# Sugarcane sustainability: Overcoming climate induced disease challenges

Md. Minnatullah, Piyush Kumar, Ajeet Kumar, S.P. Singh, Sunita Kumari Meena

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## To cite this version:

Md. Minnatullah, Piyush Kumar, Ajeet Kumar, S.P. Singh, Sunita Kumari Meena. Sugarcane sustainability: Overcoming climate induced disease challenges. Innovations in Agriculture for Sustainable Food Systems and Farmers' Income – A Climate Resilient perspective, RPCAU, Pusa, Dec 2023, Pusa (Samastipur)-848125, India. pp.130-141. hal-04881540

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Submitted on 22 Jan 2025

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# INNOVATIONS IN AGRICULTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS AND FARMERS' INCOME : A CLIMATE RESILIENT PERSPECTIVE

Editors : K.M. Singh, D. K. Sinha, Sweta Mishra, Mahesh Kumar, Nidhi, Ritambhara Singh Tulika Kumari, Nasim Ahmad and Swati Kumari

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## 31st Annual Conference
Agricultural Economics Research Association (AERA), India
(7-9 December, 2023)

Organized by
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, PUSA, BIHAR & AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS RESEARCH ASSOCIATION (AERA), PUSA, NEW DELHI
**Published by:**

**Publication Division**

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University
Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar-848125

**Compiled and Edited by:**

**Dr. K.M. Singh**, Dean, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa

**Dr. D. K. Sinha**, Head, Department of Agril. Economics, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa

**Dr. Sweta Mishra**, Head, Department of GPB, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa

**Dr. Mahesh Kumar**, Head, Department of BS&L (SMCA, P&L), CBS&H, RPCAU, Pusa

**Dr. Nidhi**, Assoc. Prof., BS&L (SMCA, P&L), CBS&H, RPCAU, Pusa

**Dr. Ritambhara Singh**, Assoc. Prof., SAB&RM, RPCAU, Pusa

**Dr. Tulika Kumari**, Asstt. Prof., Agril. Economics, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa

**Sri Nasim Ahmed**, S.T.O., Agril. Economics, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa

**Swati Kumari**, Lab. Technician, Agril. Economics, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa

**Contact:**

**Department of Agricultural Economics**

**Post Graduate College of Agriculture**

**Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University**

Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar - 848 125

**© Publication Division**

**Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University**

Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar - 848 125

**Printed at:**

**Laxmi Enterprises,**

Zila Parisad Market, Station Road
Muzaffarpur-842001
Mob.: 9430580310
<table><thead><tr><td>Sl. No.</td><td>Contents</td><td>Page No.</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University (RPCAU) Pusa, Samastipur (Bihar) - At a Glance</td><td>1 - 6</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Mitigation of Climate Stress in Bihar through Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA) Programme<br>Ratnesh Kumar Jha, Abdus Sattar, Ashutosh Singh, Mahesh Kumar, Rupashree Senapati, Sudeshna Das, Pawan Kumar Srivastava</td><td>7 - 13</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Weather Extremes and Climate-Resilient Rice-Wheat System: A Case Study in Bihar<br>Abdus Sattar, Ratnesh Kumar Jha, Sudeshna Das, Rupashree Senapati and Mahesh Kumar</td><td>14 - 24</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Evaluation of the Economics and Yield of Climate-Resilient Agriculture Technology Applications in Rabi Crops<br>R.K. Sohane, Raghubar Sahu and Asheesh Chourasiya</td><td>25 - 29</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Climate Smart Technologies towards Sustainable Farmer's income in Bihar<br>Abhay Kumar, Rohan Kumar Raman, Dhiraj Kumar Singh, Sudip Sarkar, Ujjwal Kumar, Rakesh Kumar and Md. Monobrullah</td><td>30 - 36</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Techno-financial aspects of a Participatory Gravity-Fed Irrigation System in the Himalayan Foothills<br>Ambrish Kumar, B.L.Dhyani, D.Mandal, Bankey Bihari, M. Murganandam, Charan Singh and Manish Kumar</td><td>37 - 57</td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td>Millets for Sustainable Food Systems under Changing Climatic Conditions<br>Shailesh Kumar, Dayanji Sherpa and Sweta Mishra</td><td>58 - 66</td></tr><tr><td>8.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Aquaculture: Addressing Heighten Disease Risks in Farmed Fish<br>R. K. Brahmchari, S. K. Nayak, Anirudh Kumar, M. K.Singh, Shivendra Kumar and P. P. Srivastava</td><td>67 - 73</td></tr><tr><td>9.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Agriculture: An Overview of Probable Pathways for Food and Livelihood Sustainability<br>Nasim Ahmad, K.M. Singh, D.K. Sinha, Ritambhara Singh, Tulika Kumari, R.P. Singh, Swati Kumari and Kuldeep Kumar</td><td>74 - 81</td></tr><tr><td>10.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Agriculture Scenario in India - At a Glance<br>Mahesh Kumar, Aarti Kumari, Nidhi, Sudhir Paswan, Ratnesh Kumar Jha and Abdus Sattar</td><td>82 - 85</td></tr><tr><td>11.</td><td>Impact Assessment of Climate-Resilient Agriculture Programme: The Pressing Priority<br>Tulika Kumari, K.M. Singh, D.K. Sinha, Nasim Ahmad, Swati Kumari, R.P. Singh and Kuldeep Kumar</td><td>86 - 89</td></tr><tr><td>12.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Agriculture: A Key to Sustainability<br>Shripati Dwivedi and Deepak Kumar Patel</td><td>90 - 94</td></tr><tr><td>13.</td><td>Breeding: A Ultimate Way to Mitigate the Effect of Terminal Heat Stress in Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).<br>Satish Kumar Singh, Abhishek Kumar, Anirudh T.V., J.P. Prasad and R. K. Jha</td><td>95 - 106</td></tr><tr><td>14.</td><td>Sugarcane Based Entrepreneurship an Option for Employment Generation under Climate Resilient Agriculture in Bihar<br>Balwant Kumar and A. K. Singh</td><td>107 - 119</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><td>Sl. No.</td><td>Contents</td><td>Page No.</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>15.</td><td>Climate Change and Resilient Agriculture: Basics to Advances<br/>Satya Prakash, Sudhanand Prasad Lal, Trishita Banik and Priyanshu</td><td>120 - 124</td></tr><tr><td>16.</td><td>Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) in India –Challenges and Opportunities<br/>Shiva Pujan Singh, Popi Sutradhar, Janmejay Kumar, A.K Singh, K. M. Singh and Nasim Ahmad</td><td>125 - 129</td></tr><tr><td>17.</td><td>Sugarcane Sustainability: Overcoming Climate-Induced Disease Challenges<br/>Md. Minnatullah, Piyush Kumar, Ajeet Kumar, Shiva Pujan Singh and Sunita Kumari Meena</td><td>130 - 141</td></tr><tr><td>18.</td><td>Climate Resilient Agriculture and its Impact on Food Habit Pattern in Bihar<br/>Gitanjali Chaudhary, Neelam Kumari and Deepak Kumar</td><td>142 - 146</td></tr><tr><td>19.</td><td>Soil Erosion Assessment Employing Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Model<br/>Sanjay Kumar Singh, Techi Tagung, Vikas Kr. Rai, K. K. Singh and Sanjay Tiwari</td><td>147 - 153</td></tr><tr><td>20.</td><td>Diversification in Species and Production System: Climate-Resilient Option &amp; for Sustainable Aquaculture<br/>Maneesh Kumar Dubey, Shivendra Kumar, Aditi Banik, R. K. Brahmchari, Anirudh Kumar, P. P. Srivastava</td><td>154 - 162</td></tr><tr><td>21.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Pathways for Revisiting Traditional Tribal Livelihood<br/>S Sangeeta Kumari and Parth Biswas</td><td>163 - 167</td></tr><tr><td>22.</td><td>Integrating Climate Information into Decision-making for Building Resilience<br/>Priyanka Choudhary and S. K. Thakur</td><td>168 - 171</td></tr><tr><td>23.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Agriculture: A Preface to Sustainability Coupled with Progress<br/>Dyuti Bhattacharya and Kriti Bhattacharya</td><td>172 - 176</td></tr><tr><td>24.</td><td>Impact of G20 Actions for Climate-Resilient Agriculture on Indian Farmers: A Review<br/>Popi Sutradhar</td><td>177 - 180</td></tr><tr><td>25.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Agriculture for Attaining Sustainable Agriculture<br/>Bhushan Ingle</td><td>181 - 185</td></tr><tr><td>26.</td><td>NABARD'S Scheme for Promotion of Start-Ups in India: Future Prospects<br/>Popi Sutradhar, Shiva Pujan Singh, Md Minnatullah, Tulika Kumari, and K.M. Singh</td><td>186 - 189</td></tr><tr><td>27.</td><td>Climate-Resilient Agriculture: An Introduction<br/>Arihant Singh</td><td>190 - 194</td></tr><tr><td>28.</td><td>Sustainable Sugarcane production in the Era of Climate- Change: Mitigation and Adaptation Efforts<br/>Ajeet Kumar Sunita Kumari Meena, Minnatullah, S.K. Sinha and A.K. Singh</td><td>195 - 204</td></tr></tbody></table>
# Sugarcane Sustainability: Overcoming Climate-Induced Disease Challenges

Md. Minnatullah, Piyush Kumar, Ajeet Kumar, Shiva Pujan Singh and Sunita Kumari Meena

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur

## Abstract

India's sugarcane cultivation is geographically divided into tropical and subtropical regions. The tropical area, spanning 45% of the total cultivation space, remarkably contributes 55% to the country's sugarcane output. For optimal growth, sugarcane requires temperatures between 28-32°C, annual rainfall ranging from 75-120 cm, and specific humidity levels. In Bihar 20 sugarcane diseases have been identified, recent year red rot, wilt and Pokkah Boeng diseases have become particularly major concern. These diseases collectively curtail national sugar production by an estimated 10-15%. Red rot disease notably impacts commercial varieties like Co 0238, particularly severely affecting regions in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Wilt disease, observed across various varieties, reaches an alarming incidence of up to 80% in select regions of Bihar. Fungal diseases significantly plague cane-growing areas in Bihar, causing reductions in yield and compromising the quality of cane juice. diseases, on the other hand, account for up to 5% damage to the sugarcane crop in the state. Viral diseases affect multiple varieties, with a recorded incidence of 5-7% during specific growth stages triggered by heavy rainfall and elevated temperatures.

**Key words:** Sugarcane, Sustainability, Climate, Major diseases, Challenges

## Introduction

Sugarcane, scientifically known as *Saccharum officinarum* L., is a member of the Andropogoneae tribe within the Gramineae family (Poaceae), falling under the genus *Saccharum* (Kellogg, 2013). This robust, perennial tropical grass has established itself as a prominent cash crop on a global scale. The term "sugarcane" is a composite of two words, "sugar" and "cane." The origin of the term "sugar" can be traced back to the ancient Sanskrit word "sharkara" (शकरा). Sugarcane is believed to have its roots in New Guinea and found its way to the Americas when Christopher Columbus embarked on his second expedition in 1493. It has long been cultivated due to its high sugar content, primarily serving the sugar production industry. However, recent years have witnessed the recognition of sugarcane as an invaluable source of alternative biofuels, particularly for blending with petroleum fuels to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and address the challenges posed by global warming. Sugarcane plays a pivotal role as the predominant source of sugar and ethanol worldwide, serving as a vital supplier of raw materials for various other by-products. In the context of India, the sugar industry holds the distinction of being the second-largest agro-industry. Its principal applications encompass the
manufacturing of jaggery (gur) and sugar. Furthermore, it serves as a reservoir for extracting juice (raswanti) and syrup and is sometimes even consumed by chewing for its inherent sweetness (Shukla *et al.*, 2017).

This crop, supported by a network of dedicated farmers and their families, as well as labourers and entrepreneurs, plays a pivotal role in generating approximately 3.2 billion liters of alcohol, 4700 MW of power and various types of chemicals. These impressive figures are made possible through the collective efforts of over 597 operational sugar mills, 309 distilleries and 213 cogeneration plants (Solomon and Swapna, 2022; Sushil *et al.*, 2002). Brazil leads as the world's largest sugarcane producer, boasting an annual production of 768.68 tons (Wani *et al.*, 2023). Remarkably, approximately 55% of the sugarcane cultivated in Brazil is dedicated to the production of bioethanol (de Carvalho *et al.*, 2023). Following closely, India secures the position of the second-largest sugarcane producer, with an annual output of 348.45 tons (Wani *et al.*, 2023). The cultivation and protection of crops like sugarcane hold immense significance due to their substantial socioeconomic and environmental benefits. Over 7.5 million farmers in the country depend on this crop as their primary source of livelihood. Sugarcane is cultivated across 5.1 million hectares of land, constituting approximately 3% of the gross cropped area during the 2020-21 season, with an anticipated production of around 405.39 million tonnes (FAOSTAT).

India's sugarcane cultivation is divided into two distinct agro-climatic regions: tropical and
subtropical. The tropical region covers approximately 45% of the total sugarcane cultivation area and
contributes to 55% of the country's total sugarcane production. In contrast, the subtropical region
occupies 55% of the cultivation area but contributes 45% of the overall sugarcane production. The
average sugarcane yield across the country remained around 75-80 tons per hectare (Shukla *et al.*, 2017).
Sugarcane productivity is higher in tropical states (around 80 t/ha) compared to subtropical states
(approximately 60 t/ha). The tropical region enjoys ideal climatic conditions year-round, contributing to
its superior performance. Specific regions like Maharashtra and neighboring areas benefit from extended
sunlight hours, cool nights and a favorable latitudinal position, resulting in higher sugar recovery.
Nonetheless, challenges related to biotic and abiotic stresses can impact sugarcane growth and yield
during the tillering and grand growth phases. The subtropical region in India is divided into three
sugarcane agro-climatic zones: North-West, North-Central and North-East. The North-Central Zone,
which includes states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab, experiences varying climatic
conditions throughout the year, affecting sugarcane production. Uttar Pradesh has the largest sugarcane
cultivation area in this region, while the highest sugar recovery is typically seen in Maharashtra. The
subtropical region faces challenges such as shorter growing seasons, moisture stress, increased pests and
diseases, floods and waterlogging, resulting in an average yield of around 60 tons per hectare. Sugarcane
is a tropical plant, thriving in warm and humid conditions. It grows best with a mean temperature of
28-32° Temperatures above 45° hinder growth, while those below 20°C slow it down. Areas with temperatures below 5°C are unsuitable. Sugarcane requires annual rainfall of 75-120 cm and a long 10-18 month growing season. Ideal humidity is 70-85% during growth and 55-75% during ripening, but less than 50% humidity during growth is unfavorable.

## Major Diseases of Sugarcane:

Sugarcane is vulnerable to over 125 diseases, caused by various pathogens like fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas and nematodes, documented worldwide (Rott *et al.*, 2000). In India, approximately 55 sugarcane diseases from various sources have been documented (Rao *et al.*, 2002; Viswanathan, 2011). These diseases collectively reduce the nation's sugar production by around 10-15%. Notable among them are red rot, wilt, smut and pineapple disease. Bacterial infections like leaf scald disease (LSD) and ratoon stunting disease (RSD) significantly impact yields. Mosaic and yellow leaf syndrome are common viral diseases. The emergence of grassy shoot disease poses a considerable threat (Viswanathan, 2012). In Bihar, over 20 sugarcane diseases have been reported, with red rot, wilt, pokkah boeng, smut, leaf spot and ratoon stunting being significant. In recent years, red rot and wilt have become particularly concerning (Minnatullah *et al.*, 2022).

## Red Rot:

Red rot, caused by the fungus *Colletotrichum falcatum*, is the most common and destructive disease of sugarcane in the Indian subcontinent. This disease leads to significant losses in both yield and quality of susceptible sugarcane cultivars (Satyavir, 2003; Duttamajumder, 2008). It can reduce the weight of the cane by up to 29% and cause a 31% loss in sugar recovery (Hussnain *et al.*, 2006). The red rot pathogen acts by breaking down stored sucrose into its constituent parts, glucose and fructose, through the production of the enzyme invertase, leading to an increase in molasses production (Sehtiya *et al.*, 1993). Because of its devastating impact, red rot is often referred to as the "Cancer" of sugarcane (Khan *et al.*, 2011). Red rot is also one of the oldest known disease of sugarcane, with historical references dating back to the times of Buddha. It was first reported in Java, Indonesia, where it was known as "Sereh" (Went, 1893). The fungus responsible for red rot was later identified as *Colletotrichum falcatum* (Went, 1893), with its perfect stage being identified as *Glomerella tucumanensis* Speg (Carvajal *et al.*, 1944). Barber recorded the first report of red rot occurrence in India (Barber, 1901) and since then, several red rot epidemics have been documented, particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh, northern Bihar and pockets of Punjab.

The development of red rot disease in sugarcane is influenced by various environmental factors. An optimal mean temperature range of 29.4°C to 31°C creates favourable conditions for disease development (Singh *et al.*, 1988; Beniwal *et al.*, 1991). Additionally, a pH level between 5 and 6 is conducive to the pathogen's growth (Satyavir *et al.*, 2002). Drought conditions during the initial growth phase of sugarcane can also increase the susceptibility to red rot (Yin *et al.*, 1997). High atmospheric
humidity, typically around 90%, is a contributing factor to the disease's prevalence. Water-logged soil conditions and a lack of cultural practices that control weed growth provide an environment where red rot can thrive. Continuous cultivation of the same sugarcane variety in a field increases the risk of disease, as does the presence of susceptible sugarcane varieties in the vicinity. These factors collectively contribute to the development and spread of red rot in sugarcane crops.

Several commercial sugarcane varieties, including Co 312, Co 419, Co 453, Co 997, Co 1148, Co 6304, Co 7805, Co 0238, CoC 671, CoJ 64, CoS 8436, CoSe 95422 and others, have been severely affected by red rot disease (Viswanathan, 2021a). Notably, the popular subtropical variety Co 0238 has recently suffered extensive damage due to red rot epidemics, particularly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (Viswanathan, 2021a). Other cultivated varieties such as Co 89003, Co 98014, CoH 160, CoH 167, CoJ 85, CoJ 88, CoPant 12221, CoPk 05191, CoS 767, CoS 8436, CoS 88230, CoS 08272, CoS 08279, CoSe 98231, CoS 91269 and more have exhibited high incidences of the disease in the subtropical region. While the occurrence of severe red rot has decreased in different parts of the tropical regions, outbreaks still occur to varying extents in varieties like CoC 23, CoC 24, Co 11015, CoV 89101, 89V74, Co 6907, Co 62175, PI 001401, Co 0212, Co 0238, Co 06030, CoV 09356 and others. This highlights the persistent and significant threat that red rot poses to sugarcane cultivation in the country.

## Wilt:

Wilt disease stands as a significant issue in India, severely impacting sugarcane production and overall productivity (Viswanathan, 2013). Dr. E. J. Butler first reported the disease in Bihar state in 1906, with further investigations conducted by Butler and Khan in 1913. The disease's presence has led to the eradication of several popular sugarcane varieties (Agnihotri and Rao, 2002). The early decades of the last century witnessed wilt epidemics that resulted in the elimination of numerous commercial varieties (Kirtikar et al., 1972; Agnihotri and Rao, 2002). Molecular studies have identified *Fusarium sacchari* as the most common fungal species associated with wilt (Vishwanathan et al., 2011). Wilt causes substantial economic losses, potentially reaching up to 65% (Sarma, 1976). In addition to reducing cane yield, it leads to decreased juice extraction (15-30%) and sugar recovery (20%). Interestingly, when red rot and wilt coexist, they inflict even greater damage on crops compared to these diseases acting alone (Viswanathan et al., 2012; Bhat et al., 2016). Wilt is a highly destructive disease, second only to red rot in terms of economic losses, posing significant challenges for sugar industries and sugarcane cultivators, particularly in the northern region of Bihar (Kumar et al., 2015).

The wilt disease is primarily associated with the fungus being sett-borne, and it can also survive in the soil as a saprophyte for 2-3 years. The main mode of transmission for this disease is through infected seed setts. Secondary spread is facilitated by factors like wind, rain and irrigation water. Conditions that favour the development of wilt disease include high day temperatures (ranging from 304°C), low humidity levels (50-60%), reduced soil moisture, alkaline soils and excessive doses of nitrogenous fertilizers. These factors contribute to the disease's prevalence and impact on sugarcane
crops. The incidence of wilt disease in sugarcane ranges from 5% to 80% in different sugar factory areas of Bihar. It has been detected in several varieties, including BO 141, Co 0233, Co Pant 97222, Co 0238, Co 92006, Co 0118, CoH 167, CoV 92102, CoH 160, CoSe 92423, CoSe 95422 etc. In some sugarcane-growing areas of Bihar, the observed incidence of wilt in these varieties has reached as high as 80% (Minnatullah et al., 2022).

## Smut:

Sugarcane smut, which is caused by *Sporisorium scitamineum* (Syd.) M. Piepenbr., M. Stoll & Oberw, stands as one of the most significant disease affecting sugarcane on a global scale. It can result in substantial yield losses in susceptible sugarcane varieties (Comstock, 2000). The origins of this disease can be traced back to its initial documentation in Natal, South Africa, in 1877. Since then, it has spread to other sugarcane growing regions in Central, East, and West Africa, Indonesia, Central and South America, Brazil and Australia (Braithwaite et al., 2004; Hoy et al., 1986). Anecdotal evidence suggests that smut likely originated in India, with the primary hosts being *Saccharum barberi* and *S. spontaneum*, both of which are wild relatives of modern sugarcane *Saccharum* hybrid).

Whip smut disease thrives in hot and dry weather conditions. The severity of this disease tends to escalate in subsequent ratoon crops and the extent of infection hinges on the susceptibility of the cultivated varieties and the prevailing environmental conditions. Even varieties not usually prone to whip formation may display symptoms under high levels of plant stress. The dry and hot spring weather is particularly conducive to the disease (Bailey, 1977).

Research has revealed that only late-formed whips act as sources of secondary infection, contingent upon the availability of exposed buds (Alexander and Padmanaban, 1992). A more significant incidence of smut has been observed when the maximum temperature exceeds 34°C, especially in conjunction with moderate rainfall, particularly when irrigation and hot weather are involved. Warmer temperatures above 30°C, combined with adequate rainfall, can heighten the severity of the disease. However, normal temperatures with high or low rainfall do not favour infection. Within the crop canopy, smut spore accumulation tends to be lower, while spore dispersal increases with higher wind velocity (Viswanathan et al., 2023).

The disease led to the devastation of numerous commercial sugarcane varieties in the Bihar state, including Co Se 95422, BO 128, BO 147, Co 1158, Co Se 92423, Co S 767, Co 479, and more. It was observed that the reduction in cane weight varied significantly, ranging from 70.7% to 75.3% in varieties such as Co 312, Co 313, and Co L 29 (Sandhu et al., 1969). Smut infection is known to result in metabolic imbalances (Shrivastava et al., 1987).

## Pokkah Boeng:

Pokkah Boeng disease is a re-emerging disease that has been causing substantial yield losses in major sugarcane-producing regions, including South Africa, Malaysia, India and China (Lin et al., 2014;
McFarlane and Rutherford, 2005; Sidique and Nordahliawate, 2007; Singh et al., 2006; Vishwakarma et al., 2013). This disease was initially described by Walker and Went in 1896 and derives its name from the Javanese term for 'malformed top' (Martin et al., 1989). Pokkah Boeng disease is caused by the fungi *Fusarium verticillioides* and *Fusarium sacchari*, with the teleomorph identified as *Gibberella fujikuroi* (K. Sawada) H.W. Wollenweber.

This disease commonly appears during the rainy months in sugarcane fields and while it may not lead to significant yield loss under normal conditions, it can temporarily check the growth of the crop. Typical symptoms include red streaking, chlorosis, malformation and stalk rot. Research conducted in India revealed an overall increase in disease incidence across all sugarcane varieties from 2007 to 2013, with infections reaching up to 90% in variety S224/20 (Lin et al., 2014; Moretti, 2009). Historically, the incidence of Pokkah Boeng increased following major rain events or during the post-monsoon season. However, the disease is now present throughout the growing season, occurring in both wet and dry periods (Lin et al., 2014). The analysis of correlations between meteorological factors and disease incidence reveals that the minimum temperature exhibits a notable positive correlation. Conversely, there are highly positive correlations with the relative humidity at 07 hrs and 14 hrs, as well as rainfall. On the other hand, sunshine demonstrates a significant yet statistically negative association with the incidence of Pokkah boeng disease (Minnatullah et al., 2023).

Pokkah Boeng disease has established a presence in various states throughout India, affecting a wide range of sugarcane varieties. An elite variety, Co 99004, initially released for commercial cultivation, encountered difficulties due to its high susceptibility to the disease. This observation underscores the potential of Pokkah Boeng disease to hinder the performance of otherwise promising sugarcane varieties in the field (Viswanathan, 2020).

**Economic losses:**

In India, sugarcane crops face recurrent epidemics of diseases such as red rot, smut, wilt, yellow leaf disease (YLD), grassy shoot disease, leaf scald and pokkah boeng, leading to significant crop damage. Each year, these diseases result in estimated yield losses of approximately 30-40%, particularly in the sub-tropical zones of the country (Viswanathan and Rao, 2011). The severity of these sugarcane diseases varies depending on the cultivated variety, which has prompted the discontinuation of several once-popular varieties.

In the pursuit of varietal development, the primary focus lies on disease indexing and screening for resistance against red rot, smut and wilt, given their potential to inflict severe harm on the crop. More recently, attention has also turned to diseases like yellow leaf, grassy shoot and pokkah boeng due to their widespread prevalence in commercial sugarcane varieties. YLD, in particular, wreaks havoc on cane production, leading to qualitative losses of up to 40% (Iqbal et al., 2015). Simultaneously, the increasing
severity and prevalence of grassy shoot disease have become a pressing concern for sugarcane cultivators
across India (Rao *et al.*, 2014). Grassy shoot disease, on its own, can lead to yield losses of up to 40%,
and in severe cases, these losses may escalate to a staggering 100% (Tiwari *et al.*, 2012, 2016).

Over the past decade in Bihar, more than 30 sugarcane varieties have been observed to be
affected by a range of diseases, including wilt, red rot, smut, pokkah boeng, sett rot, red stripe, mosaic,
leaf scald, grassy shoot, leaf spot, either individually or in various combinations. This has had a
significant impact on various sugarcane parameters. Fungal diseases are a predominant concern in
sugarcane cultivation in Bihar, affecting approximately 45-60% of the cane-growing regions and
consistently reducing both yield and cane juice quality. These diseases have also led to the elimination of
many well-known commercial cultivars, including Co 0238, Co 0233, CoSe 95422, CoSe 92423, CoH
160, CoH 167, CoJ 85, Co 98014, CoS 8436, CoJ 64 and others. Bacterial diseases have been noted as
well, capable of causing up to 5% damage to the sugarcane crop in the state. Additionally, viral diseases
have affected several sugarcane varieties, with an overall disease incidence of 5-7% typically occurring
when the crop is around 7-10 months old, following heavy rainfall and elevated temperatures
(Minnatullah *et al.*, 2022).

Current Disease Challenges in the Changing Climate

The impact of climate change on disease development in sugarcane has not received extensive research attention to date. However, reports from various countries highlight the increasing severity of brown rust on resistant sugarcane varieties, including CC 85-92, CC 84-75, CC 93-3895, CC 92-2804 and CC 94-5827 in Colombia, the USA, other South American countries and South Africa. The specific reasons for this escalation in rust symptoms remain unknown. Orange rust (Puccinia kuehnii) has been reported in countries where Saccharum spp is native, as well as in regions where Saccharum germplasm was introduced. In Australia, orange rust was initially considered a minor disease until a significant outbreak occurred in 2000 under hot and humid conditions. This epidemic affected the resistant variety Q124, leading to yield losses of 30-40% in several districts, resulting in substantial economic losses and reduced fiber content in affected canes. The outbreak of orange rust on susceptible varieties in Australia resulted in significant financial losses, marking an unprecedented epidemic in Australian history

Smut was first detected in Australian sugarcane in 1998, with wind-borne introduction of smut
spores from Indonesia. It posed a threat to susceptible cultivars, leading to quarantine regulations and the
removal of susceptible fields. However, in 2006, smut was reported on the east coast of Australia in
Queensland, where it has since become widespread and established, prompting the end of biosecurity
eradication and containment efforts. Research conducted at ICAR-SBI, Coimbatore, investigated the
impact of temperature and relative humidity on red rot disease development and tolerance in sugarcane
varieties. The study found that temperature variations had differing effects on disease tolerance in
different varieties, with some showing a potential breakdown of field tolerance due to changing climatic
conditions. This highlights the importance of considering climatic factors in red rot disease management and the need for ongoing research to develop resilient and tolerant sugarcane varieties that can withstand changing weather conditions.

## Future Threat of Emerging Crop Diseases in a Changing Climate

Climate change affects agricultural production with varying impacts on different regions, altering crop growth, disease dynamics and host-pathogen interactions. These changes demand research on biotic and abiotic factors affecting productivity. Climate-induced alterations in temperature, rainfall and wind patterns influence the spread of plant diseases globally. Worst-case scenarios might necessitate increased fungicide use, impacting costs, resistance risks and adaptation strategies. Environmental conditions significantly influence the efficacy of chemical pesticides. Changes in the disease triangle components—host, pathogen, environment—shift disease patterns, impacting natural plant populations' genetic defense mechanisms.

Sugarcane is sensitive to climate variations, with temperature, rainfall and CO2 levels impacting production. Climate shifts affect disease prevalence, urging a need for diversified control methods beyond chemicals. Climate-related changes expand disease territories and alter their impact on yields, affecting sugarcane varieties differently. Weather influences the onset and severity of diseases like rust and brown spot, prompting the search for disease-resistant strains. The interplay between abiotic and biotic factors is key in understanding yield decline, while climate change also affects vectors such as the sugarcane aphid, potentially altering disease spread patterns.

Elevated temperatures due to climate change accelerate pathogen life cycles, increasing disease development rates. Warmer conditions prompt increased spore production, potentially intensifying disease severity and transmission. Factors like temperature, humidity and frost influence disease prevalence and severity in crops like sugarcane, with climate-induced changes potentially introducing new diseases through altered wind patterns. Adapting to these shifts in pathogen behaviour due to climate change is crucial for effective disease control in agriculture.

## Conclusion

Climate-induced challenges intensify sugarcane diseases like brown and orange rust, perplexing the rise in symptoms on resilient strains, demanding deeper research. Outbreaks, like Australia's orange rust, unpredictably cause economic losses and cane quality reduction. Despite earlier containment, smut spreads in Australia, urging varied disease control strategies. Red rot's tolerance variability to changing climates stresses urgent resilient variety development. Global temperature, rainfall shifts impact sugarcane disease spread, necessitating diverse control approaches. Abiotic and biotic factor interplay affects yield and resistant strain development. Elevated temperatures accelerate pathogen life cycles, heightening disease severity and transmission risks. Adapting to these shifts in pathogen behaviour is crucial for effective sugarcane disease control in changing climates.
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