# Studies from global regions indicate promising avenues for maintaining and increasing soil organic carbon stocks

Cornelia Rumpel, Farshad Amiraslani, Deborah Bossio, Claire Chenu, Magali Garcia Cardenas, Beverley Henry, Alejandro Fuentes Espinoza, Lydie-Stella Koutika,. Jagdish Ladha, Beata Emoke Madari, et al.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## To cite this version:

Cornelia Rumpel, Farshad Amiraslani, Deborah Bossio, Claire Chenu, Magali Garcia Cardenas, et al. Studies from global regions indicate promising avenues for maintaining and increasing soil organic carbon stocks. Regional Environmental Change, 2023, 23 (1), pp.8. 10.1007/s10113-022-02003-0 hal-04300005

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**Title**

Studies from global regions indicate promising avenues for maintaining and increasing soil organic carbon stocks

**Permalink**

<https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0jc3c5fx>

**Journal**

Regional Environmental Change, 23(1)

**ISSN**

1436-3798

**Authors**

Rumpel, Cornelia
Amiraslani, Farshad
Bossio, Deborah
et al.

**Publication Date**

2023-03-01

**DOI**

10.1007/s10113-022-02003-0

**Copyright Information**

This work is made available under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution License, available at <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/>

Peer reviewed
**Title**

Studies from global regions indicate promising avenues for maintaining and increasing soil organic carbon stocks

**Permalink**

https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0jc3c5fx

**Journal**

Regional Environmental Change, 23(1)

**ISSN**

1436-3798

**Authors**

Rumpel, Cornelia
Amiraslani, Farshad
Bossio, Deborah
et al.

**Publication Date**

2023-03-01

**DOI**

10.1007/s10113-022-02003-0

**Copyright Information**

This work is made available under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution License, available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Peer reviewed
# Studies from global regions indicate promising avenues for maintaining and increasing soil organic carbon stocks

## The Scientific and Technical Committee of the 4 per 1000 initiative

Cornelia Rumpel<fnref n="1" /> · Farshad Amiraslani<fnref n="2" /> · Deborah Bossio<fnref n="3" /> · Claire Chenu<fnref n="4" /> · Magali Garcia Cardenas<fnref n="5" /> ·

Beverley Henry<fnref n="6" /> · Alejandro Fuentes Espinoza<fnref n="7" /> · Lydia-Stella Koutika.<fnref n="8" /> · Jagdish Ladha<fnref n="9" /> · Beata Emoke Madari<fnref n="10" /> ·

Budiman Minasny<fnref n="11" /> · Adesola (Ola) Olaleye<fnref n="12" /> · Saidou Nourou Sall<fnref n="13" /> · Yasuhito Shirato<fnref n="14" /> · Jean-Francois Soussana<fnref n="15" /> ·

Consuelo Varela-Ortega<fnref n="16" />

Received: 8 November 2022 / Accepted: 10 November 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

In view of the growing global population and increasing meat consumption, food and fibre production on existing agricultural land will most likely have to increase (Blum 2013; World Bank 2018). However, intensive agricultural use has led to a decline in soil quality with a third of all soils now considered degraded (FAO & ITPS 2015). Degraded soils have lower soil organic carbon (SOC) and lower capacity to provide ecosystem services such as biodiversity and water quality benefits (Bunemann et al. 2018; Lehmann et al. 2020). Recognising that the dynamics of carbon in

soils, regulated by biological activity not only affects agricultural yields, but is also a major driver of climate change (Lal et al. 2021), the 4p1000 Initiative was launched in 2015 with a vision of supporting healthy and carbon-rich soils to combat climate change and food insecurity. Counteracting negative effects of agriculture through encouraging sustainable practices that preserve and increase soil carbon stocks worldwide can make small changes in the large organic carbon reservoir in soils, and thereby contribute to mitigating climate change (Soussana et al. 2019). Even small increases in SOC content also lead to numerous co-benefits. Restoring

Communicated by Cornelia Rumpel and accepted by Topical Collection Chief Editor Christopher Reyer

This article is part of the Topical Collection on *Regional management practices with positive effects on soil carbon to meet the goals of the 4p1000 initiative.*

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Cornelia Rumpel
cornelia.rumpel@inrae.fr

<footnote n="1">¹ CNRS, Institute for Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² School of Geography & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life & Health Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ AgroParisTech, UMR Ecosys INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Saclay, France</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ School of Biology and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ International Organisation of Vine and Wine, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸ CRDPI, Av. Ma Loango Moe Poaty BP 1291, Pointe-Noire, Republic of the Congo</footnote>

<footnote n="9">⁹ Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="10">¹⁰ Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, National Rice and Beans Research Center (Embrapa Arroz e Feijão), Santo Antônio de Goiás, Brazil</footnote>

<footnote n="11">¹¹ School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia</footnote>

<footnote n="12">¹² Crop Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture and Consumer Sciences, University of Swaziland, Eswatini, Swaziland, South Africa</footnote>

<footnote n="13">¹³ Université Gaston Berger, St. Louis, Senegal</footnote>

<footnote n="14">¹⁴ National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan</footnote>

<footnote n="15">¹⁵ INRAE, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote n="16">¹⁶ Department of Agricultural Economics, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain</footnote>
# Studies from global regions indicate promising avenues for maintaining and increasing soil organic carbon stocks

## The Scientific and Technical Committee of the 4 per 1000 initiative

Cornelia Rumpel<fnref n="1" /> · Farshad Amiraslani<fnref n="2" /> · Deborah Bossio<fnref n="3" /> · Claire Chenu<fnref n="4" /> · Magali Garcia Cardenas<fnref n="5" /> ·

Beverley Henry<fnref n="6" /> · Alejandro Fuentes Espinoza<fnref n="7" /> · Lydia-Stella Koutika.<fnref n="8" /> · Jagdish Ladha<fnref n="9" /> · Beata Emoke Madari<fnref n="10" /> ·

Budiman Minasny<fnref n="11" /> · Adesola (Ola) Olaleye<fnref n="12" /> · Saidou Nourou Sall<fnref n="13" /> · Yasuhito Shirato<fnref n="14" /> · Jean-Francois Soussana<fnref n="15" /> ·

Consuelo Varela-Ortega<fnref n="16" />

Received: 8 November 2022 / Accepted: 10 November 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

In view of the growing global population and increasing meat consumption, food and fibre production on existing agricultural land will most likely have to increase (Blum 2013; World Bank 2018). However, intensive agricultural use has led to a decline in soil quality with a third of all soils now considered degraded (FAO & ITPS 2015). Degraded soils have lower soil organic carbon (SOC) and lower capacity to provide ecosystem services such as biodiversity and water quality benefits (Bunemann et al. 2018; Lehmann et al. 2020). Recognising that the dynamics of carbon in

soils, regulated by biological activity not only affects agricultural yields, but is also a major driver of climate change (Lal et al. 2021), the 4p1000 Initiative was launched in 2015 with a vision of supporting healthy and carbon-rich soils to combat climate change and food insecurity. Counteracting negative effects of agriculture through encouraging sustainable practices that preserve and increase soil carbon stocks worldwide can make small changes in the large organic carbon reservoir in soils, and thereby contribute to mitigating climate change (Soussana et al. 2019). Even small increases in SOC content also lead to numerous co-benefits. Restoring

Communicated by Cornelia Rumpel and accepted by Topical Collection Chief Editor Christopher Reyer

This article is part of the Topical Collection on *Regional management practices with positive effects on soil carbon to meet the goals of the 4p1000 initiative.*

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

Cornelia Rumpel
cornelia.rumpel@inrae.fr

<footnote n="1">¹ CNRS, Institute for Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² School of Geography & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life & Health Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ AgroParisTech, UMR Ecosys INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Saclay, France</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ School of Biology and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ International Organisation of Vine and Wine, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸ CRDPI, Av. Ma Loango Moe Poaty BP 1291, Pointe-Noire, Republic of the Congo</footnote>

<footnote n="9">⁹ Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="10">¹⁰ Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, National Rice and Beans Research Center (Embrapa Arroz E Feijão), Santo Antônio de Goiás, Brazil</footnote>

<footnote n="11">¹¹ School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia</footnote>

<footnote n="12">¹² Crop Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture and Consumer Sciences, University of Swaziland, Eswatini, Swaziland, South Africa</footnote>

<footnote n="13">¹³ Université Gaston Berger, St. Louis, Senegal</footnote>

<footnote n="14">¹⁴ National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan</footnote>

<footnote n="15">¹⁵ INRAE, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote n="16">¹⁶ Department of Agricultural Economics, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain</footnote>
soil health is critical for sustainable agricultural production and adaptation to climate changes (Rumpel et al. 2022). Implementation of the Initiative requires development and adoption of practices that are environmentally viable, economically sound and socially accepted, and able to provide multiple benefits with no negative impacts. To effectively and sustainably enhance soil quality and SOC sequestration, recommended practices should be region-specific and adapted to local pedoclimatic conditions (Amelung et al. 2020).

Evaluating the potential for SOC preservation or additional SOC storage at the national to the global scale relies on the availability of solid data representing the diversity of pedoclimatic conditions, land uses and management systems at the local to regional scale. This Topical Collection presents such studies. It consists of 20 articles presenting original research based on experimental or modelling work (17 articles) or review of articles (3 articles) on the impact of soil and agricultural system management on SOC sequestration. The papers originate from a wide variety of world regions (Fig. 1), characterised by a multitude of pedoclimatic and socioeconomic conditions, and cover a variety of interventions. While not comprehensive, these studies provide a region-specific overview of SOC sequestration possibilities. They describe adequate and innovative practices and their potential benefits for climate change mitigation.

The temperate climate was covered in eight papers. Whitehead et al. (2022) used a modelling approach and national data from New Zealand to show that SOC losses occurred after land-use change from grassland to forest. The analysis highlights the need for changing land management practices to increase SOC stocks. Matsuura et al. (2021) showed that grassland duration determines SOC stock changes regardless of soil type in Japan. Model simulations showed that low-level farmyard manure applications

had positive effects on SOC stocks, which are likely to be maintained under climate change. Similar results were found for grasslands with an oceanic climate in Spain by Doblas-Rodrigo et al. (2022). The authors reported that manure additions helped to preserve SOC stocks. The study by Drexler et al. (2021) in German agricultural landscapes indicated that features such as hedgerows on croplands are effective options to increase SOC while at the same time enhancing biodiversity and soil protection. Tanneberger et al. (2022) introduced paludiculture as an option to reduce carbon loss from drained temperate peatlands through rewetting. The authors found that this practice could be economically viable in Germany. The study by Araujo et al. (2022) in Canada investigated farmers' behaviour leading to adoption of farming practices that can mitigate climate change. They found that climate awareness and appetite for innovation among farmers influence their fertiliser use. Because farmer profiles differ, diverse informational and educational strategies are necessary to foster the adoption of climate smart practices. The paper by Baronti et al. (2022) was addressing grazing management in the Italian Alps. The authors found that rotational grazing is beneficial for SOC sequestration and soil protection in Alpine systems in addition to contributing to climate change mitigation. For the high mountain region of the Andes, large ecosystem variability was found by Alavi-Murillo et al. (2022), requiring specific management strategies. Their results indicated that low temperatures may conserve SOC stocks in these regions and that they are thus endangered by climate change. Moreover, local management strategies based on fallow, crop rotation and terraces might have positive effects on SOC albeit the few available data.

Nine papers covered the tropical region. In the tropical mountain area of Madagascar, Rakotovao et al. (2022) showed that SOC stocks were maintained thanks to agroforestry systems but increased only when exogenous organic

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1** Origins of the papers presented in this Topical Collection</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>
soil health is critical for sustainable agricultural production and adaptation to climate changes (Rumpel et al. 2022). Implementation of the Initiative requires development and adoption of practices that are environmentally viable, economically sound and socially accepted, and able to provide multiple benefits with no negative impacts. To effectively and sustainably enhance soil quality and SOC sequestration, recommended practices should be region-specific and adapted to local pedoclimatic conditions (Amelung et al. 2020).

Evaluating the potential for SOC preservation or additional SOC storage at the national to the global scale relies on the availability of solid data representing the diversity of pedoclimatic conditions, land uses and management systems at the local to regional scale. This Topical Collection presents such studies. It consists of 20 articles presenting original research based on experimental or modelling work (17 articles) or review of articles (3 articles) on the impact of soil and agricultural system management on SOC sequestration. The papers originate from a wide variety of world regions (Fig. 1), characterised by a multitude of pedoclimatic and socioeconomic conditions, and cover a variety of interventions. While not comprehensive, these studies provide a region-specific overview of SOC sequestration possibilities. They describe adequate and innovative practices and their potential benefits for climate change mitigation.

The temperate climate was covered in eight papers. Whitehead et al. (2022) used a modelling approach and national data from New Zealand to show that SOC losses occurred after land-use change from grassland to forest. The analysis highlights the need for changing land management practices to increase SOC stocks. Matsuura et al. (2021) showed that grassland duration determines SOC stock changes regardless of soil type in Japan. Model simulations showed that low-level farmyard manure applications

had positive effects on SOC stocks, which are likely to be maintained under climate change. Similar results were found for grasslands with an oceanic climate in Spain by Doblas-Rodrigo et al. (2022). The authors reported that manure additions helped to preserve SOC stocks. The study by Drexler et al. (2021) in German agricultural landscapes indicated that features such as hedgerows on croplands are effective options to increase SOC while at the same time enhancing biodiversity and soil protection. Tanneberger et al. (2022) introduced paludiculture as an option to reduce carbon loss from drained temperate peatlands through rewetting. The authors found that this practice could be economically viable in Germany. The study by Araujo et al. (2022) in Canada investigated farmers' behaviour leading to adoption of farming practices that can mitigate climate change. They found that climate awareness and appetite for innovation among farmers influence their fertiliser use. Because farmer profiles differ, diverse informational and educational strategies are necessary to foster the adoption of climate smart practices. The paper by Baronti et al. (2022) was addressing grazing management in the Italian Alps. The authors found that rotational grazing is beneficial for SOC sequestration and soil protection in Alpine systems in addition to contributing to climate change mitigation. For the high mountain region of the Andes, large ecosystem variability was found by Alavi-Murillo et al. (2022), requiring specific management strategies. Their results indicated that low temperatures may conserve SOC stocks in these regions and that they are thus endangered by climate change. Moreover, local management strategies based on fallow, crop rotation and terraces might have positive effects on SOC albeit the few available data.

Nine papers covered the tropical region. In the tropical mountain area of Madagascar, Rakotovao et al. (2022) showed that SOC stocks were maintained thanks to agroforestry systems but increased only when exogenous organic

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1** Origins of the papers presented in this Topical Collection</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>
matter was added. Koutika et al. (2021) found that the inte-
gration of N₂ fixing trees in agricultural and forest land-
scapes of African Congo improves SOC sequestration and
other ecosystem services. Koné (2022) found similar ben-
eficial effects of legumes in Ivory Coast. He reported that
mixed legume fallows have benefits on soils, although SOC
stock changes may be more related to site history. In addition
to land-use history, baseline SOC stocks may be important
to consider as shown by Chopin and Sierra (2021) in Guade-
loupe. These authors reported only small relative increases
of SOC following conservation agricultural practices and
use of locally produced compost due to high baseline SOC
contents of volcanic soils in the Caribbean.

In Brazil, deforestation was reported by Damian et al. (2021) to contribute to climate change not only through removal of the forest biomass but also due to SOC losses. Two studies highlighted agricultural practices able to increase SOC storage of degraded pastures in Brazil. De Oliveira et al. (2022) reported that appropriate stocking rates and weed control as well as simple practices, such as fertilisation or liming could increase SOC stocks of degraded pastures. The recovery of degraded pastures may have the potential to increase C stocks by up to 23%. Hernandes et al. (2022) showed that green-harvested sug-arcane establishment on degraded pastures could lead to positive long-term soil C budget. Likewise, Ramos et al. (2022) indicated that conservation agricultural practices increase C and N stocks in the cerrado ecosystem. In addi-tion, the latter two studies highlighted the importance of directed public policies and region-specific land-use plan-ning to implement such practices. Socioeconomic factors may indeed be important as shown be Leopold et al. (2021) for the Maré Loyalty Island in New Caledonia. Their study indicated that the socioeconomic evolution of agricultural systems impact SOC stocks, as traditional slash and burn agriculture maintained SOC stocks, while the new market-oriented avocado plantations depleted them.

Two papers addressed SOC sequestration strategies
in subtropical and semiarid regions. Biala et al. (2021)
reported benefits of exogenous organic matter additions
for SOC sequestration in Queensland, Australia. The
authors identified a set of research priorities to allow for
accurate assessments of SOC sequestration potential to
inform policy makers. The study by Malou et al. (2021)
indicated that livestock manure fosters SOC in sandy soils
in Senegal independently from clay content but determined
by distance to the village. These two studies again show
the importance of taking into account socioeconomic and
political factors in addition to biophysical constraints
when managing SOC sequestration.

The paper by Anton Sobejano et al. (2021) investigated different climate zones within the region of Navarre in Spain. The authors found that exogenous organic matter

additions are beneficial for SOC storage in all climates.
Uneven effects were observed for conservation agriculture,
irrigation and crop rotations, which could show contrasting
results highlighting the need for site-specific assessment of
the impact of agricultural practices. SOC was therefore sug-
gested as suitable indicator for regional adaptation practices.

Six main conclusions may be drawn from these studies:

* It is important to consider the site history and baseline evolution of SOC stocks. The latter are often declining under current management. Increases with regard to business as usual are thus relative rather than absolute.

* A great diversity of management options allows for relative increases in SOC stocks. They often are very specific to the climatic and socioeconomic context, which may vary even within one region.

* Nutrient management and soil cover are essential to reverse soil degradation and for positive effects on SOC stocks.

* Inputs of exogenous organic matter such as manure are widespread in application and lead to positive effects on SOC stocks across regions.

* Traditional agricultural systems and smallholder farm practices have the potential to increase SOC stocks by implementing management options that avoid soil degradation.

* Technical advice and policy frameworks are important and should be improved to support farmers to implement SOC-fostering practices

Studies like those presented in this Topical Collection
are excellent contributions to global efforts, such as the
FAO agroecological approach (GAEZ), or the Foodscape
approach (Bossio et al. 2021), which provide frameworks
to understand the relevance of local and regional studies
to other areas. These global efforts are necessary to define
sustainable practices able to be applied in specific agroeco-
logical zones and/or foodscapes, as the basis of an agroeco-
logical transition.

References

Alavi-Murillo G, Diels J, Gilles J, Willems P (2022) Soil organic carbon in Andean high-mountain ecosystems: importance, challenges, and opportunities for carbon sequestration. *Reg Environ Change* 22:128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01980-6

Amelung W, Bossio D, de Vries W, Kögel-Knabner I, Lehmann J et al (2020) Towards a global-scale soil climate mitigation strategy. Nat Commun 11:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18887-7

Antón Sobejano R, Arricita Videgain J, Ruiz Sagaseta de Ilurdoz A, Enrique Martín A, Soto García IS d et al (2021) Soil organic carbon monitoring to assess agricultural climate change adaptation
matter was added. Koutika et al. (2021) found that the inte-
gration of N₂ fixing trees in agricultural and forest land-
scapes of African Congo improves SOC sequestration and
other ecosystem services. Koné (2022) found similar ben-
eficial effects of legumes in Ivory Coast. He reported that
mixed legume fallows have benefits on soils, although SOC
stock changes may be more related to site history. In addition
to land-use history, baseline SOC stocks may be important
to consider as shown by Chopin and Sierra (2021) in Guade-
loupe. These authors reported only small relative increases
of SOC following conservation agricultural practices and
use of locally produced compost due to high baseline SOC
contents of volcanic soils in the Caribbean.

In Brazil, deforestation was reported by Damian et al. (2021) to contribute to climate change not only through removal of the forest biomass but also due to SOC losses. Two studies highlighted agricultural practices able to increase SOC storage of degraded pastures in Brazil. De Oliveira et al. (2022) reported that appropriate stocking rates and weed control as well as simple practices, such as fertilisation or liming could increase SOC stocks of degraded pastures. The recovery of degraded pastures may have the potential to increase C stocks by up to 23%. Hernandes et al. (2022) showed that green-harvested sug-arcane establishment on degraded pastures could lead to positive long-term soil C budget. Likewise, Ramos et al. (2022) indicated that conservation agricultural practices increase C and N stocks in the cerrado ecosystem. In addi-tion, the latter two studies highlighted the importance of directed public policies and region-specific land-use plan-ning to implement such practices. Socioeconomic factors may indeed be important as shown be Leopold et al. (2021) for the Maré Loyalty Island in New Caledonia. Their study indicated that the socioeconomic evolution of agricultural systems impact SOC stocks, as traditional slash and burn agriculture maintained SOC stocks, while the new market-oriented avocado plantations depleted them.

Two papers addressed SOC sequestration strategies
in subtropical and semiarid regions. Biala et al. (2021)
reported benefits of exogenous organic matter additions
for SOC sequestration in Queensland, Australia. The
authors identified a set of research priorities to allow for
accurate assessments of SOC sequestration potential to
inform policy makers. The study by Malou et al. (2021)
indicated that livestock manure fosters SOC in sandy soils
in Senegal independently from clay content but determined
by distance to the village. These two studies again show
the importance of taking into account socioeconomic and
political factors in addition to biophysical constraints
when managing SOC sequestration.

The paper by Anton Sobejano et al. (2021) investigated different climate zones within the region of Navarre in Spain. The authors found that exogenous organic matter

additions are beneficial for SOC storage in all climates.
Uneven effects were observed for conservation agriculture,
irrigation and crop rotations, which could show contrasting
results highlighting the need for site-specific assessment of
the impact of agricultural practices. SOC was therefore sug-
gested as suitable indicator for regional adaptation practices.

Six main conclusions may be drawn from these studies:

* It is important to consider the site history and baseline evolution of SOC stocks. The latter are often declining under current management. Increases with regard to business as usual are thus relative rather than absolute.

* A great diversity of management options allows for relative increases in SOC stocks. They often are very specific to the climatic and socioeconomic context, which may vary even within one region.

* Nutrient management and soil cover are essential to reverse soil degradation and for positive effects on SOC stocks.

* Inputs of exogenous organic matter such as manure are widespread in application and lead to positive effects on SOC stocks across regions.

* Traditional agricultural systems and smallholder farm practices have the potential to increase SOC stocks by implementing management options that avoid soil degradation.

* Technical advice and policy frameworks are important and should be improved to support farmers to implement SOC-fostering practices

Studies like those presented in this Topical Collection
are excellent contributions to global efforts, such as the
FAO agroecological approach (GAEZ), or the Foodscape
approach (Bossio et al. 2021), which provide frameworks
to understand the relevance of local and regional studies
to other areas. These global efforts are necessary to define
sustainable practices able to be applied in specific agroeco-
logical zones and/or foodscapes, as the basis of an agroeco-
logical transition.

References

Alavi-Murillo G, Diels J, Gilles J, Willems P (2022) Soil organic carbon in Andean high-mountain ecosystems: importance, challenges, and opportunities for carbon sequestration. *Reg Environ Change* 22:128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01980-6

Amelung W, Bossio D, de Vries W, Kögel-Knabner I, Lehmann J et al (2020) Towards a global-scale soil climate mitigation strategy. Nat Commun 11:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18887-7

Antón Sobejano R, Arricita Videgain J, Ruiz Sagaseta de Ilurdoz A, Enrique Martín A, Soto García IS d et al (2021) Soil organic carbon monitoring to assess agricultural climate change adaptation
practices in Navarre Spain. Reg Environ Change 21:63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01788-w

Araujo FSM, Fantucci H, de Oliveira Lima SH, Abreu MCSD, Santos RM (2022) Modeling Canadian farmer's intention to adopt eco-friendly agricultural inputs and practices. Reg Environ Change 22:44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01901-7

Baronti S, Ungaro F, Maenza A, Ugolini F, Lagomarsino A et al (2022) Rotational pasture management to increase the sustainability of mountain livestock farms in the Alpine region. Reg Environ Change 22:50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01896-1

Biala J, Wilkinson K, Henry B, Singh S, Bennett-Jones J, De Rosa D (2021) The potential for enhancing soil carbon levels through the use of organic soil amendments in Queensland. Australia Reg Environ Change 21:95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01813-y

Blum WE (2013) Soil and land resources for agricultural production: general trends and future scenarios-a worldwide perspective. Int Soil Water Con Res 1:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-6339(15)30026-5

Bossio D, Obersteiner M, Wironen M, Jung M, Wood S, Folberth C, Boucher T, Alleway H, et al (2021) Foodscapes: Toward Food System Transition. The Nature Conservancy, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, and SYTEMIQ, 195 pages. Available online: https://arise.mx/quiqueg/uploads/2021/11/TNC-Foodscapes-Report.pdf

Bunemann EK, Bongiorno G, Bai ZG, Creamer R, de Deyn GB, et al. (2018) Soil quality – a critical review. Soil Biol Biochem 190:105–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.01.030

Chopin P, Sierra J (2021) Potential and constraints for applying the “4 per 1000 Initiative” in the Caribbean: the case of Guadeloupe. Reg Environ Change 21:13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01740-4

Damian JM, Durigan MR, Cherubin MR, Maia SMF, Ogle SM et al (2021) Deforestation and land use change mediate soil carbon changes in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Reg Environ Change 21:64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01796-w

De Oliveira DC, Maia SMF, Freitas RdA, Cerri CEP (2022) Changes in soil carbon and soil carbon sequestration potential under different types of pasture management in Brazil. Reg Environ Change 22:87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01945-9

Doblas-Rodrigo Á, Gallejones P, Artetxe A, Rosa E, del Hierro O, Merino P (2022) Grassland contribution to soil organic carbon stock under climate change scenarios in Basque Country (Spain). Reg Environ Change 22:34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01877-4

Drexler S, Gensior A, Don A (2021) Carbon sequestration in hedge-row biomass and soil in the temperate climate zone. Reg Environ Change 21:74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01798-8

FAO and ITPS 2015. Status of the world's soil resources (SWSR) – main report. Food and agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on soils, Rome, Italy. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5199e.pdf

Hernandes TAD, de Oliveira BR, Duft DG et al (2022) Implications of regional agricultural land use dynamics and deforestation associated with sugarcane expansion for soil carbon stocks in Brazil. Reg Environ Change 22:49. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10010072

Koné AW (2022) Soil organic carbon storage and contribution of management strategies to the “4 per 1000” target in a wet savanna.

Côte D’ivoire Reg Environ Change 22:4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01861-4

Koutika LS, Taba K, Ndongo M et al (2021) Nitrogen-fixing trees increase organic carbon sequestration in forest and agroforestry ecosystems in the Congo basin. Reg Environ Change 21:109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01816-9

Lal R, Monger C, Nave L, Smith P (2021) The role of soil in regulation of climate. Phil Trans r Soc B 376:20210084. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0084

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Leopold A, Drouin J, Drohnu E et al (2021) Fire-fallow agriculture as a sustainable cropping system for maintaining organic carbon in Maré Loyalty Island (New Caledonia, southwest Pacific). Reg Environ Change 21:102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01814-x

Malou OP, Moulin P, Chevallier T et al (2021) Estimates of carbon stocks in sandy soils cultivated under local management practices in Senegal’s groundnut basin. Reg Environ Change 21:65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01790-2

Matsuura S, Kazama R, Hibino H et al (2021) Manure application in managed grasslands can contribute to soil organic carbon sequestration: evidence from field experiments across Japan. Reg Environ Change 21:76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01795-x

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Ramos MLG, de Melo Pereira do Nascimento RS, Silva AMM et al. (2022) Carbon and nitrogen stocks in cultivation systems of a Quilombola community in the Brazilian Cerrado. Reg Environ Change 22: 81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01941-z

Rumpel C, Amiraslani F, Bossio D, Chenu C, Henry B et al (2022) The Role of soil carbon sequestration in enhancing human resilience in tackling global crises including pandemics. Soil Sec 8:100069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soisc2022.100069

Soussana J-F, Lutfalla S, Ehrhardt F, Rosenstock T, Lamanna C et al (2019) Matching policy and science: rationale for the ‘4 per 1000 – soils for food security and climate initiative.’ Soil till Res 188:3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2017.12.002

Tanneberger F, Birr F, Couwenberg J et al (2022) Saving soil carbon, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity and the economy: paludiculture as sustainable land use option in German fen peatlands. Reg Environ Change 22:69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01900-8

Whitehead D, McNeill SJE, Mudge PL (2022) Regional and national changes in soil carbon stocks with land-use change from 1990 to 2016 for New Zealand. Reg Environ Change 21:121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01837-4

World Bank (2018) World Bank Data, The World Bank Group [Online]. Available: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS (Accessed 15.04.22)

**Publisher's note** Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Damian JM, Durigan MR, Cherubin MR, Maia SMF, Ogle SM et al (2021) Deforestation and land use change mediate soil carbon changes in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Reg Environ Change 21:64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01796-w

De Oliveira DC, Maia SMF, Freitas RdA, Cerri CEP (2022) Changes in soil carbon and soil carbon sequestration potential under different types of pasture management in Brazil. Reg Environ Change 22:87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01945-9

Doblas-Rodrigo Á, Gallejones P, Artetxe A, Rosa E, del Hierro O, Merino P (2022) Grassland contribution to soil organic carbon stock under climate change scenarios in Basque Country (Spain). Reg Environ Change 22:34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01877-4

Drexler S, Gensior A, Don A (2021) Carbon sequestration in hedgerow biomass and soil in the temperate climate zone. Reg Environ Change 21:74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01798-8

FAO and ITPS 2015. Status of the world's soil resources (SWSR) – main report. Food and agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on soils, Rome, Italy. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5199e.pdf

Hernandes TAD, de Oliveira BR, Duft DG et al (2022) Implications of regional agricultural land use dynamics and deforestation associated with sugarcane expansion for soil carbon stocks in Brazil. Reg Environ Change 22:49. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10010072

Koné AW (2022) Soil organic carbon storage and contribution of management strategies to the “4 per 1000” target in a wet savanna.

Côte D’ivoire Reg Environ Change 22:4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01861-4

Koutika LS, Taba K, Ndongo M et al (2021) Nitrogen-fixing trees increase organic carbon sequestration in forest and agroforestry ecosystems in the Congo basin. Reg Environ Change 21:109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01816-9

Lal R, Monger C, Nave L, Smith P (2021) The role of soil in regulation of climate. Phil Trans r Soc B 376:20210084. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0084

Lehmann J, Bossio D, Koegel-Knabner I, Rillig, M (2020) The concept and future prospects of soil health. Nature Rev. Earth Environ. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0080-8

Leopold A, Drouin J, Drohnu E et al (2021) Fire-fallow agriculture as a sustainable cropping system for maintaining organic carbon in Maré Loyalty Island (New Caledonia, southwest Pacific). Reg Environ Change 21:102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01814-x

Malou OP, Moulin P, Chevallier T et al (2021) Estimates of carbon stocks in sandy soils cultivated under local management practices in Senegal’s groundnut basin. Reg Environ Change 21:65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01790-2

Matsuura S, Kazama R, Hibino H et al (2021) Manure application in managed grasslands can contribute to soil organic carbon sequestration: evidence from field experiments across Japan. Reg Environ Change 21:76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01795-x

Rakotovao NH, Rasoarinaivo AR, Razafimbelo T et al (2022) Organic inputs in agroforestry systems improve soil organic carbon storage in Italy. Madagascar Reg Environ Change 22:6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01863-2

Ramos MLG, de Melo Pereira do Nascimento RS, Silva AMM et al. (2022) Carbon and nitrogen stocks in cultivation systems of a Quilombola community in the Brazilian Cerrado. Reg Environ Change 22: 81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01941-z

Rumpel C, Amiraslani F, Bossio D, Chenu C, Henry B et al (2022) The Role of soil carbon sequestration in enhancing human resilience in tackling global crises including pandemics. Soil Sec 8:100069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soisc2.2022.100069

Soussana J-F, Lutfalla S, Ehrhardt F, Rosenstock T, Lamanna C et al (2019) Matching policy and science: rationale for the ‘4 per 1000 – soils for food security and climate initiative.’ Soil till Res 188:3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2017.12.002

Tanneberger F, Birr F, Couwenberg J et al (2022) Saving soil carbon, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity and the economy: paludiculture as sustainable land use option in German fen peatlands. Reg Environ Change 22:69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01900-8

Whitehead D, McNeill SJE, Mudge PL (2022) Regional and national changes in soil carbon stocks with land-use change from 1990 to 2016 for New Zealand. Reg Environ Change 21:121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01837-4

World Bank (2018) World Bank Data, The World Bank Group [Online]. Available: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS (Accessed 15.04.22)

**Publisher's note** Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.