# Developing an Observing Air-Sea Interactions Strategy (OASIS) for the global ocean

M F Cronin, S Swart, C A Marandino, C Anderson, P Browne, S Chen, W R

Joubert, U Schuster, R Venkatesan, C I Addey, et al.

► To cite this version:

M F Cronin, S Swart, C A Marandino, C Anderson, P Browne, et al. Developing an Observing Air-Sea Interactions Strategy (OASIS) for the global ocean. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 2023, 80 (2), pp.367-373. 10.1093/icesjms/fsac149. hal-05311573

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# Developing an Observing Air-Sea Interactions Strategy (OASIS) for the global ocean

M. F. Cronin<fnref n="1" />,*, S. Swart<fnref n="2" />,<fnref n="3" />, C. A. Marandino<fnref n="4" />, C. Anderson<fnref n="5" />, P. Browne<fnref n="6" />,†, S. Chen<fnref n="7" />,†,
W. R. Joubert<fnref n="8" />,†, U. Schuster<fnref n="9" />, R. Venkatesan<fnref n="10" />,<fnref n="11" />, C. I. Addey<fnref n="12" />,<fnref n="13" />,†, O. Alves<fnref n="14" />, F. Ardhuin<fnref n="15" />,
S. Battle<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="16" />, M. A. Bourassa<fnref n="17" />, Z. Chen<fnref n="18" />, M. Chory<fnref n="19" />,†, C. Clayson<fnref n="20" />, R. B. de Souza<fnref n="21" />, M. du
Plessis<fnref n="2" />,†, M. Edmondson<fnref n="19" />,†, J. B. Edson<fnref n="20" />, S. T. Gille<fnref n="5" />, J. Hermes<fnref n="22" />, V. Hormann<fnref n="5" />, S.
A. Josey<fnref n="23" />, M. Kurz<fnref n="24" />,†, T. Lee<fnref n="25" />, F. Maicu<fnref n="26" />,†, E. H. Moustahfid<fnref n="27" />,<fnref n="28" />, S.-A. Nicholson<fnref n="29" />,†, E.
S. Nyadjro<fnref n="30" />,<fnref n="31" />, J. Palter<fnref n="32" />, R. G. Patterson<fnref n="33" />,†, S. G. Penny<fnref n="34" />,<fnref n="35" />, L. P. Pezzi³⁶, N. Pinardi<fnref n="26" />, J.
E. J. Reeves Eyre³⁷,³⁸,†, N. Rome<fnref n="19" />, A. C. Subramanian³⁹,†, C. Stienbarger⁴⁰,†, T. Steinhoff<fnref n="4" />,⁴¹, A.
J. Sutton<fnref n="1" />, H. Tomita⁴², S. M. Wills⁴³,†, C. Wilson<fnref n="19" />,† and L. Yu<fnref n="20" />

<footnote n="1">¹Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 7600 Sandpoint Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, 40530 Gothenburg, Sweden</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Department of Oceanography, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7700, South Africa</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Düsternbrooker Weg 20, 24105 Kiel, Germany</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Shinfield Park, Reading RG2 9AX, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸South African Weather Service, Private Bag X097, Pretoria 0001, South Africa</footnote>

<footnote n="9">⁹Department of Geography, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4RJ, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="10">¹⁰National Centre for Coastal Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Chennai 600100, India</footnote>

<footnote n="11">¹¹University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="12">¹²State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China</footnote>

<footnote n="13">¹³Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="14">¹⁴Bureau of Meteorology, Docklands, Melbourne, VIC 3008, Australia</footnote>

<footnote n="15">¹⁵Laboratoire d'Océanographie Physique et Spatiale, CNRS, Ifremer, IRD, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Brest 29238, France</footnote>

<footnote n="16">¹⁶Innovim LLC, Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="17">¹⁷Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science and Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction Studies, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="18">¹⁸Physical Oceanography Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266005, China</footnote>

<footnote n="19">¹⁹Consortium for Ocean Leadership, Washington, DC 20005, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="20">²⁰Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="21">²¹Earth System Numerical Modeling Division, National Institute for Space Research, Cachoeira Paulista, Sao Paulo 12630-000, Brazil</footnote>

<footnote n="22">²²South African Environmental Observation Network, Foreshore, 8001, Cape Town, South Africa</footnote>

<footnote n="23">²³National Oceanography Centre, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="24">²⁴Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="25">²⁵Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="26">²⁶Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Bologna, 40129 Bologna, Italy</footnote>

<footnote n="27">²⁷Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing Program, Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="28">²⁸U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="29">²⁹Southern Ocean Carbon-Climate Observatory, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Rosebank, Cape Town 7700, South Africa</footnote>

<footnote n="30">³⁰Northern Gulf Institute, Mississippi State University, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="31">³¹National Centers for Environmental Information, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="32">³²Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="33">³³Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, Darwin, NT 0810, Australia</footnote>

<footnote n="34">³⁴Sofar Ocean Technologies, San Francisco, CA 94105, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="35">³⁵Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA</footnote>
The Observing Air-Sea Interactions Strategy (OASIS) is a new United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development programme working to develop a practical, integrated approach for observing air-sea interactions globally for improved Earth system (including ecosystem) forecasts, CO₂ uptake assessments called for by the Paris Agreement, and invaluable surface ocean information for decision makers. Our “Theory of Change” relies upon leveraged multi-disciplinary activities, partnerships, and capacity strengthening. Recommendations from >40 OceanObs’19 community papers and a series of workshops have been consolidated into three interlinked Grand Ideas for creating #1: a globally distributed network of mobile air-sea observing platforms built around an expanded array of long-term time-series stations; #2: a satellite network, with high spatial and temporal resolution, optimized for measuring air-sea fluxes; and #3: improved representation of air-sea coupling in a hierarchy of Earth system models. OASIS activities are organized across five Theme Teams: (1) Observing Network Design & Model Improvement; (2) Partnership & Capacity Strengthening; (3) UN Decade OASIS Actions; (4) Best Practices & Interoperability Experiments; and (5) Findable-Accessible-Interoperable-Reusable (FAIR) models, data, and OASIS products. Stakeholders, including researchers, are actively recruited to participate in Theme Teams to help promote a predicted, safe, clean, healthy, resilient, and productive ocean.

**Keywords:** air-sea flux, carbon dioxide uptake, climate, global, multi-stressor, Observing Air-Sea Interactions Strategy (OASIS), observation, satellite, UN Decade of Ocean Sciences for Sustainable Development, weather.

## Introduction

The sea surface supports maritime commerce and is the portion of the ocean viewed from space. The sea surface, and the interacting layers of ocean and atmosphere, has a profound influence on human and marine life. The ocean modulates the Earth's weather and climate through exchanges of heat, moisture, momentum, greenhouse gasses, and aerosols at the air-sea interface. These air-sea fluxes act as forces on the ocean's physical and living environment, without which the ocean would essentially be static, dark, and dead. Observations of air-sea interactions are used in forecasts of floods, droughts, marine heatwaves, severe storms, sea state, coastal inundation, climate variability, and other hazards with significant implications for regional and global economies and populations, especially those of coastal regions and Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Over the next decade, as nations meet or fail to meet the reductions of greenhouse gas emissions called for by the Paris Agreement, it will be ever more critical to monitor ocean CO₂ absorption and resulting impacts on the ocean carbonate system and marine life.

## Co-designing the OASIS

The Observing Air-Sea Interactions Strategy (OASIS) has its roots in OceanObs'19 (https://www.oceanobs19.net), a once-per-decade conference to build a community vision for transforming ocean observations and ocean information over the next decade. Of the 140 published community perspective papers from OceanObs'19, >40 were related to observing air-sea interactions. Three interlinked “Grand Ideas” emerged (Figure 1) for creating Grand Idea #1: a globally distributed network of mobile air-sea interaction observing platforms built around an expanded array of fixed stations that provide long-term time-series in key regions. At some point, these stations should each be enhanced with process studies and/or supersites, which would fully resolve interactions and feedbacks. These observations would then help to construct and validate satellite retrievals, develop new artificial intelligence

modelling tools, and support “Grand Idea” #2: creating a satellite network, with high spatial and temporal resolution, optimized for measuring air-sea fluxes. Finally, “Grand Idea” #3, which depends on the first two, calls for improved understanding and process representation of the air-sea coupling in a hierarchy of Earth system models. Together, these expanded observing capabilities and improved representations of air-sea interaction will lead to more reliable weather, climate, and ecosystem forecasts and reanalyses.

The individual recommendations defining these transformational actions are now being harmonized by cross discipline Theme Teams (TT), and anchored to societal issues through a series of virtual workshops with stakeholder partners following the principles of co-design laid out by IOC-UNESCO (2021). These UN Ocean Decade Laboratories satellite events have included virtual workshops on air-sea observations for a Predicted Ocean (Cronin et al., 2021), a Clean Ocean (Marandino et al., 2022), a Safe Ocean (Venkatesan et al., 2022), an Accessible Ocean, and Offshore Wind Energy. More information on past and planned workshops can be found on airseaobs.org.

## Theory of change

It is clear that to realize these Grand Ideas, we must work together. A “Theory of Change” was proposed (Figure 2), which turns one of the most challenging aspects of measuring air-sea fluxes, the need to measure multiple co-located Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs), into a transformative opportunity to co-design an ideal and fit-for-purpose observing system. Multifunctional platforms are not only more economical than multiple single-function platforms, they also encourage collaborations across disciplines and areas of expertise. New sensors must be carefully tested and integrated into platforms to ensure interoperability and maximize utility. By developing best practices and technical readiness procedures, and fostering a culture of mentorship and partnership, the capacity of the observing system could be significantly expanded

<footnote n="36">³⁶Laboratory of Ocean and Atmosphere Studies (LOA), Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (OBT/INPE), São José dos Campos, SP 12227-010, Brazil</footnote>

<footnote n="37">³⁷ERT Inc., Laurel, MD 20707, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="38">³⁸NOAA/NWS/NCEP Climate Prediction Center, College Park, MD 20740, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="39">³⁹Dept. of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="40">⁴⁰University Corporation for Atmospheric Research of Colorado Boulder, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="41">⁴¹NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, Jahnebakken 5, 5007 Bergen, Norway</footnote>

<footnote n="42">⁴²Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0810, Japan</footnote>

<footnote n="43">⁴³ Cooperative Institute for Climate Ocean, and Ecosystem Studies, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA</footnote>

<footnote>*Corresponding author: tel: +1(206)526-6449; e-mail: meghan.f.cronin@noaa.gov</footnote>

<footnote>†Early Career Ocean Professionals.</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Three interlinked “Grand Ideas” of the OASIS and their relation to an end-to-end ocean information delivery for improved Earth system forecasts, including for ecosystems. Community strategy paper citations calling for the OASIS recommendations are shown here and in the reference list. Mapped fields in the second from the top layer, include (left) surface pCO₂ from the Surface Ocean CO₂ Atlas (Bakker et al., 2016), (middle) daily average net downward heat flux on 3 September 2010 from prototype ORAS6 reanalysis, and (right) total cloud cover from ECMWF Reanalysis-5 (ERA5) reanalysis (Hersbach et al., 2020) at 3 September 2010 T -12:00.</figcaption></figure>

while providing opportunities for engagement by Early Career Ocean Professionals (ECOPs) and scientists from under-resourced nations and institutions. In addition, the co-location of multiple EOVs, including Essential Biodiversity Variables (EBVs), will revolutionize our ability to interrogate impacts from multiple stressors on ecosystems, from changes in biogeochemistry to components of the food web, and build robust state-of-the-art ecological forecasts.

## OASIS SCOR working group #162 and TTs

Membership of the OASIS Scientific Committee for Ocean Research (SCOR) Working Group (WG) #162 covers multiple disciplines and methodologies, and spans data cre-

ators to information users (i.e. “end-to-end”). OASIS includes representatives from all Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) panels (physics and climate, biogeochemistry, and biology/ecosystem). The WG spans the globe and is diverse in terms of gender and career level. Nearly all members were involved in OceanObs’19 either as lead or contributing authors with significant ties to user communities in their respective nations and regions.

One of the WG’s first activities was to get OASIS endorsed as a UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development Programme. OASIS will work with community members across five TT (Figure 3):

**The “Observing Network Design & Model Development”**
TT will harmonize OceanObs’19 and other community rec-
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** OASIS Theory of Change.</figcaption></figure>

ommendations into a coherent strategy and will define pro-
cess studies and transformational actions needed to reach our
2030 goals of a predicted, healthy, resilient, productive, clean,
and safe ocean.

The “Partnership & Capacity Strengthening” TT will work with the other teams to offer curricula for a range of learners, from children to graduate students to mariners. Additionally, workshops, short courses, and mentoring programs will be initiated around the world.

The “UN Decade OASIS Actions” TT will work to im-
plement OASIS projects by leveraging opportunities provided
through the UN Ocean Decade and Ocean Decade National
Committees.

The “Best Practices & Interoperability Experiments” TT will develop, document, and share best practices for collecting observations while simultaneously performing experiments to ensure that the air-sea interaction variables are interoperable across platforms.

The “Findable-Accessible-Interoperable-Reusable (FAIR Data, Models & OASIS Products)” TT will guide the development and accessibility of air-sea flux software toolboxes and gridded flux products, and work to make air-sea interaction information open and FAIR.

To get involved in any of these TTs, and/or sign up to receive
the OASIS newsletter, go to: https://airseaobs.org/get-involv
ed.

Looking forward to 2030, and back to 1972

OASIS hopes to make a major change in the observing and un-
derstanding of air-sea interactions through transformational
actions, including an expanded *in situ* observing network, im-
proved observations from space, improved understanding and
representation in coupled models, and a significant increase
in the capacity to make observations globally and have them
used globally.

The famous photo of Earth (Figure 4) taken by the Apollo
17 astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972 changed our per-
spective of our place in the Universe. Fifty years later, anthro-
pogenic global warming is undeniable, and our adverse impact
on Earth must change.

OASIS can help build an observing network that would
track the ocean's uptake of heat and carbon dioxide, and con-
strain numerical models for improved weather, climate, water,
and ecosystem forecasts and reanalyses. Through OASIS, we
hope that the world gains a better understanding of the deli-
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** OASIS organization chart depicting the five community-based TTs.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4.** The “Blue Marble” photograph of the Earth was taken by the crew of Apollo 17 en route to the Moon on 7 December 1972. Image courtesy: NASA (see: https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/astronauts_eyes.html).</figcaption></figure>

cate balances that govern weather, climate, water, the carbon cycle, and the ocean environment, and a better understanding of how to maintain these balances for the benefit of all.

## Funding

We acknowledge funding provided by national committees of the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) and from a grant to SCOR from the U.S. National Science Foundation (OCE-1840868) to support SCOR Working Group #162 (OASIS) activities.

## Authors' contribution

OASIS was conceived by the SCOR WG #162 and lead authors of OceanObs19 papers included here as co-authors. MFC drafted the manuscript and finalized edits; all authors discussed ideas and contributed edits. SB created Figures 1–3. The manuscript is submitted with the approval of all the authors.

## Acknowledgements

This is PMEL Paper #5361.

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