<figure><img src="image_49.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Experimental setup of the rice-fish farming (left: Tsiafahy; right: Fihaonana)</figcaption></figure>

The efficiency of rice-fish farming and the benefits brought by fish were demonstrated from these on farm trials (Mortillaro *et al.*, 2018, Raminoharisoa *et al.*, 2018). Indeed, despite a refuge channel covering about 10 percent of the rice plot surface (Kutty, 1987), the rice production increase reached 19 percent after a dry, unfavorable, season (2016-2017) and up to 31 percent after a wet, favorable, season (2017-2018; Figure 3), thus largely compensating for the 10 percent surface loss. However, in Fihaonana, the fish feeding had no significant impact on rice, despite a seemingly high rice yield (Figure 3).

New insights on the integration of aquaculture with agriculture came up from the use of crop residues and raw materials from the agroecosystem. From a 30 farms survey, no correlation between the amount of zebu manure and rice productivity was recorded (Raminoharisoa *et al.*, 2018). Such findings highlight the diversity of practices (e.g. Intensive Rice System-SRI, traditional rice culture and off-season rice systems), soils quality and agro-environmental conditions, where standardization of inputs and techniques do not provide the expected results.

<figure><img src="image_50.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3:** Rice yields from Tsiafahy (2016-2017 and 2017-2018; left) and Fihaonana (2017-2018; right).</figcaption></figure>
Fish reared in extensive condition are generally not fed and it is also common that no fertilizing input is applied. Therefore, fish rely on their natural feed in the rice field, especially the insects that can be harmful for rice as well as algae and weeds that compete with rice for nutrients (Moreau, 1972). In extensive conditions, fish production remains small (39 to 59 kg/ha/cycle; Table 1) and no difference was recorded in fish weight and yield from Tsiafahy experiments (Figure 4, Table 1). However, feeding fish with qualitative inputs of termitary, cow dung and food remains, has significantly improved fish weight and yield, reaching 97 kg/ha/cycle (Figure 4, Table 1).

Survival is also quite low, with a maximum of 40 percent in Fihaonana fed plots (Table 1). Similar results in fish weight, yields and survival in Tsiafahy suggest that fish carrying capacity of rice plots was reached in such extensive conditions. It can be suggested that stocking density in such depleted systems was too high, leading to low survival, but it is also locally acknowledged that the size of stocked fish and the stocking/transport practices could be improved to increase fish survival.

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Fish productivity of integrated rice fish farming in Tsiafahy (2016-2017 and 2017-2018) and Fihaonana (2017-2018; without or with feed)</caption><thead><tr><th>Site</th><th>Campaign</th><th>Cycle (days)</th><th>Fish yield (kg/ha)</th><th>Survival (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Tsiafahy</td><td>2016-2017</td><td>100</td><td>39</td><td>38</td></tr><tr><td>2017-2018</td><td>89</td><td>48</td><td>39</td></tr><tr><td>Fihaonana w/o feed</td><td>2017-2018</td><td>98</td><td>59</td><td>32</td></tr><tr><td>Fihaonana w/ feed</td><td>2017-2018</td><td>98</td><td>97</td><td>40</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_51.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4:** Fish weight (g) from Tsiafahy (2016-2017 and 2017-2018; left) and Fihaonana (2017-2018; right); P2, P3 and P5 refers to the three rice plots stocked with fish (Figure 2). Blue line refers to stocking weight which was of 2.5 g on average.</figcaption></figure>

Although small yields were recorded in these experiments, intensification with fertilizers and feeds can improve yields up to 500 kg/ha/cycle (avg. 100 days). In that context, trophic characterization of rice-fish systems will be needed to improve the knowledge on ecosystem dynamics as well as on fish and rice yields determinants, by considering the whole diversity of situations encountered in the Malagasy highlands: rice culture practices, climate, environment, soils, feed and/or fish quality.

Finally, although traditional rice-fish farming has been practised in Madagascar for more than a century, the low adoption rate of improved technologies will need to be better understood through socio-economical surveys. In such extensive systems, the fish density should be adapted and kept to a minimum for the model to remain economically viable (less than 1 fish / 4 m²).
For an average 400 m² rice plot, raising bunds and digging a fish refuge channel cost EUR 16, while the price of a 2 cm-long common carp fry is EUR 0.05 per unit (EUR 6.25 at a 1 fish / 4 m² density), leading to an initial investment of approximately EUR 22 for 400 m² (Randrianetsy, personal communication, 2019). Considering that the average monthly income for a 5 people household is EUR 21 (Andrianantoandro, 2015), and that the daily income for an average farmer is EUR 1, the initial investment to start rice-fish farming is greater than one month of labor. Moreover, because of the climate seasonality in the highlands, this investment is needed at the beginning of the lean season.

Furthermore, fry is often difficult to access for farmers, given the remoteness of rice plots and the poor road infrastructure. Aquaculture development projects have therefore focused part of their activities on giving farmers autonomy in fry production by promoting and supporting small-scale hatcheries (APDRA, 2016). This proved quite successful as many small-scale hatcheries can now be observed in the different regions where projects had interventions, but fry production remains low with an average of 2 000-3 000 individuals from a single female. The development of rice-fish and overall aquaculture production in Madagascar, is therefore limited by the access and high cost of fry as well as the limited availability inputs such as the high-quality feeds and fertilizers.

Further development of rice-fish farming and aquaculture in Madagascar will have to focus on reducing costs for farmers to encourage adoption and facilitate risk taking. Many pathways are available to achieve these goals, in particular the improvement of the breeding techniques to increase the survival and quality of early stage fry (use of feed for breeders and fry, improve breeding ponds, avoid predators etc.). New approaches will also have to focus on the integration of rice-fish farming within the agroecosystem and on the evaluation of the organic resources allocation trade-offs.

Optimization of rice-fish farming practices will also need to consider polyculture systems by combining fish species that have supplementary feeding habits and making use of organic inputs. Finally, ecological slope continuum within rainfed hillsides and irrigated leveled rice will have to be characterized, given the similarity of the ecological processes (bioturbation, soil dynamics, pest control) between both and opportunities to recycle nutrients between one and the other one through runoff.

<figure><img src="image_52.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** Rice fish farming popularization leaflet</figcaption></figure>

©Mortillaro and Randrianandrasana
**4. Conclusion**

Altogether, rice-fish farming promoted through participatory research with farmers can help to diversify farm production and increase the local supply of fish and other aquatic products. This will in turn enhance food security and nutrition, in accordance with the cultural heritage of Madagascar. Rice fish farming improve also farmers’ income, but the high investment cost and need to have access to appropriate land areas may lead to the exclusion to some stakeholders, especially the middle-to-lower classes, in particular in peri-urban areas where land availability is a critical issue (Dabbadie and Andria-Mananjara, 2016; Fertin, 2018). Moreover, gender inequities among rural communities with regards to land ownership and access to capacity building remains an issue (Randrianandrasana and Randrianetsy, 2019). This is particularly visible in the fish farming development projects where women beneficiaries represent only for 13 percent of the total, although 80 percent of women are involved in the decision-making at the household level (Vololoharimanana, 2018). Improving tilapia farming in these areas, given the lower investment production cost compared to common carp may help to protect and improve livelihoods, equity and social well-being (Fertin, 2018). However, the building cost of rice-fish plots still represents more than 70 percent of the budget and further prospect will need to reduce it. Increasing the efficiency of the system by improving the knowledge on the trophic dynamics of this aquatic ecosystem and promoting ecosystem services (Figure 5).

**5. References**

**Andriamparany, S.** 2010. *Le rôle des dispositifs de concertation et d'information dans la gouvernance de la filière du riz à Madagascar: cas de la plateforme de concertation pour le pilotage de la filière riz et de l'observatoire du riz*. Mémoire de master 2 professionnel: Économie rurale et stratégies d'entreprises agroalimentaire: Université Montpellier 1, 110 p.

**Andrianantoandro, V. T.** 2015. L'agriculture familiale malgache entre survie et développement: organisation des activités, diversification et différenciation des ménages agricoles de la région des Hautes Terres. *Revue Tiers Monde* 221: 69-88.

**APDRA.** 2016. Aménager une écloserie paysanne. *La Voix des Rizipisciculteurs* 32 : 3-4.

**Dabbadie, L. & Andria-Mananjara, D. E.** 2016. *Synthèse de diagnostic participatif genre/pauvreté dans deux villages de l'Analamanga*. Projet AMPIANA, APDRA, Cirad, FOFIFA, Antananarivo, Madagascar. 22 p.

**Dabbadie, L., Mikolasek, O.** 2017. Rice-fish farming in the Malagasy Highlands, twenty years after the FAO Projects. *FAO Aquaculture Newsletter* 56: 33-37.

**Edwards, P.** 2019. History of integrated agriculture-aquaculture (IAA) and agroecology in aquaculture. In L. Dabbadie, A. Stankus & M. Halwart. *Report of the Special Session on Advancing Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture through Agroecology, Montpellier, 25 August 2018*. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report. Rome, FAO.

**FAO.** 2018. *The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 - Meeting the sustainable development goals*. FAO, Rome.

**Fertin, L.** 2018. *Processus et conditions d'émergence des différents systèmes d'élevage piscicole sur les Hautes Terres de Madagascar*. Thèse de mémoire de fin d'études. Projet AMPIANA, APDRA, Antananarivo, Madagascar.

**Fujisaka, S.** 1990. Rainfed lowland rice: building research on farmer practice and technical knowledge. *Agriculture, ecosystems & environment* 33(1): 57-74.

**Greenland, D. J.** 1997. *The sustainability of rice farming*. Cab International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.
**Kutty, M. N.** 1987. *Fish culture in rice fields*. African Regional Aquaculture Centre (ARAC) Lectures, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, for the Senior Aquaculturalists Course. FAO, Rome.

**MacKay, K. T.** 1995. Rice-fish culture in China. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada.

**Matsuzaki, S. I. S., Usio, N., Takamura, N. & Washitani, I.** 2007. Effects of common carp on nutrient dynamics and littoral community composition: roles of excretion and bioturbation. *Fundamental and Applied Limnology/Archiv für Hydrobiologie* 168(1): 27-38.

**Moreau, J.** 1972. Perspectives offertes par la rizipisciculture à Madagascar. *Terre malgache, Tany Malagasy* 14: 227-242.

**Mortillaro, J. M., Raminoharisoa, E. A. & Randriamihanta, T. H.** 2018. La rizipisciculture : un modèle agroécologique innovant et efficient. *Journal de l'agro-écologie, GSDM* 4: 17-19.

**Mortillaro, J. M. & Randrianandrasana, M. I.** 2019. *La rizipisciculture : une pratique agroécologique durable*, Projet AMPIANA, APDRA, Antananarivo, Madagascar.

**Rakotomalala, T., Andriamanana, O., Mortillaro, J. M., Andria-Mananjara, D. E., & Dabbadie, L.** 2017). *Losses and wastes of the freshwater fish sector in Antananarivo, Madagascar*. World Aquaculture Society Conference, 26 June 2017, Cape Town, South Africa.

**Raminoharisoa, E. A., Mortillaro, J. M., Andria-Mananjara, D. E., Raliniaina, M., Martel, P., Andriamarolaza, R. & Dabbadie, L.** 2018. *Impact des aménagements et de la fertilisation/alimentation sur la productivité des systèmes rizipiscicoles*. 10ème Foire de l'élevage et des productions agricoles, 3 Mai 2018. Antananarivo, Madagascar.

**Randrianandrasana, M. I. & Randrianetsy, P.** 2019. Impact social de la rizipisciculture, Projet AMPIANA, APDRA 2019, Antananarivo, Madagascar.

**Razafiarisoa, B., Nirina, I., Ramaromanana, O. & Klaus, D.** 2009. Situation des ménages de la ville de Nosy Be dans le contexte de la crise sociopolitique. UN Multi-cluster Rapid Assessment Mechanism (McRAM) Nosy Be, Madagascar.

**Ritvo, G., Kochba, M. & Avnimelech, Y.** 2004. The effects of common carp bioturbation on fishpond bottom soil. *Aquaculture* 242(1-4): 345-356.

**The World Bank.** 2019. Poverty and Equity Database [online]. The World Bank, Washington, United States of America. [Cited 19 September 2019] *povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/MDG*

**Tsuruta, T., Yamaguchi, M., Abé, S. I. & Iguchi, K. I.** 2011. Effect of fish in rice-fish culture on the rice yield. *Fisheries Science* 77(1): 95-106.

**Vololoharimanana, I.** 2018, Diagnostic sur la pauvreté et le genre dans les zones d'intervention du projet AMPIANA. Projet AMPIANA, APDRA, Antananarivo, Madagascar.
# BIOMIMICRY IN AQUACULTURE – CONNECTING SCIENCE AND PRACTICE

Krishna R. Salin

## 1. Introduction

In response to both the local and international demand for food fish, profit-driven commercial aquaculture rapidly expanded throughout Southeast Asia from the late 1970s, fueled by the seed availability from newly-developed, science-based hatchery technologies. Since the government involvement in the initial era of aquaculture development was minimal, the credits for expansion of the industry should go to the innovative entrepreneurs who pioneered new aquaculture practices. However, the undisciplined growth of commercial aquaculture had its consequences as it impacted the natural environment negatively. The sector itself suffered from several bacterial and viral diseases which slowed down its growth. Resource limitations such as land, water, and other essential inputs in the 21st century are gradually declining the growth of the industry further when it is most needed to supply fish to meet the demand of a growing human population. Given this situation, the emergence of sustainable aquaculture technologies assumes great importance, particularly in Asia which produces almost 90 percent of the global aquaculture production.

## 2. The effluent challenge

The major challenge posed by intensive aquaculture is the accumulation of organic debris that are often discharged into the surrounding water resources leading to largescale pollution and eutrophication. The effluents from intensive aquaculture with high stocking densities typically contain dissolved and suspended solids, and nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus that play a major role in eutrophication (Salin and Gabriel, 2018). Proper treatment of aquaculture effluents, particularly from the coastal shrimp farms, has always been a challenge. Intensive culture systems that involve high stocking and feeding rates face problems as a result of bad water quality, often leaving the cultured species under stress and vulnerable to diseases. There has been a heavy dependence on the use of chemicals and antibiotics to counter the threats from diseases owing to bad water quality (Ozbay et al., 2014). In the early years of development, the shrimp farm effluents were pumped out after harvest by forceful jets of water that have caused considerable damage leading to eutrophication of water bodies. Modern practices involve microbial applications in farms to aid in digesting organic matter as this has many advantages.

## 3. Biomimicry

Biomimicry is the imitation of natural systems to emulate new models that are beneficial to humankind and the ecosystem. The application of biomimicry in aquaculture had emerged as a concept in Thailand when farmers innovated in their pursuit to seek solutions for the increasing challenges in intensive shrimp farming. Biomimicry in aquaculture, often termed aquamimicry, has become popular by collective farmer efforts and has evolved mostly based on extensive farm trials rather than based on a systematic scientific trial. Thus, this appears to be a 'practical' technology that is tested in the farmer fields.

The concept of biomimicry - the science that studies nature's models and then imitates nature to design eco-friendly production systems - has been inspired by planners, designers, and producers. Benyus (2002) identified nine principles underlying nature-mimicking designs. According to her, the nature (1) runs on sunlight, (2) uses only the energy it needs, (3) fits form to function, (4) recycles everything, (5) rewards cooperation, (6) banks on diversity, (7) demands local expertise, (8) curbs excesses from within, and (9) taps the power of limits. She recommended that if people design their industry and build
environment according to these principles, they would be living within the limits of carrying capacity of nature and will achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

Mimicking nature in the aquaculture production process means the development of open and complex aquaculture systems consisting of a large number of subsystems with several feedback loops. These feedback loops consist of phytoplankton, zooplankton, bacteria, micro-grazers, fish, feeds and the abiotic environment. The subsystems interact in a nonlinear way to produce synergistic effects by reducing metabolic products such as NH₃, improving feed efficiency and immune system of fish and shrimp. However, such an aquaculture system functions far away from equilibrium and needs constant inputs (energy) and human attention to manage it without collapses.

## 4. Aquamimicry – A new farming model

The protocols emerged as part of aquamimicry technique are primarily based on the application of microbial inputs to promote digestion of pond soil organic matter thereby assisting in the production of rich soups of microinvertebrates, dominated by copepods. These form part of the natural starter diet for the shrimp postlarvae stocked in the pond. Primarily, as a system that mimics nature, aquamimicry does not use many inputs for pond preparation as is being done in the case of a conventional intensive shrimp farming protocol currently in practice.

As a concept, aquamimicry absorbs many principles from the biofloc technology that has enabled highly intensive production by the manipulation of bacterial diversity in a closed, zero water exchange aquaculture system. Biofloc often follows a complex production protocol that relies on the dynamics of some of the naturally occurring heterotrophic bacteria to regulate water quality and to promote the conversion of organic biomass into the useful protein that can be assimilated by the shrimp or fish cultured (Avnimelech, 2014; Taw, 2014). The stability of the Biofloc system depends on the maintenance of carbon-nitrogen ratios appropriate to the cultured animal and the environment.

The aquamimicry concept, however, is based on the application of probiotic bacteria dominated by *Bacillus* spp., and aided by their synergistic action with graded and fermented rice bran as prebiotic supplements to enhance the action of probiotic bacteria, leading to a favourable ‘synbiotic’ environment in which the shrimp grow faster and healthier (Romano 2017). This synergistic action aids to develop consistent blooms of zooplankton dominated by copepods, mostly mimicking the natural estuarine environment in which the shrimp postlarvae thrive to complete a significant phase of their natural lifecycle.

## Farm design

The aquamimicry protocol encompasses a unique recirculating pond design that includes a rectangular/square shaped grow-out (production) pond attached to a pond water treatment system (Figures 1 and 2). The latter includes a main sedimentation pond (anoxic pond) and a series of clarifying pond areas with baffle wall partitions.
<figure><img src="image_53.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** The aquamimicry farming model. The green spirals indicate aerator placement; grey lines indicate sludge pumping, and blue lines/arrows are baffle partitions/water movement.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_54.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Mr Daecha Bunluedej, President of the Farmers' Cooperative at Sam Rayod in Prachuapkirikhan Province of Thailand, at his aquamimicry model farm.</figcaption></figure>

The treatment system takes just about the same area as that of the grow-out pond. There is no water exchange in the grow-out pond as the solid sediments pumped from the center of the grow-out pond
passes through the anoxic pond and the sedimentation system where the water is clarified with the help of live fish, molluscs, and seaweeds before the water is returned to the grow-out pond by gravity flow. This system has been found to maintain stable water quality in the grow-out pond while preventing a major share of the foul water from entering the natural water bodies surrounding the farm.

A noticeable feature of pond construction includes the preparation of a central sludge pit from where the solid sediments are pumped out during culture, with the frequency varying from several times daily to a few times in a week based on the level of water turbidity. Typical sizes of the production ponds range from 0.5-1.0 ha in area. Smaller ponds of 0.5 ha (71 x 71 m) are preferable because of their better efficiency in placing aerators to circulate water towards the central sump and lower energy consumption (Figure 3). The depth of the ponds range from 1.2-2.0 m, while in deeper ponds the shrimp stocking density can be increased to 100-150 PL/m3. In smaller ponds, four long-arm aerators are adequate to provide high dissolved oxygen and optimum circulation of water. Simultaneous operation of all the aerators is often necessary only at the time of sludge pumping for adequate circulation.

<figure><img src="image_55.png" /></figure>

©Salin KR

<figure><img src="image_56.png" /></figure>

©Salin KR

<caption>**Figure 3:** (A) The aquamimicry pond under preparation. (B) The pond under operation.</caption>

## Central sludge sump

The central sump with a diameter of 10-12 m and 2 m depth is dug precisely at the center of the pond (Figure 4). The pond bottom gradually slopes (3-5 percent) towards this sump. Inside of the sump slopes steeply towards a central pit (60-80 cm diameter) from where the solid sediments are pumped using a
sludge pump though a PVC pipe of 4 inches diameter that leads to the anoxic pond placed adjacent to the production pond. The pond dikes and the central sump are lined by HDPE geomembrane that facilitates dike consolidation and smooth surface for pumping the sludge.

<figure><img src="image_57.png" /></figure>

©Salin KR

<caption>**Figure 4:** (A) The digging of a central pit. (B) The lined central sump with piping ready.</caption>

## The water treatment system

The treatment system is of 0.3-0.5 ha in area, and consists of the sedimentation pond (anoxic pond), which is a rectangular pond of 2 m depth, but with a deeper area of 4 m depth at the center that receives the sludge pumped directly from production pond (Figures 5 and 6). Fish such as red tilapia hybrid, catfish or milkfish are stocked in this pond at a density of 1 fish/m². No aerators are placed in this pond, and the denitrification process releasing gaseous N₂ appears to occur in this pond which is aided by the addition of fermented rice bran as carbon source. The presence of fish also appears to help in regulating the water quality.

## Clarifying ponds

The water from the anoxic pond then passes into the clarifying ponds with a few compartments separated by baffle walls (made of HDPE liner material). Live horse mussels (*Arcuatula arcuatula*), and seaweeds are planted in these compartments, which help to effectively reduce the suspended solids before the water circulates back to production pond. Tilapia are stocked at 1-2 fish/m² while for mussel culture, 200 ropes of 4 m long/ha or stakes are placed as substrates (Figure 6). Liquid fermented rice bran (LFRB) is added at 1 ppm to the treatment ponds, and often about two aerators are placed to facilitate water movement and to develop zooplankton, avoiding microalgae production. Every time the sludge is pumped from production pond to the treatment pond, water also flows back into the production pond by gravity at a rate of approximately 20 m³/hour.

Pumping is involved only at one stage of the production flow, for pumping sludge into the anoxic pond, while the rest of the water flow follows gravity. Therefore, the water treatment system does not consume a significant amount of energy in this system.
<figure><img src="image_58.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** The sedimentation pond with a deeper central area.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_59.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6:** (A) sludge from grow-out pond pumped to the sedimentation tank. (B) Stakes used to grow mussels in the pond for water treatment (C) Mussel growth on the substratum.</figcaption></figure>

## Aquamimicry farming protocols

The farming protocols associated with the aquamimicry technique have been developed by trial and error basis as a farmer innovation in Thailand, and are based on the principle of developing live food in ponds just the same way as it exists in the natural feeding grounds of shrimp. This involves the use of microbially digested particles of rice bran and/or soybean meal in a fermentation medium aided by probiotics. The fermented meal is fed to pond water to create an appropriate medium for microinvertebrates to flourish in the pond environment. Graded rice bran and soybean grits are sieved to about 500 µm size and fermented using a commercial bacterial formulation before applying to the ponds. The detailed procedures and inputs are described in the following sections.
## Pond preparation

Standard protocols for pond preparation can be followed in the case of aquamimicry, except the use of any inorganic chemical for the elimination of invertebrates or other pests from the pond. It is good to have pond soil with less than 3 percent of organic carbon, as higher stocking densities would not be suitable in soils with high carbon content. Initially, tea seed cake (20 ppm) is applied to eliminate small fish from the ponds. The pond is then filled up to the level of 80-100 cm with clean seawater filtered through 200-300 µm mesh. Specific preparations of microbes are available that can stabilize the pH based on the initial soil pH value.

To develop abundant blooms of copepods, liquid fermented rice bran (LFRB) is to be applied to the pond at 400-500 kg/ha (40-50 ppm). Fermentation of rice bran is done after grinding good quality rice bran and then sieving it through 500 µm mesh before mixing with probiotic bacteria. It is crucial to remove big particles from rice bran, because the accumulation of these particles may cause the development of black biofilm at the pond bottom. To one kilogramme of sieved rice bran 5-10 litres of water is added. If freshwater is used, 1-3 percent of salt is added. A probiotic bacterial preparation is added to this mixture at 1-2 g per 50-100 litres of water and 10 kg of rice bran for fermentation. The pH is adjusted to about 7.0 by adding powdered calcium carbonate. The fermentation process takes about 24 hours under constant aeration (Figure 7). If there are more coarse particles, then the fermented bran should be sieved before application.

<figure><img src="image_60.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7:** (A) Mixing the ingredients for fermentation. (B) Fermented rice bran ready for application. (C) Sieving the fermented rice bran to remove coarse particles.</figcaption></figure>

The LFRB is applied to the pond at 30-50 kg/ha (3-5 ppm) daily or until the Secchi disc turbidity reaches 30-50 cm. LFRB is applied near the aerators so that it quickly disperses throughout the pond. Dissolved oxygen should be maintained above 5 ppm, and the pH between 7.5 and 8.0. Rich blooms of copepods develop within 10 to 15 days. Imhoff cone readings of 5 to 20 ml/l are often observed during this period (Figure 8). Two aerators are adequate to be operating at this time to maintain mild circulation. Along with copepods, there are also other micro-invertebrates such as blood worms and sandworms that develop in the pond and provide excellent nutrition to the shrimp immediately after stocking. During the initial days, it may be necessary to carry out a chain-dragging operation at the pond bottom to prevent the formation of biofilm and toxic gas formation at the soil-water interface.
<figure><img src="image_61.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8:** (A) Copepods as observed in an Imhoff cone. (B) The boat for chain dragging.</figcaption></figure>

## Stocking of shrimp postlarvae

The aquamimicry protocol helps to avoid a nursery phase as the postlarval (PL) shrimp can feed on natural food soon after stocking in the production pond that significantly enhances their initial growth. The optimum size of shrimp PL for stocking is when they are 6 to 8 days old (PL-6 to PL-8), as larger sizes often face higher mortalities during transportation. The post-larvae are subject to a stress test in freshwater before stocking. Stocking densities vary from 20-140 PL/m², but densities around 100 PL/m² is optimum. Chain-dragging can be done very gently (covering not more than 25 percent of the pond area per day) during the first 15 days of the stocking to release the sludge towards the central sump. Probiotic bacteria for faster digestion of organic matter are also added at this time.

## Pond management

The pond management protocols involve feeding the postlarvae, maintenance of water quality, and management of biosolids (sludge).

### Feeding

The postlarvae begin feeding the copepod blooms immediately after stocking. After 5-7 days of stocking, fermented soybean meal (FSy) can also be included in the menu if there is no commercial pellet feed provided to shrimp. Fermented soybean meal is prepared by fermenting 1 kg soy in 1 litre of water, with the addition of 1-3 percent salt in the case of freshwater. Full fat soy grits, defatted soy, or dehulled soy with protein content ranging from 45-50 percent are used for fermentation. Probiotic bacteria preparation at 1-2 g in 10 litres of water with 10 kg of soy product is used for fermentation. The pH is adjusted to nearly 7.0 by addition of calcium carbonate. The mixture is placed in a warm place away from sunlight, and the fermentation process takes about 12 hours when it is ready for feeding.

The FSy is applied at 1-3 kg of sieved soybean meal for every 100 000 PL/day using feeding trays. When the shrimp grow to about 1 g size, the FSy is given as in Table 1, about 2-4 times daily, in feeding trays (4 trays per ha). The feeding rates are adjusted based on the shrimp's consumption in the trays.
<table><caption>**Table 1:** Feeding rate for shrimp using fermented soymeal</caption><thead><tr><td>Feeding rate (percent)</td><td>Shrimp body weight (g)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>4-5</td><td>1-5</td></tr><tr><td>3-4</td><td>5-10</td></tr><tr><td>2-3</td><td>10-20</td></tr><tr><td>2-1</td><td>20-30</td></tr></tbody></table>

The efficacy of feeding LFRB and FSy alone without any pelleted feed is highly variable, obviously because of the apparent lack of some of the essential amino acids and other nutrients in the fermented product compared to the formulated feed. Because of this, farmers often follow the aquamimicry protocol using LFRB to maintain water quality and mix both FSy and a commercial pellet feed in varying proportions for optimum shrimp growth and farm production. The absence of a nursery phase with the PL stocked directly in the production pond, and a significant reduction in the use of pellet feed are the other advantages of adopting the aquamimicry protocol.

**Maintenance of water quality**

Maintaining a stable pH in the pond without substantial diurnal fluctuations is key to the success of farming. The aquamimicry system remarkably contributes to a stable pH and regulates the nitrogen spikes thereby offering a rearing environment that is conducive for shrimps. The water is relatively more turbid compared to the conventional farming methods as contributed by the enhanced levels of biocolloids. The turbidity is regulated to be below 30 cm as Secchi disc reading. Turbidity is maintained by the application of LFRB (1-5 ppm, daily), the dose divided into morning and afternoon rations.

The accumulation of biocolloids in water is one of the major contributors to turbidity in culture pond. Biocolloids might include bacteria, viruses, proteins, DNA, spores, algae, protozoa and other microorganisms that exist in the aqueous phase (Juergen and Michael, 2001) and are of significant interest to the development of a natural ecosystem within the pond under an aquamimicry protocol. Biocolloids in an aquamimicry pond (Figure 9) formed by microalgae, bacteria, copepods, rice bran, and other microorganisms are a source of natural food, maintains water quality by controlling nitrogen spike and stabilizing pH, and appear to prevent microalgae bloom and pathogenic bacteria in the pond. However, excessive biocolloids can do more harm than good as it will lead to rapid depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water, stressing shrimp. Therefore, it is essential to maintain the level of biocolloids to less than 5 ml/l of Imhoff cone reading by periodically removing the biosolids (sludge) from the central sump, and also by application of specific probiotics that can accelerate the digestion of organic matter.
<figure><img src="image_62.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 9:** Photomicrograph of biocolloids observed in an experimental aquamimicry system at AIT, Thailand. The particle sizes are indicated.</figcaption></figure>

The dissolved oxygen is maintained in pond water between 5 and 8 ppm, and at no time allowed to exceed 10 ppm to prevent phytoplankton blooms (by adjusting the operation of aerators). The fluctuation of pH should not be more than 0.2 in a day. Since no water is exchanged, the only addition of water to the pond during the culture period is to replenish the evaporation loss, which would be approximately 0.2 cm/day. It is also necessary to add minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium because copepods and shrimp need regular mineral supplements for optimum growth and development.

## Management of sludge

Sludge is the collection of solids consisting of uneaten feed, feces, biocolloids, and all other organic material that accumulate in the pond. Pumping of sludge begins after 2-4 hours of feeding when water circulation created by aerators sweeps the solids into the central sump, which are then pumped out to the treatment pond. A net cage is placed around the central pit to avoid any shrimps entering the area. Commercial probiotics are also added with full aeration at night time to reduce the build-up of sludge.

The regular application of probiotics helps to regulate water quality as well as to maintain the quality of the soil even after harvest. At least half of the rearing water can be reused for the next crop. The accumulated sludge in the treatment pond is removed after one year and used for composting.

## 5. Production and economics

Aquamimicry protocols were initially developed for low-intensity farming situations with stocking densities as low as 20 PL/m². However, higher intensities have now been tested and found to be highly successful. The production details and economics of a successful crop using aquamimicry farm at the Prachuabkirikhan Province of Thailand is given in Table 2. The PLs stocked in a 0.4 ha pond at a density of 225 PLs/m² and reared for 67 days grew to an average body weight of 12.2 g at harvest with a survival
rate of 91 percent and average daily growth of 0.18 g. The total production was equivalent to 25 tonnes/ha. The FCR was 1.08:1 and the feed cost was 57.5 percent of the total cost of operation. Seed, electricity, labour, mineral supplements, probiotics, and tea seed cake and rice bran were the other major costs, which consisted of 11.4 percent, 12.6 percent, 10.6 percent, 3.79 percent, 2.27 percent, and 1.77 percent of the total cost of production, respectively. This result shows the potential of aquamimicry to grow shrimp in such high-density farming conditions.

<table><caption>**Table 2:** Production and economics of a crop of shrimp produced in an intensive aquamimicry system in Thailand</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="2">Production</th><th colspan="4">Economics</th></tr><tr><th></th><th></th><th>Item</th><th>Quantity</th><th>Unit price</th><th>Amount (THB)</th><th>Percentage of total cost</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Crop period</td><td>14 Sep - 20 Nov 2015</td><td>Seed</td><td>900 000</td><td>THB 100 per 1000 PL</td><td>90 000</td><td>11.38 percent</td></tr><tr><td>DOC</td><td>67 days</td><td>Feed</td><td>10 829 kg</td><td>42 per kg</td><td>454 818</td><td>57.51 percent</td></tr><tr><td>Pond size</td><td>0.4 ha</td><td>Electricity</td><td></td><td></td><td>100 000</td><td>12.64 percent</td></tr><tr><td>Stocking</td><td>900 000 pcs</td><td>Labor and incentive</td><td></td><td></td><td>84 000</td><td>10.62 percent</td></tr><tr><td>Density</td><td>225 pcs/m2</td><td>Mineral supplements</td><td></td><td></td><td>30 000</td><td>3.79 percent</td></tr><tr><td>ABW at harvest</td><td>82 count</td><td>Probiotics</td><td></td><td></td><td>18 000</td><td>2.27 percent</td></tr><tr><td>Biomass</td><td>10 000 kg</td><td>Tea seed cake and rice bran</td><td></td><td></td><td>14 000</td><td>1.77 percent</td></tr><tr><td>Total feed</td><td>10 829 kg</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>FCR</td><td>1.08 : 1</td><td>TOTAL</td><td>10 000 kg</td><td>79.08 per kg / USD 2.25 per kg</td><td>790 818</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ADG</td><td>0.182 g</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Survival rate</td><td>91.14 percent</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

DOC is Days of culture; ABW is Average Body Weight; ADG is Average Daily Growth; THB 1=USD 0.03

Source: Mr. Veerasun Prayotamornkul, Thailand (personal communication)

## 6. Advantages of aquamimicry system

The principles of biomimicry in aquaculture are inspired by nature and its processes to benefit aquaculture systems in a way that modifies the current practices for a sustainable future. Although more scientific understanding of the processes are yet to be in place, the practical utility of this practice looks very promising, given the successes that have achieved in real-world farming situations. Consistent application rates of fermented rice bran have been found to enhance development of microdiets in pond water consisting of zooplankton dominated by copepods while preventing the excessive production of microalgae. This can provide an initial boost to the growth of shrimp postlarvae that enables avoidance of a separate nursery system. The zooplankton blooms that develop in the water column result in healthy juveniles that are able to ingest the pellet feed of fermented soybean meal more efficiently within two weeks of stocking. The graded rice bran particles might also serve as a substrate for heterotrophic bacteria dominating the soup of biocolloids in an aquamimicry system.

One of the major advantages of aquamimicry is that this technique could be used for rehabilitation of abandoned shrimp ponds that have been left unutilized for several years. The rapid development of intensive shrimp farming in Thailand in the 1990's had left significant environmental damage by the destruction of mangrove areas and other landforms for shrimp farming. Zakir and Lin (2001) had observed that almost 70 percent of ponds were abandoned after a few crops of shrimp farming and in
1996 there was about 20 800 ha of abandoned ponds with an economic loss of about USD 200 million. Aquamimicry protocols seem appropriate for bioremediation of abandoned pond soils that can enhance their productivity.

Given the scientific evidence available at present, aquamimicry protocols could successfully control water quality in the intensive production of shrimp. Use of probiotics stabilizes water quality and maintains a healthy ecosystem for clean and healthy shrimp without significant disease occurrences. The pond-recirculating system using fish, molluscs, and seaweed serves as a unique means of recycling used water in an intensive production system. The protocols in aquamimicry are a lot simpler than a typical biofloc production system that may require the operator to be more technically proficient. In a broad sense, the aquamimicry offers a naturally biosecure system with stable water quality, thanks to the abundant natural microdiet that ensures fast growth rate and high survival to produce healthy shrimp, intensively.

The concept of functional feeds in aquaculture is relatively new. Such foods that facilitate growth by providing essential nutrients and by preventing or reducing the risk of several diseases have been extensively studied in the case of humans. With the limited understanding of the aquamimicry system, there is currently no evidence to assume that the symbiotic action of probiotic bacteria and other prebiotic inputs to provide any functional complements in water to favor shrimp growth and better water quality. More research is required to elucidate the mechanisms of action of the supplements in a shrimp production system that modulates water quality and a favorable living place for shrimps.

## 7. Future outlook

Often farming technologies are evolved in researchers' laboratory and subsequently tested in the real farming situations to gauge their success. A technology that fails in the field never makes any impact. However, aquamimicry has emerged from the farmers' field as a successful technology that helped to obtain consistent production from some of the abandoned shrimp farms of Thailand. Protocols have emerged from a few enterprising farmers in Thailand based on a trial and error basis. The system requires extensive farming areas as the water treatment system takes almost the same area as that of the production pond. Perhaps, this may change in future as the techniques are further refined and a better water treatment protocol is developed. Currently the protocols are under scientific scrutiny to understand their mechanisms of action and to investigate the scope for further refining the techniques for shrimp, and other suitable farming systems. The prospects of this technology to improve the water quality consistently in intensive shrimp farms appear very promising, while the extent of its benefits to enhance the efficiency of current feeding practices in intensive shrimp farming have yet to be fully explored. Further, more aquaculture species and systems have to be evaluated for their suitability to the aquamimicry technology, and that is expected to provide a simple and cost-effective solution for intensive aquaculture, globally.

## 8. References

* Avnimelech, Y. 2014. *Biofloc technology – A practical guide book*, 3rd Edition. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, United States of America. ISBN: 978-188880-7226.

* Benyus, J.M. 2002. *Biomimicry—Innovations Inspired by Nature*. William Morrow, New York, United States of America.

* Juergen, S. & de-Vrese, M. 2001. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics - approaching a definition. *The American journal of clinical nutrition* 73. 361S-364S.

* Ozbay, G., Blank, G. & Thunjai, T. 2014. Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs). In M.P. Hernandez-Vergara & C.I. Perez-Rostro, eds. *Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques*, pp 274-274. IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/57471. (also available at
www.intechopen.com/books/sustainable-aquaculture-techniques/impacts-of-aquaculture-on-habitats-and-best-management-practices-bmps-)

**Romano, N.** 2017 Aquamimicry: A revolutionary concept in shrimp farming. Global Aquaculture Advovate 10 February 2017: 8 p. (also available at www.aquaculturealliance.org/advocate/aquamimicry-a-revolutionary-concept-for-shrimp-farming/)

**Salin, K.R. & Ataguba, G.A.** 2018. Aquaculture and the Environment: Towards Sustainability. In F. Hai, C. Visvanathan & R. Boopathy, eds. *Sustainable Aquaculture. Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a Sustainable Future*. Springer, Cham, Switzerland.

**Taw, N.** 2014. Shrimp Farming with Biofloc Technology: Commercial Experience and Approaches to Disease Control. *World Aquaculture Magazine* 45 (4) December 2014.

**Zakir, H.M. & Lin, C.K.** 2001. *Diversified Uses of Abandoned Shrimp Ponds - A Case Study in the Upper Gulf of Thailand*. ITCZM Monograph No. 5, 23 pp. Asian Institute of Technology, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand.
# AQUAPONICS IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN

Wenresti Gallardo

## 1. Introduction

According to the World Resources Institute (2015), fourteen of the world's 33 most water-stressed countries are in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) region. These include Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Palestine, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Lebanon. In the Sultanate of Oman, due to the limited supply of freshwater, the development of freshwater aquaculture is also constrained. Therefore, there is a need to develop a culture system (i.e. recirculating) that conserves water and has no adverse effect on the environment. Aquaponics has the potential to produce both fish and vegetables in an environment-friendly and economically efficient way.

Aquaponics is the integration of recirculating aquaculture and hydroponics in one production system (Somerville et al., 2014). Non-integrated aquaculture requires both the removal of excess nutrients from the water and an input of clean water. On the other hand, hydroponics requires a regular provision of expensive packaged nutrients, and routine flushing of the system. Both of these are not completely efficient, and both require outside input and maintenance at frequent intervals. Among the benefits or advantages of aquaponics are: 1) efficient use of water as it is recirculated in the system, 2) little or no discharge of aquaculture wastewater, thus, the environment is protected, and 3) no pesticide use, thus, products are safe for human consumption.

The Sultanate of Oman is promoting the development of aquaponics as it is expected to boost aquaculture output. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth is supporting some agriculture and aquaculture farmers to go into aquaponics. In addition to the Ministry, some organizations even outside the country are supporting initiatives to develop aquaponic farming in Oman. Furthermore, some individuals are setting up aquaponic projects as a hobby and as entrepreneurial ventures. The Sultan Qaboos University is conducting scientific research to generate scientific knowledge that will contribute to the development of aquaponics in the country.

This paper presents the research and development activities on aquaponics at Sultan Qaboos University and a description of some aquaponic farms in Oman.

## 2. Aquaponics research and development at Sultan Qaboos University Oman

Aquaponics research at Sultan Qaboos University was first reported by Goddard et al. (2010) who produced red hybrid tilapia and tomatoes in an aquaponic system using nutrient film technique at the Rumais Agricultural Research Centre of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth. The research was extended with funding support from the Agricultural and Fisheries Development Fund of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth in 2014-2015. New varieties of salad crops and tilapia were successfully grown in a temperature-controlled greenhouse in this research centre.

After I joined Sultan Qaboos University in 2013, I conducted aquaponic experiments with some undergraduate students. With the aim of developing a simple and effective aquaponic system, we set up three culture systems: 1) non-recirculating system without plants, serving as the control, 2) non-recirculating system with plants grown on top, patterned after Liang and Chien (2013), and 3) recirculating system with fish grown in separate tanks connected to another set of tanks for growing plants. The research team tested three fish densities (10, 15 and 20 fishes per 100 l) and evaluated the growth and survival of tilapia and lettuce in recirculating and non-recirculating aquaponic systems. It also compared the growth and survival of fish grown in a non-recirculating non-aquaponic system (control). Furthermore, since it has been reported by Martins et al. (2011) that heavy metals are
accumulated in fish cultured in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), they also investigated the heavy metal accumulation in tilapia and lettuce in recirculating and non-recirculating systems. Results showed that recirculating aquaponic system resulted in the best growth and survival of fish and plants. As shown in figure 1, of the three fish densities tested, 20 fishes per 100 l tank resulted in the best growth (64 percent higher than non-recirculating system and 120 percent more than the non-aquaponic system). This can be attributed to the better water quality in recirculating aquaponic system, particularly the lower ammonia and nitrite levels.

<figure><img src="image_63.png" /></figure>

**Figure 1:** Weight gain of tilapia at three densities for three treatments: control, non-recirculating aquaponic and recirculating aquaponics.

Figure 2 shows that fish densities of 10 and 15 resulted in the best growth of lettuce (Al-Mahfudhi and Gallardo, 2015).

<figure><img src="image_64.png" /></figure>

**Figure 2:** Lettuce weight at three fish stocking densities for three treatments: control, non-recirculating aquaponic and recirculating aquaponics.

Based on the results of the previous experiments, the following are some of the research questions that need to be answered to fully develop a simple and effective aquaponic system suitable for the climate in Oman.
- Considering that the highest density (20 fishes per 100 litres) in the previous experiment resulted in the best growth of fish, would higher densities sustain the best growth and survival of fish and plants? What would be the optimum fish density?

- What plant species would be suitable for aquaponics at different seasons in Oman?

- Aside from tilapia, what other freshwater fish species would be suitable for aquaponics, considering the market price? Would koi carp *Cyprinus carpio* be suitable for aquaponics in Oman?

- Since the previous experiment showed that heavy metals accumulated more in lettuce than in fish, what plant type (fruit-bearing or flowering, i.e. for human consumption or ornamental) would be more suitable for aquaponics? Which type takes up more nutrients and heavy metals?

- Which part (leaves, fruits or flowers) of the plants accumulates more heavy metals?

With some funding from The Research Council of Oman (TRC) through its Faculty-Mentored Undergraduate Research Award Program (FURAP), a follow up project was carried out in 2015 to address some of the above-listed research questions, particularly with the following objectives:

1. To determine the optimum density of fish to be grown in combination with fruit-bearing or flowering/ornamental plant, based on the growth and survival of fish and plants and water quality.

2. To determine what plant type (fruit-bearing or flowering) takes up more nutrients and heavy metals, and which part of the plant (leaves, fruits or flowers) accumulates more heavy metals.

The aquaponic system consisted of 16 rectangular tanks (80x40x40 cm) containing 100 l of tap water stocked with different densities of fish (20, 25 and 30 fish per tank). The fish were grown in combination with either lettuce and flowers or lettuce and beans (Figure 3). The fish were fed three times daily and measurements of their weight and length were taken every two weeks. Plants (lettuce, beans, and flowers) seedlings were planted on a styrofoam raft with holes for the roots to extract water and nutrients (fish waste and residual feeds) they need to grow.

<figure><img src="image_65.png" /></figure>

©Wenresti Gallardo

<caption>**Figure 3:** Aquaponic experiments conducted Sultan Qaboos University.</caption>

The final weight of tilapia in all stocking densities (20, 25 and 30 fish per tank) was higher when grown in combination with lettuce and flowers than with beans and lettuce. Final weight of plants was highest among those grown in combination with fish at 20 fish per tank. Highest average weight of lettuce was at 20 fish per tank. Growth and survival of fish at different densities was not significantly different but 30 fish per tank is recommended based on economic consideration.

Another experiment tested several plant species (lettuce, cabbage, chili, eggplant, *Petunia* and mint) and results showed that mint grows and survives more than the other plants even in summer when temperature goes up to 40°C or sometimes higher (Figure 4).
<figure><img src="image_66.png" /></figure>

©Wenresti Gallardo

<caption>**Figure 4:** Comparison of the performance of several plant species in aquaponic.</caption>

The next project in 2017 funded again by The Research Council of Oman through its Faculty-Mentored Undergraduate Research Award Program focused on culturing the commercially valuable Japanese koi carp together with suitable plant species in an aquaponic system. Tilapia is the most commonly used fish species in aquaponic systems because they can tolerate poor water quality but it has low commercial value in Oman. On the other hand, koi carp has very high commercial value (OMR 5 / USD 13 per juvenile, OMR 50 / USD 130 per breeder) and has potential for culture in an aquaponic system because it can also tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. However, research on their growth, survival, optimal stock density in an aquaponic system should be carried out to determine its feasibility. Based on our literature search there is only one research paper on the culture of koi carp in an aquaponic system. Hussain *et al*. (2014) tested three stocking densities of 1.4, 2.1 and 2.8 kg/m³ and reported that 1.4 kg/m³ resulted in highest growth. However, it is possible that a lower density of 1.4 kg/m³ may be the optimum. Therefore, our next research had the following specific objectives:

1. To determine the optimum density of koi carp in an aquaponic system (Figure 5);

2. To determine the suitable plant species that can be grown in combination with koi carp;

3. To determine the water quality and nutrient concentration in the water and plants grown in the aquaponic system.

Eighteen units of glass tanks (80x40x40 cm) containing 100 litres of tap water were set up in pairs. All tanks were identical allowing replication of experimental treatments. Nine of the 18 tanks were without plants the other 9 tanks were with plants. The fish tanks without plants were placed on a platform while the fish tanks with plants were placed on the floor. All tanks were connected with air stones to provide dissolved oxygen to the fish and plants. Each fish tank without plants was connected to a fish tanks with plants with a pipe or hose to allow water flow from the fish tank without plants to the fish tanks with plants by gravity. The fish tanks with plants had gravels on the bottom and a vertical layer of gravels in net bags on one end of the tank before the submersible pump to filter the water from solid and bring the filtered water back to the fish tank without plants. Each tank had a 3 cm thick Styrofoam covering the entire water surface. For fish tanks without plants there was a small opening for the feed to be given. For fish tanks with plants, each Styrofoam cover (polyethylene raft) had 13-15 evenly-spaced holes for the plants.

Two experiments were conducted in this project. In the first experiment, koi carp postlarvae with an average of initial weight of 0.3-0.5 g were stocked in each tank at 50, 100, 150 individuals per tank (0.1 m³). The lower 9 tanks were planted with peppermint and *Petunia*. Both plants were cut (10 cm long) and wrapped around with cotton on the lower part and placed in a plastic seedling container with open bottom to allow the roots to go down into the water. In the second experiment, the upper 9 tanks were used to grow koi carps of the initial weight of around 6 g at a stocking density of 30 juvenile per tank. The lower 9 tanks were used to grow peppermint, eggplants and tomatoes. The same growing method was used as the first part.
Koi carp hatched at SQU

News (http://omantribune.com/section/news/)

Oman (http://omantribune.com/section/news/oman/)

April 1, 2017

<figure><img src="image_67.png" /></figure>

©Wenresti Gallardo

<caption>**Figure 5:** Koi carp used in aquaponic experiments at Sultan Qaboos University.</caption>

Results show that koi carp stocked at 100 per tank had significantly better growth. Survival rate was highest at 50 per tank. Pepper mint growth was better in tanks with 50 fish per tank. *Petunia* had flowers in all treatments. Water quality parameters were within optimal range even at high fish stocking densities. Overall, stocking density of 50 fish per tank can be recommended based on survival data. In the second experiment, 30 koi carp juveniles were stocked in all tanks and the results showed that the best growth and survival of koi carp was in combination with peppermint.

Our initial experiments in non-greenhouse condition show that koi carp can grow well with mint in an aquaponic system. Our previous aquaponic experiments in non-greenhouse condition since 2014 using tilapia in combination with lettuce, tomatoes, chili pepper, eggplant, cabbage, mint and the ornamental flowering plant *Petunia* have shown that most of these plants grow well only in winter (Dec-Jan) in Oman while mint can grow well year-round, even in summer (Gallardo, 2017). However, mint has low market price in Oman.

Many high-value plant species that can grow well in an aquaponics system require a suitable temperature below 30°C but in Oman, the temperature is above 30°C most of the year, thus there is a need to use a temperature-controlled greenhouse. With funding from SQU Deanship of Research, we conducted aquaponic experiments in a greenhouse to test high-value species of plants (e.g. strawberry, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower) that require cool and stable temperature. The following are the specific objectives of the experiments:

- To determine the best plant species that can be grown in floating versus media-based aquaponic system in a greenhouse;

- To compare the water quality and growth and survival of fish (tilapia versus koi carp) and plants grown in a floating versus media-based aquaponic system in a greenhouse;

- To evaluate the cost and benefit of an aquaponic system in a greenhouse.

Results are being analyzed and will be published later.

## 3. Aquaponic farms in Oman

With the support of FAO in Oman, Sultan Qaboos University is currently conducting a survey of aquaponic farms in Oman to document the technical and socio-economic aspects of the existing farms. The survey is part of a regional project within the framework of FAO Water Scarcity Regional Initiative (WSI) for the Near East and North Africa Region, titled "Use of non-conventional water in agriculture
in support to sustainable agri-aquaculture development in desert and arid lands in MENA". It is being implemented in three focus countries: Algeria, Egypt and Oman.

The research team from Sultan Qaboos University is composed of Wenresti Gallardo, Hussein Al-Masroori, Adil Al-Sulaimani and Ahmed Al-Souti and the collaborators from FAO-Oman are Nora Ourabah Haddad, Ghady Chedrawi and Hasna' bint Mohammed Al Harthyiah.

Based on initial findings of the survey, there are at least 14 aquaponic farms particularly in and around Muscat. The farms that have been visited are described below.

### Al Arfan farms

<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>

©www.omanaquaponics.com/

<caption>**Figure 6:** Al-Arfan aquaponic farms.</caption>

Considered as Oman's largest aquaponic farm established by Muscat Horizons International, this state-of-the-art 600 m2 aquaponic pilot greenhouse facility is 50 km from Muscat, the capital of the Sultanate of Oman. It aims to promote and develop a commercial model that may be replicated in Oman for its farmers at an economical and operationally feasible scale.

The aquaponic system uses media beds and deep-water culture troughs to grow different species of plants such as lettuce, basil, kale, Swiss chard, tomatoes, etc. in combination with Omani-bred tilapia. The farm is already producing vegetables that are sold in major hotels and supermarkets in Muscat. More information on the farm are available at www.omanaquaponics.com/.

### Al-Rayan farm

This farm owned by Mr. Ghassan Al-Bahrani was established in 2010 by growing cucumbers, pepper, lettuce and basil in greenhouses. He started with two greenhouses and currently has 26. In July 2017 Mr. Al-Bahrani utilized one greenhouse and started an aquaponic project with the support from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which provided 500 pcs of fish (tilapia), aquaponic equipment, feeds and organic fertilizer. Due to lack of freshwater, well water with a salinity of 30 ppt undergoes desalinization to reduce the salinity to 3-4 ppt. Plants grown in the aquaponic system are mostly lettuce/salads. Iron is added to the water since fish feeds lack iron which the plants need. A mixture of essential amino acids and seaweed extract is also added to increase nutrients in the water. The farm has an alarm system that sends a message in case of electricity shutdown that would cut off the aeration and endanger the survival of the fishes.
<figure><img src="image_69.png" /></figure>

©Wenresti Gallardo

<caption>**Figure 7:** Al-Rayan aquaponic farm.</caption>

## Al Lezegh farm

Al-Lezegh aquaponic farm was started in 2010 in collaboration with an organization based in the United Kingdom. This farm is unique because it uses the traditional irrigation system (aflaj) bringing water from the mountains to the agricultural lands. The benefits of using this water is that it does not contain any pollutants. Water from the aflaj is pumped to the aquaponic system which recirculates the water between fish and plant tanks. The cultured species in the aquaponic farm are tilapia and Greek basil.

Fish are cultured in fiberglass tanks (half ton capacity) in which they are provided with aeration and feeds. The water from the fish tank goes through a biofilter where the metabolic waste ammonia is converted to nitrite and then to nitrate which serves as nutrient for the plants. The water with nutrients is then pumped to the hydroponic system (plant tank). Water is recirculated as much as possible but when it is not anymore suitable, it is used as irrigation water for the plants grown on soil (agriculture).

<figure><img src="image_70.png" /></figure>

©Wenresti Gallardo

<caption>**Figure 8:** Al-Lezegh aquaponic farm.</caption>
The farm gets more income from the sale of the plants (basil) than the fish (tilapia) which are both sold locally. Basil are harvested every 6 months while tilapia are harvested every 4 months at a price of OMR 2.5 (USD 6.5) per kg and OMR 1.5 (USD 3.9) per kg, respectively. There is a need to advertise and promote the products so that they can be sold in big hotels, restaurants, markets and shops.

MAFW Rumais Agricultural Research Centre

<figure><img src="image_71.png" /></figure>

©Wenresti Gallardo

<caption>**Figure 9:** Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth, mais Agricultural Research Centre.</caption>

This centre under the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth (MAFW) conducts research and workshops for farmers on the latest technology and field practice in agriculture. It has a research agreement with the farmers to provide them with greenhouse, water, seeds, electricity and technical expertise to grow plants.

The center has several greenhouses but one is for the aquaponic system which has an area of 1 m² that can grow about 9 kg of lettuce and 13.5 kg of tilapia. Agricultural fertilizer is not used as the nutrients for the plants come from the fish tanks. However, they are using commercially available iron fertilizer as a supplement as the fish feeds and wastes do not have enough iron which the plants need. Leaves of the plants become yellowish due to lack of iron.

**4. Acknowledgements**

I gratefully acknowledge the following for the research funding: Sultan Qaboos University, Faculty-Mentored Undergraduate Research Award Program of The Research Council and FAO-Oman.

I also acknowledge the following students who worked under my supervision: Mohammed Al-Mafudhi, Mohammed Al-Siyabi, Ahmed Al-Jassasi, Yahya Al-Yahyaei, Idris Al-Balushi, Mazin Al-Naamani, Mohammed Al-Khamzari, Aiman Al-Maimani, Ahmed Al-Azwani, Zaher Al-Brashdi, Noora Al-Hinai, Buthaina Al-Khaziri, Azhar Al-Busaidi, and Zainab Al Ghatami.

Presentation of this paper in the World Aquaculture Society 2018 Special Session was made possible with the support of FAO and Cirad. Thanks also to Dr. Lionel Dabbadie for facilitating my attendance and participation in the special session.
**5. References**

**Al-Azwani, A. & Gallardo, W.G.** 2017. *Growth and survival of Nile Tilapia and different plant species grown on soil versus aquaponics system*. Poster presented at the 2nd National Conference on Agriculture and Fisheries Research, Sultan Qaboos University, 3-4 April 2017.

**Al-Brashdi, Z. & Gallardo, W.G.** 2017. *Effect of higher fish density on the growth and survival of Nile tilapia and mint grown in an aquaponic system*. MASF Research Project Report, April 2017.

**Al-Kamzari, M., Al-Balushi, I. & Gallardo, W.G.** 2017. *Heavy metal concentrations in fish and plants grown in a recirculating aquaponic system*. Poster presented at the 2nd National Conference on Agriculture and Fisheries Research, Sultan Qaboos University, 3-4 April 2017.

**Al-Mahfudhi, M. & Gallardo, W.G.** 2015. *Tilapia at high density grow better in recirculating aquaponics system than in non-recirculating aquaponics and non-aquaponic system*. Paper presented at the Middle East Aquaculture Forum (MEAF), Dubai, UAE; 5-6 April 2015, p.115.

**Al-Maimani, A. & Gallardo, W.G.** 2017. *Concentrations of macro- and micronutrients in an aquaponic system with Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and different plant species*. Poster presented at the 2nd National Conference on Agriculture and Fisheries Research, Sultan Qaboos University, 3-4 April 2017.

**Gallardo, W.G.** 2016. *Development of a simple and effective aquaponic system: 1 – Optimum fish density and suitable plant species at different seasons in Oman*. Report submitted to TRC-FURAP.

**Gallardo, W.G., Al-Mahfudhi, M. & Al-Siyabi, M.** 2016. *Recirculating versus non-recirculating aquaponic system: water quality and growth and survival of tilapia and lettuce*. World Aquaculture Conference, 22-26 February 2016, Las Vegas, United States of America.

**Gallardo, W.G., Al-Yahyaei, Y., Al-Khamzari, M., Al-Balushi, I. & Al-Naamani, M.** 2017. *Effects of fish density on growth, survival and heavy metal accumulation in fish and plants in a recirculating aquaponic system*. Oral Presentation. Aquaculture America 2017 Book of Abstracts. San Antonio, Texas, United States of America

**Goddard, J.S., Al-Busaidi, A.S. & Al-Kendi, U.K.H.** 2010. Fish culture and hydroponics at low salinities. In M. Ahmed, S.A. Al-Rawahy & N. Hussain, eds. *A Monograph on Management of Salt-Affected Soils and Water for Sustainable Agriculture*, pp. 89-94. Sultan Qaboos University Press, Muscat, Oman.

**Liang, J. & Chien, Y.** 2013. Effects of feeding frequency and photoperiod on water quality and crop production in a tilapia-water spinach raft aquaponics system. *International Biodeterioration and Degradation* 85: 693-700.

**Martins, C. I. M, Eding, E. H. & Verreth, J. A. J.** 2011. The effect of recirculating aquaculture systems on the concentrations of heavy metals in culture water and tissues of Nile tilapia *Oreochromis niloticus*. *Food Chemistry* 126: 1001–1005.

**World Resources Institute.** 2015. *Water: Mapping, measuring, and mitigating global water challenges*. [Cited 19 October 2019] www.wri.org/our-work/topics/water
# MALAGASY INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE-AGRICULTURE

Diana Edithe Andria-Mananjara, Philippe Martel, Modestine Raliniaina, Rija Andriamarolaza, Domoina Rakotomanana, Olivier Mikolasek, Jean Michel Mortillaro

## 1. Introduction

Aquaculture is one of the most relevant activities to fight poverty and hunger in Madagascar. The sector contributes to foreign revenues through exportation of seaweed and farmed shrimps, as well as to improve population incomes, food security and nutrition (FAO, 2008). Moreover, it has been identified as a promising sector for keeping pace of growing demand and overfishing pressure. Inland aquaculture, mostly finfish farming, is the dominant practice among small farmers but still, its production remains marginal compared to marine aquaculture and inland fisheries. In 2017, the Malagasy marine aquaculture produced 5 439 tonnes of shrimps and 17 407 tonnes of algae, and inland fisheries, 35 993 tonnes (FAO, 2019). In the meantime, freshwater finfish farming harvested only 5 390 tonnes (FAO, 2019). However, the potential of the sector is still largely untapped, with Madagascar having about 150 000 ha of lakes and lacustrine areas and 200 000 ha of irrigated paddy fields appropriate for fish farming, of which less than 20 percent are exploited (MRHP, 2015). One relevant way of increasing the national farming of freshwater fish, while benefiting from synergies, recycling and circular economy is to integrate fish farming into existing agricultural systems. Over the years, Madagascar farmers have championed this integrated aquaculture-agriculture by implementing several systems described in this article.

## 2. Rice-fish farming

The integration of aquaculture and agriculture is traditional and diverse in Madagascar but rice-fish farming is the most common and oldest practice. It consists in raising rice and fish together in the same irrigated field to obtain a fish crop in addition to the rice which remains the main production (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). Fish feed on the rice midge larvae, pest and other undesirable organisms for rice. Their excreta provides fertilization and their bioturbation behaviour increases the nutrient availability for plants such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Traditional rice-fish farming requires reasonable amounts of labour and inputs: farmers just trap wild fish entering water from irrigation canals, ditches and rice fields and let them grow until rice harvest or later. In some regions, another rice fish system was introduced, in which dykes are made high enough to retain a sufficient water depth for the fish. A canal is also dug in the field and used as fish refuge. Livestock manures can also be provided as a fertilizer benefiting both rice and fish.

Malagasy rice-fish farming is probably as old as rice cultivation itself and goes back to the royal era (Dabbadie and Mikolasek, 2017) but it is only after 1950, after common carp and tilapia were introduced in the country, that the use of improved practices started to be observed and spread (Lemasson, 1954, 1957). Unfortunately, in the absence of government's subsidies, the process stopped and declined until FAO started to implement various projects from 1985 (Oswald et al., 2016). The FAO approach was based on the privatization of fry production as well as on the promotion of the common carp stocking into the rice paddies (Dabbadie and Mikolasek, 2017; Oswald et al., 2016). Since 2006, this FAO method was taken over, improved and implemented in 7 regions of Madagascar by the NGO APDRA to support smallholders and promote culture of carp in rice fields. Improvements include the rice plot construction according to the rearing stage, the use of fertilisation and affordable supplementary feeding in production, and the support to small-farmers hatcheries network. Rice plot construction consists of building a spawning pond of 3*3 m inside the parcel (Figure 1) for fry production and increasing side dikes and digging a fish refuge channel (Figure 2) for growing fish (APDRA, 2018a).
<figure><img src="image_72.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Spawning pond within rice plot for hatcheries.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_73.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Rice fish farming using fish refuge channel.</figcaption></figure>

According to the Ministry of Fishery and Fish Resources (MRHP), there are currently 21 000 rice-fish farmers in operation throughout the country (MRHP, 2015), producing mainly Common carp with rice. Wild species involuntarily introduced in rice fields such as tilapia or *Carassius* sp. can contribute to secondary production of rice plots by up to five percent of the total harvested fish weight, providing an interesting additional income for farmers (APDRA, 2018b).

The production cycle depends on the objective of the farmer (fry production or fish growing-out), as well as market access and water availability. Generally, fry production period extends from September (end of August for the earliest) to December. However, to meet the late demand of fry for some fish growers, particularly on February, March or after floods, some fry producers try to postpone their spawning period at the beginning of the year. In most cases, fish growing-out is conducted during the rice production period (from November to June), but it may also continue after the rice harvest to get bigger fish. Fish yields change across regions, with natural productivity of the paddy and depending on the technical operations used by farmers (e.g. fertilization or fish feeding). For instance, in the highland, the average common carp yield is 200 to 300 kg/ha/year(APDRA, 2018b; Dabbadie and Mikolasek, 2017). According to AMPIANA (2019), one of fish project working in the highland of Madagascar,
the 2018 -2019 breeding campaign allowed a production of 1 150 000 fry with an average of 5 000 fry/hatchery.

Production data on integrated rice-fish production are still lacking but a study conducted in 2016-2018 showed that the stocking of carp in rice field enables the rice yield to increase by 19 percent to 31 percent if climate conditions are favourable (Mortillaro, Raminoharisoa and Randriamihanta, 2018).

Beside this traditional rice-fish farming system, another integrated practice has been experimented by APDRA with fish farmers on the east coast of Madagascar. Instead of stocking fish in rice fields, it consists in planting rice in fish ponds, as already practised in West Africa (Keita, 2019). During the 2015-2016 rice campaign, 82 percent of the fish farmers supported by APDRA harvested rice in their ponds, in addition to 765 kg fish/ha. According to APDRA (2017), the success of the system requires a good water management and good choice of rice variety.

### 3. Tanjona integrated crop-fish farming

Tanjona system is a new kind of integrated aquaculture system that emerged recently in the floodplains surrounding Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar. The term Tanjona refers locally to a large dyke built in the middle of the floodplain (Figure 3), which serves as an emerged land plot that can be used for various crops during the rainy season, or for fruit orchards (in particular orange trees) throughout the year. Tanjona are not recent, as they were already mentioned in 1962 (Kiener, 1962). However, it is only recently, since 2000, that fish farming has been integrated in the system by connecting several dykes to each other, in order to delimit an enclosed water body inside, which can be used as a pond. While fish farmers were initially stocking wild fish in their ponds by trapping them during the flooding season, some progressively intensified their system by purchasing fry and feeding them.

<figure><img src="image_74.png" /></figure>

©Diana Andria-Mananjara

<caption>**Figure 3:** Tanjona system in Fenoarivo, Madagascar.</caption>

A study conducted in Fenoarivo, a suburb locality where Tanjona systems are widespread, allowed to identify 27 integrated fish farmers (Mortillaro *et al*., 2017). Two types of fish farming practices have been identified. The first type consists in practising fish farming in ponds and crops/orchards on dykes. With a production cycle of 6 to 12 months, the average fish yield is between 0.7 and 1.3 tonnes/ha.

The second type of Tanjona consists in an integrated rice-fish farming in the flooded part of the system combined with crops/orchards on dykes. The fish cycle is shorter (6 to 9 months) and the average fish yield observed in this system is between 0.3 and 1 tonne/ha.

Generally, fish are raised in polyculture and are fed on crops residues. Zebu waste is exclusively destined for fertilization of rice and vegetable fields, not for fish ponds. However, duck are sometimes introduced in the system after the crop harvest, to feed on plant residues and fertilize the water. The
Tanjona system provides essential financial resource for households, from 3 to 26 percent of additional income.

## 4. Livestock fish farming

By combining livestock such as cattle, pig or poultry with fish, animal excreta and waste food serve to stimulate water productivity, natural feed production and fish growth, as well as delivering other symbiotic benefits for both animals (Barash, Plavnik and Moav, 1982).

In Madagascar, integrated livestock-fish was first tested and carried out by FAO in the 1960s (Muir, 1981). Given its importance in Madagascar rural areas, it is common to see cattle used to provide manure to fertilize ponds or rice fields, even though it is not its sole purpose. It can also be used for labour and fish ponds construction. Some farmers also practice duck-fish farming to maximize the use and productivity of their water bodies, benefit from synergies and recycle nutrients. In 2016, 32 percent of the pond fish farmers supported by APDRA on the East coast of Madagascar had at least one livestock in their aquaculture system, and for 18 percent it was a poultry farm (chicken, duck, or goose) (APDRA, 2017).

On the other hand, some fish farmers with access to intensive farm wastes like pork or poultry manures have been able to significantly increase their fish production by transforming animal waste into other sources of animal protein for fish. One such example is a farmer using poultry litter to produce maggots serving as fish feed. With this method, it is possible to obtain 9 tonnes/ha of fish for a 15 months production cycle (Loharano Andriantafita, personal communication, 2017).

Unlike other countries, in Madagascar, the livestock farm is seldom located nearby or over the pond to facilitate the collection of manure and waste, because of the distance between the farmer's house and the fish ponds, which are often located in the lowlands. Organic fertilizers are also frequently used for other farm production than fish.

<figure><img src="image_75.png" /></figure>

©Diana Andria-Mananjara

<caption>**Figure 4:** Duck-cum-fish farming in pond in Vatomandry, Madagascar.</caption>

## 5. Advantage of integrated aquaculture

The main benefit of integrated fish farming is the synergies between livestock, crops and fish. The first one is related to the nutrients transfer between them. Indeed, fertilizers from livestock are reused by fish and crops for their growth. Fish in turn fertilize water with their excrements and improve the availability of some nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus through bioturbation (Mortillaro,
Raminoharisoa and Randriamihanta, 2018). Conversely, crop residues are used to feed directly or indirectly livestock and fish. Other benefits include the reduction in pest occurrence when fish eat crop pest. The main consequence of this recycling and synergies is the reduction of production costs for farmers.

Integrated aquaculture allow farmers to significantly improve their living conditions. Food is more readily accessible and available, and household incomes benefit from the sale of additional farm products. For example, fish farming contributes to 2 to 11 percent of the gross added value of rice fish farmer households (Randrianandrasana, 2017) and 3 to 26 percent of the gross added value of Tanjona farmer households (Mihaja Rakotoarinoro, personal communication, 2017). The additional income can improve family life, social activities, child wellbeing or education, or be used for investing in other activities or farm expansion.

## 6. Constraints of integrated aquaculture

In Madagascar, land availability is a major problem for many small-scale farmers. Indeed, integrated aquaculture requires access to favourable land. Favourable refers to water, its accessibility and the ability of the parcel to retain water for a long time without being exposed to natural hazard such as flood or drought. Unfortunately, the majority of these parcels belong to wealthy families. As a result, smallholders tend to use plots that are more vulnerable to climatic hazards (especially flood) and their land productivity is lowered.

Another issue is land ownership. In connection with their social status, the most common way for smallholders to have access to land is through renting or sharecropping. Five percent of the Malagasy rice fields are concerned by these methods (Burnod et al., 2014), which is problematic as it may prevent farmers from investing into pond or rice-fish plots construction and/or expansion.

Another constraint relates to climate changes and hazards. In some cases, early or late beginning of the rainy season disturbs the cycle of production and creates a financial risk for farmers. In other cases, flood can result in fish escapees, crops destruction or dikes crumbling. For livestock, especially cattle, climate change can also induce a whole range of issues, especially with regards to new diseases.

Integration implies the diversification of activities, but it is not always easy for farmers to manage a new production that requires more investment in terms of finance, farm inputs and labour. With aquaculture, the main expense after construction is the fry purchase for stocking, which coincide with the lean season from September to January, when food shortage occur and school expenses are needed.

Last but not the least, theft is a constraint identified by many farmers, especially those producing fry as the loss of a common carp breeder is a big financial loss. Plots surveillance and monitoring is only possible if the house is not too far.

## 7. Prospects

Integrated Aquaculture-Agriculture has proven to be successful in many of the most advanced aquaculture countries such as in Asia (De Silva and Davy, 2010) thanks to its resilience. Although local studies have also shown its importance in Malagasy farms, its contribution is not yet fully perceived at the government and policymakers' level. Adoption and operationalization of development strategies that consider the economic and social benefits and constraints of integrated aquaculture, especially for small-scale farms and households, should be developed.

Current production yields are still quite low and very heterogeneous compared to other countries. This will require further research and support for the development of a more appropriate technical model for Madagascar, which takes into account the socio-agro-climatic constraints of the different regions.
Finally, a study of the evolution of integrated aquaculture-agriculture farming systems should be conducted in order to understand fish farming appropriation in the system, its impact on households, communities, farming systems and potential risks related to the system intensification.

## 8. Conclusion

The integration of aquaculture with agriculture and/or livestock is a very relevant activity for farmers in Madagascar, who generally have very limited inputs. Thanks to the synergetic effects of the integration, households can intensify and diversify their production in order to increase their incomes. But efforts should still be made for its mainstreaming at national level, by taking into account the socio-agro-economic disparities between regions.

## 9. References

**AMPIANA.** 2019. *Réalisation AMPIANA (2015-2019)*. Projet Appuis aux marchés piscicoles en Analamanga. Antananarivo, Madagascar.

**APDRA.** 2017. *Capitalisation- Projet Piscicole Côte Est de Madagascar- Sécurité Alimentaire 2012 - 2017*. APDRA, Antsirabe, Madagascar. 58 pp.

**APDRA.** 2018a. Madagascar: Présentation des actions. In: *APDRA website* [online]. Massy, France. [Cited 15 September 2019]. apdra.org/spip.php?rubrique65

**APDRA.** 2018b. Rapport narratif intermédiaire 2017. Projet Ampiana, Antananarivo, Madagascar: 48 pp. (also available at www.asamada.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Rapport-Année3_Ampiana.pdf).

**Barash, H., Plavnik, I. & Moav, R.** 1982. Integration of duck and fish farming: experimental results. *Aquaculture* 27(2): 129-140.

**Burnod, P., R, A., Ratsialonanana, R., Boué, C., Gubert, F., Rabenatoandro, R., Rakoto-Tiana, R Ratovoarivony, R. & Vaillant, J.** 2014. Certificats foncières au niveau des ménages ruraux à Madagascar: Perceptions et effets. Situation en 2011. Observatoire Foncier, Antananarivo, Madagascar: 138 pp. (also available at www.observatoire-foncier.mg/downloads/16-Rapport-PECF-version_Finale2.pdf).

**Dabbadie, L. & Mikolasek, O.** 2017. Rice-fish farming in the Malagasy Highlands, twenty years after the FAO Projects. *FAO Aquaculture Newsletter* 56: 33-37. (also available at https://agritrop.cirad.fr/584449/7/FAN-N°56-April-2017.pdf).

**FAO.** 2008. Fishery and Aquaculture Profiles. Madagascar. In: *Country Profile Fact Sheets* [online].Rome. [Cited 5 September 2019]. www.fao.org/fishery/

**FAO.** 2019. *FAO yearbook. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics 2017/FAO annuaire. Statistiques des pêches et de l'aquaculture 2017/ FAO anuario. Estadísticas de pesca y acuicultura 2017.* Rome/Roma. (also available at www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca5495t).

**Halwart, M. & Gupta, M. V.** 2004. *Culture of fish in rice fields*. FAO; WorldFish Center. (also available at https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/2059/Culture-of-Fish.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y).

**Keita, S.** 2017. Pisciriziculture: the Guinean fish-rice culture. In L. Dabbadie, A. Stankus & M. Halwart. *Report of the Special Session on Advancing Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture through Agroecology, Montpellier, 25 August 2018*. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report. Rome, FAO.
Kiener, A. 1962. Evolution de la pisciculture et de la pêche dans les eaux intérieures de Madagascar depuis 1950. *Bulletin de Madagascar*(199): 1033-1044.

Lemasson, J. 1954. Chronique piscicole: pisciculture en rizière à Madagascar. *Bois & Forêts des Tropiques* 35(35): 42-43.

Lemasson, J. 1957. Chronique piscicole: réflexions sur la pêche et la pisciculture à Madagascar. *Bois & Forêts des Tropiques* 52(52): 57-61.

Mortillaro, J.-M., Rakotoarinoro, M., Andria-Mananjara, D.E., Rakotomalala, T., Raliniaina, M., Mikolasek, O., Martel, P., Oswald, M. & Dabbadie, L. 2017. The Tanjona from Fenoarivo: Integrated fish farming systems in Madagascar. World Aquaculture Society Meetings, Le Cap, Afrique du Sud, 26 June 2017 - 30 June 2017. World Aquaculture Society, Cape Town, South-Africa (also available at https://agritrop.cirad.fr/584679/1/POSTER_TANJONA_JM_light.pdf).

Mortillaro, J.-M., Raminoharisoa, E.A. & Randriamihanta, T.H. 2018. La rizipisciculture: un modèle agroécologique innovant et efficient. *Journal de l'Agro-Écologie* 4: 17-19.

MRHP. 2015. *La lettre de politique BLEUE*. Ministère des Ressources Halieutiques et de la Pêche Antananarivo, Madagascar. (also available at extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/mad163970.pdf).

Muir, J.F. 1981. 5.7 Integrated fish farming in developing countries. *BSAP Occasional Publication* 4: 311-316.

Oswald, M.R., Ravakarivelo, M., Mikolasek, O., Andriamanivo, H., Verdal, H., Bentz, B., Pepey, E., Cousseau, F. & Vandeputte, M. 2016. Combining a comprehensive approach to fish-farming systems with assessment of their genetics - from planning to realization. In H. Duchaufour, T. Razafimbelo-Andriamifidy, J. Rakotoarisoa & B. Ramamonjisoa, eds. *Recherche interdisciplinaire pour le développement durable et la biodiversité des espaces ruraux malgaches*. Application à différentes thématiques de territoire, pp. 219-268. Rakotondravao, SCAC, PARRUR, Antananarivo, Madagascar.

Randrianandrasana, M.I. 2017. *Impacts de la rizipisciculture sur la sécurité alimentaire*. APDRA, Massy, France: 8 pp. (also available at www.apdra.org/IMG/file/1801 Synthèse_rizipisci_PADPP2 Vfinale.pdf).

De Silva, S.S. & Davy, F.B. 2010. *Success stories in Asian aquaculture*. Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York.
# PISCIRIZICULTURE: THE GUINEAN FISH-RICE CULTURE

Sidiki Keita

## 1. Introduction

Guinea is a West African country covering 245 857 km², covering four main agro-ecological natural regions: Lower Guinea, Central Guinea, Upper Guinea and Guinea Forest Region. The climate is tropical, with a monsoon-type rainy season lasting from April to November, except in the Sahelian Upper Guinea where it is shorter, with greater daily temperature variations.

Guinea's topography varies from coastal plains to inland mountains that account for about 60 percent of the country. Several of the West Africa's major river systems, in particular the Niger, Senegal, and Gambia, originate from these highlands, making Guinea the "water tower" of West Africa. The country is drained by 1 161 rivers grouped into 23 watersheds, 14 of which are international. There are also many perennial and temporary natural water bodies, as well as artificially created reservoirs that can be used for fish production (Figure 1). Guinea's coastline is 300 kilometres long and has extensive mangrove swamps partially converted into rice-growing areas.

Guinea has a population of about 11 million people,<fnref n="23" /> more than two thirds of which live in rural areas (69.4 percent). An estimated 74 percent of the country's population is younger than 35 years old. Fish is an important source of animal protein for Guinean populations, although its contribution to diets dropped sharply from 46 percent to 27 percent between 1993 and 2013 (Figure 2). Nevertheless, in rural areas where the population rely mainly on agricultural activities, it's a crucial commodity and represents nearly 85 percent of the total animal protein intake (MPAEM, 2017). The wild fish catches have been stagnating around 100 000 MT for the marine capture and 30 000 MT for inland fisheries in recent years (FAO, 2019a), as a result of overfishing and environmental degradation. The contribution of fish to people's diets, food and nutrition could thus decline even more in the future, owing to demographic growth.

<footnote n="23">²³ Last national population census in 2014: 10 523 261 inhabitants. The average annual growth of the population is calculated at 2.5 percent per year (2010-2015).</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_76.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Guinean fish production potential and fish farming practices.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_77.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Composition of per capita protein intake from major animal products in Guinea, 2013 versus 1993 (WAPI, FAO 2019b).</figcaption></figure>

To address this issue, the government of Guinea decided to invest in fish farming, to make it a sustainable alternative to meet the demand for fish, to diversify the rural income, to empower women and to create jobs for the youth. Strategic programs like the Accelerated Food Security, Nutrition and Sustainable Agriculture Development Program (PASANDAD) and the National Program for
Agricultural Investment, Food Security and Nutrition (PNIASAN) were created to attain the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

## 2. Importance and current trends

A wide range of technical models for fish farming are feasible in Guinea, due to the diversity of the country' water resources: ponds, tanks, floating cages, pens etc. However, the most common and successful practice so far is an integrated system that combines the cultivation of rice and pond fish farming, called "pisciriziculture (fish-rice culture)". It consists in growing rice inside fish ponds and differs from raising fish inside irrigated paddy fields, commonly known as rice-fish culture or rizipisciculture.

Even though the two systems produce the same outputs (rice and fish), their technical models are different, as are the respective economic contributions of their crops. The analysis of some indices over 10 years of practical experience shows that this unique concept of fish farming developed in Guinea is a replicable technology, a profitable investment and a production system accessible to smallholders and family farmers as it improves income and strengthens food security and nutrition of their families.

A large number of projects have contributed to the emergence of this Guinean pisciriziculture concept, in particular those funded by the French Development Agency (AFD), and implemented by the French NGO APDRA Pisciculture Paysanne in partnership with the French Centre for International Cooperation on Agronomic Research for Development (Cirad). Experiences from fish farming interventions funded by other Technical and Funding Partners (TFP) such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the French Research Institute for Development (IRD), the French NGO Veterinarians Without Borders (VSF), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the African Development Bank (AfDB) have also helped to boost and refine the system. Table 1 presents some of the projects implemented, their targets and achievements.
<table><caption>**Table 1:** Targets and effective fish production (metric tonnes) for completed, ongoing and upcoming projects (2016-2017 production cycle)<fnref n="24" /></caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">N°</th><th rowspan="2">Project name</th><th rowspan="2">TFP</th><th colspan="3">Fish production (t)</th><th rowspan="2">Comments</th><th rowspan="2">Next steps</th></tr><tr><th>Target</th><th>Real</th><th>Defici t</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>PDRPGF</td><td>AFD</td><td>350</td><td>283</td><td>67</td><td>Completed. Activities were delayed by Ebola.</td><td>Preparation of a new project</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>WAAPP</td><td>WB</td><td>500</td><td>101</td><td>399</td><td>Delayed start</td><td>Implementation</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>PGIR/OMVS</td><td>WB</td><td>50</td><td>2</td><td>48</td><td>Ongoing</td><td>Speed-up implementation</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>SARITEM</td><td>AFD</td><td>20</td><td>0</td><td>20</td><td>Delayed start</td><td>Speed-up inception</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>PAFISAM</td><td>AFD</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>5</td><td>Ongoing</td><td>Implementation</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>PCHG</td><td>JICA</td><td>20</td><td>0</td><td>20</td><td>Under preparation</td><td>Under negotiation</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>PISCO-FAM</td><td>AFD</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>Awaiting signature</td><td>Start-up after signing</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>AGRI-FARM</td><td>IFAD</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>Under preparation</td><td>Start-up in 2018</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>PDAID</td><td>WB</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>Under preparation</td><td>Start-up in 2018</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Others</td><td>-</td><td>2 453</td><td>106</td><td>2 347</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">Total 2017</td><td>3 398</td><td>492</td><td>2 906</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Most of the interventions to promote fish culture are currently carried out in the Guinea Forest Region (Figures 3 and 4) by implementing an institutional vision promoted by the DNP and the sector's regional professional organization (FPRGF - Federation of fish-rice farmers in Guinea Forest Region).

<figure><img src="image_78.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3:** Location of the fish farming areas in Guinea Forest Region (dark green).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_79.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4:** Location of the fish farmers of the Guinea Forest Region.</figcaption></figure>

Table 2 present the expenditures of one of the main fish development project. Major support was needed for of production (56 percent of the expenses), farm infrastructure (22 percent) and technical assistance

<footnote n="24">²⁴ The 2018 challenge for rural fish farming investment through Public-Private Partnership schemes can be calculated at 4.178 T (production deficit for 2017 of 2.906 T + increase of production target for 2018 of 1.272 T).</footnote>
(21 percent). Given the present state of development of the sector, the budget assigned to marketing and fish processing is still minor (less than 1 percent), but this should change in the future when the latter will become more and more important as a result of an increased production (Table 2).

<table><caption>**Table 2:** Expenditures of a fish farming project (currency: EUR)<fnref n="25" /></caption><thead><tr><th>Budget lines</th><th>2017</th><th>2018</th><th>2019</th><th>2020</th><th>Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Technical assistance, action research, training</td><td>2 000 000</td><td>1 250 000</td><td>700 000</td><td>450 000</td><td>4 400 000</td></tr><tr><td>Pond construction, building of technical facilities</td><td>1 198 942</td><td>1 294 410</td><td>1 089 000</td><td>1 114 000</td><td>4 696 352</td></tr><tr><td>Fish production (breeding, stocking, management, training)</td><td>3 053 562</td><td>2 953 440</td><td>2 933 440</td><td>2 933 440</td><td>11 873 882</td></tr><tr><td>Fish marketing</td><td>1 402</td><td>1 926</td><td>2 648</td><td>2 888</td><td>8 864</td></tr><tr><td>Fish processing</td><td>28 034</td><td>38 528</td><td>52 965</td><td>57 750</td><td>177 277</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>6 283 957</td><td>5 540 322</td><td>4 780 072</td><td>4 560 098</td><td>21 156 375</td></tr></tbody></table>

In Guinea, the total number of registered fish farmers is 2 372, of which nearly 85 percent are assisted by different TFP intervention projects. The commercial agro-ecological fish farming “pisciriziculture” system has rapidly expanded in the Guinea Forest Region (Figure 5), highlighting that it is filling a gap and answering a need in rural areas. The current annual production of fish-rice farming in Guinea is estimated at 660 tonnes of fish and 856 tonnes of paddy rice. Recent average production figures of the AFD funded PDRPGF project, reaching almost 1 tonne of fish and 2.5 tonnes of paddy rice per hectare of barrage pond, show the relevance of the model of which the productivity could still be increased through action-research and valorisation of endogenous innovations.

<figure><img src="image_80.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** Number of fish farmers supported by PPGF<fnref n="26" /> and PDRPGF<fnref n="27" /> projects. Farmers already producing are highlighted in blue whereas those in orange are in the process of building their production facilities (no disaggregated data available before 2013).</figcaption></figure>

The selected approach of beneficiaries was highly participatory, involving the fish farmers at all stages. Young unemployed graduates received training to allow them to create their own specialized private

<footnote n="25">²⁵ EUR 1 = USD 1.1-1.2</footnote>

<footnote n="26">²⁶ PPGF: Fish Culture Project in Guinea Forest Region financed by AFD (1999-2008).</footnote>

<footnote n="27">²⁷ PDRPGF: Fish-Rice Culture Development Project in Guinea Forest Region financed by AFD/EU (2012-2017).</footnote>
sector services and provide technical assistance to the producers. They were thereafter contracted by
several development projects.

More recently, in response to the fast growing demand for technical support, the intervention approach has been updated to cope with the upscaling challenge (Figure 6). It is now focused on the technical accountability of selected experienced producers who provide advice and assistance to new fish farmers, and of specialized private service providers. This allows for a quick expansion and upscaling of the development of pisciriziculture in the region.

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6:** Sources of technical support provided to fish farmers.</figcaption></figure>

In terms of production, tilapia accounts for 65 percent of the harvest in weight (Oreochromis niloticus but also some Tilapia zillii incidentally introduced from the wild). Other farmed species include Heterotis niloticus (23 percent of harvest) and catfish (10 percent of harvest). Other species account for less than 2 percent of the harvested volume. They consist mainly in fry predator fish Hemichromis fasciatus (that is generally kept by the farmer for restocking) and miscellaneous other wild species (Figure 7).

<figure><img src="image_82.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7:** Main farmed fish species: *Heterobranchus isopterus* (top), *Hemichromis fasciatus* (middle, left), *Oreochromis niloticus* (middle, right), *Heterotis niloticus* (bottom).</figcaption></figure>

Sixty-five percent of the harvest is sold on farm or at nearby local markets. Depending on the location, fish species and size, the average selling price varies between EUR 1.5 to 5 per kilogram (Table 3). The remaining 35 percent serves mainly for family consumption and/or gifts.
<table><caption>**Table 3:** Fish selling prices per species and size in Guinea Forest Region</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Species</th><th rowspan="2">Individual weight (g)</th><th colspan="2">Price per kilogramme (EUR<sup>28</sup>)</th></tr><tr><th>Farm gate</th><th>Urban market</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Oreochromis niloticus</td><td>150</td><td>1.4</td><td>1.7</td></tr><tr><td>180-200</td><td>1.5</td><td>2.0</td></tr><tr><td>200-350</td><td>2.5</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Heterotis niloticus</td><td>600</td><td>4.0</td><td>5.0</td></tr><tr><td>2 000 (breeder)</td><td>6.0</td><td>7.0</td></tr><tr><td>3 000 (breeder)</td><td>6.0</td><td>8.0</td></tr><tr><td>Heterobranchus isopterus</td><td>800-2 000</td><td>3.0</td><td>5.0</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3. Technical steps

Although there is no prescriptive technical guidelines, the fish-rice farmers tend to follow similar production patterns (Figure 8), which are:

* Preliminary steps (first year only): Infrastructure set-up - topographic survey, marking out of the ponds and ponds/facilities (monk, inlet, outlet etc.) building;

* Sowing of rice nursery;

* Water immersion until plant material is decomposed;

* Lowering of the pond's water level until submersion is limited to the monk area: as a result, 80 percent of the pond surface is drained;

* Transplanting rice seedlings from rice nursery to pond in July/August;

* Gradual filling of the pond: This should start at the earliest 7 days after transplanting of rice seedlings;

* Progressive stocking of the pond with different fish species at recommended stocking rates;

* Managing of the fish growing-out through regular sampling and partial harvests; Removal of fingerlings reproduced in the pond and invasive species like Tilapia zillii (until October);

* Rice harvest in November/December;

* Fish harvest in November/December/January;

* Restarting a second growing out cycle in January/February using off-season rice or doing a fish growing-out without rice;

* Second harvest in May/June/July.

<footnote n="28">28 EUR 1 = USD 1.1-1.2</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_83.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8:** Main steps of the traditional rice culture vs. fish-rice culture. (1) Traditional valley with rice but without pond (2) Preliminary land clearing (3) Tillage and rice transplanting (4) Fish harvest in the same valley after dam-pond building (5) Pond cleaning and servicing (6) Rice transplanting (Credit: PDRPGF DNP/APDRA/AFD).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_84.png" /></figure>

©PDRPGF DNP/APDRA/AFD

<caption>**Figure 9:** The different features of a dam-pond (A) Top view showing two growing-out ponds in series, one small multi-purpose pond, one bypass channel, several water inlets and outlets (monk) and two overflow outlets (B) Perspective view showing the same as well as rice planting pattern in stocked ponds (C) Side view showing the dyke, the monk, the water outlet and the rice planting pattern in the pond (Credit: PDRPGF DNP/APDRA/AFD).</caption>
# 4. Technical elements

## Dam-ponds

Dam-ponds (Figures 8 and 9) are the most common fish production facility encountered in the Guinea Forest Region. The main reason is that they are well adapted to the local topography and to the investment capacity of the farmers in terms of labour and financial resources. All farmers are also guaranteed to receive a long-term technical support by the project.

The dam-ponds are made by building a dyke across a small valley stream (Figures 9 and 10). The set-up of the production facilities is gradual and generally carried out by mutual aid groups of individual fish farmers, hence reducing the construction costs which represent a value ranging from EUR 292 000 to 5 000. Construction time varies from 1 to 3 years and the recovery time of the investment is generally between 3 and 5 years.

Water generally originates from a spring or a seepage area. The extent of the submerged surface depends on the height of the dyke retaining the water and on the topography of the location. The size of the dam-ponds is thus highly variable. The average surface in the Guinea Forest Region is 3 000 square-meters, with the largest ones of about 1 ha.

Ponds can be designed to be either “open” or “closed”. “Closed” dam-ponds are more expensive to construct because they need a supplementary embankment upstream and a bypass channel to deviate unduly descending water, but they are more productive than “open” systems in which there is a continuous flow of water, where the water is poorer in natural feed for the fish, and where water fertilization is not as effective as it is in “closed” ponds.

The monk and the spillway are the main operating elements of the system. Dam-ponds can be seen as a mean for enhancing muddy/sandy bottomlands which are considered agricultural marginal land because they are not really suited for rice culture or other agricultural purposes. It is recommended that in addition to grow-out ponds, farmers construct one or more small “service ponds” (multi-purpose pond) for fingerling production and/or fish stocking purposes (Figure 12).

<figure><img src="image_85.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 10:** Digging of a core trench to prevent water seepage underneath the main pond dike.</figcaption></figure>

## Farmed species

Four species are commonly raised together in a polyculture system: the Nile tilapia *Oreochromis niloticus*, the heterotis *Heterotis niloticus*, the catfish *Heterobranchus isopterus* and the predator fish *Hemichromis fasciatus* which is used as a police-fish to avoid excessive and unintended tilapia fry proliferation (Figures 7 and 11). Polyculture is preferred to monoculture by most farmers because their goal is to maximize fish production by making a better use of the various trophic sources available in the ponds.

<footnote n="29">29 EUR 1 = USD 1.1-1.2</footnote>
Recommended stocking densities are adjusted in function of the natural productivity of the pond environment and the ability of the fish farmer to provide additional inputs as feeds or fertilizers. The indicative values are one male *O. niloticus* fingerling per 10 m², one *H. niloticus* per 100 m², one *H. isopterus* per 100 m² and one *H. fasciatus* per every ten *O. niloticus* fingerlings.

*O. niloticus* is the main crop species and although mixed-sex farming is common, more experienced farmers switch to all-male farming, as males grow faster than females. Male 15-30 g *O. niloticus* fingerlings are obtained by manual sexing after a first growing-out cycle of fry in the multi-purpose ponds.

For rice cultivation in dam-ponds, a long stem and long cycle local variety of rice such as CK90 is recommended.

<figure><img src="image_86.png" /><figcaption>*O. niloticus*</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_87.png" /><figcaption>*H. niloticus*</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_88.png" /><figcaption>*H. isopterus*</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_89.png" /><figcaption>*H. fasciatus*</figcaption></figure>

©Sidiki Keita

**Figure 11:** Commonly farmed species in Guinea Forest Region.

## Water fertilizers and fish feeds

Guinean fish-rice farming is agroecological and based on the principles of synergies, recycling and circular economy. The duration of the production cycles vary from 6 to 9 months and depends on the availability of nutrients in the pond water, on the stocking density of the farmed fish and on the desired marketing sizes at harvest. For growing-out, agricultural, animal or household by-products are used. Inorganic and fertilizers maybe be available in the region but they are too expensive because they are not produced locally and the transportation costs are high. Similarly, no commercial fish feeds is imported in Guinea, so these are not accessible to the farmers. Sometimes and when available, rice bran is used as a water fertilizer and/or fish feed but the recent development of poultry and pig farming in rural areas makes it a highly demanded and always more expensive commodity. Palm kernel cake is a largely available by-product of the local palm oil industry and some farmers use it in their ponds. The quantities of by-products used are not monitored so their efficiency and impact on the growth of fish is not well known. Some research and development activities on this subject are currently ongoing.

Some fish farmers have also opted to fertilize their ponds by using animal wastes or associating fish with pig farming (Figure 12). The water fertility and the presence of natural feeds such as plankton, invertebrates etc., is evaluated through direct measurements using Secchi disk or visual observations (water colour).
<figure><img src="image_90.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 12:** Valley converted from poor bare land to dam-ponds, showing multi-purpose ponds with fish-rice-pig association.</figcaption></figure>

**5. Production and consumption**

The Guinean government aims to increase the average fish consumption in the country. At the national level, the last objective was to increase the annual per capita fish availability from 11 kg in 2005 to 17 kg/capita/year in 2015.

A case study conducted in Gbötöye, a Guinea Forest town where fish-rice farming is well established, showed a dramatic increase in the average fish consumption, from 4 kg/capita/year in 1995 to 14 kg/capita/year in 2015 (Table 4).

<table><caption>**Table 4:** Increase in local fish consumption through commercial small-scale aquaculture</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Designation</th><th colspan="5">Year</th></tr><tr><th>1995</th><th>2000</th><th>2005</th><th>2010</th><th>2015</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Number of fish farming development projects in Gbötöye</td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Number of fish farmers in Gbötöye</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>7</td><td>24</td><td>38</td></tr><tr><td>Average annual production in the region (kg/ha/year)</td><td>80</td><td>90</td><td>700</td><td>800</td><td>900</td></tr><tr><td>Average annual production in Gbötöye (kg/ha/year)</td><td>400</td><td>400</td><td>672</td><td>1 000</td><td>1 150*</td></tr><tr><td>Average national consumption (kg/capita/year)</td><td>10</td><td>12</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Average consumption in Conakry (kg/capita/year)</td><td>23</td><td>25</td><td>22</td><td>22</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>Average consumption in Gbötöye (kg/capita/year)</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>9</td><td>12</td><td>14</td></tr></tbody></table>

**6. Constraints**

Some constraints to the development of fish farming in Guinea have been identified. These include:

* The low public budget allocated to upscale fish farming and develop it in the other regions, in contrast with the increasing demand and huge natural potential.

* The absence of national human/ institutional capacity to respond to requests for intensification and diversification of current production techniques due to a lack of specialized expertise.

<footnote>*Some experienced farmers produce 2 to 3 tonnes per hectare per year.</footnote>
* The lack of funds and fish farming facilities for applied research targeted at local production techniques.

* The restricted capacity for intensification of the existing production systems put in place, due to the unavailability of feed.

* The divergence between the traditional school curricula and adequate knowledge needs for the Guinean context.

* The limited offer of training courses on fish farming in the four national vocational schools dispensing agricultural training (ENAE) and at the Fisheries and Aquaculture Department of the scientific institute of higher education in Dalaba (ISSMV).

## 7. Perspectives

The future needs and perspectives for the development of fish farming in Guinea are:

* The achievement of the production target of 7 000 tonnes by 2020, as set in the PNDES.

* The extension of fish farming to new areas in the four national regions of Guinea by diversifying current farming techniques in reply to needs and local conditions.

* The continuation of the technical assistance to national government.

* The mobilization of additional funds.

* The formulation of feasibility studies and pilot actions.

* The monitoring and capitalization of innovations as well as the dissemination of achievements.

* The participation in knowledge exchange meetings, aquaculture networks and specific training courses.

* The further training of young executives from national technical services.

* The development of fish farming as a strategy for adapting to climate change by making productive use of different natural and artificial water bodies.

## 8. Acknowledgement

Dr Joris Colman and Dr. Ana Menezes provided thorough and helpful comments on an early version of this manuscript.

## 9. References

**MPAEM (Ministère des Pêches, de l'Aquaculture et de l'Économie Maritime).** 2017. Plan National de Développement économique et social 2016-2020, Bureau Stratégie et Développement. Conakry, Guinea : 120 p. www.invest.gov.gn/document/pnds-document-principal

**FAO.** 2019a. *Global Statistical Collections*. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online]. Rome. [Cited 26 June 2019] www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/en

**FAO.** 2019b. *World Aquaculture Performance Indicators (WAPI)*. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online]. Rome. [Cited 26 June 2019] www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/wapi/en
# INTEGRATED ANIMAL-FISH FARMING IN SOUTHERN BRAZIL: PRACTICES, CHALLENGES, OPPORTUNITIES AND DIFFICULTIES

Manoel Xavier Pedroza Filho and Cesar William Albuquerque de Sousa

## 1. Introduction and principles

### 1.1. Origin

The development of integrated animal-fish farming in southern Brazil is directly related to the increase in demand for farmed fish during the 80's. This change in consumer's preference was driven by several factors, among which the increase in wild fish price, the growing health concerns and the expansion of *pesque-pagues* ("fish and pay" in Brazilian Portuguese), which became particularly popular as a recreational activity and source of fresh fish.

The pesque-pagues consist of fish farm facilities where customers can catch themselves the fish in the pond with a fishing rod and either pay and take away or consume in the local restaurant (Figure 1). In addition to the fish, the pesque-pagues offer many other recreational activities such as playground, soccer field, and artisanal brewery.

<figure><img src="image_91.png" /></figure>

©Manoel Pedroza

<caption>**Figure 1:** Pesque-pagues in Santa Catarina, Brazil.</caption>

As the demand for farmed fish continued to increase during the 90's, the small-scale producers, who are predominant in the southern states, started to implement more professional fish farming structures. The introduction of sex-reversed tilapia and the implementation of fish processing plants were fundamental innovations following which the Santa Catarina state's extension agency, EPAGRI, along with other local organisms, began significant activities of technology transfer and fish farming development, including the construction of five thousands small (2 000 m²) earthen ponds (Cavalett, 2004).
According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), Santa Catarina population is 7 million inhabitants, about 16 percent of which live in rural areas. The state is characterized by the presence of very small farms, considering the Brazilian standards, with 90 percent of them smaller than 50 ha. The average fish farms have 2 hectares of water and they rely on family labor (EPAGRI, 2017). The rural area's population is composed mainly by descendants of Europeans (e.g. Italians, Germans and Portugueses), who immigrated in the nineteenth century.

Main agricultural products are pork and poultry, corn, soybean, wheat and beans, which are managed by agro-industries integrated with small farmers (Cavalett et al., 2004). In these small farms, the integration of production generally occurs by using corn as the main component for pig diet and recycling manure to fertilize corn, wheat and soybean.

<figure><img src="image_92.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Localization of the Upper Itajaí Valley, in Santa Catarina state.</figcaption></figure>

Santa Catarina is a traditional pig producer and most of the production is located in the West (3 million swine heads in the 90's). In this context, the integration with fish farming emerged as a logical complementary activity allowing to increase pig's income, by optimizing its wastes and obtaining economies of scales in terms of land use and work force (Perin, 2010). The integrated pig-fish farming became particularly popular in the Upper Itajaí Valley (Figure 2) and estimates indicate that the technical model developed there is practiced by at least 13.000 farms (Tomazelli JR et al., 2007).<fnref n="30" />

**1.2. Concepts**

The integrated pig-fish farming developed in Santa Catarina consists in a polyculture based on the Chinese model coupled with pig manure utilization (Table 1). The main species stocked are common carp (*Cyprinus carpio*) and Nile tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*), combined with herbivorous carp (*Ctenopharyngodon idella*) which feeds on aquatic plants, silver carp (*Hypophthalmichthys molitrix*) which feeds on phytoplankton, and other species like catfish Jundiá (*Rhamdia quelens*).

The association of these species aims to rationally take advantage of the various natural trophic niches in the water resulting from the addition of pig manure and pig feed losses falling directly into the pond, as pigs are reared in wooden structures over or beside of the water surface (Wezel, 2017).

As such, the fishpond acts as a treatment system for the animal waste, by recycling its trophic potential. Recycling manure improves the environmental quality of the entire farm, and increases the food availability (Tamassia, 2011). The nutrients present in the waste material (mainly phosphorus and nitrogen) act as catalysts in a complex aquatic metabolism composed of three main stages: production, consumption and decomposition (Casaca and Tomazelli Jr., 2001; Kumaresan et al., 2009). The

<footnote n="30">³⁰ MAVIPI model, for the Brazilian acronym of “Integrated Fish Farming Model in the Upper Itajaí Valley”</footnote>
interrelation of organisms in the ecosystem is called the food or web chain, which represents the flow of energy and matter between living beings in the environment, under the precepts of thermodynamics (Perin, 2010 *apud* Esteves, 1998).

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /></figure>

©A – Souza (2007); B – EPAGRI

<caption>**Figure 3:** Structures used on integrated pig-fish farming in Santa Catarina state.</caption>

The system associates species with different eating habits and the selected species are classified into three categories. Primary species represents the largest quantity in the polyculture, mainly by the market value or availability of food in the pond. The secondary species are used in intermediate amounts, playing the role of "filtering", by removing the excess of plankton in the pond. The complementary species enter into the polyculture in small quantities, taking advantage of natural feed not used by other species, or their debris (Perin, 2010).

The choice of the species also takes into account the specificities of the local markets. The economic viability of the system depends on the acceptability of the fish produced, as well as its value addition. Only species authorized by the environmental legislation should be considered. Table 1 shows the main species used in the integrated pig-fish farming in Santa Catarina, according to their feeding habits and category.

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Main species used in the integrated pig-fish farming in Santa Catarina. Source: Tomazelli *et al.* (2005)</caption><thead><tr><td>Species</td><td>Feeding habits</td><td>Category</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)</td><td>Omnivore, Benthos</td><td>Primary or secondary</td></tr><tr><td>Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)</td><td>Phytoplankton</td><td>Secondary</td></tr><tr><td>Big head carp (Aristichthys nobilis)</td><td>Zooplankton</td><td>Secondary</td></tr><tr><td>Herbivorous carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)</td><td>Macroplankton</td><td>Complementary</td></tr><tr><td>Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)</td><td>Omnivore, Plankton</td><td>Primary or secondary</td></tr><tr><td>Pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus)</td><td>Omnivore, Fruits</td><td>Complementary</td></tr><tr><td>Cascudo (Hypostomus affinis)</td><td>Perifitoplankton</td><td>Complementary</td></tr><tr><td>American catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)</td><td>Omnivore</td><td>Complementary</td></tr><tr><td>African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)</td><td>Omnivore, Nectar</td><td>Complementary</td></tr><tr><td>Jundiá catfish (Rhamdia quelens)</td><td>Omnivore</td><td>Complementary</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Two integrated systems

The integrated pig-fish farming in Santa Catarina is composed by two main models: the traditional model and the MAVIPI model, but some intermediate variations based on these two systems can also be found in Santa Catarina. The main differences between them is the use of feed, mechanical aeration, control in the number of pigs and water management (Table 2).
<table><caption>**Table 2:** Main differences between traditional integrated pig-fish farming and MAVIPI Model in Santa Catarina. Source: Authors</caption><thead><tr><th>Characteristics</th><th>Traditional</th><th>MAVIPI</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Type of pond</td><td>Small reservoirs for multiple water uses, without water in and outflow management</td><td>Specific ponds for fish farming, with control of water in and outflow management</td></tr><tr><td>Control of water quality</td><td>Low</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><td>Control of the pigs manure quantity in the pond</td><td>No</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>Species</td><td>Main carps</td><td>Tilapia, carps and catfishes</td></tr><tr><td>Aeration</td><td>No</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>Use of complementary commercial feed</td><td>No</td><td>Yes (only in the final phase, after the fourth month)</td></tr></tbody></table>

## The traditional system

In the traditional integration model, the carps are the primary species and the system does not use commercial feed. Thus, the only food available is the planktonic organisms in the pond, which may be in the water (phytoplankton and zooplankton) or on the bottom (benthos). In this system it is fundamental to know the natural productivity of the ponds in order to increase their production through the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers. Organic and inorganic fertilizer (chemical fertilizer) acts as catalysts in the development of these organisms and as the ponds receive fertilizer inputs, the natural productivity increases proportionally (Tamassia, 2011).

According to Perin (2010) and Tomazelli *et al.* (2005) the main species and their proportion in the traditional system are: Common carp (40 percent), Silver carp (12 percent), Big head carp (8 percent), Herbivorous carp (4 percent), Nile tilapia (20 percent), Cascudo (4 percent), American catfish (4 percent), African catfish (4 percent), and Jundiá catfish (4 percent).

This system has a lower productivity and a longer cultivation time, but also the lowest production cost. For this reason the farmers who may encounter difficulties to pay the expenses of fish farming based on the use of commercial feed, such as amateurs or recreational fish farmers for example, tend to favor it (EPAGRI, 2017).

However, most of ponds used in the traditional system were initially built to serve as water reserves, by diverting watercourses and, consequently, they are generally located near the rivers. In 2012, the new Brazilian Forest Code determined a 30-m-wide protection zone along watercourses that are at least 10 m wide. As a result, most of these fish farms found themselves in violation of environmental regulations, putting their future at risk, as the farms are typically small and their areas favorable to fish farming practice are not widely available (Aubin *et al.*, 2014).

## The MAVIPI model

The traditional integrated pig-fish farming system expanded significantly in the 90's but its rapid expansion also resulted in some issues with environmental Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO). A complaint was raised to the public prosecutor office in 1996, accusing fish farming of being responsible for the proliferation of the “borrachudo” black fly (*Simulium pertinax*), and for the increased water pollution in the Upper Itajaí Valley (Figure 3). The fact that most of the local fish hatcheries were also located in permanent preservation areas (APPs) was also denounced (Souza, 2007).

Then, in response to these environmental issues and to increase the productivity of the integrated pig-fish system, the producers and EPAGRI jointly worked to develop the MAVIPI Model (Wezel, 2017).

In the MAVIPI model tilapia is the primary species and the feed is provided by natural organisms during the initial phase (first 3 to 4 months) and by supplementary commercial feed at the end of the production
cycle. The duration of the cycle and the productivity are lower than with the monoculture system exclusively based on commercial feed, also practiced in the state, but the cost of production is approximately 25 to 30 percent lower (EPAGRI, 2017).

The MAVIPI model incorporates several innovations that provide significant improvements in terms of productivity, production management and water quality, compared to the traditional integrated system. It is based on six main characteristics (Tamassia, 2011):

1. Polyculture characteristics: tilapia (70 to 75 percent), common carp (10 to 15 percent), silver carp (7 percent), big head carp (6 percent) and others (2 percent). This combination allows for an efficient recycling and facilitates the control of effluent emissions.

2. Supplementary feeding with commercial feed: the supplementary use of commercial feed starts when biometrics monitoring show that the fish growth rate is decreasing. In standard conditions, this only applies in the final steps of the production cycle.

3. Integration with pigs: the nutrients from the swine manure and feed losses allow the production of natural feed, which replace the commercial feed during most of the growing-out. There are two classes of benefits: the economic one, because it uses cheaper nutrients compared to the nutrients supplied by the commercial feeds. Second, by recycling nutrients, the waste release into natural water bodies is reduced.

4. Complete control of water inflow and outflow in the ponds: This is one of the basic conditions for controlling environmental impacts and enabling the intensification of ecosystem services, as it allows controlling the water quality of the ponds and quantifying the nutrients emissions to the environment.

5. Mechanical aeration: it makes possible to keep the water column homogeneous during the day, when the primary production is maximum. This also allows to maintain the dissolved oxygen levels in the night and during cloudy days.

6. Controlled harvest: it consist in harvesting fish without decreasing the water level in the ponds, thus enabling an important reduction in the environmental impacts associated with MAVIPI model. This is only possible when ponds are properly constructed (not in marsh areas, no trunks in the background, regular shape, etc.) and the necessary structure is available. As it requires high investment, the practice of the partial exhaustion of the water is currently used.

In the MAVIPI model, the pig confinement units are located directly over the pond, on the smaller side and opposite to the drainage system. This allows the distribution of manure throughout the day without human labor. Because the manure is supplied in its fresh form, it quickly dissolves and with the use of aerators, its distribution is homogeneous throughout the pond (Tamassia, 2011).

**1.3. Importance of the integrated pig-fish farming**

One of the main goals of the integrated pig-fish farming is the reduction of the production costs and the realization of scope economies by sharing resources and manpower. According to Casaca and Tomazelli Jr. (2001), the use of swine manure for the fertilization of the ponds can reduce the cost of production of fish farming by up to 70 percent.

In addition to the economic advantages for the fish farming, there are also some benefits for swine production. In particular, the feed conversion ratio for pigs is reduced because of the improved wellbeing of the animals resulting from a greater thermal stability in the cold nights and dawns, a decrease in ammonia levels in the air and an unlimited availability of water for the swine to cool in the hottest days (Tamassia, 2011).

These benefits allow farmers working in the integrated pig-fish systems to reach best economic results compared to pigs produced on conventional farms. Another positive factor is the possibility to minimize one of the biggest environmental problems of swine farming in Brazil by recycling pig manure and avoid pollution (Tamassia, 2011).
## 2. Technical and economic performance

As shown in table 3, the MAVIPI system presents a higher productivity performance than the traditional integration system. The main differences concern the shorter duration of the production cycle and the annual yield.

<table><caption>**Table 3:** Technical indicators of the three fish farming systems in Santa Catarina</caption><thead><tr><td>Indicators</td><td>Traditional integration</td><td>MAVIPI</td><td>Monoculture fish farming of tilapia (only commercial feed)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Average fish farming yield (Tonne/ha/year)</td><td>5</td><td>13</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>Feed conversion factor</td><td>-</td><td>0.6</td><td>1.6</td></tr><tr><td>Duration of the production cycle (Months)</td><td>14</td><td>10</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Average cost of production (BRL/Kg)</td><td>1.75</td><td>2.60</td><td>3.70</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Project Campo Futuro/Embrapa/CNA (2017); Silva (2015); Hilton Jr. (2004), EPAGRI, 2017.

*Exchange rate, BRL 1 = USD 0.26

However, in terms of production costs for the primary specie (tilapia) the MAVIPI model is about 32 percent less effective than the traditional integration, but 30 percent lower when compared to the monoculture production of tilapia using exclusively commercial feed. The use of commercial feed is one of the most important determinants in the MAVIPI performance, but this impacts directly the production costs.

The current fish market in Santa Catarina and Brazil is demanding higher volumes, as most of the production is being oriented to supermarkets. This market has high requirements in terms of volume, regularity or quality, and most of the fish is commercialized by fish processing plants. These processors also require high volumes and consequently supply from individual producers working in small-scale basis is not viable, considering logistics aspects. Therefore, this scenario benefits more intensive systems than the traditional integration model (Flores and Pedroza, 2014).

The stocking density of the main fish species varies according to the number of pigs per hectare, to the species chosen and also to the natural productivity of the pond, resulting in an amount of 3 000 to 6 000 fishes/ha. In the MAVIPI model the recommended number of pig is 60 pig (weighing each between 25 and 100 kg) per hectare of water, which results in a natural productivity (without commercial feed) of 2 000 kg/ha for the primary specie (Tamassia, 2011; Tomazelli Jr. et al., 2005)

Wohlfarth and Schroeder (1979) affirm that manuring up to a maximum of 175 kg of dry matter per hectare and per day results in a production of 32 kg of fish/ha/day for a period of 125 days. According to Tamassia (2011) these data corresponding to a fish production of about 4 000 kg/ha, which represents the maximum biomass supported by natural productivity using organic fertilization.

The total pond productivity relies on management practices, water quality, and species that will complement the polyculture. The production cycle duration varies according to the choice of the main species: six months for tilapia and one year for common carp. On the other hand, the choice of complementary species is a function of feeding habits and of their development capacity in pond (Tamassia, 2011).

## 3. Main constraints

According to Kubitza (2006), the main factors limiting the expansion of the integrated pig-fish farming systems in southern Brazil are:
* Limitations on pig waste recycling: Despite offering an alternative for recycling pig manures, the integrated pig-fish farming cannot be considered as the solution for disposing of waste generated by large or intensive pig farms.

* Low financial income: the reduced production cost or higher profit per kilo do not results always in higher profitability, as it is determined by the combination of productivity per area (production cycles x biomass per cycle) and profit margin per kilogram of fish sold (sales value less cost of production). At this point, the integrated systems can present a lower financial income compared to the more intensive systems, because it presents a low yield per area (see table 3).

* Consumer perception and cultural restrictions in new markets: despite being well accepted in the local market, the fish from integrated systems can also face resistance of consumers in the other regions of Brazil. Indeed, consumers are more conscious about the origin and production systems concerning all animal protein, including farmed fish. In this context, the way the integrated fish is produced can raise issues by consumers concerning sanitary risks. Although there is scientific evidence to support the quality of the product and the safety for consumption (Pilarski et al. 2004; Coelho et al. 1990; Rosa et al. 1990), it is hard to convince the Brazilian consumers to buy fish that have been produced in ponds fertilized with pig manure.

**4. Current trends and future prospects**

Despite offering an ecological and low cost technology to produce fish, the number of producers practicing integrated pig-fish systems in southern Brazil has been stagnating or even reducing in recent years. Official statistics do not consider these types of data but several experts mention a decline, whereas the more intensive systems were growing in popularity and according to Aubin (2014), many producers working with integrated systems in Santa Catarina have returned to non-integrated polyculture/pig production systems.

The current trend towards the intensification of the Brazilian aquaculture and the concentration capital lead by large companies and cooperatives has transformed the sector which is becoming more competitive (Pedroza and Routledge, 2016). Therefore, ecological aquaculture systems face huge challenges to assure a sustainable position in the market. Differentiation from the conventional farmed fish and compliance to the environmental rules is crucial to ensure the development of these systems.

Some of the challenges faced by integrated pig-fish farmers in Brazil are similar to those of the small-scale fish farmers in Brazilian aquaculture nowadays. Some of the reasons behind this situation concern the lack of organization, which results in limitations like the low production volume, the high cost of inputs, the low standard of quality and the lack of fish processing. At this point, organization is a determinant factor in order to assure competitiveness of these categories of producers.

**5. Bibliography**

Aubin, J., Rey-Valette, H., Mathé, S., Wilfart, A., Legendre, M., Slembrouck, J., Chia, E., Masson, G., Callier, M., Blancheton, J.P., Tocqueville, A., Caruso, D. & Fontaine, P. 2014. *Guide for implementing ecological intensification of aquaculture systems*. INRA, Rennes, France, 131 p.

Casaca, J. M. & Tomazelli Júnior, O. 2001. Policultivo de peixes em SC. *Revista Panorama da Aquicultura*, pag. 26-32, jan./fev. Laranjeiras – RJ.

Cavalett, O., Queiroz, J. F. & Ortega, E. 2004. Emergency Assessment of Integrated Production Systems of Grains, Pig and Fish in Small Farms in South Brazil. In E. Ortega & S. Ulgiati, eds. *Proceedings of IV Biennial International Workshop "Advances in Energy Studies"*. Unicamp, Campinas, SP, Brazil. June 16-19, 2004. Pages 239-256.
Cavalett, O. 2004. Análise emergética da piscicultura integrada à criação de suínos e de pesque – pagues – Brasil. Dissertação (Mestrado em Engenharia de Alimentos) – Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo.

Coelho, M.S.L., Rosa, V.P. & Costa, P.M.A. 1990. Estudo da microbiota de tilápia do Nilo (Oreochromis niloticus) alimentada com dejetos de suínos. *Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Zootecnia* 19 (6): 546-551.

EPAGRI. 2017. Síntese anual da agricultura de Santa Catarina 2015 – 2016. Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária e Extensão Rural de Santa Catarina – Epagri. Centro de Socioeconomia e Planejamento Agrícola - Epagri/Cepa.

Esteves, F. A. 1998. Fundamentos da Limnologia. 2º edição. Rio de Janeiro: Interciência.

Flores, R.M.V. & Pedroza Filho, M.X. 2014. Is the internal market able to accommodate the strong growth projected for Brazilian aquaculture? *Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology* 4: 407/5-417.

Hilton Jr., A. 2004. A piscicultura em sistema integrado. Apresentação powerpoint. EPAGRI/CEPC-SC.

Kestemont, P. 1995. Different systems of carp production and their impacts on the environment. *Aquaculture* 129: 347-372.

Kubitza, F. 2006. Considerações sobre o modelo de piscicultura consorciada com suínos. Jundiaí, SP, Brasil. Revista panorama da Aquicultura. N.63. Available online at: <www.panoramadaaquicultura.com.br/paginas/revistas/63/consorciada.asp>

Kumaresan, A., Pathak, K., Bujarbaruah, K. & Vinod, K. 2009. Analysis of integrated animal-fish production system under subtropical hill agro ecosystem in India: Growth performance of animals, total biomass production and monetary benefit. *Tropical Animal Health and Production* 41 (3): 385-391.

Matos, A.C., Boll, M.G., Testolin, G. & Roczanski, M. 2006. Piscicultura Sustentável integrada com suínos. *Boletim Técnico* 131. Florianópolis: EPAGRI.

Pedroza, M. X. F. & Routledge, E. A. B. 2016. *Intensificação Produtiva da Aquicultura Brasileira e Novas Demandas Tecnológicas*. Nota técnica AGROPENSA/EMBRAPA. Palmas-TO.

Perin, M. L. 2010. Simulação do desempenho energético e da demanda de área em agrossistemas integrados à suinocultura - Brasil. Dissertação (Mestrado em Energia) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil.

Pilarski, F., Tomazelli Júnior, O., Casaca, J. M., Garcia, F. R. M., Tomazelli, I. B. & Santos, I. R. 2004. Consórcio Suíno-Peixe: Aspectos Ambientais e Qualidade do Pescado. *Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia* 33(2): 267-276.

Rosa, V.P., Costa, P.M.A. & Coelho, M.S.I. 1990. Palatabilidade e incidência de patógenos em tilápia do Nilo alimentadas com dejetos de suínos. *Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia* 19(6): 542-545.

Silva, N. J. R. 2005. Dinâmicas de desenvolvimento da piscicultura e políticas públicas no Vale do Ribeira/SP e Alto Vale do Itajaí/SC – Brasil. 544 f. Tese (Doutorado em Aquicultura) - Centro de Aquicultura, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Jaboticabal, Brazil.

Silva, F. M. 2015. A EPAGRI, suas atribuições e a relação com a piscicultura. Apresentação powerpoint. EPAGRI/CEDAP-SC.

Souza, E. 2007. Estudo de Caso MAVIPI – Modelo Alto Vale de Piscicultura Integrada –Principais Atores e Ações para o Setor. Dissertação de Mestrado. Mestrado Profissionalizante em Gestão de Políticas Públicas-UNIVALI. Itajaí/SC, Brazil.
Tamassia, S. T. J. 2011. *Indicadores técnicos – econômicos para o gerenciamento do modelo Alto Vale do Itajaí de piscicultura integrada (MAVIPI)* – Brasil. Dissertação (Pós-Graduação em Aquicultura) - Centro de Aquicultura da UNESP – CAUNESP, Universidade Estatual Paulista, Jaboticabal, Brazil.

Tomazelli Júnior, O., Casaca, J. M. & Warken, J. A. 2005. Policultivo Integrado: O modelo de Santa Catarina. Chapecó: Mercur Indústria Gráfica, 2005.

Tomazelli Júnior, O., Casaca, J. M. & Dittrich, R. 2007. Qualidade de água em policultivo de peixe integrados à suinocultura. *Revista Agropecuária Catarinense* 20: 72-75.

Vincke, M.M.J. 1991. Integrated Farming of Fish and Livestock: Present Status and Future Development. In *Proceedings of the FAO/IPT Workshop on Integrated Livestock-Fish Production Systems*, 16–20 December 1991, Institute of Advanced Studies, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Zadjband, A. D. 2011. *Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Systems*. In E. Lichtfouse, ed. Genetics, Biofuels and Local farming System, Sustainable Agriculture reviews 7, Springer.

Wezel, A. 2017. *Agroecological Practices for Sustainable Agriculture: Principles, Applications, and Making the Transition*. World Scientific, Singapore.

Wohlfarth, G. W. & Schroeder, G. L. 1979. Use of manure in fish farming – a review. *Agricultura Wastes*, Essex 1: 279-299.
# AN OVERVIEW ON AQUACULTURE IN DESERT AND ARID LANDS

Valerio Crespi

## 1. Introduction

The global population growth and increase in food demand is driving the rapid expansion and intensification of cultivated lands. An estimated 13 percent of the world population, 313 million, live in arid zones with 92 million residing in hyper-arid deserts (UNCCD, 2007). Deserts cover more than one fifth of the Earth's land. They are found on every continent and they can represent new unexploited areas for development. Arid lands are characterized by high temperature variations (between day and night); low precipitations; high solar radiation and evaporation; limited surface and subsurface water; abundant inexpensive land; and large aquifers of fresh and brackish water available.

Although water is a renewable resource, the rate of water use and demand growth for agricultural and non-agricultural (industrial, municipal and domestic consumption) uses is increasingly threatening to outpace the rate of water renewal. The global use of freshwater doubled between 1964 and 2014 as a result of population growth, urbanisation, industrialisation as well as increased production and consumption. Climate change-induced water stress is also increasingly becoming a threat for countries having great extension of arid lands particularly, the Near East and North Africa where agriculture is a significant sector in rural areas of the region.

The idea of desert aquaculture was formulated in the early sixties showing that it was possible to use fresh, salty or brackish waters to farm fish successfully. The high mineral content of waters found in the deserts, along with the high temperatures and solar radiation support high primary productivity forming an appropriate and favorable food-base environment for the fish.

Desert and arid lands can nowadays be better exploited for food production through the use of modern and responsible aquaculture practices including by applying agroecology principles, thus reducing water use while increasingly supporting the food safety and environmental protection and conservation. In the last two decades, the integration of aquaculture with agriculture has become more popular in areas where water is limited. These integrated farming systems can produce a source of cheap quality protein and fresh vegetable products, with reduced water use especially for the small-scale farm households in rural areas. Desert aquaculture can also provide social benefits, assuring an improved public health and food security for rural communities, reducing migration of rural population towards cities and/or abroad.

## 2. Water sources

In arid lands the main sources of water are represented by dams, ponds, irrigation canals, salt/brackish water lakes, ground water (aquifers), temporary rivers and rain fed reservoirs. Ground water in arid lands is often only partially used, although this water is abundant and of high quality. Among the issues to be considered are drilling costs to access water or the fact that water often comes out from the wells at very high temperatures and cooling practices have to be adopted to secure suitable temperature for cultured species.

Other sources of water such as rivers, lakes and rain fed reservoirs are often available only seasonally, depending on the distribution of annual precipitations. Therefore, the integration of aquaculture with agriculture practices is becoming increasingly attractive for farmers living in areas where water is a limited resource. In fact such systems can reduce water requirement for the simultaneous production of quality protein and fresh vegetable products.
**3. Main aquaculture farming systems**

Developing aquaculture in arid climate conditions, forces the adoption of production strategies focused on good water management, which includes water savings and recycling practices. In rural and arid areas where traditional small-scale agriculture activities are practiced, small-scale fish farming can be carried out using the irrigation ponds which farmers use for watering their agricultural crops. Medium and large-scale agri-aqua systems based on irrigation reservoirs used to store groundwater or rainwater during the wet season have also started to become common to farm fish in integrated farming systems.

On a more intensive scale closed recirculation aquaculture systems that incorporate water filtration
systems, biological filters, protein skimmers and oxygen injection systems, etc., have been successfully
established in many localities around the world particularly in regions where fish is in high demand and
markets are ready to pay premium prices. These systems may support up to 50 kg of fish/m³ of water.
Aquaponic systems, integrating recirculating aquaculture with hydroponic vegetable production, are
becoming increasingly popular as small household units as well as larger commercial operations.
Large-scale recirculating systems, in which water from outdoor fish ponds, raceways and tanks, is
passed into sediment ponds to remove the solids. The water is then passed to an adjacent water reservoir,
and good quality water is then returned from the reservoir to the fish rearing systems (Kolkovsky et al.,
2011). Floating cages are also commonly found in dams or disused mines, allowing the growth of fish
in low or non-exploited artificial water bodies.

**4. Suitable species**

A large variety of organisms can be cultured in arid conditions and they typically do not differ from
species that are cultured under different and more favourable environmental conditions. Their farming
is possible as long as the culture environment provided conforms to the physiological requirements of
the farmed animal. However, those species that have a wide tolerance to a number of environmental
parameters (e.g. temperature, salinity) are preferred. Fast growing species are also preferred candidates.

Currently, the most suitable fish species for water-limited aquaculture systems include the tilapias (Oreochromis spp.) and their hybrids, barramundi or the Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer), a number of carp species, mullets (Mugil cephalus and Liza ramada) and several catfish species (Clarias gariepinus and Bagrus spp.).

In Egypt, among other countries, good results have been achieved with the rearing of European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) in brackish waters. With regard to shrimp, the Indian white prawn (Penaeus indicus) and whiteleg prawn (Penaeus vannamei) represent successful examples respectively of marine and freshwater aquaculture (e.g. in Saudi Arabia and Algeria).

**5. Examples of aquaculture in arid lands**

Algeria is an example of success story, where the government has provided support to the private and public sector for the development of aquaculture, particularly in the arid regions located in the southern part of the country. It has been estimated that more than a thousand irrigation ponds are associated to 300 farmers practicing fish farming integrated with agriculture. They represent nearly 50 percent of the 626 farmers practicing fish farming throughout the national territory.

Aquaculture stakeholders range from small-scale farmers owning 1-2 ha small plot with one earthen pond mainly used for irrigation, to medium-large-scale farmers with farms covering a surface of 10 to 20 ha with several ponds.

In recent years, ten aquaculture projects were set up in the Algerian desert. These facilities have an annual total production capacity of approximately 1 700 tonnes of fish (tilapia, catfish) per year. Many
small-scale integrated agri-aquaculture farms established in southern Algeria and that were supported by the government with the technical assistance of FAO, also successfully achieved the production of Nile tilapia, including for the production of seed in hapas or farm-made feed using available agriculture products, for harvesting and reusing fertilized water for irrigation, giving them a certain degree of autonomy.

A good example of success is the fish farm “Biofloc group” located in the municipality of Hassi Ben Abdellah in the district of Ouargla (800 km south of Alger). The farm was established in 2015 through the collaboration with the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA, the Republic of Korea). The farm built on 10 hectares of sandy land has a production capacity of 10 tonnes of whiteleg shrimp (*Penaeus vannamei*) per production cycle. Underground water is always, and all the year round, available in wells and it is treated with filters using RAS technology. Almost 95 percent of water is recycled with limited water wasting.

Egypt is another example, as it has increased the quantity of fish produced in integrated agri-aquaculture (IAA) farms from 700 tonnes in 2010 to 2 200 tonnes in 2017. In recent years, the number of integrated farms has also increased. About 100 commercial farms have been set up in different desert regions of Egypt, mainly based in ten governorates within the broader Nile delta, near the Nile valley and Sinai Peninsula. Although eight fish species are produced, the main one is Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), which accounts for 90 percent of desert-based aquaculture production. Water for desert farms comes from underground saline water, desalination plants and agricultural drainage, with a salinity between 0.5 to 26 g/litre, and a temperature from 22 to 26°C.

In Egypt there are two good examples of success: the first one is El-Keram, an IAA system in the Egyptian desert. Water is first used for the fish production (hatchery and grow-out), then the waste water and fish wastes are used to grow plants, including alfalfa to feed sheep. Sheep dropping is used to generate biogas (heating for hatchery, staff houses and cooking). The system operates with a 67 percent reduction of water use. The second example is Wadi Tal Village Farm in South Sinai, Egypt. The approximately 13 000 hectares farm is organized in a cooperative supported by 120 Bedouin families. Desert land has been reclaimed to produce several crops, including date palms, figs, olives, pomegranate, guava, clover, vegetables and fish produced under greenhouses.

Israel is another pioneer country in desert aquaculture. In the Negev desert (southern Israel), incredible amounts of saline underground and geothermal water allowed the establishment of super-intensive fish farms that operate successfully. Hybrid-tilapias are being cultured with average annual production yields of 20-27 kg/m³. In the United States of America around 40 aquaculture farms located in desert regions in six states, currently produce about 1 percent of the total annual national fish production equivalent to about 4 000 tonnes.

## 6. Pictures of aquaculture in arid land

<figure><img src="image_94.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Hybrid of red tilapia (*Oreochromis mossambicus* × *O. niloticus*) farmed in an aquaponic systems, Oman.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_95.png" /></figure>

**Figure 2:** Irrigation pond used to farm Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in the district of Ouargla, Algeria.

<figure><img src="image_96.png" /></figure>

**Figure 3:** Harvesting Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in an irrigation pond in the district of Ouargla, Algeria.

<figure><img src="image_97.png" /></figure>

**Figure 4:** Agricultural crop grown using water fertilized by farmed Nile tilapia in the irrigation pond.
<figure><img src="image_98.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** Example of a closed aquaculture recirculation system in Oman.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_99.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6:** Example of aquaponics system (salad grown in soilless media) in Oman.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_100.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7:** Example of aquaponics system (salad grown in soilless media) in Oman.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_101.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8:** Aquaponics farm (basil grown in soilless media) in Oman.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_102.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 9:** Floating cages in a disused mine in the south of Namibia.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_103.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 10:** Irrigation pond used to farm Nile tilapia, Egypt.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_104.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 11:** Lined earthen pond for fish farming, district of Ouargla, Algeria.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_105.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 12:** Irrigation pond used to farm Nile tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*) in the district of Ouargla, Algeria.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_106.png" /></figure>

©Valerio Crespi

<caption>**Figure 13:** Large-scale closed aquaculture recirculation system in the district of Ouargla, Algeria.</caption>

**7. Conclusions**

The main goal of aquaculture in the desert is to utilize productively and efficiently the limited water resources for fully integrated aquaculture-agriculture food production systems. This is very much in line with the main agroecology principles.

Desert aquaculture appears to give water resources an economical value rather than induce a competition in water consumption between aquaculture and agriculture (Suloma *et al.*, 2006). This system indeed allows the production of different crops (fish, agriculture and livestock) by using the same quantity of water.

There is a growing interest by farmers living in many arid regions in starting aquaculture activities as a parallel activity or fully integrated business along their agriculture activities. It represents also a real opportunity to encourage migrants to the cities, especially youth and women from rural areas, to return to their hometowns and start integrated aquaculture-agriculture businesses.

However, the limited technical competences, the low availability of inputs (typically feed and fish fingerlings) and the lack of adequate incentives from governments represent three important obstacles to the development of the sector.

Current and future developments of inland aquaculture in desert and arid lands will rely greatly on the appropriate use of subsurface waters, by using farming practices which ensure the smart use of this resource. The constant growth of the human population and the continuous exploitation of land and water resources particularly in arid environments will require the application of new strategies and incentives, as well as capacity development to ensure the adequate production of food (animal protein and vegetables) by populations living in these remote and isolated areas.
## 8. Bibliography

**Crespi, V. & Lovatelli, A.** 2011. Global desert aquaculture at a glance. In V. Crespi & A. Lovatelli, eds. *Aquaculture in desert and arid lands: development constraints and opportunities*. FAO Technical Workshop. 6–9 July 2010, Hermosillo, Mexico. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings No. 20. Rome, FAO. 2011. pp. 25–37.

**Kolkovski, S., Simon, Y., Hulata, G. & Ayaril, N.** 2011. Desert aquaculture. pp. 107–125. In *Aquaculture: Farming Aquatic Animals and Plants. Second Edition*. J.S. Lucas & P.C. Southgate (eds.) Paperback Wiley-Blackwell 648 pp.

**Suloma, A. & Ogata, H.Y.** 2006. Future of rice-fish culture, desert aquaculture and feed development in Africa: the case of Egypt as the leading country in Africa. JARQ, 40(4): 351–360.

**United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).** 2007. *Desertification, exacerbated by climate change, represents one of the greatest environmental challenges of our times*. [online]. UNCCD thematic fact sheet series No. 1. Climate change and desertification. [cited 14 October 2011]. www.unccd.int/documents/Desertificationandclimatechange.pdf.
# PRACTICES AND RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY OF EGYPTIAN FARMS APPLYING AQUACULTURE - AGRICULTURE INTEGRATION

Harrison Charo-Karisa and Ahmed Nasr Allah

## 1. Introduction

Rapid sustained growth of the Egyptian aquaculture has made it a global leading sector, now producing approximately 1.2 million MT of fish worthy over USD 2 billion in revenue per year, and providing 65 percent of Egypt's fish supply. At a production of 989 606 MT in 2016, Egypt became third largest producer of tilapia in the world. Despite these impressive figures, growth in production of fish cannot keep pace with demand and reports of malnutrition among the rural and urban poor are common. Environmental and water scarcity concerns are emotive in Egypt since the country depends mainly on waters of River Nile whose fixed water allocation is 55.5 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM). Egypt is currently a water scarce country with renewable water resources of only 650-m3 capita⁻¹ /year. Furthermore, with mounting pressure from the large population and high growth rate, production of low-cost food while minimizing environmental impacts are a major priority of the Egyptian Government.

The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) and Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) are responsible for optimum utilization of the available water resources. A major focus of the MWRI is an equitable allocation of water resources between various users. Highest priority allocation goes to potable water, industrial and agriculture. Unfortunately, over the years, MWRI did not accord aquaculture priority allocation while MALR's focusses on maintenance of food security, and recognizes aquaculture key alongside other agricultural activities. Due to the conflicting priorities between the two ministries, aquaculture is restricted to lands that are not suitable for agriculture and only with agricultural drainage water.

Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture Systems (IAAS) could offer solution to this policy challenge. IAAS are defined as the concurrent or sequential linkage between two or more agricultural activities including aquaculture as part of the components (Little and Edwards 2003). The integration of aquaculture and agriculture enables the efficient generation of synergies between different farm components and the use of an output from one component in an integrated farming system as an input for another component. This system reduces wastes and further utilised them as useful inputs for production of other desired products within the farm such as the use of animal manure and crop residues as fertilizers and feed, respectively, in fishponds (Prein 2002).

WorldFish and its partners have undertaken to understand IAAS in Egypt to inform policy changes towards aquaculture. To determine resource use efficiency and suggest optimization pathways for the different integrated aquaculture agriculture systems practised in Egypt, a series of experiments were conducted at WorldFish Abbassa station (30.544227; 31.736793) to collect biological and economic data of the systems. Results of the experiments are presented.

## 2. Methodology

First, an experiment was conducted to describe and quantify sediment and nutrient accumulation in semi-intensive tilapia ponds and estimate potential for use in land based agriculture. Sixteen 200 m2 earthen ponds with treatments including chicken manure versus pelleted feed and two stocking densities (1 or 2 fish m⁻²). *Oreochromis niloticus* fingerlings weighing 20-25g were stocked and harvested after 4.5 months. Monthly core pond sediments were collected from the top of ceramic tiles installed horizontally at 5 cm depth before pond filling. Fertilizer potential of the pond sediment was estimated based on the quantified sediment and nutrient accumulation.
In the second experiment, two integration units were developed at two sites in WordFish Abbassa research facility. The units consisted of three 200 m2 fish ponds; two crop plots each 525 m2; and a 3 HP solar powered water pump. The unit was designed to allow canal water through the fish ponds before use for crop irrigation.

## Pond stocking and fish feeding

Fish ponds were stocked at the start of growing season in May with Abbassa tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*) with an average initial weight of 1.1 g (site 1) and 30 g (site 2) and stocking rate of 2 and 2.5 fish m⁻² in site 1 and 2 respectively. The ponds were fertilized with 3 kg chicken manure week⁻¹ for first 8 weeks (site 1) and first 24 weeks (site 2) to enhance growth of natural food. In the next 8 weeks, ponds received additional rice bran at rate of 1 percent of fish body weight and last 4 weeks at 2 percent body weight (site 1). For site 2, fish were fed 30 percent crude protein floating fish feed at rate of 1 percent of fish body weight to the end of trial. Fish were harvested 28 weeks after stocking.

Weekly water samples were collected (9.30 am) at inlet and effluent, and analysed for physico-chemical parameters: pH, total ammonia nitrogen (TAN), and nitrate-nitrogen. To compensate for evaporation and seepage or water discharged to irrigated crop, and improve dissolved oxygen, 20 percent of the pond water was recycled using solar pump.

Growth was monitored monthly and at harvest, fish were graded: premium >500, super 330-500 g, Grade One 200-330 g, Grade Two 125-200g and farm-gate prices were used for evaluation.

Hybrid maize from Agriculture Research Centre, ARC, Egypt was cultivated in two plots in the two different sites at Abbassa. Grains were planted at a density of 47 600 plants/ha in August (site 1) and June (site 2) and harvested in November and October respectively. Crop plots were divided into three treatments in each site:

* T1 – Traditional crop system, crop irrigated using canal water and complete fertilization as commercial maize grower;

* T2 – Irrigated with fish pond effluent throughout the growth period;

* T3 – Irrigated with fish pond effluent + 50 commercial fertilization rate.

Calcium superphosphate (15.5 percent P₂O₅) was applied at 467 kg/ha during land preparation and Nitrogenous fertilizer in form of urea (33.5 percent N) applied at 490 kg/ha in two equal portions before the first and second irrigation. Amount of water applied was estimated as a function of the number of pumping hours and pump capacity.

# 3. Results and discussion

Aquaculture systems that optimize water use efficiency are an important prerequisite for successful tilapia farming in arid lands. In Egypt, demand for aquaculture systems that can boost growth while ensuring efficient water and nutrient utilization and better environmental sustainability is increasing. Water-efficient strategies may vary depending on ecological conditions of different parts of the country. In Egypt, these strategies include integrating production systems with crops and livestock, and the exploitation of brackish or saline non-potable water or which is not suitable for agriculture; and use of the productive pond water and pond mud as a crop fertilizer. These systems enable optimization of production and can be easily scaled-up and adapted to small-scale fish farming situations.

## Production Practices in Egypt

Integrated systems in Egypt may include application of organic fertilizers from chicken, and livestock onto the ponds and of the water from ponds into the farm (Figure 1). The water drained from the tanks or ponds may be utilized for horticulture principally targeting fruit trees, vegetables, tomatoes, cucumber, potatoes, yellow corn, flowers, alfalfa as well as barley and wheat (e.g. Figure 2). Water discharged from catfish ponds irrigates Hejaz clover, which is in turn used to feed cows and sheep (Sadek 2011; Nasr-Allah et al., 2012).
<figure><img src="image_107.png" /></figure>

**Figure 1:** Schematic presentation of water use and output in integrated farms in Egypt (modified from Nasr-Allah *et al.* 2012).

Desert agriculture has been on the increase in Egypt since the 1990s due to support by the Government. Due to increased electricity and fuel prices, the costs of pumping of water from boreholes has become prohibitive and the farmers are embracing the use of solar power which substantially lowers pumping costs. Animal manures are used for production of energy in form of biogas and as organic fertilizers for clover and other crops. To cut costs further and get extra production, farmers store water in open reservoirs and use them for fish production before irrigating the crops (Figure 3). These farms use water flows and mechanical aerators to produce between 10-30 kg tilapia/m³.

<figure><img src="image_108.png" /></figure>

**Figure 2:** Polyethylene lined fish pond integrated with drought tolerant crops in Menia governorate (Upper Egypt).
<figure><img src="image_109.png" /></figure>

@Ashraf Shabaan

<caption>**Figure 3:** Water reservoir used for fish culture and irrigated horticulture farm (background) in east of Suez Canal (Ismailia Governorate).</caption>

Results indicate that sediments depth increased significantly across all the treatments (by about 3 cm per pond) but bulk densities (upper 5 cm sediment layer) decreased (0.1-0.3 g cm⁻³) with no effect of input type or stocking density for both sediment and bulk densities (Table 1). A large and wide ranging proportion (39-95 percent) of the nutrients used in fish ponds including fertilizers, manures and supplemental fish feed are trapped in pond sediments away from the intended fish (Wahab and Stirling, 1991; Funge-Smith and Briggs, 1994). Our studies indicate that influent water and direct organic inputs contributed to sediment accumulation (Table 1). Sediment accumulation quantities ranged from 1-3.1 (Minimum) and 1.5-3.46 tonnes/pond/cycle (Maximum) translating to a maximum of 173 tonnes/ha/cycle. Typically, a deposition of about 200 tonnes/ha is reported for earthen ponds (Avnimelech and Ritvo, 2003) indicating that the results were within range. The contribution from organic sources (manure, uneaten feed, fecal matter and plankton depositions) ranged from 76.3-137.8 kg across the different treatments. Influent water did not contribute much to the deposition (about 10 percent of total accumulation).

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Multi-comparison test (Tukey test) of sediment accumulation means by treatment (± stdev)</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Parameters</th><th colspan="8">Treatments</th></tr><tr><th>CM1</th><th colspan="2">CM2</th><th colspan="2">P1</th><th colspan="2">P2</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Accumulated sediment layer (cm)</td><td>3.0</td><td colspan="2">2.8</td><td colspan="2">2.9</td><td colspan="2">3.2</td></tr><tr><td>Quantity of accumulated sediment over culture period (tonnes/pond/cycle)</td><td>Min 3.1</td><td>Max 3.46</td><td>Min -0.78</td><td>Max 1.5</td><td>Min 2.8</td><td>Max 3.3</td><td>Min 1.67</td><td>Max 2.8</td></tr><tr><td>Sediment sources</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Influent water (kg/pond culture period<sup>-1</sup>)</td><td>0.19 ± 0.01</td><td colspan="2">0.21 ± 0.07</td><td colspan="2">0.20 ± 0.02</td><td colspan="2">0.17 ± 0.03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Estimated sedimentation from organic sources (kg)</td><td>137.79</td><td colspan="2">129.21</td><td colspan="2">62.9</td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Percent of accumulated sediment accounted by influent water and organic sources</td><td>4.4</td><td>4.0</td><td>-</td><td>8.6</td><td>2.5</td><td>1.9</td><td>4.6</td><td>2.7</td></tr></tbody></table>

CM1= Chicken manure at 50 kg dm/ha/day and stocking density 1 fish m⁻²; CM2= Chicken manure at 50 kg dm/ha/day and stocking density of 2 fish m⁻², P1= 25% protein pellets at 3% body weight (BW) /day and 1 fish m⁻²; P2= 25% protein pellets at 3% BW /day and 2 fish m⁻²; All treatment means not significant (modified from Muendo, 2006)
<table><caption>**Table 2:** Quantity of nutrients in the sediment and concentration at harvest</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Parameters</th><th colspan="4">Treatments</th></tr><tr><th>CM1</th><th>CM2</th><th>P1</th><th>P2</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Accumulated sediment (tonnes/pond/cycle)</td><td>3.28</td><td>0.36</td><td>3.05</td><td>2.24</td></tr><tr><td>Nitrogen</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Concentration at harvest (g/kg)</td><td>1.9</td><td>1.9</td><td>1.8</td><td>0.88</td></tr><tr><td>Quantity in accumulated sediment (tonnes/ha)</td><td>312</td><td>71.5</td><td>259.5</td><td>174</td></tr><tr><td>Organic carbon</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Concentration at harvest (g/kg)</td><td>14.5</td><td>12.5</td><td>11.7</td><td>12.7</td></tr><tr><td>Quantity in accumulated sediment (tonnes/ha)</td><td>2.4</td><td>0.45</td><td>1.75</td><td>1.45</td></tr><tr><td>Available phosphorous</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Concentration at harvest (g/kg)</td><td>0.0063</td><td>0.0038</td><td>0.0033</td><td>0.0035</td></tr><tr><td>Quantity in accumulated sediment (tonnes/ha)</td><td>1.035</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.39</td></tr><tr><td>Potassium</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Concentration at harvest (g/kg)</td><td>0.072</td><td>0.077</td><td>0.074</td><td>0.073</td></tr><tr><td>Quantity in accumulated sediment (tonnes/ha)</td><td>118.5</td><td>29</td><td>113</td><td>81.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

Modified from Muendo, 2006: CM1= Chicken manure at 50 kg dry matter/ha/day; and stocking density 1 fish/m²; CM2= Chicken manure at 50 kg dry matter/ha/day; and stock density of 2 fish/m², P1= 25% protein pellets at 3% Body Weight/day and 1 fish/m²; P2= 25% protein pellets at 3% Body Weight/day and 2 fish/m².

Table 2 shows the amount of different nutrients in the sediments. This study indicated that based on the Egyptian recommendations for maize cultivation of 286 kg/ha nitrogen, 200 phosphorus and 85 potassium, the sediment accumulation quantities of between 100-300kg nitrogen, 1.8-5 tonnes organic matter, 0.2-1.1 kg available phosphorus and 50-125 kg exchangeable potassium/ha per growing season is enough to sustain the crop if phosphorus is augmented by 1 percent.

<table><caption>**Table 3:** Water quality parameters for water inlet and outlet</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Source</th><th colspan="5">Parameters</th></tr><tr><th>Temperature</th><th>pH</th><th>DO (mg/l)</th><th>NH4 (mg/l)</th><th>NO3 (mg/l)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Site 1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Inlet</td><td>24.9</td><td>8.24</td><td>5.83</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.28</td></tr><tr><td>Pond</td><td>26.6</td><td>8.17</td><td>5.46</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.21</td></tr><tr><td>Outlet</td><td>24.7</td><td>7.81</td><td>4.43</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.21</td></tr><tr><td>Site 2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Inlet</td><td>28.7</td><td>7.6</td><td>6.0</td><td>0.11</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Pond</td><td>28.6</td><td>7.7</td><td>6.2</td><td>0.12</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Outlet</td><td>28.8</td><td>7.5</td><td>3.6</td><td>0.15</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table>

The results of the field trial cultivation of maize using fishpond effluents and the fish growth curve (Figure 4) indicate that the fish were able to grow well on the integrated system. Because, influent water contributed about 0.17-0.21 kg of sediment/pond, the trials used an initial fertilization of the field with urea and calcium superphosphate during land preparation. Charo-Karisa *et al.* (2006) undertook selective breeding of Nile tilapia in ponds receiving only 50 kg/ha/day chicken manure with impressive response to selection of about 35 percent in three generations.
<figure><img src="image_110.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4:** Fish growth curve over the growth period in site 1 and 2.</figcaption></figure>

The result of water quality analysis for one production season (Table 3) indicate that the level of nitrogen in effluent water increased compared to the source water (canal water). The pond water effluent when used to irrigate maize crop plots plus fifty percent commercial fertilization rate produced a maize crop higher or equal in yield to the traditional fertilization regime (Table 4).

<table><caption>**Table 4:** Maize growth parameters and yield per different treatments</caption><thead><tr><th>Trait</th><th>Traditional culture water + 100 fertilization)</th><th>(Canal percent)</th><th>Fish pond water + 0 fertilization</th><th>Fish pond water + 50 percent fertilization</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Plant Length</td><td>158 ± 5.7</td><td></td><td>158 ± 1.5</td><td>161 ± 1.1</td></tr><tr><td>Plant Weight</td><td>0.6 ± 0.05</td><td></td><td>0.5 ± 0.02</td><td>0.7 ± 0.1</td></tr><tr><td>Crop weight (kg)</td><td>0.34 ± 0.02</td><td></td><td>0.3 ± 0.03</td><td>0.35 ± 0.01</td></tr><tr><td>Production (kg/fed)</td><td>137 ± 8.2</td><td></td><td>126 ± 7</td><td>142 ± 5.9</td></tr></tbody></table>

According to Thompson *et al.* (1995), studies indicate that for every kilogram of market size production of rainbow trout (*Salmo gairdneri*), 0.1 kg nitrogen, 0.023 phosphorus and 0.75 of carbon became released to the water. The studies with Nile tilapia tend to agree with this finding indicating that these can be used to fertilize crops. Taken together with the revenue realized from the sale of the maize and the fish (Table 5) it is clear that an integrated agriculture aquaculture farm realizes much higher economic efficiency than each of the components separately. Although these results are preliminary, it is instrumental that the ponds receiving chicken manure and bran did better, in terms of total revenue and water use efficiency, than those receiving commercial fish feed. Fish feed is the most expensive component in fish farming operations and can take up to 70 percent of the total costs. As a result, farmers have been known to utilize a mixture of better quality commercial (but often expensive) and cottage or on-farm made feed (often low-cost but of inferior quality). Integrating fishponds with crop production unlocks the nutrients from the sediments leading to better nutrient use efficiency. This paper indicates that there is scope for optimization of IAA systems to further lower costs of production and increase overall water use and economic efficiency in Egyptian farms.
<table><caption>**Table 5:** Water use efficiency table</caption><thead><tr><th>Parameter</th><th>Site 1</th><th>Site 2</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Water use in m<sup>3</sup></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pond filling (3*200)</td><td>600</td><td>600</td></tr><tr><td>Compensate water lose (0.5 cm/day)</td><td>600</td><td>600</td></tr><tr><td>Water discharge to maize</td><td>405</td><td>720</td></tr><tr><td>Total water use m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1 005</td><td>1 320</td></tr><tr><td>Yield</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fish yield in kg</td><td>407</td><td>350</td></tr><tr><td>Maize yield</td><td>750</td><td>850</td></tr><tr><td>Revenue</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Maize Revenue EGP</td><td>2 775</td><td>3 175</td></tr><tr><td>Fish revenue</td><td>9 138</td><td>7 523</td></tr><tr><td>Fertilizers saving</td><td>560</td><td>460</td></tr><tr><td>Total Gross Revenue (EGP)</td><td>12 473</td><td>11 158</td></tr><tr><td>Return on unit of water used (EGP/m<sup>3</sup>)</td><td>12.4</td><td>8.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

**4. Acknowledgements**

This study was carried out as part of the Sustainable Transformation of Egypt's Aquaculture Market System (STREAMS) funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and was carried out as part of the Fish Agri-Food Systems (FISH) Fish Research Program of the CGIAR.

**5. References**

* Avnimelech, Y. & Ritvo G. 2003. Shrimp and fish pond soils: processes and management. *Aquaculture* 220: 549–567.

* Charo-Karisa, H., Komen, H., Rezk, M.A., Ponzoni, R.W., van Arendonk, J.A.M. & Bovenhuis, H. 2006. Heritability estimates and response to selection for growth of Nile tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*) in low-input earthen ponds. *Aquaculture* 261: 479-486.

* Funge-Smith, S.J. & Briggs, M.R.P. 1994. *The origins and fate of solids and suspended solids in intensive marine shrimp ponds in Thailand*. Summary report from Sonkhla Region of Thailand. Institute of Aquaculture, Stirling. 20pp.

* Little, D.C. & Edwards, P. 2003. Integrated livestock-fish farming systems. 189. Rome, FAO.

* Muendo, P.N. 2006. *Role of fish ponds in nutrient dynamics of mixed farming systems*. PhD Thesis Wageningen University, the Netherlands.

* Nasr Allah, A., Kenawy, D., El-Naggar, G., Beveridge, M. & Heijden, P.G.M. 2012. *Evaluation of the use of fresh water by four farms applying integrated aquaculture – agriculture in Egypt*. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen University and Research Center.

* Prein, M. 2002. Integration of aquaculture into crop-animal systems in Asia. *Agricultural Systems* 71: 127–146.

* Sadek, S. 2011. An overview on desert aquaculture in Egypt. In V. Crespi & A. Lovatelli, eds. *Aquaculture in desert and arid lands: development constraints and opportunities*, pp. 141–158. FAO Technical Workshop. 6–9 July 2010, Hermosillo, Mexico. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings No. 20. Rome, FAO.
**Thompson, S., Treweek, J.R. & Thurling, D.J.** 1995. The potential application of strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) to the farming of Atlantic salmon (*Salmo salar* L.) in Mainland Scotland. *Journal of Environmental Management* 45: 219-229.

**Wahab, M.A. & Stirling, H. P.** 1991. Environment and development of benthos in earthen trout ponds in central Scotland. *Aquaculture* 97: 335-352.
# STRENGTHENING INTEGRATED AQUATIC PLANT AND ANIMAL FARMING IN THE RICE FIELDS OF THE LAO PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Chanthaboun Sirimanotham and Nick Innes-Taylor

## 1. Introduction

The Lao People's Democratic Republic has rich aquatic biodiversity and rice fields are a sanctuary for a diverse set of aquatic organisms (Figure 1). These aquatic animals and plants are vital to the food and nutrition security of Lao people, especially those living in rural and remote areas. They provide poor communities with critical animal protein and micronutrients, important in the development of young children and pregnant women.

<figure><img src="image_111.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Rice fields are a sanctuary for a diverse set of aquatic organisms.</figcaption></figure>

Many small-scale family farmers have tried to intensify aquatic animal production in their rice field environments, but in practice, this is difficult to achieve. Most poor communities cannot increase their production of fish and other aquatic animals (e.g. crabs and snails), above that of traditional systems which mainly augment the natural recruitment of aquatic animals found in nearly all Lao rice field environments. While it is technically possible to increase this natural production, interventions typically promoted by rural development projects, require farmers to make substantial modifications to their rice fields. These often include digging long trenches, undertaking predator control and guarding against theft. While technically sound, following such advice implies significant investments in family time and money, and is not feasible for most small-scale farmers. The risks associated with digging-up rice paddies for example, are generally too high for families constantly challenged by food and nutrition insecurities.

## 2. Common misunderstandings

The lack of appropriate advice currently available to small-scale farmers in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, mainly stems from two important misunderstandings. Firstly, despite numerous technical studies conducted over the last 10 years, most policy makers and local development workers do not appreciate the value and importance of these resources to food and nutrition security. The key findings of these studies have not been fully understood and effectively communicated with local-level stakeholders and consequently, they are often overlooked in the design of poverty reduction programs.
<figure><img src="image_112.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Small hand-dug ponds improve nutrition.</figcaption></figure>

Secondly, there is a misunderstanding among policy makers and development workers about how small-scale farmers want to approach the intensification of their rice-fish systems. Farmers require recommendations which are low-risk and work to gradual modify their existing farming systems, rather than replacing them with new ones. Small-scale farmers also want to augment the diverse natural productivity of their rice fields rather than replacing it with the intensive culture of one or two species. These desires are often at odds with extension advice provided by development agencies, which tend to offer complete “packages” of technical recommendations that require significant and rapid changes in farming practices. The recommendations are also often relatively generic (one size fits all), which means they do not readily integrate into the local agro-ecology and usually exclude local biodiversity from small-scale farming systems.

**3. Working to develop solutions**

Since 2013 the Lao Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF) has been working with FAO to address these misunderstandings and devise more effective approaches towards supporting small-scale family farmers to develop their rice-fish systems. Under FAO's Regional Rice Initiative, DLF and FAO have collaborated with farming communities and local agricultural extension staff in five provinces of the country. These include provinces in the mountainous valleys of the North (Xieng Khouang, Oudomxay and Luang Namtha provinces), and provinces in the Mekong river floodplains of the South (Savannakhet and Salavan provinces). Each province has different agroecologies in and around their rice farming environments and significant differences in institutional arrangements for the provision of agricultural extension services.

DLF's collaboration with FAO has developed a better understanding of the importance of aquatic animals in the rice field environments of these five provinces. Focusing on small-scale family farmers and local-level government extension workers, it has bridged the information gap on the value and importance of aquatic animals in rice field environments. With this understanding, it has been possible to gain the support of local policy makers, and extension workers have been able to establish a series of farmer-managed Promotion Trials across the five provinces (2015-2018). The trials have supported poor communities to develop their own strategies for a gradual intensification of rice-fish culture that are integrated into local agroecologies and work to conserve local aquatic biodiversity.

Another important component of DLF and FAO support to local extension officers, was assisting them to develop their own processes of Trial establishment and farmer support. Processes such as these, are often prescribed by central level government agencies and international Development Partners, but due to differences in institutional arrangements and local capacity, such prescribed (top-down) approaches, often lead to inefficient and ineffective implementation. They can also be highly demoralizing for local
staff and stifle innovations for organizational development. Providing extension officers with the opportunity to develop their own types of Trials, that leveraged local capacities and expertise, provided a strong motivational force for change and produced highly effective processes of Promotion Trial establishment, monitoring and support.

**4. Bridging the information gap**

DLF's first step towards improving integrated rice-fish culture, was to address local understanding about the value and importance of aquatic animals and plants in rice field environments. While detailed and extensive studies of this issue have already been conducted at national level, the conclusions have been poorly communicated at local levels (provincial, district and community levels).

To bridge this communication gap, DLF and FAO supported local extension workers to undertake small surveys of aquatic animal and plant consumption in collaboration with farming communities. Conducting these small studies helped extension staff develop community dialogue on this issue and build political momentum for changes in local agricultural extension policy.

<figure><img src="image_113.png" /></figure>

©Nick Innes-Taylor

<caption>**Figure 3:** Rice fields are providing many food, including aquatic plants, eels, fish, insects or molluscs.</caption>

In 2013 DLF supported provincial and district officers from five provinces to work with farmers to collect and analyse household consumption data on aquatic resources harvested from rice field environments. These local staff mobilized farmers and engaged local policy makers in Xieng Khouang, Oudomxay, Luang Namtha, Savannakhet, and Champasak provinces. Farmers were invited and helped to collect their own consumption data using specially designed Farmer Record Books. With this support, farming families made systematic records of the name and quantity of aquatic animals and plants they harvested from rice fields over a 10-day period. The farmers then shared their findings with local policy makers. Data were collected in both dry and wet seasons.

The consumption data were highly variable between different families, but the analysis of results surprised everyone, and clearly demonstrated the economic importance of these resources. Some families in Savannakhet province consumed nearly 3 Kg per day of aquatic animals and plants harvested from their rice field. Data also showed that other aquatic animals such as frogs, snails, crabs and insects, are just as important to their food security as fish.
<figure><img src="image_114.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4:** Monetary value of aquatic resources in rice fields (USD).</figcaption></figure>

In Xieng Khouang, 10 farming families recorded consuming 10 different species of fish, 6 different species of Other Aquatic Animals (OAA - frogs, eels, snails, crabs etc.), 7 different types of aquatic plants and 6 types of aquatic forest products (in areas of natural forest next to their rice fields).

During the dry season, the harvest of aquatic animals and plants is less than the wet season, but these resources clearly make an important contribution to family food and nutrition security throughout the year.

When compared with the average value of rice consumed by farming families in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, the value of rice-field aquatic animals and plants to rural families is higher. While this information was new to many farmers and local policy makers, it supports earlier national studies as well as a general sense of concern over a perceived decline in these resources. In a context were many rural households continue to face serious challenges to their food and nutrition security, farmers requests for “practical solutions” to this decline, are increasingly relevant.

**5. Farmers developing practical solutions**

The next step in DLF's approach towards developing rice-fish culture was to expand local government partnerships with farming communities. In 2015 the Department initiated a series of Promotion Trials in which individual farming families tested and developed new rice-fish farming strategies. By 2018, over 200 families had participated in these trials (across five provinces), which as well as developing practical farming recommendations, has also generated locally produced communication materials (posters, booklets etc), and the operational procedures government agencies need to scale-up promotion of rice-fish culture to other areas.

Assistance to farming families participating in these Trials was provided by local government agricultural extension officers, operating within the existing institutional framework of agricultural extension services (no artificial project structures were established). DLF and FAO supported these officers to develop new ways in which they interact with poor communities and develop their roles as facilitators of farmer experimentation. They were encouraged to challenge traditional perceptions of their role in community development, where they are often seen as passive conduits for technical “packages” of new farming practices. As well as providing technical advice to farmers, government extension workers were supported to work with communities to identify good practices, communicate local innovation, facilitate community meetings, document lessons learned and produce locally appropriate communication materials (e.g. posters for village schools). The use of social media was also promoted by DLF to encourage extension workers in different provinces to exchange knowledge and experiences.
Farmers managed the Promotion Trials themselves, with support from mainly district-level government agricultural extension staff. Technical advice was provided by DLF and staff from the Lao Aquatic Resources Research Centre (LARReC), as well as provincial-level technical support staff. Farmers kept records of their fish production, and regular discussions were organized between farmers and extension workers to review progress of the Trials and discuss new innovations.

## 6. Plastic-lined earth pond

One of the integrated aquaculture-agriculture strategies developed by farmers during the Promotion Trials, requires the construction of a small plastic-lined earth pond which they can easily manage and use to intensify parts of their rice-fish culture system. The pond is small enough to be dug by hand, but not big enough to grow substantial quantities of fish. It allows farmers to conveniently nurse seed fish to reduce predation but relies on fish being “fattened” in rice fields. The pond also provides farmers with a facility to maintain a small stock of fish during the dry season. This is used as a source of food during a time when nutritious food is most scarce and to maintain broodstock for the following season's supply of seed fish.

<figure><img src="image_115.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** This farmer is using water from her small plastic-lined pond to water vegetables. Small seed fish are nursed in the pond before being released into rice fields later in the growing season.</figcaption></figure>

Many farmers have integrated these small ponds into family vegetable production plots, often located on the margins of rice fields (Figure 5). Waste vegetables are fed to the fish before being released into the rice fields, and small amounts of manure from free-range chickens are used to fertilize the water.

By introducing farmers to existing simple low-cost integrated agriculture-aquaculture practices, and then locally supporting them to test and adapt these practices, participating families have been able to produce a year-round supply of nutritious food.

## 7. Fish seed production

Trial recommendations also include techniques to produce fish seed (fish fingerlings for stocking into ponds and rice fields), and many farmers have started to sell the seed locally to neighbouring farmers. This helps promote aquaculture in the wider community and at the same time, addresses a key constraint to aquaculture in rural areas - the limited availability of fish seed.
**8. Estimates of aquatic animal production and impact**

Based on detailed monitoring data collected during 2017, 140 farming families participating in the Promotion Trials produced an additional 22.7 tonnes of fish (and other aquatic animals), mainly for family consumption. This represents an average production of 27 kg/person/year with a value of approximately USD 79 000 (local price of fish is approximately USD 3.5 /kg). A level of fish production close to government targets for increasing the average national fish consumption to 28 kg/person/year by 2020.

<figure><img src="image_116.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6:** Integrated rice-fish farming.</figcaption></figure>

This additional supply of nutritious food from existing rice field environments makes an important contribution to national food and nutrition security. It represents an important source of protein and key nutrients for poor communities that include high levels of calcium and oils essential for the absorption of some vitamins. Pregnant women and young children especially benefit from an increased supply of such food, as it is not only inexpensive and highly nutritious, but can also be produced near the family house. This greatly reduces the foraging burden of women and teenage girls, who are largely responsible for collecting wild foods (including aquatic animals), among poor communities.

Promoting small-sale fish seed production also helps to ensure Trial benefits can be sustained in the longer term, but also provides some families with significant additional income. During 2017, 30 families participating in the Trials produced 102 000 seed fish with a total commercial value of USD 6 220 (approximately USD 200 per household).

**9. Building local capacity**

The DLF/FAO partnership described in this paper, aimed to build the capacity of government agricultural extension services to provide practical support to the large number of farmers in the Lao People's Democratic Republic who want to intensify their rice-fish production but have limited resources. Through the Promotion Trial process, DLF generated “entry-level” advice for these farmers who generally have little or no experience of aquaculture. The recommendations, developed by farmers themselves, are low-risk, based on existing technology and use locally available feeds and materials.
They have been developed using existing expertise (at both national and local levels) and promote the integration of aquaculture into established rice farming practices. They also consider family labour constraints and aim to utilize on-farm resources more efficiently.

<figure><img src="image_117.png" /></figure>

**Figure 7:** Farmers and local development officers discuss trial recommendations at a workshop organized to share and exchange information and experiences between provinces.

A cornerstone of DLF's Promotion Trial approach is the localized development of recommendations for farming system improvements. For sustained and wide-scale adoption by farmers, recommendations must be practical, specific to the local situation and developed in a process of dialog between farmers, extension workers and technical experts. During the 2017/2018 growing season, platforms for this type of dialogue were created in five provinces and expertise developed at national level to facilitate and support this local dialogue rather than lead it. The Department's approach emphasises the importance of local stakeholders having the opportunity to learn together and building local ownership of project management.

<figure><img src="image_118.png" /></figure>

**Figure 8:** The DLF process for supporting communities.

Developing the skills and expertise of stakeholders to manage and support this dialogue and create a supportive environment for local learning and training, was therefore an important part of DLF capacity