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78. Solomkin J, Hershberger E, Miller B, Popejoy M, Friedland I, Steenbergen J, et al. Ceftolozane/tazobactam plus metronidazole for complicated intra-abdominal infections in an era of multidrug resistance: results from a randomized, double-blind, phase 3 trial (ASPECT-clAI). Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1462-71.

79. Mazuski JE, Gasink LB, Armstrong J, Broadhurst H, Stone GG, Rank D, et al. Efficacy and safety of ceftazidime-avibactam plus metronidazole versus meropenem in the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infection: results from a randomized, controlled, double-blind, phase 3 program. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:1380-9.

80. Giurazza R, Mazza MC, Andini R, Sansone P, Pace MC, Durante-Mangoni E. Emerging treatment options for multi-drug-resistant bacterial infections. Life (Basel). 2021;11(6):519.

81. Motsch J, Murta de Oliveira C, Stus V, Köksal I, Lyulko O, Boucher HW, et al. RESTORE-IMI 1: a Multicenter, Randomized, double-blind trial comparing efficacy and Safety of Imipenem/Relebactam vs Colistin Plus Imipenem in patients with Imipenem-nonsusceptible bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70(9):1799-808.

82. Tzouvelekis LS, Markogiannakis A, Piperaki E, Souli M, Daikos GL. Treating infections caused by carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(9):862-72.

83. Iregui A, Khan Z, Landman D, Quale J. Activity of cefiderocol against Enterobacterales, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumanii endemic to medical centers in New York City. Microb Drug Resist. 2020;26(7):722-6.

84. Sanders JM, Tessier JM, Sawyer R, Dellinger EP, Miller PR, Namias N, et al. Does isolation of Enterococcus affect outcomes in intra-abdominal infections? Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2017;18(8):879-85.

85. Dupont H, Friggeri A, Touzeau J, Airapetian N, Tinturier F, Lobjoie E, et al. Enterococci increase the morbidity and mortality associated with severe intra-abdominal infections in elderly patients hospitalized in the intensive care unit. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66(10):2379-85.

86. Morvan AC, Hengy B, Garroute-Orgeas M, Ruckly S, Forel JM, Argaud L, et al. Impact of species and antibiotic therapy of enterococcal peritonitis on 30-day mortality in critical care-An analysis of the OUTCOMEREA database. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):307.

87. Zhang J, Yu WQ, Chen W, Wei T, Wang CW, Zhang JY, et al. Systematic review and Meta-analysis of the efficacy of appropriate empiric anti-enterococcal therapy for intra-abdominal infection. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2021;22(2):131-43.

88. Bancke Laverde BL, Maak M, Langheinrich M, Kersting S, Denz A, Krautz C, et al. The role of intraoperative swab during appendectomy in patients with uncomplicated and complicated appendicitis. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2023;38(1):272.

89. Davies HO, Alkhamesi NA, Dawson PM. Peritoneal fluid culture in appendicitis: review in changing times. Int J Surg. 2010;8:426-9.

90. Bassetti M, Rello J, Blasi F, Goossens H, Sotgiu G, Tavoschi L, et al. Systematic review of the impact of appropriate versus inappropriate initial antibiotic therapy on outcomes of patients with severe bacterial infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(6):106184.

91. Bassetti M, Vena A, Giacobbe DR, Trucchi C, Ansaldi F, Antonelli M, et al. Risk factors for intra-abdominal candidiasis in intensive care units: results from EUCANDICU study. Infect Dis Ther. 2022;11(2):827-40.

92. Lagunes L, Rey-Pérez A, Martín-Gómez MT, Vena A, de Egea V, Muñoz P, et al. Association between source control and mortality in 258 patients with intra-abdominal candidiasis: a retrospective multi-centric analysis comparing intensive care versus surgical wards in Spain. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;36(1):95-104.

93. León C, Ruiz-Santana S, Saavedra P, et al. A bedside scoring system (Candida score) for early antifungal treatment in nonneutropenic critically ill patients with Candida colonization. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:730-7.

94. Martín-Loeches I, Antonelli M, Cuenca-Estrella M, Dimopoulos G, Einav S, De Waele JJ, et al. ESICM/ESCMID task force on practical management of invasive candidiasis in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(6):789-805.

95. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, Clancy CJ, Marr KA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:e1-50.

96. Shields RK, Nguyen MH, Press EG, Clancy CJ. Abdominal candidiasis is a hidden reservoir of echinocandin resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58(12):7601-5.

97. Gioia F, Gomez-Lopez A, Alvarez ME, de la Gomez-García E, Martín-Davila P, Cuenca-Estrella M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of echinocandins in suspected candida Peritonitis: a potential risk for resistance. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;101:24-8.

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101. Rinaldi M, Bartoletti M, Bonazzetti C, Caroccia N, Gatti M, Tazza B, et al. Tolerability of pulsed high-dose L-Amb as pre-emptive therapy in patients at high risk for intra-abdominal candidiasis: a phase 2 study (LAMBDA study). Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2023;62(6):106998.

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65. Morrissey I, Hackel M, Badal R, Bouchillon S, Hawser S, Biedenbach D. A review of ten years of the study for Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance trends (SMART) from 2002 to 2011. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2013;6(11):1335-46.

66. Cain SE, Kohn J, Bookstaver PB, Albrecht H, Al-Hasan MN. Stratification of the impact of inappropriate empirical antimicrobial therapy for Gram-negative bloodstream infections by predicted prognosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59(1):245-50.

67. Karaiskos I, Giamarellou H. Carbapenem-sparing strategies for ESBL producers: when and how. Antibiot (Basel). 2020;9:61.

68. Harris PNA, Tambyah PA, Lye DC, Mo Y, Lee TH, Yilmaz M, et al. Effect of piperacillin-tazobactam vs. meropenem on 30-day mortality for patients with *E. Coli* or *Klebsiella pneumoniae* bloodstream infection and ceftriaxone resistance: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2018;320:984-94.

69. Tamma PD, Aitken SL, Bonomo RA, Mathers AJ, van Duin D, Clancy CJ. Infectious Diseases Society of America 2022 Guidance on the treatment of extended-spectrum β-lactamase Producing enterobacterales (ESBL-E), Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales (CRE), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with difficult-to-treat Resistance (DTR-P aeruginosa). Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(2):187-212.

70. Gatti M, Viaggi B, Rossolini GM, Pea F, Viale P. An evidence-based Multidisciplinary Approach focused at creating algorithms for targeted therapy of BSIs, cUTIs, and cIAIs caused by enterobacterales in critically ill adult patients. Infect Drug Resist. 2021;14:2461-98.

71. Heizmann WR, Löschmann PA, Eckmann C, von Eiff C, Bodmann KF, Petrik C. Clinical efficacy of tigecycline used as monotherapy or in combination regimens for complicated infections with documented involvement of multiresistant bacteria. Infection. 2015;43:37-43.

72. McGovern PC, Wible M, El-Tahtawy A, Biswas P, Meyer RD. All-cause mortality imbalance in the tigecycline phase 3 and 4 clinical trials. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013;41:463-7.

73. Scott LJ, Eravacycline. A review in complicated intra-abdominal infections. Drugs. 2019;79:315-24.

74. Solomkin J, Evans D, Slepavicius A, Lee P, Marsh A, Tsai L, et al. Assessing the efficacy and safety of Eravacycline vs Ertapenem in complicated intra-abdominal infections in the investigating gram-negative infections treated with eravacycline (IGNITE 1) trial: a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(3):224-32.

75. Solomkin JS, Gardovskis J, Lawrence K, Montravers P, Sway A, Evans D, Tsai L. IGNITE4: results of a phase 3, Randomized, Multicenter, prospective trial of Eravacycline vs Meropenem in the treatment of complicated Intraabdominal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69(6):921-9.

76. Hobbs ALV, Gelfand MS, Cleveland KO, Saddler K, Sierra-Hoffman MA. A retrospective, multicenter evaluation of eravacycline utilisation in community and academic hospitals. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2022;29:430-3.

77. Shorr AF, Pogue JM, Mohr JF. Intravenous fosfomycin for the treatment of hospitalized patients with serious infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2017;15(10):935-45.

78. Solomkin J, Hershberger E, Miller B, Popejoy M, Friedland I, Steenbergen J, et al. Ceftolozane/tazobactam plus metronidazole for complicated intra-abdominal infections in an era of multidrug resistance: results from a randomized, double-blind, phase 3 trial (ASPECT-clAI). Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1462-71.

79. Mazuski JE, Gasink LB, Armstrong J, Broadhurst H, Stone GG, Rank D, et al. Efficacy and safety of ceftazidime-avibactam plus metronidazole versus meropenem in the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infection: results from a randomized, controlled, double-blind, phase 3 program. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:1380-9.

80. Giurazza R, Mazza MC, Andini R, Sansone P, Pace MC, Durante-Mangoni E. Emerging treatment options for multi-drug-resistant bacterial infections. Life (Basel). 2021;11(6):519.

81. Motsch J, Murta de Oliveira C, Stus V, Köksal I, Lyulko O, Boucher HW, et al. RESTORE-IMI 1: a Multicenter, Randomized, double-blind trial comparing efficacy and Safety of Imipenem/Relebactam vs Colistin Plus Imipenem in patients with Imipenem-nonsusceptible bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70(9):1799-808.

82. Tzouvelekis LS, Markogiannakis A, Piperaki E, Souli M, Daikos GL. Treating infections caused by carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(9):862-72.

83. Iregui A, Khan Z, Landman D, Quale J. Activity of cefiderocol against Enterobacterales, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumanii endemic to medical centers in New York City. Microb Drug Resist. 2020;26(7):722-6.

84. Sanders JM, Tessier JM, Sawyer R, Dellinger EP, Miller PR, Namias N, et al. Does isolation of *Enterococcus* affect outcomes in intra-abdominal infections? Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2017;18(8):879-85.

85. Dupont H, Friggeri A, Touzeau J, Airapetian N, Tinturier F, Lobjoie E, et al. *Enterococci* increase the morbidity and mortality associated with severe intra-abdominal infections in elderly patients hospitalized in the intensive care unit. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66(10):2379-85.

86. Morvan AC, Hengy B, Garrouste-Orgeas M, Ruckly S, Forel JM, Argaud L, et al. Impact of species and antibiotic therapy of enterococcal peritonitis on 30-day mortality in critical care-An analysis of the OUTCOMEREA database. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):307.

87. Zhang J, Yu WQ, Chen W, Wei T, Wang CW, Zhang JY, et al. Systematic review and Meta-analysis of the efficacy of appropriate empiric anti-enterococcal therapy for intra-abdominal infection. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2021;22(2):131-43.

88. Bancke Laverde BL, Maak M, Langheinrich M, Kersting S, Denz A, Krautz C, et al. The role of intraoperative swab during appendectomy in patients with uncomplicated and complicated appendicitis. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2023;38(1):272.

89. Davies HO, Alkhamesi NA, Dawson PM. Peritoneal fluid culture in appendicitis: review in changing times. Int J Surg. 2010;8:426-9.

90. Bassetti M, Rello J, Blasi F, Goossens H, Sotgiu G, Tavoschi L, et al. Systematic review of the impact of appropriate versus inappropriate initial antibiotic therapy on outcomes of patients with severe bacterial infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(6):106184.

91. Bassetti M, Vena A, Giacobbe DR, Trucchi C, Ansaldi F, Antonelli M, et al. Risk factors for intra-abdominal candidiasis in intensive care units: results from EUCANDICU study. Infect Dis Ther. 2022;11(2):827-40.

92. Lagunes L, Rey-Pérez A, Martín-Gómez MT, Vena A, de Egea V, Muñoz P, et al. Association between source control and mortality in 258 patients with intra-abdominal candidiasis: a retrospective multi-centric analysis comparing intensive care versus surgical wards in Spain. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;36(1):95-104.

93. León C, Ruiz-Santana S, Saavedra P, et al. A bedside scoring system (Candida score) for early antifungal treatment in nonneutropenic critically ill patients with Candida colonization. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:730-7.

94. Martín-Loeches I, Antonelli M, Cuenca-Estrella M, Dimopoulos G, Einav S, De Waele JJ, et al. ESICM/ESCMID task force on practical management of invasive candidiasis in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(6):789-805.

95. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, Clancy CJ, Marr KA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:e1-50.

96. Shields RK, Nguyen MH, Press EG, Clancy CJ. Abdominal candidiasis is a hidden reservoir of echinocandin resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58(12):7601-5.

97. Gioia F, Gomez-Lopez A, Alvarez ME, de la Gomez-García E, Martín-Davila P, Cuenca-Estrella M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of echinocandins in suspected candida Peritonitis: a potential risk for resistance. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;101:24-8.

98. Welte R, Oberacher H, Gasperetti T, Pfisterer H, Griesmacher A, Santner T, et al. Pharmacokinetics and antifungal activity of echinocandins in ascites fluid of critically ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2021;65(7):e0256520.

99. Lahmer T, Batres Baires G, Schmid RM, Wiessner JR, Ulrich J, Reichert M, et al. Penetration of isavuconazole in ascites fluid of critically ill patients. J Fungi (Basel). 2021;7(5):376.

100. Maseda E, Martín-Loeches I, Zaragoza R, Pemán J, Fortún J, Grau S, et al. Critical appraisal beyond clinical guidelines for intraabdominal candidiasis. Crit Care. 2023;27(1):382.

101. Rinaldi M, Bartoletti M, Bonazzetti C, Caroccia N, Gatti M, Tazza B, et al. Tolerability of pulsed high-dose L-Amb as pre-emptive therapy in patients at high risk for intra-abdominal candidiasis: a phase 2 study (LAMBDA study). Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2023;62(6):106998.

102. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (SEPSIS-3). JAMA. 2016;315:801-10.

103. Ho VP, Kaafarani H, Rattan R, Namias N, Evans H, Zakrison TL. Sepsis 2019: what surgeons need to know. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2020;21(3):195-204.

104. Esteban A, Frutos-Vivar F, Ferguson ND, Peñuelas O, Lorente JA, Gordo F, et al. Sepsis incidence and outcome: contrasting the intensive care unit with the hospital ward. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1284-9.
105. Rubio I, Osuchowski MF, Shankar-Hari M, Skirecki T, Winkler MS, Lachmann G, et al. Current gaps in sepsis immunology: new opportunities for translational research. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:e422–36.

106. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021;49(11):e1063–143.

107. Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP, Ehrenfeld JM, Wang L, Byrne DW, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2018;378:829–39.

108. Self WH, Semler MW, Wanderer JP, Wang L, Byrne DW, Collins SP, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in noncritically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2018;378:819–28.

109. Jentzer JC, Coons JC, Link CB, Schmidhofer M. Pharmacotherapy update on the use of vasopressors and inotropes in the intensive care unit. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20(3):249–60.

110. Weinberger J, Rhee C, Klompas M. A critical analysis of the literature on time-to-antibiotics in suspected sepsis. J Infect Dis. 2020;222(Suppl 2):S110–8.

111. Nandhabalan P, Ioannou N, Meadows C, Wyncoll D. Refractory septic shock: our pragmatic approach. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):215.

112. Gordon AC, Mason AJ, Thirunavukkarasu N, Perkins GD, Cecconi M, Cepkova M, et al. Effect of early vasopressin vs norepinephrine on kidney failure in patients with septic shock: the VANISH randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016;316(5):509–18.

113. Malbrain MLNG, Van Regenmortel N, Saugel B, De Tavernier B, Van Gaal PJ, Joannes-Boyau O, et al. Principles of fluid management and stewardship in septic shock: it is time to consider the four D's and the four phases of fluid therapy. Ann Intensive Care. 2018;8(1):66.

114. Kellum JA, Kong L, Fink MP, Weissfeld LA, Yealy DM, Pinsky MR, et al. Understanding the inflammatory cytokine response in pneumonia and sepsis: results of the genetic and inflammatory markers of Sepsis (GenIMS) study. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(15):1655–63.

115. Gogos CA, Drosou E, Bassaris HP, Skoutelis A. Pro- versus anti-inflammatory cytokine profile in patients with severe sepsis: a marker for prognosis and future therapeutic options. J Infect Dis. 2000;181(1):176–80.

116. Peng Z, Pai P, Han-Min W, Jun Z, Hong-Bao L, Rong L, Chen H. Evaluation of the effects of pulse high-volume hemofiltration in patients with severe sepsis: a preliminary study. Int J Artif Organs. 2010;33(8):505–11.

117. Zhou F, Peng Z, Murugan R, Kellum JA. Blood purification and mortality in sepsis: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:2209–20.

118. Cruz DN, Perazella MA, Bellomo R, de Cal M, Polanco N, Corradi V, et al. Effectiveness of polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column in sepsis: a systematic review. Crit Care. 2007;11(2):R47.

119. Cruz DN, Antonelli M, Fumagalli R, Foltran F, Brienza N, Donati A, et al. Early use of polymyxin B hemoperfusion in abdominal septic shock: the EUPHAS randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301(23):2445–52.

120. Payen DM, Guilhot J, Launey Y, Lukaszewicz AC, Kaaki M, Veber B, et al. Early use of polymyxin B hemoperfusion in patients with septic shock due to peritonitis: a multicenter randomized control trial. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(6):975–84.

121. Klein DJ, Foster D, Schorr CA, Kazempour K, Walker PM, Dellinger RP. The EUPHRATES trial (evaluating the Use of Polymyxin B Hemoperfusion in a Randomized controlled trial of adults treated for endotoxemia and septic shock): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2014;15:218.

122. Klein DJ, Foster D, Walker PM, Bagshaw SM, Mekonnen H, Antonelli M. Polymyxin B hemoperfusion in endotoxemic septic shock patients without extreme endotoxemia: a post hoc analysis of the EUPHRATES trial. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(12):2205–12.

123. Busani S, Damiani E, Cavazzuti I, Donati A, Girardis M. Intravenous immunoglobulin in septic shock: review of the mechanisms of action and meta-analysis of the clinical effectiveness. Minerva Anestesiol. 2016;82(5):559–72.

124. Kumar A. Antimicrobial delay and outcome in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(12):e802.

125. Hranjec T, Rosenberger LH, Swenson B, Metzger R, Flohr TR, Politano AD, et al. Aggressive versus conservative initiation of antimicrobial treatment in critically ill surgical patients with suspected intensive-care-unit-acquired infection: a quasi-experimental, before and after observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12(10):774–80.

126. Seymour CW, Gesten F, Prescott HC, Friedrich ME, Iwashyna TJ, Phillips GS, et al. Time to treatment and mortality during mandated emergency care for sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(23):2235–44.

127. Pea F, Viale P, Furlanut M. Antimicrobial therapy in critically ill patients: a review of pathophysiological conditions responsible for altered disposition and pharmacokinetic variability. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44(10):1009–34.

128. Yu Z, Pang X, Wu X, Shan C, Jiang S. Clinical outcomes of prolonged infusion (extended infusion or continuous infusion) versus intermittent bolus of meropenem in severe infection: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(7):e0201667.

129. Rhodes NJ, Liu J, O'Donnell JN, Dulhunty JM, Abdul-Aziz MH, Berko PY, et al. Prolonged infusion piperacillin-tazobactam decreases mortality and improves outcomes in severely ill patients: results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(2):236–43.

130. Vardakas KZ, Voulgaris GL, Maliaros A, Samonis G, Falagas ME. Prolonged versus short-term intravenous infusion of antipseudomonal β-lactams for patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):108–20.

131. Yang H, Zhang C, Zhou Q, Wang Y, Chen L. Clinical outcomes with alternative dosing strategies for piperacillin/tazobactam: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116769.

132. Leon L, Guerci P, Pape E, Thilly N, Luc A, Germain A, et al. Serum and peri-toneal exudate concentrations after high doses of β-lactams in critically ill patients with severe intra-abdominal infections: an observational prospective study. J Antimicrobial Chemother. 2020;75(1):156–61.

133. Pai Mangalore R, Peel TN, Udy AA, Peleg AY. The clinical application of beta-lactam antibiotic therapeutic drug monitoring in the critical care setting. J Antimicrobial Chemother. 2023;78(10):2395–405.

134. Bloos F, Thomas-Rüddel D, Rüddel H, Engel C, Schwarzkopf D, Marshall JC, et al. Impact of compliance with infection management guidelines on outcome in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational multi-center study. Crit Care. 2014;18(2):R42.

135. Bloos F, Rüddel H, Thomas-Rüddel D, Schwarzkopf D, Pausch C, Harbarth S, et al. Effect of a multifaceted educational intervention for anti-infectious measures on sepsis mortality: a cluster randomized trial. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(11):1602–12.

136. Azuhata T, Kinoshita K, Kawano D. Time from admission to initiation of surgery for source control is a critical determinant of survival in patients with gastrointestinal perforation with associated septic shock. Crit Care. 2014;18:R87.

137. De Pascale G, Antonelli M, Deschepper M, Arvaniti K, Blot K, Brown BC, et al. Poor timing and failure of source control are risk factors for mortality in critically ill patients with secondary peritonitis. Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(11):1593–606.

138. Rüddel H, Thomas-Rüddel DO, Reinhart K, Bach F, Gerlach H, Lindner M, et al. MEDUSA study group. Adverse effects of delayed antimicrobial treatment and surgical source control in adults with sepsis: results of a planned secondary analysis of a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Crit Care. 2022;26(1):51.

139. Haltmeier T, Falke M, Quale O, Candinas D, Schnüriger B. Damage-control surgery in patients with nontraumatic abdominal emergencies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;92(6):1075–85.

140. Weber DG, Bendinelli C, Balogh ZJ. Damage control surgery for abdominal emergencies. Br J Surg. 2014;101(1):e109–118.

141. Kirkpatrick AW, Coccolini F, Ansaloni L, Roberts DJ, Tolonen M, McKee JL, et al. Closed or open after source control laparotomy for severe complicated intra-abdominal sepsis (the COOL trial): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. World J Emerg Surg. 2018;13:26.

142. Samdani T, Pieracci FM, Eachempati SR, Benarroch-Gampel J, Weiss A, Pietanza MC, et al. Colonic diverticulitis in chemotherapy patients: should operative indications change? A retrospective cohort study. Int J Surg. 2014;12(12):1489–94.

143. Coccolini F, Improta M, Sartelli M, Rasa K, Sawyer R, Coimbra R, et al. Acute abdomen in the immunocompromised patient: WSES, SIS-E, WSIS, AAST, and GAIS guidelines. World J Emerg Surg. 2021;16(1):40.

144. Mathew A, Shatila M, Lai Z. Characteristics of appendicitis after immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy among cancer patients. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2023;149(8):4591–9.

145. Tartaglia D, Cremonini C, Annunziata E, Catena F, Sartelli M, Kirkpatrick AW, et al. Acute diverticulitis in immunocompromised patients: evidence from an international multicenter observational registry (web-based International Register of Emergency Surgery and trauma, WIRES-T). Tech Coloproctol. 2023;27(9):747–57.

146. Hwang SS, Cannom RR, Abbas MA, Etzioni D. Diverticulitis in transplant patients and patients on chronic corticosteroid therapy: a systematic review. Dis Colon Rectum. 2010;53:1699–707.
105. Rubio I, Osuchowski MF, Shankar-Hari M, Skirecki T, Winkler MS, Lachmann G, et al. Current gaps in sepsis immunology: new opportunities for translational research. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:e422–36.

106. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021;49(11):e1063–143.

107. Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP, Ehrenfeld JM, Wang L, Byrne DW, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2018;378:829–39.

108. Self WH, Semler MW, Wanderer JP, Wang L, Byrne DW, Collins SP, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in noncritically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2018;378:819–28.

109. Jentzer JC, Coons JC, Link CB, Schmidhofer M. Pharmacotherapy update on the use of vasopressors and inotropes in the intensive care unit. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20(3):249–60.

110. Weinberger J, Rhee C, Klompas M. A critical analysis of the literature on time-to-antibiotics in suspected sepsis. J Infect Dis. 2020;222(Suppl 2):S110–8.

111. Nandhabalan P, Ioannou N, Meadows C, Wyncoll D. Refractory septic shock: our pragmatic approach. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):215.

112. Gordon AC, Mason AJ, Thirunavukkarasu N, Perkins GD, Cecconi M, Cepkova M, et al. Effect of early vasopressin vs norepinephrine on kidney failure in patients with septic shock: the VANISH randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016;316(5):509–18.

113. Malbrain MLNG, Van Regenmortel N, Saugel B, De Tavernier B, Van Gaal PJ, Joannes-Boyau O, et al. Principles of fluid management and stewardship in septic shock: it is time to consider the four D's and the four phases of fluid therapy. Ann Intensive Care. 2018;8(1):66.

114. Kellum JA, Kong L, Fink MP, Weissfeld LA, Yealy DM, Pinsky MR, et al. Understanding the inflammatory cytokine response in pneumonia and sepsis: results of the genetic and inflammatory markers of Sepsis (GenIMS) study. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(15):1655–63.

115. Gogos CA, Drosou E, Bassaris HP, Skoutelis A. Pro- versus anti-inflammatory cytokine profile in patients with severe sepsis: a marker for prognosis and future therapeutic options. J Infect Dis. 2000;181(1):176–80.

116. Peng Z, Pai P, Han-Min W, Jun Z, Hong-Bao L, Rong L, Chen H. Evaluation of the effects of pulse high-volume hemofiltration in patients with severe sepsis: a preliminary study. Int J Artif Organs. 2010;33(8):505–11.

117. Zhou F, Peng Z, Murugan R, Kellum JA. Blood purification and mortality in sepsis: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:2209–20.

118. Cruz DN, Perazella MA, Bellomo R, de Cal M, Polanco N, Corradi V, et al. Effectiveness of polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column in sepsis: a systematic review. Crit Care. 2007;11(2):R47.

119. Cruz DN, Antonelli M, Fumagalli R, Foltran F, Brienza N, Donati A, et al. Early use of polymyxin B hemoperfusion in abdominal septic shock: the EUPHAS randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301(23):2445–52.

120. Payen DM, Guilhot J, Launey Y, Lukaszewicz AC, Kaaki M, Weber B, et al. Early use of polymyxin B hemoperfusion in patients with septic shock due to peritonitis: a multicenter randomized control trial. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(6):975–84.

121. Klein DJ, Foster D, Schorr CA, Kazempour K, Walker PM, Dellinger RP. The EUPHRATES trial (evaluating the Use of Polymyxin B Hemoperfusion in a Randomized controlled trial of adults treated for endotoxemia and septic shock): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2014;15:218.

122. Klein DJ, Foster D, Walker PM, Bagshaw SM, Mekonnen H, Antonelli M. Polymyxin B hemoperfusion in endotoxemic septic shock patients without extreme endotoxemia: a post hoc analysis of the EUPHRATES trial. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(12):2205–12.

123. Busani S, Damiani E, Cavazzuti I, Donati A, Girardis M. Intravenous immunoglobulin in septic shock: review of the mechanisms of action and meta-analysis of the clinical effectiveness. Minerva Anestesiol. 2016;82(5):559–72.

124. Kumar A. Antimicrobial delay and outcome in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(12):e802.

125. Hranjec T, Rosenberger LH, Swenson B, Metzger R, Flohr TR, Politano AD, et al. Aggressive versus conservative initiation of antimicrobial treatment in critically ill surgical patients with suspected intensive-care-unit-acquired infection: a quasi-experimental, before and after observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12(10):774–80.

126. Seymour CW, Gesten F, Prescott HC, Friedrich ME, Iwashyna TJ, Phillips GS, et al. Time to treatment and mortality during mandated emergency care for sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(23):2235–44.

127. Pea F, Viale P, Furlanut M. Antimicrobial therapy in critically ill patients: a review of pathophysiological conditions responsible for altered disposition and pharmacokinetic variability. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44(10):1009–34.

128. Yu Z, Pang X, Wu X, Shan C, Jiang S. Clinical outcomes of prolonged infusion (extended infusion or continuous infusion) versus intermittent bolus of meropenem in severe infection: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(7):e0201667.

129. Rhodes NJ, Liu J, O'Donnell JN, Dulhunty JM, Abdul-Aziz MH, Berko PY, et al. Prolonged infusion piperacillin-tazobactam decreases mortality and improves outcomes in severely ill patients: results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(2):236–43.

130. Vardakas KZ, Voulgaris GL, Maliaros A, Samonis G, Falagas ME. Prolonged versus short-term intravenous infusion of antipseudomonal β-lactams for patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):108–20.

131. Yang H, Zhang C, Zhou Q, Wang Y, Chen L. Clinical outcomes with alternative dosing strategies for piperacillin/tazobactam: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116769.

132. Leon L, Guerci P, Pape E, Thilly N, Luc A, Germain A, et al. Serum and peri-toneal exudate concentrations after high doses of β-lactams in critically ill patients with severe intra-abdominal infections: an observational prospective study. J Antimicrobial Chemother. 2020;75(1):156–61.

133. Pai Mangalore R, Peel TN, Udy AA, Peleg AY. The clinical application of beta-lactam antibiotic therapeutic drug monitoring in the critical care setting. J Antimicrobial Chemother. 2023;78(10):2395–405.

134. Bloos F, Thomas-Rüddel D, Rüddel H, Engel C, Schwarzkopf D, Marshall JC, et al. Impact of compliance with infection management guidelines on outcome in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational multi-center study. Crit Care. 2014;18(2):R42.

135. Bloos F, Rüddel H, Thomas-Rüddel D, Schwarzkopf D, Pausch C, Harbarth S, et al. Effect of a multifaceted educational intervention for anti-infectious measures on sepsis mortality: a cluster randomized trial. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(11):1602–12.

136. Azuhata T, Kinoshita K, Kawano D. Time from admission to initiation of surgery for source control is a critical determinant of survival in patients with gastrointestinal perforation with associated septic shock. Crit Care. 2014;18:R87.

137. De Pascale G, Antonelli M, Deschepper M, Arvaniti K, Blot K, Brown BC, et al. Poor timing and failure of source control are risk factors for mortality in critically ill patients with secondary peritonitis. Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(11):1593–606.

138. Rüddel H, Thomas-Rüddel DO, Reinhart K, Bach F, Gerlach H, Lindner M, et al. MEDUSA study group. Adverse effects of delayed antimicrobial treatment and surgical source control in adults with sepsis: results of a planned secondary analysis of a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Crit Care. 2022;26(1):51.

139. Haltmeier T, Falke M, Quale O, Candinas D, Schnüriger B. Damage-control surgery in patients with nontraumatic abdominal emergencies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;92(6):1075–85.

140. Weber DG, Bendinelli C, Balogh ZJ. Damage control surgery for abdominal emergencies. Br J Surg. 2014;101(1):e109–118.

141. Kirkpatrick AW, Coccolini F, Ansaloni L, Roberts DJ, Tolonen M, McKee JL, et al. Closed or open after source control laparotomy for severe complicated intra-abdominal sepsis (the COOL trial): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. World J Emerg Surg. 2018;13:26.

142. Samdani T, Pieracci FM, Eachempati SR, Benarroch-Gampel J, Weiss A, Pietanza MC, et al. Colonic diverticulitis in chemotherapy patients: should operative indications change? A retrospective cohort study. Int J Surg. 2014;12(12):1489–94.

143. Coccolini F, Improta M, Sartelli M, Rasa K, Sawyer R, Coimbra R, et al. Acute abdomen in the immunocompromised patient: WSES, SIS-E, WSIS, AAST, and GAIS guidelines. World J Emerg Surg. 2021;16(1):40.

144. Mathew A, Shatila M, Lai Z. Characteristics of appendicitis after immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy among cancer patients. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2023;149(8):4591–9.

145. Tartaglia D, Cremonini C, Annunziata E, Catena F, Sartelli M, Kirkpatrick AW, et al. Acute diverticulitis in immunocompromised patients: evidence from an international multicenter observational registry (web-based International Register of Emergency Surgery and trauma, WIRES-T). Tech Coloproctol. 2023;27(9):747–57.

146. Hwang SS, Cannom RR, Abbas MA, Etzioni D. Diverticulitis in transplant patients and patients on chronic corticosteroid therapy: a systematic review. Dis Colon Rectum. 2010;53:1699–707.
147. Oor JE, Atema JJ, Boermeester MA, Vrouenraets BC, Ünlü Ç. A systematic review of complicated diverticulitis in post-transplant patients. J Gastrointest Surg. 2014;18(11):2038-46.

148. Pilmis B, Weiss E, Scemla A, Le Monnier A, Grossi PA, Slavin MA, et al. Multidrug-resistant enterobacterales infections in abdominal solid organ transplantation. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2023;29(1):38-43.

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147. Oor JE, Atema JJ, Boermeester MA, Vrouenraets BC, Ünlü Ç. A systematic review of complicated diverticulitis in post-transplant patients. J Gastrointest Surg. 2014;18(11):2038-46.

148. Pilmis B, Weiss E, Scemla A, Le Monnier A, Grossi PA, Slavin MA, et al. Multidrug-resistant enterobacterales infections in abdominal solid organ transplantation. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2023;29(1):38-43.

**Publisher's Note**

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.