<table><caption>**Table 1. Continued.**</caption><thead><tr><th>Research theme</th><th>Scientific confidence in current knowledge and understanding</th><th>Scientific urgency to meet key gaps in knowledge</th><th>Importance for policy support e.g. compliance or health</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Air quality and health and exposure</td><td>Health effects (short term and long term) related to advanced PM properties<fnref n="1" /> (l–m)</td><td>Quantification of health impacts related to particulate matter properties (v)</td><td>Health impact assessments including advanced PM properties<fnref n="1" /> to support refined emission and air quality regulations (M–H)</td></tr><tr><td>Concentration-response functions, including their potential thresholds (l–m)</td><td>More accurate determination of concentration-response functions representing the full concentration range (v)</td><td>Improved health impact assessments representing both higher- and lower-concentration regions (M)</td></tr><tr><td>Combined effects of air pollution, extreme temperatures (heat waves and cold spells), allergenic pollen, and viruses (l)</td><td>Evaluation of the combined and synergetic effects of air pollution, extreme temperatures, allergenic pollen and viruses (u)</td><td>Impact assessments of the combined effects to support, e.g. mitigation strategies (H)</td></tr><tr><td>Dynamic exposure assessment<fnref n="2" /> including indoor air quality (l–m)</td><td>Modelling and evaluation of dynamic exposure<fnref n="2" /> including indoor air quality (u)</td><td>Improved policies based on more realistic information on exposures and on both outdoor and indoor air quality (M–H)</td></tr><tr><td>Use of spatially and temporally high-resolution multi-decadal concentration and meteorological data sets for extensive regions (l–m)</td><td>Global and regional assessments of air quality and health based on population exposure taking into account of confounding factors (u especially for developing regions)</td><td>Improved assessments of air quality and health to support the analysis of environmental inequalities (H)</td></tr><tr><td>Interactions of air quality, meteorology, and climate</td><td>Regional-scale BVOC emissions and dry deposition modelling (m)</td><td>Vegetation species dependent BVOC emissions and dry deposition of gas and aerosol in urban environment (v)</td><td>Improvement of air quality impact assessment of nature-based solutions (H)</td></tr><tr><td>Air quality management and policy</td><td>Health benefits of reducing emissions for PM<sub>2.5</sub> (m) and for NO<sub>2</sub> (l); reduction of biodiversity losses caused by reducing emissions (l); monetary valuation of damage endpoints (m)</td><td>Advanced multiscale and process based multiscale modelling approaches to support air quality management (u)</td><td>Estimation of personal exposure (H); improved exposure-response relationships (H); emission rates for indoor sources (H) and diffuse emissions, e.g from abrasion processes (H); integrating air quality and climate responses (H), estimation of marginal avoidance costs per tonne of CO<sub>2</sub>,eq (H)</td></tr></tbody></table>

PM from tyre, brake, and road wear are still present. Developments in on board monitoring to help improve estimation of real-world emission estimation is another growing area. Understanding the effects of non-exhaust emission will be important to design robust air quality management strategies in the context of other emissions, including windblown dust.

Uncertainties still exist in estimating emissions from diffuse processes, such as abrasion processes in industry, households, agriculture, and traffic, where large variabilities are still present. Other sources, which are not well characterized, include residential wood combustion as well as the spatial representation of these emissions across regions. While progress in source apportionment models has continued, in-

<footnote n="1">¹ PM properties refer here to particulate matter size distributions, particle number, and chemical composition for example.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Dynamic exposure assessment refers to exposure studies, which treat the pollutant concentrations in different microenvironments as well as the infiltration of outdoor air to indoors. In dynamic exposure assessment, one can also treat pollution sources and sinks in indoor air.</footnote>
<table><caption>**Table 1. Continued.**</caption><thead><tr><th>Research theme</th><th>Scientific confidence in current knowledge and understanding</th><th>Scientific urgency to meet key gaps in knowledge</th><th>Importance for policy support e.g. compliance or health</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Air quality and health and exposure</td><td>Health effects (short term and long term) related to advanced PM properties<fnref n="1" /> (l–m)</td><td>Quantification of health impacts related to particulate matter properties (v)</td><td>Health impact assessments including advanced PM properties<fnref n="1" /> to support refined emission and air quality regulations (M–H)</td></tr><tr><td>Concentration-response functions, including their potential thresholds (l–m)</td><td>More accurate determination of concentration-response functions representing the full concentration range (v)</td><td>Improved health impact assessments representing both higher- and lower-concentration regions (M)</td></tr><tr><td>Combined effects of air pollution, extreme temperatures (heat waves and cold spells), allergenic pollen, and viruses (l)</td><td>Evaluation of the combined and synergetic effects of air pollution, extreme temperatures, allergenic pollen and viruses (u)</td><td>Impact assessments of the combined effects to support, e.g. mitigation strategies (H)</td></tr><tr><td>Dynamic exposure assessment<fnref n="2" /> including indoor air quality (l–m)</td><td>Modelling and evaluation of dynamic exposure<fnref n="2" /> including indoor air quality (u)</td><td>Improved policies based on more realistic information on exposures and on both outdoor and indoor air quality (M–H)</td></tr><tr><td>Use of spatially and temporally high-resolution multi-decadal concentration and meteorological data sets for extensive regions (l–m)</td><td>Global and regional assessments of air quality and health based on population exposure taking into account of confounding factors (u especially for developing regions)</td><td>Improved assessments of air quality and health to support the analysis of environmental inequalities (H)</td></tr><tr><td>Interactions of air quality, meteorology, and climate</td><td>Regional-scale BVOC emissions and dry deposition modelling (m)</td><td>Vegetation species dependent BVOC emissions and dry deposition of gas and aerosol in urban environment (v)</td><td>Improvement of air quality impact assessment of nature-based solutions (H)</td></tr><tr><td>Air quality management and policy</td><td>Health benefits of reducing emissions for PM<sub>2.5</sub> (m) and for NO<sub>2</sub> (l); reduction of biodiversity losses caused by reducing emissions (l); monetary valuation of damage endpoints (m)</td><td>Advanced multiscale and process based multiscale modelling approaches to support air quality management (u)</td><td>Estimation of personal exposure (H); improved exposure-response relationships (H); emission rates for indoor sources (H) and diffuse emissions, e.g from abrasion processes (H); integrating air quality and climate responses (H), estimation of marginal avoidance costs per tonne of CO<sub>2</sub>,eq (H)</td></tr></tbody></table>

PM from tyre, brake, and road wear are still present. Developments in on board monitoring to help improve estimation of real-world emission estimation is another growing area. Understanding the effects of non-exhaust emission will be important to design robust air quality management strategies in the context of other emissions, including windblown dust.

Uncertainties still exist in estimating emissions from diffuse processes, such as abrasion processes in industry, households, agriculture, and traffic, where large variabilities are still present. Other sources, which are not well characterized, include residential wood combustion as well as the spatial representation of these emissions across regions. While progress in source apportionment models has continued, in-

<footnote n="1">¹ PM properties refer here to particulate matter size distributions, particle number, and chemical composition for example.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Dynamic exposure assessment refers to exposure studies, which treat the pollutant concentrations in different microenvironments as well as the infiltration of outdoor air to indoors. In dynamic exposure assessment, one can also treat pollution sources and sinks in indoor air.</footnote>
verse modelling used for improvement of emission inventories has the potential to reduce their uncertainties.

In terms of chemical speciation, while some improvements have taken place in estimating temporal profiles of agricultural emissions, the amount of NH₃ and PM emissions originating from agriculture are still uncertain for many regions. The impact of new fuels on the chemical composition of NMVOC emissions from combustion processes remains highly uncertain (e.g. low-sulfur residual fuels in shipping and new exhaust gas cleaning technologies).

Bringing together air pollution emission inventories with those of greenhouse gases will facilitate integrated assessment measures and policies benefitting from co-benefits. On the urban and street scales, emission models need to be able to simulate the spatial and temporal variations in emissions at a higher resolution from road traffic, taking account of traffic and driving conditions.

The importance of shipping emissions is growing, as there is a shift to carbon-neutral or zero-carbon fuels. Emission factors for VOC from shipping are generally less certain, and hence little is known about their contribution to particle and ozone formation. To estimate the total environmental impact of shipping, integrated approaches are needed that bring together (i) impacts from atmospheric emissions on air quality and health, deposition of pollutants to the sea; (ii) impacts of discharges to the sea on the marine environments and biota; and (iii) climatic forcing.

The greater emphasis on reducing exposure to air pollution requires consideration of both emissions from outdoor and indoor sources, as well as their exchange between indoor and outdoor environments. Emissions of VOC for example, from transportation and the use of volatile chemical products, such as pesticides, coatings, inks, personal care products, and cleaning agents, are becoming more important, as are combustion gas appliances such as stoves and boilers, smoking, heating, and cooking, which are important sources of PM₂.₅, NO, NO₂, and PAHs. The complexity of integrated exposure models is expected to increase, as they have to include both indoor and outdoor emissions of air pollution, accurate description of the key chemical and physical processes, and treatment of dispersion of air pollution inside and outside and exchange between buildings and the ambient environment (Liu et al., 2013; Bartzis et al., 2015).

## 10.2 Observations to support air quality research

Regarding observation of air quality, this review has focused on low-cost sensor (LCS) networks, crowdsourcing, and citizen science and on the development of modern satellite and remote sensing techniques. Connecting observational data with small-scale air quality model simulations to provide personal air pollution exposure has also been discussed.

Remote sensing measurements including satellite observations have a significant role in air quality management because of their spatial coverage, improving spatial resolution

and their use in combination with modelling tasks (Hirtl et al., 2020), even for urban areas (Letheren, 2016). Machine learning algorithms are increasingly being used with remote sensing applications (e.g. Foken, 2021), and recent advances have highlighted the potential of statistical analysis tools (e.g. neural learning algorithms) for predicting air quality at the city scale based on data generated by stationary and mobile sensors (Mihäiţă et al., 2019). Geostatistical data fusion is allowing fine spatial mapping by combining sensor data with modelled spatial distribution of air pollutant concentrations (Johansson et al., 2015; Ahangar et al., 2019; Schneider et al., 2017).

Applications of LCS as well as networks based on such sensors have increased over the past decade (e.g. Thompson, 2016; Karagulian et al., 2019; Barmpas et al., 2020; Schäfer et al., 2021). These applications have also highlighted the need for proper evaluation, quality control, and calibration of these sensors. The analysis of LCS data should take account of cross-sensitivities with other air pollutants, effects of ageing, and the dependence of the sensor responses on temperatures and humidity in ambient air (e.g. Brattich et al., 2020).

## 10.3 Air quality modelling

Air quality research, including approaches to manage air pollution, has relied heavily on the continuing developments, applications, and evaluation of air quality models. Air quality models span a wide range of modelling approaches including CFD and RANS models used for very high resolution dispersion applications (e.g. Nuterman et al., 2011; Andronopoulos et al., 2019), and Lagrangian plume models to Eulerian grid CTMs used for urban to regional scales. An interesting development is that of the implementation of multiply nested LESs and coupling of urban-scale deterministic models with local probabilistic models (e.g. Hellsten et al., 2021), although complexities arise because of the different parameterizations and the treatment of boundary conditions. A limitation that needs addressing with CFD, including LES models, is that they are currently suited mainly for dispersion of tracer contaminants or where only simple tropospheric chemistry is relevant. Lack of more sophisticated or realistic description of NOₓ–VOC chemistry can cause significant bias in the concentration gradients at very fine scales.

Over the last decade new developments have focused on improving scale interactions and model resolution to resolve the spatial variability and heterogeneity of air pollution (e.g. Jensen et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2014, 2020a) at street scales in a city area. New approaches of artificial neural network models and machine learning have shown a more detailed representation of air quality in complex built-up areas (e.g. P. Wang et al., 2015; Zhan et al., 2017; Just et al., 2020; Alimissis et al., 2018). CTMs have also been developed to improve spatial resolution, for example, through downscaling approaches for predicting air quality in urban areas, forecast-
verse modelling used for improvement of emission inventories has the potential to reduce their uncertainties.

In terms of chemical speciation, while some improvements have taken place in estimating temporal profiles of agricultural emissions, the amount of NH₃ and PM emissions originating from agriculture are still uncertain for many regions. The impact of new fuels on the chemical composition of NMVOC emissions from combustion processes remains highly uncertain (e.g. low-sulfur residual fuels in shipping and new exhaust gas cleaning technologies).

Bringing together air pollution emission inventories with those of greenhouse gases will facilitate integrated assessment measures and policies benefitting from co-benefits. On the urban and street scales, emission models need to be able to simulate the spatial and temporal variations in emissions at a higher resolution from road traffic, taking account of traffic and driving conditions.

The importance of shipping emissions is growing, as there is a shift to carbon-neutral or zero-carbon fuels. Emission factors for VOC from shipping are generally less certain, and hence little is known about their contribution to particle and ozone formation. To estimate the total environmental impact of shipping, integrated approaches are needed that bring together (i) impacts from atmospheric emissions on air quality and health, deposition of pollutants to the sea; (ii) impacts of discharges to the sea on the marine environments and biota; and (iii) climatic forcing.

The greater emphasis on reducing exposure to air pollution requires consideration of both emissions from outdoor and indoor sources, as well as their exchange between indoor and outdoor environments. Emissions of VOC for example, from transportation and the use of volatile chemical products, such as pesticides, coatings, inks, personal care products, and cleaning agents, are becoming more important, as are combustion gas appliances such as stoves and boilers, smoking, heating, and cooking, which are important sources of PM₂.₅, NO, NO₂, and PAHs. The complexity of integrated exposure models is expected to increase, as they have to include both indoor and outdoor emissions of air pollution, accurate description of the key chemical and physical processes, and treatment of dispersion of air pollution inside and outside and exchange between buildings and the ambient environment (Liu et al., 2013; Bartzis et al., 2015).

## 10.2 Observations to support air quality research

Regarding observation of air quality, this review has focused on low-cost sensor (LCS) networks, crowdsourcing, and citizen science and on the development of modern satellite and remote sensing techniques. Connecting observational data with small-scale air quality model simulations to provide personal air pollution exposure has also been discussed.

Remote sensing measurements including satellite observations have a significant role in air quality management because of their spatial coverage, improving spatial resolution

and their use in combination with modelling tasks (Hirtl et al., 2020), even for urban areas (Letheren, 2016). Machine learning algorithms are increasingly being used with remote sensing applications (e.g. Foken, 2021), and recent advances have highlighted the potential of statistical analysis tools (e.g. neural learning algorithms) for predicting air quality at the city scale based on data generated by stationary and mobile sensors (Mihäiţă et al., 2019). Geostatistical data fusion is allowing fine spatial mapping by combining sensor data with modelled spatial distribution of air pollutant concentrations (Johansson et al., 2015; Ahangar et al., 2019; Schneider et al., 2017).

Applications of LCS as well as networks based on such sensors have increased over the past decade (e.g. Thompson, 2016; Karagulian et al., 2019; Barmpas et al., 2020; Schäfer et al., 2021). These applications have also highlighted the need for proper evaluation, quality control, and calibration of these sensors. The analysis of LCS data should take account of cross-sensitivities with other air pollutants, effects of ageing, and the dependence of the sensor responses on temperatures and humidity in ambient air (e.g. Brattich et al., 2020).

## 10.3 Air quality modelling

Air quality research, including approaches to manage air pollution, has relied heavily on the continuing developments, applications, and evaluation of air quality models. Air quality models span a wide range of modelling approaches including CFD and RANS models used for very high resolution dispersion applications (e.g. Nuterman et al., 2011; Andronopoulos et al., 2019), and Lagrangian plume models to Eulerian grid CTMs used for urban to regional scales. An interesting development is that of the implementation of multiply nested LESs and coupling of urban-scale deterministic models with local probabilistic models (e.g. Hellsten et al., 2021), although complexities arise because of the different parameterizations and the treatment of boundary conditions. A limitation that needs addressing with CFD, including LES models, is that they are currently suited mainly for dispersion of tracer contaminants or where only simple tropospheric chemistry is relevant. Lack of more sophisticated or realistic description of NOₓ–VOC chemistry can cause significant bias in the concentration gradients at very fine scales.

Over the last decade new developments have focused on improving scale interactions and model resolution to resolve the spatial variability and heterogeneity of air pollution (e.g. Jensen et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2014, 2020a) at street scales in a city area. New approaches of artificial neural network models and machine learning have shown a more detailed representation of air quality in complex built-up areas (e.g. P. Wang et al., 2015; Zhan et al., 2017; Just et al., 2020; Alimissis et al., 2018). CTMs have also been developed to improve spatial resolution, for example, through downscaling approaches for predicting air quality in urban areas, forecast-
ing air quality, and simulation of exposure at the street scale (Berrocal et al., 2020; Elessa Etuman et al., 2020; Jensen et al., 2017). Ensemble simulations have proven to be successful to provide more reliable air quality prediction and forecasting (e.g. Galmarini et al., 2012; Hu et al., 2017), and complementary hybrid approaches have been explored for multi-scale applications (Galmarini et al., 2018).

The strong interaction between local and regional contributions, especially to secondary air pollutants (PM<sub>2.5</sub> and O<sub>3</sub>), has motivated the coupling of urban- and regional-scale models (e.g. Singh et al., 2014; Kukkonen et al., 2018). With the importance of exposure assessment increasing, the incorporation of finer spatial scales within a larger spatial domain is required, which introduces the challenging issue of representing multiscale dynamical and chemical processes, while maintaining realistic computational constraints (e.g. Tsegas et al., 2015). Similarly, machine learning approaches offer possibilities to use observational data to improve fine-scale air quality and personal exposure predictions (Shaddick et al., 2021).

## 10.4 Interactions between air quality, meteorology, and climate

Our review has highlighted the need to integrate predictions of weather, air quality, and climate where Earth system modelling (ESM) approaches play an increasing role (WWRP, 2015; WMO, 2016). There are also continued improvements from higher-spatial-resolution modelling and interconnected multiscale processes, while maintaining realistic computational times. Many advances have taken place in the development and use of coupled regional-scale meteorology-chemistry models for air quality prediction and forecasting applications (e.g. Kong et al., 2015; Baklanov et al., 2014, 2018a). These advances contribute to assess complex interactions between meteorology, emission, and chemistry, for example, relating to dust intrusion and wildfires (e.g. Kong et al., 2015). Data assimilation of chemical species data into CTM systems is still an evolving field of research; it has the potential to better constrain emissions in forecast applications. An example would be data assimilation of urban observations (including meteorological, chemical, and aerosol species) to investigate multiscale effects of the impacts of aerosols on weather and climate (Nguyen and Soulhac, 2021).

Urban- and finer-scale (e.g. built environment) studies are showing that improvements in the treatment of albedo, the anthropogenic heat flux, and the feedbacks between urban pollutants and radiation can influence urban air quality significantly (e.g. González-Aparicio et al., 2014; Fallmann et al., 2016; Molina, 2021). These considerations can be very important for urban air quality forecasting, as temporal variations in air pollutant concentrations in the short term are largely due to variabilities in meteorology. Understanding and parameterizing multiscale and non-linear interactions,

for example evolution and dynamics of urban heat island circulation and aerosol forcing and urban aerosol interactions with clouds and radiation, remains an ongoing atmospheric science challenge. Another remaining research challenge that involves multiscale interactions includes the formation of secondary air pollutants (e.g. ozone and secondary organic and inorganic aerosols), especially to describe air quality over urban, sub-urban, and rural environments.

Development and evaluation of nature-based solutions to improve air quality demand an improved understanding of the role of biogenic emissions (Cremona et al., 2020) as a function of vegetation species and characteristics. Interactions are influenced by several factors, such as vegetation drag, pollutant absorption, and biogenic emissions. These factors will determine the impact on air quality, be it positive or negative (Karttunen et al., 2020; San José et al., 2020; Santiago et al., 2017). Advanced approaches are needed to describe biogenic emissions together with gas and particle deposition over vegetation surfaces to further assess the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to improve air quality in cities.

## 10.5 Air quality exposure and health

Air-quality-related observations to support air quality health impact studies are heterogeneous; for many developing regions, such as Africa, ground-based monitoring is sparse or non-existent (Rees et al., 2019). The motivation is growing for an inter-disciplinary approach to assess exposure and the burden of disease from air pollution (Shaddick et al., 2021); this could benefit from the combined use of ground and remote sensing measurements, including satellite data, with atmospheric chemical transport and urban-scale dispersion modelling.

Air quality impact on health can occur on short and long timescales. PM, which is one of the most health-relevant air pollutants, is associated with many health effects, such as all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality and childhood asthma (e.g. Dai et al., 2014; Samoli et al., 2013; Stafoggia et al., 2013; Weinmayr et al., 2010). There have been significant advances that reveal new evidence of the health impact of PM components, such as SO<sub>4</sub>, EC, OC, and metals (Wang et al., 2014; Adams et al., 2015; Hampel et al., 2015; Hime et al., 2018). Challenges remain to elucidate the relative role of PM components and measures in determining the total health impact. These include particle number concentrations (PNCs), secondary organic PM, primary PM, various chemical components, suspended dust, the content of metals, and toxic or hazardous pollutants.

Improved knowledge on the health impacts of PM components has also stimulated further debate on the optimal concentration-response functions and on the necessity of threshold or lower limit values, below which health impacts might not manifest (Burnett et al., 2018). These challenges will feed into health impact studies, such as EEA (2020a),
ing air quality, and simulation of exposure at the street scale (Berrocal et al., 2020; Elessa Etuman et al., 2020; Jensen et al., 2017). Ensemble simulations have proven to be successful to provide more reliable air quality prediction and forecasting (e.g. Galmarini et al., 2012; Hu et al., 2017), and complementary hybrid approaches have been explored for multi-scale applications (Galmarini et al., 2018).

The strong interaction between local and regional contributions, especially to secondary air pollutants (PM<sub>2.5</sub> and O<sub>3</sub>), has motivated the coupling of urban- and regional-scale models (e.g. Singh et al., 2014; Kukkonen et al., 2018). With the importance of exposure assessment increasing, the incorporation of finer spatial scales within a larger spatial domain is required, which introduces the challenging issue of representing multiscale dynamical and chemical processes, while maintaining realistic computational constraints (e.g. Tsegas et al., 2015). Similarly, machine learning approaches offer possibilities to use observational data to improve fine-scale air quality and personal exposure predictions (Shaddick et al., 2021).

## 10.4 Interactions between air quality, meteorology, and climate

Our review has highlighted the need to integrate predictions of weather, air quality, and climate where Earth system modelling (ESM) approaches play an increasing role (WWRP, 2015; WMO, 2016). There are also continued improvements from higher-spatial-resolution modelling and interconnected multiscale processes, while maintaining realistic computational times. Many advances have taken place in the development and use of coupled regional-scale meteorology-chemistry models for air quality prediction and forecasting applications (e.g. Kong et al., 2015; Baklanov et al., 2014, 2018a). These advances contribute to assess complex interactions between meteorology, emission, and chemistry, for example, relating to dust intrusion and wildfires (e.g. Kong et al., 2015). Data assimilation of chemical species data into CTM systems is still an evolving field of research; it has the potential to better constrain emissions in forecast applications. An example would be data assimilation of urban observations (including meteorological, chemical, and aerosol species) to investigate multiscale effects of the impacts of aerosols on weather and climate (Nguyen and Soulhac, 2021).

Urban- and finer-scale (e.g. built environment) studies are showing that improvements in the treatment of albedo, the anthropogenic heat flux, and the feedbacks between urban pollutants and radiation can influence urban air quality significantly (e.g. González-Aparicio et al., 2014; Fallmann et al., 2016; Molina, 2021). These considerations can be very important for urban air quality forecasting, as temporal variations in air pollutant concentrations in the short term are largely due to variabilities in meteorology. Understanding and parameterizing multiscale and non-linear interactions,

for example evolution and dynamics of urban heat island circulation and aerosol forcing and urban aerosol interactions with clouds and radiation, remains an ongoing atmospheric science challenge. Another remaining research challenge that involves multiscale interactions includes the formation of secondary air pollutants (e.g. ozone and secondary organic and inorganic aerosols), especially to describe air quality over urban, sub-urban, and rural environments.

Development and evaluation of nature-based solutions to improve air quality demand an improved understanding of the role of biogenic emissions (Cremona et al., 2020) as a function of vegetation species and characteristics. Interactions are influenced by several factors, such as vegetation drag, pollutant absorption, and biogenic emissions. These factors will determine the impact on air quality, be it positive or negative (Karttunen et al., 2020; San José et al., 2020; Santiago et al., 2017). Advanced approaches are needed to describe biogenic emissions together with gas and particle deposition over vegetation surfaces to further assess the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to improve air quality in cities.

## 10.5 Air quality exposure and health

Air-quality-related observations to support air quality health impact studies are heterogeneous; for many developing regions, such as Africa, ground-based monitoring is sparse or non-existent (Rees et al., 2019). The motivation is growing for an inter-disciplinary approach to assess exposure and the burden of disease from air pollution (Shaddick et al., 2021); this could benefit from the combined use of ground and remote sensing measurements, including satellite data, with atmospheric chemical transport and urban-scale dispersion modelling.

Air quality impact on health can occur on short and long timescales. PM, which is one of the most health-relevant air pollutants, is associated with many health effects, such as all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality and childhood asthma (e.g. Dai et al., 2014; Samoli et al., 2013; Stafoggia et al., 2013; Weinmayr et al., 2010). There have been significant advances that reveal new evidence of the health impact of PM components, such as SO<sub>4</sub>, EC, OC, and metals (Wang et al., 2014; Adams et al., 2015; Hampel et al., 2015; Hime et al., 2018). Challenges remain to elucidate the relative role of PM components and measures in determining the total health impact. These include particle number concentrations (PNCs), secondary organic PM, primary PM, various chemical components, suspended dust, the content of metals, and toxic or hazardous pollutants.

Improved knowledge on the health impacts of PM components has also stimulated further debate on the optimal concentration-response functions and on the necessity of threshold or lower limit values, below which health impacts might not manifest (Burnett et al., 2018). These challenges will feed into health impact studies, such as EEA (2020a),
which estimated that more than 3 848 000 years of life lost (about 374 000 premature deaths) were linked to exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> in 2018 in the EU-28. However, another study by Lelieveld et al. (2019) indicated that health impacts from PM<sub>2.5</sub> exposure may have been considerably underestimated.

The worldwide impact from the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has raised global interest in the links between air quality and the spread of viruses (van Doremalen et al., 2020). However, the exact role and mechanisms are not yet clear and require concerted effort (e.g. Pisoni and Van Dingenen, 2020). There is also evidence that poor air quality can exacerbate health effects from other environmental stressors, including heat waves, cold spells, and allergenic pollen (e.g. Klein et al., 2012; Horne et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2019; Phosri et al., 2019).

The link between population activity and actual exposure is also becoming clearer, where dynamic diurnal activity patterns provide more accurate representation of exposures to air pollution (Soares et al., 2014; Kukkonen et al., 2016b; Smith et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2020a). Recent work by Ramacher et al. (2019), for example, has also demonstrated the importance of the movements of people to assess exposure.

For evaluating the relative significance of various PM properties and measures on human health, a denser measurement network on advanced PM properties would be needed, on both regional and urban scales. The required PM properties would include, in particular, size distributions and chemical composition. Clearly, such a network would be especially valuable in cities and regions that include high-quality population cohorts. The most important requirement in terms of PM modelling would be improved emission inventories, which would also include sufficiently accurate information on particle size distributions and chemical composition.

## 10.6 Air quality management and policy

Integrated assessment of air pollution control policies has progressively developed over the last 2 decades and has been widely used as a tool for air quality management (e.g. EC, 2021). Relatively recently, integrated assessment for air pollution control in research projects has started to take account of climate change. Correspondingly, integrated assessment activities for climate protection have started to include impacts of air pollution in the assessment (Friedrich, 2016). Some national authorities, such as the German Federal Environmental Agency or the UK Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, have also recommended an integrated assessment, combining the assessment of climate and air pollution impacts (Matthey and Bünger, 2019; DBEIS, 2019). Impact pathway approaches are also currently increasingly incorporating exposure to air pollutants as an indicator of health impacts, instead of the previously applied concentration of air pollutants at fixed outdoor locations (Li and Friedrich, 2019). This has an implication for epidemiological studies, which usually are based on correlation between

modelled or measured concentrations at outdoor locations and health risks (e.g. Singh et al., 2020b).

Interdependence of air pollution and climatically active species allows co-benefits to be optimized. This approach also shows that costs of meeting policy obligations for climate protection (e.g. for the Paris Agreement) can be reduced or offset by the benefits of reduced health impacts from improved air quality (Markandya et al., 2018). On the other hand, for some climate protection measures, the benefits of reduced climate change are much smaller than the impacts caused by increased air pollution. This has been demonstrated for wood combustion, which while being more climate friendly than fossil fuels, will give rise to PM<sub>2.5</sub> and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions (Huang et al., 2016; Kukkonen et al., 2020b). Some recent studies (e.g. Schmid et al., 2019) have provided evidence on the advantages of using costs and benefits for both climate and air pollution abatement measures in integrated assessments.

Air quality management must adapt to the tightening of policy-driven regulations. Recently, the sulfur content of the fuel for ships has been reduced to 0.5 % worldwide (IMO, 2019). The EURO 6d norm has led to a significant reduction of NO<sub>x</sub> in the exhaust gas of diesel cars, whereas the EURO 7 norm planned to be implemented in 2025 will further reduce PM and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions from vehicle engines. The European Council has recently (in September 2020) agreed to reduce the EU's greenhouse gas emissions in 2030 by at least 55 % compared to the corresponding emissions in 1990. Together with national reduction plans for GHG, this will significantly reduce emissions of air pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels. However, there is one exception: small wood and pellet firings (< 500 kW), where still further measures should be developed for reducing the PM and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions (e.g. Kukkonen et al., 2020b).

While direct combustion emissions are expected to decrease, a particular challenge will be to control diffuse emissions, e.g. from abrasion processes, bulk handling, demolition of buildings, and use of paints and cleaning agents. Despite cleaner vehicles, emissions from tyre and brake wear and road abrasion remain an important challenge. Other areas that pose challenges for air quality management are the need to reduce agricultural emissions, especially of ammonia, which can lead to the production of secondary aerosols (especially ammonium nitrates).

Using personal exposure instead of outdoor concentration as an indicator in health impact assessments offers the opportunity to assess the impacts of indoor air pollution control. Possibilities to reduce emissions from indoor sources, such as smoking, frying and cooking, candles and incense sticks, open chimneys and wood stoves, and cleaning agents, should be assessed. Furthermore, using HEPA filters in vacuum cleaners, air filters, and cooker bonnets and using mechanical ventilation with heat recovery should be analysed. In addition, possibilities for reducing PM concentrations in underground rail stations should be explored.
which estimated that more than 3 848 000 years of life lost (about 374 000 premature deaths) were linked to exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> in 2018 in the EU-28. However, another study by Lelieveld et al. (2019) indicated that health impacts from PM<sub>2.5</sub> exposure may have been considerably underestimated.

The worldwide impact from the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has raised global interest in the links between air quality and the spread of viruses (van Doremalen et al., 2020). However, the exact role and mechanisms are not yet clear and require concerted effort (e.g. Pisoni and Van Dingenen, 2020). There is also evidence that poor air quality can exacerbate health effects from other environmental stressors, including heat waves, cold spells, and allergenic pollen (e.g. Klein et al., 2012; Horne et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2019; Phosri et al., 2019).

The link between population activity and actual exposure is also becoming clearer, where dynamic diurnal activity patterns provide more accurate representation of exposures to air pollution (Soares et al., 2014; Kukkonen et al., 2016b; Smith et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2020a). Recent work by Ramacher et al. (2019), for example, has also demonstrated the importance of the movements of people to assess exposure.

For evaluating the relative significance of various PM properties and measures on human health, a denser measurement network on advanced PM properties would be needed, on both regional and urban scales. The required PM properties would include, in particular, size distributions and chemical composition. Clearly, such a network would be especially valuable in cities and regions that include high-quality population cohorts. The most important requirement in terms of PM modelling would be improved emission inventories, which would also include sufficiently accurate information on particle size distributions and chemical composition.

## 10.6 Air quality management and policy

Integrated assessment of air pollution control policies has progressively developed over the last 2 decades and has been widely used as a tool for air quality management (e.g. EC, 2021). Relatively recently, integrated assessment for air pollution control in research projects has started to take account of climate change. Correspondingly, integrated assessment activities for climate protection have started to include impacts of air pollution in the assessment (Friedrich, 2016). Some national authorities, such as the German Federal Environmental Agency or the UK Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, have also recommended an integrated assessment, combining the assessment of climate and air pollution impacts (Matthey and Bünger, 2019; DBEIS, 2019). Impact pathway approaches are also currently increasingly incorporating exposure to air pollutants as an indicator of health impacts, instead of the previously applied concentration of air pollutants at fixed outdoor locations (Li and Friedrich, 2019). This has an implication for epidemiological studies, which usually are based on correlation between

modelled or measured concentrations at outdoor locations and health risks (e.g. Singh et al., 2020b).

Interdependence of air pollution and climatically active species allows co-benefits to be optimized. This approach also shows that costs of meeting policy obligations for climate protection (e.g. for the Paris Agreement) can be reduced or offset by the benefits of reduced health impacts from improved air quality (Markandya et al., 2018). On the other hand, for some climate protection measures, the benefits of reduced climate change are much smaller than the impacts caused by increased air pollution. This has been demonstrated for wood combustion, which while being more climate friendly than fossil fuels, will give rise to PM<sub>2.5</sub> and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions (Huang et al., 2016; Kukkonen et al., 2020b). Some recent studies (e.g. Schmid et al., 2019) have provided evidence on the advantages of using costs and benefits for both climate and air pollution abatement measures in integrated assessments.

Air quality management must adapt to the tightening of policy-driven regulations. Recently, the sulfur content of the fuel for ships has been reduced to 0.5 % worldwide (IMO, 2019). The EURO 6d norm has led to a significant reduction of NO<sub>x</sub> in the exhaust gas of diesel cars, whereas the EURO 7 norm planned to be implemented in 2025 will further reduce PM and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions from vehicle engines. The European Council has recently (in September 2020) agreed to reduce the EU's greenhouse gas emissions in 2030 by at least 55 % compared to the corresponding emissions in 1990. Together with national reduction plans for GHG, this will significantly reduce emissions of air pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels. However, there is one exception: small wood and pellet firings (< 500 kW), where still further measures should be developed for reducing the PM and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions (e.g. Kukkonen et al., 2020b).

While direct combustion emissions are expected to decrease, a particular challenge will be to control diffuse emissions, e.g. from abrasion processes, bulk handling, demolition of buildings, and use of paints and cleaning agents. Despite cleaner vehicles, emissions from tyre and brake wear and road abrasion remain an important challenge. Other areas that pose challenges for air quality management are the need to reduce agricultural emissions, especially of ammonia, which can lead to the production of secondary aerosols (especially ammonium nitrates).

Using personal exposure instead of outdoor concentration as an indicator in health impact assessments offers the opportunity to assess the impacts of indoor air pollution control. Possibilities to reduce emissions from indoor sources, such as smoking, frying and cooking, candles and incense sticks, open chimneys and wood stoves, and cleaning agents, should be assessed. Furthermore, using HEPA filters in vacuum cleaners, air filters, and cooker bonnets and using mechanical ventilation with heat recovery should be analysed. In addition, possibilities for reducing PM concentrations in underground rail stations should be explored.
Finally, we consider cross-cutting needs as a synthesis of our findings and suggest recommendations for further research.

Specifically, we indicate the confidence in the scientific knowledge, the urgency to complete the science gaps and the importance of each area for supporting policy.

**Data availability.** No data sets were used in this article.

**Author contributions.** All co-authors contributed to conceptualization and design of study, coordination, methodology development of the review, validation and checking, formal analysis, investigation and examination of the literature, writing of original draft, and review and editing of paper.

**Competing interests.** The contact author has declared that neither they nor their co-authors have any competing interests.

**Disclaimer.** Publisher's note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Acknowledgements.** The support of the following institutions and enterprises is gratefully acknowledged: University of Hertfordshire; Aristotle University Thessaloniki; TITAN Cement S.A., TSI GmbH; APHH UK-India Programme on Air Pollution and Human Health (funded by NERC, MOES, DBT, MRC, Newton Fund); and American Meteorological Society (AMS) Air & Waste Management Association (A&WMA).

We especially acknowledge the tireless effort of Ioannis Pipilis, Afedo Koukounaris, and Eva Angelidou.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) GAW Urban Research Meteorology and Environment (GURME) programme for supporting and contributing to this review.

Klaus Schäfer is grateful for funding within the frame of the project Smart Air Quality Network by the German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure – Bundesministerium für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur (BMVI).

Tomas Halenka is grateful for funding within the activity PROGRES Q16 by the Charles University, Prague.

Vikas Singh is thanked for providing Fig. 10.

This work reflects only the authors' view, and the Innovation and Networks Executive Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.

We are also thankful for the funding of NordForsk.

We wish to thank Antti Hellsten (FMI) for his useful comments on CFD modelling.

**Financial support.** This research has been supported by the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme (HEALS (grant agreement no. 603946), ICARUS (grant agreement no. 690105), SCIPPER (grant agreement no. 814893), EXHAUS-

TION (grant agreement no. 820655), and EMERGE (grant agreement no. 874990)), the EU LIFE financial programme through the project VEG-GAP "Vegetation for Urban Green Air Quality Plans" (LIFE18 PRE IT003), German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure – Bundesministerium für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur (BMVI; grant no. 19F2003A-F), and the funding of NordForsk under the Nordic Programme on Health and Welfare (project no. 75,007: NordicWelfAir – Understanding the link between Air pollution and Distribution of related Health Impacts and Welfare in the Nordic countries).

**Review statement.** This paper was edited by Pedro Jimenez-Guerrero and reviewed by two anonymous referees.

## References

Abhijith, K. V., Kumar, P., Gallagher, J., McNabola, A., Baldauf, R., Pilla, F., Broderick, B., Di Sabatino, S., and Pulvirenti, B.: Air pollution abatement performances of green infrastructure in open road and built-up street canyon environments – A review, Atmos. Environ., 162, 71–86, 2017.

Achilleos, S., Kioumoutzoglou, M.-A., Wu, C.-D., Schwartz, J. D., Koutrakis, P., and Papatheodorou, S. I.: Acute effects of fine particulate matter constituents on mortality: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis, Environ. Int., 109, 89–100, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.09.010, 2017.

Adam, M., Schikowski, T., Carsin, A. E., Cai, Y., Jacquemin, B., Sanchez, M., Vierkötter, A., Marcon, A., Keidel, D., Sugiri, D., Al Kanani, Z., Nadif, R., Siroux, V., Hardy, R., Kuh, D., Rochat, T., Bridevaux, P.-O., Eeftens, M., Tsai, M.-Y., Villani, S., Phuleria, H. C., Birk, M., Cyrys, J., Cirach, M., Nazelle, A. d., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Forsberg, B., Hoogh, K. d., Declerq, C., Bono, R., Piccioni, P., Quass, U., Heinrich, J., Jarvis, D., Pin, I., Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Brunekreef, B., Schindler, C., Sunyer, J., Krämer, U., Kauffmann, F., Hansell, A. L., Künzli, N., and Probst-Hensch, N.: Adult lung function and long-term air pollution exposure. ESCAPE: a multicentre cohort study and meta-analysis, Eur. Respir. J., 45, 38–50, https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00130014, 2015.

Adams, K., Greenbaum, D. S., Shaikh, R., van Erp, A. M., and Russell, A. G.: Particulate matter components, sources, and health: Systematic approaches to testing effects, J. Air Waste Manage., 65, 544–558, https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.1001884, 2015.

Ahangar, F., Freedman, F., and Venkatram, A.: Using Low-Cost Air Quality Sensor Networks to Improve the Spatial and Temporal Resolution of Concentration Maps, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 16, 1252, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071252, 2019.

Ajtai, N., Stefanie, H., Botezan, C., Ozunu, A., Radovici, A., Dumitrache, R., Iriza-Burcă, A., Diamandi, A., and Hirtl, M.: Support tools for land use policies based on high resolution regional air quality modelling, Land Use Policy, 95, 103909, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.03.022, 2020.

Aleksandrov, V. V. and Stenchikov, G. I.: On the modeling of the climatic consequences of the nuclear war, The Proceeding of Appl. Mathematics, The Computing Center of the AS USSR, Moscow, 21 pp., http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/
Finally, we consider cross-cutting needs as a synthesis of our findings and suggest recommendations for further research.

Specifically, we indicate the confidence in the scientific knowledge, the urgency to complete the science gaps and the importance of each area for supporting policy.

**Data availability.** No data sets were used in this article.

**Author contributions.** All co-authors contributed to conceptualization and design of study, coordination, methodology development of the review, validation and checking, formal analysis, investigation and examination of the literature, writing of original draft, and review and editing of paper.

**Competing interests.** The contact author has declared that neither they nor their co-authors have any competing interests.

**Disclaimer.** Publisher's note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Acknowledgements.** The support of the following institutions and enterprises is gratefully acknowledged: University of Hertfordshire; Aristotle University Thessaloniki; TITAN Cement S.A., TSI GmbH; APHH UK-India Programme on Air Pollution and Human Health (funded by NERC, MOES, DBT, MRC, Newton Fund); and American Meteorological Society (AMS) Air & Waste Management Association (A&WMA).

We especially acknowledge the tireless effort of Ioannis Pipilis, Afedo Koukounaris, and Eva Angelidou.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) GAW Urban Research Meteorology and Environment (GURME) programme for supporting and contributing to this review.

Klaus Schäfer is grateful for funding within the frame of the project Smart Air Quality Network by the German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure – Bundesministerium für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur (BMVI).

Tomas Halenka is grateful for funding within the activity PROGRES Q16 by the Charles University, Prague.

Vikas Singh is thanked for providing Fig. 10.

This work reflects only the authors' view, and the Innovation and Networks Executive Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.

We are also thankful for the funding of NordForsk.

We wish to thank Antti Hellsten (FMI) for his useful comments on CFD modelling.

**Financial support.** This research has been supported by the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme (HEALS (grant agreement no. 603946), ICARUS (grant agreement no. 690105), SCIPPER (grant agreement no. 814893), EXHAUS-

TION (grant agreement no. 820655), and EMERGE (grant agreement no. 874990)), the EU LIFE financial programme through the project VEG-GAP "Vegetation for Urban Green Air Quality Plans" (LIFE18 PRE IT003), German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure – Bundesministerium für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur (BMVI; grant no. 19F2003A-F), and the funding of NordForsk under the Nordic Programme on Health and Welfare (project no. 75,007: NordicWelfAir – Understanding the link between Air pollution and Distribution of related Health Impacts and Welfare in the Nordic countries).

**Review statement.** This paper was edited by Pedro Jimenez-Guerrero and reviewed by two anonymous referees.

## References

Abhijith, K. V., Kumar, P., Gallagher, J., McNabola, A., Baldauf, R., Pilla, F., Broderick, B., Di Sabatino, S., and Pulvirenti, B.: Air pollution abatement performances of green infrastructure in open road and built-up street canyon environments – A review, Atmos. Environ., 162, 71–86, 2017.

Achilleos, S., Kioumoutzoglou, M.-A., Wu, C.-D., Schwartz, J. D., Koutrakis, P., and Papatheodorou, S. I.: Acute effects of fine particulate matter constituents on mortality: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis, Environ. Int., 109, 89–100, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.09.010, 2017.

Adam, M., Schikowski, T., Carsin, A. E., Cai, Y., Jacquemin, B., Sanchez, M., Vierkötter, A., Marcon, A., Keidel, D., Sugiri, D., Al Kanani, Z., Nadif, R., Siroux, V., Hardy, R., Kuh, D., Rochat, T., Bridevaux, P.-O., Eeftens, M., Tsai, M.-Y., Villani, S., Phuleria, H. C., Birk, M., Cyrys, J., Cirach, M., Nazelle, A. d., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Forsberg, B., Hoogh, K. d., Declerq, C., Bono, R., Piccioni, P., Quass, U., Heinrich, J., Jarvis, D., Pin, I., Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Brunekreef, B., Schindler, C., Sunyer, J., Krämer, U., Kauffmann, F., Hansell, A. L., Künzli, N., and Probst-Hensch, N.: Adult lung function and long-term air pollution exposure. ESCAPE: a multicentre cohort study and meta-analysis, Eur. Respir. J., 45, 38–50, https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00130014, 2015.

Adams, K., Greenbaum, D. S., Shaikh, R., van Erp, A. M., and Russell, A. G.: Particulate matter components, sources, and health: Systematic approaches to testing effects, J. Air Waste Manage., 65, 544–558, https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.1001884, 2015.

Ahangar, F., Freedman, F., and Venkatram, A.: Using Low-Cost Air Quality Sensor Networks to Improve the Spatial and Temporal Resolution of Concentration Maps, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 16, 1252, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071252, 2019.

Ajtai, N., Stefanie, H., Botezan, C., Ozunu, A., Radovici, A., Dumitrache, R., Iriza-Burcă, A., Diamandi, A., and Hirtl, M.: Support tools for land use policies based on high resolution regional air quality modelling, Land Use Policy, 95, 103909, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.03.022, 2020.

Aleksandrov, V. V. and Stenchikov, G. I.: On the modeling of the climatic consequences of the nuclear war, The Proceeding of Appl. Mathematics, The Computing Center of the AS USSR, Moscow, 21 pp., http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/
Aleksandrov Stenchikov.pdf (last access: 21 February 2022),
1983.

Alfano, B., Barretta, L., Del Giudice, A., De Vito, S., Di Fran-
cia, G., Esposito, E., Formisano, F., Massera, E., Miglietta, M.
L., and Polichetti, T.: A Review of Low-Cost Particulate Matter
Sensors from the Developers’ Perspectives, Sensors, 20, 6819,
https://doi.org/10.3390/s20236819, 2020.

Alimissis, A., Philippopoulos, K., Tzanis, C. G., and Deligiorgi, D.: Spatial estimation of urban air pollution with the use of artificial neural network models, Atmos. Environ., 191, 205–213, 2018.

Amann, M., Holland, M., Maas, R., Vandyck, T., and Saveyn, B.: Costs, benefits and economic impacts of the EU Clean Air Strategy and their implications on innovation and competitiveness, IIASA, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/pdf/clean-air_outlook_economic_impact_report.pdf (last access 25 February 2022), 2017.

Analitis, A., de' Donato, F., Scortichini, M., Lanki, T., Basagana, X., Ballester, F., Astrom, C., Paldy, A., Pascal, M., Gasparrini, A., Michelozzi, P., and Katsouyanni, K.: Synergistic Effects of Ambient Temperature and Air Pollution on Health in Europe: Results from the PHASE Project, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 15, 1856, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091856, 2018.

Andersen, Z. J., Pedersen, M., Weinmayr, G., Stafoggia, M., Galassi, C., Jørgensen, J. T., Sommar, J. N., Forsberg, B., Olsen, D., Oftedal, B., Aasvang, G. M., Schwarze, P., Pyko, A., Pershagen, G., Korek, M., Faire, U. d., Östenson, C.-G., Fratiglioni, L., Eriksen, K. T., Poulsen, A. H., Tjønneland, A., Bräuner, E. V., Peeters, P. H., Bueno-de-Mesquita, B., Jaensch, A., Nagel, G., Lang, A., Wang, M., Tsai, M.-Y., Grioni, S., Marcon, A., Krogh, V., Ricceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Migliore, E., Vermeulen, R., Sokhi, R., Keuken, M., Hoogh, K. d., Beelen, R., Vineis, P., Cesaroni, G., Brunekreef, B., Hoek, G., and Raaschou-Nielsen, O.: Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and incidence of brain tumor: the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE), Neuro-Oncology, 20, 420–432, https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nox163, 2018.

Anderson, H. A.: Air pollution and mortality: A history, Atmos. Environ., 43, 142–152, 2009.

Anderson, M., Salo, K., and Fridell, E.: Particle- and Gaseous Emissions from an LNG Powered Ship, Environ. Sci. Technol., 49, 12568–12575, 2015.

Anderson, V. and Gough, W. A.: Evaluating the potential of nature-
based solutions to reduce ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon
dioxide through a multi-type green infrastructure study in On-
tario, Canada, City and Environment Interactions, 6, 100043,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacint.2020.100043, 2020.

Andre, M., Sartelet, K., Moukhtar, S., Andre, J. M., and Redaelli, M.: Diesel, petrol or electric vehicles: What choices to improve urban air quality in the Ile-de-France region? A simulation platform and case study, Atmos. Environ., 241, 117752, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117752, 2020.

Andronopoulos, S., Bartzis, J. G., Efthimiou, G. C., and Venetsanos, A. G.: Puff-dispersion variability assessment through Lagrangian and Eulerian modelling based on the JU2003 campaign, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 171, 395–422, 2019.

Antonsen, S., Mok, P. L. H., Webb, R. T., Mortensen, P. B., McGrath, J. J., Agerbo, E., Brandt, J., Geels, C., Christensen, J. H., and Pedersen, C. B.: Exposure to air pollution during childhood and risk of developing schizophrenia: a national cohort

study, The Lancet, 4, E64–E73, https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(20)30004-8, 2020.

Aron, R. H.: Forecasting high level oxidant concentrations in the Los Angeles basin, J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 20, 1227–1228, 1980.

Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., and Quante, M.: An Approach to Temporally Disaggregate Benzo(a)pyrene Emissions and Their Application to a 3D Eulerian Atmospheric Chemistry Transport Model, Water Air Soil Poll., 216, 643–655, 2011.

Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., Zeretzke, M., Bieser, J., Quante, M., and Backes, A.: The impact of shipping emissions on air pollution in the greater North Sea region – Part 1: Current emissions and concentrations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 739–758, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-739-2016, 2016.

Aunan, K., Ma, Q., Lund, M. T., and Wang, S.: Population-weighted exposure to PM₂.₅ pollution in China: An integrated approach, Environ. Int., 120, 111–120, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.07.042, 2018.

Bachmann, T. M.: Considering environmental costs of greenhouse gas emissions for setting a CO₂ tax: A review, Sci. Total Environ., 720, 137524, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137524, 2020.

Backes, A., Aulinger, A., Bieser, J., Matthias, V., and Quante, M.: Ammonia emissions in Europe, part I: Development of a dynamical ammonia emission inventory, Atmos. Environ., 131, 55–66, 2016.

Badeke, R., Matthias, V., and Grawe, D.: Parameterizing the vertical downward dispersion of ship exhaust gas in the near field, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 5935–5951, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-5935-2021, 2021.

Badia, A., Segura, R., Gilabert, J., Ventura, S., Vidal, V., and Villalba, G.: Air quality modeling study using wrf-chem over Barcelona, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 161, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Bai, L., Wang, J., Ma, X., and Lu, H.: Air Pollution Forecasts: An Overview, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 15, 780, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040780, 2018.

Baklanov, A. and Zhang, Y.: Advances in air quality modeling and forecasting, Global Transitions, 2, 261–270, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glt.2020.11.001, 2020.

Baklanov, A., Lawrence, M., Pandis, S., Mahura, A., Finardi, S., Moussiopoulos, N., Beekmann, M., Laj, P., Gomes, L., Jaffrezo, J.-L., Borbon, A., Coll, I., Gros, V., Sciare, J., Kukkonen, J., Galmarini, S., Giorgi, F., Grimmond, S., Esau, I., Stohl, A., Denby, B., Wagner, T., Butler, T., Baltensperger, U., Builtjes, P., van den Hout, D., van der Gon, H. D., Collins, B., Schluenzen, H., Kulmala, M., Zilitinkevich, S., Sokhi, R., Friedrich, R., Theloke, J., Kummer, U., Jalkinen, L., Halenka, T., Wiedensholer, A., Pyle, J., and Rossow, W. B.: MEGAPOLI: concept of multi-scale modelling of megacity impact on air quality and climate, Adv. Sci. Res., 4, 115–120, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-4-115-2010, 2010.

Baklanov, A., Mestayer, P. G., Clappier, A., Zilitinkevich, S., Jofre, S., Mahura, A., and Nielsen, N. W.: Towards improving the simulation of meteorological fields in urban areas through updated/advanced surface fluxes description, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 523–543, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-523-2008, 2008.
Aleksandrov Stenchikov.pdf (last access: 21 February 2022),
1983.

Alfano, B., Barretta, L., Del Giudice, A., De Vito, S., Di Fran-
cia, G., Esposito, E., Formisano, F., Massera, E., Miglietta, M.
L., and Polichetti, T.: A Review of Low-Cost Particulate Matter
Sensors from the Developers’ Perspectives, Sensors, 20, 6819,
https://doi.org/10.3390/s20236819, 2020.

Alimissis, A., Philippopoulos, K., Tzanis, C. G., and Deligiorgi, D.: Spatial estimation of urban air pollution with the use of artificial neural network models, Atmos. Environ., 191, 205–213, 2018.

Amann, M., Holland, M., Maas, R., Vandyck, T., and Saveyn, B.: Costs, benefits and economic impacts of the EU Clean Air Strategy and their implications on innovation and competitiveness, IIASA, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/pdf/clean-air_outlook_economic_impact_report.pdf (last access 25 February 2022), 2017.

Analitis, A., de' Donato, F., Scortichini, M., Lanki, T., Basagana, X., Ballester, F., Astrom, C., Paldy, A., Pascal, M., Gasparrini, A., Michelozzi, P., and Katsouyanni, K.: Synergistic Effects of Ambient Temperature and Air Pollution on Health in Europe: Results from the PHASE Project, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 15, 1856, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091856, 2018.

Andersen, Z. J., Pedersen, M., Weinmayr, G., Stafoggia, M., Galassi, C., Jørgensen, J. T., Sommar, J. N., Forsberg, B., Olsen, D., Oftedal, B., Aasvang, G. M., Schwarze, P., Pyko, A., Pershagen, G., Korek, M., Faire, U. d., Östenson, C.-G., Fratiglioni, L., Eriksen, K. T., Poulsen, A. H., Tjønneland, A., Bräuner, E. V., Peeters, P. H., Bueno-de-Mesquita, B., Jaensch, A., Nagel, G., Lang, A., Wang, M., Tsai, M.-Y., Grioni, S., Marcon, A., Krogh, V., Ricceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Migliore, E., Vermeulen, R., Sokhi, R., Keuken, M., Hoogh, K. d., Beelen, R., Vineis, P., Cesaroni, G., Brunekreef, B., Hoek, G., and Raaschou-Nielsen, O.: Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and incidence of brain tumor: the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE), Neuro-Oncology, 20, 420–432, https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nox163, 2018.

Anderson, H. A.: Air pollution and mortality: A history, Atmos. Environ., 43, 142–152, 2009.

Anderson, M., Salo, K., and Fridell, E.: Particle- and Gaseous Emissions from an LNG Powered Ship, Environ. Sci. Technol., 49, 12568–12575, 2015.

Anderson, V. and Gough, W. A.: Evaluating the potential of nature-
based solutions to reduce ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon
dioxide through a multi-type green infrastructure study in On-
tario, Canada, City and Environment Interactions, 6, 100043,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacint.2020.100043, 2020.

Andre, M., Sartelet, K., Moukhtar, S., Andre, J. M., and Redaelli, M.: Diesel, petrol or electric vehicles: What choices to improve urban air quality in the Ile-de-France region? A simulation platform and case study, Atmos. Environ., 241, 117752, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117752, 2020.

Andronopoulos, S., Bartzis, J. G., Efthimiou, G. C., and Venetsanos, A. G.: Puff-dispersion variability assessment through Lagrangian and Eulerian modelling based on the JU2003 campaign, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 171, 395–422, 2019.

Antonsen, S., Mok, P. L. H., Webb, R. T., Mortensen, P. B., McGrath, J. J., Agerbo, E., Brandt, J., Geels, C., Christensen, J. H., and Pedersen, C. B.: Exposure to air pollution during childhood and risk of developing schizophrenia: a national cohort

study, The Lancet, 4, E64–E73, https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(20)30004-8, 2020.

Aron, R. H.: Forecasting high level oxidant concentrations in the Los Angeles basin, J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 20, 1227–1228, 1980.

Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., and Quante, M.: An Approach to Tem-
porally Disaggregate Benzo(a)pyrene Emissions and Their Ap-
plication to a 3D Eulerian Atmospheric Chemistry Transport
Model, Water Air Soil Poll., 216, 643–655, 2011.

Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., Zeretzke, M., Bieser, J., Quante, M., and Backes, A.: The impact of shipping emissions on air pol- lution in the greater North Sea region – Part 1: Current emis- sions and concentrations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 739–758, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-739-2016, 2016.

Aunan, K., Ma, Q., Lund, M. T., and Wang, S.: Population-
weighted exposure to PM₂.₅ pollution in China: An
integrated approach, Environ. Int., 120, 111–120,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.07.042, 2018.

Bachmann, T. M.: Considering environmental costs of greenhouse gas emissions for setting a CO₂ tax: A review, Sci. Total Environ., 720, 137524, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137524, 2020.

Backes, A., Aulinger, A., Bieser, J., Matthias, V., and Quante, M.: Ammonia emissions in Europe, part I: Development of a dynam- ical ammonia emission inventory, Atmos. Environ., 131, 55–66, 2016.

Badeke, R., Matthias, V., and Grawe, D.: Parameterizing the verti-
cal downward dispersion of ship exhaust gas in the near field, At-
mos. Chem. Phys., 21, 5935–5951, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-
21-5935-2021, 2021.

Badia, A., Segura, R., Gilabert, J., Ventura, S., Vidal, V., and Villalba, G.: Air quality modeling study using wrf-chem over Barcelona, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 161, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Bai, L., Wang, J., Ma, X., and Lu, H.: Air Pollution Fore-
casts: An Overview, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 15, 780,
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040780, 2018.

Baklanov, A. and Zhang, Y.: Advances in air quality mod-
eling and forecasting, Global Transitions, 2, 261–270,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glt.2020.11.001, 2020.

Baklanov, A., Lawrence, M., Pandis, S., Mahura, A., Finardi, S., Moussiopoulos, N., Beekmann, M., Laj, P., Gomes, L., Jaffrezo, J.-L., Borbon, A., Coll, I., Gros, V., Sciare, J., Kukkonen, J., Galmarini, S., Giorgi, F., Grimmond, S., Esau, I., Stohl, A., Denby, B., Wagner, T., Butler, T., Baltensperger, U., Builtjes, P., van den Hout, D., van der Gon, H. D., Collins, B., Schluenzen, H., Kulmala, M., Zilitinkevich, S., Sokhi, R., Friedrich, R., Theloke, J., Kummer, U., Jalkinen, L., Halenka, T., Wiedensholer, A., Pyle, J., and Rossow, W. B.: MEGAPOLI: concept of multi-scale mod-
elling of megacity impact on air quality and climate, Adv. Sci.
Res., 4, 115–120, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-4-115-2010, 2010.

Baklanov, A., Mestayer, P. G., Clappier, A., Zilitinkevich, S., Jof-
fre, S., Mahura, A., and Nielsen, N. W.: Towards improving the
simulation of meteorological fields in urban areas through updat-
ed/advanced surface fluxes description, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8,
523–543, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-523-2008, 2008.
Baklanov, A., Mahura, A., Grimmond, S., and Athanassiadou, M.: Meteorological and Air Quality Models for Urban Areas, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 184 pp., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00298-4, 2009.

Baklanov, A., Mahura, A., and Sokhi, R.: Integrated Systems of Meso-Meteorological and Chemical Transport Models, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13980-2, 2011.

Baklanov, A., Schlünzen, K., Suppan, P., Baldasano, J., Brunner, D., Aksoyoglu, S., Carmichael, G., Douros, J., Flemming, J., Forkel, R., Galmarini, S., Gauss, M., Grell, G., Hirtl, M., Joffre, S., Jorba, O., Kaas, E., Kaasik, M., Kallos, G., Kong, X., Korsholm, U., Kurganskiy, A., Kushta, J., Lohmann, U., Mahura, A., Manders-Groot, A., Maurizi, A., Moussiopoulos, N., Rao, S. T., Savage, N., Seigneur, C., Sokhi, R. S., Solazzo, E., Solomos, S., Sørensen, B., Tsegas, G., Vignati, E., Vogel, B., and Zhang, Y.: Online coupled regional meteorology chemistry models in Europe: current status and prospects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 317–398, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-317-2014, 2014.

Baklanov, A., Molina, L. T., and Gauss, M.: Megacities, air quality and climate, Atmos. Environ., 126, 235–249, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.11.059, 2016.

Baklanov, A., Brunner, D., Carmichael, G., Flemming, J., Freitas, S., Gauss, M., Hov, Ø., Mathur, R., Schlünzen, K., Seigneur, C., and Vogel, B.: Key Issues for Seamless Integrated Chemistry-Meteorology Modeling, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 2285–2292, https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-15-00166.1, 2018a.

Baklanov, A., Grimmond, C. S. B., Carlson, D., Terblanche, D., Tang, X., Bouchet, V., Lee, B., Langendijk, G., Kolli, R. K., and Hovsepyan, A.: From urban meteorology, climate and environment research to integrated city services, Urban Climate, 23, 330–341, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.05.004, 2018b.

Baldasano, J. M.: COVID-19 lockdown effects on air quality by NO₂ in the cities of Barcelona and Madrid (Spain), Sci. Total Environ., 741, 140353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140353, 2020.

Baldasano, J. M., Güereca, L. P., López, E., Gassó, S., and Jiménez-Guerrero, P.: Development of a high resolution (1 km × 1 km, 1 h) emission model for Spain: the High-Elective Resolution Modeling Emission System (HERMES), Atmos. Environ., 42, 7215–7233, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.07.026, 2008.

Balogun, H. A., Rantala, A. K., Antikainen, H., Siddika, N., Amegah, A. K., Ryti, N. R. I., Kukkonen, J., Sofiev, M., Jaakkola, M. S., and Jaakkola, J. J. K.: Effects of Air Pollution on the Risk of Low Birth Weight in a Cold Climate, Appl. Sci., 10, 6399, https://doi.org/10.3390/app10186399, 2020.

Barbero, D., Tinarelli, G., Silibello, C., et al.: A microscale hybrid modelling system to assess the air quality over a large portion of a large European city, Atmos. Environ., 264, 118656, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118656, 2021.

Barmpas, F., Tsegas, G., Moussiopoulos, N., and Chourdakis, E.: Interpreting measurements from air quality sensor networks: data assimilation and physical modelling, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 112, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Barré, J., Petetin, H., Colette, A., Guevara, M., Peuch, V.-H., Rouil, L., Engelen, R., Inness, A., Flemming, J., Pérez García-Pando, C., Bowdalo, D., Meleux, F., Geels, C., Christensen, J. H., Gauss, M., Benedictow, A., Tsyro, S., Friese, E., Struzewska, J., Kaminski, J. W., Douros, J., Timmermans, R., Robertson, L., Adani, M., Jorba, O., Joly, M., and Kouznetsov, R.: Estimating lockdown-induced European NO₂ changes using satellite and surface observations and air quality models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7373–7394, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7373-2021, 2021.

Bartzis, J., Wolkoff, P., Stranger, M., Efthimiou, G., Tolis, E. I., Maes, F., Nørgaard, A. W., Ventura, G., Kalimeri, K. K., Goelen, E., and Fernandes, O.: On organic emissions testing from indoor consumer products’ use, J. Hazard. Mater., 285, 37–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.11.024, 2015.

Bartzis, J. G., Andronopoulos, S., and Efthimiou, G. C.: Simplified approaches in quantifying exposure statistical behaviour due to airborne hazardous releases of short time duration, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Bauer, S. E., Im, U., Mezuman, K., and Gao, C. Y.: Desert dust, industrialization and agricultural fires: Health impacts of outdoor air pollution in Africa, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 4104–4120, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029336, 2019.

Baumol, W. J.: On Taxation and the Control of Externalities, Am. Econ. Rev., 62, 307–322, 1972.

Baumol, W. J. and Oates, W. E.: The Use of Standards and Prices for Protection of the Environment, Swed. J. Econ., 73, 42–54, https://doi.org/10.2307/3439132, 1971.

Beddows, D. C. S. and Harrison, R. M.: PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ emission factors for non-exhaust particles from road vehicles: Dependence upon vehicle mass and implications for battery electric vehicles, Atmos. Environ., 244, 117886, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117886, 2021.

Beekmann, M., Prévôt, A. S. H., Drewnick, F., Sciare, J., Pandis, S. N., Denier van der Gon, H. A. C., Crippa, M., Freutel, F., Poulain, L., Ghersi, V., Rodriguez, E., Beirle, S., Zotter, P., von der Weiden-Reinmüller, S.-L., Bressi, M., Fountoukis, C., Petetin, H., Szidat, S., Schneider, J., Rosso, A., El Haddad, I., Megaritis, A., Zhang, Q. J., Michoud, V., Slowik, J. G., Moukhtar, S., Kolmonen, P., Stohl, A., Eckhardt, S., Borbon, A., Gros, V., Marchand, N., Jaffrezo, J. L., Schwarzenboeck, A., Colomb, A., Wiedensohler, A., Borrmann, S., Lawrence, M., Baklanov, A., and Baltensperger, U.: In situ, satellite measurement and model evidence on the dominant regional contribution to fine particulate matter levels in the Paris megacity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 9577–9591, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-9577-2015, 2015.

Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Weinmayr, G., Hoffmann, B., Wolf, K., Samoli, E., Fischer, P. H., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Xun, W. W., Katsouyanni, K., Dimakopoulou, K., Marcon, A., Vartiainen, E., Lanki, T., Yli-Tuomi, T., Oftedal, B., Schwarze, P. E., Nafstad, P., Faire, U. d., Pedersen, N. L., Östenson, C.-G., Fratiglioni, L., Penell, J., Korek, M., Pershagen, G., Eriksen, K. T., Overvad, K., Sørensen, M., Eeftens, M., Peeters, P. H., Meliefste, K., Wang, M., Bueno-de-Mesquita, H. B., Sugiri, D., Krämer, U., Heinrich, J., Hoogh, K. d., Key, T., Peters, A., Hampel, R., Concin, H., Nagel, G., Jaensch, A., Ineichen, A., Tsai, M.-
Baklanov, A., Mahura, A., Grimmond, S., and Athanassiadou, M.: Meteorological and Air Quality Models for Urban Areas, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 184 pp., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00298-4, 2009.

Baklanov, A., Mahura, A., and Sokhi, R.: Integrated Systems of Meso-Meteorological and Chemical Transport Models, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13980-2, 2011.

Baklanov, A., Schlünzen, K., Suppan, P., Baldasano, J., Brunner, D., Aksoyoglu, S., Carmichael, G., Douros, J., Flemming, J., Forkel, R., Galmarini, S., Gauss, M., Grell, G., Hirtl, M., Joffre, S., Jorba, O., Kaas, E., Kaasik, M., Kallos, G., Kong, X., Korsholm, U., Kurganskiy, A., Kushta, J., Lohmann, U., Mahura, A., Manders-Groot, A., Maurizi, A., Moussiopoulos, N., Rao, S. T., Savage, N., Seigneur, C., Sokhi, R. S., Solazzo, E., Solomos, S., Sørensen, B., Tsegas, G., Vignati, E., Vogel, B., and Zhang, Y.: Online coupled regional meteorology chemistry models in Europe: current status and prospects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 317–398, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-317-2014, 2014.

Baklanov, A., Molina, L. T., and Gauss, M.: Megacities, air quality and climate, Atmos. Environ., 126, 235–249, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.11.059, 2016.

Baklanov, A., Brunner, D., Carmichael, G., Flemming, J., Freitas, S., Gauss, M., Hov, Ø., Mathur, R., Schlünzen, K., Seigneur, C., and Vogel, B.: Key Issues for Seamless Integrated Chemistry-Meteorology Modeling, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 2285–2292, https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-15-00166.1, 2018a.

Baklanov, A., Grimmond, C. S. B., Carlson, D., Terblanche, D., Tang, X., Bouchet, V., Lee, B., Langendijk, G., Kolli, R. K., and Hovsepyan, A.: From urban meteorology, climate and environment research to integrated city services, Urban Climate, 23, 330–341, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.05.004, 2018b.

Baldasano, J. M.: COVID-19 lockdown effects on air quality by NO₂ in the cities of Barcelona and Madrid (Spain), Sci. Total Environ., 741, 140353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140353, 2020.

Baldasano, J. M., Güereca, L. P., López, E., Gassó, S., and Jiménez-Guerrero, P.: Development of a high resolution (1 km × 1 km, 1 h) emission model for Spain: the High-Elective Resolution Modeling Emission System (HERMES), Atmos. Environ., 42, 7215–7233, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.07.026, 2008.

Balogun, H. A., Rantala, A. K., Antikainen, H., Siddika, N., Amegah, A. K., Ryti, N. R. I., Kukkonen, J., Sofiev, M., Jaakkola, M. S., and Jaakkola, J. J. K.: Effects of Air Pollution on the Risk of Low Birth Weight in a Cold Climate, Appl. Sci., 10, 6399, https://doi.org/10.3390/app10186399, 2020.

Barbero, D., Tinarelli, G., Silibello, C., et al.: A microscale hybrid modelling system to assess the air quality over a large portion of a large European city, Atmos. Environ., 264, 118656, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118656, 2021.

Barmpas, F., Tsegas, G., Moussiopoulos, N., and Chourdakis, E.: Interpreting measurements from air quality sensor networks: data assimilation and physical modelling, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 112, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Barré, J., Petetin, H., Colette, A., Guevara, M., Peuch, V.-H., Rouil, L., Engelen, R., Inness, A., Flemming, J., Pérez García-Pando, C., Bowdalo, D., Meleux, F., Geels, C., Christensen, J. H., Gauss, M., Benedictow, A., Tsyro, S., Friese, E., Struzewska, J., Kaminski, J. W., Douros, J., Timmermans, R., Robertson, L., Adani, M., Jorba, O., Joly, M., and Kouznetsov, R.: Estimating lockdown-induced European NO₂ changes using satellite and surface observations and air quality models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7373–7394, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7373-2021, 2021.

Bartzis, J., Wolkoff, P., Stranger, M., Efthimiou, G., Tolis, E. I., Maes, F., Nørgaard, A. W., Ventura, G., Kalimeri, K. K., Goelen, E., and Fernandes, O.: On organic emissions testing from indoor consumer products’ use, J. Hazard. Mater., 285, 37–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.11.024, 2015.

Bartzis, J. G., Andronopoulos, S., and Efthimiou, G. C.: Simplified approaches in quantifying exposure statistical behaviour due to airborne hazardous releases of short time duration, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Bauer, S. E., Im, U., Mezuman, K., and Gao, C. Y.: Desert dust, industrialization and agricultural fires: Health impacts of outdoor air pollution in Africa, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 4104–4120, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029336, 2019.

Baumol, W. J.: On Taxation and the Control of Externalities, Am. Econ. Rev., 62, 307–322, 1972.

Baumol, W. J. and Oates, W. E.: The Use of Standards and Prices for Protection of the Environment, Swed. J. Econ., 73, 42–54, https://doi.org/10.2307/3439132, 1971.

Beddows, D. C. S. and Harrison, R. M.: PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ emission factors for non-exhaust particles from road vehicles: Dependence upon vehicle mass and implications for battery electric vehicles, Atmos. Environ., 244, 117886, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117886, 2021.

Beekmann, M., Prévôt, A. S. H., Drewnick, F., Sciare, J., Pandis, S. N., Denier van der Gon, H. A. C., Crippa, M., Freutel, F., Poulain, L., Ghersi, V., Rodriguez, E., Beirle, S., Zotter, P., von der Weiden-Reinmüller, S.-L., Bressi, M., Fountoukis, C., Petetin, H., Szidat, S., Schneider, J., Rosso, A., El Haddad, I., Megaritis, A., Zhang, Q. J., Michoud, V., Slowik, J. G., Moukhtar, S., Kolmonen, P., Stohl, A., Eckhardt, S., Borbon, A., Gros, V., Marchand, N., Jaffrezo, J. L., Schwarzenboeck, A., Colomb, A., Wiedensohler, A., Borrmann, S., Lawrence, M., Baklanov, A., and Baltensperger, U.: In situ, satellite measurement and model evidence on the dominant regional contribution to fine particulate matter levels in the Paris megacity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 9577–9591, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-9577-2015, 2015.

Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Weinmayr, G., Hoffmann, B., Wolf, K., Samoli, E., Fischer, P. H., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Xun, W. W., Katsouyanni, K., Dimakopoulou, K., Marcon, A., Vartiainen, E., Lanki, T., Yli-Tuomi, T., Oftedal, B., Schwarze, P. E., Nafstad, P., Faire, U. d., Pedersen, N. L., Östenson, C.-G., Fratiglioni, L., Penell, J., Korek, M., Pershagen, G., Eriksen, K. T., Overvad, K., Sørensen, M., Eeftens, M., Peeters, P. H., Meliefste, K., Wang, M., Bueno-de-Mesquita, H. B., Sugiri, D., Krämer, U., Heinrich, J., Hoogh, K. d., Key, T., Peters, A., Hampel, R., Concin, H., Nagel, G., Jaensch, A., Ineichen, A., Tsai, M.,
Y., Schaffner, E., Probst-Hensch, N. M., Schindler, C., Raget-
tli, M. S., Vilier, A., Clavel-Chapelon, F., Declercq, C., Ric-
ceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Galassi, C., Migliore, E., Ranzi, A.,
Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Forastiere, F., Katsoulis, M., Tri-
chopoulou, A., Keuken, M., Jedynska, A., Kooter, I. M., Kukko-
nen, J., Sokhi, R. S., Vineis, P., and Brunekreef, B.: Natural-
Cause Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Particle Compo-
nents: An Analysis of 19 European Cohorts within the Multi-
Center ESCAPE Project, Environ. Health Persp., 123, 525–533,
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408095, 2015.

Beelen, R., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Weinmayr, G., Hoffmann, B., Wolf, K., Samoli, E., Fischer, P., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., Vineis, P., Xun, W. W., Katsouyanni, K., Dimakopoulou, K., Oudin, A., Forsberg, B., Modig, L., Havulinna, A. S., Lanki, T., Turunen, A., Oftedal, B., Nystad, W., Nafstad, P., Faire, U. d., Pedersen, N. L., Östenson, C.-G., Fratiglioni, L., Penell, J., Korek, M., Pershagen, G., Erikssen, K. T., Overvad, K., Ellermann, T., Eeftens, M., Peeters, P. H., Meliefste, K., Wang, M., Bueno-de-Mesquita, B., Sugiri, D., Krämer, U., Heinrich, J., Hoogh, K. d., Key, T., Peters, A., Hampel, R., Concin, H., Nagel, G., Ineichen, A., Schaffner, E., Probst-Hensch, N., Künzli, N., Schindler, C., Schikowski, T., Adam, M., Phuleria, H., Vilier, A., Clavel-Chapelon, F., Declercq, C., Grioni, S., Krogh, V., Tsai, M.-Y., Ricceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Galassi, C., Migliore, E., Ranzi, A., Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Forastiere, F., Tamayo, I., Amiano, P., Dorronsoro, M., Katsoulis, M., Trichopoulou, A., Brunekreef, B., and Hoek, G.: Effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on natural-cause mortality: an analysis of 22 European cohorts within the multicentre ESCAPE project, Lancet, 383, 785–795, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62158-3, 2014.

Belis, C. A., Pikridas, M., Lucarelli, F., Petralia, E., Cavalli, F., Cal-
zolai, G., Berico, M., and Sciare, J.: Source apportionment of
fine PM by combining high time resolution organic and inorganic
chemical composition datasets, Atmos. Environ. X, 3, 100046,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2019.100046, 2019.

Belis, C. A., Pernigotti, D., Pirovano, G., Favez, O., Jaffrezo, J.L., Kuenen, J., Denier van Der Gon, H., Reizer, M., Riffault, V., Alleman, L.Y., Almeida, M., Amato, F., Angyal, A., Argyropoulos, G., Bande, S., Beslic, I., Besombes, J.-L., Bove, M.C., Brotto, P., Calori, G., Cesari, D., Colombi, C., Contini, D., De Gennaro, G., Di Gilio, A., Diapouli, E., El Haddad, I., Elbern, H., Eleftheriadis, K., Ferreira, J., Vivanco, M.G., Gilardoni, S., Golly, B., Hellebust, S., Hopke, P.K., Izadmanesh, Y., Jorquera, H., Krajsek, K., Kranenburg, R., Lazzeri, P., Lenartz, F., Lucarelli, F., Maciejewska, K., Manders, A., Manousakas, M., Masiol, M., Mircea, M., Mooibroek, D., Nava, S., Oliveira, D., Paglione, M., Pandolfi, M., Perrone, M., Petralia, E., Pietrodangelo, A., Pillon, S., Pokorna, P., Prati, P., Salameh, D., Samara, C., Samek, L., Saraga, D., Sauvage, S., Schaap, M., Scotto, F., Sega, K., Siour, G., Tauler, R., Valli, G., Vecchi, R., Venturini, E., Vestenius, M., Waked, A., and Yubero, E.: Evaluation of receptor and chemical transport models for PM₁₀ source apportionment, Atmos. Environ. X, 5, 100053, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2019.100053, 2020.

Benedetti, A. and Vitart, F.: Can the Direct Effect of Aerosols Improve Subseasonal Predictability?, Mon. Weather Rev., 146, 3481–3498, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-17-0282.1, 2018.

Benedetti, A., Reid, J. S., Knippertz, P., Marsham, J. H., Di
Giuseppe, F., Rémy, S., Basart, S., Boucher, O., Brooks, I.
M., Menut, L., Mona, L., Laj, P., Pappalardo, G., Wieden-
sohler, A., Baklanov, A., Brooks, M., Colarco, P. R., Cuevas,
E., da Silva, A., Escribano, J., Flemming, J., Huneeus, N.,
Jorba, O., Kazadzis, S., Kinne, S., Popp, T., Quinn, P. K.,
Sekiyama, T. T., Tanaka, T., and Terradellas, E.: Status and fu-
ture of numerical atmospheric aerosol prediction with a focus
on data requirements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 10615–10643,
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-10615-2018, 2018.

Benešová, N., Belda, M., Eben, K., Geletič, J., Huszár, P., Juruš, P., Krč, P., Resler, J., and Vlček, O.: New open source emission processor for air quality models, in: Proceedings of Abstracts 11th International Conference on Air Quality Science and Application, edited by: Sokhi, R., Tiwari, P. R., Gállego, M. J., Craviotto Arnau, J. M., Castells Guiu, C., and Singh, V., University of Hertfordshire, UK, p. 27, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.19829, 2018.

Bergamaschi, P., Karstens, U., Manning, A. J., Saunois, M., Tsuta, A., Berchet, A., Vermeulen, A. T., Arnold, T., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Hammer, S., Levin, I., Schmidt, M., Ramonet, M., Lopez, M., Lavric, J., Aalto, T., Chen, H., Feist, D. G., Gerbig, C., Haszpra, L., Hermansen, O., Manca, G., Moncrieff, J., Meinhardt, F., Necki, J., Galkowski, M., O'Doherty, S., Paramonova, N., Scheeren, H. A., Steinbacher, M., and Dlugokencky, E.: Inverse modelling of European CH₄ emissions during 2006–2012 using different inverse models and reassessed atmospheric observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 901–920, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-901-2018, 2018.

Berrocal, V. J., Guan, Y., Muyskens, A., Wang, H., Reich, B. J., Mulholland, J. A., and Chang, H. H.: A comparison of statistical and machine learning methods for creating national daily maps of ambient PM₂.₅ concentration, Atmos. Environ., 222, 117130, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117130, 2020.

Bi, P., Wang, J., and Hiller, J. E.: Weather: driving force behind the transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome in China?, Intern. Med. J., 37, 550–554, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2007.01358.x, 2007.

Bickel, P. and Friedrich, R. (Eds.): ExternE – Externalities of Energy, Methodology 2005 Update, EUR 21951, https://doi.org/10.18419/opus-11923, 2005.

Bieser, J., Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., Quante, M., and Builtjes, P.: SMOKE for Europe – adaptation, modification and evaluation of a comprehensive emission model for Europe, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 47–68, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-4-47-2011, 2011a.

Bieser, J., Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., Quante, M., and Denier van der Gon, H. A. C.: Vertical emission profiles for Europe based on plume rise calculations, Environ. Pollut., 159, 2935–2946, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.030, 2011b.

BImSchV: Erste Verordnung zur Durchführung des Bundes-
Immissionsschutzgesetzes (Verordnung über kleine und
mittlere Feuerungsanlagen) – 1. BImSchV, https://www.
gesetze-im-internet.de/bimschv_1_2010/BJNR003800010.html
(last access: 25 February 2022), 2021.

Bocquet, M., Elbern, H., Eskes, H., Hirtl, M., Žabkar, R., Carmichael, G. R., Flemming, J., Inness, A., Pagowski, M., Pérez Camaño, J. L., Saide, P. E., San Jose, R., Sofiev, M., Vira, J., Baklanov, A., Carnevale, C., Grell, G., and Seigneur, C.: Data assimilation in atmospheric chemistry models: current status and future prospects for coupled chemistry meteorology models, At-
Y., Schaffner, E., Probst-Hensch, N. M., Schindler, C., Raget-
tli, M. S., Vilier, A., Clavel-Chapelon, F., Declercq, C., Ric-
ceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Galassi, C., Migliore, E., Ranzi, A.,
Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Forastiere, F., Katsoulis, M., Tri-
chopoulou, A., Keuken, M., Jedynska, A., Kooter, I. M., Kukko-
nen, J., Sokhi, R. S., Vineis, P., and Brunekreef, B.: Natural-
Cause Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Particle Compo-
nents: An Analysis of 19 European Cohorts within the Multi-
Center ESCAPE Project, Environ. Health Persp., 123, 525–533,
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408095, 2015.

Beelen, R., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Weinmayr, G., Hoffmann, B., Wolf, K., Samoli, E., Fischer, P., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., Vineis, P., Xun, W. W., Katsouyanni, K., Dimakopoulou, K., Oudin, A., Forsberg, B., Modig, L., Havulinna, A. S., Lanki, T., Turunen, A., Oftedal, B., Nystad, W., Nafstad, P., Faire, U. d., Pedersen, N. L., Östenson, C.-G., Fratiglioni, L., Penell, J., Korek, M., Pershagen, G., Erikssen, K. T., Overvad, K., Ellermann, T., Eeftens, M., Peeters, P. H., Meliefste, K., Wang, M., Bueno-de-Mesquita, B., Sugiri, D., Krämer, U., Heinrich, J., Hoogh, K. d., Key, T., Peters, A., Hampel, R., Concin, H., Nagel, G., Ineichen, A., Schaffner, E., Probst-Hensch, N., Künzli, N., Schindler, C., Schikowski, T., Adam, M., Phuleria, H., Vilier, A., Clavel-Chapelon, F., Declercq, C., Grioni, S., Krogh, V., Tsai, M.-Y., Ricceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Galassi, C., Migliore, E., Ranzi, A., Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Forastiere, F., Tamayo, I., Amiano, P., Dorronsoro, M., Katsoulis, M., Trichopoulou, A., Brunekreef, B., and Hoek, G.: Effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on natural-cause mortality: an analysis of 22 European cohorts within the multicentre ESCAPE project, Lancet, 383, 785–795, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62158-3, 2014.

Belis, C. A., Pikridas, M., Lucarelli, F., Petralia, E., Cavalli, F., Cal-
zolai, G., Berico, M., and Sciare, J.: Source apportionment of
fine PM by combining high time resolution organic and inorganic
chemical composition datasets, Atmos. Environ. X, 3, 100046,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2019.100046, 2019.

Belis, C. A., Pernigotti, D., Pirovano, G., Favez, O., Jaffrezo, J.L., Kuenen, J., Denier van Der Gon, H., Reizer, M., Riffault, V., Alleman, L.Y., Almeida, M., Amato, F., Angyal, A., Argyropoulos, G., Bande, S., Beslic, I., Besombes, J.-L., Bove, M.C., Brotto, P., Calori, G., Cesari, D., Colombi, C., Contini, D., De Gennaro, G., Di Gilio, A., Diapouli, E., El Haddad, I., Elbern, H., Eleftheriadis, K., Ferreira, J., Vivanco, M.G., Gilardoni, S., Golly, B., Hellebust, S., Hopke, P.K., Izadmanesh, Y., Jorquera, H., Krajsek, K., Kranenburg, R., Lazzeri, P., Lenartz, F., Lucarelli, F., Maciejewska, K., Manders, A., Manousakas, M., Masiol, M., Mircea, M., Mooibroek, D., Nava, S., Oliveira, D., Paglione, M., Pandolfi, M., Perrone, M., Petralia, E., Pietrodangelo, A., Pillon, S., Pokorna, P., Prati, P., Salameh, D., Samara, C., Samek, L., Saraga, D., Sauvage, S., Schaap, M., Scotto, F., Sega, K., Siour, G., Tauler, R., Valli, G., Vecchi, R., Venturini, E., Vestenius, M., Waked, A., and Yubero, E.: Evaluation of receptor and chemical transport models for PM₁₀ source apportionment, Atmos. Environ. X, 5, 100053, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2019.100053, 2020.

Benedetti, A. and Vitart, F.: Can the Direct Effect of Aerosols Improve Subseasonal Predictability?, Mon. Weather Rev., 146, 3481–3498, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-17-0282.1, 2018.

Benedetti, A., Reid, J. S., Knippertz, P., Marsham, J. H., Di Giuseppe, F., Rémy, S., Basart, S., Boucher, O., Brooks, I. M., Menut, L., Mona, L., Laj, P., Pappalardo, G., Wiedensohler, A., Baklanov, A., Brooks, M., Colarco, P. R., Cuevas, E., da Silva, A., Escribano, J., Flemming, J., Huneeus, N., Jorba, O., Kazadzis, S., Kinne, S., Popp, T., Quinn, P. K., Sekiyama, T. T., Tanaka, T., and Terradellas, E.: Status and future of numerical atmospheric aerosol prediction with a focus on data requirements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 10615–10643, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-10615-2018, 2018.

Benešová, N., Belda, M., Eben, K., Geletič, J., Huszár, P., Juruš, P., Krč, P., Resler, J., and Vlček, O.: New open source emission processor for air quality models, in: Proceedings of Abstracts 11th International Conference on Air Quality Science and Application, edited by: Sokhi, R., Tiwari, P. R., Gállego, M. J., Craviotto Arnau, J. M., Castells Guiu, C., and Singh, V., University of Hertfordshire, UK, p. 27, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.19829, 2018.

Bergamaschi, P., Karstens, U., Manning, A. J., Saunois, M., Tsututa, A., Berchet, A., Vermeulen, A. T., Arnold, T., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Hammer, S., Levin, I., Schmidt, M., Ramonet, M., Lopez, M., Lavric, J., Aalto, T., Chen, H., Feist, D. G., Gerbig, C., Haszpra, L., Hermansen, O., Manca, G., Moncrieff, J., Meinhardt, F., Necki, J., Galkowski, M., O'Doherty, S., Paramonova, N., Scheeren, H. A., Steinbacher, M., and Dlugokencky, E.: Inverse modelling of European CH₄ emissions during 2006–2012 using different inverse models and reassessed atmospheric observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 901–920, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-901-2018, 2018.

Berrocal, V. J., Guan, Y., Muyskens, A., Wang, H., Reich, B. J., Mulholland, J. A., and Chang, H. H.: A comparison of statistical and machine learning methods for creating national daily maps of ambient PM₂.₅ concentration, Atmos. Environ., 222, 117130, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117130, 2020.

Bi, P., Wang, J., and Hiller, J. E.: Weather: driving force behind the transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome in China?, Intern. Med. J., 37, 550–554, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2007.01358.x, 2007.

Bickel, P. and Friedrich, R. (Eds.): ExternE – Externalities of Energy, Methodology 2005 Update, EUR 21951, https://doi.org/10.18419/opus-11923, 2005.

Bieser, J., Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., Quante, M., and Builtjes, P.: SMOKE for Europe – adaptation, modification and evaluation of a comprehensive emission model for Europe, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 47–68, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-4-47-2011, 2011a.

Bieser, J., Aulinger, A., Matthias, V., Quante, M., and Denier van der Gon, H. A. C.: Vertical emission profiles for Europe based on plume rise calculations, Environ. Pollut., 159, 2935–2946, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.030, 2011b.

BImSchV: Erste Verordnung zur Durchführung des Bundes-
Immissionsschutzgesetzes (Verordnung über kleine und
mittlere Feuerungsanlagen) - 1. BImSchV, https://www.
gesetze-im-internet.de/bimschv_1_2010/BJNR003800010.html
(last access: 25 February 2022), 2021.

Bocquet, M., Elbern, H., Eskes, H., Hirtl, M., Žabkar, R., Carmichael, G. R., Flemming, J., Inness, A., Pagowski, M., Pérez Camaño, J. L., Saide, P. E., San Jose, R., Sofiev, M., Vira, J., Baklanov, A., Carnevale, C., Grell, G., and Seigneur, C.: Data assimilation in atmospheric chemistry models: current status and future prospects for coupled chemistry meteorology models, At-
mos. Chem. Phys., 15, 5325-5358, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-5325-2015, 2015.

Borge, R., Lumbreras, J., Pérez, J., de la Paz, D., Vedrenne, M., de Andrés, J. M., and Rodríguez, M. E.: Emission inventories and modeling requirements for the development of air quality plans. Application to Madrid (Spain), Sci. Total Environ., 466-467, 809-819, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.07.093, 2014.

Borken-Kleefeld, J. and Chen, Y.: New emission dete-
rioration rates for gasoline cars – Results from long-
term measurements, Atmos. Environ., 101, 58–64,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.11.013, 2015.

Brandt, J., Silver, J. D., Frohn, L. M., Geels, C., Gross, A., Hansen, A. B., Hansen, K. M., Hedegaard, G. B., Skjøth, C. A., Villadsen, H., Zare, A., and Christensen, J. H.: An integrated model study for Europe and North America using the Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model with focus on intercontinental transport, Atmos. Environ., 53, 156–176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.01.011, 2012.

Brandt, J., Silver, J. D., Christensen, J. H., Andersen, M. S., Bøn-
løkke, J. H., Sigsgaard, T., Geels, C., Gross, A., Hansen, A. B.,
Hansen, K. M., Hedegaard, G. B., Kaas, E., and Frohn, L. M.: Contribution from the ten major emission sectors in Europe and Denmark to the health-cost externalities of air pollution using the EVA model system – an integrated modelling approach, At-
mos. Chem. Phys., 13, 7725–7746, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-7725-2013, 2013.

Brattich, E., Bracci, A., Zappi, A., Morozzi, P., Di Sabatino, S., Porcù, F., Di Nicola, F., and Tositti, L.: How to Get the Best from Low-Cost Particulate Matter Sensors: Guidelines and Practical Recommendations, Sensors, 20, 3073, https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113073, 2020.

Briggs, D. J.: A framework for integrated environmental health impact assessment of systemic risks, Environ. Health, 7, 61, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-7-61, 2008.

Brook, R. D., Rajagopalan, S., Pope, C. A., Brook, J. R., Bhatnag-
gar, A., Diez-Roux, A. V., Holguin, F., Hong, Y., Luepker, R.
V., Mittleman, M. A., Peters, A., Siscovick, D., Smith, S. C.,
Whitsel, L., and Kaufman, J. D.: Particulate Matter Air Pollu-
tion and Cardiovascular Disease, Circulation, 121, 2331–2378,
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181dbece1, 2010.

Brousse, O., Martilli, A., Foley, M., Mills, G., and Bechtel, B.: WUDAPT, an efficient land use producing data tool for mesoscale models? Integration of urban LCZ in WRF over Madrid, Urban Climate, 17, 116–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.04.001, 2016.

Brunekreef, B. and Holgate, S. T.: Air pollution and health, Lancet, 360, 1233–1242, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(02)11274-8, 2002.

Buccolieri, R., Santiago, J. L., and Martilli, A.: CFD mod-
elling: The most useful tool for developing mesoscale ur-
ban canopy parameterizations, Build. Simul., 14, 407–419,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-020-0689-z, 2021.

Budde, M., Riedel, T., Beigl, M., Schäfer, K., Emeis, S., Cyrys, J., Schnelle-Kreis, J., Philipp, A., Ziegler, V., Grimm, H., and Gratza, T.: SmartAQnet – Remote and In-Situ Sensing of Urban Air Quality, in: Remote Sensing of Clouds and the Atmosphere XXII, Bellingham, WA, USA, 6 October 2017, edited by: Comerón, A., Kassianov, E. I., Schäfer, K., Picard, R. H., Weber, K., SPIE, https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2282698, 2017.

Burgués, J. and Marco, S.: Environmental chemical sensing us-
ing small drones: A review, Sci. Total Environ., 748, 141172,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141172, 2020.

Burnett, R., Chen, H., Szyszkowicz, M., Fann, N., Hubbell, B., Pope, C. A., Apte, J. S., Brauer, M., Cohen, A., Weichenthal, S., Coggins, J., Di, Q., Brunekreef, B., Frostad, J., Lim, S. S., Kan, H., Walker, K. D., Thurston, G. D., Hayes, R. B., Lim, C. C., Turner, M. C., Jerrett, M., Krewski, D., Gapstur, S. M., Diver, W. R., Ostro, B., Goldberg, D., Crouse, D. L., Martin, R. V., Peters, P., Pinault, L., Tjepkema, M., van Donkelaar, A., Villeneuve, P. J., Miller, A. B., Yin, P., Zhou, M., Wang, L., Janssen, N. A. H., Marra, M., Atkinson, R. W., Tsang, H., Quoc Thach, T., Cannon, J. B., Allen, R. T., Hart, J. E., Laden, F., Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Weinmayr, G., Jaensch, A., Nagel, G., Concin, H., and Spadaro, J. V.: Global estimates of mortality associated with long-term exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 115, 9592–9597, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803222115, 2018.

Cai, Y., Zijlema, W. L., Doiron, D., Blangiardo, M., Burton, P. R., Fortier, I., Gaye, A., Gulliver, J., Hoogh, K. d., Hveem, K., Mbachou, S., Morley, D. W., Stolk, R. P., Elliott, P., Hansell, A. L., and Hodgson, S.: Ambient air pollution, traffic noise and adult asthma prevalence: a BioSHARe approach, Eur. Respir. J., 49, 1502127, https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.02127-2015, 2017.

Cai, Y., Hodgson, S., Blangiardo, M., Gulliver, J., Morley, D., Fecht, D., Vienneau, D., de Hoogh, K., Key, T., Hveem, K., Elliott, P., and Hansell, A. L.: Road traffic noise, air pollution and incident cardiovascular disease: A joint analysis of the HUNT, EPIC-Oxford and UK Biobank cohorts, Environ. Int., 114, 191–201, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.02.048, 2018.

Campbell, P., Zhang, Y., Yahya, K., Wang, K., Hogrefe, C., Pouliot, G., Knote, C., Hodzic, A., San Jose, R., Perez, J. L., Jimenez Guerrero, P., Baro, R., and Makar, P.: A multi-model assessment for the 2006 and 2010 simulations under the Air Quality Model Evaluation International Initiative (AQMEII) phase 2 over North America: Part I. Indicators of the sensitivity of O3 and PM2.5 formation regimes, Atmos. Environ., 115, 569–586, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.12.026, 2015.

Cao, Y., Chen, M., Dong, D., Xie, S., and Liu, M.: Environmental pollutants damage airway epithelial cell cilia: Implications for the prevention of obstructive lung diseases, Thorac. Cancer, 11, 505–510, https://doi.org/10.1111/1759-7714.13323, 2020.

Carbajal-Hernández, J. J., Luis P. Sánchez-Fernández, J. A. C.-O., and Martínez-Trinidad, J. F.: Assessment and prediction of air quality using fuzzy logic and autoregressive Models, Atmos. En-
viron., 60, 37–50, 2012.

Carmichael, G. R., Sandu, A., Chai, T., Daescu, D., Constantinescu, E., and Tang, Y.: Predicting air quality: Improvements through advanced methods to integrate models and measurements, J. Comput. Phys., 227, 3540–3571, 2008.

Cecinato, A., Guerriero, E., Balducci, C., and Muto, V.: Use of the PAH fingerprints for identifying pollution sources, Urban Climate, 10, 630–643, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2014.04.004, 2014.

Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Badaloni, C., Beelen, R., Caracciolo, B., Faire, U. d., Erbel, R., Eriksen, K. T., Fratiglioni, L., Galassi, C., Hampel, R., Heier, M., Hennig, F., Hilding, A., Hoffmann, B., Houthuijs, D., Jockel, K.-H., Korek, M., Lanki, T., Leander, K., Magnusson, P. K. E.,
mos. Chem. Phys., 15, 5325-5358, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-5325-2015, 2015.

Borge, R., Lumbreras, J., Pérez, J., de la Paz, D., Vedrenne, M., de Andrés, J. M., and Rodríguez, M. E.: Emission inventories and modeling requirements for the development of air quality plans. Application to Madrid (Spain), Sci. Total Environ., 466-467, 809-819, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.07.093, 2014.

Borken-Kleefeld, J. and Chen, Y.: New emission dete-
rioration rates for gasoline cars – Results from long-
term measurements, Atmos. Environ., 101, 58–64,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.11.013, 2015.

Brandt, J., Silver, J. D., Frohn, L. M., Geels, C., Gross, A., Hansen, A. B., Hansen, K. M., Hedegaard, G. B., Skjøth, C. A., Villadsen, H., Zare, A., and Christensen, J. H.: An integrated model study for Europe and North America using the Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model with focus on intercontinental transport, Atmos. Environ., 53, 156–176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.01.011, 2012.

Brandt, J., Silver, J. D., Christensen, J. H., Andersen, M. S., Bøn-
løkke, J. H., Sigsgaard, T., Geels, C., Gross, A., Hansen, A. B.,
Hansen, K. M., Hedegaard, G. B., Kaas, E., and Frohn, L. M.: Contribution from the ten major emission sectors in Europe and Denmark to the health-cost externalities of air pollution using the EVA model system – an integrated modelling approach, At-
mos. Chem. Phys., 13, 7725–7746, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-7725-2013, 2013.

Brattich, E., Bracci, A., Zappi, A., Morozzi, P., Di Sabatino, S., Porcù, F., Di Nicola, F., and Tositti, L.: How to Get the Best from Low-Cost Particulate Matter Sensors: Guidelines and Practical Recommendations, Sensors, 20, 3073, https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113073, 2020.

Briggs, D. J.: A framework for integrated environmental health impact assessment of systemic risks, Environ. Health, 7, 61, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-7-61, 2008.

Brook, R. D., Rajagopalan, S., Pope, C. A., Brook, J. R., Bhatnag-
gar, A., Diez-Roux, A. V., Holguin, F., Hong, Y., Luepker, R.
V., Mittleman, M. A., Peters, A., Siscovick, D., Smith, S. C.,
Whitsel, L., and Kaufman, J. D.: Particulate Matter Air Pollu-
tion and Cardiovascular Disease, Circulation, 121, 2331–2378,
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181dbece1, 2010.

Brousse, O., Martilli, A., Foley, M., Mills, G., and Bechtel, B.: WUDAPT, an efficient land use producing data tool for mesoscale models? Integration of urban LCZ in WRF over Madrid, Urban Climate, 17, 116–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.04.001, 2016.

Brunekreef, B. and Holgate, S. T.: Air pollution and health, Lancet, 360, 1233–1242, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(02)11274-8, 2002.

Buccolieri, R., Santiago, J. L., and Martilli, A.: CFD mod-
elling: The most useful tool for developing mesoscale ur-
ban canopy parameterizations, Build. Simul., 14, 407–419,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-020-0689-z, 2021.

Budde, M., Riedel, T., Beigl, M., Schäfer, K., Emeis, S., Cyrys, J., Schnelle-Kreis, J., Philipp, A., Ziegler, V., Grimm, H., and Gratza, T.: SmartAQnet – Remote and In-Situ Sensing of Urban Air Quality, in: Remote Sensing of Clouds and the Atmosphere XXII, Bellingham, WA, USA, 6 October 2017, edited by: Comerón, A., Kassianov, E. I., Schäfer, K., Picard, R. H., Weber, K., SPIE, https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2282698, 2017.

Burgués, J. and Marco, S.: Environmental chemical sensing us-
ing small drones: A review, Sci. Total Environ., 748, 141172,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141172, 2020.

Burnett, R., Chen, H., Szyszkowicz, M., Fann, N., Hubbell, B., Pope, C. A., Apte, J. S., Brauer, M., Cohen, A., Weichenthal, S., Coggins, J., Di, Q., Brunekreef, B., Frostad, J., Lim, S. S., Kan, H., Walker, K. D., Thurston, G. D., Hayes, R. B., Lim, C. C., Turner, M. C., Jerrett, M., Krewski, D., Gapstur, S. M., Diver, W. R., Ostro, B., Goldberg, D., Crouse, D. L., Martin, R. V., Peters, P., Pinault, L., Tjepkema, M., van Donkelaar, A., Villeneuve, P. J., Miller, A. B., Yin, P., Zhou, M., Wang, L., Janssen, N. A. H., Marra, M., Atkinson, R. W., Tsang, H., Quoc Thach, T., Cannon, J. B., Allen, R. T., Hart, J. E., Laden, F., Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Weinmayr, G., Jaensch, A., Nagel, G., Concin, H., and Spadaro, J. V.: Global estimates of mortality associated with long-term exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 115, 9592–9597, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803222115, 2018.

Cai, Y., Zijlema, W. L., Doiron, D., Blangiardo, M., Burton, P. R., Fortier, I., Gaye, A., Gulliver, J., Hoogh, K. d., Hveem, K., Mbatchou, S., Morley, D. W., Stolk, R. P., Elliott, P., Hansell, A. L., and Hodgson, S.: Ambient air pollution, traffic noise and adult asthma prevalence: a BioSHARe approach, Eur. Respir. J., 49, 1502127, https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.02127-2015, 2017.

Cai, Y., Hodgson, S., Blangiardo, M., Gulliver, J., Morley, D., Fecht, D., Vienneau, D., de Hoogh, K., Key, T., Hveem, K., Elliott, P., and Hansell, A. L.: Road traffic noise, air pollution and incident cardiovascular disease: A joint analysis of the HUNT, EPIC-Oxford and UK Biobank cohorts, Environ. Int., 114, 191–201, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.02.048, 2018.

Campbell, P., Zhang, Y., Yahya, K., Wang, K., Hogrefe, C., Pouliot, G., Knote, C., Hodzic, A., San Jose, R., Perez, J. L., Jimenez Guerrero, P., Baro, R., and Makar, P.: A multi-model assessment for the 2006 and 2010 simulations under the Air Quality Model Evaluation International Initiative (AQMEII) phase 2 over North America: Part I. Indicators of the sensitivity of O3 and PM2.5 formation regimes, Atmos. Environ., 115, 569–586, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.12.026, 2015.

Cao, Y., Chen, M., Dong, D., Xie, S., and Liu, M.: Environmental pollutants damage airway epithelial cell cilia: Implications for the prevention of obstructive lung diseases, Thorac. Cancer, 11, 505–510, https://doi.org/10.1111/1759-7714.13323, 2020.

Carbajal-Hernández, J. J., Luis P. Sánchez-Fernández, J. A. C.-O., and Martínez-Trinidad, J. F.: Assessment and prediction of air quality using fuzzy logic and autoregressive Models, Atmos. En-
viron., 60, 37–50, 2012.

Carmichael, G. R., Sandu, A., Chai, T., Daescu, D., Constantinescu, E., and Tang, Y.: Predicting air quality: Improvements through advanced methods to integrate models and measurements, J. Comput. Phys., 227, 3540–3571, 2008.

Cecinato, A., Guerriero, E., Balducci, C., and Muto, V.: Use of the PAH fingerprints for identifying pollution sources, Urban Climate, 10, 630–643, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2014.04.004, 2014.

Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Badaloni, C., Beelen, R., Caracciolo, B., Faire, U. d., Erbel, R., Eriksen, K. T., Fratiglioni, L., Galassi, C., Hampel, R., Heier, M., Hennig, F., Hilding, A., Hoffmann, B., Houthuijs, D., Jockel, K.-H., Korek, M., Lanki, T., Leander, K., Magnusson, P. K. E.,
Migliore, E., Ostenson, C.-G., Overvad, K., Pedersen, N. L., J.
J. P., Penell, J., Pershagen, G., Pyko, A., Raaschou-Nielsen, O.,
Ranzi, A., Ricceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Salomaa, V., Swart, W., Tu-
runen, A. W., Vineis, P., Weinmayr, G., Wolf, K., de Hoogh,
K., Hoek, G., Brunekreef, B., and Peters, A.: Long term expo-
sure to ambient air pollution and incidence of acute coronary
events: prospective cohort study and meta-analysis in 11 Eu-
ropean cohorts from the ESCAPE Project, BMJ, 348, f7412,
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f7412, 2014.

Chapizanis, D., Karakitsios, S., Gotti, A., and Sarigiannis, D. A.: Assessing personal exposure using Agent Based Modelling informed by sensors technology, Environ. Res., 192, 110141, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110141, 2021.

Chatzimichailidis, A. C., Argyropoulos, C. D., Assael, M. J., and
Kakosimos, K. E.: Using the K-means clustering method to iden-
tify flow patterns in a street canyon, in: Proceedings of 12th
International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Applica-
tion, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G.,
Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 75,
https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Chen, G., Zhang, W., Li, S., Zhang, Y., Williams, G., Huxley, R., Ren, H., Cao, W., and Guo, Y.: The impact of ambient fine particles on influenza transmission and the modification effects of temperature in China: A multi-city study, Environ. Int., 98, 82–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.10.004, 2017.

Ching, J. K. S.: A perspective on urban canopy layer modeling for weather, climate, and air quality applications, Urban Climate, 3, 13–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2013.02.001, 2013.

Christodoulou, A., Sauvage, S., Afif, C., Sarda-Estève, R.,
Stavroulas, I., Pikridas, M., Unga, F., Oikonomou, K., Iakovides,
M., and Sciare, J.: Source apportionment of organic carbon at
an urban site of the eastern Mediterranean during wintertime,
in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality,
Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi,
R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I.,
Hatfield, UK, p. 25, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Churkina, G., Kuik, F., Bonn, B., Lauer, A., Grote, R., Tomiak, K., and Butler, T. M.: Effect of VOC Emissions from Vegetation on Air Quality in Berlin during a Heatwave, Environ. Sci. Technol., 51, 6120–6130, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06514, 2017.

Clappier, A., Belis, C. A., Pernigotti, D., and Thunis, P.: Source apportionment and sensitivity analysis: two methodologies with two different purposes, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 4245–4256, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-4245-2017, 2017.

Concas, F., Mineraud, J., Lagerspetz, E., Varjonen, S., Liu, X.,
Puolamäki, K., Nurmi, P., and Tarkoma, S.: Low-Cost Out-
door Air Quality Monitoring and Sensor Calibration: A Sur-
vey and Critical Analysis, ACM T. Sensor Network., 17, 20,
https://doi.org/10.1145/3446005, 2021.

Conticini, E., Frediani, B., and Caro, D.: Can atmospheric pollu-
tion be considered a co-factor in extremely high level of SARS-
CoV-2 lethality in Northern Italy?, Environ. Pollut., 261, 114465,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114465, 2020.

Coulombel, N., Dablanc, L., Gardrat, M., and Koning, M.: The en-
vironmental social cost of urban road freight: Evidence from the
Paris region, Transport. Res. D-Tr. E., 63, 514–532, 2019.

Cremona, G., Finardi, S., Mircea, M., Pepe, N., and Silibello, C.: Biogenic Emissions from Urban Vegetation: Impact of Detailed Inventories in Different European Cities, in: Proceedings of 12th

International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Applica-
tion, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G.,
Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 162,
https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Crippa, M., Solazzo, E., Huang, G., Guizzardi, D., Koffi, E., Muntean, M., Schieberle, C., Friedrich, R., and Janssens-Maenhout, G.: High resolution temporal profiles in the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, Scientific Data, 7, 121, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0462-2, 2020.

Crutzen, P. J. and Birks, J. W.: The Atmosphere after a Nuclear
War: Twilight at Noon, Ambio, 11, 114–125, https://www.jstor.
org/stable/4312777 (last access: 3 June 2021), 1982.

Cui, L. and Shi, J.: Urbanization and its environmen-
tal effects in Shanghai, China, Urban Climate, 2, 1–15,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2012.10.008, 2012.

Cui, Y., Zhang, Z.-F., Froines, J., Zhao, J., Wang, H., Yu, S.-Z., and Detels, R.: Air pollution and case fatality of SARS in the People's Republic of China: an ecologic study, Environ. Health, 2, 15, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-2-15, 2003.

Dai, L., Zanobetti, A., Koutrakis, P., and Schwartz, J. D.: Asso-
ciations of fine particulate matter species with mortality in the
United States: A multicity time-series analysis, Environ. Health
Persp., 122, 837–842, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307568,
2014.

DBEIS: Valuation of energy use and greenhouse gas, Supplemen-
tary guidance to the HM Treasury Green Book on Appraisal and
Evaluation in Central Government, Data tables 1 to 19: support-
ing the toolkit and the guidance, Department of Business, Energy
and Industrial Strategy, London, 2019.

Delle Monache, L., Wilczak, J., Mckeen, S., Grell, G., Pagowski, M., Peckham, S., Stull, R., Mchenry, J., and Mcqueen, J.: A Kalman-filter bias correction method applied to deterministic, ensemble averaged and probabilistic forecasts of surface ozone, Tellus B, 60, 238–249, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2007.00332.x, 2008.

Denby, B. R., Sundvor, I., Johansson, C., Pirjola, L., Ketzel, M., Norman, M., Kupiainen, K., Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Kauhaniemi, M., and Omstedt, G.: A coupled road dust and surface moisture model to predict non-exhaust road traffic induced particle emissions (NORTRIP). Part 2: Surface moisture and salt impact modelling, Atmos. Environ., 81, 485–503, 2013.

Denier van der Gon, H., Hendriks, C., Kuenen, J., Segers, A., and Visschedijk, A.: Description of current temporal emission patterns and sensitivity of predicted AQ for temporal emission patterns, EU, https://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/sites/default/files/2019-07/MACC_TNO_del_1_3_v2.pdf, (last access 25 February 2022), 2011.

Desaigues, B., Ami, D., Bartczak, A., Braun Kohlová, M., Chilton, S., Mikołaj Czajkowski, M., Farreras, V., Hunt, A., Hutchinson, M., Jeanrenaud, C., Kaderjack, P., Máca, V., Markiewicz, O., Markowska, A., Metcalf, H., Navrud, S., Seested Nielsen, J., Ortiz, R., Pellegrini, S., Rabl, A., Riera, P., Scasny, M., Stoeckl, M., Szántó, R., and Urban, J.: Economic Valuation of Air Pollution Mortality: A 9-Country Contingent Valuation Survey of a Value of a Life Year (VOLY), Ecol. Indic., 11, 902–910, 2011.

Dessimond, B., Annesi-Maesano, I., Pepin, J.-L., Srairi, S., and Pau, G.: Academically Produced Air Pollution Sensors for Personal Exposure Assessment: The Canarin Project, Sensors, 21, 1876, https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051876, 2021.
Migliore, E., Ostenson, C.-G., Overvad, K., Pedersen, N. L., J.
J. P., Penell, J., Pershagen, G., Pyko, A., Raaschou-Nielsen, O.,
Ranzi, A., Ricceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Salomaa, V., Swart, W., Tu-
runen, A. W., Vineis, P., Weinmayr, G., Wolf, K., de Hoogh,
K., Hoek, G., Brunekreef, B., and Peters, A.: Long term expo-
sure to ambient air pollution and incidence of acute coronary
events: prospective cohort study and meta-analysis in 11 Eu-
ropean cohorts from the ESCAPE Project, BMJ, 348, f7412,
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f7412, 2014.

Chapizanis, D., Karakitsios, S., Gotti, A., and Sarigiannis, D. A.: Assessing personal exposure using Agent Based Modelling informed by sensors technology, Environ. Res., 192, 110141, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110141, 2021.

Chatzimichailidis, A. C., Argyropoulos, C. D., Assael, M. J., and
Kakosimos, K. E.: Using the K-means clustering method to iden-
tify flow patterns in a street canyon, in: Proceedings of 12th
International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Applica-
tion, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G.,
Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 75,
https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Chen, G., Zhang, W., Li, S., Zhang, Y., Williams, G., Huxley, R., Ren, H., Cao, W., and Guo, Y.: The impact of ambient fine particles on influenza transmission and the modification effects of temperature in China: A multi-city study, Environ. Int., 98, 82–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.10.004, 2017.

Ching, J. K. S.: A perspective on urban canopy layer modeling for weather, climate, and air quality applications, Urban Climate, 3, 13–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2013.02.001, 2013.

Christodoulou, A., Sauvage, S., Afif, C., Sarda-Estève, R.,
Stavroulas, I., Pikridas, M., Unga, F., Oikonomou, K., Iakovides,
M., and Sciare, J.: Source apportionment of organic carbon at
an urban site of the eastern Mediterranean during wintertime,
in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality,
Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi,
R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I.,
Hatfield, UK, p. 25, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Churkina, G., Kuik, F., Bonn, B., Lauer, A., Grote, R., Tomiak, K., and Butler, T. M.: Effect of VOC Emissions from Vegetation on Air Quality in Berlin during a Heatwave, Environ. Sci. Technol., 51, 6120–6130, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06514, 2017.

Clappier, A., Belis, C. A., Pernigotti, D., and Thunis, P.: Source apportionment and sensitivity analysis: two methodologies with two different purposes, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 4245–4256, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-4245-2017, 2017.

Concas, F., Mineraud, J., Lagerspetz, E., Varjonen, S., Liu, X.,
Puolamäki, K., Nurmi, P., and Tarkoma, S.: Low-Cost Out-
door Air Quality Monitoring and Sensor Calibration: A Sur-
vey and Critical Analysis, ACM T. Sensor Network., 17, 20,
https://doi.org/10.1145/3446005, 2021.

Conticini, E., Frediani, B., and Caro, D.: Can atmospheric pollu-
tion be considered a co-factor in extremely high level of SARS-
CoV-2 lethality in Northern Italy?, Environ. Pollut., 261, 114465,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114465, 2020.

Coulombel, N., Dablanc, L., Gardrat, M., and Koning, M.: The en-
vironmental social cost of urban road freight: Evidence from the
Paris region, Transport. Res. D-Tr. E., 63, 514–532, 2019.

Cremona, G., Finardi, S., Mircea, M., Pepe, N., and Silibello, C.: Biogenic Emissions from Urban Vegetation: Impact of Detailed Inventories in Different European Cities, in: Proceedings of 12th

International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Applica-
tion, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G.,
Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 162,
https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Crippa, M., Solazzo, E., Huang, G., Guizzardi, D., Koffi, E., Muntean, M., Schieberle, C., Friedrich, R., and Janssens-Maenhout, G.: High resolution temporal profiles in the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, Scientific Data, 7, 121, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0462-2, 2020.

Crutzen, P. J. and Birks, J. W.: The Atmosphere after a Nuclear War: Twilight at Noon, Ambio, 11, 114–125, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4312777 (last access: 3 June 2021), 1982.

Cui, L. and Shi, J.: Urbanization and its environmen-
tal effects in Shanghai, China, Urban Climate, 2, 1–15,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2012.10.008, 2012.

Cui, Y., Zhang, Z.-F., Froines, J., Zhao, J., Wang, H., Yu, S.-Z., and Detels, R.: Air pollution and case fatality of SARS in the People's Republic of China: an ecologic study, Environ. Health, 2, 15, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-2-15, 2003.

Dai, L., Zanobetti, A., Koutrakis, P., and Schwartz, J. D.: Asso-
ciations of fine particulate matter species with mortality in the
United States: A multicity time-series analysis, Environ. Health
Persp., 122, 837–842, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307568,
2014.

DBEIS: Valuation of energy use and greenhouse gas, Supplemen-
tary guidance to the HM Treasury Green Book on Appraisal and
Evaluation in Central Government, Data tables 1 to 19: support-
ing the toolkit and the guidance, Department of Business, Energy
and Industrial Strategy, London, 2019.

Delle Monache, L., Wilczak, J., Mckeen, S., Grell, G., Pagowski, M., Peckham, S., Stull, R., Mchenry, J., and Mcqueen, J.: A Kalman-filter bias correction method applied to deterministic, ensemble averaged and probabilistic forecasts of surface ozone, Tellus B, 60, 238–249, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2007.00332.x, 2008.

Denby, B. R., Sundvor, I., Johansson, C., Pirjola, L., Ketzel, M., Norman, M., Kupiainen, K., Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Kauhaniemi, M., and Omstedt, G.: A coupled road dust and surface moisture model to predict non-exhaust road traffic induced particle emissions (NORTRIP). Part 2: Surface moisture and salt impact modelling, Atmos. Environ., 81, 485–503, 2013.

Denier van der Gon, H., Hendriks, C., Kuenen, J., Segers, A., and Visschedijk, A.: Description of current temporal emission patterns and sensitivity of predicted AQ for temporal emission patterns, EU, https://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/sites/default/files/2019-07/MACC_TNO_del_1_3_v2.pdf, (last access 25 February 2022), 2011.

Desaigues, B., Ami, D., Bartczak, A., Braun Kohlová, M., Chilton, S., Mikołaj Czajkowski, M., Farreras, V., Hunt, A., Hutchinson, M., Jeanrenaud, C., Kaderjack, P., Máca, V., Markiewicz, O., Markowska, A., Metcalf, H., Navrud, S., Seested Nielsen, J., Ortiz, R., Pellegrini, S., Rabl, A., Riera, P., Scasny, M., Stoeckl, M., Szántó, R., and Urban, J.: Economic Valuation of Air Pollution Mortality: A 9-Country Contingent Valuation Survey of a Value of a Life Year (VOLY), Ecol. Indic., 11, 902–910, 2011.

Dessimond, B., Annesi-Maesano, I., Pepin, J.-L., Srairi, S., and Pau, G.: Academically Produced Air Pollution Sensors for Personal Exposure Assessment: The Canarin Project, Sensors, 21, 1876, https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051876, 2021.
Dias, D., Tchepel, O., and Antunes, A. P.: Integrated modelling approach for the evaluation of low emission zones, J. Environ. Manage., 177, 253–263, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.04.031, 2016.

Diémoz, H., Tombolato, I., Zublena, M., Magri, T., and Ferrero, L.: The impact of biomass burning emissions on PM concentration in the Greater Alpine region, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 26, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

DNV-GL: Maritime Forecast To 2050, Energy Transition Outlook, DNV GL – Maritime, 118 pp., 2019.

Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., Ferris, B. G., and Speizer, F. E.: An Association between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities, New Engl. J. Med., 329, 1753–1759, https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199312093292401, 1993.

Dorber, M., Kuipers, K., and Verones, F.: Global characterization factors for terrestrial biodiversity impacts of future land inundation in Life Cycle Assessment, Sci. Total Environ., 712, 134582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134582, 2020.

Doulgeris, S., Toumasatos, Z., Raptopoulos, A., Kontses, A., Di-maratos, A., Kolokotronis, D., and Samaras, Z.: Experimental assessment of the power management and pollutant emissions of plug-in hybrid vehicles, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 161, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Duvall, R. M., Hagler, G. S. W., Clements, A. L., Benedict, K., Barkjohn, K., Kilaru, V., Hanley, T., Watkins, N., Kaufman, A., Kamal, A., Reece, S., Fransioli, P., Gerboles, M., Gillerman, G., Habre, R., Hannigan, M., Ning, Z., Papapostolou, V., Pope, R., Quintana, P. J. E., and Lam Snyder, J.: Deliberating Performance Targets: Follow-on workshop discussing PM₁₀, NO₂, CO, and SO₂ air sensor targets, Atmos. Environ., 246, 118099, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.118099, 2021.

EC: Impact Assessment – Annex to the Communication on The-matic Strategy on Air Pollution and the Directive on Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe, Commission of the European Communities, SEC (2005) 1133, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/cafe/pdf/ia_report_en050921_final.pdf (last access: 22 February 2022), 2005.

EC: Communication from the Commission COM(2019) 640 final: The European Green Deal, https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en (last access: 25 February 2022), 2019.

EC: Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: An EU-wide assessment of National Energy and Climate Plans, Driv-ing forward the green transition and promoting economic recovery through integrated energy and climate planning, https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-register/detail?ref=COM(2020)564&lang=en (last access: 22 February 2022), 2020.

EC: Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social

Committee and the Committee of the Regions: The Second Clean Air Outlook, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/453fbba1-519a-11eb-b59f-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-225358842 (last access: 22 February 2022), 2021.

EEA: Air quality in Europe – 2019 report, European Environment Agency, https://doi.org/10.2800/02825, 2019a.

EEA: Contribution of the transport sector to total emissions of the main air pollutants, EEA, https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/contribution-of-the-transport-sector-6#tab-chart_4 (last access: 22 February 2022), 2019b.

EEA: Air quality in Europe: 2020 report, European Environmental Agency, Publications Office, https://doi.org/10.2800/602793, 2020a.

EEA: European Union emission inventory report 1990–2018 under the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1990–2018, https://doi.org/10.2800/233574, 2020b.

EIONET: EIONET Central Data Repository – Data for Germany, European Environment Agency, https://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/de (last access: 22 February 2022), 2019.

Elessa Etuman, A. and Coll, I.: OLYMPUS v1.0: development of an integrated air pollutant and GHG urban emissions model – methodology and calibration over greater Paris, Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 5085–5111, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-5085-2018, 2018.

Elessa Etuman, A., Coll, I., Makni, I., and Benoussaid, T.: Addressing the issue of exposure to primary pollution in urban areas: Application to Greater Paris, Atmos. Environ., 239, 117661, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117661, 2020.

Ellermann, T., Nygaard, J., Nøjgaard, J. K., Nordstrøm, C., Brandt, J., Christensen, J., Ketzel, M., Massling, A., Bossi, R., Frohn, L. M., Geels, C., and Jensen, S. S.: The Danish Air Quality Monitoring Programme. Annual Summary for 2018, Aarhus University, DCE – Danish Centre for Environment and Energy, 83 pp., ISBN: 978-87-7156-293-4, 2018.

EMEP/EEA: Chapter 7: Spatial mapping of emissions, in: EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019: Technical guidance to prepare national emission inventories, EEA report No 13/2019, https://doi.org/10.2800/293657, 2019.

Engemann, K., Svenning, J.-C., Arge, L., Brandt, J., Geels, C., Mortensen, P. B., Plana-Ripoll, O., Tsirogiannis, C., and Pedersen, C. B.: Natural surroundings in childhood are associated with lower schizophrenia rates, Schizophr. Res., 216, 488–495, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.10.012, 2020.

English, P., Amato, H., Bejarano, E., Carvlin, G., Lugo, H., Jerrett, M., King, G., Madrigal, D., Meltzer, D., Northcross, A., Olmedo, L., Seto, E., Torres, C., Wilkie, A., and Wong, M.: Performance of a Low-Cost Sensor Community Air Monitoring Network in Imperial County, CA, Sensors, 20, 3031, https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113031, 2020.

Esau, I., Wolf, T., and Pettersson, L.: High-resolution assessment of urban air quality with a 3D turbulence resolving model (PALM), in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R.S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, 9–13, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.
Dias, D., Tchepel, O., and Antunes, A. P.: Integrated modelling approach for the evaluation of low emission zones, J. Environ. Manage., 177, 253–263, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.04.031, 2016.

Diémoz, H., Tombolato, I., Zublena, M., Magri, T., and Ferrero, L.: The impact of biomass burning emissions on PM concentration in the Greater Alpine region, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 26, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

DNV-GL: Maritime Forecast To 2050, Energy Transition Outlook, DNV GL - Maritime, 118 pp., 2019.

Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., Ferris, B. G., and Speizer, F. E.: An Association between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities, New Engl. J. Med., 329, 1753–1759, https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199312093292401, 1993.

Dorber, M., Kuipers, K., and Verones, F.: Global characterization factors for terrestrial biodiversity impacts of future land inundation in Life Cycle Assessment, Sci. Total Environ., 712, 134582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134582, 2020.

Doulgeris, S., Toumasatos, Z., Raptopoulos, A., Kontses, A., Di-maratos, A., Kolokotronis, D., and Samaras, Z.: Experimental assessment of the power management and pollutant emissions of plug-in hybrid vehicles, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 161, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Duvall, R. M., Hagler, G. S. W., Clements, A. L., Benedict, K., Barkjohn, K., Kilaru, V., Hanley, T., Watkins, N., Kaufman, A., Kamal, A., Reece, S., Fransioli, P., Gerboles, M., Gillerman, G., Habre, R., Hannigan, M., Ning, Z., Papapostolou, V., Pope, R., Quintana, P. J. E., and Lam Snyder, J.: Deliberating Performance Targets: Follow-on workshop discussing PM₁₀, NO₂, CO, and SO₂ air sensor targets, Atmos. Environ., 246, 118099, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.118099, 2021.

EC: Impact Assessment – Annex to the Communication on The-matic Strategy on Air Pollution and the Directive on Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe, Commission of the European Communities, SEC (2005) 1133, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/cafe/pdf/ia_report_en050921_final.pdf (last access: 22 February 2022), 2005.

EC: Communication from the Commission COM(2019) 640 final: The European Green Deal, https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en (last access: 25 February 2022), 2019.

EC: Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: An EU-wide assessment of National Energy and Climate Plans, Driv-ing forward the green transition and promoting economic recovery through integrated energy and climate planning, https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-register/detail?ref=COM(2020)564&lang=en (last access: 22 February 2022), 2020.

EC: Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social

Committee and the Committee of the Regions: The Second Clean Air Outlook, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/453fbba1-519a-11eb-b59f-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-225358842 (last access: 22 February 2022), 2021.

EEA: Air quality in Europe – 2019 report, European Environment Agency, https://doi.org/10.2800/02825, 2019a.

EEA: Contribution of the transport sector to total emissions of the main air pollutants, EEA, https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/contribution-of-the-transport-sector-6#tab-chart_4 (last access: 22 February 2022), 2019b.

EEA: Air quality in Europe: 2020 report, European Environmental Agency, Publications Office, https://doi.org/10.2800/602793, 2020a.

EEA: European Union emission inventory report 1990–2018 under the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1990–2018, https://doi.org/10.2800/233574, 2020b.

EIONET: EIONET Central Data Repository – Data for Germany, European Environment Agency, https://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/de (last access: 22 February 2022), 2019.

Elessa Etuman, A. and Coll, I.: OLYMPUS v1.0: development of an integrated air pollutant and GHG urban emissions model – methodology and calibration over greater Paris, Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 5085–5111, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-5085-2018, 2018.

Elessa Etuman, A., Coll, I., Makni, I., and Benoussaid, T.: Addressing the issue of exposure to primary pollution in urban areas: Application to Greater Paris, Atmos. Environ., 239, 117661, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117661, 2020.

Ellermann, T., Nygaard, J., Nøjgaard, J. K., Nordstrøm, C., Brandt, J., Christensen, J., Ketzel, M., Massling, A., Bossi, R., Frohn, L. M., Geels, C., and Jensen, S. S.: The Danish Air Quality Monitoring Programme. Annual Summary for 2018, Aarhus University, DCE – Danish Centre for Environment and Energy, 83 pp., ISBN: 978-87-7156-293-4, 2018.

EMEP/EEA: Chapter 7: Spatial mapping of emissions, in: EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019: Technical guidance to prepare national emission inventories, EEA report No 13/2019, https://doi.org/10.2800/293657, 2019.

Engemann, K., Svenning, J.-C., Arge, L., Brandt, J., Geels, C., Mortensen, P. B., Plana-Ripoll, O., Tsirogiannis, C., and Pedersen, C. B.: Natural surroundings in childhood are associated with lower schizophrenia rates, Schizophr. Res., 216, 488–495, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.10.012, 2020.

English, P., Amato, H., Bejarano, E., Carvlin, G., Lugo, H., Jerrett, M., King, G., Madrigal, D., Meltzer, D., Northcross, A., Olmedo, L., Seto, E., Torres, C., Wilkie, A., and Wong, M.: Performance of a Low-Cost Sensor Community Air Monitoring Network in Imperial County, CA, Sensors, 20, 3031, https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113031, 2020.

Esau, I., Wolf, T., and Pettersson, L.: High-resolution assessment of urban air quality with a 3D turbulence resolving model (PALM), in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R.S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, 9–13, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.
ExternE: ExternE – External Costs of Energy, Universitaet a
Stuttgart, https://www.ExternE.info (last access: 22 February
2022), 2012.

Eyring, V., Bony, S., Meehl, G. A., Senior, C. A., Stevens, B., Stouffer, R. J., and Taylor, K. E.: Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1937–1958, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1937-2016, 2016.

Faber, J., Hanayama, S., Zhang, S., Pereda, P., Comer, B., Hauer-
hof, E., Schim van der Loeff, W., Smith, T., Zhang, Y., Kosaka,
H., Adachi, M., Bonello, J., Galbraith, C., Gong, Z., Hirata, K.,
Hummels, D., Kleijn, A., Lee, D., Liu, Y., Lucchesi, A., Mao,
X., Muraoka, E., Osipova, L., Qian, H., Rutherford, D., Suárez
de la Fuente, S., Yuan, H., Velandia Perico, C., Wu, L., Sun, D.,
Yoo, D., and Xing, H.: The Fourth IMO GHG Study, London,
UK, 2020.

Fairburn, J., Schüle, S. A., Dreger, S., Karla Hilz, L., and Bolte, G.: Social Inequalities in Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution: A Systematic Review in the WHO European Region, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 16, 3127, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16173127, 2019.

Falcon-Rodriguez, C. I., Osornio-Vargas, A. R., Sada-
Ovalle, I., and Segura-Medina, P.: Aeroparticles, Com-
position, and Lung Diseases, Front. Immunol., 7, 3,
https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2016.00003, 2016.

Fallah-Shorshani, M., Shekarrizfard, M., and Hatzopoulou, M.: Integrating a street-canyon model with a regional Gaussian dispersion model for improved characterisation of near-road air pollution, Atmos. Environ., 153, 21–31, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.01.006, 2017.

Fallmann, J., Forkel, R., and Emeis, S.: Secondary effects of urban
heat island mitigation measures on air quality, Atmos. Environ.,
125, 199–211, 2016.

Fameli, K.-M. and Assimakopoulos, V. D.: Residential heating in Athens, Greece: emissions and important parameters, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 27, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Fan, J., Wang, Y., Rosenfeld, D., and Liu, X.: Review of Aerosol-Cloud Interactions: Mechanisms, Significance, and Challenges, J. Atmos. Sci., 73, 4221–4252, 2016.

Farmer, D. K., Vance, M. E., Abbatt, J. P. D., Abeleira, A., Alves,
M. R., Arata, C., Boedicker, E., Bourne, S., Cardoso-Saldaña,
F., Corsi, R., DeCarlo, P. F., Goldstein, A. H., Grassian, V. H.,
Hildebrandt Ruiz, L., Jimenez, J. L., Kahan, T. F., Katz, E.
F., Mattila, J. M., Nazaroff, W. W., Novoselac, A., O’Brien,
R. E., Or, V. W., Patel, S., Sankhyan, S., Stevens, P. S., Tian,
Y., Wade, M., Wang, C., Zhou, S., and Zhou, Y.: Overview
of HOMEChem: House Observations of Microbial and Envi-
ronmental Chemistry, Environ. Sci.-Proc. Imp., 21, 1280–1300,
https://doi.org/10.1039/c9em00228f, 2019.

Feng, L., Yang, T., Wang, D., Wang, Z., Pan, Y., Matsui, I., Chen,
Y., Xin, J., and Huang, H.: Identify the contribution of elevated
industrial plume to ground air quality by optical and machine
learning methods, Environmental Research Communications, 2,
021005, https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ab7634, 2020.

Filella, M.: Nanomaterials, in: Comprehensive Sampling and Sample Preparation, Elsevier, 109–124, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-381373-2.00032-6, 2012.

Finardi, S., Radice, P., Cecinato, A., Gariazzo, C., Gherardi, M., and Romagnoli, P.: Seasonal variation of PAHs concentration and source attribution through diagnostic ratios analysis, Urban Climate, 22, 19–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2015.12.001, 2017.

Finardi, S., Agrillo, G., Baraldi, R., Calori, G., Carlucci, P., Ci-
ccioli, P., D'Allura, A., Gasbarra, D., Gioli, B., Magliulo, V.,
Radice, P., Toscano, P., and Zaldei, A.: Atmospheric Dynamics
and Ozone Cycle during Sea Breeze in a Mediterranean Com-
plex Urbanized Coastal Site, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 57, 1083–
1099, https://doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-17-0117.1, 2018.

Firket, J.: Fog along the Meuse Valley, T. Faraday Soc., 32, 1192-1197, 1936.

Fisher, K. and Gershuny, J.: Multinational Time Use Study, User's Guide and Documentation – Version 9, Centre for Time Use Research, https://www.timeuse.org/sites/default/files/9727/mtus-user-guide-r9-february-2016.pdf (last access: 25 February 2022), 2016.

Fisher, B. E. A., Kukkonen, J., and Schatzmann, M.: Meteorology applied to urban air pollution problems COST 715, Int. J. Environ. Pollut., 16, 560–570, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEP.2001.000650, 2001.

Fisher, B., Joffre, S., Kukkonen, J., Piringer, M., Rotach, M., and Schatzmann, M.: Meteorology applied to urban air pollution problems: Final report COST-715 Action, Demetra Ltd. Publ, Bulgaria, 276 pp., ISBN 954-9526-30-5, 2005.

Fisher, B., Kukkonen, J., Piringer, M., Rotach, M. W., and Schatzmann, M.: Meteorology applied to urban air pollution problems: concepts from COST 715, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 555–564, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-555-2006, 2006.

Flageul, C., Kim, Y., Ferrand, M., Bresson, R., and Carissimo, B.: Neighborhood scale air quality simulations with street network model and CFD, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 172, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Flemming, J., Inness, A., Flentje, H., Huijnen, V., Moinat, P., Schultz, M. G., and Stein, O.: Coupling global chemistry transport models to ECMWF’s integrated forecast system, Geosci. Model Dev., 2, 253–265, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2-253-2009, 2009.

Foken, T. (Ed.): Springer Handbook of Atmospheric Measurements, Springer Nature, Springer International Publishing, Cham, Germany, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52171-4, 2021.

Folberth, G. A., Butler, T. M., Collins, W. J., and Rumbold, S. T.: Megacities and climate change – A brief overview, Environ. Pollut., 203, 235–242, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.09.004, 2015.

Förster, J., Schmidt, S., Bartkowski, B., Lienhoop, N., Albert, C., and Wittmer, H.: Incorporating environmental costs of ecosystem service loss in political decision making: A synthesis of monetary values for Germany, PLOS ONE, 14, e0211419, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211419, 2019.

Fowler, D., Brimblecombe, P., Burrows, J., Heal, M. R., Grenn-
felt, P., Stevenson, D. S., Jowett, A., Nemitz, E., Coyle, M.,
ExternE: ExternE – External Costs of Energy, Universitaet a
Stuttgart, https://www.ExternE.info (last access: 22 February
2022), 2012.

Eyring, V., Bony, S., Meehl, G. A., Senior, C. A., Stevens, B., Stouffer, R. J., and Taylor, K. E.: Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1937–1958, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1937-2016, 2016.

Faber, J., Hanayama, S., Zhang, S., Pereda, P., Comer, B., Hauer-
hof, E., Schim van der Loeff, W., Smith, T., Zhang, Y., Kosaka,
H., Adachi, M., Bonello, J., Galbraith, C., Gong, Z., Hirata, K.,
Hummels, D., Kleijn, A., Lee, D., Liu, Y., Lucchesi, A., Mao,
X., Muraoka, E., Osipova, L., Qian, H., Rutherford, D., Suárez
de la Fuente, S., Yuan, H., Velandia Perico, C., Wu, L., Sun, D.,
Yoo, D., and Xing, H.: The Fourth IMO GHG Study, London,
UK, 2020.

Fairburn, J., Schüle, S. A., Dreger, S., Karla Hilz, L., and Bolte, G.: Social Inequalities in Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution: A Systematic Review in the WHO European Region, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 16, 3127, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16173127, 2019.

Falcon-Rodriguez, C. I., Osornio-Vargas, A. R., Sada-
Ovalle, I., and Segura-Medina, P.: Aeroparticles, Com-
position, and Lung Diseases, Front. Immunol., 7, 3,
https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2016.00003, 2016.

Fallah-Shorshani, M., Shekarrizfard, M., and Hatzopoulou, M.: Integrating a street-canyon model with a regional Gaussian dispersion model for improved characterisation of near-road air pollution, Atmos. Environ., 153, 21–31, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.01.006, 2017.

Fallmann, J., Forkel, R., and Emeis, S.: Secondary effects of urban
heat island mitigation measures on air quality, Atmos. Environ.,
125, 199–211, 2016.

Fameli, K.-M. and Assimakopoulos, V. D.: Residential heating in Athens, Greece: emissions and important parameters, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 27, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Fan, J., Wang, Y., Rosenfeld, D., and Liu, X.: Review of Aerosol-Cloud Interactions: Mechanisms, Significance, and Challenges, J. Atmos. Sci., 73, 4221–4252, 2016.

Farmer, D. K., Vance, M. E., Abbatt, J. P. D., Abeleira, A., Alves,
M. R., Arata, C., Boedicker, E., Bourne, S., Cardoso-Saldaña,
F., Corsi, R., DeCarlo, P. F., Goldstein, A. H., Grassian, V. H.,
Hildebrandt Ruiz, L., Jimenez, J. L., Kahan, T. F., Katz, E.
F., Mattila, J. M., Nazaroff, W. W., Novoselac, A., O’Brien,
R. E., Or, V. W., Patel, S., Sankhyan, S., Stevens, P. S., Tian,
Y., Wade, M., Wang, C., Zhou, S., and Zhou, Y.: Overview
of HOMEChem: House Observations of Microbial and Envi-
ronmental Chemistry, Environ. Sci.-Proc. Imp., 21, 1280–1300,
https://doi.org/10.1039/c9em00228f, 2019.

Feng, L., Yang, T., Wang, D., Wang, Z., Pan, Y., Matsui, I., Chen,
Y., Xin, J., and Huang, H.: Identify the contribution of elevated
industrial plume to ground air quality by optical and machine
learning methods, Environmental Research Communications, 2,
021005, https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ab7634, 2020.

Filella, M.: Nanomaterials, in: Comprehensive Sampling and Sample Preparation, Elsevier, 109–124, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-381373-2.00032-6, 2012.

Finardi, S., Radice, P., Cecinato, A., Gariazzo, C., Gherardi, M., and Romagnoli, P.: Seasonal variation of PAHs concentration and source attribution through diagnostic ratios analysis, Urban Climate, 22, 19–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2015.12.001, 2017.

Finardi, S., Agrillo, G., Baraldi, R., Calori, G., Carlucci, P., Ci-
ccioli, P., D'Allura, A., Gasbarra, D., Gioli, B., Magliulo, V.,
Radice, P., Toscano, P., and Zaldei, A.: Atmospheric Dynamics
and Ozone Cycle during Sea Breeze in a Mediterranean Com-
plex Urbanized Coastal Site, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 57, 1083–
1099, https://doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-17-0117.1, 2018.

Firket, J.: Fog along the Meuse Valley, T. Faraday Soc., 32, 1192-1197, 1936.

Fisher, K. and Gershuny, J.: Multinational Time Use Study, User's Guide and Documentation – Version 9, Centre for Time Use Research, https://www.timeuse.org/sites/default/files/9727/mtus-user-guide-r9-february-2016.pdf (last access: 25 February 2022), 2016.

Fisher, B. E. A., Kukkonen, J., and Schatzmann, M.: Meteorology applied to urban air pollution problems COST 715, Int. J. Environ. Pollut., 16, 560–570, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEP.2001.000650, 2001.

Fisher, B., Joffre, S., Kukkonen, J., Piringer, M., Rotach, M., and Schatzmann, M.: Meteorology applied to urban air pollution problems: Final report COST-715 Action, Demetra Ltd. Publ, Bulgaria, 276 pp., ISBN 954-9526-30-5, 2005.

Fisher, B., Kukkonen, J., Piringer, M., Rotach, M. W., and Schatzmann, M.: Meteorology applied to urban air pollution problems: concepts from COST 715, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 555–564, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-555-2006, 2006.

Flageul, C., Kim, Y., Ferrand, M., Bresson, R., and Carissimo, B.: Neighborhood scale air quality simulations with street network model and CFD, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 172, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Flemming, J., Inness, A., Flentje, H., Huijnen, V., Moinat, P., Schultz, M. G., and Stein, O.: Coupling global chemistry transport models to ECMWF’s integrated forecast system, Geosci. Model Dev., 2, 253–265, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2-253-2009, 2009.

Foken, T. (Ed.): Springer Handbook of Atmospheric Measurements, Springer Nature, Springer International Publishing, Cham, Germany, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52171-4, 2021.

Folberth, G. A., Butler, T. M., Collins, W. J., and Rumbold, S. T.: Megacities and climate change – A brief overview, Environ. Pollut., 203, 235–242, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.09.004, 2015.

Förster, J., Schmidt, S., Bartkowski, B., Lienhoop, N., Albert, C., and Wittmer, H.: Incorporating environmental costs of ecosystem service loss in political decision making: A synthesis of monetary values for Germany, PLOS ONE, 14, e0211419, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211419, 2019.

Fowler, D., Brimblecombe, P., Burrows, J., Heal, M. R., Grenn-
felt, P., Stevenson, D. S., Jowett, A., Nemitz, E., Coyle, M.,
Lui, X., Chang, Y., Fuller, G. W., Sutton, M. A., Klimont, Z., Unsworth, M. H., and Vieno, M.: A chronology of global air quality, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 378, 20190314, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0314, 2020.

Franco, V., Kousoulidou, M., Muntean, M., Ntziachristos, L., Hausberger, S., and Dilara, P.: Road vehicle emission factors development: A review, Atmos. Environ., 70, 84–97, 2013.

Friedrich, R. (Ed.): Natural and Biogenic Emissions of Environmentally Relevant Atmospheric Trace Constituents in Europe, Atmos. Environ., 43, 1377–1486, 2009.

Friedrich, R.: Integrated Assessment of Policies for Reducing Health Impacts Caused by Air Pollution, in: Environmental Determinants of Human Health, edited by: Pacyna, J. and Pacyna, M., Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 117–132, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43142-0, 2016.

Friedrich, R. and Kuhn, A. (Eds.): Integrated Environmental Health Impact Assessment for Europe – Methods and Results of the HEIMTSA/INTARESE Common Case Study, Universitaet Stuttgart, https://doi.org/10.18419/opus-11913, 2011.

Friedrich, R. and Li, N.: Life-long Exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> and NO<sub>2</sub> and Resulting Health Effects for Population Subgroups in Europe, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 72, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Frohn, L. M., Ketzel, M., Christensen, J. H., Brandt, J., Im, U., Massling, A., Andersen, C., Plejdrup, M.S., Nielsen, O.-K., Manders, A., and Raaschou-Nielsen, O.: Modelling ultrafine particle number concentrations at address resolution in Denmark from 1979 to 2018 – Part 1: regional and urban scale modelling and evaluation, Atmos. Environ., 264, 118631, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118631, 2021.

Fulton, E. A., Boschetti, F., Sporcic, M., Jones, T., Little, L. R., Dambacher, J. M., Gray, R., Scott, R., and Gorton, R.: A multi-model approach to engaging stakeholder and modellers in complex environmental problems, Environ. Sci. Policy, 48, 44–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.12.006, 2015.

Galmarini, S. and Hogrefe, C. (Eds.): Special Issue Section: Evaluating Coupled Models (AQMEII P2), Atmos. Environ., 115, 340–755, https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/atmospheric-environment/vol/115/suppl/C#article-37 (last access: 25 February 2022), 2015.

Galmarini, S., Bianconi, R., Appel, W., Solazzo, E., Mosca, S., Grossi, P., Moran, M., Schere, K., and Rao, S. T.: ENSEMBLE and AMET: Two systems and approaches to a harmonized, simplified and efficient facility for air quality models development and evaluation, Atmos. Environ., 53, 51–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.08.076, 2012.

Galmarini, S., Koffi, B., Solazzo, E., Keating, T., Hogrefe, C., Schulz, M., Benedictow, A., Griesfeller, J. J., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Carmichael, G., Fu, J., and Dentener, F.: Technical note: Coordination and harmonization of the multi-scale, multi-model activities HTAP2, AQMEII3, and MICS-Asia3: simulations, emission inventories, boundary conditions, and model output formats, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 1543–1555, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-1543-2017, 2017.

Galmarini, S., Kioutsioukis, I., Solazzo, E., Alyuz, U., Balzarini, A., Bellasio, R., Benedictow, A. M. K., Bianconi, R., Bieser, J., Brandt, J., Christensen, J. H., Colette, A., Curci, G., Davila, Y.,

Dong, X., Flemming, J., Francis, X., Fraser, A., Fu, J., Henze, D. K., Hogrefe, C., Im, U., Garcia Vivanco, M., Jiménez-Guerrero, P., Jonson, J. E., Kitwiroon, N., Manders, A., Mathur, R., Palacios-Peña, L., Pirovano, G., Pozzoli, L., Prank, M., Schultz, M., Sokhi, R. S., Sudo, K., Tuccella, P., Takemura, T., Sekiya, T., and Unal, A.: Two-scale multi-model ensemble: is a hybrid ensemble of opportunity telling us more?, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 8727–8744, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-8727-2018, 2018.

Gao, D., Godri Pollitt, K. J., Mulholland, J. A., Russell, A. G., and Weber, R. J.: Characterization and comparison of PM<sub>2.5</sub> oxidative potential assessed by two acellular assays, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 5197–5210, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-5197-2020, 2020.

Gao, Z., Bresson, R., Qu, Y., Milliez, M., Demunck, C., and Carissimo, B.: High resolution unsteady RANS simulation of wind, thermal effects and pollution dispersion for studying urban renewal scenarios in a neighborhood of Toulouse, Urban Climate, 23, 114–130, 2018.

Gariazzo, C., Carlino, G., Silibello, C., Renzi, M., Finardi, S., Pepe, N., Radice, P., Forastiere, F., Michelozzi, P., Viegi, G., and Stafoggia, M.: A multi-city air pollution population exposure study: Combined use of chemical-transport and random-Forest models with dynamic population data, Sci. Total Environ., 724, 138102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138102, 2020.

GBDS: The Global Burden of Disease Study 2019, The Lancet, 396, 1129–1306, https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/issue/vol396no10258/PIIS0140-6736(20)X0042-0#closeFullCover, (last access: 28 February 2022), 2020.

Geels, C., Andersson, C., Hänninen, O., Lansø, A., Schwarze, P., Skjøth, C., and Brandt, J.: Future Premature Mortality Due to O3, Secondary Inorganic Aerosols and Primary PM in Europe – Sensitivity to Changes in Climate, Anthropogenic Emissions, Population and Building Stock, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 12, 2837–2869, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302837, 2015.

Geels, C., Winther, M., Andersson, C., Jalkanen, J.-P., Brandt, J., Frohn, L. M., Im, U., Leung, W., and Christensen, J. H.: EPITOME ship emissions: Projections of shipping emissions towards 2050, Version 1, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4322247, 2020.

Geels, C., Winther, M., Andersson, C., Jalkanen, J.-P., Brandt, J., Frohn, L. M., Im, U., Leung, W., and Christensen, J. H.: Projections of shipping emissions and the related impact on air pollution and human health in the Nordic region, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 12495–12519, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-12495-2021, 2021.

Gehring, U., Gruzieva, O., Agius, R. M., Beelen, R., Custovic, A., Cyrys, J., Eeftens, M., Flexeder, C., Fuertes, E., Heinrich, J., Hoffmann, B., Jongste, J. C. d., Kerkhof, M., Klümper, C., Korek, M., Mölter, A., Schultz, E. S., Simpson, A., Sugiri, D., Svartengren, M., Berg, A. v., Wijga, A. H., Pershagen, G., and Brunekreef, B.: Air Pollution Exposure and Lung Function in Children: The ESCAPE Project, Environ. Health Persp., 121, 1357–1364, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1306770, 2013.

Genc, S., Zadeogluli, Z., Fuss, S. H., and Genc, K.: The Adverse Effects of Air Pollution on the Nervous System, J. Toxicol., 2012, 782462, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/782462, 2012.

Genz, C., Schrödner, R., Heinold, B., Henning, S., Baars, H., Spindler, G., and Tegen, I.: Estimation of cloud condensation nuclei number concentrations and comparison to in situ
Lui, X., Chang, Y., Fuller, G. W., Sutton, M. A., Klimont, Z., Unsworth, M. H., and Vieno, M.: A chronology of global air quality, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 378, 20190314, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0314, 2020.

Franco, V., Kousoulidou, M., Muntean, M., Ntziachristos, L., Hausberger, S., and Dilara, P.: Road vehicle emission factors development: A review, Atmos. Environ., 70, 84–97, 2013.

Friedrich, R. (Ed.): Natural and Biogenic Emissions of Environmentally Relevant Atmospheric Trace Constituents in Europe, Atmos. Environ., 43, 1377–1486, 2009.

Friedrich, R.: Integrated Assessment of Policies for Reducing Health Impacts Caused by Air Pollution, in: Environmental Determinants of Human Health, edited by: Pacyna, J. and Pacyna, M., Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 117–132, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43142-0, 2016.

Friedrich, R. and Kuhn, A. (Eds.): Integrated Environmental Health Impact Assessment for Europe – Methods and Results of the HEIMTSA/INTARESE Common Case Study, Universitaet Stuttgart, https://doi.org/10.18419/opus-11913, 2011.

Friedrich, R. and Li, N.: Life-long Exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> and NO<sub>2</sub> and Resulting Health Effects for Population Subgroups in Europe, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 72, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Frohn, L. M., Ketzel, M., Christensen, J. H., Brandt, J., Im, U., Massling, A., Andersen, C., Plejdrup, M.S., Nielsen, O.-K., Manders, A., and Raaschou-Nielsen, O.: Modelling ultra-fine particle number concentrations at address resolution in Denmark from 1979 to 2018 – Part 1: regional and urban scale modelling and evaluation, Atmos. Environ., 264, 118631, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118631, 2021.

Fulton, E. A., Boschetti, F., Sporcic, M., Jones, T., Little, L. R., Dambacher, J. M., Gray, R., Scott, R., and Gorton, R.: A multi-model approach to engaging stakeholder and modellers in complex environmental problems, Environ. Sci. Policy, 48, 44–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.12.006, 2015.

Galmarini, S. and Hogrefe, C. (Eds.): Special Issue Section: Evaluating Coupled Models (AQMEII P2), Atmos. Environ., 115, 340–755, https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/atmospheric-environment/vol/115/suppl/C#article-37 (last access: 25 February 2022), 2015.

Galmarini, S., Bianconi, R., Appel, W., Solazzo, E., Mosca, S., Grossi, P., Moran, M., Schere, K., and Rao, S. T.: ENSEMBLE and AMET: Two systems and approaches to a harmonized, simplified and efficient facility for air quality models development and evaluation, Atmos. Environ., 53, 51–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.08.076, 2012.

Galmarini, S., Koffi, B., Solazzo, E., Keating, T., Hogrefe, C., Schulz, M., Benedictow, A., Griesfeller, J. J., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Carmichael, G., Fu, J., and Dentener, F.: Technical note: Coordination and harmonization of the multi-scale, multi-model activities HTAP2, AQMEII3, and MICS-Asia3: simulations, emission inventories, boundary conditions, and model output formats, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 1543–1555, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-1543-2017, 2017.

Galmarini, S., Kioutsioukis, I., Solazzo, E., Alyuz, U., Balzarini, A., Bellasio, R., Benedictow, A. M. K., Bianconi, R., Bieser, J., Brandt, J., Christensen, J. H., Colette, A., Curci, G., Davila, Y.,

Dong, X., Flemming, J., Francis, X., Fraser, A., Fu, J., Henze, D. K., Hogrefe, C., Im, U., Garcia Vivanco, M., Jiménez-Guerrero, P., Jonson, J. E., Kitwiroon, N., Manders, A., Mathur, R., Palacios-Peña, L., Pirovano, G., Pozzoli, L., Prank, M., Schultz, M., Sokhi, R. S., Sudo, K., Tuccella, P., Takemura, T., Sekiya, T., and Unal, A.: Two-scale multi-model ensemble: is a hybrid ensemble of opportunity telling us more?, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 8727–8744, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-8727-2018, 2018.

Gao, D., Godri Pollitt, K. J., Mulholland, J. A., Russell, A. G., and Weber, R. J.: Characterization and comparison of PM<sub>2.5</sub> oxidative potential assessed by two acellular assays, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 5197–5210, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-5197-2020, 2020.

Gao, Z., Bresson, R., Qu, Y., Milliez, M., Demunck, C., and Carissimo, B.: High resolution unsteady RANS simulation of wind, thermal effects and pollution dispersion for studying urban renewal scenarios in a neighborhood of Toulouse, Urban Climate, 23, 114–130, 2018.

Gariazzo, C., Carlino, G., Silibello, C., Renzi, M., Finardi, S., Pepe, N., Radice, P., Forastiere, F., Michelozzi, P., Viegi, G., and Stafoggia, M.: A multi-city air pollution population exposure study: Combined use of chemical-transport and random-Forest models with dynamic population data, Sci. Total Environ., 724, 138102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138102, 2020.

GBDS: The Global Burden of Disease Study 2019, The Lancet, 396, 1129–1306, https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/issue/vol396no10258/PIIS0140-6736(20)X0042-0#closeFullCover, (last access: 28 February 2022), 2020.

Geels, C., Andersson, C., Hänninen, O., Lansø, A., Schwarze, P., Skjøth, C., and Brandt, J.: Future Premature Mortality Due to O3, Secondary Inorganic Aerosols and Primary PM in Europe – Sensitivity to Changes in Climate, Anthropogenic Emissions, Population and Building Stock, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 12, 2837–2869, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302837, 2015.

Geels, C., Winther, M., Andersson, C., Jalkanen, J.-P., Brandt, J., Frohn, L. M., Im, U., Leung, W., and Christensen, J. H.: EPITOME ship emissions: Projections of shipping emissions towards 2050, Version 1, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4322247, 2020.

Geels, C., Winther, M., Andersson, C., Jalkanen, J.-P., Brandt, J., Frohn, L. M., Im, U., Leung, W., and Christensen, J. H.: Projections of shipping emissions and the related impact on air pollution and human health in the Nordic region, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 12495–12519, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-12495-2021, 2021.

Gehring, U., Gruzieva, O., Agius, R. M., Beelen, R., Custovic, A., Cyrys, J., Eeftens, M., Flexeder, C., Fuertes, E., Heinrich, J., Hoffmann, B., Jongste, J. C. d., Kerkhof, M., Klümper, C., Korek, M., Mölter, A., Schultz, E. S., Simpson, A., Sugiri, D., Svartengren, M., Berg, A. v., Wijga, A. H., Pershagen, G., and Brunekreef, B.: Air Pollution Exposure and Lung Function in Children: The ESCAPE Project, Environ. Health Persp., 121, 1357–1364, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1306770, 2013.

Genc, S., Zadeoglulari, Z., Fuss, S. H., and Genc, K.: The Adverse Effects of Air Pollution on the Nervous System, J. Toxicol., 2012, 782462, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/782462, 2012.

Genz, C., Schrödner, R., Heinold, B., Henning, S., Baars, H., Spindler, G., and Tegen, I.: Estimation of cloud condensation nuclei number concentrations and comparison to in situ
and lidar observations during the HOPE experiments, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 8787–8806, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-8787-2020, 2020.

Ghorani-Azam, A., Riahi-Zanjani, B., and Balali-Mood M.: Effects of air pollution on human health and practical measures for prevention in Iran, J. Res. Med. Sci., 21, 65, https://doi.org/10.4103/1735-1995.189646, 2016.

Gilliam, R. C., Hogrefe, C., Godowitch, J. M., Napeilenok, S., Mathur, R., and Rao, S. T.: Impact of inherent meteorology uncertainty on air quality model predictions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 12259–12280, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015jd023674, 2015.

Gioli, B., Gualtieri, G., Busillo, C., Calastrini, F., Zaldei, A., and Toscano, P.: Improving high resolution emission inventories with local proxies and urban eddy covariance flux measurements, Atmos. Environ., 115, 246–256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.05.068, 2015.

Gkatzelis, G. I., Gilman, J. B., Brown, S. S., Eskes, H., Gomes, A. R., Lange, A. C., McDonald, B. C., Peischl, J., Petzold, A., Thompson, C. R., and Kiendler-Scharr, A.: The global impacts of COVID-19 lockdowns on urban air pollution: A critical review and recommendations, Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 9, 00176, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.2021.00176, 2021.

Gohil, K. and Jin, M. S.: Validation and Improvement of the WRF Building Environment Parametrization (BEP) Urban Scheme, Climate, 7, 109, https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7090109, 2019.

González-Aparicio, I., Baklanov, A., Hidalgo, J., Korsholm, U., and Nuterman, R.: Impact of city expansion and increased heat fluxes scenarios on the urban boundary layer of Bilbao using EnviroHIRLAM, Urban Climate, 10, 831–845, 2014.

Gou, H., Lu, J., Li, S., Tong, Y., Xie, C., and Zheng, X.: Assessment of microbial communities in PM₁ and PM₁₀ of Urumqi during winter, Environ. Pollut., 214, 202–210, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.073, 2016.

Goulier, L., Paas, B., Ehrnsperger, L., and Klemm, O.: Modelling of Urban Air Pollutant Concentrations with Artificial Neural Networks Using Novel Input Variables, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 17, 2025, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062025, 2020.

Grange, S. K., Lötscher, H., Fischer, A., Emmenegger, L., and Hueglin, C.: Exploring equivalent black carbon (EBC) concentrations in Switzerland with the aethalometer model, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 17, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Grell, G. A. and Baklanov, A.: Integrated modelling for forecasting weather and air quality: A call for fully coupled approaches, Atmos. Environ., 45, 6845–6851, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.01.017, 2011.

Gressent, A., Malherbe, L., Colette, A., Rollin, H., and Scimia, R.: Data fusion for air quality mapping using low-cost sensor observations: Feasibility and added-value, Environ. Int., 143, 105965, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105965, 2020.

Grimmond, S., Bouchet, V., Molina, L. T., Baklanov, A., Tan, J., Schlünzen, K. H., Mills, G., Golding, B., Masson, V., Ren, C., Voogt, J., Miao, S., Lean, H., Heusinkveld, B., Hovespyan, A., Teruggi, G., Parrish, P., and Joe, P.: Integrated urban hydrometeorological, climate and environmental services: Concept, methodology and key messages, Urban Climate, 33, 100623, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100623, 2020.

Grythe, H., Lopez-Aparicio, S., Vogt, M., Vo Thanh, D., Hak, C., Halse, A. K., Hamer, P., and Sousa Santos, G.: The MetVed model: development and evaluation of emissions from residential wood combustion at high spatio-temporal resolution in Norway, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 10217–10237, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-10217-2019, 2019.

Gu, J., Wensing, M., Uhde, E., and Salthammer, T.: Characterization of particulate and gaseous pollutants emitted during operation of a desktop 3D printer, Environ. Int., 123, 476–485, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.12.014, 2019.

Gu, Q., Michanowicz, D. R., and Jia, C.: Developing a Modular Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Platform for Air Pollution Profiling, Sensors, 18, 4363, https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124363, 2018.

Guevara, M., Martínez, F., Arévalo, G., Gassó, S., and Baldasano, J. M.: Improved system for modeling Spanish emissions: HERMESv2.0, Atmos. Environ., 81, 209–221 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.08.053, 2013.

Guevara, M., Tena, C., Porquet, M., Jorba, O., and Pérez García-Pando, C.: HERMESv3, a stand-alone multi-scale atmospheric emission modelling framework – Part 1: global and regional module, Geosci. Model Dev., 12, 1885–1907, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-1885-2019, 2019.

Guevara, M., Tena, C., Porquet, M., Jorba, O., and Pérez García-Pando, C.: HERMESv3, a stand-alone multi-scale atmospheric emission modelling framework – Part 2: The bottom-up module, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 873–903, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-873-2020, 2020.

Guevara, M., Jorba, O., Tena, C., Denier van der Gon, H., Kuenen, J., Elguindi, N., Darras, S., Granier, C., and Pérez García-Pando, C.: Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service TEMPOral profiles (CAMS-TEMPO): global and European emission temporal profile maps for atmospheric chemistry modelling, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 367–404, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-367-2021, 2021.

Gurney, K. R., Liang, J., Patarasuk, R., O’Keeffe, D., Huang, J., Hutchins, M., Lauvaux, T., Turnbull, J. C., and Shepson, P. B.: Reconciling the differences between a bottom-up and inverse-estimated FFCO₂ emissions estimate in a large US urban area, Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 5, 44, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.137, 2017.

Gwaze, P.: Physical and chemical properties of aerosol particles in the troposphere: An approach from microscopy methods, Sierke, Göttingen, 187 pp., http://hdl.handle.net/11858/00-001M-0000-0014-89C8-0 (last access: 11 August 2020), 2007.

Halenka, T., Belda, M., Huszar, P., Karlicky, J., Novakova, T., and Zak, M.: On the comparison of urban canopy effects parameterisation, Int. J. Environ. Pollut., 65, 177–194, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEP.2019.101840, 2019.

Hamer, P. D., Walker, S.-E., Sousa-Santos, G., Vogt, M., Vo-Thanh, D., Lopez-Aparicio, S., Schneider, P., Ramacher, M. O. P., and Karl, M.: The urban dispersion model EPISODE v10.0 – Part 1: An Eulerian and sub-grid-scale air quality model and its application in Nordic winter conditions, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 4323–4353, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4323-2020, 2020.

Hampel, R., Peters, A., Beelen, R., Brunekreef, B., Cyrys, J., Faire, U. d., Hoogh, K. d., Fuks, K., Hoffmann, B., Hüls, method
and lidar observations during the HOPE experiments, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 8787–8806, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-8787-2020, 2020.

Ghorani-Azam, A., Riahi-Zanjani, B., and Balali-Mood M.: Effects of air pollution on human health and practical measures for prevention in Iran, J. Res. Med. Sci., 21, 65, https://doi.org/10.4103/1735-1995.189646, 2016.

Gilliam, R. C., Hogrefe, C., Godowitch, J. M., Napeilenok, S., Mathur, R., and Rao, S. T.: Impact of inherent meteorology uncertainty on air quality model predictions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 12259–12280, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015jd023674, 2015.

Gioli, B., Gualtieri, G., Busillo, C., Calastrini, F., Zaldei, A., and Toscano, P.: Improving high resolution emission inventories with local proxies and urban eddy covariance flux measurements, Atmos. Environ., 115, 246–256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.05.068, 2015.

Gkatzelis, G. I., Gilman, J. B., Brown, S. S., Eskes, H., Gomes, A. R., Lange, A. C., McDonald, B. C., Peischl, J., Petzold, A., Thompson, C. R., and Kiendler-Scharr, A.: The global impacts of COVID-19 lockdowns on urban air pollution: A critical review and recommendations, Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 9, 00176, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.2021.00176, 2021.

Gohil, K. and Jin, M. S.: Validation and Improvement of the WRF Building Environment Parametrization (BEP) Urban Scheme, Climate, 7, 109, https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7090109, 2019.

González-Aparicio, I., Baklanov, A., Hidalgo, J., Korsholm, U., and Nuterman, R.: Impact of city expansion and increased heat fluxes scenarios on the urban boundary layer of Bilbao using EnviroHIRLAM, Urban Climate, 10, 831–845, 2014.

Gou, H., Lu, J., Li, S., Tong, Y., Xie, C., and Zheng, X.: Assessment of microbial communities in PM₁ and PM₁₀ of Urumqi during winter, Environ. Pollut., 214, 202–210, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.073, 2016.

Goulier, L., Paas, B., Ehrnsperger, L., and Klemm, O.: Modelling of Urban Air Pollutant Concentrations with Artificial Neural Networks Using Novel Input Variables, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 17, 2025, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062025, 2020.

Grange, S. K., Lötscher, H., Fischer, A., Emmenegger, L., and Hueglin, C.: Exploring equivalent black carbon (EBC) concentrations in Switzerland with the aethalometer model, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 17, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Grell, G. A. and Baklanov, A.: Integrated modelling for forecasting weather and air quality: A call for fully coupled approaches, Atmos. Environ., 45, 6845–6851, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.01.017, 2011.

Gressent, A., Malherbe, L., Colette, A., Rollin, H., and Scimia, R.: Data fusion for air quality mapping using low-cost sensor observations: Feasibility and added-value, Environ. Int., 143, 105965, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105965, 2020.

Grimmond, S., Bouchet, V., Molina, L. T., Baklanov, A., Tan, J., Schlünzen, K. H., Mills, G., Golding, B., Masson, V., Ren, C., Voogt, J., Miao, S., Lean, H., Heusinkveld, B., Hovespyan, A., Teruggi, G., Parrish, P., and Joe, P.: Integrated urban hydrometeorological, climate and environmental services: Concept, methodology and key messages, Urban Climate, 33, 100623, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100623, 2020.

Grythe, H., Lopez-Aparicio, S., Vogt, M., Vo Thanh, D., Hak, C., Halse, A. K., Hamer, P., and Sousa Santos, G.: The MetVed model: development and evaluation of emissions from residential wood combustion at high spatio-temporal resolution in Norway, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 10217–10237, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-10217-2019, 2019.

Gu, J., Wensing, M., Uhde, E., and Salthammer, T.: Characterization of particulate and gaseous pollutants emitted during operation of a desktop 3D printer, Environ. Int., 123, 476–485, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.12.014, 2019.

Gu, Q., Michanowicz, D. R., and Jia, C.: Developing a Modular Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Platform for Air Pollution Profiling, Sensors, 18, 4363, https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124363, 2018.

Guevara, M., Martínez, F., Arévalo, G., Gassó, S., and Baldasano, J. M.: Improved system for modeling Spanish emissions: HERMESv2.0, Atmos. Environ., 81, 209–221 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.08.053, 2013.

Guevara, M., Tena, C., Porquet, M., Jorba, O., and Pérez García-Pando, C.: HERMESv3, a stand-alone multi-scale atmospheric emission modelling framework – Part 1: global and regional module, Geosci. Model Dev., 12, 1885–1907, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-1885-2019, 2019.

Guevara, M., Tena, C., Porquet, M., Jorba, O., and Pérez García-Pando, C.: HERMESv3, a stand-alone multi-scale atmospheric emission modelling framework – Part 2: The bottom-up module, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 873–903, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-873-2020, 2020.

Guevara, M., Jorba, O., Tena, C., Denier van der Gon, H., Kuenen, J., Elguindi, N., Darras, S., Granier, C., and Pérez García-Pando, C.: Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service TEMPOral profiles (CAMS-TEMPO): global and European emission temporal profile maps for atmospheric chemistry modelling, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 367–404, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-367-2021, 2021.

Gurney, K. R., Liang, J., Patarasuk, R., O’Keeffe, D., Huang, J., Hutchins, M., Lauvaux, T., Turnbull, J. C., and Shepson, P. B.: Reconciling the differences between a bottom-up and inverse-estimated FFCO₂ emissions estimate in a large US urban area, Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 5, 44, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.137, 2017.

Gwaze, P.: Physical and chemical properties of aerosol particles in the troposphere: An approach from microscopy methods, Sierke, Göttingen, 187 pp., http://hdl.handle.net/11858/00-001M-0000-0014-89C8-0 (last access: 11 August 2020), 2007.

Halenka, T., Belda, M., Huszar, P., Karlicky, J., Novakova, T., and Zak, M.: On the comparison of urban canopy effects parameterisation, Int. J. Environ. Pollut., 65, 177–194, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEP.2019.101840, 2019.

Hamer, P. D., Walker, S.-E., Sousa-Santos, G., Vogt, M., Vo-Thanh, D., Lopez-Aparicio, S., Schneider, P., Ramacher, M. O. P., and Karl, M.: The urban dispersion model EPISODE v10.0 – Part 1: An Eulerian and sub-grid-scale air quality model and its application in Nordic winter conditions, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 4323–4353, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4323-2020, 2020.

Hampel, R., Peters, A., Beelen, R., Brunekreef, B., Cyrys, J., Faire, U. d., Hoogh, K. d., Fuks, K., Hoffmann, B., Hüls, method
A., Imboden, M., Jedynska, A., Kooter, I., Koenig, W., Künzli, N., Leander, K., Magnusson, P., Männistö, S., Penell, J., Pershagen, G., Phuleria, H., Probst-Hensch, N., Pundt, N., Schaffner, E., Schikowski, T., Sugiri, D., Tiittanen, P., Tsai, M.-Y., Wang, M., Wolf, K., and Lanki, T.: Long-term effects of elemental composition of particulate matter on inflammatory blood markers in European cohorts, Environ. Int., 82, 76–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.05.008, 2015.

Hänninen, O., Lebret, E., Ilacqua, V., Katsouyanni, K., Künzli, N., Sram, R., and Jantunen, M.: Infiltration of ambient PM<sub>2.5</sub> and levels of indoor generated non-ETS PM<sub>2.5</sub> in residences of four European cities, Atmos. Environ., 38, 6411–6423, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.07.015, 2004.

Hänninen, O., Palonen, J., Tuomisto, J., Yli-Tuomi, T., Seppänen, O., and Jantunen, M. J.: Reduction potential of urban PM<sub>2.5</sub> mortality risk using modern ventilation systems in buildings, Indoor Air, 15, 246–256, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2005.00365.x, 2005.

Hänninen, O., Knol, A., Jantunen, M., Lim, T., Conrad, A., Rapolder, M., Carrer P., Fanetti, A., Kim, R., Buekers, J., Torfs, R., Iavarone, I., Classen, T., Hornberg, C., and Mekel, O.: Environmental burden of disease in Europe: assessing nine risk factors in six countries, Environ. Health Perspect., 122, 439–446, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206154, 2014.

Hassan, A. M., ELMokadem, A. A., Megahed, N. A., and Abo Eleinen, O. M.: Urban morphology as a passive strategy in promoting outdoor air quality, Journal of Building Engineering, 29, 101204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101204, 2020.

Hausberger, S., Rodler, J., Sturm, P., and Rexeis, M.: Emission factors for heavy-duty vehicles and validation by tunnel measurements, Atmos. Environ., 37, 5237–5245, 2003.

He, L., Norris, C., Cui, X., Li, Z., Barkjohn, K. K., Brehmer, C., Teng, Y., Fang, L., Lin, L., Wang, Q., Zhou, X., Hong, J., Li, F., Zhang, Y., Schauer, J. J., Black, M., Bergin, M. H., and Zhang, J. J.: Personal Exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> Oxidative Potential in Association with Pulmonary Pathophysiologic Outcomes in Children with Asthma, Environ Sci Technol., 55, 3101–3111, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c06114, 2021.

Health Effects Institute (HEI): Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities Study and the American Cancer Society Study of Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality: A Special Report of the Institute's Particle Epidemiology Reanalysis Project, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA, https://www.healtheffects.org/system/files/HEI-Reanalysis-2000.pdf (last access: 30 September 2020), 2000.

Health Effects Institute (HEI): State of Global Air 2020. Special Report on Global Exposure to Air Pollution and its Health Effects, Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA, 2578–6873, 2020.

Heinold, B., Assmann, D., Käthner, R., Knoth, O., Macke, A., Müller, T., Tönisson, L., Voigtländer, J., Weger, M., and Wolke, R.: Assessing the spatio-temporal distribution of urban air pollutants – an integrated system based on crowdsourcing with mobile sensors and multi-scale modelling, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 116, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Hellsten, A., Aarnio, M. A., and Hannuniemi, H.: Fast pre-computed large-eddy simulation based dispersion modelling

method for hazardous material releases in urban environments – Part 1: the concept, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 73, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Hellsten, A., Ketelsen, K., Sühring, M., Auvinen, M., Maronga, B., Knigge, C., Barmpas, F., Tsegas, G., Moussiopoulos, N., and Raasch, S.: A nested multi-scale system implemented in the large-eddy simulation model PALM model system 6.0, Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 3185–3214, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3185-2021, 2021.

Hendriks, C.: Ammonia emission time profiles based on manure transport data improve ammonia modelling across north western Europe, Elsevier Ltd., 2016.

Henne, S., Brunner, D., Oney, B., Leuenberger, M., Eugster, W., Bamberger, I., Meinhardt, F., Steinbacher, M., and Emmengeger, L.: Validation of the Swiss methane emission inventory by atmospheric observations and inverse modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 3683–3710, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-3683-2016, 2016.

Héroux, M. E., Anderson, H. R., Atkinson, R., Brunekreef, B., Cohen, A., Forastiere, F., Hurley, F., Katsouyanni, K., Krewski, D., Krzyzanowski, M., Kunzli, N., Mills, I., Querol, X., Ostro, B., and Walton, H.: Quantifying the health impacts of ambient air pollutants: recommendations of a WHO/Europe project, Int. J. Public Health, 60, 619–627, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-015-0690-y, 2015.

Hidalgo, J., Masson, V., Baklanov, A., Pigeon, G., and Gimeno, L.: Advances in Urban Climate Modeling, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1146, 354–374, https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1446.015, 2008.

Hime, N., Marks, G., and Cowie, C.: A Comparison of the Health Effects of Ambient Particulate Matter Air Pollution from Five Emission Sources, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 15, 1206, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061206, 2018.

Hirtl, M., Arnold, D., Briese, C., Figuera, R. M., Flandorfer, C., Haselsteiner, M., Humer, H., Maurer, C., Natali, S., Ng, T., Placho, T., Santillan, D., Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Skarbal, B., Triebnig, G., and Uhrner, U.: Innovative applications for the augmented use of satellite observations to support air quality management, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 9, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb, 2020.

Hoek, G., Krishnan, R. M., Beelen, R., Peters, A., Ostro, B., Brunekreef, B., and Kaufman, J. D.: Long-term air pollution exposure and cardio-respiratory mortality: a review, Environ. Health, 12, 43, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-12-43, 2013.

Hoesly, R. M., Smith, S. J., Feng, L., Klimont, Z., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Pitkanen, T., Seibert, J. J., Vu, L., Andres, R. J., Bolt, R. M., Bond, T. C., Dawidowski, L., Kholod, N., Kurokawa, J.-I., Li, M., Liu, L., Lu, Z., Moura, M. C. P., O'Rourke, P. R., and Zhang, Q.: Historical (1750–2014) anthropogenic emissions of reactive gases and aerosols from the Community Emissions Data System (CEDS), Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 369–408, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-369-2018, 2018.

Hoffmann, B., Weinmayr, G., Hennig, F., Fuks, K., Moebus, S., Weimar, C., Dragano, N., Hermann, D. M., Kälsch, H., Mahabadi, A. A., Erbel, R., and Jöckel, K.-H.: Air Quality, Stroke,
A., Imboden, M., Jedynska, A., Kooter, I., Koenig, W., Künzli, N., Leander, K., Magnusson, P., Männistö, S., Penell, J., Pershagen, G., Phuleria, H., Probst-Hensch, N., Pundt, N., Schaffner, E., Schikowski, T., Sugiri, D., Tiittanen, P., Tsai, M.-Y., Wang, M., Wolf, K., and Lanki, T.: Long-term effects of elemental composition of particulate matter on inflammatory blood markers in European cohorts, Environ. Int., 82, 76–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.05.008, 2015.

Hänninen, O., Lebret, E., Ilacqua, V., Katsouyanni, K., Künzli, N., Sram, R., and Jantunen, M.: Infiltration of ambient PM<sub>2.5</sub> and levels of indoor generated non-ETS PM<sub>2.5</sub> in residences of four European cities, Atmos. Environ., 38, 6411–6423, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.07.015, 2004.

Hänninen, O., Palonen, J., Tuomisto, J., Yli-Tuomi, T., Seppänen, O., and Jantunen, M. J.: Reduction potential of urban PM<sub>2.5</sub> mortality risk using modern ventilation systems in buildings, Indoor Air, 15, 246–256, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2005.00365.x, 2005.

Hänninen, O., Knol, A., Jantunen, M., Lim, T., Conrad, A., Rapolder, M., Carrer P., Fanetti, A., Kim, R., Buekers, J., Torfs, R., Iavarone, I., Classen, T., Hornberg, C., and Mekel, O.: Environmental burden of disease in Europe: assessing nine risk factors in six countries, Environ. Health Perspect., 122, 439–446, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206154, 2014.

Hassan, A. M., ELMokadem, A. A., Megahed, N. A., and Abo Eleinen, O. M.: Urban morphology as a passive strategy in promoting outdoor air quality, Journal of Building Engineering, 29, 101204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101204, 2020.

Hausberger, S., Rodler, J., Sturm, P., and Rexeis, M.: Emission factors for heavy-duty vehicles and validation by tunnel measurements, Atmos. Environ., 37, 5237–5245, 2003.

He, L., Norris, C., Cui, X., Li, Z., Barkjohn, K. K., Brehmer, C., Teng, Y., Fang, L., Lin, L., Wang, Q., Zhou, X., Hong, J., Li, F., Zhang, Y., Schauer, J. J., Black, M., Bergin, M. H., and Zhang, J. J.: Personal Exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> Oxidative Potential in Association with Pulmonary Pathophysiologic Outcomes in Children with Asthma, Environ Sci Technol., 55, 3101–3111, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c06114, 2021.

Health Effects Institute (HEI): Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities Study and the American Cancer Society Study of Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality: A Special Report of the Institute's Particle Epidemiology Reanalysis Project, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA, https://www.healtheffects.org/system/files/HEI-Reanalysis-2000.pdf (last access: 30 September 2020), 2000.

Health Effects Institute (HEI): State of Global Air 2020. Special Report on Global Exposure to Air Pollution and its Health Effects, Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA, 2578–6873, 2020.

Heinold, B., Assmann, D., Käthner, R., Knoth, O., Macke, A., Müller, T., Tönisson, L., Voigtländer, J., Weger, M., and Wolke, R.: Assessing the spatio-temporal distribution of urban air pollutants – an integrated system based on crowdsourcing with mobile sensors and multi-scale modelling, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 116, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Hellsten, A., Aarnio, M. A., and Hannuniemi, H.: Fast pre-computed large-eddy simulation based dispersion modelling

method for hazardous material releases in urban environments – Part 1: the concept, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 73, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb.22217, 2020.

Hellsten, A., Ketelsen, K., Sühring, M., Auvinen, M., Maronga, B., Knigge, C., Barmpas, F., Tsegas, G., Moussiopoulos, N., and Raasch, S.: A nested multi-scale system implemented in the large-eddy simulation model PALM model system 6.0, Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 3185–3214, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3185-2021, 2021.

Hendriks, C.: Ammonia emission time profiles based on manure transport data improve ammonia modelling across north western Europe, Elsevier Ltd., 2016.

Henne, S., Brunner, D., Oney, B., Leuenberger, M., Eugster, W., Bamberger, I., Meinhardt, F., Steinbacher, M., and Emmengeger, L.: Validation of the Swiss methane emission inventory by atmospheric observations and inverse modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 3683–3710, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-3683-2016, 2016.

Héroux, M. E., Anderson, H. R., Atkinson, R., Brunekreef, B., Cohen, A., Forastiere, F., Hurley, F., Katsouyanni, K., Krewski, D., Krzyzanowski, M., Kunzli, N., Mills, I., Querol, X., Ostro, B., and Walton, H.: Quantifying the health impacts of ambient air pollutants: recommendations of a WHO/Europe project, Int. J. Public Health, 60, 619–627, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-015-0690-y, 2015.

Hidalgo, J., Masson, V., Baklanov, A., Pigeon, G., and Gimeno, L.: Advances in Urban Climate Modeling, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1146, 354–374, https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1446.015, 2008.

Hime, N., Marks, G., and Cowie, C.: A Comparison of the Health Effects of Ambient Particulate Matter Air Pollution from Five Emission Sources, Int. J. Env. Res. Pub. He., 15, 1206, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061206, 2018.

Hirtl, M., Arnold, D., Briese, C., Figuera, R. M., Flandorfer, C., Haselsteiner, M., Humer, H., Maurer, C., Natali, S., Ng, T., Placho, T., Santillan, D., Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Skarbal, B., Triebnig, G., and Uhrner, U.: Innovative applications for the augmented use of satellite observations to support air quality management, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Air Quality, Science and Application, edited by: Moussiopoulos, N., Sokhi, R. S., Tsegas, G., Fragkou, E., Chourdakis, E., and Pipilis, I., Hatfield, UK, p. 9, https://doi.org/10.18745/pb, 2020.

Hoek, G., Krishnan, R. M., Beelen, R., Peters, A., Ostro, B., Brunekreef, B., and Kaufman, J. D.: Long-term air pollution exposure and cardio-respiratory mortality: a review, Environ. Health, 12, 43, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-12-43, 2013.

Hoesly, R. M., Smith, S. J., Feng, L., Klimont, Z., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Pitkanen, T., Seibert, J. J., Vu, L., Andres, R. J., Bolt, R. M., Bond, T. C., Dawidowski, L., Kholod, N., Kurokawa, J.-I., Li, M., Liu, L., Lu, Z., Moura, M. C. P., O'Rourke, P. R., and Zhang, Q.: Historical (1750–2014) anthropogenic emissions of reactive gases and aerosols from the Community Emissions Data System (CEDS), Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 369–408, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-369-2018, 2018.

Hoffmann, B., Weinmayr, G., Hennig, F., Fuks, K., Moebus, S., Weimar, C., Dragano, N., Hermann, D. M., Kälsch, H., Mahabadi, A. A., Erbel, R., and Jöckel, K.-H.: Air Quality, Stroke,