# Ozone poisoning in research laboratories and in the industry

Avinash Alagumalai, Chaoqi Wang, Jie Han, Eric Lichtfouse, Hua Song

► To cite this version:

Avinash Alagumalai, Chaoqi Wang, Jie Han, Eric Lichtfouse, Hua Song. Ozone poisoning in research laboratories and in the industry. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2024, 22, pp.941 - 944. 10.1007/s10311-023-01676-1 . hal-04562431

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# Ozone poisoning in research laboratories and in the industry

Avinash Alagumalai<fnref n="1" /> · Chaoqi Wang<fnref n="2" /> · Jie Han<fnref n="2" />* · Eric Lichtfouse<fnref n="3" />* · Hua Song<fnref n="1" />*

While outdoor ozone is known to be either beneficial or detrimental, indoor ozone is an overlooked issue that might have recently amplified in research laboratories during the coronavirus 2019 pandemic. Here we discuss ozone formation, ozone in research, health risks, poisoning incidents, and guidelines for safety in laboratories.

## Good up high, bad nearby

While stratospheric ozone in the upper atmosphere plays a vital role in absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, tropospheric ozone at ground level is a major air pollutant and greenhouse gas, impacting Earth's radiative forcing and causing harm to terrestrial vegetation and human health (Zhang et al. 2022). Anthropogenic emissions are the most important source of tropospheric ozone, which is produced by photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds under the sunlight (Li et al. 2021). Tropospheric ozone precursors include fossil fuel combustion, industrial activities, and automobile emissions (Dewan and Lakhani 2022). Standards for ground-level ozone pollution include an 'information threshold' of 180 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> and an 'alert threshold' of 240 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> for

one-hour average ozone concentration (EEA 2014). Whereas outdoor ozone issues are publicly well-known, much less attention has been paid to indoor ozone, notably in laboratories (Fig. 1). Health Canada recommends a residential maximum ozone exposure limit of 40 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> (20 ppb), based on an averaging time of eight hours (Health Canada 2010). Therefore, it is important to handle ozone in indoor laboratory spaces with due care and responsibility.

## Ozone in research

While ozone has been used for disinfection purposes for over a century, the recent coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has prompted numerous researchers to study plasma or ozone technology for virus disinfection, resulting in about 480 research publications focused on plasma or ozone-based disinfection or sterilization techniques in the Clarivate database (Wang and Chen 2020; Blanco et al. 2021; Chen et al. 2022a, b; Cheng et al. 2020; Volkoff et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2021; Zucker et al. 2021, Clarivate 2023). In particular, cold plasma appears as a promising solution for treating air, water, and soil due to its ability to efficiently degrade contaminants and inactivate pathogens (Asilevi et al. 2021; Aggelopoulos 2022). Nonetheless, the use of non-thermal plasma actuators could induce unintended ozone production. According to Hong et al. (2014), non-thermal plasma actuators with a surface dielectric barrier discharge design can produce up to 21.2 g of ozone every hour per kilowatt of power dissipation. This rate implies that a single non-thermal plasma actuator, with a typical power dissipation of 10 watts, would generate 0.212 g of ozone per hour. In a research laboratory measuring 100 square meters with a ceiling height of 3 m, the ozone concentration could reach 700 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> if the laboratory has a one-hour buildup of ozone concentration in the ambient air. This concentration is almost triple the European Union's Air Quality Directive's 'alert threshold' for the one-hour average of ground-level ozone pollution. Therefore, adverse health effects of high ozone concentrations in the laboratory are probably overlooked.

<footnote>Jie Han
jiehan@xjtu.edu.cn</footnote>

<footnote>Eric Lichtfouse
eric.lichtfouse@icloud.com</footnote>

<footnote>Hua Song
sonh@ucalgary.ca</footnote>

<footnote n="1">¹ Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China</footnote>
# Ozone poisoning in research laboratories and in the industry

Avinash Alagumalai<fnref n="1" /> · Chaoqi Wang<fnref n="2" /> · Jie Han<fnref n="2" />* · Eric Lichtfouse<fnref n="3" />* · Hua Song<fnref n="1" />*

While outdoor ozone is known to be either beneficial or detrimental, indoor ozone is an overlooked issue that might have recently amplified in research laboratories during the coronavirus 2019 pandemic. Here we discuss ozone formation, ozone in research, health risks, poisoning incidents, and guidelines for safety in laboratories.

## Good up high, bad nearby

While stratospheric ozone in the upper atmosphere plays a vital role in absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, tropospheric ozone at ground level is a major air pollutant and greenhouse gas, impacting Earth's radiative forcing and causing harm to terrestrial vegetation and human health (Zhang et al. 2022). Anthropogenic emissions are the most important source of tropospheric ozone, which is produced by photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds under the sunlight (Li et al. 2021). Tropospheric ozone precursors include fossil fuel combustion, industrial activities, and automobile emissions (Dewan and Lakhani 2022). Standards for ground-level ozone pollution include an 'information threshold' of 180 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> and an 'alert threshold' of 240 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> for

one-hour average ozone concentration (EEA 2014). Whereas outdoor ozone issues are publicly well-known, much less attention has been paid to indoor ozone, notably in laboratories (Fig. 1). Health Canada recommends a residential maximum ozone exposure limit of 40 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> (20 ppb), based on an averaging time of eight hours (Health Canada 2010). Therefore, it is important to handle ozone in indoor laboratory spaces with due care and responsibility.

## Ozone in research

While ozone has been used for disinfection purposes for over a century, the recent coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has prompted numerous researchers to study plasma or ozone technology for virus disinfection, resulting in about 480 research publications focused on plasma or ozone-based disinfection or sterilization techniques in the Clarivate database (Wang and Chen 2020; Blanco et al. 2021; Chen et al. 2022a, b; Cheng et al. 2020; Volkoff et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2021; Zucker et al. 2021, Clarivate 2023). In particular, cold plasma appears as a promising solution for treating air, water, and soil due to its ability to efficiently degrade contaminants and inactivate pathogens (Asilevi et al. 2021; Aggelopoulos 2022). Nonetheless, the use of non-thermal plasma actuators could induce unintended ozone production. According to Hong et al. (2014), non-thermal plasma actuators with a surface dielectric barrier discharge design can produce up to 21.2 g of ozone every hour per kilowatt of power dissipation. This rate implies that a single non-thermal plasma actuator, with a typical power dissipation of 10 watts, would generate 0.212 g of ozone per hour. In a research laboratory measuring 100 square meters with a ceiling height of 3 m, the ozone concentration could reach 700 µg/m<fnref n="3" /> if the laboratory has a one-hour buildup of ozone concentration in the ambient air. This concentration is almost triple the European Union's Air Quality Directive's 'alert threshold' for the one-hour average of ground-level ozone pollution. Therefore, adverse health effects of high ozone concentrations in the laboratory are probably overlooked.

<footnote>Jie Han
jiehan@xjtu.edu.cn</footnote>

<footnote>Eric Lichtfouse
eric.lichtfouse@icloud.com</footnote>

<footnote>Hua Song
sonh@ucalgary.ca</footnote>

<footnote n="1">¹ Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_1.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1 A laboratory plasma device releases ozone into the ambient air</figcaption></figure>

## Health effects

Inhaled ozone is a harmful air pollutant inducing adverse health impacts (Fig. 2). Ozone affects the human respiratory tract by weakening immune responses, impairing lung function, and elevating the risk of asthma (Yu 2019). Short-term exposure to ozone results in coughing, wheezing, and the exacerbation of asthma, particularly for individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions (Goodman et al. 2018). Long-term exposure to ozone contributes to the development of asthma (Zhang et al.

2019). Furthermore, in indoor environments, ozone can interact with various indoor air pollutants, giving rise to potentially harmful byproducts. Therefore, indoor ozone levels should be closely monitored to ensure the safety of workers.

## Age and gender

In general, adults are more sensitive to ozone exposure than children, and this difference may be due to the longer time children require to react to ozone stress (Lu and Yao 2023). Conversely, the elderly show higher tolerance compared to adults and children, possibly due to age-related pulmonary hypofunction (Lu and Yao 2023). Females exhibit higher susceptibility to short-term ozone exposure, in agreement with animal experiments on rats (Chen et al. 2022a, b; Silveyra et al. 2021). A recent study in Shenzhen, China showed that ozone inhalation is more strongly associated with respiratory diseases in female than in male, which may be related to the estrogen levels and the differential regulation of lung immune response (Lu and Yao 2023).

## Ozone poisoning incidents

Incidents of ozone poisoning due to improper operation or equipment failure are well known. In 2015, the Bernalillo County Water Authority in Albuquerque, New Mexico faced fines exceeding $144,000 due to multiple violations, with the most severe being related to hazardous ozone exposure among its employees (NM political report 2015). In 2021, a

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2 The pyramid of effects caused by ozone illustrates that the least serious and most common health effects are experienced by many individuals, shown at the bottom of the pyramid. Few individuals experience the more severe effects, such as hospitalization or</figcaption></figure>

death, highlighting the varied spectrum of health outcomes associated with ozone exposure. This emphasizes the prevalence of less severe effects compared to the relatively rare occurrences of severe consequences. Redrawn based on EPA (2023a)
<figure><img src="image_1.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1 A laboratory plasma device releases ozone into the ambient air</figcaption></figure>

## Health effects

Inhaled ozone is a harmful air pollutant inducing adverse health impacts (Fig. 2). Ozone affects the human respiratory tract by weakening immune responses, impairing lung function, and elevating the risk of asthma (Yu 2019). Short-term exposure to ozone results in coughing, wheezing, and the exacerbation of asthma, particularly for individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions (Goodman et al. 2018). Long-term exposure to ozone contributes to the development of asthma (Zhang et al.

2019). Furthermore, in indoor environments, ozone can interact with various indoor air pollutants, giving rise to potentially harmful byproducts. Therefore, indoor ozone levels should be closely monitored to ensure the safety of workers.

## Age and gender

In general, adults are more sensitive to ozone exposure than children, and this difference may be due to the longer time children require to react to ozone stress (Lu and Yao 2023). Conversely, the elderly show higher tolerance compared to adults and children, possibly due to age-related pulmonary hypofunction (Lu and Yao 2023). Females exhibit higher susceptibility to short-term ozone exposure, in agreement with animal experiments on rats (Chen et al. 2022a, b; Silveyra et al. 2021). A recent study in Shenzhen, China showed that ozone inhalation is more strongly associated with respiratory diseases in female than in male, which may be related to the estrogen levels and the differential regulation of lung immune response (Lu and Yao 2023).

## Ozone poisoning incidents

Incidents of ozone poisoning due to improper operation or equipment failure are well known. In 2015, the Bernalillo County Water Authority in Albuquerque, New Mexico faced fines exceeding $144,000 due to multiple violations, with the most severe being related to hazardous ozone exposure among its employees (NM political report 2015). In 2021, a

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2 The pyramid of effects caused by ozone illustrates that the least serious and most common health effects are experienced by many individuals, shown at the bottom of the pyramid. Fewer individuals experience the more severe effects, such as hospitalization or</figcaption></figure>

death, highlighting the varied spectrum of health outcomes associated with ozone exposure. This emphasizes the prevalence of less severe effects compared to the relatively rare occurrences of severe consequences. Redrawn based on EPA (2023a)
company in Fresno, California faced a lawsuit following an incident where two employees were injured due to an ozone leak at a water treatment plant (The Fresno Bee 2021).

Ozone-related incidents also frequently appear in the headlines in China. For instance, in 2009, an ozone poisoning incident occurred at a dairy factory in Harbin, China, sending 11 people to the hospital (DBW 2009). In 2013, an overdose of ozone in a public swimming pool poisoned 19 people in Wuhan, China, eight of whom were seriously injured (China News 2013). In 2022, a female worker at a factory in Hunan province in China was poisoned due to an unexpected operation of ozone disinfection equipment (HPHCC 2022). Taking into account the economic burden associated with ozone exposure, a nationwide study in Italy estimated that ozone exposure in 107 provinces across the country from 2015 to 2019 resulted in 70,060 deaths and $65 billion economic loss or about 0.5% of its national GDP during the study period (Wen et al. 2022). An earlier study in China estimated that life loss related to ozone pollution could amount to 2,300 billion CNY or equivalent to 2.7% of the national GDP in 2030 (Xie et al. 2019).

## Improving safety

First, laboratories need to comply with the occupational safety and health administration. For example, workers should not be exposed to an average concentration exceeding 0.10 ppm, or about 200 µg/m³, over an 8-h period (EPA 2023b). Next, incorporate engineering controls, process optimization, and robust equipment maintenance to minimize ozone production. Ozone levels in ambient air should be continuously monitored in plasma laboratories, and safety practices such as wearing personal protection equipment should minimize unsafe ozone exposure. Efficient ventilation systems and air quality management should prevent ozone buildup in indoor spaces. Laboratory managers should also take into account the age and gender-specific susceptibility of ozone exposure to ensure the safety of all team members.

**Author contributions** AA, CW, HS have written the first draft. JH and EL have revised the text and redrawn the figures.

**Funding** The authors have not disclosed any funding.

## Declarations

**Conflict of interest** The authors have not disclosed any competing interests.

**Ethical approval** JH and EL are Chief Editors of Environmental Chemistry Letters.

## References

Aggelopoulos CA (2022) Recent advances of cold plasma technology for water and soil remediation: a critical review. Chem Eng J 428:131657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.131657

Asilevi PJ, Boakye P, Oduro-Kwarteng S et al (2021) Indoor air quality improvement and purification by atmospheric pressure Non-Thermal Plasma (NTP). Sci Rep 11:22830. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02276-1

Blanco A, Ojembarrena FdB, Clavo B et al (2021) Ozone potential to fight against SAR-COV-2 pandemic: facts and research needs. Environ Sci Pollut R 28(13):16517-16531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-12036-9

Health Canada (2010) Residential: Ozone. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/residential-indoor-air-quality-guideline-ozone.html

Chen C, Li T, Sun Q et al (2022a) Short-term exposure to ozone and cause-specific mortality risks and thresholds in China: evidence from nationally representative data, 2013-2018. Environ Int 171:107666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107666

Chen Z, Bai F, Jonas SJ et al (2022b) Cold atmospheric plasma for addressing the COVID-19 pandemic. Plasma Process Polym 19(9):22200012. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppap.202200012

Cheng Y, Hu J, Chen H et al (2020) Effects of different methods of air disinfection of computed tomography rooms dedicated to COVID-19 cases. Biomed Res Int 2020:5302910. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/5302910

China News (2013) Ozone overdose in a swimming pool caused 19 people being poisoned in Wuhan due to system error. (in Chinese) Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.chinanews.com/ty/2013/07-10/5022557.shtml

Clarivate (2023). Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://webofscience.clarivate.cn/wos/woscc/summary/geb3e6ef-0250-41ba-94da-d00c4e09e07c-b0fd5c1c/relevance/1

DBW (2009) Ozone residues poisoned 11 employees in a dairy company. (in Chinese) Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://heilongjiang.dbw.cn/system/2009/03/15/051809119.shtml

Dewan S, Lakhani A (2022) Tropospheric ozone and its natural precursors impacted by climatic changes in emission and dynamics. Front Environ Sci 10:2499. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1007942

Environmental protection agency (EPA) (2023a) Health effects of ozone in the general population. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution-and-your-patients-health/health-effects-ozone-general-population

Environmental protection agency (EPA) (2023b) Ozone generators that are sold as air cleaners. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/ozone-generators-are-sold-air-cleaners

European Environment Agency (EEA) (2014) Ozone pollution in Europe: fewer alert days but concentrations still high. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/ozone-pollution-in-europe-fewer

Goodman JE, Zu K, Loftus CT et al (2018) Short-term ozone exposure and asthma severity: weight-of-evidence analysis. Environ Res 160:391-397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.10.018

Hong D, Rabat H, Bauchire JM et al (2014) Measurement of ozone production in non-thermal plasma actuator using surface dielectric barrier discharge. Plasma Chem Plasma Process 34:887-897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11090-014-9527-3

Hunan Provincial Health Commission of China (HPHCC) (2022). Women's severe dizziness is caused by ozone. (in Chinese) Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://wjw.hunan.gov.cn/wjw/xxgk/gzdt/szdt/202212/t20221212_29158878.html

Li M, Yu S, Chen X et al (2021) Large scale control of surface ozone by relative humidity observed during warm seasons in China.
company in Fresno, California faced a lawsuit following an incident where two employees were injured due to an ozone leak at a water treatment plant (The Fresno Bee 2021).

Ozone-related incidents also frequently appear in the headlines in China. For instance, in 2009, an ozone poisoning incident occurred at a dairy factory in Harbin, China, sending 11 people to the hospital (DBW 2009). In 2013, an overdose of ozone in a public swimming pool poisoned 19 people in Wuhan, China, eight of whom were seriously injured (China News 2013). In 2022, a female worker at a factory in Hunan province in China was poisoned due to an unexpected operation of ozone disinfection equipment (HPHCC 2022). Taking into account the economic burden associated with ozone exposure, a nationwide study in Italy estimated that ozone exposure in 107 provinces across the country from 2015 to 2019 resulted in 70,060 deaths and $65 billion economic loss or about 0.5% of its national GDP during the study period (Wen et al. 2022). An earlier study in China estimated that life loss related to ozone pollution could amount to 2,300 billion CNY or equivalent to 2.7% of the national GDP in 2030 (Xie et al. 2019).

## Improving safety

First, laboratories need to comply with the occupational safety and health administration. For example, workers should not be exposed to an average concentration exceeding 0.10 ppm, or about 200 µg/m³, over an 8-h period (EPA 2023b). Next, incorporate engineering controls, process optimization, and robust equipment maintenance to minimize ozone production. Ozone levels in ambient air should be continuously monitored in plasma laboratories, and safety practices such as wearing personal protection equipment should minimize unsafe ozone exposure. Efficient ventilation systems and air quality management should prevent ozone buildup in indoor spaces. Laboratory managers should also take into account the age and gender-specific susceptibility of ozone exposure to ensure the safety of all team members.

**Author contributions** AA, CW, HS have written the first draft. JH and EL have revised the text and redrawn the figures.

**Funding** The authors have not disclosed any funding.

## Declarations

**Conflict of interest** The authors have not disclosed any competing interests.

**Ethical approval** JH and EL are Chief Editors of Environmental Chemistry Letters.

## References

Aggelopoulos CA (2022) Recent advances of cold plasma technology for water and soil remediation: a critical review. Chem Eng J 428:131657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.131657

Asilevi PJ, Boakye P, Oduro-Kwarteng S et al (2021) Indoor air quality improvement and purification by atmospheric pressure Non-Thermal Plasma (NTP). Sci Rep 11:22830. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02276-1

Blanco A, Ojembarrena FdB, Clavo B et al (2021) Ozone potential to fight against SAR-COV-2 pandemic: facts and research needs. Environ Sci Pollut R 28(13):16517-16531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-12036-9

Health Canada (2010) Residential: Ozone. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/residential-indoor-air-quality-guideline-ozone.html

Chen C, Li T, Sun Q et al (2022a) Short-term exposure to ozone and cause-specific mortality risks and thresholds in China: evidence from nationally representative data, 2013-2018. Environ Int 171:107666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107666

Chen Z, Bai F, Jonas SJ et al (2022b) Cold atmospheric plasma for addressing the COVID-19 pandemic. Plasma Process Polym 19(9):22200012. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppap.202200012

Cheng Y, Hu J, Chen H et al (2020) Effects of different methods of air disinfection of computed tomography rooms dedicated to COVID-19 cases. Biomed Res Int 2020:5302910. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/5302910

China News (2013) Ozone overdose in a swimming pool caused 19 people being poisoned in Wuhan due to system error. (in Chinese) Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.chinanews.com/ty/2013/07-10/5022557.shtml

Clarivate (2023). Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://webofscience.clarivate.cn/wos/woscc/summary/geb3e6ef-0250-41ba-94da-d00c4e09e07c-b0fd5c1c/relevance/1

DBW (2009) Ozone residues poisoned 11 employees in a dairy company. (in Chinese) Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://heilongjiang.dbw.cn/system/2009/03/15/051809119.shtml

Dewan S, Lakhani A (2022) Tropospheric ozone and its natural precursors impacted by climatic changes in emission and dynamics. Front Environ Sci 10:2499. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1007942

Environmental protection agency (EPA) (2023a) Health effects of ozone in the general population. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution-and-your-patients-health/health-effects-ozone-general-population

Environmental protection agency (EPA) (2023b) Ozone generators that are sold as air cleaners. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/ozone-generators-are-sold-air-cleaners

European Environment Agency (EEA) (2014) Ozone pollution in Europe: fewer alert days but concentrations still high. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/ozone-pollution-in-europe-fewer

Goodman JE, Zu K, Loftus CT et al (2018) Short-term ozone exposure and asthma severity: weight-of-evidence analysis. Environ Res 160:391-397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.10.018

Hong D, Rabat H, Bauchire JM et al (2014) Measurement of ozone production in non-thermal plasma actuator using surface dielectric barrier discharge. Plasma Chem Plasma Process 34:887-897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11090-014-9527-3

Hunan Provincial Health Commission of China (HPHCC) (2022). Women's severe dizziness is caused by ozone. (in Chinese) Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://wjw.hunan.gov.cn/wjw/xxgk/gzdt/szdt/202212/t20221212_29158878.html

Li M, Yu S, Chen X et al (2021) Large scale control of surface ozone by relative humidity observed during warm seasons in China.
Environ Chem Lett 19:3981-3989. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01265-0

Lu J, Yao L (2023) Observational evidence for detrimental impact of inhaled ozone on human respiratory system. BMC Public Health 23:929. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15902-6

NM Political report (2015) Safety violations cost water authority $144K. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://nmpoliticalreport.com/2015/07/28/safety-violations-cost-water-authority-144k/

Silveyra P, Al Housseiny H, Rebuli ME (2021) Sex and gender differences in the susceptibility to environmental exposures. In: Tigno XT (ed) Sex-based differences in lung physiology. Physiology in health and disease. Springer, Cham

The Fresno Bee (2021) Builder faces lawsuit after Fresno workers injured by ozone leak at water treatment plant. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.fresnobee.com/news/local/article256142187.html

Volkoff SJ, Carlson TJ, Leik K et al (2021) Demonstrated SARS-CoV-2 surface disinfection using ozone. Ozone-Sci Eng 43(4):296-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/01919512.2020.1863770

Wang J, Chen H (2020) Catalytic ozonation for water and wastewater treatment: recent advances and perspective. Sci Total Environ 704:135249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135249

Wen B, Wu Y, Ye T et al (2022) Short-term exposure to ozone and economic burden of premature mortality in Italy: a nationwide observation study. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 241:113781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113781

Xie Y, Dai H, Zhang Y et al (2019) Comparison of health and economic impacts of PM2.5 and ozone pollution in China. Environ Int 130:104881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.05.075

Yu S (2019) Fog geoengineering to abate local ozone pollution at ground level by enhancing air moisture. Environ Chem Lett 17:565-580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-0809-5

Zhang JJ, Wei Y, Fang Z (2019) Ozone pollution: a major health hazard worldwide. Front Immunol 10:2518. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.02518

Zhang H, Chen M, Huang L et al (2021) Using cold atmospheric plasma treated-air for COVID-19 disinfection in cold-chain environment. J Phys D 54(40):40LT01. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/ac13f7

Zhang Y, Yu S, Chen X et al (2022) Local production, downward and regional transport aggravated surface ozone pollution during the historical orange-alert large-scale ozone episode in eastern China. Environ Chem Lett 20:1577-1588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01421-0

Zucker I, Lester Y, Alter J et al (2021) Pseudoviruses for the assessment of coronavirus disinfection by ozone. Environ Chem Lett 19:1779-1785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01160-0
Environ Chem Lett 19:3981-3989. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01265-0

Lu J, Yao L (2023) Observational evidence for detrimental impact of inhaled ozone on human respiratory system. BMC Public Health 23:929. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15902-6

NM Political report (2015) Safety violations cost water authority $144K. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://nmpoliticalreport.com/2015/07/28/safety-violations-cost-water-authority-144k/

Silveyra P, Al Housseiny H, Rebuli ME (2021) Sex and gender differences in the susceptibility to environmental exposures. In: Tigno XT (ed) Sex-based differences in lung physiology. Physiology in health and disease. Springer, Cham

The Fresno Bee (2021) Builder faces lawsuit after Fresno workers injured by ozone leak at water treatment plant. Accessed 4 Dec 2023. https://www.fresnobee.com/news/local/article256142187.html

Volkoff SJ, Carlson TJ, Leik K et al (2021) Demonstrated SARS-CoV-2 surface disinfection using ozone. Ozone-Sci Eng 43(4):296-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/01919512.2020.1863770

Wang J, Chen H (2020) Catalytic ozonation for water and wastewater treatment: recent advances and perspective. Sci Total Environ 704:135249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135249

Wen B, Wu Y, Ye T et al (2022) Short-term exposure to ozone and economic burden of premature mortality in Italy: a nationwide observation study. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 241:113781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113781

Xie Y, Dai H, Zhang Y et al (2019) Comparison of health and economic impacts of PM2.5 and ozone pollution in China. Environ Int 130:104881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.05.075

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Zhang JJ, Wei Y, Fang Z (2019) Ozone pollution: a major health hazard worldwide. Front Immunol 10:2518. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.02518

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