# Report of the special session on advancing integrated agriculture-aquaculture through agroecology, Montpellier, France, 25 August 2018

Lionel Dabbadie, Austin Stankus, Derun Yuan, Matthias Halwart

► To cite this version:

Lionel Dabbadie, Austin Stankus, Derun Yuan, Matthias Halwart. Report of the special session on advancing integrated agriculture-aquaculture through agroecology, Montpellier, France, 25 August 2018. FAO, 1286, 268 p., 2019, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report, 978-92-5-132010-5. hal-05174572

HAL Id: hal-05174572

https://hal.science/hal-05174572v1

Submitted on 21 Jul 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike 4.0 International License
Report of the

SPECIAL SESSION ON ADVANCING INTEGRATED
AGRICULTURE-AQUACULTURE THROUGH AGROECOLOGY

Montpellier, France, 25 August 2018
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>
Report of the

SPECIAL SESSION ON ADVANCING INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE-AQUACULTURE
THROUGH AGROECOLOGY

Montpellier, France, 25 August 2018

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 2019
Required citation:

FAO. 2019. Report of the Special Session on Advancing Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture through Agroecology, Montpellier, France, 25 August 2018. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report No. 1286. Rome.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO.

ISBN 978-92-5-132010-5

© FAO, 2019

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

Some rights reserved. This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode).

Under the terms of this licence, this work may be copied, redistributed and adapted for non-commercial purposes, provided that the work is appropriately cited. In any use of this work, there should be no suggestion that FAO endorses any specific organization, products or services. The use of the FAO logo is not permitted. If the work is adapted, then it must be licensed under the same or equivalent Creative Commons licence. If a translation of this work is created, it must include the following disclaimer along with the required citation: "This translation was not created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). FAO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. The original [Language] edition shall be the authoritative edition."

Disputes arising under the licence that cannot be settled amicably will be resolved by mediation and arbitration as described in Article 8 of the licence except as otherwise provided herein. The applicable mediation rules will be the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rules and any arbitration will be conducted in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).

**Third-party materials.** Users wishing to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third party, such as tables, figures or images, are responsible for determining whether permission is needed for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the copyright holder. The risk of claims resulting from infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely with the user.

**Sales, rights and licensing.** FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Requests for commercial use should be submitted via: www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request. Queries regarding rights and licensing should be submitted to: copyright@fao.org.
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT

This report presents the results of the Special Session convened by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) with support from Cirad (Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement) and NACA (Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific) during the joint World Aquaculture Society-European Aquaculture Society's International Conference AQUA 2018, Montpellier, France, 25 August 2018.

The report was prepared by Lionel Dabbadie, Austin Stankus, Xinhua Yuan and Matthias Halwart of FAO's Aquaculture Branch. Danielle Blacklock reviewed the document and provided useful improvements. Junning Cai provided useful World Aquaculture Performance Indicators (WAPI) illustrations.

The contributed papers are reproduced as submitted.
ABSTRACT

A workshop, aimed at collecting and documenting the diversity of integrated agriculture-aquaculture practices (IAA), was organized on 25 August 2018 in Montpellier during the International conference AQUA 2018 of the World and European Aquaculture Societies. The objectives were to clarify how an IAA implemented within an agroecological approach could help alleviating poverty and hunger, and to identify the knowledge gaps to be filled to ensure the sustainability of IAA. Twenty-five speakers presented background information and case studies in front of a full room.

The various case studies showed that traditional rice-fish culture continues to expand, especially in areas like Madagascar, China or the Lao People's Democratic Republic where improvements have been developed with local stakeholders and indigenous communities. In China, rice is increasingly integrated with new, high market value, fed species such as mitten crab, crayfish, turtle etc. In Guinea, rice-fish integration has been adapted to develop technologies that allow for the culture of rice in fishponds. However, traditional animal-fish integration sometimes tend to stagnate or regress (Brazil, some parts of Asia) despite its benefits. Aquaponics is developing in many areas, including Near East (Oman), Asia (Indonesia), Caribbean or Europe. Recirculating systems with integration to non-fed species is growing fast: "shrimp toilets" (Thailand), raceways in ponds (China), "aquamimicry" (Thailand), integrated cages (Viet Nam), and compartmentalization (Europe). Ecological engineering is also being used in China to recreate a spatial environment with an overall neutral environmental impact. In coastal areas, improved mangrove-shrimp farming is being tested by Viet Nam. IMTA is also being tested, but often still at a pilot stage, especially in Europe. Use of pro- and prebiotics is developing, but not all products are as efficient and the purpose of their use is highly diverse, in particular in India, Bangladesh and Kenya. Efficient water use is a driver for developing IAA, especially in desert and arid lands like Egypt or Oman.

Based on the case studies presented and the discussions that followed, recommendations were made, including the necessity to continue using agroecology to orient IAA development towards efficiency, to measure the environmental, economic and social performance of the improved systems, to define the transition paths to an upscaled sustainable IAA, or to produce some basic knowledge that is still lacking today. Special attention was paid to the constraints specific to small producers.
CONTENTS

<table><tr><td>Context</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Opening presentation (Matthias Halwart)</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>History of IAA and agroecology in aquaculture (Peter Edwards)</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Agroecology and its use in aquaculture (Malcolm Beveridge)</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Social dimensions of IAA and agroecology (Mike Phillips)</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Ecological approaches for better microbial management in intensive shrimp farming (Patrick Sorgeloos)</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Current practices and perspectives for IAA in Asia (Derun Yuan)</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>The activities of the Songhai centre in Africa (Godfrey Nzamujo)</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>IAA and agroecology in the European Union (Joël Aubin)</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Malagasy rice-fish farming (Jean-Michel Mortillaro)</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>The use of probiotics in aquaculture (Francis Murray)</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Biomimicry in aquaculture (Salin Kr.)</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Aquaponics for development (Austin Stankus)</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Aquaponics in Oman (Wenresti Gallardo)</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Integrated Malagasy aquaculture (Diana E. Andria-Mananjara)</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Guinean pisciriziculture (Sidiki Keita)</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>Integrated animal-fish aquaculture in Southern Brazil (Manoel Xavier Pedroza Filho)</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>Aquaculture in deserts and arid lands (Valerio Crespi)</td><td>17</td></tr><tr><td>Resource use efficiency of egyptian farms that practice agriculture-aquaculture integration (Harrison Charo Karisa)</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>Support for the integration between aquatic plants and animal farming in rice fields in the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Chanthaboun Sirimanotham and Nick Innes-Taylor)</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>Ecological engineering of recycling ponds (Xingguo G. Liu)</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>Improvement of carp production in semi-intensive ponds by periphyton production (Sunila Rai)</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>Mangrove-shrimp integration in Viet Nam (Phan Thanh Lam)</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>Artemia production in coastal ponds in Asia (Liying Sui)</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>The rapid development of integrated rice-fish, rice-mitten crab and rice-crayfish aquaculture in China (Yongxu Cheng)</td><td>24</td></tr><tr><td>Integrated rice-fish systems and work with indigenous and local communities in Yunnan province (Yanni Xiao)</td><td>26</td></tr><tr><td>General discussion</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>Conclusion</td><td>28</td></tr></table>
Appendices

<table><tr><td>Appendix 1 - Media Coverage</td><td>29</td></tr><tr><td>Appendix 2 - Programme</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>Appendix 3 - Pictures</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>Appendix 4 - Contributed Papers</td><td>35</td></tr></table>
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

<table><tr><td>ABW</td><td>Average Body Weight</td></tr><tr><td>ADG</td><td>Average Daily Growth</td></tr><tr><td>AFD</td><td>Agence Française de Développement</td></tr><tr><td>AHPND</td><td>Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease</td></tr><tr><td>AIA</td><td>Aquaculture Intégrée à l'Agriculture</td></tr><tr><td>AIT</td><td>Asian Institute of Technology</td></tr><tr><td>AMR</td><td>Anti-Microbial Resistance</td></tr><tr><td>AMTI</td><td>Aquaculture Multi-Trophique Intégrée</td></tr><tr><td>APDRA</td><td>Association Pisciculture et Développement Rural en Afrique</td></tr><tr><td>BOD</td><td>Biological Oxygen Demand</td></tr><tr><td>CAFS</td><td>Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences</td></tr><tr><td>CBF</td><td>Community or culture-based fisheries</td></tr><tr><td>CFU</td><td>Colony-Forming Unit</td></tr><tr><td>CGIAR FISH</td><td>Research Program on Fish Agri-Food Systems of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research</td></tr><tr><td>CIRAD</td><td>Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement</td></tr><tr><td>COD</td><td>Chemical Oxygen Demand</td></tr><tr><td>COFI</td><td>Committee on Fisheries</td></tr><tr><td>CPHP</td><td>Commercial Prophylactic Health Products</td></tr><tr><td>CRSP</td><td>Collaborative Research Support Programme</td></tr><tr><td>DLF</td><td>Department of Livestock and Fisheries (the Lao People's Democratic Republic)</td></tr><tr><td>DNP</td><td>Direction Nationale de la Pisciculture</td></tr><tr><td>DOC</td><td>Duration of Cycle</td></tr><tr><td>DOF</td><td>Department of Fisheries</td></tr><tr><td>EPAGRI</td><td>Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária e Extensão Rural de Santa Catarina</td></tr><tr><td>FAO</td><td>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations</td></tr><tr><td>FCR</td><td>Feed Conversion Ratio</td></tr><tr><td>FFRC</td><td>Freshwater Fisheries Research Center</td></tr><tr><td>FOFIFA</td><td>National Center for Applied Research on Rural Development</td></tr><tr><td>FSY</td><td>Fermented soybean meal</td></tr><tr><td>GEF</td><td>Global Environment Facility</td></tr><tr><td>GHG</td><td>Greenhouse Gas</td></tr><tr><td>GIAHS</td><td>Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems</td></tr><tr><td>GMO</td><td>Genetically-Modified Organism</td></tr><tr><td>HP</td><td>Horse Power</td></tr><tr><td>IAA</td><td>Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>ICLARM</td><td>International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management</td></tr><tr><td>IIA</td><td>Integrated Irrigation-Aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>IMAQulate</td><td>Immuno-Modulators in Aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>IMSF</td><td>Integrated Mangrove-Shrimp Farming</td></tr><tr><td>IMTA</td><td>Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>INRA</td><td>Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique</td></tr><tr><td>IPRS</td><td>In-Pond Raceway aquaculture System</td></tr><tr><td>LFRB</td><td>Liquid Fermented Rice Bran</td></tr><tr><td>MAVIPI</td><td>Modelo Alto Vale do Itajaí de Piscicultura Integrada</td></tr><tr><td>MPAEM</td><td>Ministère des pêches de l'aquaculture et de l'economie maritime</td></tr><tr><td>N</td><td>Nitrogen</td></tr><tr><td>NACA</td><td>Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific</td></tr><tr><td>NGO</td><td>Non-Governmental Organization</td></tr><tr><td>P</td><td>Phosphorus</td></tr><tr><td>PDRPGF</td><td>Projet de Développement de la Rizi-Pisciculture en Guinée Forestière</td></tr><tr><td>PCR</td><td>Polymerase Chain Reaction</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>PL</td><td>Post-Larvae</td></tr><tr><td>PPGF</td><td>Projet de Pisciculture en Guinée Forestière</td></tr><tr><td>RAS</td><td>Recirculating Aquaculture System</td></tr><tr><td>SDG</td><td>Sustainable Development Goals</td></tr><tr><td>SFB</td><td>San Francisco Bay</td></tr><tr><td>SGR</td><td>Specific Growth Rate</td></tr><tr><td>SIS</td><td>Small Indigenous Species</td></tr><tr><td>SME</td><td>Small and Medium Enterprise</td></tr><tr><td>SQU</td><td>Sultan Qaboos University</td></tr><tr><td>SRA</td><td>Système de Riziculture Améliorée</td></tr><tr><td>SRI</td><td>Système de Riziculture Intensive</td></tr><tr><td>SRT</td><td>Système de Riziculture Traditionnelle</td></tr><tr><td>UNDP</td><td>United Nations Development Programme</td></tr><tr><td>UVI</td><td>University of the Virgin Islands</td></tr><tr><td>VAC</td><td>Vuon Ao Chuong</td></tr><tr><td>VC</td><td>Vinh Chau</td></tr><tr><td>WAPI</td><td>World Aquaculture Performance Indicators</td></tr><tr><td>WFP</td><td>World Food Programme</td></tr><tr><td>VSF</td><td>Vétérinaires Sans Frontières</td></tr><tr><td>WiA</td><td>Women in Aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>WSI</td><td>Water Scarcity Regional Initiative</td></tr><tr><td>WSSV</td><td>White Spot Syndrome Virus</td></tr><tr><td>YHV</td><td>Yellow Head Virus</td></tr></table>
## CONTEXT

1. Aquaculture now supplies more than half of the world's fish consumed and to meet global demand which is expected to reach 152 million tonnes per year by 2030, the sector will need to produce an additional 17 million tonnes. So far, the increase in production has been made possible by two means: the expansion of aquaculture production areas and the intensification of production methods. However, this has in some cases led to some undesirable environmental impacts at both the local and global levels, with the destruction of some important ecosystem services, as well as social conflicts between users of land and resources (especially water).

2. The integration of aquaculture and agriculture is not a recent innovation. Indeed, it is ancient, but in a context of increasing pressure on natural resources and land, aggravated by the uncertainties of climate change, it offers new opportunities to build more sustainable food systems through new practices that allow producing more, while also creating socio-economic and environmental benefits.

3. Agroecology is one of the new approaches that allows advancing the integration of aquaculture and agriculture. It involves applying ecological concepts and principles to optimize interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment. By creating synergies, agroecology not only contributes to food production, food security and nutrition, but also to the restoration of ecosystem services and biodiversity, which are essential for sustainable agriculture. It can thus play an important role in building resilience and adapting to climate change.

4. In this context, the objective of the workshop was to assess the current state and prospects for agroecological development of Integrated Aquaculture in Agriculture, in order to determine if, under what conditions and how integrated aquaculture and agroecology can contribute to meeting current development challenges in the sector.

5. The workshop was held on the first day of the AQUA 2018 conference, 25 August 2018. Twenty-five speakers presented their communications to over 100 participants.

## OPENING PRESENTATION (MATTHIAS HALWART)

6. Matthias Halwart (FAO) opened the workshop. After highlighting the diversity of aquaculture systems integrated with agriculture, he stressed that these practices offered the opportunity to inspire new and more sustainable food systems.

7. He also introduced the FAO Common Vision for Sustainable Food and Agriculture and noted that it calls for a reassessment of IAA systems. This new vision, endorsed by FAO Member States, is based on the recognition that it will be necessary to produce more, in view of population growth, but in a context increasingly constrained by scarce natural resources and the changes resulting from climate change. This vision, developed through extensive consultations and the mobilization of lead experts, proposes five key principles and emphasizes synergies and inter-sectoral practices. Agroecology on its side is based on ten principles: diversity, synergies, co-creation and sharing of knowledge, resilience, food culture and traditions, the circular and solidarity economy, recycling, efficiency, human and social values and responsible governance.

8. After stating the objectives of the workshop, Mr. Halwart concluded his intervention by officially opening the workshop.

## HISTORY OF IAA AND AGROECOLOGY IN AQUACULTURE (PETER EDWARDS)

9. Peter Edwards, Professor Emeritus at the Asian Institute of Technology (Thailand) gave the first presentation, setting IAA and agroecology in their historical perspective. He began by recalling the definition of IAA: the integration of aquaculture with a crop and/or a livestock subsystem. IAA may be more or less intensive depending on the level of inputs it receives, it is direct when the inputs come from the farm or indirect when they come from outside.

10. Historically, rice-fish farming may date back 8 000 years in China and it is in this same country that polyculture of carp was developed a thousand years ago, after the breeding of common carp was prohibited because its Chinese name "li", was the same as that of Emperor Li.
11. Common carp was then introduced by sea to Japan (2000 years ago) and Indonesia (600 years ago), and by land to the Lao Peoples's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (unknown date). For other Chinese carps, it was mainly during the 19th and 20th centuries that they were widely distributed throughout Southeast and South Asia.

12. Integration between rice and fish is often based on species with a low commercial value, but there are exceptions such as high value crustacean farming in rice fields in Bangladesh, China and Viet Nam. It remains a traditional activity, especially in the mountains, where the rice terraces are located (Zhejiang Province in China, North Viet Nam), but it is also currently promoted by various projects e.g. in the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Cambodia. However, there is a major trend towards converting rice fields into fish ponds throughout Asia, some involving IAA e.g. with ducks and horticulture in Viet Nam.

13. P. Edwards then referred to the traditional Chinese pond polyculture, emphasizing the central role of grass carp, which has been described as a "natural fertilizing machine" supported by two Chinese proverbs: "Take care of grass carp and other species will take care of themselves" and "one grass carp can feed two silver carps and one bighead carp".

14. Integration of fish with livestock has played an important traditional role in densely populated countries such as China, Indonesia and Viet Nam. However, since the 1990s, there has been a decline in IAA and an intensification through pellet-fed aquaculture systems. Today, the main direct livestock-fish systems encountered in Southeast Asia are poultry integrated with ponds. Among the indirect systems, integrated Indian carps farming produces 1 million tonne of rohu and catla in India. Fertilizers are broiler chicken litter and chemical fertilizers, while brans and oil cakes are also used as supplementary feed. Similar indirect IAA systems are found in Thailand and Viet Nam.

15. Research focused on establishing a scientific basis of how these systems work. Over the past forty years, recommendations have been formulated for different types of IAA for fertilization and supplementary feeding, and nutrients, oxygen and ammonia dynamics and various other design criteria.

16. P. Edwards then presented the experience of the Asian Institute of Technology<fnref n="1" /> in promoting IAA to family farmers in Thailand. Following a diagnosis carried out in the late 1970s in Pathumthani province, two major groups of fish farmers were identified: commercial farmers mainly integrated with pigs and poultry, and small producers, rice farmers carrying out fish farming in excavations dug to raise the level of dwellings above flood level. The latter were the target of the Institute's assistance programmes. After various experiments (integration of duck and subsequently buffalo with fish), technical recommendations were formulated. Although the productivity of duck/fish integration was relatively high, competition from large agribusiness companies reduced the profitability of duck egg marketing. Thus, technical aspects should not be the only criterion used to design IAAs. Various factors including market (e.g. need to be considered in assessing the contribution of aquaculture to small-scale farming household income.

17. Based on this experience, P. Edwards made the following recommendations in conclusion:

- Rural households are increasingly motivated to raise fish for the income it provides rather than for their own subsistence;

- IAA should be financially attractive compared to other possible income-generating options, both on- and off-farm;

- IAA should be implemented as a SME (Small and Medium Enterprise);

- IAA should be intensified, but research on on-farm nutrient cycling is no longer a priority to make the activity attractive to rural households;

- The best option is probably indirect IAA, with the mobilization of inputs from outside the farm to augment the usually low on-farm nutrient base.

## AGROECOLOGY AND ITS USE IN AQUACULTURE (MALCOLM BEVERIDGE)

18. Malcolm Beveridge presented agroecology and its application to aquaculture. After noting that this approach challenges the current dominant models of industrial agriculture by applying the concepts and principles of ecology to agriculture, he explored the various definitions of agroecology and selected

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

<footnote n="1">¹ More information is available at [serd.ait.ac.th/aquaculture-and-aquatic-resources-management/](https://serd.ait.ac.th/aquaculture-and-aquatic-resources-management/)</footnote>
one: “... optimizing interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment, while taking into account the social aspects that must be considered for a sustainable and equitable food system” as encapsulating many of the dominant ideas. Thus, “... by building synergies, agroecology can support food production, food security and nutrition while restoring ecosystem services and biodiversity that are essential for sustainable agriculture”.

19. In the general framework of the 2030 Agenda and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals, FAO has developed a knowledge platform dedicated to agroecology and identified 10 elements that characterize agroecology approaches:<fnref n="2" />

1. **Diversity**: diversification is key to agroecological transitions to ensure food security and nutrition while conserving, protecting and enhancing natural resources;

2. **Co-creation of knowledge and transdisciplinary approaches for innovation**: Co-creation and sharing of knowledge: agricultural innovations respond better to local challenges when they are co-created through participatory processes;

3. **Synergies**: building synergies enhances key functions across food systems, supporting production and multiple ecosystem;

4. **Efficiency**: innovative agroecological practices produce more using less external;

5. **Recycling**: more recycling means agricultural production with lower economic and environmental costs;

6. **Resilience**: enhanced resilience of people, communities and ecosystems is key to sustainable food and agricultural systems;

7. **Human and social values**: protecting and improving rural livelihoods, equity and social well-being is essential for sustainable food and agricultural systems;

8. **Culture and food traditions**: by supporting healthy, diversified and culturally appropriate diets, agroecology contributes to food security and nutrition while maintaining the health of ecosystems;

9. **Responsible governance**: sustainable food and agriculture requires responsible and effective governance mechanisms at different scales – from local to national to global;

10. **Circular and solidarity economy**: circular and solidarity economies that reconnect producers and consumers provide innovative solutions for living within our planetary boundaries while ensuring the social foundation for inclusive and sustainable development”.

20. The application of agroecology in aquaculture emerged in the 1970s from the discipline of systems ecology and also drew heavily from traditional aquaculture systems, particularly in China.

21. It has since spread to other regions of the world, for example in Madagascar, where rice-fish farming is a traditional activity but where the production of this form of IAA increased by a factor of 15 during the late 1980s and 1990s, following a number of FAO interventions. In Viet Nam, the integrated production of vegetables, dairy cattle, and fish systems is often cited as an example of IAA. In Côte d'Ivoire, the acadja ponds (IAA that combines fish and small animal farming such as rabbits or chicken, with bamboos planted in the pond to promote the production of periphyton on which fish feed) raised many hopes in the 1990s but ultimately did not generate a sustainable development dynamic.

22. Agroecology is no longer only apparent in simple aquaculture technology-based systems. Integrated aquaculture/solar electricity production systems (e.g. Réunion) and aquaponics (e.g. United States) are beginning to appear. Marine salmon farming systems have been developed in Scotland and elsewhere in Northern Europe that incorporate co-stocking of lumpfish and wrasse to control sea lice.

23. Agroecology is thus developing rapidly due to concerns about the future of the global food system. It is based on a strong theoretical basis and applies to both developing and developed countries. Agroecology can also be applied in aquaculture, although progress has sometimes been slow. For agroecology-based aquaculture to be able to meet the challenges of the Sustainable Development Goals, it must:

- prove profitable and attractive to farmers, especially young farmers;

<footnote n="2">² More information can be found at http://www.fao.org/agroecology/home/en/</footnote>
- facilitate ownership of the innovation process by stakeholders;

- take into account all impacts on ecosystem services.

24. To this end, FAO should integrate agroecology into the principles of its Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and its Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture. The aquaculture industry should also promote the adoption of agroecology principles through its certification processes.

## SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF IAA AND AGROECOLOGY (MIKE PHILLIPS)

25. After recalling why fish was important in terms of production, livelihoods, health, nutrition and also, of course, in economic terms, Mike Phillips quickly introduced Worldfish and the associated research programme. He then presented the work on integrated rice-fish systems that is being studied by using landscape approaches.

26. Rice-fish farming systems in South or Southeast Asia include a large number of diversified practices, with different agroecological interactions and different approaches at farm and landscape levels. The analytical framework used is the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods, which takes into account both the livelihoods and the resilience of the communities concerned.

27. As far as income is concerned, the results show a significant increase in income from conversion of rice paddies to rice-fish systems, due to fish revenues and productivity gains, particularly in Bangladesh and Myanmar. With regard to gender, studies have shown that when women have access to the same level of resources, farm yields are 20-30 percent higher, and the income gain would reduce the number of hungry people in the world by 12-17 percent.

28. In terms of nutrition, there is a considerable lack of knowledge, but rice-fish farming offers a potential in terms of accessibility to nutrient-rich foods, in terms of food diversity for nutritional benefits, and in terms of improving the quality of fish and rice.

29. Rice-fish farming systems are often practiced in highly vulnerable areas such as the deltas of South and Southeast Asia. Better fish management in these systems through diversification of production and productivity gains can increase the resilience of the people.

30. In terms of environmental impact, rice-fish farming improves the natural resources and ecosystem services through better management (fish, water storage during droughts, efficient use of water and nutrients, disease and pathogen management, pesticide use and better health, food security). The challenge at this level is the integrated water management at the landscape level.

31. At the global level, if 20 percent of the 163 million hectares of rice fields (32 million hectares) were to be converted to rice-fish farming, it would induce major social, environmental and economic changes, but before achieving this result, there is a need to better understand the impact pathways and the key actors involved.

## ECOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR BETTER MICROBIAL MANAGEMENT IN INTENSIVE SHRIMP FARMING (PATRICK SORGELOOS)

32. Patrick Sorgeloos began his presentation by listing the ten priorities for future technological innovations, identified in 2010 at the FAO Global Conference on Aquaculture, with two of them focusing on microbial management and integrated systems:

- domestication: total independence from natural stocks;

- improved and less costly methods of producing fry;

- better targeted selection of species;

- development of more efficient lines through genetic selection;

- better microbial management for sustainable production;

- better understanding of the immune systems of vertebrates and invertebrates;

- more integrated production systems with livestock and agriculture;

- coastal and offshore farms for food and energy production;

- total independence from fisheries for the supply of fats and proteins in aquaculture feed;
- better attention to the integration of re-seeding activities with fisheries management.

33. But today, scientific progress, particularly in molecular biology, has made it possible to go much further in understanding the management of bacteria in aquaculture, particularly with a view to preventing diseases of opportunistic pathogens.

34. Bacteria communicate with each other through extracellular signal molecules. When they reach a certain density or quorum, virulence genes are activated and they become pathogenic. Some, such as vibriosis, can have catastrophic effects on the aquaculture sector.

35. An aquaculture system is populated by neutral or beneficial bacteria, harmful bacteria and potentially harmful opportunistic bacteria. Biosecurity is essential to eliminate pathogenic bacteria. However, after disinfection, all bacteria are eliminated and a new colonization of the environment takes place, with two types of organism strategies: r-strategy and k-strategy. A succession of populations follows, until all the niches are occupied.

36. If stocking occurs too early, the microbial population may be dominated by growing (and therefore virulent) opportunistic bacteria, whereas if stocking were to be done later, the environment would be dominated by neutral or beneficial organisms.

37. A strategy to use “microbially mature” water can therefore pay off and several techniques are available: the green water system, the tilapia co-culture, the pro- and prebiotics, the bioflocs systems, the zero exchange systems, recirculated systems or systems integrated with non-fed species such as tilapia or macro-algae (e. g. shrimp-toilet ponds in which shrimp pond effluents are discharged before being released back into circulation). Polyculture could also promote bacterial stability.

38. These changes not only improve the health status of farms, but also improve the farm profitability as indicated by economic results before and after the outbreak of early shrimp mortality syndrome (EMS) or acute hepatopancreatic necrosis syndrome (AHPNS).

## CURRENT PRACTICES AND PERSPECTIVES FOR IAA IN ASIA (DERUN YUAN)

39. IAA in Asia is diverse. It can be extensive (<1 tonnes/ha), semi-intensive (5-10 tonnes/ha) or even intensive (>10 tonnes/ha), although most systems are extensive and semi-intensive. It can also be practiced in open water (aquaculture-based fisheries), in excavations or trenches (rice/fish), in ponds, tanks, raceways or cages etc.

40. In Asia, the most common features of IAA systems are:

- a predominance of semi-intensive systems (rice-fish, crops-fish, livestock-fish, etc.);

- a predominance of omnivorous species;

- an incredible diversity;

- a trend towards intensification;

- new systems emerging.

41. Rice-fish farming is practiced in most Asian countries. Fish farming is carried out at the same time as rice cultivation, or alternately (rotation). Excavations or trenches are dug in the centre of the rice fields to serve as a fish refuge. The dominant species are omnivorous and production ranges from 100 kg to 1 tonnes/ha. One of the benefits of rice-fish farming is that the use of fertilizers and pesticides is reduced, by around 30 to 50 percent. The main constraints to its expansion are the public policies that restrict the conversion of rice fields to secure rice production, the economic attractiveness not always guaranteed, the adoption of new short-cycle rice varieties that require little water (and are therefore little fish-friendly), and the still widespread use of pesticides and fertilizers.

42. Rice-fish farming is particularly relevant for the poorest households, as it is a relatively accessible food source and means of improving incomes. Opportunities for intensification include better configuration of rice fields and better management to increase fish production. It is possible to diversify the technique, for example by breeding fish or producing fingerlings. It is also possible to integrate aquatic animals with a high market value such as crayfish, crabs, freshwater shrimp, lochs or rice field eels.
43. Other integrated crop-fish farming systems encountered in Asia include pond-dike farming systems, plant/fish rotations (forage or compost), mangrove-shrimp systems and new emerging systems such as plant-crayfish. The main constraints are the high opportunity cost of labour and land.

44. Animal-fish IAA systems are represented by semi-intensive ponds that are directly or indirectly integrated into terrestrial animal farms. They still dominate aquaculture production. The constraints include some health aspects such as avian influenza. At medium and large-scale, this practice is declining, but remains an effective means of reducing poverty, especially in its indirect form, as fertilizer inputs are an easy way to improve small-scale agricultural production.

45. Pond recirculation systems are a way to treat water from intensive aquaculture by using filter feeder fish species, aquatic plants and/or shellfish that extract excess nutrients produced by the primary, intensively farmed, species. This makes it possible to reuse water in the system. The important elements for the system are the efficiency of land use and the cost compared to other alternatives. The system can be further improved and diversified but it is an environmental alternative to intensive monoculture.

46. IAA is also practiced in tanks or raceways. This is particularly the case for aquaponics, or tank- and raceways-in-ponds. They are a more sustainable alternative to conventional fed aquaculture systems, as they are mobile and flexible in terms of site selection. On the other hand, they require a certain amount of capital and raise the question of their profitability. They are also relatively complex technologically and potentially difficult for small producers.

47. Cage IAA is also practiced. In North Viet Nam and elsewhere, fodder and maize leaves are used to feed grass carp in cages. It is also practiced in the irrigation facilities of most countries, but agricultural pollution is a real constraint, which has led to its decline in China, for example. However, it remains an option in underutilized natural or agricultural water bodies, provided that carrying capacity is properly assessed. In eutrophic water bodies, cage culture can be considered without feeding. Large double-bottomed cages can also be used to facilitate the recovery of waste by pumping.

48. Finally, IAA is also practised in open systems, for example with fisheries based on aquaculture or for the production of aquatic plants through aquaculture effluents.

49. With regard to research and training needs, the general scientific principles of IAA are now well known and technologies are available; however, there is still knowledge to be acquired on the productivity and economic profitability of small farms. This requires a better understanding of the social dynamics, economic conditions and resources available to small producers. The other priority is to improve the sustainability of conventional intensive aquaculture. This requires assessing and documenting the ecological efficiency, economic viability and adoptability in different geographical contexts of new emerging IAA systems, respecting indigenous knowledge and farmer innovations; and designing new alternatives to unsustainable practices in intensive aquaculture through effective engineering approaches.

50. A major training effort has so far been made by many institutions, at international, regional, national and local levels, but it must be continued, especially for small producers, as IAA must continue to be promoted and implemented.

## THE ACTIVITIES OF THE SONGHAI CENTRE IN AFRICA (GODFREY NZAMUJO)

51. The Songhai Centre promotes an alternative for agroecological and sustainable development in Africa. Based on the observation that conventional linear and mechanical approaches have failed, it recommends moving to a systemic approach. Therefore, the transition to integrated development systems should not be built on entities (animal, fish or culture), but on the organizational schemes to be developed and adopted so that these entities interact with their environment. Agriculture is by nature a systemic process with the potential to provide holistic responses to current challenges.

52. The approach is based on the construction of synergies, symbioses, complementarities, collaboration and supplementations. The objective is to design development trajectories where technologies are mobilized to create dynamic links and synergies between food production (crops, animals, fish, others), SMEs (value added, agri-food, construction) and marketing (retail, catering, export).
53. Within this general framework, aquaculture is one of the elements of the network that makes it possible to enhance the environmental capital of African water bodies, not only to produce food but also to generate ecosystem services that strengthen the productive capacity of the environment. Aquaculture is approached in a way that optimizes the interaction between its various trophic components, from the microorganisms that recycle nutrients to intermediate levels such as algae and plankton, and, finally, to fish. By optimizing these flows, the objective is to produce more with less.

54. The Songhai agroecological aquaculture system uses genetically improved fish strains, fish by-products and unconventional nutrient inputs such as crickets, algae, zooplankton, plant and animal by-products, or bacteria to produce high quality fish products and nutrient-rich water that can be used for crops or zooplankton production before being recycled into fish farming.

## IAA AND AGROECOLOGY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION (JOËL AUBIN)

55. In 2015, the average consumption of aquatic products in the European Union was 23.1 kg/capita, of which 24 percent came from aquaculture. The production is almost entirely consumed locally, but this represents only 43 percent of the total. Fifty-seven percent is imported from non-European Union countries, in particular Norway. In terms of volume, the European Union is the 8th largest producer in the world, but with 1.5 percent, it lags far behind China (60.7 percent) and the other major producers of Asia (25.8 percent).

56. The traditional European aquaculture system is the freshwater pond polyculture. Introduced during the Middle Age, it was spread by monks to produce fish during the 120 days of Lent. Traditional production is either scattered throughout the territory or concentrated in particular regions. This system is by definition agroecological because it recycles nutrients in the food chain and is based on interactions: interactions between stocked and natural biodiversity, interaction at the landscape level and with agriculture.

57. The traditional production process, as described in the Dombes region, consists of 4+1 steps:

- pond filling with water and nutrients from the agricultural watershed;

- fish production and fertilization;

- pond drainage and fish harvesting;

- pond drying to promote mineralization of organic matter;

- this cycle is repeated 4 times, then an additional step is introduced, which consists in farming crops (cereals, etc.) inside the pond.

58. The current trend shows a decrease in the consumption of freshwater fish, some variability in yields and profit, a problem of bird predation, the development of new pond uses for more attractive activities such as recreation or hunting, the suspicion of environmental impact and some reduction in research support. All this lead to the abandon of the agroecological and integrated fish pond farming in favour of a fish monoculture based on exogenous food.

59. Unfortunately, it has several disadvantages: it is not integrated with other crops, it depends on external resources (food, energy), it is not the most effective in retaining nutrients and it generates many direct emissions that create a cost for producers, companies and/or ecosystems. There is a need to re-integrate monoculture aquaculture systems and design new systems based on new strategies.

60. The first one consists in conducting the farming by distinguishing different compartments. For example, a water treatment compartment is added downstream of an intensive fish farm. It has been tested with integrated marine algae, microalgae, *Salicornia* etc. Its advantage is that it generates co-products with an economic value, but so far it has remained at the experimental/SME stage.

61. An evolution of the system consists in separating the compartments in a recirculating system. This is the principle of aquaponics, which combines an aquaculture recirculated circuit with hydroponics technology. This system is currently supported by interest in urban agriculture, and many small-scale initiatives.

62. Another strategy is to separate the compartments to use primary production of fish effluents to feed secondary producers (oysters etc.). It is the land-based Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture. The
practice is still at an experimental stage. In addition to microalgae, it is also possible to recycle organic matter by adding worms such as polychaetes or sea cucumbers to the system. This is also at the experimental stage.

63. An integrated multi-trophic aquaculture system tested in Hungary consists in combining an intensive aquaculture compartment with an extensive polyculture pond. Manure from intensive livestock farm fertilizes the pond, which recycles nutrients. It also increases the provision of ecosystem services.

64. Some systems are not compartmentalized. This is the case of the Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture, which is at a pilot stage in the European Union. It consists of combining fish cages with macroalgae and mussel culture, and possibly also benthic organisms.

65. In coastal ponds, some fish farms combine fish with bivalves or microalgae. These include the combination of mullet, bream, oysters and sea lettuce (Ulva sp.) as well as an association of oysters and shrimps in Atlantic ponds. Such initiatives are still at the pilot stage too, but some SMEs are also experimenting with them.

66. In summary, there are many combinations possible, including the use of non-domesticated species. Exogenous feed allow fish produced in intensive systems to generate effluents rich in mineral salts, dissolved organic matter and particulate organic matter. Dissolved elements can be used by primary producers (phytoplankton, algae, and aquatic plants). Particulate organic matter can be used by secondary producers (zooplankton, insects), filter feeders (shellfish, fish) or benthophagous organisms (crustaceans, worms, echinoderms). Nevertheless, despite their diversity, most of the initiatives remain at an experimental or pilot stage, and most often for co-production from fish effluents. There are still few fully integrated initiatives.

67. Many issues still need to be resolved, including the design and sizing of systems, the assessment of their effectiveness, and a better understanding of the interactions between farmed species and those in the ecosystem. Priority actions must focus on economic relevance, acceptability to consumers, access to production sites, consistency of various legislations (fish, shellfish, algae), waste use legislation (e.g. "It is forbidden to feed animals with waste") etc.

## MALAGASY RICE-FISH FARMING (JEAN-MICHEL MORTILLARO)

68. In Madagascar, rice-fish farming, one of the oldest forms of integration of aquaculture with agriculture, was popularized by FAO in 1985 and then by the NGO "Association Pisciculture et Développement Rural en Afrique" (APDRA) from 2006. It is an activity with a great potential in the country, where rice is the main crop (1.2 million hectares) and staple food (150 kg/capita/year), although the national production does not meet the domestic demand. It also allows to diversify an often monotonous diet, particularly for low- and middle-income households, thus improving nutrition in rural areas.

69. Wild fish, most often wild tilapia, is traditionally harvested in irrigated rice fields. The farming technique used in Madagascar consists of stocking common carp fry in paddy fields, in raising the level of the side dikes and in digging a fish refuge inside the rice field. In terms of calendar, fish fry is generally produced at the end of the southern winter (between September and December), rice is planted in December and fish farming extends from January to June.

70. An experiment conducted over two years characterized by untypical rainfall (2016-2017: drought; 2017-2018: flood) showed an increase in rice yield in the presence of carps: +19 percent in 2016-2017 and +31 percent in 2017-2018. Fish recycle nutrients trapped in insects and weeds. Rice-fish farming also improves the resilience to climate change by allowing the dual use of water and land for rice and fish production.

71. A current challenge for Madagascar is to intensify the production by using crop residues or other locally available resources (leaves, termites, kitchen waste, animal excreta, etc.). However, a survey showed that the production obtained after adding inputs is far from being homogeneous, due to the diversity of rice culture practices (SRI: Intensive Rice System, SRA: Improved Rice System, SRT: Traditional Rice System, off-season rice), to the diversity of soils and to the diversity of agro-environmental conditions.
72. In Madagascar, integrated rice and fish farming is a profitable activity, because the price of fish on the local market is quite high (EUR<fnref n="3" /> 2.5/kg) and the production costs of the integrated system are lower, but it also faces some constraints. The investment cost is high compared to the standard of living in rural Madagascar where the monthly income is about EUR 22. The labour needed to adapt a 400 m² rice paddy is worth EUR 16 and a 2 cm carp fry costs EUR 0.05 per piece (i.e. EUR 5 for stocking the whole rice field at a density of 0.25 fish/m²). In addition, the rice-fish culture calendar requires high financial expenses in times where other spending are also needed: during the back-to-school season, or during December-February lean season, when farm crops have already been consumed and food must be bought.

73. Access to fry is another constraint, due to the remoteness of many rural areas, the poor road infrastructure and the low carp fry survival (on average, 2000 fry per female). Finally, the lack of public support, despite strategic plans to disseminate the SRI, is another constraint.

74. Current priorities for Madagascar are to reduce the investment costs, to improve the fry quality and availability, to optimize the competing uses of food and fertilizer by improving nutrient recycling, to improve the system efficiency by developing polyculture of native species and finally, to better understand the social constraints to the adoption of rice and fish farming.

## THE USE OF PROBIOTICS IN AQUACULTURE (FRANCIS MURRAY)

75. The growing market for aquatic products is encouraging small aquaculture producers to intensify their farming systems. This often leads to animal health issues, which can eventually become major issues. With increasing restrictions on drug substances, antimicrobial residue problems and AMR (Anti-Microbial Resistance) legislation, the use of immuno-modulators, whether pre- or probiotics, has become commonplace but this trend has been accompanied by a confusing development with unjustified claims, poor quality assurance, and lack of clear recommendations for small producers.

76. Probiotics are living microorganisms that provide benefits for the health of organisms, when administered in adequate quantities with food (gut microbiome) or in the environment (in the water or the soil as bio-mediators). Prebiotics are substances that stimulate the growth of beneficial microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) in the intestine. Synbiotics are nutritional supplements that provide health benefits in combination with pre- or probiotics (selective growth, activation). Fermentation or biofloc technology are alternatives to commercial products.

77. The objectives of the IMAQulate (Immuno-Modulators in Aquaculture) project are to inventory and analyze some Commercial Prophylactic Health Products (CPHPs), to evaluate the cost-benefit in real conditions on farms, to develop new prebiotics and to communicate the information to small intensive producers, CPHP suppliers and official or regulatory control. The study was conducted in India, Bangladesh and Kenya and it included shrimp (*Litopenaeus vannamei* and *Penaeus monodon*), tilapia and pangasius farms. These countries and species have experienced a rapid growth and disease problems, particularly in areas where the farming was concentrated. The inventory of products used by farms was conducted by the Indian Coastal Aquaculture Authority. It shows that most of the farms use probiotics and immuno-stimulants.

78. The analysis of probiotics made it possible to establish a ranking of the risks associated with the different products, in particular by using criteria such as the presence of pathogens, the Colony Forming Units concentration (CFU/g), the antibiotic resistance or the contamination by antibiotics.

79. The survey of Indian farmers included 253 producers (137 small producers, 55 medium producers, 23 large/uncertified producers and 38 large/certified producers) and 47 hatcheries (4 small unregistered, 7 small, 26 medium and 10 large). In 2017, 100 percent of the large hatcheries, 88 percent of the medium-sized and 36 percent of the small ones used probiotics (5 brands with prices ranging from USD 14.5/kg to USD 51.1/kg), whether to treat water preventively or to treat diseases. However, the large and medium-sized hatcheries tend to use them to improve water quality, whereas the small ones are more likely to use them for therapeutic purposes. All probiotics were spread in water, none distributed with the

<footnote n="3">³ EUR 1 = USD 1.1.</footnote>
food. The farm survey also identified 89 products marketed by 45 manufacturers, but with two dominating the market.

80. This knowledge should be included in the quality certification approaches and standards, particularly with regard to risks and effectiveness of product. The specificities of the small producers must also be taken into account.

## BIOMIMICRY IN AQUACULTURE (SALIN KR.)

81. Thailand has long been the world's leading shrimp exporter, but the production declined sharply in the 2010's due to the emergence of diseases, including Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND). Since 2015, farmers have implemented new strategies that have allowed the national production to start growing again.

82. To make aquaculture sustainable, action can be taken at several levels:

- At the input level, by disconnecting aquaculture feed from marine ecosystems, and not using antibiotics and chemicals;

- In the farming environment, by maintaining good water quality, without extreme variations and by minimizing or eliminating emissions;

- In terms of products, by-products and/or waste, by guaranteeing food quality and safety, animal welfare and zero waste.

83. Several systems have been developed: the Recirculated Aquaculture Systems, the Integrated Multi-Trophic Systems, the Bioflocs technology or Bio(Aqua)mimicry.

84. Biomimicry is the science that studies natural models and imitates nature to design ecologically sensitive production systems. J. Benyus identified nine principles that characterize natural systems:

- they operate on solar energy;

- they use only the needed amount of energy;

- they adapt the shape to the function;

- they recycle everything;

- they reward cooperation;

- they focus on diversity;

- they require local expertise;

- they limit excesses;

- they harness the power of limits.

85. In aquaculture systems, biomimicry acts at different levels:

- Many biotic and abiotic subsystems interact with feedback loops;

- Synergies make it possible to reduce emission of metabolic products, particularly ammonia;

- The result is a more efficient use of food and better sanitary conditions for fish/prawns;

- Regular energy inputs and management are needed to avoid collapses.

86. The first level of biomimetic functioning is the balance between autotrophic and heterotrophic compartments that perform different functions. Thus, water quality is more stable thanks to the development of biocolloids and live food. The feed used is fermented soya and the production method is a recirculating system that combines production ponds with treatment ponds. A central well is used to collect the mud and transfer it to an anoxic pond for treatment. Partitions favour sedimentation and fish species, bivalve molluscs or macroalgae to improve water quality. When satisfactory, it is returned to the production pond.

87. With such a system, it is possible to produce 10 tonnes of shrimp in 67 days in a 4 000 m² pond, with a 1.08 feed conversion rate. The production cost is USD 24 333, mainly consisting of feed (57 percent), electricity (13 percent), post-larvae (11 percent) and labour (11 percent).

88. Biomimicry in aquaculture is a farmer's innovation, which makes it possible to revitalize the sector by enhancing the value of abandoned ponds. It applies to both high and low density ponds, but
requires more land than traditional methods. The quality of the water is remarkable, as is the production of live food.

## AQUAPONICS FOR DEVELOPMENT (AUSTIN STANKUS)

89. Aquaponics is a term that encompasses a set of techniques used for different purposes. It can be a hobby, an educational activity for children, youth or adults, or a real economic enterprise. Each of these purposes has different levels of risk, investment needs or operating methods, and the challenge is to clearly define, from the beginning, the objective assigned to aquaponics.

90. The technology is now well known. It consists of using nutrient-rich water from aquaculture farms to irrigate plants in a closed circuit. For consumers, it provides access to local production of a wide range of fresh products. For private companies, it is a proven and profitable technology that allows to supply niche markets. Finally, for development stakeholders and governments, it helps to generate livelihoods on a reduced surface area, with reduced water needs.

91. But aquaponics is not always easy to implement and there are a number of constraints to its adoption: the high initial investment cost; the complex techniques that involve mastering essential knowledge about fish, plants and bacteria, in addition to building, plumbing and greenhouse management skills; the business management is not simple because financial and market analyses are essential to profitability; the materials must be adapted to local conditions; the access to energy, well-trained human resources and inputs (including fry and seedlings) must be affordable and reliable; the access to premium markets is required; a favourable economic and regulatory environment is essential.

92. When these constraints are not taken into account, failures can occur. From 2012, FAO launched a pilot project in the Gaza Strip to install aquaponics systems for poor and fragile households, including women. At first, the project was a success, but at the end of the pilot phase, a number of households did not have the financial resources to continue buying the necessary inputs, whereas others lacked the technical knowledge to manage the various productions effectively. Finally, others had to give up when the supply of energy and fry became a concern because of the conflict. However, the failure is not complete, since it has shown the potential of the technology, so that the government has started providing support for the supply of fry and some small businesses are currently starting up.

93. There are also successes. The first example is Indonesia, which has dedicated a specific research programme to this activity, in conjunction with the rural extension services and farmers. At least 10 000 producers have been exposed to the aquaponics awareness campaign and an estimated 3 000 have invested. The model is unique, called Yumina (combination of the words fish and vegetable in Bahasa). It is totally different from the other models observed in the western countries. The principle is simple and uses only local materials, at low cost. The energy requirements are low and the system is resilient to power outages. In summary, this intervention fully integrates the constraints: low start-up cost, simple and uncomplicated system, local design, low energy need, use of existing experience in plant and fish farming, support from the government and regional partners.

94. Another good example is the ongoing FAO project in the Caribbean. The strategy was the following: as a first step, a regional training workshop was held on an existing farm for interested private farmers who later received support to build demonstration units. The option of working with the private sector provided the economic incentive to ensure that the momentum continues at the end of the project. Farmers have become the stakeholders responsible for rural extension and training. FAO also intervened to support exchanges with the hotel sector and key value-chain stakeholders to help farmers exploit profitable niche markets. The main lessons learned from this experiment are:

- That the technology transfer is not sufficient, exchanges between farmers and participatory approaches are also needed;

- That climate-smart and efficient techniques must be promoted through market connections;

- That aquaponics is easy, but that aquaponics managed as a business is difficult. Professionalism is essential.

95. Another interesting example about the Caribbean is the obligation to take into account the financial, environmental and social sustainability. When these three dimensions are taken into account, if
a locally-produced product has a lower total cost than an equivalent imported product, the local product should be selected. This consideration of the total cost is a key consideration for the promotion of circular economy and short value-chains.

96. FAO supports aquaponics and provides a number of technical guides. The main publication is a manual for small producers,<fnref n="4" /> published in 2014 and widely downloaded since then. FAO also organizes trainings, including farmer-to-farmer exchanges, and sensitizes government officials.

97. In summary, the main messages are to clearly identify the objectives, and to also identify the places and communities that are most likely to benefit from a participatory needs assessment and feasibility analysis. If aquaponics does not seem to be the most appropriate solution, it should not be imposed. Awareness campaigns should be implemented through demonstration units, agricultural fairs, school systems, cooking competitions, etc. The connection with local markets should also be seeked. Finally, the known constraints must be explicitly taken into account during project and business planning, will full participation of beneficiaries and stakeholders.

## AQUAPONICS IN OMAN (WENRESTI GALLARDO)

98. Oman is the third largest state of the Arabian Peninsula and it borders Yemen, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) is the country's leading university. Oman is currently developing its aquaculture sector. Together with mariculture, aquaponics is being considered for its potential to stimulate the national aquaculture production in a desert context where water resources are limited.

99. Aquaponics is the integration of aquaculture with hydroponics. This integrated system was designed in response to the problems arising from each of the two activities: in aquaculture, the water quality deteriorates over time and it is necessary to change it regularly by releasing wastewater into the environment; in hydroponics, it is necessary to ensure a constant flow of expensive nutrient salts, and to regularly drain the system. Thanks to aquaponics, it is possible to no longer dump water into the environment, ensuring the preservation of this resource.

100. Dr. Stephen Goddard initiated aquaponics research at SQU around 2010 and the Department of Marine Sciences and Fisheries continues the experiment with Dr. Wenresti Gallardo since 2014.

101. The presentation focusses on the 10 elements of agroecology: Diversity, Co-creation and knowledge sharing, Synergies, Efficiency, Recycling, Resilience, Human and social values, Food culture and traditions, Responsible governance, Circular and solidarity economy.

102. With regard to knowledge creation, SQU has produced many results, particularly on recirculating and non-recirculating systems, on optimal stocking densities, on the most appropriate plant crops for the different seasons, and on the production of high value-added species in greenhouses.

103. SQU is also involved in knowledge sharing, not only through scientific publications but also by organizing seminars and workshops. In August 2018, a Food Security workshop was organized by the Independent Learning Centre of SQU, with more than 40 participants, many of whom indicated that they wanted to build their own aquaponics system. Farmers-to-farmers meetings are also regularly organized. SQU participated in a FAO Oman study tour as part of the FAO Water Scarcity Initiative program to visit aquaculture and aquaponics farms in the Sultanate. Participants came from Egypt and Algeria to learn about the Omani experience, and Omani participants had benefited from a trip to Egypt and Algeria in 2017. This study tour concluded with a workshop at the university.

104. With the support of FAO Oman, local integrated and aquaponics farms are also being listed. So far, 14 aquaponics farms have been identified around Muscat, and there are also some other non-aquaponics integrated farms that use water from aquaculture farms to fertilize greenhouse crops.

105. With regard to responsible governance, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries promotes aquaponics by providing recommendations to farmers, assisting the dissemination of knowledge among

<footnote n="4">⁴ See Annex 4.</footnote>
farmers with the support of FAO Oman and by providing subsidies. Mr. Ghassan Al-Bahrani is a farmer who has benefited from this support. Established in 2010 to produce greenhouse cucumbers, peppers, lettuce and basil, he started with two greenhouses and now owns 26 of them. In July 2017, he started an aquaponics system with the support of the Ministry, which provided him with 500 tilapia fry, aquaponics equipment, food and organic fertilizers.

106. For the social and human values component, one good example is the Al-Lezegh aquaponic farm, launched in 2010 with a funding from EarthWatch United Kingdom, various Omani and British people and the support of the University of Durham. This farm is unique because it uses the traditional *aflaj* irrigation system to bring water from the mountains to houses and farmland. Aflaj is communal and the group that manages it distributes water according to a predefined programme. The aquaponics farm receives water every five days. The advantage of this water is that it is not polluted. It is pumped into the aquaponic system and then circulates between fish tanks (tilapia) and plant crops (basil). Income from basil is higher than that from tilapia, both of which are sold locally. This experience should be communicated more to allow it to be sold in major hotels, restaurants, markets and stores.

107. Al-Arfan Farms is considered the largest aquaponic farm in Oman. This ultra-modern 600 m² greenhouse pilot unit is located 50 km from Muscat. The farm promotes its products as 100 percent natural and genetically modified organism (GMO)-free, and without chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Their vegetables are sold in Oman's main supermarkets and in hotels such as Al Bustan Palace, a hotel of the Ritz Carlton group.

108. In summary, aquaponics in Oman is developing well and is following the ten components of agroecology.

## INTEGRATED MALAGASY AQUACULTURE (DIANA E. ANDRIA-MANANJARA)

109. Madagascar is the fifth largest island on the southeast coast of Africa, along the Indian Ocean and is experiencing strong population growth (+2.8 percent per year). With a per capita gross national product lower than USD 2/day, the country is ranked among the low-income countries. The majority of the population (64 percent) lives in rural areas and 77 percent are poor and food insecure. The agricultural sector is the main source of income (80 percent) and has a high aquaculture potential, with 150 000 to 160 000 ha of lakes and water bodies, as well as 200 000 ha of irrigated rice.

110. An important type of integrated agriculture system is rice and fish farming. It is an ancestral practice in Madagascar, but popularized by FAO around 1985 and by NGO APDRA since 2006. To date, 21 000 rice-fish farmers practice it on 20 percent of the exploitable rice areas. There is another form of rice-fish farming practiced on the coastal zone: the cultivation of rice in fish-stocked dams, with fish yields around 765 kg/ha.

111. The *tanjona* system is a new form of integrated crop-animal-fish aquaculture, recently identified in the marshes of the Antananarivo flood plain. Historically, *tanjona* are large mounds of land created by farmers in the middle of the marshes, in order to produce agriculture areas that cannot be flooded for vegetable and fruits production. At the beginning of the 2000s, some producers began building their mounds in such a way as to define a closed space in the centre that can be used as a fish pond. On the dikes, vegetable or horticultural crops are grown, as well as animals (ducks, dairy cattle, etc.).

112. A survey was conducted to describe the practices, which are extremely diverse. One example is a *tanjona* integrating fish (common carp and tilapia), duck and vegetable (cabbage). The fish production lasts between 6 and 12 months and the fish yield is 1.3 tonnes/ha. The vegetable production lasts 7 months, from May to November. Another example is a rice-fish (common carp and tilapia) integration with associated crops on the dikes (fruit and vegetables). The production lasts between 6 to 10 months (November to August) for fish and 12 months for crops. Integrated aquaculture provides a gross added value of 2 to 11 percent in a rice-fish system and 3 to 26 percent in a *tanjona* system. The additional income generated can be reinvested in food, savings, living conditions and education for children.

113. There is also traditional integrated animal-fish aquaculture, particularly on the west coast. The main species are livestock, pigs and chickens that provide fertilizers and feed through their droppings. Livestock farming near and above ponds also exists but are uncommon, mainly due to rural insecurity
and theft. An example of an atypical chicken-fish association in ponds is the use of droppings to produce worms, which are then used to feed fish. With a 15-month production cycle, it is possible to obtain a fish (common carp and tilapia) yield of 9 tonnes/ha.

114. The first advantage of integrated aquaculture is that it optimizes flows to generate household income and food in rural areas, which are sometimes isolated. This optimization of flows and synergies between productions notably makes it possible to increase rice production by 10 to 30 percent when carps are stored in irrigated fields.

115. However, there are a number of constraints. The first is the access to land, as small producers often do not have access to the best agricultural land. Theirs are often less productive and more vulnerable to climatic hazards (floods, drought). Climate hazards and climate change are precisely a second constraint, as Madagascar is one of the most vulnerable countries and there are concerns that floods (and subsequent loss of fish and rice, or destruction of dikes) and extreme droughts will become more frequent.

116. Another constraint is financial because the diversification of the system generates higher investment needs in labour and capital. Given the high seasonality of production, the period when fry purchases must be made coincides with the lean season (when food stocks are low or non-existent and where food must be purchased) and the back-to-school period. Productivity also remains low, which is a technical constraint, while praedial larceny (theft of cattle, fish and crops) has become a significant problem in some areas.

117. Among the prospects, there is, on the one hand, the government's awareness of the issues, particularly in the implementation of its blue growth strategy. There is also the need to make practical and technical improvements to integrated systems, and to support the dissemination of IAA in areas where it is not yet practiced, particularly those that are most vulnerable. Finally, there is also a need to better understand the impacts of IAA on households and public health.

118. In summary, integrated aquaculture is an important element for Malagasy households, especially the poorest. Its sustainable development will require the involvement of stakeholders and its dissemination will have to take into account socio-agro-climatic constraints.

## GUINEAN PISCIRIZICULTURE (SIDIKI KEITA)

119. Guinea is a country of 11 million inhabitants, located on the West African coast, which borders Guinea Bissau, Senegal, Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia and Sierra Leone. Frequently referred to as "the water tower of West Africa", the country is drained by 1 161 rivers belonging to 23 catchment areas. It also has thousands of water bodies resulting from mining excavations. The country therefore offers significant aquaculture potential, both in continental water and along the 150 km coastline, and the country's highest authorities, including the President of the Republic, provide unfailing support for the development of this activity throughout the country, particularly in the savannah and coastal zones. A National Directorate of Fish Farming was created in 2011, and a National Agency for Guinean Aquaculture was established in 2018.

120. All kinds of aquaculture are possible in Guinea, but one of the most original and successful emerged in the Guinea Forest region in the late 1990s. This experience of integrated aquaculture where rice is grown in dam-ponds and fishponds is now becoming an example for other regions and other countries. It is implemented in the following way:

- First of all, an awareness-raising meeting is organized in the villages to present the concept and intervention approaches and strategies. Fish farmers are at the centre of the interventions and they participate at all stages.

- A topographical survey is carried out to guarantee to farmers that their investment in building farming structures (ponds, dikes) is of high quality. Particular importance is given to this aspect, considering the lifespan of these structures and its crucial role in farming performance. The dam-pond is by far the most common structure, as it maximizes the farming area by minimizing excavation work, and because the topography of the region is favourable with many small valleys located between small hills.
- The production cycle begins with the planting of the rice nursery (floating rice variety CK90) and a first water filling to degrade organic matter. The water level is then lowered to dry 80 percent of the pond in order to transplant the rice (between July and August). The water level is then gradually raised seven days after transplanting. This is when fish are stocked and grow-out starts. Partial harvests are regularly carried out to monitor the fish growth and eliminate unwanted fry and wild fish, especially zillii tilapias (from October). The rice is harvested between November and December and the fish between November and January. A second production cycle can then start in January-February, using off-season rice or no rice at all, for a final harvest in May-June.

- Fish farming is carried out in polyculture, in order to maximize the use of the pond's natural resources. The Nile tilapia *Oreochromis niloticus* (stocked at up to 1 fish/m²) is the main species, the secondary one being the African bonytongue *Heterotis niloticus* (stocked at 1 fish/100 m²) and other species (catfish *Heterobranchus isopterus*, predator *Hemichromis fasciatus* stocked at 1 fish for every 10 Nile tilapia). Manual sexing of tilapia is uncommon and limited to the most experienced fish farmers, so most farming is done with mixed sexes.

- The lack of commercial feed is compensated by the use of local agricultural by-products, including rice bran. Palm oil cakes are also used and some pig-fish farms (3 to 5 pigs) have been set up by some producers.

121. These interventions have resulted in a major increase in fish consumption at the local level. For example, in the Gbötöye district, a peri-urban area located 12 km from N'Zerekore, the capital of the region where the number of fish farmers increased from 1 in 1995 to 38 in 2015, fish consumption increased from 4 kg/capita/year in 1995 to 14 in 2015. As a comparison, over the same period, the consumption in Conakry decreased slightly with 23 kg/capita/year in 1995 and 22 kg/capita/year in 2015, whereas the national consumption slightly increased from 10 kg/capita/year to 11 kg/capita/year. Sixty-five percent of Gbötöye's fish is marketed and fish weighing from 150 g to 3 kg are sold between EUR<fnref n="5" /> 1.5 and 3/kg.

122. The main constraints are the lack of public and private investment, the lack of national human resources in fish farming and the lack of technical capacity to support intensification. Demonstration units are also lacking, as well as aquaculture training facilities.

123. In terms of prospects, the National Economic and Social Development Plan aims to produce 7 000 tonnes of fish in 2020. Taking into account the basic concept of agroecological aquaculture, this will require the mobilisation of technical expertise and investments of up to EUR 30 million. The concept of *pisciriziculture* will have to be expanded and diversified so that the average yield increases from 0.9 tonnes/ha to 3 tonnes/ha. It will also be necessary to expand the production to Guinea's four natural regions, which will also involve diversifying fish farming technical models to adapt them to each socio-natural context, based on an individual or family fish farming entrepreneurship, with an emphasis on youth employment and the enhancement of women's participation in value chains. Research actions will also have to be carried out.

## INTEGRATED ANIMAL-FISH AQUACULTURE IN SOUTHERN BRAZIL
(MANOEL XAVIER PEDROZA FILHO)

124. In the 1980s, the *pesque-pague* recreational fishing establishments became extremely popular, both as a recreational activity and as a supply of fresh fish. The increased demand for farmed fish led to the development of integrated animal-fish systems in southern Brazil and to its professionalization during the 1990s, with the introduction of monosex tilapia, the opening of various processing units and the creation of EPAGRI Santa Catarina to provide rural extension.

125. In the state of Santa Catarina, the agricultural sector is mainly composed of small farms, 2 ha on average, with 90 percent smaller than 50 ha. Santa Catarina is also a traditional pig producing region and its integration with fish farming has emerged as a complementary activity to improve the income from pig production. There are now more than 13 000 fish farms, mainly in the upper Itajaí valley region.

<footnote n="5">⁵ EUR 1 = USD 1.1.</footnote>
126. The three principles of the southern Brazil IAA are:

- The polyculture, which makes it possible to enhance pig manure and unconsumed feed through structures on or near ponds.

- The stocking of species with complementary diets; the main species is determined by the market or the availability of food in the pond; the secondary species provides filtration and the complementary species, raised in small quantities, make it possible to enhance other food sources. In Santa Catarina, the common carp (*Cyprinus carpio*) and tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*) are the main or secondary species, depending on the case. Silver carp (*Hypophthalmichthys molitrix*), grass carp (*Ctenopharyngodon idella*) and bighead carp (*Aristichthys nobilis*) are the secondary species, while pacu (*Piaractus mesopotamicus*), cascudo (*Hypostomus affinis*), American catfish (*Ictalurus punctatus*), African catfish (*Clarias gariepinus*) and Jundiá catfish (*Rhamdia quelen*) are the complementary species.

- The recycling of nutrients, which acts as a catalyst for complex aquatic metabolism at three levels: production, consumption and decomposition.

127. The main objective of IAA is to reduce the fish farming production costs and to make economies of scale by sharing resources and labour with pig farms. The use of pig manure to fertilize ponds reduces production costs by up to 70 percent. For pigs, IAA improves the feed conversion index through improved thermal stability in winter or on the early morning, reduced ammonia concentration in the air and large water availability to allow pigs to bathe on the hottest days. Finally, from an environmental point of view, it is a rational use of manure.

128. In this traditional system, carps are the main species and food is exclusively provided by the environment (i.e. no commercial food). Controlling natural productivity is therefore fundamental to improve production with organic and mineral fertilizers. Productivity is low and duration of production is long, but production costs are also low. However, most of these operations are no longer in compliance with the new Brazilian Forest Code that was introduced in 2012, which requires a 30 m protection zone along watercourses that are larger than 10 m. Indeed, most of the traditional ponds were built to serve as water reservoirs by diverting the rivers to which they are therefore closer than that threshhold.

129. The development of IAA in the 1990s also prompted complaints from various environmental NGOs, as fish farming was accused of promoting the proliferation of the Borrachudo black fly (*Simulium pertinax*), of polluting watercourses and of being located in permanent protection areas. In response, the organization Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária e Extensão Rural de Santa Catarina (EPAGRI) developed a new model by making improvements to water productivity and quality. This locally developed model was called MAVIPI, a Portuguese acronym of “Upper Itajaí Valley Fish Farming Model”. The main differences between the traditional and MAVIPI models concern the use of a commercial feed in the final phase, the use of water aeration and the control of water quality through the control of the quantity of manure spread into the pond. Its main characteristics are:

- The species reared: tilapia (70 to 75 percent), common carp (10 to 15 percent), silver carp (7 percent), bighead carp (6 percent) and others (2 percent).

- The use of commercial feed at the end of the cycle.

- The integration with pigs, which partially replaces commercial feed.

- The compliance with legislation regarding the location and flow of water in and out.

- The use of mechanical aeration to oxygenate, homogenize the water column and better distribute manure in ponds.

- The controlled harvest carried out without lowering the water level to limit environmental impacts.

130. The MAVIPI system is more efficient in terms of productivity than the traditional system (13 tonnes/ha/year vs. 5 tonnes/ha/year). The cycle is also shorter (10 months vs. 14 months), but both remain longer and are less efficient than a tilapia monoculture farm (without fertilization:
22 tonnes/ha/year, 7 months). On the other hand, the average production cost is the lowest with the traditional system (BRL<fnref n="6" /> 1.7 vs. BRL 2.6 for the MAVIPI system and BRL 3.7 in monoculture).

131. The main constraints that limit the expansion of pork-fish IAA in Brazil are the following:

- The system's limitations: IAA does not allow for the treatment of effluents from the largest or most intensive pig farms.

- The limited profit: the reduced production cost does not necessarily result in a higher profit.

- The consumer perception of IAA: outside the southern regions of Brazil, fish produced in IAA is not as popular.

132. In terms of prospects, IAA systems in southern Brazil have shown a decline in the number of producers, and an increase in the number of intensive producers using non-integrated systems. The technological intensification and concentration of Brazilian aquaculture capital has transformed the sector, which is becoming more competitive. Finally, some of the challenges faced by IAA producers are similar to those faced by small fish farmers in Brazil: low production volumes, high input costs, lack of quality and lack of processing. Producer organisations are crucial.

## AQUACULTURE IN DESERTS AND ARID LANDS (VALERIO CRESPI)

133. Desert aquaculture refers to aquaculture activities in deserts and arid lands characterized by low rainfall (>250 mm/year), high solar radiation, high evaporation rate, and that use surface or subsurface water.

134. Twenty percent of the world's surface is occupied by arid areas, and this percentage is increasing. Over 300 million people, live in these areas, with 92 million in hyperarid deserts.

135. In these areas, variation between the daytime and nighttime temperature is high, rain is low, solar radiation and evaporation are high, surface water resources are limited, land is abundant and inexpensive, and there are large groundwater tables of fresh and brackish water. Aquatic resources are available in ponds or irrigation canals, freshwater or brackish lakes, groundwater, rivers or rainwater reservoirs.

136. The types of aquaculture that can be carried out are:

- irrigation ponds (small-scale);

- closed circuits in recirculation, including aquaponics;

- integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems on a small or large-scale;

- large-scale pond aquaculture systems;

- floating cages in artificial water bodies (e.g. dams, abandoned quarries etc.).

137. The adapted species are tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*, red hybrids, *Sarotherodon melanotheron*), African catfish (*Clarias gariepinus*), barramundi (*Lates calcarifer*), common carp (*Cyprinus carpio*), European seabass (*Dicentrarchus labrax*) and seabream (*Sparus aurata*), shrimps (*Penaeus indicus* and *Penaeus vannamei*) and artemia (*Artemia salina*).

138. Successful desert aquaculture operations in Algeria include the *Pescado de la duna* farm in Ouargla, which produced 500 tonnes/year of African catfish (*Clarias gariepinus*) in 2017, the biofloc shrimp farm (*Penaeus vannamei*), as well as various IAA farms in the desert that produce between 700 and 1 000 tonnes per year. In Egypt, IAA production increased from 700 tonnes in 2010 to 2 200 tonnes in 2017. More than 100 farms have been created in desert regions.

139. FAO has been supporting the development of desert aquaculture since 2008 with a first project in Algeria. A technical workshop was held in Mexico in 2010 and recommendations were presented at various sessions of the Committee on Fisheries Sub-Committee on Aquaculture. Several technical projects have been implemented in Algeria, Ethiopia, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Namibia, etc. and, at the regional level, the Water Scarcity Initiative has developed a regional strategy.<fnref n="7" />

<footnote n="6">⁶ BRL 1 = USD 0.26</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ More information can be found at http://www.fao.org/3/a-au845e.pdf</footnote>
140. In conclusion, the measures expected from governments are responsible governance (investment and incentives), spatial planning (water resource inventories and site selection), technical capacity building (e.g. farmer-to-farmer training) and infrastructure (roads, hatcheries, food factories, renewable energy). As a result, desert aquaculture can have many positive impacts:

- rational use of resources;

- improved food and nutrition;

- increase in technical capacity;

- job creation, especially for young people and women;

- reduction of rural-to-urban migration.

141. The aquaculture systems that seem to be the most appropriate in desert areas today are integrated systems that ensure the efficient use of resources, especially water, and are based on agroecological principles.

RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY OF EGYPTIAN FARMS THAT PRACTICE AGRICULTURE-AQUACULTURE INTEGRATION (HARRISON CHARO KARISA)

142. Egypt has now become a major fish producer, and most of it comes from aquaculture, but the country's water resources are limited. Agriculture is the main consumer of water (>82 percent), and 95 percent of the land is irrigated, with a majority of water coming from the Nile River. This scarcity is likely to create conflicts of use, and aquaculture integrated with agriculture can provide solutions to limit them.

143. There are different ways in which aquaculture is integrated with agriculture: crops (mangoes, oranges, bananas, alfalfa, vegetables, grapes, rice, etc.), and livestock (e.g. chicken). Water for fish usually comes from irrigation canals or pumping, while in the case of plants, it comes from canals, fish ponds or fish tank effluents.

144. Experiments have been carried out to evaluate the performance of integrated systems, particularly in terms of sediment and nutrient accumulation in semi-intensive integrated ponds. In a first experiment, earthen ponds received chicken droppings or granulated feed at two stocking densities of 1 or 2 Nile tilapia (20-25 g/m²). The farming lasted 4.5 months and their potential for crops was also assessed by collecting sediment monthly.

145. In a second experiment, two integrated units were developed, each with three 200 m² earthen ponds, two 525 m² hybrid maize fields and a 3 horsepower solar water pump. At a first site, the initial average weight of fish was 1.1 g and the stocking density was 2 fish/m²; at the second site, the weight was 30 g and the density was 2.5 fish/m². The ponds were fertilized with poultry droppings and rice bran at the beginning of the cycle (respectively 8 and 24 weeks on site 1 and 2), then a complementary feed (rice bran on site 1, commercial feed extruded with 30 percent protein) was used. Three treatments were compared at the hybrid maize plot level: T1: traditional system (100 percent commercial fertilization), T2: integrated system, T3: integrated system + 50 percent commercial fertilization.

146. The results show that sedimentation increased in all treatments, by about 3 cm, which shows that a large proportion of the nutrients are trapped in the sediments. This corresponds to about 100-300 kg of nitrogen, 1.8-5 tonnes of organic matter, 0.2-1.1 kg of phosphorus and 50-125 kg of potassium per hectare, which approximately match the recommended intakes for maize cultivation. Moreover, production is essentially the same in all three processes, and the economic analysis shows the economic potential of the integrated system, which is more economically efficient than each compartment taken separately. In terms of water use efficiency, the gross income per m³ is between 8.5 (site 2) and 12.4 EGP/m³.

147. In conclusion, aquaculture integrated with agriculture is the most economically efficient system. It allows the nutrients trapped in the sediment of the ponds to be reused, thereby reducing the use of commercial fertilizers in associated field crops. Optimization of the system will reduce production costs and improve the efficiency of use of the water resource.
SUPPORT FOR THE INTEGRATION BETWEEN AQUATIC PLANTS AND ANIMAL
FARMING IN RICE FIELDS IN THE LAO PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
(CHANTHABOUN SIRIMANOTHAM AND NICK INNES-TAYLOR)

148. The Lao People's Democratic Republic has a rich aquatic biodiversity, and rice fields form a sanctuary for a large number of aquatic organisms. They are essential for food security and nutrition, especially in the most remote rural areas. A survey of 50 families in 5 provinces showed that in 10 days they consumed 200 kg (30 percent) of plants, 326 kg of fish (49 percent) and 138 kg of other animals (21 percent).<fnref n="8" /> Many small producers have tried to increase their production of aquatic animals (fish, crabs, shellfish, etc.), but this is generally difficult to implement. Indeed, it is generally necessary to build trenches, control predators and monitor thieves. Although technically logical, these measures involve significant household investments in time and money.

149. The objectives of the intervention at the level of the rice field ecosystem are to better understand the importance of aquatic resources for food security and nutrition, to develop an approach to conserve aquatic biodiversity, to find a simple and cost-effective way to improve the natural aquatic environment, and to increase the availability of safe and nutritious food.

150. At the institutional level, the objectives are to improve the understanding of poverty and nutrition, to increase the technical knowledge on small-scale aquaculture (at the provincial and district level), to improve approaches to work with communities (at the provincial and district level), and to develop processes for farmer experimentation, community learning and exchange of experiences.

151. One of the activities conducted was a survey of the relative preferences for aquatic products consumed in different provinces. Although there are differences, sometimes significant, fish is the most consumed (40–87 kg/10 families/10 days), followed by aquatic plants (2.5–77 kg/10 families/10 days). However, what is most significant is the economic importance of these resources. The monetary value of the rice fields’ aquatic resources was higher (USD 256) than the value of the rice consumed by one person in one year (USD 200).

152. Experiments have been carried out to develop new rice and fish farming strategies. By 2018, 200 families had participated in these experiments. One strategy is to dig small service ponds made impermeable with a tarp to produce fry. The pond is large enough to allow substantive fish production, but not too large to be dug by hand. The small size of the pond also reduces predation, but the grow-out is done in rice fields. Many producers have integrated these ponds with vegetable crops on the side of the rice fields, and some use animal manure to fertilize the water.

153. The key principles of the approach are to strengthen the local ownership, giving it an essential role during the planning, to work with structured but adaptive processes and finally to place capacity building (agricultural advisors and farmers) at the heart of the intervention. The process developed by the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF) takes these elements into account. To help improve food and nutrition security, it lists several processes and associated responsibilities. At the central and provincial levels, a support process provides technical knowledge and facilitation of interventions. As for the processes of learning, experimentation and communication, they are conducted at the community level. Where the community considers it possible, dissemination is implemented by the community and district authorities. A follow-up at each step allows the processes to be evaluated and adapted.

154. Thus, significant gains can be made in terms of poverty reduction. Within a year, farmers manage to produce enough fish to feed their families (with an average production of 27 kg of fish/person/year). It reduces the time women and children spend fishing, and provides a constant supply of nutritious food. The communities produce enough fry to allow aquaculture development as well. As for development donors, their return on investment is only one year, which allows for a more effective use of international aid.

<footnote n="8">⁸ See Appendix 4</footnote>
ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING OF RECYCLING PONDS (XINGGUO G. LIU)

155. Chinese aquaculture provides a huge quantity of aquatic products, but uses a large amount of resources (e.g. 3 to 13.4 m³ of water/kg of fish produced; 4.5 m³ on average). Aquaculture is also responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, while also being vulnerable to pollution, such as heavy metals, hormones or antibiotics.

156. Farmers' demands for technologies include:

* improving the aquaculture environment;

* adjusting the livestock structures;

* introducing new production and processing methods;

* increasing the efficiency in the use of resources;

* ensuring the quality of aquatic products and improving the overall production efficiency.

157. To meet this demand, the option chosen was to mobilize ecological engineering to design pond aquaculture based on polyculture of multi-trophic species. The aim is to design a natural ecosystem in which energy and nutrients are managed in a balanced way.

158. The RPAS system (Raceway in Ponds Aquaculture System) is therefore based on ecological principles that allow the system to comply with environmental regulations through coordinated management of biological processes and the environment. The main elements of the RPAS system are: an artificial marsh, ecological ditches where floating plants are grown, ecological slopes, ecological ponds, fluidized bed biofilters and a rice system for the reuse of aquaculture effluents. Fish ponds are connected to ecological ditches, ecological ponds, artificial marshes and rice fields. Polyculture is based on herbivorous carp (45 percent by weight) and bream (40 percent by weight as the main species). Silver carp, bighead carp and crussiun carp (Carassius carassius) are the secondary species (15 percent by weight). The biomass at stocking is 0.15 kg/m³.

159. Water quality in the system is managed by solar machines that improve sediment quality, and by surface aerators. The whole system is managed automatically using a number of sensors. The water quality in terms of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, chemical oxygen demand) and biological composition (phytoplankton) is monitored by analyses and the fish production is increased by 8.5 percent, with a feed conversion rate reduced by 8.2 percent.

160. The water consumption was also reduced by 63.6 percent, and nitrogen, phosphorus and chemical oxygen demand emissions were reduced by 87.8 percent, 91.7 percent and 78.1 percent, respectively. As far as heavy metals are concerned, the artificial marsh makes it possible to retain 99 percent of them.

161. The system has already been distributed to various Chinese sites in Tinshan, Xinbang, Zhujiao, Shatianhy, Wuxi, Zhuangqiao and in the deltas of the Yangtze and Pearl River. It is used both in the arid northwest of China and on the coasts to the east or near major cities (for recreational purposes).

162. The compartmentalization of species within the pond itself improves nutrient use and ecological efficiency, thus increasing production. It is also possible to have a sequentially compartmentalized system, especially for the production of breams. In this case, effluent collection is centralized. Another system uses Penaeus shrimp farms in a greenhouse. This allows several batches of shrimp to be raised simultaneously. In the Yangtze region, it is thus possible to produce three batches each year, at a density of 3 to 5 kg/m³.

163. Monitoring the biomasses of the various biological organisms in the pond of traditional systems, compartmentalized ponds and sequential ponds shows that the effectiveness of nutrient transfer in the latter is highest. The omnivory index and diversity index of the sequential ponds were higher than those of the other two ponds, and the connection index of the ponds was higher than that of the traditional ponds. The index of the separate ponds is also higher than that of the traditional pond. The two hybrid ponds are superior to traditional ponds in terms of maturity. Through ecological engineering, it is therefore possible to change the ecological vulnerability of ponds and improve the diversity of the system.
164. Current priorities should focus on the study of pond eco-aquaculture, on the development of mechanized facilities equipped with digital technology and on the design of management methods with high ecological efficiency, capable of producing high quality products.

## IMPROVEMENT OF CARP PRODUCTION IN SEMI-INTENSIVE PONDS BY PERIPHYTON PRODUCTION (SUNILA RAI)

165. Polyculture of carp, with or without small indigenous species (SIS) is widely practiced in Asia, but can be intensified by improving substrate nutrition. Indeed, in most pond production systems, only a small fraction of the nutrient inputs (30 percent) is converted into harvestable biomass. The remainder is lost to sediment, effluent and the atmosphere. Improving periphyton growth in ponds is one way to increase the production of natural foods.

166. The periphyton performs other useful functions as well. In particular, it contributes to the oxygenation of the water and the fixation of the pond's nutrients. Experimentation was carried out in a farming environment from 20 April to 28 December 2014. The stocking density was 2 fish/m² and polyculture consisted of silver carp (20 percent), bighead carp (5 percent), grass carp (30 percent), common carp (15 percent), rohu (20 percent) and mrigal carp (10 percent). The substrates to allow periphyton growth extended over 2 percent of the pond surface.

167. Two treatments were tested: the first without substrate and the second with substrate. Exogenous food was distributed at 3 percent of the biomass. The fertilization was based on urea (470 g/100 m²/week) and diammonium phosphate (350 g/100 m²/week). The additional food consisted of rice bran and mustard oil cake (1:1).

168. The results showed a significant increase in fish production of 8 percent (4.31 tonnes/ha/year vs. 4.04) and a slight decrease in the feed conversion rate (FCR, 3.2 vs. 3.3) in the treatment with substrate and periphyton. Economically, costs were slightly higher with the substrate, but gross revenue was 5 percent higher and the gross margin increased by 7 percent as a result of the periphyton.

169. Another experiment was carried out from 24 August 2014 to 28 March 2015 to design new periphyton stimulation systems. Four treatments were compared: carp fed without substrate, carp+SIS fed without substrate, carp+SIS fed with half ration and a substrate (bamboo) and carp+SIS not fed with substrate (bamboo). The density of carp was 15 000 fish/ha and that of SIS 50 000 fish/ha. The normal feeding rate was 2 percent of the biomass and the surface area of the pond covered with substrate was 1 percent.

170. The best net yield of carp and carp+SIS was obtained in the pond receiving half ration of feed (5.5 tonnes/ha/year) and that of SIS in the normal fed carp+SIS treatment (0.21 tonnes/ha/year). The FCR for this treatment was also much lower than in ponds without substrate (1 vs. 2.4). Economically, the highest costs were measured in the two ponds without substrate, while the most interesting incomes and benefits were obtained in the pond with substrate and half ration (NPR 8 355 and 5 558/100 m²/210 days respectively).<fnref n="9" />

171. In conclusion, polyculture of carp and polyculture of carp and small indigenous species with bamboo substrate and reduced feeding to 1–1.5 percent of biomass per day is an option for small producers. However, this technique should also be considered for commercial producers.

## MANGROVE-SHRIMP INTEGRATION IN VIET NAM (PHAN THANH LAM)

172. Cà Mau province is home to Viet Nam's largest mangrove area, but its total surface decreased from 400 000 ha in 1960 to 73 000 ha in 1990 owing to a combination of factors:

- use of herbicides during the Indochina War;

- conversion of mangroves to agriculture (rice plantations from 1975 to 1979) and aquaculture (shrimp ponds from 1995 to 2008);

<footnote n="9">⁹ NPR 1 = USD 0.01.</footnote>
- urban development.

173. Coastal resources are now threatened by rapid and unregulated growth in the fisheries sector, coastal agriculture, maritime transport and ports, oil and gas exploitation and tourism development. These also threaten the provision of ecosystem services such as biodiversity, nutrient recycling and carbon storage provided by mangrove forests, and negatively impacts the livelihoods and food security of coastal communities.

174. Integrated mangrove-shrimp farming systems (IMSF) combine forestry and shrimp farming (*Penaeus monodon*) with crabs and/or fish. Using these systems could be a good way to prevent mangrove loss and adopt conservation measures if the forest is well managed.

175. In Viet Nam, IMSF are regulated by provincial governments in order to maintain a mangrove-to-water surface ratio of at least 60 percent. They are characterized by no or low food and fertilizer use, passive water exchange and low production.

176. There are currently three types of mangrove-shrimp integrated systems in ponds: integrated systems in which the mangrove covers a large part of the pond, associated systems in which the mangrove covers part of the pond and separate systems that include the ponds built next to the mangrove. The IMSF do not have sedimentation tanks or ponds, as all their ponds are used for shrimp grow-out.

177. At the technical level, the first step is the preparation of the pond and the stocking. Farmers pay little attention to the pond preparation tasks, as only about 30 percent of them perform operations such as water storage or treatment before stocking. On the other hand, most clean their ponds from their sediments after each cycle. Most are also unaware of the origin of their post-larvae (PL) and do not perform a disease testing before purchase and seeding (87 percent of farms surveyed). Shrimp mortality rates (> 95 percent at harvest) are higher in integrated mangrove-shrimp farms due to the uneven quality of post-larvae, as their selection is an important factor in production efficiency. Shrimp PLs are generally stocked directly in the ponds (80 percent of the farms surveyed) although about 20 percent of the farms surveyed use a pre-growing pond. Stocking density of integrated mangrove shrimp farms is generally lower than traditional pond culture and includes regular harvesting and partial stocking.

178. The integrated mangrove-shrimp system does not use shrimp feed. Farms are often located in coastal areas and estuaries, so the water source used for shrimp ponds comes mainly from the mouths of rivers and coastal channels, with some farms receiving water from primary and secondary channels. Water exchanges are limited and farms most often use the "partial drainage and water replacement" method (84 percent of farms surveyed). The main reason for this limited water exchange is related to environmental conditions and the risk of epidemics, as most farms do not wish to use river water to avoid disease occurrence. Water exchanges depend on tides, they are generally carried out every two weeks or every month, and it is generally an opportunity to obtain wild shrimp and natural feed. Farms with large ponds can only partially exchange water, about 20 to 40 percent of the volume.

179. Most farms have designed their own drainage systems and do not treat their wastewater, which is discharged directly into rivers or canals that are also used for filling. However, the emptying is not complete because the large ponds cannot be completely emptied. The water is therefore partially reused for the next harvest. On the other hand, the ponds are cleaned and the mud is placed on the dikes after each harvest.

180. Discharges of untreated wastewater and sludge, particularly during outbreaks of shrimp diseases, can contribute to their spreading. In addition, poor water quality such as high concentrations of biological oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a favourable condition for pathogenic microorganisms.

181. In fact, most farms faced a mortality problem during their past production cycles. The losses had several causes, including pathologies (> 70 percent of farms surveyed), extreme weather conditions and the quality of PLs. White spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head virus (YHV) and vibriosis are the three main diseases affecting shrimp.

182. The farms carry out about 5 cycles per year and the storage density of the PLs is between 16 and 24 PL/ha. The production ranges from 487 to 616 kg/ha/year, mainly consisting of monodon shrimp (36-
38 percent), wild shrimp (12–20 percent), crab (14–27 percent) and fish (25–27 percent). It is sold mainly to collectors (69–83 percent).

183. Value chain analysis shows that farmers recover 55 percent of the gross value addition, collectors 15 percent, wholesalers 11 percent and processors 18 percent. In terms of net value addition, these percentages are 78-14-6.4 and 1.2 percent. A cost-benefit analysis was carried out for an integrated mangrove-shrimp farm. The main costs are generated by monodon PLs and labour to clean up the ponds. In terms of revenue, shrimps are the main contributor (VND 55 million) followed by wood (22 million) and crabs (13 million).<fnref n="10" />

184. There are three technical factors that must be taken into consideration to improve agricultural practices and production:

- Farmers should select and purchase quality PLs and carry out pre-growing to improve survival rates.

- The stocking density of 10–15 PL/m²/year is recommended for the integrated mangrove-shrimp model. With such a stocking density, shrimp can grow without exogenous feeding, and thus meet the criteria for organic certification.

- Probiotics should be applied in shrimp ponds to control water quality and stimulate natural feeds that support shrimp growth.

185. This study identified the main constraints of integrated production and showed that small farms face a higher level of obstacles than large farms. Nevertheless, Viet Nam remains the largest producer of monodon shrimp and the integrated low-density mangrove-shrimp system, with no exogenous feeding and fewer chemicals, is a less risky and more sustainable alternative. It is therefore potentially certifiable as organic production. Most farms are small in size, which must therefore be taken into account in the future development of aquaculture, whether through vertical or horizontal coordination.

## ARTEMIA PRODUCTION IN COASTAL PONDS IN ASIA (LIYING SUI)

186. The four main species of *Artemia* are: *A. franciscana* in America, *A. persimilis* in South America, *A. salina* around the Mediterranean basin and in South Africa, *A. urmiana* in the Near East, *A. sinica* in China and *A. tibetiana* in Tibet. Parthenogenetic *Artemia* is distributed from the Mediterranean basin to South Africa, the Near East, South Asia, China and Australia. Its life cycle includes an ovoviviparous loop where adults produce nauplii when environmental conditions are favourable, and an oviparous loop with production of cysts and duration eggs when conditions become unfavourable.

187. *Artemia* nauplii and adult biomass is characterized by its size, high protein content, methionine content and fatty acid content, which make it a feed of choice for fish and other aquatic animals. To produce one million mangrove crab post-larvae, 30 kg of *Artemia* cysts are needed, only 3 kg for tiger shrimp and vannamei shrimp, 3 kg for cobia (for 5 000 50-day-old fry) and 10–13 kg for freshwater shrimp.

188. Until 1991, world production was coming almost entirely from the Salt Lake City salt lake, but from 1992 onwards, production from the Commonwealth of Independent States and from China from 1995 onwards started to compete with it. During the period, production increased irregularly, as did the price, to around USD 50/kg dry weight in 2015 (vs. less than USD 10/kg in 1995). The current demand is strong, and the production should be sold at a better price. The quality of the cysts must also meet the market demand, whether for niche markets or local markets.

189. In 1986, Patrick Sorgeloos described a production method based on the natural presence of *Artemia* in solar salt production. Seawater is pumped into a first aquaculture basin and used to raise conventional aquatic organisms until salinity reaches 50 g/l. It is then transferred by gravity to a second basin, where the ovoviviparous cycle of *Artemia* starts, with permanent recruitment up to 100 g/l. This continues up to 150 g/l but without recruitment. When the environment reaches this level of salinity, *Artemia* shifts to the oviparous life phase, and cysts accumulate in the basins, especially if they are

<footnote n="10">¹⁰ VND 10 000 = USD 0.45.</footnote>
subjected to a prevailing wind direction. At 250 g/l, *Artemia* mortality is followed by salt precipitation. To ensure sufficient production, it is necessary to control algal bloom and provide nutrients to halophilic microorganisms. The production of *Artemia* also benefits the yield and quality of the salt.

190. This is why aquaculture is often integrated into salt marshes: *Artemia* (cysts and biomass) and salt production are carried out during the dry season, while aquaculture of various species is carried out in the wet season. Various other case studies exist, for example the intensive production of *Artemia* cysts in Viet Nam, Vinh Chau and Bac Lieu. Salt is produced between November and April (*Artemia* from January to July, salt from March to April). The original strain of *A. franciscana* type SFB (San Francisco Bay) has evolved into a strain now called Vinh Chau (VC), which has different characteristics from the mother strain, particularly in terms of temperature tolerance. The feeding of *Artemia* is based on conventional fertilization (chicken droppings, low quality fishmeal, urea, phosphate fertilizer) in order to produce green water, or on biofloc technology using organic carbon sources (e.g. tapioca) to induce the growth of heterotrophic microorganisms.

191. Another case study concerns Thailand. The country produces 500–1 000 kg/ha/day, or more than 600 tonnes per year for a value of USD 700 000. Seventy-five percent is intended for the local market of fish and shellfish hatcheries and nurseries. Twenty-five percent is exported frozen at USD 2/kg. Production is based exclusively on the use of ami, a by-product of the industrial production of monosodium glutamate (<100 l/ha/day). *Artemia* is harvested manually with nets, by light attraction or semi-automatically. They are cleaned and stored in a net cage for later sale.

192. Another example is the extensive production of *Artemia* in ponds and the improvement of stocks in the salt marshes of Bohai Bay in China. It is the largest sea salt production site, with 40 million tonnes in 2015 and an area of 1 500 km². The commercialization of *Artemia* cysts began in the 1980s. Bohai Bay cysts are famous for their higher hatching rate and nutritional value. However, cyst production has dropped from 800–1 000 tonnes per year to 300–400 tonnes/year within a decade. Pond production management therefore focuses on improving stocks by inoculating *Artemia* and extensive management to reduce fertilization and labour.

193. The socio-economic benefits are multiple. In South Viet Nam, more than 500 salt workers produce 40 tonnes of cyst per dry season. The income generated is USD 4 000–7 500/ha. Household income is multiplied by 2.5–3 compared to that of a household that only produces salt. The local availability of *Artemia* cysts can be a catalyst for the development of marine fish and shellfish aquaculture. In terms of human nutrition, *Artemia* omelette is a substitute for shrimp, fish and crab cakes.

194. Future prospects concern the appropriate management of *Artemia* population dynamics during production cycles in terms of ecological characteristics of ponds, in order to better predict the future yields, particularly in the context of climate change. The impact of *Artemia* inoculations must be assessed and minimized to comply with international agreements to protect local *Artemia* biodiversity. New initiatives are emerging in Southeast Asia and African countries. Although feasibility studies have been carried out or are ongoing through north-south or north-south-south cooperation with local research partners, international organizations should pay more attention to it.

## THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED RICE-FISH, RICE-MITTEN CRAB AND RICE-CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE IN CHINA (YONGXU CHENG)

195. The Chinese tradition of farming fish in rice fields is ancient. There are traces of it over 2000 years ago in Hanzhong in Shanxi province and in Chengdu, Sichuan province. In June 2005, the Qingtian rice and fish farming system in Zhejiang province was listed by FAO as one of the first five systems on the list of “Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems” (GIAHS).

196. With the support of governments and agencies, the rice-fish co-culture model began to develop rapidly in the early 1980s and technological innovations made it possible to move from a fish-rice co-cropping to an integrated system of rice and aquatic animals. In 1983, 4 413 ha were in production and yielded 36 300 tonnes. In 2000, the area increased to 1.53 million hectares and the production reached 746 000 tonnes. Since 2010, the area has declined slightly (1.32 million hectares) but production has increased to 1.24 million tonnes thanks to a steady increase in yields (61.9 kg/667 m² vs. 32.5 and 5.5 in 2000 and 1983 respectively).
197. Three characteristics distinguish the traditional rice-fish co-culture model from the integrated rice-aquatic animals system:

1. The species reared are not only the common carp, but also species with a higher economic value such as mitten crab, crayfish, loach or softshell turtle.

2. The need to provide balanced granulated feed to aquatic animals, whereas in the traditional system, no exogenous feed is provided.

3. The safety of food and aquaculture animals is better taken into account.

198. Moreover, the rice yield is not lower than in the traditional system. Geographic distribution shows that highest yields are observed in the band from Sichuan/Yunnan in the west to the coast of the China Sea in the east (> 68 402 tonnes in 7 provinces). It is also in the same area where the land farmed is the largest (>77 123 ha in 7 provinces).

199. The integrated crab-rice system is mainly found in Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Ningxia, Zhejiang, Chongming Shanghai County, Jiangsu, Hebei, Hubei and Yunnan. The rice seedling cultivation technique alternates thick and narrow lines. Stubble control technology also extends the crab rearing period, and high quality feed is used for the crabs.

200. The integrated crayfish-rice system is mainly found in Hubei, Anhui, Jiangsu, Hunan, Zhejiang, Yunnan and Sichuan. In a rotation model, rice planting and crayfish farming do not overlap in space and time, so damage caused by rice cultivation techniques to crayfish is avoided. This is probably the reason for the success of this system in recent years.

201. Fertilization is based on two principles: a formula to adapt the quantities spread to the needs determined by a soil analysis, and a segmented fertilization technology, which is based on a bottom fertilization supplemented by regular additional fertilizer inputs. New pest and weed control measures are also being used, especially insect traps and insect nets. Biological control is also widely employed to reduce and control weeds. The most important innovation has been to dig canals and refuge ponds inside the rice fields, where animals can seek refuge during the harvest or in the dry season. The width and depth of the refuge channels are 1.5-4 m and 1-1.5 m respectively, so that their total area does not represent more than 8-10 percent of the surface area of the rice field. Other innovations include the layout of fields, dikes and screens, the alternate planting of narrow and wide rows, or the use of high quality larvae and feed.

202. Research shows that the integrated rice-crab farming model has many advantages, particularly in terms of:

- improvement of soil fertility and texture;

- maintenance of the zoobenthic diversity with adequate crab density;

- competition for light and nutrients reduced through weed control, which also reduces the use of chemical herbicides;

- the system provides shelter for crabs and maintains the water temperature near its optimum.

203. The rice and crayfish rotation system also requires a number of innovations, including the development of fields, dikes and screens, winter management when all straws return to the field, bamboo bottom cages and the testing of suitable rice varieties.

204. Technical standards have been developed for the integrated rice-aquatic animal system (SC-T 1135.1-2017), which must be adhered to.

205. Rice yields in lowland areas are always higher than 500 kg/667 m², and in mountain areas they are never lower than those of a rice monoculture. The total surface area of the refuge areas is generally less than 10 percent of the surface area and the net income per unit area increases by 50 percent on average, compared to a rice monoculture carried out under the same conditions. The use of fertilizers and pesticides per unit area is reduced by 30 percent. No antimicrobial substances are used.

206. Of all the models, the rice-crayfish system has developed the fastest. In 2016, total crayfish production was 852 300 tonnes and 1 million tonnes in 2017. The cultivated area was 570 000 ha in 2017 and is expected to exceed 800 000 ha in the near future. The economic value of the crayfish market is
RMB 268.5 billion, of which RMB 48.5 billion is from farming. <fnref n="11" /> In 2017, the area under cultivation with crayfish-rice represented 71 percent of the total surface area of crayfish farming and 47.5 percent of the surface area of integrated rice and aquatic animal systems.

207. An economic calculation was carried out in Anhui province in 2014, 2015 and 2016 with 347 farmers totalling 13 500 mu. <fnref n="12" /> Crayfish and rice yields were 125/600 kg/mu in 2014, 140/600 kg/mu in 2015 and 150/NA kg/mu in 2016 respectively, generating revenues of RMB 3 750/1 620 per mu in 2014, RMB 4 760/1 560 per mu in 2015 and RMB 2 250/NA per mu in 2016. The corresponding costs amounted to RMB 1 500/800 per mu in 2014, RMB 2 000/760 per mu and RMB 2 250/NA per mu. The net revenue was therefore RMB 3 070 (2 250/820) per mu in 2014, RMB 3 560 (2 760/800) per mu in 2015 and over RMB 3 000 per mu in 2016.

208. The integration of rice with mitten crab is another practice observed, particularly in Liaoning province, which hosts a demonstration unit in Panjin. The total surface area is currently 5 200 mu, or 347 ha.

209. The farming of softshell turtles is also practiced. The turtle yield in the Qingxi model allows to obtain 200 kg of turtles/mu (value higher than RMB 270/kg) and 620 kg of rice (RMB 36–98/kg). The revenue is RMB 26 000/mu and the net profit is RMB 9 600/mu. Economic monitoring in Zhejiang province has yielded the following results:

<table><thead><tr><td>Year</td><td>Total (ha)</td><td>Turtle yield (kg/mu)</td><td>Rice yield (kg/mu)</td><td>Average net income (RMB/mu)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>2014</td><td>900</td><td>135.2</td><td>419.7</td><td>10 270</td></tr><tr><td>2015</td><td>1 027</td><td>118</td><td>409.9</td><td>8 443</td></tr><tr><td>2016</td><td>1 253</td><td>111</td><td>340</td><td>9 340</td></tr></tbody></table>

210. In summary, for a rice-aquatic animal farming system, for each mu:

- the rice-crayfish model generates a profit of RMB 1 456 (+258 percent);

- the rice-turtle model generates a profit of RMB 13 744 (+2 290 percent);

- the rice-crab model generates a profit of RMB 2 484 (+351 percent).

211. As far as further development of these systems is concerned, the challenge is to strengthen the technology, since today, integrated rice-aquatic animal systems cover 1.468 million hectares, or only 4.5 percent of the surface area of rice fields in China. For further growth, the need are:

- strengthen research to learn the theoretical basis and formulate technical recommendations for developing integrated rice-aquatic animal systems;

- accelerate the demonstration and promotion of models and technologies;

- strengthen brand building strategies and promote integrated agricultural development as part of an entrepreneurial approach.

## INTEGRATED RICE-FISH SYSTEMS AND WORK WITH INDIGENOUS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES IN YUNNAN PROVINCE (YANNI XIAO)

212. Yunnan is located in the extreme southwest of China. It covers an area of about 394 000 km² and has a population of 45.7 million in 2009. It is the most biologically and culturally diverse province of China. It is drained by 6 major river systems: the Yangtze, the Pearl River, the Mekong River (Lancang), the Red River, the Salween River (Nujiang) and the Irrawady. The freshwater fish fauna is diverse, with more than 620 species, 580 of which are native. It is also one of the least developed provinces of China, with a higher number of counties affected by poverty than other provinces. The poverty reduction plan includes five major projects to improve infrastructure.

<footnote n="11">¹¹ RMB 1 = USD 0.15.</footnote>

<footnote n="12">¹² 1 mu = 667 m².</footnote>
213. The autonomous prefectures of Honghe Hani and Yi are located in the south-southeast central part of Yunnan province. Their names derive from the Red River (Hong) and the two main ethnic minorities: the Yi and the Hani.

214. The Honghe Hani rice terraces cover an area of one million mu, and their history is 1 300 years old. It is an agricultural and cultural innovation that results from particular geographic and climatic circumstances. During its 37th session on 22 June 2013, the World Heritage Committee included the Honghe Hani terraces in its World Heritage List.

215. But in terms of sustainable development, many problems are observed. The level of economic development is limited, the rural infrastructure is scarce, and the economic benefits of rice cultivation are low. The geographical constraints of terraced fields also make their mechanization complicated and the result is that the willingness of local people to continue in the agricultural sector is decreasing. The phenomenon of abandoned land is beginning to appear. Some farmers switch to sugar cane or vegetables in terraced fields.

216. The Hani's terrace crops and ecological environment have now suffered greatly and to provide solutions, the Yunnan Zhonghai Freshwater Fisheries Research Center (FFRC) and the Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences (CAFS) have initiated supporting activities. The first postdoctoral research station was established in Honghe County. It studied and conducted an in-depth investigation on the protection and sustainable development of Hani's terraced fields.

217. It appears that the “integrated rice-fish system” is of crucial importance for the protection and development of Hani’s terraced fields. An industrial freshwater fishing industry has been created, which includes all activities from larval selection, genetic improvement, breeding, processing to the sale of the finished products. The management model used associates the government, business, farmers, extension and markets.

218. A training programme has also been set up in Honghe County to establish cooperatives and communities of agricultural professionals using standardized practices. A system of cooperation on common stocks has been established, as well as a buy-back system that guarantees a minimum price.

219. Between 2016 and 2017, 160 million fry were stocked into the fields of the Hani terraces, covering an area of 22 000 mu. Thirteen cities are concerned, 112 village committees, 336 villages and 2 000 households. Ten thousand people have been lifted out of poverty, and new initiatives are under consideration. For example, in 2018, the rice-bullfrog system was initiated.

220. In response to these actions, on 15 June 2017, FAO recognized the Hani terraces as a Reference Centre for Integrated Rice and Fish Systems, while in March 2017, the Secretary and Deputy Secretary of the Yunnan Provincial Party Committee came to Honghe County to show their support.

221. The integrated rice-fish system of the FFRC and Zhonghai is just beginning. The objective is to extend this experience to new rice fields. Appropriate aquatic species and fish fry should also be introduced in different regions, focusing on the benefits of the rice-fish farming system.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

222. A general discussion was held after the presentations, which was active and lively. It showed that IAA is dynamic with a multitude of low technology approaches. Moreover, the discussion suggests that agroecology is a way of embracing innovation. Several themes were discussed, including the following:

- If agroecology can contribute to making IAA more sustainable, it is important to measure it holistically: what is its impact on nutrition, the environment and ecosystem services? What is its economic performance? What is its social contribution?

- What strategies should be implemented to accelerate the IAA adoption and its scaling up? A debate focused on the question: "Should we export models that have proven their value (for example, should we disseminate the Asian experience in Africa) or should we favour the emergence of local systems?". Whatever the answer, local, human and cultural values must be taken into account.
- It is imperative to involve the other sectors interested in IAA, in particular the rice farmers.

- It was agreed that further research on a number of technical (including the role of specific micro-organisms in preventing aquaculture diseases, the management of nutrient flow at the territorial level rather than only at the pond or farm level) and socio-economic issues is needed. There is also a need to better describe the impact of IAA on ecosystem services and to define the biological and aquaculture basis for diversification of production (with new high value-added species).

- It was also mentioned that there is a need to better describe the transitions from conventional intensive aquaculture to IAA and agroecology, as well as the pathways to impacts or the specific constraints of the key stakeholders (especially small-scale farmers).

- Finally, it was stressed that the specific constraints of small-scale farmers with limited resources should be better described.

## CONCLUSION

223. The workshop was concluded with remarks made by Árni M. Mathiesen (FAO) and Elisabeth Claverie de Saint-Martin (CIRAD). Ms Claverie de Saint-Martin deeply thanked FAO for organizing this workshop and recalled the importance and challenges of agroecology.
# APPENDIX 1 - MEDIA COVERAGE

- Cirad's press release, that was widely covered by international media in French, English, Spanish and Italian (general and specialized press)

* In French

www.cirad.fr/actualites/toutes-les-actualites/communiques-de-presse/2018/l-agro-ecologie-po-
ur-relever-le-defi-d-une-aquaculture-durable

* In English

www.cirad.fr/en/news/all-news-items/press-releases/2018/agroecology-to-meet-the-challenge-
-of-sustainable-aquaculture

- Three original articles:

* Science et Vie (French Science Magazine)

www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/a-montpellier-le-salon-aqua2018-explore-de-
nouvelles-pistes-pour-transformer-l-aquaculture_126969

* La Croix (French national daily newspaper)

www.la-croix.com/Sciences-et-ethique/Environnement/Laquaculture-solution-alimentaire-bie-
ntot-durable-2018-08-31-1200965320

* The Fish Site (English news website)

thefishsite.com/articles/agroecology-session-set-for-aqua2018

- Radio interview to France Info (broadcasted on August 25)

- Twitter feed:

twitter.com/search?q=WeRaquaculture

- Participants' interviews:

* Sidiki Keita

twitter.com/Cirad/status/1034085423860121601

* Diana Edithe Andria-Mananjara

twitter.com/Cirad/status/1034730308296486912

* Derun Yuan

twitter.com/Cirad/status/1034841534477295617

* Mike Phillips

twitter.com/Cirad/status/1034803162513858560

* Wenresti Gallardo

twitter.com/Cirad/status/1034699459756740608

- FAO movie on YouTube platform

www.youtube.com/watch?v=rwdH813SehU
APPENDIX 2 - PROGRAMME

<table><thead><tr><td>Time</td><td>Presenter and topic</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>08.30</td><td>Matthias Halwart : Welcoming remarks</td></tr><tr><td>08.45</td><td>Peter Edwards : History of IAA and agroecology in aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>09.00</td><td>Malcolm Beveridge : Agroecology and its application to aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>09.15</td><td>Michael Phillips : Social dimensions of IAA and agroecology</td></tr><tr><td>09.30</td><td>Patrick Sorgeloos : Ecological approaches for better microbial management in intensive shrimp farming</td></tr><tr><td>10.00</td><td>Yuan Derun : Regional overview of the ongoing work and priorities in Asia</td></tr><tr><td>10.15</td><td>Godfrey Nzamujo : The work at Songhai on integrated systems, and a regional overview of the ongoing work and priorities in west Africa</td></tr><tr><td>10.30</td><td>Joël Aubin : IAA and agroecology in aquaculture: views from Europe</td></tr><tr><td>10.45</td><td>Jean-Michel Mortillaro : Ecological basis of integrated systems: example of Madagascar rice-fish farming</td></tr><tr><td>11.00</td><td>Francis Murray : Interim policy recommendations for effective use of probiotics in aquaculture emerging from field work in India, Bangladesh and Kenya</td></tr><tr><td>11.15</td><td>Salin KR : Biomimicry in aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>11.30</td><td>Austin Stankus : Aquaponics for development, an example from the Caribbean</td></tr><tr><td>11.45</td><td>Wenresti G. Gallardo : Aquaponics in Oman</td></tr><tr><td>13.30</td><td>Diana Edithe Andria-Mananjara : Malagasy integrated aquaculture (rice-fish farming, tanjona)</td></tr><tr><td>13.45</td><td>Sidiki Keita : Guinean Fish-Rice culture</td></tr><tr><td>14.00</td><td>Manoel Xavier Pedroza Filho : Integrated animal-fish farming in Southern Brazil: practices, challenges, opportunities and difficulties</td></tr><tr><td>14.15</td><td>Valerio Crespi : Desert aquaculture</td></tr><tr><td>14.30</td><td>Harrison Charo Karisa : Practices and resource use efficiency of Egyptian farms applying aquaculture-agriculture integration</td></tr><tr><td>15.00</td><td>Chanthaboun Sirimanotham : Strengthening integrated aquatic plant and animal farming in the rice fields of the Lao People's Democratic Republic</td></tr><tr><td>15.15</td><td>Xingguo Liu : Raceway-in-pond aquaculture system</td></tr><tr><td>15.30</td><td>Sunila Rai : Increase fish production in semi-intensive ponds through enhancing periphyton growth</td></tr><tr><td>15.45</td><td>Thanh Lam Phan : Integrated mangrove-shrimp farming in Viet Nam</td></tr><tr><td>16.00</td><td>Liying Sui : Brine shrimp production from coastal salt ponds</td></tr><tr><td>16.15</td><td>Yongxu Cheng : Rapid development of integrated rice-fish, rice-mitten crab and rice-crayfish farming in China</td></tr><tr><td>16.30</td><td>Yanni Xiao : Improving livelihoods of indigenous and local communities through integration of fish in terraced rice fields in Yunnan, China</td></tr><tr><td>16.45</td><td>Question and Answer Session</td></tr><tr><td>17.45</td><td>Closing remarks<br>Elisabeth Claverie de Saint-Martin, DG Research and Strategy, CIRAD<br>Árni M. Mathiesen, ADG-FI, FAO</td></tr></tbody></table>
APPENDIX 3 - PICTURES

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

© Lionel Dabbadie

**Figure 1:** The workshop was a Special Session of the International Conference AQUA 2018 #WeRaquaculture organized in Montpellier (France) by the World and European Aquaculture Societies.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

©Lionel Dabbadie

**Figure 2:** Austin Stankus and Matthias Halwart (FAO).

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

©Lionel Dabbadie

**Figure 3:** Patrick Sorgeloos (Ghent University and AQUA 2018 Conference chair).

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

©Lionel Dabbadie

**Figure 4:** Fr. Godfrey Nzamujo (Songhaï Center).
©Lionel Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** Derun Yuan (NACA).</figcaption></figure>

©Lionel Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6:** Yanni Xiao (YZFC).</figcaption></figure>

©Lionel Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7:** Jean-Michel Mortillaro (Cirad).</figcaption></figure>

©Lionel Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8:** Liying Sui (Tianjin University).</figcaption></figure>
©Lionel Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

**Figure 9:** Nick Innes-Taylor (FAO) and Chanthaboun Sirimanotham (The Lao People's Democratic Republic department of Livestock and Fisheries).

©Lionel Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

**Figure 10:** Diana Andria-Mananjara (FOFIFA).

©Il innal Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

**Figure 11:** Austin Stankus (FAO).

©Il innal Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

**Figure 12:** Harrison Charo Karisa (Worldfish).
©Lionel Dabbadie

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

**Figure 13:** Matthias Halwart (FAO) and Lionel Dabbadie (Cirad-FAO) co-chairing the discussion session.

©l jonal Dahhardie

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

**Figure 14:** The Assistant Director-General of FAO in charge of Fisheries and Aquaculture Árni M. Mathiesen and the Director General in charge of Research and Strategy at CIRAD, Élisabeth Claverie de Saint-Martin gave the closing remarks.
<table><tr><td>4. Conclusion</td><td>119</td></tr><tr><td>5. References</td><td>119</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td><strong>Biomimicry in aquaculture – connecting science and practice</strong></td><td><strong>121</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>121</td></tr><tr><td>2. The effluent challenge</td><td>121</td></tr><tr><td>3. Biomimicry</td><td>121</td></tr><tr><td>4. Aquamimicry – A new farming model</td><td>122</td></tr><tr><td>Farm design</td><td>122</td></tr><tr><td>5. Production and economics</td><td>130</td></tr><tr><td>6. Advantages of aquamimicry system</td><td>131</td></tr><tr><td>7. Future outlook</td><td>132</td></tr><tr><td>8. References</td><td>132</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td><strong>Aquaponics in the Sultanate of Oman</strong></td><td><strong>134</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>134</td></tr><tr><td>2. Aquaponics research and development at Sultan Qaboos University Oman</td><td>134</td></tr><tr><td>3. Aquaponic farms in Oman</td><td>138</td></tr><tr><td>4. Acknowledgements</td><td>141</td></tr><tr><td>5. References</td><td>142</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td><strong>Malagasy integrated aquaculture-agriculture</strong></td><td><strong>143</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>143</td></tr><tr><td>2. Rice-fish farming</td><td>143</td></tr><tr><td>3. Tanjona integrated crop-fish farming</td><td>145</td></tr><tr><td>4. Livestock fish farming</td><td>146</td></tr><tr><td>5. Advantage of integrated aquaculture</td><td>146</td></tr><tr><td>6. Constraints of integrated aquaculture</td><td>147</td></tr><tr><td>7. Prospects</td><td>147</td></tr><tr><td>8. Conclusion</td><td>148</td></tr><tr><td>9. References</td><td>148</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td><strong>Pisciriziculture: the Guinean fish-rice culture</strong></td><td><strong>150</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>150</td></tr><tr><td>2. Importance and current trends</td><td>152</td></tr><tr><td>3. Technical steps</td><td>156</td></tr><tr><td>4. Technical elements</td><td>158</td></tr><tr><td>5. Production and consumption</td><td>160</td></tr><tr><td>6. Constraints</td><td>160</td></tr><tr><td>7. Perspectives</td><td>161</td></tr><tr><td>8. Acknowledgement</td><td>161</td></tr><tr><td>9. References</td><td>161</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td><strong>Integrated animal-fish farming in Southern Brazil: practices, challenges, opportunities and difficulties</strong></td><td><strong>162</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction and principles</td><td>162</td></tr><tr><td>2. Technical and economic performance</td><td>167</td></tr><tr><td>3. Main constraints</td><td>167</td></tr><tr><td>4. Current trends and future prospects</td><td>168</td></tr><tr><td>5. Bibliography</td><td>168</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>An overview on aquaculture in desert and arid lands</td><td>171</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>171</td></tr><tr><td>2. Water sources</td><td>171</td></tr><tr><td>3. Main aquaculture farming systems</td><td>172</td></tr><tr><td>4. Suitable species</td><td>172</td></tr><tr><td>5. Examples of aquaculture in arid lands</td><td>172</td></tr><tr><td>6. Pictures of aquaculture in arid land</td><td>173</td></tr><tr><td>7. Conclusions</td><td>178</td></tr><tr><td>8. Bibliography</td><td>179</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Practices and resource use efficiency of Egyptian farms applying aquaculture - agriculture integration</td><td>180</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>180</td></tr><tr><td>2. Methodology</td><td>180</td></tr><tr><td>3. Results and discussion</td><td>181</td></tr><tr><td>4. Acknowledgements</td><td>186</td></tr><tr><td>5. References</td><td>186</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Strengthening integrated aquatic plant and animal farming in the rice fields of the Lao People's Democratic Republic</td><td>188</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>188</td></tr><tr><td>2. Common misunderstandings</td><td>188</td></tr><tr><td>3. Working to develop solutions</td><td>189</td></tr><tr><td>4. Bridging the information gap</td><td>190</td></tr><tr><td>5. Farmers developing practical solutions</td><td>191</td></tr><tr><td>6. Plastic-lined earth pond</td><td>192</td></tr><tr><td>7. Fish seed production</td><td>192</td></tr><tr><td>8. Estimates of aquatic animal production and impact</td><td>193</td></tr><tr><td>9. Building local capacity</td><td>193</td></tr><tr><td>10. Effectiveness of international support</td><td>195</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Raceway-in-pond aquaculture system</td><td>197</td></tr><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>197</td></tr><tr><td>1 Introduction</td><td>197</td></tr><tr><td>2 Material and methods</td><td>197</td></tr><tr><td>2.1 The Raceway-in-Ponds Aquaculture Systems (RPAS)</td><td>197</td></tr><tr><td>2.1.1 Design equations</td><td>197</td></tr><tr><td>3 Results</td><td>199</td></tr><tr><td>4 Results and discussions</td><td>201</td></tr><tr><td>5. Acknowledgments</td><td>201</td></tr><tr><td>6. References</td><td>201</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Increasing carp and small indigenous species production in semi-intensive ponds through enhancing periphyton growth</td><td>203</td></tr><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>203</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>203</td></tr><tr><td>2. Effect of substrates on carp production</td><td>204</td></tr><tr><td>3. Production of periphyton to enhance yield in polyculture ponds with carp and small indigenous species</td><td>205</td></tr><tr><td>4. Potential substrates for periphyton enhancement in carp-SIS polyculture</td><td>207</td></tr><tr><td>5. Conclusion</td><td>208</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>6. Acknowledgement</td><td>208</td></tr><tr><td>7. References</td><td>209</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Current practices of integrated mangrove-shrimp farming in Viet Nam</td><td>212</td></tr><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>212</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>212</td></tr><tr><td>2. Methodology</td><td>213</td></tr><tr><td>3. Results</td><td>214</td></tr><tr><td>3.2.2. Technical aspects</td><td>217</td></tr><tr><td>4. Discussion</td><td>222</td></tr><tr><td>5. Conclusions</td><td>223</td></tr><tr><td>6. Acknowledgements</td><td>223</td></tr><tr><td>7. References</td><td>223</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Brine shrimp Artemia production in coastal salt ponds in Asia</td><td>229</td></tr><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>229</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>229</td></tr><tr><td>2. Intensive management of Artemia cyst production in Viet Nam</td><td>230</td></tr><tr><td>3. Intensive Artemia biomass production in Thailand</td><td>231</td></tr><tr><td>4. Extensive Artemia cyst and biomass production in China</td><td>232</td></tr><tr><td>5. Conclusion</td><td>234</td></tr><tr><td>6. References</td><td>234</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>The rapid development of the integrated rice-fish, rice-mitten crab and rice-crayfish farming in China</td><td>236</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>236</td></tr><tr><td>2. Distribution and current trends</td><td>237</td></tr><tr><td>2.1 Differences between the traditional rice-fish co-culture and the integrated rice and aquatic animals farming</td><td>237</td></tr><tr><td>3. Integrated farming of rice and aquaculture</td><td>238</td></tr><tr><td>4. Economic performance</td><td>241</td></tr><tr><td>5. Constraints</td><td>241</td></tr><tr><td>6. Future prospects</td><td>242</td></tr><tr><td>7. References</td><td>243</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Improving livelihoods of indigenous and local communities through integration of fish in terraced rice fields in Yunnan, People's Republic of China</td><td>245</td></tr><tr><td>1. Introduction</td><td>245</td></tr><tr><td>2. Training</td><td>247</td></tr><tr><td>3. Cooperative creation</td><td>248</td></tr><tr><td>4. Land transfer and consolidation</td><td>248</td></tr><tr><td>6 Guaranteed price</td><td>248</td></tr><tr><td>7 Acknowledgements</td><td>251</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>List of the authors of the contributed papers</td><td>252</td></tr></table>
# HISTORY OF INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE-AQUACULTURE (IAA) AND AGROECOLOGY IN AQUACULTURE

Peter Edwards

## Abstract

Integrated agriculture-aquaculture (IAA) is a traditional and widespread practice in Asia. Asian IAA comprises diverse cultured species and systems. It was developed and disseminated by farmers and local communities using on-farm and/or locally available resources. Culture systems include rice fields, ponds and cages.

Definitions of agroecology in relation to aquaculture are followed by an historical overview of IAA. Examples of traditional farmer practices and their characterization in and outside China are presented.

Considerable research and development has elucidated the scientific basis of IAA. Some of the major institutions involved in IAA research and the elucidated principles of pond-based IAA, pond dynamics, and design criteria for livestock/fish integration are outlined.

Attempts to promote IAA for small-scale farming households are discussed with research and development (R&D) at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) presented as a case study.

The future relevance of IAA for small-scale farming households and for IAA to lower the cost and improve the adverse environmental impacts of modern aquaculture are considered.

## 1. Definitions

A relatively simple definition of IAA is, “aquaculture is linked up with plant crop and/or livestock subsystems on a farm”; or more formally, “an output from one subsystem in an integrated farming system which otherwise would have been wasted becomes an input to another subsystem resulting in greater efficiency of output” (Edwards, Pullin and Gartner. 1988). Two types of IAA have been recognised: on-farm or direct integration; and indirect integration with off-farm products and by-products of agro-industry as inputs, leading to an even more comprehensive definition of integrated farming involving IAA as well as other types of integration with aquaculture, “concurrent or sequential linkages between two or more human activity systems (one or more of which is aquaculture), directly on-site, or indirectly through off-site needs and opportunities, or both” (Edwards, 1998).

IAA is based on extensive and semi-intensive culture using natural and/or supplementary feed. Extensive culture depends on natural food in the culture facility without intentional fertilisation by humans. Natural food is increased by fertilisers in semi-intensive culture stage 1; semi-intensive stage 2 has an energy supplement at low fish biomass as natural food is high in protein; and semi-intensive stage 3 has denser feed at higher fish biomass with both energy and protein supplement (Edwards, Lin and Yakupitiyage, 2000).

Natural food produced *in-situ* in the culture facility is high in protein that comprises plankton and benthos (insect adults and larvae, and molluscs). Aquatic macrophytes do not occur in well-managed culture facilities. While the absence of aquatic macrophytes is the case in traditional fish ponds, most mitten crab (*Eriocheir sinensis*), red swamp crayfish (*Procambarus clarkii*) and some river prawns (*Macrobrachium* spp.) ponds in China have a surface area coverage of more than 60 percent of aquatic macrophytes to provide shelter, extra food, and improve water quality (Wenbo Zhang, personal communication). A fertilised pond is
dominated by phytoplankton producing “green water” although zooplankton and bacteria are
also active in the food web.

Supplementary feeds that nutritionally complement natural food are agricultural by-products e.g. rice bran, broken rice, and waste vegetables; domestic waste food e.g. from the household, restaurants or factory canteens; volunteer (wild) or cultivated terrestrial vegetation e.g. grass and weeds, and wild or cultivated aquatic macrophytes e.g. duckweed (Lemna spp., Spirodela polyrhiza and Wolffia arrhiza), water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) and pond weeds; and agro-industrial by-products from factories e.g. rice bran, broken rice, oil cakes and waste noodles, and sometimes pelleted formulated feed. However, some IAA systems have intensified through use of pelleted feed, especially towards the end of grow-out to increase the growth rate and size of harvested fish as larger fish usually fetch a higher farm gate price.

**2. Historical overview**

Integrated farming probably evolved in China due to a historically high population density and a decline in wild fish (Edwards, 2004). The origins of aquaculture are lost in antiquity. Rice/fish culture is perhaps the most basic and the oldest type of IAA as lowland rice grows in a swamp, which is a suitable environment for fish. Recent archaeological evidence indicates possible co-evolution of agriculture and aquaculture 8 000 years ago in China by sophisticated farming societies with cultivation of rice with other “aquacultural crops” e.g. water chestnut (Trapa sp.) and foxnut (Euryale ferox) for nut-like fruits. Agronomists have refered to “aquacultural societies”.

The earliest written record is culture of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in ponds, Fan Li, 2 500 years ago. The earliest evidence for rice/fish is clay models from the Han dynasty (205-220 CE) with water chestnuts and common carp with a written record from the Wei dynasty (220-265 CE) of small fish with yellow scales and a red tail grown in rice fields in Sichuan province. A high-value red-coloured common carp stocked in rice fields in the mountains of Zhejiang Province has a 1 000 year history (Edwards, 2006; Lu and Li, 2006). More recent history is the culture of common carp being forbidden during the Tang dynasty (618-906 CE) because the name for common carp, li, was the same as the surname of the Emperor, Li. There are records of collection and transportation of Chinese carp fry in the Song dynasty (960-1276); and detailed accounts of Chinese carp polyculture in the Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

China has had a major impact on the establishment of IAA in some other Asian countries both historically and more recently through Chinese-inspired foreign initiatives, and joint Chinese/foreign initiatives (Edwards, 2004). Common carp was most likely distributed first as it was a revered fish, formed part of the diet and was easy to breed. The species was introduced initially to Japan by sea nearly 2 000 years ago; and to Indonesia probably during 14th century sea voyages; and by land by the Dai (Tai) ethnic minority who migrated southwards from Sichuan to Southeast Asia. Traditional rice/common carp culture still occurs today in mountain valleys in Yunnan (Wenbo Zhang, personal communication), Guizhou, Zhejiang, Fujian and Jiangxi (Hu et al., 2016) and in Northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and Northern Viet Nam (Le et al., 1995); and common carp remains a major cultured species today in Indonesia.

Chinese carp polyculture was probably introduced into the Red River Delta, Northern Viet Nam at an undetermined date by land using wild seed of carps from the Red River. In the late 19th to mid-20th century there was annual transportation of Chinese carp seed from the Pearl River to Malaya (present day Malaysia and Singapore) and Thailand where Overseas Chinese farmed the fish in IAA. IAA probably developed less than a century ago in other regions of Indonesia and Central and Southern Viet Nam, and in other countries of Southeast Asia and South Asia.

IAA was introduced into South Asia initially in Nepal in the 1970s (Woynarovich, 1980) and subsequently into Bangladesh by former US Peace Corps who had served as pond labourers for
Woynarovich in Nepal when they were aquaculture consultants (William Collis, personal communication).

# 3. IAA systems

## 3.1. Rice/fish integration

Rice fields are trenched to provide deeper water for the fish with culture either concurrent with rice or rotational. Fish stocked in the rice field consume natural food, including rice pests with a range of yields from 100-250 kg/ha; with supplementary feeding production may approach 1 tonne/ha or more depending on the area of the field converted to the trench or pond, and the amount of feed given to the fish.

Although capture of wild fish in rice fields is likely as old as rice farming, rice/fish farming has never been common or widespread. It has been practiced traditionally in only a few areas of some countries: in the mountains of Southeast China (Edwards, 2006; Lu and Li, 2006); in mountainous areas in Northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and Northern Viet Nam (Le et al., 1995); and in Java, Indonesia (Edwards, 2009a). Only about 1 percent of the world's rice fields have been estimated to be stocked with fish (Halwart and Gupta, 2004).

Rice/fish farming occurs sporadically throughout Southeast Asia although rice/fish culture occurs throughout Viet Nam; some farmers in the Mekong River Delta in Southern Viet Nam culture low-value fish such as common carp, kissing gourami (Helostoma temmincki), rohu (Labeo rohita), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) concurrently with rice. Culture of high-value giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) has been developed recently in well-watered trenched rice fields in southern Viet Nam; post-larvae are raised concurrently with rice and then in rotation after rice harvest as rains flood the field (Nguyen et al., 2006). Culture of giant river prawn has been developed recently in trenched rice fields with an abundant water supply in southwest Bangladesh (Nandeesha, 2003; Ahmed et al., 2013). Post-larvae are nursed in trenches in rice fields and then raised concurrently with rice as rains flood the field. Culture of high-value crustaceans has also been developed in China recently, concurrently with rice in trenched rice fields: river prawns (Macrobrachium nipponensis and M. rosenbergii), mitten/hairy crab (Eriocheir sinensis), and the red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) (Miao, 2010; Edwards, 2014a).

Although rice/fish farming has been promoted widely, the degree of sustainable adoption has been rather limited in the main rice growing areas of Bangladesh (Nandeesha, 2004; Nabi, 2008) and the Philippines (Horstkotte-Wesseler, 1999). Rice fields were traditionally used to produce culturally favoured small fish (50-100 g) for domestic consumption in Java, Indonesia but the development of running water pond culture in the 1960s and 1970s lead to a boom in rice/fish culture to provide fingerlings for stocking the ponds as well as the more recent development of cage culture in reservoirs in the 1970s and 1980s (Costa-Pierce and Hadikasumah, 1990). Although rice fields became a major source of fingerlings, the practice of rice field nursing declined significantly in Cianjur, a major nursing area, because a nursery pond converted from a rice field produced double the number of fingerlings than a rice field (Edwards, 2009a). The sustainability of traditional rice/fish farming in the mountains of Northern Viet Nam was questioned (Edwards et al., 2000).

Capture and culture of fish in rice fields have probably both diminished over recent decades in Asia. High yielding varieties of rice require water less than 20 cm deep, have a shorter growing period than traditional rice varieties and fish, and use of pesticides has increased. Theft of fish from rice fields is widespread as they are often considered as a common property resource, and are difficult to guard distant from the farmer's dwelling. It also requires considerable time and labour to dig trenches and raise the height of rice field dikes; and to maintain adequate water for fish in the dry season and prevent loss of fish through monsoon season flooding. Rice/fish
integration is likely to become further constrained by new rice technology promoting less water use.

Most fish from rice fields are consumed by the farming household. While there may be a relatively low return on producing small fish in rice fields, such fish may provide an important source of animal protein, healthy fats, vitamins and minerals for poor farming households (Halwart, 2006). Consequently, there have been considerable efforts to promote rice/fish integration during recent decades although sustainable adoption has been limited following withdrawal of project financial technical and logistical support (Horstkotte-Wesseler, 1999; Nandeesha, 2004; Nabi, 2008). Rice fields as nurseries to produce fingerlings may be more attractive because farmers can more readily earn income through sale of fingerlings. Nursing common carp and Nile tilapia fry in irrigated rice fields in Northwest Bangladesh has been demonstrated and the practice spread without further project support (Barman and Little, 2006; Haque *et al.*, 2010); the extent of sustainable adoption is being investigated (D.C. Little, personal communication).

Most fish ponds in Asia have been converted from rice fields as pond culture is more profitable than rice/fish farming (Edwards, 2015). Rice field conversion to ponds or pond/dike systems in the Red River Delta, Viet Nam, at least doubled the return from rice; and fish and fruit production were more stable with less chance of flooding and thus less risk, with thousands of hectares converted from rice fields to ponds (Le Thanh Luu, personal communication).

## 3.2. Pond-based IAA

### 3.2.1. China

Integrated farming has a long history in China where traditional family-level integrated farms were widespread in the Yangtze and Pearl River basins before the development of communes and collective agriculture in the 1950's.

Pond-based IAA was developed in China empirically by trial-and-error by farmers. The traditional Chinese system of carp polyculture had several on-farm linkages (Figure 1).

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Traditional Chinese integrated farm (Edwards, Pullin and Gartner, 1988; Edwards, 1993).</figcaption></figure>

Fertilisers included livestock manure, mainly pig, as well as human manure or nightsoil, for crops and pond; vegetation or green manure for crops and pond; and pond mud for crops. Supplementary feed for fish was provided by wild grass from on and around the farm; and by waste from vegetables grown for humans and pigs. Mulberry was grown for leaves to feed
silkworms and silkworm pupae were a traditional high-protein fish feed. Pig manure and nightsoil were used to fertilise rice, vegetables and the fish pond in decreasing importance; feed requirements of pigs were met before feeding fish. Pond mud was used to fertilize crops grown on pond dikes as ponds fertilised with green manure and fed grass as green fodder for grass carp (*Ctenopharyngodon idella*) developed thick deposits of organic-rich sediments that required periodic removal. Few on-farm resources were used for the fish pond due to intense competition from crops and pigs on resource-poor, small-scale farms. The main input to the pond was wild grass of low nutrient value so extrapolated annual fish yields were low, probably only 1-2 tonnes/ha. Estimated fish production in 1949 was 383 000 tonnes from 208 000 ha of fish ponds or an average of 1.8 tonnes/ha (Hoffmann, 1934).

Farmers managed the pond using ‘farmer bioassays’: natural food production indicated by water colour and light transparency; and adequate dissolved oxygen for fish indicated by the differential surfacing behaviour of fish, especially the most sensitive bighead carp (*Hypophthalmichthys nobilis*) and the most resistant common carp (Edwards, 2004).

The most complex IAA were developed in China during the era of communes and they reached their peak of complexity in the 1980s with intensification through direct and indirect integration (Figure 2) (Edwards, 1982; NACA, 1989; Mathias, Charles and Hu, 1994; Symoens and Micha, 1995; Chen, Hu and Charles, 1995). Nutrient flows were greatly increased through manure from increased numbers of integrated livestock, especially pigs that were farmed mainly for their manure to fertilise the pond, and transport of urban nightsoil as pond and crop fertilisers. Silkworm pupae wastewater was also used as a pond fertiliser. Improved grasses were grown on pond dikes to feed grass carp and aquatic macrophytes were cultivated on ponds and in nearby canals e.g. duckweed, water hyacinth (*Eichhornia crassipes*) and water spinach. Wild feed organisms such aquatic macrophytes and snails for black carp (*Mylopharyngodon piceus*) were harvested from nearby lakes; and wheat and rice bran, and soybean and rapeseed cakes, were used as supplementary feed. There was also increasing use of chemical fertilisers and pelleted feed.

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Links in large-scale integrated farms in China in the early 1980s. A composite diagram with all linkages identified from a survey of 10 farms (Edwards, 1982).</figcaption></figure>
Large-scale Chinese IAA farms became less integrated following privatization, with a reduction in the number of subsystems (Miao, 2007). Crops were eliminated except for grass used mostly for feeding relatively high-value grass carp broodstock. Livestock integration with aquaculture was mostly replaced by more efficient and profitable large-scale, industrial-scale livestock production. Pond fertilisation during fish grow-out declined with increasing intensification of pond aquaculture through use of pelleted feed so less manure was required as the ponds had excess nutrients from the residual fertiliser effects of feed (Miao and Liang, 2007; Miao and Yuan, 2007). There has been a rapid increase in use of commercial feed with more than 10 000 aqua-feed mills today in China (Zhang et al., 2013). In the major Chinese carp farming areas more than 95 percent of farmers used manufactured feeds although some still used home-made feeds from rice bran, soybean cake and wheat bran. However, some livestock/fish farms do remain in China, particularly small-scale duck/fish integration in Southern China (Edwards, 2008a).

The centuries old integrated mulberry dike/pond system has disappeared from the Pearl River Delta with an increase in intensive monoculture of high-value fish, giant river prawn and soft shelled turtle (*Pelodiscus sinensis*) from the late 1980s (Yee, 1999; Edwards, 2008a). It has also disappeared from the Yangtze River Delta where there is a 1-km2 park of a mulberry dike/pond system in Huzhou district, Zhejiang province as an agriculture heritage reserve although it was not really in production during a recent visit (Wenbo Zhang, personal communication).

### 3.2.2. IAA in Southeast Asia

Similar IAA to traditional Chinese pond-based IAA occur in two other historically densely populated countries, Viet Nam and Indonesia, and may have a long history.

Traditional IAA in Viet Nam is called VAC, an acronym from the Vietnamese words for garden, pond and pig sty. A polyculture of carps is raised in household-level ponds in association with livestock and crops (Le *et al.*, 2002). Most households keep one to several pigs, and small herds of scavenging chickens or ducks, which may be caged at night. Livestock quarters for pigs and poultry are constructed adjacent to or near the pond so that washings and urine may be flushed or drained into the pond. There may be a garden and/or an orchard with annual and perennial crops grown to provide household food and produce for the local market. Some farmers grow high-value ornamental plants on pond dikes for sale. Pond water is used to irrigate crops. Leaves of vegetables are used to feed grass carp. Grass and other wild vegetation and chopped banana trunks are also used to feed grass carp. Pond silt is removed annually to fertilise fruit trees and/or to provide a nutrient-rich layer of soil to cultivate vegetables. Extrapolated fish yields are 3-4 tonnes/ha.

As the traditional VAC system has fairly low yields, farmers now practice improved VAC with addition of Nile tilapia and pelleted feed to supplement traditional pond inputs. However, pelleted feed is mainly used to fatten fish towards the end of grow-out as it would not be profitable to use throughout the growth period.

VAC is recognised for household food security and increasingly as a source of income. The Vietnamese Government has recently introduced a policy of agricultural diversification that allows conversion of poor quality land such as low-lying and frequently flooded rice fields that do not provide an adequate household income for small-scale farmers to fish ponds.

A wide range of traditional integrated systems occurs in West Java, Indonesia both small- and large-scale (Edwards, 2009a). Feedlot livestock/fish integration at varying scales (poultry/fish and small-scale goat/fish) is also widespread.

The most common type of IAA in Asia is feedlot livestock/fish integration using manufactured formulated feed for the livestock: pig/fish, chicken/fish, duck/fish, and dairy cattle/fish integration (Little and Edwards, 1997, 1999, 2003). The fertilised pond has high natural food
production because of nutrient-rich manure from well-fed livestock and may also receive spilled livestock feed. Some pig farms may depend on agro-industrial by-products from food factories and waste food from factory canteens. Fish yields may be as high as 5-15 tonnes/ha/year, depending on management. Feedlot livestock/fish is typical of suburban areas with access to agro-industrial products/by-products. Feedlot livestock/fish in rural areas is often associated with rice mills as the miller usually retains the rice bran as a charge for milling the rice which enables livestock to be raised in an intensive way.

Feedlot livestock/fish farms are widespread in Thailand. Most farmers in Central Thailand where feedlot livestock/fish integration is common began as livestock farmers and dug the pond initially for soil to raise the land to construct the livestock quarters to minimize the risk of flooding. Following the outbreak of bird flu fish farmers were not allowed to purchase day old chicks to integrate with fish. The Thai Government allowed the continued integration of egg-laying poultry with fish as the eggs would not be exported like broilers but the chicken houses had to be screened from contact with possible virus carrying wild birds (Edwards and Mohan, 2007). There has been a recent decline in feedlot/livestock IAA with tilapia, the major freshwater species today raised in ponds with indirect IAA using feedlot chicken manure as fertiliser and rice bran as supplementary feed.

Traditional polyculture of Indian major carps in Bangladesh was extensive but semi-intensive fish culture has been introduced through projects in the past three decades (ADB, 2005). Farmers attain extrapolated annual fish yields of 3 -5 tonnes/ha in well-managed ponds using on-farm and locally purchased manures, brans and oil cakes. Important introductions of exotic fish were grass carp fed with on-farm vegetation such as grass, banana leaves and duckweed, and filter-feeding silver carp which comprises a major part of the harvest as it grows rapidly in green water ponds. There has been a shift from little use of any type of feed, to use of on-farm feed resources such as cow manure and rice bran (direct integration), to purchase of the latter (indirect integration), to purchase of formulated pelleted feed without any integration (Hernandez et al., 2017).

The State of Andhra Pradesh is called the ‘fish bowl’ of India because it produces nearly 1 million tonnes of Indian major carps, mostly rohu (Labeo rohita) and catla (Catla catla). Production is mainly an indirect IAA based on local off-farm by-products such as feedlot chicken manure and inorganic fertilisers, and brans and oil cakes as supplementary feeds (Nandeesha, 2001; Ramakrishna, 2007; Edwards, 2008b; Abraham, Sil and Vineetha, 2010). Carp farmers were reluctant to use commercial pelleted feed as they believed that indirect IAA fertiliser and supplementary feed were superior. A majority of the farmers in Andhra Pradesh were large-scale whereas in West Bengal farms were mostly small-scale integrated with duck rearing and horticulture (Abraham, Sil and Vineetha, 2010). Feedlot poultry are sometimes raised on or near the pond in both Bangladesh and India.

Pond fertilisation has not been widely practiced in Myanmar (Belton, Bush and Little, 2015; Belton, Filipski and Hu, 2017). It has been estimated that about 80 percent of Burmese aquaculture production is indirect integration based on off-farm rice bran and peanut cake, the remainder using pelleted feed. Feedlot livestock/fish integration has been present for several years on a small-scale but poultry/fish has expanded recently on indirect integrated, large-scale farms.

In addition to small-scale VAC, feedlot livestock are more recently commonly raised in Viet Nam, especially meat ducks, on small fenced areas of the pond and on the dikes.

IAA has never been widespread in The Philippines with the most common freshwater fish, tilapia, being mostly pellet-fed (ADB, 2005).

Fish ponds provide a source of water to irrigate crops so cultivation of plants on pond dikes is widespread, mostly for human food, although old or damaged leaves are fed to herbivorous fish or used as green manure. Dike cropping of vegetables is widespread in the Mekong Delta, Viet
Nam (Nhan et al., 2007). Giant gourami (Ophronemus goramy) is raised in the Mekong Delta, Viet Nam, integrated with crop production as feed for the herbivorous fish; and giant gourami is fed on elephant ear plant (Alocasia macrorrhizos) leaves and water spinach in Indonesia (Edwards, 2009a).

There is some small-scale integration of the herbivorous silver barb (Barbonymus gonionotus) with soft plants such as water spinach in rural areas in Thailand. Pond dikes are also commonly used to raise fruit and vegetables in Bangladesh (Ahmed, 2007; Jahan et al., 2015). Crops can also be cultivated specially for fish feed but it is labour as well as land intensive with a ratio of land:fish pond ranging from 1-2:1 so that at least equal to twice the area is required to grow fodder as to raise fish in the pond. It is also labour intensive to collect wild vegetation. Further constraints are the food conversion ratio of vegetation is also high (a low feed conversion efficiency) as plants are mostly water with only about 20 percent dry matter and some plants also contain anti-nutritional chemicals (Castanares et al., 1992). Pond mud may also be removed once the pond becomes shallow to fertilise dike crops but as this is labour intensive it is seldom carried out, especially in the humid tropics.

Reviews covering crop/fish integration are Edwards (1980, 1987) and Prein (2002).

### 3.3. Cage-based IAA

Small-scale cage farming occurs in Northern Viet Nam with grass and maize leaves used to raise grass carp. The system was probably introduced from Southern China where it is reported to have occurred also.

## 4. Research and development

### 4.1. Institutions

There has been an enormous amount of research over the last four decades to develop a scientific understanding of IAA with voluminous documentation as traditional Chinese aquaculture lacked a scientific basis. According to Chen (1934) writing about Chinese carp polyculture, 'although these claims and beliefs are not supported by any scientific data or explanation, they are yet the results of thousands of years of experience'.

Research was carried out in the 1950s and 1960s at the Tropical Fish Research Institute, Malaya (modern day Malaysia); and in the 1970s to the 1990s to mention only a few of the key research institutions, at Dor Research Station, Israel; at the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, ICLARM, now the WorldFish), at INRA and Cirad, France (Billard, 1980; Dabbadie, 1996); and at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand.

Pond fertilisation and feeds for Chinese carps were studied in Malaya. In Israel according to Wohlfarth (1979), "we experimented with the Chinese type of management... we used polyculture and manure only". Schroeder (1978) carried out research on Chinese inspired polyculture in Israel and later in China at the Asia-Pacific Regional Research and Training Centre for Integrated Fish Farming, Wuxi and wrote that the fish pond is "a sunlit rumen wherein mineral and organic fractions of feeds and fertilizers are converted by autotrophic and heterotrophic activities... the food base for fish growth".

ICLARM (renamed WorldFish) held a major international conference on IAA in 1979 (Pullin and Shehadeh, 1980) and researched livestock/fish culture in The Philippines and as well as IAA in Africa, especially in Ghana and Malawi.

In France, considerable research was conducted on traditional pond polyculture and fertilisation (Billard, 1980). Similar work was conducted in Africa, including considering periphyton-based aquaculture potential in rural Ivory Coast (Dabbadie, 1996).
The Asian Institute of Technology researched the scientific basis of fertilized “green water” ponds in the tropics (Colman and Edwards, 1987; Edwards, 1993), and latterly in cooperation with Collaborative Research Support Programme (CRSP), resulting in the major publications by Egna and Boyd (1997) and Knud-Hansen (1998). The CRSP pond dynamics research carried out on sites in Central and North America, East Africa and Southeast Asia elucidated the physical, chemical, and biological processes that interact in pond culture systems, considering the people who depend on these systems. Research at AIT also included various livestock/fish systems, and especially with relevance for small-scale farming households (Edwards, 1983, 1986; Edwards and Little, 1995; Little and Edwards, 1997, 1999). A survey was conducted of feeds and feeding strategies for aquaculture in Lower Mekong River basin countries (Edwards and Allan, 2004a, b). Li and Yakupitiyage (2003) modelled the nutrient dynamics of the semi-intensive pond system.

Research on supplementary feeding was reviewed by De Silva (1993) and De Silva and Davy (1992). Yakupitiyage, Edwards and Wee (1991) reported on a specific study on the effect of rice-bran as a supplementary feed for fish in a duck-fish integrated system.

General publications relating to IAA and in particular for small-scale farming households are by Little and Muir (1987); Edwards, Pullin and Gartner (1988); Edwards, Little and Demaine (2002); Edwards (1997, 1999); Edwards and Demaine (1997); and Prein (2002).

## 4.2. Principles of pond-based IAA

As China has played such a major role in the development of IAA it may be useful to outline six major features or characteristics of Chinese integration which may be considered as principles, as follows:

* integration with other human activity systems (agriculture and animal husbandry, hence IAA, as well as sanitation and local agro-industry);

* polyculture of an outstanding diversity of carps with various spatial and feeding niches in the pond;

* waste (or rather by-product) reuse (wild volunteer vegetation, livestock manure, nightsoil, brans and oilcakes, soybean, and silk and distillery processing wastes);

* nutrient reuse/multiple use;

* water reuse/multiple use; and

* production of high-protein natural food *in situ*.

## 4.3. Pond dynamics

There is a relationship between a natural pond ecosystem and three traditional aquaculture systems (Edwards 1993). Two of the three systems are IAA systems: the macrophyte or vegetation-fed system, and the manured or excreta-fed system. The fish-fed system is not commonly a component of IAA as carnivorous fish are usually raised in intensive monoculture and traditionally fed forage fish although carnivorous fish may be stocked in polyculture to control prolific breeding of tilapias in IAA systems.
<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3:** The relationship between a natural pond ecosystem and three traditional aquaculture systems (Edwards, 1993).</figcaption></figure>

Thus there are two possible feeding pathways in IAA:

* a vegetation-fed system; vegetation is rarely present in a well-managed pond because its growth is inhibited by reduced light from phytoplankton in the water column; inefficient digestion by herbivorous fish fertilises the pond with fish manure which produces plankton for filter-feeding fish and benthos for pond bottom feeding fish;

* a manured system; manuring produces plankton and benthos.

It is necessary to consider fish pond dynamics in relation to nutrient and organic matter loading rates:

* there is a diurnal dissolved oxygen (DO) cycle with increasing nutrient input; the first limiting factor at night is DO; and the second limiting factor is un-ionized ammonia, the concentration of which also depends on pH and temperature and should be <0.5 mg/l;

* the optimal organic matter loading rate is about 100 kg dry matter/ha/day; a large bacterial oxygen demand from respiratory breakdown of organic matter leading to pond deoxygenation may occur if the loading rate is too high;

* the optimal nutrient loading rates are about 4 kg nitrogen (N) and 1-2 kg phosphorous (P)/ha/day; there is also a need for adequate carbon; bacterial respiration of organic matter should provide the minimum of at least 20 mg total alkalinity/l.

High quality manure from feedlot pigs and poultry should produce about 3-5 tonnes tilapia/ha/3-4 month crop but low quality grazing buffalo manure would produce only 0.5-1 tonne/ha/3-4 month crop. Low fish yields with buffalo manure were because of the high organic matter load to provide adequate N and P, giving rise to a low DO (Edwards, Pacharaprakiti and Yomjinda, 1994; Edwards *et al.*, 1994; Shevgoor, Knud-Hansen and Edwards, 1994). Tannins in the ruminant manure also stained the pond water brown, limiting light penetration for photosynthesis.

Nutrient budgets for semi-intensive ponds have indicated that only 10-15 percent of N and P were removed in harvested fish, 2-6 percent remained in pond water while 80-90 percent "disappeared" within the pond system but mostly probably remained in pond sediments
(Colman and Edwards, 1987; Edwards, 1993). Further research on recycling nutrients is warranted.

**4.4. Design criteria for livestock/fish integration**

Livestock/fish integration is an indirect IAA depending on off-farm formulated feed (Figure 4). While livestock production is intensive and based on off-farm nutritionally complete feed, fish production is semi-intensive as it is based on inefficient digestion of feed nutrients, thus providing a high nutrient level fertiliser for fish production. Crop production is usually minor or absent as the two main commodities are livestock and fish.

The rationale behind recycling livestock manure in aquaculture is approximately 72-79 percent of N and 61-87 percent of P in feed fed to livestock is recovered in their manure and urine (Edwards, 1993). There are variations in their amount and composition of manure which depend on species and total live weight of the animal. As a general rule livestock fed high quality feed have a high concentration of nutrients in their manure. A major factor is inclusion of urine as it can be up to 40 percent of the total wet weight of manure. Inclusion of foreign materials such as soil, litter or bedding will decrease the nutrient content. Spilled feed will increase the nutrient content. Management of manure is also important as loss of N (20-90 percent) depends on the method of collection and handling to minimise volatilization of ammonia. Loss of P is less than N as the former is not volatile. Manure should be used fresh to minimise N nutrient loss. There is minimal possibility of transmission of disease to humans because of the high diurnal pH resulting from photosynthesis activity in manured green water ponds (Little and Edwards, 2003).

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4:** Crop, livestock and fish interactions in a feedlot/livestock IAA system (Edwards, 1993).</figcaption></figure>

Principles of application and distribution of manure are:

* frequent, daily up to twice-weekly for manure;

* small doses which are related to frequency to give the optimum loading rates expressed as kg/ha/day or kg/ha/week;

* wind induced water movement helps to distribute manure in small to medium sized ponds but manure needs to be distributed by boat in large ponds;

* the best time is mid-morning when DO is high and rising.

Enclose the livestock, at least partially, to collect manure, although this is not feasible with few, scavenging livestock. Large ruminants and flocks of poultry are usually kept in a paddock at
night to avoid theft which facilitates partial manure collection. Feedlots lead to more efficient livestock production and available manure but there is a need to collect feed which requires labour and/or to purchase feed which may be unavailable or costly.

The livestock quarters are best located on, next to or near the pond to minimise manure transportation which may have a high moisture content and be heavy and bulky. There is trade and transport of manure in most countries, especially for crop production, so manure should be available for purchase for indirect IAA.

Poultry are light animals so their quarters can be constructed on the dike, or over the pond. Advantages of being located over the pond are it facilitates manure distribution, no extra space is required as it is above the water surface, and there is less chance of disease as there is no manure accumulation and good air circulation. Disadvantages of being over the pond are a higher construction cost, no flexibility of manure use, and stress to birds in cool and/or windy weather which may lead to disease, even in the tropics. There are special considerations for ducks as they can be housed on a floating raft on the pond water surface (Edwards, 1986). If the duck house is on stilts over the water, there should be a ramp for the ducks to access the pond. Earthen pond dikes should be bricked or duck access prevented by a fence to prevent their erosion by ducks descending into and clambering out of the pond.

Ruminant and pigs are heavy livestock so their quarters are best built on the dike to minimise construction cost. Quarters should have a sloping brick or concrete floor connected to a pipe or channel leading to the pond. A sump to collect wastes should be installed if flexibility in manure recycling is needed for example to also fertilise crops, or with seasonal fish culture.

The maximum manure loading rate is the amount of manure that pond bacteria and phytoplankton can digest/unit area/unit time. Phytoplankton blooms from excessive fertilisation lead to a night-time anaerobic water column. Excessive manuring also leads to the accumulation of organic matter on the pond bottom causing the development of anaerobic conditions. Maximum loading rates of 100-200 kg manure dry weight/ha/day correspond to livestock numbers/ha of 2 000-4 000 poultry weighing 2 kg each, 100-200 pigs weighing 100 kg each, and 15-30 cows weighing 500 kg each. However, these numbers should only be used as a general guide as local conditions may require that they be adjusted.

A wide range of livestock is available for IAA but livestock rearing is culture specific. Hindus, Muslims and Jews do not raise pigs or eat pork. The purpose of raising livestock may vary: draught, food, income, and as a 'bank' to save money. Major determining factors in introducing new livestock species are feeds, marketing, and competition between small-scale and large-scale vertically integrated agro-industrial sectors. Livestock prices may be cyclical, especially pigs so fish may contribute to total net profit of IAA when pig prices are high and cover much of the net loss of pig raising when pig prices are low.

# 5. Promotion of small-scale IAA

## 5.1. Constraints

IAA has been promoted in recent decades in many Asian countries in an attempt to improve the welfare of small-scale farming households. A major difference with traditional aquaculture in China in the past is limited indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) in most areas of the tropics in recent times.

The major constraints include:

1) improved awareness of the impact of IAA on society, environment and economy;

2) lack of know-how and guidance on adoption to local conditions;

3) business plan/production chain and marketing of products;

4) technical service and support.
Small-scale farms usually have a poor resource base with limited inputs and limited outputs. Major transactions between subsystems on small-scale farms are between crop, mostly rice, and livestock subsystems, with the fish subsystem poorly developed or absent (Figure 5). Traditionally most produce would have been consumed by the household for subsistence rather than sale although farming household increasingly raise fish for sale in Asia (Edwards, Little and Yakupitiyage, 1997).

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** Most interactions on small-scale farms are between crop, mostly rice, and livestock subsystems, with the fish subsystem poorly developed or absent (Edwards, 1993).</figcaption></figure>

Small-scale ponds may be fertilised with livestock manure but there is usually insufficient as most farms are resource-poor. It is difficult to collect manure for aquaculture as pigs and poultry usually scavenge for food on small-scale farms and if they are confined or housed for manure collection then they have to be fed with feed collected manually or purchased. Large ruminants (buffalo and cattle) are penned/corralled at night near the house to prevent theft so it may be possible to collect some manure although scavenging ruminant manure is poor fertiliser as outlined above. Further constraints to manuring ponds is it may be labour intensive, there may be alternative uses as a crop fertilizer or as fuel in the Indian sub-continent, and the pond may be used as a domestic water supply. There are also constraints in use of plants as outlined above. The most common supplementary feed is rice bran which is an on-farm by-product if rice is milled by the farming household; rice bran is an off-farm by-product if retained by the miller as a charge for milling the paddy and needs to be purchased by the farmer.

Fish yields are usually low because of limited nutritional inputs and are further constrained by stocking small fingerlings which may be predated by carnivorous fish. Fish ponds newly constructed are often turbid due to suspended inorganic particles or silt reducing light penetration. This may cause the farmer to lose interest in aquaculture because of little to no fish growth with the eventual result that the pond becomes a 'weed-filled hole' as the water later clears with settling of suspended particles and light penetrating to the pond bottom allows emergent aquatic macrophytes to grow and choke the pond water volume.

## 5.2. AIT case study

Research into small-scale aquaculture at AIT began in the late 1970s with a survey of farmer practice in Pathumthani province, a major fish farming province north of Bangkok where the institute is located (Edwards *et al.*, 1983). Two major groups of fish farmers were identified:

* successful medium to large-scale farms which were mostly integrated with feedlot livestock;

* small-scale rice farmers with ponds created from excavation of soil to raise the level of the house but who had little to no knowledge of aquaculture.
It therefore seemed logical to attempt to introduce scaled-down feedlot livestock/fish to small-scale rice farmers who expressed interest in fish farming (Edwards, 1983, 1986). Research was carried out on the AIT campus initially to develop the requisite technology for duck/fish integration, and subsequently pond fertilisation with buffalo manure and inorganic fertilizers, nursing fish in “hapa” nets to make more predator-resistant fingerlings, making the water green and feeding the fish with available resources, and mass spawning of tilapia and all-male production. Technologies researched on-station on AIT campus were subsequently trialed with farmers and “promising recommendations” were extended. The AIT Outreach programme was initiated in 1989 in cooperation with the Thai Department of Fisheries (DOF) with the aim to reduce poverty among small-scale farmers in Northeast Thailand (Edwards *et al.*, 1991; Edwards and Demaine, 1998).

Fish farmers in the on-farm trials of duck/fish integration in Central and Northeast Thailand were subsidized as the technology was under development and the researchers did not want the farmers to be subjected to risk should the trial fail. Each farming household was provided with a 200 m² pond, materials for them to construct the duck house, 30 ducks, fingerlings and duck formulated feed. Although extrapolated net yields were an impressive 8-9 tonnes fish/ha/year (110-120 kg fish/pond/8 months culture period), most systems collapsed and were abandoned after withdrawal of project support. Economics of duck rearing was marginal through competition from large-scale and often vertically integrated companies; and there were marketing problems with input supply for feeding ducks and fingerlings to stock the pond, and marketing 20-25 duck eggs daily in the village as it was impractical to link into a marketing chain.

Feedlot livestock/fish for small-scale farmers continued to be promoted uncritically by development agencies to improve the welfare of small-scale farmers on resource-poor farms but AIT research clearly demonstrated that feedlot livestock/fish is more than likely to be a mismatch of technology to resource base. As small-scale farmers in Northeast Thailand had buffaloes for ploughing rice fields, buffalo manure was then researched as a pond fertiliser as manure was available on the farm. Buffalo manure was a poor pond fertilizer with extrapolated production of only about 2 tonnes/ha/year for reasons outlined above.

As both duck and buffalo manure had proved to be unsuitable for small-scale farms, a baseline survey was carried out in a 'back-to-basics' exercise to determine what potential pond inputs were available in various local agroecologies in Northeast Thailand although these proved to be few (Demaine et al., 1999). The only seed available from local nurseries were 2-3 cm fingerlings readily predated by wild carnivorous fish so hapa nursing was trialed in farmers' ponds. An Outreach recommendation was to use only low inputs of buffalo/cattle manure at a maximum rate of 50 kg dry matter/ha/day and in combination with other inputs. Green water was produced in the pond by fertilization with buffalo manure supplemented with urea. Although yields increased 3-5 times above the farmer baseline to an average extrapolated 1.6 tonnes/ha/year, it still only contributed to a minor 6.5 percent of total farm income. Further on-farm trials used urea and TSP at optimum fertilization rates and although yields increased 2-3 times to an average extrapolated 4-5 tonnes/ha, it only comprised 15.9 percent of total farm income (Edwards et al., 1996). Subsequent research confirmed the difficulty of on-farm IAA in resource poor North Thailand without off-farm nutrient inputs (Pant, Demaine and Edwards, 2001, 2004, 2005).

# 6. Future relevance of IAA

## 6.1. Small-scale farmers

It is a major challenge to increase the productivity and profitability of small-scale farms, with ever decreasing farm size, through IAA. Three approaches to intensify production are:
* increased efficiency of use of relatively limited existing and/or potential on-farm resources through better water and nutrient management. When land availability/cost is not a problem (e.g. unused small valleys in some West African countries), small-scale farmer fish production may be increased by creating larger extensive water bodies like the traditional European medieval ponds (L. Dabbadie, personal communication);

* production of more valuable produce (crops, livestock or fish); and

* increased flow of off-farm resources.

Research continues on IAA with the aim of increasing fish production by maximizing nutrient cycling within the pond based on natural pond productivity. Two examples are improved polyculture to more effectively use pond niches; and periphyton on solid substrates placed in the pond (Azim et al., 2005; Azim and Little, 2006; Bosma and Verdegem, 2011; Browdy et al., 2012; Costa-Pierce et al., 2012; Diana, 2012; Milstein, 2005). However, the relatively small increase in fish production by these interventions is unlikely to make IAA significantly more attractive to farmers (Bostock et al., 2010).

There must be a significant increase in nutrients to permit a significant increase in produce (Figure 6) (Edwards, 1997). Intensification could be achieved by either indirect integration using off-farm fertilisers such as feedlot poultry manure and supplementary feeds such as brans and oil cakes; or by using more expensive pelleted feed.

There is a need to consider human ecology or sociology in the promotion of IAA as farmers throughout the developing world are increasingly motivated to raise fish for income rather than only for household subsistence and have diverse livelihood portfolios on- and off-farm (Rigg, 2006). More value could be added to IAA products as they may be perceived as organic with lower chemical fertilizer input. Intensification of fish production would lead to IAA becoming a more meaningful livelihood option for small-scale farmers through increased income from sale of fish. Although there may be small but significant contributions towards household nutrition and income from most current IAA practices, farming households need to intensify aquaculture for it to become a small to medium enterprise (SME) to provide significant household income (Edwards, 2014b).

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6:** There is a need to increase the input of off-farm nutrients as significant output of produce requires significant inputs of nutrients (Edwards, 1997, 1998).</figcaption></figure>

Traditional IAA does have environmental advantages as it uses local resources rather than globally traded animal and plant meals; and livestock manure can be readily disposed of through integration with fish with excess nutrients mostly tied up in sediments that could be used to fertilize crops. Furthermore, it is the best entry point for poor farmers to farm fish to