Basin, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 479, 126–137,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.04.023, 2017.

Herold, N., Buzan, J., Seton, M., Goldner, A., Green, J. A. M., Müller, R. D., Markwick, P., and Huber, M.: A suite of early Eocene (~ 55 Ma) climate model boundary conditions, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 2077–2090, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-2077-2014, 2014.

Heureux, A. M. C. and Rickaby, R. E. M.: Refining our estimate of atmospheric CO₂ across the Eocene–Oligocene climatic transition, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 409, 329–338, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.10.036, 2015.

Hill, D. J., Haywood, A. M., Valdes, P. J., Francis, J. E., Lunt, D. J., Wade, B. S., and Bowman, V. C.: Paleogeographic controls on the onset of the Antarctic circumpolar current, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 5199–5204, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50941, 2013.

Hincke, A. J. C., Broere, T., Kürschner, W. M., Donders, T. H., and Wagner-Cremer, F.: Multi-year leaf-level response to sub-ambient and elevated experimental CO₂ in Betula nana, PLoS One, 11, e0157400, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157400, 2016.

Hinojosa, L. F. and Villagrán, C.: Did South American Mixed Paleofloras evolve under thermal equability or in the absence of an effective Andean barrier during the Cenozoic?, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 217, 1–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.11.013, 2005.

Hohbein, M. W., Sexton, P. F., and Cartwright, J. A.: Onset of North Atlantic Deep Water production coincident with inception of the Cenozoic global cooling trend, Geology, 40, 255–258, https://doi.org/10.1130/G32461.1, 2012.

Hollis, C. J., Handley, L., Crouch, E. M., Morgans, H. E. G., Baker, J. A., Creech, J., Collins, K. S., Gibbs, S. J., Huber, M., Schouten, S., Zachos, J. C., and Pancost, R. D.: Tropical sea temperatures in the high-latitude South Pacific during the Eocene, Geology, 37, 99–102, https://doi.org/10.1130/G25200A.1, 2009.

Hollis, C. J., Taylor, K. W. R., Handley, L., Pancost, R. D., Huber, M., Creech, J. B., Hines, B. R., Crouch, E. M., Morgans, H. E. G., Crampton, J. S., Gibbs, S., Pearson, P. N., and Zachos, J. C.: Early Paleogene temperature history of the Southwest Pacific Ocean: Reconciling proxies and models, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 349–350, 53–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.024, 2012.

Hollis, C. J., Dunkley Jones, T., Anagnostou, E., Bijl, P. K., Cramwinckel, M. J., Cui, Y., Dickens, G. R., Edgar, K. M., Eley, Y., Evans, D., Foster, G. L., Frieling, J., Inglis, G. N., Kennedy, E. M., Kozdon, R., Lauretano, V., Lear, C. H., Littler, K., Lourens, L., Meckler, A. N., Naafs, B. D. A., Pälike, H., Pancost, R. D., Pearson, P. N., Röhl, U., Royer, D. L., Salzmann, U., Schubert, B. A., Seebeck, H., Sluijs, A., Speijer, R. P., Stassen, P., Tierney, J., Tripati, A., Wade, B., Westerhold, T., Witkowski, C., Zachos, J. C., Zhang, Y. G., Huber, M., and Lunt, D. J.: The DeepMIP contribution to PMIP4: methodologies for selection, compilation and analysis of latest Paleocene and early Eocene climate proxy data, incorporating version 0.1 of the DeepMIP database, Geosci. Model Dev., 12, 3149–3206, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-3149-2019, 2019.

Homes, A. M., Cieraad, E., Lee, D. E., Lindqvist, J. K., Raine, J. I., Kennedy, E. M., and Conran, J. G.: A diverse fern flora including macrofossils with in situ spores from the late Eocene

of southern New Zealand, Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 220, 16–28,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2015.04.007, 2015.

Hooker, J. J., Collinson, M. E., and Sille, N. P.: Eocene–Oligocene mammalian faunal turnover in the Hampshire Basin, UK: calibration to the global time scale and the major cooling event, J. Geol. Soc. London., 161, 161–172, https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-764903-091, 2004.

Hoorn, C., Straathof, J., Abels, H. A., Xu, Y., Utescher, T., and Dupont-Nivet, G.: A late Eocene palynological record of climate change and Tibetan Plateau uplift (Xining Basin, China), Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 344–345, 16–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.05.011, 2012.

Houben, A. J. P., van Mourik, C. A., Montanari, A., Cocioni, R., and Brinkhuis, H.: The Eocene–Oligocene transition: Changes in sea level, temperature or both?, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 335–336, 75–83, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.04.008, 2012.

Hren, M. T., Sheldon, N. D., Grimes, S. T., Collinson, M. E., Hooker, J. J., Bugler, M., and Lohmann, K. C.: Terrestrial cooling in Northern Europe during the Eocene–Oligocene transition, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 110, 7562–7567, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1210930110, 2013.

Huang, X., Gohl, K., and Jokat, W.: Variability in Cenozoic sedimentation and paleo-water depths of the Weddell Sea basin related to pre-glacial and glacial conditions of Antarctica, Glob. Planet. Change, 118, 25–41, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.03.010, 2014.

Huber, M.: A Hotter Greenhouse?, Science, 321, 353–354, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1161170, 2008.

Huber, M. and Caballero, R.: The early Eocene equable climate problem revisited, Clim. Past, 7, 603–633, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-7-603-2011, 2011.

Huber, M. and Nof, D.: The ocean circulation in the southern hemisphere and its climatic impacts in the Eocene, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 231, 9–28, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.037, 2006.

Huber, M. and Sloan, L. C.: Climatic responses to tropical sea surface temperature changes on a “greenhouse” Earth, Paleceanography, 15, 443–450, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999PA000455, 2000.

Huber, M. and Sloan, L. C.: Heat transport, deep waters, and thermal gradients: Coupled simulation of an Eocene greenhouse climate, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3481–3484, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL012943, 2001.

Huber, M., Sloan, L., and Shellito, C.: Early Paleogene oceans and climate: A fully coupled modeling approach using the NCAR CCSM, in: Causes and consequences of globally warm climates in the Early Paleogene, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 369, 25–47, 2003.

Huber, M., Brinkhuis, H., Stickley, C. E., Döös, K., Sluijs, A., Warnaar, J., Schellenberg, S. A., and Williams, G. L.: Eocene circulation of the Southern Ocean: Was Antarctica kept warm by subtropical waters?, Paleceanography, 19, PA4026, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001014, 2004.

Hurley, S. J., Elling, F. J., Könneke, M., Buchwald, C., Wankel, S. D., Santoro, A. E., Lipp, J. S., Hinrichs, K.-U., and Pearson, A.: Influence of ammonia oxidation rate on thaumarchaeal lipid composition and the TEX86 tem-
perature proxy, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 113, 7762–7767, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518534113, 2016.

Hutchinson, D. K., de Boer, A. M., Coxall, H. K., Caballero, R., Nilsson, J., and Baatsen, M.: Climate sensitivity and meridional overturning circulation in the late Eocene using GFDL CM2.1, Clim. Past, 14, 789–810, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-14-789-2018, 2018.

Hutchinson, D. K., Coxall, H. K., O'Regan, M., Nilsson, J., Caballero, R. and de Boer, A. M.: Arctic closure as a trigger for Atlantic overturning at the Eocene-Oligocene Transition, Nat. Commun., 10, 3797, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11828-z, 2019.

Hyeong, K., Kuroda, J., Seo, I., and Wilson, P. A.: Response of the Pacific inter-tropical convergence zone to global cooling and initiation of Antarctic glaciation across the Eocene Oligocene Transition, Sci. Rep., 6, 30647, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30647, 2016.

Inglis, G. N., Farnsworth, A., Lunt, D., Foster, G. L., Hollis, C. J., Pagani, M., Jardine, P. E., Pearson, P. N., Markwick, P., Galsworthy, A. M. J., Raynham, L., Taylor, K. W. R., and Pancost, R. D.: Descent toward the Icehouse: Eocene sea surface cooling inferred from GDGT distributions, Paleooceanography, 30, 1000–1020, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014PA002723, 2015.

Inglis, G. N., Bragg, F., Burls, N. J., Cramwinckel, M. J., Evans, D., Foster, G. L., Huber, M., Lunt, D. J., Siler, N., Steinig, S., Tierney, J. E., Wilkinson, R., Anagnostou, E., de Boer, A. M., Dunkley Jones, T., Edgar, K. M., Hollis, C. J., Hutchinson, D. K., and Pancost, R. D.: Global mean surface temperature and climate sensitivity of the early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO), Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), and latest Paleocene, Clim. Past, 16, 1953–1968, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-1953-2020, 2020.

IPCC: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., Midgley, P. M., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2013.

Jacobs, B. F., Pan, A. D., and Scotese, C. R.: A review of the Cenozoic vegetation history of Africa, in: Cenozoic mammals of Africa, edited by: Werdelin, W. J., Sanders, L., University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 57–72, 2010.

Jakobsson, M., Backman, J., Rudels, B., Nycander, J., Frank, M., Mayer, L., Jokat, W., Sangiorgi, F., O'Regan, M., Brinkhuis, H., King, J., and Moran, K.: The early Miocene onset of a ventilated circulation regime in the Arctic Ocean, Nature, 447, 986–990, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05924, 2007.

Japsen, P., Bonow, J. M., Green, P. F., Chalmers, J. A., and Lidmar-Bergström, K.: Elevated, passive continental margins: Long-term highs or Neogene uplifts? New evidence from West Greenland, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 248, 330–339, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.05.036, 2006.

Japsen, P., Green, P. F., and Bonow, J. M.: Investigation of the Burial and Exhumation History of East Greenland Based On Apatitification Track Analysis, Stratigraphic Landform Analysis and the Geological Record, OTC Arct. Technol. Conf., 23–25 March 2015, Copenhagen, Denmark, 8, https://doi.org/10.4043/25562-MS, 2015.

Jin, J.-H., Herman, A. B., Spicer, R. A., and Kodrul, T. M.: Palaeoclimate background of the diverse Eocene floras of South China, Sci. Bull., 62, 1501–1503, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2017.11.002, 2017.

John, E. H., Pearson, P. N., Coxall, H. K., Birch, H., Wade, B. S., and Foster, G. L.: Warm ocean processes and carbon cycling in the Eocene, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A-Math. Phys., 371, 20130099, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0099, 2013.

John, E. H., Wilson, J. D., Pearson, P. N., and Ridgwell, A.: Temperature-dependent remineralization and carbon cycling in the warm Eocene oceans, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 413, 158–166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.05.019, 2014.

Jones, A. P., Dunkley Jones, T., Coxall, H., Pearson, P. N., Nala, D., and Hoggett, M.: Low-Latitude Calcareous Nannofossil Response in the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool Across the Eocene-Oligocene Transition of Java, Indonesia, Paleooceanogr. Paleoclimatol., 34, 1833–1847, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019PA003597, 2019.

Katz, M. E., Miller, K. G., Wright, J. D., Wade, B. S., Browning, J. V, Cramer, B. S., and Rosenthal, Y.: Stepwise transition from the Eocene greenhouse to the Oligocene icehouse, Nat. Geosci., 1, 329, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo179, 2008.

Katz, M. E., Cramer, B. S., Toggweiler, J. R., Esmay, G., Liu, C., Miller, K. G., Rosenthal, Y., Wade, B. S., and Wright, J. D.: Impact of Antarctic Circumpolar Current development on late Paleogene ocean structure, Science, 332, 1076–1079, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1202122, 2011.

Kennedy-Asser, A. T., Lunt, D. J., Farnsworth, A., and Valdes, P. J.: Assessing Mechanisms and Uncertainty in Modeled Climatic Change at the Eocene-Oligocene Transition, Paleooceanogr. Palaeoclimatol., 34, 16–34, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018PA003380, 2019.

Kennedy-Asser, A. T., Lunt, D. J., Valdes, P. J., Ladant, J.-B., Frieling, J., and Lauretano, V.: Changes in the high-latitude Southern Hemisphere through the Eocene–Oligocene transition: a model–data comparison, Clim. Past, 16, 555–573, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-555-2020, 2020.

Kennedy, A. T., Farnsworth, A., Lunt, D. J., Lear, C. H., and Markwick, P. J.: Atmospheric and oceanic impacts of Antarctic glaciation across the Eocene–Oligocene transition, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A, 373, 20140419, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0419, 2015.

Kennett, J. P.: Cenozoic Evolution of Antarctic Glaciation, the Circum-Antarctic Ocean, and Their Impact on Global Paleooceanography, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 3843–3860, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC082i027p03843, 1977.

Kennett, J. P. and Shackleton, N. J.: Oxygen isotopic evidence for the development of the psychrosphere 38 Myr ago, Nature, 260, 513, https://doi.org/10.1038/260513a0, 1976.

Kennett, J. P., Houtz, R. E., Andrews, P. B., Edwards, A. R., Gostin, V. A., Hajos, M., Hampton, M., Jenkins, D. G., Margolis, S. V, Ovenshine, A. T., and Perch-Nielsen, K.: Cenozoic paleoceanography in the Southwest Pacific Ocean, Antarctic glaciation, and the development of the Circum-Antarctic Current, Initial Rep. Deep Sea Drill. Proj., 29, 1155, https://doi.org/10.2973/dsdp.proc.29.144.1975, 1975.

Kiehl, J. T. and Shields, C. A.: Sensitivity of the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum climate to cloud properties,
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A-Math. Phys., 371, 20130093, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0093, 2013.

Kim, J.-H., van der Meer, J., Schouten, S., Helmke, P., Willmott, V., Sangiorgi, F., Koç, N., Hopmans, E. C., and Damsté, J. S. S.: New indices and calibrations derived from the distribution of crenarchaeal isoprenoid tetraether lipids: Implications for past sea surface temperature reconstructions, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 74, 4639–4654, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2010.05.027, 2010.

Kim, S. L., Eberle, J. J., Bell, D. M., Fox, D. A., and Padilla, A.: Evidence from shark teeth for a brackish Arctic Ocean in the Eocene greenhouse, Geology, 42, 695–698, https://doi.org/10.1130/G35675.1, 2014.

Kobashi, T., Grossman, E. L., Dockery, D. T., and Ivany, L. C.: Water mass stability reconstructions from greenhouse (Eocene) to icehouse (Oligocene) for the northern Gulf Coast continental shelf (USA), Paleoceanography, 19, PA1022, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003PA000934, 2004.

Kocsis, L., Ozsvárt, P., Becker, D., Ziegler, R., Scherler, L., and Codrea, V.: Orogeny forced terrestrial climate variation during the late Eocene–early Oligocene in Europe, Geology, 42, 727–730, https://doi.org/10.1130/G35673.1, 2014.

Kohn, M. J., Josef, J. A., Madden, R., Kay, R., Vucetich, G., and Carlini, A. A.: Climate stability across the Eocene–Oligocene transition, southern Argentina, Geology, 32, 621–624, https://doi.org/10.1130/G20442.1, 2004.

Kohn, M. J., Strömberg, C. A. E., Madden, R. H., Dunn, R. E., Evans, S., Palacios, A., and Carlini, A. A.: Quasi-static Eocene–Oligocene climate in Patagonia promotes slow faunal evolution and mid-Cenozoic global cooling, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 435, 24–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.05.028, 2015.

Konrad, W., Roth-Nebelsick, A., and Grein, M.: Modelling of stomatal density response to atmospheric CO₂, J. Theor. Biol., 253, 638–658, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.03.032, 2008.

Korasidis, V. A., Wallace, M. W., Wagstaff, B. E., and Hill, R. S.: Terrestrial cooling record through the Eocene–Oligocene transition of Australia, Glob. Planet. Change, 173, 61–72, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.12.007, 2019.

Kovar-Eder, J.: Early Oligocene plant diversity along the Upper Rhine Graben: The fossil flora of Rauenberg, Germany, Acta Palaeobot., 56, 329, https://doi.org/10.1515/acpa-2016-0011, 2016.

Kraatz, B. P. and Geisler, J. H.: Eocene–Oligocene transition in Central Asia and its effects on mammalian evolution, Geology, 38, 111–114, https://doi.org/10.1130/G30619.1, 2010.

Krylov, A. A., Andreeva, I. A., Vogt, C., Backman, J., Krupskaya, V. V., Grikurov, G. E., Moran, K., and Shoji, H.: A shift in heavy and clay mineral provenance indicates a middle Miocene onset of a perennial sea ice cover in the Arctic Ocean, Paleoceanography, 23, PA1S06, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007PA001497, 2008.

Kunzmann, L., Kvaček, Z., Teodoridis, V., Müller, C., and Moraweck, K.: Vegetation dynamics of riparian forest in central Europe during the late Eocene, Palaeontogr. Abteilung B, 295, 69–89, https://doi.org/10.1127/palb/295/2016/69, 2016.

Kürschner, W. M., Kvaček, Z., and Dilcher, D. L.: The impact of Miocene atmospheric carbon dioxide fluctuations on climate and the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 449–453, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0708588105, 2008.

Kvaček, Z., Teodoridis, V., Mach, K., Přikryl, T., and Dvořák, Z.: Tracing the Eocene–Oligocene transition: a case study from North Bohemia, Bull. Geosci., 89, 21–66, https://doi.org/10.3140/bull.geosci.1411, 2014.

Ladant, J.-B., Donnadieu, Y., and Dumas, C.: Links between CO₂ glaciation and water flow: reconciling the Cenozoic history of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Clim. Past, 10, 1957–1966, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-10-1957-2014, 2014a.

Ladant, J.-B., Donnadieu, Y., Lefebvre, V., and Dumas, C.: The respective role of atmospheric carbon dioxide and orbital parameters on ice sheet evolution at the Eocene–Oligocene transition, Paleooceanography, 29, 810–823, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013PA002593, 2014b.

Langton, S. J., Rabideaux, N. M., Borrelli, C., and Katz, M. E.: Southeastern Atlantic deep-water evolution during the late-middle Eocene to earliest Oligocene (Ocean Drilling Program Site 1263 and Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 366), Geosphere, 12, 1032–1047, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01268.1, 2016.

Larsen, H. C., Saunders, A. D., Clift, P. D., Beget, J., Wei, W., and Spezzaferri, S.: Seven Million Years of Glaciation in Greenland, Science, 264, 952–955, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.264.5161.952, 1994.

Lasabuda, A., Laberg, J. S., Knutsen, S.-M., and Høgseth, G.: Early to middle Cenozoic paleoenvironment and erosion estimates of the southwestern Barents Sea: Insights from a regional mass-balance approach, Mar. Pet. Geol., 96, 501–521, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.05.039, 2018.

Lear, C. H., Elderfield, H., and Wilson, P. A.: Cenozoic Deep-Sea Temperatures and Global Ice Volumes from Mg / Ca in Benthic Foraminiferal Calcite, Science, 287, 269–272, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5451.269, 2000.

Lear, C. H., Rosenthal, Y., Coxall, H. K., and Wilson, P. A.: Late Eocene to early Miocene ice sheet dynamics and the global carbon cycle, Paleoceanography, 19, PA4015, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001039, 2004.

Lear, C. H., Bailey, T. R., Pearson, P. N., Coxall, H. K., and Rosenthal, Y.: Cooling and ice growth across the Eocene–Oligocene transition, Geology, 36, 251, https://doi.org/10.1130/G24584A.1, 2008.

Lear, C. H., Mawbey, E. M., and Rosenthal, Y.: Cenozoic benthic foraminiferal Mg / Ca and Li / Ca records: Toward unlocking temperatures and saturation states, Paleooceanography, 25, PA4215, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009PA001880, 2010.

Lear, C. H., Coxall, H. K., Foster, G. L., Lunt, D. J., Mawbey, E. M., Rosenthal, Y., Sosdian, S. M., Thomas, E., and Wilson, P. A.: Neogene ice volume and ocean temperatures: Insights from infaunal foraminiferal Mg / Ca paleothermometry, Paleooceanography, 30, 1437–1454, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015PA002833, 2015.

Lefebvre, V., Donnadieu, Y., Sepulchre, P., Swingedouw, D., and Zhang, Z.-S.: Deciphering the role of southern gateways and carbon dioxide on the onset of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Paleooceanography, 27, PA4201, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012PA002345, 2012.

Lielke, K., Manchester, S., and Meyer, H.: Reconstructing the environment of the northern Rocky Mountains during the Eocene/Oligocene transition: constraints from the palaeobotany and geology of south-western Montana, USA, Acta Palaeobot., 52, 317–358, 2012.
Linnemann, U., Su, T., Kunzmann, L., Spicer, R. A., Ding, W.-N., Spicer, T. E. V, Zieger, J., Hofmann, M., Moraweck, K., Gärtner, A., Gerdes, A., Marko, L., Zhang, S.-T., Li, S.-F., Tang, H., Huang, J., Mulch, A., Mosbrugger, V., and Zhou, Z.-K.: New U-Pb dates show a Paleogene origin for the modern Asian biodiversity hot spots, Geology, 46, 3–6, https://doi.org/10.1130/G39693.1, 2017.

Liu, W., Xie, S.-P., Liu, Z., and Zhu, J.: Overlooked possibility of a collapsed Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation in warming climate, Sci. Adv., 3, e1601666, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1601666, 2017.

Liu, X. Y., Gao, Q., Han, M., and Jin, J. H.: Estimates of late middle Eocene $pCO_2$ based on stomatal density of modern and fossil Nageia leaves, Clim. Past, 12, 241–253, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-241-2016, 2016.

Liu, Z., Tuo, S., Zhao, Q., Cheng, X., and Huang, W.: Deep-water Earliest Oligocene Glacial Maximum (EOGM) in South Atlantic, Chinese Sci. Bull., 49, 2190–2197, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03185787, 2004.

Liu, Z., Pagani, M., Zinniker, D., DeConto, R., Huber, M., Brinkhuis, H., Shah, S. R., Leckie, R. M., and Pearson, A.: Global Cooling During the Eocene–Oligocene Climate Transition, Science, 323, 1187–1190, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1166368, 2009.

Liu, Z., He, Y., Jiang, Y., Wang, H., Liu, W., Bohaty, S. M., and Wilson, P. A.: Transient temperature asymmetry between hemispheres in the Palaeogene Atlantic Ocean, Nat. Geosci., 11, 656–660, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-018-0182-9, 2018.

Livermore, R., Hillenbrand, C.-D., Meredith, M., and Eales, G.: Drake Passage and Cenozoic climate: An open and shut case?, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 8, Q01005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GC001224, 2007.

Lunt, D. J., Ridgwell, A., Valdes, P. J., and Seale, A.: “Sunshade World”: A fully coupled GCM evaluation of the climatic impacts of geoengineering, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L12710, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033674, 2008.

Lunt, D. J., Dunkley Jones, T., Heinemann, M., Huber, M., LeGrande, A., Winguth, A., Loptson, C., Marotzke, J., Roberts, C. D., Tindall, J., Valdes, P., and Winguth, C.: A model-data comparison for a multi-model ensemble of early Eocene atmosphere-ocean simulations: EoMIP, Clim. Past, 8, 1717–1736, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-8-1717-2012, 2012.

Lunt, D. J., Farnsworth, A., Loptson, C., Foster, G. L., Markwick, P., O’Brien, C. L., Pancost, R. D., Robinson, S. A., and Wrobel, N.: Palaeogeographic controls on climate and proxy interpretation, Clim. Past, 12, 1181–1198, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-1181-2016, 2016.

Lunt, D. J., Bragg, F., Chan, W.-L., Hutchinson, D. K., Ladant, J.-B., Morozova, P., Niezgodzki, I., Steinig, S., Zhang, Z., Zhu, J., Abe-Ouchi, A., Anagnostou, E., de Boer, A. M., Coxall, H. K., Donnadieu, Y., Foster, G., Inglis, G. N., Knorr, G., Langebroek, P. M., Lear, C. H., Lohmann, G., Poulsen, C. J., Sepulchre, P., Tierney, J. E., Valdes, P. J., Volodin, E. M., Dunkley Jones, T., Hollis, C. J., Huber, M., and Otto-Bliesner, B. L.: DeepMIP: model intercomparison of early Eocene climatic optimum (EECO) large-scale climate features and comparison with proxy data, Clim. Past, 17, 203–227, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-203-2021, 2021.

Lyell, C. and Deshayes, G. P.: Principles of Geology: being an attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth’s surface, by reference to causes now in operation, John Murray, London, 1830.

Macphail, M.: Australian palaeoclimates: Cretaceous to Tertiary a review of palaeobotanical and related evidence to the year 2000, CRC LEME Open File Report 151, CRC LEME, Bentley, WA, Australia, 2007.

Maher, K. and Chamberlain, C. P.: Hydrologic Regulation of Chemical Weathering and the Geologic Carbon Cycle, Science, 343, 1502–1504, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1250770, 2014.

Mai, D. H.: Tertiäre Vegetationsgeschichte Europas, Feddes Repert., 106, 331, https://doi.org/10.1002/fedr.19951060333, 1995.

Markwick, P. J.: The palaeogeographic and palaeoclimatic significance of climate proxies for data-model comparisons, in: Deep-time perspectives on climate change: marrying the signal from computer models and biological proxies, Micropalaeontol. Soc. Spec. Publ., London, 251–312, 2007.

Markwick, P. J.: Palaeogeography in exploration, Geol. Mag., 156, 366–407, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756818000468, 2019.

Markwick, P. J. and Valdes, P. J.: Palaeo-digital elevation models for use as boundary conditions in coupled ocean–atmosphere GCM experiments: a Maastrichtian (late Cretaceous) example, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 213, 37–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.06.015, 2004.

Martin, H. A.: Cenozoic climatic change and the development of the arid vegetation in Australia, J. Arid Environ., 66, 533–563, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.009, 2006.

Martini, E.: Standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous nannoplankton zonation, in: Proc. II Planktonic Conference, Roma 1970, Tecnoscienza, Roma, edited by: Farinacci, A., 739–785, 1971.

Maslin, M. A., Li, X. S., Loutre, M.-F., and Berger, A.: The contribution of orbital forcing to the progressive intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation, Quat. Sci. Rev., 17, 411–426, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(97)00047-4, 1998.

Maxbauer, D. P., Royer, D. L., and LePage, B. A.: High Arctic forests during the middle Eocene supported by moderate levels of atmospheric $CO_2$, Geology, 42, 1027–1030, https://doi.org/10.1130/G36014.1, 2014.

McElwain, J. C. and Chaloner, W. G.: Stomatal Density and Index of Fossil Plants Track Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide in the Palaeozoic, Ann. Bot., 76, 389–395, https://doi.org/10.1006/anbo.1995.1112, 1995.

McElwain, J. C. and Steinthorsdottir, M.: Paleooecology, Ploidy, Paleoaatmospheric Composition, and Developmental Biology: A Review of the Multiple Uses of Fossil Stomata, Plant Physiol., 174, 650–664, 2017.

McKay, R. M., Barrett, P. J., Levy, R. S., Naish, T. R., Golledge, N. R., and Pyne, A.: Antarctic Cenozoic climate history from sedimentary records: ANDRILL and beyond, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A-Math. Phys., 374, 20140301, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0301, 2016.

McKinley, C. C., Thomas, D. J., LeVay, L. J., and Rolewicz, Z.: Nd isotopic structure of the Pacific Ocean 40–10 Ma, and evidence for the reorganization of deep North Pacific Ocean circulation between 36 and 25 Ma, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 521, 139–149, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.06.009, 2019.
Meng, J. and McKenna, M. C.: Faunal turnovers of Palaeogene mammals from the Mongolian Plateau, Nature, 394, 364–367, https://doi.org/10.1038/28603, 1998.

Merico, A., Tyrrell, T., and Wilson, P. A.: Eocene/Oligocene ocean de-acidification linked to Antarctic glaciation by sea-level fall, Nature, 452, 979–982, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06853, 2008.

Meyers, J. A.: Terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene vegetation and climate in the Pacific Northwest, in: From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Marine Eocene-Oligocene Transition, edited by: Prothero, D. R., Ivany, L. C., Nesbitt, E. A., Columbia University Press, New York, 171–185, 2003.

Mihlbachler, M. C., Rivals, F., Solounias, N., and Semprebon, G. M.: Dietary Change and Evolution of Horses in North America, Science, 331, 1178–1181, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1196166, 2011.

Mikolajewicz, U., Maier-Reimer, E., Crowley, T. J., and Kim, K.-Y.: Effect of Drake and Panamanian Gateways on the circulation of an ocean model, Paleooceanography, 8, 409–426, https://doi.org/10.1029/93PA00893, 1993.

Miller, K. G., Janecek, T. R., Katz, M. E., and Keil, D. J.: Abyssal circulation and benthic foraminiferal changes near the Paleocene/Eocene boundary, Paleooceanography, 2, 741–761, https://doi.org/10.1029/PA002i006p00741, 1987.

Miller, K. G., Wright, J. D., and Fairbanks, R. G.: Unlocking the Ice House: Oligocene-Miocene oxygen isotopes, eustasy, and margin erosion, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 96, 6829–6848, https://doi.org/10.1029/90JB02015, 1991.

Miller, K. G., Browning, J. V, Aubry, M.-P., Wade, B. S., Katz, M. E., Kulpecz, A. A., and Wright, J. D.: Eocene–Oligocene global climate and sea-level changes: St. Stephens Quarry, Alabama, GSA Bull., 120, 34–53, https://doi.org/10.1130/B26105.1, 2008.

Moraweck, K., Grein, M., Konrad, W., Kvaček, J., Kova-Eder, J., Neinhuis, C., Traiser, C., and Kunzmann, L.: Leaf traits of long-ranging Paleogene species and their relationship with depositional facies, climate and atmospheric CO₂ level, Palaeontogr. Abteilung B, 298, 93–172, https://doi.org/10.1127/palb/2019/0062, 2019.

Mudelsee, M., Bickert, T., Lear, C. H., and Lohmann, G.: Cenozoic climate changes: A review based on time series analysis of marine benthic δ¹⁸O records, Rev. Geophys., 52, 333–374, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013RG000440, 2014.

Müller, P. J., Kirst, G., Ruhland, G., von Storch, I., and Rosell-Melé, A.: Calibration of the alkenone paleotemperature index U37K' based on core-tops from the eastern South Atlantic and the global ocean (60°N–60°S), Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 62, 1757–1772, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00097-0, 1998.

Müller, R. D., Sdrolias, M., Gaina, C., and Roest, W. R.: Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 9, Q04006, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GC001743, 2008.

Negri, F. R., Bocquentin-Villanueva, J., Ferigolo, J., and Antoine, P.-O.: A Review of Tertiary Mammal Faunas and Birds from Western Amazonia, in: Amazonia: Landscape and Species Evolution, Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd., West Sussex, UK, 243–258, 2009.

Nocchi, M., Parisi, G., Monaco, P., Monechi, S., Madile, M., Napoleone, G., Ripepe, M., Orlando, M., Premoli Silva, I., and Bice, D. M.: The Eocene-Oligocene Boundary in the Umbrian

Pelagic Sequences, Italy, in: terminal eocene events, vol. 9, edited by: Pomerol, C., Premoli-Silva, S., Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 25–40, 1986.

Nof, D., Van Gorder, S., and de Boer, A.: Does the Atlantic meridional overturning cell really have more than one stable steady state?, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 54, 2005–2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2007.08.006, 2007.

Norris, R. D. and Wilson, P. A.: Low-latitude sea-surface temperatures for the mid-Cretaceous and the evolution of planktic foraminifera, Geology, 26, 823–826, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0823:LLSSTF>2.3.CO;2, 1998.

O'Brien, C. L., Huber, M., Thomas, E., Pagani, M., Super, J. R., Elder, L. E., and Hull, P. M.: The enigma of Oligocene climate and global surface temperature evolution, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 117, 25302–25309, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2003914117, 2020.

O'Regan, M., Williams, C. J., Frey, K. E., and Jakobsson, M.: A Synthesis of the Long-Term Paleoclimatic Evolution of the Arctic, Oceanography, 24, 66–80, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.57, 2011.

Oboh-Ikuenobe, F. E. and Jaramillo, C. A.: Palynological patterns in the uppermost Eocene to lower Oligocene sedimentary, in: From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Marine Eocene-Oligocene Transition, Columbia University Press, New York, USA, 269, 2003.

Olivarez Lyle, A. and Lyle, M. W.: Missing organic carbon in Eocene marine sediments: Is metabolism the biological feedback that maintains end-member climates?, Paleooceanography, 21, PA2007, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005PA001230, 2006.

Olivetti, V., Balestrieri, M. L., Rossetti, F., and Talarico, F. M.: Tectonic and climatic signals from apatite detrital fission track analysis of the Cape Roberts Project core records, South Victoria Land, Antarctica, Tectonophysics, 594, 80–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.03.017, 2013.

Olivetti, V., Balestrieri, M. L., Rossetti, F., Thomson, S. N., Talarico, F. M., and Zattin, M.: Evidence of a full West Antarctic Ice Sheet back to the early Oligocene: insight from double dating of detrital apatites in Ross Sea sediments, Terra Nov., 27, 238–246, https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12153, 2015.

Opdyke, B. N. and Wilkinson, B. H.: Surface area control of shallow cratonic to deep marine carbonate accumulation, Paleooceanography, 3, 685–703, https://doi.org/10.1029/PA003i006p00685, 1988.

Pagani, M., Zachos, J. C., Freeman, K. H., Tipple, B., and Bohaty, S.: Marked Decline in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations During the Paleogene, Science, 309, 600–603, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1110063, 2005.

Pagani, M., Huber, M., Liu, Z., Bohaty, S. M., Henderiks, J., Sijp, W., Krishnan, S., and DeConto, R. M.: The Role of Carbon Dioxide During the Onset of Antarctic Glaciation, Science, 334, 1261–1264, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1203909, 2011.

Page, M., Licht, A., Dupont-Nivet, G., Meijer, N., Barbolini, N., Hoorn, C., Schauer, A., Huntington, K., Bajnai, D., Fiebig, J., Mulch, A., and Guo, Z.: Synchronous cooling and decline in monsoonal rainfall in northeastern Tibet during the fall into the Oligocene icehouse, Geology, 47, 203–206, https://doi.org/10.1130/G45480.1, 2019.

Palike, H., Lyle, M. W., Nishi, H., Raffi, I., Ridgwell, A., Gamage, K., Klaus, A., Acton, G., Anderson, L., Backman, J., Baldauf, J.,
Beltran, C., Bohaty, S. M., BownPaul, Busch, W., Channell, J. E. T., Chun, C. O. J., Delaney, M., Dewangan, P., Dunkley Jones, T., Edgar, K. M., Evans, H., Fitch, P., Foster, G. L., Gussone, N., Hasegawa, H., Hathorne, E. C., Hayashi, H., Herrle, J. O., Holbourn, A., Hovan, S., Hyeong, K., Iijima, K., Ito, T., Kamikuri, S., Kimoto, K., Kuroda, J., Leon-Rodriguez, L., Malinverno, A., Moore Jr, T. C., Murphy, B. H., Murphy, D. P., Nakamura, H., Ogane, K., Ohneiser, C., Richter, C., Robinson, R., Rohling, E. J., Romero, O., Sawada, K., Scher, H., Schneider, L., Sluijs, A., Takata, H., Tian, J., Tsujimoto, A., Wade, B. S., Westerhold, T., Wilkens, R., Williams, T., Wilson, P. A., Yamamoto, Y., Yamamoto, S., Yamazaki, T., and Zeebe, R. E.: A Cenozoic record of the equatorial Pacific carbonate compensation depth, Nature, 488, 609–614, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11360, 2012.

Pan, A. D., Jacobs, B. F., Dransfield, J., and Baker, W. J.: The fossil history of palms (Arecaceae) in Africa and new records from the Late Oligocene (28–27 Mya) of north-western Ethiopia, Bot. J. Linn. Soc., 151, 69–81, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00523.x, 2006.

Passchier, S., Bohaty, S. M., Jiménez-Espejo, F., Pross, J., Röhl, U., van de Flierdt, T., Escutia, C., and Brinkhuis, H.: Early Eocene to middle Miocene cooling and aridification of East Antarctica, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 14, 1399–1410, https://doi.org/10.1002/ggge.20106, 2013.

Passchier, S., Ciarletta, D. J., Miriagos, T. E., Bijl, P. K., and Bohaty, S. M.: An Antarctic stratigraphic record of stepwise ice growth through the Eocene-Oligocene transition, GSA Bull., 129, 318–330, https://doi.org/10.1130/B31482.1, 2017.

Pearson, A. and Ingalls, A. E.: Assessing the Use of Archaeal Lipids as Marine Environmental Proxies, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 41, 359–384, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-050212-123947, 2013.

Pearson, P. N. and Palmer, M. R.: Middle Eocene Seawater pH and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, Science, 284, 1824–1826, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5421.1824, 1999.

Pearson, P. N. and Palmer, M. R.: Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years, Nature, 406, 695, https://doi.org/10.1038/35021000, 2000.

Pearson, P. N., Ditchfield, P. W., Singano, J., Harcourt-Brown, K. G., Nicholas, C. J., Olsson, R. K., Shackleton, N. J., and Hall, M. A.: Warm tropical sea surface temperatures in the Late Cretaceous and Eocene epochs, Nature, 413, 481–487, https://doi.org/10.1038/35097000, 2001.

Pearson, P. N., van Dongen, B. E., Nicholas, C. J., Pancost, R. D., Schouten, S., Singano, J. M., and Wade, B. S.: Stable warm tropical climate through the Eocene Epoch, Geology, 35, 211–214, https://doi.org/10.1130/G23175A.1, 2007.

Pearson, P. N., McMillan, I. K., Wade, B. S., Jones, T. D., Coxall, H. K., Bown, P. R., and Lear, C. H.: Extinction and environmental change across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary in Tanzania, Geology, 36, 179–182, https://doi.org/10.1130/G24308A.1, 2008.

Pearson, P. N., Foster, G. L., and Wade, B. S.: Atmospheric carbon dioxide through the Eocene-Oligocene climate transition, Nature, 461, 1110–1113, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08447, 2009.

Peck, V. L., Yu, J., Kender, S., and Riesselman, C. R.: Shifting ocean carbonate chemistry during the Eocene-Oligocene climate transition: Implications for deep-ocean

Mg/Ca paleothermometry, Paleooceanography, 25, PA4219, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009PA001906, 2010.

Pérez, L. F., Nielsen, T., Knutz, P. C., Kuijpers, A., and Damm, V.: Large-scale evolution of the central-east Greenland margin: New insights to the North Atlantic glaciation history, Glob. Planet. Change, 163, 141–157, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.12.010, 2018.

Petersen, S. V and Schrag, D. P.: Antarctic ice growth before and after the Eocene-Oligocene transition: New estimates from clumped isotope paleothermometry, Paleooceanography, 30, 1305–1317, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014PA002769, 2015.

Piepjohn, K., von Gosen, W., and Tessensohn, F.: The Eurekan deformation in the Arctic: an outline, J. Geol. Soc. London, 173, 1007–1024, https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2016-081, 2016.

Piga, E.: How Hot is Hot? Tropical Ocean Temperatures and Plankton Communities in the Eocene Epoch, PhD Thesis, Cardiff University, available at: http://orca.cf.ac.uk/136990/, last access: 20 December 2020.

Pocknall, D. T.: Palynostratigraphy of the Te Kuiti Group (late Eocene-Oligocene), Waikato Basin, New Zealand, New Zealand. J. Geol. Geophys., 34, 407–417, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.1991.9514479, 1991.

Pollard, D.: A retrospective look at coupled ice sheet-climate modeling, Clim. Change, 100, 173–194, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9830-9, 2010.

Pollard, D. and DeConto, R. M.: Hysteresis in Cenozoic Antarctic ice-sheet variations, Glob. Planet. Change, 45, 9–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2004.09.011, 2005.

Pomerol, C. and Premoli Silva, I. (eds.): The Eocene-Oligocene Transition: Events and Boundary, in: terminal eocene events, vol. 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1–24, 1986.

Postigo Mijarra, J. M., Barrón, E., Gómez Manzaneque, F., and Morla, C.: Floristic changes in the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands (south-west Europe) during the Cenozoic, J. Biogeogr., 36, 2025–2043, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02142.x, 2009.

Pound, M. J. and Salzmann, U.: Heterogeneity in global vegetation and terrestrial climate change during the late Eocene to early Oligocene transition, Sci. Rep., 7, 43386, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep43386, 2017.

Premoli Silva, I. and Jenkins, D. G.: Decision on the Eocene-Oligocene boundary stratotype, Episodes, 16, 379–382, 1993.

Pross, J., Contreras, L., Bijl, P. K., Greenwood, D. R., Bohaty, S. M., Schouten, S., Bendle, J. A., Röhl, U., Tauxe, L., Raine, J. I., Huck, C. E., van de Flierdt, T., Jamieson, S. S. R., Stickley, C. E., van de Schootbrugge, B., Escutia, C., and Brinkhuis, H.: Persistent near-tropical warmth on the Antarctic continent during the early Eocene epoch, Nature, 488, 73, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11300, 2012.

Prothero, D.: Cenozoic Mammals and Climate Change: The Contrast between Coarse-Scale versus High-Resolution Studies Explained by Species Sorting, Geosciences, 2, 25–41, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences2020025, 2012.

Prothero, D. R.: Did impacts, volcanic eruptions, or climate change affect mammalian evolution?, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 214, 283–294, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.04.010, 2004.

Pusz, A. E., Thunell, R. C., and Miller, K. G.: Deep water temperature, carbonate ion, and ice volume changes across the Eocene-
Oligocene climate transition, Paleooceanography, 26, PA2205, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010PA001950, 2011.

Qin, W., Carlson, L. T., Armbrust, E. V., Devol, A. H., Moffett, J. W., Stahl, D. A., and Ingalls, A. E.: Confounding effects of oxygen and temperature on the TEX86 signature of marine Thaumarchaeota, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 112, 10979–10984, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1501568112, 2015.

Quade, J., Breecker, D. O., Daëron, M., and Eiler, J.: The paleoaltimetry of Tibet: An isotopic perspective, Am. J. Sci., 311, 77–115, https://doi.org/10.2475/02.2011.01, 2011.

Quade, J., Leary, R., Dettinger, M. P., Orme, D., Krupa, A., DeCelles, P. G., Kano, A., Kato, H., Waldrip, R., Huang, W., and Kapp, P.: Resetting Southern Tibet: The serious challenge of obtaining primary records of Paleovaltimetry, Glob. Planet. Change, 191, 103194, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103194, 2020.

Quattrocchio, M. E., Martínez, M. A., Hinojosa, L. F., and Jaramillo, C.: Quantitative analysis of Cenozoic palynofloras from Patagonia, southern South America, Palynology, 37, 246–258, https://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2013.787126, 2013.

Raymo, M. E.: The Initiation of Northern Hemisphere Glaciation, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 22, 353–383, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.002033, 1994.

Raymo, M. E. and Ruddiman, W. F.: Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate, Nature, 359, 117–122, https://doi.org/10.1038/359117a0, 1992.

Retallack, G. J.: Late Eocene and Oligocene paleosols from Badlands National Park, South Dakota, Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, USA, 1983.

Retallack, G. J.: A 300-million-year record of atmospheric carbon dioxide from fossil plant cuticles, Nature, 411, 287, https://doi.org/10.1038/35077041, 2001.

Retallack, G. J., Wynn, J. G., and Fremd, T. J.: Glacial-interglacial-scale paleoclimatic change without large ice sheets in the Oligocene of central Oregon, Geology, 32, 297–300, https://doi.org/10.1130/G20247.1, 2004.

Ridgway, K. D. and Sweet, A. R.: Climatically induced floristic changes across the Eocene–Oligocene transition in the northern high latitudes, Yukon Territory, Canada, GSA Bull., 107, 676–696, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1995)107<0676:CIFCAT>2.3.CO;2, 1995.

Robert, C. and Kennett, J. P.: Antarctic continental weathering changes during Eocene–Oligocene cryosphere expansion: Clay mineral and oxygen isotope evidence, Geology, 25, 587–590, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0587:ACWCDE>2.3.CO;2, 1997.

Roberts, C. D., LeGrande, A. N., and Tripati, A. K.: Climate sensitivity to Arctic seaway restriction during the early Paleogene, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 286, 576–585, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.026, 2009.

Roth-Nebelsick, A., Utescher, T., Mosbrugger, V., Diester-Haass, L., and Walther, H.: Changes in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and climate from the Late Eocene to Early Miocene: palaeobotanical reconstruction based on fossil floras from Saxony, Germany, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 205, 43–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.11.014, 2004.

Roth-Nebelsick, A., Grein, M., Utescher, T., and Konrad, W.: Stomatal pore length change in leaves of Eotrigonobalanus furcinervis (Fagaceae) from the Late Eocene to the

Latest Oligocene and its impact on gas exchange and CO₂ reconstruction, Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 174, 106–112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2012.01.001, 2012.

Roth-Nebelsick, A., Oehm, C., Grein, M., Utescher, T., Kunzmann, L., Friedrich, J.-P., and Konrad, W.: Stomatal density and index data of Platanus neptuni leaf fossils and their evaluation as a CO₂ proxy for the Oligocene, Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 206, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2014.03.001, 2014.

Roth-Nebelsick, A., Grein, M., Traiser, C., Moraweweck, K., Kunzmann, L., Kovar-Eder, J., Kvaček, J., Stiller, S., and Neinhuis, C.: Functional leaf traits and leaf economics in the Paleogene – A case study for Central Europe, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 472, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.02.008, 2017.

Rowley, D. B. and Currie, B. S.: Palaeo-altimetry of the late Eocene to Miocene Lunpola basin, central Tibet, Nature, 439, 677–681, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04506, 2006.

Royer, D. L., Wing, S. L., Beerling, D. J., Jolley, D. W., Koch, P. L., Hickey, L. J., and Berner, R. A.: Paleobotanical Evidence for Near Present-Day Levels of Atmospheric CO₂ During Part of the Tertiary, Science, 292, 2310–2313, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.292.5525.2310, 2001.

Royer, D. L., Berner, R. A., Montañez, I. P., Tabor, N. J., and Beerling, D. J.: CO₂ as a primary driver of phanerozoic climate, GSA Today, 14, 4–10, https://doi.org/10.1130/1052-5173(2004)014<4:CAAPDO>2.0.CO;2, 2004.

Sagoo, N., Valdes, P., Flecker, R., and Gregoire, L. J.: The Early Eocene equable climate problem: can perturbations of climate model parameters identify possible solutions?, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A-Math. Phys., 371, 20130123, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0123, 2013.

Schaefer, J. M., Finkel, R. C., Balco, G., Alley, R. B., Caffee, M. W., Briner, J. P., Young, N. E., Gow, A. J., and Schwartz, R.: Greenland was nearly ice-free for extended periods during the Pleistocene, Nature, 540, 252, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature20146, 2016.

Scher, H. D., Bohaty, S. M., Zachos, J. C., and Delaney, M. L.: Two-stepping into the icehouse: East Antarctic weathering during progressive ice-sheet expansion at the Eocene–Oligocene transition, Geology, 39, 383–386, https://doi.org/10.1130/G31726.1, 2011.

Scher, H. D., Bohaty, S. M., Smith, B. W., and Munn, G. H.: Isotopic interrogation of a suspected late Eocene glaciation, Paleooceanography, 29, 628–644, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014PA002648, 2014.

Scher, H. D., Whittaker, J. M., Williams, S. E., Latimer, J. C., Kordesch, W. E. C., and Delaney, M. L.: Onset of Antarctic Circumpolar Current 30 million years ago as Tasmannian Gateway aligned with westerlies, Nature, 523, 580–583, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14598, 2015.

Schouten, S., Hopmans, E. C., Schefuß, E., and Sinninghe Damsté, J. S.: Distributional variations in marine crenarchaeotal membrane lipids: a new tool for reconstructing ancient sea water temperatures?, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 204, 265–274, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00979-2, 2002.

Scotese, C.: Atlas of Earth History, PALEOMAP Project, University of Texas, Arlington, USA, ISBN 0-9700020-0-9, 2001.

Scotese, C. R. and Wright, N. M.: PALEOMAP Paleodigital Elevation Models (PaleoDEMS) for the Phanerozoic PALEOMAP Project, available at: https://www.earthbyte.org/
paleodem-resource-scotese-and-wright-2018 (access date: 15 August 2019), 2018.

Scotese, C. R., Gahagan, L. M., and Larson, R. L.: Plate tectonic reconstructions of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic ocean basins, Tectonophysics, 155, 27–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(88)90259-4, 1988.

Selkin, P. A., Strömberg, C. A. E., Dunn, R., Kohn, M. J., Carlini, A. A., Davies-Vollum, K. S., and Madden, R. H.: Climate, dust, and fire across the Eocene-Oligocene transition, Patagonia, Geology, 43, 567–570, https://doi.org/10.1130/G36664.1, 2015.

Seton, M., Müller, R. D., Zahirovic, S., Gaina, C., Torsvik, T., Shephard, G., Talsma, A., Gurnis, M., Turner, M., Maus, S., and Chandler, M.: Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma, Earth-Sci. Rev., 113, 212–270, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.002, 2012.

Sewall, J. O., Sloan, L. C., Huber, M., and Wing, S.: Climate sensitivity to changes in land surface characteristics, Glob. Planet. Change, 26, 445–465, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00056-4, 2000.

Sexton, P. F., Wilson, P. A., and Pearson, P. N.: Microstructural and geochemical perspectives on planktic foraminiferal preservation: “Glassy” versus “Frosty,” Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 7, Q12P19, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GC001291, 2006.

Shackleton, N. J. and Kennett, J. P.: Paleotemperature History of the Cenozoic and the Initiation of Antarctic Glaciation: Oxygen and Carbon Isotope Analyses in DSDP Sites 277, 279 and 281, Initial Rep. Deep Sea Drill. Proj., 29, 743, https://doi.org/10.2973/dsdp.proc.29.117.1975, 1975.

Shackleton, N. J., Backman, J., Zimmerman, H., Kent, D. V, Hall, M. A., Roberts, D. G., Schnitker, D., Baldauf, J. G., Desprairies, A., Homrighausen, R., Huddlestun, P., Keene, J. B., Kaltenback, A. J., Krumsiek, K. A. O., Morton, A. C., Murray, J. W., and Westberg-Smith, J.: Oxygen isotope calibration of the onset of ice-rafting and history of glaciation in the North Atlantic region, Nature, 307, 620–623, https://doi.org/10.1038/307620a0, 1984.

Sheldon, N. D. and Tabor, N. J.: Quantitative paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic reconstruction using paleosols, Earth-Sci. Rev., 95, 1–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.03.004, 2009.

Sheldon, N. D., Costa, E., Cabrera, L., and Garcés, M.: Continental Climatic and Weathering Response to the Eocene-Oligocene Transition, J. Geol., 120, 227–236, https://doi.org/10.1086/663984, 2012.

Sheldon, N. D., Grimes, S. T., Hooker, J. J., Collinson, M. E., Bugler, M. J., Hren, M. T., Price, G. D., and Sutton, P. A.: Coupling of marine and continental oxygen isotope records during the Eocene-Oligocene transition, GSA Bull., 128, 502–510, https://doi.org/10.1130/B31315.1, 2016.

Shellito, C. J., Sloan, L. C., and Huber, M.: Climate model sensitivity to atmospheric CO₂ levels in the Early–Middle Paleogene, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 193, 113–123, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00718-6, 2003.

Sijp, W. P. and England, M. H.: Effect of the Drake Passage Throughflow on Global Climate, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 1254–1266, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034<1254:EOTDPT>2.0.CO;2, 2004.

Sijp, W. P., England, M. H., and Toggweiler, J. R.: Effect of Ocean Gateway Changes under Greenhouse Warmth, J. Clim., 22, 6639–6652, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI3003.1, 2009.

Sijp, W. P., England, M. H., and Huber, M.: Effect of the deepening of the Tasman Gateway on the global ocean, Paleooceanography, 26, PA4207, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011PA002143, 2011.

Sijp, W. P., von der Heydt, A. S., Dijkstra, H. A., Flögel, S., Douglas, P. M. J., and Bijl, P. K.: The role of ocean gateways on cooling climate on long time scales, Glob. Planet. Change, 119, 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.04.004, 2014.

Sijp, W. P., von der Heydt, A. S., and Bijl, P. K.: Model simulations of early westward flow across the Tasman Gateway during the early Eocene, Clim. Past, 12, 807–817, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-807-2016, 2016.

Śliwińska, K. K., Thomsen, E., Schouten, S., Schoon, P. L., and Heilmann-Clausen, C.: Climate- and gateway-driven cooling of Late Eocene to earliest Oligocene sea surface temperatures in the North Sea Basin, Sci. Rep., 9, 4458, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41013-7, 2019.

Sluijs, A., Schouten, S., Donders, T. H., Schoon, P. L., Röhl, U., Reichart, G.-J., Sangiorgi, F., Kim, J.-H., Sinninghe Damsté, J. S., and Brinkhuis, H.: Warm and wet conditions in the Arctic region during Eocene Thermal Maximum 2, Nat. Geosci., 2, 777, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo668, 2009.

Solgaard, A. M., Bonow, J. M., Langen, P. L., Japsen, P., and Hvidberg, C. S.: Mountain building and the initiation of the Greenland Ice Sheet, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 392, 161–176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.09.019, 2013.

Sorlien, C. C., Luyendyk, B. P., Wilson, D. S., Decesari, R. C., Bartek, L. R., and Diebold, J. B.: Oligocene development of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet recorded in eastern Ross Sea strata, Geology, 35, 467–470, https://doi.org/10.1130/G23387A.1, 2007.

Sosdian, S. M., Greenop, R., Hain, M. P., Foster, G. L., Pearson, P. N., and Lear, C. H.: Constraining the evolution of Neogene ocean carbonate chemistry using the boron isotope pH proxy, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 498, 362–376, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.06.017, 2018.

Spray, J. F., Bohaty, S. M., Davies, A., Bailey, I., Romans, B. W., Cooper, M. J., Milton, J. A., and Wilson, P. A.: North Atlantic Evidence for a Unipolar Icehouse Climate State at the Eocene-Oligocene Transition, Paleooceanogr. Paleoclimatology, 34, 1124–1138, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019PA003563, 2019.

Srokosz, M. A. and Bryden, H. L.: Observing the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation yields a decade of inevitable surprises, Science, 348, 1255575, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255575, 2015.

Stärz, M., Jokat, W., Knorr, G., and Lohmann, G.: Threshold in North Atlantic-Arctic Ocean circulation controlled by the subsidence of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge, Nat. Commun., 8, 15681, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15681, 2017.

Steinthorsdottir, M. and Vajda, V.: Early Jurassic (late Pliensbachian) CO₂ concentrations based on stomatal analysis of fossil conifer leaves from eastern Australia, Gondwana Res., 27, 932–939, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.08.021, 2015.

Steinthorsdottir, M., Jeram, A. J., and McElwain, J. C.: Extremely elevated CO₂ concentrations at the Triassic/Jurassic boundary, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 308, 418–432, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.05.050, 2011.

Steinthorsdottir, M., Wohlfarth, B., Kylander, M. E., Blaauw, M., and Reimer, P. J.: Stomatal proxy record of CO₂ concentrations from the last termination suggests an important role for
CO₂ at climate change transitions. Quat. Sci. Rev., 68, 43–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.02.003, 2013.

Steinthorsdottir, M., Porter, A. S., Holohan, A., Kunzmann, L., Collinson, M., and McElwain, J. C.: Fossil plant stomata indicate decreasing atmospheric CO₂ prior to the Eocene–Oligocene boundary, Clim. Past, 12, 439–454, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-439-2016, 2016.

Steinthorsdottir, M., Vajda, V., Pole, M., and Holdgate, G.: Moderate levels of Eocene pCO₂ indicated by Southern Hemisphere fossil plant stomata, Geology, 47, 914–918, https://doi.org/10.1130/G46274.1, 2019.

Steinthorsdottir, M., Jardine, P. E., and Rember, W. C.: Near-Future pCO₂ during the hot Mid Miocene Climatic Optimum, Paleooceanogr. Paleoclimatol., 36, e2020PA003900, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020PA003900, 2021.

Stickley, C. E., Brinkhuis, H., Schellenberg, S. A., Sluijs, A., Röhl, U., Fuller, M., Grauert, M., Huber, M., Warnaar, J., and Williams, G. L.: Timing and nature of the deepening of the Tasmanian Gateway, Paleooceanography, 19, PA4027, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001022, 2004.

Stickley, C. E., St John, K., Koç, N., Jordan, R. W., Passchier, S., Pearce, R. B., and Kearns, L. E.: Evidence for middle Eocene Arctic sea ice from diatoms and ice-rafted debris, Nature, 460, 376–379, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08163, 2009.

St. John, K.: Cenozoic ice-rafting history of the central Arctic Ocean: Terrigenous sands on the Lomonosov Ridge, Paleooceanography, 23, PA1S05, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007PA001483, 2008.

Stocchi, P., Escutia, C., Houben, A. J. P., Vermeersen, B. L. A., Bijl, P. K., Brinkhuis, H., DeConto, R. M., Galeotti, S., Passchier, S., Pollard, D., Brinkhuis, H., Escutia, C., Klaus, A., Fehr, A., Williams, T., Bendle, J. A. P., Bijl, P. K., Bohaty, S. M., Carr, S. A., Dunbar, R. B., Flores, J. A., González, J. J., Hayden, T. G., Iwai, M., Jimenez-Espejo, F. J., Katsuki, K., Kong, G. S., McKay, R. M., Nakai, M., Olney, M. P., Passchier, S., Pekar, S. F., Pross, J., Riesselman, C., Röhl, U., Sakai, T., Shrivastava, P. K., Stickley, C. E., Sugisaki, S., Tauxe, L., Tuo, S., van de Flierdt, T., Welsh, K., and Yamane, M.: Relative sea-level rise around East Antarctica during Oligocene glaciation, Nat. Geosci., 6, 380, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1783, 2013.

Strömberg, C. A. E., Dunn, R. E., Madden, R. H., Kohn, M. J., and Carlini, A. A.: Decoupling the spread of grasslands from the evolution of grazer-type herbivores in South America, Nat. Commun., 4, 1478, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2508, 2013.

Strother, S. L., Salzmann, U., Sangiorgi, F., Bijl, P. K., Pross, J., Escutia, C., Salabarnada, A., Pound, M. J., Voss, J., and Woodward, J.: A new quantitative approach to identify reworking in Eocene to Miocene pollen records from offshore Antarctica using red fluorescence and digital imaging, Biogeosciences, 14, 2089–2100, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-2089-2017, 2017.

Su, T., Li, S.-F., Tang, H., Huang, Y.-J., Li, S.-H., Deng, C.-L., and Zhou, Z.-K.: Hemitrapa Miki (Lythraceae) from the earliest Oligocene of southeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its physiogeographic implications, Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 257, 57–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2018.06.001, 2018.

Sun, J. and Windley, B. F.: Onset of aridification by 34 Ma across the Eocene-Oligocene transition in Central Asia, Geology, 43, 1015–1018, https://doi.org/10.1130/G37165.1, 2015.

Sun, J., Ni, X., Bi, S., Wu, W., Ye, J., Meng, J., and Windley, B. F.: Synchronous turnover of flora, fauna, and climate at the Eocene–Oligocene Boundary in Asia, Sci. Rep., 4, 7463, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep07463, 2014.

Swart, P. K.: Global synchronous changes in the carbon isotopic composition of carbonate sediments unrelated to changes in the global carbon cycle, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 13741–13745, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0802841105, 2008.

Swart, P. K. and Eberli, G.: The nature of the δ13C of periplatorm sediments: Implications for stratigraphy and the global carbon cycle, Sediment. Geol., 175, 115–129, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2004.12.029, 2005.

Teodoridis, V. and Kvaček, Z.: Palaeoenvironmental evaluation of cainozoic plant assemblages from the Bohemian Massif (Czech Republic) and adjacent Germany, Bull. Geosci., 90, 695–720, https://doi.org/10.3140/bull.geosci.1553, 2015.

Thomas, D. J., Korty, R., Huber, M., Schubert, J. A., and Haines, B.: Nd isotopic structure of the Pacific Ocean 70-30 Ma and numerical evidence for vigorous ocean circulation and ocean heat transport in a greenhouse world, Paleooceanography, 29, 454–469, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013PA002535, 2014.

Thomson, S. N., Reiners, P. W., Hemming, S. R., and Gehrels, G. E.: The contribution of glacial erosion to shaping the hidden landscape of East Antarctica, Nat. Geosci., 6, 203, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1722, 2013.

Tierney, J. E. and Tingley, M. P.: A TEX86 surface sediment database and extended Bayesian calibration, Sci. Data, 2, 150029, https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2015.29, 2015.

Tiffney, B. H. and Wing, S. L.: Paleoenvironment of the Oligocene Jebel Qatrani Formation, Fayum depression, northern Egypt, based on floral remains, in: 23rd meeting of the Geological Society of America, 21–24 October 1991, San Diego, CA, USA, 1991.

Tigchelaar, M., von der Heydt, A. S., and Dijkstra, H. A.: A new mechanism for the two-step δ¹¹B signal at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, Clim. Past, 7, 235–247, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-7-235-2011, 2011.

Toggweiler, J. R. and Bjornsson, H.: Drake Passage and palaeoclimate, J. Quat. Sci., 15, 319–328, https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1417(200005)15:4<319::AID-JQS545>3.0.CO;2-C, 2000.

Torsvik, T. H., Van der Voo, R., Preeden, U., Mac Niocaill, C., Steinberger, B., Doubrovine, P. V, van Hinsbergen, D. J. J., Domeier, M., Gaina, C., Tohver, E., Meert, J. G., McCausland, P. J. A., and Cocks, L. R. M.: Phanerozoic polar wander, palaeogeography and dynamics, Earth-Sci. Rev., 114, 325–368, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.06.007, 2012.

Tripati, A. and Darby, D.: Evidence for ephemeral middle Eocene to early Oligocene Greenland glacial ice and pan-Arctic sea ice, Nat. Commun., 9, 1038, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03180-5, 2018.

Tripati, A., Backman, J., Elderfield, H., and Ferretti, P.: Eocene bipolar glaciation associated with global carbon cycle changes, Nature, 436, 341, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03874, 2005.

Tripati, A. K., Eagle, R. A., Morton, A., Dowdeswell, J. A., Atkinson, K. L., Bahé, Y., Dawber, C. F., Khadun, E., Shaw, R. M. H., Shorttle, O. and Thanabalasundaram, L.: Evidence for glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere back to 44 Ma from ice-rafted debris in the Greenland Sea, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 265, 112–122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2007.09.045, 2008.
Vahlenkamp, M., Niezgodzki, I., De Vleeschouwer, D., Bickert, T., Harper, D., Kirtland Turner, S., Lohmann, G., Sexton, P., Zachos, J., and Pälike, H.: Astronomically paced changes in deep-water circulation in the western North Atlantic during the middle Eocene, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 484, 329–340, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2017.12.016, 2018a.

Vahlenkamp, M., Niezgodzki, I., De Vleeschouwer, D., Lohmann, G., Bickert, T., and Pälike, H.: Ocean and climate response to North Atlantic seaway changes at the onset of long-term Eocene cooling, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 498, 185–195, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.06.031, 2018b.

Via, R. K. and Thomas, D. J.: Evolution of Atlantic thermohaline circulation: Early Oligocene onset of deep-water production in the North Atlantic, Geology, 34, 441–444, https://doi.org/10.1130/G22545.1, 2006.

Viebahn, J. P., von der Heydt, A. S., Le Bars, D., and Djikstra, H. A.: Effects of Drake Passage on a strongly eddying global ocean, Paleooceanography, 31, 564–581, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015PA002888, 2016.

van Hinsbergen, D. J. J., de Groot, L. V., van Schaik, S. J., Spakman, W., Bijl, P. K., Sluijs, A., Langereis, C. G., and Brinkhuis, H.: A Paleolatitude Calculator for Paleoclimate Studies, PLoS One, 10, e0126946, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126946, 2015.

Waddell, L. M. and Moore, T. C.: Salinity of the Eocene Arctic Ocean from oxygen isotope analysis of fish bone carbonate, Paleooceanography, 23, PA1S12, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007PA001451, 2008.

Wade, B. S. and Pearson, P. N.: Planktonic foraminiferal turnover, diversity fluctuations and geochemical signals across the Eocene/Oligocene boundary in Tanzania, Mar. Micropaleontol., 68, 244–255, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marmicro.2008.04.002, 2008.

Wade, B. S., Pearson, P. N., Berggren, W. A., and Pälike, H.: Review and revision of Cenozoic tropical planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy and calibration to the geomagnetic polarity and astronomical time scale, Earth-Sci. Rev., 104, 111–142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.09.003, 2011.

Wade, B. S., Houben, A. J. P., Quaijtaal, W., Schouten, S., Rosenthal, Y., Miller, K. G., Katz, M. E., Wright, J. D., and Brinkhuis, H.: Multiproxy record of abrupt sea-surface cooling across the Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Gulf of Mexico, Geology, 40, 159–162, https://doi.org/10.1130/G32577.1, 2012.

Wagner, F., Below, R., Klerk, P. D., Dilcher, D. L., Joosten, H., Kürschner, W. M., and Visscher, H.: A natural experiment on plant acclimation: lifetime stomatal frequency response of an individual tree to annual atmospheric CO₂ increase, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 11705–11708, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.21.11705, 1996.

Walker, J. C. G., Hays, P. B., and Kasting, J. F.: A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth's surface temperature, J. Geophys. Res.-Ocean, 86, 9776–9782, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC086iC10p09776, 1981.

Wei, W.: Opening of the Australia–Antarctica Gateway as dated by nannofossils, Mar. Micropaleontol., 52, 133–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marmicro.2004.04.008, 2004.

Wellner, J. S., Anderson, J. B., Ehrmann, W., Weaver, F. M., Kirshner, A., Livsey, D., and Simms, A. R.: History of an Evolving Ice Sheet as Recorded in SHALDRIL Cores from the Northwestern

Weddell Sea, Antarctica, in: Tectonic, Climatic, and Cryospheric Evolution of the Antarctic Peninsula, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, USA, 131–151, 2011.

Westerhold, T., Marwan, N., Drury, A. J., Liebrand, D., Agnini, C., Anagnostou, E., Barnet, J. S. K., Bohaty, S. M., De Vleeschouwer, D., Florindo, F., Frederichs, T., Hodell, D. A., Holbourn, A. E., Kroon, D., Lauretano, V., Littler, K., Lourens, L. J., Lyle, M., Pälike, H., Röhl, U., Tian, J., Wilkens, R. H., Wilson, P. A., and Zachos, J. C.: An astronomically dated record of Earth's climate and its predictability over the last 66 million years, Science, 369, 1383–1387, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba6853, 2020.

Williams, S. E., Whittaker, J. M., and Müller, R. D.: Full-fit, palinspastic reconstruction of the conjugate Australian–Antarctic margins, Tectonics, 30, TC6012, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011TC002912, 2011.

Wilson, D. S. and Luyendyk, B. P.: West antarctic paleotopography estimated at the eocene-oligocene climate transition, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, 10–13, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL039297, 2009.

Wilson, D. S., Jamieson, S. S. R., Barrett, P. J., Leitchenkov, G., Gohl, K. and Larter, R. D.: Antarctic topography at the Eocene–Oligocene boundary, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 335–336, 24–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.05.028, 2012.

Wilson, D. S., Pollard, D., DeConto, R. M., Jamieson, S. S. R., and Luyendyk, B. P.: Initiation of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and estimates of total Antarctic ice volume in the earliest Oligocene, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 4305–4309, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50797, 2013.

Wilson, P. A. and Norris, R. D.: Warm tropical ocean surface and global anoxia during the mid-Cretaceous period, Nature, 412, 425–429, https://doi.org/10.1038/35086553, 2001.

Wilson, P. A., Norris, R. D., and Cooper, M. J.: Testing the Cretaceous greenhouse hypothesis using glassy foraminiferal calcite from the core of the Turonian tropics on Demerara Rise, Geology, 30, 607–610, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0607:TTCGHU>2.0.CO;2, 2002.

Wing, S. L.: Eocene and Oligocene Floras and Vegetation of the Rocky Mountains, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard., 74, 748–784, https://doi.org/10.2307/2399449, 1987.

Wing, S. L., Hasiotis, S. T., and Bown, T. M.: First ichnofossils of flank-buttressed trees (late Eocene), Fayum Depression, Egypt, Ichnos, 3, 281–286, https://doi.org/10.1080/10420949509386398, 1995.

Winguth, A., Shellito, C., Shields, C., and Winguth, C.: Climate Response at the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum to Greenhouse Gas Forcing – A Model Study with CCSM3, J. Clim., 23, 2562–2584, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI3113.1, 2010.

Wolfe, J. A.: Distribution of Major Vegetational Types During the Tertiary, in: The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO₂: Natural Variations Archean to Present, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, USA, 357–375, 1985.

Wolfe, J. A.: Tertiary climatic changes at middle latitudes of western North America, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 108, 195–205, https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(94)90233-X, 1994.

Woodburne, M. O., Goin, F. J., Bond, M., Carlini, A. A., Gelfo, J. N., López, G. M., Iglesias, A., and Zimicz, A. N.: Paleogene land
mammal faunas of South America; a response to global climatic
changes and indigenous floral diversity, J. Mamm. Evol., 21, 1-
73, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10914-012-9222-1, 2014.

Woodward, F. I.: Stomatal numbers are sensitive to in-
creases in CO₂ from pre-industrial levels, Nature, 327, 617,
https://doi.org/10.1038/327617a0, 1987.

Xiao, G. Q., Abels, H. A., Yao, Z. Q., Dupont-Nivet, G., and Hilgen, F. J.: Asian aridification linked to the first step of the Eocene–Oligocene climate Transition (EOT) in obliquity-dominated terrestrial records (Xining Basin, China), Clim. Past, 6, 501–513, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-501-2010, 2010.

Yancey, T. E., Elsik, W. C., and Sancay, R. H.: The palynological record of late Eocene climate change, northwest Gulf of Mexico, in: From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Marine Eocene–Oligocene Transition, Columbia University Press, New York, 252–268, 2003.

Yang, J., Spicer, R. A., Spicer, T. E. V., and Li, C.-S.: "CLAMP On-line": a new web-based palaeoclimate tool and its application to the terrestrial Paleogene and Neogene of North America, Palaeo-biodiv. Palaeoenviron., 91, 163, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-011-0056-2, 2011.

Yang, S., Galbraith, E. and Palter, J.: Coupled climate impacts of the Drake Passage and the Panama Seaway, Clim. Dynam., 43, 37–52, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-1809-6, 2014.

Young, D. A., Wright, A. P., Roberts, J. L., Warner, R. C., Young, N. W., Greenbaum, J. S., Schroeder, D. M., Holt, J. W., Sugden, D. E., Blankenship, D. D., van Ommen, T. D., and Siegert, M. J.: A dynamic early East Antarctic Ice Sheet suggested by ice-covered fjord landscapes, Nature, 474, 72, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10114, 2011.

Zaarur, S., Affek, H. P., and Brandon, M. T.: A revised calibration of the clumped isotope thermometer, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 382, 47–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.07.026, 2013.

Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., and Billups, K.: Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present, Science, 292, 686–693, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059412, 2001.

Zachos, J. C. and Kump, L. R.: Carbon cycle feedbacks and the initiation of Antarctic glaciation in the earliest Oligocene, Glob. Planet. Change, 47, 51–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.01.001, 2005.

Zachos, J. C., Breza, J. R., and Wise, S. W.: Early Oligocene ice-sheet expansion on Antarctica: Stable isotope and sedimentological evidence from Kerguelen Plateau, southern Indian Ocean, Geology, 20, 569–573, 1992.

Zachos, J. C., Quinn, T. M., and Salamy, K. A.: High-resolution (10⁴ years) deep-sea foraminiferal stable isotope records of the Eocene–Oligocene climate transition, Paleooceanography, 11, 251–266, https://doi.org/10.1029/96PA00571, 1996.

Zachos, J. C., Dickens, G. R., and Zeebe, R. E.: An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics, Nature, 451, 279–83, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06588, 2008.

Zanazzi, A., Kohn, M. J., MacFadden, B. J., and Terry, D. O.: Large temperature drop across the Eocene–Oligocene transition in central North America, Nature, 445, 639, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05551, 2007.

Zhang, Y. G., Pagani, M., Liu, Z., Bohaty, S. M., and DeConto, R.: A 40-million-year history of atmospheric CO₂, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London A-Math. Phys., 371, 20130096, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0096, 2013.

Zhang, Z., Nisancioglu, K. H., Flatøy, F., Bentsen, M., Bethke, I., and Wang, H.: Tropical seaways played a more important role than high latitude seaways in Cenozoic cooling, Clim. Past, 7, 801–813, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-7-801-2011, 2011.

Zhang, Z., Ramstein, G., Schuster, M., Li, C., Contoux, C., and Yan, Q.: Aridification of the Sahara desert caused by Tethys Sea shrinkage during the Late Miocene, Nature, 513, 401, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13705, 2014.

Zhang, Z. S., Nisancioglu, K., Bentsen, M., Tjiputra, J., Bethke, I., Yan, Q., Risebrobakken, B., Andersson, C., and Jansen, E.: Pre-industrial and mid-Pliocene simulations with NorESM-L, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 523–533, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-523-2012, 2012.

Zhu, J., Poulsen, C. J., and Tierney, J. E.: Simulation of Eocene extreme warmth and high climate sensitivity through cloud feedbacks, Sci. Adv., 5, eaax1874, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax1874, 2019.