# On the Somali -t Suffix

Sabrina Bendjaballah

► To cite this version:

Sabrina Bendjaballah. On the Somali -t Suffix. Workshop on the Afroasiatic t-morpheme, May 2024, Edinburg, Scotland, United Kingdom. halshs-04582386

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Submitted on 22 May 2024

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On the -t suffix in Somali

Sabrina Bendjaballah

Laboratoire de Linguistique de Nantes UMR6310, CNRS & Nantes Université, France

Workshop on the Afroasiatic Middle t-Morpheme

Edinburgh, 8-9/05/2024

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On the -t suffix in Somali

Sabrina Bendjaballah

Laboratoire de Linguistique de Nantes UMR6310, CNRS & Nantes Université, France

Workshop on the Afroasiatic Middle t-Morpheme

Edinburgh, 8-9/05/2024

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# Introduction

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# Introduction

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Background information

Cushitic > East > Lowland EC > Omo-Tana > East

<table><thead><tr><th>country</th><th>speakers (M)</th><th>inhabitants (M)</th><th>status</th><th>other</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Somalia</td><td>6-10</td><td>8-10</td><td>official</td><td>Arabic</td></tr><tr><td>Somaliland</td><td>3-4</td><td>3-4</td><td>official</td><td>Arabic</td></tr><tr><td>Djibouti</td><td>0.5-0.6</td><td>0.8</td><td>'national'</td><td>French, Arabic (official)</td></tr><tr><td>Ethiopia</td><td>7</td><td>100</td><td>regional (Ogaden)</td><td>Amharic (national)</td></tr><tr><td>Kenya</td><td>2.5-3</td><td>47</td><td>none</td><td>English, Swahili (official)</td></tr><tr><td>diaspora</td><td>1.5-3</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

total: 20.5-27.6 M speakers

(Nilsson 2018)

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Background information

Cushitic > East > Lowland EC > Omo-Tana > East

<table><thead><tr><th>country</th><th>speakers (M)</th><th>inhabitants (M)</th><th>status</th><th>other</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Somalia</td><td>6-10</td><td>8-10</td><td>official</td><td>Arabic</td></tr><tr><td>Somaliland</td><td>3-4</td><td>3-4</td><td>official</td><td>Arabic</td></tr><tr><td>Djibouti</td><td>0.5-0.6</td><td>0.8</td><td>'national'</td><td>French, Arabic (official)</td></tr><tr><td>Ethiopia</td><td>7</td><td>100</td><td>regional (Ogaden)</td><td>Amharic (national)</td></tr><tr><td>Kenya</td><td>2.5-3</td><td>47</td><td>none</td><td>English, Swahili (official)</td></tr><tr><td>diaspora</td><td>1.5-3</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

total: 20.5-27.6 M speakers

(Nilsson 2018)

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Basic verb stems

• main:

<table><tr><td>CV(V)C</td><td>gal<br>ʃeeg</td><td>'to enter'<br>'to tell'</td></tr><tr><td>CVᵢCVᵢC</td><td>qosol<br>tidiʃ</td><td>'to laugh'<br>'to braid' (hair)</td></tr></table>

• others:

<table><tr><td>short</td><td>ʃi</td><td>'to cry'</td></tr><tr><td>long</td><td>adeeg</td><td>'to serve sb'</td></tr></table>

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Basic verb stems

* main:

<table><tr><td>CV(V)C</td><td>gal<br>ʃeeg</td><td>'to enter'<br>'to tell'</td></tr><tr><td>CVᵢCVᵢC</td><td>qosol<br>tidiʃ</td><td>'to laugh'<br>'to braid' (hair)</td></tr></table>

* others:

<table><tr><td>short</td><td>ʃi</td><td>'to cry'</td></tr><tr><td>long</td><td>adeeg</td><td>'to serve sb'</td></tr></table>

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Morphology: concatenative

* derivation and inflection: suffixation

* verb: √ - DER - AGR₁ - ASP - TNS - AGR₂

(caveat: 5 exceptional verbs; reduplication; -y- infixation)

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Morphology: concatenative

* derivation and inflection: suffixation

* verb: √ - DER - AGR₁ - ASP - TNS - AGR₂

(caveat: 5 exceptional verbs; reduplication; -y- infixation)

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/s, n, t/ derivation?

<table><thead><tr><th>DER</th><th></th><th>base (IMP.2s)</th><th>derived (IMP.2s)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>-i(s)</td><td>'caus.'</td><td>kar 'boil' (intr)</td><td>kar-i 'cook' (tr)</td></tr><tr><td>-am</td><td>'anticaus.'</td><td>fur 'open' (tr)</td><td>fur-an 'open' (intr)</td></tr><tr><td>-o/at</td><td>'middle'</td><td>qaad 'take'</td><td>qaad-o 'take for os.'</td></tr><tr><td>-so/sat</td><td>'middle'</td><td>kar 'boil' (intr)</td><td>kar-so 'cook for os.'</td></tr></tbody></table>

* “Forming middle verbs is highly productive” (Green 2021: 153)

* Agostini et al. (1985)

* -o/at = 662 items

* -so/sat = 502 items

* cf. -i(s) = 647 items

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/s, n, t/ derivation?

<table><thead><tr><th>DER</th><th></th><th>base (IMP.2s)</th><th>derived (IMP.2s)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>-i(s)</td><td>'caus.'</td><td>kar 'boil' (intr)</td><td>kar-i 'cook' (tr)</td></tr><tr><td>-am</td><td>'anticaus.'</td><td>fur 'open' (tr)</td><td>fur-an 'open' (intr)</td></tr><tr><td>-o/at</td><td>'middle'</td><td>qaad 'take'</td><td>qaad-o 'take for os.'</td></tr><tr><td>-so/sat</td><td>'middle'</td><td>kar 'boil' (intr)</td><td>kar-so 'cook for os.'</td></tr></tbody></table>

* “Forming middle verbs is highly productive” (Green 2021: 153)

* Agostini et al. (1985)

* -o/at = 662 items

* -so/sat = 502 items

* cf. -i(s) = 647 items

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MID: which underlying representation?

* the ‘middle’ suffix: complex allomorphy

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>base</th><th>'middle' derived</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>PRST.3MS</td><td>qab-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>IMP.2S</td><td>qab</td><td>qab-o</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.3FS</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>qab-a-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.1P</td><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

qab ‘hold’, qab-o ‘catch’

* ⇒ first task: isolate the suffix and specify its UR
(Bendjaballah & Barillot 98, Barillot & Ségéral 05, Barillot et al. 2016)

* synchronic perspective

* for diachrony, see e.g. Hayward (1975), Tosco (1988)

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MID: which underlying representation?

* the ‘middle’ suffix: complex allomorphy

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>base</th><th>'middle' derived</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>PRST.3MS</td><td>qab-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>IMP.2S</td><td>qab</td><td>qab-o</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.3FS</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>qab-a-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.1P</td><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

qab ‘hold’, qab-o ‘catch’

* ⇒ first task: isolate the suffix and specify its UR
(Bendjaballah & Barillot 98, Barillot & Ségéral 05, Barillot et al. 2016)

* synchronic perspective

* for diachrony, see e.g. Hayward (1975), Tosco (1988)

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MID: which semantic values?

"Its complex semantics and inconsistent syntactic behavior have led scholars to analyze it variously as reflexive, reciprocal, autobenefactive, and indeed middle verbs, among other categories" (Green 2021: 153-4)

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MID: which semantic values?

"Its complex semantics and inconsistent syntactic behavior have led scholars to analyze it variously as reflexive, reciprocal, autobenefactive, and indeed middle verbs, among other categories" (Green 2021: 153-4)

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MID: which semantic values?

* ‘middle’ (e.g. Hayward 1975, Puglielli & Bruno 1988, Saeed 1995)
  ‘riflessivo’
  (Moreno 1955)
* ‘reflexive-middle’
  (e.g. Bruno 1984, Tosco 1988)
* ‘autobenefactive’
  (e.g. Andrzejewski 1968, Puglielli 1984)

* not a classical ‘middle’: in many cases transitive

(1) Šali baa taariix bar-t-ay.
Ali FOC history teach-MID-PAST.3MS
“Ali learnt history.”
Puglielli & Bruno 1988: (18)

* reflexive: only few cases

* sometimes anticausative, medio-passive

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* 'middle' (e.g. Hayward 1975, Puglielli & Bruno 1988, Saeed 1995)
  'riflessivo' (Moreno 1955)
  'reflexive-middle' (e.g. Bruno 1984, Tosco 1988)
  'autobenefactive' (e.g. Andrzejewski 1968, Puglielli 1984)

* not a classical 'middle': in many cases transitive

(1) Šali baa taariix bar-t-ay.
Ali FOC history teach-MID-PAST.3MS
"Ali learnt history." Puglielli & Bruno 1988: (18)

* reflexive: only few cases

* sometimes anticausative, medio-passive

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MID: a salient ‘autobenefactive’ value

*   **Hayward (1975: 209) on Afar, Oromo, Somali:**
    "*an autobenefactive function [...] This may be said to be the middle-voice function par excellence.*"

*   **Mous (2001: 77):**
    "*The Cushitic languages with middle derivation in t (or related sounds) include all of East Cushitic – in these languages the middle has a productive autobenefactive meaning – and all of the Southern Cushitic languages where there is no productive autobenefactive meaning.*"

*   how far can we get with MID = autobenefactive?
    ⇒ 5 case studies (elicitation with Djibouti Somali speaker)
    [acknowledgments: Saalim Saciid Shariif]

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MID: a salient ‘autobenefactive’ value

*   **Hayward (1975: 209) on Afar, Oromo, Somali:**
    "*an autobenefactive function [...] This may be said to be the middle-voice function par excellence.*"

*   **Mous (2001: 77):**
    "*The Cushitic languages with middle derivation in t (or related sounds) include all of East Cushitic – in these languages the middle has a productive autobenefactive meaning – and all of the Southern Cushitic languages where there is no productive autobenefactive meaning.*"

*   how far can we get with MID = autobenefactive?
    ⇒ 5 case studies (elicitation with Djibouti Somali speaker)
    [acknowledgments: Saalim Saciid Shariif]

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Is the UR of 'middle t' /t/?

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Is the UR of 'middle *t*' /t/?

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DER = ‘middle’

√ - DER - AGR₁ - ASP - TNS - AGR₂

(2) a. Waḥ-aan laab-ay gaṭan-ta ilma-ha.
   FOC-1S fold-PAST.1S arm-DET child-DET
   ‘I folded the arm of the child.’

b. Waḥ-aan laab-t-ay gaṭan-tayda.
   FOC-1S fold-MID-PAST.1S arm-POSS.1S
   ‘I folded my arm.’

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DER = ‘middle’

√ - DER - AGR₁ - ASP - TNS - AGR₂

(2) a. Waḥ-aan laab-ay gaṭan-ta ilma-ha.
   FOC-1S fold-PAST.1S arm-DET child-DET
   ‘I folded the arm of the child.’

b. Waḥ-aan laab-t-ay gaṭan-tayda.
   FOC-1S fold-MID-PAST.1S arm-POSS.1S
   ‘I folded my arm.’

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Inflection

* subject agreement:

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>AGR<sub>1</sub></th><th>AGR<sub>2</sub></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1s=3ms</td><td>Ø</td><td>Ø</td></tr><tr><td>2s=3fs</td><td>t</td><td>Ø</td></tr><tr><td>1p</td><td>n</td><td>Ø</td></tr><tr><td>2p</td><td>t</td><td>n</td></tr><tr><td>3p</td><td>Ø</td><td>n</td></tr></tbody></table>

* aspect and tense:

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="2">ASP</th><th colspan="2">TNS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>unmarked</td><td>Ø</td><td>present</td><td>aa</td></tr><tr><td>progressive</td><td>ay</td><td>past</td><td>ay</td></tr></tbody></table>

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Inflection

* subject agreement:

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>AGR<sub>1</sub></th><th>AGR<sub>2</sub></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1s=3ms</td><td>Ø</td><td>Ø</td></tr><tr><td>2s=3fs</td><td>t</td><td>Ø</td></tr><tr><td>1p</td><td>n</td><td>Ø</td></tr><tr><td>2p</td><td>t</td><td>n</td></tr><tr><td>3p</td><td>Ø</td><td>n</td></tr></tbody></table>

* aspect and tense:

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="2">ASP</th><th colspan="2">TNS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>unmarked</td><td>Ø</td><td>present</td><td>aa</td></tr><tr><td>progressive</td><td>ay</td><td>past</td><td>ay</td></tr></tbody></table>

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The allomorphs of MID

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>a.</td><td>-o<br><u>-</u></td><td>-t-<br><u>-</u></td><td>-a<br><u>-</u> {<br><u>t</u><br><u>d</u><br><u>n</u><br>}<br><u>-</u></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>V<br><u>-</u></td><td>C</td><td>-VC<br><u>-</u></td></tr><tr><td>b.</td><td>-(i)so<br><u>-</u></td><td>-(i)st-<br><u>-</u></td><td>-(i)sa<br><u>-</u> {<br><u>t</u><br><u>d</u><br><u>n</u><br>}<br><u>-</u></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>= CAUS + MID<br><u>-</u></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a. = c3A (Orwin), c3B (Saeed), b. = c3B (Orwin), c3A (Saeed)

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The allomorphs of MID

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>a.</td><td>-o<br><u>-</u></td><td>-t-<br><u>-</u></td><td>-a<br><u>-</u> {<br><u>t</u><br><u>d</u><br><u>n</u><br>}<br><u>-</u></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>V<br><u>-</u></td><td>C</td><td>-VC<br><u>-</u></td></tr><tr><td>b.</td><td>-(i)so<br><u>-</u></td><td>-(i)st-<br><u>-</u></td><td>-(i)sa<br><u>-</u> {<br><u>t</u><br><u>d</u><br><u>n</u><br>}<br><u>-</u></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>= CAUS + MID<br><u>-</u></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a. = c3A (Orwin), c3B (Saeed), b. = c3B (Orwin), c3A (Saeed)

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V-Ø alternations

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>C<sub>1</sub>VC<sub>2</sub></td><td>C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>i</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>i</sub>C<sub>3</sub></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab</td><td>tidi&Sigma;</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td style="background-color: #e2f0d9;">tid&Sigma;-aa</td><td>&larr; C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>i</sub>C<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidi&Sigma;-d-aa</td><td></td></tr><tr><th></th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidi&Sigma;-n-aa</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

qab "hold", tidi&Sigma; "braid (hair)"

1b stem V-Ø alternation between C<sub>2</sub> and C<sub>3</sub>: *CC{#, C}

<figure><img src="image_75.png" /></figure>
V-Ø alternations

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th></th></tr><tr><th></th><th>C<sub>1</sub>VC<sub>2</sub></th><th>C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>i</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>i</sub>C<sub>3</sub></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab</td><td>tidi&macr;</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td style="background-color: #e2f0d9;">tid&macr;-aa</td><td>&larr; C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>i</sub>C<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidi&macr;-d-aa</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidi&macr;-n-aa</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

qab "hold", tidi&macr; "braid (hair)"

1b stem V-Ø alternation between C<sub>2</sub> and C<sub>3</sub>: *CC{#, C}

<figure><img src="image_54.png" /></figure>
$$CV_iCV_iC = /CV_iC\emptyset C/$$

V-propagation to avoid *CC{C,#}

• tidi⊕daa

<figure><img src="image_76.png" /></figure>

• tidi⊕aa

<figure><img src="image_77.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_78.png" /></figure>
$$CV_iCV_iC = /CV_iC\emptyset C/$$

V-propagation to avoid *CC{C,#}

• tidi\daa

<figure><img src="image_55.png" /></figure>

• tid\aa

<figure><img src="image_56.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_57.png" /></figure>
a-Ø alternation in MID

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th colspan="2">DERIVED</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>CVC</th><th>CVᵢCVᵢC</th><th>CVC-₀</th><th>CVᵢCC-₀</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab</td><td>tidiᵢ</td><td>qab-₀</td><td>tidᵢ-₀</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-ad-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-d-aa</td><td>qab-at-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

qab “hold”, tidiᵢ “braid (hair)”, qabo “catch”, tidᵢ 0 “braid one’s hair”

• 2b all aC ⇔ all / CC_V

• PRST.3MS 2b aC / CC_V vs 2a C / C_V

⇒ *CC{#, C}

<figure><img src="image_79.png" /></figure>
a-Ø alternation in MID

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th colspan="2">DERIVED</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>CVC</th><th>CVᵢCVᵢC</th><th>CVC-₀</th><th>CVᵢCC-₀</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab</td><td>tidiᵢ</td><td>qab-₀</td><td>tidᵢ-₀</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-ad-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-d-aa</td><td>qab-at-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

qab “hold”, tidiᵢ “braid (hair)”, qabo “catch”, tidᵢ 0 “braid one’s hair”

• 2b all aC ⇔ all / CC_V

• PRST.3MS 2b aC / CC_V vs 2a C / C_V

⇒ *CC{#, C}

<figure><img src="image_58.png" /></figure>
General application

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th colspan="2">DERIVED</th></tr><tr><th>CVC</th><th>CV<sub>i</sub>CV<sub>i</sub>C</th><th>CVC-<sub>o</sub></th><th>CV<sub>i</sub>CC-<sub>o</sub></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab</td><td>tidi&#x0303;I</td><td>qab-<sub>o</sub></td><td>tid&#x0303;I-<sub>o</sub></td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-ad-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidi&#x0303;I-d-aa</td><td>qab-at-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidi&#x0303;I-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

qab "hold", tidi&#x0303;I "braid (hair)", qabo "catch", tid&#x0303;I-o "braid one's hair"

* PRST.1P 2a 2b aC / (C)C_C<sub>agr</sub> *CCC<sub>agr</sub>

* but PRST.3FS 2a qabataa: VC<sub>a</sub>CV

<figure><img src="image_80.png" /></figure>
General application

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th colspan="2">DERIVED</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>CVC</th><th>CV<sub>i</sub>CV<sub>i</sub>C</th><th>CVC-<sub>o</sub></th><th>CV<sub>i</sub>CC-<sub>o</sub></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab</td><td>tidi&#x0303;I</td><td>qab-<sub>o</sub></td><td>tid&#x0303;I-<sub>o</sub></td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-ad-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidi&#x0303;I-d-aa</td><td>qab-at-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidi&#x0303;I-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td><td>tid&#x0303;I-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

qab "hold", tidi&#x0303;I "braid (hair)", qabo "catch", tid&#x0303;I-o "braid one's hair"

* PRST.1P 2a 2b aC / (C)C_C<sub>agr</sub> *CCC<sub>agr</sub>

* but PRST.3FS 2a qabataa: VC<sub>a</sub>CV

<figure><img src="image_59.png" /></figure>
The missing C in qabataa

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th colspan="2">DERIVED</th></tr><tr><th>CVC</th><th>CVᵢCVᵢC</th><th>CVC-₀</th><th>CVᵢCC-₀</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab</td><td>tidiᵢ</td><td>qab-₀</td><td>tidᵢ-₀</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-ad-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-d-aa</td><td>qab-at-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

1a

1b

2a

2b

qab "hold", tidiᵢ "braid (hair)", qabo "catch", tidᵢo "braid one's hair"

* qabataa = /qab-at-t-aa/

* qa/CaCC/aa

*CCC<sub>agr</sub>

⇒ V [t] V = /tt/?

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /></figure>
The missing C in qabataa

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">BASE</th><th colspan="2">DERIVED</th></tr><tr><th>CVC</th><th>CVᵢCVᵢC</th><th>CVC-₀</th><th>CVᵢCC-₀</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab</td><td>tidiᵢ</td><td>qab-₀</td><td>tidᵢ-₀</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-aa</td><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-ad-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-t-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-d-aa</td><td>qab-at-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-n-aa</td><td>tidiᵢ-n-aa</td><td>qab-an-n-aa</td><td>tidᵢ-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

1a

1b

2a

2b

qab "hold", tidiᵢ "braid (hair)", qabo "catch", tidᵢo "braid one's hair"

* qabataa = /qab-at-t-aa/

* qa/CaCC/aa

⇒ V [t] V = /tt/?

*CCC<sub>agr</sub>

<figure><img src="image_60.png" /></figure>
Surface [t] behaves like /CC/

* phonetic inventory: *[tt]

* CVᵢCC roots:

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>IMP.2S</th><th>PRST.3MS</th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td>V/Ø alt.</td><td>no V/Ø alt.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>d = /C/</td><td>tidi</td><td>tid</td><td>aa</td><td>*tidi</td><td>aa</td><td>'braid'</td></tr><tr><td>dd = /CC/</td><td>beddel</td><td>*beddlaa</td><td>beddelaa</td><td></td><td></td><td>'change'</td></tr><tr><td>t = /CC/</td><td>matag</td><td>*matgaa</td><td>matagaa</td><td></td><td></td><td>'vomit'</td></tr></tbody></table>

Barillot (2002), Barillot & Ségéral (2005)

<figure><img src="image_82.png" /></figure>
Surface [t] behaves like /CC/

* phonetic inventory: *[tt]

* CVᵢCC roots:

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>IMP.2S</th><th>PRST.3MS</th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td>V/Ø alt.</td><td>no V/Ø alt.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>d = /C/</td><td>tidi</td><td>tid</td><td>*tidi</td><td>'braid'</td></tr><tr><td>dd = /CC/</td><td>beddel</td><td>*beddlaa</td><td>beddelaa</td><td>'change'</td></tr><tr><td>t = /CC/</td><td>matag</td><td>*matgaa</td><td>matagaa</td><td>'vomit'</td></tr></tbody></table>

Barillot (2002), Barillot & Ségéral (2005)

<figure><img src="image_61.png" /></figure>
UR of the 'middle suffix' includes A

* distribution of a in MID: to be ascribed to *CC{#, C}

* a is not epenthetic:

<table><tr><td>✓</td><td>A</td><td>DER</td><td>AGR₁</td><td>TNS</td></tr><tr><td>qab</td><td>-a</td><td>-n</td><td>-n</td><td>-aa qabannaa (C₁aC₂C₃)</td></tr><tr><td>tidī</td><td>-a</td><td>-d</td><td></td><td>-aa tidīadaa (C₁C₂aC₃)</td></tr></table>

* IMP.2S qab-o, tidī-o
/α/# → [o]#
e.g. ṣaqādīī 'the work' but ṣaqo 'work'

* ⇒a is part of the UR of the 'middle' suffix

cf. Hayward (1975: 207) on Oromo: "In fact the suffix [...] comprises a vowel, most commonly an a. This vocalic element is invariably present. It cannot be explained away as epenthetic"

<figure><img src="image_83.png" /></figure>
UR of the ‘middle suffix’ includes A

* distribution of a in MID: to be ascribed to *CC{#, C}

* a is not epenthetic:

<table><tr><td>✓</td><td>A</td><td>DER</td><td>AGR<sub>1</sub></td><td>TNS</td></tr><tr><td>qab</td><td>-a</td><td>-n</td><td>-n</td><td>-aa</td><td>qabannaa (C<sub>1</sub>aC<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>)</td></tr><tr><td>tid<i>ī</i></td><td>-a</td><td>-d</td><td></td><td>-aa</td><td>tid<i>ī</i>adaa (C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>aC<sub>3</sub>)</td></tr></table>

* IMP.2S qab-<i>o</i>, tid<i>ī</i>-<i>o</i>
  /a/# → [o]#
  e.g. ṣaqādii ‘the work’ but ṣaqo ‘work’

* ⇒a is part of the UR of the ‘middle’ suffix

cf. Hayward (1975: 207) on Oromo: “In fact the suffix [...] comprises a vowel, most commonly an a. This vocalic element is invariably present. It cannot be explained away as epenthetic”

<figure><img src="image_62.png" /></figure>
C = /t/ with lenition: voicing and geminate latency

* intervocalic voicing

PRST.3MS: tidīadaa = /tidī-at-ō-aa/

/t/ → [d] / V _ V

* geminate latency

PRST.3FS: tidīataa = /tidī-at-t-aa/

/tt/ → [t] / V _ V

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">CVC-o</th><th colspan="2">CVᵢCC-o</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>/qab-at/</td><td>qab-o</td><td>/tidī-at/</td><td>tidī-o</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>/qab-at-aa/</td><td>qabtaa</td><td>/tidī-at-aa/</td><td>tidīadaa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td style="background-color: #ffff00;">/qab-at-t-aa/</td><td style="background-color: #ffff00;">qabataa</td><td>/tidī-at-t-aa/</td><td style="background-color: #ffff00;">tidīataa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>/qab-at-n-aa/</td><td>qabannaa</td><td>/tidī-at-n-aa/</td><td>tidīannaa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_84.png" /></figure>
C = /t/ with lenition: voicing and geminate latency

* intervocalic voicing

PRST.3MS: tidīadaa = /tidī-at-ō-aa/

/t/ → [d] / V _ V

* geminate latency

PRST.3FS: tidīataa = /tidī-at-t-aa/

/tt/ → [t] / V _ V

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">CVC-o</th><th colspan="2">CVᵢCC-o</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>/qab-at/</td><td>qab-o</td><td>/tidī-at/</td><td>tidī-o</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>/qab-at-aa/</td><td>qabtaa</td><td>/tidī-at-aa/</td><td>tidīadaa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td style="background-color: #ffff00;">/qab-at-t-aa/</td><td style="background-color: #ffff00;">qabataa</td><td>/tidī-at-t-aa/</td><td style="background-color: #ffff00;">tidīataa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>/qab-at-n-aa/</td><td>qabannaa</td><td>/tidī-at-n-aa/</td><td>tidīannaa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_63.png" /></figure>
C = /t/ with lenition: assimilation and Ø

* nasal assimilation

PRST.1P: tidſ-annaa = /tidſ-at-n-aa/
(indefinite -n: additional complications)

/t/ → [n] / _n

* lenition to zero

IMP.2MS: tidſ-o = /tidſ-at/

<table><thead><tr><th>_V</th><th>#</th><th>_#, C</th><th>#</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>initial</td><td>657</td><td>final</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>post-coda onset</td><td>322</td><td>coda</td><td>6 (loans)</td></tr><tr><td>intervocalic</td><td>93</td><td>geminate</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>

/t/ → Ø / _#

source: Agostini et al. (1985)

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>CVC-o</th><th></th><th></th><th>CVᵢCC-o</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IMP.2S</td><td>/qab-at/</td><td>qab-o</td><td>/tidſ-at/</td><td>tidſ-o</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.1P</td><td>/qab-at-n-aa/</td><td>qabannaa</td><td>/tidſ-at-n-aa/</td><td>tidſ-annaa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_85.png" /></figure>
C = /t/ with lenition: assimilation and Ø

* nasal assimilation

PRST.1P: tidīannaa = /tidī-at-n-aa/
(indefinite -n: additional complications)

/t/ → [n] / _n

* lenition to zero

IMP.2MS: tidīo = /tidī-at/

<table><thead><tr><th>_V</th><th>#</th><th>_#, C</th><th>#</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>initial</td><td>657</td><td>final</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>post-coda onset</td><td>322</td><td>coda</td><td>6 (loans)</td></tr><tr><td>intervocalic</td><td>93</td><td>geminate</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>

/t/ → Ø / _#

source: Agostini et al. (1985)

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>CVC-o</th><th></th><th></th><th>CVᵢCC-o</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IMP.2S</td><td>/qab-at/</td><td>qab-o</td><td>/tidī-at/</td><td>tidī-o</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.1P</td><td>/qab-at-n-aa/</td><td>qabannaa</td><td>/tidī-at-n-aa/</td><td>tidīannaa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_64.png" /></figure>
/qab-at/

• PREST.3MS: qabtaa

✓ - DER - TNS
C V C V - C V - C V
| | | - | | /
q a b A t A

• PREST.3FS: qabataa

✓ - DER - AGR - TNS
C V C V - C V - C V - C V
| | | ↕ | | | /
q a b A t t A

<figure><img src="image_86.png" /></figure>
/qab-at/

• PREST.3MS: qabtaa

✓ - DER - TNS
C V C V - C V - C V
| | | - | | /
q a b A t A

• PREST.3FS: qabataa

✓ - DER - AGR - TNS
C V C V - C V - C V - C V
| | | ↕ | | | /
q a b A t t A

<figure><img src="image_65.png" /></figure>
/tidI-at/

• PREST.3MS: tidIadaa

<figure><img src="image_87.png" /></figure>

• PREST.3FS: tidIataa

<figure><img src="image_88.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_89.png" /></figure>
/tidI-at/

• PREST.3MS: tidIadaa

✓
C V C V C V - DER - TNS
| | | | ↗ | | \ | /
t i d I A t A

• PREST.3FS: tidIataa

✓
C V C V C V - DER - AGR - TNS
| | | | ↗ | | \ | /
t i d I A t A

<figure><img src="image_66.png" /></figure>
$$ -(i)sat = -is-at $$

-(i)s- = causative, cf. Saeed (1995): 63 among many others

"In the complex form hubso [...] the causative affix is represented by -s- and the middle affix by -o"

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>base</th><th>-is</th><th>-at</th><th>-is-at</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IMP.2S</td><td>ereg</td><td>erg-i</td><td>erg-o</td><td>erg-is-o</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.3MS</td><td>erg-aa</td><td>erg-iy(y)-aa</td><td>erg-ad-aa</td><td>erg-is-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.3FS</td><td>ereg-t-aa</td><td>erg-i-s-aa</td><td>erg-a-t-aa</td><td>erg-is-a-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.1P</td><td>ereg-n-aa</td><td>erg-in-n-aa</td><td>erg-an-n-aa</td><td>erg-is-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

ereg 'entrust' tr; ergi 'entrust' ditr; ergo +ka 'take in trust', +ku 'entrust' ditr, ergiso 'take in trust'

<figure><img src="image_90.png" /></figure>
-(i)sat = -is-at

-(i)s- = causative, cf. Saeed (1995): 63 among many others

“In the complex form hubso [...] the causative affix is represented by -s- and the middle affix by -o”

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>base</th><th>-is</th><th>-at</th><th>-is-at</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IMP.2S</td><td>ereg</td><td>erg-i</td><td>erg-o</td><td>erg-is-o</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.3MS</td><td>erg-aa</td><td>erg-iy(y)-aa</td><td>erg-ad-aa</td><td>erg-is-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.3FS</td><td>ereg-t-aa</td><td>erg-i-s-aa</td><td>erg-a-t-aa</td><td>erg-is-a-t-aa</td></tr><tr><td>PRST.1P</td><td>ereg-n-aa</td><td>erg-in-n-aa</td><td>erg-an-n-aa</td><td>erg-is-an-n-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

ereg 'entrust' tr; ergi 'entrust' ditr; ergo +ka 'take in trust', +ku 'entrust' ditr, ergiso 'take in trust'

<figure><img src="image_67.png" /></figure>
Causative -is

* I in -is obeys the same rule as A in -at (surfaces in *CCC)

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>CVC</th><th>CV,CC</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab-s-o</td><td>erg-is-o</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-s-ad-aa</td><td>erg-is-t-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-s-at-aa</td><td>erg-is-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-s-ann-aa</td><td>erg-is-ann-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

* /s/ in -is obeys the same rule as /t/ in -at?

<table><thead><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><th>ereg</th><th>erg-i</th><th>erg-o</th><th>s → ∅ _#</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>erg-aa</td><td>erg-iy(y)-aa</td><td>erg-ad-aa</td><td>∅ vs [d]</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>ereg-t-aa</td><td>erg-i-s-aa</td><td>erg-a-t-aa</td><td>s+t → [s]</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>ereg-n-aa</td><td>erg-in-n-aa</td><td>erg-an-n-aa</td><td>s+n → [nn]</td></tr></tbody></table>
Causative -is

* I in -is obeys the same rule as A in -at (surfaces in *CCC)

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>CVC</th><th>CV,CC</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><td>qab-s-o</td><td>erg-is-o</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>qab-s-ad-aa</td><td>erg-is-t-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>qab-s-at-aa</td><td>erg-is-at-aa</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>qab-s-ann-aa</td><td>erg-is-ann-aa</td></tr></tbody></table>

* /s/ in -is obeys the same rule as /t/ in -at?

<table><thead><tr><th>IMP.2S</th><th>ereg</th><th>erg-i</th><th>erg-o</th><th>s → ∅_#</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>PRST.3MS</th><td>erg-aa</td><td>erg-iy(y)-aa</td><td>erg-ad-aa</td><td>∅ vs [d]</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.3FS</th><td>ereg-t-aa</td><td>erg-i-s-aa</td><td>erg-a-t-aa</td><td>s+t → [s]</td></tr><tr><th>PRST.1P</th><td>ereg-n-aa</td><td>erg-in-n-aa</td><td>erg-an-n-aa</td><td>s+n → [nn]</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>
The realization of I and A

• PREST.3MS: ergistaa

<figure><img src="image_91.png" /></figure>

• PREST.3MS: qabsadaa

<figure><img src="image_92.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /></figure>
The realization of I and A

• PREST.3MS: ergistaa

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /></figure>

• PREST.3MS: qabsadaa

<figure><img src="image_70.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_71.png" /></figure>
Summary

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>allomorphs</td><td>-(i)s-o</td><td>-(i)s-t-</td><td>-(i)s-a { t d n } -</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">MIDDLE: -at</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>qab - o</td><td>qab - t - aa</td><td>qab - at - aa<br>erg - ad - aa<br>qab - an - naa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">CAUS+MIDDLE: -is-at</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>qab - s - o</td><td>farii - s - t - aa</td><td>qab - s - at - aa<br>qab - s - ad - aa<br>qab - s - an - naa</td></tr><tr><td>erg - is - o</td><td>erg - is - t - aa</td><td>erg - is - at - aa<br>erg - is - an - naa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_94.png" /></figure>
Summary

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>allomorphs</td><td>-(i)s-o</td><td>-(i)s-t-</td><td>-(i)s-a { t d n } -</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">MIDDLE: -at</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>qab - o</td><td>qab - t - aa</td><td>qab - at - aa<br>erg - ad - aa<br>qab - an - naa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">CAUS+MIDDLE: -is-at</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>qab - s - o</td><td>farii - s - t - aa</td><td>qab - s - at - aa<br>qab - s - ad - aa<br>qab - s - an - naa</td></tr><tr><td>erg - is - o</td><td>erg - is - t - aa</td><td>erg - is - at - aa<br>erg - is - an - naa</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_72.png" /></figure>
The UR of the ‘middle’ suffix

MIDDLE -/at/

C V

|

A t

* A: floating, associated to a host (√ or CAUS) if *CCC

* t: subject to several types of lenition

CAUS+MIDDLE -/is-at/

C V - C V

|

I s A t

<figure><img src="image_95.png" /></figure>
The UR of the ‘middle’ suffix

MIDDLE -/at/

C V

|

A t

* A: floating, associated to a host (√ or CAUS) if *CCC

* t: subject to several types of lenition

CAUS+MIDDLE -/is-at/

C V - C V

|

I s A t

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Is 'middle -at' a middle?

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Is 'middle -at' a middle?

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An ‘autobenefactive’ meaning

"The most striking use of the middle affix to non-Somali observers
has been its **autobenefactive** meaning, as shown ... [with] the
middle verb **karso** (tr) 'cook for oneself' " (Saeed 1995: 64)

(3) a. Waa kar-ayaa.
    PRT boil-PROG.PREST.3MS
    "It is boiling, cooking."

b. Bariiskii b-uu kar-in-ayaa.
the.rice FOC-3MS boil-CAUS-PROG.PREST.3MS
"He is cooking the rice."

c. Bariiskii b-uu kar-s-an-ayaa.
the.rice FOC-3MS boil-CAUS-MID-PROG.PREST.3MS
"He is cooking the rice for himself."

<figure><img src="image_107.png" /></figure>
An ‘autobenefactive’ meaning

"The most striking use of the middle affix to non-Somali observers
has been its **autobenefactive** meaning, as shown ... [with] the
middle verb **karso** (tr) 'cook for oneself' " (Saeed 1995: 64)

(3) a. Waa kar-ayaa.
    PRT boil-PROG.PREST.3MS
    "It is boiling, cooking."

b. Bariiskii b-uu kar-in-ayaa.
the.rice FOC-3MS boil-CAUS-PROG.PREST.3MS
"He is cooking the rice."

c. Bariiskii b-uu kar-s-an-ayaa.
the.rice FOC-3MS boil-CAUS-MID-PROG.PREST.3MS
"He is cooking the rice for himself."

<figure><img src="image_108.png" /></figure>

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Autobenefactive as reflexivization of IO

* SU does something with DO; SU does it for IO; IO = SU

* identity between SU and IO, not between SU and DO

<figure><img src="image_108.png" /></figure>

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Autobenefactive as reflexivization of IO

* SU does something with DO; SU does it for IO; IO = SU

* identity between SU and IO, not between SU and DO

<figure><img src="image_114.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_115.png" /></figure>
"The semantic range of middle verbs" (Saeed 1995)

1. "actions that are inherently reflexive"

2. "actions that are inherently reciprocal"

3. "actions that affect the subject's body" (bodily motion and posture, grooming, clothing)

4. "actions which engage the emotions or cognitive abilities of the subject"

5. "verbs where the subjects undergo a process over which they have no control"

<figure><img src="image_123.png" /></figure>
"The semantic range of middle verbs" (Saeed 1995)

1. "actions that are inherently reflexive"

2. "actions that are inherently reciprocal"

3. "actions that affect the subject's body" (bodily motion and posture, grooming, clothing)

4. "actions which engage the emotions or cognitive abilities of the subject"

5. "verbs where the subjects undergo a process over which they have no control"

<figure><img src="image_116.png" /></figure>

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How far can we get with -at = autobenefactive?

Case studies

1. straightforward reflexivization of an oblique argument ('autobenefactive'/'locative' Puglielli & Bruno 1988) laab 'fold', laab-at₁ 'fold'; ḫoq 'scratch', ḫoq-at 'scratch os.'

2. a potentially problematic case
   laab 'fold', laab-at₂ 'turn back'

3. a problematic case
   waal 'drive so. mad', waal-at 'go mad'

4. segmentation of -s- as CAUS
   bad-is 'increase' (tr), bad-at 'increase' (intr), bad-s-at 'increase' (tr) for os.'

<figure><img src="image_124.png" /></figure>
How far can we get with -at = autobenefactive?

Case studies

1. straightforward reflexivization of an oblique argument ('autobenefactive'/'locative' Puglielli & Bruno 1988) laab 'fold', laab-at₁ 'fold'; hoq 'scratch', hoq-at 'scratch os.'

2. a potentially problematic case
   laab 'fold', laab-at₂ 'turn back'

3. a problematic case
   waal 'drive so. mad', waal-at 'go mad'

4. segmentation of -s- as CAUS
   bad-is 'increase' (tr), bad-at 'increase' (intr), bad-s-at 'increase' (tr) for os.'

<figure><img src="image_132.png" /></figure>
underived laab ‘fold’

with referential DO

(4) Dabayʃaa geed-ka laab-tay.
the.wind.FOC tree-DET fold-PAST.3S
“The wind bent the tree.”

(5) Buug-gii / Kursi-gii b-aan laab-ay.
book-DET / chair-DET FOC-1S fold-PAST.1S
“I closed the book / I folded the chair.”

(6) Gašan-tiisii b-aan laab-ay.
arm-POSS.3MS FOC-1S fold-PAST.1S
“I folded his arm. (e.g. during a fight)” [ref DO-poss]

<figure><img src="image_125.png" /></figure>

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underived laab ‘fold’

with referential DO

(4) Dabayʃaa geed-ka laab-tay.
the.wind.FOC tree-DET fold-PAST.3S
“The wind bent the tree.”

(5) Buug-gii / Kursi-gii b-aan laab-ay.
book-DET / chair-DET FOC-1S fold-PAST.1S
“I closed the book / I folded the chair.”

(6) Gašan-tiisii b-aan laab-ay.
arm-POSS.3MS FOC-1S fold-PAST.1S
“I folded his arm. (e.g. during a fight)”
[ref DO-poss]

<figure><img src="image_133.png" /></figure>

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<figure><img src="image_148.png" /></figure>
derived laab-at

with DO = body part of SU

(7) *Buug-gii / Kursi-gii b-aan laab-t-ay.
book-DET / chair-DET FOC-1s fold-AT-PAST.1s
intended: "I closed the book/folded the chair." (in my interest)

(8) Gašan-tii b-aan laab-t-ay.
arm-DET FOC-1s fold-AT-PAST.1s
"I folded the arm."
(= my arm, e.g. to protect myself from a danger)

<figure><img src="image_143.png" /></figure>

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derived laab-at

with DO = body part of SU

(7) *Buug-gii / Kursi-gii b-aan laab-t-ay.
book-DET / chair-DET FOC-1s fold-AT-PAST.1s
intended: "I closed the book/folded the chair." (in my interest)

(8) Gašan-tii b-aan laab-t-ay.
arm-DET FOC-1s fold-AT-PAST.1s
"I folded the arm."
(= my arm, e.g. to protect myself from a danger)

<figure><img src="image_149.png" /></figure>

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-at reflexivizes the possessor dative

(9) a. *Gaɣan-*tiisii b-aan laab-*t*-ay.
arm-*POSS.3MS* FOC-1S fold-*AT-PAST.1S*
intended: “I folded *his* arm.” (in my interest)

b. Gaɣan-*taydii* b-aan laab-*t*-ay.
arm-*POSS.1S* FOC-1S fold-*AT-PAST.1S*
“I folded *my* arm.” (e.g. to protect myself from a danger)

-at

prevents the referential interpretation of poss and forces binding of
poss by SU

<figure><img src="image_159.png" /></figure>
-at reflexivizes the possessor dative

(9) a. *Gaɣan-*tiisii b-aan laab-*t*-ay.
arm-*POSS.3MS* FOC-1S fold-*AT-PAST.1S*
intended: “I folded *his* arm.” (in my interest)
b. Gaɣan-*taydii* b-aan laab-*t*-ay.
arm-*POSS.1S* FOC-1S fold-*AT-PAST.1S*
“I folded *my* arm.” (e.g. to protect myself from a danger)

-at

prevents the referential interpretation of poss and forces binding of
poss by SU

<figure><img src="image_165.png" /></figure>
reflexive and middle interpretations

underived laab ‘fold’ and pronominal REFL

• DO=pronominal REFL

(10) Iska ilaali! W-uu *(is) laab-ayaa.
REFL watch.over PRT-3MS REFL fold-PROG.PRST.3MS
“Watch out! It(m) is folding up.”

• pronominal middle

(11) Kursi-gan si fudud b-uu is-ku laab-ayaa.
chair-DEM way easy FOC-3MS REFL-in fold-PROG.PRST.3MS
“This chair can easily be folded up.”

<figure><img src="image_160.png" /></figure>
reflexive and middle interpretations

underived laab ‘fold’ and pronominal REFL

• DO=pronominal REFL

(10) Iska ilaali! W-uu *(is) laab-ayaa.
REFL watch.over PRT-3MS REFL fold-PROG.PRST.3MS
“Watch out! It(m) is folding up.”

• pronominal middle

(11) Kursi-gan si fudud b-uu is-ku laab-ayaa.
chair-DEM way easy FOC-3MS REFL-in fold-PROG.PRST.3MS
“This chair can easily be folded up.”

<figure><img src="image_166.png" /></figure>
hoq ‘scratch’

with referential DO

(12) Geedk-aa i hoq-ay.
the.tree-FOC 1S scratch-PAST.3MS
“The tree scratched me.”

(13) Gidaar-kii b-aan hoq-ay.
wall-DET FOC-1S scratch-PAST.1S
“I scratched the wall.” (e.g. before doing the painting)

(14) GaΓan-tiisii b-aan hoq-ay
arm-POSS.3MS FOC-1S scratch-PAST.1S
“I scratched his arm.”

[ref DO-poss]

<figure><img src="image_161.png" /></figure>
hoq ‘scratch’

with referential DO

(12) Geedk-aa i hoq-ay.
the.tree-FOC 1S scratch-PAST.3MS
“The tree scratched me.”

(13) Gidaar-kii b-aan hoq-ay.
wall-DET FOC-1S scratch-PAST.1S
“I scratched the wall.” (e.g. before doing the painting)

(14) GaΓan-tiisii b-aan hoq-ay
arm-POSS.3MS FOC-1S scratch-PAST.1S
“I scratched his arm.”

[ref DO-poss]

<figure><img src="image_167.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_168.png" /></figure>

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ħoq-at

with DO = body part, poss bound by SU

(15) a. \*Gidaar-kii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
wall-DET FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
intended: “I scratched the wall.” (in my interest)

b. Gaşan-tii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
arm-DET FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
“I scratched the arm.”

(16) a. \*Gaşan-tiisii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
arm-POSS.3MS FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
intended: “I scratched his arm.” (in my interest)

b. Gaşan-taydii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
arm-POSS.1S FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
“I scratched my arm.”

<figure><img src="image_162.png" /></figure>
ħoq-at

with DO = body part, poss bound by SU

(15) a. *Gidaar-kii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
wall-DET FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
intended: “I scratched the wall.” (in my interest)

b. Gaġan-tii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
arm-DET FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
“I scratched the arm.”

(16) a. *Gaġan-tiisii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
arm-POSS.3MS FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
intended: “I scratched his arm.” (in my interest)

b. Gaġan-taydii b-aan ħoq-d-ay
arm-POSS.1S FOC-1S scratch-AT-PAST.1S
“I scratched my arm.”

<figure><img src="image_187.png" /></figure>
-at is not equivalent with DO reflexive pronoun

(17) a. M-aad is ḫoq-day?
Q-2s REFL scratch-PAST.2s
"Did you scratch yourself?" [pronominal REFL]

b. *M-aad ḫoq-*at*-ay?
Q-2s scratch-*AT*-PAST.2s
intended: "Did you scratch yourself?"

(18) Haa, w-aan is ḫoq-ay.
yes, PRT-1S REFL scratch-PAST.1S
"Yes, I scratched myself." [intentional]

(19) Waḥaa i ḫoq-ay geed-ka.
FOC 1S scratch-PAST.1S tree-DET
"I got scratched by the tree." (ANTICAUS: waan ḫoqmay)

<figure><img src="image_163.png" /></figure>
-at is not equivalent with DO reflexive pronoun

(17) a. M-aad is ḫoq-day?
Q-2s REFL scratch-PAST.2s
"Did you scratch yourself?" [pronominal REFL]

b. *M-aad ḫoq-*at*-ay?
Q-2s scratch-*AT*-PAST.2s
intended: "Did you scratch yourself?"

(18) Haa, w-aan is ḫoq-ay.
yes, PRT-1S REFL scratch-PAST.1S
"Yes, I scratched myself." [intentional]

(19) Waḥaa i ḫoq-ay geed-ka.
FOC 1S scratch-PAST.1S tree-DET
"I got scratched by the tree." (ANTICAUS: waan ḫoqmay)

<figure><img src="image_188.png" /></figure>
-at and IO reflexive pronoun

(20) Waḥ-ay Ṫ is ḫoq-day ḍabar-ka/*keeda.
FOC-3FS REFL scratch-PAST.3FS back-DET/*POSS.3FS
"She scratched her back."

(21) Waḥ-ay ḫoq-a-t-ay ḍabar-ka/keeda.
FOC-3FS scratch-AT-PAST.3FS back-DET/POSS.3FS
"She scratched her back."

<figure><img src="image_164.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_165.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_166.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_167.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_168.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_169.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_170.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_171.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_172.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_173.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_174.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_175.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_176.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_177.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_178.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_179.png" /></figure>
-at and IO reflexive pronoun

(20) Waḥ-ay Ṫ is ḫoq-day ḍabar-ka/*keeda.
FOC-3FS REFL scratch-PAST.3FS back-DET/*POSS.3FS
"She scratched her back."

(21) Waḥ-ay ḫoq-a-t-ay ḍabar-ka/keeda.
FOC-3FS scratch-AT-PAST.3FS back-DET/POSS.3FS
"She scratched her back."

<figure><img src="image_189.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_190.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_191.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_192.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_193.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_194.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_195.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_196.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_197.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_198.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_199.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_200.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_201.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_202.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_203.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_204.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_205.png" /></figure>
a potentially problematic case

intransitive motion laab-*at

laab-*at

* intransitive motion: ‘turn back, go back, return’
  e.g. Zorc et al. (1993: s.v), Saeed (1995: 67)

* problem: no IO ⇒ reflexivization of DO, not IO

(22) a. M-aad laab-*at-ay?

Q-2s fold-*AT-PAST.2s

“Have you left?”

b. Haa, w-aan laab-*t-ay.

yes, PRT-1S fold-*AT-PAST.1S

‘Yes, I turned back (to where I came from).’

<figure><img src="image_180.png" /></figure>
a potentially problematic case

intransitive motion laab-*at

laab-*at

* intransitive motion: ‘turn back, go back, return’
  e.g. Zorc et al. (1993: s.v), Saeed (1995: 67)

* problem: no IO ⇒ reflexivization of DO, not IO

(22) a. M-aad laab-*at-ay?

Q-2s fold-*AT-PAST.2s

“Have you left?”

b. Haa, w-aan laab-*t-ay.

yes, PRT-1S fold-*AT-PAST.1S

‘Yes, I turned back (to where I came from).’

<figure><img src="image_206.png" /></figure>
(23) W-aad laab-*an*-tay.

PRT-2s fold-*ANTICAUS*-PAST.2s

"You turned back."

(24) a. Waḥ-aan ka soo laam-*m*-ay Nantes.
FOC-1s SOURCE VEN fold-*ANTICAUS*-PAST.1s Nantes
"I came back from Nantes."

b. Waḥ-aan ku soo laam-*m*-ay Nantes.
FOC-1s LOC VEN fold-*ANTICAUS*-PAST.1s Nantes
"I turned back to Nantes."

<figure><img src="image_181.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_182.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_183.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_184.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_185.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_186.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_187.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_188.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_189.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_190.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_191.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_192.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_193.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_194.png" /></figure>
but clearly preferred with anticausative suffix

(23) W-aad laab-*an*-tay.

PRT-2s fold-*ANTICAUS*-PAST.2s

"You turned back."

(24) a. Waḥ-aan ka soo laam-*m*-ay Nantes.
FOC-1s SOURCE VEN fold-*ANTICAUS*-PAST.1s Nantes
"I came back from Nantes."

b. Waḥ-aan ku soo laam-*m*-ay Nantes.
FOC-1s LOC VEN fold-*ANTICAUS*-PAST.1s Nantes
"I turned back to Nantes."

<figure><img src="image_207.png" /></figure>
intransitive motion laab-at

* ‘turn back’ interpretation of laab-at: unaccusative

* lexicalization; speaker strongly prefers anticausative -am

<figure><img src="image_195.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_196.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_197.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_198.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_199.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_200.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_201.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_202.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_203.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_204.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_205.png" /></figure>
intransitive motion laab-at

* ‘turn back’ interpretation of laab-at: unaccusative

* lexicalization; speaker strongly prefers anticausative -am

<figure><img src="image_208.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_209.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_210.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_211.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_212.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_213.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_214.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_215.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_216.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_217.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_218.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_219.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_220.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_221.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_222.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_223.png" /></figure>
waal ‘drive so. mad’

causative with no caus suffix

(25) Nin-kan w-uu i waal-ay.
man-DEM PRT-3MS 1S drive.mad-PAST.3MS
“This man drove me mad.” (e.g. he cheated on me)

(26) W-aan is waal-ay.
PRT-1S REFL drive.mad-PAST.1S way-1S
“I did something on purpose to drive myself mad.”

(27) W-aan is waal-ay sid-aan u qato la'ag.
PRT-1S REFL drive.mad-PAST.1S way-1S in take.AT money
“I pretended to be mad to get the money.”

<figure><img src="image_206.png" /></figure>
waal ‘drive so. mad’

causative with no caus suffix

(25) Nin-kan w-uu i waal-ay.
man-DEM PRT-3MS 1S drive.mad-PAST.3MS
“This man drove me mad.” (e.g. he cheated on me)

(26) W-aan is waal-ay.
PRT-1S REFL drive.mad-PAST.1S way-1S
“I did something on purpose to drive myself mad.”

(27) W-aan is waal-ay sid-aan u qato la'ag.
PRT-1S REFL drive.mad-PAST.1S way-1S in take.AT money
“I pretended to be mad to get the money.”

<figure><img src="image_224.png" /></figure>
waal-at ‘go mad’

disappearance of the ‘cause’ role

(28) a. W-aan waa-ʃ-ay.
    PRT-1S drive.mad-AT-PAST.1S
    “I fell mentally ill.” (*on purpose)

b. Gaaq-i-gan m-uu waa-ʃ-ay?
    car-DEM Q-3MS drive.mad-AT-PAST.3MS
    “Has this car gone mad?” (=it does not react)

cause introduced by ku-adjunct:

(29) Gabaq-an w-aan ku waa-ʃ-ay.
    girl-DEM PRT-1S in drive.mad-AT-PAST.1S
    “I went mad because of this girl.”

<figure><img src="image_207.png" /></figure>
waal-at ‘go mad’

disappearance of the ‘cause’ role

(28) a. W-aan waa-ʃ-ay.
    PRT-1S drive.mad-AT-PAST.1S
    “I fell mentally ill.” (*on purpose)

b. Gaaq-i-gan m-uu waa-ʃ-ay?
    car-DEM Q-3MS drive.mad-AT-PAST.3MS
    “Has this car gone mad?” (=it does not react)

cause introduced by ku-adjunct:

(29) Gabaq-an w-aan ku waa-ʃ-ay.
    girl-DEM PRT-1S in drive.mad-AT-PAST.1S
    “I went mad because of this girl.”

<figure><img src="image_225.png" /></figure>
The segmentation of -is-at as CAUS--at

• 63 √ with both -at and -sat derived verbs (Agostini et al. 1985)

• any systematic difference?

• case study:

• bad-an “much, many”, badan.ka “the majority of”

• -is causative

• -at middle

• -sat middle

<figure><img src="image_208.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_209.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_210.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_211.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_212.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_213.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_214.png" /></figure>
The segmentation of -is-at as CAUS--at

* 63 √ with both -at and -sat derived verbs (Agostini et al. 1985)

* any systematic difference?

* case study:

* bad-an “much, many”, badan.ka “the majority of”

* -is causative

* -at middle

* -sat middle

<figure><img src="image_226.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_227.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_228.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_229.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_230.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_231.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_232.png" /></figure>
bad-at ‘increase in quantity’

unaccusative

(30) a. ṣaṣabkii Nantes baa ba-t-ay.
the population Nantes FOC increase.AT-PAST.3MS
“The population of Nantes increased.”

b. Dabaylihii baa ba-t-ay ayaamahan.
the winds FOC increase.AT-PAST.3MS these days
“Lately the number of windy periods increased.”

c. Rasaastii baa bad-at-ay.
the shootings FOC increase-AT-PAST.3FS
“There is more shooting.”

<figure><img src="image_215.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_216.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_217.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_218.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_219.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_220.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_221.png" /></figure>
bad-at ‘increase in quantity’

unaccusative

(30) a. ṣaṣabkii Nantes baa ba-t-ay.
the population Nantes FOC increase.AT-PAST.3MS
“The population of Nantes increased.”

b. Dabaylihii baa ba-t-ay ayaamahan.
the winds FOC increase.AT-PAST.3MS these days
“Lately the number of windy periods increased.”

c. Rasaastii baa bad-at-ay.
the shootings FOC increase-AT-PAST.3FS
“There is more shooting.”

<figure><img src="image_233.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_234.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_235.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_236.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_237.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_238.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_239.png" /></figure>
bad-i ‘increase (tr)’

-is with DO

(31) Waddada ṣusub wah-ay bad-i-say **qiimihii**
the.road new FOC-3fs increase-CAUS-PAST.3FS the.value
**guriga**.
the.house
“The new road increased **the value of the house**.”

<figure><img src="image_222.png" /></figure>
bad-i ‘increase (tr)’

-is with DO

(31) Waddada ṣusub wah-ay bad-i-say **qiimihii**
the.road new FOC-3fs increase-CAUS-PAST.3FS the.value
**guriga**.
the.house
“The new road increased **the value of the house**.”

<figure><img src="image_240.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_241.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_242.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_243.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_244.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_245.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_246.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_247.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_248.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_249.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_250.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_251.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_252.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_253.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_254.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_255.png" /></figure>
bad-s-at ‘increase the quantity for os.’

-at reflexivizes IO

(32) Sokor-tii b-aan bad-s-ad-ay.
sugar-DET FOC-1S increase-CAUS-AT-PAST.1S
“I increased the sugar (= my consumption).”

(33) ſilmi-gii b-aan bad-s-ad-ay.
knowledge-DET FOC-1S increase-CAUS-AT-PAST.1S
“I increased my quantity of knowledge.”

<figure><img src="image_223.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_224.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_225.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_226.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_227.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_228.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_229.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_230.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_231.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_232.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_233.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_234.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_235.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_236.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_237.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_238.png" /></figure>
bad-s-at ‘increase the quantity for os.’

-at reflexivizes IO

(32) Sokor-tii b-aan bad-s-ad-ay.
sugar-DET FOC-1S increase-CAUS-AT-PAST.1S
“I increased the sugar (= my consumption).”

(33) ſilmi-gii b-aan bad-s-ad-ay.
knowledge-DET FOC-1S increase-CAUS-AT-PAST.1S
“I increased my quantity of knowledge.”

<figure><img src="image_256.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_257.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_258.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_259.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_260.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_261.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_262.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_263.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_264.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_265.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_266.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_267.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_268.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_269.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_270.png" /></figure>
Summary

*bad-

* no external argument

* -at: unaccusative (semantic: internal arg)

* -is: introduces an external argument

* -at in -is-at: reflexivization between oblique and the external argument introduced by -is

⇒ -is- = caus

<figure><img src="image_239.png" /></figure>
Summary

*bad-

* no external argument

* -at: unaccusative (semantic: internal arg)

* -is: introduces an external argument

* -at in -is-at: reflexivization between oblique and the external argument introduced by -is

⇒ -is- = caus

<figure><img src="image_271.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_272.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_273.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_274.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_275.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_276.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_277.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_278.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_279.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_280.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_281.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_282.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_283.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_284.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_285.png" /></figure>
Conclusion

<figure><img src="image_240.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_241.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_242.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_243.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_244.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_245.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_246.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_247.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_248.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_249.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_250.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_251.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_252.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_253.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_254.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_255.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_256.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_257.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_258.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_259.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_260.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_261.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_262.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_263.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_264.png" /></figure>
Conclusion

<figure><img src="image_286.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_287.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_288.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_289.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_290.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_291.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_292.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_293.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_294.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_295.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_296.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_297.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_298.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_299.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_300.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_301.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_302.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_303.png" /></figure>
# Summary and some open questions

morpho-phonology

## MIDDLE -/at/

C V

A t

* A: associated to a host if *CCC; host = √ or CAUS

* t: subject to several types of lenition

<figure><img src="image_265.png" /></figure>
# Summary and some open questions

morpho-phonology

## MIDDLE -/at/

C V

A t

* A: associated to a host if *CCC; host = √ or CAUS

* t: subject to several types of lenition

<figure><img src="image_304.png" /></figure>
## MIDDLE -/at/

* value *par excellence* = ‘autobenefactive’, i.e. reflexivisation of an oblique argument.

* unaccusative uses do exist; reconciled with the autobenefactive default in Modern Somali, or lexicalised remnants of an earlier grammar?

<figure><img src="image_266.png" /></figure>
# Summary and some open questions

semantics

## MIDDLE -/at/

* value *par excellence* = ‘autobenefactive’, i.e. reflexivisation of an oblique argument.

* unaccusative uses do exist; reconciled with the autobenefactive default in Modern Somali, or lexicalised remnants of an earlier grammar?

<figure><img src="image_305.png" /></figure>