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270. Guio L, Barrón MG, González J (2014) The transposable element *Bari-Jheh* mediates oxidative stress response in Drosophila. Mol Ecol 23:2020-2030. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12711

271. Ellison CE, Bachtrog D (2013) Dosage compensation via transposable element mediated rewiring of a regulatory network. Science 342:846-850. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1239552

272. Sentmanat MF, Elgin SCR (2012) Ectopic assembly of heterochromatin in Drosophila melanogaster triggered by transposable elements. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:14104-14109. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207036109

273. Perrat PN, DasGupta S, Wang J et al (2013) Transposition-driven genomic heterogeneity in the Drosophila brain. Science 340:91-95. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231965

274. Charlesworth B, Coyne JA, Barton NH (1987) The relative rates of evolution of sex chromosomes and autosomes. Am Nat 130:113-146. https://doi.org/10.1086/284701

275. Charlesworth B, Campos JL, Jackson BC (2018) Faster-X evolution: theory and evidence from *Drosophila*. Mol Ecol 27:3753-3771. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14534

276. Betancourt AJ, Kim Y, Orr HA (2004) A pseudohitchhiking model of X vs. autosomal diversity. Genetics 168:2261-2269. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.104.030999

277. Campos JL, Halligan DL, Haddrill PR, Charlesworth B (2014) The relation between recombination rate and patterns of molecular evolution and variation in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Biol Evol 31:1010-1028. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msu056

278. Endler JA (1977) Geographic variation, speciation, and clines. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

279. Huxley JS (1938) Clines: an auxiliary taxonomic principle. Nature 142:219-220. https://doi.org/10.1038/142219a0

280. de Jong G, Bochdanovits Z (2003) Latitudinal clines in Drosophila melanogaster: body size, allozyme frequencies, inversion frequencies, and the insulin-signalling pathway. J Genet 82:207-223. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02715819

281. Adrion JR, Hahn MW, Cooper BS (2015) Revisiting classic clines in Drosophila melanogaster in the age of genomics. Trends Genet 31:434-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2015.05.006

282. Flatt T (2016) Genomics of clinal variation in Drosophila: disentangling the interactions of selection and demography. Mol Ecol 25:1023-1026. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13534

283. Rosenzweig ML (1968) The strategy of body size in mammalian carnivores. Am Midl Nat 80:299

284. Blanckenhorn WU, Demont M (2004) Bergmann and converse bergmann latitudinal clines in arthropods: two ends of a continuum? Integr Comp Biol 44:413-424. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/44.6.413

285. Stillwell RC (2010) Are latitudinal clines in body size adaptive? Oikos 119:1387-1390. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18670.x

286. Kivelä SM, Välimäki P, Carrasco D et al (2011) Latitudinal insect body size clines revisited: a critical evaluation of the saw-tooth model. J Anim Ecol 80:1184-1195. https://doi.org/10.2307/41332025?ref=no-x-route:0c31195f82739061ed649686a0a9f292

287. Colombo PC, Remis MI (2015) Morphometric variation in chromosomally polymorphic grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) from South America: Bergmann and Converse Bergmann patterns. Florida Entomol 98:570-574. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0228
8:728-737. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12781

266. González J, Karasov TL, Messer PW, Petrov DA (2010) Genome-wide patterns of adaptation to temperate environments associated with transposable elements in Drosophila. PLoS Genet 6:e1000905. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1000905

267. Merenciano M, Ullastres A, de Cara MAR et al (2016) Multiple independent Retroelement insertions in the promoter of a stress response gene have variable molecular and functional effects in Drosophila. PLoS Genet 12:e1006249. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1006249

268. González J, Lenkov K, Lipatov M et al (2008) High rate of recent transposable element-induced adaptation in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS Biol 6:e251. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060251

269. González J, Macpherson JM, Petrov DA (2009) A recent adaptive transposable element insertion near highly conserved developmental loci in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Biol Evol 26:1949-1961. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msp107

270. Guio L, Barrón MG, González J (2014) The transposable element *Bari-Jheh* mediates oxidative stress response in Drosophila. Mol Ecol 23:2020-2030. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12711

271. Ellison CE, Bachtrog D (2013) Dosage compensation via transposable element mediated rewiring of a regulatory network. Science 342:846-850. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1239552

272. Sentmanat MF, Elgin SCR (2012) Ectopic assembly of heterochromatin in Drosophila melanogaster triggered by transposable elements. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:14104-14109. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207036109

273. Perrat PN, DasGupta S, Wang J et al (2013) Transposition-driven genomic heterogeneity in the Drosophila brain. Science 340:91-95. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231965

274. Charlesworth B, Coyne JA, Barton NH (1987) The relative rates of evolution of sex chromosomes and autosomes. Am Nat 130:113-146. https://doi.org/10.1086/284701

275. Charlesworth B, Campos JL, Jackson BC (2018) Faster-X evolution: theory and evidence from *Drosophila*. Mol Ecol 27:3753-3771. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14534

276. Betancourt AJ, Kim Y, Orr HA (2004) A pseudohitchhiking model of X vs. autosomal diversity. Genetics 168:2261-2269. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.104.030999

277. Campos JL, Halligan DL, Haddrill PR, Charlesworth B (2014) The relation between recombination rate and patterns of molecular evolution and variation in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Biol Evol 31:1010-1028. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msu056

278. Endler JA (1977) Geographic variation, speciation, and clines. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

279. Huxley JS (1938) Clines: an auxiliary taxonomic principle. Nature 142:219-220. https://doi.org/10.1038/142219a0

280. de Jong G, Bochdanovits Z (2003) Latitudinal clines in Drosophila melanogaster: body size, allozyme frequencies, inversion frequencies, and the insulin-signalling pathway. J Genet 82:207-223. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02715819

281. Adrion JR, Hahn MW, Cooper BS (2015) Revisiting classic clines in Drosophila melanogaster in the age of genomics. Trends Genet 31:434-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2015.05.006

282. Flatt T (2016) Genomics of clinal variation in Drosophila: disentangling the interactions of selection and demography. Mol Ecol 25:1023-1026. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13534

283. Rosenzweig ML (1968) The strategy of body size in mammalian carnivores. Am Midl Nat 80:299

284. Blanckenhorn WU, Demont M (2004) Bergmann and converse bergmann latitudinal clines in arthropods: two ends of a continuum? Integr Comp Biol 44:413-424. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/44.6.413

285. Stillwell RC (2010) Are latitudinal clines in body size adaptive? Oikos 119:1387-1390. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18670.x

286. Kivelä SM, Välimäki P, Carrasco D et al (2011) Latitudinal insect body size clines revisited: a critical evaluation of the saw-tooth model. J Anim Ecol 80:1184-1195. https://doi.org/10.2307/41332025?ref=no-x-route:0c31195f82739061ed649686a0a9f292

287. Colombo PC, Remis MI (2015) Morphometric variation in chromosomally polymorphic grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) from South America: Bergmann and Converse Bergmann patterns. Florida Entomol 98:570-574. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0228
288. Schmidt PS, Paaby AB (2008) Reproductive diapause and life-history clines in North American populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution (N Y) 62:1204-1215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00351.x

289. Addo-Bediako A, Chown SL, Gaston KJ (2000) Thermal tolerance, climatic variability and latitude. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 267:739-745. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.1065

290. Hoffmann AA, Anderson A, Hallas R (2002) Opposing clines for high and low temperature resistance in Drosophila melanogaster. Ecol Lett 5:614-618. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00367.x

291. Castañeda LE, Lardies MA, Bozinovic F (2005) Interpopulational variation in recovery time from chill coma along a geographic gradient: a study in the common woodlouse, Porcellio laevis. J Insect Physiol 51:1346-1351

292. Gockel J, Kennington WJ, Hoffmann AA et al (2001) Nonclinality of molecular variation implicates selection in maintaining a morphological cline of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 158:319-323

293. Turner TL, Levine MT, Eckert ML, Begun DJ (2008) Genomic analysis of adaptive differentiation in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 179:455-473. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.107.083659

294. Behrman EL, Howick VM, Kapun M et al (2018) Rapid seasonal evolution in innate immunity of wild Drosophila melanogaster. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 285:20172599. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2599

295. De Mita S, Thuillet A-C, Gay L et al (2013) Detecting selection along environmental gradients: analysis of eight methods and their effectiveness for outbreeding and selfing populations. Mol Ecol 22:1383-1399. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12182

296. Vasemägi A (2006) The adaptive hypothesis of clinal variation revisited: single-locus clines as a result of spatially restricted gene flow. Genetics 173:2411-2414. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.106.059881

297. Prevosti A, Serra L, Segarra C et al (1990) Clines of chromosomal arrangements of Drosophila subobscura in South America evolve closer to Old World patterns. Evolution (N Y) 44:218. https://doi.org/10.2307/2409539

298. Machado HE, Bergland AO, O'Brien KR et al (2016) Comparative population genomics of latitudinal variation in Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Ecol 25:723-740. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13446

299. Barton NH (1999) Clines in polygenic traits. Genet Res 74:223-236

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
288. Schmidt PS, Paaby AB (2008) Reproductive diapause and life-history clines in North American populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution (N Y) 62:1204-1215.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00351.x

289. Addo-Bediako A, Chown SL, Gaston KJ (2000) Thermal tolerance, climatic variability and latitude. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 267:739-745. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.1065

290. Hoffmann AA, Anderson A, Hallas R (2002) Opposing clines for high and low temperature resistance in Drosophila melanogaster. Ecol Lett 5:614-618. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00367.x

291. Castañeda LE, Lardies MA, Bozinovic F (2005) Interpopulational variation in recovery time from chill coma along a geographic gradient: a study in the common woodlouse, Porcellio laevis. J Insect Physiol 51:1346-1351

292. Gockel J, Kennington WJ, Hoffmann AA et al (2001) Nonclinality of molecular variation implicates selection in maintaining a morphological cline of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 158:319-323

293. Turner TL, Levine MT, Eckert ML, Begun DJ (2008) Genomic analysis of adaptive differentiation in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 179:455-473. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.107.083659

294. Behrman EL, Howick VM, Kapun M et al (2018) Rapid seasonal evolution in innate immunity of wild Drosophila melanogaster. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 285:20172599.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2599

295. De Mita S, Thuillet A-C, Gay L et al (2013) Detecting selection along environmental gradients: analysis of eight methods and their effectiveness for outbreeding and selfing populations. Mol Ecol 22:1383-1399.
https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12182

296. Vasemägi A (2006) The adaptive hypothesis of clinal variation revisited: single-locus clines as a result of spatially restricted gene flow. Genetics 173:2411-2414. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.106.059881

297. Prevosti A, Serra L, Segarra C et al (1990) Clines of chromosomal arrangements of Drosophila subobscura in South America evolve closer to Old World patterns. Evolution (N Y) 44:218. https://doi.org/10.2307/2409539

298. Machado HE, Bergland AO, O'Brien KR et al (2016) Comparative population genomics of latitudinal variation in Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Ecol 25:723-740. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13446

299. Barton NH (1999) Clines in polygenic traits. Genet Res 74:223-236

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.