# Reconstructing Gladiator Combat: A Multisensory Virtual Reality Training Environment

R Gaugne, S Salvan, E Cazuc, V Gouranton, Charles Pontonnier

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R Gaugne, S Salvan, E Cazuc, V Gouranton, Charles Pontonnier. Reconstructing Gladiator Combat: A Multisensory Virtual Reality Training Environment. DH 2025 - Digital Heritage International Congress, Sep 2025, Siena, Italy. pp.1-10, 10.2312/dh.20253202. hal-05269296v2

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# Reconstructing Gladiator Combat: A Multisensory Virtual Reality Training Environment

R. Gaugne<fnref n="1" /> and S. Salvan<fnref n="2" /> and E. Cazuc<fnref n="3" /> and V. Gouranton<fnref n="4" /> and C. Pontonnier<fnref n="5" />

## Abstract

This study presents a research project focused on designing, implementing, and evaluating a multisensory virtual environment to simulate gladiatorial training. The aim is to analyze how immersive experiences impact the acquisition and refinement of technical skills in armed singular dueling. Conducted collaboratively by teams in virtual reality, biomechanics, and history, the project developed a historically contextualized environment centered on the provocator, a specific gladiator type.

The virtual environment allows users to train in typical offensive maneuvers, offering a testbed for hypotheses about Roman combat and the effects of external conditions on performance. It serves as both a historical reconstruction tool and an experimental platform for studying ancient martial techniques. Built on rigorous historical and visual research, it uses motion capture technology to accurately recreate combat sequences, enhancing the authenticity and educational value of the simulation.

A key contribution of this work lies in advancing the study of gladiatorial techniques, an area often distorted by popular culture. By integrating passive haptic and auditory feedback, the environment enhances sensory immersion, contributing to a deeper and more accurate understanding of gladiatorial practices. This multisensory approach not only supports the preservation of ancient techniques but also sheds light on the physical and cognitive demands faced by historical fighters.

Ultimately, this research bridges disciplines—combining historical scholarship, biomechanics, and virtual reality—to offer an innovative way of exploring Roman gladiatorial training. The findings may inform broader discussions on the role of immersive technologies in skill development and historical interpretation within virtual environments.

## CCS Concepts

* Applied computing → Archaeology; * Human-centered computing → Virtual reality; * Computing methodologies → Virtual reality;

## 1. Introduction

Gladiatorship occupies a singular place in the cultural and historical imagination, emblematic of the spectacle, discipline, and ritualized violence of ancient Roman society. For both scholars and the general public, it offers a compelling lens through which to explore Roman social structures, ideologies of heroism, and the embodied practices of combat. Despite this enduring fascination, contemporary understanding of gladiatorial techniques is often clouded by the dramatized portrayals found in popular media, which obscure the complex realities of training, gesture, and performance.

In this context, virtual reality (VR) technologies open promising avenues for the study and transmission of intangible cultural heritage, particularly in martial disciplines such as gladiatorship. VR offers the capacity to create immersive, controlled environments in which historically informed gestures can be reconstructed, prac-

ticed, and analyzed. Unlike traditional reconstructions or textual analysis, VR allows for the integration of multisensory—visual, auditory, and olfactory—stimuli which can enhance user engagement while offering researchers a rigorous experimental framework. This approach enables the focused study of technical gestures by minimizing environmental distractions and allowing participants to interact directly with historically plausible scenarios.

This paper presents a multisensory VR simulation designed to support the embodied reconstruction of gladiator combat training, focusing specifically on the provocator, one of the best-documented gladiator types. The primary objective is twofold: first, to propose a controlled framework to test historical hypotheses about gladiator combat characteristics, and second, to provide a training virtual environment for the initiation to provocator combat techniques.

Central to our approach is the modeling of attention and ges-

<footnote n="1">¹Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Irisa, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²CRISES, Université Montpellier 3, France</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³INSA Rennes, France</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Irisa, France</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵Univ Rennes, ENS de Rennes, Inria, CNRS, IRISA, France</footnote>
ture acquisition within a historically and sensorially rich training context. Movements were reconstructed in collaboration with experienced gladiatorial practitioners, while the scenario-based training environment was developed using a dedicated VR scenario engine to ensure modularity and pedagogical coherence. By situating learning within an interactive and multisensory virtual arena, we explore how sensory feedback and embodied cognition affect the retention and understanding of historical combat practices.

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 introduces the historical context of gladiatorship. Section 3 reviews related work, examining both archaeological and historical approaches to gladiatorship and the role of XR in the preservation of intangible heritage. Section 4 outlines the overall methodology, followed by Sections 5 through 7, which describe the design of the historical, 3D, and VR components of the simulation. Implementation details and user testing are presented in Section 8. Section 9 offers a discussion of findings and limitations, and Section 10 concludes the paper and proposes directions for future research.

## 2. Historical context

The first recorded gladiatorial combat in Rome took place in 264 BCE, organized by Decimus Junius Brutus in honor of his deceased father. This inaugural event marked the beginning of a martial tradition that would endure until the 4th century CE. The origins of gladiatorial combat are often traced back to Homeric rituals, particularly the funeral games for Patroclus in the Iliad, reflecting the longstanding association between martial display and funerary rites in Mediterranean cultures.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** *Bas-relief of a scene depicting two pairs of gladiators fighting, dated to the second half of the 1st century B.C. Museo Nazionale e Area Archeologica di Lucus Feroniae (Fiano Romano). Photo by the author.*</figcaption></figure>

Gladiatorship evolved into a complex institution, examined today through fields such as experimental archaeology and the history of gesture. Iconographic and textual sources together illuminate this tradition. A wide array of visual media—frescoes, mosaics, sculptures, and bas-reliefs—testify to the cultural importance of gladiatorial combat. For instance, the bas-relief in Figure 1 shows a victorious Thracian standing over a kneeling Hoplomachus, and two provocatores concluding a fight, one lying defeated. The depicted equipment—such as open-faced helmets and the absence of manicae and kardiophylakes—suggests a late 1st century BCE date and reflects evolving combat styles [Fle15].

Written sources complement the visual evidence. Cicero's Pro Sestio [Cic56], Pliny the Elder's Natural History [Pli77], and Cassius Dio's Roman History [Dio3] provide key descriptions of gladiatorial events and societal roles.

The evolution of gladiatorial equipment (armaturae) reflects both military origins and later adaptations for spectacle. Early types derived from military prototypes (e.g., Samnite, Gallic, Eques), while later figures like the retiarius, scissor, and laquearius, emerging from the late 1st century BCE, lacked direct martial precedents.

Gladiators were generally divided by shield type: scutati, with large shields like the scutum (provocator, murmillo, secutor), and parmati, lighter fighters with smaller shields (hoplomachus, thraex, essedarius) [Tey09].

While the short sword (gladius) remained central, some types used spears, tridents, or bows. By the 1st century CE, weapon variety narrowed, favoring short-range arms like swords and daggers to increase combat intensity and spectator engagement.

Arena techniques, drawing from Roman and foreign martial traditions, were progressively adapted for staged performance. Over time, these shifted from lethal combat to controlled choreography. Wound regulation encouraged surrender over death, fostering distinctive gestures optimized for spectacle.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** *Representation of a duel of provocators on a bas-relief, Tiber River, Rome, 1st century AD. Photo by the author.*</figcaption></figure>

As a result, each armatura developed a distinct set of techniques tailored to its specific offensive and defensive equipment. This specialization enables a technical classification of gladiatorial styles based on their gestural complexity. Among them, the provocator occupies a foundational role. Due to its relatively balanced equipment and straightforward combat logic, the provocator is often the first armatura studied by modern gladiatorial reenactors and researchers. It serves as a pedagogical baseline for understanding and teaching the more complex techniques associated with other types (Figure 2).

## 3. Related works

### 3.1. Archaeological and historical perspectives of the intangible heritage of gladiatorship

Studying the martial techniques of Roman gladiators relies heavily on literary and iconographic sources. Unlike martial traditions
from later periods, such as the Middle Ages, gladiatorial combat
techniques were not explicitly documented in treatises like those
by Fiore Dei Liberi [Tos20] or Achille Marozzo [Mar36]. Given
the limited documentation available, an interdisciplinary approach
is essential to verify the validity of the information transmitted and
to gain insight into the logic and purpose behind the gestures de-
picted in historical sources.

While ancient texts provide a foundation for developing initial hypotheses about these gestures, various archaeological methods offer unique opportunities to experiment, either in the real world or virtually. Archaeology, for example, has contributed to the analysis of technical gestures through methods such as the study of stone-cutting techniques by prehistorians like Sophie Archambaud de Beaune [dBC09] and Blandine Brill [BSS*12]. These insights are complemented by more specific work in gladiatorial studies, notably by William Van Andringa [VA21], Nicolas Monteix, and Aurélien Poidevin [MP19], which focus on the description of combat stages and sequences. In particular, the use of cyclograms, developed according to the theories of Nikolaï Bernstein [Ber20], has been instrumental in understanding the biomechanics of these gestures.

## 3.2. XR for intangible heritage

In the context of gladiatorial combat, the analysis extends beyond
technical gestures to include considerations of the social and sen-
sory aspects of combat. Research into the biomechanics of glad-
iatorial poses [PS20] offers insights into the plausibility and effi-
ciency of various fighting postures found in the corpus of represen-
tations, with regard to their kinematic properties. These studies not
only examine the movements themselves but also provide a window
into the sensory environment in which gladiators fought, including
the auditory and olfactory experiences associated with the arena.

In parallel, extended realities (XR), including virtual reality (VR), have become powerful tools for representing intangible cultural heritage, providing immersive ways to engage with human activities such as crafting [RSC*19], artistic expression [ACC*22], and traditional sports [TMTU*17]. The integration of gamification in XR for preserving traditional sports has been explored in projects such as those focusing on Gaelic sports and Basque pelota, where low-cost motion capture systems are used to help users learn and practice correct movements. Similarly, Lo et al. [LCT*19] used VR to create an interactive exhibition showcasing traditional Chinese martial arts, allowing visitors to practice movements with a virtual instructor.

Beyond sport, XR simulations are increasingly used to doc-
ument and reconstruct historical contexts of intangible heritage
[ACYMT14], [BPF*18], enhancing public access to historical
knowledge through engaging, educational experiences. For in-
stance, augmented reality systems have been used to simulate an-
cient sports at archaeological sites like Olympia [VIK*02], while
recent VR projects have focused on preserving historical games,
such as the "Jeu de paume" [GSADMG23].

In the case of gladiatorship, with the exception of a preliminary
presentation of an on-going work on a VR environment for glad-
iator training [CSG*25], some VR experiences have been devel-

oped to allow users to interact with the history of combat. For ex-
ample, virtual tours of Rome have been created with 360° anima-
tions, such as Virtual Rome (https://www.tworeality.com/en/
roman-gladiators-virtual-reality-combat), and immer-
sive 360° videos like Gladiators (https://faber-courtial.de/
portfolio/gladiatoren-vr). However, except for the first work,
these experiences are generally passive and lack the interactivity re-
quired to fully engage users in the practice of gladiatorial combat.

In contrast, XR applications in VR gaming, such as Gladius from
VirtualAge (https://virtualage.io/gladiusvr), offer more
dynamic combat scenarios. However, these games tend to focus on
the brutality of gladiatorial combat and often lack a firm grounding
in historical realism.

This gap highlights the need for XR applications that combine
immersive, interactive experiences with accurate historical recon-
structions. Recent advancements are contributing to this area by
developing systems that integrate biomechanical realism and his-
torical fidelity, aiming to enhance the learning and practice of glad-
iatorial techniques in XR environments.

## 4. Objectives and methodology

The central objective of this research is to develop a multisensory
virtual environment that simulates a training context for a provoca-
tor gladiator, enabling the study of technical gestures within histor-
ically grounded scenarios. Specifically, the project aims to:

* Provide a controlled framework to test historical hypotheses about gladiator combat performance and behavior under different sensory and spatial conditions.

* Enable the discovery and training of provocator fighting techniques within a virtual simulation.

* Analyze how immersive environments affect attention, memory, and motor learning in skill-based heritage practices.

The work presented in this paper focuses on the first two aspects
and provides a contribution to the field of experimental archaeol-
ogy by offering a reproducible, adaptable, and analyzable simula-
tion model. The design and implementation of the VR environment
were carried out through a collaborative, multidisciplinary process.
In this project, the team included one historian, two computer sci-
entists specializing in VR, one biomechanics researcher, one devel-
oper, and one graphic designer.

This multidisciplinary collaboration aimed to ensure both the
historical accuracy of the application and the technical feasibility
of the developments, while also promoting an efficient organiza-
tional structure. The methodology is based on three main pillars:
historical accuracy, biomechanical plausibility, and immersive in-
teraction design-which guided the development across the histori-
cal, 3D content, and Virtual Reality (VR) design areas.

Historical design encompasses iconographic research and docu-
mentation. It results in the development of various contexts and in-
teractions, as well as the subsequent validation of graphic designs
and their implementations.

The 3D content design encompasses the modeling of environ-
ments, the representation of architectural structures, the population
of these environments with various characters (such as gladiators and spectators), and the animation of these characters. Particular attention is given to the animation of gladiators, which must reproduce a consistent and coherent representation of combat activities based on historical and biomechanical research. The outcome of this process is the production of assets that serve as the visual and interactive components of the VR environment and ensure both the realism and coherence necessary for an immersive experience.

The VR design phase defines the technical specifications and overall setup to be implemented by the development team. It involves designing the application's structure and interactions, as well as developing an appropriate architecture for platform sharing. The implementation phase then integrates all components, following an incremental development and testing process to progressively build the final application.

## 5. Historical design

The provocator was selected to initiate the first experimental phase. This armor represents the first stage taught in the training curriculum of a gladiator, providing the foundational technical knowledge necessary for mastering the more complex martial techniques associated with other types of equipment.

Teyssier [Tey09] and Battaglia [BV10] propose two possible origins for this armatura and suggest distinguishing between two categories based on shield morphology: "type A," corresponding to fighters equipped with a rectangular shield, and "type B", corresponding to those wielding a shield with oval ends. Teyssier further argues that the "type A" provocator was of Samnite origin, whereas the "type B" provocator likely derived from Gallic traditions. These classifications are based on the first two armaturae mentioned in ancient sources: the Samnite panoply (the earliest attested) and that of the Gaul. The provocator depicted here evokes one of the hypotheses of the Gallic provocator, as the scutum (shield) differs from the flared Samnite shield. This is the panoply that would endure throughout the imperial period, gradually gaining acceptance from the end of the 1st century BC onwards.

For defense, the provocator was equipped with a large shield (scutum), a helmet (galea), and protective leg gear (ocrea).

The VR environment aims to allow users to explore the provocator armatura and to learn the primary offensive techniques associated with this gladiator type. To introduce these two distinct aspects of provocator gladiatorship, two different contexts have been selected, as described in the following sub-sections.

### 5.1. Context 1: presentation of the Provocator gladiator and its armatura

The first context aims to present the Provocator to the users, in order to allow them to discover the different elements of the equipment. It was decided to focus on "type A" armatura as it is the most largely documented.

For the architectural environment, the idea is to evoke a "private" space for the gladiator to present his equipment to the participants. It is a hypothetical representation of a cell, reminiscent of Pompeii's gladiator barracks. Although it is unlikely that the equipment

would be kept in the cell. The room may also represent the "armory" or workshop of the manicarius in charge of maintaining the panoply equipment.

### 5.2. Context 2: Combat training

The second context aims to involve the user in a combat training session. Provocators can attack their opponent with a gladius. They fights only against another provocator. All these characteristics enable the apprentice gladiator to acquire basic techniques (e.g. percutite, unus, duo, tres according to the classification proposed by Brice Lopez [TL05]) against an opponent who is identical to them in every way (both in terms of equipment and gestures).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3:** Conjectural prespectival view of wooden seating arrangement in the Forum Romantum, 2nd century BC [Wel07]</figcaption></figure>

The attack techniques formed the technical basis of the provocator and scutati, as well as the parmati. These four attack techniques can be divided into two groups: dagger attacks (*unus, duo, tres*) and shield attacks (*percutite*).

The dagger attacks targeted distinct areas of the opponent's body:

* The attack known as the "unus" was a sharp strike to the opponent's left shoulder blade. In order to avoid the risk of a thrusting strike, which could prove fatal given the presence of the heart in the same part of the body, the gesture is similar to a punch followed by a rotation of the shoulder in order to cut the shoulder blade rather than the heart.

* The "duo" attack seeks to cut the right flank (part of the body covering the ribs up to the hips) with the same gesture in order to avoid a thrust to the liver or kidney.)

* The last attack with the dagger is more complex because it requires the shield and weapon to be synchronised. The attack known as "tres" in the classification developed by Brice Lopez aims to cut the right thigh while protecting oneself from an opposing attack using the shield placed horizontally above the attacker's head. This attack requires a high degree of technical mastery to avoid cutting the blood vessels (including the femoral artery) or the adductor muscles, so as not to threaten the opponent's life. But it also relies on the movement of the shield during the execution of the attack. While stooping to strike the opponent's right thigh, the attacker lowers himself on his feet and places the shield above his head to parry the attack.

Regarding the architectural environment, the middle of the 1st century B.C. was an important period for gladiatorship, as it marked
the introduction of gladiatorial buildings into the very heart of Ro-
man civic life: the forum. The buildings constructed during this pe-
riod differed in size and location from their predecessors of the 2nd
century BC. From the wooden building constructed by Caius Grac-
chus in 123 B.C. to Julius Caesar's wooden hunting theater built in
46 B.C. to host gladiatorial fights in honor of his deceased daughter,
the evolution of this structure tends to reveal the first characteristics
of amphitheaters. In addition to the oval shape of the building, the
hierarchical arrangement of spectators and the special features for
performances, such as basements for scenery and fighters ( [Wel07]
pp. 56-59), gradually appear throughout this period.

These buildings, dedicated to theatrical performances, reflect the
desire of their builders to produce great spectacles in order to se-
cure the votes of the Roman elite. Located at the heart of Roman
civic life (Forum Romanum), they were intended to influence vot-
ers' decisions, despite the laws passed to reduce the scope of such
attempts at manipulation. These buildings marked the introduction
of mass spectacle, organized to benefit the political careers of the
initiators. These wooden amphitheaters competed not only in size
but also in decor and technological innovation to captivate crowds
and their voices.

6. 3D content design

6.1. Graphical design of the architectural environment

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4: Introductory scene</figcaption></figure>

The graphic environment of the first introductory scene, intended
to represent the gladiator's private space, is a sober room in a stone
building taken from a model of ancient Rome kindly provided by
a research team specializing in the historical representation of that
city's buildings [FM12]. The room's furniture consists of a wooden
sideboard on which are arranged the elements of the provocator's
armatura, as well as a wooden table and chair. In the center of
the room, an equipped provocator stands on a stone pedestal (Fig-
ure 6.1).

For the training scene, we used Blender to model a wooden
amphitheater based on Welch's representations [Wel07]. The am-
phitheatre is surrounded by models of the basilica Julia and a
temple, also taken from the 3D reconstruction of Ancient Rome
[FM12]. The resulting environment is presented in Figure 5. The
gladiators for the training session are positioned in the center of
the arena. The stands are populated by a crowd constituted of ani-
mated neutral humanoids (Figure 6). The animations are controlled

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 5: Training scene</figcaption></figure>

by the scenario engine presented in Section 8.2 that applies ran-
domly three animations, *wait*, *watch*, and *celebrate*, over a random
duration, for each character in the crowd.

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>Figure 6: Animated crowd in the arena</figcaption></figure>

**6.2. Representation and animation of the gladiators**

As a 3D model of the virtual characters, we used a gladi-
iator model bought on a 3D commercial site (https:
//www cgtrader com/3d-models/character/man/
provocator-gladiator), chosen for its historical relevance
and VR compatibility.

To ensure the historical accuracy of the gladiators’ animations,
motion capture technology was employed to digitally record au-
thentic provocator combat gestures. Special attention was given to
capturing movements that would accurately represent both com-
bat sequences and instructional demonstrations. For this purpose,
motion capture sessions were conducted with two trained practi-
tioners of gladiatorial combat, working under the supervision of a
historian specializing in the history of gladiature. This collabora-
tion ensured that the captured motions reflected historically plausi-
ble techniques and contributed to the overall realism and coherence
of the animated sequences.

During the capture, two distinct phases were organised. The first
one was devoted to collecting the techniques. The second was ded-
icated to integrating them into a simulated fight between two oppo-
nents equipped with sensors.
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7:** Motion capture of the four basic attacks, resp. "unus", "duo", "tres", and "percutite"</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8:** Combat situation simulation</figcaption></figure>

In the first phase, the four techniques mentioned above were collected by repeatedly performing strikes on the target areas specific to each gesture. To facilitate the experimenter's work, one member of the team simulated the second provocator in a static and passive manner. This phase enabled the repeated execution of the four attacks forming the technical basis of this armatura to be recorded (Figure 7). The second phase involved capturing the four techniques mentioned above in the context of a fight (Figure 8), in order to understand how these techniques are articulated in the fight and to understand the decision tree used by the fighters in the face of the attacks developed by the opponent.

The two fighters were equipped with the Qualysis Sport Marker set (41 markers on each body), and motion capture was acquired with 22 Miquis cameras at 200Hz.

## 6.3. Audio resources

To enhance the immersive quality of the virtual environment and support the cognitive engagement of users, a set of carefully curated audio resources was integrated into the simulation. These auditory elements serve both experiential and instructional purposes, reinforcing the sense of realism while guiding user interaction within the training scenario.

The sound design includes plausible audio effects that reproduce the characteristic noises of gladiatorial combat, such as the impact of a sword striking a shield, or two shields colliding during close engagement. These sound effects were choosen in coordination with the historian from a free bank of sounds.

Additionally, crowd reactions-such as cheers and applause-were incorporated to simulate the atmosphere of a Roman arena. These auditory cues are triggered contextually, for example, at the conclusion of a successfully executed training sequence, thereby reinforcing positive feedback and enhancing the learner's sense of progression.

Beyond ambient and diegetic sound, the environment also includes spoken instructions and tactical commands. These were recorded using the voice of the historian collaborating on the project, lending both scholarly credibility and a humanized instructional presence to the simulation. The historian's voice provides users with situational guidance, including directives for initiating attacks, defensive maneuvers, or transitioning between phases of the training routine.

Together, these layered audio components contribute to the multisensory engagement of the user, fostering an embodied experience that is historically informed and pedagogically effective.

# 7. Virtual reality design

This section details the design of the virtual reality (VR) training environment, with a focus on three key components: the narrative and structural scenarization of the experience, the design of user interactions within the simulation, and the methodology developed for enabling precise monitoring and assessment of the user's motor performance.

## 7.1. Scenario of the VR session

The virtual reality environment is structured to support a didactic exploration of gladiatorship, guiding users through the two historical contexts described in the previous section. The first scene serves as an introduction to the provocator armatura, allowing users to interactively examine and manipulate each piece of equipment in a controlled setting (Figure 9). The second scene places the user in the role of a novice provocator during a structured training session, where they are guided through a series of martial exercises designed to reflect historically plausible techniques and combat behaviors.

In the first scene, an informational panel is displayed adjacent to the gladiator's armatura. When the user selects an item from the display table, the panel provides contextual explanations regarding the function, historical usage, and significance of the selected
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 9:** Introductory scene: on the left, a panel to the right of the sideboard displays explanations, with an interactive zone at the bottom to allow the user to continue when he has finished reading; in the middle, the user can grab a piece of equipment; on the right, as soon as he grabs it, the corresponding explanations are displayed.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 10:** Training scene with (a) the virtual training partner, and (b), the instructor showing the sequence on a virtual gladiator</figcaption></figure>

piece of equipment. This interaction is designed to promote situated learning by linking visual, tactile, and textual modalities, enabling users to develop a deeper understanding of the material culture of Roman gladiators. The scene supports self-paced exploration, allowing users to engage with the content according to their individual learning rhythms. Once the user has reviewed the different components and their descriptions, they are free to navigate the room and decide when to advance to the next part of the experience: the interactive training session. This design approach aligns with constructivist pedagogical models, emphasizing autonomy, active engagement, and contextualized knowledge acquisition. In the training session, the user is immersed in the virtual arena surrounded by the wooden amphitheatre. On the arena floor, the user is positioned facing a virtual opponent, while a second pair of gladiators—a trainer and their own sparring partner—occupy a nearby section of the space (Figure 10). The trainer demonstrates the required combat movements while giving oral instructions at the same time, enabling the user to observe and subsequently replicate each gesture within the same contextual environment. This arrangement sup-

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 11:** Scenario of the training session</figcaption></figure>

ports observational learning and facilitates embodied imitation of historically informed martial techniques.

The core objective of the training session is to guide users through the acquisition of the fundamental combat repertoire associated with the provocator armatura. The provocator's offensive and defensive repertoire consists of five basic movements: three dagger strikes and two shield-based techniques, as recorded during the motion capture sessions. These movements are further organized into two predefined combinations. The training exercise requires users to reproduce the demonstrated gestures by striking designated virtual targets, each positioned to correspond with a specific technique. A total of 21 sequences are presented in random order–each of the five basic moves and two combinations being repeated three times–thereby reinforcing retention through repetition and variation (Figure 11).

Each sequence is validated through the accurate detection of collisions between the user's equipment (either the dagger or shield) and the corresponding target zones on the opponent. Validation criteria include the correct timing, spatial positioning, and orientation of the user's wrist and equipment at the moment of contact. This approach integrates motion analysis into the learning loop, supporting skill acquisition within the immersive experience.

## 7.2. Interaction design

The design of interactions within the virtual reality experience was guided by the objective of providing intuitive, embodied engagement with minimal cognitive load related to interface mechanics. To achieve this, the system employs natural interaction paradigms that rely solely on the user's bodily movements, eliminating the need for manual control schemes or the learning of complex button mappings. This approach enables participants to remain focused on the physical and cognitive demands of the training itself, rather than on navigating a digital interface. All interactions are triggered by the position and orientation of the user's hands and head, which are central to the correct execution of the gladiatorial gestures. Collision detection and gesture validation are implemented through real-time tracking of these movements. For instance, the system recognizes a successful attack or defensive gesture based on the spatial alignment of the user's hand-held equipment with designated target
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 12:** Interaction through motion tracking in the training scene, with the wooden dagger and the marker for the shield position</figcaption></figure>

zones on the virtual opponent. This technique allows for an embodied learning experience that mirrors the mechanics of real-world combat training, supporting the development of procedural memory.

To further enhance realism and kinesthetic feedback, users are provided with a weighted wooden replica of a Roman dagger, constructed to approximate the size and mass of historical weapons. This physical props serve a dual purpose: it replicates the haptic sensation of wielding a real weapon, and it provides resistance and inertial cues that support the learning of fine motor control and balance during movement execution. By integrating haptic feedback, the simulation promotes sensorimotor congruence between the virtual and physical environments, fostering a more authentic training experience. The dagger replica is outfitted with tracking markers that enable its precise localization within the virtual space. Using an optical tracking system, the VR engine can continuously synchronize the real-world position of the prop with its digital counterpart. The position of the shield is attached to the position of the other hand. This ensures spatial coherence and supports accurate interaction with virtual targets, enabling the validation of fine-grained movements such as angular strikes or rotational parries (Figure 12). The tracking system also plays a crucial role in gesture recognition and performance assessment, allowing for detailed analysis of form, timing, and coordination.

### 7.3. Data recording

To analyze and validate the trainee's movements during the training session, two types of data are systematically collected: the trajectory of each movement and its execution time. Trajectory data consist of the continuous recording of the position and rotation of key anatomical and equipment points. Specifically, the system captures the position and orientation of each wrist, as well as the position and rotation of two critical points on the equipment—the tip of the dagger and the lower edge of the shield.

These data are recorded with the objective of assessing the

biomechanical consistency and correctness of the trainee's gestures. This validation process follows the methodological approach proposed in [PS20], which aims to evaluate the plausibility of reconstructed historical movements based on biomechanical principles. By comparing the user's captured trajectories and movement durations against historically and biomechanically plausible models, the system ensures that the training sequences maintain both historical fidelity and physical realism.

## 8. Implementation

### 8.1. VR application and interaction

The virtual reality application was developed using the Unity 3D game engine, in combination with the OpenXR library to ensure compatibility across different head-mounted display (HMD) platforms and immersive environments. For deployment in a large-scale immersive facility, the system utilized MiddleVR, a middleware solution that enables synchronized rendering across multiple machines and GPUs, ensuring coherent visual and interactive experiences in cluster-based VR installations.

For character animation, motion capture data were processed using Qualisys Track Manager (QTM). Raw data were cleaned and exported in FBX format, compatible with Unity's animation system. Noise in the motion capture trajectories was addressed using the moving average smoothing method, while missing marker data were interpolated using the relational filling algorithm, allowing for the reconstruction of plausible joint movement in incomplete segments.

In the immersive facility, spatial tracking was implemented using an OptiTrack motion capture system composed of 16 infrared cameras. Three rigid body markers were affixed to key interaction points: one on the user's head (mounted on the stereoscopic shuttle for viewpoint tracking), one on the left wrist (to track the shield), and one at the tip of the wooden dagger prop (to capture weapon dynamics). These rigid bodies were tracked in real time using Moderate software, enabling accurate mapping of physical movements into the virtual space and supporting gesture recognition, interaction feedback, and performance analysis.

### 8.2. Scenario Implementation

To implement the scenario logic within the VR application, we integrated the Xareus scenario engine for Unity (based on [CGBBA14]), which is available under license at https://xareus.insa-rennes.fr/. Xareus is a scripting system grounded in Petri net formalism. The Xareus engine includes a graphical interface directly integrated into the Unity editor, which streamlines the creation, modification, and real-time monitoring of scenarios. This tool offers a structured and reusable framework for authoring pedagogical sequences in VR, facilitating the design of interactive learning modules without requiring extensive programming. Its modular architecture also supports rapid adaptation of the scenario based on user feedback. Furthermore, the engine includes built-in functionality for managing interaction cues, such as visual highlights for training targets and indicators of successful action completion, as shown in Figure 13.
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 13:** On the left, the target of the attack is highlighted in red. When the attack is correct (on the middle), the highlighted area turns to green (on the right).</figcaption></figure>

# 9. Discussion

The virtual reality simulation was presented to twelve members of the research team within a large CAVE-like immersive environment (Figure 12), providing a preliminary assessment of the user experience. This informal evaluation allowed participants to engage directly with the virtual environment and complete the entire training sequence from an embodied, first-person perspective. Overall feedback was positive. Participants highlighted the strong sense of presence, the intuitive nature of the interactions—particularly through the integration of real-world props—and the pedagogical clarity of the training stages. Several observers emphasized that the combination of visual, auditory, and proprioceptive stimuli contributed to a realistic and engaging introduction to gladiatorial practice. These initial responses supported the validity of the design choices and encouraged further development of the simulation.

However, it is important to note the limitations of this preliminary evaluation. The current assessment did not employ quantitative measures such as motion tracking or performance analysis, nor did it include standardized qualitative instruments like usability or acceptability questionnaires. Consequently, no definitive conclusions regarding the simulation's effectiveness can yet be drawn. Formal evaluation phases are planned for subsequent stages, involving non-specialist participants unfamiliar with gladiatorial practices and VR environments. These future studies will aim to assess usability, learning outcomes, and the overall validity of the simulated training.

Beyond this preliminary feedback, the first-person experience of historically contextualized virtual environments offers unique opportunities for the study of historical gestures. Immersive VR allows researchers to test, refine, or reject hypotheses derived from iconographic and textual sources, prior to undertaking large-scale experimental archaeology. In this way, the simulation serves as both a methodological tool and a hypothesis-testing platform for the reconstruction of martial practices.

From an educational perspective, the VR environment demonstrates strong potential as a training platform. By enabling users to rehearse combat techniques under the guidance of a virtual instructor and with real-time feedback, the system supports a structured form of procedural learning. This approach, grounded in embodied interaction and sensorimotor reinforcement, aligns with contemporary theories of motor skill acquisition and procedural memory formation.

The simulation also holds promise for public outreach and museum education. By combining virtual reality with tangible props and haptic feedback, the experience enables visitors to physically sense the weight of weapons and the force of blows, offering an embodied perspective on gladiatorial combat. Such sensory immersion challenges common misconceptions and makes historical knowledge accessible and engaging to diverse, non-specialist audiences.

To ensure the scholarly, pedagogical, and museographic relevance of these applications, further evaluation of key VR parameters is required. Chief among these are the levels of immersion and interaction fidelity [HPD20, MBZB12], which are essential to ensuring that the gestures performed in VR approximate their real-world counterparts. High interaction fidelity is particularly important if these gestures are to be used for training purposes or biomechanical analysis.

Several avenues for further research and technical refinement have been identified. Audio design will be expanded through historically informed soundscapes, including ambient crowd reactions, musical accompaniment, and contextual vocal cues directed at both combatants and spectators. Olfactory stimuli are also being considered, such as the scents of sweat, blood, ointments, and perfumes characteristic of Roman arenas, to further heighten the realism of the experience.

In parallel, biomechanical modeling will be developed using motion capture data collected from training and combat sessions. This will support the generation of behavioral models that reflect the physical constraints and biomechanical efficiency of historical techniques. While the current prototype already allows the recording of hand, weapon, and shield trajectories, as well as visualization of contact zones on the training mannequin, further work will extend these capabilities. These initial recordings already enable preliminary assessments of movement execution in task space, a prerequisite for biomechanically plausible training.

Future developments will focus on comprehensive tracking of participant movement, enabling comparison of joint trajectories with those recorded from expert practitioners used in the animation pipeline. Additionally, vibrotactile feedback mechanisms are being considered to reinforce learning by providing immediate, task-relevant stimuli when correct movements are performed.

Together, these technical and methodological developments aim to enhance the historical authenticity of the simulation while opening new interdisciplinary pathways at the intersection of archaeology, human movement science, and digital heritage.

# 10. Conclusions

This work has presented the design and implementation of a multisensory VR simulation aimed at reconstructing and teaching the martial techniques of Roman gladiators, focusing on the provocator type. Combining historical research, motion capture, and immersive interaction design, the project offers a novel approach to both experimental archaeology and embodied learning.

The simulation supports intuitive, body-based interaction through real-world props and tracked movements, enhancing realism and motor skill acquisition. It enables users to engage with
historically grounded techniques while receiving immediate senso-
rimotor feedback, aligning with current theories in procedural and
enactive learning.

Preliminary feedback from expert users in an immersive environ-
ment confirms the system’s value for both research and educational
contexts. It also highlights its potential for broader dissemination,
including public engagement through museum installations.

Future work will explore richer multisensory components, in-
cluding audio and olfactory cues, and develop behavior models
from captured movements for biomechanical analysis. Overall, the
project demonstrates how VR can serve as a powerful tool for his-
torical interpretation, gesture analysis, and cultural heritage trans-
mission.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported in part by a grant from by Equipex+ Con-
tinuum ANR-21-ESRE-0030.

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