<table><thead><tr><th>RFC</th><th>Example of impacts (not comprehensive)</th><th>Updated risk level based on observed and modelled impacts</th><th>Warming level</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>RFC2 Extreme weather events: risks/ impacts to human health, livelihoods, assets and ecosystems from extreme weather events such as heatwaves, heavy rain, drought and associated wildfires and coastal flooding.</td><td>Increased heat-related human mortality, wildfires, agricultural and ecological droughts, water scarcity; short-term food shortages; impacts on food security and safety, price spikes; marine heatwaves estimated to double in frequency.<br>Significant projected increases in fluvial flood frequency and resultant risks associated with higher populations; at least 1 d yr<sup>-1</sup> with a heat index above 40.6°C for about 65% of megacities at 2.7°C and close to 80% at 4°C; soil moisture droughts 2–3 times longer; agricultural and ecological droughts more widespread; simultaneous crop failure across worldwide breadbasket regions; malnutrition and increasing risk of disease.</td><td>In transition to high risk at present<br>Projected to transition to very high risk (new in AR6)</td><td>1.0°C–1.5°C (high confidence)<br>1.8°C–2.5°C (medium confidence)</td></tr><tr><td>RFC3 Distribution of impacts: risks/ impacts that disproportionately affect particular groups, such as vulnerable societies and socio-ecological systems, including disadvantaged people and communities in countries at all levels of development, due to uneven distribution of physical climate change hazards, exposure or vulnerability.</td><td>Increasing undernutrition, stunting and related childhood mortality, particularly in Africa and Asia and disproportionately affecting children and pregnant women; distributional impacts on crop production and water resources<br>Risk of simultaneous crop failure in maize estimated to increase from 6% to 40%; increasing flood risk in Asia, Africa, China, India and Bangladesh; high risks of mortality and morbidity due to heat extremes and infectious disease with regional disparities<br>Much more negative impacts on food security in low to mid-latitudes; substantial regional disparity in risks to food production; food-related health projected to be negatively impacted by 2°C–3°C warming; heat-related morbidity and mortality, ozone-related mortality, malaria, dengue, Lyme disease and West Nile fever projected to increase regionally and globally</td><td>Current risk level is moderate<br>Projected to transition to high risk<br>Projected to transition to very high risk</td><td>1.1°C (high confidence)<br>1.5°C–2.0°C (medium confidence)<br>2.0°C–3.5°C (medium confidence)</td></tr><tr><td>RFC4 Global aggregate impacts: impacts to socio-ecological systems that can be aggregated globally into a single metric, such as monetary damages, lives affected, species lost or ecosystem degradation at a global scale.</td><td>Aggregate impacts on biodiversity with damages of global significance (e.g., drought, pine bark beetles, coral reef ecosystems); climate-sensitive livelihoods like agriculture, fisheries and forestry would be severely impacted<br>Estimated 10% relative decrease in effective labour at 2°C; global exposure to multi-sector risks approximately doubles between 1.5°C and 2°C; global population exposed to flooding projected to rise by 24% at 1.5°C and by 30% at 2°C warning; reduced marine food provisioning, fishery distribution and revenue value with projected approximate 13% decline in ocean animal biomass.<br>Widespread death of trees, damage to ecosystems and reduced provision of ecosystem services over temperature range 2.5°C–4.5°C; projected global annual damages associated with sea level rise of USD31,000 billion yr<sup>-1</sup> in 2100 for 4°C warming scenario.</td><td>In transition to moderate risk<br>Projected to transition to high risk<br>Projected to transition to very high risk (new in AR6)</td><td>1.1°C (medium confidence)<br>1.5°C–2.5°C (medium confidence)<br>2.5°C–4.5°C (low confidence)</td></tr><tr><td>RFC5 Large-scale singular events: relatively large, abrupt and sometimes irreversible changes in systems caused by global warming, such as ice sheet disintegration or thermohaline circulation slowing, sometimes called tipping points or critical thresholds.</td><td>Mass loss from both Antarctic (whether associated with marine ice sheet instability or not) and Greenland ice sheets is more than seven times higher over the period 2010–2016 than over the period 1992–1999 for Greenland and four times higher for the same time intervals for Antarctica; in Amazon forest, increases in tree mortality and a decline in carbon sink are reported<br>Implications for 2000-year commitments to sea level rise from sustained mass loss from both ice sheets as projected by various ice sheet models, reaching 2.3–3.1 m at 1.5°C peak warming and 2–6 m at 2°C peak warming; risk of savannisation for Amazon alone was assessed to lie between 1.5°C and 3°C, with a median value at 2°C<br>Uncertainties in projections of sea level rise at higher levels of warming, long-term equilibrium sea level rise of 5–25 m at mid-Pliocene temperatures of 2.5°C; potential for Amazon forest dieback between 4°C and 5°C; risk of ecosystem carbon loss from tipping points in tropical forest and loss of Arctic permafrost.</td><td>Current risk level is moderate<br>Projected to transition to high risk<br>Projected to transition to very high risk (new in AR6)</td><td>1.1°C (high confidence)<br>1.5°C–2.5°C (medium confidence)<br>2.5°C–4°C (low confidence)</td></tr></tbody></table>
## TS.D Contribution of Adaptation to Solutions

This section covers climate change adaptation and explains how our knowledge of it has progressed since AR5. The section begins with an explanation of overall progress on adaptation and the adaptation gaps and then discusses limits to adaptation. Maladaptation and the underlying evidence base are explained together with the strategies available to strengthen the biosphere that can help ecosystems function in a changing climate. Different adaptation options across water, food, nutrition and ecosystem-based adaptation and other nature-based solutions are also discussed and, in particular, the ways in which urban systems and infrastructure are coping with adaptation. Adaptation to sea level rise is specifically discussed given its global impact on coastal areas, while health, well-being, migration and conflict are also explained as these warrant additional important considerations. Justice and equity have a significant impact as well on how effective adaptation can be and are discussed as key issues that relate to decision-making processes on adaptation and the range of enablers that can support adaptation. Lastly, the focus shifts to system transitions and transformational adaptation that are needed to move climate change adaptation forward in a rapidly warming world.

### Adaptation progress and gaps

TS.D.1 Increasing adaptation is being observed in natural and human systems (**very high confidence**), yet the majority of climate risk management and adaptation currently being planned and implemented are incremental (**high confidence**). There are gaps between current adaptation and the adaptation needed to avoid the increase of climate impacts that can be observed across sectors and regions, especially under medium and high warming levels (**high confidence**). {4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.6.3, 4.6.4, 4.6.5, 4.6.6, 4.6.7, 4.6.8, 4.6.9, Box 4.3, Box 4.5, Box 4.6, 7.4.1, Table 4.8, Figure 4.24, Figure 6.4.3, Figure 6.5, 9.3.1, 9.6.4, 9.8.3, 9.11.4, 13.2, 13.11, 14.7.1, 16.3, 16.4, 17.2.2, CCP5.2.4, CCP5.2.7, CCP7.5.1, CCP7.5.2}

TS.D.1.1 Responses have accelerated in both developed and developing regions since AR5, with some examples of regression (**high confidence**). Growing adaptation knowledge in public and private sectors, increasing numbers of policy and legal frameworks and dedicated spending on adaptation are all clear indications that the availability of response options has expanded (**high confidence**). However, observed adaptation in human systems across all sectors and regions is dominated by small incremental, reactive changes to usual practices often after extreme weather events, while evidence of transformative adaptation in human systems is limited (**high confidence**). Droughts, pluvial, fluvial and coastal flooding are the most common hazards for which adaptation is being implemented, and many of these have physical, affordability and social limits (**high confidence**). There is some evidence of global vulnerability reduction, particularly for flood risk and extreme heat. {1.4.5, 2.4.2, 2.4.5, 2.5.4, 2.6.1, 2.6.6, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.6.3, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.6.3, 4.6.4, 4.6.5, 4.6.6, 4.6.7, 4.6.8, 4.6.9, Box 4.3, Box 4.5, Box 4.6, 7.4.1, Table 4.8, Figure 4.24, 11.6, Table 11.14, Box 11.2, 12.12.5, 13.2.2, 13.10, 13.11, 14.7.1, 15.5.4, 16.3.2, 16.4.2, 12.3, CCB EXTREMES}

TS.D.1.2 Current adaptation in natural and managed ecosystems includes earlier planting and changes in crop varieties, soil improvement and water management for livestock and crops, aquaculture, restoration of coastal and hydrological processes, introduction of heat- and drought-adapted genotypes into high-risk populations, increasing the size and connectivity of habitat patches, agroecological farming, agroforestry and managed relocations of high-risk species (**medium confidence**). These measures can increase the resilience, productivity and sustainability of both natural and food systems under climate change (**high confidence**). Financial barriers limit the implementation of adaptation options in natural ecosystems, agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture and forestry as financial strategies are stochastically deployed. Investment in climate service provision has benefited the agricultural sector in many regions, with limited uptake of climate service information into decision-making frameworks (**medium confidence**). {2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 4.6.2, 4.7.1, Figure 4.23, 5.4.3, 5.5.3, 5.9.4, 5.10.3, 5.14.3, 9.4, 9.4.4, 9.4.1, 12.5.4, 12.8, 13.5.2, 13.10.2, 14.5.4, 15.5.7, 17.2.1, 17.5.1, CCP5.2.5, CCP 7.5, CCB NATURAL}

TS.D.1.3 The ambition, scope and progress on adaptation have risen among governments at the local, national and international levels, along with businesses, communities and civil society, but many funding, knowledge and practice gaps remain for effective implementation, monitoring and evaluation (**high confidence**). There are large gaps in risk management and risk transfer in low-income contexts, and even larger gaps in conflict-affected contexts (**high confidence**). Adaptive capacity is highly uneven across and within regions (**high confidence**). Current adaptation efforts are not expected to meet existing goals (**high confidence**). {1.1.3, 1.2.1, 1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.4.5, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.6, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 4.7.1, 6.1, 6.4.3, Figure 6.5, 9.1.5, 9.4.1, 9.4.5, 11.7.1, 11.7.2, 13.11.1, 14.7.1, 15.6, 17.2, 17.4.2, 17.5.1, 17.5.2, CCP7.5, CCB DEEP, CCB NATURAL}

TS.D.1.4 Many cities and settlements have developed adaptation plans since AR5, but a limited number of these have been implemented so that urban adaptation gaps exist in all world regions and for all hazard types (**high confidence**). Many plans focus on climate risk reduction, missing opportunities to advance co-benefits of climate mitigation and sustainable development and risking compounding inequality and reduced well-being (**medium confidence**). The largest adaptation gaps exist in projects that manage complex risks, for example in the food-energy-water-health nexus or the inter-relationships of air quality and climate risk (**high confidence**). Most innovation in adaptation has occurred through advances in social and ecological infrastructures, including disaster risk management, social safety nets and green/blue infrastructure (**medium confidence**). However, most financial investment continues to be directed narrowly at large-scale hard engineering projects after climate events have caused harm (**medium confidence**). {4.6.5, 6.3.1, 6.3.2, Figure 6.4, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 10.3.7, Table 10.2, 11.3.5, 12.5.5, 13.11, 14.5.5, 14.7.1, 15.3.4, 17.4.2, CCP2.3, CCP2.4, CCP5.2.7, CCB FINANCE}
# Species and ecosystems around the world are at increasing risk due to climate change

## (a) Observed impacts of climate change on ecosystems

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

Marine species richness has been declining in equatorial and increasing in higher latitudes since the 1950s due to global warming

**Marine species richness**
for a suite of taxonomic groups based on 48,661 marine species

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

## (b) With every additional increment of global warming more species will be exposed to potentially dangerous climate conditions and more biodiversity will be lost.

Percentage of species exposed to potentially dangerous climate conditions

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

Percentage of biodiversity exposed

Projected loss of terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity compared to pre-industrial period

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

Percentage of biodiversity loss

Projected changes in global marine species richness in 2100 compared to 2006

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>

**Change in species richness**
for a suite of taxonomic groups based on 12,796 marine species globally

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>
(c) Example of adaptation actions for ecosystems and biodiversity.

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

(d) Adaptation pathways for ecosystems.

Adaptation options can be facilitated by actions which increase the solution space such as consideration of local knowledge, new regulations and incentives but also decrease due to climatic and non-climatic stressors and maladaptation.

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

Examples for actions

i. Networks of Protected Areas combined with zoning increase resilience.

ii. Assisted migration and evolution might reduce extirpation and extinction.

iii. Adaptation and mitigation increase space for nature and benefit society.

iv. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) and Nature-based Solutions (NbS).

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>

**Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS** | (a) Left: Observed global and regional impacts on ecosystems and human systems attributed to climate change. Confidence levels reflect uncertainty in attribution of the observed impact to climate change. For more details and line of sight to chapters and cross-chapter papers see Figure TS.3a, SMTS.1 and Table SMTS.1. **Right:** Observed species richness across latitude for three historical periods. (3.4.3, Figure 3.18). (b) Left: Global warming levels (GMST) modelled across the ranges of more than 30,000 marine and terrestrial species. **Middle:** Global warming levels (GSAT); change indicated by the proportion of species (modelled n=119,813 species globally) for which the climate is projected to become unsuitable across their current distributions. **Right:** Modelled 12,796 marine species globally. (2.5.1, Figure 2.6, 3.4.3, Figure 3.18, Figure 3.20a, CCP1.2.4, Figures AI.6, AI.15, AI.16). (c) (2.6.2, Table 2.6, 3.6.2, Figure 3.24). (d) Some actions facilitate sustainable use but also increase space for nature. (2.4.2, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, 2.6.8, 3.6.2, 3.6.5, Table 3.30, 5.6.3, Box 5.11, 9.3.1, 9.3.2, 9.6.3, 9.6.4, 9.12.3, 10.4.2, 10.4.3, 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.7.3, 12.5.1, 12.5.2, 12.5.9, 12.6.1, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, 13.5.2, 13.10.2, 14.5.1, 14.5.2, Box 14.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, 15.3.3, Table 15.6, 16.5.2, 16.6.3, CCP1.3, CCP3.2, CCP4.4.1, CCP5.2.5, CCP5.4.1, CCP6.3.2, CCP7.5, CCP7.5.1, CCPBox7.1, Table CCP7.3, CCB EXTREMES, CCB NATURAL)
# Climate change is affecting food security through pervasive water impacts

Its impacts are being felt in every water use sector, more so in agriculture which globally consumes over 80% of the total water.

## (a) The frequency of climated-related food production losses in crops, livestocks, fisheries and aquacultures has been increasing over the last decades.

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /></figure>

## (b) By the late 21st century the share of the global land area and population* affected by combinations of agricultural, ecological and hydrological droughts is projected to increase substantially.

### Droughts

change under RCP6.0**
relative to 1976–2005

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>

\* = Population projections based on Shared Socio-Economic Pathway 2 (SSP2)

\*\* = ~1.3°C to 2.5°C Global Warming Level between 2041–2060

### Percentage of global land area

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

### Percentage of global population

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>

## (c) Observed and projected impacts from climate change in the water cycle for human managed systems and crop yield productivity.

Most regions have already experienced negative impacts on the water cycle and agricultural productivity.

### Direction of impact

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>

Confidence in attribution to climate change

Observed / Projected*

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

Impacts on human managed systems

Impacts on crop yield productivity

Water quality
WaSH**
Groundwater
Agriculture

Maize

Rice

Soybean

Wheat

Asia
Obs. Proj.

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /></figure>

Australasia
Obs. Proj.

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>

Central and South America
Obs. Proj.

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /></figure>

Europe
Obs. Proj.

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /></figure>

North America
Obs. Proj.

<figure><img src="image_37.png" /></figure>

Small Islands
Obs. Proj.

<figure><img src="image_38.png" /></figure>

Global
Obs. Proj.

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /></figure>

\*Mid-century at RCP4.5 (~2°C Global Warming Level)

\*\* = Water, sanitation and hygiene

/ = Not observed or insufficient evidence
(d) Drought is exacerbating water management challenges which vary across regions with respect to anticipated water scarcity conditions by 2050.

<figure><img src="image_40.png" /></figure>

**(e) Water-related adaptation responses.**

Current beneficial outcomes, co-benefits with mitigation, and maladaptive outcomes of responses and future effectiveness of adaptation and residual risk under different levels of global warming.

<figure><img src="image_41.png" /></figure>

**Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER** | (a) [5.4.1.1, Box 5.1, FAQ 5.1, SM5.1, Figure Al.20]. (b) Projected increase in the global share of area and population impacted from droughts. Changes are calculated based on the RCP6.0 concentration pathway for Terrestrial Water Storage (TWS) droughts, which can be considered to be a combination of agricultural, ecological and hydrological droughts. TWS is the sum of continental water stored in canopies, snow and ice, rivers, lakes and reservoirs, wetlands, soil and groundwater. (Figure 4.19; 4.4.5). (c) Projected impacts are for RCP4.5 mid 21st century, taking into account adaptation and CO₂ fertilisation for the crop yield productivity (4.3.1, 4.2.7, 4.5.1, Figure 4.2, 5.5.3, 5.4.1, Figure 5.3, Figure 9.22, 15.3.3, 15.3.4). (d) Projections used five CMIP5 climate models, three global hydrological models from ISIMIP, and three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). (Box 4.1, Figure Box 4.1.1, Figure Al.48). (e) [4.6.2, Figure 4.29, Figure 4.28, SM4.7, SM4.8, 5.5.4, 5.6.3].
Observed human vulnerability differs between and within countries and strongly determines
how climate hazards impact people and society

(a) Map of observed human vulnerability based on two comprehensive global indicator-systems using national data, plus examples of selected local vulnerable populations and Indigenous Peoples

<figure><img src="image_42.png" /></figure>

Examples of local vulnerable populations | Examples of some aspects of vulnerability | Chapter references

1 | Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic | health inequality, limited access to subsistence resources and culture | CCP 6.2.3, CCP 6.3.1

2 | Urban ethnic minorities | structural inequality, marginalisation, exclusion from planning processes | 14.5.9, 14.5.5, 6.3.6

3 | Smallholder coffee producers | limited market access & stability, single crop dependency, limited institutional support | 5.4.2

4 | Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon | land degradation, deforestation, poverty, lack of support | 8.2.1, Box 8.6

5 | Older people, especially those poor & socially isolated | health issues, disability, limited access to support | 8.2.1, 13.7.1, 6.2.3, 7.1.7

6 | Island communities | limited land, population growth and coastal ecosystem degradation | 15.3.2

7 | Children in rural low-income communities | food insecurity, sensitivity to undernutrition and disease | 5.12.3

8 | People uprooted by conflict in the Near East and Sahel | prolonged temporary status, limited mobility | Box 8.1, Box 8.4

9 | Women & non-binary | limited access to & control over resources, e.g. water, land, credit | Box 9.1, CCB-GENDER, 4.8.3, 5.4.2, 10.3.3

10 | Migrants | informal status, limited access to health services & shelter, exclusion from decision-making processes | 6.3.6, Box 10.2

11 | Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples | poverty, food & housing insecurity, dislocation from community | 11.4.1

12 | People living in informal settlements | poverty, limited basic services & often located in areas with high exposure to climate hazards | 6.2.3, Box 9.1, 9.9, 10.4.6, 12.3.2, 12.3.5, 15.3.4

<figure><img src="image_43.png" /></figure>
(b) Different aspects and dimensions of vulnerability (regional averages of selected vulnerability indicators)

<figure><img src="image_44.png" /></figure>

Relatively severe challenges

<figure><img src="image_45.png" /></figure>

Extreme poverty

<figure><img src="image_46.png" /></figure>

Access to basic infrastructure

<figure><img src="image_47.png" /></figure>

Adult literacy rate

Relatively moderate challenges

<figure><img src="image_48.png" /></figure>

Access to health care

<figure><img src="image_49.png" /></figure>

Gender inequality

<figure><img src="image_50.png" /></figure>

Governance

Relatively mild challenges

<figure><img src="image_51.png" /></figure>

Dependency ratio

<figure><img src="image_52.png" /></figure>

Food security

<figure><img src="image_53.png" /></figure>

Health status

(c) Average mortality per hazard event per region between 2010 and 2020:

<figure><img src="image_54.png" /></figure>

Average mortality per hazard event is indicated by size of pie charts. The slice of pie chart shows absolute number of deaths from a particular hazard

<footnote>* The large size of the pie chart and the strong representation of heat waves is caused by the significant number of deaths from a single event in a single country. This single extreme outlier affected the overall average mortality per event in Asia.</footnote>
(d) Constraints that make it harder to plan and implement human adaptation

<figure><img src="image_55.png" /><figcaption>Constraints associated with limits to adaptation for regions across all sectors:</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_56.png" /></figure>

**Figure TS.7 VULNERABILITY** | (a) The global map of vulnerability is based on two comprehensive global indicator systems, namely INFORM Risk Index and WorldRiskIndex (2019). Climate change hazards and exposure levels are not included in this figure. The relative level of average national vulnerability is shown by the colours. Vulnerability values are based on the average of the two indices, classified into 5 classes using the quantile method. A hexagon binning method was used to simplify the global map and enlarge small states. The map combines information about the level of vulnerability (independent of the population size) with two classes of population density (high density ≥ 20 people/km2 and low density < 20 people/km²). The selected examples of local vulnerable populations underscore that there are also highly vulnerable populations in countries with overall low relative vulnerability [8.3.2, Figure 8.6] (b) This figure shows regional averages for selected aspects of human vulnerability. The indicators are a selection of the indicator systems used within the global vulnerability map (panel a). The colours represent the average value of the respective indicator for the regional level; classified into three classes using natural breaks. This regional information reveals that within all regions challenges exist in terms of different aspects of vulnerability, however, in some regions these challenges are more severe and accumulate in multiple-dimensions. For example, the indicator "dependency ratio" measures the ratio of the number of children (0–14 years old) and older persons (65 years or over) to the working-age population (15–64 years old). [8.3.2, Figure 8.7] (c) The pie charts show the number of deaths (mortality) per hazard (storm, flood, drought, heatwaves and wildfires) event per continental region based on Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, 2020). The size of the pie chart represents the average mortality per hazard event while slices of each pie chart show the absolute number of deaths from each hazard. This reveals that significantly more fatalities per hazard (storms, floods, droughts, heatwaves and wildfires) did occur in the past decade in more vulnerable regions, e.g. Africa and Asia. [Figure 8.6] (d) The figure shows constraints that make it harder to plan and implement human adaptation. Across regions and sectors, the most significant challenges to human adaptation are financial, governance, institutional and policy constraints. The ability of actors to overcome these socio-economic constraints largely influences whether additional adaptation is able to be implemented and prevent limits to adaptation from being reached. Low: <20% of assessed literature identifies this constraint; Medium: 20–40% of assessed literature identifies this constraint; High: >40% of assessed literature identifies this constraint. [9.3, 16.4.3, Figure 16.8]
Climate change and human health and wellbeing: Risks and responses

<table><caption>Figure TS.8 HEALTH | Multiple socio-economic and environmental factors interact with climate risks to shape human health and well-being. Achieving climate resilient development requires leveraging opportunities in the solution space within health systems and across other sectors. [7.1.4, 7.1.6, 7.1.7, 7.2.1, 7.2.2, 7.2.3, 7.2.4, 7.2.5, 7.2.6, 7.2.7, 7.3.1, 7.3.3, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 7.4.6, 7.4.7, Box 7.1, Box 7.2, Figure 7.6, Figure 7.7, Figure 7.16, Table 7.1, Table 7.3, Table 7.6, Table 7.7, Table 7.8, Table 7.10, Table 7.11, CCB COVID, CCB HEALTH, CCB MIGRATE)</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="2">CLIMATE HAZARDS, VULNERABILITY AND EXPOSURE</th><th>IMPACT AND RISKS</th><th colspan="2">SOLUTIONS SPACE AND CLIMATE RESILIENT DEVELOPMENT PATHWAYS</th></tr><tr><th>Vulnerability and upstream determinants of health outcomes</th><th>Exposure pathway</th><th>Example health outcomes</th><th>Health System Solution Space</th><th>Climate Resilient Development Pathways</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Environmental factors</strong><br>Air pollution<br>Biodiversity loss<br>Deforestation<br>Desertification<br>Land degradation<br>Land-use change<br>Water pollution</td><td>Social factors<br>Vector distribution and ecology</td><td>Physical and mental health risks, displacement, forced migration, other context-specific risks</td><td>Environmentally sustainable and resilient technologies and infrastructure</td><td>Fully implementing climate-resilient health systems</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Socioeconomic factors</strong><br>Growing inequality<br>Demographic change<br>Economic growth<br>Migration and (im)mobility<br>Urbanization<br>Science and tech investment</td><td>Nutrient dense diets and food safety<br>Water quality and quantity</td><td>Chikungunya, dengue, hantavirus, Lyme disease, malaria, Rift Valley, West Nile, Zika</td><td>Health information systems (includes integrated risk monitoring and early warning and response systems, vulnerability, capacity, and adaptation assessments, health component of national adaptation plans, health and climate research)</td><td>Achieving universal healthcare coverage</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Susceptibility</strong><br>Political commitment<br>Social infrastructure<br>Socioeconomic conditions<br>Population health status<br>Individual factors</td><td>Air quality<br>Heat stress<br>Extreme weather events</td><td>Malnutrition, salmonella, foodborne diseases<br>Diarrheal diseases, campylobacteria infections, cholera, cryptosporidiosis, algal blooms</td><td>Service delivery (includes climate-smart health programs, management of environmental determinants of health, disaster risk reduction)</td><td>Achieving net zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions from healthcare systems and services<br>Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals<br>Adopting mitigation policies and technologies with significant health co-benefits</td></tr></tbody></table>
Climate change in cities and settlements

(a) Urban poor populations residing in informal settlements are highly vulnerable to climate hazards given their housing characteristics and location in marginal lands and high-risk areas.

<figure><img src="image_57.png" /></figure>

(b) Global distribution of population exposed to potentially deadly conditions from extreme temperatures and relative humidity.

Map data without accounting for heatwaves.

Named cities are the largest 15 urban areas by population size.

<figure><img src="image_58.png" /><figcaption>**Figure TS.9 URBAN** | (a) The regions shown are reflecting the original dataset from UN Habitat and vary from IPCC regions. (6.1.4, 9.9.3, 10.4.6, 12.5.5) (b) Heat is a growing health risk due to increasing urbanization and rising temperature extremes. Within cities the urban heat island effect elevates temperatures further, with some populations in cities being disproportionately at risk including low income communities in informal settlements, children, the elderly, disabled, people who work outdoors and ethnic minorities. The data does not consider heatwaves which are also projected to increase and can cause thousands of deaths in higher latitudes. (6.1.4, 7.2.4, 7.3.1, 10.4.6, 13.6.1, Annex I: Global to Regional Atlas)</figcaption></figure>
(c) Projected number of people at risk of a 100-year coastal flood.

<figure><img src="image_59.png" /></figure>

(d) Contributions of urban adaptation options to climate resilient development.

Nature-based solutions and social policy as innovative domains of adaptation show how some of the limitations of grey infrastructure can be mediated. A mixture of the three categories has considerable future scope in adaptation strategies and building climate resilience in cities and settlements.

<figure><img src="image_60.png" /></figure>

### Grey/Physical Infrastructure

Dikes, seawalls | water storage, greywater use | slope revetments | air conditioning | passive cooling | upgrading transport, energy, water & sanitation infrastructure | Information & Communication Technologies | urban design & building regulations

### Nature-based Solutions

Urban agriculture | street trees | green roofs | parks and open space | community gardens | rain gardens | bioswales | retention ponds | riverbanks | floodplains and watershed restoration

### Planning and social policy

Land use planning | social safety nets | emergency and disaster risk management | health services | climate education | heritage conservation

<figure><img src="image_61.png" /></figure>

(c) The size of the circle represents the number of people at risk per IPCC region and the colours show the timing of risk based on projected population change and sea level rise under SSP2-4.5. Darker colours indicate earlier in setting risks. The left side of the circles shows absolute projected population at risk and the right side the share of the population in percentage. (Figure 13.6, Figure 15.3, Figure CCP2.4, Annex I: Global to Regional Atlas). (d) The figure is based on Table 6.6 which is an assessment of 21 urban adaptation mechanisms. Supplementary Material 6.3 provides a detailed analysis including definitions for each component of climate resilient development and the evidences. (6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.3, Table 6.6, SM6.3)
# Compound, cascading and transboundary impacts for humans and ecosystems result from the complex interaction of multiple climate hazards, exposures and vulnerabilities

<figure><img src="image_62.png" /><figcaption>(c) Cascading impacts of climate hazards on food and nutrition</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_63.png" /><figcaption>(b) Socio-ecological risks to the Amazonia ecosystem</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_64.png" /><figcaption>(d) Compound risks in coastal and island systems reduce habitability</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_65.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_66.png" /><figcaption>(e) Urban infrastructure failures cascade risk and loss across and beyond the city</figcaption></figure>

Compound risks

<figure><img src="image_67.png" /><figcaption>(f) Cross-sectoral and transboundary impacts of Australian megafires, 2019–2020</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>

Cascading risks

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /></figure>

**Figure TS.10 COMPLEX RISK | Compound, cascading and transboundary impacts for humans and ecosystems result from exposure to the complex interactions of (1) multiple climatic hazards, including with non-climatic stressors (as seen in panels a, b, c, d), (2) multiple vulnerabilities compounding the effect of risks (as seen in panel a, b, c), and (3) multiple impacts/risks that compound and cascade to spread across sectors and boundaries (panels b, c, d, e, f)**

(a) Climate and land use change result in cumulative impacts on traditional, semi-nomadic Sāmi reindeer herding. Impacts cascade due to a lack of access to key ecosystems, lakes and rivers, thereby increasing costs and threatening traditional livelihoods, food security, cultural heritage, and mental health. [Box 7.1, Figure Box 9.7.1, 13.8.1.2, Box 13.2, Figure 13.14. Table SM13.7, Figure 16.2, Figure CCP6.7]

(b) Risks compound from deforestation, wildfires, urbanization, and climate change in Amazonia impacts biodiversity, livelihoods, medicinal, spiritual, and cultural sites; increasing migration patterns, loss of place-based attachments, and culture, causing health problems and mental and emotional distress of vulnerable traditional communities and Indigenous People dependent on the forest ecosystem. [Box 8.7, Figure Box 9.7.1, 12.4, Figure 12.11, Table 12.6, Figure 16.2]

(c) Complex pathways from climate hazards to malnutrition in subsistence farming households. The factors involved in and the probable impacts of weather variables on food yields and of production on malnutrition. [Figure 1.3, Figure 1.4, 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.12.3, 5.12.4, Box 5.10, Figure 5.2, 7.2.2, 7.3.1, Figure Box 9.7.1, 13.5.1, 13.5.2, 13.10.2, 16.5.2, 16.5.3, Figure 16.2]

(d) Risk compounds and amplifies through cascading effects due to interconnectedness of island systems. Loss of marine, coastal, terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem services can cause submergence of reef islands, increase water insecurity, destroy settlements and infrastructure, degrade health and well-being, reduce economy and livelihoods, and result in loss of cultural resources and heritage. [15.3.4.9, Figure Box 15.1, Figure 15.5, Figure 16.2]

(e) Climate impacts can cascade through interconnected infrastructure in cities and settlements impacting on social well-being and economic activities, spreading loss and risk through lost economic productivity disrupting the distribution of goods and provision of basic services, spreading widely, into rural places and across international borders as supply chains, financial investment and remittance flows are disrupted. [6.1.3, 6.2.2, 6.2.4, Figure 6.2, Figure 16.2, Figure CCB INTEREG.1]

(f) Cascading, compounding and transboundary impacts on people's mortality and physical and mental health, economic activity, built assets, ecosystems and mass species mortality and with smoke and ash transported to New Zealand affecting air quality and glaciers, arising from the "Black Summer" fires of 2019–2020 which burned over a five-month period in eastern and southern Australia. Fire weather is projected to worsen across Australasia. [Figure 1.3, Figure 1.4, 11.3.1.3, Box 11.1, Figure Box 11.1.2, Figure 16.2, WGI AR6 Figure SPM.9]
TS.D.1.5 Systemic barriers constrain the implementation of adaptation options in vulnerable sectors, regions and social groups (high confidence). Key barriers are limited resources, lack of private-sector and citizen engagement, insufficient mobilisation of finance (including for research), lack of political leadership, limited research and/or slow and low uptake of adaptation science and a low sense of urgency. Most of the adaptation options to the key risks depend on limited water and land resources (high confidence). Governance capacity, financial support and the legacy of past urban infrastructure investment constrain how cities and settlements are able to adapt (high confidence). Critical urban capacity gaps include limited ability to identify social vulnerability and community strengths, the absence of integrated planning to protect communities, the lack of access to innovative funding arrangements and a limited capability to manage finance and commercial insurance (medium confidence). Prioritisation of options and transitions from incremental to transformational adaptation are limited due to vested interests, economic lock-ins, institutional path dependencies and prevalent practices, cultures, norms and belief systems. For example, Africa faces severe climate data constraints and inequities in research funding and leadership that reduce adaptive capacity (very high confidence)—from 1990 to 2019 research on Africa received just 3.8% of climate-related research funding globally, and 78% of this funding for Africa went to European Union- and North America-based institutions and only 14.5% to African institutions. {3.6.3, 9.1.5, 9.5.1, 9.8.4, 12.5.1, 12.5.5, 12.5.7, 12.8, 13.11, 14.7.2, 15.6.1, 15.7, CCP7.6, CCB FEASIB}

TS.D.1.6 Insufficient financing is a key driver of adaptation gaps (high confidence). Annual finance flows targeting adaptation for Africa, for example, are billions of US dollars less than the lowest adaptation cost estimates for near-term climate change (high confidence). Finance has not targeted more vulnerable countries and communities. From 2014 to 2018 a greater amount of financial commitments to developing countries was in the form of debt rather than grants, and—excluding multilateral development banks—only 51% of commitments targeting adaptation were dispersed (compared to 85% for other development projects). Tracked private-sector finance for climate change action has grown substantially since 2015, but the proportion directed towards adaptation has remained small (high confidence); in 2018 contributions were 0.05% of total climate finance and 1% of adaptation finance. Globally, private-sector financing of adaptation has been limited, especially in developing countries (high confidence). {3.6.3, 4.7.4, 4.7.5, 4.8.2, 6.4.5, Table 6.10, 9.4.1, 12.5.4, 12.5.8, 15.6.3, 17.4.3, CCB FINANCE}

TS.D.1.7 Closing the adaptation gap requires moving beyond short-term planning to develop long-term, concerted pathways and enabling conditions for ongoing adaptation to ensure timely and effective implementation (high confidence). Inclusive, equitable and just adaptation pathways are critical for climate resilient development. Such pathways require consideration of SDGs, gender and Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge and practices. The success of adaptation will depend on our understanding of which adaptation options are feasible and effective in their local context (high confidence). Long lead times for nature-based and infrastructure solutions or planned relocation will require implementation in the coming decade to reduce risks in time. To close the adaptation gap,

political commitment, persistent and consistent action across scales of government and upfront mobilisation of human and financial capital are key (high confidence), even when the benefits are not immediately visible. {3.6.5, 4.8, 6.3.5, 11.7, 12.5.7, 13.2.2, 13.8, 13.11, 14.7.2, 15.7, CCP2.3, CCP2.4, CCP7.5, CCB DEEP, CCB FEASIB, CCB GENDER}

## Limits to adaptation

TS.D.2 There is increasing evidence on limits to adaptation which result from the interaction of adaptation constraints and the speed of change (high confidence). In some natural systems, hard limits have been reached (high confidence) and more will be reached beyond 1.5°C (medium confidence). Surpassing such hard, evolutionary limits causes local species extinctions and displacements if suitable habitats exist (high confidence). Otherwise, species' existence is at very high risk (high confidence). In human, managed and natural systems, soft limits are already being experienced (high confidence). Financial constraints are key determinants of adaptation limits in human and managed systems, particularly in low-income settings (high confidence), while in natural systems key determinants for limits are inherent traits of the species or ecosystem (very high confidence). (Figure TS.7 VULNERABILITY) {2.4.2, 2.6.1, 3.3, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 15.5.4, CCP5.3.2, CCP7.5.2, CCB EXTREMES}

TS.D.2.1 Adaptation limits can be differentiated into hard and soft limits. Soft limits are those for which no further adaptation options are feasible currently but might become available in the future. Hard limits are those for which existing adaptation options will cease to be effective and additional options are not possible. Hard limits will increasingly emerge at higher levels of warming (high confidence). Adaptation limits are shaped by constraints that can or cannot be overcome by adaptation actions and by the speed with which climate impacts unfold. Evidence and signals of the thresholds at which constraints result in limits is still sparse and, in human systems, are expected to remain contested even with increasing knowledge (high confidence). {2.4.2, 2.6.1, 4.7.4, Box 4.2, Box 4.3, 15.3.4, 15.5.4, 16.4.1, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, CCB EXTREMES}

TS.D.2.2 Limits to adaptation have been observed for terrestrial and aquatic species and ecosystems and for some human and managed systems in specific geographies such as small island states and mountain regions (high confidence). Beginning at below 1.5°C, autonomous and evolutionary adaptation responses by more terrestrial and aquatic species and ecosystems will face hard limits, resulting in species extinctions, loss of ecosystem integrity and a resulting loss of livelihoods (high confidence). Examples of hard limits being exceeded include observed population losses and species extinctions and loss of whole ecosystems from certain locations (e.g., irrecoverable loss of tropical coral reefs locally). Large local population declines of wild species have already impacted human food sources and livelihoods (e.g., for Indigenous Arctic communities). Soft limits are currently being experienced in particular by individuals, households, cities and settlements along the coast and by small-scale farmers (medium confidence). As sea levels rise and extreme events intensify, coastal communities face limits due to financial, institutional and socioeconomic constraints and a short timeline for adaptation implementation, reducing
the efficacy of coastal protection and accommodation approaches and resulting in loss of life and economic damages (medium confidence). {2.4.2, 2.5.4, 2.6.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, CCP1, CCP2, CCP6, 4.7.4, Box 4.2, 6.4.4, 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.4, 11.3.5, 12.5.1, 13.3.1, 13.4.1, 13.10.2, 15.5.4, 15.5.6, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, CCP5.2.7, CCP5.3.2}

TS.D.2.3 Limits to adaptation will be reached in more systems, including, for example, coastal communities, water security, agricultural production and human health, as global warming increases (medium confidence). Hard limits beginning at 1.5°C are also projected for coastal communities reliant on nature-based coastal protection (medium confidence). Adaptation to address the risks of heat stress, heat mortality and reduced capacities for outdoor work for humans face soft and hard limits across regions that become significantly more severe at 1.5°C and are particularly relevant for regions with warm climates (high confidence). Beginning at 3°C, hard limits are projected for water management measures, leading to decreased water quality and availability, negative impacts on health and well-being, economic losses in water and energy-dependent sectors and potential migration of communities (medium confidence). Soft and hard limits for agricultural production are related to water availability and the uptake and effectiveness of climate resilient crops, which are constrained by socioeconomic and political challenges (medium confidence). In terms of settlements, limits to adaptation are often most pronounced in smaller and rapidly growing towns and cities, including those without dedicated local government (medium confidence). At the same time, legacy infrastructure in large and mega cities, designed without taking climate change risk into account, constrains innovation, leading to stranded assets and with increasing numbers of people unable to avoid harm, including heat stress and flooding, without transformative adaptation (medium confidence). {2.4.2, 3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, 4.7.4, Box 4.2, Box 4.3, 4.7.2, 4.7.3, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, Figure 6.4, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, 3.4.3, 11.3.1, 11.3.2 11.3.4, 11.3.5, 11.3.6, 12.5.1, 12.5.2, 12.5.3, 13.10.2, Box 11.6, Table 14.6, 15.3.3, 15.3.4, 15.5.4, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, CCP2, CCB ILLNESS, CCB SLR}

TS.D.2.4 Across regions and sectors, the most significant determinants of soft limits are financial, governance, institutional and policy constraints (high confidence). The ability of actors to address these socioeconomic constraints largely influences whether additional adaptation can be implemented and prevent soft limits from becoming hard limits. Global and regional evidence shows that climate impacts may limit the availability of financial resources, stunt national economic growth, result in higher levels of losses and damage and thereby increase financial constraints (medium evidence). Information, awareness and technological constraints are also high in multiple regions (high confidence). For example, awareness of anthropogenic climate change ranges between 23% and 66% of people across 33 African countries, with low climate literacy limiting potential for transformative adaptation (medium confidence). (Figure TS.7 VULNERABILITY) {2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.5.1, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 4.7.4, 6.4.4, 9.3.1, 9.4.1, 9.4.5, 12.8, 13.11.1, 14.7.2, 15.6.1, 15.6.3, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, CCP2, CCP5.4.1, CCP7.5, CCP7.6, CCB EXTREMES}

TS.D.2.5 The potential for reaching adaptation limits fundamentally depends on emissions reductions and mitigating global warming (high confidence). Under all emissions scenarios, climate

change reduces capacity for adaptive responses and limits choices and opportunities for sustainable development. The ability of actors to overcome socioeconomic constraints determines whether additional adaptation can be implemented and prevent soft limits from becoming hard limits (medium confidence). Above 1.5°C of warming, limits to adaptation are reported for human and natural systems, including coral reefs (high confidence), regional water availability (medium evidence, high agreement) and outdoor labour and existing tourism-related activities. {1.1.3, 1.5.1, 2.6.0, 2.6.1, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, Box 4.3, 3.5.2, 3.6.2, 3.6.2, 13.10.2, 14.5.7, 14.5.8, 15.3.3, 15.3.4, Box 15.1, 16.4, 16.5, 16.6, CCP5.3.2}

## Maladaptation

TS.D.3 Evidence of maladaptation is increasing in some sectors and systems, highlighting how inappropriate responses to climate change create long-term lock-in of vulnerability, exposure and risks that are difficult and costly to change (very high confidence) and exacerbate existing inequalities for Indigenous Peoples and vulnerable groups, impeding achievement of SDGs, increasing adaptation needs and shrinking the solution space (high confidence). Decreasing maladaptation requires attention to justice and a shift in enabling conditions towards those that enable timely adjustments for avoiding or minimising damage and for seizing opportunities (high confidence). (Figure TS.11a) {1.2.1, 1.3.1, 1.4.2, 2.6, Box 2.2, 3.6.3, Box 4.3, Box 4.5, 4.6.8, 4.7.1, Figure 4.29, 5.6.3, 5.13.4, 8.4.5, 8.2.1, 8.3.3, 8.4.5, 8.6.1, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 9.11, Box 9.8, Box 9.9, Box 11.6, 12.5.3, 12.5.7, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.11.3, 14.5.9, 15.5.1, 15.6.5, 16.3.2, 17.5.1, CCP2.3.2, CCP2.3.6, CCB DEEP, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR, CWGB BIOECONOMY}

TS.D.3.1 Maladaptation has been observed across many regions and systems and occurs for many reasons, including inadequate knowledge and short-term, fragmented, single-sector and/or non-inclusive governance planning and implementation (high confidence). Policy decisions that ignore the risks of adverse effects can be maladaptive by worsening the impacts of and vulnerabilities to climate change (high confidence). Examples include in coastal systems (e.g., sea walls that enable further exposure through intensification of developments in low-lying coastal areas), urban areas (e.g., inflexible infrastructure in cities and settlements that cannot be adjusted easily or affordably for increased heavy rainfall), agriculture (e.g., the use of high cost irrigation in areas that are projected to have more intense drought conditions), forestry (e.g., planting of unsuitable trees species which displace Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent communities) and human settlements (e.g., stranded assets and stranded vulnerable communities that cannot afford to shift away or adapt and require an increase in social safety nets) (high confidence). {Box2.2, 2.6.6, 2.6.5, 3.6.3, Box4.3, Box4.5, 4.7.1, Figure4.29, 4.6.8, 5, 5.13.4, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 9.11, Box 9.8, Box 9.9, Box 11.5, Box 11.6, 13.2, 13.3, 13.3.1, 13.4, 13.4.2, 13.5.1, 14.5.9, 15.5.1, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 16.3.2, CCP2.4, CCB DEEP, CCB FEASIB, CCB SLR}

TS.D.3.2 Indigenous Peoples and disadvantaged groups, such as low-income households and ethnic minorities, are especially adversely affected by maladaptation, which often deprives
them of food and livelihoods and reinforces and entrenches existing inequalities (high confidence). Rights-based approaches to adaptation, participatory methodologies and inclusion of local and Indigenous knowledge, combined with informed consent, deliver mechanisms to avoid these pitfalls (medium confidence). Adaptation solutions benefit from engagement with Indigenous and marginalised groups, solve past equity and justice issues and offer novel approaches (medium confidence). Indigenous knowledge is a powerful tool to assess interlinked ecosystem functions across terrestrial, marine and freshwater systems, bypassing siloed approaches and sectoral problems (high confidence). Lastly, engagement with Indigenous knowledge and marginalised groups often offers an intergenerational context for adaptation solutions needed to avoid maladaptation (high confidence). {2.6.5, 4.6.9, 8.4, 8.4.5, 5.12.8, 5.13.4, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 12.5.8, 13.8.1, Box 13.2, 14.4, 14.5.9, 5.13.5, 15.6.5, 18.2.4, CCP5.4.2, Box CCP7.1}

TS.D.3.3 Reliance on hard protection against sea level rise can lead to development intensification, which compounds risk and locks in exposure of people and assets as socioeconomic and governance barriers and technical limits are reached. Avoiding maladaptive responses to sea level rise depends on immediate mitigation and application of adaptive planning that sets out near-term, low-regret actions while keeping open options to account for ongoing committed sea level rise (very high confidence). Such forward-looking adaptive pathway planning and iterative risk management can address the current path dependencies that lead to maladaptation and can enable timely adaptation alignment with long implementation lead times, as well as addressing uncertainty about rate and magnitude of local sea level rise, and ensuring that adaptation will be more effective (medium confidence). As sea level rise advances, only avoidance and relocation will eliminate coastal risks (high confidence). Other measures only delay impacts for a time, increasing residual risk, perpetuating risk and creating ongoing legacy effects and inevitable property and ecosystem losses (high confidence). While relocation may in the near term appear socially unacceptable, economically inefficient or technically infeasible, it may become the only feasible option as protection costs become unaffordable and technical limits are reached (medium confidence). {3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, 11.7.3, Box 11.6, 12.5.7, 12.5.8, 13.10, 15.3.4, 15.5.1, 15.5.2, 15.5.3, CCP2.2.3, CCP4, CCB DEEP, CCB SLR}

TS.D.3.4 Maladaptation can be reduced using the principles of recognitional, procedural and distributional justice in decision-making, responsibly evaluating who is regarded as vulnerable and at risk, who is part of decision-making, who is the beneficiary of adaptation measures and integrated and flexible governance mechanisms that account for long-term goals (high confidence). Examples include selecting native and appropriate species in habitat restoration, monitoring key social and environmental indicators for adaptation progress, embedding strong monitoring and evaluation processes, considering measures of efficiency and social welfare, and social and political drivers and power relationships. Integrated approaches, such as the water-energy-food nexus and inter-regional considerations of risks can reduce the risk of maladaptation, building on existing adaptation strategies, increasing community participation and consultation, integration of Indigenous knowledge and local

knowledge, focusing on the most vulnerable small-scale producers, anticipating risks of maladaptation in decision-making for long-lived activities, including infrastructure decisions, and the impact of trade-offs and co-benefits (high confidence). (Figure TS.11a) {2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 4.7.6, 4.8, Box 4.8, 5.9.2, Table 5.21, 5.9.2, 5.9.4, 5.13.3, 5.14.2, 5.13.3, 6.2.7, 7.4.2, 8.2.2, 8.3.3, 8.10, 10.6.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.7.12, 15.5.4, Figure 15.7, 17.5.1, 17.5.2, 17.6, CCP1.3, CCP5.4.2, CCP5.4.2, CCB INTEREG, CCB NATURAL}

## Strengthening the biosphere

TS.D.4 Diverse, self-sustaining ecosystems with healthy biodiversity provide multiple contributions to people that are essential for climate change adaptation and mitigation, thereby reducing risk and increasing societal resilience to future climate change (high confidence). Better ecosystem protection and management is key to reduce the risks that climate change poses to biodiversity and ecosystem services and build resilience; it is also essential that climate change adaptation be integrated into the planning and implementation of conservation and environmental management if it is to be fully effective in future (high confidence). Risks to ecosystems from climate change can be reduced by protection and restoration and also by a range of targeted actions to adapt conservation practice to climate change (high confidence). Protected areas are key elements of adaptation but need to be planned and managed in ways that take account of climate change, including shifting species distributions and changes in biological communities and ecosystem structure. Adaptation to protect ecosystem health and integrity is essential to maintain ecosystem services, including for climate change mitigation and the prevention of greenhouse gas emissions. (Figure TS.12, Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS) {2.5.4, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, 5.14.1, 12.5.1, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, 15.5.6, CCP1, CCP5.4.1, CCP5.4.2, CCB NATURAL}

TS.D.4.1 Ecosystem protection and restoration can build resilience of ecosystems and generate opportunities to restore ecosystem services with substantial co-benefits (high confidence) and provision of ecosystem-based adaptation.<fnref n="7" /> Ecosystem-based adaptation includes protection and restoration of forests, grasslands, peatlands and other wetlands, blue carbon systems (mangroves, salt marshes and seagrass meadows), and agroecological farming practices. In coastal systems, nature-based solutions, including ecosystem-based adaptation, can reduce impacts for human settlements until sea level rise results in habitat loss. High rates of warming and drought may severely threaten the success of nature-based solutions such as forest expansion or peatland restoration. Ecosystem-based adaptation is being increasingly advocated in coastal defence against storm surges, terrestrial flood regulation, reducing urban heat and restoring natural fire regimes. Nature-based solutions, including ecosystem-based adaptation, can therefore reduce risks for ecosystems and benefit people, provided they are planned and implemented in the right way and in the right place. For example, coastal wetlands and ecosystems can also be seriously damaged by coastal defences designed to protect

<footnote n="7">7 Ecosystem-based adaptation is defined as the use of ecosystem management activities to increase the *resilience* and reduce the *vulnerability* of people and ecosystems to climate change.</footnote>
infrastructure. {2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, Table 2.7, 3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 9.6.3, 9.6.4, 13.2.2, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, 13.5.2, 13.6.1, Box 14.7, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR}

**TS.D.4.2 Increasing the resilience of biodiversity and ecosystem services to climate change includes minimising additional stresses or disturbances, reducing fragmentation, increasing natural habitat extent, connectivity and heterogeneity, maintaining taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity and redundancy and protecting small-scale refugia where microclimate conditions can allow species to persist (high confidence).** In some cases, specific management interventions may be possible to reduce risks to individual species or biological communities, including translocation or manipulating microclimate or site hydrology. Adaptation also includes actions to prevent the impacts of extreme events or aid the recovery of ecosystems following extreme events, such as wildfire, drought or marine heatwaves. In some cases, recovery of ecosystems from extreme events can be facilitated by removing other human pressures. Understanding the characteristics of vulnerable species can assist in early warning systems to minimise negative impacts and inform management intervention. (Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS) {2.3, 2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.5.3, 2.5.4, 2.6.2, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, 2.6.8, Figure 2.1, Table 2.6, Table 2.8, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, 12.5.1, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, 13.10.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, CCB EXTREMES, CCB FEASIB}

**TS.D.4.4 Available adaptation options can reduce risks to ecosystems and the services they provide, but they cannot prevent all changes and should not be regarded as a substitute for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (high confidence).** Ambitious and swift global mitigation offers more adaptation options and pathways to sustain ecosystems and their services (high confidence). Even under current climate change, it is necessary to take account of climate change impacts, which are already occurring or are inevitable, in environmental management to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services (high confidence), and this will become increasingly important at higher levels of warming. (Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS) {2.2, 2.3, 2.4.5, 2.5.1, 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 2.5.4, 2.6.1, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 2.6.8, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.5, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Figure 3.24, Figure 3.25, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, Box 4.7, 13.4.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, CCP5.4.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB NATURAL}

**TS.D.4.5 Ecosystem-based adaptation measures can reduce climatic risks to people, including from flood, drought, fire and overheating (high confidence).** Ecosystem-based adaptation approaches are increasingly being used as part of strategies to manage flood risk, at the coast in the face of rising sea levels and inland in the context of more extreme rainfall events (high confidence). Flood-risk measures that work with nature by allowing flooding within coastal and wetland ecosystems and support sediment accretion can reduce costs and bring substantial co-benefits to ecosystems, liveability and livelihoods (high confidence). In urban areas, trees and natural areas can lower temperatures by providing shade and cooling from evapotranspiration (high confidence). Restoration of ecosystems in catchments can also support water supplies during periods of variable

rainfall and maintain water quality and, combined with inclusive water regimes that overcome social inequalities, provide disaster risk reduction and sustainable development (high confidence). Restoring natural vegetation cover and wildfire regimes can reduce risks to people from catastrophic fires. Restoration of wetlands could support livelihoods and help sequester carbon (medium confidence), provided they are allowed accommodation space. Ecosystem-based adaptation approaches can be cost effective and provide a wide range of additional co-benefits in terms of ecosystem services and biodiversity protection and enhancement. (Figure TS.9 URBAN, Figure TS.11a) {2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, Table 2.7, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Box 4.6, Box 4.7, 12.5.1, 12.5.3, 12.5.5, 13.2.2, 13.3.2, 13.6.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, Figure 15.7, CCP2, CCP5.4.2, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR}

**TS.D.4.6 Ecosystem-based adaptation and other nature-based solutions<fnref n="8" /> are themselves vulnerable to climate change impacts (very high confidence).** Under higher emissions scenarios they will increasingly be under threat. Nature-based solutions cannot deliver the full range of benefits, unless they are based on functioning, resilient ecosystems and developed taking account of adaptation principles. There is a serious risk that high-carbon ecosystems will become sources of greenhouse gas emissions, which makes it increasingly difficult to halt anthropogenic climate change without prompt protection, restoration, adaptation and mitigation at a global scale. {2.5.2, 2.5.3, 2.5.4, 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Box 4.6, 13.4.2, 15.3.3, 15.5.4, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR}

**TS.D.4.7 Potential benefits and avoidance of harm are maximised when nature-based solutions are deployed in the right places and with the right approaches for those areas, with inclusive governance (high confidence).** Taking account of interdisciplinary scientific information, Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge and practical expertise is essential to effective ecosystem-based adaptation (high confidence). There is a large risk of maladaptation where this does not happen (medium confidence). For example, naturally treeless peatlands can be afforested if they are drained, but this leads to the loss of distinctive peatland species as well as high greenhouse gas emissions. It is important that nature-based solution approaches to climate change mitigation also take account of climate change adaptation if they are to remain effective. {1.4.2, 2.2, 2.4.3, 2.4.4, 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, Box 2.2, Table 2.6, Table 2.7, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.7.2, Box 4.6, 5.14.2, 13.4.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, CCP1, CCB NATURAL}

## Water and food sectors

**TS.D.5 Various adaptation options in the water, agriculture and food sectors are feasible with several co-benefits (high confidence), some of which are effective at reducing climate impacts (medium confidence).** Adaptation responses reduce future climate risks at 1.5°C warming, but effectiveness decreases above 2°C (high confidence). Resilience is strengthened by ecosystem-based adaptation (high confidence) and sustainable resource management of terrestrial and aquatic species (medium confidence). Agricultural intensification strategies produce

<footnote n="8">⁸ Actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits.</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_559.png" /><figcaption>(b) Climate responses and adaptation options have benefits for ecosystems, ethnic groups, gender equity, low-income groups and the Sustainable Development Goals
Relations of sectors and groups at risk (as observed) and the SDGs (relevant in the near-term, at global scale and up to 1.5°C of global warming) with climate responses and adaptation options</figcaption></figure>

<footnote n="1">¹ The term response is used here instead of adaptation because some responses, such as retreat, may or may not be considered to be adaptation. ² Including sustainable forest management, forest conservation and restoration, reforestation and afforestation. ³ Migration, when voluntary, safe and orderly, allows reduction of risks to climatic and non-climatic stressors. ⁴ The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are integrated and indivisible, and efforts to achieve any goal in isolation may trigger synergies or trade-offs with other SDGs. ⁵ Relevant in the near-term, at global scale and up to 1.5°C of global warming.</footnote>
**Figure TS.11** | (a) Climate responses and adaptation options, organized by System Transitions and Representative Key Risks (RKRs), are assessed for their multidimensional feasibility at global scale, in the near term and up to 1.5°C global warming. As literature above 1.5°C is limited, feasibility at higher levels of warming may change, which is currently not possible to assess robustly. Climate responses and adaptation options at global scale are drawn from a set of options assessed in AR6 that have robust evidence across the feasibility dimensions. This figure shows the six feasibility dimensions (economic, technological, institutional, social, environmental and geophysical) that are used to calculate the potential feasibility of climate responses and adaptation options, along with their synergies with mitigation. For potential feasibility and feasibility dimensions, the figure shows high, medium, or low feasibility. Synergies with mitigation are identified as high, medium, and low. Insufficient evidence is denoted by a dash. (CCB FEASIB, Table SMCCB FEASIB.1.1, SR1.5 4.SM.4.3) (b) Climate responses and adaptation options, organized by System Transitions and Representative Key Risks, are assessed at global scale for their likely ability to reduce risks for ecosystems and social groups at risk, as well as their relation with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Climate responses and adaptation options are assessed for observed benefits (+) to ecosystems and their services, ethnic groups, gender equity, and low-income groups, or observed dis-benefits (-) for these systems and groups. Where there is highly diverging evidence of benefits/ dis-benefits across the scientific literature, e.g., based on differences between regions, it is shown as not clear or mixed (●). Insufficient evidence is shown by a dash. The relation with the SDGs is assessed as having benefits (+), dis-benefits (-) or not clear or mixed (●) based on the impacts of the climate response and adaptation option on each SDG. Areas not coloured indicate there is no evidence of a relation or no interaction with the respective SDG. The climate responses and adaptation options are drawn from two assessments. For comparability of climate responses and adaptation options see Table SM17.5. {17.2, 17.5, CCB FEASIB}

benefits but with trade-offs and negative socioeconomic and environmental effects (high confidence). Competition, trade-offs and conflict between mitigation and adaptation priorities will increase with climate change impacts (high confidence). Integrated, multi-sectoral, inclusive and systems-oriented solutions reinforce long-term resilience (high confidence), along with supportive public policies (medium confidence). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER, Figure TS.11a) {2.6, 4.6.2, 4.7.1, 4.7.4, 4.8, Box 4.3, Figure 4.27, Figure 4.29, 5.4.3, 5.4.4, 7.4.2, 1.1, 9.12.4, 12.5.3, 12.5.4, 13.2.2, 14.4.3, 14.4.4, CCP5.4.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB NATURAL}

TS.D.5.1 There are a range of options for water- and food-related adaptation in different sociocultural, economic and geographical contexts, with benefits across several dimensions across regions (high confidence), including climate risk reduction (medium confidence). Frequently documented options include rainwater harvesting, soil moisture conservation, cultivar improvements, community-based adaptation, agricultural diversification, climate services and adaptive eco-management in fisheries (high confidence). Roughly 25% of assessed water-related adaptations have co-benefits, while 33% of the assessed reported current or future maladaptive outcomes (high confidence). There is limited evidence, medium agreement on the institutional feasibility or cost effectiveness of adaptation activities or their limits. Integration of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge increase their effectiveness (high confidence). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) {4.6, 4.7.1, 5.4.4, 5.5.4, 5.6.3, 5.8.4, 5.9.4, 5.10.4, 5.11.4, 5.12.4, 5.14.1, 12.5.3, 12.5.4, 13.2.2, 13.5.2, 13.10.2, Figure 13.7, Figure 13.15, 15.5.4, 15.5.6, CCB FEASIB}

TS.D.5.2 The projected future effectiveness of available adaptation for agriculture and food systems decreases with increasing warming (high confidence). Currently known adaptation responses generally perform more effectively at 1.5°C than at 2°C or more, with increasing risks remaining after adaptation at higher warming levels (high confidence). Irrigation expansion will face increasing limits due to water availability beyond 1.5°C (medium confidence), with a potential doubling of regional risks to irrigation water availability between 2°C and 4°C (medium confidence). Negative risks even with adaptation will become greater beyond 2°C warming in an increasing number of regions (high confidence). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) {4.6.2, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.7.3, 5.4.3, 5.4.4, 13.5.1, 13.10.2, 14.5.4, 15.3.4}

TS.D.5.3 Ecosystem-based approaches, agroecology and other nature-based solutions in agriculture and fisheries have the potential to strengthen resilience to climate change with

multiple co-benefits (high confidence); trade-offs and benefits vary with socioecological context. Options such as ecosystem approaches to fisheries, agricultural diversification, agroforestry and other ecological practices support long-term productivity and ecosystem services such as pest control, soil health, pollination and buffering of temperature extremes (high confidence), but potential and trade-offs vary by socioeconomic context, ecosystem zone, species combinations and institutional support (medium confidence). Ecosystem-based approaches support food security, nutrition and livelihoods when inclusive equitable governance processes are used (high confidence). {2.6.3, 3.4.2, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.5, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Figure 3.26, Table SM3.6, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, 5.4.4, 5.6.3, 5.8.4, 5.9.3, 5.10.4, 5.14.1, 8.5.2, 8.6.3, 9.6.4, 12.5.1, 12.5.4, 13.3.2, 13.5.2, 14.5.1, 14.5.2, 14.5.3, 14.5.4, Box 14.7, 16.3.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB MOVING PLATE, CCB NATURAL, CWGB BIOECONOMY}

TS.D.5.4 Sustainable resource management in response to distribution shifts of terrestrial and aquatic species under climate change is an effective adaptation option to reduce food and nutritional risk, conflict and loss of livelihood (medium confidence). Adaptation options exist to reduce the vulnerability of fisheries through better management, governance and socioeconomic dimensions (medium confidence) to eliminate overexploitation and pollution (high confidence). Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge can facilitate adaptation in small-scale fisheries, especially when combined with scientific knowledge and utilised in management regimes (medium confidence). Adaptive transboundary governance and ecosystem-based management, livelihood diversification, capacity development and improved knowledge-sharing will reduce conflict and promote the fair distribution of sustainably harvested wild products and revenues (medium confidence). {5.8.4, 5.14.3, CCP5.4.2, CCB MOVING PLATE}

TS.D.5.5 Adaptation options that promote intensification of production have been widely adopted in agriculture for climate change adaptation, but with potential negative effects (high confidence). Agricultural intensification addresses short-term food security and livelihood goals but has trade-offs in equity, biodiversity and ecosystem services (high confidence). Irrigation is widely used and effective for yield stability, but with several negative outcomes, including water demand (high confidence), groundwater depletion (high confidence), alteration of local to regional climates (high confidence), increasing soil salinity (medium confidence), widening inequalities and loss of rural smallholder livelihoods with weak governance (medium confidence). Conventional breeding assisted by genomics introduces
traits that adapt crops to climate change (high confidence). Genetic improvements through modern biotechnology have the potential to increase climate resilience in food production systems (high confidence), but with biophysical ceilings, and technical, agroecosystem, socioeconomic and political variables strongly influence and limit the uptake of climate resilient crops, particularly for smallholders (medium confidence). {4.6.2, 4.7.1, Box 4.3, 5.4.4, 5.12.5, 5.13.4, 5.14.1, 10.2.2, 12.5.4, 13.5.1, 13.5.2, 13.5.14, 14.5.4, 15.3.4, 17.5.1}

TS.D.5.6 Integrated and systems-oriented solutions to alleviate competition and trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation will reinforce long-term resilience and equity in water and food systems (high confidence). Large-scale land deals for climate mitigation have trade-offs with livelihoods, water and food security (high confidence). Afforestation programmes without adequate safeguards adversely affect Indigenous Peoples' rights, land tenure and adaptive capacity (high confidence). Some mitigation measures, such as carbon capture and storage, bio-energy and afforestation, have a high water footprint (high confidence). Increased demand for aquaculture, animal and marine foods and energy products will intensify competition and potential conflict over land and water resources, particularly in low- and medium-income countries (high confidence), with negative impacts on food security and deforestation (medium confidence). Integrated, systems-oriented solutions reduce competition and trade-offs and include inclusive governance, behavioural (e.g., healthier diets with lower carbon and water footprints) and technical (e.g., novel feeds) responses (high confidence). {1.4.2, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5, 2.6, 3.6.3, 4.7.1, 4.7.6, Box 4.5, Box 4.8, 5.13.1, 5.13.2, 5.13.3, 5.13.5, 5.13.7, 9.4.3, 12.5.8, 12.6.2, 14.5.4, 15.5.6, 17.5.1, CCP5.4.2, CWGB BIOECONOMY}

TS.D.5.7 Integrated multi-sectoral strategies that address social inequities (e.g., gender, ethnicity) and social protection of low-income groups will increase the effectiveness of adaptation responses for water and food security (high confidence). Multiple interacting factors help to ensure that adaptive communities have water and food security, including addressing poverty, social inequities, violent conflict, provision of social services such as water and sanitation, social safety nets and vital ecosystem services. Differentiated responses based on water and food security level and climate risk increase effectiveness, such as social protection programmes for extreme events, medium-term responses such as local food procurement for school meals, community seed banks or well construction to build adaptive capacity (medium confidence). Longer-term responses include strengthening ecosystem services, local and regional markets, enhanced capacity and reducing systemic gender, land tenure and other social inequalities as part of a rights-based approach (medium confidence). In the urban context, policies that account for social inclusion in governance and rights to green urban spaces will enhance urban agriculture's potential for food and water security and other ecosystem services. (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) {4.7.1, 4.8.3, Figure 4.27, Figure 4.29, 5.12.5, 5.12.7, 12.5.3, 12.5.4, 12.5.5, 15.6.5, 17.5.1}

TS.D.5.8 Supportive public policies for transitions to resilient water and food systems enhance effectiveness and feasibility in ecosystem provisioning services, livelihoods and water and food security (medium confidence). Collective efforts across sectors,

with the involvement of food producers and water users and including Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, are a pre-condition to reaching sustainable water and food systems (high confidence). Policies that support system transitions include shifting subsidies, certification, green public procurement, capacity building, payments for ecosystem services and social protection (medium confidence). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) {4.7.1, 4.8.4, 5.4.4, 5.4.4, 5.10.4, 5.12.6, 5.13.4, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, Box 5.13, 12.5.4, CWGB BIOECONOMY}

## Cities, settlements and infrastructure

TS.D.6 Cities and settlements are crucial for delivering urgent climate action. The concentration and interconnection of people, infrastructure and assets within and across cities and into rural areas drives the creation of risks and solutions at a global scale (high confidence). Concentrated inequalities in risk are broken through prioritising affordable housing and upgrading of informal and precarious settlements, paying special attention to including marginalised groups and women (high confidence). Such actions are most effective when deployed across grey/physical infrastructure, nature-based solutions and social policy and between local and city-wide or national actions (medium confidence). City and local governments remain key actors facilitating climate change adaptation in cities and settlements. Community-based action is also critical. Multi-level governance opens an inclusive and accountable adaptation space across scales of decision-making, improving development processes through an understanding of social and economic systems, planning, experimentation and embedded solutions, including processes of social learning. (Figure TS.9 URBAN, Figure TS.11a) {4.6.5, 4.7.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 8.5.2, 10.3.6, 10.4.6, 12.5.5, 13.6.2, 13.11.1, 14.5.5, 15.7, 16.4.2, CWGB URBAN}

TS.D.6.1 Continuing rapid growth in urban populations and unmet needs for healthy, decent, affordable and sustainable housing and infrastructure represent a global opportunity to integrate inclusive adaptation strategies into development (high confidence). The urban adaptation gap shows that for all world regions, current adaptation is unable to resolve risks from current climate change associated hazards. Moreover, an additional 2.5 billion people are projected to be living in urban areas by 2050, with up to 90% of this increase concentrated in the regions of Asia and Africa (high confidence). Retrofitting, upgrading and redesigning existing urban places and infrastructure combined with planning and design for new urban infrastructure can utilise existing knowledge on social policy, nature-based solutions and grey/physical infrastructure to build inclusive processes of adaptation into everyday urban planning and development. {4.6.5, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4, 9.9.5, 10.3.4, 12.5.5, 13.6.2, 13.11.3}

TS.D.6.2 Diverse adaptation responses to current and near-term climate impacts are already under way in many cities and settlements in different world regions (very high confidence). These responses range from hard engineering interventions to nature-based solutions, social policy and social safety nets to disaster management and capacity building, raising or relocation of settlements and combinations of such measures sequenced over time. While many more cities have developed adaptation plans since AR5, few of these
Ecosystem health influences prospects for climate resilient development

(a) Human activities that degrade ecosystems also drive global warming and negatively impact nature and people

Retreat and loss of glaciers and permafrost thaw

Upward migration of high elevation grasslands

Upward migration of lower elevation species

Invasive plants

Water catchments invaded by invasive plants

Woody encroachment

Overgrazing

High-emission energy production

Encroachment by woody plants

<figure><img src="image_560.png" /></figure>

Fire suppression

Unsustainable tourism

<figure><img src="image_561.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_562.png" /></figure>

Reduced food and water security

<figure><img src="image_563.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_564.png" /></figure>

Little or no perennial grass cover

Desertification

<figure><img src="image_565.png" /></figure>

Intensive agriculture

<figure><img src="image_566.png" /></figure>

Intensive animal production

Excessive fertilisers in waterways

Coastal erosion

<figure><img src="image_567.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_568.png" /></figure>

Global goods transportation

Ocean acidification

Overfishing

Coral bleaching and degradation

<figure><img src="image_569.png" /></figure>

(b) Human activities that protect, conserve and restore ecosystems contribute to climate resilient development

<figure><img src="image_570.png" /></figure>
**Figure TS.12** | This figure shows the interconnectedness between different ecosystems and system transitions, with human activities in urban, rural and coastal locations embedded in ecosystems. Maintaining biosphere integrity is essential for biodiversity, human and societal health and a precondition for climate resilient development. Panel a) illustrates how adaptation, mitigation and development actions characterised by exploitation and degradation lead to unsustainable development and adverse outcomes for human well-being and ecosystem integrity. Panel b) illustrates how adaptation options, implemented in an integrated way with mitigation and development and based on ecosystem stewardship, can support climate resilient development (Figure TS.13). The protection or restoration of one or more of these ecosystems also provides benefits to the other ecosystems and enhances the services provided that improve livelihoods. Protecting and restoring ecosystem health as a part of societal development and through societal choices is a key transformative solution space for climate resilient development (2.5, 2.6, 3.5, 3.6, 4.3, 5.13, 6.3, 7.4, CCP1, CCP3, CCP5, Box 18.5)

plans have been implemented, and of these fewer still are being
developed and evaluated through consultation and co-production with
diverse and marginalised urban communities (medium confidence).
{4.6.5, 6.3.3, 6.3.4, 6.3.5, CCP2.3, CCP2.4, 12.5.5, 13.2.2, 13.6.2,
13.11.3, 14.5.5, 15.3.4, 15.5.4, 15.6.1, 16.4.2, CCB FEASIB}

TS.D.6.3 Globally, urban adaptation gaps exist for all climate change-driven risks, although the limits to adaptation are unevenly distributed (medium confidence). Governance capacity, financial support and the legacy of past urban infrastructure investment constrain how cities and settlements can adapt to key climate risks (medium confidence). The gap between what can be adapted to and what has been adapted to is uneven; it is larger for the poorest 20% of populations than for the wealthiest 20%. The adaptation gap is also geographically uneven; it is highest in Africa (medium confidence). Limits to adaptation are often most pronounced in rapidly growing urban areas and smaller settlements, including those without dedicated local government. At the same time, legacy infrastructure in large and mega cities, designed without taking climate change risk into account, and past adaptation decisions constrain innovation, leading to stranded assets and with increasing numbers of people unable to avoid harm, including heat stress and flooding, without transformative adaptation (medium confidence). {6.3, 6.4, 12.5.5, 13.2, 13.2.3, 13.6.2, 13.6.2, 13.11.3, Box 14.4, CCP2.3.6, CCP2.4, CCP2.5, CWGB URBAN}

TS.D.6.4 The greatest gaps between policy and action are in projects to integrate justice concerns into adaptation action, address complex interconnected risks where solutions lie outside as well as within a city, for example in the food-energy-water-health nexus, and resolve compound risks such as the relationships between air quality and climate risk (medium confidence). The most critical capacity gaps at the city and community levels that hinder adaptation include an ability to identify social vulnerability and community strengths and to plan in integrated ways to protect communities, alongside the ability to access innovative funding arrangements and manage finance and commercial insurance, as well as locally accountable decision-making with sufficient access to science, technology and local knowledge to support application of adaptation solutions at scale. As ecosystems provide important additional benefits to human well-being and coastal livelihoods, urban adaptation strategies can be developed for settlements and nearby ecosystems; combining these with engineering solutions can extend their lifetime under high rates of sea level rise (medium confidence). In Central and South America, the adoption of nature-based solutions and hybrid (green-grey) infrastructure are still emerging. Monitoring and evaluation frameworks that incorporate questions of justice, ecological health and multi-sector considerations can help to move away from more narrow, static, indicator-based approaches to adaptation. (high confidence) {4.6.5, Box 4.8, 5.12.5, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4, 10.3.4, 12.5.5, 13.6.1, 13.6.2}

TS.D.6.5 Key innovations in adaptation in social policy and nature-based solutions have not been matched by innovation in adaptation finance, which tends to favour established mechanisms, often led by grey/physical infrastructure at the national scale. Social policy innovations include social safety nets, inclusive approaches to disaster risk reduction and the integration of climate adaptation into education. Nature-based solutions include green and blue infrastructure in and around cities, including hinterlands, that increase water access and reduce hazards for cities and settlements, for example reforestation of hill-slope and coastal areas. In Europe, many urban innovations are pilot tested, but their up-scaling remains challenging. Where inclusive approaches to adaptation policy and action are supported, this can enable wider gains of more equitable urbanisation (medium confidence). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) {2.6.3, 4.6.5, 4.7.1, 6.3.3, 6.3.5, 6.4.3, 12.5.5, 13.6.2, 13.11.3, CCB FEASIB, CWGB URBAN}

TS.D.6.6 Many urban adaptation plans focus narrowly on climate risk reduction and specific climate-associated risks, missing opportunities to advance co-benefits with climate mitigation and sustainable development (high confidence). This narrow approach limits opportunity for urban and infrastructure adaptation to tackle the root causes of inequality and exclusion, especially among marginalised groups, including women. Urban adaptation measures have many opportunities to contribute to climate resilient development pathways (medium confidence). They can enhance social capital, livelihoods, human and ecological health and contribute to low-carbon futures. Urban planning, social policy and nature-based solutions bring great flexibility with co-benefits for climate mitigation and sustainable development. Participatory planning for infrastructure provision and risk management in informal, precarious and underserved neighbourhoods, the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, and communication and efforts to build local leadership especially among women and youth are examples of inclusive approaches with co-benefits for equity. Targeted development planning across the range of innovation and investment in social policy, nature-based solutions and grey/physical infrastructure can significantly increase the adaptive capacity of urban settlements and cities and their contribution to climate resilient development (high confidence). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) {4.6.5, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4, Box 6.6, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 10.5, 10.6, 12.5.5, 12.5.7, 13.11.3, 14.5.5, 15.6.1, 15.7, CCP5.4.3, CCB COVID, CCB FEASIB}

TS.D.6.7 City and infrastructure planning approaches that integrate adaptation into everyday decision-making are supported by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: the Paris Agreement, SDGs, New Urban Agenda and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. The 2030 Agenda provides a global framework for city- and community-level action to align Nationally Determined Contributions, national adaptation plans and the
SDGs. City and local action can complement—and at times go further than—national and international interventions (high confidence). Adaptation policy that focuses on informality and sub-serviced or inadequately serviced neighbourhoods and supports inclusive urbanisation by considering the social and economic root causes of unequal vulnerability and exposure can contribute to the broader goals of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and reduce vulnerability to non-climatic risks, including pandemic risk (high confidence). More comprehensive and clearly articulated global ambitions for city and community adaptation will contribute to inclusive urbanisation by addressing the root causes of social and economic inequalities that drive social exclusion and marginalisation, so that adaptation can directly support the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (high confidence). {6.1.1, 6.2.3, 6.4.1, Table 6.2, 12.5.5, 12.5.7}

## Sea level rise

TS.D.7 The ability of societies and ecosystems to adapt to current coastal impacts to address present and future coastal risks under further acceleration of sea level rise depends on immediate and effective mitigation and adaptation actions that keep options open to further adapt (high confidence). Adaptation pathways break adaptation planning into manageable steps based on near-term, low-regret actions and aligning adaptation choices with societal goals that account for changing risk, interests and values, uncertain futures and the long-term commitment to adapting to sea level rise (high confidence). In charting adaptation pathways, reconciling divergent interests and values is a priority (high confidence). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) {11.7.3, 13.10, 14.5.2, Box 14.4, CCP2.3, CCP2.4, CCB DEEP, CCB SLR}

TS.D.7.1 As the scale and pace of sea level rise accelerates beyond 2050, long-term adjustments may in some locations be beyond the limits of current adaptation options and for some species and some locations could be an existential risk in the 21st century (medium confidence). Nature-based interventions, for example wetlands and salt marshes, can reduce impacts and costs while supporting biodiversity and livelihoods but have limits under high warming levels and rapid sea level rise (high confidence). Ecological limits and socioeconomic, financial and governance barriers will be reached first and are determined by the type of coastline and city or settlement (medium confidence). Accommodation can reduce impacts on people and assets but can address only limited sea level rise. Considering the long term now will help to avoid maladaptive lock-in, to build capacity to act in a timely and pre-emptive manner and to reduce risks to ecosystems and people. {3.4.2, 3.6.3, 11.7.3, 13.2, 14.5.2, 15.3.4, CCP2.3, CCB DEEP, CCB SLR}

TS.D.7.2 Adaptation for coastal ecosystems requires space, networks and sediment to keep up with sea level rise (high confidence). With higher warming, faster sea level rise and increasing human pressures due to coastal development, the ability to adapt decreases (high confidence). Adaptation options, such as providing sufficient space for a coastal system to migrate inland, when combined with ambitious and urgent mitigation measures, can reduce impacts, but they depend on the type of coastline and patterns of coastal development (high confidence). With rapid sea level rise, these options

will become insufficient to limit risks for marine ecosystems and their services such as food provision, coastal protection and carbon sequestration (high confidence). (Figure TS.11a) {3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, Box 3.4, 14.5.2, CCB SLR}

TS.D.7.3 A wide range of adaptation options exists for reducing the ongoing multi-faceted coastal risks in cities and settlements (very high confidence). A mix of infrastructure, nature-based, institutional and sociocultural interventions can best address the risks. The options include vulnerability-reducing measures, avoidance (e.g., disincentivising developments in high-risk areas and addressing existing social vulnerabilities), hard and soft protection (e.g., sea walls, coastal wetlands), accommodation (e.g., elevating houses), advance (e.g., building up and out to sea) and staged, managed retreat (e.g., landward movement of people and development) interventions (very high confidence). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) {3.6.2, 3.6.3, 11.3.5, Box 11.6, 12.5.5, 13.2, 14.5.2, 15.5.1, 15.5.2, 15.5.3, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 15.5.7, 17.2, CCP2.3, CCP2.4, CCB FEASIB, CCB SLR}

TS.D.7.4 Implementation of coastal adaptation can be delayed by competing public and private interests, trade-offs among development and conservation objectives, legacy development, policy inconsistencies, contradictory short- and long-term objectives and uncertainties on the timing and scale of impacts (high confidence). Local government barriers to coastal adaptation could lead to courts' becoming de facto decision makers for local adaptation, and this could be compounded by legislative shortcomings and fragmentation, insufficient leadership, lack of coordination between governance levels and disagreement about financial responsibility (high confidence). {11.7.3, 15.5.6, CCP2.4}

TS.D.7.5 Adaptation is costly, but the benefit-to-cost ratio is high for urbanised coastal areas with high concentrations of assets (high confidence). Protection has a high benefit-cost ratio during the 21st century but can become unaffordable and insufficient to reduce coastal risk (e.g., due to salinisation, drainage of rivers and excess water), reaching technical limits (high confidence). Hard protection sets up lock-in of assets and people to risks and reaches limits by the end of the century or sooner, depending on the scenario, local sea level rise effects and community tolerance thresholds (high confidence). Considering coastal retreat as part of the solution space could lower global adaptation costs but would result in large land losses and high levels of migration for South and Southeast Asia in particular and in relative terms, small island nations would suffer most (high confidence). Solutions include disincentivising developments in high-risk areas and addressing existing social vulnerabilities now (high confidence). {3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, 5.13.4, 9.4.1, Box 11.6, 13.2, 14.5.3, 15.5.1, 15.5.2, 15.5.3, 16.5.2, CCP2.3, CCB MIGRATE, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR}

TS.D.7.6 Prospects for addressing climate change compounded coastal hazard risk depend on the extent to which societal choices, and associated governance processes and practices, address the drivers and root causes of exposure and social vulnerability (very high confidence). Many drivers and root causes of coastal risk are historically and institutionally embedded (very high confidence). When national and local authorities work with their communities, sustained risk reduction in the exposure and
vulnerability of those most at risk is more likely (high confidence). Drawing on multiple knowledge systems helps in co-designing and co-producing more acceptable, effective and enduring responses. Reconciling divergent worldviews, values and interests can unlock the productive potential of conflict for transitioning towards pathways that foster climate resilient development, generate equitable adaptation outcomes and remove governance constraints (high confidence). Shared understanding and locally appropriate responses are enabled by deliberate experimentation, innovation and social learning (medium confidence). External assistance and government support can enhance community capabilities to reduce coastal hazard risk (high confidence). {15.6.1, 17.2, CCP2.4, Table CCP2.1}

TS.D.7.7 Experience in coastal cities and settlements highlights critical enablers for addressing coastal hazard risk compounded by sea level rise (high confidence). These enablers include building and strengthening governance capacity and capabilities to tackle complex problems; taking a long-term perspective in making short-term decisions; enabling more effective coordination across scales, sectors and policy domains; reducing injustice, inequity and social vulnerability; and unlocking the productive potential of coastal conflict while strengthening local democracy (medium evidence, high agreement). Flexible options enable responses to be adjusted as climate risk escalates and circumstances change, which may increase exposure (medium confidence). Legal and financial provisions can enable managed retreat from the most at-risk locations (medium confidence) but require coordination, trust and legitimate decisions by and across policy domains and sectors (high confidence) that prioritise vulnerability, justice and equity (medium confidence). Inclusive, informed and meaningful deliberation and collaborative problem-solving depend on safe arenas for engagement by all stakeholders (high confidence). {CCP2.4, Table CCP2.1, Table CCP2.2, CCB SLR}

## Health, well-being, migration and displacement

TS.D.8 With proactive, timely and effective adaptation, many risks for human health and well-being could be reduced and some potentially avoided (very high confidence). Building adaptive capacity through sustainable development and encouraging safe and orderly movements of people within and between states represent key adaptation responses to prevent climate-related involuntary migration (high confidence). Reducing poverty, inequity and food and water insecurity and strengthening institutions in particular reduce the risk of conflict and supports climate resilient peace (high confidence). (Figure TS.8 HEALTH) {2.6.4, 4.6.4, Box 4.4, 5.12.5, 5.14, Box 6.3, 7.4.1, 8.4.4, 9.10.3, 10.4.7, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, 12.5.7, Table 12.9, 13.7.2, Figure 13.25, 14.5.6, Table 14.5, CCB ILLNESS}

TS.D.8.1 National planning on health and climate change is advancing, but the comprehensiveness of strategies and plans need to be strengthened to reduce future risks, and implementing action on key health and climate change priorities remains challenging (high confidence). The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the value of coordinated planning across sectors, safety nets and other capacities in societies to cope with a range of shocks and stresses and to alleviate system-wide risks to health (high confidence).

A significant adaptation gap exists for human health and well-being and for responses to disaster risks (very high confidence). Most Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement from low- and middle-income countries identify health as a priority concern (very high confidence). Effective governance institutions, arrangements, funding and mandates are key for adaptation to climate-related health risks (high confidence). {4.6.4, 5.12.5, 5.14, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, Table 7.2, 9.10.3, 10.4.7.3, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, 13.7.2, CCB ILLNESS, CCB COVID}

TS.D.8.2 Continued investment in general health systems and in systems enhancing health protection is an effective adaptation strategy in the short to medium term (high confidence). Although some mortality and morbidity from climate change are already unavoidable, targeted adaptation and mitigation actions can reduce risks and vulnerabilities (high confidence). The burden of diseases could be reduced and resilience increased through health systems, generating awareness of climate change impacts on health (medium confidence), strengthening access to water and sanitation (high confidence), integrating vector control management approaches (very high confidence), expanding existing early-warning monitoring systems (high confidence), increasing vaccine development and coverage (medium confidence), improving the heat resistance of the built environment (medium confidence) and building financial safety nets (medium confidence). {2.6.4, 4.6.4, 5.12.5, 5.14, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, Table 7.2, 9.10.3, 10.4.7, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, Table 12.9, 13.7.2, Figure 13.25, 14.5.6, Table 14.5, CCP6.2.6, CCB FEASIB, CCB ILLNESS}

TS.D.8.3 Many adaptation measures that benefit health and well-being are found in other sectors (e.g., food, livelihoods, social protection, water and sanitation, infrastructure) (high confidence). Such cross-sectoral solutions include improved air quality through renewable energy sources (very high confidence), active transport (e.g., walking and cycling) (high confidence) and sustainable food systems that lead to healthier diets (high confidence). Heat Action Plans have strong potential to prevent mortality from extreme heat events and elevated temperature (high confidence). Nature-based solutions reduce a variety of risks to both physical and mental health and well-being (high confidence). For example, integrated agroecological food systems offer opportunities to improve dietary diversity while building climate-related local resilience to food insecurity (high confidence), especially when combined with gender equity and social justice. Social policy-based adaptation, including education and the adaptation of health systems, offers considerable future scope. The greatest gaps between policy and action are in failures to manage adaptation of social infrastructure (e.g., community facilities, services and networks) and failure to address complex interconnected risks for example in the food-energy-water-health nexus or the inter-relationships of air quality and climate risk (medium confidence). {2.6.7, 4.6.4, 4.7.1, 5.12.5, 5.14.1, 6.3.1, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, 7.4.2, 9.10.3, 10.4.7, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, Table 12.9, 13.7.2, Figure 13.25, 14.5.6, Table 14.5, CCB GENDER, CCB HEALTH, CCB NATURAL}

TS.D.8.4 Despite acknowledgement of the importance of health adaptation as a key component, action has been slow since AR5 (high confidence). Building climate resilient health systems will require multi-sectoral, multi-system and collaborative efforts at all governance scales (very high confidence). Globally,
health systems are poorly resourced in general, and their capacity to respond to climate change is weak, with mental health support being particularly inadequate (very high confidence). The health sectors in some countries have focused on implementing incremental changes to policies and measures to respond to impacts (very high confidence). As the likelihood of dangerous risks to human health continues to increase, there is a greater need for transformational changes to health and other systems (very high confidence). This highlights an urgent and immediate need to address the wider interactions between environmental change, socioeconomic development and human health and well-being (high confidence). {7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 9.10.3, Box 9.7, 11.3.6.3, 13.7.2, 14.5.6, CCP6.2.6, Figure CCP6.3}

TS.D.8.5 Financial constraints are the most referenced barrier to health adaptation, and therefore scaling up financial investments remains a key international priority (very high confidence). Financial support for health adaptation is currently less than 0.5% of overall dispersed multilateral climate finance projects (high confidence). This level of investment is insufficient to protect human health and health systems from most climate-sensitive health risks (very high confidence). Adaptation financing often does not reach places where the climate sensitivity of the health sector is greatest (high confidence). {7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 9.10.3}

TS.D.8.6 Reducing future risks of involuntary migration and displacement due to climate change is possible by improving outcomes of existing migration patterns, addressing vulnerabilities that pose barriers to in situ adaptation and livelihood strategies and meeting existing migration agreements and development objectives (medium confidence). Properly supported and where levels of agency and assets are high, migration as an adaptation to climate change can reduce exposure and socioeconomic vulnerability (medium confidence). However, migration becomes a risk when climate hazards cause an individual, household or community to move involuntarily or with low agency (high confidence). Inability to migrate (i.e., involuntary immobility) in the face of climate hazards is also a potential risk to exposed populations (medium confidence). Broad-based institutional and cross-sectoral efforts to build adaptive capacity, including meeting the SDGs, reduce future risks of climate-related involuntary displacement and immobility (medium confidence), while policies such as the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (medium confidence) that are aimed at ensuring safe and orderly movements of people within and between states are potential components of climate resilient development pathways that can improve migration as an adaptation. {4.6.8, 7.4.4, 9.3.1, 12.5.8, CCP5.4.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB MIGRATE}

TS.D.8.7 Improving the feasibility of planned relocation and resettlement is a high priority for managing climate risks (high confidence). Residents of small island states do not view relocation as an appropriate or desirable means of adapting to the impacts of climate change (high confidence). Previous disaster- and development-related relocation has been expensive and contentious, posed multiple challenges for governments and amplified existing ones and generated new vulnerabilities for the people involved (high confidence). In locations where permanent, government-assisted relocation becomes unavoidable, active involvement of local populations in planning and

decision-making may lead to more successful outcomes (medium confidence). {4.6.8, 7.4.4, 9.3.1, 12.5.8, 15.5.3, CCP5.4.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB MIGRATE}

TS.D.8.8 Meeting SDGs supports adaptive capacity that in turn supports individuals, households and community manage climate risks and supports peace (high confidence). By addressing vulnerability, improving livelihoods and strengthening institutions, meeting the SDGs reduces the risks of armed conflict and violence (medium confidence). Formal institutional arrangements for natural resource management and environmental peacebuilding, conflict-sensitive adaptation and climate-sensitive peacebuilding and gender-sensitive approaches offer potential new avenues to build peace in conflict-prone regions vulnerable to climate change (medium confidence). However, there is currently insufficient evidence on their success and further monitoring and evaluation is required. (Figure TS.11b) {4.8, 7.4.6, Box 9.9, 16.3.2, CCB GENDER}

Justice, equity and governance

TS.D.9 Adaptation actions consistent with climate justice address near- and long-term risks through decision-making processes that attend to moral and legal principles of fairness, equity and responsibility including to historically marginalised communities and that distribute benefits, burdens and risks equitably (high confidence). Concepts of justice, consent and rights-based decision-making, together with societal measures of well-being, are increasingly used to legitimate adaptation actions and evaluate the impacts on individuals and ecosystems, diverse communities and across generations (medium confidence). Applying these principles as part of monitoring and evaluating the outcomes of adaptation, particularly during system transitions, provide a basis for ensuring that the distribution of benefits and costs are identified (medium confidence). {1.4.1, 4.8, 5.10.4, 5.12.3, 6.1.5, 6.3.6, 12.5.7, 14.7.2, 17.5.1, CCB FEASIB, CCB GENDER}

TS.D.9.1 Near-term adaptation responses influence future inequalities, poverty, livelihood security and well-being (high confidence). Adaptation and mitigation approaches that exacerbate inequitable access to resources and fail to address injustice increase suffering, including water and food insecurity and malnutrition rates for vulnerable groups that rely directly or indirectly on natural resources for their livelihoods (high confidence). {1.4.1, 5.12.3, 5.13.3, 6.3.6, 8.6.2, Box 9.3, 12.5.7, 18.1}

TS.D.9.2 Under an inequality scenario (SSP4), the number of people living in extreme poverty could increase by more than 100 million (medium confidence). There is medium evidence and low agreement about the adaptation impacts of derivative-based insurance products. Insurance solutions are difficult for low-income groups to access (medium confidence). Formal insurance policies come with risks when implemented in a stand-alone manner, including risks of maladaptation (medium confidence). {5.13.5, 5.14.1, 9.8.4, 9.11.4}

TS.D.9.3 Climate-induced changes are not experienced equally across genders, income levels, classes, ethnicities, ages or
**physical abilities (high confidence).** Therefore, participation of historically excluded groups, such as women, youth and marginalised communities (e.g., Indigenous Peoples, ethnic minorities, the disabled and low-income households), contributes to more equitable and socially just adaptation actions. Adaptation actions do not automatically have positive outcomes for gender equality. Understanding the positive and negative links of adaptation actions with gender equality goals (i.e., SDG 5) is important to ensure that adaptive actions do not exacerbate existing gender-based and other social inequalities (high confidence). Climate literacy varies across diverse communities, compounding vulnerability {2.6.3, 2.6.7, 4.3, 4.6, 4.6.9, 5.12.5, 5.14, 6.4.4, Box 6.1, 9.4.5, Box 9.1, 12.5.8, 16.1.4, CCB GENDER}

**TS.D.9.4 Empowering marginalised communities in the co-production of policy at all scales of decision-making advances equitable adaptation efforts and reduces the risks of maladaptation (high confidence).** Recognising Indigenous rights and local knowledge in the design and implementation of climate change responses contributes to equitable adaptation outcomes (high confidence). Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge play an important role in finding solutions and often creates critical linkages between cultures, policy frameworks, economic systems and natural resource management (medium confidence). Intergenerational approaches to future climate planning and policy will become increasingly important in relation to the management, use and valuation of social-ecological systems (high confidence). Many regions benefit from the significant diversity of local knowledge and systems of production, informed by long-standing experience with natural variability, providing a rich foundation for adaptation actions effective at local scales (high confidence). {2.6.3, 2.6.7, 4.8.3, 4.8.4, 4.8.5, 5.12.5, 6.1, 6.4.1, 8.6.2, 8.6.3, 9.1, 9.12, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 12.5.7, 12.5.8, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 17.5.1, CCP6.3.2, CCP 6.6, CCP6.4.3, CCB NATURAL}

**TS.D.9.5 Proactive partnerships of government with the community, private sector and national agencies to minimise negative social, environmental or economic impacts of economy-wide transitions are emerging, but their implementation is uneven (medium confidence).** The greatest gains are achieved by prioritising investment to reduce climate risk for low-income and marginalised residents, particularly in informal settlements and rural communities (high confidence). Some city and local governments invest directly in adaptation action and work in partnership with a range of agencies. Legislative frameworks will assist business and insurance sector investment in key infrastructure to drive adaptive action at scale for equitable outcomes (medium confidence). {Box 5.8, 6.4, 6.4.1, 8.5.2, 8.6.3, 9.4.2, 17.4.3, CCP5.2.4, CCB FINANCE}

**TS.D.9.6 Inter-sectional, gender-responsive and inclusive decision-making can accelerate transformative adaptation over the long term to reduce vulnerability (high confidence).** Approaches to adaptation that address the needs of the most disadvantaged, through co-production of knowledge, are more sensitive to diverse community priorities and can yield beneficial climate co-adaptation benefits. There are gender differences in climate literacy in many regions exacerbating vulnerability in agricultural contexts in access to resources and opportunities for climate resilient crops (high confidence) {3.6.4, 4.6.5, 4.8.5, 5.4.4, 5.13.4, Table 5.6, 6.3.6, 9.4.2, 9.4.5, Box 9.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB MOVING PLATE}

**TS.D.9.7 Local leadership, especially among women and youth, can advance equity within and between generations (medium confidence).** Since AR5, social movements, including movements led by youth, Indigenous and ethnic communities, have heightened public awareness about the need for urgent, inclusive action to achieve adaptation that can also enhance well-being and advance climate justice. {4.8.3, Box 5.13, 6.1.5, 6.2, 6.3.5, 6.4, 6.4.1, 6.4.7, Box 6.6, Box 9.1, Box 9.2}

**TS.D.9.8. Climate justice initiatives that explicitly address multi-dimensional inequalities as part of a climate change adaptation strategy can reduce inequities in access to resources, assets and services as well as participation in decision-making and leadership, and are essential to achieving gender and climate justice (high confidence).** {Box 6.1, Box 9.2, 13.7.2, 13.11.1, CCB GENDER}

## Enabling implementation

**TS.D.10. Various tools, measures and processes are available that can enable, accelerate and sustain adaptation implementation (high confidence), in particular when anticipating climate change impacts, and empower inclusive decision-making and action when they are supported by adaptation finance and leadership across all sectors and groups in society (high confidence).** The actions and decisions taken today determine future impacts and play a critical role in expanding the solution space for future adaptation. Breaking adaptation down into manageable steps over time, while acknowledging potential long-term adaptation needs and options, can increase the prospect that effective adaptation plans will be actioned in timely and effective ways by stakeholders, sectors and institutions (high confidence). {2.6.7, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.8, 11.7.3, 13.10, 15.3.4, 15.6, 17.5, CCP2.2.4, CCB DEEP, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR}

**TS.D.10.1 Institutional frameworks, policies and plans that set out adaptation goals, define responsibilities and commitment devices, coordinate among actors and build adaptive capacity will facilitate sustained adaptation actions (very high confidence).** Adaptation is considered in the climate policies of at least 170 countries. Opportunities exist to integrate adaptation into institutionalised decision cycles (e.g., budget reforms, statutory monitoring and evaluation, election cycles) and during windows of opportunity (e.g., recovery after disastrous events, designing new or replacing existing critical infrastructure or developing COVID recovery projects) (high confidence). Appraisal of adaptation options for policy and implementation that considers the risks of adverse effects can help prevent maladaptive adaptation and take advantage of possible co-benefits (medium confidence). Instruments such as behavioural nudges, re-directing subsidies and taxes and the regulation of marketing and insurance schemes have proven useful to strengthening societal responses beyond governmental actors (medium confidence). {1.4.4, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 5.12.6, 5.13.3, 5.13.5, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 9.4.2, 9.11.5, 10.3.6, 10.5.3, 11.4, 11.7, Table 11.14, Table 11.16, 13.5.2, 13.10, 13.11, 14.7.2, 17.3.1, 17.3.2, 17.3.3, 17.4, 17.5.1, 17.6, 18.4, CCP2.4, CCP 2.4.3, CCP5.4.2, CCP6.3, CCP6.4, CCB DEEP, CCB INDIG}
TS.D.10.2 Access to and mobilising adequate financial resources for vulnerable regions is an important catalysing factor for timely climate resilient development and climate risk management (high confidence). Total tracked climate finance has increased from USD364 billion yr⁻¹ in 2010/2011 to USD579 billion in 2017/2018, with only 4–8% of this allocated to adaptation and more than 90% of adaptation finance coming from public sources. Developed-country climate finance leveraged for developing countries for mitigation and adaptation has shown an upward trend, but it has fallen short of the USD100 billion yr⁻¹ 2020 target of the Copenhagen commitment, and less than 20% has been for adaptation. Estimated global and regional costs of adaptation vary widely due to differences in assumptions, methods and data; the majority of more recent estimates are higher than the figures presented in AR5. Median (and ranges) estimated costs for developing country adaptation from recent studies are USD127 (15–411) and USD295 (47–1088) billion yr⁻¹ for 2030 and 2050 respectively. Examples of estimated regional adaptation include USD50 billion yr⁻¹ in Africa for 1.5°C of warming in 2050, increasing to USD100–350 billion yr⁻¹ for 4°C of global warming towards the end of the century. Increasing public and private finance flows by billions of dollars per year, increasing direct access to multilateral funds, strengthening project pipeline development and shifting finance from readiness activities to project implementation can enhance implementation of climate change adaptation and are fundamental to achieving climate justice for highly vulnerable countries, including small island states and African countries. {3.6.3, 4.8.2, 5.14.2, 9.1.1, 9.4.1, 13.9.4, 15.6, 15.6.1, 15.6.3, 15.7, 17.4.3, CCB FINANCE}

TS.D.10.3 Decision-support tools and decision-analytic methods are available and being applied for climate adaptation and climate risk management in different contexts (high confidence). Integrated adaptation frameworks and decision-support tools that anticipate multi-dimensional risks and accommodate community values are more effective than those with a narrow focus on single risks (medium confidence). Approaches that integrate the adaptation needs of multiple sectors such as disaster management, account for different risk perceptions and integrate multiple knowledge systems are better suited to addressing key risks (medium confidence). Reliable climate services, monitoring and early warning systems are the most commonly used strategies for managing the key risks, complementing long-term investments in risk reduction (high confidence). While these strategies are applicable to society as a whole, they need to be tailored to specific contexts in order to be adopted effectively. {2.6.7, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.5.5, 5.14.1, 7.2.2, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 9.5.1, 9.4.3, 9.10.3, 9.11.4, Box 9.2, Box 9.7, 15.5.7, 17.1.2, 17.2, 17.3.2, 17.4.4, 17.6, 18.4, CCP5.4.1, CCP5.6, CCB DEEP}

TS.D.10.4 Effective management of climate risks is dependent on systematically integrating adaptations across interacting climate risks and across sectors (very high confidence). Integrated pathways for managing climate risks will be most suitable when so-called 'low-regret' anticipatory options are established jointly across sectors in a timely manner and are feasible and effective in their local context, when path dependencies are avoided so as not to limit future options for climate resilient development and when maladaptations across sectors are avoided (high confidence). Integration of risks across sectors can be assisted by mainstreaming climate considerations across institutions and decision-making processes (high confidence).

Many forms of climate adaptation are likely to be more effective, efficient and equitable when organised collectively and with multiple objectives. Using different assessment, modelling, monitoring and evaluation approaches can facilitate understanding of the societal implications of trade-offs. {1.4.2, 2.6, 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 11.3.11, 11.5.1, 11.5.2, 11.7, 11.7.2, 11.7.3, 13.5.2, 13.10, 13.11.2, 13.11.3, 15.7; 17.3.1, 17.6, CCP2.3.6, CCP5.4.2, CCB DEEP}

TS.D.10.5 Forward-looking adaptive planning and iterative risk management can avoid path dependencies and maladaptation and ensure timely action (high confidence). Approaches that break down adaptation into manageable steps over time and use pathway analyses to determine low-regret actions for the near-term and long-term options are a useful starting point for adaptation (medium confidence). Decision frameworks that consider multiple objectives, scenarios, time frames and strategies can avoid privileging some views over others and help multiple actors to identify resilient and equitable solutions to complex, deeply uncertain challenges and explicitly deal with trade-offs. Considering socioeconomic developments and climatic changes beyond 2100 is particularly relevant for long-lived investment decisions such as new harbours, airports, urban expansions and flood defences to avoid lock-ins (medium confidence). Monitoring climate change, socioeconomic developments and progress on implementation is critical for learning about adaptation success and maladaptation and to assess whether, when and what further actions are needed for informing iterative risk management (high confidence). {1.5.2, 11.7, 13.2.2, 13.11.1, 17.5.2, CCP2.3.6, CCB DEEP}

TS.D.10.6 Enhancing climate change literacy on impacts and possible solutions is necessary to ensure widespread, sustained implementation of adaptation by state and non-state actors (high confidence). Ways to enhance climate literacy and foster behavioural change include access to education and information, programmes involving the performing and visual arts, storytelling, training workshops, participatory three-dimensional modelling, climate services and community-based monitoring. The use of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge represents and codifies actual experiences and autonomous adaptations and facilitates awareness, clarifies risk perception and enhances the understanding and adoption of solutions. Narratives can effectively communicate climate information and link this to societal goals and the actions needed to achieve them (high confidence). {1.2.2, 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 1.5.2, 5.4.4, 5.5.4, 5.8.4, 5.13.2, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 9.4.5, 14.3, 15.6.4, 15.6.5}

TS.D.10.7 Political commitment and follow-through across all levels of government are important to accelerate the implementation of adequate and timely adaptation actions (high confidence). Implementing actions often requires large upfront investments of human and financial resources and political capital by public, private and societal actors, while the benefits of these actions may only become visible in the mid to long term (medium confidence). Examples that can accelerate adaptation action include accountability and transparency mechanisms, monitoring and evaluation of adaptation progress, social movements, climate litigation, building the economic case for adaptation and increased adaptation finance (medium evidence, high agreement). {3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 4.8.7, 6.3, 6.4, 7.4.3, 9.4.2, 9.4.4, 11.7, 11.7.3, 11.8.1, 12.5, 12.5.6, 13.11, 14.6, 15.6, 15.6.3, 17.4.2, 17.5.2, 17.6, 18.4, CCB COVID}
## System transitions and transformational adaptation

TS.D.11 Deep-rooted transformational adaptation opens new options for adapting to the impacts and risks of climate change (high confidence) by changing the fundamental attributes of a system, including altered goals or values and addressing the root causes of vulnerability. AR6 focuses on five system transitions to a just and climate resilient future: societal, energy, land and ocean ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial. These transitions call for transformations in existing social and social-technological and environmental systems that include shifts in most aspects of society. Managing transition risk is a critical element of transforming society, increasingly acknowledging the importance of transparent, informed and inclusive decision-making and evaluation, including a role for Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge. (Figure TS.11a, b) {1.2.1, 1.4.4, 1.5.1, 3.6.4, 4.7.1, 6.1.1, 6.4, Box 6.6, 11.4, 14.7.2, 18.3, Figure 18.3, CCB FEASIB}

TS.D.11.1 A sub-set of adaptation options has been implemented that cuts across sectors to enable sector-specific adaptation responses. These options, such as disaster risk management, climate services and risk sharing, increase the feasibility and effectiveness of other options by expanding the solution space available (high confidence). For example, carefully designed and implemented disaster risk management and climate services can increase the feasibility and effectiveness of adaptation responses to improve agricultural practices, income diversification, urban and critical services and infrastructure planning (very high confidence). Risk insurance can be a feasible tool to adapt to transfer climate risks and support sustainable development (high confidence). They can reduce both vulnerability and exposure, support post-disaster recovery and reduce financial burden on governments, households and business. {3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.6, 4.7.1, 5.4.4, 5.6.3, 5.5.4, 5.8.4, 5.9.4, 5.12.4, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 13.11.2, 14.7.2, 15.5.7, CCB FEASIB, CCB GENDER, CCB MOVING PLATE}

TS.D.11.2 Transformations for energy include the options of efficient water use and water management, infrastructure resilience and reliable power systems, including the use of intermittent renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind energy, with the use of storage (very high confidence). These options are not sufficient for the far-reaching transformations required in the energy sector, which tend to focus on technological transitions from a fossil-based to a renewable energy regime. A resilient power infrastructure is considered for energy generation, transmission and distribution systems. Distributed generation utilities, such as microgrids, are increasingly being considered, with growing evidence of their role in reducing vulnerability, especially within underserved populations (high confidence). Infrastructure resilience and reliable power are particularly important in reducing risk in peri-urban and rural areas when they are supported by distributed generation of renewable energy by isolated systems (high confidence). The option for a resilient power infrastructure is considered for all types of power generation sources and transmission and distribution systems. Efficient water use and water management especially in hydropower and combined cycle power plants in drought-prone areas have a high feasibility (high confidence) with multiple co-benefits (medium

confidence). Water-related adaptation in the energy sector is highly effective up to 1.5°C but declines with increasing warming (medium confidence). {4.6.2, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.7.3, Figure 4.28, Figure 4.29, 13.6.2, 15.7, 18.3, CCP5.4.2, CCB FEASIB}

TS.D.11.3 Adaptation options that are feasible and effective to the 3.4 billion people living in rural areas around the world and who are especially vulnerable to climate change, include the provision of basic services, livelihood diversification and strengthening of food systems (high confidence). The vulnerability of rural areas to climate risks increases due to the long distances to urban centres and the lack of or deficient critical infrastructure such as roads, electricity and water. Providing critical infrastructure, including through distributed generation power systems through renewable energy, has provided many co-benefits (high confidence). Biodiversity management strategies have social co-benefits, including improved community health, recreational activities and ecotourism, which are co-produced by harnessing ecological and social capital to promote resilient ecosystems with high connectivity and functional diversity. Strengthening local and regional food systems through strategies such as collective trademarks, participatory guarantee systems and city-rural links build rural livelihoods, resilience and self-reliance (medium confidence). Livelihood diversification is a key coping and adaptive strategy to climatic and non-climatic risks. There is high evidence (medium agreement) that diversifying livelihoods improves incomes and reduces socioeconomic vulnerability, but feasibility changes depending on livelihood type, opportunities and local context. Key barriers to livelihood diversification include sociocultural and institutional barriers as well as inadequate resources and livelihood opportunities that hinder the full adaptive possibilities of existing livelihood diversification practices (high confidence). (Figure TS.11b) {4.6.2, 4.7.1, 5, 8, 14.5.9, CCB FEASIB}

TS.D.11.4 Adaptation can require system-wide transformation of ways of knowing, acting and lesson-drawing to rebalance the relation between human and nature (high confidence). Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, ecosystem-based adaptation and community-based adaptation are often found together in effective adaptation strategies and actions and together can generate transformative sustainable changes, but they need the resources, legal basis and an inclusive decision process to be most effective (medium confidence). Governance measures that transparently accommodate science and Indigenous knowledge can act as enablers of such co-production. {1.3.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 6.4.7, 9.12, Box 9.1, 11.3.3, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 11.5.1, 11.6, Box 11.3, Box 11.7, 12.5.8, 14.4, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 17.2.2, 17.3.1, 17.4.4, CCP6.3.2, CCP 6.6, CCP6.4.3}

TS.D.11.5 Factors motivating transformative adaptation actions include risk perception, perceived efficacy, sociocultural norms and beliefs, previous experiences of impacts, levels of education and awareness (medium confidence). Risk responsibilities across the globe are unclear and unevenly defined (high confidence). In the face of climate change, assigning risk responsibilities facilitates upgrading and supporting adaptation efforts (risk governance). There are at least two contrasting approaches for pursuing deliberate transformation: one seeking rapid, system-wide change and the other a collection of incremental actions that together catalyse desired system changes (medium confidence). {1.5.2, 6.4.7, 17.2.1, 17.2.2, CCP5.4.2}
TS.E Climate Resilient Development

Sustainable development, equity and justice

TS.E.1 Climate resilient development implements greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation options to support sustainable development. With accelerated warming and the intensification of cascading impacts and compounded risks above 1.5°C warming, there is a sharply increasing demand for adaptation and climate resilient development linked to achieving SDGs and equity and balancing societal priorities. There is only limited opportunity to widen the remaining solution space and take advantage of many potentially effective, yet unimplemented, options for reducing society and ecosystem vulnerability (high confidence). (Figure TS.2, Figure TS.9 URBAN, Figure TS.11a, Figure TS.13) {1.2.3, 1.5.1, 1.5.2, 1.5.3, 2.6.7, 3.6.5, 4.8, Box 4.7, 7.1.5, 7.4.6, 13.10.2, 13.11, 17.2.1, 18.1, CCB COVID, CCB FINANCE, CCB HEALTH, CCB NATURAL}

TS.E.1.1 Prevailing development pathways do not advance climate resilient development (very high confidence). Societal choices in the near term will determine future pathways. There is no single pathway or climate that represents climate resilient development for all nations, actors or scales, as well as globally, and many solutions will emerge locally and regionally. Global trends including rising income inequality, urbanisation, migration, continued growth in greenhouse gas emissions, land use change, human displacement and reversals of long-term trends toward increased life expectancy run counter to the SDGs as well as efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to a changing climate. With progressive climate change, enabling conditions will diminish, and opportunities for successfully transitioning systems for both mitigation and adaptation will become more limited (high confidence). Investments in economic recovery from COVID-19 offer opportunities to promote climate resilient development (high confidence). (Figure TS.13) {16.6.1, 17.2.1, 18.2, 18.4, CCP5.4.4, CCB COVID}

TS.E.1.2 System transitions can enable climate resilient devel-
opment when accompanied by appropriate enabling conditions
and inclusive arenas of engagement (very high confidence). Five
system transitions are considered: energy, industry, urban and infra-
structure, land and ecosystems, and society. Advancing climate resilient
development in specific contexts may necessitate simultaneous progress
on all five transitions. Collectively, these system transitions can widen
the solution space and accelerate and deepen the implementation
of sustainable development, adaptation and mitigation actions by
equipping actors and decision makers with more effective options (high
confidence). For example, urban ecological infrastructure linked to an
appropriate land use mix, street connectivity, open and green spaces
and job-housing proximity provides adaptation and mitigation benefits
that can aid urban transformation (medium confidence). These system
transitions are necessary precursors for more fundamental climate
and sustainable-development transformations but can simultaneously
be outcomes of transformative actions. Enhancing equity and agency
are cross-cutting considerations for all five transitions. Such transitions
can generate benefits across different sectors and regions, provided

they are facilitated by appropriate enabling conditions, including ef-
fective governance, policy implementation, innovation and climate and
development finance, which are currently insufficient (high confidence).
{3.6.4, 15.7, 18.3, 18.4, Table 18.5, CCB FEASIB, CWGB URBAN}

TS.E.1.3 System transitions are highly feasible. For energy system transitions, there is medium confidence in the high feasibility of resilient infrastructure and efficient water use for power plants and high confidence in the synergies of this option with mitigation. For coastal ecosystem transitions, there is medium to high confidence that ecosystem conservation and biodiversity management are increasing adaptive and ecological capacity with socioeconomic co-benefits and positive synergies with carbon sequestration. However, opportunity costs can be a barrier. For land ecosystem transitions, there is high confidence in the role of agroforestry to increase ecological and adaptive capacity, once economic and cultural barriers and potential land use change trade-offs are overcome. There is high confidence in improved cropland management and its economic feasibility due to improved productivity. For efficient livestock systems, there is medium confidence in the high technological and ecological feasibility. (Figure TS.11a) {CCB FEASIB}

TS.E.1.4 For urban and infrastructure system transitions, there is medium confidence for sustainable land use and urban planning. There is high confidence in the economic and ecological feasibility of green infrastructure and ecosystem services, as well as sustainable urban water management, once institutional barriers in the form of limited social and political acceptability are overcome. Social safety nets, disaster risk management and climate services and population health and health systems are considered overarching adaptation options due to their applicability across all system transitions. There is medium to high confidence in the high feasibility of disaster risk management and the use of demand-driven and context-specific climate services as well as in the socioeconomic feasibility of social safety nets. Improving health systems through enhancing access to medical services and developing or strengthening surveillance systems can have high feasibility when there is a robust institutional and regulatory framework (high confidence). (Figure TS.8 HEALTH, Figure TS.9 URBAN, Figure TS.11a, Figure TS.13) {6.3, CCB FEASIB}

TS.E.1.5 There are multiple possible pathways by which communities, nations and the world can pursue climate resilient development. Moving towards different pathways involves confronting complex synergies and trade-offs between development pathways and the options, contested values and interests that underpin climate mitigation and adaptation choices (very high confidence). Climate resilient development pathways are trajectories for the pursuit of climate resilient development and navigating its complexities. Different actors, the private sector and civil society, influenced by science, local and Indigenous knowledges, and the media, are both active and passive in designing and navigating climate resilient development pathways. Increasing levels of warming may narrow the options and choices available for local survival and sustainable development for human societies and ecosystems. Limiting warming to Paris Agreement goals will reduce the magnitude of climate risks to which people, places, the economy and ecosystems will have to adapt. Reconciling the costs, benefits and trade-offs associated with
adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development interventions and how they are distributed among different populations and geographies is essential and challenging but also creates the potential to pursue synergies that benefit human and ecological well-being (high confidence). {1.2.1, 18.1, 18.4}

**TS.E.1.6. Economic sectors and global regions are exposed to different opportunities and challenges in facilitating climate resilient development, suggesting adaptation and mitigation options should be aligned to local and regional context and development pathways (very high confidence).** Given their current state of development, some regions may prioritise poverty and inequality reduction and economic development over the near term as a means of building capacity for climate action and low-carbon development over the long term. In contrast, developed economies with mature economies and high levels of resilience may prioritise climate action to transition their energy systems and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Some interventions may be robust in that they are relevant to a broad range of potential development trajectories and could be deployed in a flexible manner. However, other types of interventions, such as those that are dependent upon emerging technologies, may require a specific set of enhanced enabling conditions or factors, including infrastructure, supply chains, international cooperation and education and training that currently limit their implementation to certain settings. Notwithstanding national and regional differences, development practices that are aligned to people, prosperity, partnerships, peace and the planet as defined in Agenda 2030 could enable more climate resilient development. (high confidence) {18.5, Figure 18.1}

**TS.E.1.7 Pursuing climate resilient development involves considering a broader range of sustainable development priorities, policies and practices, as well as enabling societal choices to accelerate and deepen their implementation (very high confidence).** Scientific assessments of climate change have traditionally framed solutions around the implementation of specific adaptation and mitigation options as mechanisms for reducing climate-related risks. They have given less attention to a fuller set of societal priorities and the role of non-climate policies, social norms, lifestyles, power relationships and worldviews in enabling climate action and sustainable development. Because climate resilient development involves different actors pursuing plural development trajectories in diverse contexts, the pursuit of solutions that are equitable for all requires opening the space for engagement and action to a diversity of people, institutions, forms of knowledge and worldviews. Through inclusive modes of engagement that enhance knowledge sharing and realise the productive potential of diverse perspectives and worldviews, societies could alter institutional structures and arrangements, development processes, choices and actions that have precipitated dangerous climate change, constrained the achievement of SDGs and thus limited pathways to achieving climate resilient development. The current decade is critical to charting climate resilient development pathways that catalyse the transformation of prevailing development practices and offer the greatest promise and potential for human well-being and planetary health (very high confidence). {18.4, Box 18.1}

**TS.E.2 Climate action and sustainable development are interdependent.** Pursued in an inclusive and integrated manner, they enhance human and ecological well-being. Sustainable development is fundamental to capacity for climate action, including reductions in greenhouse gas emissions as well as enhancing social and ecological resilience to climate change. Increasing social and gender equity is an integral part of the technological and social transitions and transformation towards climate resilient development. Such transitions in societal systems reduce poverty and enable greater equity and agency in decision-making. They often require rights-based approaches to protect the livelihoods, priorities and survival of marginalised groups including Indigenous Peoples, women, ethnic minorities and children (high confidence). {2.6.7, 4.8, 6.3.7, 6.4, 6.4.7, 18.2, 18.4, CCB NATURAL}

**TS.E.2.1 Conditions enabling rapid increases and innovative climate responses include experience of extreme events or climate education influencing perceptions of urgency, together with the actions of catalysing agents such as social movements and technological entrepreneurs.** People who have experienced climate shocks are more likely to implement risk management measures (high confidence). Autonomous adaptation is very common in locations where people are more exposed to extreme events and have the resources and the temporal capacity to act on their own, for example in remote communities (high confidence). {3.5.2, 4.2.1, 4.6, 4.7.1, 6.4.7, 8.5.2, 9.4.5, 17.4.5, 18.5}

**TS.E.2.2 A range of policies, practices and enabling conditions accelerate efforts towards climate resilient development.** Diverse actors including youth, women, Indigenous communities and business leaders are the agents of societal changes and transformations that enable climate resilient development (high confidence). Greater attention to which actors benefit, fail to benefit or are directly harmed by different types of interventions could significantly advance efforts to pursue climate resilient development. (medium to high confidence) {4.6, 4.7.1, 5.13, 5.14, 6.4.7, 8.4.5, 9.4.5, 17.4, 18.5}

**TS.E.2.3 Climate adaptation actions are grounded in local realities so understanding links with SDG 5 on gender equality ensures that adaptive actions do not worsen existing gender and other inequities within society (e.g., leading to maladaptation practices) (high confidence).** Adaptation actions do not automatically have positive outcomes for gender equality. Understanding the positive and negative links of adaptation actions with gender equality goals (i.e., SDG 5) is important to ensure that adaptive actions do not exacerbate existing gender-based and other social inequalities. Efforts are needed to change unequal power dynamics and to foster inclusive decision-making for climate adaptation to have a positive impact for gender equality (high confidence). There are very few examples of successful integration of gender and other social inequities in climate policies to address climate change vulnerabilities and questions of social justice (very high confidence). Yet inequities in climate change literacy compounds women's vulnerability to climate change through its negative effect on climate risk perception {4.8.3, 9.4.5, 16.1.4, 17.5.1, CCB GENDER}
There is a rapidly narrowing window of opportunity to enable climate resilient development

(a) Societal choices about adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development made in arenas of engagement

Dimensions that enable actions towards higher climate resilient development

<figure><img src="image_571.png" /></figure>

Arenas of engagement:

Community
Socio-cultural
Political
Ecological
Knowledge + technology
Economic + financial

<figure><img src="image_572.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_573.png" /></figure>

Dimensions that result in actions towards lower climate resilient development

(b) Illustrative development pathways

<figure><img src="image_574.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_575.png" /></figure>

Illustrative climatic or non-climatic shock, e.g. COVID-19, drought or floods, that disrupts the development pathway

Narrowing window of opportunity for higher CRD
(d) Representative Key Risks

<figure><img src="image_576.png" /></figure>

General

<figure><img src="image_577.png" /></figure>

Agriculture

<figure><img src="image_578.png" /></figure>

Ecosystems

Built

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Coastal socio-ecological systems</td><td></td><td>Habitat loss; Fish declines; Invasives</td><td></td><td>Water scarcity; extreme events; sea level rise</td><td>Habitat loss; Extreme events</td></tr><tr><td>Terrestrial and ocean ecosystem services</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Critical infrastructure, networks & services</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Flood damages</td><td>Heat stress; ocean acidification; Extreme events; declining fisheries</td></tr><tr><td>Living standards & equity</td><td></td><td>Wild harvest declines, food insecurity</td><td></td><td>Poverty alleviation; Water security; SME impacts</td><td>Livelihoods dependent on wild systems (tropics)</td></tr><tr><td>Human health</td><td></td><td>Water competition; malnutrition</td><td></td><td>Disruption, loss of life; Cascading risks; Sanitation</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Food Security</td><td></td><td>Reduced production (crops, livestock, fisheries); woody plant encroachment; water scarcity, competition</td><td></td><td>Water security, sanitation in food processing, distribution</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Water Security</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Water scarcity; drought; Urbanisation; Energy</td><td>Water scarcity; Flooding; Landslides; Poverty</td></tr><tr><td>Peace & human mobility</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Extreme events; drought; urban pressure; Poverty</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Adaptation Gap</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Global warming level (GWL) adaptation limited</td><td>Confidence level</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3°C</td><td>high</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1.5°C</td><td>medium</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>>3°C</td><td>low</td></tr></tbody></table>
Adaptation potential for Representative Key Risks

<figure><img src="image_579.png" /></figure>

General

Water

Built

Ecosystems

<figure><img src="image_580.png" /></figure>

Coastal socio-ecological systems

<figure><img src="image_581.png" /></figure>

Terrestrial and ocean ecosystem services

<figure><img src="image_582.png" /></figure>

Critical infrastructure, networks & services

<figure><img src="image_583.png" /></figure>

Living standards & equity

<figure><img src="image_584.png" /></figure>

Human health

<figure><img src="image_585.png" /></figure>

Food Security

<figure><img src="image_586.png" /></figure>

Water Security

<figure><img src="image_587.png" /></figure>

Peace & human mobility

Natural forest maintenances

<figure><img src="image_588.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_589.png" /></figure>

Social protection •••

<figure><img src="image_590.png" /></figure>

Food supply chains; social protection ••

<figure><img src="image_591.png" /></figure>

Irrigation; Water management, Land management; Climate smart agriculture •••

<figure><img src="image_592.png" /></figure>

Eco-urban infrastructure ••

<figure><img src="image_593.png" /></figure>

Inclusive sustainable development; social protection ••

<figure><img src="image_594.png" /></figure>

Irrigation; Planting regimes; Cropping Patterns ••

<figure><img src="image_595.png" /></figure>

Dams; irrigation ••

Opportunities for movement ••

<figure><img src="image_596.png" /></figure>

Feasibility

<figure><img src="image_597.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_598.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_599.png" /></figure>

Global warming level (GWL) adaptation limited (°C)

<figure><img src="image_600.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_601.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_602.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_603.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_604.png" /></figure>

2°C

Not assessed

large

moderate

small

Confidence level

•• high

•• medium

• low
Potentially interacting mitigation measures

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>General</th><th>Agriculture</th><th>Water</th><th>Built</th><th>Ecosystems</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Land management</td><td></td><td>(-) Energy (renewable energy farms, biofuel crops), Carbon (afforestation of ancient grasslands) (+) Carbon (Protection/restoration of indigenous vegetation) ●●●</td><td>+/-</td><td>(-) Carbon (afforestation of ancient grasslands); (+) Energy (hydro dams) ●●●</td><td>(-) Carbon (Afforestation using water, taking over ancient grasslands) ●●●</td></tr><tr><td>Nature-based</td><td></td><td>(+) Carbon (ecosystem protection &amp; restoration; forest sustainability, soil management ●●●)</td><td>+</td><td>(+) Carbon (forest restoration) ●●●</td><td>(+) Carbon (Forest restoration &amp; sustainable management; Soil management) ●●●</td></tr><tr><td>Technology</td><td></td><td>(+) Carbon (soils - climate - smart agriculture) ●●●</td><td>+</td><td>(+) Energy (Decentralised &amp; low carbon energy access) ●●●</td><td>(+) Energy (dams altering water flows) ●●●</td></tr><tr><td>Buildings &amp; Infrastructure</td><td></td><td></td><td>(+/-) Energy (Dams - take water, store water); (-) Carbon (afforestation) ●●●</td><td>+/-</td><td>(-) Energy (dams altering water flows) ●●●</td></tr><tr><td>Energy</td><td></td><td></td><td>(-) Energy (Hydropower) (+) Cross basin risk pooling / transfer ●●●</td><td>+/-</td><td>(-) Energy (dams altering water flows) ●●●</td></tr><tr><td>Societal (behavioural)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(-) Options affected by social inequality in energy, water and food security ●●●</td><td>(+) Governance (Indigenous systems); land management (reduce emissions) ●●●</td></tr><tr><td>Mitigation measures</td><td></td><td></td><td>-</td><td>+/-</td><td>+</td></tr></tbody></table>
Important enablers considered within sectors

<figure><img src="image_605.png" /></figure>

General

<figure><img src="image_606.png" /></figure>

Governance

<figure><img src="image_607.png" /></figure>

Adaption Legal
frameworks

<figure><img src="image_608.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_609.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_610.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_611.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_612.png" /></figure>

Coordination and
integration

<figure><img src="image_613.png" /></figure>

Institutions and
decision processes

<figure><img src="image_614.png" /></figure>

Finance

<figure><img src="image_615.png" /></figure>

Technology, information,
decision support, climate
services & literacy

<figure><img src="image_616.png" /></figure>

Climate services & literacy;
Planning, Information,
Diverse Knowledges

<figure><img src="image_617.png" /></figure>

Processes for Innovation,
adjustment and learning

<figure><img src="image_618.png" /></figure>

Poverty reduction

<figure><img src="image_619.png" /></figure>

Cross-sectoral and
transboundary solutions

<figure><img src="image_620.png" /></figure>

Integrated Planning, Options
across multiple sectors;
Transboundary and multistake-
holder cooperation; Multilevel
Equity, Benefit sharing

<figure><img src="image_621.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_622.png" /></figure>

Importance

Enabling Gap

<figure><img src="image_623.png" /></figure>

Large

<figure><img src="image_624.png" /></figure>

moderate

<figure><img src="image_625.png" /></figure>

small

<figure><img src="image_626.png" /></figure>

not asseessed

<figure><img src="image_627.png" /></figure>

Water

<figure><img src="image_628.png" /></figure>

Ecosystems

Built

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th></th><th>General</th><th>Agriculture</th><th>Water</th><th>Built</th><th>Ecosystems</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Governance</td><td>Adaption Legal frameworks</td><td>Multi-level Engagement</td><td>Integrated approaches across related sectors</td><td>Multi-level Inclusivity</td><td>Options to improve multiple sectors</td><td>Protected areas to support biodiversity and livelihoods</td></tr><tr><td>Coordination and integration</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Coordination; Transboundary agreements</td></tr><tr><td>Institutions and decision processes</td><td>Engagement Options</td><td>Stakeholder Engagement</td><td>Ownership; Targeted projects</td><td></td><td>Adaptation finance</td><td>Inclusivity</td></tr><tr><td>Finance</td><td>Broad-based</td><td>Information-technology; climate services</td><td>Tools to address complexity, uncertainty, change &amp; contestation</td><td></td><td>Early warning systems; Perception management</td><td>Response to extreme events</td></tr><tr><td>Technology, information, decision support, climate services &amp; literacy</td><td>Climate services &amp; literacy; Planning, Information, Diverse Knowledges</td><td>Drought-resistant crops; agroforestry, diversification</td><td></td><td></td><td>Innovation &amp; planning; social learning</td><td>Diversification</td></tr><tr><td>Processes for Innovation, adjustment and learning</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Poverty reduction</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cross-sectoral and transboundary solutions</td><td>Integrated Planning, Options across multiple sectors; Transboundary and multistakeholder cooperation; Multilevel Equity, Benefit sharing</td><td>Options to improve multiple sectors</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
**Figure TS.13** | Climate resilient development is the process of implementing greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation measures to support sustainable development. This figure builds on Figure SPM.9 in AR5 WGII (depicting climate resilient pathways) by describing how climate resilient development pathways are the result of cumulative societal choices and actions within multiple arenas.

**Panel (a)** Societal choices towards higher climate resilient development (green cog) or lower climate resilient development (red cog) result from interacting decisions and actions by diverse government, private sector and civil society actors, in the context of climate risks, adaptation limits and development gaps. These actors engage with adaptation, mitigation and development actions in political, economic and financial, ecological, socio-cultural, knowledge and technology, and community arenas from local to international levels. Opportunities for climate resilient development are not equitably distributed around the world.

**Panel (b)** Cumulatively, societal choices, which are made continuously, shift global development pathways towards higher (green) or lower (red) climate resilient development. Past conditions (past emissions, climate change and development) have already eliminated some development pathways towards higher climate resilient development (dashed green line).

**Panel (c)** Higher climate resilient development is characterised by outcomes that advance sustainable development for all. Climate resilient development is progressively harder to achieve with global warming levels beyond 1.5°C. Inadequate progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 reduces climate resilient development prospects. There is a narrowing window of opportunity to shift pathways towards more climate resilient development futures as reflected by the adaptation limits and increasing climate risks, considering the remaining carbon budgets. (Figure TS.3, Figure TS.4) {2.6, 3.6, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 16.4, 16.5, 17.3, 17.4, 17.5, 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 18.4, Box 18.1, Figure 18.1, Figure 18.2, Figure 18.3, CCB COVID, CCB GENDER, CCB HEALTH, CCB INDIG, CCB SLR, WGI AR6 Table SPM.1, WGI AR6 Table SPM.2, SR1.5 Figure SPM.1}.

**Panel (d)** Appropriate choices for fostering climate resilient development pathways involve considering the portfolio of risks, the potential for adaptations to satisfactorily reduce risks and not exacerbate others, the potential for mitigation measures to interact with risks and adaptations within and across sectors, and how and whether adaptations can be enabled. The graphic table illustrates a possible assembly (not exhaustive) of these considerations for four sectors (agriculture, water, built environments, ecosystems) in the region Africa, showing (i) top panel: the potential for cascading and compounding effects amongst risks within sectors, between sectors and across boundaries and the possible constraints for adaptation (at what global warming level might risks become too great for adaptation – cell colour) and the adaptation gap to be filled (cell border) (risks are grouped by Representative Key Risks); (ii) second panel: the potential for adaptations to reduce risks, including their feasibility (cell border), their interaction with other adaptations addressing the same or interacting risks, and whether they are limited by global warming level (cell colour) (possible adaptations are identified for Representative Key Risks); (iii) third panel: the mitigation measures grouped into categories that might interact with risks and adaptations, including showing their importance (cell border) and whether the interaction would be potentially positive, negative or a mixture of both (cell colour) (note: ‘carbon’ refers to carbon sequestration); (iv) bottom panel: Enabling conditions for sectors grouped into categories of enablers common across many sectors, showing their importance (cell border) and how they may be suitable across a number of sectors, along with an assessment of the gap in the enabler for satisfactory adaptation (cell colour). Confidence levels on each cell are indicated as * = low confidence, ** = medium confidence, *** = high confidence. (see also SMTS.4, Table SMTS.5) {16.5.2, Table SM16.4}

### TS.E.2.4 Gender-sensitive, equity- and justice-based adaptation approaches, integration of Indigenous knowledge systems within legal frameworks and the promotion of Indigenous land tenure rights reduce vulnerability and increase resilience (high confidence).
Integrating adaptation into social protection programmes can build long-term resilience to climate change (high confidence). Nevertheless, social protection programmes can increase resilience to climate related shocks, even if they do not specifically address climate risks (high confidence). Climate adaptation actions are grounded in local realities so understanding links with SDGs is important to ensure that adaptive actions do not worsen existing gender and other inequities within society, leading to maladaptation practices (high confidence). {3.6.4, 4.8.3, 4.8.4, 9.4.5, Box 9.1, Box 9.2, Box 9.7, Box 9.8, Box 9.9, Box 9.10, Box 9.11, 14.4, Box 14.1, 17.5.1, CCP6.3, Box CCP6.2 CCB GENDER}

### TS.E.2.5 Water can be either an enabler or a hindrance to successful adaptation and sustainable development.
Central to equity issues about water is that it remains a public good (high confidence). Overcoming institutional and financial constraints (governance, institutions, policies), including path dependency, is among the most important requirements enabling effective adaptation in the water sector (high confidence). Water-related challenges, despite reported adaptation efforts, indicate limits of adaptation in the absence of water neutral mitigation action (medium confidence). For some regions, such as small island states, coastal areas and mountainous regions, water availability already has the potential to become a hard limit on adaptation (limited evidence, medium agreement). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) {4.5.3, 4.5.4, 4.5.5, 4.8, 4.6, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.7.6, 6.4 case study 6.1, 15.3.4, CCP5.2.2}

### TS.E.2.6 Procedural and distributional justice and flexible institutions facilitate successful adaptation and minimise maladaptive outcomes.
Reorienting existing institutions to become more flexible (e.g., through capacity building and institutional reform) and inclusive is key to building adaptive governance systems that are equipped to take long-term decisions (medium confidence). Enhancing climate governance, institutional capacity and differentiated policies and regulation from the local to global scale enables and accelerates climate resilient development. Transforming financial systems to deliver the SDGs, while accelerating system transitions and addressing physical and transition risks, is a precondition. Changes in lifestyles, human behaviour and preferences can have a significant impact on adaptation implementation, demand and hence emissions and decision-making around climate action (high confidence). Additionally, the use of customary and traditional justice systems, such as those of Indigenous peoples, can enhance the equity of adaptation policy processes (high confidence). {4.8, 4.6, 8, 5.2.3, 13.8, 15.6.1, 15.6.3, 15.6.4, 15.6.5, 17.1, 18.4}

### TS.E.2.7 Enabling environments for adaptation that support equitable sustainable development are essential for those with climate-sensitive livelihoods who are often least able to adapt and influence decision-making (high confidence).
Enabling environments share common governance characteristics, including the meaningful involvement of multiple actors and assets, alongside multiple centres of power at different levels that are well integrated, vertically and horizontally (high confidence). Enabling conditions harness synergies, address moral and ethical choices and divergent values and interests and support just approaches to livelihood transitions that do not undermine human well-being (medium confidence). Climate solutions for health, well-being and the changing
structure of communities are complex and closely interconnected and
call for new approaches to sustainable development that consider
interactions between climate, human and socioecological systems
to generate climate resilient development (high confidence). To
address regionally specific adaptation and developmental needs, five
key dimensions of climate resilient development are identified for
Africa: climate finance, governance, cross-sectoral and transboundary
solutions, adaptation law and climate services and climate change
literacy (high confidence). {4.6, 4.8, 6.4.7, 7.1.7, 8.5.1, 8.5.2,
8.6.3, 9.4.1, 9.4.2, 9.4.3, 9.4.4, 9.4.5, 17.4}

TS.E.2.8 Prevailing ideologies or worldviews, institutions and sociopolitical relations influence development trajectories by framing climate narratives and possibilities for action (medium confidence). The interplay between worldviews and ethics, sociopolitical relations, institutions and human behaviour influence public engagement by individuals and communities. These open up opportunities for meaningful engagement and co-production of pathways towards climate resilient development. The urgency of climate action is a potential enabler of climate decision-making (medium confidence). Perceptions of urgency encourage communities, businesses and leaders to undertake climate adaptation and mitigation measures more quickly and to prioritise climate action (high confidence). {1.1.3, 6.4.3, 17.1, 17.4.5, 18.5}

Enablers of societal resilience

TS.E.3 A focus on climate risk alone does not enable effective
climate resilience (high confidence). The integration of
consideration of non-climatic drivers into adaptation pathways
can reduce climate impacts across food systems, human
settlements, health, water, economies and livelihoods (high
confidence). Strengthened health, education and basic social
services are vital for improving population well-being and
supporting climate resilient development (high confidence). The
use of climate-smart agriculture technologies that strengthen
synergies among productivity and mitigation is growing as
an important adaptation strategy (high confidence). Pertinent
information for farmers provided by climate information services
is helping them to understand the role of climate compared
with other drivers in perceived productivity changes (medium
confidence). Index insurance builds resilience and contributes
to adaptation both by protecting farmers' assets in the face
of major climate shocks, by promoting access to credit and
by adopting improved farm technologies and practices (high
confidence). {3.6.4, 4.6, 4.7.1, 7.4.6, Box 9.1, Box 9.7, Box 9.8,
Box 9.9, Box 9.10, Box 9.11, 12.5.4}

TS.E.3.1 Societal resilience is strengthened by improving the management of environmental resources and ecosystem health, boosting adaptive capabilities of individuals and communities to anticipate future risks and minimise them and removing drivers of vulnerability to bring together gender justice, equity, Indigenous and local knowledge systems and adaptation planning (very high confidence). Societal resilience is founded on strengthening local democracy, empowering citizens to shape societal choices to support gender and equity inclusive climate resilient

development (very high confidence). {7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 7.4.4, 7.4.5, 7.4.6, 9.4.5, 13.11.3, 14.4, Box 14.1, 15.5.5, 17.5.1, CCP6.3, CCP6.4, Box CCP6.2, CCB GENDER}

TS.E.3.2 Some communities/regions are resilient with strong social safety nets and social capital that support responses and actions already occurring, but there is limited information on the effectiveness of adaptation practices and the scale of action needed (high confidence). Among island communities, greater insights into which drivers weaken local communities and Indigenous Peoples' resilience, together with recognition of the sociopolitical contexts within which communities operate, can assist in identifying opportunities at all scales to enhance climate adaptation and enable action towards climate resilient development pathways (medium evidence, high agreement). Adaptation responses to climate-driven impacts in mountain regions vary significantly in terms of goals and priorities, scope, depth and speed of implementation, governance and modes of decision-making and the extent of financial and other resources to implement them (high confidence). Adaptation in Africa has multiple benefits, and most assessed adaptation options have medium effectiveness at reducing risks for present-day global warming, but their efficacy at future warming levels is largely unknown (high confidence). In Australia and New Zealand, a range of incremental and transformative adaptation options and pathways is available as long as enablers are in place to implement them (high confidence). Several enablers can be used to improve adaptation outcomes and to build resilience (high confidence), including better governance and legal reforms; improving justice, equity and gender considerations; building human resource capacity; increased finance and risk transfer mechanisms; education and awareness programmes; increased access to climate information; adequately downscaled climate data; inclusion of Indigenous knowledge; and integrating cultural resources into decision-making (high confidence). {9.3, 9.6.4, 9.8.3, 9.11.4, 11.7.3, 14.4, Box 14.1, 15.6.1, 15.6.5, 15.7, 15.6.3, 15.6.4, 15.6.5, CCP5.2.4, CCP5.2.7, CCP6.3, CCP6.4, Box CCP6.2, CCB GENDER}

TS.E.3.3 Identifying and advancing synergies and co-benefits of mitigation, adaptation and SDGs has occurred slowly and unevenly (high confidence). One area of sustained effort is community-based adaptation planning actions that have potential to be better integrated to enhance well-being and create synergies with the SDG ambitions of leaving no one behind (high confidence). Complex trade-offs and gaps in alignment between mitigation and adaptation over scale and across policy areas where sustainable development is hindered or reversed also remain (medium confidence). Globally, decisions about key infrastructure systems and urban expansion drive risk creation and potential action on climate change (high confidence). {4.7.6, 6.4.1, 6.4.3, 6.4.4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.2.3, 6.3, 6.3.5.1, 6.4, 7.4.7, 9.3.2, CCB HEALTH, CWGB BIOECONOMY}

TS.E.3.4 Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge are crucial for social-ecological system resilience (high confidence). Indigenous Peoples have been faced with adaptation challenges for centuries and have developed strategies for resilience in changing environments that can enrich and strengthen other adaptation efforts (high confidence). Supporting indigenous self-determination, recognising Indigenous Peoples' rights and supporting Indigenous
knowledge-based adaptation can accelerate effective robust climate resilient development pathways (*very high confidence*). Indigenous knowledge underpins successful understanding of, responses to and governance of climate change risks (*high confidence*). For example, Indigenous knowledge contains resource-use practices and ecosystem stewardship strategies that conserve and enhance both wild and domestic biodiversity, resulting in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and species that are often less degraded in Indigenous managed lands in other lands (*medium confidence*). Valuing Indigenous knowledge systems is a key component of climate justice (*high confidence*). {2.6.5, 2.6.7, 4.8.3, 3.6.3, 3.6.4, 3.6.5, 4.8.4, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 7.4.7, Box 7.1, Box 9.2, 12.5.1, 12.5.8, 12.6.2, 13.2.2, 13.8, 13.11, 14.4, 14.7.3, Box 14.1, CCP5.2.6, CP5.4.2, CCP6.3, CCP6.4, Box CCP6.2, CCB INDIG, CCB NATURAL}

**TS.E.3.5 Ecosystem-based adaptation reduces climate risk across sectors, providing social, economic, health and environmental co-benefits (high confidence).** Direct human dependence on ecosystem services, ecosystem health, and ecosystem protection and restoration, conservation agriculture, sustainable land management and integrated catchment management support climate resilience. Inclusion of interdisciplinary scientific information, Indigenous knowledge and practical expertise is essential to effective ecosystem-based adaptation (*high confidence*), and there is a large risk of maladaptation where this does not happen (*high confidence*). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) {1.4.2, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5. 2.6, Table 2.7, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.4, 3.6.5, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, 5.14.2, 7.4.2, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 9.11, 9.12, CCP1, CCP6.3, CCP6.4, CCB NATURAL}

### Ecosystem health and resilience

**TS.E.4 Maintaining planetary health is essential for human and societal health and a pre-condition for climate resilient development (very high confidence).** Effective ecosystem conservation on approximately 30% to 50% of Earth's land, freshwater and ocean areas, including all remaining areas with a high degree of naturalness and ecosystem integrity, will help protect biodiversity, build ecosystem resilience and ensure essential ecosystem services (*high confidence*). In addition to this protection, sustainable management of the rest of the planet is also important. The protected area required to maintain ecosystem integrity varies by ecosystem type and region, and their placement will determine the quality and ecological representativeness of the resulting network. Ecosystem services that are under threat from a combination of climate change and other anthropogenic pressures include climate change mitigation, flood-risk management and water supply (*high confidence*). (Figure TS.12) {2.5.4, 2.6.7, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 13.3.2, 13.5.2, 13.10.2, CCB NATURAL}

**TS.E.4.1 Species conservation is an internationally recognised objective in its own right and is also important for human life and well-being: there is a strong positive association between species diversity and ecosystem health that is essential for providing critical regulating services, including climate regulation, water provisioning, pest and disease control and crop pollination (*high confidence*). The loss of species also lowers

the resilience of the ecosystem as a whole, including its capacity to persist through climate change and recover from extreme events (*high confidence*). Species extinction levels that are more than 1000 times natural background rates as a result of anthropogenic pressures, and climate change will increasingly exacerbate this (*high confidence*). Conservation efforts are more effective when integrated into local spatial plans inclusive of adaptation responses, alongside sustainable food and fiber production systems (*high confidence*). Strong inclusive governance systems and participatory planning processes that support equitable and effective adaptation outcomes, are gender sensitive and reduce intergroup conflict are required for enhanced ecosystem protection and restoration (*high confidence*). {2.2, 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 2.5.4, 2.6.1-3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, Table 2.6, Table 2.7, 3.6.3, 3.6.4, 3.6.5, 5.8.4, 5.13.5, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 7.4.7, CCP1, CCB COVID, CCB GENDER, CCB ILLNESS, CCB INDIG, CCB MIGRATE, CCB NATURAL}

**TS.E.4.2 Solutions that support biodiversity and the integrity of ecosystems deliver essential co-benefits for people including livelihoods, food and water security and human health and well-being (high confidence).** Limiting warming to 2°C and protecting 30% of high-biodiversity regions in Africa, Asia and Latin America is estimated to reduce the risk of species extinctions by half (*high confidence*). Meeting the increasing needs of the human population for food and fibre production requires transformation in management regimes to recognise dependencies on local healthy ecosystems, with greater sustainability, including through increased use of agroecological farming approaches and adaptation to the changing climate (*high confidence*). People with higher levels of contact with nature have been found to be significantly happier, healthier and more satisfied with their lives (*high confidence*). Participatory, inclusive governance approaches such as adaptive co-management or community-based planning, which integrate those groups who rely on these ecosystems (e.g., Indigenous Peoples, local communities), support equitable and effective adaptation outcomes (*high confidence*). {2.5.4, 2.6.7, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.6.3, 3.6.4, 3.6.5, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 5.8.4, 5.13.5, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 17.3.1, 17.3.2, 17.6, CCB NATURAL}

**TS.E.4.3 Protecting and building the resilience of ecosystems through restoration, in ways which are consistent with sustainable development, are essential for effective climate change mitigation (high confidence).** Degradation and loss of ecosystems is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions, which is increasingly exacerbated by climate change (*very high confidence*). Globally, there is a 38% overlap between areas of high carbon storage and high intact biodiversity, but only 12% of that is protected (*high confidence*). Addressing this gap will require an approach which takes account of human needs, particularly food security. Tropical rainforests and global peatlands are particularly important carbon stores but are highly threatened by human disturbance, land conversion and fire. Climate resilient development will require strategies for land-based climate change mitigation to be integrated with adaptation, biodiversity and sustainable development objectives; there is good potential for positive synergies, but also the potential for conflict, including with afforestation and bioenergy crops, when these objectives are pursued in isolation (*high confidence*). {2.4.3, 2.4.4, 2.5.3, 2.6.3, 2.6.5-7, 2.6.7, Box 2.2, 3.4.2, 3.5.5, Box 3.4, CCP7.3.2, CCB NATURAL, CWGB BIOECONOMY}
**TS.E.4.4 Adaptive management in response to ecosystem change is increasingly necessary, and more so under higher emissions scenarios (high confidence).** Feedback from monitoring and assessments of the changing state of planetary conditions and local ecosystems enables proactive adaptation to manage risks and minimise impacts (*medium confidence*). Integrated sectoral approaches promoting climate resilience, particularly for addressing the impacts of extreme events, are key to effective climate resilient development (*medium confidence*). {2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Box 3.4, 17.3.2, 17.6, CCB EXTREMES, SR1.5, SRCCL, SROCC}

**TS.E.4.5 Adaptation cannot prevent all risks to biodiversity and ecosystem services (high confidence).** Adaptation of conservation strategies, by building resilience and planning for unavoidable change, can reduce harm but will not be possible in all systems, for example, fragile ecosystems that reach critical thresholds or tipping points such as coral reefs, some forests, sea ice and permafrost systems. Conservation and restoration will alone be insufficient to protect coral reefs beyond 2030 (high confidence) and to protect mangroves beyond the 2040s (high confidence). Deep cuts in emissions will be necessary to minimise irreversible loss and damage (high confidence). (Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS) {2.5.1, 2.5.2, 2.5.4, 2.6.1, 2.6.6, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.6.3, Figure 3.26, Table SM3.5, Table SM3.6}

Governance

**TS.E.5 Governance arrangements and practices are presently ineffective to reduce risks, reverse path dependencies and maladaptation and facilitate climate resilient development (very high confidence).** Governance for climate resilient development involves diverse societal actors, including the most vulnerable, who can work collectively, drawing upon local and Indigenous knowledges and science, and are supported by strong political will and climate change leadership (*medium confidence*). Governance practices will work best when they are coordinated within and between multiple scales and levels (institutional, geographical and temporal) and sectors, with supporting financial resources, are tailored for local conditions, are gender-responsive and gender-inclusive and are founded upon enduring institutional and social learning capabilities to address the complexity, dynamism, uncertainty and contestation that characterise escalating climate risk (*medium confidence*). {1.4.2, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 4.8, 4.8.1, 4.8.2, 4.8.3, 4.8.4, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 4.8.7, 6.4.3, 6.4.4, 9.4.5, 17.4, 17.6}

**TS.E.5.1 Prevailing governance efforts have not closed the adaptation gap (very high confidence), in part due to the complex interconnections between climate and non-climate risk and the limits of the predominant development and governance practices (high confidence).** Institutional fragmentation, under-resourcing of services, inadequate adaptation funding, uneven capability to manage uncertainties and conflicting values and reactive governance across competing policy domains collectively lock in existing exposures and vulnerabilities, creating barriers and limits to adaptation, and undermine climate resilient development prospects (high confidence). This is amplified by inequity, poverty, population growth and high population density, land use change, especially deforestation, soil degradation, biodiversity loss, high dependence

of national and local economies on natural resources for production of commodities, weak governance, unequal access to safe water and sanitation services and a lack of infrastructure and financing, which reduce adaptation capacity and deepen vulnerability (high confidence). {3.6.3, 3.6.5, 6.4.3, Figure 6.5, 9.4.1, 11.7, Table 11.14, Table 11.16, 12.1.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.5.5, 12.5.7, Figure 12.2}

**TS.E.5.2 Climate governance arrangements and practices are enabled when they are embedded in societal systems that advance human well-being and planetary health (very high confidence).** Collective action and strengthened networked collaboration, more inclusive governance, spatial planning and risk-sensitive infrastructure delivery will contribute to reducing risks (*medium confidence*). Enablers for climate governance include better practices and legal reforms, improving justice, equity and gender considerations, building human resource capacity, increased finance and risk transfer mechanisms, education and climate change literacy programmes, increased access to climate information, adequately downscaled climate data and embedding Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge as well as integrating cultural resources into decision-making (*high confidence*). {4.8.7, 9.4.5, 15.6.1, 15.6.3, 15.6.4, 15.6.5, 17.4, 17.6}

**TS.E.5.3 Climate governance will be most effective when it has meaningful and ongoing involvement of all societal actors from local to global levels (very high confidence).** Actors, including individuals and households, communities, governments at all levels, private-sector businesses, non-governmental organisations, Indigenous Peoples, religious groups and social movements, at many scales and in many sectors, are adapting already and can take stronger adaptation and mitigation actions. Many forms of adaptation are more effective, more cost-efficient and more equitable when organised inclusively (high confidence). Greater coordination and engagement across levels of government, business and community serves to move from planning to action and from reactive to proactive adaptation (high confidence). Inclusion of all societal actors helps to secure credibility, relevance and legitimacy, while fostering commitment and social learning (medium to high confidence), as well as equity and well-being, and reduces long-term vulnerability across scales (high evidence, medium agreement). Social movements in many cities, including those led by youth, have heightened public awareness about the need for urgent, inclusive adaptation that can enhance well-being, foster formal and informal cooperation and coherence between different institutions and build new adaptive capacities. City and local governments remain key actors facilitating climate change adaptation in cities and settlements (medium confidence). Private and business investment in key infrastructure, housing construction and insurance can drive adaptive action at scale but can exclude the priorities of the poor (medium confidence). Networked community actions can address neighbourhood-scale improvements and vulnerability at scale (very high confidence). {1.4.2, 3.6.5, 6.1, 6.4, 9.4.5, Box 9.4, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 14.6.3, Box 14.8, 17.2}

**TS.E.5.4 Governance practices for climate resilient development will be most effective when supported by formal (e.g., the law) and informal (e.g., local customs and rituals) institutional arrangements providing for ongoing coordination between and alignment of local to international arrangements across sectors and policy domains (high confidence).** Aligned national and
international legal and policy instruments can support the development and implementation of adaptation and climate risk management (medium confidence) and reduce exposure to key risks (high confidence). Dedicated climate change acts can play a foundational and distinctive role in supporting effective climate governance, and are drivers of subsequent activity in both developing and developed countries (high confidence). The transboundary nature of many climate change risks and species responses will require transboundary solutions through multi-national or regional governance processes on land (medium confidence) and at sea (high confidence). {3.6.5, Table 3.28, 4.6.2, 4.6, 6.1, 9.4.3, 9.4.4, Box 9.5, 11.7.1, 11.7.3, 17.2.1, 17.3.2, 17.4.2, 17.5.1, 17.6, 18.4.3, CCP5.4.2, CCP6.3, CCB MOVING PLATE}

TS.E.5.5 Multi-lateral governance efforts can help reconcile contested interests, worldviews and values about how to address climate change (medium confidence). Policy responses and strategies that localise development and expand the adaptation and mobility options of populations exposed to climatic risks can also reduce risks of climate-related conflict and political instability (high agreement, medium evidence). Formal institutional arrangements for natural resource management can contribute to wider cooperation and peacebuilding (high confidence). Reducing vulnerability depends on the inclusive engagement of the most vulnerable, is gender-responsive and includes key societal actors from civil society, the private sector and government, with an especially important role played by local government in partnership with local communities. Strong governance and gender-sensitive approaches to natural resource management reduce the risk of intergroup conflict in climate-disrupted areas (medium confidence). {3.6.3, 3.6.4, 3.6.5, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 4.8.7, 6.1, 7.4.4, 7.4.5, CCB COVID, CCB GENDER, CCB HEALTH, CCB INDIG}

TS.E.5.6 A range of governance processes, practices and tools that are applicable across a range of temporal and spatial scales are available to support inclusive decision-making for adaptation and risk management in diverse settings (high confidence). National guidance and laws, policies and regulations, decision tools that can be tailored to local circumstances, innovative engagement processes and collaborative governance can motivate better understanding of climate risk and build climate resilient development (high confidence). Collaborative networks and institutions, including among local communities and their governing authorities, can help resolve conflicts (high confidence). A combination of robust climate information, adaptive decision-making under uncertainty, land use planning, public engagement and conflict resolution approaches can help to address governance constraints to prepare for climate risks and build adaptive capacity (high confidence). New modelling, monitoring and evaluation approaches, alongside disruptive technologies, can help understand the societal implications of trade-offs and build integrated pathways of low-regret anticipatory options, established jointly across sectors in a timely manner, to avoid locked-in development pathways (high confidence). {3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.4, 3.6.5, 5.14.1, 5.14.4, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 11.7.1, 11.7.3, Box 11.5, 15.5.3, 15.5.4, 15.6.3, 15.6.4, 15.6.5, 17.3.1, 17.3.2, 17.4.2, 17.4.4, 17.6, CCP2.4.3, CCB DEEP, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR, CWGB BIOECONOMY}

## Transformation towards climate resilient development

TS.E.6 Accelerating climate change and trends in exposure and vulnerability underscore the need for rapid action on the range of transformational approaches to expand the future set of effective, feasible and just solutions (very high confidence). Transformation towards climate resilient development is advanced most effectively when actors work in inclusive and enabling ways to reconcile divergent interests, values and worldviews, building on information and knowledge on climate risk and adaptation options derived from different knowledge systems (high confidence). Taking action now provides the foundation for adaptation to current and future risks, for large-scale mitigation measures and for effective outcomes for both. (Figure TS.13) {2.6.7, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.6.5, 7.2.1, 7.3.1, 8.3.3, 8.3.4, 8.4.5, Figure 8.12, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, 13.8, 13.10.2, 18.3.2, Box 18.1, Figure 18.1, Table 18.5, CCB FEASIB, CCB FINANCE, CCB ILLNESS, CCB NATURAL}

TS.E.6.1 Large-scale, transformational adaptation necessitates enabling improved approaches to governance and coordination across sectors and jurisdictions to avoid overwhelming current adaptive capacities and to avoid future maladaptive actions (high confidence). Response options in one sector can become response risks that exacerbate impacts in other sectors. A deliberate shift from primarily technological adaptation strategies to those that additionally incorporate behavioural and institutional changes, adaptation finance, equity and environmental justice and that align policy with global sustainability goals will facilitate transformational adaptation (high confidence). Application and efficacy testing of climate resilient development, or adaptation pathways, show promise for implementing transformational approaches (medium confidence), including expansion of ecosystem-based adaptation approaches. Climate information services that are demand driven and context specific, combined with climate change literacy, have the potential to improve adaptation responses (high confidence). {5.14.3, 9.4.5, 14.7.2, 14.6, 17.6}

TS.E.6.2 Climate resilient development pathways depend on how contending societal interests, values and worldviews are reconciled through inclusive and participatory interactions between governance actors in these arenas of engagement (high confidence). These interactions occur in many different arenas (e.g., governmental, economic and financial, political, knowledge, science and technology, community) that represent the settings, places and spaces in which societal actors interact to influence the nature and course of development. For instance, Agenda 2030 highlights the importance of multi-level adaptation governance, including non-state actors from civil society and the private sector. This implies the need for wider arenas of engagement for diverse actors to collectively solve problems and to unlock the synergies between adaptation and mitigation and sustainable development (high confidence). {18.4.3}

TS.E.6.3 Managing transition risk is a critical element of transforming society (high confidence). System transitions towards climate resilient development pose potential risks to sectors and regions. This implies managing climate risk in the
event that greenhouse gas mitigation efforts over- or underperform. In addition, decision makers should be aware of the financial risks associated with stranded assets, technology risks and the risks to social equity or ecosystem health. By acknowledging, assessing and managing such risks, actors will have a greater likelihood of achieving success in making development climate resilient. Opportunities exist to promote synergies between sustainable development, adaptation and mitigation, but trade-offs are likely unavoidable, and managing trade-offs and synergies will be important (high confidence). Climate resilient development risks and opportunities vary by location with uncertainty about global mitigation effort and future climates relevant to local planning (high confidence). (4.7.6, 4.8, 17.4, 17.6, 18.4, 18.5)

TS.E.6.4 Prospects for transformation towards climate resilient development increase when key governance actors work together in inclusive and constructive ways to create a set of

appropriate enabling conditions (high confidence). These enabling conditions include effective governance and information flow, policy frameworks that incentivise sustainability solutions, adequate financing for adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development, institutional capacity, science, technology and innovation, monitoring and evaluation of climate resilient development policies, programmes and practices and international cooperation. Investment in social and technological innovation could generate the knowledge and entrepreneurship needed to catalyse system transitions and their transfer. The implementation of policies that incentivise the deployment of low-carbon technologies and practices within specific sectors, such as energy, buildings and agriculture, could accelerate greenhouse gas mitigation and deployment of climate resilient infrastructure in both urban and rural areas. Civic engagement is an important element of building societal consensus and reducing barriers to action on adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development (very high confidence). (18.4)

Appendix TS.AI: List and Location of WGII AR6 Cross-Chapter Boxes (CCBs) and Cross-Working Group Boxes (CWGBs)

<table><thead><tr><td>Host Chapter</td><td>CCB/CWGB Type/Acronym</td><td>CCB/CWGB Title</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>CCB CLIMATE</td><td>AR6 WGI Climate change Projections, Global Warming Levels and WGII Common Climate Dimensions</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>CCB PALEO</td><td>Observed Vulnerability and Adaptation to Past Climate Changes</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>CCB ADAPT</td><td>Adaptation Science</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>CWGB ATTRIB (WGI & WGII)</td><td>Attribution in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>CCB NATURAL</td><td>Nature-based Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>CCB EXTREMES</td><td>Ramifications of Climatic Extremes for Marine, Terrestrial, Freshwater and Polar Natural Systems</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>CCB ILLNESS</td><td>Human Health, Biodiversity and Climate: Serious Risks Posed by Vector- and Water-borne Diseases</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>CCB SLR</td><td>Sea Level Rise</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>CCB DISASTER</td><td>Disasters as the Public Face of Climate Change</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>CCB MOVING PLATE</td><td>The Moving Plate: Sourcing Food When Species Distributions Change</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>CWGB BIOECONOMY (WGII & WGIII)</td><td>Mitigation and Adaptation via the Bioeconomy</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>CWGB URBAN (WGII & WGIII)</td><td>Cities and Climate Change in the Age of the Anthropocene</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>CCB COVID</td><td>COVID-19</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>CCB MIGRATE</td><td>Climate-related Migration</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>CCB HEALTH</td><td>Co-benefits of Climate Solutions for Human Health and Well-being</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>CCB INTEREG</td><td>Inter-regional Flows of Risks and Responses to Risk</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>CWGB SRM (WGII & WGIII)</td><td>Solar Radiation Modification</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>CWGB ECONOMIC (WGII & WGIII)</td><td>Estimating Global Economic Impacts from Climate Change and the Social Cost of Carbon</td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>CCB LOSS</td><td>Loss and Damage</td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>CCB DEEP</td><td>Effective Adaptation and Decision-making under Deep Uncertainties</td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>CCB FINANCE</td><td>Finance for Adaptation and Resilience</td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>CCB PROGRESS</td><td>Approaches and Challenges to Assess Adaptation Progress at the Global Level</td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>CCB GENDER</td><td>Gender, Climate Justice and Transformative Pathways</td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>CCB INDIG</td><td>The Role of Indigenous Knowledge and Local Knowledge in Understanding and Adapting to Climate Change</td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>CCB FEASIB</td><td>Feasibility Assessment of Adaptation Options: an Update of SR1.5C</td></tr></tbody></table>