S1 (ISON), which was observed with NSO's *Dunn Solar Telescope* and *McMath-Pierce facility* (Wooden et al., 2013) and with the *Mees Observatory* coronagraph on the summit of Haleakalā, Maui, Hawaii (Druckmüller et al., 2014).

Unlike virtually all other remote-sensing diagnostics of the solar corona, which are subjected to either line-of-sight integration or height ambiguity, Sun-grazing comets take a very localized path through the corona, serving as probes. The comets interact with the plasma producing observable signatures along specific paths through the three-dimensional corona. To date, this has largely been exploited at UV and EUV wavelengths. For example, O III and O VI emission from photo-dissociated cometary water has been used to diagnose the magnetic-field direction and plasma density in the corona (Raymond et al., 2014). Using DKIST's Cryo NIRSP coronographic capabilities, comparable analysis may be possible by observing lines of photo-dissociated silicates such as Si IX. Similarly, observations of Lyman-α emission during passage of Sun-grazing comets has been used to estimate the coronal density, temperature, and solar-wind velocity (Bemporad et al., 2015). The same techniques may be possible with DKIST using Hα or Paschen-α emission. Moreover, ion tails have been seen accompanying a few Sun-grazing comets in white light (Jones et al., 2018), and their presence in exocomets is inferred from their Ca II absorption signatures (Kiefer et al., 2014). Observations of comet-tail-heliospheric current-sheet interactions during cometary crossings may provide constraints on the current-sheet morphology and the solar-wind structure in the inner heliosphere (see Jones et al., 2018, and the references therein). Such observations by DKIST would be groundbreaking.

Beyond diagnostics of the solar corona, DKIST promises to contribute directly to the cometary science. Most fundamentally, it will enable measurements of the size and composition of cometary cores (Bryans and Pesnell, 2016) as they are exposed very close to the Sun, too close for observation using night-time telescopes. While some Sun-grazing comets, such as Lovejoy and ISON, are discovered at great distances from the Sun and followed to their perihelia, many are not active enough to be observed at large distances and are first noticed close in to the Sun, within the field of view of LASCO. Close to the Sun, cometary material sublimates rapidly and is photo-dissociated to form atomic species, which are then ionized through successive ionization states (Bryans and Pesnell, 2012; McCauley et al., 2013), with optical and infrared line emission largely confined to a small region surrounding the cometary nucleus. The time-dependent emission signatures allow characterization of both the cometary material and the local-coronal plasma environment. DKIST's unique capabilities will make these otherwise very difficult spectrographic measurements of pristine cometary material possible. Moreover, DKIST infrared observations will allow measurements of cometary dust temperatures and dust sublimation rates. These are particularly important in advancing our understanding of the origin of cometary neutral tails (e.g. Cremonese et al., 2002), and they may be critical in determining the inner source of pickup ions in the solar wind (e.g. Bzowski and Królikowska, 2005). Finally, previous attempts to determine the tensile strength (if any) of Sun-grazing comets from their breakup (Opik, 1966; Klinger, Espinasse, and Schmidt, 1989) have been inconclusive. This is an important measurement in the context of planetesimal formation, and DKIST will bring much higher spatial resolution to bear on the assessment of cometary-fragmentation processes.

## 6.4. Mercury Transit Science

*What can we learn about Mercury's atmosphere and its seasonal variations from DKIST observations of Mercury's transit across the Sun? Can the resonance absorption lines of K and Ca be observed at DKIST sensitivities?*
**Figure 19** Sodium absorption equivalent width around the disk of Mercury during the 8 November 2006 transit. The noise outside the close region of sodium absorption is due to fluctuations in the solar intensity. The strongest atmospheric absorption is found over Mercury's north and south poles. Likely due to seasonal variations, the dawn/dusk terminator difference identified in the previous transit (Schleicher et al., 2004) is not seen during this one. From Potter et al. (2013), copyright by Elsevier.

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>

There was some hope that early DKIST observations might overlap with the 11 November 2019 Mercury transit. Unfortunately, it was not possible to meet that aggressive goal, which lay outside of the nominal DKIST construction timeline. We include a brief description of the science goals of Mercury-transit observations here to illustrate the scientific flexibility of the DKIST observing system and to point to future possibilities within the DKIST lifetime. The next partial Mercury transits visible from Haleakalā are one ending in the early morning of 7 May 2049 and one occurring midday to sunset on 8 November 2052. (eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/catalog/MercuryCatalog.html, www.timeanddate.com/eclipse/in/usa).

Mercury has a non-spherical, seasonally varying exosphere (e.g. Domingue et al., 2007; McClintock et al., 2008; Cassidy et al., 2015; Vervack et al., 2016; Merkel et al., 2017) and a dynamic magnetosphere with dayside reconnection and magnetotail activity resembling that found at Earth (Slavin et al., 2009, 2010; Bagenal, 2013). Full characterization of this unique atmosphere is challenging. Traditional remote-sensing techniques are difficult due to the Sun's proximity, and downlink limitations led to NASA's *Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging* (MESSENGER) orbiter carrying a single-point rather than slit-scanning spectrometer. To date, transit spectroscopy (observations of absorption by Mercury's atmospheric constituents during rare solar transits) has offered some of the highest spatial, temporal, and spectral resolution measurements of Mercury's atmosphere (Figure 19; Schleicher et al., 2004; Potter et al., 2013; Schmidt et al., 2018). So far only sodium in Mercury's atmosphere has been measured during transit, but with DKIST's sensitivity, observations of the K and Ca atomic resonance absorption lines may be possible. The distribution of these in the Mercury atmosphere would constrain source and loss processes (Burger et al., 2012). Broad-band absorption measurements would additionally contribute to our understanding of the dust density distribution around the planet.

The scientific use of Mercury-transit measurements has progressed rapidly despite the rarity of transit events. Measurements of Na I absorption by transit spectroscopy were first made in the early years of this century (Schleicher et al., 2004). These provided convincing evidence for a dawn-side enhancement in Mercury's exosphere. Subsequent measurements by Potter et al. (2013) were markedly different, showing no dawn/dusk terminator difference (Figure 19). That is now understood to be the result of seasonal variations. Seasonal variations were identified in MESSENGER orbiter data (Merkel et al., 2017), and confirmed by later transit observations (Schmidt et al., 2018). The 2018 transit measurements indicate nearly identical Na distribution to that obtained from the 2004 observations taken during the same Mercury season. The quality of the 2018 observations allowed spatial resolution
of the Mercury atmospheric scale height (≈ 100 km) and enabled study of exospheric time-dependence induced by solar-wind interactions. During future transits, DKIST capabilities will enable spectral analysis of Doppler velocities, ≈ 90 km resolution of the atmospheric stratification, and temporal resolution of solar-wind and interplanetary magnetic-field angle influences.

## 6.5. Synergistic Opportunities with In-Situ Measurements

*How well can the magnetic connectivity between the Sun and the in-situ measurements of Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter be established? Which aspects of the in-situ measurements originate at the Sun and which result from subsequent dynamics and instabilities in the solar wind?*

DKIST, *Parker Solar Probe*, and *Solar Orbiter* will together allow unprecedented synergistic study of the connectivity between the solar corona and the inner heliosphere. *Parker Solar Probe* and *Solar Orbiter* will make in-situ measurements of the inner heliospheric electric and magnetic fields and plasma kinetic properties, while DKIST and *Solar Orbiter* will image and make high-precision spectropolarimetric measurements of the solar atmosphere from the deep photosphere to the corona. The combined capabilities of these assets will revolutionize our understanding of how stars create and control their magnetic environments (Martinez Pillet et al., 2020; Müller et al., 2020; Velli et al., 2020).

*Parker Solar Probe's* close approaches to the Sun and *Solar Orbiter's* inclined orbit with perihelia inside the orbit of Mercury will allow direct sampling of the solar-wind plasma before it has undergone extensive evolution and mixing. The plasma sampled will preserve many of the signatures of its origins, allowing assessment of the acceleration mechanisms underlying different solar-wind components. Moreover, the proximity of *Parker Solar Probe's* perihelia to the Sun allows periods of co-rotation with the solar surface and more importantly with the magnetic field that originates there. This will enable studies of the relationship between temporal variations in the wind and short-term changes at the source. Separating these from the variations due to the spacecraft motion across solar-wind structures is critical to understanding both the source behavior and the secondary development of the wind itself. Similarly, periods of quasi-co-rotation by *Solar Orbiter* will enable extended observations of the same solar region (Müller et al., 2013). These periods will help connect solar-activity evolution to changes in the wind over somewhat longer time scales. Finally, *Parker Solar Probe* will spend about 15 hours below ten solar radii, during which it will likely sample the sub-Alfvénic solar wind, allowing direct assessment of the conditions under which solar-wind heating and acceleration likely occur (e.g. Cranmer and van Ballegooijen, 2005).

These scientific goals all require, or strongly benefit from, knowing how the regions of in-situ heliospheric measurements are connected to the magnetic-field and particle source regions in the solar atmosphere. An example mapping is shown in Figure 20. It assumes a radial solar wind of constant speed between PSP and 15 R⊙, and it uses the Current Sheet Source Surface model (CSSS, developed by Zhao and Hoeksema, 1995, see also Poduval and Zhao, 2014, Poduval, 2016, Chandorkar et al., 2020) to determine the corresponding photospheric foot points. Model improvements above the source surface, employing solar-wind measurements from the PSP *Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons* (SWEAP) suite of instruments, are anticipated as those data become publicly available (Poduval et al., 2021), and DKIST's ability to quantitatively measure the magnetic field in the solar chromosphere and low solar corona will significantly improve the ability to map the connectivity from there
<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

**Figure 20** The locations of Parker Solar Probe (4–18 June 2020), mapped back to the Sun using the Current Sheet Source Surface model (CSSS, developed by Zhao and Hoeksema, 1995, see also Poduval and Zhao, 2014, Poduval, 2016, Chandorkar et al., 2020), superimposed on an SDO/HMI synoptic magnetogram (Carrington rotation 2231, downsampled to one-degree resolution). The red triangles are the map-back locations at 15 R⊙ (the CSSS source surface) assuming a constant radial solar-wind speed of 395 km s⁻¹. These are joined to their photospheric foot points (blue filled circles) by thin gray lines to indicate connectivity. The CSSS deduced open magnetic-field regions (coronal holes) are shown in white and gray in northern and southern hemispheres, respectively, with the magnetic polarity inversion line (heliospheric current sheet) marked with dark-gray plus symbols. Figure courtesy of B. Poduval.

to source regions on the Sun (Sections 5.2, 5.6). Both field extrapolation (e.g. Badman et al., 2020) and magnetohydrodynamic modeling methods (van der Holst et al., 2019; Riley et al., 2019), which currently employ moderate-resolution synoptic photospheric magnetograms, will significantly benefit from high-resolution multi-height DKIST data.

Moreover, the chemical composition of the solar wind is a key indicator of its origin (e.g. Geiss, Gloeckler, and von Steiger, 1995; Parenti et al., 2000; Brooks and Warren, 2011; Brooks, Ugarte-Urra, and Warren, 2015; Baker et al., 2015), and the first ionization potential (FIP) bias can be used to help trace that origin and establish magnetic connectivity with in-situ measurements (Section 5.1). There is evidence that active regions emerge with photospheric abundances and develop a FIP bias in the chromosphere, which then propagates into the corona (Laming, 2015). This is supported by an observed lag between magnetic-activity indices and abundance fluctuations in the solar wind at 1 AU (Wind spacecraft at L₁; Alterman and Kasper, 2019). With the synergistic capabilities of DKIST and *Solar Orbiter*, the underlying causes for these correlations can be more directly examined. In-situ instrumentation on *Solar Orbiter* is designed to measure abundance ratios, and the FIP bias measured in situ combined with chromospheric observations using DKIST can be used to more precisely assess the plasma's origin.

Similarly, there is a relationship between in-situ measurements of helium at 1 AU, solar activity, and the solar-wind speed (Aellig, Lazarus, and Steinberg, 2001; Kasper et al., 2007, 2012; Alterman and Kasper, 2019). The lowest helium abundances are observed during solar minimum and are correlated with regions of slower wind speed. The helium abundance in the fast solar wind changes little with solar cycle. The mechanisms underlying these correlations are unknown, but the combination of in-situ measurements and DKIST's unique
capabilities will, again, allow new ways to investigate this fundamental problem. Previous observations indicate that helium depletion likely occurs below the solar corona (Laming and Feldman, 2001, 2003), and models suggest that the process is sensitive to the partially ionized state of the chromospheric plasma (Laming, 2015). *Parker Solar Probe* will make helium-abundance measurements close to the Sun, reducing uncertainties in source-region identification. DKIST will not only assist with that mapping but enable key chromospheric observations to address the underlying helium-depletion processes.

The dust content of the inner solar corona is also a question of significant importance. It has practical importance both for the survival of the *Parker Solar Probe* and for the success of coronal spectropolarimetric measurements using DKIST. Observing the white light scattered by dust (F-corona) and electrons (Thomson scattering), the *Wide-field Imager for Parker Solar Probe* (WISPR) images the large-scale structure of the corona before the spacecraft passes through it. As the orbit perihelion is reduced, WISPR will help determine whether a dust-free zone exists near the Sun. Moreover, during the innermost perihelion passage of 2024, the boundary of the WISPR field-of-view will extend down to two solar radii above the solar photosphere, close to the outermost height that will be observable by DKIST (1.5 $R_⊙$, 0.5 solar radius above the limb). This proximity of the fields of view will provide a unique opportunity to test whether the diffuse coronal He I 1083 nm brightness reported by Kuhn, Penn, and Mann (1996) and Kuhn et al. (2007) can be accounted for by helium neutralization on the surface of dust particles within the hot corona, as proposed by Moise, Raymond, and Kuhn (2010). That hypothesis has been difficult to test, but it is important because the He I 1083 nm line is the only permitted infrared transition available to DKIST for spectropolarimetric observations of the corona.

If the neutral-helium signal indeed originates within the corona, new coronal Hanle magnetic-field diagnostics are possible (Dima, Kuhn, and Berdyugina, 2016). Combined with linear-polarization measurements in the Si x 1430 nm forbidden line, which is in the saturated Hanle regime under coronal conditions, polarization observations of the He I 1083 nm permitted line would enable inference of all three components of the coronal magnetic field. This would critically constrain the coronal magnetic topology, and in turn would allow improvements in the accuracy of the coronal-heliospheric models used to predict the heliospheric magnetic configuration. Such improvements are particularly important during periods in which the Sun is more active and the corona is consequently more complex than it is currently (e.g. Raouafi et al., 2016), periods likely to be encountered during the later perihelia of the *Parker Solar Probe* mission. Given the uncertainties, the lines and techniques employed by DKIST's synoptic effort (Section 6.1 above) to regularly measure the solar coronal magnetic fields in anticipation of *Parker Solar Probe* encounters will likely evolve in order to generate the best input data for coronal models. Along with the anticipated Si x 1430 nm/He I 1083 nm observations motivated above, early observations will include the forbidden Fe XIII line at 1075 nm, as the current High Altitude Observatory's *Coronal Multi-channel Polarimeter* (HAO/CoMP), but with the capability of regularly measuring the Stokes-V component. That component, accessible to DKIST because of its anticipated polarization sensitivity, will allow robust inference of the line-of-sight magnetic field.

Another important problem, the solution to which the synergistic capabilities of DKIST, *Parker Solar Probe*, and *Solar Orbiter* may significantly contribute, is the so-called open-flux problem (Linker et al., 2017; Riley et al., 2019). A significant portion of the magnetic field at the solar surface opens out into the heliosphere, forming coronal holes. This occurs where facular fields of a dominant polarity cover a large area, usually at the polar caps but also sometimes at low latitudes, and the solar-wind pressure is sufficient to open much of the field at height. The open-flux problem describes the disparity between the total open
magnetic flux at the Sun, as estimated from moderate-resolution magnetograms of coronal-hole regions (defined as regions dark in EUV and x-ray emission), and the total open flux measured in situ at 1 AU (Linker et al., 2017). The former value falls significantly below the latter. This discrepancy is critical to solar-wind and heliospheric modeling, which relies on the solar value, as determined from surface observations, for a boundary condition. The mismatch in measured values implies either that a significant amount of open flux at the Sun lies below the sensitivity of current instrumentation, that the polar magnetic flux for example is significantly underestimated due to difficulties observing it (Riley et al., 2019), or that the open flux measured at 1 AU does not map exclusively to coronal holes. The later possibility relates the open-flux problem to that of the origin of the slow solar wind, supporting suggestions that the slow solar wind arises from mixed open- and closed-field regions, possibly at the coronal-hole boundaries (e.g. Linker et al., 2017; Owens et al., 2020, and the references therein). However, it is currently uncertain what the true magnitude of the open-flux problem is, whether it persists if the in-situ measurements are made in the inner heliosphere, or whether its origin lies with field reconfiguration in the solar wind inward of 1 AU. Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter magnetic field measurements will address the in-situ uncertainties directly, within the limitations of single-point measurements (Owens et al., 2008, and the references therein), and observations with the spatial resolution and polarization sensitivity available to DKIST will reveal the amount of small-scale open flux that currently remains undetected in less, sensitive full-disk solar magnetograms. Together these will either reconcile the in-situ and remote-sensing open-flux deductions or elucidate the magnitude and perhaps the source of the discrepancy.

Finally, one of the most prominent early results of the Parker Solar Probe mission has been observations of magnetic switchbacks (Bale et al., 2019; Kasper et al., 2019; Dudok de Wit et al., 2020; Horbury et al., 2020; Mozer et al., 2020): rapid changes (over intervals ranging from seconds to tens of minutes, perhaps hours) in the radial magnetic-field orientation, away from and then back to its original orientation, with field deflections sometimes amounting to a full reversal with respect to the Parker spiral. Such field switchbacks are accompanied by rapid enhancement of the radial wind speed, and they are often called velocity spikes for that reason. The correlation between the magnetic-field perturbations and jet-like flows suggests that these events are large-amplitude Alfvénic structures being advected away from the Sun by the solar wind (Bale et al., 2019). Their origin remains uncertain. Clustering and correlation statistics of their occurrence during the first Parker Solar Probe perihelion encounter (a ten-day period, centered on perihelion at $\approx 36$ R$_{\odot}$) suggests that they are remnants of stronger events in the low corona (Dudok de Wit et al., 2020), but comparison between perihelion (one-day period at $\approx 36$ R$_{\odot}$) and pre-perihelion (one-day period five days earlier at $\approx 48$ R$_{\odot}$) intervals during the second encounter suggests that the number of switchbacks and the magnetic-field rotation angle of the field within the switchbacks increases with increasing distance from the Sun (Mozer et al., 2020). Theoretical work is also inconclusive, indicating that switchback-like structures that originate in the lower solar corona can indeed survive in the solar wind out to Parker Solar Probe distances (Tenerani et al., 2020), but also that such structures can form in the expanding solar wind itself as growing Alfvénic fluctuations (Squire, Chandran, and Meyrand, 2020).

Sudden reversals of the magnetic field and associated jet-like flows are not new to Parker Solar Probe. They have been observed over several decades in earlier in-situ measurements (see references within Horbury et al., 2020; Dudok de Wit et al., 2020). What separates the Parker Solar Probe observations from those earlier measurements is the occurrence of switchbacks in relatively slow solar-wind environments and the large number and magnitude of the events encountered. Thousands of such events have been observed by the Parker
*Solar Probe*, some in tight clusters separated by relatively event-free regions. This clustering, the significant correlation between the magnetic-field deflection observed for individual events in a cluster, and the similarity of the flows observed to those deduced for other coronal jets all support a low coronal origin (Horbury et al., 2020). This has led to the suggestion that they are folds in the magnetic field that originate as ubiquitous interchange reconnection events lower down, possibly driven by the global circulation of open flux at the Sun (Fisk and Kasper, 2020). DKIST's chromospheric and low-corona observing capabilities will contribute to the assessment of the origin of switchbacks, both by improving the determinations of the connectivity to the source regions, as discussed earlier, and by directly looking for evidence of interchange reconnection heating or jets in the source regions.

## 7. Conclusion

The science to which DKIST observations will contribute is wide ranging, from fundamental physics with technological and astrophysical applications to solar and heliospheric physics with terrestrial and exoplanet habitability implications. We have tried to outline the compelling range of possibilities here, not to restrict them but to celebrate the vista that has opened up with the advent of the National Science Foundation's four meter *Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope*. The order in which this exhilarating array of scientific objectives will be addressed will be determined by the scientific community itself, as access to DKIST will be observing-proposal based. With progress, the snapshot we presented here will age, and new compelling scientific goals will emerge. The DKIST has been designed and constructed to flexibly accommodate those for many years to come.

**Acknowledgements** This work rests on many years of sustained vision, effort, and dedication by DKIST and DKIST instrument, team scientists, engineers, and administrative, support personnel, the unwavering commitment of the National Science Foundation, and the support of the US taxpayers. It includes contributions from members of the DKIST Science Working Group and the DKIST Critical Science Plan Community, all of whom generously shared their experiences, plans, knowledge, and dreams. It is impossible at this stage to fully acknowledge each individual's contribution to those groups without error or error of omission, but they are all greatly appreciated.

The research reported herein was based in part on the National Science Foundation's *Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope* (DKIST), a facility of the National Solar Observatory (NSO). NSO is managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc.

DKIST is located on land of spiritual and cultural significance to Native Hawaiian people. The use of this important site to further scientific knowledge is done with great appreciation and respect.

**Funding** Open Access funding provided by the National Solar Observatory (NSO). The NSO is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., and is funded by the National Science Foundation.

**Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest** The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

**Publisher's Note** Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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