during ED, posing operational challenges (i.e., monitoring of $J_{lim}$ over time during ED operation) [466].

ED has also emerged as a sustainable alternative for lithium recovery from diverse sources such as brines, ores, and spent LiBs [469,470]. A novel development in this field is the application of ED technique that demonstrates high selectivity for lithium ($16 \text{ Wh g}^{-1}$ of Li) over magnesium in high Mg/L ratio brines [471]. However, the efficiency of lithium recovery can be significantly impacted by the presence of co-existing ions in solutions. Research indicates that increasing concentrations of certain co-existing ions ($Na^+$, $K^+$, $SO_4^{2-}$, $HCO_3^-$) can adversely affect the separation process of magnesium and lithium [265], highlighting the competitions occurring during the ED treatment in the presence of diverse ions. Moreover, the combination of precipitation and ED techniques for recovering lithium from spent LiBs presents an effective method for separating lithium and phosphorus ($Li_3PO_4$ precipitation) [472].

### 7.2.1.2. Other metals.
Recent research into the ED process for reclaiming metals such as Cu, Ag [426], Co, Zn, and Fe demonstrates varied outcomes and limitations based on the metal in question and the specific conditions of the process.

For example, Shestakov et al. focused on the recovery of iron, nickel, and copper from printed circuit board manufacture wastewater. The study highlighted the efficient separation of these metals using ion-exchange membranes, though it noted the differential retention efficiencies for $Ni^{2+}$ and $Cu^{2+}$ cations in multicomponent solutions compared to single-salt solutions [473]. Similarly, Zimmermann et al. explored the separation of copper from silver in electrowinning solutions by using monovalent-selective IEMs. They highlighted the potential for continuous ED to remove divalent cations like copper, thus maintaining high purity of the recycled silver. The study also pointed out the significant drawbacks of scaling and fouling [474]. Gomes et al. combined ED with bioleaching (recycling technique that uses bacteria to recover some metals) for enhanced metal recovery from municipal solid waste incineration fly ashes. This approach showed promising results in increasing the performance of metal removal and recovery, including Co and Zn [475].

Despite the promising outcomes, common limitations across these studies include the complexity of separating multicomponent solutions (with often close valence) and challenges related to membrane scaling and fouling.

### 7.2.2. Approaches for treating wastewater with metal contaminants

A multitude of works dealing with ED has shown significant promise in treating wastewater containing various metal contaminants during the past few years [59,476–478].

Separation of metals from electroplating wastewater using ED was explored, demonstrating the effectiveness of ED in treating such wastewater and recovering over 90 % of metals, specifically copper and nickel [479]. The study highlighted a limitation where high voltages led to the formation of white sediments due to high current density, indicating a threshold for operational voltage to avoid precipitation issues. Recently, Cerrillo-Gonzalez et al. explored the broader application of ED in metal removal from both water and wastewater [464]. They highlighted the technique's potential in not only treating wastewater but also in recovering critical metals, thereby contributing to a circular economy. The performance of ED, as noted in their review, depends on various factors including membrane properties, cell configuration, and operational conditions. Moreover, a combined approach using ED and electrocoagulation (i.e., coagulation of particles through electro-generated ions which neutralize the charge of pollutants) for the treatment of wastewater containing arsenic and copper was investigated. This innovative method achieved complete copper removal and substantial arsenic removal through ED, with further arsenic elimination via electrocoagulation [480]. Wang et al. focused on the treatment of

electroplating wastewater with low-concentration nickel, using a combination of ED and electrodeposition. They managed to reduce the nickel concentration to below 0.1 mg/L, meeting the most stringent discharge standards [481].

### 7.2.3. Na₂SO₄ splitting

Base-metal refining processes, such as nickel production, are significant sources of sodium sulfate waste. In these operations, it is common to generate approximately 2 kg of $Na_2SO_4$ for each kg of Ni produced [432]. This waste originates from the neutralization of sulfuric acid with NaOH in the leaching solutions after metal extraction. The production and disposal of $Na_2SO_4$ not only reflect an inefficient conversion of valuable chemicals—imported sulfur is turned into $H_2SO_4$, which is then neutralized with costly NaOH to produce a low-value product—but also pose environmental risks (e.g., soil salinization).

ED has emerged as a significant method for splitting $Na_2SO_4$, with various studies highlighting its potential and the challenges encountered. One of the noteworthy applications is the high-value conversion of $Na_2SO_4$ wastewater into $K_2SO_4$ solution (fertilizer) [482]. This work demonstrated the successful conversion of $Na_2SO_4$ to a $K_2SO_4$ solution with a concentration of 96.9 g/L and a purity of 95.2 % (limited mechanism caused by co-existing ion competitions). However, the presence of co-existing ions ($Cl^-$, $CO_3^{2-}$, $Mg^{2+}$, and $Ca^{2+}$) was found to influence the ED metathesis process, underscoring the complexity of handling mixed ion solutions, especially in terms of fouling and IEM stabilities. Another application involves the use of ED for sodium sulfate splitting in a base metal refinery, aiming to achieve a zero brine solution to prevent salinization [261,432,483]. Studies highlighted the potential of splitting $Na_2SO_4$ into NaOH, $H_2SO_4$, and water via SEC of ~1.6 kWh $kg_{Na_2SO_4}^{-1}$. The challenges identified included non-ideal membrane behavior and the effects of electro-osmosis, particularly at high concentration levels.

### 7.3. Recovery of other valuable products

ED has been effectively utilized in various recovery applications, showcasing its versatility and efficiency across different industries for producing valuable products [484,485].

In the realm of recovery from wastewater treatment, pilot-scale electrodialysis process has shown promise in recovering nutrients, such as N [486,487], P [464,488] and K [238,489,490], from wastewater with high current efficiency and low energy consumption. Furthermore, the recovery of acid (HCl [270,491], $HNO_3$ [272,435,492], $H_2SO_4$ [493,494], etc.) from process or waste streams through ED has been demonstrated to have high accuracy and the potential for energy optimization as highlighted by Table 1.

ED has also been explored for the recovery of dyes from solutions, demonstrating its potential in treating dye-laden wastewater and enabling dye reuse [354,495]. It should be noted that dyes are often not charged but purified of their saline impurities. The separation efficiency in this process is highly dependent on the molecular weight of the dye. Nevertheless, the fouling of IEMs is a significant issue, stemming from the natural electrostatic attraction between anionic (cationic) dyes and their respective anion (cation) exchange membranes. This accumulation notably impedes the transfer of ions, significantly reducing the effectiveness and, consequently, affecting the separation of dyes and inorganic salts in the treatment of dye-rich wastewater [496].

Moreover, ED has expanded its applications to include promising prospects in the pharmaceutical industry. It is particularly effective in treating wastewater containing pharmaceuticals, significantly retaining target micropollutants such as diclofenac, carbamazepine, and furosemide and limiting their transport to the concentrated ED product [497–499]. Additionally, ED has proven beneficial in the production of pharmaceutical substances, enhancing the purification process and increasing the quality of products like taurine, tuberculin, and cobalt
octa-4,5-carboxyphthalocyanine octasodium salt [15,500]. This under scores its efficiency and environmental friendliness in the pharma ceutical industry. In the production of vitamin C, BED has been applied to improve traditional acidification methods [501–503], demonstrating ED’s role in enhancing product quality and its potential to streamline manufacturing processes in the pharmaceutical sector.

7.4. Acid productions

Organic acids are a group of compounds characterized by their weak
acidic properties. The biodegradability of these acids has led to their
increased adoption in various sectors over recent years. For example,
succinic acid plays a crucial role in the development of biodegradable
polymers used in resins, dyes, and pharmaceuticals, while lactic acid is
being utilized in the production of biocompatible medical sutures and
eco-conscious plastics [504,505]. Additionally, citric acid finds appli-
cations beyond its traditional use as a flavoring agent in food, being used
for cleaning and maintaining surfaces [506]. Formic acid, on the other
hand, is primarily used in the textile and paper industries [507]. The
production of organic acids can be achieved through two main methods:
(i) chemical synthesis and (ii) fermentation. Chemical synthesis faces
challenges related to scalability, the generation of unwanted by-
products, and high costs. In contrast, fermentation is gaining popu-
larity due to its safety, efficiency, and flexibility. However, the
complexity of the fermentation broth necessitates the development of
sophisticated separation and purification strategies to obtain organic
acids at the purity levels required for their specific applications
[508,509].

For example, the process, also known as the sulfur-iodine thermo-
chemical cycle for the H₂ production, employs iodine I₂, sulfur dioxide,
and water as its primary reactants. Its fundamental operations include
the production of sulfuric acid and hydroiodic acid (HI) through the
Bunsen reaction. This is succeeded by the ‘sulfuric section’, dedicated to
the reclamation of sulfur dioxide and water. Of paramount importance is
the ‘HIx section’, recognized for its critical role in defining the process’s
efficiency and energy demands. This stage involves the enrichment of
HI, culminating in its thermal breakdown to yield regenerated iodine
and H₂ gas as the final product [510,511]. The application of electro-
electrodialysis, particularly when outfitted with a CEM, has demon-
strated considerable efficacy in enhancing the concentration of HI acid,
a capability showcased in Fig. 24.

ED, particularly when combined with BM, is instrumental in the
production of a variety of organic acids at such level of purity. For
instance, in the case of citric acid, ED facilitates the efficient extraction
of citric acid [512,513] from sodium citrate found in fermentation
broths. This process capitalizes on the selective transport of citrate ions
through membranes and their conversion to citric acid, utilizing the
water dissociation capability of BM to supply the necessary protons.
Similarly, acetic acid, vital for food preservation and as a precursor in
the production of vinyl acetate monomer, can be recovered from dilute
solutions resulting from fermentation processes [283,514,515]. More-
over, the production of specialty organic acids such as tartaric and oxalic
acid, employed in the food industry and as cleaning agents respectively,
also benefits from ED technology [348,439,516]. Additionally, gluconic
acid, used in the food industry, pharmaceuticals, and concrete
manufacturing, can be produced through fermentation followed by ED
recovery. The BED process enables the direct conversion of gluconate
salts to gluconic acid, improving the production process’s sustainability
and efficiency [517,518].

7.5. Electrodialysis membrane separations in biotechnology

ED technology’s role in bio-product separation has seen significant
advancements, as evidenced by recent scientific research. A notable
application of ED is in the separation and purification of bioactive
components, such as amino acids, proteins, and peptides, using ED with

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 24. Application of electro-electrodialysis studied on iodine–sulfur process for HI concentration.</figcaption></figure>

porous membranes. This innovative approach, combining ED, porous
filtration, and electrophoresis, has been explored by Sun et al. [519].
Their work addresses challenges like low productivity and membrane
fouling.

In biotechnology, the extraction of electrically charged bioproducts, such as organic acids and antibiotics, is a one of ED application. Lazarova et al. provided an overview of recent achievements in ED for bioproducts separation and recovery (such as albumins), emphasizing its potential for more selective and efficient downstream processing [520]. ED with ultrafiltration membranes for peptide separation represents a promising approach to meet the large-scale production demands of bioactive peptides. Drask and Václavíková investigated this hybrid process that combines the principles of ED and electrophoresis, offering an efficient method for the separation and concentration of peptides (e. g., haemoglobin, β-lactoglobulin) [521]. However, it should be noted that experimental results are often compared with ‘conventional processes’ in terms of separation efficiency and almost never in terms of energy consumption, notably through life cycle analyses, a point that is lacking in the literature.

7.6. Pilot and industrial case studies

Numerous applications have been listed, but still remain limited in
terms of larger-scale development. Nonetheless, the non-exhaustive
Table 2 presents a number of large-scale case studies (i.e., active sur-
face area > 1 m²) that will familiarize the reader with some of the actors
applying ED on a pilot scale. More detailed information can be found in
recent comprehensive market overview studies [41,362].

One can also be pleased to see ED technology increasingly devel-
oping towards industrial applications, given the fundraising efforts by
several companies and startups attempting to scale up [522,523], as well
as the number of patents filed by private entities (publication dynamics
of ED-related patents illustrated in *Supporting Material* – SM2).
octa-4,5-carboxyphthalocyanine octasodium salt [15,500]. This under scores its efficiency and environmental friendliness in the pharma ceutical industry. In the production of vitamin C, BED has been applied to improve traditional acidification methods [501–503], demonstrating ED’s role in enhancing product quality and its potential to streamline manufacturing processes in the pharmaceutical sector.

7.4. Acid productions

Organic acids are a group of compounds characterized by their weak
acidic properties. The biodegradability of these acids has led to their
increased adoption in various sectors over recent years. For example,
succinic acid plays a crucial role in the development of biodegradable
polymers used in resins, dyes, and pharmaceuticals, while lactic acid is
being utilized in the production of biocompatible medical sutures and
eco-conscious plastics [504,505]. Additionally, citric acid finds appli-
cations beyond its traditional use as a flavoring agent in food, being used
for cleaning and maintaining surfaces [506]. Formic acid, on the other
hand, is primarily used in the textile and paper industries [507]. The
production of organic acids can be achieved through two main methods:
(i) chemical synthesis and (ii) fermentation. Chemical synthesis faces
challenges related to scalability, the generation of unwanted by-
products, and high costs. In contrast, fermentation is gaining popu-
larity due to its safety, efficiency, and flexibility. However, the
complexity of the fermentation broth necessitates the development of
sophisticated separation and purification strategies to obtain organic
acids at the purity levels required for their specific applications
[508,509].

For example, the process, also known as the sulfur-iodine thermo-
chemical cycle for the H₂ production, employs iodine I₂, sulfur dioxide,
and water as its primary reactants. Its fundamental operations include
the production of sulfuric acid and hydroiodic acid (HI) through the
Bunsen reaction. This is succeeded by the ‘sulfuric section’, dedicated to
the reclamation of sulfur dioxide and water. Of paramount importance is
the ‘HIx section’, recognized for its critical role in defining the process’s
efficiency and energy demands. This stage involves the enrichment of
HI, culminating in its thermal breakdown to yield regenerated iodine
and H₂ gas as the final product [510,511]. The application of electro-
electrodialysis, particularly when outfitted with a CEM, has demon-
strated considerable efficacy in enhancing the concentration of HI acid,
a capability showcased in Fig. 24.

ED, particularly when combined with BM, is instrumental in the
production of a variety of organic acids at such level of purity. For
instance, in the case of citric acid, ED facilitates the efficient extraction
of citric acid [512,513] from sodium citrate found in fermentation
broths. This process capitalizes on the selective transport of citrate ions
through membranes and their conversion to citric acid, utilizing the
water dissociation capability of BM to supply the necessary protons.
Similarly, acetic acid, vital for food preservation and as a precursor in
the production of vinyl acetate monomer, can be recovered from dilute
solutions resulting from fermentation processes [283,514,515]. More-
over, the production of specialty organic acids such as tartaric and oxalic
acid, employed in the food industry and as cleaning agents respectively,
also benefits from ED technology [348,439,516]. Additionally, gluconic
acid, used in the food industry, pharmaceuticals, and concrete
manufacturing, can be produced through fermentation followed by ED
recovery. The BED process enables the direct conversion of gluconate
salts to gluconic acid, improving the production process’s sustainability
and efficiency [517,518].

7.5. Electrodialysis membrane separations in biotechnology

ED technology’s role in bio-product separation has seen significant
advancements, as evidenced by recent scientific research. A notable
application of ED is in the separation and purification of bioactive
components, such as amino acids, proteins, and peptides, using ED with

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 24. Application of electro-electrodialysis studied on iodine–sulfur process for HI concentration.</figcaption></figure>

porous membranes. This innovative approach, combining ED, porous
filtration, and electrophoresis, has been explored by Sun et al. [519].
Their work addresses challenges like low productivity and membrane
fouling.

In biotechnology, the extraction of electrically charged bioproducts, such as organic acids and antibiotics, is a one of ED application. Lazarova et al. provided an overview of recent achievements in ED for bioproducts separation and recovery (such as albumins), emphasizing its potential for more selective and efficient downstream processing [520]. ED with ultrafiltration membranes for peptide separation represents a promising approach to meet the large-scale production demands of bioactive peptides. Drask and Václavíková investigated this hybrid process that combines the principles of ED and electrophoresis, offering an efficient method for the separation and concentration of peptides (e. g., haemoglobin, β-lactoglobulin) [521]. However, it should be noted that experimental results are often compared with ‘conventional processes’ in terms of separation efficiency and almost never in terms of energy consumption, notably through life cycle analyses, a point that is lacking in the literature.

7.6. Pilot and industrial case studies

Numerous applications have been listed, but still remain limited in
terms of larger-scale development. Nonetheless, the non-exhaustive
Table 2 presents a number of large-scale case studies (i.e., active sur-
face area > 1 m²) that will familiarize the reader with some of the actors
applying ED on a pilot scale. More detailed information can be found in
recent comprehensive market overview studies [41,362].

One can also be pleased to see ED technology increasingly devel-
oping towards industrial applications, given the fundraising efforts by
several companies and startups attempting to scale up [522,523], as well
as the number of patents filed by private entities (publication dynamics
of ED-related patents illustrated in Supporting Material – SM2).
<table><caption>**Table 2**
Examples of large-scale applications of ED reactors.</caption><thead><tr><th>Industry domain</th><th>Company example</th><th>Application</th><th>Parameter of interest<fnref n="1" /></th><th>Ref.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Food processing</td><td>Eurosérum</td><td>Lactoserum production</td><td>> 20,000 tons per year</td><td>[524]</td></tr><tr><td>Juclas</td><td>Wine stabilization by treating tartaric acid</td><td>76,000 m³ per year</td><td>[525]</td></tr><tr><td>Suez WTS Systems USA Inc (academic plants)</td><td>Demineralization of whey-based solution</td><td>> 250 m³/h</td><td>[526]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Wastewater treatment</td><td rowspan="2">General Electric Company</td><td>Nutrient recovery from wastewater</td><td>7.2 m²</td><td>[386]</td></tr><tr><td>Production of potable water from brackish water sources</td><td>> 1 m²</td><td>[527]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Metal recovery</td><td>Lilac solutions Inc</td><td>Water purification needs</td><td>Abrera, Spain: 220,000 m³ per day</td><td>[528]</td></tr><tr><td>EnergyX</td><td>Extraction of lithium from brine resources</td><td>San Diego, USA: 25,000 m³ per day</td><td>[529]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Electroplating</td><td rowspan="2">(academic plants)</td><td>LiOH production</td><td>200 m³ of concentrated LiCl product at 2.8 g/L</td><td>[530]</td></tr><tr><td>Metal recovery in electroplating processes, creating a closed-loop system</td><td>500,000 tons per year</td><td>[531]</td></tr><tr><td>Organic acid production</td><td>BASF</td><td>Purification of an amino acid-containing solution</td><td>Unknow</td><td>[532]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Process supplier</td><td>PCCell GmbH</td><td>Continuous downstream processing, demineralization &amp; production of valuable components.</td><td>160 m²</td><td>[533]</td></tr><tr><td>MemBrain® Ionics</td><td></td><td>19 m²</td><td>[534]</td></tr><tr><td>Electrodialysis – Veolia ASTOM Co. Ltd</td><td></td><td>64 m²</td><td>[535]</td></tr><tr><td>Group Eurodia (EEDB, Ameridia, Oenodia, Chemistria)</td><td></td><td>>40 m²</td><td>[536]</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>>10 m²</td><td>[537]</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 8. Conclusion and prospects

Through this comprehensive examination, this review elucidates the pivotal role of ED in modern chemical engineering, underscoring its versatility, efficiency, and adaptability to a myriad of separation challenges. Integrating renewable energy sources with ED while managing their intermittency can foster a more sustainable and economically viable ED process, contributing significantly to a greener future. Notably, advancements in membrane materials and fabrication techniques have substantially augmented the performance of ED systems, enabling higher selectivity, reduced energy consumption, and enhanced operational stability.

Operational parameters such as electric field intensity, solution concentration, and temperature have been identified as key factors influencing the efficiency and selectivity of the ED process.

The integration of novel cell designs, mixing promotion strategies, and advanced operating modes presents a promising avenue for process intensification and system optimization.

As the ED technology matures from laboratory-scale explorations to pilot-scale implementations, the scalability and economic viability of these systems come to the forefront. Addressing these challenges

requires a concerted effort in innovative design, rigorous testing, and comprehensive economic analyses to ensure the transition of electro-dialysis technologies from niche applications to mainstream separation processes.

A strategic framework with targeted activities to enhance the ED process can be structured to increase ED performances:

(i) **Electrodes:** One of the proposed activities involves exploring the use of new materials for electrodes, aiming to reduce polarization and enhance conductivity. By doing so, the current efficiency could be increased, alongside a reduction in energy consumption, especially in systems that utilize redox-mediated processes.

(ii) **Spacers:** Another activity suggests designing spacers that induce turbulence while minimizing pressure drops, which could lead to improved mass transfer and reduced energy costs. This approach is critical for maintaining system efficiency without compromising the flow dynamics within the ED cells.

(iii) **Gas separation:** Further, addressing the challenges of gaseous ED separation, it is recommended to investigate novel reactor and spacer geometries to avoid gas accumulation and the screen-effect, which are known to impact system performance negatively. By exploring these new geometries, the process could potentially see a reduction in energy consumption.

(iv) **IEM materials:** Additionally, enhancing the mechanical strength of ion-exchange membranes (IEMs) is identified as a necessary improvement to facilitate gas separation at higher pressures, which could expand the applicability of ED in industrial settings. Meanwhile, improving membrane performance through advancements in nanotechnology and polymer chemistry—such as increasing rugosity and specific surface area—aims to enhance selectivity and conductivity while reducing permeability.

The roadmap also highlights the need for finding alternative membrane materials that do not rely on fluorinated compounds. This shift would improve the sustainability of the CEM life cycle and reduce pollution associated with PFAS.

(v) **Towards industrialization:** Currently, most ED applications are reported as batch operations, with limited investigation into continuous operations due to the complexity of the wastewater matrix. This limitation could hinder the broader application of BMED and delay its large-scale industrialization.

(vi) **Integration of online-monitoring tools:** As new tools for in situ process monitoring and control are developed, attention must be paid to their efficient incorporation into system designs and their scalability.

(vii) **Process electrification:** It is encouraged a reevaluation of certain processes to see how ED could be integrated through the electrification of processes, promoting an atom economy via the promotion of this technology to the chemical engineering community

(viii) **Green chemistry:** Lastly, incorporating the concept of atom economy into the ED approach emphasizes the efficient utilization of all reactants, minimizing waste and enhancing the overall sustainability of chemical processes by ensuring that each atom in the feed materials is effectively used in the final products [538,539]. The evaluation of eco-efficiency of the ED process needs to be developed mainly through the exploitation of LCA. Moreover, the future of ED appears to be moving towards integrating the technology with renewable electricity production methods, such as solar and wind power.

By methodically addressing these activities, substantial improvements in performance, efficiency, and applicability of ED systems are anticipated, steering the technology towards a future that is not only more sustainable but also economically viable. These efforts underscore

<footnote n="1">¹e.g., active surface area, production rate, etc.</footnote>
<table><caption>**Table 2**
Examples of large-scale applications of ED reactors.</caption><thead><tr><th>Industry domain</th><th>Company example</th><th>Application</th><th>Parameter of interest<fnref n="1" /></th><th>Ref.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Food processing</td><td>Eurosérum</td><td>Lactoserum production</td><td>> 20,000 tons per year</td><td>[524]</td></tr><tr><td>Juclas</td><td>Wine stabilization by treating tartaric acid</td><td>76,000 m³ per year</td><td>[525]</td></tr><tr><td>Suez WTS Systems USA Inc</td><td>Demineralization of whey-based solution</td><td>> 250 m³/h</td><td>[526]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Wastewater treatment</td><td rowspan="2">(academic plants)</td><td>Nutrient recovery from wastewater</td><td>7.2 m²</td><td>[386]</td></tr><tr><td>Production of potable water from brackish water sources</td><td>> 1 m²</td><td>[527]</td></tr><tr><td>General Electric Company</td><td>Water purification needs</td><td>Abrera, Spain: 220,000 m³ per day</td><td>[528]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Metal recovery</td><td>Lilac solutions Inc</td><td>Extraction of lithium from brine resources</td><td>San Diego, USA: 25,000 m³ per day</td><td>[529]</td></tr><tr><td>EnergyX</td><td>LiOH production</td><td>200 m³ of concentrated LiCl product at 2.8 g/L</td><td>[530]</td></tr><tr><td>Electroplating</td><td>(academic plants)</td><td>Metal recovery in electroplating processes, creating a closed-loop system</td><td>500,000 tons per year</td><td>[531]</td></tr><tr><td>Organic acid production</td><td>BASF</td><td>Purification of an amino acid-containing solution</td><td>1.2 m²</td><td>[532]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Process supplier</td><td>PCCell GmbH</td><td>Continuous downstream processing, demineralization &amp; production of valuable components.</td><td>>40 m²</td><td>[536]</td></tr><tr><td>MemBrain® Ionics</td><td></td><td>>10 m²</td><td>[537]</td></tr><tr><td>Electrodialysis – Veolia ASTOM Co. Ltd</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Group Eurodia (EEDB, Ameridia, Oenodia, Chemistria)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

## 8. Conclusion and prospects

Through this comprehensive examination, this review elucidates the pivotal role of ED in modern chemical engineering, underscoring its versatility, efficiency, and adaptability to a myriad of separation challenges. Integrating renewable energy sources with ED while managing their intermittency can foster a more sustainable and economically viable ED process, contributing significantly to a greener future. Notably, advancements in membrane materials and fabrication techniques have substantially augmented the performance of ED systems, enabling higher selectivity, reduced energy consumption, and enhanced operational stability.

Operational parameters such as electric field intensity, solution concentration, and temperature have been identified as key factors influencing the efficiency and selectivity of the ED process.

The integration of novel cell designs, mixing promotion strategies, and advanced operating modes presents a promising avenue for process intensification and system optimization.

As the ED technology matures from laboratory-scale explorations to pilot-scale implementations, the scalability and economic viability of these systems come to the forefront. Addressing these challenges

requires a concerted effort in innovative design, rigorous testing, and comprehensive economic analyses to ensure the transition of electro-dialysis technologies from niche applications to mainstream separation processes.

A strategic framework with targeted activities to enhance the ED process can be structured to increase ED performances:

(i) **Electrodes:** One of the proposed activities involves exploring the use of new materials for electrodes, aiming to reduce polarization and enhance conductivity. By doing so, the current efficiency could be increased, alongside a reduction in energy consumption, especially in systems that utilize redox-mediated processes.

(ii) **Spacers:** Another activity suggests designing spacers that induce turbulence while minimizing pressure drops, which could lead to improved mass transfer and reduced energy costs. This approach is critical for maintaining system efficiency without compromising the flow dynamics within the ED cells.

(iii) **Gas separation:** Further, addressing the challenges of gaseous ED separation, it is recommended to investigate novel reactor and spacer geometries to avoid gas accumulation and the screen-effect, which are known to impact system performance negatively. By exploring these new geometries, the process could potentially see a reduction in energy consumption.

(iv) **IEM materials:** Additionally, enhancing the mechanical strength of ion-exchange membranes (IEMs) is identified as a necessary improvement to facilitate gas separation at higher pressures, which could expand the applicability of ED in industrial settings. Meanwhile, improving membrane performance through advancements in nanotechnology and polymer chemistry—such as increasing rugosity and specific surface area—aims to enhance selectivity and conductivity while reducing permeability.

The roadmap also highlights the need for finding alternative membrane materials that do not rely on fluorinated compounds. This shift would improve the sustainability of the CEM life cycle and reduce pollution associated with PFAS.

(v) **Towards industrialization:** Currently, most ED applications are reported as batch operations, with limited investigation into continuous operations due to the complexity of the wastewater matrix. This limitation could hinder the broader application of BMED and delay its large-scale industrialization.

(vi) **Integration of online-monitoring tools:** As new tools for *in situ* process monitoring and control are developed, attention must be paid to their efficient incorporation into system designs and their scalability.

(vii) **Process electrification:** It is encouraged a reevaluation of certain processes to see how ED could be integrated through the electrification of processes, promoting an atom economy *via* the promotion of this technology to the chemical engineering community

(viii) **Green chemistry:** Lastly, incorporating the concept of atom economy into the ED approach emphasizes the efficient utilization of all reactants, minimizing waste and enhancing the overall sustainability of chemical processes by ensuring that each atom in the feed materials is effectively used in the final products [538,539]. The evaluation of eco-efficiency of the ED process needs to be developed mainly through the exploitation of LCA. Moreover, the future of ED appears to be moving towards integrating the technology with renewable electricity production methods, such as solar and wind power.

By methodically addressing these activities, substantial improvements in performance, efficiency, and applicability of ED systems are anticipated, steering the technology towards a future that is not only more sustainable but also economically viable. These efforts underscore

<footnote n="1">¹e.g., active surface area, production rate, etc.</footnote>
a concerted push to refine and evolve ED technology in line with contemporary environmental and industrial demands.

In conclusion, the ED process discussed has seen a growing trend towards industrialization, driven by a better understanding of local phenomena and improved energy management with considerable potential for further advancement. To realize this potential, intensive collaboration between material scientists, electrochemists, and electrochemical engineers is highly desirable. Such close cooperation is essential for overcoming the challenges inherent in advancing this multidisciplinary field. Notably, new applications of ED in areas such as wastewater treatment and battery material recycling are emerging. These advancements are facilitating scale-up changes, with several start-ups or industrial pilots now developing ED technologies (e.g., REvIVED water by FUJIFILM Manufacturing Europe B.V. [540], Eurodia group [541], AQUABATTERY [542], etc.). Finally, ED is a unit operation designed to be integrated into larger-scale processes. Therefore, it is essential to raise awareness of this separation technique among engineers and researchers within the chemical engineering community to fully realize its potential and integration into broader industrial applications.

## CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Guillaume Hopsort:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.
**Quentin Cacciuttolo:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization.
**David Pasquier:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization.

## Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

## Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

## Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche under the project CATALPA - CO2 cApTure At Low or decarbonized energy PenAlty [grant number ANR-22-PESP-0007]. The authors gratefully acknowledged the partners of this proposal for their helpful discussion, especially Dr. F. Guillou and Dr. G. Petaud.

## Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.153111.

## References

[1] D.A. Vermaas, J. Veerman, N.Y. Yip, M. Elimelech, M. Saakes, K. Nijmeijer, High Efficiency in Energy Generation from Salinity Gradients with Reverse Electrodialysis, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 1 (2013) 1295-1302, https://doi.org/10.1021/sc400150w.

[2] W. Wang, G. Hong, Y. Zhang, X. Yang, N. Hu, J. Zhang, P. Sorokin, L. Shao, Designing an energy-efficient multi-stage selective electrodialysis process based on high-performance materials for lithium extraction, J. Membr. Sci. 675 (2023) 121534, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121534.

[3] M.A. Morales-Mora, J.J. Pijpers, A.C. Antonio, J.d.C. La Soto, A.M.A. Calderón, Life cycle assessment of a novel bipolar electrodialysis-based flow battery concept and its potential use to mitigate the intermittency of renewable energy generation, J. Storage Mater. 35 (2021) 102339, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102339.

[4] K.E. Mueller, J.T. Thomas, J.X. Johnson, J.F. DeCarolis, D.F. Call, Life cycle assessment of salinity gradient energy recovery using reverse electrodialysis, J. Ind. Ecol. 25 (2021) 1194-1206, https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13082.

[5] M.M. Kabir, G.M. Sabur, M.M. Akter, S.Y. Nam, K.S. Im, L. Tijing, H.K. Shon, Electrodialysis desalination, resource and energy recovery from water industries for a circular economy, Desalination 569 (2024) 117041, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.117041.

[6] M. Herrero-Gonzalez, P. Diaz-Guridi, A. Dominguez-Ramos, R. Ibañez, A. Irabien, Photovoltaic solar electrodialysis with bipolar membranes, Desalination 433 (2018) 155-163, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.015.

[7] D.W. Bian, S.M. Watson, N.C. Wright, S.R. Shah, T. Buonassisi, D. Ramanujan, I. M. Peters, A.G. Winter, Optimization and design of a low-cost, village-scale, photovoltaic-powered, electrodialysis reversal desalination system for rural India, Desalination 452 (2019) 265-278, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.09.004.

[8] M. Alrbai, H.S. Hayajneh, A. Omar, M.A. Alkader, H. Al-Riaty, Experimental investigation of lab scale solar powered Electrodialysis system with corrugated membrane configuration, Sol. Energy 224 (2021) 390-400, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.06.028.

[9] P. Malek, J.M. Ortiz, H. Schulte-Herbrüggen, Decentralized desalination of brackish water using an electrodialysis system directly powered by wind energy, Desalination 377 (2016) 54-64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.08.023.

[10] A. Campione, A. Cipollina, F. Calise, A. Tamburini, M. Galluzzo, G. Micale, Coupling electrodialysis desalination with photovoltaic and wind energy systems for energy storage: Dynamic simulations and control strategy, Energy Convers. Manag. 216 (2020) 112940, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112940.

[11] M.M. Rashidi, I. Mahariq, N. Murshid, S. Wongwises, O. Mahian, M. Alhuyi Nazari, Applying wind energy as a clean source for reverse osmosis desalination: A comprehensive review, Alex. Eng. J. 61 (2022) 12977-12989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2022.06.056.

[12] Z.M. Ghazi, S.W.F. Rizvi, W.M. Shahid, A.M. Abdulhameed, H. Saleem, S.J. Zaidi, An overview of water desalination systems integrated with renewable energy sources, Desalination 542 (2022) 116063, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116063.

[13] M.K. Shahid, B. Mainali, P.R. Rout, J.W. Lim, M. Aslam, A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, Y. Choi, A Review of Membrane-Based Desalination Systems Powered by Renewable Energy Sources, Water (basel) 15 (2023) 534, https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030534.

[14] M. Sedighi, M.M. Behvand Usefi, A.F. Ismail, M. Ghasemi, Environmental sustainability and ions removal through electrodialysis desalination: Operating conditions and process parameters, Desalination 549 (2023) 116319, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116319.

[15] A.A. Konarev, Use of electrodialysis in the pilot- and commercial-scale production of pharmaceutical substances, Russ. J. Electrochem. 51 (2015) 1124-1134, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1023193515110051.

[16] S. Mikhaylin, L. Bazinet, Electrodialysis in Food Processing, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.5-03116-4, in: Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2016, ISBN: 9780081005965.

[17] T. Rözsensberszki, P. Komáromy, É. Hülber-Beyer, A. Pesti, L. Koók, P. Bakonyi, K. Bélafi-Bakó, N. Nemestóthy, Bipolar membrane electrodialysis integration into the biotechnological production of itaconic acid: A proof-of-concept study, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 190 (2023) 187-197, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2022.12.023.

[18] N. Kim, J. Jeon, R. Chen, X. Su, Electrochemical separation of organic acids and proteins for food and biomanufacturing, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 178 (2022) 267-288, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2021.12.009.

[19] B. Chen, Z. Zhang, C. Jiang, R. Fu, J. Yan, H. Wang, R. Li, G. Cao, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Electro-membrane reactor: A powerful tool for green chemical engineering, AIChE J 69 (2023) e18140.

[20] H. Wang, J. Yang, H. Zhang, J. Zhao, H. Liu, J. Wang, G. Li, H. Liang, Membrane-based technology in water and resources recovery from the perspective of water social circulation: A review, Sci. Total Environ. 908 (2024) 168277, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168277.

[21] M.N.Z. Abidin, M.M. Nasef, J. Veerman, Towards the development of new generation of ion exchange membranes for reverse electrodialysis: A review, Desalination 537 (2022) 115854, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.115854.

[22] U. Hani, Comprehensive review of polymeric nanocomposite membranes application for water treatment, Alex. Eng. J. 72 (2023) 307-321, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.04.008.

[23] N. Zhao, A. Platt, H. Riley, R. Qiao, R. Neagu, Z. Shi, Strategy towards high ion selectivity membranes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries, J. Storage Mater. 72 (2023) 108321, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108321.

[24] F. Dalanta, D.T. Handoko, H. Hadiyanto, T.D. Kusworo, Recent implementations of process intensification strategy in membrane-based technology: A review, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 202 (2024) 74-91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.12.014.

[25] S.K.A. Al-Amshawee, M.Y.B. Mohd Yunus, Impact of membrane spacers on concentration polarization, flow profile, and fouling at ion exchange membranes of electrodialysis desalination: Diagonal net spacer vs. ladder-type configuration, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 191 (2023) 197-213, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.01.012.

[26] C. Simões, B. Vital, T. Sleutels, M. Saakes, W. Brilman, Scaled-up multistage reverse electrodialysis pilot study with natural waters, Chem. Eng. J. 450 (2022) 138412, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.138412.

[27] T. Elmakki, S. Zavahir, M. Gulied, H. Qiblawey, B. Hammadi, M. Khraisheh, H. K. Shon, H. Park, D.S. Han, Potential application of hybrid reverse electrodialysis (RED)-forward osmosis (FO) system to fertilizer-producing industrial plant for
a concerted push to refine and evolve ED technology in line with contemporary environmental and industrial demands.

In conclusion, the ED process discussed has seen a growing trend towards industrialization, driven by a better understanding of local phenomena and improved energy management with considerable potential for further advancement. To realize this potential, intensive collaboration between material scientists, electrochemists, and electrochemical engineers is highly desirable. Such close cooperation is essential for overcoming the challenges inherent in advancing this multidisciplinary field. Notably, new applications of ED in areas such as wastewater treatment and battery material recycling are emerging. These advancements are facilitating scale-up changes, with several start-ups or industrial pilots now developing ED technologies (e.g., REvIVED water by FUJIFILM Manufacturing Europe B.V. [540], Eurodia group [541], AQUABATTERY [542], etc.). Finally, ED is a unit operation designed to be integrated into larger-scale processes. Therefore, it is essential to raise awareness of this separation technique among engineers and researchers within the chemical engineering community to fully realize its potential and integration into broader industrial applications.

### CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Guillaume Hopsort:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.
**Quentin Cacciuttolo:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization.
**David Pasquier:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization.

### Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

### Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

### Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche under the project CATALPA - CO2 cApTure At Low or decarbonized energy PenAlty [grant number ANR-22-PESP-0007]. The authors gratefully acknowledged the partners of this proposal for their helpful discussion, especially Dr. F. Guillou and Dr. G. Petaud.

## Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.153111.

### References

[1] D.A. Vermaas, J. Veerman, N.Y. Yip, M. Elimelech, M. Saakes, K. Nijmeijer, High Efficiency in Energy Generation from Salinity Gradients with Reverse Electrodialysis, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 1 (2013) 1295-1302, https://doi.org/10.1021/sc400150w.

[2] W. Wang, G. Hong, Y. Zhang, X. Yang, N. Hu, J. Zhang, P. Sorokin, L. Shao, Designing an energy-efficient multi-stage selective electrodialysis process based on high-performance materials for lithium extraction, J. Membr. Sci. 675 (2023) 121534, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121534.

[3] M.A. Morales-Mora, J.J. Piijpers, A.C. Antonio, J.d.C. La Soto, A.M.A. Calderón, Life cycle assessment of a novel bipolar electrodialysis-based flow battery concept and its potential use to mitigate the intermittency of renewable energy generation, J. Storage Mater. 35 (2021) 102339, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102339.

[4] K.E. Mueller, J.T. Thomas, J.X. Johnson, J.F. DeCarolis, D.F. Call, Life cycle assessment of salinity gradient energy recovery using reverse electrodialysis, J. Ind. Ecol. 25 (2021) 1194-1206, https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13082.

[5] M.M. Kabir, G.M. Sabur, M.M. Akter, S.Y. Nam, K.S. Im, L. Tijing, H.K. Shon, Electrodialysis desalination, resource and energy recovery from water industries for a circular economy, Desalination 569 (2024) 117041, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.117041.

[6] M. Herrero-Gonzalez, P. Diaz-Guridi, A. Dominguez-Ramos, R. Ibañez, A. Irabien, Photovoltaic solar electrodialysis with bipolar membranes, Desalination 433 (2018) 155-163, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.015.

[7] D.W. Bian, S.M. Watson, N.C. Wright, S.R. Shah, T. Buonassisi, D. Ramanujan, I. M. Peters, A.G. Winter, Optimization and design of a low-cost, village-scale, photovoltaic-powered, electrodialysis reversal desalination system for rural India, Desalination 452 (2019) 265-278, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.09.004.

[8] M. Alrbai, H.S. Hayajneh, A. Omar, M.A. Alkader, H. Al-Riaty, Experimental investigation of lab scale solar powered Electrodialysis system with corrugated membrane configuration, Sol. Energy 224 (2021) 390-400, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.06.028.

[9] P. Malek, J.M. Ortiz, H. Schulte-Herbrüggen, Decentralized desalination of brackish water using an electrodialysis system directly powered by wind energy, Desalination 377 (2016) 54-64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.08.023.

[10] A. Campione, A. Cipollina, F. Calise, A. Tamburini, M. Galluzzo, G. Micale, Coupling electrodialysis desalination with photovoltaic and wind energy systems for energy storage: Dynamic simulations and control strategy, Energy Convers. Manag. 216 (2020) 112940, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112940.

[11] M.M. Rashidi, I. Mahariq, N. Murshid, S. Wongwises, O. Mahian, M. Alhuyi Nazari, Applying wind energy as a clean source for reverse osmosis desalination: A comprehensive review, Alex. Eng. J. 61 (2022) 12977-12989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2022.06.056.

[12] Z.M. Ghazi, S.W.F. Rizvi, W.M. Shahid, A.M. Abdulhameed, H. Saleem, S.J. Zaidi, An overview of water desalination systems integrated with renewable energy sources, Desalination 542 (2022) 116063, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116063.

[13] M.K. Shahid, B. Mainali, P.R. Rout, J.W. Lim, M. Aslam, A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, Y. Choi, A Review of Membrane-Based Desalination Systems Powered by Renewable Energy Sources, Water (basel) 15 (2023) 534, https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030534.

[14] M. Sedighi, M.M. Behvand Usefi, A.F. Ismail, M. Ghasemi, Environmental sustainability and ions removal through electrodialysis desalination: Operating conditions and process parameters, Desalination 549 (2023) 116319, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116319.

[15] A.A. Konarev, Use of electrodialysis in the pilot- and commercial-scale production of pharmaceutical substances, Russ. J. Electrochem. 51 (2015) 1124-1134, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1023193515110051.

[16] S. Mikhaylin, L. Bazinet, Electrodialysis in Food Processing, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.5-03116-4, in: Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2016, ISBN: 9780081005965.

[17] T. Rözsensberszki, P. Komáromy, É. Hülber-Beyer, A. Pesti, L. Koók, P. Bakonyi, K. Bélafi-Bakó, N. Nemestóthy, Bipolar membrane electrodialysis integration into the biotechnological production of itaconic acid: A proof-of-concept study, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 190 (2023) 187-197, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2022.12.023.

[18] N. Kim, J. Jeon, R. Chen, X. Su, Electrochemical separation of organic acids and proteins for food and biomanufacturing, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 178 (2022) 267-288, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2021.12.009.

[19] B. Chen, Z. Zhang, C. Jiang, R. Fu, J. Yan, H. Wang, R. Li, G. Cao, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Electro-membrane reactor: A powerful tool for green chemical engineering, AIChE J 69 (2023) e18140.

[20] H. Wang, J. Yang, H. Zhang, J. Zhao, H. Liu, J. Wang, G. Li, H. Liang, Membrane-based technology in water and resources recovery from the perspective of water social circulation: A review, Sci. Total Environ. 908 (2024) 168277, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168277.

[21] M.N.Z. Abidin, M.M. Nasef, J. Veerman, Towards the development of new generation of ion exchange membranes for reverse electrodialysis: A review, Desalination 537 (2022) 115854, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.115854.

[22] U. Hani, Comprehensive review of polymeric nanocomposite membranes application for water treatment, Alex. Eng. J. 72 (2023) 307-321, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.04.008.

[23] N. Zhao, A. Platt, H. Riley, R. Qiao, R. Neagu, Z. Shi, Strategy towards high ion selectivity membranes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries, J. Storage Mater. 72 (2023) 108321, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108321.

[24] F. Dalanta, D.T. Handoko, H. Hadiyanto, T.D. Kusworo, Recent implementations of process intensification strategy in membrane-based technology: A review, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 202 (2024) 74-91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.12.014.

[25] S.K.A. Al-Amshawee, M.Y.B. Mohd Yunus, Impact of membrane spacers on concentration polarization, flow profile, and fouling at ion exchange membranes of electrodialysis desalination: Diagonal net spacer vs. ladder-type configuration, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 191 (2023) 197-213, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.01.012.

[26] C. Simões, B. Vital, T. Sleutels, M. Saakes, W. Brilman, Scaled-up multistage reverse electrodialysis pilot study with natural waters, Chem. Eng. J. 450 (2022) 138412, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.138412.

[27] T. Elmakki, S. Zavahir, M. Gulied, H. Qiblawey, B. Hammadi, M. Khraisheh, H. K. Shon, H. Park, D.S. Han, Potential application of hybrid reverse electrodialysis (RED)-forward osmosis (FO) system to fertilizer-producing industrial plant for
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[191] K. Kim, S.-K. Kim, J.O. Park, S.-W. Choi, K.-H. Kim, T. Ko, C. Pak, J.-C. Lee, Highly reinforced pore-filling membranes based on sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone)s for high-temperature/low-humidity polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, J. Membr. Sci. 537 (2017) 11–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.05.014.

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[205] P. Kumar, R.P. Bharti, V. Kumar, P.P. Kundu, Chapter 4 - Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Microbial Fuel Cells: Part A Nafion-based Membranes, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64017-8.00004-X, in: P.P. Kundu, K. Dutta (Eds.), Progress and recent trends in microbial fuel cells, Elsevier, Amsterdam Netherlands, Cambridge MA, 2018, ISBN: 978-0-444-64017-8, pp. 47-72.

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[217] K. Solonchenko, A. Kirichenko, K. Kirichenko, Stability of Ion Exchange Membranes in Electrodialysis, Membranes (basel) 13 (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13010052.

[218] N. Pismenskaya, M. Bdiri, V. Sarapulova, A. Kozmai, J. Fouilloux, L. Baklouti, C. Larchet, E. Renard, L. Dammak, A Review on Ion-Exchange Membranes Fouling during Electrodialysis Process in Food Industry, Part 2: Influence on Transport Properties and Electrochemical Characteristics, Cleaning and Its Consequences, Membranes (basel) 11 (2021), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11110811.

[219] M. Akter, J.-S. Park, Fouling and Mitigation Behavior of Foulants on Ion Exchange Membranes with Surface Property in Reverse Electrodialysis, Membranes (basel) 13 (2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13010106.

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[229] J.R. Varcoe, P. Atanassov, D.R. Dekel, A.M. Herring, M.A. Hickner, P.A. Kohl, A. R. Kucernak, W.E. Mustain, K. Nijmeijer, K. Scott, T. Xu, L. Zhuang, Anion-Exchange membranes in electrochemical energy systems, Energy Environ. Sci. 7 (2014) 3135–3191, https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EE01303D.

[230] Z. Sun, J. Pan, J. Guo, F. Yan, The Alkaline Stability of Anion Exchange Membrane for Fuel Cell Applications: The Effects of Alkaline Media, Adv. Sci. 5 (2018) 1800065, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201800065.

[231] K.F.L. Hagesteijn, S. Jiang, B.P. Ladewig, A review of the synthesis and characterization of anion exchange membranes, J Mater Sci 53 (2018) 11131–11150, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-2409-y.

[232] Z. Sun, B. Lin, F. Yan, Anion-Exchange Membranes for Alkaline Fuel-Cell Applications: The Effects of Cations, ChemSusChem 11 (2018) 58–70, https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201701600.

[233] C.G. Arges, Le Zhang, Anion Exchange Membranes' Evolution toward High Hydroxide Ion Conductivity and Alkaline Resiliency, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 1 (2018) 2991–3012, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.8b00387.

[234] J.R. Varcoe, R.C.T. Slade, Prospects for Alkaline Anion-Exchange Membranes in Low Temperature Fuel Cells, Fuel Cells 5 (2005) 187–200, https://doi.org/10.1002/fuce.200400045.

[235] J. Ying, Y. Lin, Y. Zhang, Y. Jin, X. Li, Q. She, H. Matsuyama, J. Yu, Mechanistic insights into the degradation of monovalent selective ion exchange membrane towards long-term application of real salt lake brines, J. Membr. Sci. 652 (2022) 120446, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120446.

[236] O.A. Rybalkina, K.A. Tsygurina, V.V. Sarapulova, S.A. Mareev, V.V. Nikonenko, N.D. Pismenskaya, Evolution of Current-Voltage Characteristics and Surface Morphology of Homogeneous Anion-Exchange Membranes during the Electrodialysis Desalination of Alkali Metal Salt Solutions, Membr. Membr. Sci. 1 (2019) 107–119, https://doi.org/10.1134/S2517751619020094.

[237] L.B. Railsback, Some Fundamentals of Mineralogy and Geochemistry: Variation in hydrated radius of ions, 2006, https://railsback.org/FundamentalsIndex.html (accessed 14 February 2024).

[238] X. Guo, L. Xiang, M. Sun, S. Wang, Z. Ji, J. Bi, Y. Zhao, Selective electrodialysis process for the recovery of potassium from multicomponent solution systems, Water Sci. Technol. 88 (2023) 1317–1331, https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.269.

[239] Y. Liu, X. Wu, X. Wu, L. Dai, J. Ding, X. Ye, R. Chen, R. Ding, J. Liu, Y. Jin, B. van der Bruggen, Recovery of nickel, phosphorus and nitrogen from electroless nickel-plating wastewater using bipolar membrane electrodialysis, J. Clean. Prod. 382 (2023) 135326, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135326.

[240] Z. Peng, Y. Li, Y. Sun, Treatment of 2-Mercapto-5-methyl-1,3-thiadiazole (MMTD) wastewater by bipolar membrane electrodialysis: MMTD migration, process factors and implications, J. Membr. Sci. 664 (2022) 121110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121110.

[241] X. Lin, J. Pan, M. Zhou, Y. Xu, J. Lin, J. Shen, C. Gao, B. van der Bruggen, Extraction of Amphoteric Amino Acid by Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis: Methionine Acid as a Case Study, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55 (2016) 2813–2820, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.6b00116.

[242] G.J. Doornbusch, M. Tedesco, J.W. Post, Z. Borneman, K. Nijmeijer, Experimental investigation of multistage electrodialysis for seawater desalination, Desalination 464 (2019) 105–114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.04.025.

[243] J.P. Ibáñez, A. Vásquez, Á. Aracena, Valorisation of sulphate rich effluents by electrodialysis, Can. Metall. Q. (2023) 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1080/00084433.2023.2179713.

[244] M. Xu, S. Li, Z. Jin, W. Jiang, Y. Li, Mathematical model and experiment investigation on electrodialysis separation process of LiBr from NH3-H2O-LiBr ternary solution in ammonia absorption refrigeration system, Int. J. Refrig 158 (2024) 9–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2023.11.003.

[245] H. Wang, Y. Wang, J. Yan, R. Fu, B. Wang, C. Jiang, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Bipolar membrane electrodialysis: A promising paradigm for caustic soda production, AIChE J 70 (2024) e18260.

[246] S. Kırmızı, B. Karabacagolu, Performance of electrodialysis for Ni(II) and Cr(VI) removal from effluents: effect of process parameters on removal efficiency, energy consumption and current efficiency, J Appl Electrochem 53 (2023) 2039–2055, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-023-01894-z.

[247] A. Voutetaki, K.V. Plakas, A.I. Papadopoulos, D. Bollas, S. Parcharidis, P. Seferlis, Pilot-scale separation of lead and sulfate ions from aqueous solutions using electrodialysis: Application and parameter optimization for the battery industry, J. Clean. Prod. 410 (2023) 137200, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137200.

[248] M. Sadrzadeh, T. Mohammadi, Sea water desalination using electrodialysis, Desalination 221 (2008) 440–447, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.103.

[249] V.M. Ortiz-Martínez, L. Gómez-Coma, C. Tristán, G. Pérez, M. Fallanza, A. Ortiz, R. Ibanez, I. Ortiz, A comprehensive study on the effects of operation variables on reverse electrodialysis performance, Desalination 482 (2020) 114389, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114389.

[250] W. Gao, Q. Fang, H. Yan, X. Wei, K. Wu, Recovery of Acid and Base from Sodium Sulfate Containing Lithium Carbonate Using Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis, Membranes (basel) 11 (2021), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11020152.

[251] Y. Zhou, H. Yan, X. Wang, Y. Wang, T. Xu, A closed loop production of water insoluble organic acid using bipolar membranes electrodialysis (BMED), J. Membr. Sci. 520 (2016) 345–353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.08.011.

[252] Y. Zhao, X. Wang, J. Yuan, Z. Ji, J. Liu, S. Wang, X. Guo, F. Li, J. Wang, J. Bi, An efficient electrodialysis metathesis route to recover concentrated NaOH-NH4Cl products from simulated ammonia and saline wastewater in coal chemical industry, Sep. Purif. Technol. 301 (2022) 122042, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.122042.

[253] Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, M. Yue, L. Wang, Production of l-lysine from l-lysine monohydrochloride by bipolar membrane electrodialysis, Desalin. Water Treat. 41 (2012) 105–113, https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.664695.

[254] M. Adigüzel, J. Erkmen, M.T. Yilmaz, Application and optimization of bipolar membrane process for drinking water production from Black Sea, J. Clean. Prod. 408 (2023) 136814, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136814.

[255] C.X. Lin, X.L. Huang, D. Guo, Q.G. Zhang, A.M. Zhu, M.L. Ye, Q.L. Liu, Side-chain-type anion exchange membranes bearing pendant quaternary ammonium groups via flexible spacers for fuel cells, J. Mater. Chem. A 4 (2016) 13938–13948, https://doi.org/10.1039/C6TA05090E.

[256] A.N. Filipsov, E.M. Akberova, V.I. Vasil'eva, Study of the Thermochemical Effect on the Transport and Structural Characteristics of Heterogeneous Anion-Exchange Membranes by Combining the Cell Model and the Fine-Porous Membrane Model, Polymers (basel) 15 (2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15163390.

[257] G. Das, J.-H. Choi, P.K.T. Nguyen, D.-J. Kim, Y.S. Yoon, Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cell Application: A Review, Polymers (basel) 14 (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061197.

[258] J. Surowiec, R. Bogoczek, Studies on the thermal stability of the perfluorinated cation-exchange membrane Nafion-417, J. Therm. Anal. 33 (1988) 1097–1102, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01912735.

[259] W.D. Kuldeep, P. Badenhorst, H. Kauranen, R. Pajari, P. Ruismäki, L. Mannela, Murtohäki, Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis for Sulfate Recycling in the Metallurgical Industries, Membranes (basel) 11 (2021) 718, https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11090718.

[260] C. Li, G. Wang, H. Feng, T. He, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Cleaner production of Niacin using bipolar membranes electrodialysis (BMED), Sep. Purif. Technol. 156 (2015) 391–395, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.10.027.

[261] H. Lu, L. Wang, R. Wycisk, P.N. Pintauro, S. Lin, Quantifying the kinetics-energetics performance tradeoff in bipolar membrane electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 612 (2020) 118279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118279.

[262] Y. Dong, H. Wei, H. Cui, H. Lu, J. Liao, Y. Qiu, J. Shen, Techno-Economic Analysis of Bipolar Membranes Electrodialysis for the Hexacyanocobalic Acid Green Conversion, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 62 (2023) 20996–21006, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.3c02954.

[263] Y. Delgado, J. Llanos, F.J. Fernández-Morales, Coupling of electrodialysis and bio-electrochemical systems for metal and energy recovery from acid mine drainage, J of Chemical Tech & Biotech jctb.7317 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.7317.

[264] F.Z. Addar, I. Mohamed, S. Kitanou, M. Tahaikt, A. Elmidaoui, M. Taky, Performance of three anion-exchange membranes in fluoride ions removal by electrodialysis, Water Sci Technol 89 (2024) 132–145, https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.423.

[265] P.-Y. Ji, Z.-Y. Ji, Q.-B. Chen, J. Liu, Y.-Y. Zhao, S.-Z. Wang, F. Li, J.-S. Yuan, Effect of coexisting ions on recovering lithium from high Mg2+/Li+ ratio brines by selective-electrodialysis, Sep. Purif. Technol. 207 (2018) 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.06.012.

[266] S. Honarparvar, D. Reible, Modeling multicomponent ion transport to investigate selective ion removal in electrodialysis, Environ. Sci. Ecotechnol. 1 (2020) 10007, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ese.2019.10007.

[267] D. Pintossi, C. Simões, M. Saakes, Z. Borneman, K. Nijmeijer, Predicting reverse electrodialysis performance in the presence of divalent ions for renewable energy generation, Energy Convers. Manag. 243 (2021) 114369, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114369.

[268] D. Jin, Y. Jin, Sustainable power generation from salinity gradients by reverse electrodialysis: Influence of divalent ions, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 198 (2023) 69–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.08.044.
[222] D.Y. Butylskii, V.A. Troitskiy, M.A. Ponomar, I.A. Moroz, K.G. Sabbatovskiy, M. V. Sharafan, Efficient Anion-Exchange Membranes with Anti-Scaling Properties Obtained by Surface Modification of Commercial Membranes Using a Polyquaternary-22, Membranes (basel) 12 (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12111065.

[223] D.Y. Butylskii, V.A. Troitskiy, M.V. Sharafan, N.D. Pismenskaya, V.V. Nikonenko, Scaling-resistant anion-exchange membrane prepared by in situ modification with a bifunctional polymer containing quaternary amino groups, Desalination 537 (2022) 115821, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.115821.

[224] W. Xiang, J. Yao, S. Velizarov, Le Han, Unravelling the fouling behavior of anion-exchange membrane (AEM) by organic solute of varying characteristics, J. Membr. Sci. 662 (2022) 120986, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120986.

[225] Y.W. Berkessa, Q. Lang, B. Yan, S. Kuang, D. Mao, L. Shu, Y. Zhang, Anion exchange membrane organic fouling and mitigation in salt valorization process from high salinity textile wastewater by bipolar membrane electrodialysis, Desalination 465 (2019) 94–103, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.04.027.

[226] M. Persico, S. Mikhaylin, A. Doyen, L. Firdaous, V. Nikonenko, N. Pismenskaya, L. Bazinet, Prevention of peptide fouling on ion-exchange membranes during electrodialysis in overlimiting conditions, J. Membr. Sci. 543 (2017) 212–221, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.08.039.

[227] E.N. Nielsen, U. Cordin, M. Gøtke, S. Velizarov, C.F. Galinha, L.H. Skibsted, J. G. Crespo, L.M. Ahrné, Fouling of ion-exchange membranes during electrodialytic acid whey processing analysed by 2D fluorescence and FTIR spectroscopy, Sep. Purif. Technol. 316 (2023) 123814, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123814.

[228] S. Mikhaylin, L. Bazinet, Fouling on ion-exchange membranes: Classification, characterization and strategies of prevention and control, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 229 (2016) 34–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2015.12.006.

[229] J.R. Varcoe, P. Atanassov, D.R. Dekel, A.M. Herring, M.A. Hickner, P.A. Kohl, A. R. Kucernak, W.E. Mustain, K. Nijmeijer, K. Scott, T. Xu, L. Zhuang, Anion-Exchange membranes in electrochemical energy systems, Energy Environ. Sci. 7 (2014) 3135–3191, https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EE01303D.

[230] Z. Sun, J. Pan, J. Guo, F. Yan, The Alkaline Stability of Anion Exchange Membrane for Fuel Cell Applications: The Effects of Alkaline Media, Adv. Sci. 5 (2018) 1800065, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201800065.

[231] K.F.L. Hagesteijn, S. Jiang, B.P. Ladewig, A review of the synthesis and characterization of anion exchange membranes, J Mater Sci 53 (2018) 11131–11150, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-2409-y.

[232] Z. Sun, B. Lin, F. Yan, Anion-Exchange Membranes for Alkaline Fuel-Cell Applications: The Effects of Cations, ChemSusChem 11 (2018) 58–70, https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201701600.

[233] C.G. Arges, Le Zhang, Anion Exchange Membranes' Evolution toward High Hydroxide Ion Conductivity and Alkaline Resiliency, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 1 (2018) 2991–3012, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.8b00387.

[234] J.R. Varcoe, R.C.T. Slade, Prospects for Alkaline Anion-Exchange Membranes in Low Temperature Fuel Cells, Fuel Cells 5 (2005) 187–200, https://doi.org/10.1002/fuce.200400045.

[235] J. Ying, Y. Lin, Y. Zhang, Y. Jin, X. Li, Q. She, H. Matsuyama, J. Yu, Mechanistic insights into the degradation of monovalent selective ion exchange membrane towards long-term application of real salt lake brines, J. Membr. Sci. 652 (2022) 120446, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120446.

[236] O.A. Rybalkina, K.A. Tsygurina, V.V. Sarapulova, S.A. Mareev, V.V. Nikonenko, N.D. Pismenskaya, Evolution of Current-Voltage Characteristics and Surface Morphology of Homogeneous Anion-Exchange Membranes during the Electrodialysis Desalination of Alkali Metal Salt Solutions, Membr. Membr. Sci. 1 (2019) 107–119, https://doi.org/10.1134/S2517751619020094.

[237] L.B. Railsback, Some Fundamentals of Mineralogy and Geochemistry: Variation in hydrated radius of ions, 2006, https://railsback.org/FundamentalsIndex.html (accessed 14 February 2024).

[238] X. Guo, L. Xiang, M. Sun, S. Wang, Z. Ji, J. Bi, Y. Zhao, Selective electrodialysis process for the recovery of potassium from multicomponent solution systems, Water Sci. Technol. 88 (2023) 1317–1331, https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.269.

[239] Y. Liu, X. Wu, X. Wu, L. Dai, J. Ding, X. Ye, R. Chen, R. Ding, J. Liu, Y. Jin, B. van der Bruggen, Recovery of nickel, phosphorus and nitrogen from electroless nickel-plating wastewater using bipolar membrane electrodialysis, J. Clean. Prod. 382 (2023) 135326, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135326.

[240] Z. Peng, Y. Li, Y. Sun, Treatment of 2-Mercapto-5-methyl-1,3-thiadiazole (MMTD) wastewater by bipolar membrane electrodialysis: MMTD migration, process factors and implications, J. Membr. Sci. 664 (2022) 121110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121110.

[241] X. Lin, J. Pan, M. Zhou, Y. Xu, J. Lin, J. Shen, C. Gao, B. van der Bruggen, Extraction of Amphoteric Amino Acid by Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis: Methionine Acid as a Case Study, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55 (2016) 2813–2820, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.6b00116.

[242] G.J. Doornbusch, M. Tedesco, J.W. Post, Z. Borneman, K. Nijmeijer, Experimental investigation of multistage electrodialysis for seawater desalination, Desalination 464 (2019) 105–114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.04.025.

[243] J.P. Ibáñez, A. Vásquez, Á. Aracena, Valorisation of sulphate rich effluents by electrodialysis, Can. Metall. Q. (2023) 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1080/00084433.2023.2179713.

[244] M. Xu, S. Li, Z. Jin, W. Jiang, Y. Li, Mathematical model and experiment investigation on electrodialysis separation process of LiBr from NH3-H2O-LiBr ternary solution in ammonia absorption refrigeration system, Int. J. Refrig 158 (2024) 9–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2023.11.003.

[245] H. Wang, Y. Wang, J. Yan, R. Fu, B. Wang, C. Jiang, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Bipolar membrane electrodialysis: A promising paradigm for caustic soda production, AIChE J 70 (2024) e18260.

[246] S. Kırmızı, B. Karabacagolu, Performance of electrodialysis for Ni(II) and Cr(VI) removal from effluents: effect of process parameters on removal efficiency, energy consumption and current efficiency, J Appl Electrochem 53 (2023) 2039–2055, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-023-01894-z.

[247] A. Voutetaki, K.V. Plakas, A.I. Papadopoulos, D. Bollas, S. Parcharidis, P. Seferlis, Pilot-scale separation of lead and sulfate ions from aqueous solutions using electrodialysis: Application and parameter optimization for the battery industry, J. Clean. Prod. 410 (2023) 137200, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137200.

[248] M. Sadrzadeh, T. Mohammadi, Sea water desalination using electrodialysis, Desalination 221 (2008) 440–447, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.103.

[249] V.M. Ortiz-Martínez, L. Gómez-Coma, C. Tristán, G. Pérez, M. Fallanza, A. Ortiz, R. Ibanez, I. Ortiz, A comprehensive study on the effects of operation variables on reverse electrodialysis performance, Desalination 482 (2020) 114389, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114389.

[250] W. Gao, Q. Fang, H. Yan, X. Wei, K. Wu, Recovery of Acid and Base from Sodium Sulfate Containing Lithium Carbonate Using Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis, Membranes (basel) 11 (2021), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11020152.

[251] Y. Zhou, H. Yan, X. Wang, Y. Wang, T. Xu, A closed loop production of water insoluble organic acid using bipolar membranes electrodialysis (BMED), J. Membr. Sci. 520 (2016) 345–353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.08.011.

[252] Y. Zhao, X. Wang, J. Yuan, Z. Ji, J. Liu, S. Wang, X. Guo, F. Li, J. Wang, J. Bi, An efficient electrodialysis metathesis route to recover concentrated NaOH-NH4Cl products from simulated ammonia and saline wastewater in coal chemical industry, Sep. Purif. Technol. 301 (2022) 122042, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.122042.

[253] Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, M. Yue, L. Wang, Production of l-lysine from l-lysine monohydrochloride by bipolar membrane electrodialysis, Desalin. Water Treat. 41 (2012) 105–113, https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.664695.

[254] M. Adigüzel, J. Erkmen, M.T. Yilmaz, Application and optimization of bipolar membrane process for drinking water production from Black Sea, J. Clean. Prod. 408 (2023) 136814, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136814.

[255] C.X. Lin, X.L. Huang, D. Guo, Q.G. Zhang, A.M. Zhu, M.L. Ye, Q.L. Liu, Side-chain-type anion exchange membranes bearing pendant quaternary ammonium groups via flexible spacers for fuel cells, J. Mater. Chem. A 4 (2016) 13938–13948, https://doi.org/10.1039/C6TA05090E.

[256] A.N. Filipsov, E.M. Akberova, V.I. Vasil'eva, Study of the Thermochemical Effect on the Transport and Structural Characteristics of Heterogeneous Anion-Exchange Membranes by Combining the Cell Model and the Fine-Porous Membrane Model, Polymers (basel) 15 (2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15163390.

[257] G. Das, J.-H. Choi, P.K.T. Nguyen, D.-J. Kim, Y.S. Yoon, Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cell Application: A Review, Polymers (basel) 14 (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061197.

[258] J. Surowiec, R. Bogoczek, Studies on the thermal stability of the perfluorinated cation-exchange membrane Nafion-417, J. Therm. Anal. 33 (1988) 1097–1102, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01912735.

[259] W.D. Kuldeep, P. Badenhorst, H. Kauranen, R. Pajari, P. Ruismäki, L. Mannela, Murtohäki, Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis for Sulfate Recycling in the Metallurgical Industries, Membranes (basel) 11 (2021) 718, https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11090718.

[260] C. Li, G. Wang, H. Feng, T. He, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Cleaner production of Niacin using bipolar membranes electrodialysis (BMED), Sep. Purif. Technol. 156 (2015) 391–395, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.10.027.

[261] H. Lu, L. Wang, R. Wycisk, P.N. Pintauro, S. Lin, Quantifying the kinetics-energetics performance tradeoff in bipolar membrane electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 612 (2020) 118279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118279.

[262] Y. Dong, H. Wei, H. Cui, H. Lu, J. Liao, Y. Qiu, J. Shen, Techno-Economic Analysis of Bipolar Membranes Electrodialysis for the Hexacyanocobalic Acid Green Conversion, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 62 (2023) 20996–21006, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.3c02954.

[263] Y. Delgado, J. Llanos, F.J. Fernández-Morales, Coupling of electrodialysis and bio-electrochemical systems for metal and energy recovery from acid mine drainage, J of Chemical Tech & Biotech jctb.7317 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.7317.

[264] F.Z. Addar, I. Mohamed, S. Kitanou, M. Tahaikt, A. Elmidaoui, M. Taky, Performance of three anion-exchange membranes in fluoride ions removal by electrodialysis, Water Sci Technol 89 (2024) 132–145, https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.423.

[265] P.-Y. Ji, Z.-Y. Ji, Q.-B. Chen, J. Liu, Y.-Y. Zhao, S.-Z. Wang, F. Li, J.-S. Yuan, Effect of coexisting ions on recovering lithium from high Mg2+/Li+ ratio brines by selective-electrodialysis, Sep. Purif. Technol. 207 (2018) 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.06.012.

[266] S. Honarparvar, D. Reible, Modeling multicomponent ion transport to investigate selective ion removal in electrodialysis, Environ. Sci. Ecotechnol. 1 (2020) 10007, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ese.2019.10007.

[267] D. Pintossi, C. Simões, M. Saakes, Z. Borneman, K. Nijmeijer, Predicting reverse electrodialysis performance in the presence of divalent ions for renewable energy generation, Energy Convers. Manag. 243 (2021) 114369, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114369.

[268] D. Jin, Y. Jin, Sustainable power generation from salinity gradients by reverse electrodialysis: Influence of divalent ions, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 198 (2023) 69–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.08.044.
[269] J. Yoon, M.T. Flavin, J. Han, Current efficiency and selectivity reduction caused by co-ion leakage in electromembrane processes, Water Res. 201 (2021) 117351, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117351.

[270] J. Yan, H. Wang, H. Yan, R. Li, R. Fu, W. Fu, L. Ge, B. Wang, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Ion transmembrane behaviors in selective electrodialysis for acid recovery: Impact of ion categories, Desalination 554 (2023) 116513, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116513.

[271] Q.-B. Chen, Y. Xu, P.-F. Li, J. Wang, L. Dong, J. Zhao, J. Wang, An emerging pilot-scale electrodialysis system for desalination of SWNF permeate: Evaluating the role of typical factors, Desalination 542 (2022) 116064, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116064.

[272] A.T. Cherif, J. Molenat, A. Elmidaoui, Nitric acid and sodium hydroxide generation by electrodialysis using bipolar membranes, J Appl Electrochem 27 (1997) 1069-1074, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018438710451.

[273] C. Jiang, Q. Wang, Y. Li, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Water electro-transport with hydrated cations in electrodialysis, Desalination 365 (2015) 204-212, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.03.007.

[274] S. Porada, W.J. van Egmond, J.W. Post, M. Saakes, H. Hamelers, Tailoring ion exchange membranes to enable low osmotic water transport and energy efficient electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 552 (2018) 22-30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.01.050.

[275] K. Haerens, P. de Vreese, E. Matthijs, L. Pinoy, K. Binnemans, B. van der Bruggen, Production of ionic liquids by electrodialysis, Sep. Purif. Technol. 97 (2012) 90-95, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2012.02.017.

[276] L.-P. Ling, H.-F. Leow, M.R. Sarmidi, Citric acid concentration by electrodialysis: ion and water transport modelling, J. Membr. Sci. 199 (2002) 59-67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.06.023.

[277] H. Liu, Q. She, Influence of membrane structure-dependent water transport on conductivity-perselectivity trade-off and salt/water selectivity in electrodialysis: Implications for osmotic electrodialysis using porous ion exchange membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 650 (2022) 120398, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120398.

[278] H. Strathmann (Ed.), *Membrane Science and Technology Ion-Exchange Membrane Separation Processes*, Elsevier, 2004.

[279] S. Le Han, H. Galier, Roux-de Balmann, Ion hydration number and electro-osmosis during electrodialysis of mixed salt solution, Desalination 373 (2015) 38-46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.06.023.

[280] H. Jaroszek, A. Lis, P. Dydo, Transport of impurities and water during potassium nitrate synthesis by electrodialysis metathesis, Sep. Purif. Technol. 158 (2016) 87-93, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.12.009.

[281] V.I. Zabolotskii, A.V. Demin, O.A. Demina, Ion and water transport during lithium chloride concentration from aqueous organic solutions by electrodialysis, Russ. J. Electrochem. 47 (2011) 327-335, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1023193511030153.

[282] H. Jaroszek, P. Dydo, Potassium nitrate synthesis by electrodialysis-metathesis: The effect of membrane type, J. Membr. Sci. 549 (2018) 28-37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.01.062.

[283] L. Yu, Q. Guo, J. Hao, W. Jiang, Recovery of acetic acid from dilute wastewater by means of bipolar membrane electrodialysis, Desalination 129 (2000) 283-288, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)00068-0.

[284] M. Baldea, From process integration to process intensification, Comput. Chem. Eng. 81 (2015) 104-114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comchemeng.2015.03.011.

[285] A. Kovalenko, M. Urtenov, V. Chekanov, N. Kandaurova, Theoretical Analysis of the Influence of Spacers on Salt Ion Transport in Electromembrane Systems Considering the Main Coupled Effects, Membranes (basel) 14 (2024), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes14010020.

[286] J. Choi, M. Cho, J. Shin, R. Kwak, B. Kim, Electroconvective instability at the surface of one-dimensionally patterned ion exchange membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 691 (2024) 122256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.122256.

[287] Y. Ibrahim, N. Hilal, A Critical Assessment of Surface-Patterned Membranes and Their Role in Advancing Membrane Technologies, ACS ES T Water 3 (2023) 3807-3834, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestwater.3c00564.

[288] A. Campione, L. Gurreri, M. Ciofalo, G. Micale, A. Tamburini, A. Cipollina, Electrodialysis for water desalination: A critical assessment of recent developments on process fundamentals, models and applications, Desalination 434 (2018) 121-160, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.12.044.

[289] S.K.A. Al-Amshawee, M.Y. Bin Mohd Yunus, N.A. Binti Ismail, Y. Hafiz Zaki, Electrodialysis with Irregular Membrane Spacers: Which is the Right Choice? Chem. Eng. Technol. 46 (2023) 2453-2468, https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.202200563.

[290] E. Sandoval-Sánchez, Z. de La Cruz-Barragán, M. Miranda-Hernández, E. Mendoza, Effect of Gaskets Geometry on the Performance of a Reverse Electrodialysis Cell, Energies (basel) 15 (2022) 3361, https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093361.

[291] L. Gurreri, A. Filingeri, M. Ciofalo, A. Cipollina, M. Tedesco, A. Tamburini, G. Micale, Electrodialysis with asymmetrically profiled membranes: Influence of profiles geometry on desalination performance and limiting current phenomena, Desalination 506 (2021) 115001, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.115001.

[292] F. Dong, D. Jin, S. Xu, L. Xu, X. Wu, P. Wang, Q. Leng, R. Xi, Numerical simulation of flow and mass transfer in profiled membrane channels for reverse electrodialysis, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 157 (2020) 77-91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chedr.2020.02.025.

[293] J.G.D. Tadimeti, J. Chattopadhyay, Uninterrupted swirling motion facilitating ion transport in electrodialysis, Desalination 392 (2016) 54-62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2016.04.007.

[294] E.P. Rivero, I.J. González-Panzo, A. Zavala-Vázquez, E. Rosado-Tamariz, R. Muñoz-Zezada, M.R. Díaz-Guillen, M.R. Cruz-Díaz, Analyzing the pressure drop in spacer stacks for electrodialytic processes considering the effect of mechanical compression: Experimental vs. free and porous flow model prediction, Chem. Eng. Sci. 282 (2023) 119297, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2023.119297.

[295] S. Mehdizadeh, M. Yasukawa, T. Abo, Y. Kakihana, M. Higa, Effect of spacer geometry on membrane and solution compartment resistances in reverse electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 572 (2019) 271-280, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.09.051.

[296] O. Kedem, Reduction of polarization in electrodialysis by ion-conducting spacers, Desalination 16 (1975) 105-118, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)84095-3.

[297] O. Kedem, Y. Maoz, Ion conducting spacer for improved ed, Desalination 19 (1976) 465-470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)88055-8.

[298] P. Długołcki, J. Dąbrowska, K. Nijmeijer, M. Wessling, Ion conductive spacers for increased power generation in reverse electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 347 (2010) 101-107, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2009.10.011.

[299] K. Zhang, M. Wang, C. Gao, Ion conductive spacers for the energy-saving production of the tartaric acid in bipolar membrane electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 387-388 (2012) 48-53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2011.10.012.

[300] W. Lu, H. Dong, J. Xia, Y. Zheng, S. Lu, J.H. Barber, R.J. Macdonald, Ion conductive spacer, preparing process thereof and electrodialysis reversal stack, WO (2018).

[301] A. Chandra, D. Pathiwada, S. Chattopadhyay, COMSOL simulation and experimental validation of promoter geometries facilitating citric acid transport in electrodialysis, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 142 (2019) 386-411, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chedr.2018.12.024.

[302] P. Mandal, P. Goel, B.E.S. Chattopadhyay, Ion transport facilitation through template based optimization of corrugation geometry over membrane surface, J. Membr. Sci. 669 (2023) 121279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121279.

[303] J.G.D. Tadimeti, V. Kurian, A. Chandra, S. Chattopadhyay, Corrugated membrane surfaces for effective ion transport in electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 499 (2016) 418-428, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2015.11.001.

[304] G. Eigenberger, H. Strathmann, A. Grabowski, Membrane assembly, electrodialysis device and method for continuous electrodialytic desalination, WO2005009596A1, 2005.

[305] H. Strathmann, Electrodialysis, a mature technology with a multitude of new applications, Desalination 264 (2010) 268-288, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.04.069.

[306] J. Liu, G.M. Geise, X. Luo, H. Hou, F. Zhang, Y. Feng, M.A. Hickner, B.E. Logan, Patterned ion exchange membranes for improved power production in microbial reverse-electrodialysis cells, J. Power Sources 271 (2014) 437-443, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.08.026.

[307] S. Pawlowski, T. Rijnaarts, M. Saakes, K. Nijmeijer, J.G. Crespo, S. Velizarov, Improved fluid mixing and power density in reverse electrodialysis stacks with chevron-profiled membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 531 (2017) 111-121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.03.003.

[308] E. Güler, R. Elizen, M. Saakes, K. Nijmeijer, Micro-structured membranes for electricity generation by reverse electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 458 (2014) 136-148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2014.01.060.

[309] L. Gurreri, A. Tamburini, A. Cipollina, G. Micale, CFD analysis of the fluid flow behavior in a reverse electrodialysis stack, Desalin. Water Treat. 48 (2012) 390-403, https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.705966.

[310] S.-K. Hong, C.-S. Kim, K.-S. Hwang, J.-H. Han, H.-K. Kim, N.-J. Jeong, K.-S. Choi, Experimental and numerical studies on pressure drop in reverse electrodialysis: Effect of unit cell configuration, J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 30 (2016) 5287-5292, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-016-1047-z.

[311] M.R. Cruz-Díaz, A. Laureano, F.A. Rodríguez, L.F. Arenas, J.J.H. Pijpers, E. P. Rivero, Modelling of flow distribution within spacer-filled channels fed by dividing manifolds as found in stacks for membrane-based technologies, Chem. Eng. J. 423 (2021) 130232, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130232.

[312] D. Aili, M.R. Kraglund, S.C. Rajappan, D. Serhiichuk, Y. Xia, V. Deimede, J. Kallitis, C. Bae, P. Jannasch, D. Henkensmeier, J.O. Jensen, Electrode Separators for the Next-Generation Alkaline Water Electrolyzers, ACS Energy Lett. 8 (2023) 1900-1910, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.3c00185.

[313] A.K. Singh, P. Sharma, K. Singh, V.K. Shahi, Improved performance of vanadium redox flow battery with tuneable alkyl spacer based cross-linked anion exchange membranes, J. Power Sources 520 (2022) 230856, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230856.

[314] R. Qi, M. Becker, J. Brauns, T. Turek, J. Lin, Y. Song, Channel design optimization of alkaline electrolysis stacks considering the trade-off between current efficiency and pressure drop, J. Power Sources 579 (2023) 233222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233222.

[315] M. Tedesco, H. Hamelers, P.M. Biesheuvel, Nernst-Planck transport theory for (reverse) electrodialysis: I, Effect of Co-Ion Transport through the Membranes, Journal of Membrane Science 510 (2016) 370-381, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.03.012.

[316] J. Kim, K. Park, D.R. Yang, S. Hong, A comprehensive review of energy consumption of seawater reverse osmosis desalination plants, Appl. Energy 254 (2016) 113652, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.3652.

[317] R.K. McGovern, A.M. Weiner, L. Sun, C.G. Chambers, S.M. Zubair, J.H. V. Lienhard, On the cost of electrodialysis for the desalination of high salinity feeds, Appl. Energy 136 (2014) 649-661, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.050.
[269] J. Yoon, M.T. Flavin, J. Han, Current efficiency and selectivity reduction caused by co-ion leakage in electromembrane processes, Water Res. 201 (2021) 117351, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117351.

[270] J. Yan, H. Wang, H. Yan, R. Li, R. Fu, W. Fu, L. Ge, B. Wang, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Ion transmembrane behaviors in selective electrodialysis for acid recovery: Impact of ion categories, Desalination 554 (2023) 116513, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116513.

[271] Q.-B. Chen, Y. Xu, P.-F. Li, J. Wang, L. Dong, J. Zhao, J. Wang, An emerging pilot-scale electrodialysis system for desalination of SWNF permeate: Evaluating the role of typical factors, Desalination 542 (2022) 116064, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116064.

[272] A.T. Cherif, J. Molenat, A. Elmidaoui, Nitric acid and sodium hydroxide generation by electrodialysis using bipolar membranes, J Appl Electrochem 27 (1997) 1069-1074, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018438710451.

[273] C. Jiang, Q. Wang, Y. Li, Y. Wang, T. Xu, Water electro-transport with hydrated cations in electrodialysis, Desalination 365 (2015) 204-212, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.03.007.

[274] S. Porada, W.J. van Egmond, J.W. Post, M. Saakes, H. Hamelers, Tailoring ion exchange membranes to enable low osmotic water transport and energy efficient electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 552 (2018) 22-30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.01.050.

[275] K. Haerens, P. de Vreese, E. Matthijs, L. Pinoy, K. Binnemans, B. van der Bruggen, Production of ionic liquids by electrodialysis, Sep. Purif. Technol. 97 (2012) 90-95, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2012.02.017.

[276] L.-P. Ling, H.-F. Leow, M.R. Sarmidi, Citric acid concentration by electrodialysis: ion and water transport modelling, J. Membr. Sci. 199 (2002) 59-67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.06.023.

[277] H. Liu, Q. She, Influence of membrane structure-dependent water transport on conductivity-perselectivity trade-off and salt/water selectivity in electrodialysis: Implications for osmotic electrodialysis using porous ion exchange membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 650 (2022) 120398, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120398.

[278] H. Strathmann (Ed.), *Membrane Science and Technology Ion-Exchange Membrane Separation Processes*, Elsevier, 2004.

[279] S. Le Han, H. Galier, Roux-de Balmann, Ion hydration number and electro-osmosis during electrodialysis of mixed salt solution, Desalination 373 (2015) 38-46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.06.023.

[280] H. Jaroszek, A. Lis, P. Dydo, Transport of impurities and water during potassium nitrate synthesis by electrodialysis metathesis, Sep. Purif. Technol. 158 (2016) 87-93, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.12.009.

[281] V.I. Zabolotskii, A.V. Demin, O.A. Demina, Ion and water transport during lithium chloride concentration from aqueous organic solutions by electrodialysis, Russ. J. Electrochem. 47 (2011) 327-335, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1023193511030153.

[282] H. Jaroszek, P. Dydo, Potassium nitrate synthesis by electrodialysis-metathesis: The effect of membrane type, J. Membr. Sci. 549 (2018) 28-37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.01.062.

[283] L. Yu, Q. Guo, J. Hao, W. Jiang, Recovery of acetic acid from dilute wastewater by means of bipolar membrane electrodialysis, Desalination 129 (2000) 283-288, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)00068-0.

[284] M. Baldea, From process integration to process intensification, Comput. Chem. Eng. 81 (2015) 104-114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comchemeng.2015.03.011.

[285] A. Kovalenko, M. Urtenov, V. Chekanov, N. Kandaurova, Theoretical Analysis of the Influence of Spacers on Salt Ion Transport in Electromembrane Systems Considering the Main Coupled Effects, Membranes (basel) 14 (2024), https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes14010020.

[286] J. Choi, M. Cho, J. Shin, R. Kwak, B. Kim, Electroconvective instability at the surface of one-dimensionally patterned ion exchange membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 691 (2024) 122256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.122256.

[287] Y. Ibrahim, N. Hilal, A Critical Assessment of Surface-Patterned Membranes and Their Role in Advancing Membrane Technologies, ACS ES T Water 3 (2023) 3807-3834, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestwater.3c00564.

[288] A. Campione, L. Gurreri, M. Ciofalo, G. Micale, A. Tamburini, A. Cipollina, Electrodialysis for water desalination: A critical assessment of recent developments on process fundamentals, models and applications, Desalination 434 (2018) 121-160, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.12.044.

[289] S.K.A. Al-Amshawee, M.Y. Bin Mohd Yunus, N.A. Binti Ismail, Y. Hafiz Zaki, Electrodialysis with Irregular Membrane Spacers: Which is the Right Choice? Chem. Eng. Technol. 46 (2023) 2453-2468, https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.202200563.

[290] E. Sandoval-Sánchez, Z. de La Cruz-Barragán, M. Miranda-Hernández, E. Mendoza, Effect of Gaskets Geometry on the Performance of a Reverse Electrodialysis Cell, Energies (basel) 15 (2022) 3361, https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093361.

[291] L. Gurreri, A. Filingeri, M. Ciofalo, A. Cipollina, M. Tedesco, A. Tamburini, G. Micale, Electrodialysis with asymmetrically profiled membranes: Influence of profiles geometry on desalination performance and limiting current phenomena, Desalination 506 (2021) 115001, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.115001.

[292] F. Dong, D. Jin, S. Xu, L. Xu, X. Wu, P. Wang, Q. Leng, R. Xi, Numerical simulation of flow and mass transfer in profiled membrane channels for reverse electrodialysis, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 157 (2020) 77-91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chedr.2020.02.025.

[293] J.G.D. Tadimeti, J. Chattopadhyay, Uninterrupted swirling motion facilitating ion transport in electrodialysis, Desalination 392 (2016) 54-62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2016.04.007.

[294] E.P. Rivero, I.J. González-Panzo, A. Zavala-Vázquez, E. Rosado-Tamariz, R. Muñoz-Zezada, M.R. Díaz-Guillen, M.R. Cruz-Díaz, Analyzing the pressure drop in spacer stacks for electrodialytic processes considering the effect of mechanical compression: Experimental vs. free and porous flow model prediction, Chem. Eng. Sci. 282 (2023) 119297, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2023.119297.

[295] S. Mehdizadeh, M. Yasukawa, T. Abo, Y. Kakihana, M. Higa, Effect of spacer geometry on membrane and solution compartment resistances in reverse electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 572 (2019) 271-280, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.09.051.

[296] O. Kedem, Reduction of polarization in electrodialysis by ion-conducting spacers, Desalination 16 (1975) 105-118, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)84095-3.

[297] O. Kedem, Y. Maoz, Ion conducting spacer for improved ed, Desalination 19 (1976) 465-470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)88055-8.

[298] P. Długołcki, J. Dąbrowska, K. Nijmeijer, M. Wessling, Ion conductive spacers for increased power generation in reverse electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 347 (2010) 101-107, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2009.10.011.

[299] K. Zhang, M. Wang, C. Gao, Ion conductive spacers for the energy-saving production of the tartaric acid in bipolar membrane electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 387-388 (2012) 48-53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2011.10.012.

[300] W. Lu, H. Dong, J. Xia, Y. Zheng, S. Lu, J.H. Barber, R.J. Macdonald, Ion conductive spacer, preparing process thereof and electrodialysis reversal stack, WO (2018).

[301] A. Chandra, D. Pathiwada, S. Chattopadhyay, COMSOL simulation and experimental validation of promoter geometries facilitating citric acid transport in electrodialysis, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 142 (2019) 386-411, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chedr.2018.12.024.

[302] P. Mandal, P. Goel, B.E.S. Chattopadhyay, Ion transport facilitation through template based optimization of corrugation geometry over membrane surface, J. Membr. Sci. 669 (2023) 121279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121279.

[303] J.G.D. Tadimeti, V. Kurian, A. Chandra, S. Chattopadhyay, Corrugated membrane surfaces for effective ion transport in electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 499 (2016) 418-428, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2015.11.001.

[304] G. Eigenberger, H. Strathmann, A. Grabowski, Membrane assembly, electrodialysis device and method for continuous electrodialytic desalination, WO2005009596A1, 2005.

[305] H. Strathmann, Electrodialysis, a mature technology with a multitude of new applications, Desalination 264 (2010) 268-288, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.04.069.

[306] J. Liu, G.M. Geise, X. Luo, H. Hou, F. Zhang, Y. Feng, M.A. Hickner, B.E. Logan, Patterned ion exchange membranes for improved power production in microbial reverse-electrodialysis cells, J. Power Sources 271 (2014) 437-443, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.08.026.

[307] S. Pawlowski, T. Rijnaarts, M. Saakes, K. Nijmeijer, J.G. Crespo, S. Velizarov, Improved fluid mixing and power density in reverse electrodialysis stacks with chevron-profiled membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 531 (2017) 111-121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.03.003.

[308] E. Güler, R. Elizen, M. Saakes, K. Nijmeijer, Micro-structured membranes for electricity generation by reverse electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 458 (2014) 136-148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2014.01.060.

[309] L. Gurreri, A. Tamburini, A. Cipollina, G. Micale, CFD analysis of the fluid flow behavior in a reverse electrodialysis stack, Desalin. Water Treat. 48 (2012) 390-403, https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.705966.

[310] S.-K. Hong, C.-S. Kim, K.-S. Hwang, J.-H. Han, H.-K. Kim, N.-J. Jeong, K.-S. Choi, Experimental and numerical studies on pressure drop in reverse electrodialysis: Effect of unit cell configuration, J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 30 (2016) 5287-5292, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-016-1047-z.

[311] M.R. Cruz-Díaz, A. Laureano, F.A. Rodríguez, L.F. Arenas, J.J.H. Pijpers, E. P. Rivero, Modelling of flow distribution within spacer-filled channels fed by dividing manifolds as found in stacks for membrane-based technologies, Chem. Eng. J. 423 (2021) 130232, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130232.

[312] D. Aili, M.R. Kraglund, S.C. Rajappan, D. Serhiichuk, Y. Xia, V. Deimede, J. Kallitis, C. Bae, P. Jannasch, D. Henkensmeier, J.O. Jensen, Electrode Separators for the Next-Generation Alkaline Water Electrolyzers, ACS Energy Lett. 8 (2023) 1900-1910, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenenergylett.3c00185.

[313] A.K. Singh, P. Sharma, K. Singh, V.K. Shahi, Improved performance of vanadium redox flow battery with tuneable alkyl spacer based cross-linked anion exchange membranes, J. Power Sources 520 (2022) 230856, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230856.

[314] R. Qi, M. Becker, J. Brauns, T. Turek, J. Lin, Y. Song, Channel design optimization of alkaline electrolysis stacks considering the trade-off between current efficiency and pressure drop, J. Power Sources 579 (2023) 233222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233222.

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