Magdalena Sitarz, Bożena Gołębiowska,
Marek Wierzbowski, Maria Król

# Historical exploitation of copper and silver ores in the Polish part of the Western Tatras

## ABSTRACT

The article is based on material collected during the PhD project on hydrothermal mineralisation in the Polish Tatra Mountains, linked to historic copper and silver mining. The study focuses on the Polish part of the Western Tatras, where numerous signs of past mining activities have been identified, described, and documented. Five preserved features, four adits, and a large heap with a collapsed shaft crater were discovered. Mineralogical and geochemical analyses indicated that the primary components of the ore veins are tetrahedrite-(Zn) and tetrahedrite-(Fe), occurring as intergrowths with chalcopyrite, and less frequently with pyrite and galena. Fluid inclusion studies showed low homogenisation temperatures and low salinity of the mineralising fluids. Eutectic temperature measurements demonstrate that the inclusions represent H₂O-NaCl solutions with a minor KCl component. The sequence of hydrothermal mineral formation in the Western Tatras is reconstructed as: carbonates I → quartz I → barite I → quartz II + carbonates II + ore minerals + barite II → supergene mineralisation. The mineralisation in the Polish Tatra Mountains is classified as dolomite/siderite-quartz type with tetrahedrite. Additionally, evidence for a quartz-carbonate stage with copper sulphides was documented.

## KEYWORDS

Western Tatra Mountains, historical mining, copper and silver ores, hydrothermal mineralisation

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>
# I. INTRODUCTION

The Tatra Mountains and the town of Zakopane, now mainly recognized for their natural landscapes and tourism, were historically important as a centre of mining and metallurgical activity. The exploitation of local mineral resources spurred early settlement in the sub-Tatra region and contributed to the area's long-term development. Over time, this process transformed Zakopane into a major centre for sport and recreation (Jost 2004).

In the 11th and 12th centuries, much of the area surrounding the Tatra Mountains was covered with dense ancient forest. This, combined with the submontane and alpine landscape, made the region difficult to access and unsuitable for early settlement. Furthermore, poor soil quality and a harsh climate forced early agricultural communities to depend not only on farming but also on hunting, herding, and fishing. At that time, limited geological knowledge led people to believe that the Tatra Mountains were exceptionally rich in ores, sometimes even seen as a treasure chest of mineral wealth and precious stones. Alongside treasure hunters, miners began to emerge in the Tatras, searching not for mythical riches but for real ore deposits, despite the very tough environmental conditions. This early mining contributed to a deeper understanding of the Tatra Mountains. The first recorded account of tourism in the Tatra Mountains dates back to the mid-16th century. However, exploration related to mining in the range started much earlier, when prospectors and miners likely tried to locate ore deposits. In the Slovak part of the Tatras, mining activity probably began in the mid-12th century, while on the Polish side, it began in the 15th century. A document issued in 1255 by Bolesław Wstydliwy, which granted the Cistercian monastery in Ludźmierz the right to search for ores in the Polish Tatras, was later shown to be a forgery. Nonetheless, it indicates that in the 13th and 14th centuries, the presence of ore in the Polish part of the Tatras was widely believed (Szaflarski 1972).

On the Polish side of the Tatra Mountains, two distinct periods of mining activity associated with specific ore types can be distinguished. From the 15th to the 18th century, copper and silver ores were extracted, followed by iron ore mining from the 18th to the 19th century (Liberak 1927; Jost 2004). The presence of copper and silver ores is linked to hydrothermal mineralisation within the crystalline core of the Tatra Mountains, which is composed of granitoids and metamorphic cover rocks, where the mineralisation is hosted in quartz-siderite-barite ore veins. The main ore mineral is steel-grey tetrahedrite, the primary source of both copper and silver (Pawlica 1916; Paulo 1970, 1979; Nieć
et al. 2016). Iron ore, in turn, occurs in sedimentary rocks of the Tatra Mountains, mainly in limestones, dolomites, sandstones, shales and mudstones. These deposits are typically hydrothermal or weathering of origin. The main ore minerals are hematite, siderite, goethite and lepidocrocite (liminote ore) (Bąk, Piestrzyński, Radwanek 1994; Paulo, Panajew 2006).

This research aims to examine the current state of preservation of former copper and silver mining sites and to present the results of an inventory and documentation of historical mining relics in the Polish part of the Western Tatra Mountains. The article also includes findings from mineralogical and geochemical investigations.

## History of ore mining

The history of mining in the Polish part of the Tatra Mountains is closely linked to the activities of treasure seekers. It likely began even before the arrival of the first miners and later evolved alongside actual mining operations. However, one key distinction set treasure seekers apart from miners: treasure seekers believed that valuable metals and gemstones hidden in the Tatras were protected by supernatural forces or spirits and could only be discovered using secret signs, spells, or magical objects. An interesting remnant of their activity is the so-called "spisek" – a treasure guide that described the path to hidden riches (Krzyżanowski 1934; Kutaś 2005). Some written accounts of adits (exploratory tunnels) also take the form of legends or oral traditions rather than verified descriptions based on preserved mining features. Examples include the so-called "Skarby Mnicha", referring to alleged 18th-century silver adits beneath the Mnich in the High Tatras, and reports of antimony-bearing ore veins near the Szpiglasowa Pass (Zwoliński 1964).

The beginnings of copper and silver ore mining in the Tatra Mountains date back to the 15th century (Fig. 1).

However, the peak of this activity occurred in the early 16th century, when Aleksander Jagiellończyk became King of Poland (Kutaś 2005). Mining operations began in 1502–1503 on the eastern slope of Ornak, at an elevation of approximately 1,400 m a.s.l., where seven adits were excavated vertically, one above the other (Liberak 1927; Gawel 1966; Jost 2004). The largest of these, known as the Royal Adit, was Czarne Okno, which reached a length of 60 metres. It was the longest adit, timber-lined and supported by wooden frames.

Despite significant financial investment, copper and silver mining did not yield the expected profits. Following a pause in operations-likely due to
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 1.** Distribution of mineral ores in the Tatra Mountains. Author: B. Hacquet, 1796. From the TPN collection</figcaption></figure>

low returns-a new mining partnership was formed. This partnership included King Zygmunt Stary, the Bishop of Kamieniec, and several noblemen and townspeople. Under their management, between 1506 and 1539, the existing adits on the eastern slope of Ornak were renovated and extended (Zwoliński 1961). At the same time, mining activity commenced on the western slope of Ornak, where twelve adits were excavated in the Starorobociańska Valley, at an elevation of approximately 1600 m a.s.l. (Gaweł 1966). This area is most likely the source of the name Stara Robota.

Mining operations initiated in the Pyszniańska Valley (Gaweł 1966) significantly differed from earlier methods used in the region. The ore deposit was located on the valley floor; therefore, instead of horizontal adits, the mine was developed using two vertical shafts, one positioned above the other, which penetrated a layer of moraine material. It was soon discovered that the upper shaft was less profitable, leading to concentrated efforts on the lower shaft, which reached a depth of over 40 metres (Zwoliński 1962). An innovative feature of this operation was the use of a mechanical system known as a kunszta, installed near the shaft to enable drainage and vertical transport of the mined material. The name of the place, "Na Kunsztach", is a reminder of this installation.

Below the mine, a large ore-processing facility operated to remove barren rock material. Known as Młyniska, this plant covered an area of
approximately 365 square metres. Mining activity in the region was revived only two centuries later, during the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski. This period marked the last phase of mining under the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In mid-1765, work resumed in the Tatra mines. To reopen old workings and drive new adits, the king brought in foreign specialists in mining technology (Zwoliński 1962; Jost 1962, 2004; Kutaś 2005). As a result of this fieldwork on the eastern slope of Ornak, Czarne Okno was rediscovered, the largest mine not only in the Ornak massif but also probably on the northern side of the Tatra Mountains (Fig. 2). Their work resulted, among other results, in the discovery of the “Czarne Okno” adit and the preparation of its site plan, cross-section, and technical mining description.

Approximately 50 miners worked at the site, and the extracted ore contained around 800 kg of copper and 40 kg of silver. Between 1766 and 1768, a smelter operated on-site to process the extracted copper and silver ores (Zwoliński 1962).

Mining activity was also took place on the western slope of Ornak. The mines in the Pyszniańska Valley were reopened in the second half of the 18th

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 2. Site plan and cross-section of the “Czarne Okno” adit located in Żleb pod Banie, on the western slope of Ornak, J.R. Knorr, 1765. From the TPN collection</figcaption></figure>
century by the Prokopowicz brothers from Spiš. The final official record of royal mining operations in the Tatra Mountains dates to January 29, 1768 (Liberak 1927). After the First Partition of Poland, only limited extraction work continued, and by the late 18th century, the mining of non-ferrous metals in the Polish Tatras had ceased.

Several factors contributed to the end of mining activity in the Tatra Mountains. Despite considerable effort and investment, the mines that were reopened under different rulers failed to produce the expected profits. The ore deposits proved too small to allow for economically viable extraction. As a result, the costs of mining consistently exceeded revenues (Zwoliński 1962; Jost 2004).

During a short period of increased activity in the second half of the 18th century, about 20 tons of copper and some silver were produced in the Ornak region; however, this only partly covered the investment costs. Considering all periods of occasional mining activity since the late 15th century, the total amount of copper extracted likely did not exceed a few dozen tons.

Political events may have also influenced the end of mining, including the Bar Confederation in 1768 and the First Partition of Poland in 1772. Furthermore, with advances in geological research, it became clear that the chances of finding substantial ore deposits in the crystalline part of the Tatras were very low because of the complex geological structure and the presence of younger sedimentary rocks and overthrust units covering the crystalline basement (Paulo 1970, 1979).

Iron ore mining, which began in the 18th century, proved to be more profitable and generated significant income. As it developed, the metallurgical industry also flourished. In 1701, an ironworks was built in Stare Kościeliska in the Kościeliska Valley, and from 1757, under the supervision of Franciszek Rychter, the Huty Hamerskie. The name of the Kuźnice settlement in Zakopane, started producing considerable profits. However, after the First Partition of Poland, Kuźnice experienced a decline due to poor management and was eventually closed in 1791. It was reopened the following year by Jakub Reichersdorfer, who attempted to improve efficiency and increase profits but was unsuccessful. The plant was later taken over by Ernest Blutowski and Gottlieb Lang, who also struggled to manage it effectively (Jost 2004).

A turning point came in 1807 when the facilities were taken over by Jan Homolacs, a member of a Hungarian family of industrialists. This marked the beginning of a lengthy period of development. In 1824, his son Emanuel took control of the plant and also acquired the surrounding forests. Mining operations commenced in the Kopa Magury area, which harboured the richest
iron ores and formed the largest mining complex in the region. In 1832, the
works were inherited by Emanuel’s nephew, Edward. Starting in 1834, when
Rudolf Elsner became the head of the ironworks, Kuźnice emerged as the
leading metallurgical centre in Galicia, both in terms of product quality and
production volume. The ironworks from Stare Kościeliska were also relocated
to Kuźnice (Liberak 1927).

Mining operations continued in Jaworzyna Łuszczyńska, particularly
in the upper part of the gully below Czerwienica, known as Kopalnisko or
Stara Kopalnia (“Old Mine”), where nine adits were developed: Paulina, Za-
padła, Józef, Barbara, Hrdiny, Wilhelm, Edward, Klementyna, and the largest
one, Leopold Adit, which measures 260 metres in length. These workings pro-
duced approximately 350 tons of ore annually, with an iron content of 30–32%.
Hematite-rich veins were mined on the southeastern slopes of Kopa Magury,
where the iron content reached up to 50%. The Stara Kopalnia area and the
younger adits on the slopes of Kopa Magury were historically regarded as a sin-
gle mining complex, known collectively as the Magura Mines (Liberak 1927).

In August 1834, mining commenced at the Błogosławieństwo Boże site,
located in the Czerwony Żleb ravine in the Tomanowa Valley. The mined ore
contained iron ranging from 18 to 30% (Paulo 1979). Hematite-rich iron ore
(up to 70 % of Fe) was mined from the Maturka Mine, situated in the lower
section of the Maturowe Stoły ridge in the Kościeliska Valley (Zwoliński 1952).
Other adits, opened in the Kopki Kościeliskie area, also produced ore with
iron contents up to 30% (Liberak 1927).

Starting in 1850, the Kuźnice plant reached its most advanced stage of de-
velopment. The facilities included a blast furnace, four forge hammers (fryszer-
ki), three rolling mills, and a blacksmith workshop. From 1840 to 1842, mining
was also conducted in the Chochołowska, Lejowa, and Sucha Woda valleys,
as well as on Kominiarski Wierch, under the direction of Baron Borowski.
The ore extracted from these sites included iron, manganese, and pyrite,
which were used as a flux in copper smelting (Liberak 1927; Jach 2002, 2006).

In 1869, the Homolacs family sold the Kuźnice works and the surround-
ing forests to Baron Ludwik Eichborn. From that point on, the plant began
to lose profitability. The blast furnace ceased operations in 1875, and by 1880,
iron ore mining in the Polish Tatra Mountains had completely stopped.

During the iron mining period, a total of approximately 100,000 tons of
ore was exploited, with an average iron content of 25-30%. It was one of the
best and most dynamically operating mining and metallurgical plants. How-
ever, in the second half of the 19th century, there was a shortage of ore, and the
Tatra forests were devastated, because the basic fuel of the plants in Kuźnice was charcoal, and wood was also used for mining works: lining of adits and shafts, sidewalks, and traction routes. Additionally, Kuźnice was becoming a small, unprofitable plant that could not survive on the market compared to large factories producing much cheaper, in large quantities, and using modern technologies (Jost 2004).

Moreover, an unfair economy, poor management of the plant and frequent changes of owners contributed to the collapse of the plant in Kuźnice. The end of iron mining came in 1889, when Kuźnice and the surrounding forests were purchased at an auction by the Count. Władysław Zamoyski, and in 1921, he completely renounced the rights to exploit ores (Jost 2004). During this period, the return of mining to the Tatra Mountains was also not supported by the growing public awareness of the need to protect the Tatra nature (Gaweł 1966). After introducing protective farming in the Tatra forests, he donated all his property to the Polish nation. It was an introduction to the creation of the Tatra National Park in the Tatra Mountains.

## II. METHODS

Field work was carried out based on available geological and topographic maps, scientific publications and descriptions, as well as maps of previous Tatra mining researchers. The found objects were marked on a topographic map, and their descriptions and photographic documentation were made. Cartographic documentation was also prepared for the preserved objects. Using the Leica Disto device and the Qave program, plans and cross-sections were made for them, which were then graphically processed in Inkscape.

During the investigation of historical mining activities, samples were collected for detailed laboratory analysis. To characterize the mineralisation, a combination of microscopic observations, electron imaging, and micro-scale chemical analyses was carried out, including both major and trace elements. Inclusions and isotopic compositions were also examined. These integrated methods enabled a comprehensive characterization of the studied mineralisation.

Detailed petrographic investigations were conducted under both transmitted (polarized) and reflected light using a Zeiss Polmech microscope equipped with Labscope and Analysis software. Preliminary qualitative and semi-quantitative analyses of ore compositions were performed using a FEI
Quanta 200 FEG scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) detector. The system operated at an accelerating voltage of 25 kV in both high- and low-vacuum modes.

Quantitative chemical analyses were carried out using a JEOL JXA-8230 SuperProbe electron probe microanalyser (EPMA) equipped with wavelength-dispersive spectrometres (WDS) and an energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS). The analytical conditions included an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, a beam current of 20 nA, a peak count time of 20 seconds, and a background count time of 10 seconds.

Fluid inclusion studies were conducted on ~200 µm thick double-polished sections. Petrographic documentation at room temperature was carried out to assess inclusion morphology and determine their paragenetic relationship with the host mineral. Phase transitions were measured using a Linkam HFS91 freezing-heating stage mounted on a Nikon Optiphot-2 microscope with Nikon M Plan 40/0.55 ELWD and Nikon M Plan 100/0.75 SLWD objectives. Samples were initially heated at a rate of 40°C/min, then the rate gradually decreased from 10°C/min to 1°C/min, about 5°C before reaching the final homogenization temperature (Th). Eutectic temperature (Te) and final ice melting temperature (Tm) were measured only for larger fluid inclusions. Observations of inclusion changes near the expected phase transitions were conducted at a rate of 0.1°C/min. The salinity of the fluids was estimated by recording the final ice melting temperature. During the experiment, the samples were initially frozen rapidly to approximately -120°C and then gradually heated. The heating rate was decreased from 10°C/min to 0.1°C/min near the expected phase transitions. Each measurement was repeated three times. Salinities were calculated from the melting temperatures using the AqSo5e software (Bakker 2019).

### III. RESULTS

Field studies were conducted in three areas: the western and eastern slopes of Ornak and in the Pyszniańska Valley (Fig. 3).

#### Historical ore mining on the western slope of Ornak

On the western slope of Ornak, there is a well-preserved Hawiarska trail. Currently, this trail is used as a forestry track leading toward the Piekło Gully
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 3.** Places of ore mining in the Western Tatras. 1 – Quaternary (river and fluvioglacial sediments, slope scree), 2 – Tertiary (Podhale flysch), 3 – Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous (montane series), 4 – Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous (mountain series), 5 – Carboniferous (granitoids of the High Tatras), 6 – Paleozoic? (metamorphic rocks and granitoids of the Western Tatras) (based on Jost, Paulo 1985)</figcaption></figure>

(Żleb Piekło). A mining adit is located at an elevation of 1368 m a.s.l., approximately 50 metres below the trail, on the proper right slope of the gully. The adit measures 14.07 metres in length, with a vertical difference of 2.11 metres. The entrance opening, around 1 meter high and 0.8 metres wide, is partially filled with sediment and overgrown due to its position near an active stream.
Inside, the ceiling rises to about 1.5 metres in height. The adit comprises a central corridor and a small niche, approximately 2 metres long, located just behind the entrance. The main corridor, 12.07 metres long, is subject to periodic flooding. A narrow barite vein is exposed on the wall, and at the end of the corridor, four drill marks indicate past mining activity.

Due to its location near the gully, no mine dump was observed – likely eroded by surface runoff. Additionally, the area is subject to degradation caused by avalanches. Remnants of historical mining are also present in the upper part of the Piekło Gully, above the Hawiarska Trail, where several surface depressions may represent collapsed adits. However, no dumps with characteristic fragments of ore veins have been found (Fig. 4A).

Further traces of mining were also identified near the Hawiarska Trail, below the Baniste area, where it crosses the Banisty Gully. At the edge of the forest, a small dump was found, measuring approximately 8 metres in length and 3 metres in width (Fig. 4B). Fragments containing ore mineralisation suggest that mining activity occurred nearby. No adit entrance was found, possibly because landslides or fallen trees have concealed the remnants of earlier mining activity.

The most extensive remains of historical mining in the Tatra Mountains are located in the Baniste area, where the Hawiarska Trail concludes. Two dumps are visible among thickets of dwarf pine (Pinus mugo). The lower dump, measuring approximately 56 metres in length and between 2 and 9 metres in width, is considerably larger. However, no adit entrance has been found nearby. The second dump is situated approximately 80 metres upslope, with a length of 40 metres and a width ranging from 3 to 17 metres (Fig. 4C). Approximately 10 metres from this dump, the remains of an adit were discovered. Its entrance, about 1 meter wide and 0.5 metres high, allows access for only about 5 metres before the corridor becomes collapsed (Fig. 4D).

Additionally, small accumulations of rock material, likely originating from dumps, were identified at four more locations in the area. Each measured up to about 1 meter in length.

## Historical ore mining on the eastern slope of Ornak

On the eastern slope of Ornak, the first remnants of historical mining are found along a hiking trail leading to the Iwaniacka Pass, which follows the former Hawiarska Trail. On one side of the trail, a collapsed adit is visible, while on the opposite side, a small waste dump is situated. The adit lies within
a thin layer of quartzitic sandstone that locally covers the crystalline basement. However, the lack of mineralised rock fragments in the dump indicates that the sedimentary cover may not have been penetrated, suggesting that ore extraction likely never began.

The main mining area is situated higher up in the Żleb Pod Banie gully. A partially preserved Hawiarska Trail remains visible here, and the extent of former mining activity is indicated by numerous depressions created by collapsed adits and the presence of waste dumps. This area is referred to as Dziurawe. In the stream flowing out of the gully, fragments of quartz-barite-siderite veins with ore mineralisation can already be found. In the lower part of the gully, on the true left slope, a flat area was discovered. It may have served as the site of an old smelting facility where the mined ore was processed.

Above this site, traces of the former Hawiarska Trail cross the gully and lead to five depressions that likely mark the locations of collapsed adits. Near-by, fragments of mineralised quartz veins were found, indicating the presence of past dumps. Another depression with visible mineralisation was discovered farther upslope, signifying historical mining activity (Fig. 5A). The best-pre-served remains of historical mining are located in the upper part of the gully, where dwarf pine (Pinus mugo) begins to appear. An adit found at this site is believed to be the former royal mine known as Czarne Okno. The adit can be accessed through a funnel-shaped depression, approximately 6 metres wide and 0.5 metres deep, which narrows toward the entrance to a width of about 0.8 metres and a height of 1.5 metres. The small entrance opening is situated below rocky outcrops. The adit lies at an elevation of 1432 m a.s.l. and is 70.88 metres long, with a vertical difference of 7.36 metres. The entrance and the initial part of the corridor are partially collapsed, reducing the width to 0.5 metres and the height to 0.7 metres. Parts of the original timber lining can still be seen at the entrance. Beyond the low initial section, the roof rises to heights of 1.5 to 2 metres, and the corridor reaches up to 2 metres in width. In six locations along the bottom, wooden beams used as foundations for ore cart rails are still preserved. Further inside, a side corridor branches off to the north, extending 15 metres and is partially collapsed. The remaining opening provides a view into the interior, where a small chamber is visible and the sound of flowing water can be heard. In the deeper part of the main corridor, a small niche filled with barren waste rock is present. A short distance further, the main gallery divides into two levels. The lower level, now collapsed, extends about 5 metres. Wooden steps carved from a single tree trunk lead to the upper level, where timber roof supports are still preserved (Fig. 5B).
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

FIG. 4. Remnants of mining activity in the area of the western slope of Ornak. A – adit in Żleb Piekło, B – spoil heap near the hawiarska road, C – spoil heap in the Baniste area, D – adit in the Baniste area

A narrow barite vein is visible on the gallery wall. In the upper section, timber supports remain intact along both the walls and the roof. At the southern end of the adit, a short side drift, approximately 3 metres long, branches off from the main gallery.

Traces of historical mining have also been documented in the Żleb Ornaczański gully, where two adits have been identified. The first is located at an elevation of 1423 m a.s.l. and measures 35.09 metres in length, with a vertical extent of 3.95 metres. It can be accessed via a Hawiarska Trail that branches from the Ornaczański Gully toward Stara Wolarnia. One of the descending gullies contains an adit entrance, accessible through a funnel-shaped sink approximately 4 metres wide and 0.5 metres deep (Fig. 5C). The partially collapsed portal measures 2.5 metres in width and 1 metre in height. Near the entrance, the adit branches into a collapsed side drift (approximately 5 metres long) and a main corridor, with variable heights of 1.5 to 2 metres (Fig. 5D). Two barite veins are visible along the walls. At the end of the gallery, another side drift branches off from the central passage and is water-filled in places. The second adit is located at an elevation of 1436 m a.s.l. and measures 16.5 metres in length, with a vertical difference of 2.3 metres. It was discovered on the
true left slope of the Ornaczański Gully, just above the stream. The entrance, 1 meter wide and 0.5 metres high, is partially filled with sediment. It first descends by approximately 0.5 metres, then rises to a height of 1.5 metres and a width of 1 meter. The associated waste dump was likely eroded by the stream. The adit consists of a straight corridor that is partially water-filled at its entrance. At the end of the passage, drilling marks are preserved on the wall.

Below the Hawiarska Trail, another adit was identified on the true right slope of the gully. A small entrance, measuring 0.5 metres wide and 0.2 metres high, prevented entry. The length of this adit was estimated to be approximately 3 to 4 metres.

## Historical ore mining on the Pyszniańska Valley

The remains of historical mining in the Pyszniańska Valley can be reached via an old Hawiarska Trail that follows the valley floor. A waste dump is situated directly next to this road. It measures approximately 37 metres long, 10 to 15 metres wide, and 3 to 7 metres high (Fig. 6A). Its surface is mostly flat and now covered with fallen trees. South of the dump is a large depression, likely the site of a former mine shaft called “Na Kunsztach”. The depression is up to 8 metres deep and 12 metres wide (Fig. 6B). A second, smaller dump is visible further uphill, but no shaft opening has been identified there.

Below the mining site, on the left side of the Kościeliski Stream (Potok Kościeliski), faint traces of old water channels are still visible. These channels run alongside the stream and once transported water to the ore processing plant (Młyniska) situated downstream. Remnants of this facility include fragments of dry-stone walls standing up to 1 meter high, a square trench, and a wide channel that once connected the plant to the stream (Fig. 6C, D).

During mining activity, the entire area was covered with broken quartz. Some of it remains visible today, for instance, beneath uprooted trees.

## Mineralogical studies

Ore mineralisation in the Polish part of the Western Tatra Mountains occurs as relics within quartz and/or siderite veins. These veins are typically only a few centimetres thick, though in some cases, they extend up to 20–30 cm in length and vary in thickness. Many of them are barren and lack visible mineralisation. The observed mineralisation commonly contains grey-colored, metallically lustrous minerals from the tetrahedrite group (Fig. 7A, D).
Also present are yellow phases, including chalcopyrite and pale-yellow pyrite. Microscopic observations using transmitted and reflected light, as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), provided detailed information on mineral associations. The most abundant ore phases include minerals from the tetrahedrite group, chalcopyrite, and pyrite, while galena is rare. No other primary sulphides were identified during the study.

Minerals from the tetrahedrite group usually occur as aggregates up to 0.5 cm in size, typically intergrown with chalcopyrite and locally associated with small pyrite crystals (Fig. 8).

Under the microscope, these minerals exhibit typical optical properties and show no visible zoning. Signs of alteration were observed on grain surfaces and along cracks or microfractures, which are commonly filled with secondary supergene minerals described below.

Backscattered electron (BSE) imaging confirmed the chemical homogeneity of minerals from the tetrahedrite group, which enabled the accurate

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 5.** Remnants of Tatra mining on the eastern slope of Ornak. A – remains of mining in the Żleb pod Banie gully, B – adit corridor, Żleb pod Banie, C – adit entrance in the Ornaczański Gully, D – adit corridor, Ornaczański Gully</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 6.** Remnants of mining activity in the area of the Pyszniańska Valley. A – spoil heap, B – depression from a collapsed shaft, C – remains of the buildings of the ‘Młyniska’ ore enrichment plant, D – remains of the water supply channels, ‘Młyniska’ ore enrichment plant</figcaption></figure>

selection of points for microarea analyses. Several hundred such analyses were performed, as presented in the doctoral dissertation and in the paper by Sitarz *et al.* (2021). Based on the results and subsequent observations, two main tetrahedrite varieties were identified: tetrahedrite-(Fe) and tetrahedrite-(Zn). The chemical compositions calculated from the analytical data are close to the theoretical values (Biagioni *et al.* 2020).

Notably, silver enrichment was detected in samples from the western part of the Ornak area, with concentrations reaching up to 4.7 wt.%. The average Ag content in minerals from this group is 1.6 wt.%.

Electron microscopy identified fine-scale occurrences of ore minerals. Chalcopyrite appears as small grains, irregular blebs, and inclusions within tetrahedrite, as well as larger, isolated aggregates. Pyrite typically forms small (up to 50 µm), well-formed euhedral crystals. Galena exists as fine-grained particles, only a few microns in size, typically dispersed within quartz veins. The chemical compositions of these minerals are close to ideal stoichiometry.
Macroscopic and microscopic observations confirmed the presence of su-
pergene mineralisation. The dominant phases are copper carbonates, primar-
ily malachite and azurite, resulting from the alteration of copper-bearing sul-
phides, mainly chalcopyrite. In the examined specimens, green malachite and
blue azurite appear as surface encrustations and as fillings of microfractures
and veinlets. Under the microscope, well-developed replacement textures are
visible, typically progressing inward from grain boundaries.

Supergene copper minerals also include secondary sulphides, primarily covellite, which replace primary chalcopyrite (Fig. 7C, E). Secondary antimony minerals were identified as a result of the alteration of minerals from the tetrahedrite group. These minerals fill fractures and cracks within massive tetrahedrite aggregates. Iron-bearing secondary minerals were also noted in the studied mineralisation. These consist mainly of iron hydroxides that fill fractures and fissures or form surface coatings. Goethite pseudomorphs after pyrite are also observed among these secondary phases (Fig. 7B).

As mentioned above, silver is present in the structure of primary sul-
phides. Oxidation led to the release of silver ions, which were then reprecipi-
tated as secondary silver minerals, occurring as tiny inclusions or vein fillings.
These minerals were most commonly observed on the natural surfaces of ore
from the Pyszniańska Valley and the Piekło Gorge.

Siderite veins reached thicknesses of several centimetres (Fig. 7C), and
occasionally varied from 20 to 30 cm. Ore minerals were rarely present, and
most of these veins were essentially barren. A similar pattern was seen in bar-
ite veins, where mineralisation was very uncommon. One mineralized barite
vein was identified in adit “Czarne Okno”, and in the adit in the Piekły Gully
and in the Ornaczański Gully. The veins frequently showed brownish stain-
ing attributed to secondary iron hydroxides. In BSE images, barite showed
variable backscatter electron contrast due to differences in strontium content.

Some supergene phases could not be clearly defined either chemically or
structurally, yet they were found to be enriched in silver.

Research on fluid inclusions allows for the determination of the pressure
and temperature conditions in which the inclusions were formed and, by
analogy, also the crystallisation conditions of the minerals in which these in-
clusions are closed. It also provides information on the composition of hydro-
thermal solutions from which minerals crystallised (Bodnar 2003; Roedder
1984). In the Western Tatras, fluid inclusions were examined in quartz from
ore veins; fluid inclusions in barite and siderite were too small to be analysed.
Due to the small size of the inclusions, the homogenization temperature was
measured for a larger number of samples, but the melting and eutectic tem-
peratures were measured only for larger inclusions in which phase transitions
were observed during temperature changes. The size of measurable two-phase
inclusions (aqueous solution and gas bubble) ranged from 10 to 15 µm, but
most were approximately 5 µm. Single-phase inclusions (aqueous solution)
were too small to be used in microthermometric analyses The homogeni-
zation temperature ranged from 120 to 174 °C. The distribution of homoge-
nization temperatures from the Polish part of the Western Tatras indicates
the probable occurrence of two generations of inclusions: primary ones with
Th in the range of 120–170 °C and secondary ones with Th in the range of
97–120 °C. The salinity of ore veins in the Polish part of the Western Tatras
Tm(Ice) ranged from –14.6 to nearly 0 °C, which corresponded to the pres-
ence of hydrothermal solutions of various salinities, from highly mineralised
hydrothermal solutions (salinity of 17.92 wt.% NaCl) to practically non-miner-
alised solutions. The low salinity of hydrothermal solutions observed in fluid
inclusion studies may be caused by the influence of meteoric waters, which
may have lowered the salt concentration in the hydrothermal solution. In the
Polish part of the Western Tatras, the eutectic temperature (Te) showed the
presence of NaCl with a potential small admixture of KCl. Higher eutectic
temperatures were not measured during microthermometric studies, which
excludes the presence of CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ salts (Bodnar 2003).

IV. DISCUSSION

Hydrothermal ore deposits found in the Polish part of the Tatra Mountains
have been the focus of scientific research since the 19th century. The first, and
likely the last, geologist to examine some of these ore deposits within still-op-
erational adits was Stanisław Staszic (Paulo 1970). Ludwik Zejszner provided
the first scientific mineralogical and geological description of these ore bodies
in 1851 (Wątocki 1951).

At the beginning of the 20th century, several scholarly studies on raw
material deposits in the Tatras were published by S. Eljasz-Radzikowski (1901,
1902), J. Czubek (1901), W. Pawlica (1916), S. Kreutz (1918, 1930), L. Chrobak
(1938, see Paulo 1970), and also M.A. Liberak, W. Olszewicz, K. Stecki Sr., and
R. Grodecki.

After World War II, further mineralogical and inventory investigations
were conducted by A. Gaweł (1966), W. Wątocki (1951), and A. Paulo (1970,
1979, 1997). The most extensive excavation and archaeological research related to Tatra mining and metallurgy was carried out by the Tatra Research Team which was established during a scientific session on February 10, 1955, in Zakopane. This initiative was organized by the Section for the History of Technology and Technical Sciences of the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAN). The team was led by Juliusz Zborowski and included notable members such as Henryk Jost and Stefan Zwoliński, both of whom regularly published articles on Tatra mining history. The team conducted fieldwork in the Ornak region from 1958 to 1959. Further extensive inventory and excavation work was performed in 1960 and 1961 under the leadership of S. Zwoliński in the Hala Pyszna area (Jost, Zwoliński 1992).

Paweł Kutaś (2005) also provided a historical account of ore mining, while, among others, A. Gawęda *et al.* (1998, 2010 and M. Sitarz *et al.* (2021) conducted mineralogical studies on this topic.

Henryk Jost and Andrzej Paulo created a map of historical adits and industrial sites, which was later included in the 1985 Atlas of the Tatra National Park.

Between 2017 and 2021, the authors of this study examined the Ornak region and the Pyszna Valley, using available maps, literature sources, and descriptions provided by earlier researchers of Tatra mining history (Jost, Zwoliński, Gawęł, Wątocki). The primary objective of the project was to inventory the preserved remains of historical adits and mining dumps, conduct photographic and cartographic documentation, and correlate visible surface features with descriptions found in historical sources. Spatial referencing of the identified features on a modern topographic base map enabled direct comparison with the distribution map of historical adits and industrial facilities included in the Atlas of the Tatra National Park (Jost, Paulo 1985).

## Field studies

Field studies carried out in three locations - on the western and eastern slopes of Ornak and in the Pyszniańska Valley - were compared and analysed in relation to the findings of earlier researchers.

### The western slope of Ornak

The adit in Żleb Piekło was probably constructed in the 16th century during the reign of Zygmunt Stary and later restored in the 18th century under Stanisław August Poniatowski. During fieldwork, A. Gawęł (1966) rediscovered the preserved adit, although no cartographic documentation was created
at that time. A description of the adit can also be found in the publication
by Kutaś (2005). The structure has remained intact to this day, and in 2021,
a team consisting of M. Sitarz and M. Wierzbowski prepared its plan and
cross-section (Fig. 9, 10).

In the Baniste region, adits were driven during the 16th century under
the reign of Zygmunt August. During his field research, A. Gaweł (1966)
identified remnants of a level path leading to twelve adits, all of which had
already been backfilled, as well as traces of a small mining structure. He
also documented two substantial mine dumps and four still-accessible adits.
The extensive scope of historical mining operations in this area was further
confirmed by Wątocki (1951). In the same locality, Kutaś (2005) described
an almost completely backfilled adit along with the sealed openings of two
additional ones.

The historic Hawiarska Trail, currently used as a forest road, remains vis-
ible alongside a spoil heap next to it. However, no signs of adit entrances were
observed in this area. In the upper part of the Baniste area, two additional
mine dumps and the collapsed entrance of an adit were identified. No pre-
served objects were found in the field, so no cartographic documentation was
completed.

***The eastern slope of Ornak***

Mining activity began on the eastern slope of Ornak in the 16th century
during the reign of Aleksander Jagiellończyk. It continued under Zygmunt
Stary, as well as in the 18th century during the reign of Stanisław August Pon-
iatowski. The largest adit in this area was the royal adit known as “Czarne
Okno”, which was initially established during the reign of Aleksander Jagiel-
lończyk. Stanisław August Poniatowski brought in foreign mining specialists
to search for ore and organise mining operations.

In Ornaczański Żleb, W. Wątocki identified an adit measuring 18.5 me-
tres in length, which may correspond to the mine referred to in historical
sources as “Na Koziczkach”. Above this location, he recorded a spoil heap, al-
though no adit opening was visible. A. Gaweł also located an adit in this area,
which was longer than the one documented by Wątocki. It comprised an
11-metre main gallery with two side drifts, each approximately 6 metres long.
Currently, two adits remain preserved in this area, for which a team com-
posed of M. Sitarz and M. Wierzbowski prepared a plan and cross-section
in 2021. The entrance to a third adit was also discovered, although it had
collapsed (Fig. 11–14).
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 7. Fragments of mineralised rocks from the western Tatra Mountains: A, D, E – Quartz vein displaying visible ore mineralisation: grey tetrahedrite-group minerals, green malachite, and brown to orange iron oxide impregnations; B – Goethite pseudomorph after pyrite; C – Fragment of a mineralised vein exhibiting visible secondary mineralisation: green malachite, blue azurite, and brown iron hydroxides</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 8.** Hydrothermal ore mineralisation from the western Tatra Mountains. A–C – A fracture in the rock, partly filled with fine-grained quartz crystal and ore minerals. The central part of the crack is primarily filled with tetrahedrite-(Fe), -(Zn), and chalcopyrite. D–F – A fracture within a quartz vein filled with ore mineralisation: grey – tetrahedrite-(Fe), – (Zn), yellow – chalcopyrite and pale yellow – small grains of pyrite (F). Different generations of quartz are visible. In transmitted light (D–E), the ore minerals appear opaque. Images are presented in a vertical sequence (top to bottom); 1P and PX refer to transmitted light, 1P – reflected light observations</figcaption></figure>
Inventory work carried out by W. Wątocki in Żleb pod Banie revealed that the entrances to nine adits in the area had collapsed, except for one that may have belonged to the largest mine in the region – “Czarne Okno” (Black Window). A. Gawel discovered the first adit near the historic Hawiarska Trail, which is currently used as a hiking trail from Hala Ornak to Iwaniacka Przełęcz. In the lower part of Żleb pod Banie, he located the remains of a collapsed adit. Higher up in the valley, he discovered another one with rotted wooden supports, which may have belonged to the former royal mine called “Czarne Okno”. S. Kreutz made a similar discovery in this area in the first half of the 20th century. He identified an adit filled with stones and supported by completely decayed timber props, along with another preserved opening and a small, backfilled shaft.

Antoni Gawel also noted numerous depressions in the terrain, interpreted as sinkholes formed by collapsed adits, as well as several spoil heaps. Inventory work conducted under the direction of S. Zwoliński in the 1950s and 1960s led to the discovery of a backfilled adit, which may have corresponded to the “Czarne Okno” mine. A preserved adit was also found in the area. Inside, there were clear signs of old mining activity, including wooden supports along the walls and roof, remnants of a wooden rail track, and tool marks on the rock walls.

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 9. Plan of the adit in Żleb Piekło, the western slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 10. Cross-section of the adit in Piekło Żleb, the western slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>

At the mouth of the gully, Wątocki, Gawęł, and Zwoliński documented the remains of former mining-related structures, including miners' shelters, a blacksmith's workshop, and a smelting facility for metal processing. Due to the extensive scale of historical mining operations, this sector is known as “Dziurawe”.

+Today, along the hiking trail from Ornak to Iwaniacka Przełęcz, you can see the remains of a collapsed adit on one side of the path and a spoil heap on the other. In Żleb pod Banie, there are also flat areas of land that might be the remains of a smelting site or miners' buildings, but it is difficult to say for sure due to how much time has passed.

In addition to the preserved Hawiarska Trail, sinkholes from collapsed shafts, and mine dumps, one adit has survived, whose structure and appearance correspond closely with historical descriptions of the “Czarne Okno” mine. This feature was surveyed and documented in 2021 by a team consisting of M. Sitarz and M. Wierzbowski (Fig. 15–16).
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 11. Plan of adit No. I in Ornaczański Żleb, the eastern slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 12. Cross-section of adit No. I in Ornaczański Żleb, the eastern slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 13. Plan of adit No. II in Ornaczański Żleb, the eastern slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 14. Cross-section of adit No. II in Ornaczański Żleb, the eastern slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>
## The Pyszniańska Valley

Mining operations in the Pyszniańska Valley began during the reign of Zygmunt Stary and were later resumed in the second half of the 18th century. During field investigations in the valley, W. Wątocki documented a spoil heap and a sinkhole marking the former location of a mining shaft. He also identified the remains of buildings that once served as mine supervision facilities. The spoil heap described by Wątocki was also recorded by A. Gaweł, who estimated its volume at 770 cubic metres and its height at up to 4.5 metres. At the end of the heap, he observed a large, deep sinkhole from a collapsed shaft, shaped like an inverted cone, measuring 14 metres in width and 7 metres in depth. He estimated the sinkhole's volume at approximately 360 cubic metres, with the original shaft depth at 52 metres.

Additionally, Gaweł discovered traces of two former water channels (Młynówki), remnants of mining-related buildings, a second shaft, and an adit measuring 10 metres in length. Below the mining site, he also identified the remains of the Młyniska ore processing plant, which was used to crush and grind ore extracted from the mine. The results of his fieldwork were plotted on a detailed map of the area prepared by Gaweł himself.

During his field investigations in the Pyszniańska Valley, Zwoliński made similar discoveries. He recorded signs of past mining activity, including a deep sinkhole from a former shaft, a spoil heap, and several exploratory shafts. He also found traces of an old ore processing facility, such as ore washers, stamp mills, and a water-powered mill. The facility occupied a large, elongated area of about 365 square metres, where channels and flumes used for transporting water to the washing installations were still visible.

As part of his inventory work, S. Zwoliński also created a plan documenting the surviving remnants of mining activity in the Pyszniańska Valley (Fig. 17).

Today, a stretch of the historic Hawiarska Trail still runs along the valley floor, accompanied by a spoil heap and a sinkhole from a collapsed shaft. In 2021, M. Sitarz prepared a site plan and cross-section of these preserved features (Fig. 18–19).

## Mineralogical studies

In the Polish part of the Western Tatra Mountains, ore mineralisation occurs in quartz–siderite–barite veins. The primary ore minerals belong to the tetrahedrite group, represented by tetrahedrite-(Zn) and tetrahedrite-(Fe). These
<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>FIG.15. Plan of the “Czarne Okno” adit, Żleb pod Banie, the eastern slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>

minerals typically form massive aggregates that can reach up to 0.5 cm in size, although they more commonly appear as dispersed fine accumulations. Minerals of the tetrahedrite group most frequently occur intergrown with chalcopyrite, and less frequently with pyrite and galena.

No other primary sulphide minerals were identified during the study. The minerals observed in the micro-area showed no clear evidence of solid solution, except for trace substitutions within the tetrahedrite structure, where silver content reached up to 4.7 wt.%, with an average of 1.6 wt.%. These values are significantly higher than those reported in earlier studies conducted in the Polish Western Tatra Mountains: 0.81 wt.% (Wątocki 1951); 0.63–1.3 wt.% (Paulo, 1979); and 0.32–0.47 wt.% (Gawęda, Paulo 1998).

Only samples collected from the western slope of Ornak, as analyzed by Paulo (1979), showed elevated silver concentrations of up to 1.9 wt.%. Similarly elevated values, ranging from 1.5 to 2 wt.%, were reported by Gawęda *et al.* (2007). Notably, in the present study, the authors recorded the highest silver content in tetrahedrite, up to 4.72 wt. % - in samples originating from the western slope of Ornak (Fig. 20). Geochemical data confirmed the absence of gold in both tetrahedrite and chalcopyrite.

Fluid inclusion studies revealed that low homogenization temperatures and low salinity characterised the hydrothermal fluids responsible for ore mineralisation (Gawęda *et al.* 2001). Based on eutectic temperature measurements, which assist in determining the composition of fluid inclusions, the system was classified as H₂O-NaCl with a minor admixture of KCl.
<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 16.** Cross-section of the “Czarne Okno” adit, Żleb pod Banie, the eastern slope of Ornak, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 17.** Remains of Tatra mining from the Pyszniańska Valley area. Plan of the “Na Kunsztach” mine and the “Młyniska” ore enrichment plant. S. Zwoliński 1962</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 18.** Plan of the “Na Kunsztach” mine with a visible crater after the collapsed shaft and a heap, Pyszniańska Valley, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 19. Cross-section through the crater after the collapsed shaft and the heap of the "Na Kunsztach" mine, Pyszniańska Valley, Western Tatras</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 20. Silver and copper contents in the structure of tetrahedrite in three main ore mineralization areas in the Polish part of the Western Tatras. For comparison, literature data from both the Polish and Slovak parts of the Tatras are also included</figcaption></figure>

Taking into account the fluid inclusion data, along with petrographic and SEM-BSE observations, the paragenetic sequence of hydrothermal minerals in the Western Tatra Mountains is interpreted as follows: carbonates I – quartz I – barite I – quartz II + carbonates II + ore mineralisation + barite II – supergene mineralisation.

Barite II most likely crystallised in two stages. Initially, strontium-rich grains formed, which were later cemented by barite with a lower Sr content.

Chemical analyses of tetrahedrite, along with the relatively low homogenization temperatures and fluid salinities, support classifying the mineralisation
<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>

**FIG. 21.** Molar ratio Sb/(Sb+As) and Fe/(Fe+Zn) for three areas of ore mineralization in the Polish part of the Western Tatras. For comparison, literature data from both the Polish and Slovak parts of the Tatras are also included

in the Polish part of the Western Tatra Mountains as belonging to the dolomite/siderite-quartz-tetrahedrite stage. Several results, together with trace amounts of KCl detected in the hydrothermal fluids, also indicate a possible connection to a subsequent quartz-Cu-carbonate mineralisation phase (Fig. 21).

## V. CONCLUSIONS

During the field investigations, remnants of historical copper and silver mining in the Polish part of the Western Tatra Mountains were inventoried and documented. On the western slope of Ornak, two adits and three spoil heaps were identified. On the eastern slope, in the Żleb pod Banie gully, the largest adit recorded to date was discovered, while in the Ornaczański Gully, three additional adits were located. In the Pyszna Valley, a collapsed shaft depression, a spoil heap, and the remains of foundation structures from a former ore beneficiation facility were documented. All the identified mining relics were surveyed and mapped, with the results presented as site plans and cross-sections. Photographic documentation was also prepared, and the spatial distribution
of preserved features was plotted on a topographic map, enabling comparison
with historical mining maps and current terrain conditions.

The dominant ore minerals include two species from the tetrahedrite
group: tetrahedrite-(Zn) and tetrahedrite-(Fe). These typically occur as inter-
growths with chalcopyrite and, less often, with pyrite and galena. The miner-
als identified in the microarea showed no significant elemental substitutions,
except for silver content in tetrahedrite, where the maximum recorded con-
centration reached 4.7 wt.%.

Fluid inclusion studies indicated that low homogenization temperatures
and low salinity characterised the hydrothermal solutions responsible for ore
deposition. These physicochemical conditions limited the precipitation of
ore minerals. The mineralisation in the Polish part of the Tatra Mountains is
linked to the dolomite/siderite-quartz-tetrahedrite stage, with further evi-
dence supporting the existence of a quartz-carbonate-copper sulphide phase
(Majzlan *et al.* 2020).

Hydrothermal mineralisation in the Polish Tatras is limited in extent
and lacks mineralogical diversity. Ore deposits in the Western Tatra region
contain very low concentrations of ore minerals. Tetrahedrite-group minerals
and chalcopyrite do not include gold in their chemical composition. Silver is
present only at levels of mineralogical significance, with no indication of any
economic potential. The silver content has a supergene origin and is associat-
ed with the weathering of primary ore minerals.

Laboratory analyses did not confirm the presence of quartz-gold-sti-
bnite vein mineralisation known from the Krywań area and, according to
historical sources, from the Szpiglasowy Wierch region (Bakos et. al 2003;
Gawęda 2010). Despite over two centuries of intensive mining activity, current
research confirms the absence of economically significant ore deposits in the
Western Tatras. As a result, the costs of mining operations consistently out-
weighed the value of the extracted ores.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their valuable comments and sugge-
stions, which have significantly improved the manuscript. This work was performed
within the framework of the Implementation Doctorate program and was partially sup-
ported by AGH University of Krakow grant no. 16.16.140.315.
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ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS

Magdalena Sitarz

Tatra National Park
Kuźnice 1, 34-500 Zakopane, Poland
msitarz@tpn.pl
ORCID 0000-0003-1464-8038

Bożena Gołębiowska

Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environment Protection
AGH University of Krakow
Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
goleb@agh.edu.pl
ORCID 0000-0002-4103-1124

Marek Wierzbowski

Polish Mountaineering Association
Mokotowska 24, 00-561 Warszawa, Poland
wierzbowskimarekb@gmail.com

Maria Król

Tatra National Park
Kuźnice 1, 34-500 Zakopane, Poland
mkrol@tpn.pl