# Exploring Culinary Methods to Reduce Sodium Intake: The Impact of Flavorings and Salt Addition Timing in Boiled Chicken

Raphael Monod, Thierry Thomas-Danguin, Henriette L de Kock

► To cite this version:

Raphael Monod, Thierry Thomas-Danguin, Henriette L de Kock. Exploring Culinary Methods to Reduce Sodium Intake: The Impact of Flavorings and Salt Addition Timing in Boiled Chicken. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, 2025 (1), pp.3703692. 10.1155/ijfo/3703692. hal-05111458

HAL Id: hal-05111458

https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-05111458v1

Submitted on 13 Jun 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Research Article

# Exploring Culinary Methods to Reduce Sodium Intake: The Impact of Flavorings and Salt Addition Timing in Boiled Chicken

Raphael Monod ID,<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="2" /> Thierry Thomas-Danguin ID,<fnref n="1" /> and Henriette L. de Kock ID,<fnref n="3" />

Correspondence should be addressed to Thierry Thomas-Danguin; thierry.thomas-danguin@inrae.fr

Received 14 May 2024; Accepted 13 May 2025

Academic Editor: Poulami Jha

Copyright © 2025 Raphael Monod et al. International Journal of Food Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The overconsumption of salt is a social concern and has consequences for human health. Discretionary salt contributes to salt intake but has received very little attention thus far, and recommendations do not precisely targeted discretionary salt. This study investigated how different culinary practices affect the saltiness of chickens. Chicken breasts were boiled in a standard homestyle bouillon (broth). Table salt was added to the broth or on the plate after cooking. Two salt concentrations, regular (6.5 mmol of Na⁺ per 100 g of cooked chicken) and low (4.1 mmol of Na⁺ per 100 g of cooked chicken), were compared. Additionally, we applied the following flavor treatments: rosemary, smoked bacon, and smoked garlic. The saltiness, sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and overall aroma of the warm chicken samples were evaluated by 158 untrained consumers. Saltiness adequacy was measured on a just-about-right (JAR) scale. Based on the results, no significant differences in saltiness intensity were observed between the two salting practices (*p* > 0.2). Regarding the flavor additions, a significant odor-induced increase in saltiness was observed when smoked bacon flavoring was combined with salting on the plate (*p* = 0.02). The JAR results indicated that adding smoked garlic flavoring to the broth allows a 33% reduction in salt content without compromising taste, suggesting that smoked garlic has a strong odor-induced saltiness enhancement effect and may be a viable option for salt reduction strategies. This study provides a basis for improving discretionary salt use practices that can be easily adopted by consumers, potentially aiding in reducing salt intake from chicken dishes without compromising flavor, and offering insights that may apply to other meat types.

**Keywords:** domestic practices; OITE; salt reduction; saltiness intensity; table salt

## 1. Introduction

Research has shown that sodium intake, primarily from salt (NaCl) consumption, is a major factor positively associated with high blood pressure in a dose-response relationship—the lower the salt intake, the greater the reduction in blood pressure [1]. While sodium intake plays a significant role, other contributors to the prevalence of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) include potassium intake, overall diet, and genetic predisposition [2]. Hypertension is a major risk factor for CVDs. Fifteen million people between 30 and 69 years of age die annually from

noncommunicable diseases, mostly from CVDs. More than three-quarters of these deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries [3]. Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends lowering salt intake to 5 g/day [4]. In South Africa, the mean per capita salt intake was estimated to be between 6 and 11 g per day in 2015 [5]. Although this estimation is based on limited data and reflects variability due to different sources or methodologies used in estimating salt intake, it is clear that South Africans consume excess salt [5]. The overconsumption of salt poses significant risks to the already burdened South African health system [6]. To address this issue, public health

<footnote n="1">¹Centre for Taste, Smell, and Feeding Behavior (CSGA), INRAE, CNRS, Institut Agro Dijon, Universite Bourgogne Europe, Dijon, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Universite Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, QuaPA Research Unit, Saint-Genes-Chamanelle, France</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Department of Consumer and Food Sciences, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa</footnote>
campaigns aimed at raising awareness about salt intake, the mandatory reformulation of recipes, and the promotion of alternative flavorings are important strategies. The South African government implemented a mandatory national regulation to reduce salt consumption in 2013. This regulation targeted 13 food categories, including bread, stock cubes, and processed meats. It established phased salt reduction benchmarks for 2016 (Phase 1) and 2019 (Phase 2). By 2018/early 2019, it was estimated that the regulation had resulted in a reduction of 1.2 g of salt per day compared to the 2013–2016 period [7]. Further reductions are expected following the 2019 mandatory salt limits in commercial foods. Salt is consumed from processed foods, discretionary sources, and natural food sources [8]. Charlton et al. [9] suggested that salt added to food at the table and in cooking comprises up to 40% of the total salt intake in South Africa, which is equivalent to a daily added salt amount of 4.3 g. Moreover, the use of table salt may increase when manufactured products lack sufficient saltiness. For example, when eating chicken stews cooked with low salt stock cubes, some people add table salt and even fully replace the salt removed [10]. Hence, discretionary salt may remain an important contributor to dietary salt intake [11].

Several strategies have been used to enhance the saltiness of food. For example, Emorine et al. [12] combined the heterogeneous spatial distribution of flavors and aroma-taste interactions to increase the saltiness of hot snacks. Ham, which has a salt-associated aroma, enhanced saltiness regardless of the spatial distribution of salt and aroma. Moreover, products with heterogeneous salt distributions were perceived as saltier. Furthermore, pulsatile stimulation can enhance salt perception [13], possibly by reducing adaptation [14]. The heterogeneous distribution of salt (NaCl) is a promising way to generate the pulsatile stimulation by creating unsalted (or low) salted areas and highly salted areas in the same food product. The uneven distribution of salt leads to a significantly greater perception of salt intensity for hot snacks [15], pizza [16], bread [17], and meat [18].

Broths are used to add flavor to a dish. Broth consumption in sub-Saharan countries is high, contributing to salt intake above recommended levels [19]. When broth is reformulated with the objective of exploiting cross-modal interactions (such as aroma-taste interactions), the overall flavor intensity and consumer satisfaction can be maintained while reducing salt levels [20]. Effectively, certain odors are linked to taste and can provoke a phenomenon known as odor-induced taste enhancement (OITE) [21, 22]. In the case of saltiness, OITE has been described in salty water using soy sauce aroma [21, 23], smoked bacon or smoked garlic [24], bacon, sardine or anchovy [25], and sardine [26]. OITE has also been achieved in complex liquids through the application of beef stock in a green pea soup [27] and savory aroma compounds, such as beef flavor, in beef broths [28]. Most studies focusing on OITE have used water with salt and aromas [27]. In two studies, OITE was tested in a cheese model using sardine aroma [29, 30]. Overall, a richer flavor system can compensate for a reduced salt content [31]. Flavor can be added by using salty congruent aromas as described previously or by using herbs and spices

[32]. It has been reported that saline solutions flavored with Mediterranean herbs and spices (i.e., *Helichrysum*, rosemary, licorice, fennel seeds, and myrtle leaves) may enhance saltiness perception compared to unflavored salt solutions [33]. For instance, patients with hyposmia perceived saline solutions made with these flavored salts, which contained approximately 15% less salt, as similarly intense in saltiness and equally pleasant to pure salt solutions [34]. Herbs and spices have been used in a wide variety of food categories, including meat-based meals. For example, garlic, rosemary, oregano or sage, and a blend of garlic, rosemary, and sage can be added as natural flavor enhancers in reduced-salt chicken supremes (a boneless, skin-on breast of chicken) [35]. Consumers added less salt to chicken noodle soup when the perceived herb flavor increased [36]. The addition of a spice blend (Southwest chipotle, basil, pepper, and garlic) to a chicken pasta meal reduced the salt content by 50% [37]. Recently, Petersen et al. [38] used herbs and spices to enhance the flavor of commonly consumed foods. In that study, consumers significantly preferred a chicken in a cream sauce consisting of onion, garlic powders, ground mustard seed, black pepper, parsley flakes, and dill (in terms of overall liking, appearance, and flavor) over the original recipe (which was a chicken in a cream sauce made of whole milk, salt, salted butter, and flour with no flavorings).

In this study, we aimed to assess the impact of different flavoring and salting practices on the enhancement of salt perception in boiled chicken, a commonly prepared home-cooked dish in South Africa. Chicken breasts were cooked in standard homestyle broth. The following methods of adding discretionary salt were investigated: during boiling in the broth and on the plate after cooking. We hypothesized that salting the chicken on the plate would allow salt crystals to remain on the surface of the meat, leading to a more heterogeneous salt distribution and improved salt perception. Additionally, three flavor treatments were applied to the broth, that is, the addition of rosemary, smoked bacon, or smoked garlic flavorings. We postulated that these salt-free flavorings would produce odor-induced saltiness enhancement.

## 2. Materials and Methods

2.1. *Preparation of Chicken Samples.* Fresh boneless and skinless chicken breasts were purchased from a local supermarket (Uitkyk Vleismark, South Africa) and stored at -20°C. They were thawed in a cold room maintained at 3°C-5°C for 24 h prior to cooking and analysis. The partially thawed chicken breasts were cut into 1.5 cm³ cubes (each cube's average weight = 5.1 g, standard deviation = 0.5 g). Forty chicken cubes (total weight = 204.9 g, standard deviation = 7.9 g) were cooked in vegetable broth for 6 min before analysis. The vegetable broth consisted of natural spring water (1 L, Aquelle, South Africa) and dehydrated onion, leek, celery, and carrot powders (5 g each, HerboDirect, France).

2.2. *Sodium Content Analyses.* Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (Agilent, Application Notes 5990-4539EN) was used to determine the total sodium content for the *Unsalted*, *RB*, and *LB* treatments (Figure 1).
<table><thead><tr><th>Treatment code¹</th><th>Salt level</th><th>Salting moment</th><th>Flavoring</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Unsalted</td><td>◎</td><td>NA</td><td>◎</td></tr><tr><td>RB</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>◎</td></tr><tr><td>RBR</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>RBB</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>RBG</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>RP</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>◎</td></tr><tr><td>RPR</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>RPB</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>RPG</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>LB</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>◎</td></tr><tr><td>LBR</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>LBB</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>LBG</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>LP</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>◎</td></tr><tr><td>LPR</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>LPB</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr><tr><td>LPG</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td><td>■■■</td></tr></tbody></table>

◎: no salt or flavor added;

■■: Regular salt level;

■: Low salt level;

■■: In broth;

NA = not applicable

●: On the plate;

■: Rosemary;

■■: Smoked bacon;

■: Smoked garlic

<caption>FIGURE 1: Treatment characteristics.</caption>

ICP-MS measurements were conducted by an external company (SGS, Cape Town, South Africa).

In addition, ionic chromatography (IC) analyses were performed in France (CSGA, Dijon) to determine the maximum in-water releasable sodium content in several samples. The IC analyses were performed using skinless and boneless chicken breasts purchased from a local supermarket (Carrefour, Dijon, France) and Evian mineral water (Danone, France) as the cooking water. The same protocol was used to prepare and boil the chicken samples in South Africa and France. *Unsalted*, *RB*, *RP*, *LB*, and *LP* treatments (Figure 1) were analyzed in triplicate using IC. Unsalted chickens with smoked garlic, smoked bacon, or rosemary

were also analyzed in triplicate by IC to measure the influence of the flavor on the in-water releasable sodium content of the boiled chicken.

To perform IC analyses and simulate in-mouth maximal deconstruction of the food matrix, chicken pieces were homogenized after the preparation process using an Ultra-Turrax (Ika T25D, Germany) for 1 min at 15,000 rpm. A known volume of Milli-Q water (Millipore SAS, Molsheim, France) was added to facilitate the mixing. Afterward, the chicken puree was centrifuged (Beckman Coulter, 20°C, 30 min, acceleration maximum, deceleration minimum) for 30 min at 15,000 × g to separate the water phase containing the releasable sodium. Finally, the supernatant was collected,
<table><caption>TABLE 1: Tasting group characteristics.</caption><thead><tr><th>Tasting group</th><th>1</th><th>2</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Number of participants</td><td>82</td><td>76</td></tr><tr><td>Percentage of women</td><td>72%</td><td>70%</td></tr><tr><td>Mean age and calculated standard deviation</td><td>24 ± 4 years old</td><td>25 ± 5 years old</td></tr><tr><td>Tasted treatments</td><td>Unsalted, RB, RBR, RBB, RBG, RP, RPR, RPB, and RPG</td><td>RB, LB, LBR, LBB, LBG, LP, LPR, LPB, and LPG</td></tr></tbody></table>

filtered (pore size 0.45 µm, CIL, Sainte-Foy-la-Grande, France), diluted, and poured into an HPLC vial.

An ion chromatograph ICS-3000 (Dionex, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) was used to determine the sodium concentration in the chicken samples. The ionic chromatograph was equipped with a conductivity detector, a guard column Dionex IonPac CG12A (5 µm particle size, 3 × 30 mm), a separating column CS12A (5 µm particle size, 3 × 150 mm), and a cation self-regenerating suppressor (CSRS ULTRA II 2 mm) via electrochemical methods. The eluent was 11 mmol L⁻¹ of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) at a flow rate of 0.5 mL·min⁻¹. The pressure in the system was approximately 1500 psi (104 bars). The eluent was degassed with nitrogen (Gaz N₂) at a pressure of 2.5 bars in a bottle. The filtered sample was placed in a vial (Batch #420761 PN 50026635 V2-2, USA), thermocontrolled at 10°C by an autosampler (AS), and injected into a 10-µL sample loop of the Dionex ICS-3000 system. A calibration curve was made before every analysis with solutions at increasing NaCl concentrations. The sodium standard solution was prepared by dissolving 125.3 mg of NaCl (CAS 7647-14-5 Sigma-Aldrich S9625-1 kg #SLBW8510) in 200 mL of ultrapure water (18.2 MΩ·cm) to yield an assay concentration of 10.7 mM (=626.5 mg/L). The stock solution was diluted from 0.06 to 2.1 mM (3–125 mg/L) in ultrapure water. The data were acquired by using Chromeleon chromatographic data station software (Version 7.2) installed on a Dell computer.

### 2.3. Culinary Process.
Iodized fine sea salt (La Baleine, France) was added either at 12 g/L in broth (regular level, treatments RB, RBR, RBB, RBG, RP, RPR, RPB, and RPG; Figure 1) equivalent to 205 mmol/L of Na⁺ or at 6 g/L in broth (low level, 50% sodium reduction, treatments LB, LBR, LBB, LBG, LP, LPR, LPB, and LPG; Figure 1) equivalent to 103 mmol/L of Na⁺. No salt was added to the Unsalted treatment. The regular level was chosen based on domestic recipes and after preliminary tests to elicit a just-about-right (JAR) saltiness perception.

Rosemary fluid extract (3 mL/L, Aroma-Zone, France), smoked bacon (2 g/L, bacon smoked flexarome, 880,501 FB542, Firmenich, Switzerland), or smoked garlic (8 g/L, Ducros, France) were used as a flavor. Flavorings were added in these amounts to elicit an equal flavor intensity during consumption (this was tested internally). The smoked bacon and the smoked garlic were added at the beginning of cooking (treatments RBB, RPB, LBB, and LPB and RBG, RPG, LBG, and LPG, respectively; Figure 1). The rosemary fluid extract was added after cooking; as the fluid extract is sensitive to heat, the extract could not be added to the water at

the beginning of the cooking process (treatments RBR, RPR, LBR, and LPR; Figure 1). Treatments without flavoring were tested at the following levels: no salt (Unsalted), regular (RB and RP; Figure 1), and low (LB and LP; Figure 1).

Salt was added either at the beginning of the cooking process, later referred to as “In broth” (treatments RB, RBR, RBB, and RBG and LB, LBR, LBB, and LBG; Figure 1), or after cooking, referred to as “On the plate” (treatments RP, RPR, RPB, and RPG and LP, LPR, LPB, and LPG; Figure 1), at the two levels of salting. After 6 min of boiling, the chicken cubes (m = 147.5 g, SD = 12.9 g, total weight of the 40 cooked pieces after draining) were drained and stored in a bain-marie (the water temperature of the bain-marie was 79°C) before being served. The RP, RPR, RPB, and RPG and LP, LPR, LPB, and LPG treatments (Figure 1) were salted in the bain-marie.

### 2.4. Sensory Analysis.
Sensory analysis was performed with two different groups of untrained consumers (Group 1 and Group 2; Table 1). Participants were recruited using an internal database and were unfamiliar with the specific test conditions. No criterion on chicken consumption or salt consumption was enforced. Participants were informed beforehand that the activity consisted of tasting and eating chicken. Participants were briefed on the procedure, and written informed consent was obtained prior to participation. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Science of the University of Pretoria (NAS017/2023). At the end of the session, the participants received a store voucher of R50.

Each participant tasted nine different samples (Table 1). RB treatment was assessed in both groups to compare the ratings of the standard salty chicken between the two groups. Each sample weighing 6.4–8.4 g (representing two chicken cubes) was served at a temperature of 58°C–66°C. The nine samples were presented to participants in a balanced order using a Williams Latin square design. Participants rated the samples for the intensity of sweetness, saltiness, sourness, bitterness, and overall flavor intensity on linear continuous scales with word anchors (not intense and very intense) at the extreme ends. After this task was completed for the nine samples, a new set of nine samples was served to participants in a balanced order using a Williams Latin square design. For this second service round, participants rated the gap between their appreciation of each sample and their preferred saltiness level on a linear continuous scale with the word anchors Really not salty enough and Way too salty at the two extreme ends and a middle anchor labeled The salt level is just right (JAR task). The questionnaire and data collection were monitored using Compusense software (Version 23.0.27 2023/06/20).
## 2.5. Data Analysis.
The intensity rating data were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on taste or flavor intensity using linear mixed-effect (LME) models (ranked-transformed data). Panelists were considered random factors, and the seasoning procedure (combining the salting level, the moment of salting, and the potential addition of flavorings) and the session number were considered fixed factors. Multiple comparisons between medians were performed using Wilcoxon tests when one factor was significant (*p* < 0.05). Wilcoxon tests were performed with a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons.

For the first group (treatments *Unsalted*, *RB*, *RBR*, *RBB*, *RBG*, *RP*, *RPR*, *RPB*, and *RPG*; Figure 1), the results from 12 participants were removed because all the samples were rated at 0 for saltiness intensity. For the second panel (treatments *RB*, *LB*, *LBR*, *LBB*, *LBG*, *LP*, *LPR*, *LPB*, and *LPG*; Figure 1), the results from five participants were removed for the same reason.

The OITE [25] was calculated for each flavoring treatment (treatments *RBR*, *RBB*, *RBG*, *RPR*, *RPB*, *RPG*, *LBR*, *LBB*, *LBG*, *LPR*, *LPB*, and *LPG*; Figure 1). OITE corresponded, for each panelist, to the difference between (i) the saltiness of the treatment containing an aroma and (ii) the saltiness of the unflavored solution that contained the same amount of sodium chloride and was salted following the same method (in broth or on the plate). We specifically tested whether, for each salt level × salting time × flavoring condition, the OITE means were different from 0 (one sample *t*-test).

For the JAR task, the raw data ranged from 0 to 10. For more straightforward plots and interpretations, all ratings were subtracted by 5. Then, median comparison tests were performed.

All the statistical analyses were performed using RStudio Software Version 4.1.2 [39]. LME models were generated using the function *lme()* in the *nlme* R package (v3.1-153; [40]), ANOVA and Wilcoxon tests were performed using the functions *Anova()* and *wilcox_test()* in the *rstatix* R package (v0.7.0; [41]), Welch two-sample *t*-tests were performed using the function *t.test()* in the *stats* R package [39], and median comparison tests were performed using the function *Median.test()* in the *agricolae* R package (v1.3-5; [42]). The effects were considered significant when *p* < 0.05.

# 3. Results

## 3.1. Sodium Content.
Table 2 shows the sodium content of unsalted boiled chicken (*Unsalted*) boiled chicken salted at the regular level in the broth (*RB*) and boiled chicken salted at the low level in the broth (*LB*). There is a 33% difference in terms of sodium content between the two levels of salting (*RB* and *LB* treatments; Table 2).

The moment of salt addition (in broth or on the plate) marginally influenced the sodium concentration in the supernatant analyzed by IC at the regular level of salting (*p* = 0.07) (Figure 2). The sodium concentration at the low level was significantly lower when salt was added to the plate (*p* = 0.02), representing a reduction of approximately 10% (Figure 2).

<table><caption>**TABLE 2:** Sodium content of the *Unsalted*, *RB*, and *LB* treatments measured by ICP-MS.</caption><thead><tr><th>Treatment</th><th>Sodium content (mmol of Na<sup>+</sup>/100 g of chicken)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><i>Unsalted</i></td><td>2.0</td></tr><tr><td><i>RB</i></td><td>6.5</td></tr><tr><td><i>LB</i></td><td>4.1</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**FIGURE 2:** Sodium molar concentrations (millimoles per liter) measured by IC of supernatant collected after mixing and centrifugation of boiled chicken, depending on the level of salting and the moment of salting. *RB*, regular broth; *RP*, regular plate; *LB*, low broth; *LP*, low plate. Stars indicate the level of statistical significance for mean differences (Welch two sample *t*-test): *p* < 0.05.</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>**TABLE 3:** Sodium concentration in the supernatant analyzed by IC for unsalted chicken either unflavored, flavored with smoked bacon, flavored with smoked garlic, or flavored with rosemary.</caption><thead><tr><th>Treatments</th><th>Sodium concentration (mmol/L)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><i>Unsalted</i></td><td>13.5 ± 1.8</td></tr><tr><td><i>Unsalted</i> flavored with smoked bacon</td><td>14.0 ± 1.2</td></tr><tr><td><i>Unsalted</i> flavored with smoked garlic</td><td>12.7 ± 0.7</td></tr><tr><td><i>Unsalted</i> flavored with rosemary</td><td>12.5 ± 3.0</td></tr></tbody></table>

Flavoring did not significantly affect the sodium concentration in the supernatant analyzed by IC (*p* = 0.73; Table 3).

## 3.2. Sensory Evaluations.
The unsalted treatment was described as very low in sweetness, saltiness, sourness, bitterness, and overall flavor intensity (see Figure S1). The effects of flavorings on perceived sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and overall aroma are presented in Figures S2–S5.

### 3.2.1. Absence of the Participant Group Effect.
Boiled chicken salted at the regular level in the broth (*RB*) was evaluated by the two groups of participants. The mean saltiness intensity was not different between the two groups (*p* = 0.73; Table 4). The means of the JAR ratings were not significantly different (*p* = 0.08; Table 4). Wilcoxon test revealed that the medians of the JAR ratings were not significantly different either (*p* = 0.17; Table 4). Therefore, we conclude that there were
<table><caption>**TABLE 4:** Saltiness intensity scores and JAR ratings of the boiled chicken salted at the regular level in the broth (RB treatment) depending on the tasting group.</caption><thead><tr><th>Tasting group</th><th>Saltiness intensity<br>(mean ± standard deviation)</th><th>JAR rating (mean)</th><th>JAR rating (median)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>2.06 ± 2.00</td><td>-0.4</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>1.94 ± 2.06</td><td>-1.0</td><td>-0.2</td></tr></tbody></table>

no differences in the perception of saltiness between the two groups. Thus, one single global group will be considered for the rest of the study.

### 3.2.2. Saltiness Intensity Ratings

#### 3.2.2.1. Effect of Salting Time on Saltiness Intensity.
Figure 3 shows the saltiness intensity of unflavored treatments treated with salt in broth (RB and LB treatments), or on the plate (striped boxes, RP and LP treatments), at the regular salt level (RB and RP treatments) or at the low level (LB and LP treatments). Salting in broth was not significantly different from salting on the plate for the two levels of salting (there were no significant differences between RB and RP or between LB and LP; *p* > 0.2; Figure 3). The saltiness intensity of the chicken salted at the regular level at the plate (RP) was not significantly different from the saltiness intensity of the chicken salted at the low level in broth and at the plate (LB and LP) (Figure 3). The saltiness intensities of the salt treatments were all significantly different from the saltiness intensity of the *Unsalted* treatment (Figure 3).

#### 3.2.2.2. Effect of Flavorings on Saltiness Intensity.
At the two levels of salting (regular and low), the saltiness intensity was not significantly different (*p* > 0.05) between the unflavored and the flavored samples (Figure 4) regardless of when salt was added (in broth or on the plate).

The OITE scores for the flavored treatments were not significantly different from 0 at the regular salt level (Figure 5a,b). However, at the low salt level, OITE was significantly different from 0 for smoked bacon when salting was performed on the plate (treatment LPB; *p* = 0.02; Figure 5d), and OITE was marginally significant for smoked garlic when salting was performed in broth (treatment LBG; *p* = 0.07; Figure 5c).

#### 3.2.3. JAR Saltiness.
In the JAR task, a score of -5 indicates that the sample is clearly not salty enough, a score of 0 indicates that the sample is just right in terms of salty taste, and a score of +5 indicates that the sample is overly salty. To check for significant differences between conditions, the following median comparison tests were performed: one included the treatments *Unsalted*, *RB*, *RBR*, *RBB*, *RBG*, *RP*, *RPR*, *RPB*, and *RPG* (Figures 1 and 6a), and the other included the *RB*, *LB*, *LBR*, *LBB*, *LBG*, *LP*, *LPR*, *LPB*, and *LPG* treatments (Figures 1 and 6b). For each test, a common letter indicates that the treatments are not significantly different.

The results presented in Figure 6a showed that boiled chicken with no salt added (*Unsalted*) was, as expected, not salty enough. The median of the chicken samples salted in the broth at the regular level (RB) was approximately 0, indi-

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**FIGURE 3:** Salt intensity of chicken samples salted at either a regular salt level (RB and RP treatments) or a low salt level (LB and LP treatments) and salted either in broth (RB and LB treatments) or at the plate (grey boxes, RP and LP treatments). Treatments with the same letter are not significantly different (Wilcoxon test with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, *p* < 0.05). RB, regular broth; RP, regular plate; LB, low broth; LP, low plate.</figcaption></figure>

cating a JAR salty taste regardless of the flavoring conditions. The median number of chicken samples salted at the plate at the regular level (RP) was less than 0 regardless of the flavoring conditions, which indicates that these chicken pieces were not salty enough. The median comparison revealed that the JAR scores were significantly different when salt was added to the broth and on the plate except for *RBB* (chicken flavored with smoked bacon in the broth), for which the JAR score was not significantly different than that of samples salted on the plate and flavored with smoked garlic.

The results depicted in Figure 6b indicate that except for the sample salted at the low level in broth with smoked garlic (*LBG*), the chicken samples salted at the low salt level were perceived as less salty than the control sample at the regular salt level (RB). Interestingly, this sample attained a mean JAR very close to 0 despite containing approximately 30% less salt, suggesting that the sample was perceived as adequately salted. In contrast, all other chicken samples received a JAR score below 0, indicating that they were considered under salted. Furthermore, the samples salted at the plate were consistently judged as less salty than those salted in
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 4: Mean saltiness intensity of chicken samples salted at the regular level in (a) broth and on the (b) plate or salted at the low level in (c) broth and on the (d) plate, either unflavored RB, RP, LB, and LP treatments or flavored with rosemary (RBR, RPR, LBR, and LPR treatments), smoked bacon (RBB, RPB, LBB, and LPB treatments), or smoked garlic (RBG, RPG, LBG, and LPG treatments). Results from ANOVA did not show any significant effect (*p* > 0.05) between samples.</figcaption></figure>

broth, with only the rosemary-flavored sample showing a significantly lower JAR score—a trend consistent with observations at the regular salt level.

## 4. Discussion

In this study, we investigated the influence of various flavoring and salting practices on the perceived saltiness of boiled chickens. We explored the following methods of adding discretionary salt: in broth during boiling and on the plate after cooking. Our hypothesis suggested that adding salt to the plate causes salt crystals to remain on the meat's surface, leading to a more heterogeneous salt distribution and enhancing salty taste intensity. Additionally, we applied three flavor treatments—rosemary, smoked bacon, and smoked garlic—to the broth, aiming to enhance the perception of saltiness through odor stimulation.

The results revealed no significant differences in perceived saltiness intensity between the two salting practices. Compared to adding salt to the broth as the chicken boils, adding discretionary salt to the plate after cooking did not lead to enhanced salt perception. This result was obtained across both salt levels investigated. Our hypothesis was that adding salt to the plate leads to a heterogeneous distribution of salt due to the persistence of salt crystals or salt-concentrated spots on the food surface. In contrast, adding salt to the broth during boiling may facilitate the penetration of salt into the meat, resulting in a more homogeneous salt distribution. However, high temperatures (> 65°C) during cooking increase the firmness of muscular tissues and cause tissue contraction [43]. This contraction likely limits the diffusion of sodium ions from the broth into the meat, causing them to remain primarily at the periphery of the food. This mechanism could explain why the difference in salt
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 5: Odor-induced taste enhancement (OITE) scores for samples salted at the regular level in (a) broth and at the (b) plate or salted at the low level in (c) broth and at the (d) plate and flavored with rosemary (RBR, RPR, LBR, and LPR treatments), smoked bacon (RBB, RPB, LBB, and LPB treatments), or smoked garlic (RBG, RPG, LBG, and LPG treatments). OITE was calculated as the average across participant's scores, obtained by subtracting the score for the unflavored treatment from the score obtained for the respective flavored treatments. Stars indicate the level of statistical significance for mean differences compared to 0 (one sample t-test): **, * p < 0.1; * p < 0.05.</figcaption></figure>

distribution between the two salting methods might be less
significant than initially anticipated. A similar study on veg-
etables or starchy foods, such as pasta, where sodium ions
can more readily penetrate the food matrix during cooking,
might yield valuable insights. For example, Bianchi et al.
[44] observed a linear relationship between the salt concen-
tration in water and the sodium content in cooked pasta,
suggesting that sodium ions can effectively penetrate this

type of food. These findings underscore the importance of
understanding the interaction between food matrix compo-
sition, cooking method, and sodium distribution in shaping
salt perception.

Regarding the impact of aroma addition, our results
showed that rosemary, smoked garlic, and smoked bacon
flavorings did not significantly influence the perceived inten-
sity of salt at the regular salt level. However, at the 33%
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 6: JAR scores (a) for chicken samples salted at the regular level and the *Unsalted* treatment and (b) for samples salted at the low level and the control sample *RB* salted at the regular level in broth. Chicken samples were flavored with rosemary (*RBR*, *RPR*, *LBR*, and *LPR* treatments), smoked bacon (*RBB*, *RPB*, *LBB*, and *LPB* treatments), or smoked garlic (*RBG*, *RPG*, *LBG*, and *LPG* treatments), or unflavored (*RB*, *RP*, *LB*, and *LP* treatments) and were salted either in broth (white boxes) or at the plate (grey boxes). Treatments with the same letter are not significantly different at *p* < 0.05 (median comparison test).</figcaption></figure>

reduced salt level, a limited yet significant odor-induced salt-
iness enhancement was observed when smoked bacon fla-
voring was added to the broth and salt was added to the
plate. Moreover, a marginally significant increase in saltiness
was observed with smoked garlic when salt was added to the
broth. This trend was further supported by the JAR results,
which indicated that the addition of smoked garlic flavoring
to the broth, in which salt was added, was perceived as
almost just right in terms of saltiness and noticeably similar
to the unflavored cooked chicken salted at the regular level
in broth. This finding confirms that sodium levels can be
reduced by 30% without compromising the flavor by adding
aroma compounds, such as smoked garlic, to the broth when
cooking chicken. Therefore, our results confirm that OITE is
an effective mechanism to compensate for salt reduction in
food [24, 25, 37, 38]. It would be interesting to investigate
the specific odor-active compounds in smoked garlic
responsible for the strong odor-induced saltiness enhance-
ment. Future studies could explore whether this effect is
driven primarily by the smoky compounds, the garlic-
related compounds, or a combination of these compounds
and those present in the broth. Moreover, this sensory
mechanism has been demonstrated to be applicable in
domestic cooking practices, with smoked garlic and smoked
bacon flavorings showing promise in this regard. In contrast
to a previous report [35], the rosemary flavor did not
enhance saltiness under our conditions, possibly because
chickens flavored with rosemary were perceived to be more
bitter and slightly sour than unflavored chickens or chickens
flavored with other aromas (see Figures S3 and S4), which
could have counteracted the increase in saltiness.
Nevertheless, Mediterranean aromatic plants, including
rosemary, have been used to flavor commercial sea salts,
enabling a 15% reduction in salt content without
decreasing saltiness intensity [33, 34]. Depending on the
food items and recipe, using commercial flavored sea salts
or direct flavorings could therefore offer an effective

strategy for reducing salt intake. Additionally, it appears
that odor-induced saltiness enhancement varies among
different aromatic herbs [45], warranting further research
to gain more insight into these differences.

A more significant OITE at lower salt contents was
expected, given that this mechanism has been demonstrated
to be more effective at low salt intensities (e.g., [25, 26]).
However, the salt content of the samples used in the present
study and the corresponding salty taste intensity ratings
were both quite low, even at the regular level, despite being
adequate within the JAR evaluation. Moreover, the lack of
significant results at regular and sometimes low salt levels
might be attributed to the low odor intensity of the added
flavorings, which may not be clearly perceived by partici-
pants (see Figure S5). Although previous researchers did
not find a clear correlation between the intensity of odor
and the amplitude of OITE [46], this possibility should be
further addressed through dedicated studies.

In this study, we combined known strategies to compen-
sate for taste issues in food with reduced salt content and
applied the methods to domestic cooking and seasoning
practices. Emorine et al. [12] successfully achieved heteroge-
neous salt distribution and odor-induced saltiness enhance-
ment in a hot-served snack. They designed a ham-flavored
snack with 35% less salt, which was perceived as saltier
and was liked equally as standard snacks. Similarly, in the
present study, salt was added to plates to achieve heteroge-
neous salt distribution, and smoked bacon flavoring was
added to effectively enhance saltiness at low salt contents.
Interestingly, statistical significance in terms of enhanced
salty tastes was only achieved by the combination of these
two strategies. Although further research is needed to clarify
why the combined effect was more pronounced, combined
strategies should be employed to more efficiently address
taste issues in low salt foods and to improve cooking and
seasoning practices, thereby contributing to a reduction in
salt intake.
Regarding the limitations of the present study, each partic-
ipant tasted 18 samples within a 1 h session. This process could
have been overwhelming for some participants and might have
led to inconsistent sensory ratings, thereby increasing the vari-
ability of the collected data. Additionally, for practical reasons,
the amount of salt added to the plate was estimated based on
the cooked chicken mass and weighed before cooking began.
This constraint should be considered when comparing the
two salting conditions (in broth or on the plate). One outcome
of this procedure was that the amount of salt added to the plate
was approximately 10% lower than the quantity added to the
broth. This difference may have contributed to the sensory
results showing a systematically lower salty taste intensity for
the samples salted at the plate and could have reduced the mag-
nitude of the observed effect. The salt added to the plate could
have been more precisely measured if the cooked mass of each
batch of chicken had been determined. In this study, we did not
investigate the habits of participants regarding salt usage, such
as whether they regularly added table salt or were interested
in reducing salt intake or their preferences for salty foods or
the food they prepared. Antúnez et al. [47] reported that con-
sumers that added salt to foods less frequently gave higher over-
all liking scores to rice with 25%–50% salt reduction, while De
Kock et al. [10] did not find any differences in liking ratings
between consumers interested in lowering salt intake and those
who were not. We did not assess if the participants liked the
products. Instead, we used a JAR scale, which likely partly cap-
tured the hedonic dimension. Measuring the likeability would
provide complementary data of interest, as it is a key determi-
nant of food acceptability.

Furthermore, our findings are specific to boiled chicken. For other types of meat, boiling is often applied to cuts rich in connective tissues and typically involves longer cooking times. Extended cooking may allow the salt to penetrate more deeply into the food matrix, potentially resulting in significantly lower sodium availability for taste compared to salting on the plate. This could result in a more pronounced contrast in perceived saltiness between the two salt-ing practices and might make salting on the plate more efficient for such cuts of meat. Regarding flavorings, it is plausible that smoky flavors could also enhance saltiness perception in other types of meat or even vegetables, partic-ularly when these foods are roasted, as roasting often amplifies both flavor and aroma profiles.

**5. Conclusion**

In the context of culinary practices, our findings emphasize
that the timing of salt addition—whether during cooking
(e.g., in broth) or after cooking (e.g., on the plate)—has little
impact on the perceived saltiness of chicken breast meat,
specifically in situations where no flavorings were used.
However, when combined with salt-enhancing flavorings,
such as smoked garlic or smoked bacon, these practices offer
a promising approach to reducing discretionary salt intake
while preserving taste, particularly at lower salt levels. This
finding is especially relevant in regions where meat is widely
consumed, offering a strategy to address high salt intake by
promoting the use of such flavorings in culinary practices.

Furthermore, our study underscores the need to broaden research efforts to include diverse food items with varying compositions, structures, and textures. This comprehensive approach could provide deeper insights into salt perception and reduction strategies across a wide range of food products. Future research should focus on identifying the specific compounds responsible for saltiness enhancement in smoked flavorings, as well as exploring the effects of salt-enhancing flavorings in foods with different moisture levels, fat content, or complexity. These efforts hold significant potential to advance global initiatives aimed at reducing salt intake.

**Data Availability Statement**

The research data used to support the findings of this study
are available from the corresponding author upon request.

**Ethics Statement**

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Science of the University of Pretoria (NAS017/2023).

**Conflicts of Interest**

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

**Author Contributions**

**Raphael Monod:** writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, conceptualization, data curation. **Thierry Thomas-Danguin:** writing – review and editing, methodology, supervision, conceptualization, funding acquisition, project administration. **Henriette L. de Kock:** Writing – review and editing, methodology, supervision, conceptualization, funding acquisition, formal analysis.

**Funding**

This work was supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR-19-CE21-0009), the INRAE Department TRANSFORM, and the Department of Consumer and Food Sciences of the University of Pretoria. Raphael Monod benefited for financial support from the INRAE Department of Higher Education, Sites and Europe (DESSE) within the Agreenium International School of Research (EIR-A); he was awarded a bursary for first-year PhD students from Giract's European Flavor Research Programme and a travel fellowship from the Environment-Health doctoral school of the university Bourgogne Franche-Comté. The Conseil Régional de Bourgogne-Franche-Comté and the Fond Européen de Développement Régional are thanked for financial support (Contract No. 2013-9201AAO051S02070).

**Acknowledgments**

All the ICP-AES analyses were performed at the “Plateforme d’Analyse Chimique et de Synthèse Moléculaire de l’Université de Bourgogne” (PACSMUB). Mrs. Tiffanie Régnier is
gratefully acknowledged for the Na content determination. The Conseil Régional de Bourgogne-Franche-Comté and the Fond Européen de Développement Régional are thanked for financial support (Contract No. 2013-9201AAO051S02070). We thank all the individuals from the Department of Consumer and Food Sciences, University of Pretoria, especially Nomzamo Magano, Clarissa van Heerden, and Kyle Hay, for their invaluable assistance in the cutting, cooking, and serving of the samples. We also thank Josephine Baloyi for her management of the sensory sessions and Marise Kinnear for her assistance in designing the Compusense sensory sessions. We are also grateful to Shanece Ramkisson, Irene Darkwa, and Dr. Zeinad Asadi for their support during the sensory sessions. We express our appreciation to Firmenich for providing aroma and to Elodie Rouleau and Bérénice Houinsou-Houssou for their assistance with sodium measurements using ionic chromatography.

## Supporting Information

Additional supporting information can be found online in the Supporting Information section. (Supporting Information) The supplementary file attached shows the sensory characteristics of the “Unsalted” treatment as well as the saltiness, sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and overall flavor intensities of all the tested samples.

## References

[1] F. J. He, J. Li, and G. A. MacGregor, “Effect of Longer Term Modest Salt Reduction on Blood Pressure: Cochrane Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Trials,” *BMJ* 346 (2013): f1325–f1325, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f1325.

[2] P. Meneton, X. Jeunemaitre, H. E. De Wardener, and G. A. Macgregor, “Links Between Dietary Salt Intake, Renal Salt Handling, Blood Pressure, and Cardiovascular Diseases,” *Physiological Reviews* 85, no. 2 (2005): 679–715, https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00056.2003.

[3] WHO, “Noncommunicable Diseases” 2022, cited 2023 September 6, available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases.

[4] WHO, “Salt Reduction Factsheet” 2020, cited 2022 February 24, available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/salt-reduction.

[5] G. Eksteen and V. Mungal-Singh, “Salt Intake in South Africa: A Current Perspective,” *Journal of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes of South Africa* 20, no. 1 (2015): 9–13, https://doi.org/10.1080/16089677.2015.1030878.

[6] B. van der Westhuizen, T. Frank, S. Abdool Karim, and R. E. C. Swart, “Determining Food Industry Compliance to Mandatory Sodium Limits: Successes and Challenges From the South African Experience,” *Public Health Nutrition* 26, no. 11 (2023): 2551–2558, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980023000757.

[7] M. Strauss-Kruger, E. Wentzel-Viljoen, L. J. Ware, et al., “Early Evidence for the Effectiveness of South Africa’s Legislation on Salt Restriction in Foods: The African-PREDICT Study,” *Journal of Human Hypertension* 37, no. 1 (2023): 42–49, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41371-021-00653-x.

[8] E. H. Zandstra, R. Lion, and R. S. Newson, “Salt Reduction: Moving From Consumer Awareness to Action,” *Food Quality*

and Preference 48 (2016): 376–381, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.03.005.

[9] K. E. Charlton, K. Steyn, N. S. Levitt, et al., “Ethnic Differences in Intake and Excretion of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium in South Africans,” *European Journal of Preventive Cardiology* 12, no. 4 (2005): 355–362, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.hjr.0000170265.22938.d1.

[10] H. L. De Kock, E. H. Zandstra, N. Sayed, and E. Wentzel-Viljoen, “Liking, Salt Taste Perception and Use of Table Salt When Consuming Reduced-Salt Chicken Stews in Light of South Africa’s New Salt Regulations,” *Appetite* 96 (2016): 383–390, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.09.026.

[11] E. Wentzel-Viljoen, K. Steyn, E. Ketterer, and K. E. Charlton, ““Use Salt and Foods High in Salt Sparingly”: A Food-Based Dietary Guideline for South Africa,” *South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition* 26 (2013): s105–s113.

[12] M. Emorine, C. Septier, I. Andriot, C. Martin, C. Salles, and T. Thomas-Danguin, “Combined Heterogeneous Distribution of Salt and Aroma in Food Enhances Salt Perception,” *Food & Function* 6, no. 5 (2015): 1449–1459, https://doi.org/10.1039/C4FO01067A.

[13] H. L. Meiselman and B. P. Halpern, “Enhancement of Taste Intensity Through Pulsatile Stimulation,” *Physiology & Behavior* 11, no. 5 (1973): 713–716, https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(73)90257-6.

[14] J. L. H. C. Busch, C. Tournier, J. E. Knoop, G. Kooyman, and G. Smit, “Temporal Contrast of Salt Delivery in Mouth Increases Salt Perception,” *Chemical Senses* 34, no. 4 (2009): 341–348, https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjp007.

[15] M. Emorine, C. Septier, T. Thomas-Danguin, and C. Salles, “Heterogeneous Salt Distribution in Hot Snacks Enhances Saltiness Without Loss of Acceptability,” *Food Research International* 51, no. 2 (2013): 641–647, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.01.006.

[16] M. Guilloux, C. Prost, P. Courcoux, A. Le Bail, and L. Lethuaut, “How Inhomogeneous Salt Distribution Can Affect the Sensory Properties of Salt-Reduced Multi-Component Food: Contribution of a Mixture Experimental Design Approach Applied to Pizza,” *Journal of Sensory Studies* 30, no. 6 (2015): 484–498, https://doi.org/10.1111/joss.12182.

[17] M. W. J. Noort, J. H. F. Bult, M. Stieger, and R. J. Hamer, “Saltiness Enhancement in Bread by Inhomogeneous Spatial Distribution of Sodium Chloride,” *Journal of Cereal Science* 52, no. 3 (2010): 378–386, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2010.06.018.

[18] Y. Xiong, B. Deng, R. D. Warner, and Z. Fang, “Reducing Salt Content in Beef Frankfurter by Edible Coating to Achieve Inhomogeneous Salt Distribution,” *International Journal of Food Science & Technology* 55, no. 8 (2020): 2911–2919, https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.14552.

[19] N. S. Archer, M. Cochet-Broch, M. Mihnea, et al., “Sodium Reduction in Bouillon: Targeting a Food Staple to Reduce Hypertension in Sub-Saharan Africa,” *Frontiers in Nutrition* 9 (2022): https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.746018.

[20] D. Matthias, C. M. McDonald, N. Archer, and R. Engle-Stone, “The Role of Multiply-Fortified Table Salt and Bouillon in Food Systems Transformation,” *Nutrients* 14, no. 5 (2022): 989, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14050989.

[21] J. Djordjevic, R. J. Zatorre, and M. Jones-Gotman, “Odor-Induced Changes in Taste Perception,” *Experimental Brain Research* 159, no. 3 (2004): 405–408, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-004-2103-y.
[22] R. J. Stevenson, J. Prescott, and R. A. Boakes, “The Acquisition of Taste Properties by Odors,” *Learning and Motivation* 26, no. 4 (1995): 433–455, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0023-9690(05)80006-2.

[23] T. Zhou, Y. Feng, T. Thomas-Danguin, and M. Zhao, “Enhancement of Saltiness Perception by Odorants Selected From Chinese Soy Sauce: A Gas Chromatography/Olfactometry-Associated Taste Study,” *Food Chemistry* 335 (2021): 127664, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127664.

[24] C. Aveline, C. Leroy, M. C. Brindisi, S. Chambaron, T. Thomas-Danguin, and C. Sinding, “Influence of Obesity on Saltiness and Sweetness Intensity Enhancement by Odors,” *Food Quality and Preference* 102 (2022): 104685, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2022.104685.

[25] G. Lawrence, C. Salles, C. Septier, J. Busch, and T. Thomas-Danguin, “Odour-Taste Interactions: A Way to Enhance Saltiness in Low-Salt Content Solutions,” *Food Quality and Preference* 20, no. 3 (2009): 241–248, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2008.10.004.

[26] N. Nasri, N. Beno, C. Septier, C. Salles, and T. Thomas-Danguin, “Cross-Modal Interactions Between Taste and Smell: Odour-Induced Saltiness Enhancement Depends on Salt Level,” *Food Quality and Preference* 22, no. 7 (2011): 678–682, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2011.05.001.

[27] C. Sinding, H. Thibault, T. Hummel, and T. Thomas-Danguin, “Odor-Induced Saltiness Enhancement: Insights Into the Brain Chronometry of Flavor Perception,” *Neuroscience* 452 (2021): 126–137, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.10.029.

[28] M. Batenburg and R. van der Velden, “Saltiness Enhancement by Savory Aroma Compounds,” *Journal of Food Science* 76, no. 5 (2011): S280–S288, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02198.x.

[29] G. Lawrence, C. Salles, O. Palicki, C. Septier, J. L. H. C. Busch, and T. Thomas-Danguin, “Using Cross-Modal Interactions to Counterbalance Salt Reduction in Solid Foods,” *International Dairy Journal* 21, no. 2 (2011): 103–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2010.09.005.

[30] A. Syarifuddin, C. Septier, C. Salles, and T. Thomas-Danguin, “Reducing Salt and Fat While Maintaining Taste: An Approach on a Model Food System,” *Food Quality and Preference* 48 (2016): 59–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.08.009.

[31] H. Tuorila, “From Sensory Evaluation to Sensory and Consumer Research of Food: An Autobiographical Perspective,” *Food Quality and Preference* 40 (2015): 255–262, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.05.006.

[32] C. A. Anderson, L. K. Cobb, E. R. Miller III, et al., “Effects of a Behavioral Intervention That Emphasizes Spices and Herbs on Adherence to Recommended Sodium Intake: Results of the SPICE Randomized Clinical Trial,” *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition* 102, no. 3 (2015): 671–679, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.100750.

[33] A. Rosa, I. Pinna, A. Piras, S. Porcedda, and C. Masala, “Flavoring of Sea Salt With Mediterranean Aromatic Plants Affects Salty Taste Perception,” *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture* 102 (2022): 13, 6005-13, https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11953.

[34] A. Rosa, F. Loy, I. Pinna, and C. Masala, “Role of Aromatic Herbs and Spices in Salty Perception of Patients With Hyposmia,” *Nutrients* 14, no. 23 (2022): 4976, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14234976.

[35] M. Mitchell, N. P. Brutnon, R. J. Fitzgerald, and M. G. Wilkinson, “The Use of Herbs, Spices, and Whey Proteins as Natural Flavor Enhancers and Their Effect on the Sensory Acceptability of Reduced-Salt Chilled Ready-Meals,” *Journal of Culinary Science & Technology* 11, no. 3 (2013): 222–240, https://doi.org/10.1080/15428052.2013.769869.

[36] C. Wang, Y. Lee, and S. Y. Lee, “Consumer Acceptance of Model Soup System With Varying Levels of Herbs and Salt,” *Journal of Food Science* 79, no. 10 (2014): S2098–S2106, https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12637.

[37] S. M. Barnett, S. S. Sablani, J. Tang, and C. F. Ross, “Utilizing Herbs and Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization to Enhance Saltiness Perception in a Chicken Pasta Meal,” *Journal of Food Science* 84, no. 8 (2019): 2313–2324, https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14736.

[38] K. S. Petersen, V. L. Fulgoni, H. Hopfer, J. E. Hayes, R. Gooding, and P. Kris-Etherton, “Using Herbs/Spices to Enhance the Flavor of Commonly Consumed Foods Reformulated to Be Healthier Is an Effective and Acceptable Strategy to Lower Intake of Saturated Fat and Sodium,” *Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics* 123, no. 9 (2023): A41, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2023.06.140.

[39] R Core Team, *R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing* (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2021), Available from: https://www.R-project.org/.

[40] J. Pinheiro, D. Bates, S. DebRoy, D. Sarkar, and R Core Team, “nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models” 2021, Available from: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nlme.

[41] A. Kassambra, “rstatix: Pipe-Friendly Framework for Basic Statistical Tests” 2021, Available from: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rstatix.

[42] F. De Mendiburu, “Agricolae: Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research” 2021, Available from: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=agricolae.

[43] A. Cazor, *Etude des solutions obtenues par traitement thermique en phase aqueuse de tissus végétaux (racines de Daucus carota L.) ou animaux (tissus musculaires, M. Pectoralis major, Gallus domesticus): recherche des mécanismes responsables de la constitution de ces solutions (<<bouillons>>)* par spectroscopie par résonance magnétique nucléaire quantitative du proton (q 1H RMN) et par électrophorèse (SDS-PAGE): analyse des modifications microstructurales ou chimiques des tissus traités et suivi cinétique des transferts des principales molécules sapides (sucres, protéines, acides aminés et acides organiques) (Paris 6, 2007).

[44] L. M. Bianchi, K. M. Phillips, R. C. McGinty, J. K. Ahuja, and P. R. Pehrsson, “Cooking Parameters Affect the Sodium Content of Prepared Pasta,” *Food Chemistry* 271 (2019): 479–487, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.07.198.

[45] M. P. Segura-Borrego, C. Ubeda, O. Pastor, R. M. Callejón, and M. L. Morales, “Could the Aroma of Spices Produce a Cross-Modal Enhancement of Food Saltiness and Contribute to Reducing Salt Intake?,” *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture* 104, no. 7 (2024): 3894–3901, https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.13270.

[46] N. Nasri, C. Septier, N. Beno, C. Salles, and T. Thomas-Danguin, “Enhancing Salty Taste Through Odour-Taste-Taste Interactions: Influence of Odour Intensity and Salty Tastants’ Nature,” *Food Quality and Preference* 28, no. 1 (2013): 134–140, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.07.004.

[47] L. Antúnez, A. Giménez, F. Alcaire, L. Vidal, and G. Ares, “Consumers’ Heterogeneity Towards Salt Reduction: Insights From a Case Study With White Rice,” *Food Research International* 121 (2019): 48–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.03.007.