhibition has been in development, with a collaborative curatorial effort involving leaders from Candomblé and Umbanda. A dedicated team has been overseeing the exhibition's organisation, museography, and curatorial narrative.

Alongside the exhibition, the Museology School of the Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO) has partnered with the Instituto de Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional (IPHAN) to document the collection's pieces over time and publish a comprehensive dossier of the collection. This initiative is conducted in close collaboration with the religious leaders who are part of the collection's shared curatorship. The research emphasizes values of democratic society and religious freedom, while also recognizing the foundational role of African heritage in shaping Brazilian culture.

The collection comprises 519 pieces, 126 of which have been recognised as cultural heritage by IPHAN, with

88 requiring restoration. All restoration and preservation efforts will proceed with the consent of the terreiro leaders. Notably, in addition to the collection's items, Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum chose to donate two personal objects: a metal abebé and a fio de contas. These objects were gifted by the Iyalorixá out of her own free will and agency, not taken through force or repression. Her donation contrasts with historical instances of police seizure and represents a shift in the relationship between Afro-Brazilian religious communities and the state, as embodied by the Museu da República.²³ This article examines the musealization process of three pieces from Nosso Sagrado, highlighting the collection's complexity, richness, and how its re-musealization represents a museological reparative and healing process.

## 1. Exu Ijelú/ Exu Lalú/ Caboclo Lalú (fig. 1)

Although documented by the police as Caboclo Lalú, however different leaders recognize the object also as the head of Exú Ijelú.²⁴ As a result, the museum now documents the piece under both names, recognizing the importance of addressing the transformations that the piece has gone through while being part of the museum collection. The terreiro leaders' authority influences the documentation process. Exú, as the one who comes first and is honoured first, played a key role: Exú Ijelu was the first item prepared for transfer from the Museu da Polícia and the first box opened at the Museu da República, following sacred protocols.
<figure><img src="image_71.png" /></figure>

The object belonged to Luzia Cardoso, a 28-year-old domestic worker and religious leader who organized meetings as part of the practices of these spiritual traditions at the Centro Espírita Nossa Senhora da Conceição e São Jorge in Engenho Velho. On October 8th 1934, during one of these religious gatherings, the temple was raided by the police following complaints about “health concerns”. It is important to highlight the complicity of orthodox medicine, which, driven by racist motivations, sought to suppress afro-religious healing practices. Luzia was arrested and some of the temple’s objects were looted by the police as “evidence of the crime”. Among these was the clay head of Exú Ijelu/Caboclo Lalu. The name “Lalu”, from a line in *Umbanda*, refers to the entity Luzia was invoking at the time of the raid. Pai Roberto Braga and Mãe Palmira de Oyá identify the head as Exú Ijelu. However, as Pai Thiago de Ogum emphasises, the inherent diversity and flexibility within Afro-Brazilian religious tra-

ditions allow for varied interpretations of entities. Consequently, Exú Ijelu and Caboclo Lalu should not be viewed as fixed or absolute representations.²⁵

The possibilities of a sacred experience of Nosso Sagrado also points at the museological sensibilities of how to respectfully and carefully address these different social readings with attentive ethics. The prescriptive nature of museums is here put in crossroads. Because the sacred objects have their own agency, the experience leads to a new dynamic, a in-betweenness, a turning point in how these museological relationships can be addressed through other cosmovisions.

It is also important to underline that the ambiguity of Nosso Sagrado is not the relativization of afro-brazilian religious as serious cosmovisions, but rather a museological compromise with the multiplicity and diversity that each *terreiro* has and how they express their understanding of material culture.

<caption>**Fig. 01:**
Exu Ijelú/Exu Lalu/Caboclo Lalu, source: Nosso Sagrado/Museu da República. Photo by Oscar Liberal. Mãe Luzia Cardoso. Centro Espírita Nossa Senhora da Conceição e São Jorge (Rua Araújo Leitão, 86, fundos, Engenho Novo). Year of Apprehension: 1934.</caption>
## 2. São Jorge (fig. 2)

Another piece in the collection is a small sculpture of São Jorge slaying the dragon. It's important to note that in the context of *Umbanda*, São Jorge differs from his role in Catholicism. As many other catholic saints in Brazil, it acquired different meanings in *terreiros*. As *Umbanda* and *Candomblé* were violently repressed, its practitioners often used catholic figures to represent orixás and entities from their spirituality. This double meaning that catholic figures held, is a perfect exemplification of Brazil's syncretism and it evidences how its development is also attached to a history of violence and religious prejudice.

This distinction led to the police seizing representations of São Jorge during raids. In many Umbanda practices, São Jorge is syncretized with Ogun, and the sculpture often allows for the simultaneous worship of both the orixá²⁶ and the saint. However, a similar sculpture

in a church wouldn't have been targeted by the police at that time. It was seized from a *terreiro* because, within the *Umbanda* context, the object takes on a different social and religious meaning. Under the influence of an Afro-Brazilian religious community, São Jorge is framed in a cosmology beyond Christian or Western interpretations, making him a target of religious racism.

In Brazil, a sculpture of São Jorge would not be looted by the police from a Catholic church, but within a *terreiro*, the sculpture acquires a distinct significance, becoming a different object. The context and agency of Afro-Brazilian religions reconfigure the object both materially and symbolically. The experience of São Jorge, as well as Ogun, situates the sculpture within a relational framework, enabling the signifier (the sculpture) to embody multiple meanings (São Jorge, Ogun, or both), without the imposition of a prescriptive or direct museological interpretation.

<figure><img src="image_72.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 02:**
São Jorge, source: Nosso Sagrado/ Museu da República. Photo by Oscar Liberal. Yet no provenance identified.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_73.png" /></figure>

### 3. Fios de Conta (fig. 3)

Fio de Contas are religious objects worn by axé communities. The Contas are specific to each person's religious path and how they learned with their own terreiros. As part of the Collection Nosso Sagrado there are some Fios de Contas, which were broken or torn. They are documented as in the photography above, in small transparent bags. If in the museological perspective the material integrity of the object is compromised, as the sacred guiding says, that the Contas should not be repaired. According to the guidance provided by the terreiro leaders, they have completed their spiritual journey and should be respected accordingly, just as within the religious framework.

<caption>**Fig. 03:** Fios de Conta, source: Nosso Sagrado/Museu da República. Photo by Oscar Liberal. Yet no provenance identified.</caption>

Fio de Contas cannot be reused, as it is understood that they have fulfilled their mission.²⁷ This is another example of how the museological practice that deals with these collections needs to consider the im-

material aspect of the object, going beyond the pure historical value of the piece.

The process of negotiating is expressed by Versiani and Chagas as:

> 'Nosso Sagrado' connects a community of meanings, which shares values, affections, common interests, and a certain universe of religious practices, preservation, research, and communication. Museological practices and theories know little about Nosso Sagrado. Thus, to heal and care for Nosso Sagrado, in its multiple dimensions, the guidance of iyalorixás and babalorixás, as well as the caretakers of Axé, is indispensable.²⁸

The community of meanings and sensibilities is shown as a museological ethical standing regarding the social responsibilities of the museum staff and the historical reparation that this process demands.
## Creative Passages in Museums

Museums operate at the intersection of the material and symbolic worlds. Museology, as a discipline, simultaneously addresses cultural objectification and human experience. Early European museums, modern descendants of the 17th-century Cabinets of Curiosities, were exclusive temples of encyclopaedic knowledge, accessible only to an elite, primarily white men. Embedded within the colonial and imperial framework, these museums perpetuated Western dominance worldwide.²⁹

The defining characteristic of the first European museums was their power to symbolise the nation publicly and “educate” visitors with authority.³⁰ For example, the British Museum, established by the British Parliament in 1753 and opened to the public in 1759, set a new standard for communicating universal knowledge to the masses through its collection.³¹ In essence, museums became a tool for the State to assert power over modern societies. From the 19th century onwards, cultural institutions were systematically organised to civilise the population according to bourgeois values.³²

The Western obsession with representation has been widely discussed by academics such as Heidegger and Derrida. In this context, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak argues that Europe's construction as the Subject of history led to the creation of the cultural Other through episodic violence and the erasure of non-European subjectivities. This intellectual discourse, representing

postcolonial territories, becomes intertwined with Western economic interests.³³ Museums play a critical role in this Western narrative by representing the cultural Other through museological displays.

This experience, referred to here as “musealization” in museological theory, is central to contemporary debates and reevaluations. Musealization is not merely a representation of reality; it can construct reality itself. Museums do not just inform our worldview indirectly; they create a curated reality for visitors, arranging objects to convey a narrative. Museums shape social perception and function as ritualised performances of realities people participate in. Assigning, reassigning, or removing social value from an object places it within a new dynamic, preparing it to be publicly viewed and communicated. However, this process is complex and ongoing, dependent on the agencies controlling it rather than being an autonomous and immutable force.

Bruno Brulon describes musealization as a “creative passage” - a ritual performed by the museum, transforming objects into a sacred realm that exists simultaneously in ordinary and new realities.³⁴ In essence, museological exhibitions shape identity. As Ivan Karp and Steven Lavine note, when cultural “others” are involved, exhibitions convey who we are and, more importantly, who we are not. Exhibitions become privileged spaces for constructing images of self and ‘other’.³⁵

This creative passage can also crystallise experiences of domination. Museums, as they spread through colonial and imperial processes, became guardians of an “official histo-
ry” endorsed by the State, often silencing marginalised communities. They are ideological instruments in society, despite their professed objective and neutral stance. Museums hold the power to determine whose voices are heard and whose are silenced.

As Donald Preziosi argues, we cannot escape museums because the modern world is the “supreme museological artefact”, consuming everything displayed for visitors to experience. For Preziosi, European museums of the Enlightenment “consume” time through their objects, and through this unique relationship, they fabricate memory metonymically:

Museology and art history are instrumental ways of distributing the space of memory. Both operate together on the relationships between the past and the present, subject and objects, and collective history and individual memory. These operations are in aid of transforming the recognised past in the present into a storied space wherein the past and present are imaginatively juxtaposed, where their virtual relationships cannot be construed as succession and profession; cause and effect. Where, in other words, the illusion that the past exists in and of itself, immune from the projections and desires of the present, may be sustained.³⁶

Understanding museums as standpoints for our societal narrative and collective memory means acknowledging their material and symbolic responsibility. Therefore, it is crucial to contest musealization

processes, especially when they involve social inequality or historical violence.

The concept of musealization, as proposed by George Stocking, suggests that musealized objects exist in different dimensions. They originate from the past but are timeless, crossing temporal boundaries and encompassing both the values assigned to them in new contexts and their original meanings.³⁷ Museums are inherently political spaces. Carol Duncan and Alan Wallach argue that museums “transform ideology in the abstract into living belief”.³⁸ They often serve political agendas, including reinforcing racism in Brazilian society.

The analysis of museums as spaces of magic and devotion, despite their apparent contradiction with the Enlightenment paradigm of modern science, becomes more expansive with the inclusion of non-Western perspectives. The involvement of *terreiro* leaders as authority figures in Nosso Sagrado introduces the Museu da República to a new dimension of democratic use, accessibility, and social function - a process that is both political and poetic, animated by the transformative power of *axé*.

The notion of enchantment, as described by Luiz Rufino and Luiz Antonio Simas, is both a poetic and political stance that connects nature, the visible and the invisible across different temporal and spatial dimensions. According to the authors, the opposite of life is not death but rather disenchantment. Disenchantment represents a form of de-vitalization, silencing and a colonial politics of scarcity.³⁹ Through collaboration and negotiation, the objects
in Nosso Sagrado are re-enchanted
and revitalised by a new approach
to musealization.

The practice of enchantment in
Nosso Sagrado is a collective and
collaborative effort that establishes
a new material and symbolic con-
dition, ensuring the continuity of
axé within the pieces. Through the
partnership between terreiro lead-
ers and the Museu da República,
this re-enchantment marks the be-
ginning of a transformative phase
for both the collection and Museol-
ogy as an academic discipline. Nos-
so Sagrado envisions a museology
shaped by diverse cultural matrices
- a new path for the field that fosters
dialogue between different systems
of knowledge and, most important-
ly, redistributes the authority over
the musealization process to new
agents.

This shared authority, as understood
in Nosso Sagrado, grants agency not
only to terreiro leaders but also to
the enchanted objects themselves.
It reflects a musealization process
rooted in the intersection of diverse
epistemologies - a creation that is
both poetic and political. These
museological crossroads are not a
rigid set of practices but rather a
collaborative creation that enables
constructive and non-violent com-
binations of social meanings. By
combining the expertise of museol-
ogists with the traditional philoso-
phies of mães and pais de santo, the
process decentralises the specialist's
role, fostering structural changes in
the museum's relationship with so-
ciety.

The enchantment, central to this
process, signifies a paradigm shift,
challenging the modern and ra-
tional legacy of museums. Nosso

Sagrado reimagines the possibili-
ties of what a museum can be and
how historical violences can be ad-
dressed and re-signified. The West-
ern institution is fundamentally
transformed by the presence and
agency of previously marginalised
actors. The collective actions of Nos-
so Sagrado subvert the colonial and
museological separation between
subject and object. The objects' vi-
tality is acknowledged and respect-
ed by the institution. As previously
noted, the then-director Mario Cha-
gas was instructed to care for them
as if they were in a terreiro.

The creative passage of museali-
zation is also positioned at a cross-
road. The collection stands out not
only because it has been musealized
by the Museu da República but also
because it was co-musealized with
 terreiro leaders. The creative pas-
sage is enriched by the sophisticated
perspectives of Candomblé and Um-
banda. Their enchanted worldviews
provide the tools to confront new
challenges and bring about mean-
ingful change, as a new social herit-
age is collectively being created.

The journey of the Nosso Sagrado
collection illustrates how the values
assigned to museum collections can
change over time. Initially seized
as evidence of a crime, the collec-
tion of Candomblé and Umbanda
artefacts was later reclassified as
ethnological objects of supposed
significance and now as an ongoing
process of care, respect and healing.
This evolving categorization reflects
the dynamic nature of museological
value as mediated by the institutions
that preserve these collections.
## Conclusion

Musealization is not a straightforward or absolute process. The museological practice can simultaneously address both the semantic and pragmatic dimensions of an object. The transition from the Museum of Black Magic to Collection Nosso Sagrado - from a musealization marked by violence and prejudice to one characterised by shared authority - signals a transformation in the status of these sacred objects. This shift enables the collection to exist beyond the confines of modern objectification.

Shared curatorship redefines traditional museological authority, opening up new possibilities for agency. The collaboration between museum staff and the leaders of Candomblé and Umbanda has expanded the epistemological framework of the museum, resulting in a new, co-created praxis. The complexity of Collection Nosso Sagrado is acknowledged by the museum, creating a need to reconfigure its musealization in alignment with the sacred worldview of *terreiros*.

The “re-musealization” of Nosso Sagrado invites us to reconsider the various social relationships that surround museological objects and to transform the contexts in which they are situated. The agencies involved in this process are not merely representing *Candomblé* and *Umbanda* cultural heritage but are actively reshaping the social realities of Afro-Brazilian communities. This creative transformation reverses the traditional museological approach; instead of the objects being adapted to fit the museum’s framework, the museum adapts its practices to accommodate Nosso Sagrado.

The musealization process of Nosso Sagrado is, here, understood as a “re-musealization” precisely due to the presence of the agents around the process of researching, documenting, preserving and communicating. In her Master Dissertation, the museologist Silvia Patoja elaborates on the concept of musealization not as a chain or line, but rather as a confluence. Based on the concept of “confluence” by Quilombola leader Nego Bispo, Silvia Patoja proposes that the museological scientific processes be understood as a non-linear circular continuum.⁴¹

The museological practice in relation with the *terreiros* leaders can be also understood as a Rhizome. The multiplicity of agencies around the Collection is an ecosystem of social meanings. Nosso Sagrado is not only between institutions but also with the entities present within the sacred objects. The multiplicity such as in the concept of the Rhizomes can be understood, as Deleuze and Guatarri write, as roots which grow in a lateral, circular, non dichotomous and non-binary movement.
The rhizomorphic form is struc-
tured around the connections made
with different semiotic universes
without the aim of reaching uni-
versal form, thus decentralising the
principle of unity. The multiplicity
of the Rhizome doesn't have a sub-
ject or object, but different fibres
that hold together a system of varia-
ble dimensions.⁴²

The musealization and creative
process in Nosso Sagrado reconfig-
ures traditional museum practices
through dialogue and collective ac-
tion. The distinction between sub-
ject and object fades, as the sacred
nature of the objects is honoured
through shared authority. The rhi-
zomatic experience of Nosso Sagra-
do enables both poetic and political
engagement, relying on active com-
munity participation. This exempli-
fies Social Museology, which high-
lights how museums can function
as tools for democratic action in
contemporary society.

The connection between Social Mu-
seology and the remusealization
of Nosso Sagrado is evident during
Mario Chagas’s directorship of the
institution.⁴³ In Brazil, Social Muse-
ology stands as a social movement
beyond academics and universities
standpoints. Social Museology is a
museology with a strong social and
ethical purpose, focused on fighting
social injustices and inequalities
through museum practices. Social
museology is consciously opposed to
the western and normative museol-
ogy. It is a practice and theory work-
ing memory as a tool for liberation
and in service of life.⁴⁴ Social Muse-
ology opens new pathways for un-
derstanding the museum as a space
open for cultural diversitiy, which
creates new relations through our

material culture.

Social Museology works by recog-
nizing the value in the memory of
subaltern communities and how it
can be used as a form for political
resistance. The museological rep-
resentation of oppressed commu-
nities and the collaboration with
these communities allows new rad-
ical museum practices. The experi-
ence of Nosso Sagrado also points to
a Social Museology practice made
possible within a traditional muse-
um, such as Museu da República.

Nosso Sagrado, as a flow of inten-
tion and perception, challenges
the hegemonic museum paradigm.
The profound transformation it
brings establishes a new framework
around shared curating and healing
processes for sensitive museological
collections, while promoting shared
authority within museums.

Nosso Sagrado represents a histor-
ical turning point in museology. It
cultivates an alternative universe of
museum practices, emphasising cu-
rating as a healing process. It invites
us to rethink what museums can be-
come and how they can facilitate
negotiation. It envisions a museum
that embraces responsible and at-
tentive citizenship while fulfilling a
vital social function.

Axé!
## Endnotes

1 Candomblé is a religion structured in the African Diaspora in Brazil. Candomblé Ketu, Jêje and Angola are recreated expressions of traditional African religions brought to Brazilian territory during the transatlantic slave-trade. The temples of Candomblé are conducted by the priestess or priest, referred to as Iyalorixá or Babalorixá, existing in an autonomous and independent hierarchy. The Candomblés in Brazil could also be understood in the context of other African Diasporic religions in the Americas due to slavery, such as the Cuban Santeria and the Haitian Voodoo.

2 Umbanda is a Brazilian religion expressed largely in the syncretism of Spiritism, Candomblé, Catholicism and Indigenous traditions. Umbanda temples are autonomous and independent, having their own leaders referred to as mãe de santo or pai de santo. Different from Candomblé, in most Umbanda practises, Exús, Pombagiras, Pombogiras, the Christian God, catholic saints, angels and caboclos are worshipped, as well as orixás.

3 Lody 2005. About museological collections with stolen objects from Candomblé and Umbanda see “Coleção Afro do Xangô de Pernambuco”, Museu do Estado de Pernambuco; “Coleção Perseverança”, Instituto Histórico e Geográfico de Alagoas; “Coleção Estácio Lima”, Museu Afro-Brasileiro-UFBA; and the “Acervo Afro-Pernambucano”, Centro Cultural São Paulo.

4 A direct reference to the 2017 Declaration of Córdoba (MINOM, ICOM): “A museology that doesn’t serve life, is worthless”; see Declaración de Córdoba 2017.

5 Fisher, Grinberg, Mattos 2018.

6 The Brazilian Slavery period lasted from 1500 up to 1888, being the last country in the Americas to abolish it.

7 Braga 1995, pp. 19-20.

8 About *calundu* see Reis 1988: Marcussi 2015; Ferreira 2016.

9 Gama 2018.

10 “Terreiro” is a broad term to refer to Candomblé and Umbanda temples.

11 Cabral 2017; Soares, Lima 2013. The Kumbukumbu Collection and Nosso Sagrado are distinct collections, but they share similar historical aspects in how they were formed.

12 Alves 2023. SPHAN - Serviço do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional, now IPHAN - Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional.

13 Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum *et al.* 2021.

14 Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum *et al.* 2021.

15 Pereira 2017, p. 100-101.

16 Pereira 2017, p. 54.

17 Pereira 2023, p. 69.

18 Versiani, Chagas 2024.

19 In 1831, the first law against transatlantic slavery was published, Lei Feijó. However transatlantic slave trade continued up to 1850, when it was repressed by Lei Eusébio de Queiroz, leading to a higher internal slave trade concentrated around the coffee plantations in Vale do Paraíba, being abolished in the whole country in 1888.

20 Marretto 2020.

21 Nora 1997.

22 About the online exhibition of Nosso Sagrado see https://artsandculture.google.com/story/nosso-sagrado-museudarepublica/mwWx9m6ZCuqk5A?hl=en.

23 Pereira 2023, pp. 92-98.

24 “Exu Ijelú - Exu, Legbara and Nzila are the messengers between the human and
the divine, respectively of the Ketu, Jeje and Angola nations. Vital Force that streamlines movement, path and communication”; Google Arts & Culture, n.d.

25 Versiani, Chagas 2024.

26 Divine Yorubá entities present in Candomblé and Umbanda.

27 Pereira 2023, p. 95.

28 Versiani, Chagas 2024 (Translated by the authors).

29 Brulon 2022, pp. 46-47.

30 Poulot 2013, pp. 62-63.

31 Brulon 2023, p. 105.

32 Sauvage 2010, p. 205.

33 Spivak 1988.

34 Brulon 2018, p. 201.

35 Karp, Lavine 1991, p. 15.

36 Preziosi 1998, p. 61.

37 Stocking 1985, p. 4.

38 Duncan, Wallach 1978.

39 Simas, Rufino 2020.

40 Versiani 2018.

41 Pantoja 2022, p. 37.

42 Deleuze, Guattari 1987.

43 In July 2024, Mario Chagas was dismissed as director of the Museu da República by IBRAM, citing misalignment with the institute's direction. The dismissal sparked strong reactions from academics and the press. While the link between his dismissal and the museum's receipt of a collection remains unclear, Chagas's leadership was instrumental in acquiring and collaboratively curating it with religious communities. Appointed via IBRAM's 2017 national selection, Chagas proposed implementing Social Museology to transform the museum, acknowledging its hegemonic and historical significance.

44 Chagas, Gouveia 2014.

## References

Alves 2023: Alves, L. G., *Da Coleção Magia Negra ao Acervo Nosso Sagrado: nuances entre o saque, o tombamento e a reparação*, in “Revista AbeÁfrica”, 2023, 8, 8, pp. 228-261.

Braga 1995: Braga J., *Na Gamela do Feitiço: Repressão e resistência nos candomblés da Bahia*, Salvador, EDUFBA, 1995.

Brulon 2018: Brulon B., *Passagens da Museologia: a musealização como caminho*. in “Museologia e Patrimônio”, 2018, 11, 2, pp. 189-210.

Brulon 2022: Brulon B., *Museums and their borders: teaching and learning from experimental museology: Decolonising Museology*, in “ICOM/ICOFOM Study Series”, 2022, p. 45 – 57.

Brulon 2023: Brulon B., *Pensar os Museus: mito, histórica e tradição*. Rio de Janeiro, NAU Editora, 2023.

Cabral 2017: Cabral C., *Da polícia ao museu: formação da coleção africana do Museu Nacional na última década da escravidão*, Masters Dissertation - Universidade Federal
Fluminense Niterói, 2017.

Chagas, Bogado 2017: Chagas M., Bogado D., *A museologia que não serve para a vida, não serve para nada: o Museu das Remoções como potência criativa e potência de resistência*, Rio de Janeiro, Casa de Rui Barbosa, 2017.

Chagas, Gouveia 2014: Chagas M., Gouveia I., *Museologia Social: reflexões e práticas (à guisa de apresentação)*, in “Cadernos do CEOM, Museologia Social”, 2014, 27, 41 p. 9-22.

Declaración de Córdoba 2017: Declaración de Córdoba, XVIII Conferencia Internacional de MINOM. *La museología que no sirve para la vida, no sirve para nada, MINOM-ICOM, 2017*, https://www.minom-icom.net/files/minom_2017_declaracion_de_cordoba_espport-fr-ing_0.pdf.

Deleuze, Guattari 1987: Deleuze G., Guattari F., *A Thousand Plateaus*, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1987.

Duncan, Wallach 1978: Duncan C., Wallach A., *The Museum of Modern Art As Late Capitalist Ritual: An Iconographic Analysis*. in “Marxist Perspectives”, 1978, pp. 28-51.

Ferreira 2016: Ferreira E. O., *O santo de sua terra na terra de todos os santos: rituais calundu na Bahia colonial*, in “Afro-Ásia”, 2016, 54, pp. 103-150.

Fisher, Grinberg, Mattos 2018: Fisher, B., Grinberg, K., Mattos, H., *Direito, Silêncio e Racialização das Desigualdades na História Afro-Brasileira*, in “Estudos Afro-Latino-Americanos: Uma Introdução”, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, CLACSO, 2018.

Gama 2018: Gama E., *Lugares de memória do povo-de-santo: patrimônio cultural entre museus e terreiros*. Doctoral Thesis - Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, 2018

Google Arts & Culture n.d.: Google Arts & Culture, *Nosso Sagrado Building a fraternal heritage*, n.d., https://artsandculture.google.com/story/mwWx9m6ZCuqk5A.

Karp, Lavine 1991: Karp I., Lavine S., *Culture and representation*, in “The poetics and politics of museum display”, Washington and London, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.

Lody 2005: Lody, R., *O Negro no Museu Brasileiro: construindo identidade*, Rio de Janeiro, Bertrand Brasil, 2005.

Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum *et al*. 2021: Mãe Meninazinha de Oxum, Mãe Nilce de Iansã, Versiani, M. H., Chagas, M., *A chegada do Nosso Sagrado no Museu da República: “a fé não costuma faiá”*, in Primo J., Moutinho M. C. (eds.), *Sociomuseologia: para uma leitura crítica do Mundo*, Lisboa, Edições Universitárias Lusófonas, 2021, pp. 73-102.

Marcussi 2015: Marcussi A. A., *Cativeiro e cura: experiências religiosas da escravidão atlântica nos calundus de Luzia Pinta*, Doctoral Thesis, São Paulo, Universidade de São Paulo, 2015.

Marretto 2020: Marretto R., *Tráfico de escravos e escravidão na trajetória do Barão de Nova Friburgo - século XIX*, in “Revista Maracanan”, 2020, n. 25, pp. 272-306.

Nora 1997: Nora P., *Les lieux de mémoire*, vol. 1, Paris, Quarto-Gallimard, 1997.

Pantoja 2022: Pantoja, S. R. S., *Mulheres negras visualizadas e ignoradas: uma análise de narrativas expográficas no Museu de Arte de Belém (MABE)*, Masters Dissertation, Salvador, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 2022.

Pereira 2017: Pereira P. O., *Novos olhares sobre a coleção de objetos sagrados afro-brasileiros sob a guarda do museu da polícia: da repressão à repatriação*, Masters Dissertation, Rio de Janeiro, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, 2017.

Pereira 2023: Pereira, P. O., *“Respeitem o Nosso Sagrado”: técnicas em museus e saberes tradicionais em negociação*, Doctoral Thesis, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 2023.

Poulot 2013: Poulot D., *Museu e museologia*, Belo Horizonte, Autêntica Editora, 2013.
Preziosi 1998: Preziosi D., *Avoiding museocannibalism*. in XXIV Bienal de São Paulo, Núcleo Histórico: Antropofagia e Histórias de Canibalismos. São Paulo, Fundação da Bienal de São Paulo, 1998, p. 57-63.

Reis 1988: Reis J. J., *Magia jeje na Bahia: a invasão do calundu do Pasto de Cachoeira, 1785*, in "Revista Brasileira de História", 1988, 8, 16, pp. 57-81.

Sauvage 2010: Sauvage A., *To be or not to be colonial: Museums facing their exhibitions*, in "Culturales", 2015, 6, 12, pp. 97-116.

Simas Rufino 2020: Simas L. A., Rufino L., *Encantamento: sobre política de vida*, Rio de Janeiro, Editora Mórula, 2020, https://morula.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Encantamento.pdf.

Soares, Lima 2013: Soares M., Lima R., *A Africana no Museu Nacional: história e museologia*, in Agostini C. (ed.), *Objetos da Escravidão: abordagens sobre a cultura material da escravidão e seu legado*, Rio de Janeiro, 7 Letras, 2013, pp. 337-360.

Spivak 1988: Spivak G., *Can the Subaltern Speak?*, in Nelson C., Grossberg L. (eds.), *Marxism and Interpretation of Culture*, London, Macmillan, 1988.

Stocking 1985: Stocking G., *Essays on museums and material culture*, in Stocking G. (eds.), *Objects and Others: essays on museums and material culture*, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1985, pp. 3-14.

Versiani 2018: Versiani M. H., *Criar, ver e pensar um acervo para a República*, Rio de Janeiro, Garamond, 2018.

Versiani, Chaga 2024: Versiani M. H., Chagas M., *Laroiê! Caminhos abertos para o Nosso Sagrado*. in Santos M. S., Fernandes A. P. A., Cid G. S. (eds.), *Lugares de memórias difíceis no Rio de Janeiro*, Rio de Janeiro, Editora Mórula, 2024, pp. 94-104.
<figure><img src="image_74.png" /></figure>

Pedro Marco Gonçalves, Arantxa Ciafrino
Nosso Sagrado, enchantment and the passage of time

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.3034-9699/21595
<figure><img src="image_75.png" /></figure>
# Tirer les ficelles
## Usage et réparation de collections en tension
### Noémie Etienne

**Keywords:**

*Museums, Conservation, Puppets, Fluidity, Activation, Circulation, Solution, France, Cameroon.*

## ABSTRACT:

The restitution of colonial collections is often hampered by a recurring argument: that of conservation. According to this rhetoric, only Western museums have the necessary expertise to conserve material heritage, thereby imposing the idea that museums elsewhere should adapt and conform to international standards. In recent years, however, this perspective has been challenged by a growing recognition of the diversity of conservation traditions and practices. In this article I would like to highlight an additional dimension: the appropriate flexibility of European museums in managing and loaning cultural heritage. The case of the puppets in the North of France will serve as an illustration of this dynamic. I will stress the importance of understanding the fluidity of museum practices worldwide and of moving beyond the often assumed epistemological opposition between, for example, 'African museums' and 'European museums'. Rather than reinforcing this divide, I will highlight the diversity and adaptability of different museum models, drawing on examples from France and Cameroon. For example, I will highlight cases where museums have found innovative solutions to allow different users to access their collections. In this context, repair emerges as both a material and immaterial practice, involving the physical transformation, activation, and circulation of collections.

La restitution des collections coloniales est souvent entravée par un argument récurrent : celui de la conservation. Selon cette rhétorique, seuls les musées occidentaux auraient l'expertise nécessaire à la conservation du patrimoine matériel, imposant ainsi l'idée que les musées d'ailleurs devraient s'adapter et se conformer aux normes internationales. Ces dernières années, cependant, cette perspective a été remise en question par la reconnaissance croissante de la diversité des traditions et des pratiques de conservation. Dans cet article, j'aimerais mettre en lumière une perspective supplémentaire : la flexibilité des musées européens dans la gestion et le prêt du patrimoine culturel. Le cas des marionnettes du Nord de la France servira d'illustration à cette dynamique. Je soulignerai l'importance de comprendre la fluidité des pratiques muséales dans le monde et de dépasser l'opposition épistémologique souvent supposée entre, par exemple, les « musées africains » et les « musées européens ». Au lieu de renforcer ce clivage, je mettrai en évidence la diversité et l'adaptabilité des différents modèles de musées, en m'appuyant sur des exemples en France et au Cameroun. Je soulignerai les cas où les musées ont trouvé des solutions innovantes pour permettre à différents utilisateurs d'accéder à leurs collections. Dans ce contexte, la réparation apparaît comme une pratique à la fois matérielle et immatérielle, impliquant la transformation physique, l'activation et la circulation des collections.

**Opening Picture:**

Fig. 10: Fabrication des marionnettes Ché Cabotans d'Amiens, atelier Michel Petit.

© Céline Brégand, 2022. Je remercie Céline Brégand pour la mise à disposition des images.

### Noémie Etienne

Noémie Etienne is Professor of Art History and Cultural Heritage at the University of Vienna. Her first book, The Restoration of Paintings in Paris (1750-1815), was published in 2012 and subsequently translated into English (2017). Her second book, The Art of Dioramas, was published in 2020 (French) and 2021 (English). She is currently leading an ERC research project entitled «Global Conservation: Histories and Theories, 17th-21st Centuries», and is editing a book on life casts. More broadly, her research is concerned with the changing materiality of art and institutions.
“Tout a commencé avec une image”, me dit au téléphone la metteuse en scène Sylvie Baillon, durant l’été 2024. “Celle de marionnettes suspendues dans les réserves, emballées dans du plastique. Je me suis dit : il faut faire quelque chose”.¹ Cette vision a débouché sur une collaboration réalisée dix ans plus tôt (2014) entre le Musée de Picardie à Amiens, au Nord de la France, et l’ancienne directrice de la Compagnie de marionnettes *Le Tas de Sable – Chés Panses Vertes*. Il s’agissait de mettre en relation des marionnettes conservées dans les dépôts du musée avec des artistes d’aujourd’hui (fig. 1). La préparation de ce projet a duré deux ans et a donné lieu à de nombreuses négociations. Il a fallu déterminer quelles étaient les marionnettes anciennes destinées à être réutilisées. En retour, les artistes ont fait connaître leurs préférences, qui ne s’alignaient pas toujours avec celles de leurs collègues des musées.

Dans cet article, je pose les questions suivantes : comment concilier conservation et usage des collections? Le musée peut-il permettre de nouvelles pratiques de réparation, en dehors du paradigme classique de la conservation muséale occidentale? Je montre que la conservation des collections et le rétablissement des liens entre les personnes et les objets passent notamment par des pratiques de soin partagées.

Depuis plusieurs dizaines d'années, les artistes, activistes et universitaires mettent en crise le modèle du musée présenté comme encyclopédique et universel.² Ce modèle de musée serait garant de la conservation des œuvres d'art. Cet argument est lié à l'histoire des Lumières et

au projet du Louvre, destiné à accueillir et préserver les œuvres de l'Europe, quoique celles-ci aient été en partie spoliées durant la Révolution française et l'époque napoléonienne. Aujourd'hui, ce discours est largement dénoncé comme visant à s'approprier le patrimoine international et à délégitimer les demandes de restitution. L'universel dont il est question serait une fiction, utilisée pour exporter un modèle eurocentré (et non véritablement international).³ En partant de ces discussions, qui datent déjà des années 1990, je souligne la pluralité des modèles de musées existants. En prenant le cas des marionnettes, je montre que des solutions multiples ont été trouvées depuis des décennies dans les musées pour permettre une conservation active et polyphonique.

En effet, il existe de nombreuses formes de musées, en Europe comme ailleurs. Dans ce contexte, la marionnette pose des questions spécifiques.⁴ Sa situation à la croisée de plusieurs typologies (beaux-arts, art décoratif, jouets, ethnographie) a favorisé l'invention de solutions innovantes pour sa conservation.⁵ Dans les réserves des musées de marionnettes, on trouve des objets très divers, qui pourraient être conservés ailleurs, comme dans les musées ethnographiques (voir fig. 6). Ainsi, j'émets l'hypothèse que la marionnette peut servir de point de départ à une réflexion plus générale sur la fonction des musées, permettant de fracturer l'apparente cohésion du modèle patrimonial occidental. Il existe une pluralité de projets et de perspectives, déterminés par les collections mais aussi par les relations entretenues entre les acteurs et actrices. Des "musées - bibliothèques" existent déjà, notamment au Ca-
<figure><img src="image_76.png" /></figure>

Cameroun, dans le projet des musées communautaires. Comme dans les bibliothèques, les œuvres peuvent être sorties du musée et empruntées sous certaines conditions, pour y être retournées par la suite. Je suggère que ce modèle vient offrir des perspectives concrètes pour une conservation encore plus dynamique des collections.

Cette recherche est basée sur une série d'entretiens menés avec différents marionnettistes, artistes, conservateurs et conservatrices de musée en Europe (France et Suisse) et en Afrique (Cameroun). J'ai aussi échangé avec des conservateurs-restaurateurs et conservatrices-restauratrices de ces pays. Dans certains cas, comme à Lyon, j'ai pu mener l'enquête sur place. Dans d'autres, comme au Cameroun, ma collègue Maeva Pimo a recueilli les informations. Les personnes interrogées ont été identifiées dans la mesure

où elles sont engagées dans une réflexion sur la conservation.⁶

Les exemples choisis ne prétendent pas être exhaustifs. La vision des interlocuteurs et interlocutrices leur est évidemment propre. Cet article rappelle qu'il n'y pas d'uniformité institutionnelle ou épistémologique et pas de "musée européen" opposé au "musée africain", dans la gestion du patrimoine. Des modèles alternatifs sont déjà en place. Ils sont formalisés par des documents juridiques et des protocoles. Il importe de ne pas les invisibiliser pour continuer à penser le futur des institutions.

## Tête d'oiseau et œil crevé : les marionnettes au centre des négociations

En 2014, la compagnie *Le tas-des-sable. Chez Panses Vertes* a invité une série de marionnettistes, d'auteurs et d'autrices à réactiver des marionnettes qui se trouvaient alors au musée de Picardie à Amiens. La conservatrice des collections à l'époque a opéré une sélection en fonction de l'état des collections.⁷ Les objets proposés aux artistes ont été classés par catégories. Le marionnettiste Guillaume Lecamus se rappelle qu'ils étaient entourés de petits fils colorés lors de leur présentation. Ces fils étaient porteurs d'un code couleur : le fil vert signifiait que les objets pouvaient être utilisés, le fil orange qu'ils étaient fragiles, et le fil rouge qu'ils n'étaient pas destinés à être manipulés. Ce classement témoigne d'une évaluation des collections en fonction des critères du musée. Il s'agissait de présenter les artefacts mais aussi d'orienter les marionnettistes.

**Fig.01:** Guillaume Lecamus performant avec les marionnettes du Musée de Picardie à Amiens. © Véronique Lesperat Hecquet, 2014. Je remember Guillaume Lecamus pour la mise à disposition des images.
<figure><img src="image_77.png" /></figure>

02-03

Mais tout n'a pas fonctionné comme prévu. Immédiatement, Lecamus est interpellé par un objet. Malheureusement, celui-ci est entouré du fil rouge. En théorie, l'objet est donc hors de sa portée. La poupée avait perdu un œil. Il lui manquait des éléments, et notamment des vêtements (figg. 2-3). Elle était patinée et portait des traces de manipulation. Comme il l'indique, c'était précisément cet état de conservation altéré qui l'avait attiré vers cette marionnette, baptisée *Tête d'oiseau* en raison de ses caractéristiques matérielles.⁸ Pour les collègues du musée, toutes ces traces interdisaient son usage. Néanmoins, cette logique a opéré à l'inverse et attiré l'artiste. S'ensuivirent alors des discussions sur la possibilité et la légitimité de manipuler quand même cet artefact. Finalement, Lecamus a pu utiliser la marionnette qu'il souhaitait. Du point de vue du performeur, c'était un succès : "Nous avons tout

<figure><img src="image_78.png" /></figure>

obtenu", déclare l'artiste (fig. 4).

D'autres négociations ont eu lieu dans différents théâtres et musées de France. Le Théâtre Le Guignol de Lyon conserve près de 260 marionnettes anciennes (fig. 5). Emma Utges, qui dirige La Compagnie M.A. en charge du théâtre, m'explique qu'elles peuvent être manipulées, mais aussi transformées, repeintes, re-sculptées ou ré-habillées (sauf les très anciennes). Elle effectue aussi elle-même les réparations, recolle les nez fracturés, etc. La marionnette n'est pas perçue comme un artefact figé, authentique et intact, mais comme une matière en évolution. Pour elle, la possibilité de modifier les collections fait partie du sens de l'objet et a été prévue dès sa conception. Les guignols sont souvent construits en bois de tilleul, un bois souple qui résiste peu aux chocs. Le guignol est fait pour cette capacité à se détruire, à se casser, à se remodeler.

<caption>**Fig. 02:** Artistes non-identifiés, marionnette rebaptisée *Tête d'oiseau*, conservée au Musée de Picardie à Amiens. Technique mixte. © Véronique Lesperat Hecquet, 2014.</caption>

<caption>**Fig. 03:** *Marionnettes* proposées à la sélection pour le projet. © Guillaume Lecamus, 2014.</caption>
<figure><img src="image_79.png" /></figure>

En revanche, les entretiens ont révélé certaines tensions avec l'institution muséale de référence à Lyon pour la conservation des marionnettes, à savoir le Musée des Arts de la Marionnette (MAM) au sein du Musée Gadagne (fig. 6). Ce dernier est en échange constant avec Le Théâtre Le Guignol de Lyon et avec d'autres marionnettistes. Le musée soutient la compagnie M.A., qui lui prête régulièrement des pièces pour ses propres expositions temporaires, renouvelées tous les quatre ans. Néanmoins, une discussion est en cours autour des textes anciens, souvent imprimés et annôtés. Le musée souhaiterait les exposer et les conserver, tandis que les marionnettistes sont réticents à s'en détacher. La proximité et la facilité d'accès des livres émeut et inspire Emma Utges et ses collègues. Pour elle, déposer ces documents graphiques au musée est une perte d'autonomie et de créativité potentielle.

<figure><img src="image_80.png" /><figcaption>04-05</figcaption></figure>

C'est aussi une rupture avec l'histoire, car les marionnettistes ont longtemps eu un accès direct et privilégié aux collections et aux livrets.

Au début du 20e siècle, l'historien d'art viennois Alois Riegl mettait déjà en évidence l'existence de différentes valeurs qui devaient être négociées.⁹ Par exemple, la “valeur d'usage” de la marionnette opposée à sa “valeur d'ancienneté”. Selon ce modèle, les valeurs seraient en conflit dans le monde de la conservation-restauration. Effectivement, les attentes peuvent être diverses. Néanmoins, dans les exemples proposés, des solutions sont trouvées. Les différents usagers — marionnettiste, conservateur et conservatrice — ne se limitent pas à une seule conception de ce qui fait patrimoine, ni à un seul régime de valeurs. Ils et elles négocient et trouvent des compromis pour satisfaire leurs attentes communes, en fonction de leurs op-

**Fig. 04:**
Guillaume Lecamus avec l'une des marionnettes du Musée de Picardie à Amiens.
© Guillaume Lecamus, 2014.

**Fig. 05:**
Entrée du théâtre Le Guignol à Lyon, 2024.
© Noémie Etienne, 2024.
portunités et intérêts.¹⁰ Les cas présentés soulignent la possibilité de négocier face aux œuvres, avec des valeurs qui se discutent et se transforment au cours des interactions.

## Réactiver pour réparer

La remise en usage des collections, que ce soit dans les réserves des musées ou lors de performances publiques, est l'une des solutions proposées pour résoudre les conflits. Dans cette seconde partie, je rappelle l'existence en France d'un exemple ancien de conservation partagée qui a été formalisé juridiquement. Ensuite, je montre que ces remises en jeu peuvent également avoir une dimension éthique. Elles fonctionnent comme des formes de réparation réelle car les personnes concernées ont le droit de réparer les collections mais aussi symbolique puisque la remise en activité permet de rétablir une forme partielle de justice quant à l'accès aux collections.

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /></figure>

Depuis les années 1960, le musée de Picardie à Amiens conserve les marionnettes de la troupe Chè Cabotans, constituée en association loi de 1901, et nommée Théâtre d'Animation Picard.¹¹ Dans une convention qui date de 1966, le musée permet la circulation et l'usage des collections, bien que celles-ci soient enregistrées à l'inventaire du patrimoine national.¹² La convention formalise la mise à disposition du théâtre de marionnettes (poupées, décor), officiellement propriété de l'État français mais prêtées aux marionnettistes.¹³ Cet accord a été rendu possible notamment par les liens entre René Lamps, le maire d'Amiens entre 1971 et 1989 (Parti Communiste) et Maurice Domont, le principal meneur de la troupe, lui-même un militant communiste. En fait, les deux hommes ont créé ensemble la compagnie de marionnettes en 1933. René Lamps était également sculpteur, décorateur et marionnettiste jusqu'en 1942. Ce contexte a permis une formulation nouvelle du rapport entre le musée et les collections. Il s'est ensuite perpétué et formalisé durant les différents mandats du maire.

La conservation des marionnettes est très présente dans les annexes de la convention de 1982. Elle est évoquée dans dix articles sur les vingt-cinq que comptent la deuxième annex du cahier des charges. Dans ce document, la ville d'Amiens "met à disposition l'outil culturel" que présente le théâtre de marionnettes. Pour encourager la pratique du répertoire, le cahier des charges prévoit aussi la réalisation de copies. Des fac-similés des marionnettes originales ont depuis été réalisés par un facteur de marionnette réputé qui travaille aussi pour Ché Cabo-

Fig. 06: Réserves des marionnettes au Musée Gadagne, Lyon, 2024. L'image montre la diversité des objets conservés dans ces contextes, incluant notamment une figure du théâtre indonésien (wayang golek).
© Noémie Etienne, 2024.
tans, Michel Petit (fig. 7-9). L'article 11 (Annexe 2) stipule bien que les marionnettes originales pourront être utilisées par la compagnie. L'article 6 délègue la responsabilité de la conservation à l'Association fondée dans ce contexte : "l'Association Théâtre d'Animation Picard sera tenue de procéder à la restauration, à la réparation et à la conservation dudit patrimoine. Ces travaux, effectués sous le contrôle du conservateur des musées d'Amiens, seront à la charge de la ville d'Amiens" (fig. 10).

Dans la pratique, les interventions sont généralement réalisées par des conservateurs-restaurateurs et conservatrices-restauratrices formés et engagés par le musée. Néanmoins, les marionnettistes ont largement la main sur les collections. Ils et elles ne sont pas perçus comme des dangers, qu'il faudrait tenir à l'écart des espaces muséaux. Lors de notre entretien téléphonique, le conservateur actuel du musée de Picardie me dit que les marionnetistes ont la légitimité d'utiliser et de conserver les objets. Pour lui, il s'agit des usagers originaux, dont les savoir-faire sont reconnus et valorisés. Malgré le principe d'inaliénnabilité des collections nationales françaises, les objets circulent entre les lieux, le musée et le théâtre.¹⁴

En outre, la conservation de certains patrimoines est liée à leur mise en activité. Lors de notre entretien, Guillaume Lecamus décrit les réserves du musée de Picardie à Amiens comme des "forêts". Dans ces espaces, l'artiste trouve que "les marionnettes font quand même très objets" (fig. 11). Selon lui, les marionnettes ne sont pas des artefacts inanimés mais plutôt

des "instruments". Elles sont au service d'un récit, d'une narration et d'une performance. La marionnette n'est pas vivante mais peut et doit être activée. Les œuvres collectées gardent leur sens premier si elles sont remises en jeu. Dans cette perspective, la conservation des marionnettes doit passer son animation, au moins partiellement, sous peine de dénaturer la fonction de l'artefact et de ne pas en transmettre l'essentiel.

Depuis les années 1990, en particulier en Amérique du Nord, différents projets permettant l'usage des collections saisies en contexte colonial, un état de fait toujours à l'œuvre, sont au centre de nouvelles pratiques.¹⁵ Il ne s'agit pas forcément de restituer les biens, mais de permettre aux communautés concernées d'accéder aux réserves. Les potentiels risques, du point de vue des conservateurs-restaurateurs occidentaux, sont mis en balance avec l'idée que les communautés concernées ont un droit d'accès aux collections. L'usage vient partiellément réparer la violence originelle du musée qui les avait déconnectées de leur contexte premier. En effet, à partir des années 1990, la notion de réactivation a permis de renforcer les négociations autour des œuvres, amenant à une utilisation ponctuelle du patrimoine.¹⁶

Une approche visant la remise en jeu est également proposée en Europe pour les instruments de musique¹⁷. Par exemple, une sélection d'instruments du Musée d'Ethnographie de Genève (MEG) a été jouée en 2019 par Midori Takada,¹⁸ une percussionniste et compositrice contemporaine. Dans ce contexte, Takada a composé de la musique à partir des collections mises à sa disposition.
<figure><img src="image_82.png" /></figure>

tion. Une pré-sélection a été réalisée par la conservatrice-restauratrice Isabel Garcia Gomez et la conservatrice du département d'ethnomusicologie Madeleine Leclair. Le bon état de conservation a été l'un des arguments présidant à cette sélection car "la mise en vibration de peaux ou de caisse de résonnance comporte un risque structurel pour un instrument de musique".¹⁹ La musicienne Midori Takada²⁰ voit ce projet tel une forme de réveil : "Les instruments étaient dans leur boîte, et chacun rêvassait sur son étagère, rangé dans leurs réserves. Par mon travail je leur dis : venez, sornez, faites entendre votre voix ! (...) Car les instruments veulent crier, ils veulent chanter, ils veulent se manifester parmi nous".²¹ Les instruments sont des personnages auxquels elle souhaite redonner la

parole. Malgré ses réserves sur les dommages potentiels, Isabel Garcia Gomez conclut que l'expertise et le soin sont du côté de la musicienne : "Il m'est rapidement apparu que la vraie garante du bien-être de ces instruments, c'était Midori Takada elle-même. En tant que percussionniste expérimentée, elle savait comment les manipuler".²²

Lors d'échanges informels menés en août 2024, Isabel Garcia Gomez a mentionné que certaines questions éthiques avaient été discutées lors d'une rencontre ultérieure à la Philharmonie de Paris (mais non publiées), comme le fait de ne pas prendre une artiste africaine pour jouer ces objets, par exemple. En effet, le fait de prendre une artiste japonaise et non une artiste africaine, par exemple, pose des questions sur l'appropriation culturelle

**Fig. 07:** Fabrication des marionnettes Ché Cabotans d'Amiens, atelier Michel Petit. © Céline Brégand, 2022.
<figure><img src="image_83.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 08:**
Fabrication des marionnettes Ché Cabotans d'Amiens, atelier Michel Petit. © Céline Brégand, 2022.</figcaption></figure>

qui entourent ces manifestations. Qui peut réellement jouer les instruments ? À qui profitent ces performances ? Pourquoi ne pas choisir une personne issue des communities concernées ? Ces questions pointent les possibles glissements quant à la finalité de ces remises en jeu. Les instruments sont réactivés surtout aux bénéfices du musée et de la performeuse choisie, qui peuvent en tirer profit. Ces gestes n'apportent pas forcément quelque chose aux personnes de la diaspora, par exemple.

Dans tous ces exemples, néanmoins, le musée permet l'usage des objets. Cet usage comporte un risque mais il est modéré et équilibré par une plus-value artistique et éthique. Remettre en action les objets peut les fragiliser. Mais la création de nouveaux spectacles a été jugée plus

intéressante que le risque encouru, notamment dans un contexte très encadré comme c'était le cas au musée de Picardie à Amiens. De plus, ces solutions s'intègrent à une réflexion plus large sur le rôle des musées. Depuis les années 1960 au moins, par exemple, le modèle des artothèques s'est développé en France. Il s'agit d'emprunter des œuvres d'art, souvent très récemment réalisées par des artistes locaux, pour les exposer chez soi.²³ Elles doivent ensuite être retournées, après une période de quelques mois.

Ainsi, la conservation ne passe pas forcément par la préservation matérielle des collections. L'enjeu est aussi la préservation des gestes et des traditions qui s'y rapportent. L'artefact, qu'il s'agisse de la marionnette ou du marimba, attire les artistes, qui s'intéressent à la fois à son ap-
<figure><img src="image_84.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 09:** Fabrication des marionnettes Ché Cabotans d'Amiens, atelier Michel Petit. © Céline Brégand, 2022.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_85.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 11:** Marionnettes suspendues, atelier Michel Petit, Amiens. © Céline Brégand, 2022.</figcaption></figure>
parence et aux sons ou aux images qu'il peut exprimer. L'instrument n'est pas seulement au service du passé mais permet l'éclosion d'un nouveau répertoire. Cette logique se base sur la reconnaissance de la compétence et de l'expertise des artistes, qui sont également à même de préserver les collections. Elle articule l'idée de conservation du patrimoine à celle de son activation. Ces gestes forment un ensemble de pratiques qui tendent à réparer, symboliquement et matériellement, les collections entendues aussi dans leur dimension immatérielle et rétablies dans leur fonction. Parallèlement, ces actions visent à restaurer les liens entre les personnes et les objets, souvent détruits lors de la saisie des collections.

## Sortie et retour des collections dans les musées au Cameroun

Les questions spécifiques et les solutions trouvées pour les marionnettes peuvent-elles être appliquées à d'autres cas ? Ce modèle de musée, développé dans un contexte précis et autour d'objets singuliers, peut-il être étendu ? Peut-on envisager le développement d'un musée-bibliothèque, dans lequel les personnes concernées peuvent sortir des objets, et même réaliser leurs propres interventions de conservation-restauration ? Plus précisément, pourrait-on étendre ce modèle, par exemple, aux collections d'art afričain conservées en France ? Depuis une dizaine d'années, les collections dites ethnographiques sont au centre de discussions portant sur la décolonisation des musées. Le projet des restitutions, très important, a dominé les débats publics.²⁴ Mais il n'est pas possible de restituer la

très grande majorité des œuvres. Logiquement, les demandes de restitution se concentrent souvent sur des pièces emblématiques. Les exemples cités précédemment montrent que des solutions existent dans les musées en Europe. Elles prennent en compte la spécificité des collections, les exigences déontologiques du musée et les attentes des usagers. Le musée devient un lieu de réparation symbolique et pragmatique, où la circulation et la mise à disposition des objets est une forme de soin pour les patrimoines et pour les humains. Réactiver les collections permet de rejouer un patrimoine qui risque de tomber dans l'oubli et d'en inventer un nouveau.

La majorité des objets conservés dans les musées ethnographiques ont été créés pour être utilisés. Ils sont souvent nécessaires à des pratiques qui permettent une connexion aux ancêtres, mais aussi soignent les maladies, ou protègent les écosystèmes. Dans les premières pages de sa thèse de doctorat, le conservateur camerounais Hono-ré Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou cite Achille Mbembé: “les objets afri-cains ont toujours été la manifestation de ce qui se situe par-delà la matière. Faits de matière, ils sont en réalité un appel strident à son dé-passement et à sa transfiguration”.²⁵

Dans cette troisième partie, je présente un modèle de musée spécifique: les cases patrimoniales. Je souligne que différentes traditions de conservation co-existent dans ces institutions. En effet, des musées ont été créées à partir des années 1970 au Cameroun.²⁶ Ils regroupent les patrimoines matériels des chefferies, qu'il s'agisse des biens coutumiers ou du trésor royal. Les chefferies
12

<figure><img src="image_86.png" /></figure>

sont le siège des gouvernements et des royaumes locaux.²⁷ À partir des années 2000, et plus encore après 2012, le programme dit de la “route des Chefferies” formalise, bureaucratise et rigidifie la conservation dans ces lieux culturels. Lorsqu'ils sont évalués conformes aux “bonnes pratiques”, selon les normes professionnelles d'une institution comme l'ICOM, les musées des chefferies sont labellisés sous le nom de “case patrimoniale”.²⁸ Par là, ils confirment leur volonté de se conformer à un règlement intérieur.²⁹ Ce modèle muséal est développé en collaboration avec des personnes extérieures aux chefferies qui, dans une certaine mesure, implantent de la sorte un modèle international. Mais il prend aussi en compte des stratégies de préservation du patrimoine qui sont anciennes et éminemment politiques dans les chefferies, et ceci bien avant l'époque coloniale.

Aujourd'hui, les musées des chefferies mélangent ou alternent des méthodes de conservation locales et les apports occidentaux en la matière. L'utilisation de produits chimiques, par exemple, a trouvé sa place pour

supprimer la menace des insectes, à côté d'autres savoirs locaux, telle la fumigation des artefacts. Comme le rappelle Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou, une longue tradition de conservation du patrimoine matériel et immatériel existe au Cameroun. Elle a toujours été perméable à d'autres traditions.

La circulation des objets est possible à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur des musées des chefferies. Un entretien mené par Maeva Pimo, doctorante dans le projet GloCo en août 2024 avec Yollande Tsuangyo Soh, responsable de la case patrimoniale de Bafou, permet de souligner ce fonctionnement.³⁰ La chefferie de Bafou est l'une des plus grandes à l'Ouest du Cameroun. Elle est signataires de la charte déontologique sur laquelle se base aussi l'association “La Route des Chefferies”.³¹ Le musée de Bafou a été réhabilité en 2015 (fig. 12-13). Les normes de conservation internationales ont été adoptées, au moins dans le discours. Par exemple, la sortie des objets est encadrée par un protocole, incluant notamment un relevé de l'état de conservation. Yollande

**Fig. 12:**
Entrée de la chef-ferie de Bafou.
Photo : Seriem-nou, 2021.
© CC.
Soh décrit ainsi le procédé : “une demande adressée au directeur du musée/case patrimoniale ; le remplissage d’une fiche d’inventaire et d’une fiche de constat d’état de l’objet ; les dates fixes pour rendre l’objet.” Le prêt des objets est limité aux membres de la chefferie. La sortie des objets ne change pas leur statut. “Il faut que les conditions de conservation préventive soient respectées pour éviter d’éventuelles destructions de l’objet. À ce moment l’objet appartient toujours au musée sauf que l’utilisateur n’est pas le même.” Lorsqu’une dégradation intervient, Soh appelle un conservateur-restaurateur. Cette profession, dans son acception européenne est toutefois peu développée au Cameroun, faute de formation et de moyens. Les codes déontologiques appliqués sont donc très proches de ceux des musées occidentaux, dont les cases patrimoniales sont une traduction adaptée et située en contexte camerounais.

Un second entretien, mené au musée d'art local de Maroua, dans le Nord du Cameroun, donne des résultats similaires. Le gestionnaire en charge du musée, Aboubakar Amada suit actuellement un Master en "Recherche, Gestion et Conservation du patrimoine culturel et des musées" à l'université de Maroua. Il décrit des normes très strictes en ce qui concerne les prêts, réservés aux institutions patrimoniales ou aux familles. La conservation est également très encadrée. Ces déclarations répondent aux attentes du programme "Route des Chefferies", et probablement aux enseignements de la formation universitaire suivie. Néanmoins, une exception importante tient aux collections appartenant aux sociétés secrètes.

Au Cameroun, une société secrète est une organisation indépendante créée à l'initiative du roi, dont les membres, le fonctionnement et les règles restent dissimulés aux autres membres de la société. À l'origine, chaque société secrète possédait une case pour conserver son patrimoine, avec notamment des trophées de chasse.32 Aujourd'hui, les sociétés secrètes ont toujours des artefacts qui peuvent être présents dans les musées des chefferies. Le chef peut être lui-même issu de l'une de ces sociétés.

Dans ce contexte, le discours du gestionnaire du musée d'art local de Maroua change radicalement. Lorsque les collections appartiennent aux sociétés secrètes, il préconise les actions suivantes :

> "Consultation des experts culturels : La réparation de tels objets nécessite souvent l'implication de personnes appartenant à la société d'origine ou d'experts culturels reconnaus. - Respect des rites et traditions : Le processus de restauration peut devoir respecter des rites ou des traditions spécifiques. Dans certains cas, l'objet doit être réparé par un membre de la société d'origine, selon des protocoles bien définis. - Confidentiabilité : En raison de la nature secrète de ces objets, le processus de restauration est souvent tenu confidentiel et encadré par des traditions orales."
L'expertise d'un conservateur-restaurateur professionnel n'est plus nécessaire, de même que le recours aux protocoles scientifiques occidentaux, aux savoirs codifiés par écrits ou aux rapports de restauration. La transparence des procédés n'est pas de mise, bien au contraire. La nature des objets et l'identité de leurs propriétaires invitent à laisser de côté les protocoles prônés par les institutions européennes et états-uniennes. Yollande Soh explique également qu'il s'agit de circonstances dans lesquels les normes européennes de conservation peuvent être renégociées : "En cas de dégradations, un restaurateur peut assurer la restauration avec l'accord de la structure et de la société secrète." Les attentes spécifiques des sociétés secrètes prévalent sur d'autres normes importées. Ces sociétés jouent des rôles politiques et religieux majeurs. Une partie des collections a été créée à leur initiative. Dans ce contexte, leurs demandes sont plus importantes que les autres normes muséales, également en place dans les institutions.

Les collections des musées communautaires sont aussi prêtées et utilisées par les familles concernées. Le modèle du musée des chefferies est assez souple pour superposer différentes attentes. En marge d'un projet visant à garantir la mise en place des normes internationales au Cameroun, l'identité spécifique des usagers (les membres des communautés en général, les familles, ou en particulier, le membres des sociétés secrètes) ouvre une grande marge de négociation. Ces modèles font penser aux exemples évoqués précédemment autour des musées de marionnettes ou du MEG. Comme dans les bibliothèques ou les artou

thèques, les œuvres peuvent sortir sous certaines conditions bien définies et revenir ensuite dans l'institution qui les héberge. Cette flexibilité permet de partager les responsabilités en matière de conservation. Les collections restent souvent la propriété des institutions. Néanmoins, le musée n'est pas une forteresse qui exclut les différentes actrices et acteurs du patrimoine.

## Conclusion

La restitution des objets africains est souvent freinée par un argument récurrent, celui de la "conservation". Selon ce discours, seuls les musées occidentaux possèderaient les compétences nécessaires pour préserver les patrimoines matériels, imposant ainsi l'idée que les musées africains devraient, au minimum, s'adapter et se conformer à ces normes prétendument universelles. Cependant, depuis plusieurs années, cette rhétorique est contestée par la reconnaissance croissante de la diversité des traditions et des pratiques dans le domaine de la conservation-restauration.

Dans cet article, je souhaite mettre en évidence une dimension supplémentaire, rarement abordée : la flexibilité des musées européens en matière de gestion et de prêt de collections patrimoniales. Les musées européens, à l'instar de celui d'Amiens, permettent des arrangements et des prêts adaptés aux besoins des usagers. Le cas des marionnettes illustre cette souplesse, même si elle est moins fréquente dans d'autres domaines. Cet usage n'est cependant pas unique: en France, le Mobilier National repose également sur un système de prêts d'objets inscrits à l'Inventaire natio-
<figure><img src="image_87.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 13:** Totem éléphant géant, Département de la Menoua, Région de l'Ouest du Cameroun. Depuis la fondation de la chefferie Bafou au 16e siècle. Toile, rotin, bois. Bafou, musée de la chefferie de Bafou, 2022. © CC.</figcaption></figure>

nal, lesquels sont utilisés dans divers lieux et entretenus par des conservateurs-restaurateurs contractuels. Parallèlement, les musées des chefferies au Cameroun proposent des arrangements comparables. Dans ces contextes, la légitimité et l'expertise des acteurs locaux, comme les artistes ou les membres des sociétés secrètes, ne sont pas remises en cause. Par exemple, les familles liées aux collections peuvent emprunter certains objets pour réaliser des rituels.

Ces exemples révèlent, d'une part, la similarité des structures muséales à grande échelle entre différents pays. D'autre part, elles ouvrent des pistes de transformation pour les musées européens. Ces derniers s'engagent actuellement dans un processus de

décolonisation visant à guérir les blessures historiques laissées par l'héritage colonial. La question ne se limite pas à la conservation des patrimoines matériels, mais inclut également les patrimoines immatériels, ainsi que le rétablissement des liens entre les personnes et les collections. Plus encore, les musées peuvent devenir des lieux d'expérimentation sociale et éthique, s'inspirant des principes de la justice réparatrice. Cette dernière ne se caractérise pas par une approche punitive mais s'intéresse prioritairement aux victimes, en mettant l'accent sur les réparations - qu'elles soient matérielles, immatérielles ou financières. Le mot "réparation" peut ainsi désigner à la fois une intervention matérielle sur l'objet,
une remise en usage pour lui redonner sa fonctionnalité, et un rétablissement des droits des victimes. Cela peut inclure, par exemple, des compensations économiques, comme celles demandées dans le cadre des réparations liées à la traite transatlantique.

Dans cette perspective, les musées d'ethnographie pourraient-ils envisager de prêter des objets aux membres des diasporas africaines ? Les populations africaines et afro-européennes pourraient-elles obtenir un accès privilégié à ces collections ? Pourrait-on imaginer des réparations menées sous leur supervision ? Le cas des marionnettes d'Amiens montre que ce partage des collections, sous forme de dépôts ou de prêts, est non seulement possible mais qu'il existe déjà depuis longtemps. Il repose sur une organisation claire et sur une conception renouvelée des collections, qui peuvent circuler dans un cadre précis et rigoureux. Ce cadre doit être fondé sur la reconnaissance de la compétence et de la légitimité de multiples usagers, y compris en dehors des musées.
Endnotes

1 Entretien téléphonique avec Sylvie Baillon, jeudi 4 juillet 2024. Toutes les citations dans le texte qui va suivre sont issues de cette discussion.

2 Cuno 2008. Parmi les très nombreux auteurs critiques, on peut citer Mbembe 2013.

3 Pour une critique constructive de la notion d'universalisme, voir Bachir Diagne 2013.

4 Voir le colloque *La Marionnette, objet de musée et patrimoine vivant*, qui s'est tenu les 8 et 9 novembre 2018 au musée de la vie Wallonne à Liège ; Nsunda 2019.

5 Fleury, Sermon 2019.

6 Les interviews ont été réalisés sur place, par téléphone ou par questionnaire, entre mai et septembre 2024. Les personnes interviewées sont François Séguin (28 mai 2024), Guillaume Lecamus, (1er juillet 2024), Sylvie Baillon (5 juillet 2024), Paul Ripoche (9 juillet 2024), Aboubakar Amada (13 août 2024), Yollande Tsuangyo Soh (14 août 2024), Céline Brégand (21 août 2024), Abdoulaye Sy (26 août 2024), Isabel Garcia Gomez (28 août 2024), Manon Léchenne (2 septembre 2024), Emma Utges (2 septembre 2024), Claire Lefort (3 septembre 2024). Cette enquête est liée au projet collectif que je dirige actuellement, intitulé *Global Conservation: Histories and Theories*, et financé par le Conseil Européen de la Recherche.

7 Malgré nos tentatives, nous n'avons pas pu réaliser d'entretien avec elle dans le cadre de cet article.

8 Le Courrier Picard. Voir sur l'artiste https://morbustheatre.wixsite.com/morbustheatre.

9 Riegl [1903] 2013. Cette théorie a inspiré de nombreux auteurs et autrices, comme Avrami *et al*. 2019.

10 Voir Hénaut 2011.

11 https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/hauts-de-france/somme/amiens/l-histoire-du-dimanche-ches-cabotans-d-amiens-gardiens-de-la-tradition-de-la-marionnette-a-tringle-et-a-fil-et-de-la-de-la-langue-picarde-depuis-90-ans-2676868.html. Entretien téléphonique avec François Séguin, conservateur au musée de Picardie à Amiens, le 28 mai 2024. Voir aussi : https://www.amiens.fr/Liens-utiles/JDA/Les-plus-du-JDA/articles/Les-polichinelles-sortent-du-placard.

12 Mouton-Rezzouk 2021.

13 Ville d'Amiens, Conseil Municipal, Séance du 19 février 1982. La convention, datée du 25 février 1982, est établie entre le Maire de la Ville d'Amiens et le Président de l'Association "Théâtre d'Animation Picard."

14 Cornu, Fromageau, Orsi 2013.

15 Moses 2023. Voir Guide à l'usage... 2021.

16 Nuala Morse 2021.

17 Girard-Muscagorry, Nur Goni 2022. Voir https://www.quaibranly.fr/fr/expositions-evenements/au-musee/rendez-vous-du-salon-de-lecture-jacques-kerchache/details-de-levenement/e/patrimoines-africains-la-performance-politique-des-objets.

18 https://www.rts.ch/info/culture/arts-visuels/2024/article/a-geneve-la-musicienne-japonaise-midori-takada-reveille-les-instruments-du-meg-28503438.html.

19 Gajo et al. 2019, en ligne : https://www.meg.ch/fr/recherche-collections/reveil-instruments-musique-du-meg. Le projet a donné lieu à un enregistrement : Midori Takada, *Cutting Branches for a Temporary Shelter*, 2022, WEWTFWW Records, disponible sur Youtube.
20 https://www.meg.ch/fr/recherche-collections/reveil-instruments-musique-du-meg.

21 Entretien réalisé par Madeleine Leclair, avec la participation d'Isabel Garcia Gomez, musée d'ethnographie de Genève, le 26 novembre 2019. Les textes de ces entretiens sont publiés dans la pochette du vinyle réalisé dans ce cadre et intitulé *Cutting Branches for a Temporary Shelter*. Ce projet est également présenté dans l'exposition "Mémoires" au musée d'ethnographique, du 3 mai 2024 au 5 janvier 2025.

22 "Le réveil des instruments de musique", par Isabel Garcia Gomez, texte publié dans la pochette du vinyle.

23 Voir le projet en cours sur les artothèques: https://arp.hypotheses.org/.

24 Malgré son importance le Rapport Sarr/Savoy n'inclut pas le point de vue des conservateur-restaurateurs ou conservatrices-restauratrices : Sarr, Savoy 2018.

25 Mbembé 2019.

26 Voir le travail de référence d'Honoré Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou dans sa thèse de doctorat inédite : Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou 2022. Ces informations lui reviennent.

27 Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou 2022, p. 15, 28.

28 Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou 2022, p. 159.

29 Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou 2022, p. 160.

30 Interview de Yollande Tsuangyo Soh, musée de Bafou, Maeva Pimo, 2024.

31 Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou 2022, p. 145.

32 Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou 2022, p. 69-70. Voir aussi O'Hern, Pearlstein, Gagliardi 2016.

## References

Avrami et al. 2019: Avrami E., Mason R., Macdonald S., Myers D. (ed.), *Values in Heritage Management: Emerging Approaches and Research Directions*, Los Angeles, Getty Publications, 2019.

Bachir Diagne 2013: Bachir Diagne S., *L'Encre des savants : Réflexions sur la philosophie en Afrique*, Paris, Présence Africaine, 2013.

Cornu, Fromageau, Orsi 2013. : Cornu M., Fromageau J., Orsi F. (eds.), *Propriété publique et patrimoines. Inaliénabilité et imprescriabilité*, Paris, L'Harmattan, 2013.

Cuno 2008: Cuno J., *Who Owns Antiquity? Museums and the Battle over Our Ancient Heritage*, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2008.

Fleury, Sermon 2019: Fleury R., Sermon J. (eds.), *Marionnettes et pouvoir. Censures, Propagandes, Résistances*, Montpellier, Deuxième époque, 2019.

Gajo et al. 2019: Gajo J., Garcia Gomez I., Gomez-Ramirez A., Leclair, M., *Le réveil des instruments de musique du MEG*, 2019: https://www.meg.ch/fr/recherche-collections/reveil-instruments-musique-du-meg.

Girard-Muscagorry, Nur Goni 2022: Girard-Muscagorry A., Nur Goni M. (eds.), *Les performances politiques des objets*, in "Politique africaine", 2022, 165, Paris, Kartahala.

*Guide à l'usage... 2021: Guide à l'usage des musées allemands. Le traitement des biens de collections issus de contextes coloniaux*, Berlin, Association allemande des musées, 2021, https://www.museumsbund.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/mb-leitfaden-fr-web.pdf.
Hénaut 2011: Hénaut L., *Un tableau en cours de restauration, ou comment aborder empiriquement la question de la perceptoin ethétique*, in Houdart S., Thiery O. (eds.), *Humains, non-humains*, Paris, La Découverte, 2011, p. 263-271.

Mbembe 2013: Mbembe A., *Critique de la raison nègre*, Paris, La Découverte, 2013.

Mbembe 2019: Mbembe A., propos recueillis par Séverine Kodjo-Grandvaux, *L'Afrique, laboratoire vivant où s'esquissent les figures du monde à venir*, in "Le Monde", 13 août, 2019, https://www.lemonde.fr/festival/article/2019/08/13/achille-mbembe-l-afrique-laboratoire-vivant-ou-s-esquissent-les-figures-du-monde-a-venir_5498991_4415198.html.

Mouton-Rezzouk 2021: Mouton-Rezzouk A., *Collections de marionnettes et politiques du spectacle vivant*, in "Culture & Musées", 2021, 37, pp. 107-133, https://doi.org/10.4000/culturemusees.6305.

Morse 2021: Morse N., *Care, repair, and the future social relevance of museums*, in "Museums and Social Issues", 2021, 15, 1-2, pp. 28-38, https://doi.org/10.1080/15596893.2022.2104815.

Moses 2023: Moses J., *Indigenous interventions: museums as sites for rapprochement*, in "Museums and Social Issues", 2023, 17, 1-2, pp. 10-17, https://doi.org/10.1080/15596893.2023.2371161.

Nsunda 2019: Nsunda E., *Le matériel dans l'immatériel, réflexion en matière de conservation-restauration*, in Lempereur F., Postula J.-L. (eds.), *La Marionnette, objet de musée et patrimoine vivant*, Actes du colloque (musée de la vie wallonne, 8-9 novembre 2018), Liège, Les Éditions de la Province de Liège, 2019, p. 44-53.

O'Hern, Pearlstein, Gagliardi 2016: O'Hern R., Pearlstein E., Gagliardi S., *Beyond the Surface. Where Cultural Contexts and Scientific Analysis Meet in Museum Conservation of West African Power Association Helmet Masks*, in "Museum Anthropology", 2016, 39, 1, pp. 70-86.

Riegl [1903] 2013: Riegl A., *Le culte moderne des monuments. Son essence et sa genèse*, Paris, Le Seuil, 2013.

Sarr, Savoy 2018: Sarr F., Savoy B., *Rapport sur la restitution du patrimoine culturel africain*, 2018, http://vie-publique.fr/files/rapport/pdf/194000291.pdf.

Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou 2022: Tchatchouang Ngoupeyou H., : *La question des “objets vivants” et leur conservation dans le contexte des chefferies de l’Ouest du Cameroun*, thèse de doctorat, Cergy, Cy Cergy Paris Université, 2022.
<figure><img src="image_88.png" /></figure>
sections.

<figure><img src="image_89.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_90.png" /></figure>
# Exploring the Boundaries of Perception:
## Interview with Valeria Bottalico

Alessandro Paolo Lena

**Keywords:**

Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Doppio Senso, Accessibility, Perception, Multisensoriality.

## ABSTRACT:

In this conversation, Valeria Bottalico explores the intersection of art, perception, and accessibility through the Doppio Senso program at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection in Venice, a project designed to make modern and contemporary art accessible to individuals with visual impairments. Doppio Senso challenges traditional museum experiences by integrating tactile exploration and multisensory engagement, allowing both blind and sighted visitors to interact with art in new ways. Bottalico highlights how Doppio Senso redefines accessibility—not as a separate initiative, but as a core element of the museum experience for everyone, as the project fosters participation, challenges perceptions, and broadens the very definition of seeing.

In questa conversazione, Valeria Bottalico esplora l'intersezione tra arte, percezione e accessibilità attraverso il programma Doppio Senso presso la Collezione Peggy Guggenheim di Venezia, un progetto pensato per rendere l'arte moderna e contemporanea accessibile alle persone con disabilità visive. Doppio Senso sfida le esperienze museali tradizionali integrando l'esplorazione tattile e il coinvolgimento multisensoriale, permettendo sia ai visitatori ciechi che a quelli vedenti di interagire con l'arte in modi nuovi. Bottalico sottolinea come Doppio Senso ridefinisca l'accessibilità, non come un'iniziativa separata, ma come un elemento centrale dell'esperienza museale per tutti, promuovendo la partecipazione, mettendo in discussione le percezioni e ampliando la stessa definizione di vedere.

**Opening Picture:**

Doppio Senso. Percorsi Tattili alla Collezione Peggy Guggenheim. Photo © Fei Xu.

### Valeria Bottalico

Valeria Bottalico is an Italian educator and art historian specializing in museum accessibility. She has been instrumental in developing and leading *Doppio Senso* at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection in Venice, a program that offers tactile experiences and educational activities for individuals with visual impairments. In addition to her work at the Guggenheim, she has contributed to various cultural accessibility projects, including the Abecedarium project at Ocean Space in Venice, which promotes environmental awareness through an eco-glossary in Italian Sign Language.
In light of the thematic dossier presented in the third issue of *MMD*, this section dedicated to experience and audiences features an interview with Valeria Bottalico. An Italian educator and art historian, Bottalico has been instrumental in developing and leading the *Doppio Senso* program at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection in Venice, which offers tactile experiences and educational activities for individuals with visual impairments.

In addition to her work at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Bottalico has contributed to various projects aimed at increasing accessibility in cultural institutions. Notably, she has been involved in the *Abecedarium* project at Ocean Space in Venice, collaborating with researchers and artists to create an eco-glossary in Italian Sign Language, thereby promoting environmental awareness through art. Bottalico's dedication to inclusive education and her innovative approaches have established her as a leading figure in the field of museum accessibility in Italy.

In this conversation, Bottalico explores the intersection of art, perception, and accessibility through *Doppio Senso*, a project designed to make modern and contemporary art accessible to individuals with visual impairments. *Doppio Senso* challenges traditional museum experiences by integrating tactile exploration and multisensory engagement, allowing both blind and sighted visitors to interact with art in new ways.

Discussing the theoretical foundations and practical methodologies behind the project, and drawing from philosophy, neuroscience, education, and art history, Bottalico

highlights how *Doppio Senso* redefines accessibility—not as a separate initiative, but as a core element of the museum experience for everyone. The project fosters participation, challenges perceptions, and broadens the very definition of seeing.

As *Doppio Senso* approaches its tenth anniversary and has become a permanent service at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Bottalico reflects on its evolution, the challenges it has faced, and the impact it has had on museum accessibility in Italy. She also shares insights into other projects that build on its successes, contributing to an ongoing dialogue about how museums can engage diverse audiences in meaningful ways.

*The interview was held on 10th January 2025.*

**1. Can you describe the genesis of Doppio Senso? How does the project contribute to the broader discourse on accessibility in museums and what theoretical and practical insights does it offer for enhancing participation across different visitor groups?**

The choice of the name *Doppio Senso*¹ for the museum's tactile mediation project, launched in 2015, stems from a multilayered reflection. On the one hand, the program initiated a gradual yet progressive process of accessibility to artworks for blind individuals at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection. On the other, its goal goes beyond mere accessibility: it aims to foster active and conscious engagement with art, in line
with Peggy Guggenheim's vision. This fits within the broader framework of democratizing cultural heritage, ensuring it is accessible to all audiences—not by categorizing people, but by designing mediation tools that are useful for everyone.

This is why the project is not called *Doppio Senso: Accessible Tours for Blind and Visually Impaired Visitors*, but *Doppio Senso: Tactile Tours at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection*, referencing the possibility of experiencing artworks through touch—a service offered to all visitors of the Venetian museum.

From the outset, the choice of the name *Doppio Senso* was a clear statement of intent, reflecting Peggy Guggenheim's attitude toward art, the mission of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, and the avant-garde spirit of the 20th-century pieces displayed in the museum. These works break with tradition to open up new forms of relationship between art and audience. The goal was to move beyond vision alone, using tactile language—an essential way of understanding the world for blind individuals—to make art accessible to all. Thus, the project was not just about adapting abstract art for blind audiences but about using tactile language as a universal tool, enriching the experience for every visitor.

Conceptually, the project title *Doppio Senso* is in fact based on the physiological principle that the act of seeing involves the use of two senses: sight and touch. The core idea is that touch is a concrete and analytical sense, while sight is a synthetic one. In the blink of an eye, vision allows us to grasp the overall image but often overlooks details,

which are rarely retained in memory. Touch, on the other hand, is a sense that explores step by step, detail by detail, and is inherently analytical. It does not immediately capture the whole but enables the recognition of individual elements, gradually constructing a mental image through a psychological and mnemonic process. This reinforces the idea that, physiologically, the act of seeing is completed through the integration of both touch and vision. Hearing, too, plays a role in reinforcing this perception—not necessarily of seeing itself, but of observing and perceiving through the integration of these two senses. The goal of the project is to ensure that, for both sighted and blind individuals, the fusion of these senses triggers a psychological process that leads to the creation of a mental image. Each of us, thanks to mirror neurons and the information passing through our retinas, generates mental images.

The *Doppio Senso* concept is also embedded in the structure of the program, which involves two key figures: a sighted person (that is me, as I have personally guided the experimentation over the years), who assists visitors in transitioning from visual to tactile interpretation, helping them construct a mental image of the artwork; and a blind person, sculptor Felice Tagliaferri, who shares his sensory and methodological experience in tactile interpretation.

Through this dual approach, the tactile tour becomes a dialogue between two modes of perception, offering insights into experiencing 20th-century artworks not only through sight but also through
<figure><img src="image_91.png" /></figure>

touch and tactile language. Abstract art, when it shows a geometric and structural nature, lends itself particularly well to this experience, as it encourages a process of abstraction that is shared by all visitors, regardless of their visual ability. In this way, the project not only makes art accessible but transforms it into a shared and democratic experience, staying true to Peggy Guggenheim's vision of a museum as a "laboratory of new ideas." Thus, the project was not conceived as a separate initiative but is fully integrated into the museum's mission.

Doppio Senso also draws from philosophical and scientific influences. In this context, we can refer to a concept introduced by neurologist Oliver Sacks: *The Mind's Eye*, which is also the title of an audio description project adopted by the Guggenheim Museum in New York, inspired by Sacks' text. It suggests that our mind, by generating mental images, creates an “inner eye” that allows even those who cannot see to “see.”

My interest in English empiricism, particularly the essays published in *The Spectator* by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele highlight the Enlightenment concept of imagination as an association of ideas—a notion that ties back to the *Mind's Eye* and the representation of images. A central question in this discourse comes from the Irish philosopher William Molyneux: *cube or sphere?* That is, if a person born blind (congenitally blind) were to regain sight, having learned to distinguish between a cube and a sphere only through touch, would they be able to visually differentiate them without touching them? This question, referred to in John Locke's *Essay Concerning Human Understanding*, remains open. Despite scientific advancements, including stem cell research, there are still no documented cases of congenitally blind individuals regaining their sight.

Doppio Senso develops from these questions—some of which are quite challenging—that have accompa-

**Fig. 01:**
Doppio Senso.
Percorsi Tattili
alla Collezione
Peggy Guggen-
heim.
Photo © Fei Xu.
<figure><img src="image_92.png" /></figure>

nied me throughout my practice. By engaging with 20th-century art-works and philosophical and scientific reflections, the project seeks to explore the boundaries between perception, imagination, and representation, fostering a dialogue between art, science, and cultural mediation.

**2. What specific methodologies did “Doppio Senso” implement to foster an inclusive museum experience for blind, visually impaired, and sighted visitors? How do tactile explorations and sculpture workshops function within this framework to enhance multisensory engagement?**

From its inception, the Peggy Guggenheim Collection recognized the significance and innovative nature of this initiative, as it was the first time in Italy that abstract art was being discussed in terms of tactile accessibility. Even for the Fondazi-

one Istituto dei Ciechi (Institute for the Blind People Foundation) in Milan, that provides technical support to the program, this was the first experience in translating abstract works into tactile form. This project has since become a reference point, as other Italian museums later approached the same center in Milan, requesting the model developed by the Peggy Guggenheim Collection.

In Italy, two museums have played a pioneering role in the field of accessibility and tactile engagement with art. The first is the Museo Tattile Omero in Ancona, named after the great poet Homer, who is traditionally depicted as blind. Founded by two blind individuals, Aldo Grasini and his wife Daniela Bottegoni, this museum houses a collection of replicas of some of the most significant architectural and sculptural masterpieces in art history. Among the architectural models, visitors can explore 3D dismantled reproductions of the Pantheon, the Parthenon, and other iconic works,

<caption>**Fig. 01:**
Doppio Senso.
Percorsi Tattili
alla Collezione
Peggy
Guggenheim.
Photo © Fei Xu.</caption>
designed to be experienced through touch. Additionally, the museum features replicas of famous sculptures, such as Donatello's *David* and Michelangelo's *Moses*. These reproductions were primarily created to allow blind individuals to learn about and appreciate these masterpieces through tactile exploration.

The second museum is the Museo Tattile Anteros, located in Bologna within the Istituto dei Ciechi Francesco Cavazza (Institute for the Blind People Francesco Cavazza). This museum focuses primarily on paintings, with a collection based on the concept of perspective bas-relief. Through this technique, major pictorial masterpieces have been translated into bas-reliefs, making them accessible to blind individuals. However, the Anteros Museum mainly concentrates on figurative artworks.

This raises an important question: how can 20th-century art be made accessible, in line with Peggy Gugenheim's vision? During this period, art underwent a radical transformation: it was no longer necessarily figurative but became increasingly abstract. This shift presents a particular challenge for individuals born blind (*congenitally blind*), who have learned to understand the world through four senses without ever having experienced sight. For them, touch and hearing become compensatory senses, replacing vision. In contrast, individuals who *acquired* blindness after having experienced sight retain a sensory archive based on visual memories, which makes it easier for them to grasp abstract concepts as well.

The situation is even more complex for children who lose sight at

an early age—around seven years old, for instance—during what Jean Piaget defines as the *concrete operational stage*. At this stage, children are still learning about the world through direct experience, and the loss of sight makes it more difficult for them to develop abstract thinking processes. This raises further questions about how to make abstract 20th-century art accessible, especially for those who have never had visual experience.

As it was the first time, the project began as an experiment, made possible by an initial grant. Right from the start, we debunked a common misconception: that it is easier for a blind person to appreciate figurative works of art rather than abstract ones. It is true that when translating a figurative painting, such as a portrait of a man or woman, a blind person can recognize human figures because they are familiar with their own body or the body of someone close to them. However, the tactile translation of a figurative painting or photograph is complex because everything is concentrated in the unique representation created by the artist. Moreover, it is more difficult to appreciate a landscape, as its spatial and geographical aspects require an understanding that goes beyond tactile, olfactory, or auditory elements. A blind person can distinguish a marine environment from a mountain one through smells, sounds, or tactile sensations like humidity, but the overall representation of a landscape remains a challenge.

Paradoxically, it may be easier to experience a 20th-century abstract work. The pieces selected for tactile translation in the *Doppio Sen-
so program are often composed of geometric shapes, which make the experience less prone to interpretation and more accessible. Furthermore, the process of engagement levels all visitors. For this reason, the program is not aimed exclusively at blind people but at everyone. It invites participants to enter the artist's creative process, as the act of experiencing the work itself requires a mental shift toward abstraction. This process is similar to what a blind person does when exploring an artwork through touch: they build a mental image, detail by detail, creating a mnemonic archive that allows them to form an overall vision of the piece. On the other hand, a sighted person might initially feel disoriented in front of an abstract work, as they need to make an effort to abandon their dependence on sight and approach the artwork through a process of abstraction.

For example, the average visitor experiencing 20th-century art often struggles to mentally reconstruct a drawing like Picasso's *Bust of a Man*.

in a *Striped Jersey*. After just a few seconds of viewing the piece, unless they have a particular interest, they tend to move on. However, if we expose a sighted visitor to a tactile exploration using a tactile board, we force them to engage more deeply with the artist's creative process. In the case of a two-dimensional work like the one by Picasso, the tactile board extrapolates the volumes suggested by the brushstrokes, transforming the work into a bas-relief. This approach reinforces the geometric deconstruction of the bust and the figure, prompting the viewer to mentally reassemble the entire portrait.

Therefore, *Doppio Senso* is not just an accessibility project, but a true tool for realizing that participatory vision that defines contemporary museums. By integrating senses like touch and sight, the project aims to create an experience that actively involves the public, overcoming physical and cultural barriers and promoting an art that is truly for everyone.

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 03:**
Doppio Senso.
Percorsi Tattili
alla Collezione
Peggy
Guggenheim.
Photo © Fei Xu.</figcaption></figure>
### 3. Over the nearly ten years since its inception, what have been the primary challenges encountered in the implementation of Doppio Senso, and how were these addressed?

The *Doppio Senso* project began in 2015, thanks to a small grant and, particularly, following a visit by an American sculptor who had lost his sight. This visitor contacted the Peggy Guggenheim Collection in advance, asking to touch a sculpture by Constantin Brancusi. At that time, the museum did not yet have a system in place for visually impaired visitors, but his request led to a unique experience: together with the then-director, Philip Rylands, we allowed him to touch not only the Brancusi sculpture but all the sculptures in the museum.

After this visit, that American sculptor made a $20,000 donation, which enabled the project's launch with an experimental phase lasting four months, scheduling monthly appointments: Saturdays for adults and Sundays for children, from October 2015 to January 2016. *Doppio Senso*, in fact, was included in the museum's programming during a temporary exhibition dedicated to Indian artist Vasudeo Santu Gaitonde (1924-2001), who had been inspired by the works of Vasily Kandinsky and Paul Klee. Thus, in collaboration with the Fondazione Istituto dei Ciechi in Milan, two works from the permanent collection were selected to be translated into tactile form: *Upward* by Kandinsky and *Portrait of Frau P.* by Klee. The tactile translations were made in epoxy resin and thermoformed, and two booklets were created for

the occasion: one in Braille and one in large print, both in Italian and English, to guide tactile exploration. The third accessible work was the bronze sculpture *Young Woman in the Shape of a Flower* by Max Ernst, chosen in collaboration with the conservator, the museum's director, and the Opificio delle Pietre Dure, which handled the conservation and diagnostic aspects.

The interest in *Doppio Senso* was immediate: blind people and sighted visitors from all over Italy participated, demonstrating the need for an innovative approach. In March 2016, a symposium presented the case study of the project, attracting a new three-year grant that allowed the expansion of activities. During this period, more works from the permanent collection were translated into tactile form, using techniques like thermoforming and resining to reproduce paintings. At the same time, the sculpture section was enhanced by introducing original works by Alberto Giacometti, Marino Marini, and Jean Arp, after evaluating their conservation status and tactile readability.

In 2020, additional funding from the Veneto-based company Florim helped solidify the program, transforming it into a permanent service of the museum: it was decided, in fact, to show the tactile translations next to the original works in the galleries, integrating them permanently into the exhibition path. Until then, in fact, these tools had been movable and primarily used during guided activities. Since 2020, a complete kit has also been introduced—a tactile catalog that includes reproductions of 11 works from the Permanent Collection, in
<figure><img src="image_94.png" /></figure>

addition to the displayed tactile tablets. The catalog is available in Braille, in both Italian and English, and in large print, making it accessible to a broad audience.

The service offered to visitors is flexible and free. It is possible to book a guided tactile visit or use the tablets independently, even for those passing through Venice. In the past two years, the program has been further enriched by another appointment, called “masterclass” and part of the museum’s public programs, consisting in a two days’ workshop centered on the themes explored in the temporary exhibitions.

The masterclass represents an additional service within the *Doppio Senso* initiative, which, in 2025, will celebrate its first 10 years. One of the program’s goals is to create an ever-growing community of an audience more aware of 20th-century art, with the intention of engaging the “non-public,” including blind people, and making art accessible to everyone. This aligns with the museum definition proposed by ICOM, which views museums as places of

enjoyment, accessibility, aggregation, and participation. Every museum is responsible for making its heritage accessible, activating processes of audience engagement and audience development to find strategies and tools that allow all citizens to access culture.

In this sense, a key element of *Doppio Senso* is the application of the principle of “Design for All,” as defined by the Stockholm Declaration in 2004,² which calls for the active participation of end users in the design process. This approach was realized with the involvement of the aforementioned blind sculptor Felice Tagliaferri, who was chosen not only as a user but as a co-creator of the program. Tagliaferri, in addition to being a talented sculptor, learned to navigate the museum spaces independently, becoming a key figure in conducting workshops and activities. His presence was essential in ensuring that the program addressed the real needs of blind people, demonstrating how co-participation of end users is an indispensable pillar for an inclusive project.

**Fig. 04:**
Doppio Senso.
Percorsi Tattili
alla Collezione
Peggy
Guggenheim.
Photo © Fei Xu.
4. As “Doppio Senso” nears its tenth year, can you discuss the subsequent projects or initiatives that have emerged from it? How do these ventures build on the project’s initial achievements and contribute to scholarly discourse on engaging diverse audiences in museum contexts?

*Doppio Senso* has been an opportunity for experimentation, study, and research, pursued with a rigorous and replicable approach. Thanks to this work, *Doppio Senso* has become a trailblazer for other initiatives related to the accessibility of cultural heritage in other museum contexts.

A significant example of this is the *Valori Tattili* project, created in 2018 at the Accademia Carrara in Bergamo. The occasion was the cataloging of the sculptures donated to the Fondazione Accademia Carrara by Federico Zeri. Unlike *Doppio Senso*, tactile reproductions were not used in that context, as the focus was on highlighting the original works, starting from the idea that sculpture inherently involves tactility and that one of its values can be found in the ability to be explored also through touch.

The project was carried out in an interdepartmental manner, involving the educational department of the foundation and the conservation department, in collaboration with the restoration center at Venaria Reale. After an assessment based on criteria such as the state of conservation, tactile legibility, and narrative potential, six marble sculptures from the Federico Zeri collection were selected, while a group of blind individuals was trained for one year as cultural mediators, learning to

understand the works from multiple perspectives, from art history to materiality.

These blind mediators first learned to understand the sculptures for themselves and later, through a series of exercises, were trained to mediate these works to a broader audience. During the training, they deepened their knowledge of the artists' creative and production processes: they studied how ears, nostrils, and other details were sculpted, discovering which chisel tips were used and how the artist shaped the material. This journey transformed blind people into storytellers of cultural heritage, capable of guiding other visitors through a deep and meaningful tactile experience.

The project further developed by including the collection of medals and plaques, donated to Accademia Carrara by Mario Scaglia. The blind mediators are now learning about these works, and tactile boards illustrating the process of creating a minted medal have been displayed in the museums halls, showing the tools and materials used in the production of these items. Regarding the medals and plaques, the tactile experience has been sometimes integrated with sound elements, making art accessible through multiple sensory channels. The future goal is to also train individuals who are deaf or have cognitive disabilities, following the Design for All approach: the idea is to use the languages and mediation methods developed for some audiences and make them available to others, exploring new forms of accessibility that go beyond the visual experience.

Alessandro Paolo Lena
Interview with Valeria Bottalico
<figure><img src="image_95.png" /></figure>

Like *Doppio Senso, Valori Tattili*— which started as an experimental project—has become a permanent program and a service for visitors. Today, it includes symposia and conferences, specific workshops related to the museum’s programming, and a monthly appointment where visitors can experience the artworks with the guidance of blind mediators. This evolution highlights how the program has expanded its scope, providing deeper, more comprehensive access to art through sensory exploration and continued community engagement.

Thanks to the PNRR funding, several new projects have emerged across various cultural contexts. One of them is an initiative designed for Ocean Space in Venice, a research center and exhibition space managed by the foundation TBA21— Thyssen-Bornemisza Art Contemporary. Located inside a deconsecrated church, Ocean Space hosts a rich program of site-specific works, created specifically for the center in

collaboration with contemporary artists. Here, the *Ocean for All* program has been developed, offering monthly visits where works can be experienced tactilely or accompanied by sign language interpreters, making them accessible to all audiences, both adults and children.

As an extension of the project *Ocean for All*, a long-term research initiative called *Abecedarium* was created, in collaboration with research institutes such as the ISMAR (National Institute of Marine Sciences) and the LACAM laboratory of the Department of Cognitive Sciences at CNR (National Research Council). This project involves deaf people from across Italy in the creation of an eco-glossary in sign language, the visual-gestural language used by the deaf community. The goal is to leverage the performative nature of sign language—already an artistic language—to disseminate scientific and environmental themes through contemporary art.

<caption>**Fig. 05:**
Doppio Senso.
Percorsi Tattili
alla Collezione
Peggy
Guggenheim.
Photo © Fei Xu.</caption>
The project aligns with the mission of the TBA21 foundation and its patron, Francesca Thyssen-Bornemisza, which aims to explore significant environmental and social issues through the lens of art. In this case, deaf people have become protagonists, demonstrating how sign language can be a powerful tool to communicate complex issues in an accessible and engaging way.

Work is also underway to implement a simplified writing method known as “easy-to-read,” which is used by people with cognitive disabilities but can also benefit individuals with a migratory background and a basic level of language proficiency (A1 or A2). These texts, facilitated and validated directly by end-users—people with cognitive disabilities—serve as tools that can help children, migrants, and anyone in need of more accessible language when engaging with cultural heritage.

I believe the most interesting aspect of these initiatives is that they are co-designed with the end-users, ensuring that they address their real needs. This approach, grounded in the Design for All concept, transforms museums into truly accessible spaces where the experience of cultural heritage becomes a shared and democratic practice.
Endnotes

1 *Doppio Senso* can be translated both as “Double Meaning” and “Double Sense,” reflecting the project’s dual focus on the intellectual and sensory dimensions of art engagement. The term plays on the idea of a deeper, multifaceted interaction with artworks, accessible through both visual and tactile experiences.

2 Bottalico refers to the EIDD Stockholm Declaration, adopted on 9 May 2004, at the Annual General Meeting of the European Institute for Design and Disability (EIDD) in Stockholm. See https://dfaeurope.eu/what-is-dfa/dfa-documents/the-eidd-stockholm-declaration-2004/.
<figure><img src="image_96.png" /></figure>

2019
# House of Memories di National Museums Liverpool: un approccio integrato alle collezioni digitali per persone malate di Alzheimer

Irene Di Pietro

Keywords:

Digital, Digital for Museums, Liverpool, Dementia, Information technology.

## ABSTRACT:

The essay aims to give an overview of the idea of “care” in museums through digital tools by presenting the case of the NML (National Museums of Liverpool) projects for people with dementia.

Il saggio intende offrire una panoramica sul tema della cura nei musei attraverso gli strumenti offerti dal digitale presentando il caso dei progetti di NML (National Museums of Liverpool) per le persone affette da demenza.
Tra i programmi museali¹ che co-
niugano il tema della cura delle per-
sone colpite da Alzheimer² e l'uti-
lizzo delle tecnologie digitali, *House
of Memories*, promosso nel Regno
Unito dalla rete National Museums
Liverpool,³ rappresenta un progetto
significativo, capace di promuovere
i musei come istituzioni culturali di
riferimento per una comunità, di
offrire un sostegno efficace ai ma-
lati di demenza, ma anche di indi-
viduare come priorità gli strumenti
utili per i caregiver. La strategia è
stata elaborata anche tenendo conto
delle esigenze legate all'invecchia-
mento della popolazione del Regno
Unito, il cui numero di persone con
più di 60 anni è destinato a crescere
in maniera significativa nei prossi-
mi decenni.⁴

Il progetto nasce nel 2012 nell'ambito del *Department of Health* con l'idea di supportare in maniera organica i professionisti dell'assistenza sanitaria e sociale, dando accesso alle collezioni tramite l'utilizzo di oggetti musealizzati, in particolare le risorse afferenti alla sezione di storia sociale, considerate punti di partenza per creare connessioni e occasioni di dialogo e conversazione tra persone affette da demenza. Riconoscendo, così, che le storie individuali, i ricordi, i gusti e le antipatie di una persona possono essere preziosi per creare connessioni e migliorare la comunicazione attraverso attività coinvolgenti.⁵

La rete istituzionale museale,
nell'ambito di un vasto panorama
scientifico sull'argomento,⁶ ha in-
fatti individuato la mancanza di
un'offerta, nella formazione alla
cura della demenza, centrata par-
ticolarmente sulla persona. Solo
la NML (National Museums Liver-

pool) aveva già sviluppato in pre-
cedenza programmi inclusivi,⁷ in
particolare, per il coinvolgimento
dei membri anziani delle comunità
locali:⁸ queste iniziative hanno cos-
tituito, così, una prima esperienza
da cui creare le offerte di *House of
Memories*.

Il progetto si propone come obiet-
tivo il miglioramento e l'incentivo
dell'assistenza sociale attraverso
la promozione, la collaborazione e
l'innovazione, anche creando par-
tenariati tra arte, salute, tempo libe-
ro, sport e attività outdoor. Tramite
il percorso creato, NML ha scelto di
sensibilizzare i propri pubblici sul
tema dell'Alzheimer e ha suppor-
tato i caregiver nella condivisione
creativa dei ricordi delle persone
assistite. Gli studi di valutazione su
*House of Memories*, condotti a par-
tire dal lancio nel 2012, mostrano
risultati costantemente positivi per
le organizzazioni e i settori dell'as-
sistenza sanitaria che hanno par-
tecipato, soprattutto in termini di
sviluppo professionale e di rafforza-
mento delle capacità individuali. Il
progetto ha messo in luce il poten-
ziale dei musei nel contribuire allo
sviluppo di competenze fondamen-
tali per le persone anziane e una
maggiore comprensione empatica
della malattia da parte dei careg-
iver.⁹ I partecipanti hanno dimostra-
to un cambiamento nella compren-
sione cognitiva ed emotiva della
demenza e delle sue implicazioni sia
per le persone direttamente colpite
sia per chi se ne prende cura, così
da riconsiderare e valutare i propri
atteggiamenti e comportamenti.¹⁰

L'idea di cambiare il concetto di cura
attraverso la cultura ha orientato
le iniziative di National Museums
Liverpool attraverso una strategia
museale che ha saputo coniugare, nel corso degli anni, una mediazione realizzata tramite risorse reali e analogiche con un approccio, più recente, attraverso strumenti digitali e la creazione di luoghi virtuali. Oltre agli eventi creati all'interno dei musei e che hanno riguardato le collezioni, gli allestimenti, ma anche le testimonianze e i documenti, sono state pensate risorse supplementari che potessero essere impiegate anche in spazi altri.

Il progetto *Memory Box*, tra i primi del museo, aveva come obiettivo il coinvolgimento e la condivisione della memoria ed è stato realizzato attraverso l'utilizzo di oggetti, contenuti all'interno di piccole valigie, che potessero far *risuonare* la storia e la vita delle persone e far scaturire conversazioni sui ricordi.

A seguito di questo percorso on site, nel 2014 è stata poi lanciata l'app *My House of Memories*,¹¹ frutto di una co-progettazione con le persone affette da demenza e i loro caregiver¹² e con la collaborazione di altre organizzazioni artistiche, culturali e che si occupano di medialità.¹³ Nello sviluppo dell'applicazione è stata infatti coinvolta una compagnia teatrale e sono stati utilizzati documentari basati su vari personaggi, realizzati durante gli eventi di formazione; queste collaborazioni professionali hanno permesso di produrre e fornire contenuti ed esperienze creative di alta qualità. Nello sviluppo della App, primo progetto digitale, sono stati coinvolti ricercatori academici provenienti da discipline quali la psicologia della salute, la gerontologia, l'infermieristica e la sanità applicata.

*My House of Memories* si presenta come una collezione digitale di oggetti museali e di uso quotidiano provenienti da diversi decenni e accompagnati da suoni, musica e descrizioni; attraverso il suo utilizzo prendono vita i ricordi delle persone, e vengono stimolate conversazioni e discussioni. Per gli utenti malati di Alzheimer osservare le immagini può, infatti, riportare alla mente ricordi passati legati ai loro passatempi e alle loro abitudini. Inoltre, ogni immagine può essere spiegata dall'applicazione, in modo da essere ben compresa dagli utenti. I temi proposti da *My House of Memories* sono la scuola, il lavoro, il tempo libero e la storia marittima, con un ricco patrimonio di fotografie, oggetti e di contenuti da esporrare.¹⁴

Il progetto riesce a mettere in evidenza il contributo unico che i musei e il patrimonio possono dare in questo contesto, valorizzando la conoscenza della persona dietro la diagnosi di demenza.

L'interfaccia si presenta con caratteristiche di usabilità e può essere facilmente compresa e utilizzata: anche chi non ha competenze digitali può apprenderne l'utilizzo progressivamente. *My House of Memories* può essere utilizzata anche all'interno di piccoli gruppi di persone con demenza e offrire, così, spunti per trattare temi e innescare conversazioni richiamando, di volta in volta, argomenti diversi. È possibile salvare i propri oggetti preferiti in un “albero dei ricordi” digitale, in una “scatola dei ricordi” (che richiamma la *Memory Box*) virtuale o in una linea del tempo. L'App può essere utilizzata anche nel contesto familiare, cosicché i caregiver e i familiari possano supportare il recupero delle memorie, grazie all'implemen-
to della sezione *My Memories*, nella quale è possibile aggiungere fotografie e ricordi propri creando una galleria personale.¹⁵

Nel 2021 NML ha lanciato un nuovo progetto digitale, dimostrando la continua capacità del programma *My House of Memories* di rispondere alle esigenze delle comunità locali e intercettando la difficoltà delle persone con demenza che non fossero in grado di accedere con facilità ai programmi sviluppati fino a quel momento. Per questo motivo, è stato elaborato *House of Memories on The Road*,¹⁶ un’esperienza museale mobile immersiva capace di promuovere lo sviluppo digitale nel settore museale, sanitario e sociale nel panorama post Covid-19, come si vedrà in seguito. L’utilizzo della tecnologia informatica si è rivelata indispensabile nel processo di *rimaginazione* del museo, superando i confini, in questo caso, di una tematica connessa alla salute.¹⁷

*On The Road* è, infatti, un’esperienza 3D fruibile all’interno di un autobus di 30 metri quadrati all’interno del quale sono stati realizzati un’installazione e uno spazio per le attività. Il progetto, che rappresenta la prima esperienza di museo immersivo mobile nel Regno Unito,¹⁸ è stato portato nei quartieri di Liverpool, nei centri delle comunità, nei parcheggi delle varie attività locali e nelle vicinanze delle case di cura per raggiungere più facilmente le persone con Alzheimer. Gruppi di sei persone possono esplorare contemporaneamente l’ambiente trovando uno spazio intimo e sicuro in cui poter fruire esperienze dal passato: lo spazio cinematografico interattivo si ricollega alle attività quotidiane degli anni Cinquanta per

poter stimolare, anche grazie a suoni e odori,¹⁹ i ricordi e le memorie. Tutte le immagini provengono dalle collezioni di NML.²⁰ Gli utenti possono rivivere virtualmente un giro sulla ferrovia *Liverpool’s Overhead*, una gita al mare, ma anche entrare in una drogheria o in una vecchia scuola; lo schermo permette l’utilizzo di bottoni che possono ripportare alla mente altri ricordi e i fruitori sono, infatti, liberi di scegliere il percorso da seguire.

Con l’utilizzo di un veicolo riconvertito come *On The Road*, le esperienze memorabili vengono così avvicinate alle categorie più vulnerabili, spesso isolate dalla società a causa della malattia. Il museo mobile apre le sue porte e invita a salire a bordo condividendo ricordi legati alla storia sociale della città di Liverpool; l’idea di un museo alla portata di tutti comporta sicuramente numerosi benefit: anzitutto contrasta l’esclusione delle comunità più fragili dai mezzi informatici e intende colmare la loro difficoltà ad accedere al mondo digitale.²¹ *On The Road* è stato pensato, quindi, come una possibilità offerta a coloro che convivono con la demenza, perché possano riconoscere il loro contributo alla società, ma anche ai giovani per creare un’esperienza digitale il più condivisa possibile.²² *On The Road* può essere prenotato e raggiungere diverse sedi e luoghi, oltre alle case di cura e centri di aggregazione, e può essere utilizzato anche durante eventi all’aperto. Il progetto, come nel caso di *My House of Memories*, è stato creato adattando una rivisitazione innovativa dell’offerta digitale di NML, che già comprendeva l’erogazione online di programmi di formazione per professionisti, ma anche, come già evidenziato, nume-
rose iniziative all'interno delle collezioni.²³

Nel 2021 è stato lanciato anche il servizio di prestito di tablet, *Connect My Memories*, in collaborazione con reti di comunità locali: attraverso un kit, per il personale specializzato e i volontari, e un programma di formazione, le risorse per il patrimonio digitale possono aiutare, anche in questo caso, gli anziani isolati a sviluppare nuove competenze, connessioni e interessi.

I progetti *On The Road e Connect My Memories* sono stati evidentemente elaborati per mitigare gli effetti della solitudine e dell'isolamento, in particolare sulla popolazione anziana e l'impatto della pandemia Covid-19:²⁴ problematiche presenti nelle aree prioritarie della sanità pubblica britannica. I ricercatori di NML hanno infatti approfondito quanto emerso dalla ricerca della Croce Rossa Britannica del 2020²⁵ che ha riportato come fenomeni emergenti: la mancanza di contatti significativi, la riduzione del sostegno informale e formale in termini di cura e assistenza e l'aumento dell'ansia, soprattutto nelle comunità a maggior rischio di solitudine e di isolamento (comprese le persone appartenenti a comunità di minoranza: nere, asiatiche, con malattie fisiche e mentali di lungo corso, ma anche persone a basso reddito e quelle con un accesso limitato alle tecnologie digitale e a Internet). I programmi costituiscono, così, una risorsa sociale preziosa che incoraggia la creazione di storie condivise e nuove comprensioni della diversità culturale.²⁶

I progetti più recenti dimostrano, dunque, la capacità di risposta di NML alle esigenze delle comunità lo-

cali: ne sono esempi anche le nuove versioni multiculturali dell'app *My House of Memories*.²⁷ Ma il progetto continua a espandersi digitalmente e rappresenta uno degli sviluppi digitali più avanzati in ambito museale, sanitario e dell'assistenza sociale nel panorama postpandemico in termini di ampliamento e diversificazione dell'accesso ai servizi e alle collezioni.²⁸

Gli obiettivi di crescita di NML individuati a medio termine (2025-27) e a lungo termine (2028-30) comprendono progetti che prevedono la creazione di contenuti digitali differenti e la realizzazione di reti con le comunità locali; oltre all'ampliamento di *House of Memories* attraverso nuove partnership globali negli Stati Uniti, in Sud America, nel Sud-Est asiatico ed Europa per rispondere a tendenze simili al Regno Unito, considerando che i malati di Alzheimer dovrebbero quasi triplicare a livello mondiale, raggiungendo 153 milioni di persone entro il 2050.²⁹

*House of Memories* rappresenta, in conclusione, un intervento culturale di altissima qualità nella politica e nella pratica dell'assistenza alle persone con demenza, grazie alla creazione di esperienze memorabili per tutti.³⁰ I musei, intesi spesso come luoghi “distanti” dalla vita della comunità, hanno dato vita a una strategia integrata con altri partner, configurandosi come luoghi in cui è possibile esplorare nuovi modi di lavorare, sviluppare competenze relazionali e interpersonali, facendo così progredire il settore della cultura, della salute e del benessere a livello locale e internazionale.
## Endnotes

1. Per inquadrare meglio il progetto *House of Memories* è sicuramente importante tracciare il quadro di riferimento sulle iniziative di cura dirette alle persone malate di Alzheimer nel Regno Unito. Gli Standard di qualità sulla cura di persone affette da demenza pubblicati dal National Institute for Health and Care Excellence nel 2019 hanno evidenziato come obiettivo strategico il coinvolgimento in attività che possano in cui possa migliorare il loro benessere, ma anche l'offerta di formazione a tutti i caregiver (si veda *Dementia: Quality Standard*...2019). Per ciò che riguarda, invece, le politiche sui benefici per la salute e il benessere derivanti dalla partecipazione alle arti e alla cultura, nel Regno Unito è stato creato nel 2021 il National Centre for Creative Health (NCCH), a seguito dell'ampia indagine biennale dell'All-Party Parliamentary Group on Arts Health and Wellbeing. Il rapporto, *Creative Health* 2017, viene considerata l'analisi più completa sul ruolo delle arti e della creatività nel sostenere la salute fisica e mentale lungo tutto l'arco della vita. L'NCCH è stato quindi istituito con l'obiettivo principale di rendere la salute creativa una componente strategica dei sistemi di assistenza sanitaria e sociale (si veda anche Wilson 2022a, p. 6). Un'analisi della letteratura sulle politiche sanitarie, condotta nel dicembre 2021 dal team *Innovate Dementia* della Liverpool John Mores University ha identificato cinque temi determinanti per la salute e l'assistenza, tra questi, è interessante notare l'importanza crescente dell'assistenza sociale, in base alla quale i pazienti o gli utenti dei servizi che presentano problemi di salute mentale vengono indirizzati a un'attività all'interno della comunità come alternativa al trattamento clinico (Cfr. Wilson 2022a, p. 15). Altri studi condotti dalla Liverpool John Mores University hanno invece identificato le priorità della strategia e degli orientamenti del Regno Unito in materia di demenza nel documento *Dementia 2020 Challenge* 2019 che richiama i punti di forza del progetto *House of Memories* e propone anche nuove azioni da svolgere per continuare a produrre cambiamenti positivi nel campo della demenza. In particolare: il coinvolgimento di un sempre maggior numero di persone affette da demenza nella ricerca e nello sviluppo e nell'individuazione di modalità per coinvolgere i gruppi "non ancora raggiunti", tra cui le comunità BAME (Black, Asian and minority ethnic) e non anglofone. Dal punto di vista delle arti e della salute, è sicuramente interessante citare l'agenda *Creative Health and Wellbeing* dell'Arts Council England che ha portato, nel 2022, alla progettazione della strategia *Let's Create 2020-30*: il documento stabilisce come il lavoro del Council affronta le disuguaglianze in materia di salute collegando le persone con le loro comunità attraverso la creatività. La ricerca accademica sul valore delle arti e della cultura per le persone affette da Alzheimer è poi sostenuta da una sempre maggiore rappresentazione dei media, ne è un esempio la serie della BBC, *Our Dementia Choir* (si veda a questo proposito Mangan 2019).

2. Per contributi di riferimento sulle esperienze museali per le persone affette da demenza si veda Rosenberg, Parsa, Humble, McGee 2009; Benham 2015; Johnson, Culverwell, et al. 2017; Fancourt, Steptoe, Cadar 2018; Coles, Jury 2020; Marchionni 2021. Il valore specifico dei musei nell'assistenza sociale per le persone anziane è evidenziato dalla ricerca di Thomson, Lockyer, Camic, Chatterjee 2018, i benefici indicati sono anzitutto l'opportunità di acquisire nuove conoscenze e competenze e il miglioramento, nel tempo, del benessere psicologico.

Sul riconoscimento del valore delle arti e della creatività per le persone affette da demenza, si vedano le ricerche sulle arti visive partecipative (Barroso, Rai, et al. 2022).

Per una trattazione del museo come spazio di assistenza sociale e come nodo di rete capace di soddisfare i bisogni della comunità, si veda Morse 2021.

3. Nel 2013 il progetto è stato distribuito in tutto il nord dell'Inghilterra, in collaborazione con il Salford Museum and Art Gallery, il Bury Art Museum e il Sunderland Museum and Winter Gardens. Nel 2015, è stato sviluppato *Train the Trainer* da Health Education England. Il programma prevedeva che gli operatori museali del team di *House of Memories* formassero i professionisti nei centri ospedalieri nel Nord-Ovest del Regno Unito, in modo da potere poi formare a cascata altri colleghi. Nel 2016 è stato realizzato
anche un programma pilota nazionale in collaborazione con il New Walk Museum and Art Gallery di Leicester, il Salford Museum and Art Gallery e il British Museum di Londra. Nel 2017 è stato lanciato il programma *House of Memories* per assistenti familiari.

4 Il numero di persone con più di 60 anni è destinato a raggiungere i 22 milioni nel 2039 e il numero di persone di età superiore a 85 anni i 3,6 milioni. Entro il 2025, si stima che 1 milione di persone nel Regno Unito saranno affette da demenza. Inoltre, si stima che ci siano circa 700.000 fornitori di assistenza familiare non retribuita. Per approfondire i risultati inerenti al tema, si vedano UK Public General Acts, 2022 c.31, *UK Health and Social Care act* (https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2022/31/contents).

5 *House of Memories Hits the Road...2022.*

6 Per un approfondimento sui programmi di cura delle persone malate di Alzheimer, si veda in particolare Wilson 2022a, pp. 5-6 e i relativi riferimenti bibliografici. *House of Memories* è stato citato come un esempio sistematico di assistenza nell'ambito di una revisione degli standard di assistenza per le persone affette da demenza (*Cracks in the Pathway*... 2014). Il progetto si è sviluppato in sinergia con i più importanti programmi di salute pubblica nel Regno Unito, che mettono in campo strategie preventive progettate per affrontare i fattori sociali e le disuguaglianze sanitarie, e che si occupano della creazione di sistemi sanitari e sociali integrati più sensibili e basati maggiormente sull'idea di comunità. Per gli altri riconoscimenti del progetto, si veda Wilson 2022a, p. 6. Durante un dibattito parlamentare dedicato, nel giugno 2013 il progetto è stato citato come un esempio di utilizzo efficace dei beni culturali nella campagna per la cura della demenza. Inoltre, è stata sottolineata l'efficacia sociale ed economica di *House of Memories*, in seguito agli investimenti del Dipartimento della Salute e al riconoscimento da parte del Consiglio comunale di Liverpool che indica il progetto come motore principale della sua politica di città a misura di anziano. Cfr. Wilson 2022a, p. 11.

7 Sui progetti creati da NML si veda Chatterjee, Noble 2013; Wilson 2015.

8 In particolare, la rete Happy Older People (HOP) nata nel 2014 per promuove la partecipazione artistica a misura di anziano nella regione di Liverpool. Per un inquadramento del progetto, si veda Wilson 2022a, p. 7.

9 Si vedano Wilson, Grindrod 2013; Wilson, Whelan 2014; Wilson, Whelan 2016.

10 Wilson, Whelan 2014; Wilson, Whelan, 2016; Ganga, Wilson, 2020 e *House of Memories Hits the Road...2022*.

11 https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/house-of-memories/my-house-of-memories-app.

12 L'App è stata sviluppata attraverso partnership con organizzazioni che continuano a collaborare con il team di *House of Memories* per nuovi sviluppi e iniziative. Tra queste, la Mersey Care NHS Foundation Trust, la Liverpool Dementia Action Alliance, l'Everton Football Club e la LJMU, che si occupa del programma internazionale *Innovate Dementia*, finanziato dalla Commissione europea. Si veda Wilson 2022a, p. 12.

13 Il progetto è stato lanciato ufficialmente durante un evento speciale alla Camera dei Comuni, nel giugno 2014. L'evento ha riunito tutti coloro che hanno partecipato al programma, comprese le persone affette da demenza e i caregiver, con i parlamentari dei principali partiti politici per celebrare i risultati ottenuti dal programma e lanciare l'applicazione. Il contributo del programma e l'esperienza dei membri del team sono stati riconosciuti grazie alla loro capacità di inclusione attiva e alla creazione di iniziative e gruppi strategici. Si veda Wilson 2022a, p. 11.

14 Sono disponibili anche contenuti sviluppati in collaborazione con musei e organizzazioni partner, come la sezione LGBTQIA+, pensata per persone appartenenti alla comunità e creata con l'associazione Switchboard che raccoglie storie di protesta, famiglie arcobaleno e ricordi di momenti chiave della comunità LGBTQIA+; la collezione *Memories of Yemen*, curata dalla comunità yemenita di Liverpool; *Liverpool FC Memories* per i tifosi di calcio che possono ripercorrere i loro legami e ricordi con il Liverpool Football Club; nel 2025 verrà lanciato dalla città di St Helens, l'omonimo progetto. Si veda
https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/house-of-memories/my-house-of-memories-app.

15 Il funzionamento dell'App è presentato nel video https://youtu.be/eQMc2ziW3kk?si=DdAHOmWl8YZYhThg.

16 https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/house-of-memories/on-the-road. La presentazione del progetto è visibile su https://youtu.be/TAnp4wxkiPQ?si=fMFbi8GEcY6Xb5g.

17 Whitehouse 2015.

18 Sull'importanza di *On The Road* come esempio di museo che esce dai vincoli spaziali si veda Cane 2022.

19 *House of Memories Hits the Road...*2022.

20 Cfr. l'intervista a Carol Rogers, Director of the House of Memories, in *House of Memories Hits the Road...*2022.

21 L'inchiesta lanciata nel 2020 sul tema della solitudine dal All-Party Parliamentary Group ha individuato nelle persone affette da demenza e in chi le assiste un gruppo specifico a rischio solitudine; inoltre nel rapporto che costituisce il risultato dell'inchiesta si definisce la necessità come intervento critico la necessità di colmare il divario digitale tra i gruppi a rischio solitudine e gli altri gruppi, per cui l'investimento in infrastrutture digitali e l'aumento delle competenze e della fiducia nel digitale sono indicate come azioni necessarie da perseguire. Cfr. *Fuelling the Moonshot...*2021 citata in Wilson 2022a, p. 14.

22 *House of Memories Hits the Road...*2022.

23 Wilson 2022a, p. 14, si veda anche nota n. 3.

24 *House of Memories Hits the Road...*2022.

25 *Life After Lockdown...*2020 è infatti citata in forse Wilson 2022a, p. 14.

26 *House of Memories Hits the Road...*2022.

27 Tra il 2021 e il 2022 la Esmée Fairbairn Collections Fund ha finanziato il progetto *Memories of Yemen* per la co-creazione di una collezione digitale del patrimonio yemenita di Liverpool. Il progetto intergenerazionale ha coinvolto giovani e i membri più anziani della comunità e organizzazioni come il Liverpool Arabic Centre, la Moschea Al-Taiseer e il Centro Al-Ghazali, oltre che essere stato sviluppato con il supporto del Kuumba Imani Millennium Centre per creare una versione in doppia lingua (arabo e inglese) dell'app *My House of Memories*, utilizzando le collezioni museali dei partner del progetto: il British Museum e il Fashion Museum di Bath, e gli oggetti raccolti e fotografati dai membri della comunità su temi quali la cucina, l'intrattenimento, la vita nelle campagne, l'abbigliamento e i gioielli. Cfr. https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/house-of-memories/connecting-yemeni-elders-heritage e Wilson 2022b.

*House of Memories Cymru* è un'altra versione in doppia lingua del programma. Nel 2022 il governo gallese ha finanziato un programma che offre formazione, App e attività in gallese e inglese, co-prodotto con un consorzio di 14 musei e reti di assistenza che supportano gli anziani e le persone affette da demenza in tutto il Galles, comprese le comunità più isolate. Il progetto si concentra soprattutto sull'idea di far rivivere la tradizione gallese, per avvicinare gli anziani alle abitudini e agli eventi che possono far rivivere i ricordi del passato. Cfr. https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/house-of-memories/cymru/house-of-memories-cymru.

28 Wilson 2022a, p. 14.

29 Wilson 2022a, p. 19.

30 *House of Memories Hits the Road...*2022.
## References

Barroso, Rai, et al. 2022: Barroso A., Rai H.K., Sousa L., Orrell M., Schneider, J., *Participatory visual arts activities for people with dementia: a review*, in “Perspectives in Public Health”, 2022, 142, 1, pp. 22-31.

Benham 2015: Benham H., *Designing Museum experiences for people with Dementia*, MuseumNext, 25/09/2015, https://www.museumnext.com/article/designing-museum-experiences-for-people-with-dementia/.

Cane 2022: Cane A., *Il museo esce dalle mura e va incontro ai malati di Alzheimer grazie al digitale*, in “Musei-it.com, Museum & Information Technology”, 19 aprile 2022, https://www.musei-it.com/post/il-museo-esce-dalle-mura-e-va-incontro-ai-malati-di-alzheimer-grazie-al-digitale.

Chatterjee, Noble 2013: Chatterjee H., Noble, G., *Museums, Health and Wellbeing*, Farnham, Ashgate Publishing, 2013.

Coles, Jury 2020: Coles A., Jury H., *Art Therapy in Museums and Galleries. Reframing Practice*, London, Jessica Kingsley, 2020.

*Cracks in the Pathway...* 2014: *Cracks in the Pathway: People's experiences of dementia care as they move between care homes and hospitals*, edit by Care Quality Commission, october 2014.

*Creative Health* 2017: *Creative health: The arts for health and wellbeing*, edit by All-Party Parliamentary Group on Arts, Health and Wellbeing, 2017, https://www.culturehealthandwellbeing.org.uk/appg-inquiry/.

*Dementia 2020 Challenge* 2019: *Dementia 2020 Challenge: 2018 Review Phase 1*, London Department of Health and Social Care, 2019, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5c6ed7bee5274a0ec174cd6b/dementia-2020-challenge-2018-review.pdf.

*Dementia: Quality Standard...* 2019: *Dementia: Quality Standard [QS184]*, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2019, https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/qs184/resources/dementia-pdf-75545721373381.

Fancourt, Steptoe, Cadar 2018: Fancourt D., Steptoe S., Cadar D., *Cultural engagement and cognitive reserve: museum attendance and dementia incidence over a 10-year period*, in “The British Journal of Psychiatry”, 2018, 213, 5, pp. 661-663.

*Fuelling the Moonshot...* 2021: *Fuelling the Moonshot: Unleashing the UK's potential through dementia research*, London, All-Party Parliamentary Group on Dementia, 2021.

Ganga, Wilson 2020: Ganga R., Wilson, K., *Valuing carers: The impact of House of Memories as a museum-led dementia awareness programme for family caregivers*, in “International Journal of Care and Caring”, 2020, 4, 4, pp. 573-593.

*House of Memories Hits the Road...* 2022: *House of Memories Hits the Road with Mobile Museum*, in “NIHR Applied Research Collaboration ARC NWC”, 2022, https://arc-nwc.nihr.ac.uk/news/house-of-memories-hits-the-road-with-mobile-museum/.

Johnson, Culverwell, et al. 2017: Johnson J., Culverwell A., Hulbert S., Roberton M., Camic P.M., *Museum activities in dementia care: using visual analog scales to measure subjective wellbeing*, in “Dementia: The International Journal for Social Research and Practice”, 2017, 16, 5, pp. 591-610.

*Life After Lockdown...* 2020: *Life After Lockdown: Tackling Loneliness among those left behind*, London, The British Red Cross Society, 2020.

Mangan 2019: Mangan L., *Our Dementia Choir with Vicky McClure review – your tears will flow unstoppably*, in “The Guardian”, 2nd May 2019.

Marchionni 2021: Marchionni G., *I musei e il welfare culturale: azioni e strumenti per l'inclusione dei malati di Alzheimer: esperienze internazionali*, Perugia, CSVOL Umbria,
2021.

Morse 2021: Morse N., *The Museum as a Space of Social Care*, London-New York, Routledge, 2021.

Rosenberg, Parsa, Humble, McGee 2009: Rosenberg F., Parsa A., Humble L., McGee C., *Meet Me: Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia*, New York, MoMa, 2009.

Thomson, Lockyer, Camic, Chatterjee 2018: Thomson L.J., Lockyer B., Camic P.M., Chatterjee, H.J., *Effects of a museumbased social prescription intervention on quantitative measures of psychological wellbeing in older adults*, in “Perspectives in Public Health”, 2018, 138, 1, pp. 28-38.

Whitehouse 2015: Whitehouse P., *Preface*, in Roberston H. (ed.), *The Caring Museum: New models of engagement with ageing*, Edinburgh, Museumsetc, 2015, pp. 11-22.

Wilson 2015: Wilson K., *The political value of museums in dementia care*, in Roberston H. (ed.), *The Caring Museum: New models of engagement with ageing*, Edinburgh, Museums etc, 2015, pp. 360-385.

Wilson 2022a: Wilson K., *House of Memories at National Museums Liverpool 2012-22: Advancing the Role of Museums in Health and Social Care*, 2022, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/house-of-memories/about/evaluations-and-reports.

Wilson 2022b: Wilson K., *Connecting with Yemeni Elders Heritage Evaluation report*, 2022, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/house-of-memories/about/evaluations-and-reports. [non è citato in nota]

Wilson, Grindrod 2013: Wilson K., Grindrod L., *Evaluation of House of Memories Northern Model*, Liverpool, Institute of Cultural Capital, 2013.

Wilson, Whelan 2014: Wilson K., Whelan, G., *Evaluation of House of Memories in the Midlands*, Liverpool, Institute of Cultural Capital, 2014.

Wilson, Whelan 2016: Wilson K., Whelan G., *Evaluation of the Pilot House of Memories Train the Trainer Programme*, Liverpool, Institute of Cultural Capital, 2016.
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# Exhibition design and lighting: notes on the genesis of the debate between conservation, public emotion, and care

Federico Maria Giorgi

## Keywords:

Light design, Care, Museum displays, Architecture, Public perception.

## ABSTRACT:

In 1969, a group of museum professionals from the United States decided to found the International Association of Lighting Designer (IALD), marking both the emergence of a new profession and the rising importance given to the topic of light inside exhibition spaces. If the complex relationship between the preventive conservation of exhibited artworks and the visual comfort of the public is at the origin of the first considerations of light as an essential tool for museums, today's light designers' projects shed new light on the topic by offering new horizons - such as the importance of environmental care- and by improving the design, technologies, and knowledge behind the art of illuminating museums. As such, this article tries to retrace the evolution of the reflection toward museum illumination by highlighting its constant relationship with our different perspectives of “care”.

Nel 1969, un gruppo di professionisti museali statunitensi decise di fondare l'International Association of Lighting Designer (IALD), segnando sia la nascita di una nuova professione sia la crescente importanza attribuita al tema della luce all'interno degli spazi espositivi. Se la complessa relazione tra la conservazione preventiva delle opere d'arte esposte e il comfort visivo del pubblico è all'origine delle prime considerazioni sulla luce come strumento essenziale per i musei, oggi i progetti dei light designer forniscono una prospettiva rinnovata sull'argomento, offrendo nuovi orizzonti - come l'importanza della cura dell'ambiente - e migliorando il design, le tecnologie e le conoscenze alla base dell'arte di illuminare i musei. Questo articolo cerca quindi di ripercorrere l'evoluzione della riflessione sull'illuminazione museale, evidenziando il suo costante rapporto con le diverse prospettive del “care”.

## Opening Picture:

Fig. 6: Detail of the Multireflex light system installed inside the Museo internazionale e biblioteca della musica di Bologna, November 2024. In Italian museums, light often plays a double role, highlighting the exhibited works and enhancing the historical container that displays them.

Photo by Federico Maria Giorgi.

Federico Maria Giorgi

Federico Maria Giorgi is a PhD student at the Department of Architecture, Construction Engineering, and Built Environment (DABC) of the Politecnico di Milano and at the Laboratoire des Environnements numériques Cultures Architecturales et Urbaines of the University Paris-Cité.

Focusing on heritage reuse projects for universities and cultural institutions, the author's research delves into the role of display solutions and their relationship with urban regeneration policies.

CC BY 4.0 License
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
©Federico Maria Giorgi, 2025
https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.3034-9699/21599

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## The 4th dimension of architecture: how light entered the design of museum spaces

The importance of the light offered to collections has been a topic of artistic historiography ever since the 17th-century indications of Giulio Mancini and Vincenzo Scamozzi and the 18th-century debate on the lighting of the first exhibitions - temporary, laic and open to all - at the Salon Carré in the Louvre. Exhibitions that would, in those years, make zenithal lighting a fashionable subject among Parisian artists¹ and architects.² In the 19th century, the emotional possibilities offered by light variations inside an identical space would be explored in Art: we only need to recall Claude Monet's thirty-one canvases of Rouen Cathedral painted in different light conditions. Light, which contemporary debate has sometimes interpreted as the 'fourth dimension' of architecture, has since offered visual consistency to the spaces of collections, revealing their volumes and matter.³ However, in time, it also started to create moods and atmospheres by conveying emotions to the spectator,⁴ permanently balancing the needs of the spaces, the artworks and the public.

The following reflections do not intend to propose a technical analysis of the evolution of lighting systems used over time for exhibitions and museums⁵ but rather to point out how the question of 'care', which is as topical as ever today, has been at the basis of some exhibition projects and of various theoretical reflections in the field of museology since the 1940s. At that time, curators' practice was confronted with two

different and sometimes conflicting requirements: on the one hand, the essential need for adequate preservation of collections over time;⁶ on the other hand, the increasingly important focus on public perception.⁷ This priority toward the visitor - by now essential for the life of many museums - was emphasised, perhaps for the first time so clearly, in the Madrid conference of 1934. On this occasion, what can be considered the first handbook of museography⁸ was produced under the coordination of Euripides Foundoukidis, Secretary General of the IOM (International Office of Museums).⁹

Internationally, Kruithof's now famous studies of 1941 aimed to scientifically identify 'pleasant' light and visual comfort by studying the relationship between the luminance and the colour temperature of the light source. It should be noted that the visual "satisfaction" identified by Kruithof was still partially validated by visual tests with LEDilluminants published by Viénot, Durand and Mahler in 2009.¹⁰ Still, at the beginning of the 21st century, James Druzik and Bent Eshøj¹¹ went over the main historical stages of the relationship between conservation and lighting to emphasise the opportunity to find standard reference models and more stringent regulatory guidelines to more safely process lighting in museums.¹²

Designing the lighting of a museum requires the search for harmony between different elements: perceptive, physiological and psychological factors of vision, but also "chromatic memories that have been sedimented in western culture".¹³ In Italy, it also implies, es-
<figure><img src="image_100.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 01:** Detail of the Multireflex light system installed inside the Museo internazionale e biblioteca della musica di Bologna, November 2024. The lighting system takes full advantage of the physical characteristics of the rooms, in particular their height, so that they can be illuminated at 360 degrees without the risk of blinding visitors through glare. Photo by Federico Maria Giorgi.</figcaption></figure>
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especially if the museum is housed in a historic building, dealing with the problems of integrating lighting fixtures and illumination systems in monumental and often protected spaces of our past. This attention to the preservation of monuments shows how the reflection on the role of light inside museum spaces locally developed itself by following various national cultures and customs toward the topic of “care”. Through the prism of the attention given to light inside exhibition designs, it is, after all, possible to read much of the critical evolution that has characterised the social objectives and design priorities of Italian and, more generally, European museums: the relationship between collections and space - basically between container and content; the

role offered to masterpieces concerning public enjoyment in a kind of perceptive hierarchy; the double scale of environment and detail in the lighting of exhibition spaces; the difficult dialogue between aesthetics and didactics.

Exhibitions and museums have been an emerging topic in the Italian critical and architectural debate since the years of the Second World War: for example, in 1941, the magazine Costruzioni Casabella published a monographic issue examining installations created between 1925 and 1940, considering them as a testimony of the contemporary architectural reflection.¹⁴ During the post-war years, museology and museography not only took note of the fundamental importance of light

**Fig. 2:** Illumination of the Musée d'histoire de Nantes, in June 2024. In this one example, we can observe different functions of light care: facilitating the reading of printed elements, facilitating the reading of a three-dimensional element through grazing light, and highlighting architectural elements made less visible by the building's restoration work. Photo by Federico Maria Giorgi.
but also explored it through the now-famous installations of great masters of architecture such as the BBPR, Carlo Scarpa, Franco Albini and many others. In Italy, more than 150 museums were reopened to the public between 1945 and 1953, and about as many in the following decade. Those were times of significant architectural commitment towards the reconstruction of buildings and museums damaged by bombings: the museum and its lighting became important case studies for contemporary architecture as a whole. This “conquest” of the museum by architects and its consideration as a space for high-design experimentation was one of the great novelties of those years, in which Italy was trying to catch up with the backwardness it had developed to the rest of Europe over more than twenty years.¹⁵

Between 1946 and 1950, for example, the Pinacoteca di Brera was rebuilt after being heavily damaged during the bombardments: the collaboration between the complementary competencies of the famous directors Ettore Modigliani and Fernanda Wittgens, of architecture masters Piero Portaluppi and Franco Albini, but also of illumination specialist¹⁶ allowed the realisation of spaces in which the dimension of the “suggestion”, as Fernanda Wittgens defined it, began to assume a central role in introducing the importance of the emotional participation of the publics. 1953 was undoubtedly a particularly rich year for Italian museums: in the Antonello da Messina exhibition realised by Carlo Scarpa, the architect’s search for the most appropriate light for Antonello’s paintings led him to the very famous solution of vertiginous pleated fabrics that covered the rooms and reconfigured their spatial character. A design proposal that constituted an unprecedented way to screen the natural light entering the rooms but also realised an impressive poetic element in the installation.

In the meantime, Palazzo Bianco had been reopened in Genoa (in 1950); Franco Albini had illuminated its rooms, which had been heavily damaged during the war, with a mix of natural light and artificial lighting: the arrangement of the lamps in the rooms, created employing suspended tracks, was considered an “almost metaphysical element, in which the visitors were invited to enter into a direct relationship with the work of art”.¹⁷ Albini’s design practice was also reflected in his university teaching; in his lecture for the opening of the IUAV academic year 1954,¹⁸ the master argued that air and light were in their own rights materials for the construction of space and that the technical dimension of lighting had to be considered as a priority in architectural design, especially in that ‘exhibition design’ which had yet to be defined.¹⁹ The synthesis of its various design components, from display cases to communication and lighting, made exhibition design a field in which Italian architecture has particularly distinguished itself thanks to historical installations, with exemplary exhibitions created by masters such as Carlo Scarpa, Franco Albini, Franco Minissi, but also Pier Giacomo Castiglioni or Marcello Nizzoli, right up to contemporary installations such as those made by the Migliore-Servetto studio.
From conservation to communication: artificial lights at the origins of the debate on “care”

The post-war years were also the time when great attention began to be given to the overall lighting of spaces and the light inside individual showcases. As such, lighting would take part in the more general debate on the relationship between the public's experience and the masterpieces: for example, from the Central Institute for Restoration came the proposal to direct and concentrate light, and thus the public's interest, on the highest quality works, leaving the rest of the collections in diffuse light.²⁰ Theoretical elaborations on the incidence, colour and intensity of light and new exhibition practice also began to move museums away from the undifferentiated penumbra in which many collections had been previously confined. They followed, on the one hand, the public's need for a perfect view of the work and, on the other, the new awareness of the value of atmosphere and emotion for the experience of art.

From this perspective, the post-war democratic focus on the educational role of cultural institutions in advancing civil progress also corresponded to an extension of museums' opening hours late into the evening²¹ to allow workers to access exhibition halls. Analysing the role and importance of artificial light became mandatory for controlling the harmony between artificial and natural light while facilitating the comprehension of the collections for an ever-larger audience of non-specialists.

A handful of articles in the *Bolletti*

no d'arte, a magazine published by the Ministero della Educazione Nazionale - direzione delle Antichità e Belle Arti, are still an essential testimony to the contemporary genesis of a conscious consideration of the use of light for the physical and psychological well-being of visitors and the proper conservation of exhibits' objects.²² Piero Sanpaolesi (1904-1980), both an architect and an architecture historian, was one of the protagonists of the culture of restoration in the second half of the 20th century, Soprintendente ai Monumenti e alle Gallerie in the cities of Pisa, Livorno, Lucca and Massa Carrara from 1943.²³ In 1949, he published 'Tipi di lucernari per illuminazione', which was inspired by solutions he had previously realised in the Museo della Collegiata in Empoli and during the restoration and reconstruction of the former San Matteo Prison in Pisa. In some respects, his reflections on museum lighting can be considered one of the cornerstones of a new museography in Italy.²⁴ Sanpaolesi Writes:

> "Too much light offends the visitor and the exhibited object by encouraging reflections from the walls, and especially from the floors. Too little light (the most frequent problem in museums) does not allow everything in the paintings to be seen. However, determining the amount of light required is difficult in theory...It is therefore necessary to use suitably prepared experimentations for each case."²⁵
The ‘light that offends the visitor’, whether by its strong presence or absence, is connected to the difficulties of applying theoretical indications within the concrete experience on the field. However, for the author, some general considerations could still be applied:

> "Traditional window lighting can be effective in small rooms, while overhead lighting is preferred in medium and large rooms."²⁶

These observations are still strongly linked with the architecture's structure and characteristics; space remains the primary constraint that needs to be considered to define the emotions of visitors. It is from these technical expedients that, according to Sampaolesi, a feeling of well-being arises for the visitors, a sensation for which they very rarely identify the cause, i.e. the light, which architects and curators instead consider to be a tool, as fundamental as it is refined, for elaborating the 'narrative' and presentation of the collections:

> "The result of these expedients may go unnoticed by most, and visitors are often justified in attributing their well-being to a happy coincidence of favourable conditions. But this is not the case for architects and directors of galleries and museums, who cannot ignore these delicate devices of the institutions entrust-

> ed to their care and strive to raise their quality by every means possible."²⁷

Here, we are faced with one of the first citations identifying the correct lighting of exhibition halls as a source of spectator well-being; Sanpaolesi's theoretical guidelines would later be taken up in the third edition of the *Manuale dell'Architetto*²⁸ in 1962 and would become one of the best-accepted design models²⁹ in several post-war museums.³⁰

Meanwhile, in 1953, Roberto Carità (1913-2008), who had been working at the Soprintendenza Torinese as Ispettore Storico dell'Arte since 1950, was involved by Cesare Brandi in the new venture of the Istituto Centrale per il Restauro. That very year, Carità also wrote a *Nota sull'iluminazione artificiale delle opere d'arte*³¹ in the “Bollettino d’Arte”. The profile of the author, a humanist and “idealist”, was profoundly different from that of Sanpaolesi. Yet, the importance they both claimed for experimentation in the field of optics and their shared interest in museum lighting demonstrate the topicality of these themes. However, Carità’s work at the Istituto Centrale per il Restauro and his commitment to the conservation and restoration of works of art is undoubtedly a vital key in understanding his focus on lighting solutions that couldn’t pose a danger to some particularly delicate categories of objects, such as antique textiles and drawings. In the pages of the *Bollettino d’Arte*, Carità disapproved of the habitual dependence of museum lighting on architectural structures and asserted the necessity of appropriate artificial lighting for drawings:
"Looking at the artificial light installations in some museums, one doubts that the most important laws of optics regarding illumination have been taken into account. In some cases, the designs appear to have been drawn up in absolute subordination to the architectural forms, for which the light - to achieve the right combination - should not be in servitude but rather in harmony... I do not consider the absence of daylight a disadvantage... not only to gain space but also to eliminate the possibility of prolonged exposure to light, which is very damaging for drawings, while the lamps can be switched off when they are not needed."³²

According to Carità, adequate artificial lighting was particularly suitable for exhibition halls set up in historic buildings - a widespread characteristic in the Italian development of museums - for which the windows openings were often more adapted to housing people rather than housing artworks : "... especially in museums housed in older buildings, where good artificial lighting is undoubtedly preferable to bad natural lighting."³³ One of the cases he presented in the Bollettino d'arte is that of the Albertina museum, where the lighting is considered too intense and therefore not adequate for a good conservation of fragile materials:

"Intense light is detrimental to conservation: thinking that the intensity is, for our eye, measured in relation to the environment (and this can be clearly seen by projecting slides in a dark room or only in half-light or full light) I thought it appropriate to keep the diffuse lighting in the rooms as low as possible, to make the lighting concentrated on the works more evident."³⁴

Again, on the topic of collections' conservation, Carità observe how even the design of individual display elements could prove harmful to artworks and pose some critical problems:

"I have observed that, for the illumination of single works, outdoors or inside a display case, the light source is almost always placed too close and with direct incidence on the object, forgetting that, among the many possibilities of damage to paintings, not the least is discouragement."³⁵

Seventy years later, many of Roberto Carità's technical indications are now obsolete, overtaken by the extraordinary evolution of lighting technology. However, the most interesting and perhaps still influential part of his text remains the one in which the author introduces the theme of the visual 'fatigue' and
'rest' of the spectator in relation to lighting. Stressing not only the importance of light for the well-being of the audience, Carità explains the importance of an appropriate use of materials and opaque surfaces in exhibition halls by using musical analogies:

> "The appropriate use of such surfaces is not dictated by reasons of taste, nor by 'feeling' of rest that arises from viewing them. This can be explained by acoustic analogies, as light and sound radiations often follow similar laws. Just as fabrics, by extinguishing echoes, give a 'plush' sensation, so opaque surfaces act towards light. And, again, just as resonances and echoes cause annoyance to a listener of music, so do scattered and unnecessary reflections

> that reach the eye of the beholder of a work of art: with the difference that a sound disturbance is immediately perceived, while an optical disturbance, within the field of vision but not in the focus of the pupil, is a disturbance that is felt but not immediately explained. The result is fatigue."³⁶

According to Carità, therefore, part of the typical fatigue we feel during museum visits is caused by optical disturbances, perceived but undetected, due to reflections produced by bad lighting and wrong surface materials. Indeed, one of the most modern elements of this discourse, which, let us remember, dates back to the 1950s, lies in the search for the physical and psychological well-being of the spectator and the experimental use of new lighting techniques to achieve an objective which, until recently, was essential-

**Fig. 3:** Dynamic light system made of movable drawers installed inside the Museo Internazionale e Biblioteca della Musica di Bologna, November 2024. Despite the great technical care that characterises the construction of these display cabinets, the visitor's experience is challenging when this type of protective mechanism is repeated too often, as the action of opening and closing the drawers entails, not only physically but also symbolically, a fragmentation of the visitor's attention. Photo by Federico Maria Giorgi.

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ly foreign to both museum practice and museology. Its great actuality can be seen in some recent reflections on the risk of creating homogeneous and contrasting lighting scenarios inside exposition, as they could, similarly to sudden and irregular changes in music rhythm, cause distress and anxiety in people affected not only by visual handicaps but also by psychic disabilities.³⁷

**Ambiance and the birth of a new profession: how light-designer changed the horizons of care.**

On the 17th of May 1947, ICOM was born, which, although in different ways, throughout its various definitions, would indicate that the objective of museums was “to conserve and exhibit”: to follow an oxymoron that wasn’t always easy to realise. Franco Albini, for example, was responsible for the realisation of the Treasure Room of San Lorenzo in Genova in 1956, an early and exciting case study for the controversial relationship between lighting and conservation, between the spectator’s emotions and the good preservation of works. Here the cases of the precious copies of the Cathedral were initially closed by “luminous hairs” that were later removed because Caterina Mercenaro didn’t like them and were never restored because they contained neon tubes that would prove contrary to the good preservation of ancient fabrics³⁸ in the years following Albini’s realisation. The fundamental debate between conservation and atmosphere that was to characterise the whole of the second half of the 20th century on the correct use

of light in museums and exhibitions is already evident here.

The Castelvecchio museum in Vitorona, which was opened in 1964, is further proof of this: Carlo Scarpa's installation is considered as a whole to be one of the great masterpieces of second-century museography. However, the lighting system, although particularly elegant and attentive to the building's historical pre-existences, is today - at least according to Paola Marini, former director of the museum - the aspect that has become most obsolete over the years.³⁹ Perhaps because it cannot create the intensely emotional atmospheres that the general public now demands for exhibitions and museums.⁴⁰ In May 2024, during a short presentation for the conference “Architettura disciplina eteronoma”, James Bradburne highlighted how, during his time at the Pinacoteca di Brera as a director, the decision to change the light-design of the entire museum radically from its previous homogenous illumination was due to the necessity to engage more effectively the public with stronger contrast between light and shadow.⁴¹

It seems clear that the recent rise of both temporary exhibitions and new artificial lighting technologies has led to the emergence of a new profession of “artisans” who are making collections increasingly spectacular, perhaps for some overly so, and whose expertise combines both theatrical and scenographic knowledge to enhance the experience of visitors and spectators: light designers. The foundation of the International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)⁴² in 1969 can be considered as the birth of this new
specialised branch of professionals that were coming from a broad range of studies and experiences⁴³ but was also a great occasion for the circulation and dissemination of knowledge on the topic of illumination.⁴⁴ Since then, a semiotic of illumination has developed between these experts, a grammar of light's parameters and variables that can give new meaning to an exposition through common historically superposed assonances.

Recent examples of effective use of the “grammar of light” have tried to create or even recreate an am-bience. One example is the light design project for the exposition *Hogarth, Reynolds, Turner. Pittura inglese verso la modernità* that was opened at the Museo Fondazione Roma from the 15th of April to the 20th of July 2014. The light designer recreated the impression of a space illuminated with candlelight⁴⁵ using modern technologies while at the same time guaranteeing the visual comfort of the visitors. Giuseppe Mestrangelo gives us the following insight on this project:

**Fig. 4:** Illumination of the exposition *Ulisse Aldrovandi, l'Altro Rinascimento* in Palazzo Poggi, Bologna. This example clearly shows how the objective of facilitating the visual experience of visitors with light can also be achieved through inexpensive technical solutions that do not necessarily require special or expensive lighting equipment. In this case, simple LED strips and slanted wooden panels allow a good view of embossed objects. Photo by Federico Maria Giorgi.

*"The exhibition path was to be characterised by imitating the light, just right for the most likely setting of the period presented in the project's stage setting. It was not necessary to have chandeliers or appliqués, just the artificial luminous flow of light "managed knowledgeably" in composition, giving visitors the real sensation that they were in a place lit up by candles."*⁴⁶

Recently, Andrea Graser also highlighted the possibilities that modern lighting offers to museums as a way to transport visitors to the original context of the artwork:

*"Just as it is possible to digitally scan an object, a room or a building and then plot it in a three-dimensional model, it is also possible to measure the light at a specific location using a digital spectrometer, store the data and*

<figure><img src="image_103.png" /></figure>
reproduce it in a new envi-
ronment using state of the
art lighting technology.
Taking this concept fur-
ther, one might use a dig-
itally controlled dynamic
lighting system to travel
in time – for example, from
the light of the present day
to that of the Baroque – or
to transport the light of
Central Europe to the light
of the North or South.”⁴⁷

Since the late 20th century and
with the emergence of these new
tools, lighting designers have been
asked to create immersive experi-
ences for visitors in environments
that should encourage discovery,
curiosity and learning by orienting
and guiding audiences while at the
same time helping to preserve the
works and objects on display. In
2004, the Commission Internation-
ale de l'Éclairage (CIE) fixed a series
of thresholds for the preservation
of museum objects⁴⁸ that, despite
not being radically different from
previous research, were calculated
on an annual basis, allowing cura-
tors to modify the amount of light
in the function of the various needs
of the moment. For example, works
could be exposed for the duration
of an exposition to a more impact-
ful source of light and then put to
"rest" for the rest of the year, or
light sources could be automated to
dim in relationship with the move-
ment of visitors or with the change
of natural light. Dynamic lighting
offers more room for the creativ-
ity of light designers to shine and
more opportunities to integrate the
care of the artworks with the care
of the visitors; stronger illumina-

tion settings could, for example, be
prepared for the guided visits of
people with visual impairments.
Another possibility offered by dy-
namic artificial light is to simulate
the natural daylight and its evolu-
tion throughout the day-cycle. For
example, since 2019, Veronika May-
erböck has replaced the fluorescent
tubes of the Kunsthistoriches Muse-
um's glass ceilings with LED in her
design in order to simulate the day-
light that once entered the museum
through the now veilled skylights.⁴⁹
This solution could prove particu-
larly interesting for the topic of care
as various scientific studies have
shown the lasting effects that arti-
ficially simulated daylight systems
can have on people's health and
well-being.⁵⁰ The emergence of LED
technologies is also at the centre of
significant advances in the scientific
field of psychology and perception.
The fully customisable nature of
LED sources, in colour and inten-
sity, allowed researchers to engage
in new studies aimed toward ana-
lysing our psychological reaction
to different lightning situations.⁵¹
The international lighting magazine
*Luminous* produced a special ‘Light
Health and Wellbeing’ issue in 2010
where French light designer and
specialist of ‘éclairages durables’⁵²
Vincent Laganier wrote: “By asking
who the users are, what they do,
and how they will use the buildings,
lighting designers can contribute to
their happiness and health”.⁵³

This indication seems even more
relevant for museums that are
called upon to increasingly assume
a repairing function in which the
“care” of the public has become an
essential element of any up-to-date
<figure><img src="image_104.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5:** Illumination of the exposition *Ulisse Aldrovandi, l'Altro Rinascimento* in Palazzo Poggi, Bologna. The light of the immersive video projected on the ceiling of this room completely changes the perception of the room. Although viewing some works from the museum's permanent exhibition is more complex, the experience and atmosphere of the visit are completely changed for the duration of a temporary exhibition simply through light. Photo by Federico Maria Giorgi.</figcaption></figure>

museographic discourse. In certain peculiar occasions, this sense of care can be extended not only to the visitors but also to the artists themselves and their vision. Often, a dialogue between living artists and light designers is necessary to better integrate their artwork inside the exhibition spaces and as a way to improve their trust.⁵⁴ This attention to the artwork's characteristics can also give voice to new interpretations and discoveries by highlighting small details that would otherwise

remain unseen. This is why Vivianna Gobbato observes how light could if used correctly, become a temporary and reversible tool of restoration:

> "By a gesture that can be erased, illumination contributes to a form of aesthetic renovation of the works. This gesture admits a dimension of perceptible and formal transformation of the work in the

05
museum. The light reveals a completely different facet of the object previously known from one angle. Such a dimension makes lighting a tool capable of orienting and modifying the perception of an institutionalised object, but also able of establishing it as part of our heritage.”⁵⁵

In recent years, the technical achievements, the evolution and specialisation of lightning solutions for museum displays have also taken a new importance of their own, often inspired by the equipment of theatrical and film sets they have, however, to answer the challenge of a moving public. As such, light emitters cannot always be hidden, and therefore, their design is the object of careful studies that have even been awarded important titles like the Compasso d’Oro: the “Shuttle” projector series designed by Bruno Gecchelin and produced by iGuzzini Illuminazione was awarded in 1989, while the “Mondial F1” modular system designed by Paolo Targetti and produced by Targetti Sankey received the prestigious award in 1998. In the jury motivation for both prices, we can underline the importance for illuminotechnic devices to easily “integrate into different spaces” and “to answer to multiple requisites”;⁵⁶ in short it must be flexible and beautiful.

Today, lighting designers are called upon to compose and coordinate different technical requirements that are no longer just architectural but concern both the priorities of conservation of the works and the well-being of the spectators as well

as short and long-term economic, organisational and sustainability needs linked to the exhibition design. From a technical point of view, new importance is, of course, given to the energetical efficiency of light fixtures inside museum spaces, mainly with the help of LED technologies and automation strategies. However, even simple tools such as mirrors have been reinterpreted to answer the new challenges of “energetical care”. In the Museo Internazionale e Biblioteca della Musica of Bologna, Light Design Studio installed a complex chandelier,⁵⁷ which reflects the light coming from a single light source in different directions, thus cutting down on the energy and materials necessary to illuminate the numerous objects present in the room.

The strategic pursuit of EVC (efficient visual comfort) - in which conservation, enjoyment, and sustainability come together for the benefit of collections, viewers, and now the planet- incorporates a new design horizon destined to become increasingly important. As such, the illumination of the museum seems to be destined to remain at the centre of the complex overlap that characterises our newfound vision of sustainable care: one that balances the conservation of artworks and spaces, the economic attractiveness of the museum and its sustainability, and the well being of the publics.

## Conclusion

The use of light as a vector for care has been for a long time at the centre of a complex balancing act between different objectives: protecting artwork, providing good visibility, ensuring the comfort of visitors, val-
orising exposition space, creating atmospheres and the reducing museums' energy consumption. Nowadays, the technological progress linked with both the physical light sources and their digital controls allows us to easily find this difficult balance and allows us to focus our attention on innovative solutions that give voice to the technical and artistic capabilities of a new type of professionals.

However, the career and life path that lead to this kind of expertise are still very diversified inside the European context, and it's difficult to define a common base of knowledge for this kind of profession that keeps, to this day, an artisanal and hand-made approach. At the same time, other museum professionals still lack the technical knowledge necessary to effectively communicate on the critical challenges surrounding the topic of light management.

In this perspective, future generations of architects, light designers, and curators should strive not only for the dissemination of knowledge between different fields of studies but also for the sensitisation of the museums' public to these topics. Highlighting the technical aspects that influence the decisions made “behind the scene” to a broader audience could prove beneficial in giving “new light” to the topic of museums' light design, by making what's often invisible to the audience visible again.
## Endnotes

1. See, for example, the following: "... this roof-lit room, which puts the paintings in their most advantageous light, has been gratefully accepted.", Jean Baptiste Pierre Lebrun, *Avertissement*, Paris, 1789, cited in : Lemaire 2004, p. 63. Translation by the author, original text : "... cette salle éclairée par le comble, et qui met les tableaux dans leur jour le plus avantageux, a été acceptée avec reconnaissance."

2. By the end of the century Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand was advocating for this kind of natural lighting solution in an architectural manual: *Précis des leçons d'architecture données à l'Ecole Polytechnique, par J.-N.-L. Durand*. See Durand 1802 p.112.

3. We can highlight the reflections made by Julien Guadet at the turn of the century, where he expressed how lightning solutions should be chosen in function of the museum typology: high windows to protect against the reflected glare of glass displays and to underline the forms of sculptures; roof windows for paintings. See Guadet 1901, p. 613.

4. See also Gobbato 2021, pp. 24-36.

5. On this topic see for example: Bianchi, Pulcini 1995; Forcolini, 2012; Vivioli, Galati 2014.

6. Before the second world war, Jean Fernand Cellerier, director of the Laboratoire d'essais du Conservatoire national des Arts et Métiers, already defined the maximum quantities of light that could be applied to different materials and works of arts. See Cellerier 1931, p. 69.

7. While strongly criticised for over-dramatising artworks, Ned Burns was at the time inspired by the illumination practices of cinema and theatre to propose the installation of coloured gelatine strips onto small light spots to accentuate certain areas of an artwork, for exemple, amber colours for shadows, green for foliage during the day, blue for foliage during the night and pale shades of blue for snowy landscape. See Burns 1933, p.126.

8. Société des Nations, Office International des Musées, Istitut Internazional de Coopération Intellectuelle 1934.

9. In between the two world wars, what can be considered the press organ of the International Office of Museums, *Mouseion*, had been, as we highlighted before, an essential place for the birth of an early debate on the complex and often contrasting roles of light inside museums.

10. Vienot, Durand, Mahler 2009.

11. James Druzik is a senior scientist at the Getty Conservation Institute. Bent Eshøj is the director of the School of Conservation at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts.

12. Druzik, Eshøj 2007, pp. 51-56. See also: https://www.academia.edu/8308202/La_luce_nello_spazio_del_museo_significati_e_prospettive_per_una_valorizzazione_del_patrimonio.

13. See: https://www.academia.edu/8308202/La_luce_nello_spazio_del_museo_significati_e_prospettive_per_una_valorizzazione_del_patrimonio.

14. See Curzi 2022, p. 16.

15. See Morello 1997, p. 392.

16. In this regard, Marco Semenza and G.A. Rigatti should be mentioned, see De Simone, Modesti 2022, p. 210.

17. Curzi 2022, p. 22.

18. The lesson was later published in Casabella, n. 230, February 2005, p. 9-12,

19. Curzi 2022, p. 19. See also Bucci 2016.

20. Carità 1953, pp. 357-364. See also De Simone, Modesti 2022, p. 218.
21 The Paestum Museum designed by architect Marcello De Vita was inaugurated in 1952. See Sestrieri 1953, p. 182. Cited by De Simone, Modesti 2022, p. 219.

22 Sanpaolesi 1949; Carità 1953. See also De Simone, Modesti 2022, p. 218.

23 During his work, Sanpaolesi also dealt with the reorganisation of local and peripheral museums, leading to the best-known experiences of the Museo Nazionale di San Matteo in Pisa, the Museo Nazionale di Villa Guinigi in Lucca and the reorganisation project of the Galleria Sabauda in Turin. See Spinosa 2007.

24 In the article, the graphs are complemented by a precise technical explanation and a study of daylight incidence and diffusion. See Sanpaolesi 1949, pp. 280-283. See also Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche 1962, p. 360; Spinosa 2007.

25 Sanpaolesi 1949, p. 280. Translation by the author: “Troppa luce offende il visitatore e gli oggetti esposti favorendo i riflessi dalle pareti e soprattutto dai pavimenti. Poca luce (è il più frequente difetto dei musei) non consente di vedere tutto nei dipinti. Però una determinazione della quantità di luce necessaria è difficile in via teorica...È necessario quindi valersi, caso per caso, di esperienze opportunamente predisposte.”

26 Sanpaolesi 1949, p. 280. Translation by the author: “Per le piccole sale quindi si può con ottimo risultato mantenere la tradizionale illuminazione con finestre, mentre per le sale medie e grandi si adotta preferibilmente l’illuminazione dall’alto.”

27 Sanpaolesi 1949, p. 282. Translation by the author: “Il risultato di questi accorgimenti può passare forse inosservato ai più, e i visitatori sono anche autorizzati ad attribuire il benessere che ad essi ne viene ad un felice casuale combinarsi di favorevoli concomitanze; ma così non è per gli architetti e i direttori di pinacoteche o musei, che non possono ignorare questi delicati congegni dell’organismo loro affidato, e con ogni mezzo cercare di elevarne la qualità.”

28 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche 1962.

29 The skylight solution was also adopted in those years in the *Sala dei primitivi* of the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence, set up by Scarpa, Gardella and Michelucci between 1953 and 1955. See Curzi 2022, p. 21.

30 Take, for example, the Museo di Capodimonte finished between 1952 and 1957, thanks to Bruno Molajoli and Ezio Bruno De Felice. See De Felice 1979, p. 45.

31 Carità would later become Soprintendente of Sassari and Nuoro from 1960 to 1973.

32 Carità 1953, p. 357, 359. Translation by the author: “Osservando gli impianti di luce artificiale di qualche museo, vien fatto di dubitare che si siano tenute presenti le più importanti leggi che l’ottica ha enunciato nei riguardi dell’illuminazione. In alcuni casi, i progetti appaiono elaborati in dipendenza assoluta delle forme architettoniche, rispetto alle quali la luce - per attuare un giusto connubio - deve essere non in schiavitù, ma in armonia... Non considero uno svantaggio l’assenza di illuminazione diurna... non solo per guadagnare spazio ma anche per eliminare la possibilità di una prolungata esposizione alla luce, che è molto dannosa ai disegni, mentre le lampade possono essere spente quando non servono”.

33 Carità 1953, p. 359. Translation by the author: “...specie nei musei sistemati in palazzi antichi, ove una buona illuminazione artificiale è da preferire, senza dubbio alcuno, ad una cattiva illuminazione naturale”.

34 Carità 1953, p. 359. Translation by the author: “l’intensa luce è dannosa alla conservazione: così, pensando che l’intensità è, per il nostro occhio, una misura anche in relazione all’ambiente (e ben lo si nota proiettando diapositive in una camera buia o soltanto in penombra o in piena luce) ho ritenuto opportuno tenere al grado più basso possibile l’illuminazione diffusa nelle salette, per rendere più evidente l’illuminazione concentrata sulle opere.”