# 6 Appendices

## 6.1 Index to negative constructions

Table 9 recapitulates all the negative constructions we examined for Dorig, with a reference to each relevant section.

<table><caption>Table 9: The negative constructions of Dorig: recapitulation</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="4">TAMP negators</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Negative realis</td><td>'doesn't/didn't V'</td><td>s(o)-V tēmē</td><td>§2.1.5</td></tr><tr><td>Discontinuative</td><td>'no longer V'</td><td>s(o)-V nok tēmē</td><td>§2.1.7</td></tr><tr><td>Nondumitive</td><td>'not V yet'</td><td>sowse V te</td><td>§2.1.7</td></tr><tr><td>Negative future</td><td>'won't V'</td><td>(v)te V tēmē</td><td>§2.1.6</td></tr><tr><td>Negative potential</td><td>'can't V'</td><td>(v)te V late</td><td>§2.1.6</td></tr><tr><td>Prohibitives</td><td>'don't V'</td><td>tog v(a)-V ~ tog V te<br/>~ (v)te V<sub>DUP</sub> te</td><td>§2.2.2</td></tr><tr><td>Neg<sup>ve</sup> counterfactual</td><td>'if X hadn't V'</td><td>(v)te V<sub>DUP</sub> te</td><td>§2.4</td></tr></tbody><thead><tr><th colspan="4">Other negative constructions</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Non-verbal predicates</td><td>'isn't P'</td><td>P tēmē</td><td>§2.3.1</td></tr><tr><td>Negative existential</td><td>'there's no X'</td><td>X (o)bek</td><td>§2.3.3</td></tr><tr><td>Negative possession</td><td>'Y doesn't have X'</td><td>X POSS-Y (o)bek</td><td>§2.3.3</td></tr><tr><td>Negative locative</td><td>'X is not at Loc'</td><td>X (o)bek Loc</td><td>§2.3.3</td></tr><tr><td>Standalone negation</td><td>'No.'</td><td>(o)bek</td><td>§3.1.1</td></tr><tr><td>Standalone nondumitive</td><td>'Not yet.'</td><td>bek mlēti</td><td>§3.1.2</td></tr><tr><td>Standalone prohibitive</td><td>'Don't!'</td><td>tog</td><td>§3.1.3</td></tr><tr><td>Standalone dilatory proh<sup>tive</sup></td><td>'Don't yet!'</td><td>tuqa</td><td>§3.1.3</td></tr><tr><td>Apprehensive constr<sup>tion</sup><br/>(not negative proper)</td><td>'so that not V'</td><td>tekor + clause</td><td>§4.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 6.2 Negative morphemes in Torres-Banks languages

While the present study was dedicated to negative constructions in the Dorig language, the very same linguistic categories can be consistently observed across
Alexandre François

all seventeen languages of the Torres and Banks Islands. In line with a very com-
mon configuration in the region (François 2011), this near-perfect isomorphism
of structures goes along with an intense diversity of phonological forms.

The following tables, based on my firsthand notes, list all the negative mor-
phemes of Torres–Banks languages, provided here for the first time in print.
Forms are given in IPA. The letter ‘X’ refers to the predicate head – or the whole
predicate phrase (e.g. complex predicate, verb+postverb, verb+verb, etc.) that car-
ries the negative morphemes. If the head must be reduplicated, it is coded as ‘X²’.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Matti Miestamo and Ljuba Veselinova for their invitation to take
part in the present volume. I wish to thank both the editors and reviewers for
their input on earlier drafts of this chapter. This work relates to the axis *Typol-
ogy and dynamics of linguistic systems*, within the Paris-based program *Empirical
Foundations of Linguistics* (LabEx EFL, ANR 10-LABX-0083).
all seventeen languages of the Torres and Banks Islands. In line with a very com-
mon configuration in the region (François 2011), this near-perfect isomorphism
of structures goes along with an intense diversity of phonological forms.

The following tables, based on my firsthand notes, list all the negative mor-
phemes of Torres–Banks languages, provided here for the first time in print.
Forms are given in IPA. The letter ‘X’ refers to the predicate head – or the whole
predicate phrase (e.g. complex predicate, verb+postverb, verb+verb, etc.) that car-
ries the negative morphemes. If the head must be reduplicated, it is coded as ‘X²’.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Matti Miestamo and Ljuba Veselinova for their invitation to take
part in the present volume. I wish to thank both the editors and reviewers for
their input on earlier drafts of this chapter. This work relates to the axis *Typol-
ogy and dynamics of linguistic systems*, within the Paris-based program *Empirical
Foundations of Linguistics* (LabEx EFL, ANR 10-LABX-0083).
<table><caption>Table 10: Negative constructions in Torres-Banks languages: four clausal negations</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>NEGATIVE REALIS</th><th>NONDUMITIVE</th><th>NEGATIVE FUTURE</th><th>NEG<sup>VE</sup> POTENTIAL</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>'did~does not X'</th><th>'hasn't X yet'</th><th>'will not X'</th><th>'cannot X'</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hiw</td><td>tati X</td><td>tati X k<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>tat X</td><td>tat X</td></tr><tr><td>Lo-Toga</td><td>tatə X</td><td>tatə X k<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>tat X</td><td>tat hə X</td></tr><tr><td>Lehali</td><td>tɛt (nɛ) X tæ</td><td>tɛt X k<sup>w</sup>ɔ</td><td>tɛt X tæ</td><td>tɛt X vɪstæ</td></tr><tr><td>Löyöp</td><td>tɛt(X) tʃɛ</td><td>tɛ X tʃɛkp<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>(tɛ)t X tʃɛ</td><td>(tɛ)t X taŋm<sup>w</sup>as tʃɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwotlap</td><td>ɛt X tɛ</td><td>ɛt X k̂p<sup>w</sup>ɛtɛ</td><td>tit X tɛ</td><td>tit X vɪstɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Volow</td><td>ɛt X tɛ</td><td>ɛt X tɛ<sup>n</sup>gb<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>t-X tɛ</td><td>t-X vihte</td></tr><tr><td>Lemerig</td><td>(ɛ?) X (k̂p<sup>w</sup>æl) ?æ</td><td>(ɛ?) X ?æ ki?i(s)</td><td>mɛ X ?æ</td><td>(ɛ?) X ŋm<sup>w</sup>æs-?æ</td></tr><tr><td>Vera'a</td><td>(i?) X rɔs</td><td>(i?) X ?m</td><td>mɛ X rɔs</td><td>mas X ŋm<sup>w</sup>as</td></tr><tr><td>Vurës</td><td>yVtV- X</td><td>yVtV- X tɛn</td><td>mitV- X</td><td>mitV- X lɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwesen</td><td>ɛtɛ X</td><td>ɛtɛ X vɪs</td><td>mɛtɛ X</td><td>mɛtɛ X lɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mota</td><td>yate X</td><td>yate X tk̂p<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>tete X</td><td>tete X lai</td></tr><tr><td>Nume</td><td>vɛta X mi</td><td>vitis X mi</td><td>manta X</td><td>manta X lɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Dorig</td><td>s(ɔ)- X tɪmɪ</td><td>sɔwɛ X tɛ</td><td>(v)tɛ X tɪmɪ</td><td>(v)tɛ X latɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Koro</td><td>t-X wʊsmɪ</td><td>t-X wʊs mɛlɛ</td><td>v(tV)- X wʊsmɪ</td><td>t-X wɪs wʊs<br/>~ t-X wʊswʊs</td></tr><tr><td>Olrat</td><td>tɪ X wʊs</td><td>tɪ X wʊs mɛlɛ</td><td>tɪ X wʊs</td><td>tɪ X ɪs wʊs</td></tr><tr><td>Lakon</td><td>(ɣ)a(tɪ) X avʊh</td><td>yatɪ X avʊh mælɛ</td><td>(ɣ)a(tɪ) X avʊh</td><td>(ɣ)a(tɪ) X ɪs avʊh</td></tr><tr><td>Mwerlap</td><td>ti-X tɛa</td><td>ti-X tik<sup>w</sup>ɪ tɛa</td><td>m̂bit X tɛa</td><td>m̂bit X lɪ tɛa</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 10: Negative constructions in Torres-Banks languages: four clausal negations</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>NEGATIVE REALIS</th><th>NONDUMITIVE</th><th>NEGATIVE FUTURE</th><th>NEG<sup>VE</sup> POTENTIAL</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>'did~does not X'</th><th>'hasn't X yet'</th><th>'will not X'</th><th>'cannot X'</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hiw</td><td>tati X</td><td>tati X k<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>tat X</td><td>tat X</td></tr><tr><td>Lo-Toga</td><td>tatə X</td><td>tatə X k<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>tat X</td><td>tat hə X</td></tr><tr><td>Lehali</td><td>tɛt (nɛ) X tæ</td><td>tɛt X k<sup>w</sup>ɔ</td><td>tɛt X tæ</td><td>tɛt X vɪstæ</td></tr><tr><td>Löyöp</td><td>tɛ(t) X tʃɛ</td><td>tɛ X tʃɛkp<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>(tɛ)t X tʃɛ</td><td>(tɛ)t X taŋm<sup>w</sup>as tʃɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwotlap</td><td>ɛt X tɛ</td><td>ɛt X k̂p<sup>w</sup>ɛtɛ</td><td>tit X tɛ</td><td>tit X vɪstɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Volow</td><td>ɛt X tɛ</td><td>ɛt X tɛ<sup>η</sup>gb<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>t- X tɛ</td><td>t- X vihte</td></tr><tr><td>Lemerig</td><td>(ɛ?) X (k̂p<sup>w</sup>æl) ?æ</td><td>(ɛ?) X ?æ ki?i(s)</td><td>mɛ X ?æ</td><td>(ɛ?) X ŋm<sup>w</sup>æs-?æ</td></tr><tr><td>Vera'a</td><td>(i?) X rɔs</td><td>(i?) X ?m</td><td>mɛ X rɔs</td><td>mas X ŋm<sup>w</sup>as</td></tr><tr><td>Vurës</td><td>yVtV- X</td><td>yVtV- X tɛn</td><td>mitV- X</td><td>mitV- X lɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwesen</td><td>ɛtɛ X</td><td>ɛtɛ X vɪs</td><td>mɛtɛ X</td><td>mɛtɛ X lɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mota</td><td>yate X</td><td>yate X tk̂p<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>tete X</td><td>tete X lai</td></tr><tr><td>Nume</td><td>vɛta X mi</td><td>vitis X mi</td><td>manta X</td><td>manta X lɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Dorig</td><td>s(ɔ)- X tɪmɪ</td><td>sɔwɛ X tɛ</td><td>(v)tɛ X tɪmɪ</td><td>(v)tɛ X latɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Koro</td><td>t- X wʊsmɪ</td><td>t- X wʊs melɛ</td><td>v(tV)- X wʊsmɪ</td><td>t- X wɪs wʊs<br/>~ t- X wʊswʊs</td></tr><tr><td>Olrat</td><td>tɪ X wʊs</td><td>tɪ X wʊs melɛ</td><td>tɪ X wʊs</td><td>tɪ X ɪs wʊs</td></tr><tr><td>Lakon</td><td>(ɣ)a(tɪ) X avʊh</td><td>yatɪ X avʊh malɛ</td><td>(ɣ)a(tɪ) X avʊh</td><td>(ɣ)a(tɪ) X ɪs avʊh</td></tr><tr><td>Mwerlap</td><td>ti- X tɛa</td><td>ti- X tik<sup>w</sup>ɪ tɛa</td><td>m̂bit X tɛa</td><td>m̂bit X lɪ tɛa</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 11: Negative constructions in Torres-Banks languages: Prohibitive constructions and standalone negations</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Clausal prohibitive<br>'Don't do X!'</th><th>Standalone prohibitive<br>'Don't'</th><th>Negative existential<br>= Standalone negation</th><th>Stand<sup>ne</sup> nondumitive:<br>'Not yet'</th><th>Stand<sup>ne</sup> dilatory proh<sup>ve</sup><br>'Don't yet! Wait!'</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hiw</td><td>tati X<sup>2</sup> ~ takə X<sup>2</sup></td><td>təyə</td><td>təyə</td><td>tək<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>(k<sup>w</sup>e) tuk<sup>w</sup>e</td></tr><tr><td>Lo-Toga</td><td>tatə X<sup>2</sup> ~ mit X<sup>2</sup></td><td>tatəyɛ</td><td>tatəyɛ</td><td>tak<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>melak<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Lehali</td><td>sɛv X<sup>2</sup></td><td>?</td><td>tɛ́təyɛ ~ tɛ́təyɔsɔn</td><td>tək<sup>w</sup>ɔ</td><td>tək<sup>w</sup>ɔ vɔtjæ</td></tr><tr><td>Löyöp</td><td>tɛ́t X<sup>2</sup></td><td>tɔ</td><td>mɛp</td><td>gɛ́kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>gɛ́kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwotlap</td><td>(ni)təy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nitəy</td><td>tateh</td><td>tateh kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛtɛ</td><td>makɔh</td></tr><tr><td>Volow</td><td>sap X<sup>2</sup></td><td>sap</td><td>tatih</td><td>tatih tɛ<sup>n</sup>gɔb<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>magɔh</td></tr><tr><td>Lemerig</td><td>ʔɔkiʔi X<sup>2</sup> ~ ʔɛn X<sup>2</sup><br>~ (n)ʔɔy (ʔɛn) X<sup>2</sup></td><td>ʔɔkiʔi</td><td>niv</td><td>niv kiʔi(s)</td><td>ʔɔkiʔi</td></tr><tr><td>Vera'a</td><td>ʔɔvi(ʔi) X<sup>2</sup></td><td>ʔɔviʔi</td><td>yiay</td><td>yiay ʔiŋ</td><td>kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛʔi</td></tr><tr><td>Vurës</td><td>mitV= X ~ kere X<sup>2</sup><br>~ nitəy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nitəy</td><td>ɔ<sup>n</sup>diaŋ</td><td>ɔ<sup>n</sup>diaŋ tɛn</td><td>kiti</td></tr><tr><td>Mwesen</td><td>mɛtɛ X ~ nitəy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nitəy</td><td>ɛnɛŋ</td><td>ɛnɛŋ vɛs</td><td>turtikpen<sup>w</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Mota</td><td>nipea (we) X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nipea</td><td>tayai</td><td>tayai tukpen<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>tayai tukpen<sup>w</sup>e</td></tr><tr><td>Nume</td><td>təy vɛ̈- X<sup>2</sup></td><td>təy</td><td>mbek</td><td>mbek tukpen<sup>w</sup>a</td><td>tukpen<sup>w</sup>a</td></tr><tr><td>Dorig</td><td>təy v(a) ~ X ~ təy X<sup>2</sup> tɛ̈<br>~ (v)te X<sup>2</sup> tɛ̈</td><td>təy</td><td>(ɔ)<sup>n</sup>bek</td><td>~ mbek vaɛnti<br>(ɔ)<sup>n</sup>bek mlitit</td><td>tukpen<sup>w</sup>a (titit)</td></tr><tr><td>Koro</td><td>t- X<sup>2</sup> wɔs ~ t- X<sup>2</sup> lɛr</td><td>?</td><td>mbek</td><td>mbek mɛlɛ</td><td>tukpen<sup>w</sup>a</td></tr><tr><td>Olrat</td><td>miti X<sup>2</sup> lɛj</td><td>sɔw</td><td>taya</td><td>taya mɛlɛ</td><td>asval ti</td></tr><tr><td>Lakon</td><td>miti X<sup>2</sup> lɛ́:<br>(wɔ)lakor X<sup>2</sup> ~ təy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>ta</td><td>ta</td><td>ta malɛ</td><td>læwɔn tɔɔ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwerlap</td><td></td><td>tuyutu</td><td>tuyi</td><td>tik<sup>w</sup>itɛa</td><td>tuk<sup>w</sup>itɛa ~ tuk<sup>w</sup>atu</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 11: Negative constructions in Torres-Banks languages: Prohibitive constructions and standalone negations</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Clausal prohibitive<br>'Don't do X!'</th><th>Standalone prohibitive<br>'Don't'</th><th>Negative existential<br>= Standalone negation</th><th>Stand<sup>ne</sup> nondumitive:<br>'Not yet'</th><th>Stand<sup>ne</sup> dilatory proh<sup>ve</sup><br>'Don't yet! Wait!'</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hiw</td><td>tati X<sup>2</sup> ~ takə X<sup>2</sup></td><td>təyə</td><td>təyə</td><td>tək<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>(k<sup>w</sup>e) tuk<sup>w</sup>e</td></tr><tr><td>Lo-Toga</td><td>tatə X<sup>2</sup> ~ mit X<sup>2</sup></td><td>tatəyɛ</td><td>tatəyɛ</td><td>tak<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>mela<sup>k</sup>ɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Lehali</td><td>sɛv X<sup>2</sup></td><td>?</td><td>tɛ́tɛ́yɛ ~ tɛ́tɛ́yɔsɔn</td><td>tək<sup>w</sup>ɔ</td><td>tək<sup>w</sup>ɔ vɔ́tjæ</td></tr><tr><td>Löyöp</td><td>tɛ́t X<sup>2</sup></td><td>tɔ</td><td>mɛp</td><td>gɛ́kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>gɛ́kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwotlap</td><td>(ni)təy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nitəy</td><td>tateh</td><td>tateh kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛtɛ</td><td>makɔh</td></tr><tr><td>Volow</td><td>sap X<sup>2</sup></td><td>sap</td><td>tatih</td><td>tatih tɛ<sup>n</sup>gɔ<sup>w</sup>ɛ</td><td>magɔh</td></tr><tr><td>Lemerig</td><td>ʔɔkiʔi X<sup>2</sup> ~ ʔɛn X<sup>2</sup><br>~ (n)ʔɔy (ʔɛn) X<sup>2</sup></td><td>ʔɔkiʔi</td><td>niv</td><td>niv kiʔi(s)</td><td>ʔɔkiʔi</td></tr><tr><td>Vera'a</td><td>ʔɔvi(ʔi) X<sup>2</sup></td><td>ʔɔviʔi</td><td>yiay</td><td>yiay ʔiŋ</td><td>kpen<sup>w</sup>ɛi</td></tr><tr><td>Vurës</td><td>mitV= X ~ kere X<sup>2</sup><br>~ nitəy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nitəy</td><td>ɔ<sup>n</sup>diaŋ</td><td>ɔ<sup>n</sup>diaŋ tɛn</td><td>kiti</td></tr><tr><td>Mwesen</td><td>mɛtɛ X ~ nitəy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nitəy</td><td>ɛnɛŋ</td><td>ɛnɛŋ vɛs</td><td>turtikpen<sup>w</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Mota</td><td>nipea (we) X<sup>2</sup></td><td>nipea</td><td>tayai</td><td>tayai tukpen<sup>w</sup>e</td><td>tayai tukpen<sup>w</sup>e</td></tr><tr><td>Nume</td><td>təy vɛ̈- X<sup>2</sup></td><td>təy</td><td>mbek</td><td>mbek tukpen<sup>w</sup>a</td><td>tukpen<sup>w</sup>a</td></tr><tr><td>Dorig</td><td>təy v(a) ~ X ~ təy X<sup>2</sup> tɛ̈<br>~ (v)te X<sup>2</sup> tɛ̈</td><td>təy</td><td>(ɔ)<sup>n</sup>bek</td><td>~ mbek vaɛnti<br>(ɔ)<sup>n</sup>bek mlitit</td><td>tukpen<sup>w</sup>a (titit)</td></tr><tr><td>Koro</td><td>t- X<sup>2</sup> wɔs ~ t- X<sup>2</sup> lɛr</td><td>?</td><td>mbek</td><td>mbek mɛlɛ</td><td>tukpen<sup>w</sup>a</td></tr><tr><td>Olrat</td><td>miti X<sup>2</sup> lɛj</td><td>sɔw</td><td>taya</td><td>taya mɛlɛ</td><td>asval ti</td></tr><tr><td>Lakon</td><td>miti X<sup>2</sup> lɛ́:<br>(wɔ)lakor X<sup>2</sup> ~ təy X<sup>2</sup></td><td>ta</td><td>ta</td><td>ta malɛ</td><td>læwɔn tɔɔ</td></tr><tr><td>Mwerlap</td><td></td><td>tuyutu</td><td>tiyi</td><td>tik<sup>w</sup>itɛa</td><td>tuk<sup>w</sup>itɛa ~ tuk<sup>w</sup>atu</td></tr></tbody></table>
Abbreviations

<table><tr><td>1</td><td>first person</td><td>INDIC</td><td>indicative</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>second person</td><td>INTS</td><td>intensifier</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>third person</td><td>INTR</td><td>intransitive</td></tr><tr><td>1EX</td><td>1first person exclusive</td><td>IPFV</td><td>imperfective</td></tr><tr><td>1IN</td><td>1first person inclusive</td><td>IRR</td><td>irrealis</td></tr><tr><td>ADV:ANAPH</td><td>anaphoric adverb</td><td>LOC</td><td>locative</td></tr><tr><td>APPREH</td><td>apprehensive modality</td><td>NDUM</td><td>nondumitive</td></tr><tr><td>ART</td><td>article for</td><td>NEG</td><td>negative</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>common nouns</td><td>NEG:EX</td><td>negative existential</td></tr><tr><td>ART:POSS</td><td>article for</td><td>NEG:RL</td><td>negative realis</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>possessed nouns</td><td>NSG</td><td>non-singular</td></tr><tr><td>ATTR</td><td>attributive prefix</td><td>OBL</td><td>oblique</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>for adjectives</td><td>PARTIT</td><td>partitive</td></tr><tr><td>CAUS</td><td>causal linker</td><td>PERS</td><td>personal article<br>(for humans)</td></tr><tr><td>CNTFC</td><td>counterfactual</td><td>PL</td><td>plural</td></tr><tr><td>CNTV</td><td>continuative</td><td>POLIT</td><td>polite order</td></tr><tr><td>COMP</td><td>complementiser</td><td>POSS</td><td>possessive classifier</td></tr><tr><td>COORD</td><td>coordinator</td><td>POT</td><td>potential</td></tr><tr><td>DAT</td><td>dative</td><td>PRED</td><td>predicate, predicative</td></tr><tr><td>DEM</td><td>demonstrative</td><td>PRF</td><td>perfect</td></tr><tr><td>DILAT</td><td>dilatory<br>(temporal delay)</td><td>PROH</td><td>prohibitive</td></tr><tr><td>DIREC</td><td>directional</td><td>QUOT</td><td>quotative</td></tr><tr><td>DIST</td><td>distal demonstrative</td><td>REC.PST</td><td>recent past</td></tr><tr><td>DU</td><td>dual</td><td>SBJ</td><td>subject</td></tr><tr><td>DUP</td><td>reduplication</td><td>SEQ</td><td>sequential aspect</td></tr><tr><td>EXIST</td><td>existential</td><td>SG</td><td>singular</td></tr><tr><td>FOC</td><td>focus marker</td><td>STAT</td><td>stative aspect</td></tr><tr><td>FUT</td><td>future</td><td>SUB</td><td>subordinator</td></tr><tr><td>HYP</td><td>hypothetical</td><td>TAM</td><td>tense-aspect-mood</td></tr><tr><td>IAM</td><td>iamitive</td><td></td><td>marker</td></tr><tr><td>IMP</td><td>imperative</td><td>TOP</td><td>topicalizer</td></tr><tr><td>INDF</td><td>indefinite</td><td>TRI</td><td>trial number</td></tr></table>
Abbreviations

<table><tr><td>1</td><td>first person</td><td>INDIC</td><td>indicative</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>second person</td><td>INTS</td><td>intensifier</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>third person</td><td>INTR</td><td>intransitive</td></tr><tr><td>1EX</td><td>1first person exclusive</td><td>IPFV</td><td>imperfective</td></tr><tr><td>1IN</td><td>1first person inclusive</td><td>IRR</td><td>irrealis</td></tr><tr><td>ADV:ANAPH</td><td>anaphoric adverb</td><td>LOC</td><td>locative</td></tr><tr><td>APPREH</td><td>apprehensive modality</td><td>NDUM</td><td>nondumitive</td></tr><tr><td>ART</td><td>article for</td><td>NEG</td><td>negative</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>common nouns</td><td>NEG:EX</td><td>negative existential</td></tr><tr><td>ART:POSS</td><td>article for</td><td>NEG:RL</td><td>negative realis</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>possessed nouns</td><td>NSG</td><td>non-singular</td></tr><tr><td>ATTR</td><td>attributive prefix</td><td>OBL</td><td>oblique</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>for adjectives</td><td>PARTIT</td><td>partitive</td></tr><tr><td>CAUS</td><td>causal linker</td><td>PERS</td><td>personal article<br>(for humans)</td></tr><tr><td>CNTFC</td><td>counterfactual</td><td>PL</td><td>plural</td></tr><tr><td>CNTV</td><td>continuative</td><td>POLIT</td><td>polite order</td></tr><tr><td>COMP</td><td>complementiser</td><td>POSS</td><td>possessive classifier</td></tr><tr><td>COORD</td><td>coordinator</td><td>POT</td><td>potential</td></tr><tr><td>DAT</td><td>dative</td><td>PRED</td><td>predicate, predicative</td></tr><tr><td>DEM</td><td>demonstrative</td><td>PRF</td><td>perfect</td></tr><tr><td>DILAT</td><td>dilatory<br>(temporal delay)</td><td>PROH</td><td>prohibitive</td></tr><tr><td>DIREC</td><td>directional</td><td>QUOT</td><td>quotative</td></tr><tr><td>DIST</td><td>distal demonstrative</td><td>REC.PST</td><td>recent past</td></tr><tr><td>DU</td><td>dual</td><td>SBJ</td><td>subject</td></tr><tr><td>DUP</td><td>reduplication</td><td>SEQ</td><td>sequential aspect</td></tr><tr><td>EXIST</td><td>existential</td><td>SG</td><td>singular</td></tr><tr><td>FOC</td><td>focus marker</td><td>STAT</td><td>stative aspect</td></tr><tr><td>FUT</td><td>future</td><td>SUB</td><td>subordinator</td></tr><tr><td>HYP</td><td>hypothetical</td><td>TAM</td><td>tense-aspect-mood</td></tr><tr><td>IAM</td><td>iamitive</td><td></td><td>marker</td></tr><tr><td>IMP</td><td>imperative</td><td>TOP</td><td>topicalizer</td></tr><tr><td>INDF</td><td>indefinite</td><td>TRI</td><td>trial number</td></tr></table>
References

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Baker, C. L. 1970. Double negatives. *Linguistic Inquiry* 1(2). 169–186.

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Early, Robert. 1994. Lewo. In Peter Kahrel & René Van den Berg (eds.), *Typological studies in negation*, vol. 29 (Typological studies in Language), 65–92. Amsterdam: Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/tsl.29.05ear.

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Fillmore, Charles, Paul Kay & Mary Catherine O’Connor. 1988. Regularity and idiomaticity in grammatical constructions: The case of ‘let alone’. *Language* 64(3). 501–538. DOI: 10.2307/414531.

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References

Aronoff, Mark. 1994. *Morphology by itself: Stems and inflectional classes* (Linguistic inquiry monographs). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Baker, C. L. 1970. Double negatives. *Linguistic Inquiry* 1(2). 169–186.

Barbour, Julie. 2015. Jespersen cycles on Malekula. *Linguistic Typology* 19(3). 425–462. DOI: 10.1515/lingty-2015-0013.

Barðdal, Jóhanna, Elena Smirnova, Lotte Sommerer & Spike Gildea (eds.). 2015. *Diachronic construction grammar* (Construction Approaches to Language 18). Amsterdam: Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/cal.18.

Cristofaro, Sonia. 2012. Descriptive notions vs. grammatical categories: unrealized states of affairs and ‘irrealis’. *Language Sciences* 34(2). 131–146. DOI: 10.1016/j.langsci.2011.08.001.

Croft, William. 2001. *Radical Construction Grammar: Syntactic theory in typological perspective*. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dahl, Östen. 1979. Typology of sentence negation. *Linguistics* 17. 79–106. DOI: 10.1515/ling.1979.17.1-2.79.

Dahl, Östen & Bernhard Wälchli. 2016. *Letras de Hoje* 51(3). 325–348. DOI: 10.15448/1984-7726.2016.3.25454.

Dryer, Matthew S. 2013a. Negative morphemes. In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), *The world atlas of language structures online*. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://wals.info/chapter/112 (2 July, 2018).

Dryer, Matthew S. 2013b. Position of negative morpheme with respect to subject, object, and verb. In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), *The world atlas of language structures online*. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://wals.info/chapter/144.

Early, Robert. 1994. Lewo. In Peter Kahrel & René Van den Berg (eds.), *Typological studies in negation*, vol. 29 (Typological studies in Language), 65–92. Amsterdam: Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/tsl.29.05ear.

Elliott, Jennifer R. 2000. *Linguistic Typology* 4(1). 55–90. DOI: 10.1515/lity.2000.4.1.55.

Fillmore, Charles, Paul Kay & Mary Catherine O’Connor. 1988. Regularity and idiomaticity in grammatical constructions: The case of ‘let alone’. *Language* 64(3). 501–538. DOI: 10.2307/414531.

François, Alexandre. 2002. *Araki: a disappearing language of Vanuatu*, vol. 522 (Pacific Linguistics). Canberra. DOI: 10.15144/PL-522.
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François, Alexandre. 2004. Chains of freedom: Constraints and creativity in the macro-verb strategies of mwotlap. In Isabelle Bril & Françoise Ozanne-Rivierre (eds.), *Complex predicates in Oceanic languages: studies in the dynamics of binding and boundness*, vol. 29 (Empirical Approaches to Language Typology), 107–143. Berlin, Boston: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI: doi:10.1515/9783110913286.107.

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François, Alexandre. 2014. Trees, waves and linkages: models of language diversification. In Claire Bowern & Bethwyn Evans (eds.), *The Routledge handbook of historical linguistics*, 161–189. New York: Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/9781315794013.ch6.

François, Alexandre. 2015. The ins and outs of “up” and “down”: Disentangling the nine geocentric space systems of Torres and Banks languages. In Alexandre François, Sébastien Lacrampe, Michael Franjieh & Stefan Schnell (eds.), *The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity*, vol. 5 (Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia), 137–195. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics.

François, Alexandre. 2016a. The coding of (in)definiteness in northern Vanuatu: Anaphora, specificity, topicality. In *8th Austronesian and Papuan languages*
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François, Alexandre. 2005a. A typological overview of Mwotlap, an Oceanic language of Vanuatu. *Linguistic Typology* 9(1). 115–146. DOI: 10.1515/lity.2005.9.1.115.

François, Alexandre. 2005b. Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen northern Vanuatu languages. *Oceanic Linguistics* 44(2). 443–504. DOI: 10.1353/OL.2005.0034.

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François, Alexandre. 2016b. The historical morphology of personal pronouns in northern Vanuatu. *Faits de langues* 47. 25–60. DOI: 10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000003.

François, Alexandre. 2017. The economy of word classes in Hiw, Vanuatu: Grammatically flexible, lexically rigid. *Studies in Language* 41(2). 294–357. DOI: 10.1075/sl.41.2.03fra.

François, Alexandre. 2019. A proposal for conversational questionnaires. In Aimée Lahaussois & Marine Vuillermet (eds.), *Methodological tools for linguistic description and typology* (Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication 16), 155–196. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.

François, Alexandre. 2021. *Teanu dictionary (Solomon Islands)*, vol. 15. 1–1877. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5653063.

François, Alexandre. Forthcoming(a). Explicit apprehensions, implicit instructions: An indirect speech act in the grammar. In Marine Vuillermet, Eva Schultze-Berndt & Martina Faller (eds.), *A typology of apprehensives*. Language Science Press.

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Hyslop, Catriona. 2001. *The Lolovoli dialect of the North-East Ambae language, Vanuatu* (Pacific Linguistics 515). Canberra: Australian National University.

Kalyan, Siva & Alexandre François. 2018. Freeing the comparative method from the tree model: A framework for historical glottometry. In Ritsuko Kikusawa & Lawrence A. Reid (eds.), *Let's talk about trees: Genetic relationships of languages and their phylogenetic representation* (Senri Ethnological Studies 98), 59–89. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.

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Löbner, Sebastian. 1989. German “schon” – “erst” – “noch”: An integrated analysis. *Linguistics and Philosophy* 12(2). 167–212.

Maiden, Martin. 2005. Morphological autonomy and diachrony. In Geert Booij & Jaap van Marle (eds.), *Yearbook of morphology* 2004, 137–175. Dordrecht: Springer.

Malau, Catriona. 2016. *A grammar of Vurës, Vanuatu* (Pacific Linguistics 651). Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton. DOI: 10.1515/9781501503641.

Miestamo, Matti. 2005. *Standard negation: The negation of declarative verbal main clauses in a typological perspective* (Empirical Approaches to Language Typology 31). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI: 10.1515/9783110197631.

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Miestamo, Matti. 2013a. Subtypes of asymmetric standard negation. In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), *The world atlas of language structures online*. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info/chapter/114.

Miestamo, Matti. 2013b. Symmetric and asymmetric standard negation. In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), *The world atlas of language structures online*. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info/chapter/113.

Miestamo, Matti. 2017. Negation. In Alexandra Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (eds.), *The Cambridge handbook of linguistic typology*, 405–439. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/9781316135716.013.
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Moser, Elena Vera. 2018. *Answers to polarity questions: A typological study*. Stockholm: Stockholms Universitet. (MA Thesis).

Moyse-Faurie, Claire. 2018. Grammaticalization in Oceanic languages. In Heiko Narrog & Bernd Heine (eds.), *Grammaticalization from a typological perspective* (Oxford Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics 31), 282–308. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Olsson, Bruno. 2013. *Iamitives: Perfects in Southeast Asia and beyond*. Stockholm University. (MA thesis).

Rangelov, Tihomir. 2022. Postverbs in Oceanic languages: Nuclear serial verb constructions as a locus of grammaticalization. In Paper read at 14th Austronesian and Papuan Languages and Linguistics Conference (APLL14). Berlin.

Roversi, Giovanni & Åshild Næss. 2019. Jespersen in the Reef Islands: Single versus bipartite negation in Äiwoo. *Oceanic Linguistics* 58(2). 324–352.

Schnell, Stefan. 2011. *A grammar of Vera'a: An Oceanic language of North Vanuatu*. Kiel: Universität Kiel. (Doctoral dissertation).

Tryon, Darrell. 1976. *New Hebrides languages: An internal classification* (Pacific Linguistics C-50). Canberra: Australian National University.

van der Auwera, Johan. 1993. “already” and “still”: Beyond duality. *Linguistics and Philosophy* 16(6). 613–665.

van der Auwera, Johan. 1998. Phasal adverbials in the languages of Europe. In Johan van der Auwera (ed.), *Adverbial Constructions in the Languages of Europe*, 25–145. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI: 10.1515/9783110802610.25.

van der Auwera, Johan. 2009. The Jespersen cycles. In Elly van Gelderen (ed.), *Cyclical change*, 35–71. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/la.146.05auw.

van der Auwera, Johan & Ludo Lejeune. 2013. The prohibitive. In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), *The world atlas of language structures online*. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://wals.info/chapter/71.

van der Klok, Jozina & Lisa Matthewson. 2015. Distinguishing already from perfect aspect: A case study of Javanese wis. *Oceanic Linguistics* 54(1). 172–205. DOI: 10.1353/OL.2015.0007.

van Baar, Theodorus Martinus. 1997. *Phasal polarity*. University of Amsterdam. (Doctoral dissertation). https://hdl.handle.net/11245/1.125123.
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Veselinova, Ljuba. 2013b. Negative existentials: A cross-linguistic study. *Italian Journal of Linguistics*. Special issue on *existential constructions* 25. 107–146. https://www.italian-journal-linguistics.com/app/uploads/2021/05/4_Veselinova.pdf.

Veselinova, Ljuba & Maud Devos. 2021. NOT YET expressions as a lexicogrammatical category in Bantu languages. In Raija Kramer (ed.), *The expression of phasal polarity in African languages*, 445–496. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI: 10.1515/9783110646290-019.

Vossen, Frens & Johan van der Auwera. 2014. The Jespersen cycles seen from Austronesian. In Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen & Jacqueline Visconti (eds.), *The diachrony of negation*, vol. 160 (Studies in Language Companion Series), 47–82. Amsterdam: Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/slcs.160.03vos.

Vuillermet, Marine, Eva Schultze-Berndt & Martina Faller. Forthcoming. Introduction: Apprehensional constructions in a crosslinguistic perspective. In *Apprehensional constructions in a cross-linguistic perspective* (Studies in Diversity Linguistics). Berlin: Language Science Press.