# Phraseology in Learner Language: The Case of French Idioms and Collocations Translated by Italian speaking Adult Learners

Mariangela Albano, Rosa Leandra Badalamenti

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Mariangela Albano, Rosa Leandra Badalamenti. Phraseology in Learner Language: The Case of French Idioms and Collocations Translated by Italian speaking Adult Learners. Tradulex. Computational and Corpus-based Phraseology. Proceedings of the Third International Conference EUROPHRAS 2019 (short papers, posters and MUMTTT workshop contributions) September 25-27, 2019 Malaga, 1 (1), Tradulex, pp.1-10, 2019, Computational and Corpus-based Phraseology. Proceedings of the Third International Conference EUROPHRAS 2019 (short papers, posters and MUMTTT workshop contributions) September 25-27, 2019 Malaga, 978-2-9701095-6-3. hal-03995931

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EUROPHRAS 2019

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>MALAGA</figcaption></figure>

Computational and Corpus-based Phraseology

Proceedings of the Third International Conference
EUROPHRAS 2019

(short papers and posters)

September 25-27, 2019

Malaga, Spain
ORGANISERS

EUROPHRAS

EUROPÄISCHE GESELLSCHAFT FÜR PHRASEOLOGIE

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SPONSORS

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EUROPHRAS

EUROPÄISCHE GESELLSCHAFT FÜR PHRASEOLOGIE

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PUBLISHER

tradulex

multilingual communication

ISBN 978-2-9701095-6-3

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978-2-9701095-6-3

2019. Editions Tradulex, Geneva

©European Association for Phraseology EUROPHRAS

©University of Wolverhampton (Research Group in Computational Linguistics)

©University of Malaga (Research Group "Lexicography and Translation")

©Association for Computational Linguistics (Bulgaria)

This document is downloadable from www.tradulex.com and
http://rgcl.wlv.ac.uk/europhras2019/
**Editors of the Proceedings**

Gloria Corpas Pastor

Ruslan Mitkov

Maria Kunilovskaya

María Araceli Losey León

**Organisers:**

EUROPHRAS 2019 is jointly organised by the European Association for Phraseology EUROPHRAS, the University of Malaga (Research Group in Lexicography and Translation), the University of Wolverhampton (Research Group in Computational Linguistics) and the Association for Computational Linguistics – Bulgaria.

**Conference Co-Chairs:**

Gloria Corpas Pastor, University of Malaga, Spain

Ruslan Mitkov, University of Wolverhampton, UK

**Programme Committee:**

Mariangela Albano, University Dokuz Eylül of Izmir

Verginica Barbu Mititelu, Romanian Academy Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence

Farouk Bouhadiba, University of Oran 2

Nicoletta Calzolari, Institute for Computational Linguistics

María Luisa Carrió Pastor, Polytechnic University of Valencia

Sheila Castilho, Dublin City University

Cristina Castillo Rodríguez, University of Malaga

Ken Church, Baidu

Jean-Pierre Colson, Université Catholique de Louvain

Anna Čermáková, Charles University

María Sagrario del Río Zamudio, University of Udine

Dmitrij Dobrovolskij, Russian Language Institute

Peter Ďurčo, University of St. Cyril and Methodius

Jesse Egbert, Northern Arizona University

Natalia Filatkina, University of Trier

Thierry Fontenelle, Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union

José Enrique Gargallo, University of Barcelona

Sylviane Granger, Université Catholique de Louvain

Kleanthes Grohmann, University of Cyprus

Miloš Jakubíček, Lexical Computing

Simon Krek, University of Ljubljana

Natalie Kübler, Paris Diderot University

Alessandro Lenci, University of Pisa

Elvira Manero, University of Murcia

Carmen Mellado Blanco, University of Santiago de Compostela

Flor Mena Martínez, University of Murcia

Pedro Mogorrón Huerta, University of Alicante

Johanna Monti, “L'Orientale” University of Naples
Sara Moze, University of Wolverhampton

Michael Oakes, University of Wolverhampton

Inés Olza, University of Navarra

Petya Osenova, Sofia University

Stéphane Patin, Paris Diderot University

Alain Polguère, University of Lorraine

Encarnación Postigo Pinazo, University of Malaga

Carlos Ramisch, Laboratoire d'Informatique Fondamentale de Marseille

Rozane Rebechi, Federal University Rio Grande do Sul

Mª Ángeles Recio Ariza, University of Salamanca

Irene Renau, The Pontifical Catholic University of Chile

Omid Rohanian, University of Wolverhampton

Ute Römer, Georgia State University

Leonor Ruiz Gurillo, University of Alicante

Agata Savary, François Rabelais University

Miriam Seghiri Domínguez, University of Malaga

Julia Sevilla Muñoz, Complutense University of Madrid

Kathrin Steyer, Institute of German Language

Joanna Szerszunowicz, University of Bialystok

Shiva Taslimipoor, University of Wolverhampton

Yukio Tono, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies

Cornelia Tschichold, Swansea University

Agnès Tutin, University of Stendhal

Aline Villavicencio, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul and University of Essex

Tom Wasow, Stanford University

Eric Wehrli, University of Geneva

Juan Jesús Zaro Vera, University of Malaga

Michael Zock, French National Centre for Scientific Research

**Additional Reviewers:**

Le An Ha

Rocío Caro Quintana

Souhila Djabri

Emma Franklin

Maria Kunilovskaya

María Araceli Losey León

Encarnación Núñez

Maria Stasimioti

**Invited Speakers:**

Aline Villavicencio, University of Sheffield; Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Miloš Jakubíček, Lexical Computing and Masaryk University, Czech Republic

Natalie Kübler, Paris Diderot University, France

Sylviane Granger, Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium
**SketchEngine Tutorial Speaker:**

Miloš Jakubíček, Lexical Computing and Masaryk University, Czech Republic

**Organising Committee:**

**University of Malaga**

María Rosario Bautista Zambrana
Isabel Durán Muñoz
Javier Alejandro Fernández Sola
Mahmoud Gaber
Rut Gutiérrez Florido
Carlos Manuel Hidalgo Ternero
Francisco Javier Lima Florido
Gema Llobillo Mora
Araceli Losey León
Desiré Martos García
Luis Carlos Marín Navarro
Juan Pascual Martínez Fernández
Míriam Pérez Carrasco
Fernando Sánchez Rodas
Anastasia Taramigou

**University of Wolverhampton**

Rocío Caro Quintana
Sandra Elfiky
Suman Hira
Maria Kunilovskaya
Sara Moze
Alistair Plum
Tharindu Ranasinghe Hettiarachchige
Shiva Taslimipoor

**Association for Computational Linguistics (Bulgaria)**

Nikolai Nikolov
Ivelina Nikolova
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Table of Contents

Phraseology in Learner Language: The Case of French Idioms and Collocations Translated by Italian-
speaking Adult Learners

Mariangela Albano and Rosa Leandra Badalamenti .................................................. 1

¿Nadan en la Abundancia los Jóvenes Españoles y Alemanes? Un Estudio Empírico Sobre la Compe-
tencia Fraseológica

Isabel Andugar Andreu .................................................................................. 11

Variaciones Fraseológicas en la Terminología Médico-Farmacéutica y su Aplicación en las Traduc-
ciones EN>ES y DE>ES

Francisco Bautista .......................................................................................... 19

Phrase Frames en un Corpus Oral de Alemán como Lengua Extranjera para el Turismo

María Rosario Bautista Zambrana .................................................................... 31

Desarrollo de la Fraseología Especializada en Brasil

Cleci Regina Bevilacqua .................................................................................. 40

Orthography in Practice: Corpus-based Verification of Writing Ktetics in MWU's in Croatian

Goranka Blagus Bartolec and Ivana Matas Ivanković .................................................. 46

A Didactic Sequence for Phrasemes in L2 French

Maria Francesca Bonadonna and Silvia Domenica Zollo ........................................ 53

Procesos de Reconocimiento e Interpretación de Unidades Fraseológicas Metafóricas y Factores In-
fluyentes

Silvia Cataldo ................................................................................................. 61

Processing European Portuguese Verbal Idioms: From the Lexicon-Grammar to a Rule-based Parser

Ana Galvão, Jorge Baptista and Nuno Mamede .................................................... 70

Constructive Linguistics for Computational Phraseology: the Esperanto Case

Federico Gobbo ................................................................................................. 78

Corpus-based Empirical Research on Resurgent Collocation beyond Existing Grammatical Rules: Make
Angry/Mad as an Example

Ai Inoue ............................................................................................................ 86

Vivid Phrasal Idioms and the Green New Deal: Teaching Idioms to EAP Students Via Authentic Contexts

Melissa Larsen-Walker .................................................................................... 90

Extracción Terminológica Basada en Corpus Para la Traducción de Fichas Técnicas de Impresoras 3D

Ángela Luque Giraldez and Míriam Seghiri ............................................................ 99

Corpus Analysis of Complex Names with Common Nouns in Croatian

Ivana Matas Ivanković and Goranka Blagus Bartolec ................................................ 106
Fixed Phrases in Language of International Law: A Problem of Translating Latin Formulaic Expressions into Farsi

Seyed Mohammad Hossein Mirzadeh .................................................. 114

On the Impact of (Il)literacy on L2 Italian Acquisition of Unaccompanied Foreign Minors

Castrenze Nigrelli ........................................................................ 118

Improving Textual Competence in a Second Language Initial Literacy Classroom

Castrenze Nigrelli ........................................................................ 126

Multiword Terms and Machine Translation

Serge Potemkin ........................................................................ 133

Towards a Cross-linguistic Study of Phraseology across Specialized Genres

Ana Roldan-Riejos and Lukasz Grabowski ........................................ 140
# Phraseology in Learner Language: The Case of French Idioms and Collocations Translated by Italian-speaking Adult Learners

Mariangela Albano<fnref n="1" />[0000-0001-7157-1482] and Rosa Leandra Badalamenti<fnref n="2" />

**Abstract.** This paper focuses on the treatment of French idioms and collocations by Italian-speaking adult learners of French as a foreign language. Since allophones do not have access to the figurative dimension that characterizes the frozen expressions of a language, mastery of them is very difficult and is usually only reached at an advanced stage of acquisition. The purpose of our study is to provide a contribution to the analysis of the semantic processing that takes place at the cognitive level in their interpretation. These processes will be approached from two perspectives of analysis: one pertaining to the acquisitional linguistics, aiming to examine the approaches and interpretative strategies put in place by foreign learners when confronted with an idiomatic expression, and the other pertaining to cognitive linguistics and aimed at the analysis of cognitive operations that create semantic networks of a metaphorical, metonymic and analogical nature.

**Keywords:** Idiom, Collocation, Acquisition of foreign languages, Analogy, Metaphor, Metonymy

## 1 Introduction

In this study, we analyze the interpretation strategies of 15 frozen expressions (henceforth FE)<fnref n="1" /> by advanced Italian-speaking learners of French as a foreign language (henceforth FFL). To analyze the processes of foreign language appropriation, different interdependent elements must be taken into account, such as the socio-cultural context in which the appropriation takes place, the learner's previous knowledge, his

<footnote n="1">¹ Dokuz Eylül University & University Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris
albanomariangela@gmail.com</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² University of Palermo
rosaleandra.bk@gmail.com</footnote>

<footnote n="1">1 The analyzed FE are: 1) poser un lapin, 2) se regarder le nombril, 3) yeux de biche, 4) tomber dans les pommes, 5) avoir la grosse tête, 6) filer à l'anglaise, 7) être un ours mal léché, 8) mettre de l'eau dans son vin, 9) mettre son grain de sel, 10) se mettre sur son trente et un, 11) casser sa pipe, 12) peigner la girafe, 13) parler politique ; 14) temps de cochon, 15) avoir du blé.</footnote>
level of metalinguistic awareness, or cognitive skills, developed during the learning path.

As far as FEs are concerned, the learner faces a double semantic opacity: the first is inherent to the approach of a foreign language (hence FL), since the learner has to deal with words structures and expressions that are unknown to him/her; the second is that FE requires the ability to make a transition between a literal level and a figurative level.

The attitude of the learner, his level of tolerance of linguistic ambiguity, his ability to fill the gaps are essential factors in the treatment of IE, treatment that we analyze here. The task of the learners was to interpret and translate texts that contained one or more word-for-word non-translatable FE into Italian.

Our approach is situated between cognitive linguistics and acquisitional linguistics: on the one hand, the cognitive approach can be useful for analyzing the cognitive projections activated during the processes of comprehension, translation and motivation of FE; on the other hand, the acquisition approach leads us to understand the processes of identification and isolation and, thanks to the analysis of the linguistic input processing operations implemented by the learners, can lead to possible didactic applications in the teaching of FEs in the FFL class<fnref n="2" />.

## 1.1 Lexicalization, Projection, and Analogy

The study of lexicalization leads us to take into consideration a set of expressions in which morphosyntactic and lexical variations are limited. The FEs represents a unit that reveals a memory and psychological constant still perceived by the speakers of a language (Cacciari, 2001). If we base ourselves on the studies that concern the FEs, we can define the level of lexicalization based on seven criteria: polylexicality (G. Gross, 1996); non-compositionality (Wray, 2002); grammatical or syntactic block (Hudson, 1998; Gross, 1996), semantic block (Ibid.: 154), conventionality for which the set of words gives perception of unity (Nunberg et al., 1994: 493), block of synonymic paradigms (Shapira, 1999: 8-9; Gross, 1996) and semantic opacity (Gross, 1996).

In this study we have chosen to propose to the learners idioms (i.e. se regarder le nombril), and this for their high level of figurativity (Hudson, 1998; Moon, 1998: 19-25; Norrick, 1985: 72; Brinton and Traugott, 2005; Svensson, 2004), some collocations (Burger, 2007; Benson, 1985), and some collocations in which only a segment possesses the linguistic status of idiom (i.e. yeux DE BICHE; être un OURS MAL LÉCHÉ).

The criteria for ranking FEs are not the only area on which phraseology studies have been concentrated: there has been increasing interest in, for example, cognitive

<footnote n="2">2 Mariangela Albano wrote: 1.Introduction, 1.1Lexicalization, projection and analogy, 2.3Activation of conceptual connections: metaphor, metonymy and analogy, 3.Conclusions; Rosa Leandra Badalamenti wrote: 1.2 FE in the acquisition of foreign languages, 1.3Methodology, 2.Analysis of data, 2.1Reference to context, 2.2. Analogies with L1 or other known languages, 3.Conclusions.</footnote>
analyzes. In this sense, the semantics of idioms aims to search for the motivation of IEs, to study the function of mental images in the use of these, or to explore the cultural phenomena that motivate them (Burger, 2007: 790; Dobrovol'skij and Piirainen, 2005).

To understand the cognitive aspects of IEs, the semantics of idioms use the theory of conceptual metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980) to analyze the cognitive processes underlying IE treatment. With regard to the metaphorical projection, the cognitive process takes place between a source domain and a target domain; as far as the metonymic projection is concerned, the process takes place within the same conceptual domain. In this study, we approach cognitive projection to seek to understand the translation and interpretation processes of learner-initiated IEs. It is also necessary to analyze the data from the analogy, a cognitive tool that allows learners to «group together in the same class or category» perceived «entities, consciously or not, as similar» (Monneret, 2003).

## 1.2 FEs in the Acquisition of Foreign Languages

According to Hudson, phraseology responds to principles of economy. Speakers repeat the expressions they have already heard instead of creating new ones each time. Indeed, since these are stored as a single lexical unit, they require much less processing effort at the time of production and their use increases the speed of speech and reduces the frequency of breaks.

However, a good knowledge of the FE would, according to Wood (2006) and Pawley & Syder (2000: 195), the verbal fluidity «it is the store of memorized constructions and expressions, more than anything, that is the key to nativelike fluency». In addition, it seems that the use of FEs would allow non-native speakers (henceforth NNS) to express themselves in a more idiomatic and therefore more natural way «formulaic sequences used by native speakers are not easy for learners to identify and master, and [...] their absence greatly contributes to learners not sounding idiomatic» (Wray, 2002: 176).

Figurative language is rooted in everyday life and makes use of important factors in the process of appropriation of a FL, such as imagination and affectivity, and thus makes it possible to develop language expressivity (Ruiz Quemoun, 2007). In particular, idioms reflect the culture shared by a linguistic community and are therefore fundamental to getting closer to the culture of the target language.

In the acquisition of L1, the appropriation processes generally start from a holistic approach and go towards an analytical approach. In adult learners of a FL or L2, the opposite is true: the adult learner starts from an analytical approach, gradually evolving towards memory storage and holistic treatment of FE (Wray, 2002).

This has already been noted by Gibbs (1986), who emphasizes that native speakers (henceforth NS) do not activate the literal meaning of FEs unless the figurative meaning is irrelevant. On the contrary, NNSs try to activate a figurative meaning only when the literal meaning is perceived as irrelevant.

In the case of FL learning, another important factor that comes into play is the learning context. This is fundamental in that it determines the amount and type of
input to which learners are subjected, as well as the types of interactions in which
they participate. In the classroom, learners tend to adopt analytical approaches, espe-
cially if they have been subjected to a metalinguistic teaching of the grammar of the
FL.

As we have seen, FEs have an ontological and cultural motivation. For foreign
learners, the cultural sphere is not directly accessible. From this perspective, learning
for a FL must also be distinguished from second-language learning, since in the sec-
ond case learners have more opportunities to contact the target language. In FL learn-
ing, idioms can only be learned in the classroom, and the role of teachers and methods
adopted becomes paramount. FEs are therefore an essential component of communi-
cation, acquisition and idiomaticity in FL. This is why it is useful to question the fac-
tors that may favor, or on the contrary, disadvantage, the development of learners.

**1.3 Methodology**

For our study, we chose 10 advanced learners of FFL in a university context. Students of our study have all studied French for at least 8 years, and they all have a master's degree in foreign languages. They have all been exposed to formal teachings of French grammar, and therefore tend to adopt analytical approaches to texts. We selected 15 FEs from dictionaries and data in short texts of different kinds (magazine extracts, daily newspapers, online forum, novels, and so on). We selected FEs which are not directly translatable into Italian. We asked the learners to translate or interpret the texts orally. Oral productions have been recorded and transcribed.

First, we focused on the isolation processes of FE within the text. We observed
that, in most cases, learners were able to identify them even when they had never met
them before. Subsequently, we asked about strategies and approaches taken by stu-
dents to interpret FEs in a consistent way. We also considered the possible use of L1
in the treatment of FEs. In some cases, learners used their mother tongue or other
known languages to try to interpret figurative expressions, but we also observed that,
in most cases, they were able to avoid interference, demonstrating a high level of
awareness of the cultural motivation of the chosen FEs. In this perspective, we ques-
tioned the processes of metaphorical or metonymic interpretation, in which learners
abandoned their cultural sphere to engage in an ontological sphere, trying to reactivate
symbolic processes from the literal meaning of the components of the FE.

**2 Data Analysis**

Interpretative approaches are based on an analytical approach that allows students to isolate FE within the text. Given the semantic opacity of the lexical unit, in most cases the isolation is based on processes of semantic relevance: in the given context, the lexical unit could not keep its literal and compositional meaning that was not relevant. Depending on the degree of accessibility of the context and the relevance of the FE speakers have put together or combined different interpretative strategies. If the con-
text provides different or contradictory interpretative possibilities, the foreign speaker also uses other interpretative approaches, such as analogies with L1 and /or other known languages or even metonymic, analogical and metaphorical processes.

## 2.1 Context Reference

In our study, FEs were proposed within texts of different typologies. By context, we try to show the representations activated by the readers during the reading of the text.

NSs confronted with a figurative use of language, as in the case of unconventional metonymies, activate more interpretative hypotheses based on principles of relevance (Sperber and Wilson, 1986).

In one of the proposed texts, learners were asked to interpret the idiom poser un la-pin, engl. stand somebody up, which appeared in a comics. The degree of semantic opacity and irrelevance to the context proved very high, and in most cases, after questioning the possible metaphorical values to be given to the expression, the students ended up with interpret from the image.

In another example, with the idiom se regarder le nombril, engl. to look on own navel, we see that the reader first assesses relevance with the context, before proceeding to a metaphorical interpretation of the FE.

## 2.2 Analogies with L1 or Other Known Languages

For foreign learners, L1 represents an inevitable interpretative tool. In the context of our study, we will not consider interference as an unconscious transfer of features from one language to another, but we will focus on the use of known languages as a conscious strategy in interpretation of the text.

In collocation n. 3 yeux de biche, the interpretation based on analogies with L1 is superior to contextual information and we could see two interpretative phases based on analogies with Italian.

At first, the learner selects the referent from a phonetic analogy between the French word biche [bif] and the Italian word biscia [bifa]. Subsequently, the interpretative choice is semantically motivated by metaphorical processes aiming at analogically transferring the characteristics of the animal biscia (engl.: grass snake) to the character of the comics, thus giving fr. yeux de salope, engl. slut eyes. However, the selected referent being irrelevant to the context, the learner subsequently uses another analogy with the L1 and in particular between the French collocation yeux de biche, engl. dee eyes, it. occhi da cerbiatta having the same meaning. We thus observe the transfer from a phonetic analogy to a semantic analogy allowing to advance an interpretative hypothesis more relevant to the context.

L1 has a prominent role in the interpretation of IEs, but learners do not just tap into it. In example n. 4 tomber dans les pommes, a student uses the Sicilian dialect. In particular, this student uses a Sicilian expression that has a certain degree of formal similarity with the French IE: tomber dans les pommes, engl. to fall in the apples and cariri comu a piru, engl. to fall like a peer share the same verbal base (tomber and cariri) and in both expressions the argument of the verb is a fruit, hence the use of the
Sicilian expression which is however deceptive compared to the signified of the French IE. In this example, we see how the reader does not limit himself to drawing on his prior knowledge, but also tries to give, through analogical methods, a semantic motivation to his interpretative choice.

## 2.3 Activation of Conceptual Connections: Metaphor, Metonymy and Analogy

It should be emphasized here that during the process of interpretation of idioms and collocations, students reactivate the semantics of these expressions through cognitive operations. The expression ne pas avoir la grosse tête, engl. not having the big head is interpreted correctly in the majority of the analyzed cases. However, some of the students translate the expression as being stupid. In fact, the inferences made by the learners show a stereotypical cultural evaluation according to which the footballers are stupid.

This evaluation is due, first, to a metonymy since the head is not simply a part of the body but represents the center of intelligence according to the report container-content. Then, they subconsciously resort to conceptual metaphors more is up, the head is a container and the greater the amount of an entity increases in a container and the more positively the container is marked (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980), and they say that the bigger the head, the more intelligent the person involved is.

An interesting case is represented by the interpretation of FE se regarder le nom-bril, engl. looking at our own navel. First, the students translate IE with stare with the mani in mano (lit.: stay with hands in hand, and do nothing) using an analogy with a FE in L1. Then they come closer to an interpretative hypothesis of a metaphorical nature explaining the motivation of the FE through an embodied perspective. Indeed, students imagine the position of a person who is looking at the navel and they high-light the effects that such a position may have on the actions of the subject, such as the impossibility of moving, the obligation to remain bent over oneself to look at the navel, the obligation to remain extended and maintain a horizontal position. They find, therefore, that such a position prevents movement and forces us to do nothing.

The interpretation of the FE mettre son grain de sel (engl. put his grain of salt) is translated by some learners by metterci del suo (fig. give his/her opinion). Learners come to this translation by reflecting on the effects of salt in an injury and claim that salt burns. This allows them to reach, by analogical methods, the Italian expression mettere fuoco (engl. set fire) and connect analogically the effects of salt and fire. Students focus, then, on the effects of fire in a fire and they project metaphorically the idea that every element that burst into a foreign situation creates an alteration and that, in the same way, each person who gives his opinion in a foreign situation creates an alteration.
## 3 Conclusion

Examples taken into account allows us to observe the interpretation processes developed by students to analyze idioms and collocations. We have marked that the activation of conceptual connections in the processing of FE does not take place from a single cognitive tool, but that students tend to juxtapose cognitive operations of a metaphorical, metonymic and analogical nature with the use of cognitive tools, context and analogies with known languages.

In some cases, students have focused their attention on the specificity of the conceptual relationships between the source domain and the target domain of FE and they obtained new inferences, showing us how primary conceptual metaphors work and operate in the dynamics of imaginative nature. This study has thus shown that students get own motivation of an idiom or a collocation by a path where the hypotheses and the remarks made during the treatment help them to «deep the notion of image from itself» (Monneret, 2004: 105).

In Foreign Language learning, learners deal with a cultural and connotative lag when trying to interpret a FE. As in the natural contexts of communication, they are forced to interpret the FE to interpret the entire message.

In addition, texts present different levels of semantic opacity since the foreign learner is already confronted with an input whose degree of ambiguity is high.

In our examples, the semantic opacity of FEs is usually solved by the use of context. If the latter does not lead to coherent interpretations, learners try to use their language skills in L1 or other known languages or to reactivate conceptual, metaphorical or metonymic processes.

Learners are well aware that frozen units are culturally motivated. They try to activate all of their linguistic, cultural and historical knowledge of the target language in order to translate the FE, and in some cases they push their analyzes to an ontological level.

Kövecses and Szabo (1996) argue that the presence of underlying cognitive metaphors in the mind is not sufficient to activate the use of FEs in foreign learners. According to Marquez (2007: 28), it is necessary to show learners that a great deal of phraseological expression is metaphorically motivated.

Explanation of the underlying metaphorical projections would be useful for the acquisition of equivalences among the conceptual frames that activate the FE.

Our study confirms that the analysis and the explanation of the underlying metaphors can indeed prove to be an asset in the appropriation of idioms and collocations. The effort made to negotiate their meaning, in relation to the context but also to the units that compose them, seems to be able to facilitate their storage in memory and processing.
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## Dictionaries

28. Imbs, P. (Ed.): *Trésor de la langue française. Dictionnaire de la langue du XIX et du XX siècle (1789-1960)*. Tome troisième. Paris : Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (1974).

29. Imbs, P. (Ed.) : *Trésor de la langue française. Dictionnaire de la langue du XIX et du XX siècle (1789-1960)*. Tome septième. Paris : Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (1979).

30. Gorcy, G. (Ed.) : *Trésor de la langue française. Dictionnaire de la langue du XIX et du XX siècle (1789-1960)*. Tome seizième. Paris : Gallimard (1994).

31. Pottier, B. (Ed.) : *Trésor de la langue française. Dictionnaire de la langue du XIX et du XX siècle (1789-1960)*. Tome dixième. Paris : Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (1983).

32. Pottier, B. (Ed.) : *Trésor de la langue française. Dictionnaire de la langue du XIX et du XX siècle (1789-1960)*. Tome onzième. Paris : Gallimard (1985).

33. Robert, P. (Ed.) *Le nouveau petit Robert de la langue française 2007: dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française*. Paris : Le Robert (2007).

## Sitography

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36. *Futura Forum* : Que se passe-t-il quand on tombe dans les pommes ? http://forums.futura-sciences.com/sante-medecine-generale/156930-se-passe-t-on-tombe-pommes.html, last accessed 2012/03/15 (2004).