# Gardening systems and the use of pesticides and fertilisers: an ever-changing dynamic: the view of gardeners in the lowland of Nedialpoun, Burkina Faso

Zelbié Bassolé, Joseph Yaméogo, Richard Zongo

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Zelbié Bassolé, Joseph Yaméogo, Richard Zongo. Gardening systems and the use of pesticides and fertilisers: an ever-changing dynamic: the view of gardeners in the lowland of Nedialpoun, Burkina Faso. World News of Natural Sciences (WNOFNS), 2025, 62, pp.132-150. [https://hal-05205440](https://hal-05205440)

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# Gardening systems and the use of pesticides and fertilisers: an ever-changing dynamic: the view of gardeners in the lowland of Nedialpoun, Burkina Faso

Zelbié Bassolé<fnref n="1" />, Joseph Yaméogo<fnref n="2" />,*, Richard Zongo<fnref n="1" />

*E-mail address: josephyameogo10@gmail.com

## ABSTRACT

This study analyses the dynamics of market garden cropping systems and the impact of pesticide and fertiliser use. The methodology combines secondary and primary data. Descriptive statistics, the relative importance index, the impact frequency index and ordered logistic regression were used to process the data. The study showed that market gardeners have several market gardens cropping systems, including eight cropping systems before the development of the lowland and thirteen cropping systems today. The dynamics of the cropping systems are accompanied by a high frequency of pesticide and fertiliser use. The study also shows that the dynamics of pesticide and fertiliser use are influenced by the type of market targeted by the growers, the type of vegetables grown, the level of the water table, climatic variables, the level of education, the size of the plots and the level of equipment used by the growers.

**Keywords:** pesticides, dynamics, market gardening system, determinants, lowland

<footnote n="1">¹ Department of Geography, Norbert ZONGO University, Koudougou, Burkina Faso</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Department of Human Sciences and Society, Ziniaré University Center, Ziniaré, Joseph KI-ZERBO University, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso</footnote>
# 1. INTRODUCTION

Once used for picking and livestock rearing, lowland areas have become indispensable with the advent of climate variability in West Africa. In Burkina Faso, the lowlands are used for market gardening in rural areas. This structures the socio-economic life of the rural population (Yanogo et al., 2019). However, pests and diseases are major constraints to vegetable production, as are agronomic constraints, water unavailability and flooding (Kapeleka et al., 2021, Kapeleka et al., 2024). As a result, vegetable yields in market garden plots remain relatively low, even under irrigated conditions, despite their yield potential under appropriate management conditions. The use of pesticides has become a necessity for market gardeners in Burkina Faso.

This is made possible by low market prices. These products make it possible to limit the damage caused by crop pests and diseases (Yaméogo, 2021). Because of the harmful effects of these pests on yields, the number of pesticides used is increasing every year (Sawadogo, 2016). However, several studies show that pesticides have harmful effects on the human and physical environment.

Pesticides could reduce certain microbial populations while leaving others unaffected, thereby reducing competition for resources shared by affected and unaffected populations, leading to soil degradation (Staley, 2015; Karpouzas, 2021; Majumder et al., 2021). In human terms, the short-term effects of exposure to pesticides include headaches, skin irritations, vision problems, respiratory problems, dizziness and nausea (Ntow et al., 2006). In Burkina Faso, the situation is alarming in lowland market gardening. Several toads, frogs and insects have disappeared from market garden plots, and health problems have arisen due to the use of pesticides (Son et al., 2017; Sanou et al., 2020, Yaméogo, 2021).

Although previous studies have revealed the effects of pesticide exposure on the environment and health, pesticide use remains high among a number of market gardeners who continue to use them intensively in the lowland plots of Nedialpoun, in the Sanguié region of Burkina Faso. This raises the question of what factors influence market gardeners' decisions to use pesticides. The main objective of the study is to analyse the dynamics of market gardening and the determinants of the intensive use of pesticides and fertilisers by market gardeners in the Nedialpoun lowland.

# 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

## 2.1. Study area

The study area is located in the centre-west region of Burkina Faso. The Nedialpoun lowland is located in the commune of Réo, which is the capital of the Sanguié province (Fig.1).

## 2.2. Sampling procedures and Data collection

The method of data collection is based on secondary and primary data. The secondary data was obtained from various virtual libraries and on the net. The primary data was obtained through surveys carried out during the period November-December 2024. They were carried out using survey forms. Purposive sampling was used on the basis of two criteria: the use of pesticides in the sites and the use of fertilisers in the sites. The sample size is calculated according to the Marien and Baud formula (2003) as follows:
$$n = \frac{1}{e^2} \qquad (1)$$

where: n = sample size, e = margin of error = 5%, n = 1/ (0.05)² = 400

The total population is estimated at 150 people, whose number varies according to the season (dry and/or wet). In 2021, the number of farmers was 200 (Yaméogo et al., 2021). This makes it difficult to estimate the number of market gardeners, which is dynamic from year to year and season to season. Nevertheless, estimating the number of gardeners is a good thing because it shows the dynamism of gardeners. Moreover, if the total population is less than 400 persons, Marien and Baud 2003 suggest a correction factor defined as follows:

$$n' = \frac{N \times n}{N+n} \qquad (2)$$

where: n' = corrected sample; N = total population size; n = sample size; n' = 400 × 150/400 + 150 = 109.09. As a result, 109 peoples were surveyed.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. Geographical location of the Nedialpoun lowland.</figcaption></figure>
## 2. 3. Method of data analysis

### 2. 3. 1. Relative Importance Index (RII)

This index is used to assess the importance of the causes of error in construction (Kometa et al., 1994, Sambasivan & Soon, 2007, Abd El-Razek et al., 2008; Gündüz et al., 2013, Rashid et al., 2018). This index was used by Yanogo, 2024 to determine the importance of market gardening systems in a context of climate variability in Burkina Faso. However, the author used the degree of importance. In this study, the relative importance index was chosen to capture the dynamics of the importance of market gardening systems in market gardening sites.

The relative importance index is calculated according to the following formula (Jarkas & Bitar, 2012, Aziz et al., 2016):

$$RII(\%) = \frac{3(n_3)+2(n_2)+n_1}{3(n_1+n_2+n_3)} \times 100 \quad (3)$$

where: n₁, n₂, n₃, n₄, and n₅ = the number of respondents who selected:

1 = somewhat important

2 = important

3 = very important.

In the relative importance index (RII), values approaching 100 could indicate more important elements (Doloi, 2009, Jarkas & Bitar, 2012).

### 2. 3. 2. Impact Frequency Index (IFI)

The impact frequency index was based on the frequency index used by Bekr, 2015 to classify the causes of delay according to the frequency of respondents. According to Bekr, 2015, Yaméogo & Sawadogo, its formula is:

$$IFI = \frac{\sum X \times (\frac{n}{N}) \times 100}{4} \quad (4)$$

where: X is the constant expressing weight given to each response (range from 1 to 4), n is the frequency of the response and N is the total number of responses.

The IFI was used to understand market gardeners' perceptions of the frequency of pesticide and fertiliser use in lowland areas. The field surveys identified several types of fertilisers (urea, NPK and compost). 90% of respondents use urea and NPK (nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium), and 10% compost. Pesticides, particularly insecticides, are used on market garden plots (Table 1).

When a crop requires both pesticides and fertilisers, the frequency of impact is high. However, it is rare for a crop to require both pesticides and fertilisers. According to 80% of those surveyed, the requirements of market garden crops differ from one crop to another. Table 2 below summarises.
<table><caption>**Table 1.** The main pesticides used on market garden plots.</caption><thead><tr><td>Commercial name</td><td>Type of pesticide Active</td><td>Active substance and concentration</td><td>Frequency of citation</td><td>WHO toxicity category</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Acarius 018 EC</td><td>Acaride</td><td>Abamectine 18 g/l</td><td>30%</td><td>II</td></tr><tr><td>CAIIMAN B19</td><td>Cotton insecticide</td><td>Emamectine benzoate</td><td>10%</td><td>II</td></tr><tr><td>K-OPTIMAL</td><td>Insecticide</td><td>Lambda-cyhalothrine 15 g/l</td><td>50%</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>LAMBDA SUPER 2.5C</td><td>Insecticide</td><td>Lambda-cyhalothrine 25 g/l</td><td>10%</td><td>III</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, 2024, Yaméogo, 2021.

<table><caption>**Table 2.** Frequency of demand for pesticides and fertilisers for vegetables.</caption><thead><tr><td>Vegetables</td><td>Pesticides (insecticides)</td><td>Fertiliser (urea, NPK + compost)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Onion</td><td>-</td><td>+</td></tr><tr><td>African eggplant</td><td>+</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Cucumber</td><td>-</td><td>+</td></tr><tr><td>Tomato</td><td>+</td><td>-+</td></tr><tr><td>Chilli</td><td>+</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Cabbage</td><td>+</td><td>-+</td></tr><tr><td>Carrot</td><td>-+</td><td>-+</td></tr><tr><td>Mint</td><td>-+</td><td>-+</td></tr><tr><td>Celery</td><td>-+</td><td>-+</td></tr><tr><td>Eggplant</td><td>+</td><td>-+</td></tr><tr><td>Okra</td><td>-+</td><td>-+</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, 2024, + = increase, - = decrease, -+ = medium

In the lowlands, growers are opting for a combination of vegetable crops. This changes the extent to which pesticides and fertilisers are used.
### 2. 3. 3. Ordinal Logistic Regression Model

Several studies in Thailand (Kangkhetkron & Juntarawijit, 2021), Ghana (Tham-Agyekum et al., 2023) and India (Kathiravan & Georges, 2023) have used logistic regression as a method to analyse the determinants of pesticide use. In this study, ordinal logistic regression was used to analyse the determinants of the increase in pesticide and fertiliser use in the Nedialpoun lowlands.

The advantage of the ordered probit model is that it allows the dependent variable to take values other than 0 and 1 (Hasan, 2017). The variables related to the determinants of pesticide use are ordered categorical variables. The ordered logistic model is an estimation technique in which there is an observed ordinal variable, Y (Alotaibi et al. (2021). There is also an unmeasured latent variable y* with different thresholds. The general form of the ordered logistic model is as follows (Jeder et al., 2018):

$$Y = \beta_0 + \beta_i X_i + e \quad (5)$$

where: Y = level of perceived use of pesticides and fertilisers (low use, medium use, high use, very high use)

$\beta_0$ = Constant

$\beta_i$ = Parameters to estimate

$X_i$ = Variables observed (socio-economic factors, type of vegetable, type of market, climatic variables, level of equipment)

$e$ = Term of error

For the ordinal variables observed in the study, three (03) response categories were used: 1 = never use of pesticides and fertilisers, 2 = rarely use of pesticides and fertilisers, 3 = sometime use of pesticides and fertilisers and 4 = usually use of pesticides and fertilisers. The categorical variable Y has different thresholds. Furthermore, the value of the observed variable Y depends on whether a threshold is crossed or not. In this study, the probability that an individual belongs to one of the four categories depends on the following conditions:

$$ 
\begin{align*}
Y_i &= 0 \text{ (Never use of pesticides and fertilisers), if } Y^* \text{ is } \le K_1 \\
Y_i &= 1 \text{ (Rarely use of pesticides and fertilisers), if } Y^* \text{ est } \le K_2 \\
Y_i &= 2 \text{ (Sometime use of pesticides and fertilisers), if } Y^* \text{ est } \le K_3 \\
Y_i &= 3 \text{ (Usually use of pesticides and fertilisers), if } Y^* \text{ est } \le K_3
\end{align*}
\quad (6) $$

### 2. 3. 3. 1. The variables selected for the ordinal logistic regression model

Ordinal logistic regression is used to explain a qualitative ordinal variable (the dependent variable) and an independent variable which is both quantitative and qualitative.

* The study's dependent variable
It is constructed on a Likert scale as follows: never, rarely, often and usually. The aim is to understand the determinants of pesticide and fertiliser use in the Nedialpoun lowland.

## The independent variables

They concern socio-economic variables, climatic variables, the level of the water table, the type of market and vegetables (Table 3).

<table><caption>**Table 3.** Details of the explanatory variables selected.</caption><thead><tr><th>Variables</th><th>Type</th><th>Description</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="6">Age</td><td rowspan="6">Categorical</td><td>1 = [21-30]</td></tr><tr><td>2 = [10-20]</td></tr><tr><td>3 = [31-40]</td></tr><tr><td>4 = [41-50]</td></tr><tr><td>5 = [51-60]</td></tr><tr><td>6 = [61-70]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Gender</td><td rowspan="2">Dichtomous</td><td>1 = Male</td></tr><tr><td>2 = woman</td></tr><tr><td>Level of education</td><td>Dichtomous</td><td>1 = instructed<br>2 = non instructed</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Household size</td><td rowspan="3">Categorical</td><td>1 = 1-3</td></tr><tr><td>2 = 3-4</td></tr><tr><td>3 = 5-9</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Income level</td><td rowspan="3">Categorical</td><td>1 = ≥ 300000 FCFA/year,</td></tr><tr><td>2 = ≥ 1million/year,</td></tr><tr><td>3 = ≥ 2millions/year</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Equipment level</td><td rowspan="2">Dichtomous</td><td>1 = high</td></tr><tr><td>2 = low</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Climatic variable</td><td rowspan="2">Dichtomous</td><td>1 = extreme temperature</td></tr><tr><td>2 = extreme rainfall</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Plot size</td><td rowspan="3">Categorical</td><td>1 = 0.25 ha</td></tr><tr><td>2 = 0.5</td></tr><tr><td>3 = +1 ha</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Type of market</td><td rowspan="2">Dichtomous</td><td>1 = City-oriented market</td></tr><tr><td>2 = local market</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Type of vegetables used</td><td rowspan="2">Dichtomous</td><td>1 = local consumption vegetable</td></tr><tr><td>2 = urban consumption vegetable</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, November - December, 2024
## 3. RESULTS

### 3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of market gardeners

The characteristics of market gardeners in the lowlands are diverse. Men dominate, as do the educated in lowland market gardening in the study site (Figure 2).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2(A,B).** Dominance of men and educated people among market gardeners</figcaption></figure>

There is a diversity of age groups, with young people and adults predominating. However, 90% of respondents have between 1 and 5 people in the household, with 77.3% having an annual income of ≥ 300,000 FCFA (Table 4).

<table><caption>**Table 4.** Socio-demographic characteristics of market gardeners.</caption><thead><tr><th>Age group</th><th>Frequency</th><th>Percentages</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>[21-30]</td><td>30</td><td>27.3</td></tr><tr><td>[10-20]</td><td>13</td><td>11.8</td></tr><tr><td>[31-40]</td><td>30</td><td>27.3</td></tr><tr><td>[41-50]</td><td>23</td><td>20.9</td></tr><tr><td>[51-60]</td><td>9</td><td>8.2</td></tr><tr><td>[61-70]</td><td>4</td><td>3.6</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>109</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>Number of people in the household</td><td>Frequency</td><td>Percentages</td></tr><tr><td>1-3</td><td>57</td><td>51.8</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>3-4</td><td>44</td><td>40</td></tr><tr><td>5-9</td><td>8</td><td>7.3</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>109</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>Level of income</td><td>Frequency</td><td>Percentages</td></tr><tr><td>≥ 300,000 FCFA</td><td>85</td><td>77.3</td></tr><tr><td>≥ 1 million FCFA</td><td>18</td><td>16.4</td></tr><tr><td>≥ 2 millions FCFA</td><td>6</td><td>5.5</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>109</td><td>100</td></tr></table>

Source: Field investigations, November - December, 2024

## 3. 2. Changes in market-gardening systems and factors influencing the use of pesticides and fertilisers in the Nediapoun lowlands

According to the respondents (80%), the lowland was developed several years ago. Two periods can be identified in this development, which also coincides with the dynamics of lowland cropping systems in the study site. These were the period before and after the lowland was developed.

* Period without development of the lowland

At the beginning of the 2000-2010 period, the Nediapoun lowlands were still undeveloped. This situation limits vegetable cultivation to 3-4 months, as the water table is depleted during the dry season due to the exploitation of groundwater resources and the lack of rainwater to recharge the water table. During this period, vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, African eggplant, cucumbers, cabbage and okra are the main vegetables used for market gardening (Table 5).

<table><caption>**Table 5.** Main vegetables grown in market gardening plots before development of the lowland.</caption><thead><tr><td>Vegetables</td><td>Very Important</td><td>Important</td><td>Somewhat Important</td><td>Total</td><td>RII%</td><td>Rank</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Onion</td><td>153</td><td>64</td><td>26</td><td>243</td><td>74.31%</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tomatoe</td><td>117</td><td>80</td><td>20</td><td>217</td><td>66.36%</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Cabblage</td><td>90</td><td>78</td><td>40</td><td>208</td><td>63.61%</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>African eggplant</td><td>90</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>190</td><td>58.10%</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Cucumber</td><td>57</td><td>20</td><td>60</td><td>137</td><td>42%</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo</td><td>87</td><td>20</td><td>50</td><td>157</td><td>48%</td><td>5</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, November - December, 2024
The table shows that tomatoes, onions and cabbages play an important role in market gardening. This situation has influenced the market gardening systems in the lowlands (Table 6).

<table><caption>**Table 6.** The main market-gardening systems promoted before the development of the lowland.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetables</th><th>Very important</th><th>Important</th><th>Somewhat important</th><th>Total</th><th>RII%</th><th>Rank</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Onion + tomato</td><td>225</td><td>64</td><td>2</td><td>291</td><td>90%</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tomatoe + cabblage</td><td>210</td><td>34</td><td>22</td><td>266</td><td>81.34%</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Cabblage + tomato + onion</td><td>270</td><td>34</td><td>2</td><td>306</td><td>93.57%</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>African eggplant + onion + tomato</td><td>201</td><td>40</td><td>22</td><td>263</td><td>80.43%</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>cucumber+cabblage</td><td>117</td><td>62</td><td>39</td><td>218</td><td>67%</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + African eggplant</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>69</td><td>169</td><td>52%</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + tomato + African eggplant</td><td>60</td><td>50</td><td>59</td><td>169</td><td>51.70%</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Chilli + tomato + cabblage</td><td>147</td><td>42</td><td>39</td><td>228</td><td>70%</td><td>5</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, November - December, 2024

The frequency of use of pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides) and fertilisers (NPK, urea) varies according to cropping system (Table 7).

<table><caption>**Table 7.** High frequency of pesticide and fertiliser use.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetables</th><th>Low impact</th><th>Medium impact</th><th>Strong impact</th><th>Very strong impact</th><th>Total</th><th>IFI%</th><th>Rank</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Onion + tomato</td><td>28</td><td>56</td><td>72</td><td>116</td><td>272</td><td>62%</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Tomatoe + cabblage</td><td>20</td><td>40</td><td>60</td><td>196</td><td>316</td><td>72.5%</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Cabblage + tomato + onion</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>60</td><td>236</td><td>336</td><td>77%</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>African eggplant + onion + tomato</td><td>10</td><td>36</td><td>69</td><td>232</td><td>347</td><td>79.47%</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cucumber + cabblage</td><td>23</td><td>116</td><td>30</td><td>72</td><td>241</td><td>55.3%</td><td>8</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Gumbo + African eggplant</td><td>23</td><td>100</td><td>54</td><td>72</td><td>249</td><td>57%</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + tomato + African eggplant</td><td>18</td><td>36</td><td>120</td><td>132</td><td>306</td><td>70%</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Chilli + tomato + cabbage</td><td>5</td><td>10</td><td>30</td><td>316</td><td>361</td><td>72.4%</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + cucumber + onion</td><td>30</td><td>118</td><td>30</td><td>40</td><td>218</td><td>50%</td><td>9</td></tr></table>

Source: Field investigations, November - December, 2024

This table shows that market gardeners make extensive use of cropping systems: African eggplant + onion + tomato, cabbages + tomato + onion, tomato + cabbages, African eggplant + onion + tomato. Pesticide use is high, with impact frequency indices ≥ 70%. This could be explained by the fact that the vegetables that make up the cropping systems require both pesticides and fertilisers to achieve good yields. The combination of pesticides and fertilisers means that the impact frequency is high in the period 2000-2010, but what about the period after the development of the lowlands?

## Period of development of the lowland

The period 2014-2024 corresponds to the development of the plain with the installation of the micro-dam in the plain. The presence of the micro dam will allow the water table to be recharged. This will lead to an extension of the market gardening period. As a result, the market gardening period has increased from 4 to 6 months per year. The period 2000-2010 was characterised by the predominance of traditional wells, with cropping systems dominated by vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, chillies, cabbage, African aubergines and cucumbers. However, with the development of the lowlands, modern wells have been installed alongside traditional wells, the number of which has increased over this period due to the increased availability of water. The plots are used to grow a variety of horticultural crops, including chillies, cabbages, carrots, celery, mint, tomatoes, aubergines, African aubergines and cucumbers. The importance of these crops varies from plot to plot in the lowlands (Table 8).

<table><caption>**Table 8.** Main vegetables used after lowland development.</caption><thead><tr><td>Vegetables</td><td>Very important</td><td>Important</td><td>Somewhat important</td><td>Total</td><td>RII%</td><td>Rank</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Onion</td><td>216</td><td>50</td><td>12</td><td>278</td><td>85%</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Celery</td><td>0</td><td>10</td><td>104</td><td>114</td><td>34.86%</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Eggplant</td><td>207</td><td>40</td><td>20</td><td>267</td><td>81.65%</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Tomato</td><td>231</td><td>44</td><td>10</td><td>285</td><td>87.15%</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Cabbage</td><td>237</td><td>40</td><td>10</td><td>287</td><td>87.77%</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Carrot</td><td>9</td><td>14</td><td>99</td><td>122</td><td>37.31%</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>African eggplant</td><td>162</td><td>62</td><td>24</td><td>248</td><td>76%</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Cucumber</td><td>9</td><td>14</td><td>99</td><td>122</td><td>37.35%</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo</td><td>30</td><td>44</td><td>77</td><td>151</td><td>46.20%</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Chill</td><td>180</td><td>78</td><td>10</td><td>268</td><td>82%</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Mint</td><td>9</td><td>4</td><td>104</td><td>117</td><td>35.78%</td><td>9</td></tr></table>

Source: Field investigations, november - december, 2024

This table shows that onions, tomatoes, chillies, cabbage and eggplants are now more widely used by market gardeners with RII% ≥ 80%. This reflects their importance in the period 2014-2024. The different crops of importance are alternated by market gardeners, resulting in a diversity of cropping systems during this period (Table 9).

<table><caption>**Table 9.** Main market-gardening systems after lowland development.</caption><thead><tr><td>Vegetables</td><td>Very important</td><td>Important</td><td>Somewhat important</td><td>Total</td><td>RII%</td><td>Rank</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Onion + tomato</td><td>240</td><td>52</td><td>3</td><td>295</td><td>90.21%</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Tomatoe + cabblage</td><td>258</td><td>42</td><td>2</td><td>302</td><td>92.35%</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Cabblage + tomato + onion</td><td>306</td><td>12</td><td>1</td><td>319</td><td>97.55%</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>African eggplant + onion + tomato</td><td>306</td><td>12</td><td>0</td><td>318</td><td>97.25%</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Cucumber + cabblage</td><td>27</td><td>130</td><td>35</td><td>192</td><td>58.71%</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + African eggplant</td><td>27</td><td>100</td><td>50</td><td>177</td><td>54.13%</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + tomato + African eggplant</td><td>15</td><td>130</td><td>39</td><td>184</td><td>56.27%</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Chilli + tomato + cabblage</td><td>315</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>320</td><td>97.86%</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + cucumber + onion</td><td>3</td><td>30</td><td>90</td><td>123</td><td>37.61%</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Onion + mint + carrot</td><td>3</td><td>10</td><td>100</td><td>113</td><td>34.55%</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Aegglant + celery</td><td>0</td><td>2</td><td>108</td><td>110</td><td>33.64%</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Onion + mint + cabblage</td><td>18</td><td>26</td><td>90</td><td>134</td><td>41%</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Chill + onion + cabblage</td><td>270</td><td>30</td><td>4</td><td>304</td><td>92.96%</td><td>4</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, november - december, 2024
This table shows that after the construction of the micro dam in the lowlands, market gardeners practised 13 market garden cropping systems. This situation is the result of the colonisation of the lowlands, which has opened up more space for market gardening. This has led to the cultivation of mixed crops requiring extensive use of pesticides and fertilisers. Table 10 below shows that the use of pesticides and fertilisers by market gardeners increased after the development of the lowlands.

<table><caption>**Table 10.** Very high frequency of pesticide and fertiliser use after development.</caption><thead><tr><td>Vegetables</td><td>Very important</td><td>Important</td><td>Somewhat important</td><td>Total</td><td>IFI%</td><td>Rank</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Onion + tomato</td><td>240</td><td>52</td><td>3</td><td>295</td><td>90.21%</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Tomatoe + cabblage</td><td>258</td><td>42</td><td>2</td><td>302</td><td>92.35%</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Cabblage + tomato + onion</td><td>306</td><td>12</td><td>1</td><td>319</td><td>97.55%</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>African eggplant + onion + tomato</td><td>306</td><td>12</td><td>0</td><td>318</td><td>97.25%</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Cucumber + cabblage</td><td>27</td><td>130</td><td>35</td><td>192</td><td>58.71%</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + African eggplant</td><td>27</td><td>100</td><td>50</td><td>177</td><td>54.13%</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + tomato + African eggplant</td><td>15</td><td>130</td><td>39</td><td>184</td><td>56.27%</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Chilli + tomato + cabblage</td><td>315</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>320</td><td>97.86%</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Gumbo + cucumber + onion</td><td>3</td><td>30</td><td>90</td><td>123</td><td>37.61%</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Onion + mint + carrot</td><td>3</td><td>10</td><td>100</td><td>113</td><td>34.55%</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Aeggplant + celery</td><td>0</td><td>2</td><td>108</td><td>110</td><td>33.64%</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Onion + mint + cabblage</td><td>18</td><td>26</td><td>90</td><td>134</td><td>41%</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Chill + onion + cabblage</td><td>270</td><td>30</td><td>4</td><td>304</td><td>92.96%</td><td>4</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, November - December, 2024

From this picture, we can see that there has been an increase in the use of pesticides and fertilisers. Cropping systems (onion+tomato, chill+onion+cabbage, chilli+tomato+cabblage, African eggplant +onion+tomato, cabbage+tomato+onion, tomato+cabbage) ont des IFI ≥ 90%.

**3. 3. Determinants of the heavy use of pesticides and fertilisers on market gardening sites after the development of the lowland**

During the period 2011-2012, the lowland was effectively developed, resulting in the almost permanent presence of surface and groundwater in the Nedialpoun lowland. This
situation led to the colonisation of the lowland and the multiplication of market gardening systems. A decade later, i.e. 2014-2024, the number of market gardening systems continues to increase, accompanied by significant use of pesticides and fertilisers. Table 11 summarises the factors contributing to the use of pesticides and fertilisers.

<table><caption>**Table 11.** Factors affecting pesticide use on vegetable parcels.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Estimate</th><th rowspan="2">Standard error</th><th rowspan="2">ddl</th><th rowspan="2">p-value</th><th colspan="2">95% confidence interval</th></tr><tr><th>Lower bound</th><th>Upper bound</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Limit</td><td>[Use of pesticides and fertilisers = 2]</td><td>15.353</td><td>1.643</td><td>1</td><td>0.00</td><td>12.133</td><td>18.572</td></tr><tr><td>[Use of pesticides and fertilisers = 3]</td><td>19.013</td><td>1.639</td><td>1</td><td>0.00</td><td>15.8</td><td>22.226</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="15">Location</td><td>[sex = 1]</td><td>-0.161</td><td>0.852</td><td>1</td><td>0.85</td><td>-1.831</td><td>1.509</td></tr><tr><td>[sex = 2]</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[age = 1]</td><td>0.542</td><td>2.429</td><td>1</td><td>0.823</td><td>-4.218</td><td>5.302</td></tr><tr><td>[age = 2]</td><td>-0.104</td><td>2.474</td><td>1</td><td>0.967</td><td>-4.953</td><td>4.745</td></tr><tr><td>[age = 3]</td><td>-0.677</td><td>2.299</td><td>1</td><td>0.768</td><td>-5.184</td><td>3.83</td></tr><tr><td>[age = 4]</td><td>1.214</td><td>2.344</td><td>1</td><td>0.604</td><td>-3.38</td><td>5.809</td></tr><tr><td>[age = 5]</td><td>-0.153</td><td>2.167</td><td>1</td><td>0.944</td><td>-4.4</td><td>4.094</td></tr><tr><td>[age = 6]</td><td>0<sup>a</sup></td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Number of households = 1]</td><td>1.064</td><td>1.769</td><td>1</td><td>0.547</td><td>-2.403</td><td>4.532</td></tr><tr><td>[Number of households = 2]</td><td>0.93</td><td>1.725</td><td>1</td><td>0.59</td><td>-2.45</td><td>4.311</td></tr><tr><td>[Number of households = 3]</td><td>0<sup>a</sup></td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Level of education = 1]</td><td>-1.515</td><td>0.697</td><td>1</td><td>0.03</td><td>-2.881</td><td>-0.148</td></tr><tr><td>[Level of education = 2]</td><td>0<sup>a</sup></td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Income level = 1]</td><td>1.589</td><td>1.726</td><td>1</td><td>0.357</td><td>-1.793</td><td>4.971</td></tr><tr><td>[Income level = 2]</td><td>2.59</td><td>1.915</td><td>1</td><td>0.176</td><td>-1.163</td><td>6.344</td></tr><tr><td>[Income level = 3]</td><td>0<sup>a</sup></td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Plot size = 1]</td><td>-1.292</td><td>0.674</td><td>1</td><td>0.055</td><td>-2.613</td><td>0.029</td></tr><tr><td>[Plot size = 2]</td><td>0<sup>a</sup></td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Plot size = 3]</td><td>0<sup>a</sup></td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Level of equipment = 1]</td><td>-20.961</td><td>2.537</td><td>1</td><td>0.00</td><td>-25.934</td><td>-15.987</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>[Level of equipment = 2]</td><td>0<sup>a</sup></td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Ground water level = 1]</td><td>-18.31</td><td>2.422</td><td>1</td><td>0.00</td><td>-23.057</td><td>-13.563</td></tr><tr><td>[Ground water level = 2]</td><td>0.111</td><td>1.202</td><td>1</td><td>0.049</td><td>-2.246</td><td>2.467</td></tr><tr><td>[climate = 1]</td><td>18.271</td><td>1.898</td><td>1</td><td>0.00</td><td>14.55</td><td>21.991</td></tr><tr><td>[climate = 2]</td><td>17.906</td><td>2.387</td><td>1</td><td>0.00</td><td>13.228</td><td>22.584</td></tr><tr><td>[Urban market = 1]</td><td>17.738</td><td>2.381</td><td>1</td><td>0.01</td><td>12.998</td><td>21.994</td></tr><tr><td>[Local market = 2]</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Type of vegetables used = 1]</td><td>-0.999</td><td>1.019</td><td>1</td><td>0.327</td><td>-2.996</td><td>0.998</td></tr><tr><td>[Type of vegetables used = 2]</td><td>-2.263</td><td>0.845</td><td>1</td><td>0.07</td><td>-3.919</td><td>-0.606</td></tr></table>

Model Fit Information

<table><thead><tr><td>Model</td><td>Log likelihood - 2</td><td>Chi-square</td><td>ddl</td><td>p-value</td><td></td><td></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Constant only</td><td>182.881</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Final</td><td>70.747</td><td>112.134</td><td>23</td><td>0.000</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Fitting accuracy

<table><thead><tr><td></td><td>Chi-square</td><td>ddl</td><td>p-value</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Pearson</td><td>459.943</td><td>141</td><td>00</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Deviance</td><td>138.100</td><td>141</td><td>0.553</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Speudo R<sup>2</sup></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cox and Snell</td><td>0.63</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nagalkerke</td><td>0.780</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>McFadden</td><td>0.593</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field investigations, November - December, 2024

Table 11 shows that the type of vegetables grown, the type of market, climatic variables (temperature, rainfall), the level of the water table, the level of equipment, income and education influence the use of pesticides and fertilisers by market gardeners in the Nedialpoun lowlands today. The type of vegetables grown and the type of market influence the use of pesticides and fertilisers (p-value < 5%), which could be explained by the fact that vegetables are oriented towards the urban centre (Koudougou is the third largest city in Burkina Faso).

This forces market gardeners to produce vegetables that use pesticides and fertilisers, such as tomatoes, onions, African eggplant and cabbage. It must be said that the dishes eaten in Koudougou often use vegetables grown by market gardeners. Gardeners therefore adapt their production to the needs of the people of Koudougou. Even if this strategy requires them to make
heavy use of pesticides and fertilisers. The size of the plot and the level of equipment are therefore significant (p-value < 5%) and encourage the purchase of pesticides and fertilisers to increase the gardeners' profits.

In addition, Climatic factors also have a highly significant influence on pesticide use (p-value < 0.05%). Extreme temperatures and high humidity (extreme rainfall) in the lowlands have increased (Yaméogo, 2024; Yaméogo & Rouamba, 2023), leading to a proliferation of species harmful to horticultural crops, according to 90% of respondents. This forces market gardeners to use more phytosanitary products. The availability of groundwater also influences the use of pesticides, as the drop in the water table in April, May and June forces market gardeners to produce quickly and massively during the period when the water table is high, i.e. between September, October, November, December, January and February.

# 4. DISCUSSION

## 4. 1. Cropping systems promoted in the lowlands of Burkina Faso and Africa

The study shows that market gardeners promote a diversity of market garden cropping systems. This diversity responds to market requirements and climatic conditions. This situation has been highlighted by several other authors who have worked on the lowlands of Burkina Faso. For example, Yanogo et al., 2019 found that market garden producers in the Villy Centre lowlands of west-central Burkina Faso practise a diversity of market garden cropping systems, dominated by onion + tomato + cabbage, and that the reasons for this are socio-economic in the Sourgou lowlands (Maiga, 2023, Yanogo & Maiga, 2023). Yameogo (2021) found the same results in a vegetable garden in the city of Koudougou, Burkina Faso. Other studies conducted in the Boucle du Mouhoun region also show that market gardeners grow a variety of vegetables on market garden plots in Lapara, in the commune of Boromo (Yaméogo et al., 2022), and West of Burkina Faso (Ouédraogo et al., 2019, Ouédraogo & Tapsoba, 2022).

## 4. 2. Factors influencing pesticide use in Burkina Faso and Africa

Pesticides and fertilisers are essential to market garden production in Burkina Faso and in the market garden site in the study area. The study showed that the type of vegetables used, the type of market targeted by the market gardeners, climatic variables, the level of the water table, the size of the plots, the level of equipment and the level of education led to the dynamics of pesticide and fertiliser use in the study area. These results are partially confirmed by Kara et al. (2024) for market gardens located in the two main cities of Burkina Faso (Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso). In fact, in the market garden sites, age, sex, accident rate, income level, use of credit, market gardening activity and the danger of pesticides are among the factors that lead to the adoption of pesticides. This difference could be explained by the fact that our study focuses on a peri-urban area, whereas the study carried out in Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso took place in an urban area.

This situation could change the way market gardeners perceive the situation. However, our results are similar to those of other studies carried out on market garden sites in Africa. In the Congo, on market garden sites, age, experience, income, production, gender, level of education and membership of an agricultural association had no significant influence on pesticide use (Atsamekou, 2023). In Ghana, in market gardening sites in the north and east of the country, pesticide use depends on farm size, farm income, mechanisation and contact with
extension services (Anang & Amikuzuno, 2015). In Ebonyi and Anambra states in south-
eastern Nigeria, the economic incentive associated with yam production drives producers to
increase pesticide use (Rahman & Chima, 2018).

5. CONCLUSION

Market gardening is an important activity in the study area of Burkina Faso. The study of the dynamics of market garden cropping systems and pesticide use was based on the perceptions of market gardeners. The study showed that market garden cropping systems and pesticide use increased significantly both before and after the development of the lowlands. Several factors were identified, including the type of crops grown, the type of market, the level of the water table and climatic variables. It would therefore be useful for the Réo commune authorities to take measures to reduce the use of pesticides and fertilisers, otherwise very serious environmental and health problems will arise in the area in the coming years.

Acknowledgement

The study was carried out with market gardeners in the lowlands of Nedialpoun, in the central-western region of Burkina Faso, who agreed to give us some of their time to discuss the subject of the study. We would like to thank these brave gardeners who are working to lift themselves out of poverty.

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