# Crustal response to slab tearing and detachment: Inferences from the kinematics of the Dinarides-Hellenides transition

Nikola Randjelovic, Liviu Matenco, Nemanja Krstekanić, Maja Maleš, Uros Stojadinović, Marinko Toljić, Ernst Willingshofer, Branislav Trivić

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## ► To cite this version:

Nikola Randjelovic, Liviu Matenco, Nemanja Krstekanić, Maja Maleš, Uros Stojadinović, et al. Crustal response to slab tearing and detachment: Inferences from the kinematics of the Dinarides-Hellenides transition. Global and Planetary Change, 2025, 252, pp.104837. 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2025.104837. hal-05079452

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Research Article

# Crustal response to slab tearing and detachment: Inferences from the kinematics of the Dinarides-Hellenides transition

Nikola Randjelovic<sup>a,b,*</sup>, Liviu Matenco<sup>a,c</sup>, Nemanja Krstekanić<sup>a,b</sup>, Maja Maleš<sup>a,b,d</sup>, Uros Stojadinović<sup>b</sup>, Marinko Toljić<sup>b</sup>, Ernst Willingshofer<sup>a</sup>, Branislav Trivić<sup>b</sup>

ARTICLE INFO

Editor: Sun Jimin

Keywords:

Bi-directional extension
Indentation
Slab tearing
Extensional klippen
Dinarides

ABSTRACT

Complex slab tearing mechanisms are often associated with a lateral transition from continental indentation to subduction of oceanic or thinned continental lithosphere. These geodynamic conditions lead to the formation of crustal transfer zones associated with significant strain partitioning. A key area to study such mechanisms is the transition between the Dinarides and Hellenides mountain chains in southeastern Europe, affected by the indentation of the Adriatic continental microplate. Similar to other Mediterranean orogens, the slab roll-back was accompanied by a migration of the orogenic shortening towards the foreland and a coeval back-arc extension that reactivated inherited orogenic nappe contacts. Along the strike of the orogen, the Dinarides slab detached during Oligocene – early Miocene times, while the Hellenides subduction continued its evolution up to the present day. The transfer of deformation takes place along various structures in the transition zone between the Dinarides and Hellenides, from areas that underwent significant Adriatic indentation following the detachment of the subducted slab to the others where the retreat of the Aegean slab continues. We have performed a field kinematic and microstructural study in the less understood segment of the Dinarides-Hellenides transition in northern Montenegro to analyse the mechanism of strain partitioning in the Dinarides nappe stack related to along-strike changes in slab kinematics. The results demonstrate that the previously defined scissor-mechanism of extensional deformation in the neighbouring Hellenides is transferred dominantly to a newly documented large offset shear zone. This structure accommodates orogen-perpendicular extension by reactivating inherited Cretaceous – Paleocene nappe contacts, forming a major post-Eocene detachment and extensional klippens, which are cross-cut by late-stage brittle normal faults. When combined with the known structure of the neighbouring Hellenides, these results infer that the Oligocene – early Miocene slab-detachment of the Dinarides orogenic segment was accommodated at crustal levels by generalised bi-directional extension, exhuming mid-crustal levels in the footwall of major structures and accommodating the transition from Adriatic indentation to the continued subduction recorded by the Hellenides.

1. Introduction

Convergence zones are frequently characterised by substantial
lateral variations in subduction and collision dynamics (Cui and Li,
2022; Duretz et al., 2014; Eberhart-Phillips et al., 2003; Guillaume et al.,
2013; Kley et al., 1999). In particular, the indentation of continental
fragments creates frequently a lateral transition between continental
and oceanic subduction at one margin of the indenter that may have an

opposite subduction polarity when compared with other margins (Hall
and Spakman, 2015; Kufner et al., 2016; Lamb, 2011; Lin and Kuo, 2016;
Peral et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2022). Continental collision associated
with indentation, extrusion, and slab-retreat is a process observed in
many orogenic areas worldwide. Relevant examples are the northern
margin of Arabian indenter where shortening is accompanied with
extrusion and slab retreat in the Eastern Mediterranean (Faccenna et al.,
2013; Mantovani et al., 2006), the Indian plate indentation followed by

<footnote><sup>a</sup> Utrecht University, Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, the Netherlands</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Belgrade, Serbia</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> Doctoral School of Geology, University of Bucharest, Romania</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> IFP Energies Nouvelles, Rueil-Malmaison, France</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author at: Utrecht University, Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
E-mail address: n.randelovic@uu.nl (N. Randjelovic).</footnote>
shortening and uplift of the Himalayas and Tibet and lateral extrusion towards oceanic subduction in SE Asia (Cui et al., 2021; Li et al., 2015; Royden et al., 2008; Sautter et al., 2019; Tapponnier et al., 2001), or the Eastern Alps where the post-Oligocene shortening and indentation of Adria is associated with extrusion towards the Carpathian slab roll-back and back-arc extension in the Pannonian basin (Csontos et al., 1992; Fodor et al., 1998; Ratschbacher et al., 1991; Rosenberg et al., 2018; van Gelder et al., 2017). Such indentation dynamics creates segmentation of subduction zones associated with slab tearing and subsequent detachment faulting (Duretz et al., 2012; Woodcock, 1986). Trench-parallel slab detachment and trench-perpendicular slab tearing (Hale et al., 2010; Jolivet et al., 2021; Rosenbaum et al., 2008) occur at different depths as a function of slab rheology and the presence of weakness zones within the subducting plate (Govers and Wortel, 2005; Gurnis et al., 2000). Slab detachment is associated with significant exhumation and extension (Buiter et al., 2002; Chatelain et al., 1992; England and Molnar, 1990; Wortel and Spakman, 1992), while the retreat accelerates towards the places where the slab is still attached (Bercovici et al., 2018; Wortel and Spakman, 2000). The transition between continental collision and extension driven by slab retreat is also accompanied by significant rotations, which can often lead to oroclinal bending (e.g., Carey, 1955), such as observed in the Carpathians (Balázs et al., 2018; Márton et al., 2016), the Betics-Rif system (Porkoláb et al., 2022; Vergés and Fernández, 2012), or at the transition between Eastern Himalaya to Myanmar (Cao et al., 2009; Otofuji et al., 2010).

In instances where lateral displacement from indentation to subduction is accompanied by rotation, complex crustal transfer zones are formed, characterised by significant strain partitioning, which are frequently observed in the Mediterranean area (e.g., Jolivet et al., 2021). The strain partitioning concept is employed to describe a multi-scale distribution of the total strain in coeval structures whose kinematics cannot be adequately represented by a homogenous stress field (e.g., Cembrano et al., 2005; Jezek et al., 2002; Krstekanić et al., 2022a). Some typical examples are the Circum-Moesian Fault System, which accommodates deformation along the lateral margin of the Moesian indenter (Krstekanić et al., 2020, 2022a, 2022b), the North Anatolian Fault, which connects the Arabian indenter with the Aegean subduction zone (Faccenna et al., 2006; Porkoláb et al., 2023), or the northward indentation of the Adria microcontinent into the Dinarides orogen (van Unen et al., 2019a).

Subduction segmentation and crustal rotations are frequently associated with orogen-parallel and orogen-perpendicular extension induced by slab retreat and detachment, which may act coevally (e.g., Jolivet et al., 2021; Matenco et al., 2016). The mechanisms that transfer the lateral variations in slab evolution and deformation to the crustal strain partitioning associated with tearing and rotation remain poorly understood. One very good example of strain partitioning associated with indentation, slab-detachment, slab tearing, and rapidly retreating subduction is the Dinarides-Hellenides orogen in southeastern Europe (Fig. 1). Following the Jurassic - Paleocene closure of the Neotethys Ocean and the Late Cretaceous - early Oligocene Adria - Europe collision (Pamić, 2002; Schmid et al., 2020; Stojadinovic et al., 2022; Ustaszewski et al., 2009), the transition zone between the Dinarides and Hellenides has recorded significant differential deformation. This deformation was driven by the Oligocene (– early Miocene?) slab detachment in the Dinarides segment of the slab (Andrić et al., 2018; Handy et al., 2019; Schefer et al., 2011; van Unen et al., 2019a), while the neighbouring Hellenides part of the slab continued to be attached and created significant SW-ward retreat until the present day, as inferred by geophysical studies and tectonic reconstructions (Bennett et al., 2008; Piromallo and Morelli, 2003; Van Hinsbergen et al., 2020; Wortel and Spakman, 2000; Zhang et al., 2022). For the purpose of simplicity, we combine the two names of the same orogenic structure, namely the Albanides to the north and the Hellenides to the south and southeast, into a single entity, the Hellenides (Fig. 1a). The Hellenides have experienced a Neogene clockwise rotation with respect to the Dinarides,

rotating around a pole located in the vicinity of the Shkoder locality in Albania (Fig. 2; Kissel et al., 1995; Schmid et al., 2020; Speranza et al., 1995). The most significant along-strike change in orogen orientation coincides with the most prominent Scutari - Peć (or Shkoder - Peja) fault zone (SPF) located at the Dinarides-Hellenides junction (Aubouin and Dercourt, 1975). Inherited from an older transfer zone or transformant fault (Aubouin and Dercourt, 1975), recent studies have shown that the late evolution of this SPF structure has accommodated significant scissor-type extensional deformation after Oligocene times, mostly as a SE-dipping normal fault with increasing vertical offsets from zero in the SW to several km towards NE (Handy et al., 2019), accommodating also a significant segmentation (Grund et al., 2023). These studies have also shown that extension at the Dinarides-Hellenides junction was accommodated by continued W-vertent thrusting of more external units in the Hellenides. Although the major SPF structure appears to partition strain between the Dinarides and Hellenides, its N to NNE prolongation has not been analysed and quantified. Its quantification is particularly important due to the gradually increasing amounts of extension and offsets in the same direction associated with the overall 30° rotation and scissor mechanics. In particular, the crustal effects of the slab segmentation and the resulting kinematics in the Dinarides segment of the orogen are critical to understand the driving mechanisms. However, these effects are largely unknown.

To advance the understanding of the Dinarides-Hellenides connection and its changes in oroclinal geometry, a field kinematic and microstructural study was performed in the less understood Dinarides area of northern Montenegro. Together with the recently published detailed kinematic data from the neighbouring Hellenides segment (Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019) and at a farther distance in the Dinarides (van Unen et al., 2019a, 2019b), we herewith analyse and propose a new mechanism of post-Eocene strain partitioning from the SPF into the Dinarides nappes system. The findings are presented in the context of deformation transfer and the strain partitioning observed in the transition zone between these orogenic segments.

## 2. The geodynamic evolution of the Dinarides-Hellenides transition

The Dinarides-Hellenides orogenic area is part of a broader Mediterranean system that generally share a common nappe structure and pre-Cenozoic tectonic evolution (Fig. 1). Both orogens formed in response to the Triassic opening and subsequent Jurassic - Paleogene closure of the northern branch of the Neotethys Ocean (e.g., Gawlick et al., 2017; Robertson et al., 2009; Schmid et al., 2008). The Neotethys opening started with a Middle Triassic continental rifting that caused magmatism and the formation of a wide Adriatic passive continental margin (Bortolotti et al., 2013; Dimitrijević, 1997; Monjoie et al., 2008; Pamić, 1984; Scherreiks et al., 2014). The closure of the Neotethys Ocean was initiated by an Early - Middle Jurassic intra-oceanic subduction stage followed by a Late Jurassic - earliest Cretaceous obduction of the Neotethys ophiolites (the Western Vardar ophiolitic unit) over the Adriatic passive continental margin (Bortolotti et al., 2013; Chiari et al., 2011; Maffione and van Hinsbergen, 2018, Robertson et al., 2009; Schmid et al., 2020). In the Dinarides, ophiolites were emplaced over internal units (Jadar-Kopaonik, Drina-Ivanjica, and East Bosnian-Durmitor, Fig. 1), while the neighbouring part of the Hellenides segment recorded continued post-obduction thrusting of ophiolites and ophiolitic mélange over more external units (Figs. 1 and 2). After the final closure of the oceanic domain and the formation of the Cretaceous - Paleocene Sava suture zone between Europe- and Adria-derived units, the Dinarides-Hellenides orogens were affected by continued SW-vertent nappe stacking (Pamić, 2002; Schmid et al., 2008; Ustaszewski et al., 2009, 2010). The Cretaceous - Paleogene shortening has created thick-skinned thrusts in the internal parts of both orogens that duplicate the previous Late Jurassic - earliest Cretaceous obduction contact, resulting in the formation of composite units. As a result of the
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1.** (a) Topographic map of Mediterranean Mesozoic–Cenozoic orogens, displaying suture zones, orogenic fronts, and retro-wedges (modified after Krstekanić et al., 2020). The red polygon marks the position of Fig. 1b; (b) Regional tectonic map of the Dinarides-Hellenides orogenic system (modified after Schmid et al., 2020, van Unen et al., 2019b). White lines represent the main Neogene basins. The yellow rectangle displays the position of Fig. 2. The black line shows the position of the regional cross-section A-A' displayed on Fig. 1c. OD – Othoni-Dhermi Transfer Fault, KF – Kefalonia Transfer Fault, SPF – Scutari-Peć (or Shkoder – Peja) Fault, NMF – Northern Montenegro Fault; (c) Cross-section across the Dinarides (modified after Matenco & Radivojević, 2012). Note the post-Eocene extensional features (red lines) distributed across the entire Dinarides. The main fault ages are shown in the legend. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2.** Geological map of Montenegro showing the transition from the Dinarides into the Hellenides along the SPF. The map is compiled from the 1:100.000 maps of former Yugoslavia and the 1:200.000 geological map of Albania, modified with the results of the previous (Handy et al., 2019; van Unen et al., 2019a; Grund et al., 2023) and our study. Black lines show the position of cross-sections in Fig. 8. Note that the map geometry of the East Bosnian-Durmitor and Drina-Ivanjica composite units follows the results of our study. Faults covered with Neogene sediments and faults with unclear prolongation are marked as dashed lines. NMF – Northern Montenegro Fault, RF – Rožaje Fault, BF – Bjelasica Fault, SPF – Scutari-Peć (or Shkoder – Peja) Fault, DD – Dečani Dome, CW – Cukali window.</figcaption></figure>

gradual accretion migrating towards the foreland, most thrusting in both orogenic segments becomes progressively younger in the same direction, although significant out-of-sequence thrusting is locally observed (Handy et al., 2019; Mazzoli et al., 2022; Nader et al., 2023; Schmid

et al., 2008; Tari, 2002; van Unen et al., 2019b; Vilasi et al., 2009). In contrast, the presence of thick Triassic salt in the NW part of the Dinarides has facilitated the formation of a basal decollement level and, therefore, the structure in this orogenic segment is dominated by thin-
skinned units (Balling et al., 2021).

The subsequent Oligocene (–early Miocene?) slab detachment beneath the external Dinarides (Andrić et al., 2018) prevented further shortening in Dinarides nappes and was followed by a Miocene extension associated with listric detachments reactivating inherited nappe contacts (van Unen et al., 2019b). The exhumation in the footwall of detachments has created antiformal geometries that locally folded these inherited thrusts (Fig. 1c). The overall Dinarides evolution was associated with lateral slab tearing and rapid retreat of the Hellenides segment of the slab (Brun et al., 2016; Handy et al., 2019; Jolivet and Brun, 2010), which caused their clockwise rotation (Handy et al., 2019; Kissel et al., 1995; Speranza et al., 1995). The resulting change in oroclinal geometry is observed in the transition zone between the Dinarides and Hellenides orogens (Fig. 1), possibly reactivating an older NE-SW oriented inherited rheologically weak zone along the SPF structure (i.e., the transverse zone of Aubouin, 1975 or the transfer zone of Handy et al., 2019; Grund et al., 2023) as a complex fault and strain partitioning system that truncates the inherited nappe stack. The transition zone across this structure also matches the lateral along-strike SE-ward termination of the surface expression of the Adriatic carbonate platform and an apparent pre-Neogene dextral displacement of the West Vardar ophiolites (Figs. 1 and 2).

The present-day Dinarides kinematics is driven by the N- to NE-ward Adriatic indentation that reactivated or truncated the pre-existing Middle Triassic normal faults of the Budva graben and created numerous post-9 Ma transpressive structures distributed obliquely across the Dinarides (van Unen et al., 2019a). In contrast, the S- to SE-movement and thrusting in the frontal part of the Hellenides was accommodated by back-arc extension (Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019).

## 2.1. The tectonic and depositional setting of the Dinarides in the vicinity of the SPF

Previous kinematic studies (Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019) have described the SPF as a SE-dipping normal fault that truncates the Dinarides nappe stack (the High Karst, Pre-Karst, and East Bosnian-Durmitor units in Fig. 2) and exhumed several dome-shaped structures in its footwall, such as the Cukali Window (CW in Fig. 2), the previously buried sediments of the Budva-Cukali unit, or the Dečani Dome (DD in Fig. 2). The fault juxtaposes the Dinarides nappes in its footwall with the Western Vardar Ophiolites of northern Albania (Mirdita ophiolites) in the hanging-wall (Fig. 2). To the SW, the SPF roots in the same Budva-Cukali decollement that accommodates the Western Vardar Ophiolites thrusting more to the SE. Overall, the SPF and Budva-Cukali decollement have a common scissor-rotational mechanics with a pole of rotation located near the Shkoder city (Handy et al., 2019). In more detail, the SPF comprises several distinct segments with varying durations of activity and progressively increasing offsets, ranging from zero near Shkoder city to over 2 km close to Bajram Curri and further northwards (Grund et al., 2023). Handy et al. (2019) have suggested that the increasing offsets of the SPF are transferred further by a series of structures, such as a normal fault bounding the Middle Miocene – earliest Pliocene Metohija Basin (Elezaj, 2009; Grund et al., 2023) or others more NE-wards, thus connecting with the Miocene extension of the Pannonian Basin. However, none of these structures and their connections are kinematically sufficiently well documented outside SPF, besides the general observation of early-middle Miocene normal faults across the entire Dinarides (Andrić et al., 2017, 2018; Chiari et al., 2011; Porkoláb et al., 2019; van Unen et al., 2019b).

Typical for the external Dinarides nappes is the development of the Lower Triassic – Upper Cretaceous shallow water, up to 2.2 km thick Adriatic carbonate platform observed in the Dalmatian-Kruja, High-Karst, and Pre-Karst units (Fig. 2; e.g., Korbar, 2009; Vlahović et al., 2005 among others). This shallow-water deposition is interrupted in map view by a tectonic unit composed of Triassic-Cretaceous deep-water

sediments, known as the Budva-Cukali unit (Goričan, 1994), which crops out in a narrow band of highly deformed sediments in the external parts of both orogenic segments, or in tectonic (half-) windows, such as the Cukali window located at the orogenic transition between the Dinarides and Hellenides (Fig. 2, Handy et al., 2019). The latter represents a NE-SW oriented antiform located in the footwall of the SPF and its NW-dipping conjugate fault, developed during post-nappe extensional unroofing of the Budva-Cukali unit (Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019; Schmid et al., 2020). While the Dalmatian-Kruja and Budva-Cukali units crop out continuously in the frontal part of both orogens, the High Karst and Pre-Karst units show no direct equivalents across the SPF in the present-day orogenic geometry of the Hellenides (Figs. 1 and 2).

The more internal units of the studied area, the East Bosnian-Durmitor and Drina-Ivanjica units, are equivalents in the Hellenides of the Lower and Higher Pelagonian units, respectively. They both represent composite tectonic units that have recorded gradual deepening of their Adriatic passive continental margin during the Upper Triassic – Middle Jurassic and were ultimately overlain by ophiolites and ophiolitic mélanges during the Late Jurassic – earliest Cretaceous obduction (Schmid et al., 2020 and references therein).

The contacts between the Dinarides composite units are marked by the presence of narrow belts of highly deformed syn-kinematic turbidites (i.e., flysch deposits in a contractional basin) deposited in the footwall of major thrusts, showing a gradual change in age towards the foreland, from Cretaceous-Paleocene in the NE to Eocene in the SW (Schmid et al., 2020; van Unen et al., 2019b). One of these highly deformed belts is the Durmitor flysch (Fig. 2, Ugar flysch to the NW in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Vermoshi flysch to the SE outside Montenegro) that is generally interpreted to be syn-kinematic to the Late Cretaceous thrusting of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit (Dimitrijević, 1997; Hrvatović, 2006; Hrvatović and Pamić, 2005; Marroni et al., 2009; Schmid et al., 2020). We note the potential confusion between the name of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit and the name of the Durmitor flysch, which overlies the uppermost part of the Pre-Karst unit in the footwall of the former unit. Both the Durmitor flysch and the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit are affected in outcrops by NW-SE and NE-SW oriented normal faults, previously interpreted to have formed during the Miocene extension (the bidirectional extension of van Unen et al., 2019b, and Porkoláb et al., 2019), although the regional expression of this extension is not quantified in the Dinarides.

The East Bosnian-Durmitor unit is classically subdivided into several sub-units (Dimitrijević, 1997). The SE part of the unit (the Dečani Dome of Grund et al., 2023, DD in Fig. 2) exposes lowermost Silurian-Permian clastics and granites metamorphosed in greenschist facies, together with a metamorphosed Triassic ophiolitic mélange (the Junik Knot of Dimitrijević, 1997), re-interpreted recently as Late Jurassic (Grund et al., 2023) in the footwall of the SPF. More to the NW, the East Bosnian-Durmitor metamorphics are replaced by a Permian – Jurassic generally shallow-water carbonate sequence, intercalated by Middle Triassic basic to intermediate rifting-related volcanics, all overlain by the Late Jurassic ophiolitic mélange and obducted ophiolites (Fig. 2). The exceptions are the Bjelasica and Lim sub-units of Živaljević et al. (1982) and Dimitrijević (1997) that are part of the East Bosnian-Durmitor nappe stack. The Lim sub-unit (Fig. 2) was interpreted to be in an uppermost structural position in this nappe stack, while the Bjelasica and its Mesozoic was thought to be in a lowermost structural position (the Bjelasica Fault area west of Berane separated by thick red lines in Fig. 2), beneath the Paleozoic of the Durmitor and Ćehotina sub-units found NW-wards (NW of Bjelasica Fault in Fig. 2). In the Lim sub-unit, Upper Triassic – Jurassic deep-water carbonates and radiolarite sequence are observed ESE of Berane (Fig. 2), which were deposited in a deeper sedimentological environment when compared with the shallow-water facies observed in other sub-units of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit (Goričan et al., 2022; Kukoč et al., 2015). Elsewhere, the Bjelasica and Lim sub-units expose mostly the same type of continental to
shallow-water Triassic facies as observed in all other sub-units of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit (Dimitrijević, 1997).

The next higher Drina-Ivanjica unit crops out to the NE and is made up of a Paleozoic metamorphosed sequence (mostly meta-clastics) and overlying sedimentary facies that are similar, but with several marked differences when compared with the one of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit (Dimitrijević, 1997; Ilić and Neubauer, 2005; Porkoláb et al., 2019). The Paleozoic basement of Drina-Ivanjica (the Golija Zone of Aubouin et al., 1970) is made up of greenschist facies metamorphic rocks (Đokovic, 1985) covered by Lower to Middle Triassic continental to shallow-water carbonates where deposition was interrupted by a short late Anisian deep-water (or pelagic) deposition (e.g., the Bulog Limestone of Rosso Ammonitico-type of Gawlick et al., 2017; Missoni et al., 2012; Sudar et al., 2013) associated with late Anisian rifting volcanics. The shallow-water carbonate deposition was subsequently re-established until the local deposition of a poorly dated Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic deep-water sequence (the Grivska Formation of Dimitrijević, 1997). The metamorphosed equivalents of the Grivska Formation were exhumed during the Miocene extension in the footwall of detachments in more internal parts of the Dinarides (the Kopaonik Formation of Schefer et al., 2010; see also Stojadinovic et al., 2017; Toljić et al., 2013). Thick overlying sequences of often highly deformed Jurassic deep-water carbonates and radiolarites are also observed in the Drina-Ivanjica unit beneath the overlying Late Jurassic ophiolitic mélange and ophiolites (e.g., Dimitrijević, 1997 among others; Derić et al., 2007; Djerić et al., 2024; Schmid et al., 2008).

The main contact between the East Bosnian-Durmitor and the overlying Drina-Ivanjica units (NE of Rožaje - Bijelo Polje in Fig. 2) is a large offset Early Cretaceous thrust. In more detail, the earlier late Jurassic - earliest Cretaceous obduction contact that emplaced ophiolites and ophiolitic mélange over the Adriatic passive margin was duplicated by an Early Cretaceous thrust and has created the composite character of both the Drina-Ivanjica and East Bosnian-Durmitor units (Fig. 1c, Djerić et al., 2024; Porkoláb et al., 2019; Schmid et al., 2008). The difficulty in mapping the Early Cretaceous contact comes from the thrust ramping up in a flat inside the ophiolitic mélange, which has an olistostrome character incorporating both hanging-wall and footwall blocks. This structure has been interpreted previously as gravitationally emplaced (the olistoplaka of Dimitrijević, 1997). Similar to previous more regional studies (Schmid et al., 2008), we consider the olistoplaka and the deep-water Upper Triassic - Lower Jurassic Grivska type and younger Jurassic formations as the hanging-wall of Drina-Ivanjica overlying the thrusting flat in the map of Fig. 2. This contact was interpreted to have been subsequently reactivated during the Miocene extension at its SE-most termination (the Rožaje Fault of Grund et al., 2023), while a coherent kinematic definition for the entire structure is not yet available.

In the central parts of the studied area, the late Oligocene - late Miocene Berane Basin (Fig. 2) represents the youngest extensional feature with sediments overlying the Permian - Jurassic shallow water deposition of Bjelasica and Lim sub-units and overlying ophiolitic mélange (Fig. 2). The thickness of the late Oligocene - late Miocene clastics intercalated with coal layers in the Berane Basin (Dordević-Milutinović et al., 2018; Drobnjak et al., 1996) reaches up to 250 m (Zivaljević et al., 1982).

### 3. Methodology

We have performed a field structural and kinematic study in the SE Dinarides and their transition into the Hellenides (Figs. 2–6, see also the dataset in the Supplementary Material). The focus of the study was to characterize the kinematics of post-Eocene structures situated at or near the contact between major units. This was achieved through a comprehensive analysis of both outcrop- and micro-scale structural observations. We identified major faults or fault zones by starting from a re-interpretation of existing 1:100.000 scale geologic maps (Fig. 2, Basic geological map of former Yugoslavia), which were also used for

identifying other major structures, such as km-scale folds, shear zones, or uplifted and exhumed basement zones. These maps were also used for correlations with neighbouring areas and for defining the timing of post-Eocene tectonic phases by combining observations of stratigraphic offsets along faults and sealing post-kinematic deposits (Dimitrijević, 1997; Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019; Schmid et al., 2020; van Unen et al., 2019b). We focussed on mapping both brittle and ductile kinematics of large-offset faults and shear zones along their strike, as well as superposition criteria (cross-cutting relationships, tilting, rotations, and truncation) in the Paleozoic basement, Mesozoic cover, ophiolitic mélange, and obducted ophiolites. Field measurements include kinematics of folds, faults, and fault zones, ductile foliations and stretching lineations within shear zones, foliated fault gouges and observations of tilting and rotations. Kinematic indicators such as slickensides, slickenfibers, grooves, Riedel shears, and quartz aggregates were used to derive the sense of shear along faults and fault zones by considering confidence criteria and quality ranks (Angelier, 1994; Simón, 2019; Sperner and Zweigel, 2010). We have also measured foliations and folds and determined the kinematics of shear zones and other ductile structures using kinematic indicators such as sigma-clasts or shear bands. As often in dynamic metamorphism, many subsequent foliations overprint the pre-existing sedimentary bedding, with stretching lineations that may be difficult to discriminate locally in very low-grade metamorphism in macroscopic observations. However, these structures are confirmed in thin-sections, where microstructural observations have included foliations, folds, and shearing with kinematic indicators while determining mineral assemblages and gross metamorphic grade. Due to the relatively simple mineral paragenesis indicating burial to sub- to lower greenschist facies metamorphic conditions, no further advanced petrological PT investigations (such as microprobe and associated calculations) were necessary for the scope of our study. Some major structures are also observed in areas with difficult accessibility (high altitude with steeply inclined cliffs, such as parts of the Northern Montenegro Fault, Fig. 3), limiting access and obtaining more extensive datasets.

Measurements were separated based on the overprinting criteria, types, and orientation of structures and plotted in the Win-Tensor software (Delvaux and Sperner, 2003). This allowed a separation in different deformation phases. Stereoplots are separated into several groups by following the kinematics of major map-scale structures. We specifically note that some ductile and brittle extensional structures are interpreted to have formed during one single tectonic phase. Moreover, structures with different kinematics and mutual cross-cutting relations were interpreted as coeval (e.g., normal faults accommodating two directions of extension). Such observations demonstrate a significant amount of strain partitioning created by large-offset structures and cannot be used to derive paleostress directions because of inherent limitations (Angelier, 1994; Gephart, 1990; Michael, 1984; Zoback and Beroza, 1993), as described with details in previous studies (Simón, 2019; Sperner and Zweigel, 2010; Krstekanić et al., 2022a). When combined with the previous studies (Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019; van Unen et al., 2019a) and existing geological maps, our dataset allowed the construction of three orogen-perpendicular or orogen-parallel regional cross-sections by projecting the surface kinematics at depth. This approach quantified the kinematics of major map-scale structures in the Dinarides-Hellenides transition zone.

### 4. Kinematic observations in the Dinarides in the vicinity of the SPF

#### 4.1. Northern Montenegro Fault (NMF)

The largest amount of deformation is observed in the study area along a WNW-ESE oriented map-scale structure previously not defined and herewith defined as the Northern Montenegro Fault zone (NMF, Fig. 2). Along this structure, a 500 m wide shear zone consisting of a high-strained core and a damage zone is observed between overlying
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 3.** Lower hemisphere stereoplots of the observed structures with their location in the geological map of the studied area. Numbers in white circles represent the studied points on the map. Red arrows on the map are kinematic senses of ductile shear. Observed outcrop-scale structures were grouped into four critical areas. a – Northern Montenegro Fault, b – Margin of Berane Basin, c – Rožaje fault, d – Bjelasica Fault. Green rectangles contain stereoplots with older Variscan structures. Grey rectangles represent contractional structures formed during Cretaceous-Paleocene thrusting. White fields show the youngest post-Eocene extensional structures. Foliation planes are shown as projections of foliation poles. Each stereonet is marked with a structure type in the upper left corner (black colour), and the number of the observation point on the map (light blue colour). Stereonet legend: f1 – isoclinal fold, S1 – metamorphic foliation, S2 – crenulation, f2 – asymmetric SSW- to SW- vergent fold with NNW-SSE to NW-SE oriented hinges, Fr1 – NW-SE and WNW-ESE oriented low-angle thrust indicating NE-SW to NNE-SSW direction of shortening, f3 – recumbent collapse folds with (sub)horizontal axial planes, S3 – shear planes accompanied by L1 stretching lineation or sigmoidal layers, L1 – stretching lineation, Fn2 – normal faults accommodating orogen-perpendicular extension, Ft1 – strike-slip and oblique-slip faults accompanying Fn2 normal faults, Fn3 – normal faults that accommodated orogen-parallel extension, Ft2 – strike-slip and oblique-slip faults associated with Fn3 normal faults. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

**Fig. 4.** Interpreted field photos of structures associated with the Northern Montenegro Fault shear zone and Rožaje fault in both metamorphosed Silurian-Carboniferous sediments metamorphosed under greenschist facies conditions in the footwall and hanging-wall carbonates of Middle Triassic age. Structures are plotted on the stereoplots of each photo in the lower right corner. The locations of photos are displayed in the lower left corner of each photo. Green lines demonstrate S1 foliation planes, and dotted green lines illustrate axial planes of f1 isoclinal folds, while the red lines and arrows represent kinematics of subsequent extensional structures such as f3 collapse folds, S3 foliation, or Fn2 and Fn3 brittle normal faults. a) Isoclinal metre-scale f1 fold with W-vergence and N-dipping hinge, refolded by the younger f3 collapse folds with NNE-SSW oriented fold axis in Silurian-Carboniferous rocks metamorphosed in a greenschist facies (point 1, Fig. 3 map); b) Northern Montenegro Fault shear zone characterised by well-developed low-angle S3 foliation in greenschist facies metamorphics with a stretching lineation with NNE sense of shear (red arrows) formed generally by chlorite and mica (point 1, Fig. 3); c) Cm- to dm-scale brittle shear bands in greenschist facies rocks of Northern Montenegro Fault shear zone indicating top-NNE sense of shearing (point 1, Fig. 3). On stereonets, S3 planes are marked as red lines, sense of shearing with red arrows, and S1 planes as green lines; d) Fault-propagation fold with WNW-ESE oriented fold axis and SSW-vergence in the hanging-wall of the Rožaje fault (point 8, Fig. 3); e) Large-scale f3 collapse folds with ESE-dipping hinges and subhorizontal axial planes in slightly metamorphosed sediments of Silurian-Carboniferous age (point 7, Fig. 3). Note the insert showing small-scale f2 folds refolded by f3 structures; f) Metre-scale recumbent f3 collapse folds cross-cut by subsequent NE-dipping listric normal fault accommodating orogen-perpendicular extension. Structures are observed in non-metamorphosed Permian clastics located in the footwall of the Rožaje fault (point 6, Fig. 3); g) SW-dipping brittle normal faults (Fn2) in Middle Triassic limestones located in the immediate vicinity of the Rožaje fault, illustrating deformation associated with orogen-perpendicular extension. Inset shows well-developed slickensides indicating top-SW movements (point 10, Fig. 3); h) Metre-scale SE-dipping Fn3 normal faults exposed in middle Triassic limestones near the contact zone with underlying Silurian-Carboniferous greenschist facies rocks. These structures are associated with metre-scale drag folds and f3 collapse folds that indicate orogen-parallel extension (point 9, Fig. 3). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5.** Oriented thin-sections taken in the immediate vicinity of the Northern Montenegro Fault shear zone made up of East Bosnian-Durmitor Paleozoic rocks metamorphosed in a greenschist facies. The thin-sections are made parallel to the stretching lineation, perpendicular to the foliation. Green lines illustrate preserved S1 foliation and S2 crenulation. Red arrows indicate extensional structures, while black arrows indicate rarely preserved sense of top-SW shearing. The locations of photos are displayed in the lower left corner of each photo. a) S1 foliation folded and truncated by S2 crenulations (point 1, Fig. 3). Image in transmitted light. b and c) Shear bands indicating a top-NNE sense of shearing (point 1, Fig. 3). Image in transmitted light. S3 planes are marked as red lines and S1 planes as green lines. d) Quarter folds indicating top-NNE shearing (point 1, Fig. 3). Image in polarised light. e) δ-type clast with preserved top-SSW sense of shearing (point 1, Fig. 3). Image in polarised light. f) Mica fish with a top-SSW sense of shearing (point 1, Fig. 3). Image in polarised light. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)</figcaption></figure>

Triassic shallow-water limestones and rifting-related magmatics and Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic shallow to deep-water carbonates to radiolarites in the hanging-wall and a Silurian - Permian lower greenschist facies succession in the footwall (Fig. 2). The core of the shear zone is made up of lower greenschist facies mylonites derived dominantly from clastic sediments that are affected by numerous brittle faults in the core and in the wider damage zone. The Paleozoic metamorphosed footwall was affected by multiple generations of folding. Isoclinal folds with roughly N-S trending fold axes are dominant (f1 in point 1, Fig. 3a). These folds transpose the original bedding into a primary S1 metamorphic foliation overprinted locally by a foliation associated with crenulation cleavage (S2 in point 1, Fig. 3a). In the proximity of the Northern Montenegro Fault, a number of isoclinal folds also have asymmetric geometry, but the shearing associated with co-axial flattening prevented an accurate identification of f2 asymmetric folds observed elsewhere. The f1 isoclinal folds and S2 crenulations are pervasive within the entire sequence of greenschist facies rocks, regardless of proximity to the Northern Montenegro Fault structure, but they are not observed in the Northern Montenegro Fault hanging-wall. This hanging-wall exposes the subsequent generation of asymmetric

folds that are NW-SE oriented and have a SSW-ward vergence (f2 in point 3, Fig. 3a). In or near the Northern Montenegro Fault, the next generation of folds observed in Paleozoic greenschist facies rocks of the footwall are dm- to m-scale open folds with (sub)horizontal axial planes and N-S to NNE-SSW oriented axes (f3 in point 1, Fig. 3a) that refold inherited sub-vertical S1 foliations, including previous f1 isoclinal folds (Fig. 4a) and S2 crenulations. They have a striking resemblance and are herewith interpreted as f3 collapse folds (sensu Froitzheim, 1992; Froitzheim et al., 1997). The dominant feature that we observed in the metamorphic Paleozoic is large-scale shearing that takes place along N- to NNE-dipping S3 foliations (S3 in point 1, Fig. 3a). In outcrops, low metamorphic grade carbonate schists and meta-sandstones show clear stretching lineations well visible by chlorite and sericite minerals (Fig. 4b) with associated kinematic indicators such as mm- to dm-scale C-type shear bands (Fig. 4c) indicating top-N to NNE sense of shearing (L1 in point 1, Fig. 3a). The gently N- to NNE-dipping S3 shear planes are parallel with the axial planes of collapse folds. Two systems of normal faults with small offsets and clear kinematic indicators (e.g., slickensides) were observed, NW-SE to E-W oriented Fn2 normal faults (Fn2 in point 1, Fig. 3a) and roughly N-S oriented Fn3 normal faults (Fn3 in
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

**Fig. 6.** Interpreted field photos of structures located in the vicinity of the Bjelasica Fault. Structures are plotted on stereoplots in each photo in the lower right corner. The locations of photos are displayed in the lower left corner of each photo. Yellow lines represent original sedimentary layers in Triassic sediments (S₀). Black lines illustrate open to isoclinal f2 folds well exposed in Triassic carbonates of the Bjelasica sub-unit. Red arrows and lines demonstrate subsequent extensional structures and their kinematics, such as S3 foliation or normal faults. On stereonets, shear planes are marked as red lines, sense of shearing as red arrows, and preserved bedding planes as yellow lines. a) Metre-scale f2 overturned asymmetric SSW-vergent folds in Middle Triassic limestones near the contact zone with Permian clastics. The inset illustrates tight asymmetric f2 fold with the same orientation of fold axis and associated calcite veins (point 12, Fig. 3); b) Asymmetric SSW-vergent f2 folds accompanied by dm- to m-scale hinge collapse structures in less competent layers of Middle Triassic limestones near the main Bjelasica Fault (BF) contact with Permian sediments. Note that f2 folds are overprinted by subsequent top-NNE shearing as observed by sigmoidal shear layers (point 12, Fig. 3); c and d) Sigmoidal shears with a top-NNE normal sense of shearing in Middle Triassic limestones (point 12, Fig. 3); e) Recumbent f3 collapse folds in Permian sediments located in the immediate vicinity of Bjelasica Fault (BF), characterised by sub-horizontal axial planes and NW-SE trending hinges (point 11, Fig. 3 map). f) Fn2 normal faults in Middle Triassic limestones accompanied with drag folds that cross-cut asymmetric overturned f2 folds (point 12, Fig. 3); g) Conjugate set of NW-SE oriented normal faults in Middle Triassic limestones with large fault planes and well-developed slicklines indicating orogen-perpendicular extension (point 12, Fig. 3); h) NE-SW oriented normal faults in Middle Triassic carbonates with large fault surfaces and striations accommodating orogen-parallel extension and truncated asymmetric f2 folds (point 13, Fig. 3). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
point 1, Fig. 3a). These normal faults cross-cut all other structures observed. Westwards, the ductile shearing along the Northern Montenegro Fault changes slightly to top-NE, for instance, visible in the main shear zone in the Permian limestones with rare conglomerate layers and overlying Triassic SSE of Berane (S3 and L1 in point 3, Fig. 3a). While the footwall shows normal faults with dominant Fn2 tops to top-SSW and Fn3 top-ESE kinematic sense of shear and often listric geometry, the hanging-wall shows more distributed top-NE and top-SW senses of shear along the Fn2 NW-SE oriented normal faults (Fn2 in point 3, Fig. 3a) and top-NW and top-SE along the Fn3 NE-SW oriented normal faults (Fn3 in point 3, Fig. 3a). No clear superposition of deformation between these two sets of normal faults could have been derived in the vicinity of the Northern Montenegro Fault. The normal faults are often truncated or change along their strike into highly oblique normal faults that develop as a conjugate Ft1 system of NNW-SSE oriented oblique-sinistral and NE-SW oriented oblique-dextral faults (Ft1 in point 3, Fig. 3a). We specifically note that in outcrops, ductile structures are always truncated by brittle normal faults, often with the same direction of shearing, which infers structurally controlled exhumation during cooling.

Outcrop observations were complemented by microstructural observations in the Northern Montenegro Fault footwall (Fig. 5). The mineralogical association of the Silurian-Carboniferous metamorphosed clastics is generally made up of quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, mica, sericite, and chlorite, with zircon grains as accessory minerals (see also Table 1 in the Supplementary Material), which was affected by lower greenschist facies conditions with a dynamic recrystallization observed in quartz grains with undulose extinction, subgrain formation, bulging recrystallisation, and local sub-grain rotation. Often, the primary S1 foliation associated with isoclinal folds is affected by a secondary S2 crenulation (Fig. 5a). Interesting are kinematic features associated with shearing in meta-clastics, although not extensively developed due to the low degree of metamorphism. A clear top-NNE shearing is demonstrated by often C-type shear bands and locally observed stretching lineations (Figs. 5b and c) in quartz-mica layering where shearing develops along a chlorite-sericite-quartz S3 foliation and by asymmetric folds associated with shear planes (Fig. 5d) (quarter folds, sensu Passchier and Trouw, 2005). This shearing is associated with grain-size reduction in quartz and micas. Just a couple of observed shearing microstructures appear to be associated with prograde mineral growth with a top-SW shearing direction, such as one delta-clast (Fig. 5e) or one mica-fish (Fig. 5f). However, their low number and quality prevent the definition of a clear event of dynamic recrystallization in prograde metamorphic growth conditions.

## 4.2. The area surrounding the late Oligocene - Late Miocene Berane basin

The Berane Basin is poorly exposed in terms of deformation structure, and the ones visible are compatible with what is observed along the margins. The basin margins, made up of the Triassic-Jurassic sequence and overlying ophiolitic mélange, display numerous brittle deformation features, especially along its western and southeastern flanks (Fig. 3b).

The Mesozoic sequence does not display the oldest f1 isoclinal folds and S2 crenulations found elsewhere in the Paleozoic sequences, while f2 asymmetric folds are rare but still show a NW-SE orientation (f2 in point 4, Fig. 3b). The NW margin of the basin shows numerous normal faults in Triassic shallow-water carbonates, both Fn2 NNW-SSE and Fn3 NE-SW striking (point 3 in Fig. 3 map and 3b). Mainly SW-dipping Fn2 normal faults accommodating NE-SW oriented (orogen-perpendicular) extension (Fn2 in point 4, Fig. 3b) are often truncated or change their orientation along strike to NW-SE oriented sinistral Ft1 strike-slip faults (Ft1 in point 4, Fig. 3b). The Fn3 normal faults accommodating NW-SE oriented (orogen-parallel) extension by the formation of NE-SW trending structures (Fn3 in point 4, Fig. 3b) are often truncated by or connected to a set of Ft2 conjugate strike-slip faults, NNW-SSE trending dextral and NE-SW oriented sinistral faults (Ft2 in point 4, Fig. 3b). A similar pattern of normal and highly oblique faulting is observed along the SE margin of the Berane Basin, although less faults with more variable and oblique orientations were observed in the field (Ft1 and Fn3 in point 5, Fig. 3b). Both cross-cutting relationships were observed in the field, Ft1 cross-cutting Fn3 and Fn3 cross-cutting Ft1, in agreement with the bi-directional character of extension inferred by previous studies (van Unen et al., 2019b; Porkoláb et al., 2019).

## 4.3. Rožaje Fault (RF)

A significant amount of deformation features was measured along the NW-SE oriented Rožaje fault (RF in Fig. 3), which separates two zones in our interpretation (Figs. 2 and 3 map). In the SE, the fault truncates the often large, up to 30 km in map length, blocks of middle Triassic carbonates associated with rifting magmatites and more deep-water or pelagic Upper Triassic-Jurassic sequences with patches of ophiolitic mélange and ophiolites. These Triassic sediments and magmatics, together with patches of ophiolites and mélange, are part of the “olistoplaka” of Dimitrijević (1997). We reinterpreted this sequence as a part of the structurally upper Drina-Ivanjica composite unit thrust over the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit in Early Cretaceous times. To the NW, the same fault truncates the ophiolitic mélange and overlying ophiolites of the structurally lower carbonates of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit. The footwall displays mostly lower greenschist facies Silurian-Permian clastics and carbonates of East Bosnian-Durmitor unit, but small patches of Triassic carbonates were also observed.

Similar to the footwall of the Northern Montenegro Fault, Paleozoic greenschist facies rocks in the footwall of the Rožaje Fault show cm- to m-scale f1 NNE-SSW oriented isoclinal folds with slightly NNE-plunging hinges (f1 in point 7, Fig. 3c). These folds are absent in the hanging-wall Mesozoic sediments. In both the footwall and the hanging-wall of the Rožaje Fault, WNW-ESE oriented m-scale f2 asymmetric folds with both SSW- and less observed NNE-vergence (f2 in points 7 and 8, Fig. 3c). These folds are associated with low-angle Fr1 NW-SE oriented thrusts with SW-ward transport and less frequent backthrusts with NE-ward transport, indicating NE-SW shortening direction (Fr1 in point 8, Fig. 3c). The association is rather clear in outcrops, for instance, by the formation of fold-propagation fold geometries (Fig. 4d). In the Rožaje

<table><caption>**Table 1**
Sampling and mineralogy information about the thin-sections.</caption><thead><tr><th>Sample</th><th>Point</th><th>Latitude</th><th>Longitude</th><th>Foliation dip direction-dip</th><th>Stretching lineation trend/plunge</th><th>Mineral assemblage</th><th>Metamorphic conditions</th><th>Deformation event</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>NR14-1</td><td>1</td><td>42°41'15.35"N</td><td>19°57'36.55"E</td><td>328/10°</td><td>034/22°</td><td>muscovite, sericite, quartz, chlorite</td><td>greenschist facies</td><td>Younger - top-NNE sense of tectonic transport. Older? - top-SSW tectonic transport</td></tr><tr><td>NR15-1</td><td>1</td><td>42°41'15.07"N</td><td>19°57'37.42"E</td><td>334/5°</td><td>020/12°</td><td>quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, chlorite, K-feldspars chlorite, quartz, sericite</td><td>greenschist facies</td><td>Younger - top NNE-sense of tectonic transport. Older? - top-SSW tectonic transport</td></tr><tr><td>NR16-1</td><td>1</td><td>42°40'32.27"N</td><td>19°58'40.61"E</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td></td><td>greenschist facies</td><td>Variscan deformation</td></tr></tbody></table>
Fault footwall, f2 folds are subsequently refolded by f3 open NW-SE oriented collapse folds with sub-horizontal axial planes (f3 in point 7, Figs. 3c, 4e). This re-folding involves cm- to large-scale f3 folds refolding the flanks of metre-scale asymmetric f2 folds (Fig. 4e). f2 and f3 folds are observed only in the immediate vicinity of the Rožaje Fault. The contact zone between low-grade Paleozoic rocks and overlying Triassic carbonates in the hanging-wall crops out near Rožaje, where intense ductile deformation in the footwall can be observed (location 10 on Fig. 3 map). A well-developed S3 foliation (S3 in point 10, Fig. 3c) contains NE-SW trending stretching lineation (L1 in point 10, Fig. 3c), where the top-NE sense of shear is documented by kinematic indicators, such as C-type shear bands. The shear structures are overprinted by normal faults that accommodate NE-SW oriented (orogen-perpendicular) extension with a top-NE sense of shear (Fn2 in point 6, Fig. 3c), which also cut across m-scale f3 recumbent collapse folds with sub-horizontal axial planes in the footwall of the Rožaje Fault (Fig. 4f). In the immediate hanging-wall of the Rožaje Fault, asymmetric f2 folds and Fr1 thrusts are also cross-cut by a large number of brittle normal faults that can be grouped in the same type of normal fault sets. The first group of Fn2 structures accommodated orogen-perpendicular extension observed in Triassic limestones that generally follow the strike of the Rožaje Fault (Fn2, Fig. 3c). In SE parts of the Rožaje Fault, Fn2 normal faults are generally SW-dipping (Fn2 in point 10, Fig. 3c). They have NNW-SSE orientations with well-developed large-scale striations and quartz aggregates indicating top-SW direction of tectonic transport (Fig. 4g). NW-wards along the Rožaje Fault, Fn2 faults are more E-W oriented with oblique slip normal faulting that exhibit the same top-SW sense of movement (Fn2 in points 8 and 9, Fig. 3c). The second set of NE-SW oriented Fn3 normal faults (Fn3 in points 8 and 9 on Fig. 3c) with an orientation accommodating the orogen parallel extension is observed in the same Triassic limestones, mostly SE-dipping, and are often associated with m-scale drag folds (Fig. 4h). In general, Fn2 and Fn3 normal faults truncate each other, inferring a bi-directional character of the extension.

## 4.4. Bjelasica Fault (BF)

In the western part of the studied area, the contact zone between the Paleozoic (Silurian-Carboniferous metamorphics and Permian sediments) and Triassic continental to shallow water clastics and carbonates intruded locally by Middle Triassic rifting-related magmatic rocks (the Bjelasica sub-unit of Dimitrijević, 1997, Fig. 2) is a shear zone that shows multiple phases of ductile and brittle deformation (between points 2, 11, 12, and 13 in Fig. 3 map). At farther distances from the shear zone, the Paleozoic sub- to lower greenschist facies metamorphics display the same type of f1 isoclinal folds and associated transposed S1 primary foliation as in other areas (f1 in point 2, Fig. 3d). In the shear zone, Triassic carbonates near the contact with the Permian clastic sequences show m-scale WNW-ESE oriented and SSW-vergent f2 asymmetric folds flattened to almost isoclinal (f2 in point 12, Fig. 3d and Fig. 6a) that are displaced and truncated by faults with 2-5 m thick reverse-sense shear zones with sigmoidal layers that indicate a top-SSW direction of Fr1 thrusting (Fr1 in point 12, Fig. 3d). The flattening often created cm- to m-scale hinge collapse structures between more competent carbonate layers (Fig. 6b). In the shear zone, f2 folds are associated locally with well-developed veins perpendicular to the bedding planes and filled with calcite (Fig. 6a).

These metre-scale thrusts and folds were subsequently reactivated or overprinted by the formation of ductile and brittle top-NE to NNE shearing structures. This shearing is particularly well visible in the Triassic sequence located near the main Bjelasica Fault tectonic contact. The shear sense is documented by stretching lineations and numerous kinematic indicators in the form of C-type shear bands, which are developed within thinly bedded sequences in Triassic limestones (Fig. 6c and d) and Middle Triassic magmatic rocks, and indicate a top-NNE sense of shearing. Due to the very low-grade of metamorphism,

stretching lineations were not always visible in outcrop observations, particularly in meta-pelites or meta-carbonates, but shearing is confirmed in thin-sections. Therefore, we calculated the shearing direction and sense of shear from S—C planes intersections (e.g., S3 in point 12, Fig. 3d). The ductile shearing overprints the previously formed f2 asymmetric folds (Fig. 6b), while being truncated by subsequent brittle structures, i.e., normal faults. On the eastern flank of the Bjelasica sub-unit, Permian sediments expose metre-scale f3 open collapse folds with NW-SE oriented hinges (Fig. 6e) near the contact with Triassic carbonates (f3 in point 11, Fig. 3d). The shear zones are truncated in outcrops by normal faults that are also observed in all stratigraphic units at farther distances from the main tectonic contacts (Fig. 3 map). In outcrops, they are mostly visible in Triassic limestones on the western and southwestern flanks of the Bjelasica sub-unit. In general, normal faults can be grouped in the same two sub-sets that are observed elsewhere. The most frequent structures are NW-SE oriented NE-dipping normal faults (Fn2 in points 12 and 13, Fig. 3d) that are locally associated with decimetre-scale drag folds that truncate earlier f2 asymmetric folds (Fig. 6f). Conjugate NW-SE oriented SW-dipping normal fault planes with well-developed slickensides can also be locally observed (Fig. 6g). The Fn2 normal faults indicate orogen-perpendicular extension. These normal faults often change along their strike or are truncated by normal faults with a similar top-NE sense of shear, but the slip is more obliquely oriented along sub-vertical NNE-SSW oriented planes. We kept such faults in the same kinematic set (Fn2 in point 13, Fig. 3d), although they can also be interpreted as oblique-slip faults. N-S to NNE-SSW oriented normal faults accommodating orogen-parallel extension have often very large, up to few tens of metres fault surfaces, with clear striations (Fn3 in point 13, Fig. 3d). These normal faults also cross-cut older f2 asymmetric folds (Fig. 6h). All observed normal faults accommodating both orogen-perpendicular and orogen-parallel show mutual cross-cutting relationships, inferring a bi-directional character of the extensional episode.

## 4.5. Integration of kinematic data

The overall deformation observed in the study area of northern Montenegro shows a complex poly-phase tectonic evolution that can be grouped into two contractional and one extensional deformation phase.

### 4.5.1. Contractional kinematics (D1, D2)

The oldest structures, interpreted as a first D1 deformation phase, are observed only in the lower greenschist facies metamorphic rocks affecting Silurian-Carboniferous strata, particularly well expressed in the footwall of major map-scale structures. This phase created the widespread NNE-SSW to N-S oriented f1 burial folds and associated S1 primary metamorphic foliation affected by the S2 crenulation folding (Fig. 7a), as observed in outcrops and microstructures. The absence of these structures in Triassic and younger units suggests that this deformation phase is an effect of a pre-Triassic deformation, widely observed elsewhere in the internal units of the Dinarides (Trivić et al., 2010, among others).

The overprinting D2 deformation phase is a NE-SW to NNE-SSW oriented contraction that affected the entire studied area, but particularly larger effects are observed near the main tectonic contacts of the frontal East Bosnian-Durmitor thrusting, Bjelasica Fault, Northern Montenegro Fault, and Rožaje Fault in places where this latter structure is in proximity or coincides with the frontal Drina-Ivanjica thrusting (Fig. 3 map). This phase affected all stratigraphic units in the study area, except the Miocene in the Berane Basin. In other words, the contraction affected both the hanging-wall and footwall of all major map-scale tectonic contacts. Deformation is particularly intense in the more densely stratified parts of the overlying Triassic and Jurassic sequences (e.g., Fig. 6). Outside the main tectonic contacts, asymmetric f2 folds are more open, while in the main shear zones they are often tight to almost isoclinal (Fig. 7a). The top-SW to SSW thrusting along the main tectonic
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

**Fig. 7.** Idealised NNE-SSW oriented block-diagram showing the interpreted superposition of deformation at the Drina-Ivanjica – East Bosnian-Durmitor nappe contact. The black arrow in the right corner indicates the orientation of the block-diagram. Light brown blocks represent the Drina-Ivanjica unit, while darker brown blocks show the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit. a) Simplified model of pre-extensional deformation associated with Paleozoic deformation (green colour) and Cretaceous – Paleogene thrusting of Drina-Ivanjica over East Bosnian-Durmitor unit (black colour). Note that Variscan deformation is present only in Silurian – Carboniferous of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit; b) Onset of the post-Eocene extension associated with the exhumation of previously buried Paleozoic sequences. An initial stage of deformation was accommodated by orogen-perpendicular and orogen-parallel extension that reactivated the frontal parts of the Drina-Ivanjica – East Bosnian-Durmitor nappe as an extensional detachment. During the earlier stages of extension, most of the deformation was localised in the footwall of the detachment. Note that the detachment reactivates the former thrust only in its frontal part; c) Late-stage extension characterised by continued exhumation and frequent normal faulting with associated strike-slip and tear faults that accommodated the bi-directional extension. The main extensional detachment is overprinted and segmented by late-stage faults, causing the formation of extensional klippen in its hanging-wall and a further exhumation of Paleozoic units in its footwall. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

contacts is associated with the same dominant vergence of asymmetric folds. Rarely observed kinematic indicators in the footwall of the Northern Montenegro Fault suggest that deformation was associated with dynamic metamorphism (Fig. 5e and f), although their geometry has been almost completely obliterated by the subsequent extensional reactivation. They seem to indicate locally the same top-SW sense of shear, although we prefer avoiding deriving regional ductile senses of shear from the few observations available. This contractional phase is associated with thrusting along the main tectonic contacts, creating the Drina-Ivanjica and East Bosnian-Durmitor composite units, including

the Bjelasica sub-unit. By correlation with previous studies (e.g., Ilić and Neubauer, 2005; Ilić et al., 2005; Porkoláb et al., 2019; Schmid et al., 2008; Schmid et al., 2020; van Unen et al., 2019a, 2019b among others), we interpret this deformation to be Cretaceous-Paleocene in age, migrating in time from Early Cretaceous at the frontal Drina-Ivanjica thrusting to Late Cretaceous-Paleocene at the frontal East Bosnian-Durmitor contact.

### 4.5.2. Extensional kinematics (D3)

The extensional D3 deformation phase observed in our dataset documents a combination of multiple types of effects in our studied area formed in ductile and brittle conditions (Fig. 3). The ductile deformation (S3 foliation and L1 stretching lineation) is documented in the shear zone or the Paleozoic footwall of the Northern Montenegro Fault with top-NNE and Rožaje Fault with top-NE senses of shear (Figs. 3 and 7b). These ductile shears are truncated or overprinted by Fn2 NE-SW to WNW-ESE oriented normal faults with dominant top-NE to NNE senses of shear (Fig. 7b). Our observations demonstrate that these types of outcrop-scale structures have to be grouped in the same deformation phase by interpreting a gradual transition from ductile to brittle deformation during extension-driven exhumation. Given the available overprinting criteria, the f3 collapse folds (Fig. 7b) must have developed by vertical flattening of an inherited steeply dipping and foliated sequence during the horizontal elongation associated with extension (e.g., Froitzheim, 1992). In areas with a large amount of shearing, such as the Northern Montenegro Fault footwall, the axes of these folds are parallel with the top-NE to NNE shearing direction. While the footwall of these structures recorded the entire ductile to brittle transition, their hanging-wall recorded only a brittle deformation that is more intense in close proximity of tectonic contacts. Because deformation is mainly focussed on the same major contacts, all arguments point to a clear interpretation that extension was controlled by the formation of a major detachment with top-NE to NNE kinematics reactivating the inherited Cretaceous contact of the Drina-Ivanjica and East Bosnian-Durmitor units. This observation is clearly valid for the Northern Montenegro Fault and the Bjelasica Fault that are obviously connected by the same detachment structure reactivating a thrusting contact at its base (Figs. 2 and 3 map). Our data demonstrate that the Bjelasica sub-unit is always in a high structural position, thrust over the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit, which is different from the previous lowermost inferred position inside the stack of East Bosnian-Durmitor sub-units (Dimitrijević, 1997; Živaljević et al., 1982). In fact, the Bjelasica sub-unit and the hanging-wall of the Northern Montenegro Fault were connected in a large tectonic klippe, affected initially by thrusting and whose klippen geometry in map view was established by the subsequent detachment and brittle normal faulting followed by erosion (Fig. 7c). The Rožaje Fault is also a major detachment, well documented by the same observations as the Northern Montenegro Fault and Bjelasica Fault.

The NNE-SSW to NE-SW oriented Fn3 normal faults documenting the orogen-parallel direction of extension cannot be directly related to regional tectonic structures in the observed Montenegro Dinarides area. However, they are compatible with the kinematics previously defined for the various SPF segments (Fig. 2), inferred to be the main structure accommodating the orogen-parallel extension with a scissor-type mechanics (Handy et al., 2019). Our field kinematic observations indicate a mutual cross-cutting relationship of the brittle structures associated with extension that truncate in all situations both our observed top-NE to NNE and the top-SE to ESE SPF ductile shearing (see also Grund et al., 2023). These observations imply that our newly defined major extensional structures and SPF formed during the same D3 extensional phase with a bi-directional character of extension (Fig. 7c). The age of the extensional deposition in the Berane Basin, combined with ages of deformation defined by previous studies (e.g., Grund et al., 2023; van Unen et al., 2019a, 2019b), suggests that this extensional phase took place during Miocene times. However, an earlier onset during Paleogene cannot be excluded. The bi-directional character of the extension is also
in agreement with what has been observed elsewhere in the Dinarides (Andrić et al., 2017; Porkoláb et al., 2019).

# 5. Discussion

## 5.1. Connecting the regional major tectonic contacts

The kinematic analysis and regional cross-sections (Figs. 8a and b) show that the Northern Montenegro Fault and Bjelasica Fault were primarily formed as a continuous thrust. Due to the higher structural position and deeper-water Late Triassic-Jurassic character of the hanging-wall units in comparison with other sediments from the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit, we consider the Bjelasica sub-unit (Fig. 8a) and the Northern Montenegro Fault hanging-wall (Fig. 8b) as parts of the same Drina-Ivanjica composite unit that were, together with olistoplaka blocks of Dimitrijević (1997), emplaced over the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit. In other words, we interpret this contact as the frontal-most part of the Early Cretaceous Drina-Ivanjica thrust subsequently reactivated as an extensional detachment (Figs. 8a and b).

Due to the similar kinematics when compared with the extensional detachment, we also consider the Rožaje Fault to be the northern prolongation of the same detachment (Figs. 8a and b). Although these two segments share the same pattern of deformation, the main difference between them is that the Northern Montenegro Fault – Bjelasica Fault

structures reactivate the Drina-Ivanjica – East Bosnian-Durmitor nappe contact, while the Rožaje Fault truncates it. The apparent coincidence between the Early Cretaceous thrust and the Rožaje Fault in the present-day geometry (Fig. 8b) is just an effect of the subsequent extension that exhumes Paleozoic sequences of East Bosnian-Durmitor in the footwall of the Rožaje Fault and juxtaposes them with Triassic and younger hanging-wall sediments. Moreover, the formation of the extensional detachment was associated with the formation of extensional klippen (e. g., BF in Fig. 8a) and intense normal faulting. The cross-sections (Fig. 8a and b) show that the main detachment is cross-cut by larger offset synthetic and antithetic normal faults, which created a differential exhumation pattern resulting in the formation of klippen geometries (Fig. 7c and Fig. 8b). In other words, although the detachment itself is segmented in several structures in the present-day geometry, it initially formed as one structure, cross-cut and separated in later stages by normal faults and subsequent erosion.

Our data generally demonstrates that the post-Eocene extension is, in the studied area, mostly localised along the newly discovered NE- to NNE-dipping detachment, exhuming in its footwall the previously buried greenschist facies rocks of the East Bosnian-Durmitor unit. A correlation with previous studies from neighbouring area in the Northern Montenegro Fault vicinity (Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019; Schmid et al., 2008; Schmid et al., 2020) implies a similar character of deformation along the SE-dipping SPF with increasing vertical offsets

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8.** Geological cross-sections over the studied area, twice vertically exaggerated. The locations of cross-sections are shown in Fig. 2. The depth prolongation reflects kinematic mechanisms projections of structures observed in outcrops. The colours for structures and geological/tectonic units are the same as in Figs. 2 and 3. EBD – East Bosnian-Durmitor unit, DI – Drina-Ivanjica unit, DF & PK – Durmitor flysch and Pre-Karst, UP – Upper Pelagonian unit.</figcaption></figure>
towards NE (Fig. 8c). Although this fault accommodates exhumation of
several domes, such as the Cukali window (Fig. 8c), the highest amount
of up to 7 km vertical offsets are observed in the Dečani Dome of Grund
et al. (2023), where SPF exhumes the same greenschist facies rocks that
we observed. According to their interpretation, SPF here changes its
strike from NE-SW to WNW-ESE at the ESE margin of our studied area
and abruptly roots in contact between Paleozoic meta-sediments and
overlying Triassic carbonates that we observed as the Northern
Montenegro Fault.

Such observations suggest that the SPF fault system could have
experienced partitioning of deformation from a generally SE-dipping
structure that accommodates orogen-parallel extension to the NE- to
NNE-dipping Northern Montenegro Fault that accommodated orogen-
perpendicular extension. Therefore, we interpret the Northern
Montenegro Fault and SPF kinematics as the result of the same defor-
mation phase, although they could be either coeval or formed in suc-
cession during the post-Eocene extension.

5.2. *Mechanism of deformation transfer*

Following the previous kinematic and paleomagnetic studies (Kissel
et al., 1995; Speranza et al., 1995) and the present-day position of slabs
(Bennett et al., 2008; Piromallo and Morelli, 2003; Wortel and Spakman,
2000; Zhang et al., 2022), our study confirms that the clockwise rotation

of the Hellenides with respect to the Dinarides orogen was triggered by a
segmentation and differential evolution of the subducted slab. This
segmentation included the Oligocene – early Miocene slab detachment
restricted to its Dinarides segment (Andrić et al., 2018) and at least
partly coeval slab tearing accommodated along the pre-existing weak-
ness zone at the Dinarides-Hellenides junction (Handy et al., 2019). To
the SE, subduction below the Hellenides remained active with the
accelerated pulling of the retreating Aegean slab (Fig. 9).

The kinematics demonstrates that the main mechanism transferring
deformation from segmented slabs to the crust was a clockwise rotation
of Hellenides with respect to Dinarides associated with up to several
kilometres of exhumation of Dinarides mid-crustal levels at the transi-
tion between the two orogenic segments. Such dynamics was followed
by the formation of a complex crustal transfer zone associated with
significant strain partitioning. The main deformation was distributed
along the large-offset SPF and Northern Montenegro Fault structures,
accommodating extensional exhumation, which was gradually accom-
modated towards the external Hellenides by uninterrupted top-W
thrusting (Handy et al., 2019). This means that the previously defined
scissor-like extension observed along SPF was gradually partitioned
along the Northern Montenegro Fault, which exhumed East Bosnian-
Durmitor greenschist facies rocks coevally from the footwall of both
structures. In other words, the further continuation of SPF was trans-
ferred from a NE-SW oriented structure into the WNW-ESE oriented

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

**Fig. 9.** a) 3D sketch of the Dinarides-Hellenides junction showing the lateral transition between the already detached Adriatic slab and still retreating Aegean slab segment. The sketch displays a complex SPF – Northern Montenegro Fault – Bjelasica Fault – Rožaje Fault detachment that accommodated the orogen-parallel and orogen-perpendicular extension. The directions of extension are displayed by red arrows. Metohija and Berane basins are indicated by yellow polygons; b) Map-view of the main fault structures and associated domes and basins. Note that exhumed content of the domes is marked with a darker grey colour. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Dinarides nappes, while reactivating and truncating the frontalmost parts of the Drina-Ivanjica thrust sheet and creating the extensional klippens observed in the present-day geometry. Such kinematics was presumably coeval with the reactivation of the East Bosnian-Durmitor thrust over the Bosnian flysch as a NE-dipping low-angle system of normal faults (van Unen et al., 2019b). Furthermore, we note that the normal faulting that accommodated the bi-directional extension and the formation of a relatively small Berane Basin are likely coeval with the opening of a much larger Middle Miocene - Pliocene Metohija basin (Elezaj, 2009; Marović et al., 2007; Marroni et al., 2009).

The Dinarides-Hellenides orogen represents one of many worldwide examples of segmented convergence zones where slab tearing accommodates an along-strike transition from slab detachment and subsequent continental indentation to ongoing subduction and slab retreat. This mechanism is well documented at a crustal scale in many places worldwide by the presence of tear faults, such as the ones on the edges of the Calabrian (Faccenna et al., 2004; Gallais et al., 2013) or Caribbean arcs (Clark et al., 2008; Miller et al., 2009), Caldas tear fault in South America (Vargas and Mann, 2013), Hunter Fracture Zone in North Fiji Basin (Schellart et al., 2002), Palu Fault on the island of Sulawesi (Govers and Wortel, 2005), or Tan-Lu Fault in East China (Zhao et al., 2016). In contrast to these worldwide examples, the Dinarides-Hellenides transition represents a part of a segmented convergence zone where slab tearing associated with a different along-strike evolution of two continental slabs does not result in regional tear faults with strike-slip deformation at crustal levels or slab tear-related magmatism (Caprarelli and Leitch, 2001; Hoernle et al., 2006; Karaoğlu and Helvacı, 2014; Portnyagin et al., 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2008; Seghedi et al., 2004), but is more compatible, although different in kinematics, with Subduction-Transform Edge-Propagators (the STEP of Govers and Wortel, 2005). Differently, this process is accommodated at a crustal scale by significant partitioning of extensional deformation located above the transition between detached slab and still-retreating continental slab. Our results show that in such domains, strain partitioning can form several detachments that can be connected in one complex crustal structure with variable strike at the orogen's junction accommodating coeval orogen-parallel and orogen-perpendicular extension. Moreover, bi-directional extension is partitioned and replaced further by shortening in the external parts of the orogenic segment with the still attached slab. The main detachment represents a highly oblique structure that consists of two connected segments perpendicular to each other, which overprint the older inherited weakness zones. One segment is a reactivated orogen-perpendicular transfer zone related to pre-collisional events, while the orogen-parallel one represents a low-angle detachment that overprints the frontal-most parts of the earlier orogenic nappe stack and then steepens while truncating the footwall units of an older thrust. Furthermore, the latter creates extensional klippen geometries as a result of progressive exhumation of its footwall and erosion triggered by slab detachment. Both segments show scissor-like mechanics with zero offsets at the end of each segment and gradually increasing displacements along the strike, reaching its maximum at the point where detachments connect to each other. Such kinematics around the connecting point of two fault segments appears to be responsible for the exhumation of mid-crustal levels in the footwall of both segments and the opening of relatively large sedimentary basins in their hanging-wall (Fig. 9).

## 6. Conclusions

To advance the understanding of the crustal effects of slab segmentation during indentation and transition from continental collision and slab detachment to ongoing subduction, we have analysed the natural situation of the post-Eocene deformation observed at the Dinarides-Hellenides transition by the means of a field structural and kinematic study in the less understood area of northern Montenegro. We correlate and couple our kinematic data with the previous studies of Dinarides-

Hellenides orogenic systems (Grund et al., 2023; Handy et al., 2019; van Unen et al., 2019a, 2019b). This approach allowed us to define the distribution of deformation from the already known structures of the Hellenides to the nappe stack of the Dinarides and quantify the kinematics of the junction area.

The results demonstrated that following the Cretaceous-Paleocene thrusting, the study area has been affected by a period of extension responsible for the formation of a main detachment, truncated by normal faults and erosion, and therefore exposed in the number of segments in the SE Dinarides. These segments are presently observed in the Northern Montenegro Fault, Bjelasica Fault, and Rožaje Fault, which are in fact the same detachment eroded or cross-cut by secondary normal faults. Therefore, we demonstrate that what was previously thought to be overthrust klippen and tectonic windows are in fact extensional klippens. The overall extensional detachments connect directly with the main structure of the Dinarides-Hellenides transition active during the Miocene, which is the previously defined SPF. All extensional deformation observed in the Dinarides-Hellenides junction area, including the SPF segment, can be connected in one complex non-cylindrical structure that accommodates coeval bi-directional extension that exhumed mid-crustal levels in the orogenic structure.

Our study also demonstrates that slab tearing that accommodates different motions of subducted slabs along the orogen can result in coeval bi-directional extension at crustal levels, creating a complex curved normal fault with variable strike and different vertical offsets along its strike. This is a rather novel mechanism when compared to the formation of strike-slip faults or slab tearing associated with magmatism as frequently observed elsewhere.

## CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Nikola Randjelovic:** Writing – original draft. **Liviu Matenco:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision. **Nemanja Krstekanić:** Writing – review & editing. **Maja Maleš:** Writing – review & editing. **Uros Stojadinović:** Writing – review & editing. **Marinko Toljić:** Writing – review & editing. **Ernst Willingshofer:** Writing – review & editing. **Branislav Trivić:** Writing – review & editing.

## Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

## Acknowledgements

This paper is part of a collaboration between the Department of Earth Sciences at Utrecht University, the Netherlands, and the Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Serbia, during the PhD of Nikola Randjelovic. It is funded by the Netherlands Research Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Science (ISES) and the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (Contract no. 451-03-136/2025-03/200126). We thank Editor Jimin Sun, Franz Neubauer, László Fodor, and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments and suggestions, which have significantly improved the original version of the manuscript.

## Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2025.104837.

## Data availability

Data is shared in the Supplementary Material
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