# Metformin Protects the Heart Against Hypertrophic and Apoptotic Remodeling After Myocardial Infarction

Halyna Loi, Frederic Boal, Hélène Tronchère, Mathieu Cinato, Solomiia Kramar, Oleksandra Oleshchuk, Mykhaylo Korda, Oksana Kunduzova

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Halyna Loi, Frederic Boal, Hélène Tronchère, Mathieu Cinato, Solomiia Kramar, et al. Metformin Protects the Heart Against Hypertrophic and Apoptotic Remodeling After Myocardial Infarction. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2019, 10, pp.154. 10.3389/fphar.2019.00154. hal-04771193

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# Metformin Protects the Heart Against Hypertrophic and Apoptotic Remodeling After Myocardial Infarction

Halyna Loi<fnref n="1" />, Frederic Boal²,<fnref n="3" />, Helene Tronchere²,<fnref n="3" />, Mathieu Cinato²,<fnref n="3" />, Solomiia Kramar<fnref n="1" />, Oleksandra Oleshchuk<fnref n="1" />, Mykhaylo Korda<fnref n="1" /> and Oksana Kunduzova²,<fnref n="3" />*

Cardiovascular complications are the most prevalent cause of morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients. Metformin is currently the first-line blood glucose-lowering agent with potential relevance to cardiovascular diseases. However, the underpinning mechanisms of action remain elusive. Here, we report that metformin represses cardiac apoptosis at least in part through inhibition of Forkhead box O1 (FoxO1) pathway. In a mouse model of ischemia-reperfusion (I/R), treatment with metformin attenuated cardiac and hypertrophic remodeling after 14 days of post-reperfusion. Additionally, cardiac expression of brain-like natriuretic peptide (BNP) was significantly reduced in metformin-treated mice after 14 days of cardiac I/R. In cultured H9C2 cells, metformin counteracted hypertrophic and apoptotic responses to metabolic or hypoxic stress. FoxO1 silencing by siRNA abolished anti-apoptotic effect of metformin under hypoxic stress in H9C2 cells. Taken together, these results suggest that metformin protects the heart against hypertrophic and apoptotic remodeling after myocardial infarction.

**Keywords:** metformin, myocardial infarction, hypertrophy, apoptosis, cardiac remodeling

## OPEN ACCESS

**Edited by:**
Vadim V. Sumbayev,
University of Kent, United Kingdom

**Reviewed by:**
Elizaveta Fasler-kan,
Universitätsspital Bern, Switzerland
Eric E. Kelley,
West Virginia University, United States

**\*Correspondence:**
Oksana Kunduzova
oxana.koundouzova@inserm.fr

**Specialty section:**
This article was submitted to Experimental Pharmacology and Drug Discovery, a section of the journal Frontiers in Pharmacology

Received: 07 December 2018

Accepted: 08 February 2019

Published: 27 February 2019

**Citation:**
Loi H, Boal F, Tronchere H, Cinato M, Kramar S, Oleshchuk O, Korda M and Kunduzova O (2019) Metformin Protects the Heart Against Hypertrophic and Apoptotic Remodeling After Myocardial Infarction. Front. Pharmacol. 10:154. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00154

## INTRODUCTION

The most prevalent form of diabetes mellitus in patients is type 2 diabetes (T2D) (Kannel and McGee, 1979). This form of metabolic disorders, which accounts for 90–95% of those with diabetes, circles subjects with insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency (Kharroubi and Darwish, 2015). T2D mediates various cardiovascular manifestations, which have become the major cause of morbidity and mortality in the diabetic population (Townsend et al., 2016). A causative relationship between heart failure (HF) and diabetes has been well demonstrated (Aneja et al., 2008). HF is a frequent complication in diabetes mellitus with poor outcomes and five-year survival rates of <25% (Zinman et al., 2015). Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is the clinical condition associated with cardiac abnormalities mediated by diabetes. It has been estimated that DCM affects approximately 12% of the diabetic patients and may lead to HF and death (Aneja et al., 2008). The pathogenesis of DCM remains obscure, but is clearly of significant clinical priority, given the strong association of diabetes with HF and cardiovascular mortality (Zinman et al., 2015).

Cardiac hypertrophy, oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and uncontrolled interstitial fibrosis are the major features of DCM (Aneja et al., 2008). Decline in cardiac function linked to

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Pharmacology, I. Horbachevsky Ternopil State Medical University, Ternopil, Ukraine, ²National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1048, Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases, Toulouse, France,</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³UMR1048, Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France</footnote>
DCM is attributable to initial rise in heart mass and unbalanced interventricular septal thickening. Cardiac hypertrophic reprogramming includes accelerated protein synthesis, up-regulation of atrial and brain natriuretic peptides and abnormal sarcomeric organization (Liu et al., 2016). Myocardial hypertrophic remodeling, triggered by signaling cascades in response to stress, is initially adaptive process. However, extended cardiac hypertrophy as a consequence of pathological stress leads to excessive production of reactive oxygen species, activation of apoptotic and inflammatory cascades which play a key role in DCM (Borner and Monney, 1999; Hunter and Chien, 1999; Clerk et al., 2003). These processes ultimately results in initiation of pro-fibrotic reprogramming and impaired cardiac function (Wynn and Ramalingam, 2012).

Metformin is currently the first-line blood glucose-lowering agent with potential relevance to cardiovascular diseases for the treatment of T2D. Two large-scale clinical trials suggested that apart from its antihyperglycemic effect, metformin has other potential effects. Metformin preserves cardiac function and prevents the incidence of myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes (UK Prospective Diabetes Study [Ukpds] Group, 1998; Holman et al., 2008). Compared with other glucose-lowering agents, use of metformin was associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in patients with T2D (King et al., 1999). The potential mechanism of action of metformin involves activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and glucose metabolism (Gundewar et al., 2009; Sasaki et al., 2009; Paiva et al., 2010). Several studies reported that metformin may also acts via AMPK-independent pathways (Xu et al., 2014). However, the exact molecular mechanisms by which metformin regulates cardiac cell functions remain elusive.

In the present study, we show that metformin counteracts myocardial hypertrophy and apoptosis in a mouse model of cardiac I/R. Furthermore, we show that metformin could protect against stress-induced cardiac apoptosis through FoxO1 pathway.

# MATERIALS AND METHODS

## Cell Culture

The rat embryonic cardiomyoblast cell line H9C2 was cultured in DMEM medium (Life Technologies) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin-streptomycin in a humidified atmosphere of 95% air-5% CO2 at 37°C. Cells were treated with 5 mM metformin 30 min before cell stress. In order to induce metabolic stress, H9C2 cells were exposed to 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2 mM) in 0% medium for 24 h. For hypoxic treatment cells were maintained at 37°C under hypoxic atmosphere (5% CO2, 1% O2, balance N2) for 24 h.

## Cell Transfection

H9C2 cells were seeded into 24-well plates and cultured with DMEM medium (Life Technologies) supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin-streptomycin in a humidified atmosphere of 95% air-5% CO2 at 37°C. Cells were transfected with

FoxO1 siRNA and siRNA control at a final concentration of 200 nmol/L using Lipofectamine 2000 transfection reagent (Life Technologies) according to the manufacturer's instructions.

## Histology

Oregon Green 488 coupled-wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) labeling was used in immunohistochemical preparations of 10-µm heart cryosections. The evaluation of cardiac structural alterations was performed using ImageJ software.

## Evaluation of Apoptosis

Cardiac apoptosis was measured using the Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay according to manufacturer's instructions (Promega). Briefly, cells fixed in 4% PFA were first incubated in 0.2% TritonX-100 for 5 min, then in Equilibration Buffer for 10 min. A solution which contained 5 µl of nucleotide mix and 1 µl of rTDT enzyme in 45 µl equilibration buffer was added for each well for 1 h at 37°C in the dark. Then, after adding saline sodium citrate and washing with phospho buffered saline (PBS) the slides were incubated with Dapi for 15 min. To detect and count the number of apoptotic cells, three fields of view were randomly selected per conditions in cardiac tissue.

## Animal Studies

Animal investigations conform to the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH Publication No. 85-23, revised 1985) and were performed in accordance with the recommendations of the French Accreditation of the Laboratory Animal Care (approved by the local Centre National de la Recherche Scientific ethics committee).

Three-month-old wild-type male C57BI/6J mice purchased from Janvier Labs were maintained in a temperature-controlled room (25°C) with a natural day/night cycle and fed a standard chow diet and given *ad libitum* access to water. A mouse model of I/R was used as previously described (Boal et al., 2016). The mice were intubated and placed under mechanical ventilation after undergoing general anesthesia with an intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (125 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg). A left parasternotomy was performed to expose hearts, and a 0.4 mm polyethylene suture was placed around the left anterior descending coronary artery. A snare was placed on the suture, and regional myocardial ischemia was produced by tightening the snare. After 30 min of ischemia, the occlusive snare was released to initiate reperfusion. Sham-operated control mice underwent the same surgical procedures except that the snare was not tightened. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) treatment with metformin (5 mg/kg/day) in a final volume of 100 µl was started 15 min after the onset of reperfusion and maintained for 14 days. Animals were randomly divided into four groups as follows:

(1) Control+PBS (C) group ($n = 5$);

(2) Control+Metformin (C+M) group ($n = 5$);

(3) I/R+PBS (I/R) group ($n = 5$);

(4) I/R+Metformin (I/R+M) group ($n = 5$).
**Quantitative RT-PCR Analysis**

Total RNAs were isolated from mouse heart and cultured H9C2 cells using the GenElute™ Mammalian Total RNA Miniprep Kit (Sigma-Aldrich). Total RNAs (500 ng) were reverse transcribed using High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems™) in the presence of random hexamers. Real-time quantitative PCR was performed as previously described (Boal et al., 2016). The expression of target mRNA was normalized to GAPDH mRNA expression. Sequence of the forward and reverse primer for BNP: Forward: 5'-GCACAAGATAGACCGGATCG-3' Reverse: 5'-CCCAGGCAGAGTCAGAAAC-3'.

**Statistical Analysis**

Statistical comparison between two groups was performed by Student's t-test, while comparison of multiple groups was performed by One-way ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni's

post hoc test using GraphPad Prism version 5.00 (GraphPad Software, Inc.). Data are expressed as mean ± SEM.

**RESULTS**

**Metformin Inhibits Cell Hypertrophy in Response to Metabolic and Hypoxic Stress**

In the first set of experiments, we investigated whether metformin affects metabolic- or oxidative stress-induced hypertrophic responses *in vitro*. As shown in **Figure 1**, cell treatment with 2 mM 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) for 24 h demonstrated significant increase in cell size. Metformin prevented cell hypertrophy in the presence of 2DG as compared to control untreated H9C2 cells (**Figure 1**). When H9C2 cells were exposed to hypoxic stress (1% $O_2$), significant increase in hypertrophy was

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

**FIGURE 1** | Metformin attenuates cell hypertrophy in response to metabolic stress. (A) Representative images of H9C2 cells exposed to vehicle (C) or 2 mM 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) for 24 h in the presence or absence of 5 mM metformin (M). (B) Quantification of cell area from (A). Data represents the mean ± SEM from at least three independent experiments. Scale bar is 100 µm. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way ANOVA: ***P < 0.001 between indicated conditions.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

**FIGURE 2** | Metformin prevents hypoxia-induced cell hypertrophy. (A) Representative images of H9C2 cells subjected to normoxia (N) or hypoxia (H) for 24 h in the presence or absence of 5 mM metformin (M). (B) Quantification of cell area from (A). Scale bar is 100 µm. Data represents the mean ± SEM from at least three independent experiments. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way ANOVA: ***P < 0.001 between indicated conditions.
observed after 24 h (Figure 2). As shown in Figure 2, in the presence of metformin (5 mM), hypoxia-induced hypertrophy was markedly abolished in H9C2 cells. Thus, these data demonstrated that metformin prevents metabolic- or hypoxia-induced hypertrophy in H9C2 cells.

## Metformin Inhibits Cell Apoptosis in Response to Metabolic Stress and Hypoxia

Excessive apoptotic cell death in human and animal hearts has been linked to ischemic and dilated cardiomyopathies (Narula et al., 1996; Olivetti et al., 1997; Saraste et al., 1997). In order to determine whether metformin affects apoptotic responses to metabolic or oxidative stress, we examined the effects of metformin on 2DG- or hypoxia-induced cell apoptosis by TUNEL staining. As shown in Figure 3, exposure of H9C2 cells to 2 mM 2DG for 24 h induced an increase in TUNEL positive cells.

Treatment of H9C2 cells with metformin was able to attenuate 2DG-induced apoptotic cell death (Figure 3). Importantly, hypoxia-induced cell apoptosis was declined in metformin-treated cells as compared to control untreated cells (Figure 4).

## Metformin Prevents H9C2 Cells From Hypoxia-Induced Apoptosis Through FoxO1 Pathway

The FoxO1 transcriptional factor plays an essential role in the regulation of apoptosis, energy metabolism and oxidative stress (O'Connor and Barr, 2009). We next examined whether knockdown of FoxO1 could affect anti-apoptotic effects of metformin. At 24 h after FoxO1 siRNA addition, qRT-PCR analysis showed that FoxO1 expression level was significantly decreased as compared to control cells receiving scrambled siRNA (Figure 5). Analysis of TUNEL-stained cells exposed to hypoxia for 24 h, demonstrated that metformin significantly

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**FIGURE 3** | Metformin abolishes cell apoptosis in response to metabolic stress. (A) Representative images of TUNEL staining of cultured H9C2 cells exposed to 2 mM 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) in the presence or absence of 5 mM metformin (M). (B) Quantification of apoptosis from (A). Scale bar is 100 µm. Data represents the mean ± SEM from at least three independent experiments. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way ANOVA: ***P < 0.001 between indicated conditions.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**FIGURE 4** | Metformin protects against hypoxia-induced apoptosis in H9C2 cells. (A) TUNEL staining of apoptotic cells subjected to normoxia (N) or hypoxia (H) in the presence or absence of 5 mM metformin (M). (B) Quantification of TUNEL-positive cells from (A). Scale bar is 100 µm. Data represents the mean ± SEM from at least three independent experiments. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way ANOVA: ***P < 0.001 between indicated conditions.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**FIGURE 5** | Silencing of FoxO1 gene expression in H9C2 cells. HC92 cells were transfected with a control siRNA (siControl) or with a siRNA against FoxO1 (siFoxO1) and FoxO1 expression level was measured by qRT-PCR. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Student's t-test: **P** < 0.01 between two conditions.</figcaption></figure>

reduced cell apoptosis in control siRNA transfected cells. However, FoxO1 silencing by siRNA abrogated the effects of metformin on cell apoptosis, suggesting that anti-apoptotic activity of metformin is FoxO1-dependent (Figure 6).

## Metformin Treatment Reduces Cardiac Hypertrophy in a Mouse Model of Cardiac I/R Injury

Considering *in vitro* effects of metformin on cellular stress responses, we next investigated *in vivo* activity of metformin on cardiac hypertrophic reprogramming in a mouse model of myocardial I/R injury. To examine the translational potential of metformin, *in vivo* study was designed to determine whether treatment with metformin (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.) initiated 15 min after the onset of reperfusion and maintained for 14 days induced cardioprotection in mice subjected to cardiac I/R. Histological analyses of cardiac sections stained with WGA (Figures 7A,B) demonstrated a significant decrease in myocyte hypertrophy in metformin-treated mice as compared with vehicle-treated mice. To further confirm the anti-hypertrophic effects of metformin, we examined expression of BNP, a marker of ventricular hypertrophy, in cardiac sections from vehicle- or metformin-treated mice after 14 days of I/R. As shown in Figure 7C, treatment of mice with metformin prevented I/R-induced up-regulation of BNP as compared to control mice.

## Metformin Treatment Blunts Apoptotic Response to Cardiac I/R Injury

We next examined the effects of metformin on cardiac apoptosis in I/R-challenged hearts (Figure 8). In the group of vehicle-treated mice after myocardial infarction the number of

apoptotic cells was significantly increased compared with control group (15.2% vs. 1.9%, *P* < 0.001). As shown by TUNEL staining in Figure 8, metformin treatment (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.) for 14 days markedly reduced cardiac apoptosis after I/R injury as compared to vehicle-treated mice (1.1% vs. 15.2%, *P* < 0.001, respectively).

## DISCUSSION

The primary prominent features of the diabetic myocardium are cardiac hypertrophic reprogramming and activation of cell death programs (Bugger and Abel, 2014). We found that metformin, a drug commonly used in the treatment of T2D, attenuates cardiac hypertrophy and apoptosis *in vitro* and *in vivo*. In addition, we described FoxO1-dependent mechanism of anti-apoptotic effects of metformin in cardiomyoblasts exposed to stress. These studies implicate activation of myocardial apoptotic and hypertrophic reprogramming in the pathogenesis of adverse ventricular remodeling and suggest that metformin provides cardioprotective effects against I/R injury.

Metformin, according to the American Diabetes Association's current clinical practice recommendations, remains a first line pharmacological agent for T2D (American Diabetes Association, 2018) that can reduce risk of cardiovascular events and death (Holman et al., 2008). The beneficial effects of metformin on cardiac function have been attributed to direct actions on cell metabolism, endothelial function, platelet reactivity and calcium homeostasis (Kirpichnikov et al., 2002). Our studies demonstrated that metformin treatment blunts *in vitro* and *in vivo* hypertrophic and apoptotic responses to cardiac I/R injury. In H9C2 cells exposed to metabolic or oxidative stress, metformin inhibited apoptotic cell death. The rat cardiomyoblast cell line H9C2 has emerged as a valuable tool for studying pathophysiology of cardiac remodeling processes and mechanisms of disease progression in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (Hescheler et al., 1991). The reason for the wide popularity of H9C2 cell model is that they have well-characterized properties in terms of morphology and cardiac molecular physiology (Watkins et al., 2011). We also demonstrated that a significantly decreased hypertrophic response to I/R was observed in hearts of C57BL/6 mice that exhibit functional and structural abnormalities recapitulating human cardiac remodeling processes (Eguchi et al., 2012).

Several lines of evidence suggest that maladaptive cardiac hypertrophy is one of the most common features of DCM (Aneja et al., 2008). At the level of cardiomyocytes, hypertrophic response is characterized by an increase in cell size, accelerated protein synthesis, profound organization of the sarcomere and fetal gene reprogramming (Dorn et al., 2003; Frey et al., 2004). Stress-induced reactivation of fetal genes in the failing heart plays a pivotal role in the progression of ventricular remodeling and HF in humans and in mouse models (Frey et al., 2004). Importantly, we found that treatment with metformin decreases BNP expression in I/R-challenged hearts suggesting that metformin can
A

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

**FIGURE 6** | Metformin prevents H9C2 cells from hypoxia-induced apoptosis through FoxO1 pathway. (A) Representative images of TUNEL staining of H9C2 cells transfected with control siRNA (siControl) or siRNA targeting FoxO1 (siFoxO1). Scale bar is 25 µM. (B) Quantification of apoptotic cells from (A). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way ANOVA: \*P < 0.05 vs. control, \#P < 0.05 between indicated conditions.

counteract activation of pro-hypertrophic gene program in the
failing myocardium.

Results from this study demonstrated that metformin
inhibits stress-activated apoptotic cell death via FoxO1
pathway. FoxO-family proteins including FoxO1, FoxO3,
FoxO4, and FoxO6 orchestrate various physiological and
pathological functions by controlling the expression of genes
associated with cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, DNA damage
repair, oxidative stress resistance and cell metabolism (Accili
and Arden, 2004; Huang and Tindall, 2007; Eijkelenboom
and Burgering, 2013). A recent study reports that metformin
regulates FoxO1 activities in endothelial cells (Li et al., 2015).
Another study (Arunachalam et al., 2014) supports the notion
that metformin can negatively regulate FoxO1-dependent
apoptotic gene transcription and cell cycle. Our in vitro results
suggest that metformin represses cell apoptosis through FoxO1
pathway in H9C2 cells. In line with these data, a recent study
found that cardiomyocyte expression of FoxO1 inhibits cell

hypertrophic growth and calcineurin phosphatase activity
(Ni et al., 2006).

The adult heart is comprised of terminally differentiated
myocytes that are responsible for contractile performance. In
this context, the failing heart displays more pronounced adverse
effects as a consequence of excessive cell death. The limited
capacity of the myocardium to efficiently regenerate highlights
the importance of preservation of resting cardiomyocytes to
support contractile function. Maintenance of cardiovascular
homeostasis depends on cardiac cell death and renewal, and
excessive apoptotic loss of cardiomyocytes has been implicated
in many cardiovascular diseases (Narula et al., 1996). The results
of our study have demonstrated that metformin inhibits cardiac
apoptosis in I/R-challenged mice, suggesting that metformin
can prevent cell loss in the failing heart. Recent studies
found that metformin may inhibit cell apoptosis in kidney
and cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury (Li et al., 2016)
indicating the anti-apoptotic potential of metformin in peripheral
A

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

B

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

C

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

**FIGURE 7** | Metformin treatment reduces cardiac hypertrophy in I/R-challenged hearts. (A) Representative images of wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) staining of heart frozen tissue sections. Mice were subjected to 30 min of cardiac ischemia and 14 days of reperfusion. Metformin treatment (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.) started at 15 min of post-reperfusion and continued for 14 days. Scale bar is 25 µM. (B). Quantification of cell size from (A). (C). qRT-PCR analysis of the expression level of the hypertrophic marker BNP. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way ANOVA: \*P < 0.05, \*\*P < 0.01, \*\*\*P < 0.001 between indicated conditions.

A

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

B

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

**FIGURE 8** | Metformin treatment protects against cardiac apoptosis in I/R-challenged hearts. (A). TUNEL staining of cardiac tissue from vehicle- or metformin-treated mice subjected to 30 min of cardiac ischemia and 14 days of reperfusion. Metformin treatment (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.) started at 15 min of post-reperfusion and continued for 14 days. Scale bar is 100 µM. (B). Quantification of apoptotic cells from (A). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way ANOVA: \*\*\*P < 0.001 between indicated conditions.
organs. Further studies are necessary to explore the potential mechanisms of action and biological effects of metformin in non-metabolic disorders.

In conclusion, metformin prevented cardiac hypertrophy, and ultimately abolished myocardial apoptosis through FoxO1 pathway. These findings provide new insights into the role of hypertrophic and apoptotic remodeling in the failing heart and deepen our understanding of how metformin regulates cardiac cell decisions in response to stress. Altogether, these data suggest that metformin could have cardiovascular benefit for diabetic patients.

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## AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

HL, FB, HT, MC, and SK carried out the experiments. OO and MK supervised the project. OK conceived the original idea and supervised the project.

## FUNDING

This work was supported by the INSERM, Région Midi-Pyrénées and ERASMUS + project.

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**Conflict of Interest Statement:** The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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