# Balinese Hinduism and Theology

Ravinjay Kuckreja

► To cite this version:

Ravinjay Kuckreja. Balinese Hinduism and Theology. Academia Letters, 2022, 10.20935/AL4373 .
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Submitted on 14 Sep 2024

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Differing from Abrahamic religions, Hinduism does not have a formulated religious practice and belief. Almost all Hindu traditions abide by the Vedas, a collection of sacred manuscripts, mainly four in number, but innumerable other texts make up its corpus. The philosophical Upanishads, a section of the Vedas, contain various ideas of divinity, the identity of the soul, nature of the universe, and their relations. The application of these Upanishadic philosophies into any tradition can allow it to be categorized as “Hindu,” including traditions that are aithe-istic and hedonistic. In India itself, these traditions are classified as part of the six orthodox schools of Vedic thought. These six darshanas or schools are (1) Vedanta or the study of the philosophy of the Vedas, (2) Nyaya or the study of logic, (3) Vaishesika or the belief in atomism, (4) Yoga or the school of union mainly through meditative practices, (5) Samkhya or the rationalists and (6) Mimamsa or the ritualists and philologists. These six schools unify these traditions, even though some schools claim the other does not deserve the title of or-thodoxy. These schools deal with philosophical perspectives and do not speak necessarily of the gods. In the Puranas, texts associated with the Vedas, the gods live with tales, symbols, myths, and devotional praise. In India today, these Puranic deities are picked and backed with the philosophy of one of these six schools, forming the theological allegiance of each sect or sampradaya. Therefore you have sects glorifying Shiva and abiding by Yoga, or sects exclu-sively worshiping the Goddess (Durga) with Samkhya as their base. However, “to blur the divisions between these discrete philosophical schools is condemned as syncretism, an illicit mixture of irreconcilable philosophies” (Nicholson, 2014, p. 4). They “pick” from the avail-able Puranic deities and schools to form their sampradaya and ensure that religious dogma, hermeneutics, and cultures are preserved through a lineage of spiritual masters, codified texts, and ritual manuals.

These *sampradayanas* may also form due to a geographic context. It is these regional sects
that form a localized version of Hinduism. An example of this would be Nepal, a syncretic religion created of Bon (the indigenous religion), Buddhism, and Tantrism. What occurs in localized Hinduism is a disregard for the abovementioned framework of orthodoxy and devotional sects. Instead, it forms a syncretism of beliefs and rituals based on visiting traditions. How the locals absorb foreign ideas is also via the worldview of their indigenous religion. In the case of Bali, the indigenous veneration of animistic spirits and demonic forces is blended in with Hinduism (Shaiva and Tantra schools) and Buddhism (Mahayana and Vajrayana schools). What makes it challenging to study or even understand such localized religions is the decades' worth of syncretism, usually done without a reference to the religious hearth. Balinese Hinduism did not utilize the framework of Indian *sampradayas* but instead formalized itself. Notwithstanding the frequent and direct relation Bali had with Indian and Chinese traders, the Balinese have adopted these ideas as their own and embedded them into their religion. These foreign influences have formed "a thin and flaking glaze; underneath it the whole of the indigenous forms has continued to exist." (Van Leur, 1955)

The Balinese use the Indonesian word “*agama*” to refer to religion. The Dutch loanword of “religi”, with origins in the Greek *religio* is not used. Strangely enough, the word *agama* already reveals the definition Indonesia has adopted since the inception of its Republic. The Sanskrit *agama*, according to Jan Gonda (1973), means “that which has come down”, refering to “anything handed down as fixed by tradition.” Beyond the word, *agama-pramana* is a legitimate source of knowledge based on authoritative scripture, and is on par with another source of knowledge (*pramana*) traditionally accepted by orthodox Indian philosophical school—verbal testimony (*sabda-pramana*). More specifically, *agama* is the name of the canonical texts of the Saiva-Siddhanta order in South India. The 28 Saivagama are Sanskrit texts regarded as sacred due to it being the revelation of Lord Shiva to his consort, the Goddess Parvati. (Davis 1991) It is indeed strange that the Saivagama and it as a valid source of knowledge (*agama-pramana*) can later be equated to a monotheistic religion with a prophet and a holy book. What we know for sure is that in Javanese and Balinese textual traditions the generic title of *agama* “used to refer to a range of texts dealing with moral, religious and legal sanctions and practices” (Creese 2009: 242).

The Javanese-Balinese set of manuscripts contain within it the historical evolution of the syncretism of the Balinese *agama*. A fascinating example of how this is done can be seen in the “*Canting Mas*” and “*Purwaka Bhumi*” manuscripts. These manuscripts, founded and translated by C. Hooykaas, are published in his 1974 book entitled “Cosmogony and Creation in Balinese Tradition.” These texts do not only speak of the creation of the universe as we know it. There is one Supreme *Bhatara Guru* or *Hyang Widhi*, the creator, and primordial deity. Then, there comes five holy men, (1) *Kursika*, (2) *Garga*, (3) *Maitri*, (4) *Kurusya* and
(5) *Pretanjala*. These names are akin to the four *Lakulisha* saints of the Shaivite *Pashupata sampradaya*, while *Pretanjala* can be the *Patanjali* of the Yoga school. Whether or not these five saints refer to the Indian holy men or Javanese saints of the same names is difficult to surmise. These five holy men are then “transformed” into the five Shivas, (1) *Sadyojata*, (2) *Bamadeva*, (3) *Tatpurusa*, (4) *Aghora*, and (5) *Ishana*. In the Buddhist-Javanese *Kunjara-karna* manuscript, which dates to the second half of the 14th century, these five holy men are equated with the five Buddhas, (1) *Aksobhya*, (2) *Ratna-sambhava*, (3), *Amitabha*, (4) *Amogha-siddhi*, and (5) *Vairocana*. (Kern, 1903) These five Buddhas/Shivas are then transformed into five Vedic gods, (1) *Iswara*, (2) *Brahma*, (3) *Mahadewa*, (4) *Wisnu*, and (5) *Siwa*. Four of these holy men, however, were cursed into taking demonic forms, while the protégéist, *Pretanjala*, equated with *Siwa*, maintains his purity. These four demons are (1) *Basvara Angapati*, (2) *Yamadipati Rajapati*, (3) *Banaspati Banah* and (4) *Banaspati Raja*. These four demonic rulers preside over the directions, various parts of the village and correlate with the four siblings of every Balinese, the *Kanda Empat*. What these texts do is combine multiple distinct characters into one storyline. This unification exemplifies how the Balinese incorporate the foreign into their worldview. Ritual texts also refer to these sages/gods/demons and their other counterparts and followers.

In such a way, through cultural assimilation and hermeneutics, Hinduism takes on a new garb while incorporating other traditions. Buddhism is regarded as non-orthodox by most Indians due to their disregard for the Vedas. The same goes for left-handed Tantra or Tantric practices that include the ceremonial use of impure substances such as blood and alcohol. However, in Java-Bali, they are united. What enables this localized religion to be regarded as “Hindu” is their reverence for the Vedas. Even though, in reality, Vedic mantras and texts are not as frequently used as Balinese-Javanese palm leaf manuscripts.

## The Balinese Religionization

The Balinese religion identifies as Hindu primarily because no one owns Hinduism; despite many Hindu organizations and Indians being ambivalent toward “Hinduism,” a foreign term used by invaders to refer to people of the Sindhu river. Notwithstanding its origin, the “Hindu” label safeguards the Balinese religion in Indonesia, for, despite accomodating religious freedom, religion is defined, supervised, and moderated by the State.

The very first tenant of the state ideology of Pancasila boldly states that there is one and only God. This monotheistic prerequisite extends into officially-recognized religions that must have a holy book, a prophet, a place of worship, universal beliefs, and other characteristics of Abrahamic faiths. (McDaniel, 2014 & Bagir, 2015) What happened in Bali is that the
ethnic religion of the island had to be transformed into a universal religion with Abrahamic attributes to protect itself from mass proselytization in 1952. (Ramstedt, 2005 pg. 13–15) As they do not adhere to an official religion, the Balinese were labeled as “orang tak beragama” or people without a religion. This allowed them to adopt a State-recognized religion, such as Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism (later Buddhism was also recognized, adopting the monotheistic God of Adi Buddha). As Jane Atkinson points out, “the religious charter of Indonesia is a cultural model for inclusiveness; in a profound way, however, its application is exclusive.” (1987 p.177)

Hinduism is very well suited for the Balinese as Hindu gods (including the *Tri Murti* of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) are worshipped with Sanskrit mantras found in Vedic texts. They already have Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa as their Supreme God. Begawan Vyasa, compiler of their holy book, the Vedas, was made a prophet. In 1958, after much struggle and skepticism from the central government, Hinduism was accepted as an official religion and no longer considered a traditional culture. (Pircard, 2011) Thus the Balinese restructured their religion, “moving its emphasis from ritual to scripture, magical action to ethical injunction, diversity to uniformity, and collective practice to individual faith – a kind of Protestant Hinduism.” (Howe, 2005 P.93)

Initially meant to conserve Balinese culture, aligning it with Hinduism can indeed harm it. As previously discussed, Hinduism is not clearly defined, and therefore a variety of cultures, traditions, and denominations employ the label. Albeit sharing the same gods and Vedas, the ethnic Balinese religion has allowed itself to assimilate with foreign cultures. It is unfortunate that indigenous religions of Indonesia must be religionized (in Indonesian, *agamanisasi*) in order for it to be consider on par with official religions.

## The Balinese Theology

*Parama Siwa* is (literally) the Highest Shiva, beyond any words, form, and taints (*nirguna*, or without attributes/qualities). (Wrhaspati Tattwa, 7-10 [Putra et al., 1988]) The feminine energy (Shakti/Parvati) and the masculine energetic (Shiva) are inseparable in Their union as *Ardhaneswara*. They are historically symbolized in the Shiva *Linga*, the phallic stone representing Shiva, and the circular base of the *yoni/vulva* is the Shakti. However, ever since the 15th century, the worship of *Parama Siwa* is via Their “form” as Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, or *Acintya* (simply meaning “inconceivable”). Adoration of the Supreme Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa would take place on the empty open thrones ubiquitous in Bali. They are called the *padmasana*, the altar for worshipping the monotheistic *Parama Siwa*. These high thrones also celebrate Hyang Widhi as *Siwa Raditya* or *Surya Raditya*, the Sun God (Agastya
et al., 2002). A dancing anthropomorphic figure, surrounded by flames and pointed spears, represents the Supreme and formless *Acintya* on padmasana thrones, paintings, and carvings.

*Sadasiwa* is the Shiva we most commonly know, depicted with a blue throat, serpents around His matted locks, and riding the *Nandi* bull. However, in Java-Bali, He appears with four arms and is decked in royal jewels. The difference in iconography does not matter, for this is the same Shiva found in the Indian Puranas, with two sons (Ganesha and Kumara) and Parvati as His consort. Residing on the peak of *Kailasa*, in the Himalayan mountain range, He is also the presiding deity over universal destruction, represented by *Rudra* for such function. He has many other Shiva forms, such as *Mahadewa* and *Iswara*, governing various directions, elements, and universal duties. This is the *saguna* or qualified aspect of God, with attributes, tales, and forms. This *saguna* aspect is formed and is therefore influenced by *maya* or the illusory energy. (Wrhaspati Tattwa, 11-13 [Putra et al., 1988]) This *nirguna* and *saguna* aspects of Brahman/God are also found in the Upanishads such as the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (2.3.1). *Sadasiwa* has His *sakti* or energy represented as *wibhusakti* (the ability to grasp and infiltrate), *prabhusakti* (the undefeatable cosmic energy), *jnanasakti* (the omniscient power) and *kryasakti* (the unstoppable work of creation/srsti, preserveration/sthiti, destruction/samhara, neutralising/tirobhawa and blessing/anugraha). (Wrhaspati Tattwa, 14 [Sandika, 2018])

*Siwa* is the spark of conscience that is primordial, omnipresent, and eternal. It is the individual soul, bringing life into plants, animals, humans, and gods. It is the energetic combined with the energy of material nature. Their interaction brings forth life and beautiful variety, bearing the name *siwatma* (or *Siwa-Atma*), the soul. (Sandika, 2018) This *Siwa* is the reservoir of truth (*satyam*), auspiciousness (*siwam*), and beauty (*sundaram*) (Danu Tirta, 2019). However, in its interaction with *maya*, the individual *siwatma* fails to realize its nature. This *siwatma* must identify itself as *Siwa*, and in such a way, be restored of its original identity, attaining Oneness, *nirvana* or *moksa*. Souls of the ancestors have reached Shivahood and are worshipable. The souls of the lower *bhuta kala* ghosts and goblins are also worthy of attaining Shivahood and are therefore blessed/exorcised in elaborate ceremonies to "return" them to their original nature, with the aid of mantras and holy water (Acri & Stephen, 2018).

This Shaivite trinity (known as *Tri-Purusa*) forms the base of Balinese theology. They are usually represented as three *lingas*, or in the Mother Temple of Besakih, as three *padmasana* thrones. However, these three Shivas do not partake directly in the universal affairs. Governed by *Sadasiwa*, *Rudra* descends into the universal sphere with *Wisnu* and *Brahma*, forming the commonly-known Hindu trinity (*Tri-Murti*). Therefore, it is evident that despite its universalism, the Balinese theology is indeed Shaivite, focusing on the supremacy of Shiva and His expansions. The *Tri-Purusa* is a metaphysical, vertical categorization of God, while the *Tri-Murti* of *Rudra-Wisnu-Brahmas* serves a horizontal, universal function (Idedhyana et
al., 2020). The Bhuwana Kosa (111:76) states: “Lwir Bhatara Siwa magawe jagat, Wisnu rupa siran pangraksa jagat, Rudra rupa sira mralayaken rat, nahan tawak nira, bheda nama” (Brahma is the form of time, creating this world. Wisnu is the form of time to preserve this world. Rudra is the form time to annihilate this world. Thus, the three forms of One with different names). (Gautama, 2009)

This belief in the trinity of a creator (Brahma), preserver (Vishnu), and destroyer (Shiva, or in Bali, *Iswara*, or *Rudra*) is an essential factor of belief for the Balinese, for it links with them with the greater Hindu family. The overall theology of the Balinese is also akin to the Indian orthodox Advaita Vedanta or the monistic school of Vedanta, canonized by the 8th century Vedantist Adi Shankara. Although the Balinese call their version of Shaivism *Saiva-Siddhanta*, their monistic theology shares more similarities with Kashmiri Shaivism. This emphasis on the non-dual nature of the soul/God might be due to the influence of Buddhism and their concept of *sunyavada* or the doctrine of emptiness. The Buddhist *sunyavada* and the Advaita Vedanta philosophy are very similar. The Balinese also heavily utilize the school of Samkhya, where the elements and positive-negative balances play a central role. Samkhya truths are embedded into the philosophy of the Balinese (especially in their elaborations of *Purusha* and *Pradhana*, or *rwabhinneda*) and into ritual paraphernalia (symbolism of the elements that make up most Balinese Hindu ritual items and offerings, representing the *bhuana alit* or microcosm and the *bhuana agung* or macrocosm).

Thus this paper has briefly explored the history and the theology of the Balinese. Firstly there is its method of incorporating various streams of beliefs into its canonical text and cosmology, as seen in the unification of the five saints, five Shivas, five Buddhas and the four demons. We have also explored how Hinduism allows for diversity within it, “legitimizing” various schools and sects. I mentioned how this has also extended to incorporate localized versions of the Indian-based religion. Next, we explored the context of *Agama Hindu Dharma* in Indonesia, its later acceptance and religionization (*agamanisasi*). We then dived into the theology of this *Agama Hindu Dharma* and learned from the Balinese Shaivite text about the trinity of Shivas and how They relate to the typical Hindu trinity of Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva. It is indeed fascinating how localized expressions of Hinduism are able to assimilate other traditions and indigenous practices whilst remaining rooted in Vedic thought. Moreover, the Balinese Hindu trinity has managed to reconcile the sectarian Shaivite theology and the unifying Hindu trinity by referring to the vertical and horizontal concept of divinity. Thus the Balinese are able to preserve their indigenous culture and belief though the modern-day religionization of their version of Hindu Dharma.
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