Investigation of
process-geometry-microstructure-properties
relationships in Inconel 718 single-bead deposits using
wire based laser metal deposition

Mabrouk Derguini, Yannick Balcaen, Morgane Mokhtari, Joël Alexis

► To cite this version:

Mabrouk Derguini, Yannick Balcaen, Morgane Mokhtari, Joël Alexis. Investigation of process-geometry-microstructure-properties relationships in Inconel 718 single-bead deposits using wire based laser metal deposition. Materials Research Proceedings, 2025, 54, 10.21741/9781644903599-5. hal-05458010

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# Investigation of process-geometry-microstructure-properties relationships in Inconel 718 single-bead deposits using wire based laser metal deposition

Mabrouk DERGUINI¹,ᵃ*, Yannick BALCAEN¹,ᵇ, Morgane MOKHTARI¹,ᶜ,
Joël ALEXIS¹,ᵈ

¹LGP, UTTOP, 47 avenue d'Azereix, 65016 Tarbes cedex, France

ᵃmabrouk.derguini@doctorant.uttop.fr, ᵇyannick.balcaen@uttop.fr, ᶜmorgane.mokhtari@uttop.fr, ᵈjoel.alexis@uttop.fr

**Keywords:** LMD-w, Laser-Wire, Inconel 718 Superalloy, Additive Manufacturing

**Abstract.** Additive manufacturing techniques offer new possibilities for producing overly complex parts in small batches for rapid prototyping. This study focuses on the Laser Wire Metal Deposition (LMD-w) additive manufacturing of the nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718®. This study investigates the influence of process parameters on the geometry, microstructure, and mechanical properties of single-bead deposits produced via LMD-w. Forty single tracks were successfully printed following a partial Taguchi experimental design. This process shows a wide range of processability with excellent material health. Results demonstrate that the feed factor is the key parameter to control bead geometry. In contrast, secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) is controlled by travel speed (higher travel speeds promoting finer dendritic structures). Additionally, a strong correlation is established between the increase of process energy input and the solidification rate, leading to a thinner microstructure and higher hardness.

**Introduction**

Additive manufacturing (AM) has seen remarkable growth in recent years. The transition from prototyping to direct production of functional parts reshapes traditional design and manufacturing approaches, which have long relied on conventional methods [1]. Among the three categories of Direct Energy Deposition additive processes [2], our research focuses on Laser-wire Metal Deposition (LMD-w). Laser Metal Deposition enables the production of complex-shaped components and the repair and cladding of worn parts, with possibilities for process hybridization like forging and printing [3]. However, this emerging technology's key challenge is ensuring its mechanical performance is comparable to conventional manufacturing techniques.

Inconel 718 is extensively used in aerospace applications due to its oxidation resistance and mechanical properties, which remain stable at temperatures up to approximately 650°C [4]. The mechanical properties and microstructure of Inconel 718 are highly dependent on the manufacturing process [5], [6]. Moreover, within the LMD-w process, the process parameters strongly influence the deposition quality [7]. From powder bed technology to direct powder deposition, as well as from electron beam to wire-arc processes, the Inconel 718 alloy has been extensively studied [8], [9], [10], [11], [12]. Few studies have been conducted on the stability of deposits and the reduction of defects in the heat-affected and melted zones during additive manufacturing operations [9]. Additionally, other studies have focused on predicting the geometry and shape of deposits using various processes on varied materials [13], [14], [15]. However, only some studies have investigated the influence of process parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 in additive manufacturing via the LMD-w process [7], [16].

Focusing on individual single beads allows one to explore the complex interactions between process parameters and material characteristics in a simplified context. Furthermore, it is a solid

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>
foundation for constructing more complex 2D or 3D structures. Process parameter optimization is necessary to characterize any alloy and determine the operable window yielding the desired deposit characteristics. Therefore, this study investigates the interaction between the input parameters, deposit geometry, and microstructure output variables.

## Material and methods

Wire and substrate. The Inconel 718 substrates and wire were provided by Technalloy (Spain) and Alloy Wire International (UK) respectively. We selected a 1 mm diameter wire to achieve better geometric precision, especially for repair applications. Table 1 presents the composition of wire and substrates (given by the supplier and experimentally determined by an ultraviolet spark spectrometer, respectively) compared with the AMS standard [17]. The chemical compositions of materials are consistent with the specifications required by the AMS 5596M standard, with only minor variations that fall within acceptable limits.

<table><caption>Table 1 – Chemical composition (wt. %) of Inconel 718 used in this study.</caption><thead><tr><th>(wt. %) Element</th><th>Ni</th><th>Fe</th><th>Cr</th><th>Nb</th><th>Mo</th><th>Ti</th><th>Al</th><th>Co</th><th>Cu</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>AMS 5596M [17]</td><td>50 - 55</td><td>Bal.</td><td>17 - 21</td><td>4.75 - 5.5</td><td>2.8 - 3.3</td><td>0.75 - 1.15</td><td>0.3 - 0.7</td><td>0 - 1</td><td>0 - 0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Wire (supplier)</td><td>53.4</td><td>18.35</td><td>17.98</td><td>5.12</td><td>3.06</td><td>0.93</td><td>0.48</td><td>0.41</td><td>0.04</td></tr><tr><td>Substrate (supplier)</td><td>53.47</td><td>18.11</td><td>18.29</td><td>5.11</td><td>2.9</td><td>0.92</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.19</td><td>0.12</td></tr><tr><td>Substrate (UV spectrometer analysis)</td><td>52.87</td><td>18.56</td><td>18.53</td><td>4.93</td><td>3.06</td><td>1.06</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.12</td></tr></tbody></table>

Sample Manufacturing. All the samples were deposited at the Addimadour platform - ESTIA in Bayonne, France, using the Laser Wire Metal Deposition (LMD-w) additive manufacturing process with a MELTIO® 6-beam IR effector mounted on a KUKA KR60-HA robot and a DKP400 positioner. In the LMD-w process, the wire is fed into the molten pool on the substrate at a feed rate (WFS), aligned coaxially with the six-beam effector, which operates at a power level (P). Meanwhile, the robotic arm moves along the substrate at a travel speed (TS). As substrates, we used Inconel 718 plates with dimensions of 150 mm × 25.4 mm × 12.7 mm, which were sandblasted and degreased using ethanol. This surface preparation enhances laser absorptivity and ensures the removal of surface contaminants. The substrate was securely clamped to prevent translational movement within the (x, y) plane.

The LMD-w process is modeled with input variables (presented in Table 2) following a partial Taguchi experimental design (Fig. 1). This approach efficiently explores many process parameter combinations while minimizing the number of experiments. The significance of this design lies in its ability to systematically assess the influence of laser power, wire feed speed, and travel speed on deposition quality, ensuring a balanced and statistically relevant analysis of process interactions. The figure dots correspond to the whole investigated combination of process parameters, while the black dots correspond to further analyzed deposits (geometry, microstructure, hardness).

<table><caption>Table 2 – LMD-w input parameters.</caption><thead><tr><th>Nature</th><th>Name</th><th>Abbreviation</th><th>Units</th><th>Domain</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Input parameters</td><td>Laser Power</td><td>P</td><td>[W]</td><td>[600; 1200]</td></tr><tr><td>Travel Speed</td><td>TS</td><td>[mm.min<sup>-1</sup>]</td><td>[300; 1500]</td></tr><tr><td>Wire Feed Speed</td><td>WFS</td><td>[mm.min<sup>-1</sup>]</td><td>[620; 1080]</td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1 – Plots of inputs variables of the partial Taguchi experimental design. Every dot corresponds to an investigated combination of parameters. Black dots correspond to deposits which were further analyzed (geometry, microstructure, hardness).</figcaption></figure>

Characterization methods. Various characterization techniques were employed. For 2D section images, the surface was polished using SiC papers ranging from P80 to P4000, followed by suspension finishes at 3 µm and 1 µm, then OPS, and electrochemically etched with 10% oxalic acid (3.5V during the 20s) to reveal the microstructure. The optical and SEM images were processed in ImageJ software [18], enabling additional geometric analysis of our samples (e.g., wetting angles..) and statistical analysis of interdendritic spacing in the deposited bead microstructure.

Out of the 40 deposits produced to explore the “processability” domain, 20 were carefully selected for detailed analysis. The selection was made to ensure a diverse representation of process parameter combinations, covering a wide range of property variations from the initial experimental design (Fig. 1). To measure the Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing (SDAS), the transverse cross-section micrographs were divided into three zones: the top, the middle of the bead, and the bead/substrate interface. Six images were taken for each zone (including the edge), with 10 measurements per image using the intercept method. This approach provided 60 measurements per zone, enabling an accurate evaluation of the SDAS. However, the interface Melt Zone/Heat Affected Zone (MZ/HAZ) exhibits a coarse and columnar microstructure, making it impossible to measure the SDAS.

Finally, the influence of process parameters on mechanical properties was examined by performing microhardness tests with a 100g load and having a global measure with a 1 kg load. These hardness tests also reveal the variations of hardness across the four zones: the Melt Zone (MZ), the Remelted Zone (RZ), the HAZ, and the Base Metal (BM).

## Results and discussions

Geometric Analysis. The effects of process parameters on the dimensions and morphology of printed single beads (including height, width, and wetting angles) were examined to determine the optimal parameters for fabricating bulk structures. Fig. 2 illustrates the evolution of wetting angles as a function of the feed factor ratio (WFS/TS) and their associated micrography. First, wetting angles are all included between 75° and 145°. Second, wetting angles decrease from 145° to 75° when the feed factor increases to 1.5. For a higher feed factor, the wetting angle stays at around 75. This trend highlights the influence of deposition parameters on bead morphology, where lower feed factors produce broader and flatter beads, while higher values lead to more vertical deposits. This information is crucial for optimizing deposition strategies to achieve specific geometrical and structural requirements.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2 – Influence of the feed factor ratio on the deposit wetting angle. Micrography of associated bead geometry is displayed.</figcaption></figure>

The cross-sectional areas of the MZ and the RZ were measured using ImageJ software [18] to assess the influence of energy distribution based on process parameters across these sections. Fig. 3 illustrates the relationship between feed factor ratio, laser power (P), the ratio of remelt and melted zones ($A_{RZ}/A_{MZ}$), and ($A_{MZ}/A_{FZ}$), in which FZ is MZ+RZ. Fig. 3a shows a correlation between the $A_{RZ}/A_{MZ}$ ratio and laser power within the experimental plan. Specifically, this ratio increased from 0.08 to 2.2 as laser power was raised from 600W to 1200W while decreasing the feed factor ratio from 1.5 to 0.5. Then, it stabilized around 0.15 for a higher feed factor and lower power levels. This trend suggests that higher feed factors reduce remelting within the deposited area, mainly when there is low energy input. In Fig. 3b, the $A_{MZ}/A_{FZ}$ ratio demonstrates an opposite trend, with values generally increasing as the feed factor rises, particularly under lower power levels (600–800 W), where the $A_{MZ}/A_{FZ}$ ratio approaches 1.0 at high feed factors (from 2.5 to 3.5). This increase in $A_{MZ}/A_{FZ}$ indicates that a higher feed factor promotes a larger melted zone, with lower power enhancing this effect. In contrast, at lower feed factors and higher power levels, the ratio of the melted zone decreases, favoring more extensive remelting.

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3 – Influence of feed factor and power on ratio cross-section: a) $A_{RZ}/A_{MZ}$, b) $A_{MZ}/A_{FZ}$.</figcaption></figure>

In conclusion, the data suggests that higher feed factors, combined with moderate power, emphasize the melted zone while minimizing remelting, which can be advantageous for specific deposition applications. Conversely, higher laser powers with lower feed factors favor remelting, which could benefit applications requiring strong bonding with the substrate. This understanding of the interplay between feed factor, power, and melted/remelt zones offers valuable insights into controlling the deposited material’s geometry with this process. These trends are comparable to those observed in LMD-w studies with the TA6V alloy [19].

Microstructure analysis. The material health of all deposits is good, with very low porosity (pores with 400 nm average diameter were observed in the MZ), and no crack was observed (Fig. 4a, Fig. 4b). The interface RZ/HAZ was also free of any porosity or cracks.
In the HAZ, slight variations appear at the grain boundaries compared to the base material (Fig. 4c). A needle-shaped phase was observed in the HAZ near the (MZ). According to the literature, the δ phase (Ni₃Nb-δ) is a stable phase that coexists with the metastable γ'' phase [7]. It forms as a Nb-rich liquid "particle" structure due to the transformation of γ'' into Ni₃Nb-δ [9].

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4 – a) Single-bead optical image, b) SEM image of porosity in MZ, c) SEM image of Ni₃Nb-δ in HAZ</figcaption></figure>

Elongated dendritic structures were observed within the MZ (Fig. 5). Due to its high solute content, and referring to the G/R diagram, it can be observed that these rapid solidification conditions, combined with high cooling rates and temperature gradients, promote the development of thin dendritic microstructures [6], [20]. Indeed, thin dendritic structures in the MZ were observed with slightly wider columnar dendrites near the bead interface (Fig. 5c). Interdendritic regions appear darker than the matrix.

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>Figure 5 – Optical micrographs of the microstructure of (a) single track, (b) Top, (c) FZ/HAZ interface.</figcaption></figure>

SEM images and EDX chemical analysis (not shown here) indicated an interdendritic phase enriched in Nb and Mo (predominantly Nb) and a depletion of key matrix elements (Ni, Cr, Fe). These findings, and by referring to the literature, strongly suggest that Laves phases form in the interdendritic space during solidification in the LMD-w process [21], [22], [23].

SDAS, defined as the distance between the centers of two secondary dendrite arms, was measured to assess the influence of process parameters on the solidification rate of the beads. An apparent increase in SDAS was observed with higher heat input applied during deposition, meaning that the solidification rate decreased (Fig. 6a). By correlating travel speed with SDAS, results were positioned within the context of existing studies using LMD processes (Fig. 6b). Notably, SDAS values obtained here are lower than average values reported in similar studies, indicating that higher cooling rates are achieved with the Meltio effector under the applied process parameters compared to other LMD methods [7], [24], [25], [26], [27]. Fig. 6b compares only the robot travel speeds with our results. The observed variations in SDAS could primarily be attributed to the specific characteristics of the LMD-powder process. Additionally, differences in process parameters related to deposition play a significant role, particularly the higher energy ranges (notably greater than those in our study) and their distribution across the wire and/or substrate.
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>Figure 6 – a) Influence of Heat input and TS on SDAS in this study, b) Influence of Travel Speed input on SDAS across different studies</figcaption></figure>

Mechanical properties. To ensure the homogeneity of hardness throughout the Melted Zone (MZ) of the single-track deposit, a detailed hardness mapping was conducted using a 100g load (HV0.1). Fig. 7 demonstrates that the standard deviation of the measured hardness averages cannot reveal the microstructure-property interactions. By applying a load of 100 g, the indentation size was approximately 26 µm, which allowed the detection of microstructural heterogeneities within the single track at this scale. A higher load of 1 kg (HV1) was used to determine the overall hardness trend better. This approach may provide more robust data to understand better the correlation between processing conditions, microstructural refinement, and resulting mechanical behavior. Hardness slightly decreases as SDAS increases for both loads. The hardness-SDAS relationship is more consistent with HV1, likely due to the larger indentation size, which averages out localized variations within the microstructure. The increase in hardness is attributed to a finer dendritic structure characterized by smaller SDAS, which enhances the material's overall strength and resistance [27].

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Figure 7 – Average MZ hardness correlated with SDAS</figcaption></figure>

An assessment of hardness progression across the Melted Zone (MZ), Remelt Zone (RZ), Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ), and Base Material (BM) was conducted. A mean profile from two traverses across all zones, using a 100g load, was recorded and is shown in Fig. 8a (this example was performed with a laser power of 1200W and WFS and TS values of 600 and 1200 mm.min⁻¹, respectively). The same protocol was consistently applied to all other samples. Since the HAZ was not detectable through optical imaging alone, its boundaries were identified through hardness measurements instead. For this purpose, the same protocol was performed on the base material (without deposit). By comparing the hardness profile of the base material to that of the deposited material, we delineated the boundaries of the HAZ. It should be noted that the hardness of the bare
substrate is not uniform and exhibits a slight hardening from centerline to surface, attributed to a skin pass effect.

The measured depths of the HAZ ranged from near 0 to 1.8 mm, depending on the process parameters. As indicated in Fig. 8b, the depth of the HAZ generally increases with the energy per unit of deposited material (P/Feed Factor), suggesting a direct correlation between energy input and thermal penetration. The HAZ remains shallow at low energy levels, whereas the depth progressively increases and tends to stabilize for high energy levels. Furthermore, the applied power plays a critical role in amplifying this effect: for higher power levels (900–1200 W), improved thermal efficiency is observed, leading to a significant increase in depth. Thus, the interaction between P and P/Feed Factor governs the evolution of the HAZ, with a more pronounced thermal response at higher power levels.

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>Figure 8 – a) Hardness profile of sample (P=1200 W; WFS=600mm.min⁻¹; TS=1200 mm.min⁻¹) compared to bare substrate, b) influence of P/(TS/WFS) on HAZ depth</figcaption></figure>

## Conclusion

This study investigated the complex interactions between process parameters, deposit geometry, microstructure, and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 produced by the Laser Metal Deposition with wire (LMD-w) process using the MELTIO® IR effector. The following analysis highlights the specific effects of key parameters on these critical characteristics:

**Travel Speed (TS):** Higher travel speeds result in faster cooling rates, producing finer dendritic structures within the Melt Zone (MZ). Lower Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing (SDAS) values are observed at higher travel speeds, indicating increased solidification rates. Compared to literature, measured SDAS seems finer for this study.

**Feed Factor (WFS/TS):** The feed ratio strongly influences the wetting angles, determining the bead shape. A lower feed ratio results in larger wetting angles, producing wider and more spread-out beads. Conversely, a feed ratio greater than 1.3 yields wetting angles close to or below 90°, creating more vertical bead profiles.

**Combination of Feed Factor and Laser Power:** Higher laser power combined with a lower feed factor promotes increased substrate remelting, enhancing the metallurgical bonding between the substrate and the deposit. This configuration is advantageous for applications requiring improved adhesion or robust repair solutions. Maximum HAZ depth tends to stabilize under 2 mm for high-energy configurations.

As a general conclusion, this study demonstrates the exceptional versatility and precision of the LMD-w process using the MELTIO® effector for the additive manufacturing of Inconel 718. The process's ability to operate across a broad range of hybrid parameter combinations enables the production of deposits with diverse morphologies, from shallow to steep wetting angles, and offers precise control over the melt and remelt zones. This flexibility is further complemented by the capacity to achieve minimal heat-affected zones, making it particularly suitable for applications requiring high precision and controlled thermal effects. Additionally, the unique energy delivery and high cooling rates facilitated by the MELTIO® effector significantly enhance microstructural characteristics, allowing for thinner and more uniform secondary dendrite arm spacings compared
to conventional LMD processes. These combined capabilities expand the design and application possibilities of the LMD-w process and position it as a leading technique for the advanced manufacturing and repair of high-performance components.

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