<figure><img src="image_34.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 31.** Comparison of an SDSS image ($2 \times 4 \text{ arcmin}^2$ gri composite) showing a typical galaxy at a redshift of ~0.1 (top) with a similar BVR composite image of the same field obtained by the MUSYC survey (bottom; Gawiser et al. 2006). The MUSYC image is about 4 mag deeper than the SDSS image (and about 1 mag less deep than the anticipated LSST 10 yr co-added data). Note the rich surface brightness structure seen in the MUSYC image that is undetectable in the SDSS image.</figcaption></figure>

will provide calibration checks at the bright end for proper motions and trigonometric parallax measurements by LSST, and LSST will extend the Gaia survey by 4 mag. The Zwicky Transient Facility (e.g., Laher et al. 2018), with its 600-megapixel camera and a 47 deg² large field of view, will generate the largest optical transient stream prior to LSST (at about 1/10 of the LSST rate) and thus provide an early insight into astrophysical surprises and technical challenges awaiting LSST. The LSST data stream will invigorate subsequent investigations by numerous other telescopes that will provide additional temporal, spectral, and spatial resolution coverage.

WFIRST and Euclid will carry out wide-field imaging surveys in the NIR, giving highly complementary photometry to LSST. The resulting galaxy SEDs should give rise to even better photometric redshifts, as well as tighter constraints on stellar masses and star formation histories crucial for galaxy evolution studies. The WL analyses from space and from the ground will also be highly complementary and will provide crucial cross-checks of one another. LSST also presents the opportunity to conduct simultaneous observations of WFIRST's Galactic bulge survey fields, from which it will be possible to measure the parallax and hence the lens masses for most microlensing events, as well as providing valuable light-curve coverage during the large data gaps between WFIRST survey "seasons."

LSST will also enable multiwavelength studies of faint optical sources using gamma-ray, X-ray, IR, and radio data. For example, SDSS detected only one-third of all 20 cm FIRST sources (Becker et al. 1995) because it was too shallow by ~4 mag for a complete optical identification. Similarly, deep optical data are required for identification of faint X-ray sources (Brandt & Hasinger 2005; Brandt & Vito 2017).

LSST will provide a crucial complementary capability to space experiments operating in other wavebands, such as the NuSTAR mission (Harrison et al. 2013), eROSITA (Merloni et al. 2012), and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (e.g., Atwood et al. 2009). LIGO has now detected ultracompact binaries and black hole mergers through the gravitational wave outbursts that are emitted during the final stages of such events. LSST will aid studies of the electromagnetic signal that accompanies the gravitational wave emission, thereby providing an accurate position on the sky for the system, which is crucial for subsequent observations. LSST will also add new value to the archives for billion-dollar-class space missions such as Chandra, XMM-Newton, Spitzer, Herschel, Euclid, and WFIRST, because deep optical multicolor data will enable massive photometric studies of sources from these missions. All areas of the sky—whether by design or by serendipity—in which past, present, or future multiwavelength surveys overlap with LSST sky coverage will be further promoted by LSST investigations to become “optical plus multiwavelength Selected Areas.” Last but not least, the huge samples of various astronomical source populations will yield extremely rare objects for investigations by powerful facilities such as James Webb Space Telescope (Gardner et al. 2006) and the next generation of 20–40 m telescopes.

In summary, the diversity of science enabled by LSST will be unparalleled, extending from the physics of gravity and the early universe to the properties of “killer” asteroids. While there are other projects that aim to address some of the same science goals, no other project matches this diversity and LSST’s potential impact on society in general.

## 5. Community Involvement

LSST has been conceived as a public facility: the database that it will produce, and the associated object catalogs that are generated from that database, will be made available with no proprietary period to the US and Chilean scientific communities, as well as to those international partners who contribute to operations funding. As described in Section 6, data will also be made available to the general public for educational and outreach activities. The LSST data management system (Section 3.3) will provide user-friendly tools to access this database, support user-initiated queries and data exploration, and carry out scientific analyses on the data, using LSST computers either at the archive facility or at the data access centers. We expect that many, perhaps even the majority, of LSST discoveries will come from research astronomers with no formal affiliation to the project, from students, and from interested amateurs, intrigued by the accessibility to the universe that this facility uniquely provides.

The SDSS provides a good example for how the scientific community can be effective in working with large, publicly available astronomical data sets. The SDSS has published a series of large incremental DRs via a sophisticated database, roughly once per year, together with a paper describing the content of each DR, and extensive online documentation giving
<figure><img src="image_35.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 32.** Comparison of the distribution of galaxies in luminosity–color–density space measured by SDSS (left) and a model based on the Millennium simulation (right). The linearly spaced contours outline the distribution of a volume-limited sample of galaxies in the plotted diagram, and the color-coded background shows the median environmental density (computed using the 10 nearest neighbors) for galaxies with the corresponding luminosity and color. Such multi-variate distributions encode rich information about formation and evolution of galaxies. Galaxies detected by SDSS are representative of the low-redshift universe (the median redshift is ~0.1). The LSST will enable such studies as a function of redshift, to $z \sim 2$. Adapted from Cowan & Ivezić (2008).</figcaption></figure>

instructions on downloading the catalogs and image data (see http://www.sdss.org). The overwhelming majority of the almost 8000 refereed papers based on SDSS data to date have been written by scientists from outside the project and include many of the most high-profile results that have come from the survey.

Nevertheless, it is clear that many of the highest-priority LSST science investigations will require organized teams of professionals working together to optimize science analyses and to assess the importance of systematic uncertainties on the derived results. To meet this need, a number of science collaborations have been established in core science areas. For example, the LSST Dark Energy Science Collaboration includes members with interests in the study of dark energy and related topics in fundamental physics with LSST data. As of the time of this contribution, there are over 800 participants in these collaborations. The science collaborations are listed on the LSST web page, together with a description of the application process for each one. All those at US and Chilean institutions, as well as named individuals from institutions in other countries that have signed Memoranda of Agreement to contribute to LSST operations costs, are eligible to apply. As described in Sections 2.6.3 and 3.3, LSST will make available substantial computational resources to the science community to carry out their analyses; the system has been sized accordingly.

As we design our observing strategies, we are actively seeking and implementing input by the LSST science community. The LSST science collaborations in particular have helped develop the LSST science case and continue to provide advice on how to optimize their science with choices in cadence, software, and data systems. A recent example is the publication of a document entitled “Science-Driven Optimization of the LSST Observing Strategy” (LSST Science Collaboration et al. 2017), a living document that quantifies the science returns in different areas for different observing cadence. The cadence will continue to be refined, with input from the science collaborations, during the commissioning, and the observing strategy will be regularly reviewed, with flexibility built in, during operations.

The Science Advisory Committee (SAC), chaired by Michael Strauss, provides a formal, and two-way, connection to the external science community served by LSST. This

committee takes responsibility for policy questions facing the project and also deals with technical topics of interest to both the science community and the LSST Project. The SAC minutes and notes are available publicly. Current members on this committee are T. Anguita (Andrés Bello, Chile), R. Bean (Cornell), W. N. Brandt (Penn State), J. Kalirai (STScI), M. Kasliwal (Caltech), D. Kirkby (UC Irvine), C. Liu (Staten Island), A. Mainzer (JPL), R. Malhotra (U Arizona), N. Padilla (U. Católica de Chile), J. Simon (Carnegie), A. Slosar (Brookhaven), M. Strauss (Princeton), L. Walkowicz (Adler), and R. Wechsler (Stanford).

## 6. Educational and Societal Impacts

The impact and enduring societal significance of LSST will exceed its direct contributions to advances in physics and astronomy. LSST is uniquely positioned to have high impact with the interested public, planetariums and science centers, and citizen science projects, as well as middle school through university educational programs. LSST will contribute to the national goals of enhancing science literacy and increasing the global competitiveness of the US science and technology workforce. Engaging the public in LSST activities has been part of the project design from the beginning.

The mission of LSST’s Education and Public Outreach (EPO) program is to provide worldwide access to a subset of LSST data through accessible and engaging online experiences so anyone can explore the universe and be part of the discovery process. To do this, LSST EPO will facilitate a pathway from entry-level exploration of astronomical imagery and information to more sophisticated interaction with LSST data using tools similar to what professional astronomers use for their work.

A dynamic, immersive web portal will enable members of the public to explore color images of the full LSST sky, examine objects in more detail, view events from the nightly alert stream, learn more about LSST science topics and discoveries, and investigate scientific questions that excite them using real LSST data in online science notebooks. The portal will also link to numerous citizen science projects using LSST data.

LSST data can become a key part of classrooms emphasizing student-centered research in middle school, high school, and
<figure><img src="image_36.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 33.** The LSST will deliver AGN sky densities of 1000–4000 deg⁻² (top panel). The total LSST AGN yield, selected using colors and variability, should be well over 10 million objects, especially once multiwavelength data are also utilized. The bottom panel shows the expected distribution of these objects in the absolute magnitude vs. redshift plane, color-coded by the probability for an object to be detected as variable after 1 yr of observations. Note that quasars will be detected to their formal luminosity cutoff ($M < -23$) even at redshifts of ~5. Adapted from Brandt & LSST Active Galaxies Science Collaboration (2007).</figcaption></figure>

undergraduate settings. Using online science notebooks, teachers will be able to bring real LSST telescope data into their classrooms without having to download, install, and maintain software locally. Educational investigations will be designed to support key aspects of the Next-Generation Science Standards (NGSS) in the US and goals of the Explora program through CONICYT in Chile. Educators will be supported through professional development that offers training on the online notebook technology and also relevant science content. Science notebooks will also accommodate access to LSST data for lifelong learners and anyone who visits the portal.

Anyone around the world will be able to participate in a variety of citizen science projects that use LSST data. The EPO

Team will work with the Zooniverse to develop the *Project Builder* to include tools specifically designed to utilize LSST data, allowing LSST principal investigators to create any number of projects to help them accomplish their science goals. EPO anticipates that the number of citizen science projects in the astronomy field will increase dramatically when LSST is operational, giving a whole new generation of citizen scientists the opportunity to deepen their engagement with astronomy using authentic data from LSST.

LSST EPO will produce and maintain a digital library of multimedia assets including images, video clips, and 3D models. Multimedia assets will be aligned to standards such as IMERSA Dome Master and Astronomy Visualization Metadata, when applicable, allowing full flexibility for adoption by content creators at planetariums and science centers. We will also follow the International Planetarium Society's Data2Dome standard, to maximize the number of platforms that can use our assets.

The LSST EPO program will rely on a cloud-based EPO Data Center (EDC) to handle the unique needs of the EPO audiences. These needs include, for example, a fast and smooth browsing experience on mobile devices and the need to handle inevitable spikes and lulls in visitor traffic and data transfers. As such, the EDC will follow best practices popularized by cloud computing, leveraging on-demand computing and auto-scalable architecture. Remaining agile and relevant during the full lifetime of operations by adjusting to technology trends and education priorities is an important part of the LSST EPO design process.

LSST EPO is committed to engaging with diverse audiences and is undertaking a multifaceted approach to reaching diverse individuals. LSST EPO is planning to partner with at least five organizations serving (1) women/girls, (2) individuals from traditionally underrepresented groups in STEM, and (3) individuals in low socioeconomic communities. Representatives from these organizations will be key stakeholders of the EPO program, helping to shape deliverables and a culturally responsive program evaluation. Furthermore, these relationships will allow for cocreation of EPO deliverables to help ensure materials are accessible to, of interest to, and relevant to diverse populations.

LSST EPO is breaking new ground in bringing astronomical data to the public in a timely, engaging, and easy-to-use way. It is not unreasonable to anticipate tens of millions of public users browsing the LSST sky, exploring discoveries as they are broadcast, and monitoring objects of interest. Results of EPO's ongoing evaluation will be made publicly available, allowing us to share lessons learned, insights, and program impacts with the larger science EPO community.

## 7. Summary and Conclusions

Until recently, most astronomical investigations have focused on small samples of cosmic sources or individual objects. Over the past few decades, however, advances in technology have made it possible to move beyond the traditional observational paradigm and to undertake large-scale sky surveys, such as SDSS, 2MASS, *GALEX*, *Gaia*, and others. This observational progress, based on a synergy of advances in telescope construction, detectors, and, above all, information technology, has had a dramatic impact on nearly all fields of astronomy, many areas of fundamental physics, and society in general. The LSST builds on the experience of these surveys
and addresses the broad goals stated in several nationally endorsed reports by the US National Academy of Sciences. The 2010 report “New Worlds, New Horizons in Astronomy and Astrophysics” by the Committee for a Decadal Survey of Astronomy and Astrophysics ranked LSST as its top priority for large ground-based programs. The LSST will be unique: the combination of large aperture and large field of view, coupled with the needed computation power and database technology, will enable simultaneously fast and wide and deep imaging of the sky, addressing in one sky survey the broad scientific community’s needs in both the time domain and deep universe.

The realization of the LSST involves extraordinary engineering and technological challenges: the fabrication of large, high-precision optics; construction of a huge, highly integrated array of sensitive, wide-band imaging sensors; and the operation of a data management facility handling tens of terabytes of data each day. The design, development, and construction effort has been underway since 2006 and will continue through the onset of full survey operations. This work involves hundreds of personnel at institutions all over the US, Chile, and the rest of the world.

In 2013 December, LSST passed the NSF Final Design Review for construction, and in 2014 May the National Science Board approved the project. The primary/tertiary mirror was cast in 2008, and the polished mirror was completed in 2015. In 2014 LSST transitioned from the design and development phase to construction, and the Associated Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) has had formal responsibility for the LSST project since 2011. At this writing, the project is near the peak of the construction effort and is preparing for the transition to commissioning and operations.

The construction cost of LSST is being borne by the US National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, generous contributions from several private foundations and institutions, and the member institutions of the LSST Corporation. The LSST budget includes a significant Education and Public Outreach program (Section 6). The US Department of Energy is supporting the cost of constructing the camera. LSST has high visibility in the high-energy physics community, at both universities and government laboratories. The telescope will see first light with a commissioning camera in late 2019, and the project is scheduled to begin regular survey operations by 2022.

The LSST survey will open a movie-like window on objects that change brightness, or move, on timescales ranging from 10 s to 10 yr. The survey will have a raw data rate of about 15 TB per night (about the same as one complete SDSS per night) and will collect about 60 PB of data over its lifetime, resulting in an incredibly rich and extensive public archive that will be a treasure trove for breakthroughs in many areas of astronomy and physics. About 20 billion galaxies and a similar number of stars will be detected—for the first time in history, the number of cataloged celestial objects will exceed the number of living people! About a thousand observations of each position across half of the celestial sphere will represent the greatest movie of all time.

Alerts of transient, variable, and moving objects will be issued worldwide within 60 s of detection. An extensive public outreach program will provide a new view of the sky to curious minds of all ages worldwide. We are working with prospective foreign partners to make all of the LSST science data more broadly available worldwide. As of 2017, 34 institutions from

23 countries have signed Memoranda of Agreement to contribute significantly to the LSST operating costs, in exchange for participation in the science collaborations and data access. The software that processes the pixels and creates the LSST database is open source. LSST will be a significant milestone in the globalization of the information revolution. The vast relational database of 32 trillion observations of 40 billion objects will be mined for the unexpected and used for precision experiments in astrophysics. LSST will be in some sense an internet telescope: the ultimate network peripheral device to explore the universe, and a shared resource for all humanity.

This material is based on work supported in part by the National Science Foundation through Cooperative Agreement 1258333 managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), and the Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-76SF00515 with the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. Additional LSST funding comes from private donations, grants to universities, and in-kind support from LSSTC Institutional Members. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services.

Facility: LSST.

## ORCID iDs

Željko Ivezić https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5250-2633

J. Anthony Tyson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9242-8797

Kirk T. Arndt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6826-8340

Tim S. Axelrod https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5722-7199

Deborah J. Bard https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5162-5153

Amanda E. Bauer https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9037-6981

Andrew C. Becker https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6661-3043

Federica B. Bianco https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1953-8727

James F. Bosch https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2759-5764

Dominique Boutigny https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4887-2150

William Nielsen Brandt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0167-2453

Michael E. Brown https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8255-0545

David L. Burke https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1866-1950

Jeffrey L. Carlin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3936-9628

Steve Chesley https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3240-6497

Hsin-Fang Chiang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1181-1621

Johann Cohen-Tanugi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9022-4232

Rebecca Coles https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4774-9364

Andrew J. Connolly https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5576-8189

Kevin R. Covey https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6914-7797

Wei Cui https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6324-5772

Roc Cutri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0077-2305

William Dawson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0248-6123

Miguel de Val-Borro https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0455-9384

Gregory P. Dubois-Felsmann https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1598-6979

Frossie Economou https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8333-7615

Michael Eracleous https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3719-940X

Angelo Fausti Neto https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8095-305X

Henry Ferguson https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7113-2738

Merlin Fisher-Levine https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9440-8960
Emmanuel Gangler https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6728-1423
Eric Gawiser https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1530-8713
Marla Geha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7007-9725
Thomas Glanzman https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9649-3871
Daniel A. Goldstein https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3461-8661
Melissa L. Graham https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9154-3136
Leanne P. Guy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0800-8755
Fabio Hernandez https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7203-2552
Joshua Hoblitt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5292-5879
Patrick Ingraham https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3715-8138
Tim Jenness https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5982-167X
Anthony S. Johnson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5729-2716
R. Lynne Jones https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5916-0031
Mario Jurić https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1996-9252
Nitya J. Kallivayalil https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3204-1742

Bryce Kalmbach https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6825-5283
Mansi M. Kasliwal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5619-4938
Richard Kessler https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3221-0419
David Kirkby https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8828-5463
K. Simon Krughoff https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4410-7868
Shri Kulkarni https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5390-8563
Kian-Tat Lim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6338-6516
Chris J. Lintott https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5578-359X
Robert H. Lupton https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1666-0962
Nate B. Lust https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4122-9384
Rachel Mandelbaum https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2271-1527

Thomas W. Markiewicz https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3646-8724

Joshua Meyers https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2308-4230
Joachim Moeyens https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5820-3925
Fred E. Moolekamp https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0093-4279
Knut Olsen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7134-8296
William O'Mullane https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4141-6195
Nathan M. Pease https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9701-5975
J. Matt Peterson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6564-6246
John R. Peterson https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5471-9609
Joel P. Plutchak https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1501-825X
Michael A. Reuter https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3881-8310
Stephen T. Ridgway https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2557-7132

Aaron Roodman https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5326-3486
Abhijit Saha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6839-4881
Pim Schellart https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8324-0880
Samuel Schmidt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5091-0470
Michael D. Schneider https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8505-7094

Megan E. Schwamb https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4365-1455

Jonathan Sick https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3001-676X
Colin T. Slater https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0558-0521
Michael A. Strauss https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0106-7755
Rachel A. Street https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6279-0552
Christopher W. Stubbs https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0347-1724

Ian S. Sullivan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8708-251X
John D. Swinbank https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9445-1846
Sandrine Thomas https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9121-3436
Adam J. Thornton https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9342-6032
David E. Trilling https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4580-3790

Lucianne Walkowicz https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2918-8687

Brian Walsh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7426-5413

Christopher W. Walter https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2035-2380

Beth Willman https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2892-9906

David Wittman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0813-5888

W. Michael Wood-Vasey https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7113-1233

Bo Xin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9171-4046

Peter Yoachim https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2874-6464

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