1 Climatic influence of the latest Antarctic isotope maximum of the last glacial period (AIM4) on Southern Patagonia

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3 Guillaume Jouve a,b,c*, Agathe Lisé-Pronovost d, Pierre Francus a,b, Arnaud S. De Coninck a,b

4 and the PASADO Science Team e

5 aCentre Eau, Terre et Environnement, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Québec,

6 Canada.

7 bGEOTOP Research Center, Montréal, Canada.

8 cCentre Européen de Recherche et d'enseignement des Géosciences de l'Environnement

9 (CEREGE), Aix-Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence, France. <fnref n="1" />

10 dThe Australian Archeomagnetism Laboratory, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia.

11 ePASADO science team as listed at http://www.icdp-online.org/front_content.php?idcat=1494

12 *corresponding author

13 Guillaume Jouve : (418) 654 2530-4480 jouve@cerege.fr

14 Agathe Lisé-Pronovost : +61 03 9479 1392 a.lise-pronovost@latrobe.edu.au

15 Pierre Francus : (418) 654 3780 pierre.francus@ete.inrs.ca

16 Arnaud de Coninck : (418) 654 3704 arnaud.de_coninck@ete.inrs.ca

17

<footnote n="1">¹ Present address of the corresponding author</footnote>
18 Abstract

19 This paper presents the first detailed paleoclimate reconstruction of the latest Antarctic
20 isotope maximum (AIM4, ~33-29 ka cal. BP) at 52°S in continental southeastern Argentine
21 Patagonia. High-resolution sedimentological and geochemical analyses of sediments from the
22 maar lake Potrok Aike (PTA) reveal a decrease in the thickness of flood-induced turbidites
23 and a series of wind burst deposits during AIM4, both pointing to increasingly drier
24 conditions. This interpretation is also supported by a significant amount of runoff-driven
25 micropumices incorporated within the sediments that suggests a lower lake level with canyons
26 incising thick tephra deposits around the lake. Increased gustiness and/or dust availability in
27 southeast Patagonia, together with intensified Antarctic circumpolar circulation in the Drake
28 Passage, dust deposition in the Scotia Sea and in Antarctica ice shelf, are consistent with a
29 southward shift of the Southern Westerly Winds (SWW) during the AIM4. In contrast to other
30 warmer AIMs, the SWW during the AIM4 did not migrate far enough south to generate
31 upwelling in the Southern Ocean and they did not reach 52°S in SE Patagonia, as revealed by
32 unchanged values of the rock-magnetic proxy of wind intensity obtained from the same PTA
33 core. Nevertheless, the SWW displacement during AIM4 imposed drier conditions at 52°S in
34 southeast Patagonia likely by blocking precipitation from the Atlantic Ocean, in a way similar
35 to modern seasonal variations and the other Antarctic warm events.

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37 Keywords: Southern Westerly Winds, micro X-ray fluorescence, microfacies, micropumices,
38 dust, flood.

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# 1. Introduction

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The Southern Westerly Winds (SWW) dominate the atmospheric circulation of the Southern Hemisphere subpolar and mid latitudes, and modify upwelling of carbon-rich deep water around Antarctica (Kuhlbrodt et al., 2007; Sijp and England, 2009; Toggweiler and Samuels, 1995) and in the Southern Ocean (Anderson et al., 2009; d'Orgeville et al., 2010; Menviel et al., 2008; Toggweiler et al., 2006; Tschumi et al., 2008). Moreover, any change in the SWW position and strength affects the precipitation pattern on land, over southern Australia (Petherick et al., 2013) and southern South America (Mayr et al., 2007b; Pollock and Bush, 2013; Schneider et al., 2003). In Patagonia, lakes between 51 and 55°S are situated at the interface between the southern limit of the SWW belt during the Last Glacial (Kaiser et al., 2005; Lamy et al., 2004; Ledru et al., 2005), located further north, and the current southern limit of the SWW belt (Hodgson and Sime, 2010; Lamy et al., 2010; Mcglone et al., 2010). The extraction of paleohydrological and paleowind information from the sedimentary record of those lakes can thus reveal SWW latitudinal shifts over time. Reaching back 51 ka cal. BP, the 106.9 meter-long sedimentary composite sequence from the International Continental scientific Drilling Program - Potrok Aike Maar Lake Sediment Archive Drilling project (ICDP-PASADO) (Fig. 1) is the only continuous continental archive going back to the last glacial period in southern South America and represents a unique opportunity to reconstruct paleohydrological and paleowind changes to be compared with the Antarctic ice cores records (Hahn et al., 2014, 2013; Jouve et al., 2013; Kliem et al., 2013b; Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015, 2014; Recasens et al., 2015, 2011; Schäbitz et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2013; Zolitschka et al., 2013).

Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS3) is a climatic period of the Last Glacial, spanning from 60 to 29 thousand years ago in calibrated ages (cal. BP), marked by several maxima in the δ¹⁸O of
gas trapped in Antarctica's ice (Antarctic Isotope Maxima, AIM). These are reflecting increases in Antarctic temperatures called Antarctic warm events (Blunier and Brook, 2001; Blunier et al., 1997). The most recent Antarctic warm event AIM4 (from 33 to 29 ka cal. BP), was characterized by a slight increase in Antarctica temperatures and a drastic fourfold increase of dust deposited in eastern Antarctica (Barbante et al., 2006) (dust mass from ca. 200 to 800 p.p.b.; Fig. 2b). Magnetic susceptibility of sediments from the Scotia Sea also indicate important input of dust during AIM4 (Weber et al., 2012) (Fig. 2). The source of dust for these regions during glacial times was southern Patagonia (Basile et al., 1997; Delmonte et al., 2010, 2004; Petit et al., 1999; Sugden et al., 2009).

Sugden et al. (2009) did not find glacial landscape evidence in Patagonia to account for the increased Patagonian dust loading of the atmosphere during AIM4. Nevertheless they noted that around 30 ka there were multiple glacier advances in the Strait of Magellan. Could a dustier southern hemisphere atmosphere be linked to barren land without vegetation just before glacier growth and when they retreated from their outwash plains? How did climate change in southern Patagonia during AIM4?

At the core of the dust source region, Laguna Potrok Aike (PTA) records a sharp increase in low field magnetic susceptibility ($k_{LF}$) values during AIM4 (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015).

High $k_{LF}$ values were maintained until the deglaciation around 17.3 ka, when they sharply decreased as more organic sediments diluted the proportion of ferrimagnetic minerals.

Detailed rock-magnetic analysis revealed that these higher $k_{LF}$ values reflect greater amount of detrital ferrimagnetic grains reaching the lake (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015, 2014, 2013). No other paleoenvironmental indicator measured from PTA displays such sharp and large amplitude change over the entire 51.2 ka record (Zolitschka et al., 2013). Yet the cause of this sharp $k_{LF}$ change during AIM4 remains unknown. What is known is that the wind intensities at PTA during Marine Isotope Stage 3 were relatively weaker than the Holocene (Lisé-
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Pronovost et al., 2015), as also indicated by several proxy records from which a northward

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shift of the SWW belt by about 5–6° latitude during glacial periods has been inferred (Kaiser

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et al., 2005; Kohfeld et al., 2013; Lamy et al., 2004; Ledru et al., 2005; Pollock and Bush,

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2013). Therefore, there is a discrepancy between the wind intensity and the amount of

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ferrimagnetic grains transported to the lake between 33 and 17.3 ka cal. BP.

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This paper presents some evidence addressing these issues using the first detailed and

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continuous record of AIM4 in continental Patagonia. Specifically, it aims to test several

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hypotheses that can explain the shift that occurred during the AIM4 interval at PTA, and to

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improve the understanding of changes in dustiness and climate at the hemispheric scale during

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this interval. The paper presents elemental composition (micro-X-ray fluorescence: µ-XRF),

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grain size and Principal Component Analyses (PCA) of µ-XRF data of PTA sediments along

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the entire AIM4 interval, to disentangle the hydrological from the aeolian signal of the PTA

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lacustrine deposits.

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## 2. Study site

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PTA is situated in the Pali Aike Volcanic Field (PAVF) in Argentine Patagonia, located about

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70 km north of the Strait of Magellan, 100 km west of the Atlantic coast and 1,500 km north

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of Antarctica (Fig. 1). Situated in the back arc Patagonian plateau lavas, the PAVF has a

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maximum W-E extension of about 150 km, and a maximum N-S extension of approximately

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50 km and covers an area of about 4500 km² (Skewes, 1978; D'Orazio et al., 2000; Mazzarini

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and D'Orazio, 2003). PTA is a maar lake, resulting from a phreatomagmatic eruption, dated

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around 0.77 +/- 0.24 Ma by Ar/Ar (Zolitschka et al., 2006). Maar volcanoes, plateau lavas and

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scoria cones prevail in the catchment area. PTA is a nearly circular lake, has a maximum

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diameter of 3,470 meters, and a maximum water depth of about 100 meters (Haberzettl et al.,

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2005; Zolitschka et al., 2009). Its watershed has an area close to 200 km² (Haberzettl et al.,
2005). The prevailing SWW (average 9 m.s⁻¹ at the beginning of the summer; Endlicher, 1993) and the Andes Mountains cause a strong climatic contrast within Patagonia. Indeed, due to the rain shadow effect of the Andes Mountains, most of southeastern South America is semiarid steppes, with annual precipitation below 300 mm.a⁻¹ (González and Rial, 2004; Haberzettl et al., 2009; Mayr et al., 2007a; McCulloch et al., 2000). The PTA watershed is covered by a dry type of Magellanic steppe vegetation is mainly represented by *Festuca gracillima* (Wille et al., 2007). Stands of *Acaena* sp., *Adesmia boronioides* (high shrubs), some grasses (*Festuca*, *Poa* and *Stipa* sp.) mixed with other plants like *Colobanthus subulatus* occur around the lake (Wille et al., 2007). In southeastern South America, the weaker the SWW, the more important is precipitation coming from the Atlantic (Mayr et al., 2007b; Schneider et al., 2003). Because neither inflow nor outflow currently exists at PTA, the lake level is mainly controlled by the evaporation/precipitation ratio. Thus, high lake level occurs during wet years and vice versa (Haberzettl et al., 2005; Kliem et al., 2013b; Ohlendorf et al., 2013). This relationship between the hydrology of Lake Potrok Aike and the SWW through time is recorded by the pelagic sediments of Lake Potrok Aike (Zolitschka et al., 2013 and references therein). Consequently, the geographical, climatic and geomorphological setting of PTA suggest that detrital sediments are brought to the lake primarily by wind and episodically by precipitation runoff (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2014).

# 3. Material and methods

## 3.1 Field work

In the framework of the ICDP, drilling was conducted with the GLAD800 drilling system using a hydraulic piston core. From August to November 2008, two primary sites were drilled at a depth of about 100 meters: 5022-1 (PTA 1) and 5022-2 (PTA 2) (Kliem et al., 2013a; Ohlendorf et al., 2011) (Fig. 1). The entire 106.9 meter-long composite sedimentary sequence
137 was constructed from the combination of cores retrieved from three holes (A, B and C) at site
138 5022-2 (Fig. 1). Correlations were done considering stratigraphic markers (lithological facies
139 and tephras) and magnetic susceptibility (Kliem et al., 2013a). This profile is the local
140 reference sedimentary sequence used by scientists involved in the PASADO project
141 (Ohlendorf et al., 2011).

142 **3.2 Stratigraphy and chronology**

143 Pelagic sediments (about 45% of the entire PASADO sequence) are represented by
144 continuous settling of particles under mean climate state conditions and consist of laminated
145 silts and sands (Haberzettl et al., 2007; Jouve et al., 2013; Kliem et al., 2013a). Mass
146 movement deposits (about 55%, reworked sediments), including tephras and reworked tephra
147 layers (about 4.5%), were diagnosed using macroscopic and stratigraphic observations (Kliem
148 et al., 2013a; Wastegård et al., 2013). The entire sedimentary sequence was divided into
149 lithostratigraphic units A, B, C-1, C-2, C-3 (Kliem et al., 2013a) (Fig. 2a). The studied
150 sedimentary interval, i.e. 40.62 to 37.90 meters composite depth (m cd), falls within two
151 lithostratigraphic units: C-1 and C-2 (Fig. 2a). Both units are mostly composed of pelagic
152 laminated silts intercalated with thin fine sand and coarse silt layers (Kliem et al., 2013a). The
153 main difference between these two units is the percentage of mass movement deposits that is
154 lower in C-1. The boundary between these units is at 40.23 m cd.

155 This paper uses the radiocarbon-based age model established by Kliem et al. (2013a)
156 (Fig. 2). The chronology was built from 58 radiocarbon dates following a mixed-effect
157 regression procedure (Fig. 2a) and the chronology is supported by magnetostratigraphy in the
158 older part of the record (Kliem et al., 2013a). One radiocarbon date (i.e., 40.09 m cd; Fig. 3)
159 in the lower part of the analysed sequence constrains the chronology at 33.7 ka cal. BP +/- 0.4
160 (Kliem et al., 2013a) and was performed on stems of aquatic mosses. According to the age
model (Fig.2), the 40.62 to 37.90 meters composite depth (m cd) interval spans from 33.7 to 30.6 ka cal. BP (yellow-shaded interval in Fig. 2b). It corresponds to the beginning of a drastic increase in the magnetic susceptibility in Scotia sea sediments, as well as in the dust mass in EPICA Dome C ice cores (Fig. 2b). According to the PASADO age model (Kliem et al., 2013a), the Mount Burney (52°S in the Austral Andean volcanic zone) tephra layer between 38.73 and 38.7 m cd (Fig. 3), was deposited 31.2 +/- 1.3 ka cal. BP (Wastegård et al., 2013).

## 3.3 Thin section and image analysis

An interval of 2.72 meters of sediments was subsampled perpendicular to bedding with aluminium slabs using a “cheese-cutter style” tool (Francus and Asikainen, 2001) from 40.62 to 37.90 m cd. Slabs were then freeze dried and impregnated with Spurr’s low velocity epoxy resin (Lamoureux, 1994), before being prepared as thin-sections. Tagged Image File Format (Tiff) images were retrieved in high-resolution (2,400 dots per inch, dpi) using a flatbed transparency scanner under natural and cross-polarized light (De Keyser, 1999; Lamoureux and Bollmann, 2004). The images were then imported and observed by an image analysis software developed at INRS-ETE (Francus and Nobert, 2007; Francus, 1998). The software allows the detection of regions of interest (ROI) within thin-sections and, driving a scanning electron microscope (Model: Carl Zeiss EVO® 50 smart SEM), the automatic acquisition of backscattered electron (BSE) images of those ROIs. An accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a working distance of 8.5 mm were used to achieve these images. Then, the original grey-scale BSE image is transformed into a black and white image revealing the sedimentary particles in their matrix (Francus, 1998). Only particles larger than 3 µm can be accurately measured, leaving the clay particle out of the measurements. Afterwards, measurements of area, center of gravity, length of major axis, and minor axis of the best fitting ellipse can be made on each
particle. These measurements are saved in a spreadsheet for further processing (Francus and Karabanov, 2000). Details of the algorithms used in this study are available in supplementary materials of Jouve et al. (2013). The software weights each particle by assuming they are spherical quartz grains (Francus et al., 2002) by using the following formula:
((4/3)*π*((D₀/2)³))*2.65, with D₀ being the equivalent disk diameter. Even if the random two-dimensional section does not systematically cut grains through their center of gravity, which under-estimate the grain diameter (Bui and Mermut, 1989; Russ, 1992; Bouabid et al., 1992), image analysis grain size has proven to be well correlated with petrographic microscope grain size measurements (Francus et al., 2002). Particle weight is then summed for each particle size class and class percentages can be calculated. At the end, the sediment is classified according to Krumbein and Sloss (1963).

## 3.4 Micro X-ray fluorescence

Non-destructive microgeochemical analyses (μ-XRF) were performed on U-channels with an ITRAX core scanner (INRS-ETE, Québec). The instrument (Cox Analytical systems, Mölndal, Sweden) (Croudace et al., 2006) used a 3 kW molybdenum target tube set to 30kV and 25mA. Acquisition of continuous μ-XRF has been performed at a 0.1 mm scale with an exposure time of 15s. The numbers of counts for each element in each spectrum acquired for a specific depth interval was normalized by the total number of counts of that spectrum (expressed in kcps, i.e. 1000 counts per second).

## 3.5 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

As both μ-XRF and rock-magnetic analyses were conducted on the same u-channels, there is no lag between these data. μ-XRF data were averaged every cm to fit with the 1-cm resolution rock-magnetic measurements. PCA was conducted on μ-XRF data using the
208 significant elements present in the PASADO sedimentary sequence, i.e. Si, Ca, Ti, Fe, Mn, K,
209 Ni, V, Sr, Zr and Rb (Hahn et al., 2014). Elemental data were previously centered to zero by
210 subtraction of averages and scaled with its variance in order to give each element equal
211 importance. Details on PCA analyses are available in Table 1, while descriptive statistics of
212 the analyses are in Appendix D.

213 **3.6 Laser diffraction grain size analyses**

214 Two hundreds and six samples were analyzed using a LS 200 laser particle size analyzer
215 from Beckman Coulter, USA equipped with a fluid module. The sampling resolution was
216 every 0.5 cm to every 10 cm depending on the sediment macroscopic facies. The greater the
217 homogeneity of the sediment facies, the lower was the sampling resolution. The analyses were
218 performed at Queen's University (Canada). The samples passed completely through a 1-mm
219 sieve and were treated three successive times with 30% H₂O₂ to remove organics followed by
220 1 M NaOH to remove biogenic silica (Last and Smol, 2002). Samples were then manually
221 introduced into the analyzer and underwent three successive 60-seconds runs using
222 continuous sonication to disperse aggregated particles (McDonald and Lamoureux, 2009). All
223 statistical grain-size parameters were calculated with the Gradistat software (Blott and Pye,
224 2001) using the Folk and Ward graphical method (Folk and Ward, 1957). Two sigma (SD)
225 error bars (5% of the values) are shown, representing the reproducibility of data from laser
226 diffraction analyses of fine-grained sediment (<10µm) (Sperazza et al., 2004). The uncertainty
227 increases with the clay content. Consequently, these error bars are plotted, to show the
228 maximum error possible for our, mainly, silty clay or silty sand sediments.
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# 4. Results

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The sequence investigated here is composed of greenish-grey, unconsolidated, partly laminated clastic sediments with several graded beds, sand layers, and two tephras (Fig. 3a).

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This continuous interval is described for the following: facies and microfacies architecture

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(microfabrics), grain size and statistical analyses of the elemental geochemistry. The three

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first significant principal components represent about 53% of the total variability. Details on

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(1) macroscopic observation (cm-scale) of facies with XRF and laser diffraction grain size

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signature are available in Figure 4, (2) microsedimentary structures with BSE and image

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analysis grain size of microfacies in Figures 5, (3) additional information on facies in Figure 6

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and Appendix B, (4) µ-XRF data in Appendix A.

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## 4.1 Facies assemblage 1

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Laser diffraction grain size analysis reveals four normally graded beds (facies 1) with a

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clay cap (facies 2) (Fig. 3, 5). Although their thicknesses are different, all four events are

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characterized by grain-supported medium to fine sand layers at the bottom facies 1 with an

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erosive basal contact (Fig. 5). They all include macrophyte remains and micropumices (i.e.

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microscopic fragment of pumices derived from tephra deposits; Fig. 5 and 6). The grain size

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of the coarser bottom part (facies 1) is represented by 80 to 95% sand (laser diffraction

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analysis). Image analysis grain size shows sub-rounded to rounded clastic sediments

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composed of about 85% sand and 15% silt (Fig. 5). Especially for event a and b, these layers

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correspond to peaks of PC2 (Fig. 3c and 4; Table 1; Appendix A), pointing out an elemental

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composition dominated by silicon- (Si, r<sub>PC2</sub>=0.55), calcium (Ca, r<sub>PC2</sub>=0.47), and strontium (Sr,

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r<sub>PC2</sub>=0.42) (Table 1). Figure 4 allows the observation of the link between textural and

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geochemical signature of this facies assemblage at an appropriate scale.
252 Clayey silts overlie the sand (Fig. 6c). These finer sediments show peaks in PC1 (Fig.

253 3c), i.e. silt- and clay-rich sediments are rich in iron (Fe, rPC1=0.81), titanium (Ti, rPC1=0.7),

254 and potassium (K, rPC1=0.47) (Fig. 3b and c; Table 1).

255 **4.2 Facies 3: sand layers**

256 Images of sediment cores and laser diffraction grain size analyses reveal the presence of seven

257 sand layers (yellow areas in Fig. 3a). Unlike facies 1, these layers are devoid of macrophyte

258 remains, and do not have any erosive contact with the underlying sediments (Fig. 5). Sand

259 layers 2 and 3 are however not observable in the sand result (Figure 3) because they fall

260 between the sand layers. Laser diffraction analysis indicates facies 3 has 20 to 40% sands, in

261 contrast to about 5% for background sediment. Microfacies analyses of these deposits reveals

262 matrix-supported angular to rounded silty sands (Fig. 5). Image analysis of clastic grains attest

263 of about 65% of sands and 35% of silts (Fig. 5). When compared (using image analysis) to the

264 background, i.e. pelagic sediments, the sand concentration increases from 9 to 13 times (Fig.

265 7). The gradual decrease in sand, Ca and PC2 suggest a gentle fining upward deposit (Fig. 4).

266 This figure also highlights the link between the textural and geochemical data at the

267 appropriate scale.

268 **4.3 Facies 4: pelagic deposit**

269 This facies is homogenous, unlaminated and without any specific sedimentary structure (Fig.

270 4). These sediments are composed of matrix-supported angular to rounded silty clays to silty

271 sands (Fig. 5). Image analysis of clastic grains attest to about 72% silt and 28% sand (Fig. 5).

272 Micropumices are seldom present in this facies. The grain size is mainly represented by

273 clayey (about 30%) silts (about 65%), with about 5% of sand particles (laser diffraction

274 analysis).
275 **4.4 Facies 5: Mt Burney tephra layer**

276 This MIS3 Mt Burney tephra layer has already been discovered and described by Wastegård
277 et al. (2013). It is present in the upper part of the sedimentary section under study (38.72 –
278 38.68 m cd; Fig. 3). This deposit has a specific geochemical signature as shown by a drastic
279 decrease in Ti, Fe and K and increase in the Ca, Si and Sr (Fig. 4; Appendix A). At
280 microscopic scale, this grain-supported facies displays a sharp contact with the underlying
281 sediment (Fig. 5). The absence of any erosive structure, together with a clear dominance of
282 volcanic minerals and micropumices (Fig. 5), show the regular and rapid deposit of
283 pyroclastic ashes, fallen at the lake water surface after the eruptive event. The laser diffraction
284 grain size of the tephra shows mainly sand at the bottom (about 60%) corresponding to the
285 first volcanic minerals and the coarser fragments of pumice that fall in the lake after the
286 eruption (Fig. 4). This is rapidly followed by silt (about 60%) that mainly corresponds to
287 micropumice (Fig. 5).

288 **4.5 Facies assemblage 2: reworked tephra layer**

289 Another tephra layer is deposited between 38.04 – 38.02 m cd (Fig. 3, 5). This tephra has a
290 microstructure drastically different from the Mt Burney tephra, facies 5 (Fig 5). Indeed, it
291 shows a glass-shard matrix-supported sediment, with heterogenous and heterometric clastic
292 grains, deposited with a discontinuous laminations (facies 7) and erosive structures (facies 6)
293 with the underlying sediment. Previous macroscopic observation suggested this layer was a
294 reworked tephra (Wastegård et al., 2013). The laser diffraction grain size of the reworked
295 tephra is mainly represented by clayey (about 20%) silt (about 65%) (facies 7), with more
296 sand in facies 6 (about 20%) (Fig. 3, 5).
297 **4.6 Facies 8: micropumice-rich sediments**

298 After the deposition of the Mt Burney tephra, a general decrease in clays and sands occurs.

299 This is the only interval where clays and silts do not covary. Indeed, statistical analyses
demonstrate that clays and silts are well correlated (R²=0.7; Appendix C) below the Mt

300 Burney tephra, while they are anti-correlated above it (R²= 0.3; Appendix C). Silts steadily
301 increase along this interval, as well as for PC3. PC3 is mainly controlled by the variability of
302 Zr (rPC3 = 0.68; Table 1). Grain-size obtained by image analysis attests that clastic grains are
303 100% silts (Fig. 5). Under laser diffraction analysis, the grain size of this facies is about 70%
304 silt (Fig. 3). Microfacies analysis reveal the presence of numerous silt-sized micropumices
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5. Discussion

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**5.1 Facies assemblage 1: Flood-induced turbidite**

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310 Graded beds are common features in lake sediments, where they are usually associated with
311 turbidity currents triggered by either flood events or mass movements (Arnaud et al., 2002;

312 Gilbert et al., 2006; Matter and Tucker, 1978; Mulder and Chapron, 2011; Shiki et al., 2000;

313 Wilhelm et al., 2013). Following the work of Giguet-Covex et al. (2012) and (Wilhelm et al.,
314 2013, 2011), normally graded beds detected in this study (Fig. 5; 6c) display the typical

315 sedimentary structures of flood-induced turbidites. Indeed, grain-supported silty sands at their
316 base are interpreted as hyperpycnite from flood-induced turbidity currents (Fig. 5; Fig. 3b;

317 Arnaud et al., 2002; Mulder et al., 2003). The strength of the flow eroded the underlying
318 sediment is demonstrated by erosive structures (Fig. 5). The integration of macrophyte

319 remains supports this interpretation since they are currently abundant on the shoreline (Fig. 8)
and can thus easily be incorporated by flood events. The overlying clayey silts sediments reflect the deposition of the finer fraction when the current velocity decreases. The thickness of these graded beds decrease up the sequence which, according to the model developed by Giguet-Covex et al. (2012) and Wilhelm et al. (2015, 2013), points to a decrease in the duration and/or intensity of the floods (Fig. 6).

## 5.2 Facies 3: Dust storm event

As the Patagonian climatological pattern is mainly controlled by wind, the stronger the wind, the more the sediment integrates sands. Figure 8 shows photographs taken on the western part of the lake highlighting the amount of clastic particles that can be uplifted and transported to the lake during a wind gust. Gently fining upward matrix-supported silty sand layers deposited without any erosive structures, and devoid of macrophyte remains, are thus interpreted as the result of dust storm events (Fig. 5; Appendix B). Disentangling extreme versus less extreme dust storm events from such deposits requires deeper sedimentological analyses and remains speculative. Following the sedimentary depositional pattern of dust storm events described in this study, it seems however legitimate to consider that the greater the amount of the coarsest particles is important at the bottom of these facies (limits of the counting remain to be determined) the more they have required strong wind gusts to be uplifted. In this case, events 3, 5 and 7 could have been the strongest dust storm events recorded in this sequence. Similar episodic wind-driven “saltation burst” events are documented today in cold and dry desert such as Taylor Valley in Antarctica (Šabacká et al., 2012). From ~39.4 to ~38.8 m cd, seven dust storm events occurred during which Ca-, Si- and Sr-rich minerals were primarily transported by wind (Fig. 3; Appendix A). As several peaks in sands are present in the micropumice-rich interval, more dust events are suspected to be
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recorded (Fig. 5) but with different geochemical and structural fingerprints, which are

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difficult to identify because of the strong presence of micropumices.

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**5.3 Link between geochemistry and grain size of clastic sediments.**

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Hahn et al. (2014) conducted principal component analyses (PCA) on µ-XRF measurements

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for the entire PASADO records, and showed that sediments from the Glacial period are

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mainly characterized by Fe, Ti, K and Si, elements indicative of fine clastic grains, and by Ca

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and Sr, elements related to coarse-grained layers. This coarse-grained material is suggested to

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originate from a basalt outcrop at the western shore (Hahn et al., 2014; Kastner et al., 2010)

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that is rich in anorthite. In this study, sediments rich in clays and silts are also characterized

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by peaks in Fe, Ti and K (PC1). Sandy-rich sediments covary with the Ca, Si and Sr (PC2)

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that are represented by strong precipitation runoff or dust storm events. As the geochemical

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signature of sand layers and graded beds are quite similar (Fig. 4), the discrimination between

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dust storm events or flood-induced turbidites can only be performed using critera such as the

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presence of macrophyte, and erosive contact identifiable only in thin sections.

357

The other principal components are not relevant to this study since each of them represent less

358

than 10% of the variability (Appendix D). Moreover, they are represented by trace elements

359

(Ni, V, Mn and Rb) that have already been explained by Hahn et al. (2014) as linked to

360

enforced oxic conditions at the water/sediment interface due to the wind intensity, whether

361

during glacial or interglacial periods.

362

Peak shapes are different and not perfectly defined for each flood-induced turbidites (Fig. 3).

363

This is probably due to the fact that the grain size of sediments is highly variable and causing

364

substantial changes in the surface roughness, organic matter, water content and porosity

365

which is proven to influence the accuracy of XRF scanning results (Croudace et al., 2006;
Löwenmark et al., 2011; Rothwell and Rack, 2006; St-Onge et al., 2007; Tjallingi et al., 2007; Weltje and Tjallingi, 2008). In consequence, the detection of elements can be slightly distorted, explaining some inaccuracies in the PCA analysis.

## 5.4 Facies assemblage and facies made of volcanic particles

### 5.4.1 Facies 8: micropumice-rich sediments

Immediately after the deposition of the Mt Burney tephra layer, silts and clays abundances are no longer correlated (Appendix C). Indeed, it changes from a strong correlation ($R^2$=0.7), to an anti-correlation of $R^2$=0.3, suggesting a change in particle source. Even if the anti-correlation could be driven by two distinct statistical populations, it remains that the relation between silt and clay no longer exists above the tephra layer. This change in the grain size behaviour is explained by the large amount of silt-sized micropumice (Fig. 5) present in this interval. The coarser the pumice fragments (sand peak) the more they can integrate clays in their vesicular structures. This may explain why sand and clay particles are covarying in these sediments. Hence, the geochemistry of the sediment is no longer primarily controlled by PC1 or PC2 but by PC3 (Fig. 3c), which is mainly driven by the relative concentration of Zr ($r_{PC3}$ = 0.68; Fig. 3c; Table 1). This element is suggested to be a proxy of past atmospheric transport of materials derived from Hudson volcano tephras throughout the Patagonian region, the Scotia Sea and the Antarctica (Gaiero, 2007). Sapkota et al. (2007), and more recently Vanneste et al. (2015), also use the high content of Zr in acid insoluble ash from the Mt Burney volcano as a proxy of past atmospheric dust on peat bog cores in Tierra del Fuego (southern Chile). A tephra layer contains acid soluble and insoluble ashes. Waters running off an exposed tephra, after a lake level drop (see photograph in Fig. 8), can bring more acid insoluble than acid soluble ashes to the deep basin. This is why Zr is more important in runoff-derived tephra sediment than in the airfall tephra. Consequently, we attribute the
increase in PC3 (representing Zr) to the presence of micropumice derived from the Mt Burney tephra layer.

Grain size analyses of pelagic sediments, as well as of flood-induced turbidites and dust storms facies, demonstrate that the percentage of clay and silt covaries and are anti-correlated with the sand percentage (Fig. 3b; Appendix C). However, silts are not correlated with clays or sands in micropumices-rich sediments. Statistical analyses on the divergence of silt and clay percentages for the whole PASADO sedimentary sequence (PASADO science team ongoing works) could thus become a proxy of micropumices at PTA.

## 5.4.2 Facies assemblage 2: Reworked tephra layer

In the light of the discovery of several fallen blocks of tephra material from a thick 40 cm tephra layer in the northwest canyon of the lake (Fig. 8), and situated about 15 meters above lake level, the presence of micropumices in sediments is suspected to be not only the result of wind transport, but also the consequence of precipitation runoff. Extreme precipitation runoff deposits were previously identified in the same PTA archive using the magnetic mineralogy of sediments and the stratigraphy (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2014), one of which is a 22 cm thick reworked deposit composed of tephra layers and dated at 16 ka cal BP. The reworked tephra presented in this study reveals a facies assemblage typical of flood-induced turbidites (Arnaud et al., 2002; Giguet-Covex et al., 2012; Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Wilhelm et al., 2011) made of volcanoclastic particles (Fig. 5), of which the small thickness of the coarse facies at the bottom (about 2cm, facies 6 in Fig. 5) is consistent with a decrease in the duration and/or intensity of the floods in this interval. Similarly, Bertrand et al. (2014) showed that the redistribution of silty-sized micropumices to the deep basin of the Puyehue Lake (Chile, 40°S) is mainly driven by underflows or hyperpycnal flows. This would explain why reworked tephra layers are not directly on top of the airfall tephra layer. Moreover, in the 106.9-meter
414 long PASADO composite sequence none of the thirteen tephra layers are directly followed by
415 one of the eleven reworked tephra layers (data from Kliem et al., 2013a; Ohlendorf et al.,
416 2011 and Wastegård et al., 2013). The sedimentary process could then be as follows: during
417 the last Glacial period, the lake level was 21 m higher than the current level (Kliem et al.,
418 2013a; b; Zolitschka et al., 2013). After an eruption, the ash plume passed over the lake,
419 dispersing ashes all around. Because of the ease with which they can be transported by wind,
420 micropumices around the lake were rapidly transported into the lake and elsewhere.

421 Throughout the high lake level last Glacial period, the tephra layers were deposited when the
422 lake covered a greater surface area. These tephra were subsequently covered by pelagic
deposits. These high level terraces, including tephra, could therefore only be eroded during a
423 subsequent low lake level. Precipitation runoff could then remobilized older consolidated
424 tephras from several micropumices to entire blocks (Fig. 8). This hypothesis is supported by
425 the integration of several micropumices within flood-induced turbidites (facies 1 in Fig. 5; 6)
426 and not within dust storm event deposits (Fig. 5; Appendix B).
427

428 Interpretations of past atmospheric circulation derived from silt-sized particles, micropumices
429 or acid insoluble ash over the Patagonian region and from lacustrine sedimentary sequence
430 should be carefully conducted since their occurrence in the sedimentary record could be
431 primarily controlled by rapid (precipitation events) or long time (fluctuation of lake level)
432 hydrological processes, and require detailed thin-section examination.

433 **5.5 Implications for paleoclimate reconstructions**

434 Over ten years of paleoenvironmental and paleoclimate research at PTA were summarized in
435 Zolitschka et al. (2013). These authors conclude that a high lake level stand (21 meters above
436 the current lake level) was present during most of the last glacial period (51.2 to 17.3 ka cal
437 BP), and that lake level dropped during the A2 and A1 intervals (Fig 2b). These lake level
438 drops are inferred from peaks in total organic carbon (TOC) and biogenic silica (BSi) (Hahn
439 et al., 2013) that point to higher paleoproductivity (Fig. 2b). Further support for a lake level
440 drop during warm events is provided by Recasens et al. (2015), who reported higher diatom
441 concentrations during A2 and A1. Diatom concentrations also peak during the AIM4
442 (Recasens et al., 2015) together with a moderate increase in BSi and TOC (Hahn et al., 2013),
443 but no conclusion was drawn concerning PTA lake level during AIM4 since no significant
444 warming in Antarctica is present during the Heinrich event 3 (H3) (Barbante et al., 2006).
445 There is to date no comprehensive paleoclimate reconstruction of the AIM4 period in
446 continental Patagonia. The only AIM4 records available for the southern South American
447 region are marine sediment archives (Lamy et al., 2015; Caniupán et al., 2011). Grain size and
448 geochemical analyses of marine sediment cores from southern Chilean continental slope at
449 53°S (core MD07-3128; position 52°39.57'S, 75°33.97'W) reveal a significant increase in
450 terrigenous fine sand and sorted silt (Lamy et al., 2015), both proxies of near-bottom flow
451 speed (McCave et al., 1996), critical amounts of Ice Rafted Debris (IRD) and peaks in the
452 Alkenone STT (°C) (Caniupán et al., 2011) during all Antarctic isotope maxima of the last
453 Glacial, including AIM4. This site is located less than 400 km away from PTA (Fig. 9). These
454 authors provide thus evidences for increased near-bottom flow speed in the Cap Horn current
455 (CHC) and the Antarctic circumpolar current (ACC) during these warm events. These
456 interpretations are consistent with the bipolar seesaw mechanism on the Southern Ocean
457 (Anderson et al., 2009; Barrows et al., 2007; Lamy et al., 2007, 2004), leading to surface
458 water warming, enhanced upwelling, and stronger ACC caused by southward-shifted
459 westerlies (Lamy et al., 2015). While paleoclimate data supports this scenario on the western
460 side of the Andean Cordillera in the South Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean and the Drake
461 Passage, the situation appears different on the eastern side where there is no evidence for
462 upwelling in the South Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean (Anderson et al., 2009) and no
463 wind intensity change at 52°S during AIM4 (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015). In the meantime, a drastic input of dust in Antarctica (Barbante et al., 2006; Fig. 2) and in Scotia sea sediments (Weber et al., 2012; Fig. 2) is also recorded during AIM4.

466 The results presented here provide some hints of the mean climate state at 52°S in continental southeastern Patagonia. Indeed, a decrease in the thickness of runoff deposits (facies assemblage 1) and the occurrence of a series of wind bursts deposits (facies 2) together point to dustier conditions during AIM4. Other indicators at PTA, i.e. BSi, TOC (Hahn et al., 2013) and diatom concentration peaks (Recasens et al., 2015) are consistent with a lower lake level stand. Moreover, the runoff-driven micropumices detected in this study required lower lake levels to be mobilized, which further supports lower lake levels during AIM4. The increase in diatoms could also be interpreted as a consequence of the rapid dissolution of volcanic glass shards that bring additional silica to the water lake, which is a major nutrient source for building diatom frustules (Hickmann and Reasoner, 1994; De Klerck et al., 2008; Wutke et al., 2015). According to the PASADO age model, the sedimentation rate during AIM4 was about 1.375 m.ka⁻¹ (Kliem et al., 2013a). Micropumice-rich sediments (facies 8) are not characterized by reworked structures, in agreement with the sedimentological work of Kliem et al. (2013a) and with the careful analytical work on reworked tephras by Wutke et al. (2015). We thus proposed that the mobilization of micropumice by riverine processes, and during a low lake level stand, lasted about 600 years.

482 Our results improve environmental and climatic knowledge of the last glacial period derived from the multi-proxy record of PTA. They provide strong evidences of drier conditions than the average glacial condition at PTA during AIM4, and similar to the warm events A2 and A1, and is consistent with previous TOC, BSi and diatom analyses. Therefore, even during a slight increase in the atmospheric temperature in Antarctica (Barbante et al., 2006), this study suggest that the SWW contracted southward and imposed drier conditions at 52°S by
488 blocking precipitation coming from the Atlantic Ocean, in a similar way to modern seasonal variations (Mayr et al., 2007b) (Fig. 9). The results indicate the SWW belt moved closer to PTA but did not reach 52°S in eastern Patagonia during AIM4 because the wind intensity proxy MDF<sub>IRM</sub> (Fig. 2; Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015) remained typical of the last glacial period, with lower average values and higher amplitude changes than during warmer periods such as the Holocene and the Antarctic warm events A1 and A2.

494 This study suggests a strongly non-symmetric SWW pattern over southern South America during AIM4 (Fig. 9). SWW may have been stronger at 52°S on the western side, deflecting stronger oceanic currents to the south of the continent, into the Drake Passage (Lamy et al., 2015) and to the Scotia Sea (Xiao et al., 2016). This interpretation is supported by recent multiproxy studies in Scotia Sea sediments from MIS8 (Xiao et al., 2016), which show that the k<sub>LF</sub> is mainly controlled by detrital magnetic grains, originated from southeast Pacific and Patagonia continental margins, and carried by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current through the Drake passage. On the eastern side of the Andes however, data from LPA suggests the strong SWW were probably located slightly north of 52°S. Turbulent atmospheric flow situated just south of the SWW belt would induce highly variable wind directions and intensities in time and space, i.e. more gustiness. This is plausible since the AIM4 temperature change was small in Antarctica (Barbante et al., 2006), the SWW belt moved less than during the warmer events A2 and A1. The hypothesis of a SWW displacement proportional to the temperature gradient is consistent with the southward shift of the SWW belt during increased temperature (Mayewski et al., 2015) and reduced ice-sheet growth (Toggweiler, 2009; Venuti et al., 2011) and reduced sea-ice cover in Antarctica (Hudson and Hewitson, 2001).

510 The following scenario is suggested in order to explain the sharp magnetic susceptibility increase at 31.5 ka cal BP in the ICDP-PASADO record, and its discrepancy with wind intensity (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015). The drought conditions in the PTA area led to the
activation of one or many new detrital sources rich in ferrimagnetic minerals. These more
erodible and exposed sources provided the material for an increased atmospheric dust load
that would account for the dust storm events recurrence and the magnetic susceptibility
increase at PTA, as well as magnetic susceptibility peaks in the Southern Ocean (Weber et al.,
2012) and dust deposition in Antarctica during the AIM4. Those high k<sub>LF</sub> values in the PTA
sediment archive were maintained until the onset of the deglaciation in southern Patagonia
(17.3 ka cal BP), when atmospheric temperature increased, wind intensities steadily increased
(Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015) and pro-glacial lakes formed, acting as sediment traps in
southeastern Patagonia (Sugden et al., 2009). The wind intensity reconstruction during AIM4
(Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015) indicates a weaker displacement of the SWW compared to those
during the A1 and A2. In this context, PTA would be close to the southern limit of the SWW
belt, and susceptible to be influenced by easterly winds in case of slight northward
displacement of the SWW.

526 6. Conclusions

527 This work provides the first detailed paleoclimate record of AIM4 (from 33 to 29 ka cal. BP),
528 the latest Antarctic isotope maximum of the Last Glacial period, at 52°S in continental
529 southeastern Patagonia. The high-resolution sedimentological and geochemical analyses
530 reveal a decrease in the thickness of runoff deposits (facies assemblage 1 and probably 2) and
531 a series of wind bursts deposits (facies 3), together pointing at drier conditions during AIM4.
532 The inferred lake level drop would have induced the remobilization of micropumices during
533 this period (facies 8). While results are in agreement with the paleoproductivity (Hahn et al.,
534 2013; Recasens et al., 2015), paleowind (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015) and paleohydrological
535 indicators at PTA (Hahn et al., 2014; Jouve et al., 2013; Kliem et al., 2013b; Lisé-Pronovost
536 et al., 2014; Recasens et al., 2011; Schäbitz et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2013), combining high-
resolution sedimentological and geochemical analyses is the only way to differentiating runoff
and wind-induced deposits. Whereas this high-resolution approach can hardly be applied to a
long sedimentary sequence, this work also highlights the potential for using the divergence of
silt and clay proportions as a rapid means for detecting changes in the origin of clastic grains
deposited in lake sediments. This high-resolution work within AIM4 allows a short time
frame observation of past climatic changes in southern South America during a period when
temperature was rising in Antarctica, representing a good analogue for the current ongoing
warming in Southern regions.

545

546 Acknowledgements

547 This research is supported by the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program
548 (ICDP) in the framework of the “Potrok Aike Maar Lake Sediment Archive Drilling Project”
549 (PASADO). Funding for drilling was provided by the ICDP, the German Science Foundation
550 (DFG), the Swiss National Funds (SNF), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
551 Council of Canada (NSERC), the Swedish Research Council - Vetenskapsrådet (VR) and the
552 University of Bremen. For their invaluable help in field logistics and drilling we thank the
553 staff of INTA Santa Cruz and Rio Dulce Catering as well as the Moreteau family and the
554 DOSECC crew. This project was also made possible by an NSERC Discovery and a Canada
555 Foundation for Innovation grants to P. Francus. We acknowledge the support of NSERC and
556 the Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographical Society (CMOS) for graduate scholarships
557 to A. Lisé-Pronovost. We also thank Quentin Simon for his relevant advices in the
558 interpretation of the magnetic susceptibility signal.
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908
909 http://portal.gplates.org/cesium/?view= topo15
910
911 Table, Figures and Appendix captions

912 **Table 1:** Representation quality of the variables (variables cosine-squared) and their
913 contribution to the construction of the components, derived from the principal component
914 analysis conducted on μ-XRF data for the sedimentary interval between 40.62 to 37.90 m cd.

915
916 **Figure 1:** Location of Laguna Potrok Aike in southern Patagonia (blue circle on inset map of
917 South America). Aerial photograph of the immediate catchment area of Laguna Potrok Aike
918 (kindly provided by Hugo Corbella) and bathymetric map of the lake with indicated coring
919 site 5022-2. Red dots indicate the positions of piston cores (modified from Ohlendorf et al.,
920 2011). Paleoshorelines surrounding the lake are indicated with the black arrow. Red stars
921 show locations of fallen tephra layers in western canyons (this study and Kliem et al., 2013b).

922
923 **Figure 2:** a: Stratigraphy (in meter composite depth, m cd) and age model of the PASADO
924 sedimentary record (site 2) (Kliem et al. 2013a). Units are indicated on the left side: Unit A:
925 Laminated silts prevail, with a relatively high amount of carbonate crystals. Unit B:
926 Dominance of laminated silts intercalated with thin fine sand and coarse silt layers: normal
927 graded units and ball and pillow structures occur. Few carbonate crystals occur. Unit C-1:
928 Dominance of laminated silts intercalated with thin fine sand and coarse silt layers. Normal
929 graded units and ball and pillow structures occur. Unit C-2: Dominance of normally graded
930 beds and ball and pillow structures among laminated silts intercalated with thin fine sands and
931 coarse silt layers. b: Green curves: percentage of biogenic silica (BSi) (Hahn et al., 2013) and
932 concentration of diatoms valves in sediment (million valves gr⁻¹ of dry sediment) (Recasens et
933 al., 2014), both proxies of paleoproduction. Black and grey curves (left): median destructive
934 field of the isothermal remanent magnetization (MDF<sub>IRM</sub>), a proxy of wind intensity at PTA
935 (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015). Low field magnetic susceptibility (k<sub>LF</sub>) in PTA sediments as
proxy of gustiness and/or dust availability (Lisé-Pronovost et al., 2015). Black and grey curves (right): magnetic susceptibility in Scotia Sea ($k_{LF}$) and dust mass (p.p.b.) in EPICA Dome C (Antarctica), as proxies of dust from Patagonia during the Last Glacial. Black vertical dotted lines show average values. Red vertical dotted lines show average values before and after 31.5 ka cal. BP for the $MDF_{IRM}$, $K_{LF}$ (PTA and Scotia Sea) and dust mass in Antarctica. The interval covering the AIM4, A1, A2, A3 (Barbante et al., 2006) are represented by the yellow rectangles. Black arrow on the right side indicates the occurrence of the first dust storm event (DSE) for the interval under study.

**Figure 3:** a: Core images of the AIM4 interval (image from Ohlendorf et al., 2011), with the position of the radiocarbon date, in ka cal. BP. All results are plotted in meter composite depth (m cd; left side). b: Laser diffraction grain size analysis of 206 samples plotted in percentage with 2 sigma errors bars. c: Principal Component Analysis of the first (PCA1, driven by Fe, Ti and K), the second (PC2, driven by Ca, Si and Sr) and the third (PCA3, driven by Zr) principal components. Detailed curves of each element are available in Appendix A.

**Figure 4:** a: natural and cross-polarized light of thin sections for FIT 1, DSE 1 and the Mount Burney tephra layer with depth in m cd. b: Calcium and PC2 values plotted with depth. c: laser diffraction grain size plotted with depth.

**Figure 5:** Facies, microfacies and image analyses of the facies assemblage 1 (flood-induced turbidites), dust storm, pelagic, tephra, facies assemblage 2 (reworked tephra) and micropumices-rich sedimentary facies. Left side: cross-polarized or natural light image of thin sections, with the position of BSE images (white numbers and arrows) used to perform image
961 analysis grain size (right and below). Right side: BSE and binary images of microfacies most representative of each facies, and used to calculate the grain size of clastic grains.

962
963
964 **Figure 6:** a: core images of flood-induced turbidite events a to d during the AIM4. The flood-intensity is indicated with a bold and black arrow. b: Natural light image of microfacies at the bottom of the flood. Note the presence of macrophytes in each microfacies. c: laser diffraction grain size results of each flood event showing the fining upwards.

968
969 **Figure 7:** Backscattered and binary images of microfacies for the background (sedimentary deposit under mean climate state conditions) and for each dust storm event (DSE). Image analysis grain size highlights the increased rate of sand during DSE.

972
973 **Figure 8:** Top: Photographs of the shoreline enriched by macrophytes. Middle: photographs of the canyon in the northwest part of the lake showing several collapsed blocks of tephra. Bottom: photography of a gust of wind coming from the West. All photographs were taken by Guillaume Jouve during a field campaign in February 2010.

977
978 **Figure 9:** Northern and southern position and extension of the SWW belt during the Glacial, the AIM4 and the A1, A2 warm events, as inferred from this work and the work of Hodgson and Sime (2010), Lamy et al. (2010) and McGlone et al. (2010). World topography data are available at http://portal.gplates.org/cesium/?view= topo15.

982
983 **Appendix A:** Elemental µ-XRF profiles along the interval under study for Fe, Ti, K, Si, Ca, Sr and Zr reported in peak area, and results of the PCA analysis also available in Figure 3c.

985
986

**Appendix B:** a: core images from the PASADO sequence (Ohlendorf et al., 2011), with the

987

position of Flood-Induced Turbidites c and d (FITc and d), and dust storm events (DSE 1-7;

988

Fig. 3). b: cross-polarized light images of thin sections of the seven dust storm events detected

989

in the interval, showing matrix-supported and non-erosive base structures.

990

991

**Appendix C:** Scatter plots of the different grain-size fraction within the interval between

992

40.62 - 38.7 m cd (black points, below Mount Burney tephra) and 38.7 – 37.9 m cd (grey

993

points, above Mount Burney tephra). a. Clays versus silts, b. clays versus sands and c. silts

994

versus sands plots obtained from laser diffraction grain size data. Blue dotted lines and

995

equations are for samples below Mount Burney tephra, while red lines and equations are for

996

samples above Mount Burney tephra.

997

998

**Appendix D:** Detailed statistics on PCA analyses conducted on µ-XRF data

999
<table><caption>1000 Table 1</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>F1<br>= PC1 (25.2%)</th><th>F2<br>= PC2 (16.3%)</th><th>F3<br>= PC3 (11.3%)</th><th>F4</th><th>F5</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Si</td><td>0.027</td><td><strong>0.551</strong></td><td>0.092</td><td>0.011</td><td>0.000</td></tr><tr><td>K</td><td><strong>0.470</strong></td><td>0.182</td><td>0.015</td><td>0.055</td><td>0.005</td></tr><tr><td>Ca</td><td>0.019</td><td><strong>0.467</strong></td><td>0.002</td><td>0.104</td><td>0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Ti</td><td><strong>0.691</strong></td><td>0.009</td><td>0.000</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.000</td></tr><tr><td>V</td><td>0.127</td><td>0.000</td><td>0.014</td><td>0.157</td><td><strong>0.659</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Mn</td><td><strong>0.139</strong></td><td>0.104</td><td>0.070</td><td>0.092</td><td>0.006</td></tr><tr><td>Fe</td><td><strong>0.812</strong></td><td>0.008</td><td>0.000</td><td>0.001</td><td>0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Ni</td><td>0.101</td><td>0.041</td><td>0.024</td><td><strong>0.436</strong></td><td>0.239</td></tr><tr><td>Rb</td><td><strong>0.203</strong></td><td>0.008</td><td>0.185</td><td>0.106</td><td>0.002</td></tr><tr><td>Sr</td><td>0.171</td><td><strong>0.415</strong></td><td>0.167</td><td>0.001</td><td>0.000</td></tr><tr><td>Zr</td><td>0.017</td><td>0.006</td><td><strong>0.676</strong></td><td>0.000</td><td>0.002</td></tr></tbody></table>

1001

1002

1003

1004
<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3</figcaption></figure>

1015

1016

1017

1018

1019
Facies assemblage 1 (normally graded beds with a clay cap) = flood-induced turbidite (FIT)

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

Facies 3 (sand layer) = dust storm event (DSE)

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>
Facies 5 : Mt Burney tephra

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

1025
1026
1027
1028
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>
### Facies 4: pelagic deposit

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

unlaminated and
undisturbed clastic
sediments

### Image analysis

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

matrix-supported sandy silts

### Facies 5: Mt Burney tephra

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

- Sedimentary pyroclastic deposit

- Straight transition

- Non erosive structure

### Microfacies

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

### Facies assemblage 2: Reworked Mt Burney tephra

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

Facies 6: normally graded
beds made of volcanic ashes
with macrophytes

Facies 7: discontinuous
laminations of clay and silt
volcanoclastic particles

### Microfacies

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

- Heterogeneous and heterometric
pyroclastic grains

- Glass-shards-matrix supported
## Facies 8: micropumice-rich sediments

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

## Microfacies

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>matrix-supported silts</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>
1039
1040

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>Figure 7</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

1041
1042

Rate of sand increase in DSE:

Event 1: x10

Event 2: x10

Event 3: x13

Event 4: x9

Event 5: x13

Event 6: x11

Event 7: x13
<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>Canyon in the northwestern part of the lake</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>Gust of dust</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="4">Legend</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><div style="width: 20px; height: 20px; background-color: #E67E22; border: 1px solid #C0C0C0;"></div> Facies assemblage 1:<br>Flood-induced turbidite (FIT)</td><td><div style="width: 20px; height: 20px; background-color: #D3D3D3; border: 1px solid #A9A9A9;"></div> Pelagic deposit<br>(Facies 4)</td><td><div style="width: 20px; height: 20px; background-color: #C0C0C0; border: 1px solid #A9A9A9;"></div> Facies assemblage 2:<br>Reworked tephra</td><td><div style="width: 20px; height: 20px; background-color: #F47721; border: 1px solid #A9A9A9;"></div> Micropumices-rich<br>sediments (Facies 8)</td></tr><tr><td><div style="width: 20px; height: 20px; background-color: #F47721; border: 1px solid #A9A9A9;"></div> Dust storm event (DSE)<br>(Facies 3)</td><td><div style="width: 20px; height: 20px; background-color: #7030A0; border: 1px solid #A9A9A9;"></div> Mt Burney tephra<br>(Facies 5)</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>a</th><th>b</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>FITd</td><td>7<br>6</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>FITc</td><td>5<br>4<br>3<br>2<br>1</td><td>5<br>4<br>3<br>2<br>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
---y = 93.113 - 1.1731x R² = 0.31504, p=2.8.10⁻⁸

---y = 13.412 + 1.5468x R² = 0.70023, p=5.10⁻³²

---y = 8.1376 + 0.32839x R² = 0.036771, p=0.08

----y = 86.607 - 2.3744x R² = 0.85351, p=3.6.10⁻⁴³

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>

---y = 66.717 - 0.75188x R² = 0.84201, p=1.3.10⁻³⁴

----y = 98.661 - 1.3659x R² = 0.96503, p=4.6.10⁻⁷⁶

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /></figure>
a

<table><thead><tr><th>Variable</th><th>Observations</th><th>Minimum</th><th>Maximum</th><th>Mean</th><th>standard deviation</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Si</td><td>25960</td><td>11.000</td><td>479.000</td><td>165.741</td><td>35.178</td></tr><tr><td>K</td><td>25960</td><td>65.000</td><td>1171.000</td><td>479.670</td><td>62.582</td></tr><tr><td>Ca</td><td>25960</td><td>224.000</td><td>16933.000</td><td>1080.520</td><td>385.231</td></tr><tr><td>Ti</td><td>25960</td><td>56.000</td><td>2072.000</td><td>738.434</td><td>132.918</td></tr><tr><td>V</td><td>25960</td><td>0.000</td><td>181.000</td><td>48.017</td><td>21.607</td></tr><tr><td>Mn</td><td>25960</td><td>59.000</td><td>4614.000</td><td>473.747</td><td>148.861</td></tr><tr><td>Fe</td><td>25960</td><td>2324.000</td><td>65307.000</td><td>28815.947</td><td>4202.118</td></tr><tr><td>Ni</td><td>25960</td><td>0.000</td><td>378.000</td><td>67.178</td><td>33.682</td></tr><tr><td>Rb</td><td>25960</td><td>0.000</td><td>554.000</td><td>272.220</td><td>55.617</td></tr><tr><td>Sr</td><td>25960</td><td>210.000</td><td>2974.000</td><td>1361.389</td><td>243.005</td></tr><tr><td>Zr</td><td>25960</td><td>0.000</td><td>1925.000</td><td>543.068</td><td>99.733</td></tr></tbody></table>

Correlation matrix (Pearson (n)):

<table><thead><tr><th>Variables</th><th>Si</th><th>K</th><th>Ca</th><th>Ti</th><th>V</th><th>Mn</th><th>Fe</th><th>Ni</th><th>Rb</th><th>Sr</th><th>Zr</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Si</td><td>1</td><td>0.429</td><td>0.276</td><td>0.062</td><td>0.018</td><td>0.216</td><td>0.013</td><td>-0.079</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.220</td><td>-0.083</td></tr><tr><td>K</td><td>0.429</td><td>1</td><td>0.084</td><td>0.455</td><td>0.121</td><td>0.221</td><td>0.548</td><td>0.064</td><td>0.259</td><td>-0.048</td><td>0.037</td></tr><tr><td>Ca</td><td>0.276</td><td>0.084</td><td>1</td><td>-0.113</td><td>-0.006</td><td>0.098</td><td>-0.105</td><td>-0.040</td><td>-0.048</td><td>0.381</td><td>0.004</td></tr><tr><td>Ti</td><td>0.062</td><td>0.455</td><td>-0.113</td><td>1</td><td>0.217</td><td>0.170</td><td>0.742</td><td>0.194</td><td>0.256</td><td>-0.337</td><td>0.107</td></tr><tr><td>V</td><td>0.018</td><td>0.121</td><td>-0.006</td><td>0.217</td><td>1</td><td>0.088</td><td>0.246</td><td>0.078</td><td>0.104</td><td>-0.081</td><td>0.053</td></tr><tr><td>Mn</td><td>0.216</td><td>0.221</td><td>0.098</td><td>0.170</td><td>0.088</td><td>1</td><td>0.283</td><td>0.063</td><td>0.073</td><td>-0.025</td><td>-0.026</td></tr><tr><td>Fe</td><td>0.013</td><td>0.548</td><td>-0.105</td><td>0.742</td><td>0.246</td><td>0.283</td><td>1</td><td>0.232</td><td>0.324</td><td>-0.392</td><td>0.129</td></tr><tr><td>Ni</td><td>-0.079</td><td>0.064</td><td>-0.040</td><td>0.194</td><td>0.078</td><td>0.063</td><td>0.232</td><td>1</td><td>0.082</td><td>-0.148</td><td>0.063</td></tr><tr><td>Rb</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.259</td><td>-0.048</td><td>0.256</td><td>0.104</td><td>0.073</td><td>0.324</td><td>0.082</td><td>1</td><td>0.011</td><td>0.159</td></tr><tr><td>Sr</td><td>0.220</td><td>-0.048</td><td>0.381</td><td>-0.337</td><td>-0.081</td><td>-0.025</td><td>-0.392</td><td>-0.148</td><td>0.011</td><td>1</td><td>0.210</td></tr><tr><td>Zr</td><td>-0.083</td><td>0.037</td><td>0.004</td><td>0.107</td><td>0.053</td><td>-0.026</td><td>0.129</td><td>0.063</td><td>0.159</td><td>0.210</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

b

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>PC1</th><th>PC2</th><th>PC3</th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></tr><tr><th></th><th>F1</th><th>F2</th><th>F3</th><th>F4</th><th>F5</th><th>F6</th><th>F7</th><th>F8</th><th>F9</th><th>F10</th><th>F11</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Si</td><td>0,099</td><td>0,555</td><td>-0,272</td><td>-0,107</td><td>-0,023</td><td>-0,192</td><td>-0,052</td><td>-0,478</td><td>-0,440</td><td>0,314</td><td>0,193</td></tr><tr><td>K</td><td>0,411</td><td>0,319</td><td>-0,109</td><td>-0,239</td><td>-0,071</td><td>-0,211</td><td>-0,130</td><td>-0,141</td><td>0,304</td><td>-0,619</td><td>-0,314</td></tr><tr><td>Ca</td><td>-0,082</td><td>0,511</td><td>0,038</td><td>0,327</td><td>-0,029</td><td>-0,190</td><td>-0,052</td><td>0,710</td><td>-0,257</td><td>-0,104</td><td>-0,059</td></tr><tr><td>Ti</td><td>0,499</td><td>-0,070</td><td>0,004</td><td>-0,072</td><td>-0,008</td><td>-0,082</td><td>-0,248</td><td>0,212</td><td>0,145</td><td>0,647</td><td>-0,434</td></tr><tr><td>V</td><td>0,214</td><td>-0,007</td><td>0,104</td><td>0,403</td><td>0,849</td><td>-0,129</td><td>0,108</td><td>-0,165</td><td>-0,002</td><td>-0,056</td><td>-0,036</td></tr><tr><td>Mn</td><td>0,224</td><td>0,241</td><td>-0,237</td><td>0,308</td><td>-0,084</td><td>0,827</td><td>0,171</td><td>-0,049</td><td>0,032</td><td>-0,019</td><td>-0,129</td></tr><tr><td>Fe</td><td>0,541</td><td>-0,066</td><td>0,012</td><td>-0,024</td><td>-0,030</td><td>0,041</td><td>-0,137</td><td>0,219</td><td>0,112</td><td>-0,043</td><td>0,787</td></tr><tr><td>Ni</td><td>0,191</td><td>-0,152</td><td>0,139</td><td>0,671</td><td>-0,511</td><td>-0,325</td><td>0,165</td><td>-0,274</td><td>0,030</td><td>-0,009</td><td>-0,027</td></tr><tr><td>Rb</td><td>0,270</td><td>0,067</td><td>0,385</td><td>-0,331</td><td>-0,043</td><td>-0,020</td><td>0,781</td><td>0,094</td><td>-0,198</td><td>0,032</td><td>-0,057</td></tr><tr><td>Sr</td><td>-0,248</td><td>0,481</td><td>0,367</td><td>0,032</td><td>0,005</td><td>0,007</td><td>0,064</td><td>-0,104</td><td>0,678</td><td>0,263</td><td>0,164</td></tr><tr><td>Zr</td><td>0,078</td><td>0,060</td><td>0,737</td><td>-0,018</td><td>-0,048</td><td>0,260</td><td>-0,464</td><td>-0,176</td><td>-0,336</td><td>-0,118</td><td>-0,066</td></tr></tbody></table>