Diop, B., and Opepa, C.: Trends and seasonal variability of atmospheric NO₂ and HNO₃ concentrations across three major African biomes inferred from long-term series of ground-based and satellite measurements, Atmos. Environ., 207, 148–166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.03.027, 2019.

Ossohou, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Yoboué, V., Adon, M., Delon, C., Gardrat, E., Konaté, I., Ki, A., and Zouzou, R.: Long-term atmospheric inorganic nitrogen deposition in West African savanna over 16 year period (Lamto, Côte d'Ivoire), Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 015004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd065, 2020.

Ouafo-Leumbe, M.-R., Galy-Lacaux, C., Liousse, C., Pont, V., Akpo, A., Doumbia, T., Gardrat, E., Zouiten, C., SighaNkamdjou, L., and Ekodeck, G. E.: Chemical composition and sources of atmospheric aerosols at Djougou (Benin), Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 130, 591–609, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-017-0538-5, 2018.

Pinder, R. W., Davidson, E. A., Goodale, C. L., Greaver, T. L., Herrick, J. D., and Liu, L.: Climate change impacts of US reactive nitrogen, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109, 7671–7675, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1114243109, 2012.

R Core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, https://www.R-project.org/ (last access: 16 June 2023), 2021.

Sen, P. K.: Estimates of the Regression Coefficient Based on Kendall's Tau, J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 63, 1379–1389, 1968.

Shadmani, M., Marofi, S., and Roknian, M.: Trend Analysis in Reference Evapotranspiration Using Mann-Kendall and Spearman's Rho Tests in Arid Regions of Iran, Water Resour. Manag., 26, 211–224, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-011-9913-z, 2012.

Shi, Y., Matsunaga, T., and Yamaguchi, Y.: High-Resolution Mapping of Biomass Burning Emissions in Three Tropical Regions, Environ. Sci. Technol., 49, 10806–10814, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b01598, 2015.

SighaNkamdjou, L., Galy-Lacaux, C., Pont, V., Richard, S., Sighomnou, D., and Lacaux, J. P.: Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Equatorial Forested Ecosystem of Zoétélé (Cameroon), J. Atmos. Chem., 46, 173–198, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026057413640, 2003.

Smith, J. S., Zhou, Y., Kyle, P., Wang, H., and Yu, H.: A Community Emissions Data System (CEDS): Emissions For CMIP6 and Beyond, International Emission Inventory Conference, 13–16 April 2015, San Diego, USA, 101, 19395–19409, 2015.

Soper, F. M., Groffman, P. M., and Sparks, J. P.: Denitrification in a subtropical, semi-arid North American savanna: field measurements and intact soil core incubations, Biogeochemistry, 128, 257–266, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-016-0205-9, 2016.

Stevens, C. J., David, T. I., and Storkey, J.: Atmospheric nitrogen deposition in terrestrial ecosystems: Its impact on plant communities and consequences across trophic levels, Funct. Ecol., 32, 1757–1769, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13063, 2018.

Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M. M. B., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P. M.: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324, 2013.

Sutton, M. A., Reis, S., Riddick, S. N., Dragosits, U., Nemitz, E., Theobald, M. R., Tang, Y. S., Braban, C. F., Vieno, M., Dore, A. J.,

Mitchell, R. F., Wanless, S., Daunt, F., Fowler, D., Blackall, T. D., Milford, C., Flechard, C. R., Loubet, B., Massad, R., Cellier, P., Personne, E., Coheur, P. F., Clarisse, L., Van Damme, M., Ngadi, Y., Clerbaux, C., Skjøth, C. A., Geels, C., Hertel, O., Wichink Kruit, R. J., Pinder, R. W., Bash, J. O., Walker, J. T., Simpson, D., Horváth, L., Misselbrook, T. H., Bleeker, A., Dentener, F., and de Vries, W.: Towards a climate-dependent paradigm of ammonia emission and deposition, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 368, 20130166, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0166, 2013.

Suzanne, N. A.: Agriculture Traditionnelle Et Échecs Des Politiques De Gestion Des Aires Protégées En Côte d'Ivoire: Le Cas De La Réserve De Lamto, European Scientific Journal, 12, 209–223, https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2016.v12n30p209, 2016.

Tang, Y. S., Braban, C. F., Dragosits, U., Simmons, I., Leaver, D., van Dijk, N., Poskitt, J., Thacker, S., Patel, M., Carter, H., Pereira, M. G., Keenan, P. O., Lawlor, A., Conolly, C., Vincent, K., Heal, M. R., and Sutton, M. A.: Acid gases and aerosol measurements in the UK (1999–2015): regional distributions and trends, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 16293–16324, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-16293-2018, 2018a.

Tang, Y. S., Braban, C. F., Dragosits, U., Dore, A. J., Simmons, I., van Dijk, N., Poskitt, J., Dos Santos Pereira, G., Keenan, P. O., Conolly, C., Vincent, K., Smith, R. I., Heal, M. R., and Sutton, M. A.: Drivers for spatial, temporal and long-term trends in atmospheric ammonia and ammonium in the UK, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 705–733, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-705-2018, 2018b.

Tiemoko, T. D., Ramonet, M., Yoroba, F., Kouassi, K. B., Kouadio, K., Kazan, V., Kaiser, C., Truong, F., Vuillemin, C., Delmotte, M., Wastine, B., and Ciais, P.: Analysis of the temporal variability of CO₂, CH₄ and CO concentrations at Lamto, West Africa, Tellus B, 73, 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1080/16000889.2020.1863707, 2021.

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM): TRMM (TPA/3B43) Rainfall Estimate L3 1 month 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V7, Greenbelt, MD, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC) [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/TRMM/TMPA/MONTH/7, 2011.

Vågen, T.-G., Winowiecki, L. A., Tondoh, J. E., Desta, L. T., and Gumbricht, T.: Mapping of soil properties and land degradation risk in Africa using MODIS reflectance, Geoderma, 263, 216–225, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.06.023, 2016.

Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Heald, C. L., Hurtmans, D., Ngadi, Y., Clerbaux, C., Dolman, A. J., Erisman, J. W., and Coheur, P. F.: Global distributions, time series and error characterization of atmospheric ammonia (NH₃) from IASI satellite observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 2905–2922, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-2905-2014, 2014.

Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Dammers, E., Liu, X., Nowak, J. B., Clerbaux, C., Flechard, C. R., Galy-Lacaux, C., Xu, W., Neuman, J. A., Tang, Y. S., Sutton, M. A., Erisman, J. W., and Coheur, P. F.: Towards validation of ammonia (NH₃) measurements from the IASI satellite, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 1575–1591, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-1575-2015, 2015.

Van Damme, M., Whitburn, S., Clarisse, L., and Clerbaux, C., Hurtmans, D., and Coheur, P.-F.: Version 2 of the IASI NH₃ neural network retrieval algorithm: near-real-time and
Diop, B., and Opepa, C.: Trends and seasonal variability of atmospheric NO₂ and HNO₃ concentrations across three major African biomes inferred from long-term series of ground-based and satellite measurements, Atmos. Environ., 207, 148–166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.03.027, 2019.

Ossohou, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Yoboué, V., Adon, M., Delon, C., Gardrat, E., Konaté, I., Ki, A., and Zouzou, R.: Long-term atmospheric inorganic nitrogen deposition in West African savanna over 16 year period (Lamto, Côte d'Ivoire), Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 015004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd065, 2020.

Ouafo-Leumbe, M.-R., Galy-Lacaux, C., Liousse, C., Pont, V., Akpo, A., Doumbia, T., Gardrat, E., Zouiten, C., SighaNkamdjou, L., and Ekodeck, G. E.: Chemical composition and sources of atmospheric aerosols at Djougou (Benin), Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 130, 591–609, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-017-0538-5, 2018.

Pinder, R. W., Davidson, E. A., Goodale, C. L., Greaver, T. L., Herrick, J. D., and Liu, L.: Climate change impacts of US reactive nitrogen, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109, 7671–7675, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1114243109, 2012.

R Core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, https://www.R-project.org/ (last access: 16 June 2023), 2021.

Sen, P. K.: Estimates of the Regression Coefficient Based on Kendall's Tau, J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 63, 1379–1389, 1968.

Shadmani, M., Marofi, S., and Roknian, M.: Trend Analysis in Reference Evapotranspiration Using Mann-Kendall and Spearman's Rho Tests in Arid Regions of Iran, Water Resour. Manag., 26, 211–224, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-011-9913-z, 2012.

Shi, Y., Matsunaga, T., and Yamaguchi, Y.: High-Resolution Mapping of Biomass Burning Emissions in Three Tropical Regions, Environ. Sci. Technol., 49, 10806–10814, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b01598, 2015.

SighaNkamdjou, L., Galy-Lacaux, C., Pont, V., Richard, S., Sighonnou, D., and Lacaux, J. P.: Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Equatorial Forested Ecosystem of Zoétélé (Cameroon), J. Atmos. Chem., 46, 173–198, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026057413640, 2003.

Smith, J. S., Zhou, Y., Kyle, P., Wang, H., and Yu, H.: A Community Emissions Data System (CEDS): Emissions For CMIP6 and Beyond, International Emission Inventory Conference, 13–16 April 2015, San Diego, USA, 101, 19395–19409, 2015.

Soper, F. M., Groffman, P. M., and Sparks, J. P.: Denitrification in a subtropical, semi-arid North American savanna: field measurements and intact soil core incubations, Biogeochemistry, 128, 257–266, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-016-0205-9, 2016.

Stevens, C. J., David, T. I., and Storkey, J.: Atmospheric nitrogen deposition in terrestrial ecosystems: Its impact on plant communities and consequences across trophic levels, Funct. Ecol., 32, 1757–1769, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13063, 2018.

Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M. M. B., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P. M.: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324, 2013.

Sutton, M. A., Reis, S., Riddick, S. N., Dragosits, U., Nemitz, E., Theobald, M. R., Tang, Y. S., Braban, C. F., Vieno, M., Dore, A. J.,

Mitchell, R. F., Wanless, S., Daunt, F., Fowler, D., Blackall, T. D., Milford, C., Flechard, C. R., Loubet, B., Massad, R., Cellier, P., Personne, E., Coheur, P. F., Clarisse, L., Van Damme, M., Ngadi, Y., Clerbaux, C., Skjøth, C. A., Geels, C., Hertel, O., Wichink Kruit, R. J., Pinder, R. W., Bash, J. O., Walker, J. T., Simpson, D., Horváth, L., Misselbrook, T. H., Bleeker, A., Dentener, F., and de Vries, W.: Towards a climate-dependent paradigm of ammonia emission and deposition, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 368, 20130166, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0166, 2013.

Suzanne, N. A.: Agriculture Traditionnelle Et Échecs Des Politiques De Gestion Des Aires Protégées En Côte d'Ivoire: Le Cas De La Réserve De Lamto, European Scientific Journal, 12, 209–223, https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2016.v12n30p209, 2016.

Tang, Y. S., Braban, C. F., Dragosits, U., Simmons, I., Leaver, D., van Dijk, N., Poskitt, J., Thacker, S., Patel, M., Carter, H., Pereira, M. G., Keenan, P. O., Lawlor, A., Conolly, C., Vincent, K., Heal, M. R., and Sutton, M. A.: Acid gases and aerosol measurements in the UK (1999–2015): regional distributions and trends, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 16293–16324, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-16293-2018, 2018a.

Tang, Y. S., Braban, C. F., Dragosits, U., Dore, A. J., Simmons, I., van Dijk, N., Poskitt, J., Dos Santos Pereira, G., Keenan, P. O., Conolly, C., Vincent, K., Smith, R. I., Heal, M. R., and Sutton, M. A.: Drivers for spatial, temporal and long-term trends in atmospheric ammonia and ammonium in the UK, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 705–733, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-705-2018, 2018b.

Tiemoko, T. D., Ramonet, M., Yoroba, F., Kouassi, K. B., Kouadio, K., Kazan, V., Kaiser, C., Truong, F., Vuillemin, C., Delmotte, M., Wastine, B., and Ciais, P.: Analysis of the temporal variability of CO₂, CH₄ and CO concentrations at Lamto, West Africa, Tellus B, 73, 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1080/16000889.2020.1863707, 2021.

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM): TRMM (TPA/3B43) Rainfall Estimate L3 1 month 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V7, Greenbelt, MD, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC) [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/TRMM/TMPA/MONTH/7, 2011.

Vågen, T.-G., Winowiecki, L. A., Tondoh, J. E., Desta, L. T., and Gumbricht, T.: Mapping of soil properties and land degradation risk in Africa using MODIS reflectance, Geoderma, 263, 216–225, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.06.023, 2016.

Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Heald, C. L., Hurtmans, D., Ngadi, Y., Clerbaux, C., Dolman, A. J., Erisman, J. W., and Coheur, P. F.: Global distributions, time series and error characterization of atmospheric ammonia (NH₃) from IASI satellite observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 2905–2922, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-2905-2014, 2014.

Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Dammers, E., Liu, X., Nowak, J. B., Clerbaux, C., Flechard, C. R., Galy-Lacaux, C., Xu, W., Neuman, J. A., Tang, Y. S., Sutton, M. A., Erisman, J. W., and Coheur, P. F.: Towards validation of ammonia (NH₃) measurements from the IASI satellite, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 1575–1591, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-1575-2015, 2015.

Van Damme, M., Whitburn, S., Clarisse, L., and Clerbaux, C., Hurtmans, D., and Coheur, P.-F.: Version 2 of the IASI NH₃ neural network retrieval algorithm: near-real-time and
reanalysed datasets, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 10, 4905-4914,
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-4905-2017, 2017.

Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Franco, B., Sutton, M. A., Erisman, J. W., Wichink Kruit, R., van Zanten, M., Whitburn, S., Hadji-Lazaro, J., Hurtmans, D., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: Global, regional and national trends of atmospheric ammonia derived from a decadal (2008–2018) satellite record, Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 055017, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd5e0, 2021.

van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Giglio, L., van Leeuwen, T. T., Chen, Y., Rogers, B. M., Mu, M., van Marle, M. J. E., Morton, D. C., Collatz, G. J., Yokelson, R. J., and Kasibhatla, P. S.: Global fire emissions estimates during 1997–2016, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 9, 697–720, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-9-697-2017, 2017.

Van Hove, L. W. A., Koops, A. J., Adema, E. H., Vredenberg, W. J., and Pieters, G. A.: Analysis of the uptake of atmospheric ammonia by leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L., Atmos. Environ., 21, 1759–1763, https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(87)90115-6, 1987.

Warner, J. X., Dickerson, R. R., Wei, Z., Strow, L. L., Wang, Y., and Liang, Q.: Increased atmospheric ammonia over the world’s major agricultural areas detected from space, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 2875–2884, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072305, 2017.

Whitburn, S., Van Damme, M., Kaiser, J. W., van der Werf, G. R., Turquety, S., Hurtmans, D., Clarisse, L., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: Ammonia emissions in tropical biomass burning regions: Comparison between satellite-derived emissions and bottom-up fire inventories, Atmos. Environ., 121, 42–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.015, 2015.

Whitburn, S., Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Bauduin, S., Heald, C. L., Hadji-Lazaro, J., Hurtmans, D., Zondlo, M. A., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: A flexible and robust neural network IASI-NH₃ retrieval algorithm: New IASI-NH₃ NN Retrieval Algorithm, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 121, 6581–6599, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD024828, 2016.

Whitburn, S., Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Hurtmans, D., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: IASI-derived NH₃ enhancement ratios relative to CO for the tropical biomass burning regions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 12239–12252, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-12239-2017, 2017.

Yoboué, V., Galy-Lacaux, C., Lacaux, J. P., and Silué, S.: Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Wet Savanna Ecosystem of Lamto (Côte d'Ivoire), J. Atmos. Chem., 52, 117–141, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-005-0281-z, 2005.

Yue, S. and Wang, C.: The Mann-Kendall test modified by effective sample size to detect trend in serially correlated hydrological series, Water Resour. Manag., 18, 201–218, 2004.

Yue, S., Pilon, P., and Cavadias, G.: Power of the Mann–Kendall and Spearman’s rho tests for detecting monotonic trends in hydrological series, J. Hydrol., 259, 254–271, 2002.

Zheng, B., Ciais, P., Chevallier, F., Chuvieco, E., Chen, Y., and Yang, H.: Increasing forest fire emissions despite the decline in global burned area, Sci. Adv., 7, eabh2646, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abh2646, 2021.
reanalysed datasets, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 10, 4905-4914,
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-4905-2017, 2017.

Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Franco, B., Sutton, M. A., Erisman, J. W., Wichink Kruit, R., van Zanten, M., Whitburn, S., Hadji-Lazaro, J., Hurtmans, D., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: Global, regional and national trends of atmospheric ammonia derived from a decadal (2008–2018) satellite record, Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 055017, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd5e0, 2021.

van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Giglio, L., van Leeuwen, T. T., Chen, Y., Rogers, B. M., Mu, M., van Marle, M. J. E., Morton, D. C., Collatz, G. J., Yokelson, R. J., and Kasibhatla, P. S.: Global fire emissions estimates during 1997–2016, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 9, 697–720, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-9-697-2017, 2017.

Van Hove, L. W. A., Koops, A. J., Adema, E. H., Vredenberg, W. J., and Pieters, G. A.: Analysis of the uptake of atmospheric ammonia by leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L., Atmos. Environ., 21, 1759–1763, https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(87)90115-6, 1987.

Warner, J. X., Dickerson, R. R., Wei, Z., Strow, L. L., Wang, Y., and Liang, Q.: Increased atmospheric ammonia over the world’s major agricultural areas detected from space, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 2875–2884, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072305, 2017.

Whitburn, S., Van Damme, M., Kaiser, J. W., van der Werf, G. R., Turquety, S., Hurtmans, D., Clarisse, L., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: Ammonia emissions in tropical biomass burning regions: Comparison between satellite-derived emissions and bottom-up fire inventories, Atmos. Environ., 121, 42–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.015, 2015.

Whitburn, S., Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Bauduin, S., Heald, C. L., Hadji-Lazaro, J., Hurtmans, D., Zondlo, M. A., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: A flexible and robust neural network IASI-NH₃ retrieval algorithm: New IASI-NH₃ NN Retrieval Algorithm, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 121, 6581–6599, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD024828, 2016.

Whitburn, S., Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Hurtmans, D., Clerbaux, C., and Coheur, P.-F.: IASI-derived NH₃ enhancement ratios relative to CO for the tropical biomass burning regions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 12239–12252, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-12239-2017, 2017.

Yoboué, V., Galy-Lacaux, C., Lacaux, J. P., and Silué, S.: Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Wet Savanna Ecosystem of Lamto (Côte d'Ivoire), J. Atmos. Chem., 52, 117–141, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-005-0281-z, 2005.

Yue, S. and Wang, C.: The Mann-Kendall test modified by effective sample size to detect trend in serially correlated hydrological series, Water Resour. Manag., 18, 201–218, 2004.

Yue, S., Pilon, P., and Cavadias, G.: Power of the Mann–Kendall and Spearman’s rho tests for detecting monotonic trends in hydrological series, J. Hydrol., 259, 254–271, 2002.

Zheng, B., Ciais, P., Chevallier, F., Chuvieco, E., Chen, Y., and Yang, H.: Increasing forest fire emissions despite the decline in global burned area, Sci. Adv., 7, eabh2646, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abh2646, 2021.