# Brooding Pedagogy and Interpersonal Certainty of Language Teachers in Public Secondary Schools

Hannah Mae D. Cuare, Josephine B Baguio

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Hannah Mae D. Cuare, Josephine B Baguio. Brooding Pedagogy and Interpersonal Certainty of Language Teachers in Public Secondary Schools. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports, 2025, 19 (6), pp.380-391. 10.9734/ajarr/2025/v19i61066. hal-05217078

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# Brooding Pedagogy and Interpersonal Certainty of Language Teachers in Public Secondary Schools

Hannah Mae D. Cuare a++ and Josephine B. Baguio a#*

a Graduate School, The Rizal Memorial Colleges, Inc., Davao City, Philippines.

## Authors' contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

## Article Information

DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajarr/2025/v19i61066

## Open Peer Review History:

This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers, peer review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here: https://pr.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/138723

Received: 14/04/2025

Accepted: 19/06/2025

Published: 25/06/2025

## Original Research Article

## ABSTRACT

Public secondary school language teachers face similar challenges regarding interpersonal certainty. Large class sizes, heavy workloads, and limited professional development opportunities often leave teachers feeling undervalued and underprepared to handle interpersonal demands in the classroom. This study investigated the relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers, driven by concerns that reflective teaching practices may influence teachers' confidence in their professional relationships. A descriptive-correlational research design was employed, using a validated survey administered to a sample of 146 public secondary school language teachers. Data were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, Pearson r, and multiple linear regression. Findings revealed that both brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty were rated high across all domains. In brooding pedagogy,

<footnote>++ Student;</footnote>

<footnote># Faculty;</footnote>

<footnote>*Corresponding author: Email: josephinebbaguio@outlook.com;</footnote>
the "class" domain received a very high mean, while in interpersonal certainty, "integrity" ranked highest. A moderate but statistically significant relationship (r = 0.629, p < 0.001) was found between the two variables, indicating that teachers who engage more deeply in reflective teaching tend to exhibit greater interpersonal certainty. Regression analysis showed that the "ability" domain of brooding pedagogy had the strongest positive influence (β = 0.578), followed by "academic" (β = 0.395), while the "class" domain had a significant negative effect (β = -0.252) on interpersonal certainty. The regression model explained 55.8% of the variance in interpersonal certainty (R² = 0.558). The results suggest that instructional competence and academic engagement help build professional confidence. The findings support existing theories that link reflective practice with better interpersonal skills in education. The study recommends focused training to improve teaching skills and classroom management, which can boost both teaching effectiveness and teachers' confidence.

Keywords: Brooding pedagogy; interpersonal certainty; language teachers; public school teachers.

# 1. INTRODUCTION

Pedagogy is the method behind the art of teaching. It considers how students learn and uses that knowledge to develop philosophies, approaches, and techniques for the classroom. Pedagogy allows educators to understand how students learn and to design instruction based on goals. Educators learn how to engage students, focusing on learning outcomes and retention. Particularly in the life sciences, where critical thinking is essential to progress, educators need to understand and apply more active approaches (Makhamadalievich, 2024). In the realm of education, interpersonal certainty is vital for teachers to establish authentic communication, foster positive relationships, and promote meaningful learning experiences (Romanovska & Novak, 2024). However, language teachers in public secondary schools often grapple with low interpersonal certainty, resulting in diminished classroom rapport, communication breakdowns, and ineffective student engagement. These challenges arise from personal insecurities, unclear institutional expectations, and the pressures of academic performance, which collectively hinder teachers from confidently asserting themselves in interpersonal interactions (Khanam & Javed, 2024). When interpersonal certainty is compromised, it can severely affect the delivery of language instruction, classroom management, and overall teacher efficacy (Xie & Derakhshan, 2021). The shift of focus from mere linguistic and pedagogical concerns to students' and teachers' emotions began decades ago in applied linguistics but flourished in a new trend in psychology known as positive psychology (Wang et al., 2022).

Globally, the issue of interpersonal certainty among language teachers is gaining scholarly attention. In the United States, studies reveal that teachers experiencing emotional exhaustion and professional isolation tend to show lower interpersonal confidence, affecting their teaching presence (Yang, 2021). In Japan, the rigid hierarchical structures and cultural expectations often make it difficult for teachers to communicate assertively with peers and students, leading to internal conflict and communication avoidance (Tanaka, 2024). Meanwhile, in Zambia, the multilingual and multicultural classroom context often leads to misunderstandings and self-doubt among language educators, challenging their ability to assert their voice with clarity (Van Zyl, 2020). These international scenarios underscore how varying cultural and institutional dynamics contribute to the erosion of interpersonal certainty among language teachers.

In the Philippines, public secondary school language teachers face similar challenges regarding interpersonal certainty. Large class sizes, heavy workloads, and limited professional development opportunities often leave teachers feeling undervalued and underprepared to handle interpersonal demands in the classroom (Tarraya, 2023). Moreover, cultural tendencies toward politeness and indirect communication may discourage teachers from expressing their needs and concerns assertively. The lack of systemic support and recognition further compounds the issue, making it difficult for language teachers to confidently manage their classroom discourse, collaborate with colleagues, or communicate effectively with school administrators and parents (Santos et al., 2023).
Brooding pedagogy, characterized by overthinking, self-critical reflection, and emotional rumination about teaching performance, may significantly influence a teacher's interpersonal certainty. Teachers who engage in brooding pedagogy often question their professional worth, dwell on past teaching failures, and anticipate negative outcomes in classroom interactions. This cognitive-emotional pattern can undermine their ability to communicate assertively, maintain composure during conflict, and form confident relationships with students and peers (McCullough Hedelin, 2024). Consequently, the tendency to brood may erode interpersonal certainty, resulting in a diminished teaching presence and reduced effectiveness in delivering language instruction (D'Amico, 2024).

While several studies have explored teacher communication styles, professional identity, and emotional resilience, limited research has specifically examined the intersection between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among language teachers, particularly in the Philippine secondary education context. Most existing literature tends to address these constructs separately, leaving a gap in understanding how internal emotional patterns may directly affect teachers' interpersonal behavior in the classroom. This study seeks to address this gap by investigating the relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among public secondary language teachers, thereby contributing to the development of supportive interventions and teacher training programs.

This study was conducted to determine the level of brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty of language teachers in public secondary schools in Baganga District, Division of Davao Oriental. It

also aims to analyze the relationship between these two constructs and how they influence the professional confidence and communicative competence of educators in language instruction.

## 1.1 Statement of the Problem

This study was conducted to determine the level of brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty of language teachers in public secondary schools in Baganga District, Division of Davao Oriental. Specifically, it sought answers to the following questions:

1. What is the degree of brooding pedagogy of public secondary school language teachers in terms of:

1.1. Academic;

1.2. Ability; and

1.3. Class?

2. What is the level of interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers in terms of:

2.1. Respect;

2.2. Competence;

2.3. Personal regard; and

2.4. Integrity?

3. Is there a significant relationship between the brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers in Baganga District, Division of Davao Oriental?

4. What brooding pedagogy domains significantly influence interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers in Baganga District, Division of Davao Oriental?

Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study**</figcaption></figure>
**1.2 Hypotheses**

The null hypotheses were tested in this study at the 0.05 significance level.

Ho1. There is no significant relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers.

Ho2. None of the domains of brooding pedagogy significantly influences interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers.

**2. METHODOLOGY**

**2.1 Research Design**

This study employed a non-experimental quantitative research design utilizing the correlational method. This approach was deemed appropriate for examining the degree of association between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among language teachers in public secondary schools. As Baguio and Baguio, (2025) emphasized, variables may be related either through shared patterns of variation or as a result of a common influencing factor. In this context, the correlational method enabled the researcher to determine whether the presence of brooding pedagogy, characterized by excessive rumination and self-critical reflection, is significantly linked to the level of interpersonal certainty demonstrated by teachers in their professional interactions. By exploring the relationship between these two constructs, the study aimed to uncover meaningful patterns that can inform emotional support programs, communication training, and professional development initiatives within the Baganga District, Division of Davao Oriental.

**2.2 Research Respondents**

The respondents of this study consisted of 146 language teachers from public secondary schools in the Baganga District, Division of Davao Oriental, selected through universal sampling. This method was used to include the entire population of language teachers within the district, ensuring comprehensive representation and enhancing the accuracy of the findings. The participants assessed their own experiences related to brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty through structured survey questionnaires. To ensure the relevance and

reliability of the data, only teachers with at least three years of teaching experience in public secondary schools were included. The data collection was conducted during the school year 2024–2025.

**2.3 Research Instrument**

The instruments used in this study were self-made survey questionnaires designed to assess the levels of brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among language teachers in public secondary schools in the Baganga District, Division of Davao Oriental. These instruments were developed by the researcher based on insights drawn from relevant literature and previous studies on teacher cognition, emotional processing, and interpersonal communication in educational settings. Prior to the actual data collection, the draft questionnaires underwent face and content validation by a panel of experts in the fields of Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, and Curriculum and Instruction. Based on the feedback and recommendations of the validators, necessary revisions were made to improve clarity, ensure content relevance, and align the tools with the specific objectives of the study.

To ensure the reliability and validity of the instruments, a pilot test was conducted with 30 language teachers from public secondary schools in a neighbouring district within the same division who were not included in the main study. The pilot test results indicated high reliability, with a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.915 for the Brooding Pedagogy subscale and 0.927 for the Interpersonal Certainty subscale.

**2.4 Data Gathering Procedure**

The data for this study were gathered through a series of systematic and ethically guided procedures. The researcher first secured an endorsement from the Dean of the Graduate School of Rizal Memorial Colleges and obtained ethical clearance from the institution's Ethics Review Committee to ensure the protection of participants' rights and full compliance with research ethics. Subsequently, a formal request letter was submitted to the Office of the Schools Division Superintendent of Davao Oriental. Upon approval, the Division Office issued an endorsement letter addressed to the School Heads of public secondary schools within the Baganga District, authorizing the conduct of the study in their respective schools.
With all required permissions in place, the researcher conducted a pilot test of the survey instruments to assess their reliability and validity. During the pilot testing, participants were clearly informed about the purpose of the study and given detailed instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. Based on their feedback, the instruments were refined to improve clarity and ensure alignment with the study's objectives. The finalized survey questionnaires were then administered to 146 language teachers in public secondary schools, selected through universal sampling. After completion, the researcher personally collected the responses. The gathered data were then forwarded to a professional statistician for tallying, tabulation, and statistical analysis in accordance with the study's research questions and objectives.

## 2.5 Data Analysis

To analyze the data collected and effectively address the research questions of this study, the following statistical tools were utilized:

Mean. This was used to determine the levels of brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among language teachers in public secondary schools. It provided an overall summary of the respondents' self-assessments across specific items and dimensions, revealing general trends in their emotional -cognitive tendencies and interpersonal confidence.

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r). This statistical tool was employed to examine the degree of relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty. It enabled the researcher to assess whether a statistically significant linear correlation existed between these two psychological constructs.

Multiple Regression Analysis. This analysis was conducted to determine the extent to which specific dimensions of brooding pedagogy significantly predicted the level of interpersonal certainty. It helped identify which aspects of brooding thoughts and emotional reflection most strongly influenced the ability of teachers to engage in confident and effective interpersonal interactions within the public secondary school setting.

# 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

## 3.1 Level of Brooding Pedagogy among Public Secondary School Language Teachers

Presented in Table 1 is the summary of the domains in the level of brooding pedagogy among public secondary school language teachers, based on the mean scores and standard deviations. The class domain received the highest mean of 4.42, categorized as very high, followed by the ability domain with a mean of 4.18, categorized as high. The academic domain ranked third with a mean of 3.83, also categorized as high. The overall mean of 4.14 is described as high, indicating that teachers consistently demonstrate a strong level of reflective thinking and self-assessment in their pedagogical practices. The overall standard deviation of 0.50 suggests moderate consistency in responses, with most perceptions clustered around the mean.

This finding implies that public secondary school language teachers particularly excel in classroom-related reflection, showing strong confidence and awareness in their teaching interactions. The high ratings in ability and academic domains indicate that teachers also actively evaluate their skills and knowledge, contributing to continuous professional growth. Together, these domains reflect a comprehensive engagement in brooding pedagogy that supports teachers in refining their instructional methods and adapting to the dynamic demands of language education.

This finding validates the study of Peibin et al. (2023), who emphasized that high levels of pedagogical engagement, particularly in academic preparation, instructional ability, and classroom management, are fundamental to fostering strong interpersonal dynamics among teachers. The consistently high to very high descriptive levels across all domains suggest that language teachers are actively integrating brooding pedagogy into their practice, with the class domain rated very high, highlighting its prominent role in shaping interpersonal certainty.

Similarly, Wang (2023) found that teachers who demonstrate strong classroom presence and relational management skills are more effective in building trust and rapport with students and colleagues. Furthermore, Wijaya et al. (2023) argued that pedagogical ability not only
enhances instructional quality but also reinforces teacher confidence in social and professional interactions. This suggests that teachers who possess strong pedagogical skills are more likely to engage meaningfully with students and colleagues. As a result, their classroom presence becomes more authoritative and their relationships within the school community are strengthened.

## 3.2 Level of Interpersonal Certainty among Public Secondary School Language Teachers

Presented in Table 2 is the summary of the domains in the level of interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers, based on the mean scores and standard deviations. The domain integrity received the highest mean of 3.89, categorized as high, followed by respect with a mean of 3.71, personal regard with 3.67, and competence with 3.65, all also categorized as high. The overall mean score of 3.73 falls under the high descriptive level, indicating that teachers consistently demonstrate strong interpersonal certainty across these domains. The overall standard deviation of 0.50 suggests moderate consistency, with responses generally clustered around the mean.

This finding suggests that public secondary school language teachers maintain a solid sense of interpersonal certainty, especially in terms of integrity, which underscores their commitment to ethical behavior and trustworthiness. The similarly high scores in respect, personal regard,

and competence further highlight their dedication to fostering positive relationships, supporting student growth, and confidently applying their professional skills. Moreover, these domains illustrate a robust interpersonal foundation that contributes to effective teaching and collaborative school environments.

This finding corroborates the study of Xie and Derakhshan (2021), who emphasized that strong interpersonal certainty among teachers enhances their ability to communicate effectively and build trust within the classroom. Their research demonstrated that educators who possess confidence in their interpersonal skills foster positive relationships with students and colleagues, which is crucial for a supportive learning environment. Recent studies have further confirmed this, showing that teachers with high interpersonal clarity promote emotionally safe classrooms that improve student participation and collaboration (Zheng, 2021). Moreover, Kassymova et al. (2023) found that interpersonal certainty directly influences teacher resilience and reduces burnout, contributing to sustained professional effectiveness.

Similarly, Hanum et al. (2024) found that teachers with high interpersonal certainty are better equipped to manage classroom interactions, resolve conflicts, and create an atmosphere conducive to collaboration. Moreover, Diab and Green (2024) highlighted that strong interpersonal certainty contributes to greater teacher resilience and adaptability, enabling educators to navigate complex social dynamics while maintaining professional efficacy.

<table><caption>Table 1. Level of Brooding Pedagogy among Public Secondary School Language Teachers</caption><thead><tr><th>Domains</th><th>SD</th><th>Mean</th><th>Descriptive Level</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Academic</td><td>0.65</td><td>3.83</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><td>Ability</td><td>0.54</td><td>4.18</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><td>Class</td><td>0.64</td><td>4.42</td><td>Very High</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Overall</strong></td><td><strong>0.50</strong></td><td><strong>4.14</strong></td><td><strong>High</strong></td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 2. Level of Interpersonal Certainty among Public Secondary School Language Teachers</caption><thead><tr><th>Domains</th><th>SD</th><th>Mean</th><th>Descriptive Level</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Respect</td><td>0.67</td><td>3.71</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><td>Competence</td><td>0.56</td><td>3.65</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><td>Personal Regard</td><td>0.52</td><td>3.67</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><td>Integrity</td><td>0.60</td><td>3.89</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Overall</strong></td><td><strong>0.50</strong></td><td><strong>3.73</strong></td><td><strong>High</strong></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3. Significant Relationship Between Brooding Pedagogy and Interpersonal Certainty among Public Secondary School Language Teachers</caption><thead><tr><th>Variables</th><th>R</th><th>R<sup>2</sup></th><th>Degree of Relationship</th><th>p-value</th><th>Decision</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Brooding Pedagogy</td><td>0.629</td><td>0.395</td><td>Moderate</td><td>0.000</td><td>Reject Ho1</td></tr><tr><td>Interpersonal Certainty</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 4. Significant Influence of the Domains of Brooding Pedagogy on Interpersonal Certainty of Public Secondary School Language Teachers</caption><thead><tr><th>Domains</th><th>B</th><th>BE</th><th>Beta</th><th>t-stat</th><th>p-value</th><th>Decision</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Constant</td><td>1.182</td><td>.234</td><td></td><td>5.055</td><td>0.000</td><td>Significant</td></tr><tr><td>Academic</td><td>0.308</td><td>.055</td><td>0.395</td><td>5.600</td><td>0.000</td><td>Significant</td></tr><tr><td>Ability</td><td>0.538</td><td>.087</td><td>0.578</td><td>6.157</td><td>0.000</td><td>Significant</td></tr><tr><td>Class</td><td>-0.198</td><td>.063</td><td>-0.252</td><td>-3.166</td><td>0.002</td><td>Significant</td></tr></tbody></table><table><caption>Regression Model</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">Interpersonal Certainty =0.308 (Academic) + 0.538 (Ability) -0.198 (Class)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">R=0.747; R<sup>2</sup>=0.558; F=59.712; p-value=0.000</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3.3 Significant Relationship Between Brooding Pedagogy and Interpersonal Certainty among Public Secondary School Language Teachers

Presented in Table 3 is the correlation analysis between Brooding Pedagogy and Interpersonal Certainty among public secondary school language teachers. The relationship between these two variables shows a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.629 with a p-value of 0.000, which is less than the 0.05 significance level. This indicates a moderate and statistically significant positive relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty. The coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.395 suggests that approximately 39.5% of the variation in brooding pedagogy can be explained by interpersonal certainty. Since the p-value is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis (Ho1) is rejected, supporting the claim that there is a significant relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty.

This finding implies that language teachers who engage in brooding pedagogy tend to have higher levels of interpersonal certainty. The moderate positive relationship underscores the role of reflective or contemplative teaching approaches in fostering confidence and clarity in interpersonal interactions among educators. Encouraging such pedagogical practices may enhance teachers' interpersonal skills and certainty in their professional roles.

This finding echoes the study of Xu et al. (2024), who highlighted a significant relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers. Their research showed that educators who engage in reflective and emotionally attuned pedagogical practices demonstrate greater confidence and clarity in their interpersonal relationships within the educational setting. Wandhe (2024) emphasized that brooding pedagogy, marked by introspection and emotional depth, enhances teachers' capacity to develop empathy, understanding, and professional assurance, all of which are critical in fostering healthy communication and collaboration in schools. Additionally, Lindqvist et al. (2020) found that teachers who consistently reflect on their teaching experiences through a brooding lens are more likely to build strong interpersonal connections, maintain emotional balance, and create supportive learning environments that benefit both students and colleagues.

### 3.4 Significant Influence of the Domains of Brooding Pedagogy on Interpersonal Certainty of Public Secondary School Language Teachers

Presented in Table 4 is the regression analysis examining the significant influence of the domains of brooding pedagogy, namely academic, ability, and class, on the interpersonal
certainty of public secondary school language teachers. The regression model reveals that all three domains significantly affect interpersonal certainty, with academic and ability showing positive influences, while class has a negative impact.

Among the significant predictors, ability has the strongest impact on interpersonal certainty, indicating that teachers who possess higher pedagogical and instructional skills tend to exhibit greater confidence and stability in their interpersonal interactions. The academic domain also demonstrates a significant positive influence, suggesting that academic engagement contributes meaningfully to enhancing interpersonal certainty. On the other hand, the class domain shows a significant negative effect, implying that certain classroom dynamics may hinder teachers' interpersonal assurance. The regression equation is as follows: Interpersonal Certainty = 0.308 (Academic) + 0.538 (Ability) – 0.198 (Class). The model explains 55.8% of the variance in Interpersonal Certainty (R² = 0.558), with an F-value of 59.712 and a p-value of 0.000, indicating that the overall model is statistically significant.

This implies that strengthening teachers' academic engagement and instructional ability are key to fostering greater interpersonal certainty. Conversely, the negative influence of classroom-related factors highlights areas that may require strategic interventions or support mechanisms to prevent adverse effects on teachers' interpersonal confidence and professional interactions.

This finding aligns with the research of Sato and Csizér (2021), on the significant influence of the domains of brooding pedagogy on the interpersonal certainty of public secondary school language teachers. Studies have shown that domains such as academic engagement and ability play crucial roles in enhancing teachers' interpersonal certainty, while classroom-related factors may have a negative impact. Similarly, Fiorilli et al. (2020) highlighted that domains related to teacher competence and engagement significantly contribute to professional confidence and growth. Furthermore, Zamiri and Esmaeili (2024) emphasized that teachers who actively develop their skills and knowledge tend to foster a more dynamic and supportive educational community. Moreover, Adeoye et al. (2024) found that strong pedagogical influence empowers teachers to build confidence and

motivate others, while active engagement promotes collaboration and shared responsibility, both critical to strengthening interpersonal certainty. Regarding the negative effect of classroom factors, García-Mieres et al. (2020) suggested that certain contextual elements may mediate or complicate this relationship, which could explain the observed adverse impact on interpersonal certainty in this domain.

## 4. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:

Firstly, the level of brooding pedagogy among public secondary school language teachers is always observed. Teachers consistently demonstrate strength across the domains of academic, ability, and class, reflecting their commitment to delivering thoughtful, reflective, and responsive instruction. This indicates that educators value pedagogical depth and consistently strive to enhance their teaching methods. Additionally, it implies that a strong brooding pedagogy supports critical engagement with the subject matter and encourages deeper reflection on instructional practices and student needs.

Secondly, the level of interpersonal certainty among public secondary school language teachers is always observed. Teachers regularly exhibit high levels of respect, competence, personal regard, and integrity in their professional relationships. This suggests that educators maintain strong, stable interpersonal connections that foster mutual trust and cooperation in school settings. Additionally, it implies that high interpersonal certainty contributes to a more supportive and collegial work environment, enhancing collaboration, morale, and instructional coherence.

Thirdly, a significant relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty is observed. This implies that as teachers deepen their reflective teaching practices, their interpersonal assurance strengthens, leading to more confident and effective communication with peers and students. Engaging in brooding pedagogy fosters self-awareness and instructional clarity, which in turn supports stronger professional interactions and relational trust. Additionally, it implies that nurturing brooding pedagogy may contribute to the
development of more emotionally intelligent and
interpersonally confident educators.

Finally, among the domains of brooding pedagogy, ability has the strongest positive influence on interpersonal certainty, followed by academic, while the class domain shows a significant negative influence. This highlights the importance of instructional skills and academic engagement in reinforcing teachers' interpersonal confidence. Conversely, classroom challenges may hinder teachers' interpersonal certainty, suggesting the need for additional support in classroom management and relational dynamics. Additionally, it implies that targeted professional development in pedagogical ability and academic engagement, along with strategies to address classroom stressors, can enhance both instructional quality and interpersonal confidence among teachers.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings and conclusions of this
study, the following recommendations were
proposed:

Firstly, considering that the level of brooding pedagogy among public secondary school language teachers is high, it is recommended that schools continue to foster and strengthen reflective teaching practices across the domains of academic, ability, and class. This can be achieved by implementing professional development programs that emphasize pedagogical reflection, critical analysis of teaching strategies, and skill-building in instructional design. Workshops on differentiated instruction, reflective journaling, and collaborative lesson planning can further enrich teachers' academic and instructional competencies. Teachers, in turn, may engage in self-assessment activities, participate in peer coaching, and explore evidence-based strategies to enhance their brooding pedagogy.

Secondly, since interpersonal certainty among language teachers is also high, it is advisable to sustain and cultivate a supportive professional environment that encourages respectful interactions, competence, integrity, and personal regard. School administrators may establish mentorship programs, conduct team-building activities, and promote open communication platforms that enhance relational trust and professional respect. Teachers may further support these initiatives by modeling respectful behavior, engaging in collaborative projects, and nurturing positive relationships with colleagues,

students, and stakeholders to reinforce
interpersonal certainty.

Thirdly, given the significant relationship between brooding pedagogy and interpersonal certainty, it is recommended that school leadership develop integrated programs that simultaneously enhance teaching reflection and interpersonal engagement. These may include reflective teaching seminars, interpersonal communication workshops, and discussion forums where educators can share experiences and strategies. Encouraging professional collaboration, coaching partnerships, and school-based research initiatives can also strengthen the connection between reflective practice and relational confidence. Teachers may take the initiative by actively engaging in these opportunities and applying interpersonal and pedagogical insights to improve both instruction and professional rapport.

Finally, considering that among the domains of brooding pedagogy, ability has the strongest positive influence on interpersonal certainty, followed by academic, while class has a negative effect, it is essential to provide targeted support that enhances the instructional ability and mitigates classroom-related challenges. Teachers may also reflect on classroom practices, seek mentorship when facing challenges, and apply adaptive strategies that promote a conducive learning environment. Future researchers may explore additional contextual factors affecting class dynamics and interpersonal certainty, including class size, student behavior, and teacher workload, to inform more comprehensive interventions.

DISCLAIMER (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE)

The author(s) hereby declare that generative AI technologies have been used during the writing and editing of this manuscript. The details of the AI usage are as follows:

1. Grammarly: Used for grammar and spellchecking, as well as suggestions for improving sentence structure and overall clarity.

2. Quillbot: Employed for paraphrasing and refining sentence flow to enhance readability and coherence.

CONSENT AND ETHICAL APPROVAL

This study was conducted in full alignment with
established ethical guidelines to safeguard the
rights, dignity, and welfare of all participants. Prior to data collection, the researcher secured the necessary authorizations, including an endorsement from the Dean of the Graduate School of Rizal Memorial Colleges and ethical clearance from the institution's Ethics Review Committee. In addition, formal permission was obtained from the Office of the Schools Division Superintendent of Davao Oriental to conduct the study within public secondary schools in the Baganga District. The ethical standards observed were based on the framework proposed by Pregoner et al. (2025), ensuring adherence to contemporary protocols for research involving human subjects in educational contexts. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary, with all respondents receiving comprehensive information about the study's purpose, scope, and their right to decline or withdraw at any time without consequences. Informed consent was obtained to verify that participants clearly understood the nature of the study and agreed to take part willingly. To ensure privacy, no personally identifiable data were collected, and all responses were treated with strict confidentiality. The information gathered was used exclusively for academic research, upholding the principles of transparency, ethical responsibility, and professional integrity throughout the study.

## COMPETING INTERESTS

Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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