# Quality attributes of fufu in South-East Nigeria: Guide for cassava breeders

Ugo Chijioke, Tessy Madu, Benjamin Okoye, Amaka Promise Ogunka, Mercy Ejechi, Miriam Ofoeze, Chukwudi Ogbete, Damian Njoku, Justin Ewuziem, Confidence Kalu, et al.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## To cite this version:

Ugo Chijioke, Tessy Madu, Benjamin Okoye, Amaka Promise Ogunka, Mercy Ejechi, et al. Quality attributes of fufu in South-East Nigeria: Guide for cassava breeders. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2021, 56 (3), pp.1247-1257. 10.1111/ijfs.14875. hal-05176911

HAL Id: hal-05176911

https://hal.science/hal-05176911v1

Submitted on 22 Jul 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

Original article

**Quality attributes of fufu in South-East Nigeria: guide for cassava breeders**

Ugo Chijioke,¹* Ⓓ ␣ Tessy Madu,¹ Benjamin Okoye,¹ Ⓓ ␣ Amaka Promise Ogunka,¹ Ⓓ ␣ Mercy Ejechi,¹ Ⓓ ␣

Miriam Ofoeze,¹ Ⓓ ␣ Chukwudi Ogbete,¹ Ⓓ ␣ Damian Njoku,¹ Ⓓ ␣ Justin Ewuziem,¹ Confidence Kalu,¹ Ⓓ ␣

Nnaemeka Onyemauwa,¹ Blessing Ukeje,¹ Oluchi Achonwa,¹ Ⓓ ␣ Lora Forsythe,² Ⓓ ␣ Geneviève Fliedel³,⁴ &
Chiedozie Egesi¹,⁵,⁶ Ⓓ ␣

1. National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike, Umuahia, Nigeria

2. Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime Kent, ME4 4TB, UK

3. CIRAD, UMR QUALISUD, Montpellier F-34398, France

4. Qualisud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univd'Avignon, Univ de La Réunion, Montpellier 34398, France

5. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Oyo Road, Ibadan, Nigeria

6. Department of Global Development, Cornell University, Ithaca NY, 14853, USA

*(Received 22 July 2020; Accepted in revised form 27 October 2020)*

**Summary** Fufu is a popular traditional fermented wet paste food product from cassava. We examined consumer preferences and quality attributes of fufu in Abia and Imo States of South-East Nigeria, with special attention to gender differences, for the purpose of providing guidance to breeders. Data were analysed by the use of descriptive and inferential statistics. Participants for the interview were randomly selected from a list of farmers in the study area. Individual (II) interviews were conducted among eighty participants comprising twenty-six men (32.5%) and fifty-four women (67.5%). Preferences along the food chain from raw roots to final product were also obtained. Major traits influencing gender-specific consumer preferences are related to appearance, texture and smell. Smoothness, not sticky, easy to swallow and drawability of fufu appear to be major traits that drive acceptance by both men and women. Big roots and smooth skin are prioritised for raw material. Some quality characteristics are conditioned largely by variety traits, while others can be modified by adjusting the processing methods. The complexity of producing high-quality fufu makes it imperative to introduce a multidisciplinary approach into breeding programmes.

**Keywords** Breeding, consumers, fufu, gender, preferred traits, processing, quality characteristics, varieties.

**Introduction**

Nigeria is the world's largest producer of cassava, hosting a diverse array of cassava farmers and processors, with the large majority being small-scale operators (Forsythe et al., 2016). Major cassava-based food products consumed in Nigeria include the following: gari, fufu and lafun. Most of these products are made and consumed locally by farming households themselves (IITA, 2012). Fufu is a traditional Nigerian fermented food product in southern, western and eastern Nigeria and some other parts of West Africa (Rosales-soto et al., 2016). It is usually described as a 'wet paste food product' and ranks second after gari as a food product from cassava (http://www.cassavabiz.org/

postharvest/fufu). In some parts of Nigeria, it is also called *utaraakpu* (Owolarafe *et al.*, 2018). Uche (2016) reported that *fufu* has higher profit, gross margin, mark-up and a better monetary prospect. According to Sanni *et al*. (1998), late in the 20th century, 60% of all the cassava harvested across Nigeria was used in processing *fufu*, and only 5% for *gari*. However, the preference and consumption pattern has been reversed between *fufu* and *gari* in recent times, because of *fufu*'s poor shelf life and tedious processing methods. *Fufu* is ranked next to *gari* as an indigenous food in southern Nigeria (Egwim *et al.*, 2013), and it is popular in many parts of West Africa (Uyoh *et al.*, 2009). *Fufu* flour as a convenience food and staple is increasingly becoming very popular in West Africa (Johnson *et al.*, 2006).

*Fufu* is usually processed by households and rural processors whose practices may differ by culture and

<footnote>*Correspondent: E-mail: ugochijioke4@gmail.com</footnote>
region. Fermentation is a key component of *fufu* production, an important step to detoxify the cassava pulp (i.e. degrade cyanogenic glucosides), develop the characteristic aroma and flavour of the *fufu*, and also help in preserving it (Flibert *et al.*, 2016). *Fufu* is produced by first, peeling and washing the cassava roots, and cutting them into smaller chunks. The method of soaking/steeping of roots differ among states and processors in South-East Nigeria. Soaking, steeping or fermentation of the cut roots may be carried out either by continuous soaking of chunked roots for a period of 3–5 days of fermentation (Mokemiabeka *et al.*, 2011), or by washing and grating of the soaked root after 48hrs of fermentation, followed by re-steeping of grated roots (Omodamiro *et al.*, 2012). The fermented roots or mash are finally sieved, and dewatered to obtain the wet paste. The sour taste, flavour, appearance and texture are mainly recognised as determinants of *fufu* acceptance and quality (Bamidele *et al.*, 2015). The variations in processing methods and differences in physico-chemical properties of cassava varieties alter the texture and organoleptic properties of the cooked *fufu* (Akingbala *et al.*, 1991). Furthermore, Bechoff *et al.* (2018) and Asrat *et al.* (2010) noted that gender-specific crop trait preferences are rarely considered or prioritised in most breeding programs. These complexities involved in the processing of the product (*fufu*) make it imperative for the need to introduce a multidisciplinary approach for breeding varieties that meet end user needs for *fufu*. The study therefore described the quality characteristics that drive purchase and utilisation of fresh cassava roots for *fufu* processing, preferred quality characteristics of cassava root for processing of fermented wet *fufu* mash, cooking properties of the intermediate *fufu* product and quality characteristics of *fufu* during consumption.

# Materials and methods

## Study area

The study was conducted in Imo and Abia States in South-East region of Nigeria, selected based on intensity of cassava production (Fig. 1). Imo and Abia States are made up of three Agricultural Zones each. Imo State is divided into twenty-seven administrative units called local government areas (LGAs), which are grouped into three Agricultural Zones of Owerri, Okigwe and Orlu, and seventeen LGAs for Abia State (grouped into three Agricultural Zones of Aba, Ohafia and Umuahia). The climate can generally be described as tropical – in the humid rainforest agro-ecological zone – with clearly defined wet and dry seasons. Smallholder crop and livestock farming is the predominant occupation of the people (Anderson *et al.*,

2017). Generally, a smallholder farmer is involved in cultivating a small piece of land, cultivating food crops, sometimes with small varieties of cash crops (Thorpe & Muriuki, 2001; Herrero *et al.*, 2014). In many localities, smallholder farmers practise mixed crop-livestock farming, whereby the number of large ruminants kept is around 3–5 (Thorpe & Muriuki, 2001). The major crops produced include the following: yam, cassava, rice, maize, cocoyam, cowpea and tomatoes. *Fufu* is a principal food staple in Imo and Abia States.

## Sampling procedure

A multistage sampling procedure was used to select sample respondents to identify traits for a high-quality crop (cassava) and product (*fufu*), among the cassava-producing and cassava-consuming households in the region (Forsythe *et al.*, 2020). In the first stage, three Agricultural Zones in Imo State and one in Abia State were selected for the study based on level of *fufu* processing and consumption. In the second stage, four communities in Imo and two in Abia States were selected, also based on intensity of *fufu* processing and convenience. In the last stage, participants for the interview were randomly selected from a list of farmers provided by the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) in the communities. ADPs aim at increasing food production for rural dwellers, and raising the income level of small-scale farmers, by making provision for improved seeds, fertiliser, pesticides, credit facilities and infra-structural facilities (Ajayi & Ajala, 1999). Individual interviews (II) were conducted, comprising ten participants in each community of Imo State (giving forty participants in four communities) and twenty in each community (forty participants) of Abia State, giving a total of eighty participants (fifty-four female and twenty-six male).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1** Survey locations in Imo and Abia States of Nigeria. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]</figcaption></figure>
## Data collection and analysis

The data for the study were collected from primary sources by the use of a well-structured questionnaire. The questionnaires were designed to collect a range of information, including household structure, crop production, sales, utilisation and consumption of cassava with special emphasis on fufu. The Pivot Table function available in Microsoft Excel was used for analysis. The Pivot Table feature is a user-friendly and easy-to-use tool, which is relevant for the kinds of analysis, which is required in a trait preference evaluation, following FAO (2016). Characteristics of preferred traits were assigned weights according to how they were prioritised and the importance they were given by respondents following Forsythe et al. (2020). To aggregate the characteristics into one table, we gave each of them weights according to how they were prioritised, and the importance they were given by respondents. This is to identify what characteristics to be prioritised. Comparison of different priorities for men and women was also depicted to see how the important characteristics differed. To apply weights, frequency (count) for the most important characteristic (1st priority) was multiplied by 3, the frequencies for the second priority characteristic by 2 and the frequencies for the third priority characteristic by 3. The results are weighted scores summarised and ranked as:

$$Y_{kin}(N1)(N2) \times 002B; (N31) \quad (1)$$

where Y = summation of weighted scores, N1 = total number of respondents indicating highest (3) preferred traits, N2 = total number of respondents indicating second (2) most preferred traits, N3 = total number of respondents indicating third (1) most preferred traits. For each characteristic, total 'points' from men and women were summed up to get a final score and characteristics sort by descending final scores, and ranked. Results were then presented in tables, graphs and flow diagrams from which inferences were drawn.

## Results and discussion

### Preferred and less-preferred root quality traits that drive selection of cassava varieties for fufu processing

The evaluation of the preferred and less-preferred quality characteristics that drive purchase and utilisation of fresh cassava roots for fufu processing within South-East Nigeria is shown in Figs 2 and 3. The results show divergent views in choice of trait preferences among the male and female participants. Four root quality attributes were identified as the main traits of preference, and they include the following: root size (moderately sized roots equivalent to 1 L capacity bottled water in diameter), heaviness of the

root (weight/density of root when held by the hand), appearance/smoothness of root skin (dark coloured peel and roots without rough/wrinkle skin) and colour of root flesh (white coloured root flesh; without dark discoloration). In contrast, bad root colour (dark/multiple-coloured striped roots), light foamy weight roots (bread-like in texture), small-sized roots, fibrous roots and roots with high moisture content were identified as less-preferred traits that result in cooked fufu of low quality.

Size of root appears to be an important raw material (cassava root) trait for both male and female respondents. It was observed that although male and female respondent's assigned high weight (sum of scores of 48 and 69, respectively) to root size, reasons for this preference differs by gender (Fig. 2). According to the female respondents, the preferred moderate-size roots were easy to peel, saved operation time and mitigated drudgery (Table S1). This is in agreement with the study by Egbeocha et al. (2016) and Jimoh et al. (2016), who stated that size of tubers is one of the factors that is responsible for the demanding nature of peeling as a unit operation during processing. Furthermore, Jimoh and Olukunle (2012) reported that peeling efficiency was higher for larger-sized cassava roots compared with smaller ones. According to the respondents, small-sized roots are associated with inefficient peeling operations, resulting in peel loss and dark coloured intermediate and final product (cooked fufu). This study therefore reveals that selection of root size as the most important root quality attribute for the female cassava root buyers in Abia and Imo States is based on its influence on processing operation such as peeling and colour of derived products (intermediate and cooked fufu). On the contrary, the choice of root size by the male respondents seemed to be driven by direct economic gain obtained by buying the fresh roots, an activity where men are the major key actors (Bentley et al., 2017). According to González & Johnson (2009), size of cassava is a key determinant of its market price. The author reported that the bigger the root size, the higher the market price. Interestingly, producing cassava with preferred root traits do not imply an increase in production cost (González & Johnson, 2009). Our findings are in agreement with the study of Teeken et al. (2018), who indicated that gender roles are a strong determinant of preference for traits in cassava.

Heaviness is another trait driving the adoption of cassava varieties for fufu processing in South-East Nigeria, and may be related to root weight and density. Gender differences were also observed in the sum scores for this trait, females (51) showed higher interest in the trait compared with their male (10) counterparts. The respondents described the term 'heaviness' with morphological features as seen in yam varieties
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2** Preferred characteristics of good cassava roots for fufu when buying in the market. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3** Characteristics of cassava roots in the market expected to give a less-preferred fufu product. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]</figcaption></figure>

that have stout and sturdy shape (see Table S1). The results show that the preferred trait 'heavy root' can be compared with a less-preferred trait 'roots that do not have weight', referring to lightweight root, which was described by respondents as cassava roots with bread-like texture. These traits [heaviness or light-weight of the cassava root (density)] were linked to the colour of the intermediate fufu product (fermented *fufu* mash). According to the respondents, lightweight roots float in the fermenting media during retting and develop dark brown colour, which subsequently affects the colour of the intermediate and final *fufu* product (Table S1).

Appearance/smoothness of root skin is another preferred root quality trait driving selection of fresh cassava roots for *fufu* processing. In describing appearance of the root, the respondents stated that roots with dark coloured peel and regular shape are preferred. According to the respondents, dark coloured peel is an indication that the cassava root is matured. Maturity of the cassava root could be linked to yield of *fufu*. The study by Baafi & Safo-Kantanka (2007)

reported an increase in starch yield of cassava varieties of age 12–13 months. Smoothness of the root skin on the other hand is characterised by the absence of wrinkles and roughness. According to the respondents, smoothness of the root skin attracts buyers and encourages ease of peeling. Egbeocha *et al*. (2016) and Jimoh *et al*. (2016) in their study reported that irregularity in the appearance of tubers is one of the factors responsible for the absence of efficient cassava peelers in Nigeria. This study therefore reveals a link between appearance and smoothness of cassava root to yield of end product and ease of peeling.

White colour of the inner cassava flesh is another trait that was highly rated as seen in the result (Figs 2 and 3). According to the respondents, over 90% of consumers prefer white coloured *fufu*. Ayetigbo *et al*. (2018) reported that colour of cassava flesh is retained in the derived products. Hence Bechoff *et al*. (2018) reported that yellow cassava flesh arising from the presence of carotenoids in the root results in yellow coloured intermediate and cooked *fufu*. By implication, the use of non-white coloured cassava flesh for *fufu*
processing will result in intermediate and cooked fufu
with non-white colour. This will invariably reduce the
acceptance of such fufu within the study area. How-
ever Sanni et al. (1998) reported that fufu of good
quality will either have a creamy-white, grey or yellow
colour. Tomlins et al. (2007) further reported that fufu
flour should be creamier in appearance to increase
their acceptability. Flesh colour has therefore become
vital in the selection of cassava for food (Vimala et al.,
2010).

Preferred characteristics of cassava root for processing of fermented wet fufu mash

The results in Fig. 4 show preferred quality character-
istics of cassava root for processing of fermented wet
fufu mash. The results revealed gender dissimilarities
in scoring of the preferred processing traits. The most
outstanding preferred traits for the females were as fol-
lows: ‘easy to peel’ (85), ‘freshness of roots’ (28) (indi-
cating absence of root rot and wound) and ‘root
foaming or retting ability’ (22). The traits of interest
for the males were ‘white colour’ (36) and ‘freshness of
roots’ (12). Generally, results from the survey showed
that the female respondents attribute more to issues
related to processing ability of cassava roots for fufu
processing compared to their male counterparts. These
findings indicate that women are the major processors
of fermented fufu mash within the study area (Teeken
et al., 2018). The traits that were highly preferred by
the females are directly linked to certain fufu process-
ing operations such as peeling and fermentation of
peeled roots. Indigenous knowledge and experience
acquired by female processors over years on the effect
of these traits on the wet mash, and end product
(cooked fufu) guide selection of these traits.

According to the female respondents, the use of cas-
sava varieties that are ‘easy to peel’ maximises the effi-
ciency of labour and time needed to carry out other
unit operations such as washing and grating. Barati et
al. (2020) reported that increase in peeling efficiency is

associated with increased peeled surface area and
reduced peel loss. This enables the white colour of the
flesh to dominate over the dark colour of the peel.
Previous studies indicate that cassava peels contain
certain phytochemicals such as phenols and tannins
responsible for discoloration of intermediate and final
cassava products such as cassava flour and fufu
(Hongbete et al., 2009; Bindzi et al., 2014). Mokemi-
abeka et al. (2011) also reported that fufu from well-
peeled cassava had brighter white colour compared
with fufu from unpeeled roots. This was attributed to
lower tannin content in the peeled roots. Colour,
according to Awoyale et al. (2018), is a major trait
that drives visual appeal and acceptance of cassava
products by consumers. This suggests that selection of
‘easy-to-peel’ cassava varieties by end users may be
due to increased efficiency during manual peeling of
such varieties, which invariably reduces tannin and
phenol content, resulting in the production of interme-
diate and final fufu with desirable colour attribute.

Freshness of the root indicated by absence of rots/
wounds on the roots is another important cassava root
quality trait (Fig. 4). This was associated with the
presence of ‘milkish’ white sap at the proximal end of
the root. This processors’ preferred trait was also
linked to the preferred traits (ease of peeling and high
retting ability) by the respondents. The preference for
freshly harvested roots compared with stored ones
may be linked to the onset of post-harvest physiologi-
cal deterioration (PPD) of roots shortly after harvest
(Zainuddin et al., 2018). PPD is associated with certain
undesirable features such as vascular streaking, discol-
oration of roots, reduction in starch quality and shelf
life, increased water loss and sugar content (Opara,
1999; Buschmann et al., 2000; Sánchez et al., 2006;
Opara, 2009; Zainuddin et al., 2018). Furthermore,
Swain (1979) and Rickard (1986) revealed that adverse
effect of storing cassava roots could be linked to the
synthesis of antinutritional compounds such as
polyphenols and tannins, which eventually results in
discoloration of the intermediate and cooked fufu.

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4** Preferred characteristics of cassava roots to be processed into fufu.
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]</figcaption></figure>
Additionally, Ampe et al. (1994) reported that storage of roots prior to retting slightly increased the production of lactate and ethanol during retting, resulting in decreased acceptability of *fufu*. From these previous studies, it could be deduced that the preferred trait 'fresh root' correlates positively with yield of intermediate and final product and quality in terms of colour and acceptability of *fufu*. Hence, Ampe et al. (1994) recommended that retting should be performed with freshly harvested and peeled roots. The study by Omosuli et al. (2017) also stated that storage of cassava roots leads to increase in peel loss, decrease in yield of *fufu* flour and cyanogenic potential. According to the respondents, freshness of root is also associated with appreciable moisture content, which is an important factor that facilitates peeling and encourages growth of microorganisms essential for rapid retting of the roots. This implies that the preferred trait 'freshness of root' is intertwined with other preferred processing traits 'ease of peeling' and 'high retting ability', and hence its importance of this root quality trait to processors and other *fufu* end users.

Foaming or retting ability (easy to ferment) of soaked roots is another preferred processing trait of cassava root mentioned by the female respondents (22) (Fig. 4). It is characterised by the presence of multiple bubbles covering the soaked roots in the fermenting vessel, and it is a key step in *fufu* processing (Sanni et al., 1998). Variability in *fufu* quality has been attributed to various local practices during retting stage of processing (Sanni et al., 1998). According to Obilie et al. (2004) and Ampe et al. (1994), retting is used to reduce cyanogenic compounds, and to improve the organoleptic quality of cassava by-products such as *fufu*. Additionally, Umeh & Odibo (2014) reported that complete retting of fresh cassava roots results in high yield of wet *fufu* mash and enhances detoxification. The study by Otoo et al. (2018) revealed that the reduced pH achieved through retting impacts sour taste and characteristic aroma to *fufu*. However, prolonged retting and reduced starch content of the fresh cassava roots have been reported to result in intense *fufu* odour that is usually undesirable to consumers (Achi & Akomas, 2006; Bechoff et al., 2018). Retting has also been linked to textural properties of the cooked *fufu*. Isirima et al. (2018) observed a higher and better index for drawability, mouldability, smoothness and colour in *fufu* processed using the retting method compared with other cassava processing methods. The improved textural property of *fufu* processed using retting method is linked to the breaking up of carbohydrate granules to smaller particles through the disintegration of building molecules in the cassava (Isirima et al., 2018). The author further revealed that incomplete break down or absence of retting resulted in products with coarse granules or

particles. Hongbete et al. (2009) and Bindzi et al. (2014) furthermore reported that leaching out of phenol during soaking (retting) and dewatering of cassava roots enhance the white colour of cassava products such as flour and cooked *fufu*. This study therefore reveals that the trait 'high retting ability' influences most of the organoleptic properties of *fufu* such as colour, aroma, texture and overall acceptance of the end product, and hence its importance to the respondents.

## High and low processing properties of fermented *fufu* mash for cooking of *fufu*

With regard to the preferred cooking properties of the intermediate *fufu* product (fermented wet *fufu* mash), Fig. 5 shows that the trait 'easy to form dough' is of key interest (high sum of scores) to both the male (12) and female respondents (36); however, 'drawing ability' and 'thickness' of the wet mash during cooking were prioritised by the women (74) and (24) respectively, who also are the key actors at this level of *fufu* processing. According to the respondents in our survey, 'dough formation' of mash is related to health status of the crop indicated by the absence of pest and diseases. This is in agreement with previous study by Numfor (1999), who had also related dough formation ability of *fufu* mash to health of the cassava variety used during processing. This highly prioritised trait 'easy to form dough' may also be related to ease of gelatinisation and pasting properties of the fermented *fufu* mash. According to Bechoff et al. (2017), fast gelatinisation of the starch paste is the trait that is highly appreciated by *lafun* and *fufu* processors. Gelatinisation that is manifested by swelling, disruption of hydrogen bonds, crystallite melting with subsequent disappearance of Maltese cross, viscosity development, and starch molecules solubilisation is accompanied by changes in viscosity and formation of paste. On the other hand, pasting properties of *fufu* flour are important quality indices in predicting the behaviour of *fufu* paste during and after cooking (Etudaiye et al., 2008). The study by Bindzi et al. (2014) reported that pasting temperatures are indicative of the minimum energy required to initiate rapid absorption of water and swelling of starch granules resulting in increased viscosity and formation of dough. Pasting temperature gives an indication of the minimum temperature for cooking of a given sample (Bindziet al., 2014). The study by Chisenga et al. (2019) further revealed that pasting property of starch, defined by the pasting temperatures and viscosities, is affected by amylose content and proportion of components in the food matrix. This study therefore suggests that the trait 'easy formation of dough' is related to lower pasting temperature and time, and enhanced by the utilisation of cassava varieties that are free of pest and diseases. Cassava
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5** Preferred characteristics during fufu preparation. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]</figcaption></figure>

varieties with such quality traits will therefore require reduced processing time and labour, and hence its importance to the respondents.

The study further reveals that the trait ‘thickness’ of *fufu* mash during processing is another determinant of preference especially among the female respondents. This may be referred to the gel strength and viscosity of the aqueous fermented starch paste, which develops during stirring and cooking of final product. This trait can be characterised using pasting and rheological or textural properties of the thick cassava slurry obtained from the fermented *fufu* mash. This female-preferred processing trait may be influenced negatively by the other female-preferred trait (high retting ability). According to Nkoudou *et al.* (2020), accelerated retting process reduces the thickening power of the derived cassava flour. The author further reported that degradation rate and the softening degree of cassava roots influences viscosity; accelerated retting process results in reduced viscosity. Thickness of *fufu* mash may also facilitate formation of dough of the mash and reduce cooking time.

The preferred processing trait, ‘drawing ability’ may be likened to the degree of cohesiveness of the *fufu* paste during cooking. According to Bechoff *et al.* (2018), cohesiveness, a major textural property that drives consumer acceptance, is linked to starch composition especially amylose content. The earlier findings by Numfor (1999) and Rosales-soto *et al.* (2016) indicated that cohesiveness in cassava paste is associated with intermolecular forces within the food, and failure of starch granules to release sufficient amylose. This leads to reduction in cohesiveness of fermented cassava product. In addition, Dufour *et al.* (2002) reported that presence of fibre can reduce the cohesiveness of cassava paste. These textural and pasting characteristics of starch have been associated with cooking quality and texture of various food products (Otegbayo *et al.*, 2006). The preferred trait (drawing ability) may have a bearing on retting ability of the cassava roots.

Isirima *et al.* (2018) reported an acceptable degree of stickiness, mouldability and drawability for *fufu* made from flour processed by retting compared with those from blanching and direct method of cassava processing.

## Preferred and less-preferred quality characteristics of fufu during consumption

Two quality traits, ‘fufu smoothness’ and ‘easy to swallow’ were of utmost importance (highest sum of scores) to male and female fufu consumers in South-East Nigeria (Fig. 6). Our study however shows that female respondents (57) placed higher emphasis on fufu smoothness compared with their male counterparts (39). Similarly, the trait ‘easy to swallow’ was assigned higher weight by greater number of the females (79) than males (38). Bechoff *et al.* (2018) described smooth fufu as dough that is homogeneous in appearance and hand-feel, and does not have notable fibres, lumps or particles. The author further reveals that fufu smoothness is enhanced by the removal of fibre during the sieving operation of fermented roots or mash. This further corroborates the report by Uyoh *et al.* (2009) who stated that insoluble fibres are disintegrated by cellulolytic and pectinolytic enzymes activities during retting, hence enhancing efficiency of sieving and smoothness of fufu. This finding suggests that smoothness of fufu may be correlated with the fibre content of the fresh cassava root. Our study further revealed that smoothness of fufu was also associated with the trait ‘easy to swallow’ by the male respondents, implying that the two terms are related. Dziedzoave *et al.* (1999) also related smoothness to uniformity of particles. Hence, the highly preferred textural attributes of cooked fufu ‘smoothness’ and ‘easy to swallow’ could be related to biophysical properties of the fresh cassava root such as fibre content and efficiency of the unit operation ‘retting’ and ‘sieving’ during fufu processing.
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6** Preferred characteristics of fufu during consumption. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7** Less-preferred characteristics of fufu for consumption. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]</figcaption></figure>

In contrast, the respondents associated two out-
standing traits (stickiness and offensive odour) with
low-quality attributes of cooked *fufu* (Fig. 7). Sticki-
ness in cooked *fufu* seems to be a trait of key impor-
tance to female consumers (23) compared with the
male respondents (15). Stickiness could be likened to
the textural attribute ‘adhesiveness’, which is described
as the work required in overcoming the attractive force
between a product and the contact surface (Singh *et al.*, 2013). Bechoff *et al.* (2018) reported high elastic
and sticky texture in *eba* and *fufu* prepared from white
flesh cassava varieties compared with yellow flesh vari-
eties. This was attributed to their high dry matter and
starch contents. The study also shows that ‘intense
*fufu* odour’ is a less-preferred trait mainly for female
*fufu* consumers (103). However, fewer male respon-
dents (33) indicated that odour of *fufu* lowers their
preference for the product. This is in agreement with
the report by Uyoh *et al.* (2009) who stated that one
major problem in processed *fufu* is the flavour of the
product, which may be unacceptable to many people.
Shittu & Adedokun (2010) and Tomlins *et al.* (2007)
further indicated that the acceptability of *fufu* by con-
sumers is related to its characteristic aroma. Increased
fermentation time had already been reported to

correlate positively with the intensity of *fufu* aroma
(Achi & Akomas, 2006; Bechoff *et al.*, 2018). However,
Bechoff *et al.* (2018) reported a negative correlation
between starch content of different cassava varieties
and intensity of typical *fufu* aroma.

This study therefore shows that ‘smoothness’, ‘easy
to swallow’, ‘bad odour’ and ‘stickiness’ are the main
traits that positively or negatively influence consump-
tion of cooked *fufu* in South-East Nigeria. The quality
attributes ‘stickiness’ and ‘easy to swallow’ are related
to the sensory property and texture, while the traits
‘bad odour’ and ‘smoothness’ are related to aroma
and appearance, respectively. The study also shows
that these sensory attributes of *fufu* may be related to
the processing parameters ‘retting’ and ‘sieving’.

**Conclusion**

The study analysed consumer preferences and quality
attributes of fufu in the South-East region of Nigeria
between men and women. Major preferred root quality
traits identified in locally preferred varieties [Dabere,
*Imo best*, *Torokwem*, *Ghayuomma*, *Aguoegbulam*, *ak*-watakwa, *Akpalam Aka*, *Codelia*, *Ogwuru ego*, *Mmadu-abuchi*, *Sakasaka*, *Akpu da grace*, *Nwaocha*, *Nwaibibi*,
Nwanyiumuahia (lady from Umuahia), Yellow root (Vit. C), TMEB 419, Agric., and TMS 98/0505, within the study area were as follows: root size, heaviness, appearance/smoothness of outer root skin and inner root flesh colour. 'Ease of peeling', 'freshness of root' and 'high retting ability' (easy to ferment) were identified as the preferred processing traits for the fermented *fufu* mash, while 'easy to form dough', 'thickness' and 'drawing ability' stood out as the traits of preference during cooking of the fermented wet *fufu* mash. At the point of consumption, 'smoothness' and 'easy to swallow' were identified as the major determinants of preference, while 'stickiness' and 'intense *fufu* aroma' were identified as less-preferred traits. The study therefore reveals that the preference of these traits by the female respondents was directly linked to the processing parameters, and overall quality of the end product. On the contrary, economic gain was observed to be the key determinant driving the choice of the male respondents. The study further indicated that the preferred root qualities 'root size, heaviness', 'appearance/smoothness of outer root skin' and 'inner root flesh colour have effect on the processing trait 'ease of peeling', and on the colour and yield of the fermented *fufu* mash, and cooked dough. The study further suggests that the preferred processing traits 'ease of peeling', 'freshness of root' and 'high retting ability' (easy to ferment) are intertwined and are associated with colour, yield, organoleptic properties and overall acceptance of cooked *fufu*. However, the retting ability of cassava roots was observed to be a major factor influencing most of the processing traits and those of the cooked product. Our finding therefore reveals an undeniable link between the preferred root quality traits, preferred processing traits and overall quality of cooked *fufu*. Emphasis on root size, heaviness, appearance and root flesh colour, and the relation of these traits to preferred processing and *fufu* quality attributes provides insight for cassava breeders on areas to redirect breeding activities. These findings therefore make it imperative for introduction of a multidisciplinary, multistakeholder approach into crop improvement programmes, especially the science behind food processing. This will assist in breeding of varieties that meet end user needs and enhance adoption of these new varieties. The female-preferred traits should be of utmost importance to the breeder, since they are the key actors in the processing operations. There may be need to conduct scientific investigation using throughput methods such as NIRS to identify the biochemical properties that affect these quality traits.

## Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the RTBfoods project https://rtbfoods.cirad.fr through a grant OPP1178942: Breeding RTB products for end user preferences

(RTBfoods), to the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD), Montpellier, France, by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF). Special thanks to Clair Hershey for his comments and editing the article.

## Conflict of interest

There is no conflict of interest among authors of this paper.

## Author contribution

**Ugo Chijioke:** Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Investigation (equal); Project administration (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Tessy Madu:** Data curation (equal); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Supervision (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Benjamin Okoye:** Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Software (equal); Validation (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Amaka Promise Ogunka:** Investigation (equal); Validation (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Mercy Ejechi:** Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Miriam Ofoeze:** Investigation (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Chukwudi Ogbete:** Investigation (equal); Writing-original draft (equal). **Damian Njoku:** Validation (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Justin Ewuziem:** Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Confidence Kalu:** Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Nnaemeka Onyemauwa:** Formal analysis (equal); Investigation (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Blessing Ukeje:** Data curation (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Oluchi Achonwa:** Validation (equal); Writing-original draft (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Lora Forsythe:** Data curation (equal); Methodology (equal). **Genevieve Fliedel:** Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Methodology (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). **Chiedozi Egesi:** Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal).

## Ethical approval

This study was assessed and approved by the National Research Ethics Committee. Research teams obtained ethical approval prior to the fieldwork. Participants
were informed about the study and explained that their participation was entirely voluntary, that they could stop the interview at any point and that the responses would be anonymous. Written consent (signature) was sought and obtained from respondents participating in this study.

## Peer review

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/ijfs.14875.

## Data availability statement

Research data are not shared

## References

Achi, O.K. & Akomas, N.S. (2006). Comparative assessment of fermentation techniques in the processing of fufu, a traditional fermented cassava product. *Pakistan Journal of Nutrition*, **5**, 224–229.

Ajayi, A.R. & Ajala, A.A. (1999). Rural farmers' participation in agricultural development project (ADP) and the effect on the adoption of innovations: a case study of Ekiti-Akoko ADP in Ondo State of Nigeria. *Ghana Journal of Science*, **39**, 83–90.

Akingbala, J.O., Ogmein, G.B. & Abass, A.B. (1991). Effect of processing methods on the quality and acceptability of fufu from low cyanide cassava. *Journal of the Science of Food Agriculture*, **57**, 151–154.

Ampe, F., Brauman, A., Trèche, S. & Agossou, A. (1994). Cassava retting: optimization of a traditional fermentation by an experimental research methodology. *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture*, **65**, 355–361.

Anderson, J., Marita, C., Musiime, D. & Thiam. (2017). National Survey and Segmentation of Small Holder Households in Nigeria. Understanding their demand for financial, agricultural and digital solutions. CGAP Working Paper. 93 pp. Available at file:///C:/Users/USER/Downloads/Working%20Paper_CGAP%20Small-holder%20Household%20Survey_NGA_Oct%202017.pdf

Awoyale, W., Asiedu, R., Kawalawu, W.K.C. et al. (2018). Assessment of the heavy metals and microbial contamination of garri from Liberia. *Food Science and Nutrition*, **6**, 62–66.

Baafi, E. & Safo-Kantanka, O. (2007). Effect of genotype, age and location on cassava starch yield and quality. *Journal of Agronomy*, **6**, 581–585.

Bamidele, O.P., Fasogbon, M.B., Oladiran, D.A. & Akande, E.O. (2015). Nutritional composition of fufu analog flour produced from cassava root (*Manihot esculenta*) and cocoyam (*Colocasia esculenta*) tuber. *Food science and Nutrition*, **3**, 597–603.

Barati, Z., Latif, S., Romuli, S. & Müller, J. (2020). Enzyme-Assisted mechanical peeling of cassava tubers. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4344/10/1/66/s1

Bechoff, A., Chijioke, U., Westby, A. & Tomlins, K.I. (2018). 'Yellow is good for you': Consumer perception and acceptability of fortified and biofortified cassava products. *PLoS One*, **13**, 1–22.

Bechoff, A., Tomlins, K., Fliedel, G. et al. (2017). Cassava traits and end-user preference: relating traits to consumer liking, sensory perception, and genetics. *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, **58**, 547–567.

Bentley, J., Olanrewaju, A., Madu, T.etal. (2017). Cassava farmers' preferences for varieties and seed dissemination system in Nigeria: Gender and regional perspectives. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan. IITA Monograph. 108 pp.

Bindzi, J.M., Guiama, V.D. & Ndjouenke, R. (2014). Combined smoking and drying kinetics of retted cassava pulp and effects on the physicochemical and pasting properties of the extracted starch. *Food and Bioprocess Technology*, **7**, 2749–2758.

Buschmann, H., Reilly, K., Rodriguez, M.X., Tohme, J. & Beeching, J.R. (2000). Hydrogen peroxide and flavan-3-ols in storage roots of cassava (*Manihot esculenta* Crantz) during postharvest deterioration. *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*, **48**, 5522–5529.

Chisenga, S.M., Workneh, T.S., Bultosa, G. & Alim, B.A.(2019). Progress in research and applications of cassava flour and starch: a review. *Journal of Food Science Technology*, **56**, 2799–2813.

Dufour, D. & O'Brein, G.M. & Best, R. (2002). Cassava flour and starch: progress in research and development. International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Apartado Aereo 6713, Cali, Colombia.

Dziedzoave, N.T., Ellis, W.O., Oldham, J.H. & Osei-Yaw, A. (1999). Subjective and objective assessment of agbelima (cassava dough) quality. *Food Control*, **10**, 63–67.

Egbeocha, C.C., Asoegwu, S.N. & Okereke, N.A. (2016). A review on performance of cassava peeling machines in Nigeria. *FUTO Journal Series*, **2**, 140–168.

Egwim, E., Amanabo, M., Yahaya, A. & Bello, M. (2013). Nigerian Indigenous fermented foods: processes and prospects. Intech open science/open mind. http://x.doi.org/10.5772/52877

Etudaiye, H.A., Nwabueze, T.U. & Sanni, L.O. (2008). Quality of fufu processed from cassava mosaic disease (CMD) resistant varieties. *African Journal of Food Science*, **3**, 061–067.

FAO. (2016). *Food and Agriculture Organization. Seed Security Assessment: A Practitioner's Guide. Food Texture and Viscosity*. Rome: Academic Press.

Flibert, G., Abel, T. & Aly, S. (2016). African cassava traditional fermented food: the microorganism's contribution to their nutritional and safety values- a review. *International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences*, **5**, 664–687.

Forsythe, L., Posthumus, H. & Adrienne, M. (2016). A crop of one's own? Women's experiences of cassava commercialization in Nigeria and Malawi. *Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security*, **1**, 110–128.

Forsythe, L., Tufan, H., Bouniol, A., Kleih, U. & Fliedel, G. (2021). An interdisciplinary and participatory methodology to improve user acceptability of root, tuber and banana varieties. *International Journal of Food Science and Technology*, **56**, 1115–1123.

González, C. & Johnson, N. (2009). Consumer preferences for table cassava characteristics in Pernambuco, Brazil. *Revista de Economia E Agronegócio*, **7**, 363–384.

Herrero, M., Thornton, P.K., Bernués, A. et al. (2014). Exploring future changes in smallholder farming systems by linking socioeconomic scenarios with regional and household models. *Global Environmental Change*, **24**, 165–182.

Hongbete, F., Mestres, C., Akissoe, N. & Nago, M.C. (2009). Effect of processing conditions on cyanide content and colour of cassava flours from West Africa. *African Journal of Food Science*, **3**, 001–006.

IITA. (2012). IITA Annual report on cassava production. http://ne.wint.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/Annual-Report-2012.pdf

Isirima, C.B., Iyagba, A.G. & Oliseyenum, O.S. (2018). Organoleptic characteristics of cassava flour and fufu obtained from different cassava varieties (*Manihot spp.*) and tuber processing techniques. *Direct Research Journal of Agriculture and Food Science*, **6**, 121–127.

Jimoh, M.O., Olukunle, O.J. & Manuwa, S.I. (2016). Modeling of cassava peeling performance using dimensional analysis. *Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal*, **18**, 360–367.

Johnson, P.N.T., Gallat, S., Oduro-Yeboah, C., Osei-Yaw, A. & Westby, A. (2006). Sensory properties on instant fufu flour from four high-yielding Ghanaian varieties of cassava. *Tropical Science*, **46**, 134–138.
Karam, L.B., Grossmann, M.V.E., Silva, S.F.R., Ferrero, C. & Zaritzky, N.E. (2005). Gel textural characteristics of corn, cassava and yam starch blends: a mixture surface response methodology approach. *Starch/Stärke, 57*, 62–70.

Mokemiabeka, S., Dhellot, J., Kobawila, S.C. & Louembe, D. (2011). Traditional retting of cassava roots in the ponds or the rivers. *International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 5*, 134–141.

Nkoudou, N.Z., Ndjouenkeu, R. & Ngang, J.J.E. (2020). Effect of accelerated retting process on physiochemical and pasting properties of cassava (*Manihot esculenta Crantz*) flours. *Asian Food Science Journal, 15*, 45–52.

Numfor, F.A. (1999). Physicochemical changes in cassava starch and flour associated with fermentation, effect in textural properties. *Journal of Food Technology in Africa, 4*, 31–35.

Obilie, E.M., Tano-Debrah, K. & Amoa-Awua, W.K. (2004). Souring and breakdown of cyanogenic glucosides during the processing of cassava into akyeke. *International Journal of Food Microbiology, 93*, 115-121.

Omodamiro, R.M., Oti, E., Etudaiye, H.A., Egesi, C., Olasanmi, B. & Ukpabi, U.J. (2012). Production of fufu from yellow cassava roots using the odourless flour technique and the traditional method: evaluation of carotenoids retention in the fufu. *Advances in Applied Science Research, 3*, 2566-2572.

Omosuli, S.V., Ikujenlola, V. & Abisuwa, A.T. (2017). Quality assessment of stored fresh cassava roots and fufu flour produced from stored roots. *Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Therapy, 3*, 009-013.

Opara, U.L. (1999). Cassava storage. In *CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Agro*. St.Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers. IV.

Opara, U.L. (2009). Postharvest technology of root and tuber crops. In: *Crop management and post-harvest handling of horticultural product* (edited by R. Dris, R. Niskanen & S.M. Jain). Pp. 382-406. Helsinki, Finland: WFL Publisher Ltd.

Otegbayo, B., Aina, J., Asiedu, R. & Bokanga, M. (2006). Pasting characteristics of fresh yams (*Dioscorea spp.*) as indicators of textural quality in a major food product- pounded yam. *Food Chemistry, 99*, 663-669.

Otoo, G.S., Essumanc, E.K., Gyimahd, V. & Bigson, K. (2018). Quality attributes of fufu: instrumental and sensory measurement. *Scientific African, 1*, 1-7.

Owolarafe, O.K., Adetifa, B.O., Oyekanmi, A.C., Lemikan, T.G. & Samuel, T.M. (2018). Assessment of fufu production technologies in Ogun State, Nigeria. *Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, 14*, 547-558.

Rickard, J.E. (1986). Tannins levels in cassava: comparison of methods of analysis. *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 37*, 37-42.

Rosales-soto, M.U., Ross, C.F., Younce, F. et al. (2016). Physicochemical and sensory evaluation of cooked fermented protein fortified cassava (*Manihot esculenta Crantz*) flour. *Advances in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences Open Journal, 2*, 9-18.

Sánchez, T., Chavez, A.L., Ceballos, H., Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B., Nestel, P. & Ishitani, M. (2006). Reduction or delay of post-harvest physiological deterioration in cassava roots with higher

carotenoid content. *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 86*, 634-639.

Sanni, L.O., Akingbala, J.O., Oguntunde, A.O., Bainbridge, Z.A., Graffham, A.J. & Westby, A. (1998). Processing of fufu from cassava in Nigeria: problems and prospects for development. *Science Technology and Development, 16*, 58-71.

Shittu, T.A. & Adedokun, I.I. (2010). Comparative evaluation of the functional and sensory characteristics of three traditional fermented cassava products. *Journal of Natural Sciences Engineering and Technology, 9*, 106-116.

Singh, V., Guizani, N., Al-Alawi, A., Claereboudt, M. & Rahman, M. (2013). Instrumental texture profile analysis (TPA) off date fruits as a function of its physico-chemical properties. *Industrial Crops and Products, 50*, 866-873.

Swain, T. (1979). Tannins and lignins. In: *Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites* (edited by G.A. Rosenthal & D. Janzen). Pp. 657-682. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Teeken, B., Olaosebikan, O., Haleegoah, J. et al. (2018). Cassava trait preferences of men and women farmers in Nigeria: implications for breeding. *Economic Botany, 72*, 263-277.

Thorpe, H.G. & Muriuki, W. (2001). Smallholder dairy production and marketing in Eastern and Southern Africa: regional synthesis. In: *Smallholder Dairy Production and Marketing—Opportunities and Constraints* (edited by W. Rangnekar & D. Thorpe Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI). Pp. 185-198.

Tomlins, K., Sanni, L., Oyewole, O. et al. (2007). Consumer acceptability and sensory evaluation of a fermented cassava product (Nigerian fufu). *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 87*, 1949-1956.

Uche, C. (2016). Cost and returns structure in garri and fufu processing in Rivers State, Nigeria. *Nigerian Agricultural Policy Research Journal, 1*, 131-138.

Umeh, S.O. & Odibo, F.J.C. (2014). Use of different additives in retting cassava tubers for fufu production. *International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention, 3*, 11-17.

Uyoh, E.A., Ntui, V.O. & Udoma, N.N. (2009). Effect of local cassava fermentation methods on some physicochemical and sensory properties of fufu. *Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 8*, 1123-1125.

Vimala, B., Thushara, R. & Nambisan, B. (2010). Carotenoid retention in Yellow-fleshed Cassava during processing. In: *Proceedings of the 15th Triennial International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC) Symposium*, Lima, Peru. Pp. 2-6.

Zainuddin, I.M., Fathoni, A., Sudarmonowati, E., Beeching, J.R., Gruissem, W. & Vanderschuren, H. (2018). Cassava post-harvest physiological deterioration: from triggers to symptoms. *Postharvest Biology and Technology, 142*, 115-123.

## Supporting Information

Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article:

**Table S1.** Gender Profiling of Raw material characteristics: for product quality (agronomic, post-harvest).