literature that reports the impact of SES on cognition, especially language skills. Numerous studies show that the verbal abilities of children from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds are poorer than those of children from privileged backgrounds (Johnson et al., 2016; Merz et al., 2019). These results represent a measurement bias and an adaptation issue for the Brazilian context that must be reconsidered in future studies.

In addition to verbal and visuospatial updating tasks, we proposed the evaluation of WM in double condition. Dual-task paradigms involve performing two tasks separately first, and then simultaneously. The difference in performance between each separate task and the dual-task condition provides an indicator of dual-task ability (Della Sala et al., 2010). Thus, two variables were used to access WM skills in double condition (Evolution digit span and Evolution clowns) and no significant age effect was found. The absence of this effect can be explained by the fact that this variable is adjusted to age. In fact, the first part of the Dual task consists of defining the child's baseline through a span score. This baseline represents the level of difficulty of the task, which is determined by the child abilities' and corresponds to the maximum number of sequential digits that the child can remember without committing an error. Thus, difficulty levels differ according to individual variations, but also according to age given the improvement in auditory span memory (Baddeley et al., 1997). These particularities of the Dual task may have minimized a potential age effect on this task.

Regarding flexibility measures, analyses of the age effect revealed a significant difference between groups and a linear trend for all tasks. For the KCST, older children tend to complete more categories and be more agile in performing the task, as shown in previous studies performed with the Wisconsin Card Sorting test (Chelune and Baer, 1986; Heaton et al., 2007). Concerning both variables of the Frog test, results revealed a significant overall improvement with age, as evidenced in similar tasks (Burgess and Shallice, 1997). In general, behavioral profiles of the performance of Brazilian children in flexibility tasks show that the increase is more evident when comparing performances between the oldest (10-12 years) and the youngest children. Older children were faster and more precise in performing the task, which is used worldwide and has many variants.

Concerning planning skills, developmental data revealed a linear increase in performance on the Mazes, ROCF and Scripts tasks. Additionally, a quadratic (Mazes - Completed; Scripts - Time; ROCF - Planning Index) and cubic (Scripts - Intruder variable) trend was also observed, revealing a propensity to spurts or developmental peaks. Performance profiles of Brazilian children in planning tasks show that the strategies used to complete the test depend on its nature and on the child's age. For example, concerning the ROCF planning index, two peaks of improvement seem to emerge at 9 and 12 years of age. This index presents a significant decreasing score from 9 to 11 in comparison to 7 years old. At the age of 12, in the early adolescence, an increase in the planning index associated with the benefits of the guided copy (execution) step is identified. This change in data behavior can be related to the developmental changes on EF typically observed in adolescence, but should be better explored in the continuity of this study. On the other hand, Script and 8

Mazes tasks seem to present gradual improvement profiles with differences between the ages of 9 to 12 and the age group of 7. Studies that used different assessment paradigms, but aimed to evaluate planning skills for visuospatial and verbal paradigms also showed a similar improvement profile (Wechsler, 2002; Marquet-Doléac et al., 2010; Rey, 2010). These studies showed that planning skills improved with age, although they suggest different peaks in maturity, that occur mainly in adolescence. In this sense, our data would only represent the early maturation of this function at school age and should be extended to include the adolescent population.

Regarding the effect of other demographic variables studied, our results showed that the comparison between gender and executive measures did not reveal a significant difference for Brazilian children, except for the Visuospatial updating task, Dual Task, Frog test and 8 mazes. These findings are consistent with data in the literature which show no or little gender effects on executive development (Anderson, 2002; Brocki and Bohlin, 2004; Lee et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2013). Our results are also consistent with Brazilian data which showed that this factor has little influence on EF (Hazin et al., 2016; Magalhães et al., 2016). These results support the idea of a global performance equivalence between girls and boys regarding EF (Lehto et al., 2003; Brocki and Bohlin, 2004). However, it should be noted that the significant results are all in favor of boys, although they were found in only four of the 12 tasks. In addition, interactions between gender and type of school for Dual task (Evolution clowns) revealed that public school girls have lower scores than public and private school boys, and private school girls. These gender results show that girls in vulnerable situations are at a disadvantage if compared to boys, which was previously demonstrated in international reports and studies (Qadir et al., 2011).

Regarding the effect of SES on executive development, we found a significant effect on 8 tasks (Stroop - Error; Tapping - Go/No-Go Error and Conflict Error; KCST - perseverations; Verbal and Visuospatial updating - Baseline; Dual task - Evolution clowns; Scripts - Time; Mazes - Total time). It is important to mention that all executive components were accounted for and all results were in favor of private school children. Our findings are in accordance with the literature regarding the beneficial effect of a favorable SES on executive development (Johnson et al., 2016; Farah, 2017; Lawson et al., 2017). Additionally, other Brazilian studies have also found differences in favor of higher SES regarding inhibition, WM and decision-making skills (Mata et al., 2013; Hazin et al., 2016; Magalhães et al., 2016; Sallum et al., 2017). Our study also highlights the impact of socioeconomic disparities on the development of cognitive flexibility and planning skills.

An exploratory factorial analysis and several correlation analyses were performed in order to preliminarily analyze the structure of the executive development in our sample and to examine the theoretical grouping considered in the CEF-B. We found a 4-factor structure as described in the theoretical distribution proposed by the battery. However, the organization of the tasks in the components did not correspond to our initial expectations. Factors were named as follows: factor 1 "Inhibition,"
factor 2 “WM,” factor 3 “Flexibility” and factor 4 “Planning.” Indeed, factor 1 is similar to the classification originally designed by the authors of CEF-B, and correspond essentially to tasks of inhibition. Similarly, factor 2 corresponds to all WM tests. Indeed, evidences in the literature on the development of EF in children suggest that inhibition and WM are the first components to differentiate (at approximately 5–6 years of age; Diamond, 2013; Lee et al., 2013). This feature may explain the more evident grouping of these factors.

Factor 3 groups two tasks of flexibility. Only the TMT was not comprised by this factor. On the other hand, factor 4 grouped flexibility, WM and planning tasks. There are two main explanations for this result. First, the flexibility and planning components are the last to differentiate themselves according to the developmental logic (Diamond, 2013). Studies show an improvement in flexibility and planning skills from 10 to 12 years and in adolescence (Anderson et al., 2001; Brocki and Bohlin, 2004; Lee et al., 2013). In this sense, it is important to consider that the age limit of 12 years in our sample may have contributed to the clustering planning tasks with other components, since they would only differentiate themselves later in development. In this sense, expanding the sample to include adolescents is essential in order to assure analyses that are more consistent with the development of these complex functions. Another explanation is associated with the fact that flexibility and planning, especially, are complex tasks, and may have been grouped together because of their complexity. Regarding the visuospatial updating task, the association with both the planning and the WM factor may be related to the use of different strategies to recall the last locations touched by the examiner. This aspect can be the object of future investigation in a qualitative way (e.g., by asking the children what strategy they used to recall the locations).

Concerning correlation analysis, inhibition measures were significantly correlated among themselves. Similarly, flexibility measures were also significantly correlated among themselves. However, it should be considered that flexibility tasks also significantly correlate with planning and updating measures. Also, TMT loads with one updating measure and all planning tasks in the factor analysis. These findings also indicate that cognitive flexibility should not be considered as a unitary factor as proposed by Diamond (2013). Literature shows that tasks derived from the WSCT are considered shifting tasks (Morra et al., 2018). In addition, even if the TMT can be considered a global test of executive functioning, it still presents an important shifting component. The test also places high demands on inhibition – by suppressing the strong associations between consecutive numbers or letters – and updating – by remembering the latest number while searching for a letter and vice versa. On the other hand, the Frog test seems to be more associated with the concept of flexibility (Burgess and Shallice, 1997), given the involvement of the ability of abstraction and deduction of operating rules, which primarily requires cognitive flexibility.

Regarding WM tasks, verbal and visuospatial updating were significantly correlated but the dual task did not correlate with them. This finding can be explained by the theoretical differences associated with WM and the concept of updating (Morra et al., 2018). It is worth mentioning that we initially based

the categorization of the executive components evaluated in the CEF-B on the theoretical perspective of Diamond (2013). However, this classification presents limitations regarding the theoretical distinction between updating and WM. In fact, the dual task was not loaded into this factor probably because this paradigm is strongly associated with the concept of WM (Logie, 2016) while the tests of verbal and visuospatial updating constitute updating tasks (Morra et al., 2018). Similarly, planning measures were significantly correlated, with the exception of ROCF and Mazes. This finding can also be associated with the fact that this component does not have a unitary dimension. In general, results of the correlation analysis corroborate with the findings of the factorial analysis, which better differentiated inhibition and WM if compared to flexibility and planning. Overall, they are consistent with factorial studies and theoretical modeling in children that consider inhibition, WM and flexibility the main basic components of EF (e.g., Lehto et al., 2003; Diamond, 2013).

There are some limitations to our study that should be addressed in future researches. Firstly, the sample size does not allow normative data to be used in clinical settings and does not allow for generalization to the Brazilian context (see Guerra et al., 2020b for a review). In addition, analyses of the structure and organization of the EF can only be conducted as an initial approach. A series of methodological considerations must be taken into account regarding the factorial analysis. Firstly, our sample was reduced to 150 subjects because children missing one or more measurements needed to be excluded from the sample to meet the method's requirements. In addition, the entire sample was composed of children with typical development. The lack of children with clinical conditions reduces the discriminating power of the analysis since the variance of measurements in children without pathologies is limited. Finally, the variables selected to be used in the factorial analysis corresponded to the indicators of the best child performance per task. Although it is an interesting approach that favors the best strategy used by the child when performing the task, it would be more interesting to dispose of a vulnerability score which consists of an average of low scores. In this case, however, normative data would be required in addition to clinical data, which was not possible at this stage of the research. Thus, the sample should be expanded considering Brazil's social disparities and the tests should be submitted to other stages of psychometric validation. In addition, studies comprising different clinical conditions should also be carried out in order to test the sensitivity of the battery and to assure its clinical validity.

To conclude, this study reveals a dynamic developmental progression in all EF assessed by CEF-B tasks in Brazilian children from the northeast region. While gender seem to have little impact on EF development in our sample, the impact of SES on children's performances confirms the influence of poverty on the development of EF. Thus, the findings of our study highlight the urgent need to design consistent public policies that stimulate children development in vulnerable and disadvantaged populations. In addition, health and education professionals need to consider these differences in the development trajectories of EF and provide stimulation strategies that promote the development
factor 2 “WM,” factor 3 “Flexibility” and factor 4 “Planning.” Indeed, factor 1 is similar to the classification originally designed by the authors of CEF-B, and correspond essentially to tasks of inhibition. Similarly, factor 2 corresponds to all WM tests. Indeed, evidences in the literature on the development of EF in children suggest that inhibition and WM are the first components to differentiate (at approximately 5–6 years of age; Diamond, 2013; Lee et al., 2013). This feature may explain the more evident grouping of these factors.

Factor 3 groups two tasks of flexibility. Only the TMT was not comprised by this factor. On the other hand, factor 4 grouped flexibility, WM and planning tasks. There are two main explanations for this result. First, the flexibility and planning components are the last to differentiate themselves according to the developmental logic (Diamond, 2013). Studies show an improvement in flexibility and planning skills from 10 to 12 years and in adolescence (Anderson et al., 2001; Brocki and Bohlin, 2004; Lee et al., 2013). In this sense, it is important to consider that the age limit of 12 years in our sample may have contributed to the clustering planning tasks with other components, since they would only differentiate themselves later in development. In this sense, expanding the sample to include adolescents is essential in order to assure analyses that are more consistent with the development of these complex functions. Another explanation is associated with the fact that flexibility and planning, especially, are complex tasks, and may have been grouped together because of their complexity. Regarding the visuospatial updating task, the association with both the planning and the WM factor may be related to the use of different strategies to recall the last locations touched by the examiner. This aspect can be the object of future investigation in a qualitative way (e.g., by asking the children what strategy they used to recall the locations).

Concerning correlation analysis, inhibition measures were significantly correlated among themselves. Similarly, flexibility measures were also significantly correlated among themselves. However, it should be considered that flexibility tasks also significantly correlate with planning and updating measures. Also, TMT loads with one updating measure and all planning tasks in the factor analysis. These findings also indicate that cognitive flexibility should not be considered as a unitary factor as proposed by Diamond (2013). Literature shows that tasks derived from the WSCT are considered shifting tasks (Morra et al., 2018). In addition, even if the TMT can be considered a global test of executive functioning, it still presents an important shifting component. The test also places high demands on inhibition – by suppressing the strong associations between consecutive numbers or letters – and updating – by remembering the latest number while searching for a letter and vice versa. On the other hand, the Frog test seems to be more associated with the concept of flexibility (Burgess and Shallice, 1997), given the involvement of the ability of abstraction and deduction of operating rules, which primarily requires cognitive flexibility.

Regarding WM tasks, verbal and visuospatial updating were significantly correlated but the dual task did not correlate with them. This finding can be explained by the theoretical differences associated with WM and the concept of updating (Morra et al., 2018). It is worth mentioning that we initially based

the categorization of the executive components evaluated in the CEF-B on the theoretical perspective of Diamond (2013). However, this classification presents limitations regarding the theoretical distinction between updating and WM. In fact, the dual task was not loaded into this factor probably because this paradigm is strongly associated with the concept of WM (Logie, 2016) while the tests of verbal and visuospatial updating constitute updating tasks (Morra et al., 2018). Similarly, planning measures were significantly correlated, with the exception of ROCF and Mazes. This finding can also be associated with the fact that this component does not have a unitary dimension. In general, results of the correlation analysis corroborate with the findings of the factorial analysis, which better differentiated inhibition and WM if compared to flexibility and planning. Overall, they are consistent with factorial studies and theoretical modeling in children that consider inhibition, WM and flexibility the main basic components of EF (e.g., Lehto et al., 2003; Diamond, 2013).

There are some limitations to our study that should be addressed in future researches. Firstly, the sample size does not allow normative data to be used in clinical settings and does not allow for generalization to the Brazilian context (see Guerra et al., 2020b for a review). In addition, analyses of the structure and organization of the EF can only be conducted as an initial approach. A series of methodological considerations must be taken into account regarding the factorial analysis. Firstly, our sample was reduced to 150 subjects because children missing one or more measurements needed to be excluded from the sample to meet the method's requirements. In addition, the entire sample was composed of children with typical development. The lack of children with clinical conditions reduces the discriminating power of the analysis since the variance of measurements in children without pathologies is limited. Finally, the variables selected to be used in the factorial analysis corresponded to the indicators of the best child performance per task. Although it is an interesting approach that favors the best strategy used by the child when performing the task, it would be more interesting to dispose of a vulnerability score which consists of an average of low scores. In this case, however, normative data would be required in addition to clinical data, which was not possible at this stage of the research. Thus, the sample should be expanded considering Brazil's social disparities and the tests should be submitted to other stages of psychometric validation. In addition, studies comprising different clinical conditions should also be carried out in order to test the sensitivity of the battery and to assure its clinical validity.

To conclude, this study reveals a dynamic developmental progression in all EF assessed by CEF-B tasks in Brazilian children from the northeast region. While gender seem to have little impact on EF development in our sample, the impact of SES on children's performances confirms the influence of poverty on the development of EF. Thus, the findings of our study highlight the urgent need to design consistent public policies that stimulate children development in vulnerable and disadvantaged populations. In addition, health and education professionals need to consider these differences in the development trajectories of EF and provide stimulation strategies that promote the development
of children from unfavorable contexts. Although normative data are still lacking in Brazil, we believe that the next stages of this research will allow a better understanding of the trajectories of EF both in typical and atypical development. Also, these future data will provide clinical neuropsychologists with an improved theoretical basis for child executive development and tools for identifying executive disorders.

## DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

## ETHICS STATEMENT

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Comitê Central de Ética em Pesquisa (CEP Central) da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN). Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.

## AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

AG designed the study, collected and screened data, conducted the statistical analysis, interpreted the results, and wrote the

manuscript. J-LR screened data and reviewed the manuscript. YG provided advice writing the manuscript. AR, IH, and DL supervised the study design and provided guidance. All authors were involved in critically revising the manuscript, approved the final version, and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

## FUNDING

The present work was financially supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (423231/2016-2) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (1654284 and 88881.189733/2018-01).

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank CAPES for first author scholarship and CNPq for financing this project. We also thank Lydie Iralde and Phillipe Allain for providing the Scripts task, and Nathalie Fournet for the working memory tasks. We are thankful to Isadora Silvestre, Marinha Rezende, Laís Maia, and Gláucia Vivana for participation in data collection. Finally, we would like to thank all the experts who participated in the Brazilian adaptation of the CEF-B.

## REFERENCES

Adleman, N. E., Menon, V., Blasey, C. M., White, C. D., Warsofsky, I. S, Glover, G. H., et al. (2002). A developmental tMRJ study of the stroop color-word task. *Neuroimage*. 16, 61–75. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.1046

Agostino, A., Johnson, J., and Pascual-Leone, J. (2010). Executive functions underlying multiplicative reasoning: problem type matters. *J. Exp. Child Psychol.* 105, 286–305. doi: 10.1016/j.jeep.2009.09.006

Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. *Child Neuropsychol.* 8, 71–82. doi: 10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724

Anderson, V., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., and Catroppa, C. (2001). Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. *Devel. Neuropsychol.* 20, 385–406. doi: 10.1207/S15326942DN2001_5

Arbuthnott, K., and Frank, J. (2000). Trail making test, part B as a measure of executive control: Validation using a set-switching paradigm. *J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol.* 22, 518–528. doi: 10.1076/1380-3395(200008)22:4;1-0;ft518

Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Matute, E., and Guajardo, S. (2005). The influence of the parents' educational level on the development of executive functions. *Devel. Neuropsychol.* 28, 539–560. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2801_5

Armengol, C. G., and Méndez, M. (1999). Lectura y Stroop en bilingües. *La prueba de interferencia de Stroop y la eficacia en la lectura: Estudio normativo en escolares bilingües de cuarto grado*. *Rev. Española. Neuropsicol.* 1:27.

Baddeley, A. D., Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Papagno, C., and Spinnler, H. (1997). "Testing central executive functioning with a pencil-and-paper test," in *Methodology of Frontal and Executive Function*, ed. P. Rabbitt (East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press Ltd).

Bellaj, T., Salhi, I., Le Gall, D., and Roy, A. (2015). Development of executive functioning in school-age Tunisian children. *Child Neuropsychol.* 22, 919–954. doi: 10.1080/09297049.2015.1058349

Berthelsen, D., Hayes, N., White, S. L., and Williams, K. E. (2017). Executive function in adolescence: Associations with child and family risk factors and self-regulation in early childhood. *Front. Psychol.* 8:903.

Best, J., and Miller, P. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. *Child Devel.* 81, 1641–1660. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x.A

Brocki, K. C., and Bohlin, G. (2004). Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study. *Devel. Neuropsychol.* 26, 571–593. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2602_3

Burgess, P. W., and Shallice, T. (1997). *The Hayling and Brixton Tests*. Bury St Edmunds: Thames Valley Test Company.

Charbonnier, V., Roy, A., Seegmuller, C., Gautier, A., and Le Gall, D. (2011). Étude d'un cas de syndrome dysexécutif à prédominance cognitive chez un enfant présentant une épilepsie frontale symptomatique. *Rev. Neuropsychol.* 3:11. doi: 10.3917/rne.031.0011

Charchat-Fichman, H., and Oliveira, R. M. (2009). Performance of 119 Brazilian children on stroop paradigm - Victoria version. *Arquiv. Neuro Psiquiatr.* 67, 445–449. doi: 10.1590/S0004-282X2009000300014

Chelune, G. J., and Baer, R. A. (1986). Developmental norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting test. *J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol.* 8, 219–228. doi: 10.1080/01688638608401314

Cohen. (1992). A power primer. *Psychol. Bull.* 112, 155–159.

Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., and Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. *Neuropsychologia* 44, 2037–2078. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006

Della Sala, S., Foley, J. A., Beschin, N., Allerhand, M., and Logie, R. H. (2010). Assessing dual-task performance using a paper-and-pencil test: Normative data. *Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol.* 25, 410–419. doi: 10.1093/arclin/acq039

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. *Annu. Rev. Psychol.* 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2801_5 (accessed June 18, 2020).

Duncan, M. T. (2006). Obtenção de dados normativos para desempenho no teste de Stroop num grupo de estudantes do ensino fundamental em Niterói. *J. Brasil. Psiquiatr.* 55, 42–48. doi: 10.1590/s0047-20852006000100006

Farah, M. J. (2017). The Neuroscience of Socioeconomic Status: Correlates, Causes, and Consequences. *Neuron* 96, 56–71. doi: 10.1016/J.NEURON.2017.08.034
of children from unfavorable contexts. Although normative data are still lacking in Brazil, we believe that the next stages of this research will allow a better understanding of the trajectories of EF both in typical and atypical development. Also, these future data will provide clinical neuropsychologists with an improved theoretical basis for child executive development and tools for identifying executive disorders.

## DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

## ETHICS STATEMENT

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Comitê Central de Ética em Pesquisa (CEP Central) da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN). Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.

## AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

AG designed the study, collected and screened data, conducted the statistical analysis, interpreted the results, and wrote the

manuscript. J-LR screened data and reviewed the manuscript. YG provided advice writing the manuscript. AR, IH, and DL supervised the study design and provided guidance. All authors were involved in critically revising the manuscript, approved the final version, and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

## FUNDING

The present work was financially supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (423231/2016-2) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (1654284 and 88881.189733/2018-01).

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank CAPES for first author scholarship and CNPq for financing this project. We also thank Lydie Iralde and Phillipe Allain for providing the Scripts task, and Nathalie Fournet for the working memory tasks. We are thankful to Isadora Silvestre, Marinha Rezende, Laís Maia, and Gláucia Vivana for participation in data collection. Finally, we would like to thank all the experts who participated in the Brazilian adaptation of the CEF-B.

## REFERENCES

Adleman, N. E., Menon, V., Blasey, C. M., White, C. D., Warsofsky, I. S., Glover, G. H., et al. (2002). A developmental tMRJ study of the stroop color-word task. *Neuroimage*. 16, 61–75. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.1046

Agostino, A., Johnson, J., and Pascual-Leone, J. (2010). Executive functions underlying multiplicative reasoning: problem type matters. *J. Exp. Child Psychol.* 105, 286–305. doi: 10.1016/j.jeep.2009.09.006

Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. *Child Neuropsychol.* 8, 71–82. doi: 10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724

Anderson, V., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., and Catroppa, C. (2001). Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. *Devel. Neuropsychol.* 20, 385–406. doi: 10.1207/S15326942DN2001_5

Arbuthnott, K., and Frank, J. (2000). Trail making test, part B as a measure of executive control: Validation using a set-switching paradigm. *J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol.* 22, 518–528. doi: 10.1076/1380-3395(200008)22:4;1-0;ft518

Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Matute, E., and Guajardo, S. (2005). The influence of the parents' educational level on the development of executive functions. *Devel. Neuropsychol.* 28, 539–560. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2801_5

Armengol, C. G., and Méndez, M. (1999). Lectura y Stroop en bilingües. *La prueba de interferencia de Stroop y la eficacia en la lectura: Estudio normativo en escolares bilingües de cuarto grado*. *Rev. Española. Neuropsicol.* 1:27.

Baddeley, A. D., Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Papagno, C., and Spinnler, H. (1997). "Testing central executive functioning with a pencil-and-paper test," in *Methodology of Frontal and Executive Function*, ed. P. Rabbitt (East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press Ltd).

Bellaj, T., Salhi, I., Le Gall, D., and Roy, A. (2015). Development of executive functioning in school-age Tunisian children. *Child Neuropsychol.* 22, 919–954. doi: 10.1080/09297049.2015.1058349

Berthelsen, D., Hayes, N., White, S. L., and Williams, K. E. (2017). Executive function in adolescence: Associations with child and family risk factors and self-regulation in early childhood. *Front. Psychol.* 8:903.

Best, J., and Miller, P. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. *Child Devel.* 81, 1641–1660. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x.A

Brocki, K. C., and Bohlin, G. (2004). Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study. *Devel. Neuropsychol.* 26, 571–593. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2602_3

Burgess, P. W., and Shallice, T. (1997). *The Hayling and Brixton Tests*. Bury St Edmunds: Thames Valley Test Company.

Charbonnier, V., Roy, A., Seegmuller, C., Gautier, A., and Le Gall, D. (2011). Étude d'un cas de syndrome dysexécutif à prédominance cognitive chez un enfant présentant une épilepsie frontale symptomatique. *Rev. Neuropsychol.* 3:11. doi: 10.3917/rne.031.0011

Charchat-Fichman, H., and Oliveira, R. M. (2009). Performance of 119 Brazilian children on stroop paradigm - Victoria version. *Arquiv. Neuro Psiquiatr.* 67, 445–449. doi: 10.1590/S0004-282X2009000300014

Chelune, G. J., and Baer, R. A. (1986). Developmental norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting test. *J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol.* 8, 219–228. doi: 10.1080/01688638608401314

Cohen. (1992). A power primer. *Psychol. Bull.* 112, 155–159.

Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., and Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. *Neuropsychologia* 44, 2037–2078. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006

Della Sala, S., Foley, J. A., Beschin, N., Allerhand, M., and Logie, R. H. (2010). Assessing dual-task performance using a paper-and-pencil test: Normative data. *Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol.* 25, 410–419. doi: 10.1093/arclin/acq039

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. *Annu. Rev. Psychol.* 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2801_5 (accessed June 18, 2020).

Duncan, M. T. (2006). Obtenção de dados normativos para desempenho no teste de Stroop num grupo de estudantes do ensino fundamental em Niterói. *J. Brasil. Psiquiatr.* 55, 42–48. doi: 10.1590/s0047-20852006000100006

Farah, M. J. (2017). The Neuroscience of Socioeconomic Status: Correlates, Causes, and Consequences. *Neuron* 96, 56–71. doi: 10.1016/J.NEURON.2017.08.034
Follmer, D. J. (2017). Executive Function and Reading Comprehension: A Meta-Analytic Review. *Educat. Psychol.* 1520, 1-19. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2017.1309295

Friedman, N. P., and Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. *Cortex* 86, 186-204. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023

Fuhs, M. W., and Day, J. D. (2011). Verbal ability and executive functioning development in preschoolers at head start. *Devel. Psychol.* 47, 404-416. doi: 10.1037/a0021065

Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., and Kenworthy, L. (2000). *Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF)*. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Guerra, A., Guerra, Y., Silvestre, I., Rezende, M., Le Gall, D., Roy, A., et al. (2020a). Cross-cultural adaptation of the Childhood Executive Functions Battery (CEF-B) for brazilian Portuguese. *Avaliação. Psicol.* 19:19744. doi: 10.15689/ap.2020.1904.18744.09

Guerra, A., Hazin, I., Siebra, C., Rezende, M., Silvestre, I., Le Gall, D., et al. (2020b). Assessing executive functions in Brazilian children: A critical review of available tools. *Appl. Neuropsychol. Child* 0, 1-13. doi: 10.1080/21622965.2020.1775598

Halpern, D. F. (2012). *Sex differences in cognitive abilities*. United Kingdom: Psychology Press.

Hazin, I., Leite, G., Oliveira, R. M., Alencar, J. C., Fichman, H. C., Marques, P. D. N., et al. (2016). Brazilian Normative Data on Letter and Category Fluency Tasks: Effects of Gender, Age, and Geopolitical Region. *Front. Psychol.* 7:684. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00684

Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., and Curtiss, G. (2007). *WCST: Test de Classement de Cartes du Wisconsin*. Paris: Hogrefe.

Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. *Psychometrika* 30, 179-185. doi: 10.1007/bf02289447

Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., and van der Molen, M. W. (2006). Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. *Neuropsychologia* 44, 2017-2036. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.010

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Lawson, G. M., Hook, C. J., and Farah, M. J. (2017). A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children. *Devel. Sci.* 2016, 1-22. doi: 10.1111/desc.12529

Lebel, C., Walker, L., Leemans, A., Phillips, L., and Beaulieu, C. (2008). Microstructural maturation of the human brain from childhood to adulthood. *NeuroImage* 40, 1044-1055. doi: 10.1016/j.NEIROIMAGE.2007.12.053

Lee, K., Bull, R., and Ho, R. M. H. (2013). Developmental changes in executive functioning. *Child Devel.* 84, 1933-1953. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12096

Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., and Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. *Br. J. Devel. Psychol.* 21, 59-80. doi: 10.1348/026151003321164627

Logie, R. H. (2016). Retiring the central executive. *Q. J. Exp. Psychol.* 69, 2093-2019. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2015.1136657

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Magalhães, P., Metta, L. R., Peralba, C. T., Vilar, C. B., Guerra, A. B., Paula, A. P., et al. (2016). Perfil desenvolvimental das funções executivas utilizando o NEPSY-II em crianças de 5 a 8 anos. *Neuropsicol. Latinoamer.* 8, 1-15.

Marquet-Doléac, J., Soppelsa, R., and Albaret, J. M. (2010). *Laby 5-12: Test des labyrinthes*. France: Hogrefe Editions.

Mata, F., Sallum, I., Moraes, P. H. P. D., Miranda, D. M., and Malloy-Diniz, L. F. (2013). Development of a computerised version of the Children's Gambling Task for the evaluation of affective decision-making in Brazilian preschool children. *Estudos Psicol.* 18, 151-157. doi: 10.1590/s1413-294x2013000100024

Merz, E. C., Wiltshire, C. A., and Noble, K. G. (2019). Socioeconomic inequality and the developing brain: Spotlight on language and executive function. *Child Devel. Perspect.* 13, 15-20. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12305

Miller, M. R., Giesbrecht, G. F., Müller, U., McInerney, R. J., and Kerns, K. A. (2012). A latent variable approach to determining the structure of executive

function in preschool children. *J. Cogn. Devel.* 13, 395-423. doi: 10.1080/15248372.2011.585478

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., and Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. *Cogn. Psychol.* 41, 49-100. doi: 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Morra, S., Panesi, S., Traverso, L., and Usai, M. C. (2018). Which tasks measure what? Reflections on executive function development and a commentary on Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017). *J. Exp. Child Psychol.* 167, 246-258. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.11.004

Noble, K. G., Houston, S. M., Brito, N. H., Bartsch, H., Kan, E., Kuperman, J. M., et al. (2015). Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. *Nat. Neurosci.* 18, 773-778. doi: 10.1038/nn.3983

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2018). *Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)*. France: OECD.

Panesi, S., and Morra, S. (2020). Executive functions and mental attentional capacity in preschoolers. *J. Cogn. Devel.* 21, 72-91. doi: 10.1080/15248372.2019.1685525

Qadir, F., Khan, M. M., Medhin, G., and Prince, M. (2011). Male gender preference, female gender disadvantage as risk factors for psychological morbidity in Pakistani women of childbearing age - A life course perspective. *BMC Publ. Health* 11:745. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-745

Remigereau, C., Roy, A., Costini, O., Barbarot, S., Bru, M., and Le Gall, D. (2018). Praxis skills and executive function in children with neurofibromatosis type 1. *Appl. Neuropsychol. Child* 7, 224-234. doi: 10.1080/21622965.2017.1295856

Rey, A. (2010). "Figuras Complexas de Rey," in *Casa do Psicólogo*, eds M. S. Oliveira and M. S. Rigoni. (Netherland: Pearson).

Roche, J., Chevignard, M., Le Gall, D., Frappaz, D., Roulin, J., Fournet, N., et al. (2018). Profile of executive functions in pediatric brain tumor survivors. *Clinical approach of disturbances in testing situation and in daily life*. ANAE 30, 731-741.

Roukoz, C., Er-Rafiqi, M., Le Gall, D., Bellaj, T., and Roy, A. (2018). A Systematic Review of Cross cultural Studies on Executive Functions in *Children_revisto.pdf - Google Drive*. *Int. J. Psychol. Neurosci.* 4, 1-31.

Roy, A. (2015). Approche neuropsychologique des fonctions exécutives de l'enfant: état des lieux et éléments de prospective. *Rev. Neuropsychol.* 7, 245-256. doi: 10.1684/nrp.2015.0357

Roy, A., Barbarot, S., Roulin, J.-L., Charbonnier, V., Fasotti, L., Stalder, J.-F., et al. (2014). Executive function specifically impaired in children with neurofibromatosis type 1? *Neuropsychol. Invest. Cogn. Flexib. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child* 3, 94-102. doi: 10.1080/21622965.2012.704185

Roy, A., Kefi, M.-Z., Bellaj, T., Fournet, N., Le Gall, D., and Roulin, J.-L. (2018). The Stroop test: A developmental study in a French children sample aged 7 to 12 years. *Psychol. Franç.* 63, 129-143. doi: 10.1016/j.psfr.2016.08.001

Roy, A., Le Gall, D., Roulin, J.-L., and Fournet, N. (2020). Un nouveau dispositif d'évaluation des fonctions exécutives chez l'enfant : la batterie FÉE. ANAE 167, 393-402.

Roy, A., Roulin, J., Charbonnier, V., Allain, P., Fasotti, L., Barbarot, S., et al. (2010). Executive dysfunction in children with neurofibromatosis type 1: A study of action planning. *J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc.* 2010, 1-8. doi: 10.1017/S135561771000086X

Salles, J. F., Fonseca, R. P., Parente, M. A., Cruz-Rodrigues, C., Mello, C. B., Barbosa, T., et al. (2016). Instrumento de Avaliação Neuropsicológica Breve Infantil: NEUPSILIN-Inf -Manual. *Psico USF.* 16, 297-305. doi: 10.1590/s1413-827120100300006

Sallum, I., da Mata, F. G., Cheib, N. F., Mathias, C. W., Miranda, D. M., and Malloy-Diniz, L. F. (2017). Development of a version of the self-ordered pointing task: A working memory task for Brazilian preschoolers. *Clin. Neuropsychol.* 31, 459-470. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2016.1275818

Santos, F. H., and Bueno, O. F. A. (2003). Validation of the Brazilian children's test of pseudoword repetition in portuguese speakers aged 4 to 10 years. *Brazil. J. Med. Biol. Res.* 36, 1533-1547. doi: 10.1590/S0100-879X2003001100012

Santos, F. H., Mello, C. B., Bueno, O. F. A., and Dellatolas, G. (2005). Cross-cultural differences for three visual memory tasks in Brazilian children. *Percept. Motor Skills* 101, 421-433. doi: 10.2466/pms.101.2.421-433

Sicigo, J. B., Abaid, J. L. W., Dell'Aglio, D. D., and De Salles, J. F. (2013). Nível socioeconômico e funções executivas. *Arquiv. Brasil. Psicol.* 65, 51-69.
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Fuhs, M. W., and Day, J. D. (2011). Verbal ability and executive functioning development in preschoolers at head start. *Devel. Psychol.* 47, 404–416. doi: 10.1037/a0021065

Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., and Kenworthy, L. (2000). *Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF)*. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Guerra, A., Guerra, Y., Silvestre, I., Rezende, M., Le Gall, D., Roy, A., et al. (2020a). Cross-cultural adaptation of the Childhood Executive Functions Battery (CEF-B) for brazilian Portuguese. *Avaliação. Psicol.* 19:19744. doi: 10.15689/ap.2020.1904.18744.09

Guerra, A., Hazin, I., Siebra, C., Rezende, M., Silvestre, I., Le Gall, D., et al. (2020b). Assessing executive functions in Brazilian children: A critical review of available tools. *Appl. Neuropsychol. Child* 0, 1-13. doi: 10.1080/21622965.2020.1775598

Halpern, D. F. (2012). *Sex differences in cognitive abilities*. United Kingdom: Psychology Press.

Hazin, I., Leite, G., Oliveira, R. M., Alencar, J. C., Fichman, H. C., Marques, P. D. N., et al. (2016). Brazilian Normative Data on Letter and Category Fluency Tasks: Effects of Gender, Age, and Geopolitical Region. *Front. Psychol.* 7:684. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00684

Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., and Curtiss, G. (2007). *WCST: Test de Classement de Cartes du Wisconsin*. Paris: Hogrefe.

Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. *Psychometrika* 30, 179-185. doi: 10.1007/bf02289447

Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., and van der Molen, M. W. (2006). Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. *Neuropsychologia* 44, 2017–2036. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.010

IBM Corp. Released (2011). *IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0*. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística [IBGE] (2010). *Censo populacional de. Janeiro: IBGE*.

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística [IBGE] (2017). *Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios Contínua (Pnad Contínua)*. Janeiro: IBGE.

Johnson, S. B., Riis, J. L., and Noble, K. G. (2016). State of the Art Review: Poverty and the Developing Brain. *Pediatrics* 137:3075. doi: 10.1542/PEDS.2015-3075

Lawson, G. M., Hook, C. J., and Farah, M. J. (2017). A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children. *Devel. Sci.* 2016, 1–22. doi: 10.1111/desc.12529

Lebel, C., Walker, L., Leemans, A., Phillips, L., and Beaulieu, C. (2008). Microstructural maturation of the human brain from childhood to adulthood. *NeuroImage* 40, 1044–1055. doi: 10.1016/j.NEIROIMAGE.2007.12.053

Lee, K., Bull, R., and Ho, R. M. H. (2013). Developmental changes in executive functioning. *Child Devel.* 84, 1933–1953. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12096

Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., and Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. *Br. J. Devel. Psychol.* 21, 59–80. doi: 10.1348/026151003321164627

Logie, R. H. (2016). Retiring the central executive. *Q. J. Exp. Psychol.* 69, 2093–2019. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2015.1136657

Luria, A. R. (1966). *Higher Cortical Functions in Man*. New York: Springer US.

Magalhães, P., Metta, L. R., Peralba, C. T., Vilar, C. B., Guerra, A. B., Paula, A. P., et al. (2016). Perfil desenvolvimental das funções executivas utilizando o NEPSY-II em crianças de 5 a 8 anos. *Neuropsicol. Latinoamer.* 8, 1–15.

Marquet-Doléac, J., Soppelsa, R., and Albaret, J. M. (2010). *Laby 5-12: Test des labyrinthes*. France: Hogrefe Editions.

Mata, F., Sallum, I., Moraes, P. H. P. D., Miranda, D. M., and Malloy-Diniz, L. F. (2013). Development of a computerised version of the Children's Gambling Task for the evaluation of affective decision-making in Brazilian preschool children. *Estudos Psicol.* 18, 151–157. doi: 10.1590/s1413-294x2013000100024

Merz, E. C., Wiltshire, C. A., and Noble, K. G. (2019). Socioeconomic inequality and the developing brain: Spotlight on language and executive function. *Child Devel. Perspect.* 13, 15–20. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12305

Miller, M. R., Giesbrecht, G. F., Müller, U., McInerney, R. J., and Kerns, K. A. (2012). A latent variable approach to determining the structure of executive

function in preschool children. *J. Cogn. Devel.* 13, 395-423. doi: 10.1080/15248372.2011.585478

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., and Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. *Cogn. Psychol.* 41, 49–100. doi: 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Morra, S., Panesi, S., Traverso, L., and Usai, M. C. (2018). Which tasks measure what? Reflections on executive function development and a commentary on Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017). *J. Exp. Child Psychol.* 167, 246–258. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.11.004

Noble, K. G., Houston, S. M., Brito, N. H., Bartsch, H., Kan, E., Kuperman, J. M., et al. (2015). Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. *Nat. Neurosci.* 18, 773–778. doi: 10.1038/nn.3983

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2018). *Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)*. France: OECD.

Panesi, S., and Morra, S. (2020). Executive functions and mental attentional capacity in preschoolers. *J. Cogn. Devel.* 21, 72–91. doi: 10.1080/15248372.2019.1685525

Qadir, F., Khan, M. M., Medhin, G., and Prince, M. (2011). Male gender preference, female gender disadvantage as risk factors for psychological morbidity in Pakistani women of childbearing age - A life course perspective. *BMC Publ. Health* 11:745. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-745

Remigereau, C., Roy, A., Costini, O., Barbarot, S., Bru, M., and Le Gall, D. (2018). Praxis skills and executive function in children with neurofibromatosis type 1. *Appl. Neuropsychol. Child* 7, 224–234. doi: 10.1080/21622965.2017.1295856

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Roche, J., Chevignard, M., Le Gall, D., Frappaz, D., Roulin, J., Fournet, N., et al. (2018). Profile of executive functions in pediatric brain tumor survivors. *Clinical approach of disturbances in testing situation and in daily life*. ANAE 30, 731–741.

Roukoz, C., Er-Rafiqi, M., Le Gall, D., Bellaj, T., and Roy, A. (2018). A Systematic Review of Cross cultural Studies on Executive Functions in *Children_revisto.pdf - Google Drive*. *Int. J. Psychol. Neurosci.* 4, 1–31.

Roy, A. (2015). Approche neuropsychologique des fonctions exécutives de l'enfant: état des lieux et éléments de prospective. *Rev. Neuropsychol.* 7, 245–256. doi: 10.1684/nrp.2015.0357

Roy, A., Barbarot, S., Roulin, J.-L., Charbonnier, V., Fasotti, L., Stalder, J.-F., et al. (2014). Executive function specifically impaired in children with neurofibromatosis type 1? *Neuropsychol. Invest. Cogn. Flexib. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child* 3, 94–102. doi: 10.1080/21622965.2012.704185

Roy, A., Kefi, M.-Z., Bellaj, T., Fournet, N., Le Gall, D., and Roulin, J.-L. (2018). The Stroop test: A developmental study in a French children sample aged 7 to 12 years. *Psychol. Franç.* 63, 129–143. doi: 10.1016/j.psfr.2016.08.001

Roy, A., Le Gall, D., Roulin, J.-L., and Fournet, N. (2020). Un nouveau dispositif d'évaluation des fonctions exécutives chez l'enfant : la batterie FÉE. ANAE 167, 393–402.

Roy, A., Roulin, J., Charbonnier, V., Allain, P., Fasotti, L., Barbarot, S., et al. (2010). Executive dysfunction in children with neurofibromatosis type 1: A study of action planning. *J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc.* 2010, 1–8. doi: 10.1017/S135561771000086X

Salles, J. F., Fonseca, R. P., Parente, M. A., Cruz-Rodrigues, C., Mello, C. B., Barbosa, T., et al. (2016). Instrumento de Avaliação Neuropsicológica Breve Infantil: NEUPSILIN-Inf -Manual. *Psico USF.* 16, 297-305. doi: 10.1590/s1413-827120100300006

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**Conflict of Interest:** The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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with these terms.
Shaul, S., and Schwartz, M. (2014). The role of the executive functions in school readiness among preschool-age children. *Read. Writ.* 27, 749–768.doi: 10.1007/ s11145-013-9470-3

Shayer, B., Carvalho, C., Marivania, M., Argollo, N., Abreu, N., and Bueno, O. (2015). Desempenho de escolares em atenção e funções executivas no Nepsy e inteligência. *Psicol. Teor. Prát.* 17, 120–135. doi: 10.15348/1980-6906/ psicologia.v17n1p120-135

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**Conflict of Interest:** The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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