<table><caption>**Table 1.** Summary of related works on direct upcycling of metals from waste as catalysts for both photo- and electrocatalytic applications.</caption><thead><tr><th>Recovered CMs</th><th>Waste component</th><th>Method used</th><th>Catalyst</th><th>Application Type</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Nb, Pb, Ag, Ba, Ni, Sn, TiO<sub>2</sub>, Pd</td><td>Waste ceramic capacitors</td><td>Ball-milling</td><td>Core-shell Z-scheme Nb-Pb co-doped BaTiO<sub>3</sub>/Ni-Pd-Ag-Sn</td><td>Photocatalytic HER</td><td>[156a]</td></tr><tr><td>Ti, Nb, Pb, Pd</td><td>MLCCs</td><td>Chlorination-leaching</td><td>Nb-Pb co-doped TiO<sub>2</sub></td><td>Photocatalytic HER</td><td>[183]</td></tr><tr><td>Cu (other elements possible, e.g., Mn, Cd, Pb, Zn, Ni)</td><td>Wastewater containing heavy metal ions</td><td>Laser-scribing</td><td>Cu-LIG</td><td>Electrochemical CO2RR</td><td>[181]</td></tr><tr><td>Ni, Mn, Co</td><td>Lithium-Ion Batteries</td><td>Rapid thermal radiation</td><td>NiMnCo-Activated Carbon</td><td>Electrochemical OER/ORR</td><td>[156c]</td></tr><tr><td>Nb, Pb, Ag, Pd, Sn, Ni, Ba, Ti</td><td>MLCCs</td><td>Ball-milling</td><td>Nb-Pb co-doped and Ag-Pd-Sn-Ni loaded BaTiO<sub>3</sub></td><td>Photocatalytic HER</td><td>[184]</td></tr><tr><td>Ni, Cu, Fe</td><td>Class-II BaTiO<sub>3</sub> MLCCs</td><td>Green solvent extraction</td><td>NiFe-hydroxide/NiCu-hydroxide</td><td>Electrochemical OER</td><td>[185]</td></tr><tr><td>Au</td><td>Electronic waste with metal ions</td><td>Enrichment/Absorption using MOFs</td><td>MOF supported Au NPs@1-χ</td><td>Electrochemical CO2RR</td><td>[156b]</td></tr><tr><td>Fe</td><td>Lithium-Ion Batteries</td><td>Top-down leaching</td><td>Fe SA/FeO<sub>x</sub>/FePO<sub>4</sub></td><td>Electrochemical ORR</td><td>[156d]</td></tr></tbody></table>

chemicals. While this upcycling route is still in its infancy, it is inclusive to various CMs and can bypass the complex stages for metal purification, thus gaining higher economic benefits.

The recovery of CMs from WPCBs implies significance not only for e-waste management and cycle use of finite resources but also for remedying the linked crux between environmental pollution and energy crisis. Therefore, predictable blowout growth of academic efforts will be witnessed following this paradigm-shifting trajectory in the future, while major impediments shown in the following need to be addressed to promote the transition from proof-of-concept research to industrial applications.

1) While numerous initiatives have been suggested to enhance the carbon-neutrality of PCB design, such as modularized designs and environmentally friendlier substrate alternatives, the inexorable trend indicates that PCBs are continually advancing in electrical performance, integrity, and reliability through material innovation and the ever-growing intricacy of their nature. Consequently, it is imperative to establish a robust repository of design CMs in PCBs and comprehend the artificial elemental companion relationships thoroughly. Given the extensive range of ECs and PCBs designed for mass production, the analytical capabilities should be bolstered with high-throughput methods.

2) AI has exhibited desired efficacy in component sorting for both the “look and pick” and “dismantle and sort” strategies, primarily relying on machine vision. When incorporating hyperspectral characterization, such as MEXRT and LIBS, AI can tap into deeper elemental information, enabling element-specific sorting. Nevertheless, it is imperative to acknowledge that further refinement is required before attaining industrial implementation, including algorithm optimization, detector upgrading, coordination of spatial and spectral information, accurate conveying, multichannel cooperation, cloud database, etc. The overall sorting coverage, accuracy and speed should be iterated to continuously meet the requirements of recycling industries.

3) Multifarious metallurgic methods have been developed for the separation and purification of metals reclaimed from e-waste. The ultimate goals in general are to obtain metals or their compounds that align well with the grade and impurity requirements for commercial products, while the processes are economically feasible and environmentally friendly. Therefore, chemical similarity and discrepancy of CMs in the periodic system and their specific substrates are the most pertinent for decisive reactions. With the development of quantum mechanics (QM), QM calculations have successfully demonstrated the ability to identify target specification of metal ions in the aqueous phase and model the organic phase chemistry, which can guide future extractant design and screen candidates for solvent extraction. Since it probes the unique electronic configurations of elements universally, regardless of the f-block, transition metals, and alkali metals, associated with separation reactions, its role should be highlighted to gain deep understanding and thus precise control on tailored applications. Additionally, the separation process should be designed deliberately in the framework of a circular economy rather than a linear economy.

4) Upcycling of CMs into catalysts is still embryonic and has yet to be sufficiently explored for scalable catalytic applications at lower costs and higher efficiency. Many challenges such as proper choice of CM precursors, use of toxic solvents, high input of resources, and disposal of toxic waste still exist. To emphasize the advantages of material inclusiveness and shorter-step processing, we also consider some lower selective methods, such as electrodeposition at high potential, in developing useful catalysts from e-waste, as specific combinations of metals can form alloys of controllable size and structures to be competent for different catalytic applications. In addition, thorough mechanism studies of the catalysts built from CMs should be investigated to provide a complete picture of WPCB utilization in energy conversion application.

5) Proper deployment of those advanced techniques is indispensable for forging an upgraded recycling/upcycling system. The existing recycling infrastructure may lack selectivity or sustainability for recovering CMs, they mostly offer an economical means for processing vast quantities of WPCBs. This paradigm shift in recycling requires the integration of old and new technologies from a whole-system perspective. Hence, it is necessary to explore mass balance, stoichiometric analysis,
thermodynamic and kinetic calculation, energy accounting, cost-benefit assessment, and waste emissions throughout the system.

## Acknowledgements

All authors acknowledge financial support from SCARCE project, which is supported by the National Research Foundation, Singapore, and the National Environment Agency, Singapore under its Closing the Resource Loop Funding Initiative (Award No. CTRL-2023-1D-01). NC acknowledges financial support (salary) in 2023 by the REVIWEEE project grant managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR) under the France 2030 program, award No. ANR-22-PERE-0009.

## Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## Keywords

artificial intelligence, catalysts, critical metals, green metallurgy, hyperspectral sensing, waste printed circuit board

Received: December 10, 2023

Revised: April 15, 2024

Published online:

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## Acknowledgements

All authors acknowledge financial support from SCARCE project, which is supported by the National Research Foundation, Singapore, and the National Environment Agency, Singapore under its Closing the Resource Loop Funding Initiative (Award No. CTRL-2023-1D-01). NC acknowledges financial support (salary) in 2023 by the REVIWEEE project grant managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR) under the France 2030 program, award No. ANR-22-PERE-0009.

## Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## Keywords

artificial intelligence, catalysts, critical metals, green metallurgy, hyperspectral sensing, waste printed circuit board

Received: December 10, 2023

Revised: April 15, 2024

Published online:

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<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

Jean-Christophe P. Gabriel is currently a senior research fellow at Energy Research Institute (ERIAN@NTU), Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. He obtained his B.S. (2012) and M.S. (2015) from Ocean University of China. He received his Ph.D. in environmental engineering from the Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2018. He has been devoted to R&D in Singapore-CEA Alliance for Research in Circular Economy (SCARCE) project for 5 years since 2018. His research interests involve critical resource sustainability and electronic waste recycling, with a primary focus on hyperspectral sorting, recovery, and separation of rare earth and platinum group metals, and supercritical fluid processing.
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<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

Jean-Christophe P. Gabriel is currently a senior research fellow at Energy Research Institute (ERIAN@NTU), Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. He obtained his B.S. (2012) and M.S. (2015) from Ocean University of China. He received his Ph.D. in environmental engineering from the Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2018. He has been devoted to R&D in Singapore-CEA Alliance for Research in Circular Economy (SCARCE) project for 5 years since 2018. His research interests involve critical resource sustainability and electronic waste recycling, with a primary focus on hyperspectral sorting, recovery, and separation of rare earth and platinum group metals, and supercritical fluid processing.
<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

**Dong Xia** is currently a professor at the School of Materials Science and Engineering at Nanyang Technological University. He obtained his B.S. in Nanjing University. He finished his Ph.D. from the Materials Science and Engineering Department of the State University of New York in Stony Brook. He joined the School of Materials Science and Engineering of Nanyang Technological University as an assistant professor in early 2008 and became a professor in 2018. He is currently the vice chair of the Electro-chemical Society, Singapore Section. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry Since 2018.

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

**Qingyu Yan** is currently Research Director at the French Alternative Energy and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA). Since 2018, he has also been serving as co-director of the NTU Singapore CEA Alliance for Research in Circular Economy (total endowment of ≈30 Mn SGD from 2018 to 2028), and as an NTU visiting professor. He joined CEA in 2007, first as CEA/LETI institute's "Beyond CMOS" program manager, then as deputy director of CEA's Nanoscience program and acting co-principal investigator of the REE-CYCLE advanced ERC project (2013-2018), aiming to develop new rare earth extraction/recycling processes. Former student at the "Ecole Normale Supérieure" in Paris, France, he received his Ph. D. in Chemistry from Orsay's University (now Paris-Saclay Univ.) and Habilitation from Univ. Joseph Fourier (now Grenoble Alpes Univ.), Grenoble, France. His career is an international mixed academic-industrial one (CNRS (France) / Nanomix Inc. (USA) / CEA (France) / NTU (Singapore)) in nanoscience, nanomaterials integration into electronic devices (sensors), and the development of electronic waste recycling processes.
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

**Dong Xia** is currently a professor at the School of Materials Science and Engineering at Nanyang Technological University. He obtained his B.S. in Nanjing University. He finished his Ph.D. from the Materials Science and Engineering Department of the State University of New York in Stony Brook. He joined the School of Materials Science and Engineering of Nanyang Technological University as an assistant professor in early 2008 and became a professor in 2018. He is currently the vice chair of the Electro-chemical Society, Singapore Section. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry Since 2018.

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

**Qingyu Yan** is currently Research Director at the French Alternative Energy and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA). Since 2018, he has also been serving as co-director of the NTU Singapore CEA Alliance for Research in Circular Economy (total endowment of ≈30 Mn SGD from 2018 to 2028), and as an NTU visiting professor. He joined CEA in 2007, first as CEA/LETI institute's "Beyond CMOS" program manager, then as deputy director of CEA's Nanoscience program and acting co-principal investigator of the REE-CYCLE advanced ERC project (2013-2018), aiming to develop new rare earth extraction/recycling processes. Former student at the "Ecole Normale Supérieure" in Paris, France, he received his Ph. D. in Chemistry from Orsay's University (now Paris-Saclay Univ.) and Habilitation from Univ. Joseph Fourier (now Grenoble Alpes Univ.), Grenoble, France. His career is an international mixed academic-industrial one (CNRS (France) / Nanomix Inc. (USA) / CEA (France) / NTU (Singapore)) in nanoscience, nanomaterials integration into electronic devices (sensors), and the development of electronic waste recycling processes.