# The Institutionalization process of Alternative Dispute Resolution mechanisms in the European Union; The Estonian legal developments experience

MARIA CLAUDIA SOLARTE-VASQUEZ

Tallinn Law School, Tallinn University of Technology

**Abstract:** Formal institutionalization efforts in the European Union are proven insufficient to benefit commerce, improve the accessibility to justice and/or enhance the collaborative human interaction that the adequate use of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) and Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) methodologies could bring about. Among the fundamental challenges for a more responsible involvement of mediators and other ADR professionals in their practice is the integration of preventive lawyering and dispute resolution principles that in addition could match the demands of an interconnected, multicultural global society. This text proposes a revision of common institutional shortcomings, recommending a shift of focus from the procedural and formal towards the substantial aspects of the ADR methodologies and the competences that practitioners should develop. It comments on transferable skills for more effective negotiation processes and also reflects about the opportunities that the current techno-economic paradigm offers to facilitate association and exchange. In the internet society context, human transactions are influenced by transforming technical, social and economic factors that must inform the formulation of dispute resolution strategies; especially relevant to conduct further studies are the catalyzing effects on development, of mediatization and artificial intelligence applications for conflict management, in countries like Estonia where no ADR tradition preceeded statutory regulation.

**Keywords:** Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), Mediation in Estonia, Conflict Management, Online Dispute Resolution (ODR), Information Society.

## INTRODUCTION AND DELIMITATION

Mediation is an Alternative Dispute Resolution method (ADR); a term that comprises all voluntary, collaborative processes facilitated by a third neutral party (Kovach, 2010, Riskin 1982, 1996) with no adjudicatory powers. Recently, mediation has also become a legal category.<fnref n="1" /> The European Union (EU) has led an impetus for its institutionalization, first concerned with the quality and access to justice, and then in connection to the need for multilateral cooperation in the administration of disputes by member states. Improving these aspects must ultimately assist the single market growth and economic development by facilitating transactions and promoting efficient redress mechanisms. Effectivizing the solution of cross borders disputes is also expected to improve the climate for electronic trade within the union and trust in a more harmonious and secure consumer protection system. To begin to promote ADR methodologies, a Mediation Directive on civil and commercial matters was issued in 2008.<fnref n="2" /> A number of the well documented advantages of mediation over litigation are mentioned on it, including that its voluntariness should lead to compliance of the parts with the resulting agreements, which could in turn, reduce the registration of disputes to the traditional court system. As a whole, mediation when conducted properly, is known to be an efficient option for preventing and solving disputes; it provides with opportunities to resolve differences that are unavailable in adjudicatory processes. Country specific features of cultural, social and legal significance affect the implementation of EU regulations, hence, any conflict management institutionalization strategy should be comprehensive and reach as close as possible to people and the enhancing of their personal competences. In trying to avoid the risk of reducing the explanatory and descriptive value of “culture,” this paper uses a concise dimension, with no intention to expand on its

<footnote n="1">¹ A legal category is a term used by positive laws and strictly bound to the definition it provides or suggests.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Directive 2008/52/EC was to be implemented by all member states except from Denmark, by May 2011. More on this, including the legal text can be found at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32008L0052:EN:NOT</footnote>
sociological meaning.<fnref n="1" /> It fits to the understanding that conflict management styles as well as laws are or
derive from cultural manifestations. Professionals in the field need to belong to a creative cultural context
where socio economic development is based on collaborative and integrative values, equipped for globalized,
cross border and digital participation. Expertise on ADR is thus, compatible with the knowledge economy in
as long as it can invoke its institutional constructs. Some of the most important competence requirements
for the negotiators and mediators of the information society are flexibility, creativity, proficiency in the use of
new interactive environments, cross cultural training and expertise, enthusiasm for association, and at the
core of their practice: innovation capacity for the constructive prevention and management of disputes.

In Estonia, formal implementation of these supranational rules has been opportune, but with limited
effect in practice due to the country's lack of familiarity with ADR and the apparent prevalence of
competitive and distributive conflict management styles, combined with a low awareness levels about
non-adjudicatory processes of dispute resolution. A detailed assessement of these factors should be
supported by academics and public institutions if quantitative and qualitative research on them could be
better promoted to cope with the effect of more specific EU requirements in the same field. In 2013, a
Directive on consumer ADR and a Regulation on Consumer Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) followed.
In complying with its goals, states will be able to develop operational and integrative conflict management
strategies applicable and complementary to their domestic systems. The conflict management formal
institutional structure is soon to be delimited in the region, assigning special relevance to mediation and its
transformative capacity. The technological capacity of the region and the information society demands could
be argued to become two of the most important catalyzers of this complex institutionalization process.

The paper focuses first on the institutionalization of ADR methodologies of interest in Europe and
the requirements of their practice and then on commenting the Estonian legal developments on Mediation
and the challenges and oportunities that may arise.

GENERAL SECTION. BASIC ADR CONCEPTS AND THEORETHICAL BACKGROUND

Negotiation, mediation and other ADR methodologies have been classified according to their
attributes, in hierarchical models, attending most commonly to the process they follow, parties involved, the
standards applied for decision-making and the enforceability of their outcomes. These issues belong to the
study and theory of conflict, where most of the most reputable and well known scholarly work can trace its
origins to (Menkel-Meadow, 2000). Negotiation and mediation belong to the collaborative sort. In its least
restrictive way, the term mediation could refer to any assisted negotiation. Every person negotiates on
everyday basis. It is done regardless of how aware, experienced of effective we are, or on whose behalf we
are acting (Nierenberg, 1968, 1986; Raiffa, 1982). In academics, it seems preferable to adopt Gerhard
Nierenberg's expanded view on negotiation as any exchange aiming to transform relationships or situations.
The simpler it is defined, the less intimidating it is to evaluate, train, and practice. The skills that effective
negotiators possess are transferable social abilities applicable to interpersonal/private relationships as much
as to transnational conflict analysis and management. These competences are understood to be deeply
rooted on personal development and thus, require critical efforts at modifying/improving people's
communication models, attitudes, and beliefs systems (Thompson, 1990; Gelfand et al. 2011). Therefore, it is
unlikely that the more we use ADR methodology the better we are at it, unless a conscious adoption of
principles inspires this practice.

Negotiations do not need to be complex, or related to extraordinary events, because any social
interaction involves them. While all transactions require some exchange for the adjustment of certain
relationships (a contract, for instance, creates rights and duties for the parties), the lack of an agreement could
also be considered a negotiation outcome. Negotiation, and assisted negotiation designate processes

<footnote n="1">¹ As Adamson Hoebel described in Antropology, The Study of Man, 4th ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc,1972, p.6. „Culture is the integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which are not the result of biological inheritance.“</footnote>
regardless of any potential result.<fnref n="1" /> Bargaining, denotes an entirely different concept, but is a term often used interchangeably with negotiation. The scope of a bargaining process is much more reduced. It also involves intent to cooperate but just to the extent it could produce “valuable” concessions, mostly leading to distributive compromises. The example of the market discussion over the price of an item illustrates it well.<fnref n="2" /> Every party wants to gain as much as possible, yielding as little as they can. The incentives these situations generate are very competitive, even if the short lived relationship between the merchant and buyer is friendly and no communication obstacles arise.

Assisted negotiations generally favour incentives that are based on associative tactics, in support of relationships that need to be preserved. In the most transformative, enduring, professional and constructive way, these ADR methods should focus primarily on reaching a common understanding. This promotes the validation of each party's interests and facilitates reparation when necessary; or prevents the development of grievances into disputes, when these are not yet configured as such. The formulation of durable, friendly and efficient agreements should be one by-product of this approach.<fnref n="3" /> In contrast, bargaining for an agreement alone, does not safeguard parties from misunderstanding and/or breach. The worth of a deal resides in the process and how committed the parties are made to protect what they can gain from it on what hand, and how much the relationships linked to the transaction continue to matter, on the other. When mediation is used after disputes have emerged, the focus remains the same but the purpose is to help resolve, not merely settle conflicts that have been professionally identified during proceedings. At the core of this approach are the fundamental characteristic of these activities: they are universal (they surround our everyday life), procedural (do not revolve around agreements but methodologies/styles), and highly enriching (informing relationships and expanding the possibilities for an agreeable result, be it an agreement or not). This field is rich for the multidisciplinarity of its sources, insights and attention to the interaction between different types of social institutions. At the same time, In countries where theory of Conflict has been studied the longest, such as Canada, the United States, and Holland, its application has contributed to the social sciences, most noticeably to sociology (Hollenbeck and Zinkhan, 2010; Carter, 2012; Törnblom & Vermunt, 2013), management (Mnookin et al., 2000; Marsnik, 2013), law (Menkel-Meadow, 1993; Macfarlane, 2004; McDermott, 2012; Martinez et al., 2013), and lately even computer sciences and information technologies (Luo et al. 2013). Developments on artificial intelligence and about human-computer interaction and design are ideal grounds for cross-disciplinary innovation relevant to conflict management and ADR/ODR techniques. Integrative and principled styles of negotiation have been identified in theory and practice, with ample and recognized applicability in any field concerning human associations, at any level, from the interpersonal to the international sphere.

ODR has been presented as yet one more ADR methodology, but more accurately, it is the technological applications use in conflict management (Katsh et al., 2001), that eventually could also be serving adjudicatory procedures or at least some of their stages. In other words, ODR can incorporate existing methodologies from the ADR espectrum or none; in the most reductionist manner it could be merely the use of an electronic medium in human and organizational interactions.<fnref n="4" />

## DISCUSSION ON RECENT FORMAL INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

The ADR movement does not represent an emerging or innovative initiative to experts on conflict management.<fnref n="5" /> Neither does the preventive law style of lawyering theorized by Louis M. Brown decades ago,

<footnote n="1">¹ The Harvard Negotiation Project of the Harvard Law School, has been studying and educating on these methodologies, adopting interest or principled based negotiation models. Consult: http://www.pon.harvard.edu/category/researchProjects/harvardNegotiationProject/</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² In the text “Getting to Yes,” published by Fisher, Ury in 1981 and later credited also to Patton in a later edition of 1991, the topic is explained in detail. This has been a reference text on the fundamentals of interest based negotiations and principled conflict management from the time of its release, three decades ago.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ The main lessons drawn from Fisher's academic work, and intellectual capital include this assumption.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ The term is explained by the author of the first book published on the matter. Consult: Katsh, E. E., Katsh, M. E., & Rifkin, J. (2001). Online dispute resolution: Resolving conflicts in cyberspace. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ ADR has been a field largely unregulated, and hence its popularity, its main differenciating feature from adjudicatory processes and its continuous, undisturbed development.</footnote>
that reflects on the use of ADR methodologies.<fnref n="1" /> However, the attempt to institutionalize the former, as strictly as possible, can be perceived as a new trend for the diffusion of a certain favoured social order within the EU. The most recent rules on ADR -and ODR- aim to support and are linked to a wider range of supranational concerns, for instance the consumer policy strategy 2007-2013,<fnref n="2" /> and the Digital Agenda for Europe,<fnref n="3" /> both derived from a larger 2020 European Growth 10 year strategy.<fnref n="4" /> With ADR put this way “in fashion,” opportunities to reinvigorate the spread of preventive law principles in the global scale arise. They are –ADR and the preventive law philosophy- not only compatible, but complementary elements of a healthy conflict management system. But in essence, and for legitimacy, their adoption should have a demonstrated cultural meaning or appeal, at least in as much as it conveys a required legal upgrade and sound harmonization strategy. Like in every legal field, regulations are the most effective when valued by society because of their consistency with other cultural standards. In the last years, various separate structures were forming in the EU at the expense of cohesion, which was in fact one of the intended purposes of the supranational policy on access to justice and judicial cooperation. Specialized consumer ADR bodies and networks proliferated, fractioned according to sectors, transactional fields, and country specific factors, for instance, their cultural embedded approach to conflict management and dispute resolution.<fnref n="5" /> This last, naturally corresponds to each country's deep social biases and structures. Studying consumer habits and attitudes on domestic and cross border transactions should confirm that to a higher trade indicators, correspond better structured transactional and dispute resolution system, so this could be an issue of trade refinement. In some member states, compliance with sophisticated and well formulated ADR standards is made explicit, revealing a solid institutionalization of principles that do not come about by the mere enactment of new legislation, issuing of other binding regulations, or the development of EU public policy pushing the matter forward.<fnref n="6" /> To illustrate with electronic commerce records, the proportion of consumers who order goods or services over the Internet are among the highest in the Netherlands and the UK, 58% and 55% respectively, during 2010, according to the analytical report of the Eurobarometer on Consumer attitudes towards cross-border trade and consumer protection in the EU.<fnref n="7" /> These are also countries where a wide range of dispute resolution methodologies are available, well known and appreciated by the population, even prior to the EU initiatives on ADR. In the same study countries such as Bulgaria and Italy show the lowest indicators for both domestic and cross-border e-commerce; coinciding with systems with little or no tradition of resorting to non-adjudicatory resolution methods. Italian ADR laws, with few exceptions, have originated on European Community (EC) regulatory formulations (Colombo, 2012). The ADR culture differs greatly in the EU, with many countries lagging behind in terms of penetration, awareness and commitment to the purposes for which these methodologies are conceived. In the case of the Mediation Directive, the implementation formalities are fulfilled, having had a direct impact on structural and regulatory aspects, but much less influence on the prevailing dispute resolution cultures. An important barrier on the consumer side, is lack of awareness, a clear prerequisite to obtain redress and justice with the use of alternative methods. Still, the European

<footnote n="1">¹ Preventive law is a creative problem solving style of lawyering where the legal expertise is used to identify risks and plan strategies to the efficient conduction of transactions. Lawyers therefore are expected to become more actively and much earlier involved in business affairs. Its theory promotes non-adversarial legal processes. Consult: Brown, L. M. (1956). The Law Office. A Preventive Law Laboratory. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 104(7), 940-953.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Available with its background documents at: http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/strategy/index_en.htm#intro</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Read more at: http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/digital-agenda-europe</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Consult the Europe 2020 Strategy in a Nutshell Online at: http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/index_en.htm</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ The European Commission states that in the EU by now, more than 750 institutionalized ADR schemes are currently into place. See: http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/redress_cons/adr_odr_eu_en.htm and the source report: http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/redress_cons/adr_study.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ The Directorate General for Health and Consumers reports that in Estonia ADR is limited to two consumer redress institutions one on goods and services (trade) and the other being the insurance court of arbitration, with no track records available to analyze, whereas in the United Kingdom, 43 ADR schemes are identified combining public and private ones. They are mainly sector-specific such as in the fields of transport, or energy. To further illustrate the contrasting situation, only the Financial Ombudsman Service of the United Kingdom administered +160,000 cases in the year 2009. Compare: http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/redress_cons/docs/MS_fiches_Estonia.pdf, and http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/redress_cons/ecc_united_kingdom_en.htm</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/strategy/docs/consumer_eurobarometer_2011_en.pdf</footnote>
Parliament noted in an implementation report from 2011, that some states went further than the terms of the Directive when passing their mediation laws.<fnref n="1" /> This could be a sign of the growing interest of these legislatures, most probably supported by the academia, to set the foundations of a proper conflict management system.<fnref n="2" /> The expected and much desired growth of electronic commerce in the EU cannot reach its full potential while consumers have no confidence or information on the way their disputes can be resolved, or if they are not guaranteed access to effective redress, and firmly institutionalized dispute resolution schemes.<fnref n="3" /> On this regard, the Directorate General on Health and Consumer affairs concluded that a unified regime had to be incorporated in the region, to assure a more functional system. New rules on ADR and Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) have come into effect this year: the Directive 2013/11/EU on Consumer ADR and the Regulation (EU) No 524/2013 on Consumer ODR. They followed preparatory works as required, including a complete impact assessment study that explains their reach and importance.<fnref n="4" /> With these regulatory tools, the EU expects to achieve full ADR coverage, a raise in the quality of the services provided by ADR entities, easy access to these instances, and a single European ODR platform where to submit and resolve disputes electronically. The directive does not distinguish between online or offline, domestic or cross border commerce; and for starters, it seeks to benefit consumer and traders. The regulation describes the network to-be as a set up connecting national ADR entities operating in all EU languages. The implementation period of the ADR/ODR rules is two years, with the ODR platform required to be operational in the end of 2015. An integrated and more comprehensive structure is to grow out of these rules, which will force states to fund projects for education, training and consumer awareness, the other fundamental pillar of this legislative development. Information about ADR and ODR has to be made available to consumers, but before it reaches this level, institutions need to get ready, prepare personnel, adopt procedures and, in a very short period of time, learn the fundamentals of a discipline of greater significance and applicability than all the formalities these highly regulated ADR methodologies will create; principled conflict management.

Public policies and legislative developments in both the international and supranational levels, focus on formal capacity building, promoting the establishment of institutional guidelines for mediation in civil and commercial matters as well as minimum standards on ADR and ODR. <fnref n="5" /> The negotiation programs created for education and diffusion of these principles, offer very basic methodology training on procedural action alone, but this can be attributed to the lack of expertise of organizations and their members. <fnref n="6" /> Conflict management theory in general is hardly ever introduced and seldom presented as a background information to enhance conflict administration and dispute prevention skills in countries with no ADR tradition.<fnref n="7" /> For those states that transposition rules merely pushed by other integration initiatives,

<footnote n="1">¹ See: 'Report on the Implementation of the Directive on Mediation in the Member States, its Impact on Mediation and its Take-Up by the Courts' by Arlene McCarthy. (Report, No 2011/2026 (INI), EC Committee on Legal Affairs, 15 July 2011).</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² The German Ministry of Justice commissioned a scientific study from the Max Planck Institute of Comparative and International Private Law, to assist the legislative process of the first Mediation Act and its accompanying legislation.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ This institutionalization could be formal or informal as explained in Solarte-Vasquez, M. C. (2013). Regulatory Patterns of the Internet Development: Expanding the Role of Private Stakeholders through Mediatized “Self-regulation”. Baltic Journal of European Studies, 3(1), 84-120.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ The policy work can be consulted online at: http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/redress_cons/docs/adr_citizen_summary_en.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Surprinsingly, the legal acts passed in EU member countries, following the Mediation Directive (Dir. 2008/52/EC), despite the many forces at play —*opportunities*—, mostly conform with the aim of affecting trade and civil dispute resolution processes. On other fields, despite the political climate favouring the practice of ADR methods, a very poor substantial discussion and theoretical debate has taken place.</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ The European Code of Conduct for Mediators from the year 2004, together with the green paper on ADR from 2002 were the basis for the mediation directive. The former is available here: http://ec.europa.eu/civiljustice/adr/adr_ec_code_conduct_en.pdf and refers to specific competences stating that mediators must know the process, receive proper training and continuous updating of their education and practice in mediation skills; so to that end, states should promote accreditation schemes, and information programmes.</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ Higher education courses on ADR were absent from the curriculum of the universities in countries transitioning from socialist systems in the nineties, until the year 2002 when the first course on ADR and conflict management was offere, for instance in Estonia, at the former International Concordia University. More recently intensive courses, training workshops and conferences have proliferated in the eastern European region with the increase interest in upgrading the quality of the ADR practice and raising public awareness on these options. The course was discontinued until the year 2004 when re-introduced in the curriculum</footnote>
mediation and conciliation acts were enacted for compliance, adding legal certainty on the subject but very
little guidance if drafted according to the basic requirements stated on the directive. Soft laws of the EU,
and reports collected during consultations from member states, reveal what committed ADR practitioners
have perceived and denounced during their practice: that formal engagement is important, but it alone
does not benefit the system with the tremendous advantages that these alternative processes could bring
about, if their substantive worth was truly appreciated. In addition, with the economic activity in active
migration towards the digital markets, ADR applications and Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) models
could constitute a remarkable refinement of the traditional dispute resolution system, not a replacement of
healthy judicial contentious procedures.<fnref n="1" /> It seems plausible that the jurisdictional function is being
preserved by freeing it from cases that could better be served by non-adjudicatory principles and tools. At
the same time, some issues should continue be of exclusive competence of courts and tribunals, based on
subject matter considerations, such as large collective claims, disputes of constitutional relevance and
affecting the public order.

THE INFLUENCE OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES AND THE INFORMATION SOCIETY ON
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ADR METHODOLOGIES

Although all ADR methods are procedural solutions, it has been established that negotiation and
mediation do not designate just a sequence of neutral events. They can be activities replete with content
apart from their legal relevance (Wall and Dunne, 2012). The two most contrasting and common dispute
resolution approaches influencing these processes are the competitive and the collaborative styles, also
named distributive and integrative, respectively.<fnref n="2" /> Countries with a long standing tradition on ADR have
developed conflict management ethics that embrace the organizational models that adopt principled based
styles of negotiation. People negotiate better, are more skilled and experienced at transformative conflict
management, and their results most satisfactory when trained on the practicalities of collaboration. An
statement that has become a truism for conflict management experts and people working on the field of
negotiation and peace studies is that negotiating on the basis of collaboration produces more stable,
friendly and efficient results. This is also a very practical condition for compliance in effective ADR
models. In the absence of a conscious posture on this respect, negotiations could easily become
competitive or rituals of little intrinsic significance. In this light, the activity of ADR practitioners,
negotiators/mediators in particular, should be deliberate, aimed at improving communication, mutual
understanding, and association for the satisfaction of all needs of the parties, and the achievement of most
of their legitimate interests (Sato, 1986).

Much of this debate could also be linked to the dynamics of the information society that is
described as a highly creative community primordially based on exchange (Castells and Himanen, 2002),
via networked social arrangements, affected by the current technological paradigm while at the same time
creating a global society (Castells, 2005). The changes of behavioural models that would coherently follow
technology advancement are pushed by innovation and/or attributed to its diffusion (Utterback, 1996).
So, as much as the internal and culture specific factors determine social interaction, external influences
shape the way in which communities relate and communicate with one another. Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) continue to concern researchers with their impact on people's

of the Concordia-Audentes University. Later it became part of the curriculum of the master program on international and
comparative law of the law institute of Tallinn Technical University and instructed simultaneously with a course about arbitration
in the United States until 2011. Tartu University also offers an arbitration and alternatives to the judicial procedure scheme course
from 2009, and one on international commercial arbitration. People working on the field know the shortcomings of a remedial
approach, but lack the academic background, expertise and institutional support to promote integral ADR models at universities
and other educational institutions.

<footnote n="1">¹ The text of the green paper seeks not to devaluate adjudication but to balance the existence of flexible methodologies for dispute resolution with the consistency and assurances that the judicial procedures do offer. See: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi%celexplus!prod!DocNumber&lg=en&type_doc=COMfinal&an_doc=2002&nu_doc=196</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² In the conflict management literature from the Harvard negotiation project and on, the terms, adversarial and associative, positional and principled and destructive and constructive are also of common use.</footnote>
behaviour and therefore their conflict management styles and attitudes. The information Society have
helped expanded human capacity and equipped people with access to numerous technological tools. While
these offer realistic opportunities to improve people's wellbeing, they have no capacity to operate and
discern on their own. Technologies are "neutral instruments," in as long as administered, programmed
and used by humans, thus education, competences building and training should continue to be a priority
for public policy. Our level of reflection on technologies applied to social dynamics must be deepened and
contrasted with variables like culture, education, age, and others that might affect their usability.
Advancement, growth, productivity and sustainability are all expectations placed on the networks, in their
technical and social levels. Information is the fuel that helps advancing in the path of the digital economy
with knowledge, vested already into even newer technologies, being its main product.<fnref n="1" /> It is the
combination of techniques and certain social behaviour what needs to be tackled. The mind-set, the
culture in its invisible layers could be affected in ways that could positively influence assertive association.
Sharing, data, exchange, knowledge, information and multistakeholderism of the information society
require unprecedented levels of mass-collaboration that also favour integrative views. It is the scenery to a
remarkable *global-* social transformation (Fuchs, 2009) that no longer relies in the traditional distributive
principles of exclusion. Technology and information are correlated with social transformation in both
views, the techno-deterministic and the social-constructivism. They coincide in that human cognition,
communication, and cooperation are positively affected by the information society technologies, thus a
critical reflection on the way in which society moves from competitive and exclusion patterns towards a
collaborative and all inclusive global society is welcome in all disciplines. In fact, the argument on that
cooperation is at the very essence of society is developed long ago, and present, for example in early works
by Karl Marx, and Herbert Marcuse. This paper claims that a conflict management system can be
considered complete only when it includes institutionalized ADR methodologies that incorporate
integrative and collaborative strategies for dispute prevention and resolution, supported by a matching
public policy.

As explained above, according to an interest based negotiation methodology, the model this texts
subscribes to, the foremost priority of professional negotiators should be to turn agreement centred
approaches to negotiation, into discovery and engagement experiences where the goal could shift towards
reaching a common understanding. Experience has demonstrated that outcomes based on these type of
processes will likely be satisfactory to everyone involved (Schneider, 2002), regardless of how they are
fashioned: a contract, a pre-contractual pact, or partial/preliminary agreement, etc. This may be achieved
in a non-intrusive manner, using technical and interactive tools in as much as possible and admitting that
mediatizing technology cannot be expected to transform conflicts *per se* but humans are responsible for
this; on their own or assisted by "transactional brokers" -mediators- committed to the process, and willing
to put their competence to its service.<fnref n="2" /> Innovative technical solutions may have a positive impact on
relationships, in as much as they could be proven to temper positional attitudes and distract from
resentment, distrust and other disturbing obstacles. This reinforces the main claim of this section on that
at education on improving the personal and technical skills of mediators is where the state resources are
mostly needed. Information about the formalities of a process is not enough, and does not make
practitioners any more competent at conflict resolution. Insufficient attention to these aspects of the
implementation of EU ADR regulations can disillusion for its lack of consistency with a holistic ADR
philosophy.

<footnote n="1">¹ Mobile technologies, nanotechnology and the internet of things. See: Solarte-Vasquez, M. C. (2013). Regulatory Patterns of the Internet Development: Expanding the Role of Private Stakeholders through Mediatized “Self-regulation”. Baltic Journal of European Studies, 3(1), 84-120.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² For integrative processes, professional negotiators should be competent to influence people’s perceptions, bridge communication gaps and create a negotiation atmosphere of cooperation. Being persuasive on how important is an ethical and collaborative attitude channels the energy of participants into the procedures, liberating the parties from the burden of decision making on the basis of emotions alone. This process is useful to distance people from conflicts allowing more objective discussions. Technology can be both distracting or supportive, but advanced computer technologies explore very actively the field of conflict resolution and artificial intelligence beyond the mere replication of traditional ADR Online.</footnote>
Some of the professional mediation schemes that have been designed for the past forty years to foster and support consensual solutions to disputes conducive to compliance have also been replicated by global service providers online but with unresolved information asymmetries diminishing the potential for optimal outcomes.<fnref n="1" /> Also at the global level, 1. Professional mediation schemes could be made part of any strategic model for organizational management and dispute prevention. The type of participant that commonly seeks to transform positional bargaining and difficult communication into a principled exchange could become a professional evaluator of contractual and managerial risks, before any grievance shapes or disputes begin to arise. 2. The professional practice by organizations and independent mediators, with recognized expertise and with encouraging success rates, could be assessed on its actual commitment to a holistic approach of administration of disputes and their understanding of the technical possibilities that can support ADR processes.

ASSISTED NEGOTIATION IN PRACTICE

Although mediation/assisted negotiation is the least formal of all the schemes where a neutral third party facilitates the exchange between two or more others, its conduction involves concrete responsibilities. Quality mediation needs proficient strategic planning and project management skills. In addition, according to the explanations above, effective negotiations take place when the tactics can be planned in consideration to principled postulates such as those that Fisher and Ury introduced in their studies: 1. Separate the two levels of every negotiation: relationship and issues, creating a cognitive dissonance: being soft on the people and strong against the problem; 2. Work on improving perceptions, controlling emotions and bridging communication gaps to be able to formulate the discussion in terms of interest, not positions; 3. Stress the need of being creative when developing options on a possible outcome that would benefit all parties, and; 4. Insist upon the convenience of legitimate decision making, based on justifiable, objective and acceptable criteria.

The ADR literature on mediation has classified a number of tasks that could better help the parties finding a solution to their disagreements. They could be summarized on coaching association and creative administration of the disputes. In respect to concrete proceedings, since until very recently, this has been a field greatly advantaged by its flexibility, there were no rules except from recommendations and best practice advice on how the processes had to be sequenced. This aspect is relevant in terms of logistics but other than this, as long as feedback based iterative tactics are into place during sessions, no special process is preferred. A mediator should be ready to adapt proceedings to the requirements of each case. Generally, mediation consists of a progression of meetings arranged by the facilitator, beginning with an information exchange stage (were the parties are instructed on guidelines and the process in effect), followed by dialog meetings and ending with a concluding session. Advancements are registered throughout, to reinforce the commonalities, increasing the capacity of the parties to integrate, and also to divide the disagreement areas into deconstructed, simpler, more manageable parts. The results should represent consent on legally enforceable agreements for mutual gain, partial agreements, or their absence, that in times is the most reasonable and mutually beneficial resolution available.

Resorting to Mediation should not preclude the parties from accessing to other redress sources when deemed needed. Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) systems could be integrated to artificial intelligence actors in the future, in support of the interest of the parties. Scholars such as Arno Lodder and John Zeleznikow argue that ODR could even serve “justice” by contrasting exchanges with legal provisions and precedents. Their ongoing research is increasingly concerned with these possibilities.<fnref n="2" /> So far, they successfully replicate ADR procedures, although progressing in terms of information visualization and analysis. For example, online applications can prepare accurate overviews about recorded data and support different mapping options on the same information with graphics. Software programs and

<footnote n="1">¹ Smartsettle, asset divider, negotiation pro, Adjustedwinner, etc.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² See: Lodder, A. R., & Zelznikow, J. (2005). Developing an online dispute resolution environment: Dialogue tools and negotiation support systems in a three-step model. Harv. Negot. L. Rev., 10, 287. And, Lodder, A. R., & Zeleznikow, J. (2010). Enhanced dispute resolution through the use of information technology. Cambridge University Press.</footnote>
applications can be developed with the assistance of proficient negotiators so the design of new interactive environments can suit the needs and requirements of the information society beyond usability. First with prevention in mind, proposing exchange and transactions in simple and understandable ways, and second, facilitating the execution of agreements. ADR processes have been incorporated to judicial procedures and administrative practices as well.<fnref n="1" /> However the patterns of governance have shifted the trend from the centralized regulatory authorities of the state to people and this requires increased and varied competences from all to perform in a renewed self-regulatory and highly technical capacity, in all fields. The continued involvement of the state could become more intrusive than ever, while requiring substantial monitoring, control, and adjudication at high costs and towards unsatisfactory settlements.

## ADDITIONAL REMARKS

In regard to concrete action to achieve the recommended style of practice, education plays a fundamental role. Legal instruction for lawyers and non-lawyers should be complemented with a preventive philosophy. Although the interest for less adversarial methods has been a concern of many committed legal scholars and law professors, it remains out of law programs and marginal to conventional legal training proposals in all levels. Preventive law as a subject of academic inquiry was first established by Brown, whose writings allowed the formulation of the more contemporary preventive law methods.<fnref n="2" /> The purpose of this approach continues to be that interaction with legal significance, if planned strategically, can minimize the risk of disputes while the proactive law movement, of very recent origin, combines it with the design of innovative methods to deliver legal services.<fnref n="3" /> Brown's work, inspired a set of legal negotiation principles that regain relevance today, more persuasively than ever before, but they need to reach curriculums.

To summarize, in Europe, public policies are consistent and respond to the political and techno-economic requirements of the time. They support regional integration and knowledge-based growth but have no capacity to transform via institutional prescriptions the great diversity of existing cultural barriers to their efficient implementation. In practice, professional negotiators will realize the need to be prepared to empower their clients at the individual level in the management of their affairs. The prevalence of cross-border transactions will inevitably increase expectations on them, consumers, traders, and private and public organizations. Not only ADR professionals are in charge of administering a growing number of a variety of disputes, but also their activity is affected by technology in that unique transactions/conflicts take place electronically, and innovative platforms are available for human interaction/negotiation. The Internet and other telecommunication developments have added another transactional layer for conflict management and resolution schemes. Electronic commerce, intense global interaction, and the current governance patterns require from their stakeholders cooperation, cohesion and self-regulatory confidence. A successful negotiator must be able to communicate with responsible involvement this commitment, and lead on values of mutual understanding for cooperation. As a result, mediated transactions, including those mediated by technologically advanced artefacts, will naturally result in cooperative and mutually satisfactory solutions.

This section has intentionally avoided discussing negotiation applied to other than civil cases. Experiments of restorative justice programs, even though very relevant for conflict management are advanced topics discussed in specific literature. Several jurisdictions in the EU attempt to reconcile offenders and victims of criminal cases, after a judicial procedure has established legal responsibilities.

<footnote n="1">¹ Conciliation in divorce proceedings and custody cases, facilitation services in municipalities to handle claims and complaints, the institution of the ombudsman, community based and family mediation programs such as counseling to address interpersonal conflict, etc.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Supra note, 6</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Legal Audits and contract management, for instance.</footnote>
Mediation in criminal cases has been strictly regulated in the countries where it is practiced, and requires a study on its own.<fnref n="1" />

EVOLVING MARKETS FOR ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION. ESTONIA WITHIN THE EU AND THE BEGINNING OF A CHALLENGING ADR INSTITUTIONALIZATION PROCESS

Subscribing to the doctrinal understanding that any institutionalization of ADR processes could put at risk the very spirit of these methodologies (Nolan-Haley, 2012), does not imply complete disregard for the EU ADR policy and legal formulations, their integrity or validity. Effectiveness is the issue this text questions. Formal rules on ADR can easily contradict the essence of what they try to institutionalize: flexible, dynamic, expedite, inexpensive and accessible dispute resolution schemes, and forums for equitable redress. It was discussed how the global governance reality clearly challenges adversarial and competitive interaction. Recent worldwide social, legal, political and even economic developments demonstrate the convenience of cooperation in processes both public and private such as entrepreneurship, innovation management, research, international trade, domestic policy making and other political dynamics, regional integration, e-government, and private affairs. However, the EU action seems irresolute in what refers to the dimension ADR requires in the conflict management context, and the ways towards its institutionalization. The most recent regulations at the supranational level on ADR and ODR are of a much further reach than the older Mediation Directive, the most valuable to the EU consumer acquis: ADR redress will be available in every sector, minimum standards will be adjusted uniformly to raise trust on the system and add procedural fairness and, an single ODR platform will be handling the filing of all complaints of its competence across the Union. The enunciation of those advantages seems too optimistic when considering the records after implementation processes of the Mediation Directive in countries with no ADR tradition like Estonia. Also, the EU approach is consumer protection centered and minimalistic if to compare it with other models, like the UNCITRAL;<fnref n="2" /> after all the European ambit will be reduced to the so called high volume, low-cost cross-border cases. In many ways, this pragmatism is understandable, but could continue to distract from the fundamental features of cooperative, principled ADR.

The increasing use of ADR, conciliation and mediation in particular, across Europe, has not necessarily been prompted by a perceived need to overcome the shortcomings of the more adversarial traditional system. The public policy of the EU has been careful/respectful enough not to urge cultural revolutions, remaining discreet and within its competences. It prescribes for the convenience of the common market, trade and e-trade capacity, and customer protection, so it is up to the member states to distinguish from the bulk, the laws that could also support important opportunities for social development. ADR has played a role in Commission's consumer policies for many years; the first recommendation that advised the establishment of these schemes in member states was issued in 1998, a second followed in the year 2000. Sectorial EU regulations also contain provisions of the same kind.<fnref n="3" /> Compliance with supranational policies and regulations, and legal transplantation practices has been satisfactory and resulted in a modest statistical raise of the number of disputes administered out of the

<footnote n="1">¹ Finland for example. On this See: Brunila, T., & Judge, F. C. (2010). Restorative practices in Finland. LIFELONG LEARNING, 27.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² The UNCITRAL model Law on International Commercial Conciliations is available online, at:
http://www.uncitral.org/pdf/english/texts/arbitration/ml-conc/03-90953_Ebook.pdf On the records of the UNCITRAL commission on Internatonal trade law about ODR consult:
http://www.uncitral.org/uncitral/commission/working_groups/3Online_Dispute_Resolution.html</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Commission Recommendation 98/257/EC on the principles applicable to the bodies responsible for the out-of court settlement of consumer disputes, and Commission Recommendation 2001/310/EC on the principles for out-of-court bodies involved in the consensual resolution of consumer ADR
Available online at</footnote>

<footnote>http://eur-lex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=31998H0257&model=guichett and http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001H0310:EN:HTML, respectively.</footnote>
courts.<fnref n="1" /> But the available data cannot persuade on the consolidation of these systems. The influence of the EU in domestic legal development has been very powerful, but frequently leading to imitation and adoption rather than to creation and adaptation (integration). International and supranational model rules or standards enacted this way, fail to engage the state or its population; so they could be considered flawed at their origin, this types of rules lack effectiveness. A truly transformative approach to resolving disputes is hard to induce through formal institutional means, this intrinsic incapacity of some EU initiatives can in part be attributed to the enormity of the EU regulatory system, or its cautious governance approach, but not only. As suggested, countries are responsible for their own domestic policies and could exploit the advantages that the institutional endorsements at the European level bring forth to all.

## IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE MEDIATION DIRECTIVE AND OTHER ADR REGULATIONS IN ESTONIA

Culturally accepted conflict resolution methods, compatible with the expectations of most of the Estonian population have little in common with the ADR philosophy. It is likely that ADR and ODR rules will also be passed regardless of the cultural readiness for their effective implementation. While in the world the issue of the convenience of collaborative ADR is long settled, and the field rapidly advances along with technological developments as described in the past section, Estonia confines it too to the consumer protection sphere, assigning to it a marginal value. No outreaching or educative campaigns have followed the enactment of The Conciliation Act that was passed of November 2009 and entered into force on the 1st of January 2010.<fnref n="2" />

It is because ADR processes are flexible, that they can be adjusted to meet and integrate the needs and expectations of the parties to a negotiation or dispute. This is the least controversial of its most valued characteristics. Passing laws on mediation can help in nothing this feature, given that a legal act is the most rigorous expression in the institutionalization scale, and any procedures it may involve must be safeguarded with the limitations imposed by the rule of law doctrine. Due process requirements applied to ADR impose disproportionate constraints. Statutory institutionalization has been the preferred way to introduce changes in the Estonian regulatory system. No scholarly or political debate about conflict management and ADR in the country has given relevance to these concerns so far.

The Estonian law on mediation, has been a legislative investment with very limited reach as it resulted from the urgency to comply with supranational legislation. It missed to propose a comprehensive approach beyond the formal description of a practice that could have developed in the absence of statutes (it fills no legal vacuums). This legal act holds the appearance of novelty, but supplies adjective and formalistic mandates. Meaningful procedural provisions indicate that resorting to ADR does not disturb the rights of the parties to a legal procedure, and that commencement of mediation proceedings suspends the prescription term of action for the parties. The conciliation act, validated ADR methodologies as serious alternatives to adjudicatory processes even if a comprehensive policy is yet to be conceived. Considering the admitted strength of the country in terms of technology development, could not ODR applications and other advanced technologies set a way to disseminate and implant the comprising logic of ADR?

The wording of the act and the preparatory works officially recorded, put some problems manifest.<fnref n="3" /> The term chosen to name the law and the process was “conciliation” and it is justified on the basis of a mistaken understanding on it being a more ample and encompassing notion than mediation. In some

<footnote n="1">¹ Numerous reports have been published between 2009 and now, including raw data and analysis on dispute resolution methodologies in the EU. An example related to the internal market and consumer protection by the European parliament is available online at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2009_2014/documents/imco/dv/adr_study_/_adr_study_en.pdf, and a more extensive analysis on the use of Adr across Europe by the Civic Consulting of Consumer Policy Evaluation Consortium, from October 2009 at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2009_2014/documents/imco/dv/adr_study_/_adr_study_en.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² State Gazette RT I 2009, 59, 385, 1 January 2001.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Supra note, 25.</footnote>
European countries scholars use the two words interchangeably, but knowingly, when the two systems have been unified.<fnref n="1" /> Mediation occurs with the participation of a neutral third-party that intervenes to facilitate communication and understanding of the parties, their interests and the possible outcomes available. Mediators also help to identify areas of concern, reformulate perspectives, and create a cooperative environment for reaching what could be seen as mutually acceptable solutions. This very clear and widely accepted description of the methodology reflects its fundamental differences with conciliation processes, and the extent of its applicability. Conciliation, in contrast, is an authoritative scheme of conflict resolution in that it utilizes mainly legal standards; the exchange occurring during conciliation processes is transactional as its object can only be a thing with patrimonial value, that can be subject to transfer or/and transmission. The purpose of appointing a conciliator is to have an expert on laws counsel on shaping the content of a binding agreement that would settle a dispute in licit terms. Thus, it necessarily imposes limits because the most important decision making criteria is the law, the third party is not neutral but also plays an advisory role, and the whole process is agreement centred. They are similar in that both refer to expedite and out of court methodologies that could spare the parts time and other quantifiable costs. Whether this regulation based on a directive on cross border disputes exclusively, will influence the Estonian conflict resolution structures is yet to be seen. The conciliation act includes the uniform provisions on the scope of its application, the quality of the mediation process, its relationship with legal procedures, enforceability of resulting agreements, the principle of confidentiality, the effects of initiating proceeding in respect to limitation and prescription terms, and information/promotion of mediation opportunities. No official data in Estonia is available that could be evaluated in regard to its use. The absence of records on its rate of use or success is due to the fact that formal mediation/conciliation settlements according to this law have not been registered so far. Considering how bewildered people are at the prospect of negotiating solutions when enabled/entitled to impose the recognition of a right, then it is predictable that the society development lag continues, behind the Estonian regulatory capacity. Documented evidence of the economic and social advantages of ADR has not been enough to provoke enthusiasm among Estonian practitioners. The use of these methods by lawyers and disputants continues lacking authenticity and it is seldom systematic. These are methodologies that do not match people's mentality, so supplying the population with laws and formal institutions allows a very weak hope for change as long as societal demand for transformation does not exist. Overcoming the cultural constrains is a long term task that may be expedited with the help of telecommunication technologies, informatics and artificial intelligent agents. Dealing with the complicated issue of causation between state action and social transformations will soon decrease in relevance as these rapidly evolving technologies impose themselves onto all kinds of human interaction anyway. It is expected that the use of ADR methodologies, Mediation and Conciliation mainly, increases steadily in the years to come, but it might be that the objective statistical standards used to analyse this trend fail to confirm a raise in the number of disputes *effectively solved* and/or to demonstrate the competence of the participants of these processes on the skills required to administer more amicable and cooperative dispute resolution schemes. This increase will be more likely to happen after the newer regulations on consumer ADR and ODR are developed.

In Economic and technologic development studies it has been explained that to leapfrog, a country needs to focus on consistent and coherent reforms at many levels, based on a shared vision, coordinated by a committed political leadership, and with institutional instruments suited to cope with the difficulties arising from social reactions to change. This scenery demands the participation of all stakeholders that need to be informed and/or interested in the process. If to use an analogous set of preconditions for testing the fast tracking of cultural and legal evolution in Estonia, an empirical feasibility assessment could be disappointing. Statutes alone are unable to foster awareness and appreciation for ADR, conflict resolution beyond settlement and legitimacy outside the procedural justice standards that the court system guarantees. On the other hand, the Estonian society is tech-savvy, with a proven capacity to develop and absorb innovation. This could be a strength in social development and education strategies on collaborative ADR as it has been in other fields. The government agreed on preparing a development plan

<footnote n="1">¹ It is the case for instance of Sweden. See a useful comparative report in: De Palo, G., & Trevor, M. B. (Eds.). (2012). EU Mediation Law and Practice. Oxford University Press</footnote>
for the internet society to put the internet and other communication technologies at the service of the population and its wellbeing, increase the country's economic competitiveness and improve the efficiency of the public sector.<fnref n="1" /> This could be an initiative to encompass, at least, the implementation of the ODR platform according to the recent EU regulation, and the context to discuss its potential outside of this particular context.

It could be argued that the public sector engagement has been weak so far, given that no integrated policy exist on these matters. Currently, only the drafters of the conciliation act and the few lawyers involved in the task on reporting on it, besides the members of the Estonian mediation Association (MTÜ Eesti Lepitajate Ühing) can offer reliable information on what mediation really is or the extent of its applicability.<fnref n="2" /> The preparatory works preceding the debate at the parliament comment on what could be summarized in three main features of this law:<fnref n="3" /> it was passed attending to the state responsibilities on the basis of the directive that required it, and in support of its stated aim<fnref n="4" /> as well as on the international guidelines on ADR of the United Nations;<fnref n="5" /> it sought to strengthen the capacity of organisms and agents administrating non-judicial forms of settlement of disputes with a unified legal framework;<fnref n="6" /> and it aims to promote the use of alternative dispute resolution methods to unburden the judiciary while still providing effective access to justice.

While preparing for this submission, 16 local lawyers from 5 law firms, 6 academics with current tenure and 10 business professionals working on international companies in Tallinn were informally requested to comment on resorting to assisted negotiations to prevent or resolve disputes. Only one lecturer of the 32 people asked showed proficient use of the relevant terminology, conceptual understanding and precision in the answer. This person received training on ADR during the past year to prepare and instruct a course, and admits that prior to it she had no interest or need to study this field. Six of the practicing lawyers have information on the law but experience or clear understanding of international arbitration, one of them has a degree on this procedure from a foreign university and lectures at a higher education facility on arbitration and ADR from 2009. 12 have been acquainted with contractual clauses on out of court settlement preferences, but only 2 of them have read the text of the conciliation act and have led mediated settlements or participated in formal mediated proceedings resulting on satisfactory outcomes. In general all of them assist in the negotiation of agreements that would better satisfy the expectations of the clients they represent. None of them feels that ADR schemes are any more useful than traditional adjudicatory methods in the local level, and all believe that in Estonia mediation will not be popular outside of family and labour affairs because experience with their clients suggests, and their own opinion is that non-authoritative dispute resolution processes are weak, and offer little assurances of compliance so they would constitute a “waste of everyone’s time.” In addition, they are sceptical about the collaborative negotiation styles in the country, and notice that individualism, and highly competitive attitudes prevail among parties of disputes and transactions they have counselled. This was not a rigorous study, but the first attempt at exploring the possibility of forming sample groups in preparing for one in the near future. Nevertheless, it confirmed the anticipated responses, and that the country would benefit

<footnote n="1">¹ More on the plan at the microsite maintained by the incumbents of the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications at: http://263654.edicypages.com/eesti-infouhiskonna-arengukava-2020/infouhikonna-arengukava-2020-loppversioon The document with the development plan, in Estonian is available online at: http://263654.edicypages.com/files/Infoyhiskonna_arengukava_2020_f.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Consult, for instance carri Ginter's contribution on Estonia for this book: De Palo, G., & Trevor, M. B. (Eds.). (2012). EU Mediation Law and Practice. Oxford University Press.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Explanatory memorandum for the draft legislation of the Conciliation Act, 2-3, available online at: http://www.riigikogu.ee/?page=eelnou&op=ems2&emshelp=true&eid=624582&u=20131025125435 in Estonian.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Directive 2008/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on certain aspects of mediation in civil and commercial matters, available online at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32008L0052:en:NOT</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ 2002 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Conciliation available online at: http://www.uncitral.org/pdf/english/texts/arbitration/ml-conc/03-90953_Ebook.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ The Estonian Association of mediators registers family mediators and concentrates in family counseling. This organization cooperates only with 3 partners but they count with cross border expertise and are of respectable standing. See: https://sites.google.com/a/lepitus.ee/ely/home</footnote>
from formulating a deliberate institutional conflict management system in support of the basic normative text that has been issued so far.

It seems reasonable to think that a dual system of ADR will develop in the region and the country: the one prescribed by the EU, and another that could emerge in parallel; an alternative to the alternative methodologies that will evoke their original qualities.

## PROPOSALS FOR EFFECTIVE ADR AND COLLABORATIVE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENTS.

For the most practical of purposes, a well design outreaching strategy should be planned with no delay in the country: It would contribute to the EU efforts to meet the needs of its single market; entitle the state to support for investing in the dissemination of a consistent and understandable ADR culture; help overcoming the gaps between technological, social and legal institutions and; assure readiness for an expanded commercial exchange within the region and internationally.

The strategy should actively engage on education and awareness initiatives, training law specialists, entrepreneurs, social scientists and also educators on a mixture of conflict theory, negotiation/mediation competences. It is equally important to detect constructive individual, and culture-specific qualities that need to be preserved and channelled to implement more effective ADR processes in this and other countries with adversarial and adjudicative preferences in conflict management and low rates of ADR success.

Programs are the most beneficial and popular when exposing trainees to early-coached practice, for perspective. Later or coinciding theoretical instruction, must include at least:

- Introduction to the dynamics of conflict and conflict management styles;

- Dispute resolution schemes;

- Case studies presentations to learn identification of the conflicts and the choice of methodology applicable;

- Numerous self-assessment exercises to evaluate progress;

- Simulation exercises to facilitate constructive interaction;

- Strategic planning and implementation, lessons on negotiation models;

- Exposure to competitive and distributive bargaining styles;

- Information on a variety of negotiation tactics; application at different levels of practice: from the interpersonal to the international sphere.

- Development of personal qualities for an effective and dispassionate negotiation practice;

- Cross-cultural training;

- Considerations on legal and ethical aspects of ADR methodologies;

- Demonstration of the importance of feedback and responsive involvement.

## CONCLUDING REMARKS

With the prevalence of cross-border transactions, the need for truly competent ADR professionals increases, as well as the volume and complexity of their responsibilities. Their activity can be highly affected by technology in that unique transactions/conflicts take place electronically, and innovative platforms are available for human and integrated automated interaction/negotiation. The Internet and other telecommunication developments added another transactional layer to all conflict management and dispute resolution paradigms. Electronic commerce, intense global trade and exchange, and the current international and supranational governance patterns require from all stakeholders effective cooperation, cohesion and self-regulatory confidence. A successful negotiator must be able to communicate with responsible involvement this commitment, transmitting the values of mutual understanding and cooperation. As a result, mediated transactions, mediatized by technologically advanced artefacts, will naturally develop integrative, mutually satisfactory solutions. In the international level, relevant developments also occur, the United Nations is specially active and interested in encouraging the adoption
of electronic trade supporting regulation. ODR, low-cost, cross-border e-commerce transactions related projects are assured to produce positive results in the near future if their target groups are receptive to recommendations: Internet and telecommunication intermediates (Amazon, eBay, payment channels), their mobile phone applications, and governments. A working group is designated (WG III of UNCITRAL) with the mandate to formulate ODR guidelines and legal standards that will be influencing the European legal system as well. The development of electronic mechanisms to handle small and medium disputes online, expediting Business to Business (B2B) and Business to Customer (B2C) relationships implies that a significant amount of conflicts could be administered fast and inexpensively, facilitating the smooth development of electronic trade models, across borders. Those international initiatives need to be considered and well understood by all EU states. Examples are available around the world, there is no need to subscribe only to the European vision when all the boundaries have disappeared on account of the telecommunication technologies. An additional and relatively unexplored field of research is the indigenous conflict resolution profile of each country's population, and how it could be categorized. Autochthonous decision-making mechanisms to manage and resolve conflicts should be less threatening, and much less intrusive that those coordinated by states or engineered by far removed organizations.

Impact assessments of the instruments that the EU countries used to implement the mediation directive have been made on the basis of quantitative research. Hence, they can only report on compliance and frequency. Two aspects could be added to the evaluation of this legislative policy, to begin with:

1. Revision of derivative regulations and normative institutions developing local ADR systems, as well as the educational supporting strategies and training opportunities available in each country;

2. Analysis on substance, quality and consistency of the pedagogies used to test to which extent they conform to the requirements of a collaborative, integrative problem solving approximation to disputes and conflict management in general.

The Estonian public policy is mainstream in that it responds adequately to supranational requirements. It could be more proactive on techno-socio-economic aspects to effectively support regional integration and knowledge-based growth. Prospects for success will remain uncertain if fundamental changes in the cultural approach to conflict management are not promoted. Although labelling does not entirely explain the skills that work for dispute resolution, Consistent evidence in the practice of legal negotiators demonstrate that an assertive but principled problem solving attitude is needed, one that that should (loosely) match with the main postulates of the Harvard Negotiation Project, described earlier. Knowledge of contrasting styles such as the competitive models that apply the game theory and other zero sum game representations are as important in field work. Mediation of all the ADR options is on focus; Its regional consolidation path invites research because all that has been written on its best practices, tactics and logistics, needs to be evaluated in the transforming context of the times; especially in connection to the mediatisation and automation of human processes and the ways in which technology can support old models with newer tools. Its importance extends to the fields of trade policy, conflict management and the law, dynamic capabilities managerial theory, information technology and interaction design, just to mention a few. This paper intends to precede and induce a plan for designing a research study on the readiness of local average customers, to engage on ADR methodologies, and how effective their intuitive understanding of these could be. Further, based on convenience samples, it could be possible to inquire on the effects that technology and mediatisation might have on people's attitudes when exposed to conflict. Another promising field of inquiry is the effect that mediatized interaction could have in the conduction of the negotiations and their outcome from the perspective of its ubiquity, exposure, and the human computer interaction and design.<fnref n="1" /> This places the issue into the context of the information society one more time.

<footnote n="1">¹ Mediatization in this context referes to interactive artefacts or mediums supporting human relationships and transactions. As a result of this technical intermediation, data collection occurs and could lead to a much less private type of communication. This aspect acquires special signifificance, considering that confidenciality is one of the fundamental principles of Mediation, extensive to other formal and informal ADR systems.</footnote>
This contribution has presented a view on what should be the emphasis of training and educational proposals for mediators and other conflict management practitioners; what makes mediation more effective; and how in a defined context this and other alternative methodologies can be influenced by transforming technical, social, legal and economic factors. It does not explain specific proceedings but suggests the need for both descriptive and inferential research in Estonia and the region for a more conscious assessment of the capacity of countries to implement regulatory tools so closely linked to their cultural identities.

## SUMMARY

Supranational and national legislative policy on civil and commercial Mediation, and consumer oriented ADR and ODR have formally initiated an ambitious regional institutionalization process. This has clearly exposed the need for more comprehensive action in the field of conflict management in Europe, where countries are constrained by cultural factors and unevenly prepared for change. The most attention has been given to mediation and conciliation schemes for being also the first regulated and in effect. The main task of professional mediators continues being the empowerment of individuals for the management of their own affairs and the production of self-regulatory solutions to their disagreements. Any normative development affecting this and other ADR methodologies should be accompanied by strategies that could reinforce the effectiveness of processes and the legitimacy of outcomes. National public policies could contribute to this much more efficiently than supranational initiatives. Countries of the EU with no ADR tradition or collaborative ADR experience would benefit from deepening their commitment to the values behind the institutions that the Union seeks to harmonize. Formal compliance with regulations and directives alone adds no credibility to domestic legislation. Technology could assist social awareness and transformation processes, and help to overcome of the difficulties that arise from the adoption of ADR supranational rules. Because conflict management structures are rooted in culture, interdisciplinary research is essential to identify the most important areas of concern. Country specific features require identification because they can be determining in the successful application of Mediation, ADR and ODR customer protection legislation.

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<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>
C. EU Energy Policy, Environment
and Climate Action

Current problems related to Energy Policy
and Law in European Union

DR. TANEL KERIKMÄE

Jean Monnet Professor, Tallinn Law School, Tallinn University of Technology

PAWAN DUTT

Tallinn Law School, Tallinn University of Technology

**Abstract:** Energy belongs to the area of “shared competence” between the EU and its member states. The basic objectives of EU energy policy are: competitiveness, sustainability and security of supply. There are also concerns regarding pollution of the environment and the need for developing more cost-effective energy technologies. Renewable Energy Sources are an area of keen interest in the EU. The target is to have single energy market by 2014 with the hope Europeans will benefit from the growth and development of the internal market also in energy sector. However, the energy area is also legally problematic as it falls under the category of “general economic interest” that means exceptions from general competition legal framework and State Aid rules. Russia is one of the largest energy suppliers of the EU and disputes about transit of exported products have caused in recent years, serious imbalances in supply. That is why, the priority in EU energy sector is based on encouraging the renewable sources and exploring new technologies like the US has done, for example, related with shale gas. The main problem of effectively achieving the common EU goal is related to the fact that energy supply is a matter of every country’s national security.

**Keywords:** Energy, Fuel Poverty, Renewable Energy Sources, climate, greenhouse gases, pollution, pipelines, emissions, security, shale.

# 1. EU INITIATIVES OF LAST DECADE

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>

Energy belongs to the area of “shared competence” between the EU and its member states. The latest legal basis of primary legislation is Lisbon Treaty, title XXI, Art 194 that provides certain legal basis for the EU to take action despite of different national energy policies.<fnref n="1" /> In comparison with other areas of common market (telecommunications), the liberalization of the energy sector has been slower. Today, the European energy policy, approved by the European Council in March 2007, establishes the basic objectives of EU energy policy: competitiveness, sustainability and security of supply.<fnref n="2" />

As the pollution of environment and the more cost-effective energy technologies fighting against so-called “fuel poverty” become serious issues in the EU agenda that relates to over 500 million citizens, first, the EU adopted the Directive 2001/77/EC with the aims to increase the share of electricity produced from Renewable Energy Sources (RES) to 22% of gross electricity consumption by 2010. The next step was a goal of 20% as its contribution of RES in relation to the total European energetic

<footnote n="1">¹ For example, the European Parliament can establish the measures to achieve the objectives of the European Union's external energy policy</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Mert Bilgin. Energy security and Russia's gas strategy: The symbiotic relationship between the state and firms. Communist and Post-Communist Studies vol. 44, Issue 2. (2011) p. 119–127</footnote>
production in 2020 and European Directive 2009/28/EC.<fnref n="1" /> The package is also aimed to meet Kyoto protocol criteria.

Of course, the realization of the Directive depends very much on the willingness and proactiveness of the member states in promoting and investing in alternative technologies. So, the Directive states that every EU member must increase the production of RES of 5.5% from their 2005 levels. As to the rest, differentiation has been allowed - the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is a determinator. The ambitious plan, so called "Climate Action and Renewable Energy Package" includes cutting EU greenhouse-gas emissions by 20 percent, reducing energy use by 20 percent and boosting renewable energy to 20 percent of the EU's overall energy consumption.<fnref n="2" />

Each member state should present a National Renewable Action Plan with:

a) planning and

b) regular progress reports.

In case the state fails, the Commission may start infringement proceedings that would lead to financial fines. Most popular RES-based technologies are hydro potential energy, wind power, photovoltaic and solar resources, although offshore wind, solar, bioenergy, geothermal energy, carbon dioxide capture, transport and storage, smart electricity grids and nuclear fission are considered as future alternatives.<fnref n="3" />

For example, as stated by “*Der Spiegel*” few years ago, “Germany’s renewable energy companies are a tremendous success story. Roughly 15 percent of the country’s electricity comes from solar, wind or biomass facilities, almost 250,000 jobs have been created and the net worth of the business is €35 billion per year.”<fnref n="4" /> There are also political tensions related to the agreements with Russia. So, the most debated pipeline Nord Stream has been political debate in many European countries. Nord Stream is an international joint venture. Russian Gazprom holds only 51 percent of the company’s shares, with the remaining shares being held by the German companies Wintershall and E.on, as well as the Dutch company Gasunie. Of course, the Russians are in charge, although a German, former Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, is the chairman of the board (chart taken from *Der Spiegel*).<fnref n="5" />

However, the European countries are doing more cooperation to save the common market. One of the promising perspectives is related to Norway (not the EU member though): “with the €1.4-billion project „NorGer,” the Norwegian company Statnett is planning an almost 600-kilometer-long high-voltage power line on the seabed. The direct current cable should, starting in 2018, transport 1,400 megawatts between Norway’s southern coast and the Netherlands.”<fnref n="6" /> Also, another example of the regional development would be the cooperation schemes of Nordic and Baltic markets.<fnref n="7" /> However, in ideal, regionalism should not prevail or become rival over the idea to achieve EU energy market but rather be supporting pillars of it.

The main goal is still EU strong and legally regulated energy market. In the centre of supranational planning is a Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan, including information system SETIS) which is implemented by the European Energy Research Alliance (ERA) - a roof organization for national

<footnote n="1">¹ See: Luigi Dusonchet, Enrico Telaretti. Economic analysis of different supporting policies for the production of electrical energy by solar photovoltaics in eastern European Union countries. Energy Policy vol. 38, Issue 8 (2010) p. 4011–4020</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Andris Piebalgs. Renewable Energies, Pillar of European Energy Policy, European Commission. Electric Light & Power Journal, May/June 2009., Vol.87, Issue 3, p.36-38</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ About the development of RES technology per member states see: Konstantinos Patlitzianas, Konstantinos Karagounis. The progress of RES environment in the most recent member states of the EU. Renewable Energy Vo. 36 (2011) p.429-436.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Anselm Waldermann. Climate Change Paradox. Wind Turbines in Europe Do Nothing for Emissions-Reduction Goals. Der Spiegel 02/10/2009 See: http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/climate-change-paradox-wind-turbines-in-europe-do-nothing-for-emissions-reduction-goals-a-606763.html</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Dohmen, Frank et al. The Battle for Gas. Europe's Pipeline War. Der Spiegel 01/27/2009 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/the-battle-for-gas-europe-s-pipeline-war-a-603803.html)</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Christoph Seidler. Renewable Energy AmbitionsNorway Wants to Become Europe's Battery. Der Spiegel 05/24/2012 see: (http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/norway-wants-to-offer-hydroelectric-resources-to-europe-a-835037.html)</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ See, for example: Oliver Pearce, Hans-Arild Bredesen. Nordic and Baltic Power Markets: Challenges in Market Integration. Workshop presentation 2012</footnote>
institutes. The prognosis of the European Commission called “EU Energy trends 2030” indicates of how much Europe hopes to achieve with investing to renewable energy.<fnref n="1" />

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

(source: *Der Spiegel*)

## 2. EFFECTIVENESS OF THE EU STRATEGIES

By some authors, “knowledge about energy poverty in continental Europe is at a nascent stage, despite the recent completion of a pan-European research project which emphasised that ‘retired people, those out of work or in poorly paid jobs, and those dependent on social security benefits’, as well as ‘elderly, disabled or single parent families’ are at the highest risk of falling into fuel poverty ((EPEE) European Fuel Poverty and Energy Efficiency, 2009).”<fnref n="2" /> The basis of any efficient regulation are realistic aims and commonly understood definitions. The lack of a consensus between the member states and the EU institutions on the constituent elements of energy poverty is not the case today but it slowed down the process. Also, the first strategies did not include direct actions but just mapping the problems and possible activities. The main reasons were conflicting results of scientific world and the resistance of some member states to allocate the competence to the EU institutions. Today, both the economic and social reasons for further initiatives are identified.

By Michalena and Hills: “the EU Energy Directive 2009/28/EC, which is responsible for implementation of the overarching policy for MS to reach renewable energy targets, does not provide the structure or content by which MS can implement REP (Renewable Energy Plan) and reach the imposed targets. In particular, the analytical review of the example NREAPs has suggested that reality is far from stereotypical policies in terms of the architecture of the sectors involved in renewable energy process and the complexity of the REP development itself.” <fnref n="3" /> The authors point out that one of the main reasons for

<footnote n="1">¹EU Energy Trends 2030, available:
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/trends_2030/doc/trends_to_2030_update_2009.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Stefan Bouzarovski, Saska Petrova, Robert Sarlamanov. Energy poverty policies in the EU: A critical perspective. Energy Policy 49 (2012) p. 76–82.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Evanthie Michalena, Jeremy M.Hills. Energy Policy Vo. 45 (2012) p. 201–216.</footnote>
relative failure is that the REP issues are partial artefacts of methodology and geographical scope and there are geographical differences across the EU in relation to issue perception. Another important obstacle is that the REP implementation is complex issue because:

a) local specificity and governance,

b) complexity and multiplicity of factors,

c) technological challenges,

d) environmental concerns and

e) economic opportunities and competitiveness<fnref n="1" />.

However, these aspects are not always taken into account. There is a tension between supranational aim and local political willingness and capacities. It must be mentioned that the Directive is a normative regulation that sets the goals but leaves the methods of implementations to the Member States where the energy issues and the legal culture can still be differentiated. Legal sources of renewable energy by EU member states is available from the EU Commission website http://www.res-legal.eu/, called RES LEGAL Europe database. One can also compare the policies and grid issues through this online tool and search specific information related to a EU member state.

By Marketwatch, “the question arises as to whether the European Commission has enough power to influence national energy policies across the EU”<fnref n="2" />. As explained by Bohne: “Conflicts between national regulatory systems and EU energy Regulations given these characteristics and differences of national regulatory systems, the question is whether and to what extent these systems are compatible with EU energy regulations.”<fnref n="3" /> EU energy legislation follows the British model that conflicts with French and German regulatory systems. By Prosser, the liberalization of energy sector has been slower than expected “because of strong opposition of some member states (notably France) which are still wedded to the concept of a monopoly, or dominant, unified utility serving as producer, transporter, and supplier.”<fnref n="4" /> A key to success is a collaborative governance perspective on EU energy regulation. There is an aspect related to RES technologies where the interests of member states are more unanimous - climate change legislation to reduce CO2 emissions by gradually capping emissions. There is a very pragmatic and realistic area of business regulated by the EU which allows companies that achieve emission reductions to sell or trade credits with companies that meet the emissions cap.<fnref n="5" /> Another motivation to increase production of “green energy” is analysed by group of the Spanish scholars who find that “proliferation of RES in the power sector is primarily a political decision which can be implemented by using a large range of instruments, such as tax exemptions, rebates of taxes, tax refunds and by applying lower tax rates.”<fnref n="6" />

Target is to have single energy market by 2014 with the hope Europeans will benefit from the growth and development of the internal market also in energy sector. The so-called third package seeks to break up the monopolies of vertically integrated energy suppliers by unbundling their networks, increasing public service obligations and consumer protection, and by giving national regulators more power and independence.<fnref n="7" />

The energy area is also legally problematic as it falls under the category of “general economic interest” that means exceptions from general competition legal framework and State Aid rules (ECJ still emphasised that there must be “superior public interest” involved).<fnref n="8" /> The ECJ had to recognize that the stable European energy market legal norms are not sufficient and the “imposition of free market

<footnote n="1">¹ Michalena, Hills, Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² MarketWatch: Energy. August, 2011, Vol.11, Issue 8, p.8-9</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Eberhard Bohne. Conflicts between national regulatory cultures and EU energy regulations. Utilities Policy 19 (2011) 255-269</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Tony Prosser. The Limits of Competition Law. Markets and Public Services. Oxford University Press 2005, p 188</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Andris Piebalgs. Renewable Energies, Pillar of European Energy Policy Electric Light & Power Journal, May/June 2009., Vol.87, Issue 3, p.36-38</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ José M. Cansino, Maña del P. Pablo-Romero, Roćio Román, Rocío Yñiquez. Tax incentives to promote green electricity. An overview of EU-27 countries. Energy Policy. Elsevier. 2010, p. 6006</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ MarketWatch: Energy. August, 2011, Vol.11, Issue 8, p.8-9. There is, of course progress in a number of other areas, such as convergence of prices</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸ Case 503/99 Com v Belgium 2002</footnote>
restrictions based on energy supply is limited to national energy regulations."<fnref n="1" /> By the approach, taken by the EU, "energy policy considerations could become relevant in granting an exemption to an otherwise restrictive agreement only insofar as they can be subsumed under efficiency consideration."<fnref n="2" />

The State Aid questions are constantly discussed. In one of the latest cases (178/2010), the European Commission noted<fnref n="3" /> that "the wide discretion enjoyed by member states when defining what they consider as services of general economic interest has long been recognized....In the specific context of the electricity market, it is important that the public service requirements can be interpreted on a national basis, taking account national circumstances and subject to the respect of EU law....However, the Commission took a position analogous with several cases from other areas of law – as the margin of appreciation of member states and the line between the competences are always marked down by the EU – the principle of proportionality (any exception cannot unproportionally harm the common market) is a final ace to play".

### 3. EU ENERGY SECURITY ISSUES

One can also make difference of EU energy policy and EU foreign energy policy, although very much interdependent dimensions of the one area. Why the international aspect is a key factor when to talk about needs (and obstacles) of common EU energy market? By Nowak: "Although the Community has legislated in the area of energy policy for many years, and evolved out the founding Treaties, the concept of introducing a comprehensive European energy policy for all member states is fairly new, especially with regard to the external dimension."<fnref n="4" /> Several other authors and specialists are reporting about growing dependence of EU. By Bahrin: "Over 50% of Europe's energy comes from countries outside the European Union – and the dependence is growing.

Russia is one of the largest energy suppliers and disputes about transit of exported products have caused in recent years, serious imbalances in supply. This warning indicates the need for the EU to closely monitor oil and gas reserves and be prepared in case of emergency energy. Among the priorities in the area include the development of the southern corridor, which could carry gas from the Caspian Sea region via Turkey. Its construction started in 2011. Through Communication no. 677 of 17 November 2010, the EU Commission proposed a series of energy corridors to link the EU's priority cross-border flow of electricity, gas and oil.<fnref n="5" /> Russia today holds more than 25% of the world's natural gas resources.

By Bilgin, "the way how Russia ignores the EU's quest for liberalization and sustains a control over markets and supplies is directly related to her use of gas as leverage. Russia's strategy affects many European and non-European countries during all stages: demand, supply and transit. It is not, however, possible to generalize a common statement that the EU's position is based on a policy of market liberalization while Russia pursues an opposing strategy of increased state control. Russian energy strategy leads markets in Europe; sets tone for energy supplies at homeland and abroad, benefiting from a variety of means."<fnref n="6" />

That is why, the priority in EU energy sector is based on encouraging the renewable sources. Important number is 20: Integral energy market, in 2020 should contain 20% of renewable sources, also emissions of greenhouse gases must decline by 20% and energy efficiency needs to determine a 20% reduction in energy consumption. New technologies and intelligent use of energy is not a fashion but a vital necessity.

<footnote n="1">¹ Padrós, Cocciolo, Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² See: G. Monti, EC Competition Law. Cambridge University Press 2007</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ See the analysis of the particular case at: Leigh Hancher, Francesco Maria Salerno. Energy Policy after Lisbon, in: EU Law after Lisbon, eds. Andrea Biondi et al. Oxford University Press 2012, pp. 391-392</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Bartholomiej Nowak. Forging the External Dimension of the Energy Policy of the European Union. The Electricity Journal. 1040-619, Elsevier. 2010, p. 1</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Dorel Bahrin. European Union Energy Policy and Good Administration. Hypersion International Journal of Econophysics & New economy; 2011, Vol.4, Issue 2, P.329-338</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Mert Bilgin, Energy security and Russia's gas strategy: The symbiotic relationship between the state and firms. Communist and Post-Communist Studies vol. 44, Issue 2. (2011) p. 119-127</footnote>
The energy crises are not utopia but reality – one example from past would be Russian-Ukrainian gas conflict in 2006 that also affected EU member states. As concluded by Frank Umbach, the paradigm after the Ukraine incident in mentality is noticeable and the assumptions of the EU member states policy that “oil and gas are exclusively economic goods, not strategic ones” can be questioned.<fnref n="1" /> By Bilgin – “doubts and risks in Europe remain, and will affect Russia’s position, so far as the latter keeps on refusing a liberal framework of energy relations with the EU, and follows a geopolitical approach over alternative supplies where *Gazprom* has already launched a corporate expansion strategy.”<fnref n="2" /> European–Russian gas relations are related political risks and “trying to network contacts with Moscow can involve key European leaders and other European actors into different morally and legally questionable actions.”<fnref n="3" />

The investment to the RES technology is not maybe the alternative to eliminate all the risks today but should be constantly progressing as a parallel process. As rightly pointed out by Fouquet, “renewable energy producers and producers of RES technology have the same investment needs as all industry participants: a reasonable investment security.”<fnref n="4" /> The EU failed to convince Member States to vote for a total unbundling of energy production and distribution, and the legislation does not change the power structure of oligopolies in the energy sector as such.<fnref n="5" />

## 4. INDIGENOUS UNCONVENTIONAL GAS AS AN ALTERNATIVE

Another emerging issue of keen interest in this field is the potential effect of unconventional fossil fuels, particularly shale gas, on energy markets in the EU.

Currently, shale gas is the most discussed and contentious. There is relatively less experience in the EU regarding shale formations as new sources of natural gas, when compared to tight gas and coal bed methane sources. Further, till date no commercial scale shale gas exploitation has occurred in the EU as yet, although countries such as Sweden, Poland, France and Germany have been active in this field.<fnref n="6" />

The Commission has published several studies on shale gas in recent times, in an effort to appreciate how these can impact energy markets, and what will be the environmental and health related risks associated with shale gas development and associated hydraulic fracturing (fracking).<fnref n="7" />

In February, 2011, the European Council called for the assessment of shale gas and oil shale extraction and use in the EU, from the view of enhancement of security of energy supply. Although conventional gas accounts for 85 percent of worldwide natural gas production, the focus has recently shifted towards “unconventionals” due to concern that energy demand could soon outstrip supply, and the dramatic increase (upto almost 50 percent of domestic production) in unconventional gas production in North America. What is of interest to the European Commission is the possibility of unconventional gas production resulting in security of supply, lowering of gas prices, increased availability of gas in the common market, relieving of pressure on global energy markets, and the addition of diversity to the gas supplies portfolio.<fnref n="8" />

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) liquefaction capacity has grown significantly in the last 10 years worldwide, giving rise to the possibility of the concept of a “world gas market” and its associated focus on interregional gas price competition. The boom in unconventional gas production in USA coupled with the effect of the economic recession on the ensuing glut in global gas supply has allowed unconventional gas

<footnote n="1">¹ Frank Umbach. Global energy security and the implications for the EU. Energy Policy, Mar. 2010, Vol.38., Issue 3., P.1229-1240</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Mert Bilgin, Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Andrey Kazantsev. Policy networks in European–Russian gas relations: Functionand dysfunction from a perspective of EU energy security. Communist and Post-Communist Studies (2012) p.1–9</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Dörte Fouquet. Renewable Energy Vol. 49 (2013) p.15-18</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Fouquet, Ibid</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Commission, Final Report on Unconventional Gas in Europe, 2011 at 5, available:
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/studies/doc/2012_unconventional_gas_in_europe.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ Commission, New Studies on Unconventional Gas, 2012 available: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/studies/energy_en.htm</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸ Commission, Study on Unconventional Gas: Potential Energy Market Impacts in the European Union, 2012 at iii, available:
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/downloads/jrc_report_2012_09_unconventional_gas.pdf</footnote>
to have a significant impact on European energy markets. On top of it, all this has occured when there is
still no prospect of indigenous production of unconventional gas within Europe itself.<fnref n="1" />

It is estimated that in the EU regasification capacity will increase by approximately 25 percent during the period 2010 to 2013. This is while there has been slow progress in other major natural gas infrastructure projects in the EU. Thus LNG regasification terminals are making more progress than interregional pipeline projects, of which only two, namely Medgaz and Nord Stream, are coming online in the same period. Already the increased accessibility of low priced LNG imports is putting pressure on gas buyers to renegotiate the terms of their existing oil - indexed gas purchase contracts.<fnref n="2" /> Consequently customers in the EU have been recently offered concessions by suppliers such as GasTerra, Statoil and Gazprom.<fnref n="3" />

In the future, the competitiveness and cost effectiveness of high capacity / long distance lines such as South Stream, Nabucco and Nord Stream II will eventually be assured only in a situation where shale gas reserves in the EU are under-developed due to cost considerations. Failing this, both shale gas and pipeline imports will compete for a share of the European gas market.<fnref n="4" />

It is estimated that shale gas reserves in the EU can potentially have a deep impact on the EU's import dependence of gas, both by allowing for indigenous production and by keeping pace with rising gas demand. In case there is significant shale gas production in the EU, then by 2040 import dependence of the EU can decrease from 79 percent to almost 57 percent.<fnref n="5" />

However, shale gas extraction requires extensive drilling and extraction processes. These are associated with risks to the environment and public health. The general public attitude in several EU countries towards shale gas projects is dominated by environmental concerns.<fnref n="6" /> This is different from the situation in countries like China, Argentina, Algeria, USA and Canada (the top five countries with the most shale gas reserves) where there is less controversy because their reserves are either in sparsely populated areas or the local opposition is not effective.<fnref n="7" /> One area of interest is the potential contribution of shale gas production to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.<fnref n="8" /> In the EU, there already exists legislation controlling GHG emissions from shale gas production.<fnref n="9" /> Some of these are as follows:

a) The Environment Impact Assessment Directive (85/337/EEC; 2011/92/EU (codified)) which provides for a mechanism to assess the effects of a project on the environment and includes air, emissions and climatic factors. Competent authorities are also obliged to address the issue of significant adverse side effects and the means to avoid, reduce and remedy them.

b) Directive 92/91/EEC concerning minimum requirements for improving the health and safety of workers in the mineral-extracting industries through drilling. It deals, inter alia, with the protection of workers from harmful substances or substances that are explosive in nature.

c) The Industrial Emissions Directive (2010/75/EU) provides for minimising pollution from industrial sources.

d) The EU Emissions Trading System Directive (2003/87/EC) which could be extended to regulate emission of shale gasses.

Other EU and national laws and regulations on this subject are:<fnref n="10" />

<footnote n="1">¹ Ibid at 164</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Ibid at 180</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Ibid at 184</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Ibid at 219</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Ibid at 221</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Commission, Final Report on Unconventional Gas in Europe, 2011 at 95.</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ John Aglionby, Europe Split on Benefits of Drilling for Shale Gas, *Financial Times* 06/27/2013, available at http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/3319fd84-df1d-11e2-881f-00144feab7de, Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F3319fd84-df1d-11e2-881f-00144feab7de.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&siteedition=uk&i_rcerer=%20-%20axzz2dp6ZmT3J</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸ Commission, Final Report, Climate impact of potential shale gas production in the EU, 2012 at iii, available at http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eccp/docs/120815_final_report_en.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="9">⁹ Ibid at V</footnote>

<footnote n="10">¹⁰ Commission, Final Report on Unconventional Gas in Europe, 2011 at 101</footnote>
a) The Hydrocarbons Directive (94/22/EC) deals with prospection, exploration and production of hydrocarbons.

b) The Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) aims at maintaining and improving the aquatic environment in the EU. The Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC) deals with the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration. The Mining Waste Directive (2006/21/EC) deals with the management of waste from the extractive industries, especially those such as fracking which could be a potential source of water contamination.

c) The Regulation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) (Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006) deals with the use of chemicals.

d) Biodiversity within the EU is safeguarded and regulated by two directives specially designed to oversee wildlife and nature conservation. These are the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC).

e) Liability may also arise for damages under the Environmental Liability Directive (2004/35/EC) which deals with prevention of environmental damage and remedying thereof, and the Mining Waste Directive (2006/21/EC) which deals with the management of waste from extractive industries.

It remains to be seen how the EU deals with this situation in the near future. The European Commission is expected to finalise a fracking risk management strategy by 2014 which will make for interesting reading in this matter.<fnref n="1" /> Thus we can see that the impact of unconventional gas (particularly shale gas) as an alternative on energy markets in the EU will be significant in the years to come.

### 5. *Per aspera ad astra?*

The European Energy market is currently developing. The main problem of effectively achieving the common EU goal is related to the fact that energy supply is a matter of every country's national security. We could make a comparison to transport (aviation) or some other area of common market – European Court of Justice (ECJ) has issued several judgments by which national (protectionist) policies are seen as a breach of EU principles of free movement of capital and freedom of establishment.<fnref n="2" />

We are still living in the age of crisis<fnref n="3" />, and the solutions that are proposed to alleviate the consequences of it are not always acceptable for everyone or do not meet the criteria of what we call legitimate expectations. The controversial age of Prince Metternich (the Concert of Europe) is still bygone and the consensus to be achieved between European nations before introducing radical changes in the European political architecture is an inevitable prerequisite. In history, there have been several strategies that were emerging from the ideas of founding fathers of the European Union, such as Altiero Spinelli and his followers. The question whether the EU, a core institutional framework for Europe should be more centralized is, today, the “hot button” again. “Ever closer union” can be possible only in the case Europe shares the common vision.

By the European Commission<fnref n="4" />: The EU aims to get 20% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020. Renewables include wind, solar, hydro-electric and tidal power as well as geothermal energy and biomass. More renewable energy will enable the EU to cut greenhouse emissions and make it less dependent on imported energy. And boosting the renewables industry will encourage technological innovation and employment in Europe. EU commissioner for energy, Günther Oettinger<fnref n="5" /> recently stated three relevant layers:

a) to create the European energy market by 2014 which means to move from monopolies with centralised grids and power production to competitive markets;

b) better infrastructure policy: interconnectivity and full advantage of a European market;

c) increasing energy efficiency and the share of renewable energy.

<footnote n="1">¹ John Aglionby, *Financial Times*</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² See: Carlos Padrós, Endrius E. Cocciolo. Energy Law Journal vol 31, especially Case C-196/07 Com v Spain 2008</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ The current section is modified version of editorial of the author for academic journal L'Europe 2012</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ See: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/index_en.htm</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Günther Oettinger. Sustainable and Secure: How to tackle flexibility challenges in an integrated EU power market? Centre for European Studies. Brussels 2012</footnote>
Sources used:

Aglionby, J. Europe Split on Benefits of Drilling for Shale Gas, *Financial Times* 06/27/2013

Bahrin, D. European Union Energy Policy and Good Administration. Hypersion International Journal of Econophysics & New economy; 2011, Vol.4, Issue 2

Bilgin, M. Energy security and Russia's gas strategy: The symbiotic relationship between the state and firms. Communist and Post-Communist Studies vol. 44, Issue 2, 2011

Bohne, E. Conflicts between national regulatory cultures and EU energy regulations.

Utilities Policy 19 (2011) 255-269

Bouzarovski, S et al. Energy poverty policies in the EU: A critical perspective. Energy Policy 49, 2012

Cansino, J.M. et al. Tax incentives to promote green electricity. An overview of EU-27 countries. Energy Policy. Elsevier. 2010

Commission, Final Report on Unconventional Gas in Europe, 2011

Commission, New Studies on Unconventional Gas, 2012

Commission, Study on Unconventional Gas: Potential Energy Market Impacts in the European Union, 2012

Commission, Final Report, Climate impact of potential shale gas production in the EU, 2012

Dohmen, F. Et al. The Battle for Gas. Europe's Pipeline War. *Der Spiegel* 01/27/2009

Dusonchet, L; Telaretti E. Economic analysis of different supporting policies for the production of electrical energy by solar photovoltaics in eastern European Union countries. Energy Policy vol. 38, Issue 8, 2010

Fouquet, D. Renewable Energy Vol. 49, 2013

Hancher, L; Salerno, F.M. Energy Policy after Lisbon, in: EU Law after Lisbon, eds. Andrea Biondi et al. Oxford University Press 2012

Kazantsev, A. Policy networks in European-Russian gas relations: Function and dysfunction from a perspective of EU energy security. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 2012

MarketWatch: Energy. August, 2011, Vol.11, Issue 8

Michalena, E; Hills, J.M. Energy Policy Vol. 45 (2012)

Monti, G. EC Competition Law. Cambridge University Press 2007

Nowak, B. Forging the External Dimension of the Energy Policy of the European Union. The Electricity Journal. 1040-619. Elsevier. 2010

Oettinger, G. Sustainable and Secure: How to tackle flexibility challenges in an integrated EU power market? Centre for European Studies. Brussels 2012

Padrós, C; Cocciolo, E.E. Energy Law Journal vol 31

Patlitzianas, K; Karagounis, K. The progress of RES environment in the most recent member states of the EU. Renewable Energy Vo. 36, 2011

Pearce, O; Bredesen, H-A. Nordic and Baltic Power Markets: Challenges in Market Integration. Workshop presentation 2012.

Piebalgs, A. Renewable Energies, Pillar of European Energy Policy, European Commission. Electric Light & Power Journal, May/June 2009., Vol.87, Issue 3

Prosser, T. The Limits of Competition Law. Markets and Public Services. Oxford University Press 2005

Seidler, C. Renewable Energy Ambitions Norway Wants to Become Europe's Battery. *Der Spiegel* 05/24/2012

Umbach, F. Global energy security and the implications for the EU. Energy Policy, Mar. 2010, Vol. 38, Issue 3

Waldermann, A. Climate Change Paradox. Wind Turbines in Europe Do Nothing for Emissions-Reduction Goals. *Der Spiegel* 02/10/2009

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>
# Gouvernance de l'eau et des changements climatiques. Quelques repères concernant la nouvelle législation roumaine dans le domaine de l'eau

DR FLORE POP

*Enseignant – Université « Babes-Bolyai » Cluj-Napoca (Roumanie)*

**Abstract:** The concept of governance is seen since the beginning in the European context as being able to take different meanings or major forms, to develop into a particular vision, applicable, for example, to the management of water resources in the current reform context, given the limited effect of specific conventions and of the other instruments of international law, including the implementation of regional organizations (BSEC) or of the states of the Central-East region. It is thus increasingly clearer that the current management of water resources in the Union as a whole, but especially at the sub regional level (Central and Eastern Europe, with chronic delays in several areas)- with all the problems from the recent or nearest past and subjected to current challenges requires an integrated approach - inter-and multidisciplinary, involving, beyond the purely legal issue or the one related to the current reform of governance – certain technical and institutional aspects and taking into consideration the possible complications that may arise in the integrated water systems under the pressure of climate changes, our attention must focus again on the EU's sustainable development strategy and its constructive application. In the Central-East region of the Union (Romania, Bulgaria, etc..) it is required a deep reform, the solution that should be implemented is connected to the realization and intensification of local and regional cooperation, understanding that at a local level the problems are well known and will likely be better managed (principle of subsidiary ), so it is necessary to put on its feet some units of inter-county collaboration that can integrate - for Romania - in the current structure of the 11 river basins. In this new context, the concept itself of governance involves widening the tight circle of the traditional actors - participants in the various decision-making processes, and looking, if possible, some solutions by consensus.

**Keywords:** European Governance, international treaty, environment protection, water resources, regional, sub-regional, local, reform, subsidiary, inter-communal collaboration, hydrographic basin, consensus.

## CONVENTIONS DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL ET ACTES NORMATIFS SECONDAIRES. EXPOSE THEORIQUE ET PROPOSITIONS DE REFORME EN PLAN REGIONAL

### I. LA GOUVERNANCE EMERGENTE DANS LE DOMAINE DE L'EAU ET DES CHANGEMENTS CLIMATIQUES

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>

Dans la littérature actuelle de la gouvernance, au-delà des préoccupations pour la gouvernance globale, la nouvelle gouvernance européenne se dégage comme une approche particulière<fnref n="1" />, en reprenant des éléments définitoires de la doctrine des organisations internationales ; d'ailleurs, à l'origine, les Communautés européennes suivaient un parcours d'organisation classique, de droit international public, par la suite l'Union étant une organisation atypique, d'intégration, situation due à une évolution sinceuse, marquée par les crises et les défis de chaque étape d'intégration – et définie en profondeur par les caractères du nouvel ordre juridique de l'Union, dégagés de la jurisprudence de la Cour de Luxembourg.

Le concept de « gouvernance européenne » incorpore bien sur les aspects protéiformes de la gouvernance en général, ainsi selon R. A. W. Rhodes (1996), elle prend plusieurs formes, on peut avoir

<footnote n="1">¹Chez nous les ouvrages sur la gouvernance européenne sont malheureusement assez rares, tout de même Petre Prisecaru avait publié jadis « La gouvernance européenne » chez Economica, à Bucarest, en 2005, et plus récemment – Oana-Andreea Ion, « La gouvernance de l'Union Européenne. Des approches actuelles », Editions Polirom, Iassy, 2013.</footnote>
au moins six sens majeurs différents, concernant la gouvernance corporative, la bonne gouvernance au sens de la Banque Mondiale, laquelle a consacré d'ailleurs le concept, l'Etat minimal (d'inspiration néo-libérale), le management public actuel, les réseaux d'auto-organisation et les complexes socio-cybernétiques. Plus récemment les études sur la gouvernance ont conquiert aussi le domaine de la gestion des eaux et des changements climatiques. L'évolution récente dans ce domaine montre le bienfondé de l'intention initiale et de la typologie présentée ci-dessus. Mais au-delà des aspects historiques ou conceptuels invoqués brièvement ici, nous devons partir du fait tant invoqué par les spécialistes occidentaux que dans le moment actuel on traverse une période de crise – non seulement financière ou économique, et plus largement de civilisation, mais une crise qui porte atteinte aux valeurs sociales en général, et par la remise en question et l'analyse détaillée des limites du concept de développement durable (anticipée par Shamsul HAQUE, 2006, James ROBERTSON, 1999), repousse sur un terrain « fragile », de plus en plus « glissant », le contenu classique du développement durable – et illustre – au-delà des différentes nuances culturelles ou plus particulièrement sémantiques et – la recherche impérieuse d'une transition vers une possible conciliation entre le progrès de facture économique – un avatar de l'idée de progrès linéaire, toujours ascendant, dynamique – et le progrès humain – rattaché à l'idée de « soutenable » ou de « durable », circonstances qui génèrent des problèmes majeurs d'ordre sociétal, en disharmonie parfois avec l'ensemble des acquis de l'Union.

Ayant en vue ces défis, nous devons conclure cette section avec la conviction que le management actuel des ressources d'eau au niveau de l'Union, mais aussi au niveausus-régional (l'Europe Centrale et Orientale, tout spécialement, avec des retards chroniques dans certains pays, en dépit des efforts considérables d'harmonisation législative et institutionnelle) exige une approche intégrée, pluridisciplinaire, qui implique au-delà de la problématique purement légale ou attachée à la réforme actuelle de la gouvernance – des aspects techniques (biophysiques, chimiques, économiques), et aussi institutionnels, et rencontre bien sûr les nouveaux défis qui imposent une harmonisation législative soutenue qui devrait favoriser l'émergence accélérée des nouvelles politiques publiques impérieusement nécessaires ; et pour espérer d'être quasi-complets dans cette énumération – nous invoquons aussi les aspects liés à la planification. Il est besoin ainsi d'étudier en profondeur, pour l'améliorer, le management de l'eau dans l'UE – on ne le dit jamais assez – dans une perspective multidisciplinaire – et d'essayer de trouver des solutions intégrées, par l'intermédiaire des méthodes de recherche et d'apprentissage innovantes, incluant les recherches documentaires nécessaires – dans le sens d'une approche plus large – amplement culturelle (l'eau vue comme bien proprement dit *culturel*), adaptée aux besoins actuels et l'amélioration et l'usage de certaines procédés et procédures de laboratoire au top de la technique actuelle, complétés par des travaux spécialisés dans les bassins hydrographiques eux-mêmes (ou, par exemple, dans les usines de distribution), à l'aide ou à travers des études de cas (tout en utilisant la méthodologie adéquate), pour réaliser la synthèse nécessaire de toutes les connaissances accessibles, tous ces éléments ensemble – se complétant les uns les autres – et cumulés – constitueront les éléments d'une avancée possible concernant la théorie et la pratique du management de l'eau, permettant – pour l'avenir – une réforme de la gouvernance, une amélioration et une démocratisation des processus décisionnels, une juste réglementation et une harmonieuse mise en œuvre dans le domaine général de l'eau – comprenant la gestion et la protection des sources, ainsi que la distribution et la consommation, ici intervenant, au-delà du droit de l'eau, des éléments nouveaux liés au droit à l'eau, ou l'accès à l'eau (non clarifié encore complètement même pas au niveau onusien, pour ne pas parler de sa mise en œuvre effective) promu par les Nations Unies depuis 2010 comme *droit fondamental de l'homme*.

Dans ce contexte, le concept de gouvernance implique un élargissement du cercle étroit des acteurs participants dans les différents processus décisionnels et la recherche pour déceler systématiquement des solutions par consensus. En résumant ces aspects nous devons mettre en parallèle, dans le contexte actuel – lorsque la protection de l'environnement et la problématique toujours plus « agitée » de l'eau et – par extension – les défis des changements climatiques – sont considérés comme en étant majeurs – en constituant l'axe second, selon l'importance – du Traité de Lisbonne, la source fondamentale du droit de l'Union, la gouvernance publique et la gouvernance corporative (de l'entreprise) et d'évaluer, de peser les
implications et les conséquences sur notre propre vie – alors même que la protection de l'environnement – sous ses aspects d'ensemble (y compris les domaines de l'eau et climatique) est remise en discussion.

Dans son ouvrage *"L'eau. Pour une culture de la responsabilité"*, Antoine Frérot écrit : « Le concept de gouvernance a acquis une célébrité planétaire. On lui prête la solution de tous nos maux. Il ne se passe pas une journée sans qu'on en appelle à lui dans un secteur d'activité ou un autre. Il n'en a pas toujours été ainsi pour cette notion à la fois si ancienne et si nouvelle. A l'origine, la gouvernance désigne une méthode ou un système de gouvernement. Le mot gouvernance vient de gouverner »<fnref n="2" />.

# 1. LE ROLE DES NATIONS UNIES ET DE L'UNION EUROPEENNE, AINSI QUE DES ORGANISMES RAPPORTES A LA PROTECTION DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT DANS LA GOUVERNANCE REGIONALE ET LOCALE DURANT LES DERNIERES DEUX DECENNIES

Dans la gestion des aspect régionaux et universels de la protection de l'environnement il a fallu mettre sur pied des organismes capables d'une prise de décision rapide et qualifiée en vue de limiter les dégâts provoqués par les divers accidents écologiques survenus dans les divers parties du monde. Ainsi, selon une typologie consacrée - on parle, en général, des organisations à vocation universelle, qui vise le système onusien - et des organismes régionaux ou sous-régionaux, liés à la protection de l'environnement contre les pollutions de tout sorte et à la gouvernance émergente des changements climatiques.

Pour illustrer les évolutions dans l'Europe centrale, on passe au phénomène dit de la **régionalisation**, pour signaler ainsi les évolutions récentes et la mise sur pied des organismes régionaux, capables de mettre en œuvre des programmes de dépollution de l'environnement naturel suite aux flux de produits pétroliers déversés accidentellement dans les rivières, les canaux ou les lacs, par imprudence ou ignorance des règles établies.

Dans une approche diachronique on peut voir, de façon très concise, qu'au niveau global, à partir de la Conférence de Rio un arrangement institutionnel d'une portée considérable a été réalisé par la mise sur pied de la Commission du développement durable, sa constitution étant prévue dans le chapitre 38 de l'Agenda 21, et pour appuyer son activité ont été créées deux structures principales : une pour la coordination des agences, organismes et programmes des Nations Unies et une autre « comme organe consultatif de haut niveau ». Cette Conférence de Rio, ainsi que les travaux de Rio+10, Montréal, Rio+20, etc., ont contribué, comme le témoignent les grands documents internationaux<fnref n="3" /> – de manière fondamentale au développement du droit international de l'environnement et à l'évolution de la gouvernance spécifique concernant l'eau et les changements climatiques, consolidée depuis suite aux autres travaux spécialisés des instances internationales<fnref n="4" />. L'actualité dans le domaine du droit international de l'environnement en plan global et régional a été ainsi assez riche depuis 1990 et jusqu'à ce jour, avec la tenue d'un nombre important de Conférences d'Etats - parties à plusieurs instruments internationaux et régionaux. Une suite des Conventions internationales ont quadrillé le terrain autour du monde, les grandes Conférences internationales et les Sommets de la Terre ont donné du sens à la recherche d'un développement durable, soutenable, d'un développement harmonieux joint à la protection de l'environnement naturel et aux études sur les changements climatiques.

Au niveau européen on doit signaler les travaux de toutes les organisations mises sur pied à partir des années quatre-vingts jusqu'à aujourd'hui, dont « l'Alpes – Adriatique » - l'actuelle Initiative Centrale Européenne, le Groupe de Visegrad – suivi par la CEFTA – ou le Marché Commun de l'Europe Centrale – selon une approche médiatique, la Zone de Coopération Economique de la Mer Noire – devenue l'OCEMN, en juin 1998, la Coopération de la Mer Baltique (ou la nouvelle « Hanse nordique), l'Espace Economique Européen dans son évolution discrète – et sur son modèle – du moins sur le papier – toutes les organisations pan-slaves animées par la Russie et ses partenaires de la Communauté d'Etat Indépendants (l'Union Economique Eurasiatique, l'Espace Economique Unique, l'Union

<footnote n="1">¹ Antoine FREROT, *L'eau. Pour une culture de la responsabilité*, Editura Autrement, coll. Frontières, Paris, 2009.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Ibid., p. 174.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Report of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20–22 June 2012.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴Voir en ce sens le Programme de Nations Unies pour l'Environnement, tout spécialement la politique et stratégie de l'eau du PNUE.</footnote>
Douanière Russie – Kazakhstan – Biélorussie – Ukraine, et même l'organisation de courte vie - GUAM, censée a favoriser le transport des hydrocarbures de la Mer Caspienne vers l'Europe par des routes en dehors de la Russie, pour éviter « le robinet russe ».

Dans cette mouvance générale des nouvelles organisations ou des nouveaux organismes créés après la chute du communisme en Europe, se distingue en particulier l'Union Européenne, qui a mis sur pied une véritable politique dédiée à l'environnement, et plus particulièrement aux eaux et aux changements climatiques.

Ainsi, à travers le prisme de la stratégie de développement durable, lancée il y a quelques années, pour ce qui est de la politique de l'eau de l'Union Européenne on doit dire très brièvement que la Directive cadre<fnref n="1" /> accorde un place essentielle à la protection des écosystèmes, elle implique une logique de résultats – arriver au « bon état » au plus tard en 2015, exige de stimuler la participation de tous à l'implémentation de la politique de l'eau et de procéder à la consultation du public, d'assurer la transparence des coûts des services de distribution liés à l'eau et l'estimation correcte des dommages causés par le non-respect des règles de la protection de l'environnement. Pour conclure sur cet aspect nous devons dire que la Directive cadre est née de la volonté expresse des Etats-membres de l'Union de tacher d'harmoniser leurs politiques en matière de gestion des ressources en eau, l'objectif fondamental étant celui d'atteindre le bon état écologique des milieux aquatiques (rivières, lacs, eaux littorales, eaux souterraines, nappes phréatiques, etc.) au plus tard en 2015.

## 2. BREF REGARD SUR L'IMPACT DES CONVENTIONS DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT EN EUROPE CENTRALE ET ORIENTALE. CAUSES DES ACCIDENTS ECOLOGIQUES RELATIVEMENT RECENTS ET DEFIS REGIONAUX ET LOCAUX

### a) Quelques exemples de pollution dans le bassin de la Mer Noire et du Danube durant la dernière décennie

Dans la seconde moitié du XX-ème siècle le bassin de la Mer Noire et du Danube a subi des dommages importants, à cause de l'érosion côtière quasi continuelle, de l'absence ou l'insuffisance chronique du traitement des eaux usées, et de manière plus générale - la mauvaise gestion des eaux. Mais durant la dernière décennie, des accidents écologiques provoqués par des transporteurs pétroliers ont pollué les eaux du Danube et de la Mer Noire avec des hydrocarbures déversées de manière accidentelle par les tanks pétroliers. Quelques exemples d'accidents arrivés il y a quelques années s'imposent :

- Pollution des eaux du canal Danube - Mer Noire (due à un résidu pétrolier déversé accidentellement sur la rive droite du canal, à la hauteur du km 24,29, par le navire roumain « Rovinari », accident survenu le 4 juin 2004), selon le Ministère de la Protection de l'Environnement et des Changements Climatiques;

- Pollution de l'aquarium de Constantza, le 20 juillet 2004, confirmée par un communiqué de presse du même ministère, par une nappe de pétrole déversée accidentellement par le transporteur roumain « Dana 84 », suite à une fissure de la magistrale de transport de SC OIL Terminal;

- Pollution massive du Canal Poarta - Alba - Midia - Navodari constatée le 23 novembre 2006 en raison du déversement accidentel d'une certaine quantité de hydrocarbures par un transporteur roumain (selon un communiqué de presse du Ministère de la Protection l'Environnement et des Changements Climatiques).

### b) Les causes recensées

Les causes concrètes de tous ces problèmes rencontrés dans le bassin Danube - Mer Noire ont été recensés à l'occasion de la mise en œuvre du Plan stratégique pour la protection de la Mer Noire contre les pollutions: a) l'insuffisance des législations nationales et des réglementations spécifiques au niveau régional, ainsi que des mesures concrètes au niveau local ; b) mauvaise implémentation des politiques législatives établies, uneplanification stratégique inadéquate a tous les niveaux, absence de stratégies et visions réalistes ; c) attitude inadéquate des divers acteurs et insuffisance de l'information et de la participation du

<footnote n="1">¹La DCE a été adoptée par le législatif européen, par la procédure dite de co-décision, le 23 octobre 2000 (actuellement, suite au Traité de Lisbonne la procédure est appellée « procédure législative ordinaire »).</footnote>
public (manque d'une prise de conscience aigue par rapport à la protection de l'environnement, l'exercice des droits publics, le manque de transparence des processus décisionnels, etc.).

Ces expériences dramatiques ont poussé les autorités à s'engager à des politiques visant la protection de l'environnement et une meilleure gestion des eaux, et à des prises de position fermes à l'occasion des sommets régionaux et transcontinentaux.

### c) Conventions et Déclarations d'intention visant la dépollution des eaux en Europe Centrale et Orientale

En plan régional central et est-européen compte aussi la Convention sur l'usage du Danube, convention qui a été signée en 1994 et ratifiée par la Loi roumaine n° 14 du 24 février 1995. Les suites des guerres yougoslaves ont menée également à la pollution... « durable » du fleuve, le manque d'investissements dans la région faisant pratiquement impossible même le trafic fluvial. Il semble que la situation évolue d'une manière plus satisfaisante ces dernières années suite aux efforts des différents groupes de travail de l'Organisation pour la Coopération Economique de la Mer Noire, mise sur pied par les douze pays riverains ou voisins proches depuis 1992, suite aux *Déclarations d'intention* de 1992¹ du Sommet d'Istanbul, qui ont réussi à déclencher un processus de coopération multilatérale dans la région, qui a atteint son apogée en juin 1998 à Yalta, en Crimée, avec la création de l'Organisation pour la Coopération Economique de la Mer Noire<fnref n="2" />.

L'utilisation excessive des ressources de la Mer Noire ou du Danube, pendant la période communiste - mais également pendant la transition (les privatisations accélérées, le capitalisme sauvage dans certains pays, effets des « thérapies de choc ») - sans faire attention aux facteurs qui touchent à l'environnement nous ont mené à une situation presque sans issue. La réaction des organismes internationaux ne s'est laissée pas attendue. De nombreuse prises de position de l'Union Européenne, plusieurs résolutions et recommandations de l'Assemblée parlementaire du Conseil de l'Europe, sur la base de cette « matrice conceptuelle », en font la preuve : Résolution 1149 (1998) : Développement durable des bassins de la Mer Méditerranée et de la Mer Noire, Recommandation 1359 de 1998 - Développement durable des bassins de la Mer Méditerranée et de la Mer Noire, Recommandation 1502 (2001) sur la Coopération interparlementaire dans ces bassins, Résolution 1242 (2001) sur le même genre de coopération, etc.

La Convention de Bucarest du 21 avril 1992 sur la protection de la Mer Noire contre les pollutions, inspirée des textes des Conventions sur les mers régionales du PNUE, signée par les pays riverains de la Mer Noire, a été ratifiée par tous les six partenaires au début 1994. Cette Convention comprend un accord cadre et trois protocoles spécifiques : a) le contrôle des pollutions d'origine tellurique ; b) l'immersion des déchets ; et c) les actions concertées en cas d'accident, cas des marées noires ou autres. La mise en œuvre de la Convention pour la protection de l'environnement en Mer Noire est gérée par une Commission internationale, avec un Secrétariat permanent siégeant à Istanbul, Turquie.

Cet accord régional est suivi à deux années d'intervalle par l'Accord sur la conservation des Cétacés de la Mer Baltique et de la Mer du Nord, entré en vigueur le 29 mars 1994, comme troisième accord régional dans le cadre de la Convention de Bonn, une première session de travail - de la réunion des Parties contractantes ayant lieu à Stockholm, en Suède, les 26 - 28 septembre 1994.

### d) Champs d'action et caractères du Plan stratégique d'action en Mer Noire

Voyons de façon très concise les exigences des principales conventions régionales au regard des plans concrets d'action dans la Mer Noire. Les champs d'action fondamentaux établis par le Plan stratégique sont les suivants : gestion intégrée des zones côtières, des zones urbaines et industrielles ; assurer le développement durable dans le domaine du tourisme, favoriser l'aquaculture ; stimuler la

<footnote n="1">¹Il s'agit des deux Déclarations du 25 juin 1992, du Sommet d'Istanbul, lors de la création de la Zone de Coopération Economique de la Mer Noire, la première – la Déclaration du Bosphore étant une déclaration politique et la seconde – celle d'Istanbul – étant celle qui mettait sur pied les deux volets principaux de la nouvelle coopération – le volet intergouvernemental et le volet « non étatique » de la coopération « sans l'Etat ».</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Les 5 – 6 juin 1998 à Yalta a été signée la Charte de Yalta, l'acte constitutif de l'OCEMN.</footnote>
participation du public aux processus décisionnels visant la protection de l'environnement ; attirer les ONG dans les programmes pour faciliter la mise en oeuvre des stratégies. Pour assurer une gestion adéquate de la zone côtière de la Mer Noire, doivent être élaborées des stratégies de management intégrées. Les stratégies régionales doivent être élaborées sur la base des principes fondamentaux requis et à l'aide des méthodologies modernes de planification, pour mieux utiliser l'eau et le sol. La promotion du tourisme et de l'aquaculture durable est un pas important en vue d'assurer la croissance économique dans la région de la Mer Noire et du Danube. Ainsi, pour éviter toute dégradation de l'environnement et toute pollution des eaux, les principes fondamentaux du tourisme et de l'aquaculture doivent être respectés par chacun de six Etats impliqués.

Il faut développer l'écotourisme par l'intermédiaire des projets – pilot innovants – dans le bassin de la Mer Noire. Vont être élaborés des codes de conduite écologique et des cours d'initiation au tourisme durable, en coopération avec les autres secteurs de l'industrie du tourisme. La participation des tous les segments de la société est l'exigence première pour élaborer une stratégie fiable de développement durable dans la région (« conformément au Plan Stratégique d'Action pour la protection de la Mer Noire contre la pollution», Istanbul, octobre 1996).

En ce qui concerne cette région du Centre – Est, la période de transition s'est montrée d'une difficulté croissante pour tous les pays riverains ou voisins proches de la Mer Noire ou du Danube. Une longue période d'austérité, lourd héritage de l'époque antérieure, a poussé à une exploitation irrationnelle des ressources avec des conséquences néfastes sur l'environnement et sur le facteur humain. Le manque d'investissements dans ce domaine a empiré la situation, menant à une crise accentuée. Cela a poussé les pays intéressés à s'associer en vue de la protection de leur patrimoine commun. Des nouvelles législations, harmonisées avec les normes européennes, ont été mises en places dans les pays de la région, la Roumanie étant parmi les premiers pays candidats à l'adhésion qui ont implémenté ces mesures avec un certain succès.

## II. LES DEFIS ACTUELS DE LA GESTION DES RESSOURCES EN EAU. QUELQUES BREVES PROPOSITIONS DE REFORME EN GUISE D'UNE MEILLEURE HARMONISATION AVEC LA LEGISLATION EUROPEENNE

Selon les spécialistes, l'adhésion de la Roumanie à l'Union Européenne<fnref n="1" /> a représenté un défi considérable pour les milieux scientifiques roumains, y compris dans le domaine de la protection de l'environnement et la gestion des ressources en eau. Même si notre pays ne s'est pas confronté avec des degrés de pollution similaires à ceux de quelques pays les plus développés de l'Europe occidentale, les conséquences de l'industrialisation forcée durant la période de l'ancien régime - qui n'était pas assortie de politiques adéquates concernant la protection de l'environnement, ont mené à la dégradation quasi-générale du milieu naturel et des sources d'eau. Donc l'un des domaines les plus touchés est celui de l'eau, lequel a subi des pollutions majeures durant des décennies, causés tout spécialement par :

* des accidents industriels (pollution chimique de l'eau sur la rivière de Tisza en 2000, suite à un déversement de cyanure par une société commerciale à capital australien, de la région de Baia-Mare) et des accidents écologiques sur les canaux, les lacs et la mer elle-même (déversements accidentels des hydrocarbures dans les eaux respectives);

* l'entassement des déchets et des ordures sur le bord des rivières ou même le déversement direct dans la rivière ou les lacs d'accumulation;

* l'absence d'un système cohérent de canalisation ou salubrité (surtout dans les campagnes);

* le manque chronique d'installations modernes ou d'usines performantes pour le traitement des eaux usées (faute de ressources et de technologie).

<footnote n="1">¹La première vague d'élargissement de l'Union, après la chute du communisme en Europe de l'Est, a permis l'adhésion de la Roumanie et de la Bulgarie, dans sa deuxième « tranche », en 2007 (la première s'est produit au 1er mai 2004), et de la Croatie au 1er juillet 2013, dans sa troisième « tranche ».</footnote>
Selon les chercheurs avisés, la pollution ne représente pas le seul défi majeur pour la Roumanie, dans le moment actuel les inondations représentent encore un problème aigu. Ces vagues répétées des catastrophes durant ces dernières années ont été souvent déterminées par l'application déficitaire des politiques publiques, le manque d'intérêt des agents économiques, l'absence d'autres leviers importants, l'inexistence d'une organisation administrative efficace : notre pays garde encore système fortement centralisé<fnref n="1" />, ce qui mène souvent à un double emploi au niveau local et à un enchevêtrement d'attributions et de taches qui permet de mettre souvent sur le compte d'autrui des responsabilités accrues. La régionalisation en cours va, très probablement, régler tous ces problèmes, sinon tout de suite, du moins dans la durée.

Au niveau des structures spécialisées, nous avons en Roumanie trois institutions centrales (le Ministère de l'Environnement et des Changements Climatiques, l'Administration Nationale « Les Eaux Roumaines » et l'Institut National d'Hydrologie et de la Gestion des Eaux)<fnref n="2" />, notre pays étant quadrillé en 11 bassins hydrographiques, chacun d'entre eux étant doté d'un Comité de bassin. Mais ces comités n'arrivent pas à couvrir le réseau hydrographique en son entier à cause de sa grande étendue et ils risquent ainsi de perdre de vue les particularités locales. On se préoccupe trop des grandes rivières du pays, les politiques publiques négligeant ainsi les petites rivières, mais ce sont justement ces dernières qui risquent de provoquer des catastrophes inattendues (Târlisua, 2006, Humor, 2006 ; deux tempêtes d'une rare violence ont tout détruit en moins d'une heure).

On constate également l'inexistence de certains départements spécialisés à l'intérieur même du Ministère de l'Environnement et des Changements Climatiques. Ainsi les politiques concernant la protection de l'environnement proposées par ce ministère ont fait preuve d' inefficacité, en ayant généralement un impact assez réduit sur les citoyens, en l'absence d'un vrai débat et d'une collaboration accrue entre le centre et sa périphérie, ou vice-versa. Un tel exemple pourrait être représenté par le Programme « Crisurilecurate » (les Crisuri propres), qui a été mis en œuvre il y a quelques années – mais sur une trop courte période de temps pour pouvoir prétendre avoir un impact significatif.

Quant au domaine législatif concernant les eaux roumaines – celui-là contient à peu près une centaine d'actes normatifs<fnref n="3" /> promulgués dans un laps de temps assez court (lois, décrets, ordres et arêtés du Gouvernement, ordonnances d'urgence ou simples, certains d'entre ces acts législatifs étant modifiés ou complétés ultérieurement), dont le plus important est celui de 1996, la Loi des Eaux n° 107, publiée dans le Moniteur Officiel n° 244 du 8 octobre 1996. Comme la Roumanie s'est engagé, dans le cadre de la stratégie de pré-adhésion<fnref n="4" />, d'harmoniser sa législation avec celle de l'Union – et donc d'implémenter la Directive Cadre sur l'Eau (2000/06/EC), adoptée par la procédure de codécision le 23 octobre 2000, la sus-dite loi 107 de 1996 a été modifiée en profondeur et complétée par la Loi n° 310 de 2004, qui transpose donc cette directive dans la législation nationale roumaine, ces deux actes normatifs cités supra en constituant ainsi le cadre législatif général dans le domaine des eaux dans notre pays, d'autres aspects particuliers concernant les eaux étant réglementés par l'intermédiaire des ordonnances d'urgences, des ordonnances simples, des ordres et des arrêtés du Gouvernement. Nous allons donc présenter de manière concise les principales modalités d'organisation du réseau hydrologique roumain, pour conclure, en quelques lignes, sur une proposition de réforme, nécessaire si on veut aboutir „au bon état écologique” des eaux attendu pour l'année 2015.

<footnote n="1">¹On nous promet une régionalisation rapide, pour l'année 2014, mais sachant qu'on va avoir une longue année électorale – cela va rester du domaine des promesses... électorales...</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Ces diverses institutions changent de nom à chaque alternance politique, ainsi il est difficile à les identifier sur un plus long laps de temps, des mises à jour, des ajustements et des corrections étant nécessaires tous les quatre ou cinq ans...</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Une analyse quasi complète ou du moins plus détaillée de ces actes normatifs devrait être réalisée dans la seconde partie de notre travail et en d'autres contributions dans les volumes collectifs publiés par notre Centre de recherches sur les politiques publiques dans le domaine de l'eau dans notre pays, actuellement en cours de préparation.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴En 2004 la Roumanie était en train à ce moment-là de finaliser les négociations d'adhésion à l'Union Européenne, parcours achevé, du point de vue technique, au mois d'octobre 2004, le Conseil Européen des 16 – 17 décembre 2004 donnant le feu vert à la rédaction et la signature du Traité d'adhésion pour le premier semestre de 2005, la Roumanie intégrant l'Union Européenne au 1er janvier 2007.</footnote>
La Loi n° 107 de 1996, complétée par les dispositions des articles 11 et 12 de la Loi n° 310 de 2004, établit, dans son nouvel article 6, le *bassin hydrographique* comme entité de base dans la gestion des eaux, les bassins hydrographiques nationaux étant à la charge des directions régionales de l'Administration Nationale des Eaux Roumaines.

Le législateur roumain avait opté, dans la nouvelle loi, en guise d'harmonisation avec la directive cadre européenne (l'article 3 de la DCE), pour une organisation régionale dans le cadre des districtes de bassins suivants: *Someş-Tisa, Crișuri, Mureș, Banat, Jiu, Olt, Argeș-Vedea, Buzău-Ialomița, Siret, Prut-Bărlad et Dobrogea-Litoral*.

Il était ainsi établit que dans le cadre de chaque direction régionale de l'Administration Nationale des Eaux Roumaines soit organisé un comité de bassin, qui devait être composé par de nombreuses catégories de membres, ce qui nous mène ainsi vers une organisation extrêmement compliquée, difficilement applicable, qui nécessite à notre avis une réforme en profondeur. Nous avons essayé ainsi de préparer une brève proposition de réforme dans le cadre d'IRENES, projet développé en Interreg III C, aux côtés de nos partenaires roumains et étrangers, donc par la suite on va reprendre quelques passages, pour bien illustrer notre propos.

Suite à l'identification de ces problèmes spécifiques, à notre avis la seule solution viable sera la réalisation et l'intensification des relations de collaboration au niveau local et régional<fnref n="1" />. Un argument de taille en faveur de cette idée consiste dans le fait qu'au niveau communal les problèmes sont mieux connus, et implicitement seront mieux gérés ( cela nous rappelle le principe de la subsidiarité). Par conséquent, nous avons besoin d'une meilleure organisation régionale par la mise sur pied des unités de collaboration intercommunale. Ces unités seront créées sous la forme de Comités, organisés au niveau des affluents importants des principales rivières – des 11 grands bassins hydrographiques existants.

Dans un essai d'harmonisation complète avec les normes de l'Union Européenne, ces Comités – calqués un peu sur ceux prévus par la loi française, devront être composés de plusieurs membres, dont :

a) un représentant du Conseil Départemental ou Régional; b) un représentant des Conseils locaux de chaque commune impliquée dans le comité; c) un représentant de l'Administration Nationale « Les Eaux Roumaines » au niveau du bassin; d) un représentant de Romsilva (Administration nationale des forêts) au niveau d'organisation de la zone respective; un représentant de l'Institut National d'Hydrologie et de la Gestion des Eaux; e) un représentant des ONG qui travaillent sur l'environnement de la région ou du département; f) des agents économiques – PME ou autres structures – qui ont un impact sur la gestion de l'eau (usines d'eau, sociétés commerciales, autres structures de distribution, etc.).

Selon la méthodologie que devrait être adoptée (vu l'expérience française récente) les membres des Comités vont se réunir une fois par mois, mais aussi chaque fois qu'il sera nécessaire. Leurs responsables vont rédiger des rapports trimestriels et annuels, dans lesquels ils vont présenter :

a) le degré d'implémentation des politiques publiques au niveau des communes;

b) les problèmes courants;

c) les modalités de règlement des crises et de résolution des problèmes rencontrés;

d) les propositions nouvelles;

e) l'audit financier (justification des dépenses et autres).

Les Comités vont représenter des instruments utiles de liaison entre les communes, entre les communes et les autres structures habilitées vont tacher de faciliter et d'harmoniser la communication entre elles, pour aboutir à une meilleure collaboration au niveau local et régional. Les problèmes communs rencontrés par ces localités, surtout durant les situations de crise, pourront ainsi trouver une solution globale par l'intermédiaire de ces structures.

En dehors ou en plus de ces activités, les Comités décris ci-dessus devront réaliser des taches conjointes :

a) missions d'information dans les écoles (universités, lycées, écoles primaires);

<footnote n="1">¹Comme le processus de « régionalisation » effective en Roumanie se laisse attendre, cela reste encore une figure de style lorsqu'on parle de la… « régionalisation ». Le gouvernement actuel semble décidé de clore ce processus dans quelques mois, mais vu qu'on sera en année électorale, ses promesses risquent de ne pas être respectées.</footnote>
b) activités organisées dans d'autres institutions d'enseignement (écoles professionnelles, confessionnelles, etc.) pour sensibiliser les élèves à la protection de l'environnement ;

c) missions d'information et de consultation du public (campagnes d'information, dissémination de dépliants, conférences, séminaires, etc.) ;

d) prévention de la déforestation massive et le reboisement en coopération avec Romsilva;

e) promotion de l'éco-tourisme (ou tourisme écologique) en coopération avec les structures professionnelles du tourisme de la région;

f) établissement des modèles d'implémentation des politiques écologiques en agriculture ;

g) vérification périodique de la qualité et de la pureté de l'eau ;

h) implémentation des réglementations nationales au niveau local (le contrôle de la pêche, superviser l'aquaculture...), la salmoniculture, etc.) ;

i) mise en œuvre des politiques publiques pour la prévention des inondations, des glissements de terrain du aux tempêtes, correction des torrents, etc.

Hormis ces brèves propositions (la plupart étant déjà discutées à l'occasion de nos réunions de travail dans le cadre d'IRENES – comme nous l'avons précisé *supra*, par la force des choses incomplètes ou même un peu sommaires, étant donné le cadre restreint de cette analyse préliminaire, il nous reste à investiguer, dans une éventuelle seconde partie de ce travail, un champs de recherche assez large et d'une technicité particulière, par rapport, en principal, aux modalités dans lesquelles les Etats-Membres arriveront à respecter leurs obligations visant la mise en œuvre de la Directive Cadre dans le domaine de l'eau - 2000/60/UE – (WFD), ainsi que des autres directives tangentes et associées, pour pouvoir dégager un ensemble de mesures qui vont contribuer à une plus efficace et plus harmonieuse finalisation du premier Plan de Management National (RBMP) et des Plans de Mesures Associées (JPM), lesquels ont comme délai, selon l'article 8 de la Directive Cadre sur l'eau, l'année 2015, dans un contexte tout à fait particulier pour la Roumanie – le constat d'un retard dans certaines domaines – qui peut nous amener dans une situation semblable à celle dont nous nous confrontons maintenant par rapport à la CEDO (retard chronique visant quelques problèmes législatifs spécifiques et les restitutions des bien confisqués pendant l'ancien régime), d'être amenés à demander des changements de calendrier pour pouvoir réaliser nos obligations visant l'objectif fondamental spécifique – celui d'atteindre le bon état écologique des milieux aquatiques en 2015.

Notre intention est de réaliser, entre autres – dans notre deuxième partie de ce travail préliminaire – qui va être publiée prochainement, espérons-le dans le numéro suivant de cette même revue – au-delà de la démarche purement théorique, une brève proposition de réforme visant les modalités de planification en Roumanie des Plans approuvés (RBMP) entre 2009 et 2010, par l'analyse approfondie des impacts créés dans les bassins hydrographiques de prédilection – sélectionnés – ici étant bien le cas de la région Nord-Ouest de la Roumanie – le bassin Somes-Tisza, ainsi que des stades de réalisation des objectifs établis, de la prise de mesures incluses dans les Plans de mesures concernant le premier cycle de la mise en œuvre de la Directive Cadre et qui ont – comme nous l'avons vu – comme délai de rigueur pour leur finalisation l'année 2015. Assurément, comme nous ne pouvons pas analyser tous ces aspects dans le cadre de ce bref article, les principaux éléments vont faire l'objet d'une recherche approfondie, tant documentaire, législative, que scientifique en général – avec la prise en considération des nouvelles complications qui peuvent intervenir dans les systèmes intégrés de l'eau sous la pression des changements climatiques, lesquels constituent depuis l'entrée en vigueur du Traité de Lisbonne – l'axe second selon l'importance pour l'Union Européenne, dans le contexte particulier où tout est vu à travers le prisme de la stratégie de développement durable, lancée il y a quelques années par l'Union Européenne.

**Bibliographie sélective:**

European Commission, *European Governance. A White Paper*, Bruxelles, 25 iulie 2001, COM (2001), 428.

Convention de Bucarest du 21 avril 1992 – sur la protection de la Mer Noire contre les pollutions.

Déclaration du Sommet d'Istanbul, 1992, point n° 14.

Directive Cadre sur l'Eau (la DCE) adoptée par codécision le 23 octobre 2000.

Documents gouvernementauxet législation roumaine dans le domaine de l'eau.
P.-M. DUPUY, *Droit international public*, Précis Dalloz, 5ème édition, Paris, 2000.

M. DUȚU, *Particularitățișidimensiunialedreptuluiinternațional al mediului (Particularités et dimensions du droit international de l'environnement)*, conférence, 2000.

Antoine FREROT, *L'eau. Pour une culture de la responsabilité*, Edition Autrement, coll. Frontières, Paris, 2009.

S. HIX, *The Study of the European Union II: the new governance agenda and its rival*, in *Journal of European Public Policy*, 5.1/1998.

W. LANG (ed), *Sustainable Development and International Law*, Graham and Trotman/MNP, 1995.

*Report of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development*, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20–22 June 2012.

B. K.OHLER-KOCH, B. RITTBERGER, „Review Article: The ‘Governance Turn’ in European Union Studies”, in *Journal of Common Market Studies*, nr. 44/2006, Annual Review.

Ph. SCHMITTER, *Democracy in Europe's Democratization*, in *Journal of Democracy*, nr. 14.4/2003.

Costica SOFRONIE, Cristiana BAYER, *Planul de management al apelor in bazinul hidrografic Somes-Tisa* (Le plan de management des eaux dans le bassin hydrographique Somes-Tisza), UTPRESS, Cluj-Napoca, 2012.

J. TORFING, *The European Governance Debate: Towards a new paradigm*, 2010.

Ioan RADU, Viorel LEFTER, Cleopatra SENDROIU, Minodora URSACHESCU, Mihai CIOC, *Efecteleparteneriatului public-privat in serviciilepublice de alimentarecuapa si canalizare. Experientamunicipiului Bucuresti (Les effets du partennariat public-privé dans les services publics d'alimentation en eau et de salubrité. L'expérience de la municipalité de Bucarest*, Editions ASE, 2008.

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>
# D. European Identity, Languages and Education

## European Identity and English as official language of Europe

DR. DAVID RAMIRO TROITINO

Tallinn University of Technology

DR. ARCHIL CHOCHIA

Tallinn Law School of Tallinn University of Technology

**Abstract:** This article explores European Integration, focusing on identity issues of the people of Europe. It talks about the problems of European integration and lack of feeling of belonging to common Europe by the people of Europe. There are different levels of identity, also within the citizens of the European Union, the authors try to explain what are the identity problems in the integration process, how important is the role of language in it and what could be a future useful solutions and developments.

**Keywords:** European Union, European identity, European Integration.

## INTRODUCTION

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /></figure>

here are different theories about European integration, different ways to build a common Europe as a common peace system where the parts, the member states, can solve their disputes by peaceful means. As the integration has been growing, the benefits for the European people increase and there is a big necessity for increasing the integration, and hence protecting the benefits of the already done integration plus achieving new profits via deeper integration.

The main theories are Federalism, Functionalism, Cooperation and Neofunctionalism. Basically the first of them supports the idea of a European Parliament as the central institution of a political framework in Europe, because the new political structure can be built only by the people of Europe, and should be done at once with a federal constitutions and federal institutions. Hence, the European Parliament should be elected by the European people in democratic elections to rule over the European affairs. It means that the citizens of the member states, and hence European people, should vote in the European elections according to the European interest, and not according to their national interests. In order to achieve this, the Europeans should have issues which are felt as European. It raises several problematic questions:

- How to identify a European issue when you do not identify yourself as European? Why the European elections show low participation comparing with the elections in the member States?

- Why is there so much indifference about the European Parliament in Europe?

- Why cannot a great majority of European citizens name even a single member of the Parliament?

- Why there is not any proper European political party?

- Why domestic issues are still much more important in all the countries of the EU in the political campaign for the European elections than European problems?

The answer could be the lack of identification between the European citizens and the European Union since their national identity is much stronger than the European identity.

According to the main federal idea, subsidiarity, the problems should be solved on the best level of decision making. There are many different levels of decision making influencing the life of the European citizens:

1. Local level and city halls

2. Regional level and regional institutions

3. National level and States
4. European level.

Hence, for example, if a problem can be solved better on a local level, such as rubbish recollection, the City Hall should deal with it rather than other institution less effective. Having a problem that can be solved better on the European level, like for example protection of environment – a problem widespread in Europe because environment does not know about political borders and it influences all the members of the Union- the European Parliament should rule over it in order to benefit the society. Henceforth, if the decision making would happen on the European level providing benefits for the society, the European citizens would look to the European Parliament for solutions. Once the EP could rule and solve the problems of the people, the loyalty of the citizens will be transferred from the national level to the European level because the institution that solves our problems is European, our loyalty gradually would change from the national level (before the last institution in order to solve our problems) to the European level.

Why has it not happened in Europe? Mainly is because of confusion about the role of European Institutions, and especially confusion between the powers of the European Council and the European Parliament, and secondly because of lack of a strong European identity.

Another theory, Functionalism, is based on a technocratic work, out of the political spectrum, does not need any European identity to work. The same as Transnationalism: the member states are the center of the decision making, so no transfer of loyalty from the national to the European level is required, and hence no European identity is needed.

In the case of Neofunctionalism, and its approach to the integration in Europe based on the spill-over effect, the transfer of loyalty from the national level to the European level is basic in the system.

Neofunctionalism speaks about integration in areas of low politics which are important in other fields as side effect. Economy for example, has a high potential for further integration that will lead to bigger integration that will create new necessities which can be solved just by more integration, being the end of the process the creation of a European State. The idea is clear, integration in a common trade area lead us to a common market. In order to have a common market, we could not have national barriers, so the European institutions dealt with this problem creating European standards. So, Europe moved towards a Single Market. To get a real single market Europe should have had the same rights and duties, the same opportunities, and finish with the distortion created in the market by different national currencies. So, the EU created a common currency, the Euro. The creation of the European currency will lead Europe towards a free movement of capital in the euro zone, but there is a problem with the banking system and different taxes paid in each member state. So this field too will be integrated in the European level as the only possible way to increase the effectiveness of the system. If the EU follows this progression, it will have a European State as a result.<fnref n="1" />

But Neofunctionalism has a multi-approach to integration. The spill-over effect is its central point, but not the only one. The creation of institutions to deal with common issues and to push for further integration, leading the process in the right direction is another important approach. These institutions should be independent from any member state of the organization, and its workers should forget the interest of their own national states for the common European interest. In case of the European Union this institution is clearly the European Commission. As a consequence of the spill-over effect, more and more policies were, are, and will be included in the area of influence of the European Union, and hence, in the area of influence of the European Commission, that becomes a center of decision making in terms of European issues. The loyalty of the economical agents, according to Neofunctionalism, will change from the previous level of decision making, the national governments, to the European level, transferring loyalty from the states to the European Union.

It is clear that if in any economical field the decisions are taken on the European level, for good and for bad, providing the economical agents rules, benefits and losses, the eyes of these agents will be focused on the European level. Whenever they have a problem, they will try to solve it in Brussels, or whenever they have a proposal, they will lobby in Brussels. According to Neofunctionalism this will create a European identity in economic terms, helping to create the European identity in cultural terms.

<footnote n="1">¹ European Integration: Building Europe (Nova Publishers) David Ramiro Troitino. 2013</footnote>
The problem of this theory is the multifunctional approach to the European Building process and the creation of other institutions, such as the European Council, where the member states are represented, where the national interest of the member states is protected. The European Union has four main institutions, the High Court of Justice which protects the respect to the common law, the European Commission as the executive branch, the European Parliament as a representative of the European people, and the European Council as a representative of the member states.<fnref n="1" /> The process of legislation is started by the European Commission, but the Council and the European Parliament have the last saying, and they can change the original proposal substantially. In this game of power the Council almost always has the upper hand, becoming the central institution of the European Union and blocking the transfer of loyalty from the national level to the European level, delaying the creation of the European identity. As an example, one of the most successful lobby agencies dedicated to the car industry has declared in the Financial Times via his chief executive that their success resides in the lobby done in the capitals of the member states before the meetings of the European Council, and not in Brussels.<fnref n="2" />

## THE CURRENT SITUATION OF THE EUROPEAN IDENTITY

After more than 50 years of the European Building process, common institutions, and more representation of the people of Europe via the European Parliament, has resulted in a process where the European identity is growing but is still far to unseat the national identities as the main source of identification for the European people. The European Union does not want to destroy the national identities; the European Union is just adding another level in the decision making in order to benefit the whole society.

The first level of identification of any human being could be the family, the second location or homeland, where it can be included friends and work. Regional identification can be important mainly if the state is supranational or the extinction of the state is big. Finally there is a national level, with its capital as the common space of all the citizens of the State. European identity will be over the national identities. It already exists, but is weak in comparison with national identity, the strongest in Europe in the public affairs. All the agents working in the European Union field try to achieve the same primary goal, the end of confrontations and wars in Europe, most of them consequence of nationalistic confrontations, via integration. So, the creation of a European identity above the national identities will integrate people; make them closer, avoiding conflicts between them because of nationalistic feelings, fears or ignorance.<fnref n="3" />

Another important fact is the creation of the European State. It was the main target of the so called fathers of Europe, as they asserted in the Schumann declaration, the founding paper of the European Union.<fnref n="4" /> The European integration cannot work in the long term without the support and identification of the citizens with the new State.

How a European state could last if there is no European identity?

A state is just the organization of the public and common affairs. At the moment there are many reasons for the lack of European identity and measures working to achieve it, but one of the main obstacles is the fear that increasing the European identity would attack the national identities. Europe is a place with a great diversity, with more than 750 million inhabitants, and nearly 500 million in the EU, more than 200 languages, more than 2000 dialects, different ethnical groups, many different national groups, and different climates from the extreme cold of the north to the warm south, different cultures, etc.

Europe, small in territory, is big in diversity, making it more difficult to create this European identity.<fnref n="5" /> For years the actions of the European Commission in the field of European identity have been very cautious. Trying to avoid problems and upset faces the Commission has been acting according to the idea that pushing for a Unitarian identity would have meant the same that the fascist approach, not respecting the

<footnote n="1">¹ The Institutions of the European Union (New European Union). John Peterson and Michael Shackleton, 2006</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Theories of European Integration, Ben Rosamond, Series: The European Union Series, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ European Identity (Contemporary European Politics), Jeffrey T. Checkel and Peter J. Katzenstein, 2009.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ http://www.eppgroup.eu/Activities/docs/divers/schuman-en.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf</footnote>
European diversity. The position of the Commission is wrong, because the European identity is not something that destroys or dismantles the national identities; it is something to be added to them, above the national identity. The process is similar to the one followed by the national states in Europe where there were different cultural groups – a national consciousness was created over them without destroying them. For example, the regional identity of Bavaria in Germany is still very strong, but is not confronted with its German identity. The same can be said about Spain, where many regions, such as Andalusia, have a strong identity complemented by the national identity. A problem could be the new nationalism in many regions of Europe, like Catalonia in Spain, Corsica in France, or Scotland in United Kingdom. Even though all these regions have a strong regional nationalism growing, they also feel very European. Their main nationalist political parties want to be part of the European Union, and hence of the European identity, outlining that their main target is just to eliminate one level of integration: the state. They support the European identity as the last level of identification of their citizens as the most effective way to eliminate their main enemy, the identity of the State. So, a Basque person supporting the creation of an independent Basque state would like to have his local and regional identity, understanding the last as national identity, eliminating the Spanish identity, and making the European identity stronger. It means that it is a problem, but more for the member states of the European Union than for the European identity. Nationalism on a state level presents a bigger problem, centuries of building the national identity between many different people in the same state, as the case of France, made the state a nationalist agent, against pressures from below, local nationalism, and from above, European Union. Their support for the creation of a strong European identity is indispensable, because they are the main recipient of the loyalty of the people, because their power in terms of education, economy or politics. They should understand that a strong European Identity is good also for them, because with a stronger Union, with stronger integration the possibilities of a conflict would be minimal, and the benefits in many fields great, with minimal losses for the national identity.<fnref n="1" />

The European identity is principally based on weak symbols, as copying the process initiated by the states in the process of creating the national states. The European Union has its own flag and it's supposed to be the flag of all the Europeans, something to identify with. Also there is a European anthem, that as can be read in the web of the European Union is not just the anthem of the EU, but the anthem of Europe. The melody comes from the Ninth symphony composed in 1823 by Beethoven. These are two of the most visible symbols of the European Union, but there are others, a bit weaker, less popular symbols among the citizens of the EU, such as the European Day. It is a copy of the national days, important festivities in the member states, but on a European level: it is the 9th of May, the day of the Schumann declaration and the real beginning of the European building process. A huge part of the Europeans do not know anything about Schumann, the Schumann declaration, or even when the day of the European Union is. So, this symbol is still empty.<fnref n="2" />

The economical field has provided much stronger links of identification for the Europeans, mainly two facts, the creation of the Euro, the common currency, and the Schengen agreement. The first means that 16 member states share a common currency, more than 320 million Europeans with a common symbol in the everyday life. The level of identification with the currency is important in order to achieve a strong common identity, as we can see with the British and the Pound, still an important symbol for British citizens. But, the currency should work well, be strong, and give security to the citizens. Until now the Euro is being one of the strongest vehicles to create de European Identity because despite a general rise of the prices with its adoption, the Euro is lasting well during the current financial crisis, at least until now. The current crisis and the austerity mean in the countries more affected is having the opposite effect, as many citizens blame the common currency and the loss of financial independence for their situation.

The main problem of the Euro is the possibility of an asymmetrical crisis in some part of the common area, with an important impact in some areas of the Union and the lack of respectability of the currency and its common institutions, specially the European Central Bank. The best solution to an asymmetrical crisis could be the creation of a Treasure office in the European level, again the so called spill-over effect and deeper integration, deeper common identity.

<footnote n="1">¹ Nationalism in Europe 1789-1945 (Cambridge Perspectives in History), Timothy Baycroft, 1998.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/index_en.htm</footnote>
The feelings of the people related to the Euro, the common currency, are also important. The former idea in Europe of one state, one currency, makes the people get used to associate a country with a currency. The effect of having the same currency whenever the Europeans move to another country of the Euro zone, makes them feel more at home, with a currency that they know, without changing in the border, understanding the prices of the things, and so on.<fnref n="1" />

The Schengen agreement, primary a bilateral agreement between France and Germany is also an important point in the creation of European identity. The free movement of people between the member states of the EU, with some temporal restrictions for new members, security restrictions for crisis, and exceptions for some countries as United Kingdom, has practically abolished the concept of borders. Travelling from Spain to Finland without crossing any border, or showing any passport, makes people feel that they are still in the same area, on a common territory.<fnref n="2" />

Finally, the European citizenship is also helping to shape the European identity, especially for the Europeans who live in other states within the EU. The main benefits of the European citizenship are the rights to participate in the local elections wherever you live, despite of your nationality, and also in the European elections. It means that if any citizen does not live in another member state, the benefits are not felt, so its integration effect is residual because most of the Europeans born live and die in the same state.

On the other hand there are other symbols in order to create the European identity, as the Eurovision song context in Europe, the TV channel Euro News, the Ryder Cup, a golf competition between USA and Europe, or the football competitions in the European level, specially the last one for its great popularity among Europeans. The sentence Bosman, related with the freedom of movement of the European Union workers, allows the creation of real European teams where previously were national.

The future of the European identity faces many problems as we have seen; huge work is still to be done in order to increase the identification of the European citizens with the European Union to achieve a minimal loyalty that will allow creating the European State. Currently the European actions should be focus on:

1. The ignorance of the citizens about the EU and its institutions should be eradicated via education. Secondary school and high school should teach all over the territory of the EU a topic related with the Union. It is clear that education is a policy in the hands of the member states, but the European Council, where the states are represented, could include this topic all over Europe, with the same contents, the same structure and the same target. It will help to close the big gap between the people and the European Institutions, and decrease the high turnout of the European Elections. Currently the European Commission is working in this field promoting via subsidies teaching in schools. But still there is much to do until the European studies are generally included in all the member states.

2. In political terms, the European institutions should work faster in order to be felt easier by the European citizens, increasing the loyalty of them towards the EU. At the moment there is a balance system of power between the member states, where unanimity is required in delicate issues, and between the member states and the European Parliament, with the co-decision system. It makes it inefficient and slow. A reform to increase the capacity of reaction and reduce the timing in the decision making will have a positive influence in the identification of the citizens as Europeans.

3. In International relations, a single voice is needed, because still nowadays, most of the member states look after their own interest unilaterally, instead to reach a common and stronger position for the benefit of all of them. So, a foreign affairs minister is needed to increase the influence of the EU in the external world, and make it stronger inside the community. As an example, we can see the energy policy of different states negotiating with Russia, like Germany, avoiding a common position that could bring to the whole community better deal conditions.

4. In the defense field, many European countries, especially in Central and East Europe, feel safe from external aggressions thanks to their membership in the NATO, a military organization led by USA. It

<footnote n="1">¹ The Euro: The Battle for the New Global Currency, David Marsh, 2011.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Schengen Area: Schengen Agreement, Schengen, Luxembourg, European Union, Immigration Policy, Amsterdam Treaty, Visa, Council of the European Union, Opt-Outs in the European Union by Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon and Susan F. Marseken, 2010.</footnote>
means that they do not feel safe because of the EU, and the citizens identify themselves less with a common Europe. So, the European Union should develop its own defense policy in order to protect its members from external aggressions, even if they are hypothetical. This would without any doubt increase the European identity of the European people protected by the EU. The project already exists via the Western European Union, but is developing slowly, and lately has suffered some reverse. Related with the international relations and a common position with the rest of the world, this idea is also the key to understand the division of Europe in the war of Iraq.<fnref n="1" />

As a conclusion, the creation of a European identity as the last level of identification of the citizens, above the national level is needed in order to achieve a European state. It seems that many agents are not interested in it because of nationalistic approaches. The EU should analyze what they want to be, and after, push for it, giving up its ambiguous current approach. It is clear that there are other identities, like the Western civilization, with democracy or human rights are shared, but for geographical distances make a future cohesion impossible.

## THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND THE EUROPEAN INTEGRATION

The language is an important vehicle in terms of integration and a problem in terms of European identity, originated at the beginning of the European Communities where France was clearly the leader of the process and French language still pretended to be a worldwide vehicle of expression. Also UK was outside of the Union promoting the European Free Trade Association, an alternative to the EC and USA was not still the cultural power that became afterwards. The members of the first European Community were France, West Germany, Netherland, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy. The center of the Community was France, a country willing to use the Community for the promotion of an independent third way in the context of the Cold War, between USA and its close ally UK and Soviet Union. The duality of the world was also expressed in linguistic terms, with English and Russian becoming the leader languages of the planet in terms of international influence. The will of France to build an independent block was also link with the loss of influence of the French language, predominant at the beginning of the integration in the European institutions and world cultural language until the beginning of the XX century. The inclusion of the ex-colonies of France in the Communities with the Lomé agreements, mostly in Africa, and mostly French speakers, helped to strength the position of the French language in the Community.

The claims of France were also supported by the leadership of the country and the language in cultural terms in the period before the Second World War, where France was the cultural center of the world, and Paris was the cultural capital of the world. West Germany, was willing to accept the leadership of France in the new Community because the country was willing to show solidarity and generosity after the catastrophic IIWW in a way to integrate the country in the international world, and hence it did not oppose the dominance of the French language in the European institutions, although German is the first language in Europe as mother tongue. Luxembourg and Belgium had French also as official language in their states: there were other languages as Flemish or German, but the predominant language was French. Netherland had a language more similar to German, but the cultural and economic influence of France was clear in the area, plus a good educational system were languages were widely learnt made no problems for the integration in a Community dominated by the French language. Finally Italy was completely outside this debate, because French, German or English were not spread among the Italian population.<fnref n="2" />

The European Communities accepted as official languages the ones of the member states, and hence French, German, Dutch and Italian became official languages of the Community. It means that all the documents had to be translated to these languages, the beginning of the current translation office of the Union. Nevertheless, as there were common institutions and common civil servants, the Communities decided to establish two working languages, French and German. But in fact, there was mainly one common language for the institutions of the Communities, the French language.

<footnote n="1">¹ European Identity (Contemporary European Politics) Jeffrey T. Checkel and Peter J. Katzenstein, 2009.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² European Coal and Steel Community by Frederic P. Miller, Agnes F. Vandome and John McBrewster, 2010.</footnote>
The situation changed with the first enlargement of the Communities to United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark, two countries with English as official language and Denmark where the economic and cultural links with the Anglo-Saxon world were very important, and hence the influence of this language with an important presence in the educational system. In order to please these new members, English was incorporated as a working language of the Union, and the beginning of the decline of the French language started.

The cultural decline of France and the rise of the American culture, the political decline of France compared with USA, the economic power of USA, and the complete alignment of West Europe with USA in the Cold War meant the end of the French language as the international vehicle of communication. The own European states changed their educational policies fostering the learning of English where French was before the predominant second language, but the European institutions under the influence of France did not follow the changes included in the European and world society and kept the illusion of French as the Communitarian language. Currently the European institutions work mostly in English, not because of the influence of UK, but because if the international influence of USA, and English is the main language of communication between Europeans. But there is a resistance in France accepting the change, as Jacques Chirac, former president of the French Republic pointed up when he complained about the decline of the French language in the European institutions.<fnref n="1" /> English is by far the most spoken language of the world, English is the lingua franca, and English is the most used language to communicate between people with different native languages. The Europeans of different nations with different languages mostly communicate between them in English. So it is clear that the European society already accepted naturally the predominance of this language in the European and world affairs. Nevertheless, the European Union still lives in the past, pretending to have 23 official languages and three working languages where in reality the communication is done in English, and the EU translation service is mostly focus on those who do not speak this language.

Languages are used for different tasks, as political, cultural and social matters, but obviously the main function of any language is communicating. More than 30% of the Europeans can speak English, when less than 15% can speak French or 9% German, and English is the first foreign language in more than 80% of the secondary schools in Europe, spreading the international communication skills of their citizens. A common language is needed in order to communicate people, and give them a feeling of belonging to a community. The great disparity in Europe in the educational systems gives us situations as in Denmark where around 70% of the population is able to speak English, or very low rates as in Spain, where the majority of the population just speak Spanish.

More efforts should be done in the field of education in order to increase even more the role of English as the non-official language of Europe. It is interesting the changes in Central and West Europe, where the predominant language before the IIWW was German, still the most known among the old population of these countries. Afterwards Russian became the lingua franca, but with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the political independence of these states the influence of the Russian language has mostly disappeared in a very short period of time. The younger generations of these countries almost do not speak Russian at all, and their educational systems have focus completely on English language. It is clear the political influence of this situation, the previous soviet domination meant the use of Russian as a the common language, afterwards, the will of independence and the will of incorporating to the West world, led by the United States of America, have made English the common language.

Another interesting topic related with East and Central Europe is the high number of citizens able to speak English in such a short time, pointing out the importance of the educational system. It invites to optimism for the rest of Europe, if the investment in education is important the knowing of English will increase as fast as it did in this part of Europe.<fnref n="2" />

English should be chosen as the official language of Europe mainly as a representation of the society, the institutions going behind the people, a mere reflection of the current reality. Sooner or later it will

<footnote n="1">¹ The Cold War, John Lewis Gaddis, 2007.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² The Collapse of the Soviet Union, 1985-1991, Seminar Studies In History, David Marples, 2004.</footnote>