grants. We are also grateful to the administrative and technical staff at Ecole Normale Supérieure/PSL and to the work completed by the *Biogeosciences* journal team for typesetting and technical corrections. Hiroyuki Tsujino is grateful to Hideyuki Nakano and Shogo Urakawa for their kind support in carrying out the experiments at MRI. John P. Dunne and Charles Stock were helped by Jessica Luo in leading the internal NOAA review of the manuscript.

*Financial support.* Alban Planchat, Laurent Bopp, Lester Kwiatkowski, and Olivier Torres are grateful to the ENS-Chanel research chair. Laurent Bopp was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (project COMFORT, Our common future ocean in the Earth-system-quantifying coupled cycles of carbon, oxygen, and nutrients for determining and achieving safe operating spaces with respect to tipping points – grant no. 820989). Momme Butenschön and Tomas Lovato were funded by the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research via the JPI Ocean and Climate programme CE2COAST. Roland Séférian and Laurent Bopp were funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (ESM2025 – Earth System Models for the Future – grant no. 101003536). The ACCESS CMIP6 submission work was jointly funded through CSIRO and the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program (NESP). Michio Watanabe and Akitomo Yamamoto were supported by the Integrated Research Program for Advancing Climate Models (TOUGOU – grant no. JPMXD0717935715) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan. Hiroyuki Tsujino's contribution is partly supported by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund – grant no. JPMEERF21S20810 – of the Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency of Japan. Kristen M. Krumhardt was supported by the National Science Foundation – grant no. OCE-1735846. Jörg Schwinger and Jerry Tjiputra were funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (project OceanNETs – grant no. 869357) and by the Research Council of Norway through projects INES – grant no. 270061 – and COLUMBIA – grant no. 275268.

*Review statement.* This paper was edited by Jack Middelburg and reviewed by Fortunat Joos and one anonymous referee.

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