<figure><img src="image_50.png" /></figure>

Being neglected or sexually abused as a child are significant factors that may be associated with CSBD. Specific psychological treatment of physical or sexual trauma is an essential component of treatment. Sexual abuse treatments are available in many countries, and professional addresses are available on the internet.

## Recommended pharmacological agents

**SSRIs.** SSRIs may be indicated, especially for patients in whom CSBs present themselves phenomenologically rather as obsessive-compulsive behaviours. Patients with a more obsessive-compulsive pattern of CSB may experience particularly intrusive sexual fantasies, and the sexual urges may generate feelings of anxiety, disgust or unease, which may be relieved through acting out the intrusive sexual fantasies. Prevalent co-occurring psychiatric disorders in patients with a CSBD are depressive and anxiety disorders. As SSRIs are first-line pharmacological treatments for depressive and anxiety disorders, SSRIs may be especially suitable for patients with an additional depressive or anxiety disorder. Furthermore, by increasing the level of serotonin, SSRIs may decrease impulsivity and libidinal drive.

So far, no differences between SSRIs have been found concerning their efficacies to reduce CSBs; however, most studies have been conducted with fluoxetine and sertraline and there is one recent RCT that has successfully evaluated the use of paroxetine. Furthermore, some investigators propose that dosages should be comparable to those usually prescribed for the treatment of OCD (e.g., at the higher end of the range of sertraline 50–200 mg/d or fluoxetine 20–80 mg/d). In case one aims for a reduction of sexual desire and sexual arousal, it was found that citalopram, paroxetine, fluoxetine, sertraline and venlafaxine are SSRIs with high rates of patients with sexual desire or arousal dysfunctions (Serretti and Chiesa 2009). However, one should keep in mind that especially in men, SSRI treatment may also be associated with erectile dysfunctioning, delayed ejaculation and inhibited orgasm which may increase non-compliance to treatment. Problems with erectile functioning can even persist after SSRI treatment has been terminated (Balon 2006; Bala et al. 2018).

## Conclusions and recommendations:

Though not formally approved for CSBD, SSRIs have been included in clinical practice 'off label' for the treatment of CSBD, although more research demonstrating efficacy is needed. Despite only two randomised controlled studies, there is some further clinical evidence that all SSRIs reduce CSB with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio (level B of evidence). SSRIs may be especially suitable for patients with comorbid depressive, anxiety or obsessive-compulsive disorders.

Before and during SSRI treatment, the following routine examinations should be performed at least every three to 6 months (in patients above 60 years of age in any case every 3 months) and every year for biological measurements (blood sugar and lipid profile) and electrocardiogram.

* Exclusion of contraindications or interactions with other medications. Caution in case of past history of suicidal attempts.

* Electrocardiogram (especially $QT_c$ interval), blood pressure, pulse

* Obtaining blood samples including complete blood count, creatinine, electrolytes, liver enzymes, lipid profiles, and fasting blood glycaemia ($HbA_1C$ if necessary),

* Body weight, BMI

### Naltrexone.
Naltrexone may be indicated in patients in whom CSBs reflect an addictive behavioural pattern showing symptoms such as craving, tolerance and withdrawal. In these patients, CSBs may be experienced as ego-syntonic. As described in the previous sections, there exist some studies suggesting naltrexone to be effective at doses ranging from 50 to 150 mg/d in reducing CSBs. As naltrexone is frequently used in patients with SUDs (where it is indicated for alcohol and opioid use disorders), it seems to be especially suitable for patients with CSBD with co-occurring SUDs. The same may hold for patients with co-occurring behavioural addictions, like gambling or gaming disorders. The tolerability and efficacy of naltrexone was confirmed in a placebo controlled, randomised controlled trial. Furthermore, in several case reports, naltrexone has shown good efficacy as an add-on to SSRIs which were previously not efficient (e.g., Grant and Kim 2002; Bostwick and Bucci 2008). Naltrexone in conjunction with SSRIs may also be helpful in cases of co-occurring CSBD and mild paraphilic fantasies (personal communication 2022, Thibaut; unreferenced).

## Conclusions and recommendations:

Though not formally indicated for CSBD, naltrexone has already been included in clinical practice 'off label' for the treatment of CSBD, although more research demonstrating efficacy is needed. Despite one RCT and few controlled studies, there is some clinical evidence that naltrexone may reduce CSB with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio (level B of evidence). Naltrexone may be especially suitable for patients with co-occurring addictive disorders (substance as well as behavioural addictions).

Before and during naltrexone treatment, the following routine examinations should be performed at least
<figure><img src="image_51.png" /></figure>

every three to 6 months (in patients above 60 years of age in any case every 3 months):

* Exclusion of contraindications; e.g., acute opioid use disorder with current opioid use or current opioid treatment, acute hepatitis or severe hepatic dysfunction, congenital galactosemia. Caution in case of past history of suicidal attempts.

* Drug screening before treatment, especially opioids.

* Obtaining blood samples, especially liver enzymes but also including complete blood count, creatinine, electrolytes.

**Other drugs and other forms of treatment.**
Topiramate (50–200 mg/day) or nefazodone (50–400 mg/day) may be used off-label (no level of evidence), particularly in individuals with co-occurring depressive disorders. However, their use cannot be recommended on a regular basis due to a lack of research. Stimulants may be used in patients with CSB and co-occurring ADHD (Kafka and Hennen 2000), although prescribers should be aware that people with CSB may use stimulants during chemsex. A first case series suggests that NAC (up to 3600 mg/d) might be useful in patients with CSBD as well, however, clearly more studies are needed. Non-invasive brain stimulation may also be considered (there is a positive report with tDCS stimulation of the right prefrontal cortex (Malandain et al. 2020; no level of evidence)).

**Conclusions and recommendations:**

Though other psychotropic drugs such as topiramate, nefazodone or psychostimulants may be used in specific cases, the level of evidence for the use of these drugs is poor when there are no co-occurring psychiatric disorders (case reports, small sample sizes, lack of power, lack of controlled studies) (level E of evidence).

**Cyproterone acetate (CPA) (see also Thibaut et al. 2020 WFSBP guidelines on the pharmacological treatment of paraphilic disorders).**
CPA may be of interest in patients with CSBD and co-occurring paraphilic disorders. CPA may be given orally at doses between 50 and 200 mg/d or intramuscularly at dosages between 200–400 mg/d every two to four weeks. Compared to SSRIs or naltrexone, adverse drug reactions are found more frequently during treatment. These adverse drug reactions result primarily from the reduced testosterone action on receptors and range from rather harmless adverse effects, such as hot flashes, asthenia, or pain at the injection site, to more serious adverse effects, such as depression, gynaecomastia, thromboembolic events, or liver dysfunctions

(Assumpcao et al. 2014). After discontinuation of the medication, most of the adverse effects are typically (completely) reversible. Of special importance, it has been found that CPA treatment is associated with the occurrence of meningiomas, whereby a dose-dependent effect has been reported (Gil et al. 2011). Thus, cMRT should be conducted before and at least once a year during CPA treatment. In case a meningioma develops, CPA treatment should be stopped as soon as possible. Due to these adverse effects, CPA treatment should be reserved for patients with intense CSBD symptoms and co-occurring paraphilic disorders at a moderate or greater risk of sexual offending. In several countries (such as France), a written informed consent renewed every year is mandatory, and CPA should not be used for CSBD unless there are no other therapeutic options (Turner et al. 2019).

**Conclusions and recommendations:**

Though not formally approved for CSBD, CPA has been used in clinical practice for the treatment of CSBD in specific cases, although more research demonstrating efficacy is needed. Despite one uncontrolled study and one case report, there is some clinical evidence that CPA may reduce CSB (level C1 of evidence). However, due to the possibility of severe adverse effects, CPA treatment should be reserved for patients with intense CSBD symptoms and co-occurring paraphilic disorders with an at least moderate risk of sexual offending.

Before and during CPA treatment, the following routine examinations should be performed at least every three to 6 months (in patients above 60 years of age, every 3 months):

* Exclusion of contraindications such as severe hepatic dysfunction, meningioma, severe osteoporosis, past history of thromboembolism, tuberculosis, severe diabetes, puberty not completed, severe and chronic depression, congenital galactosemia

* Obtaining blood samples, especially calcium and phosphate levels and liver enzymes and also complete blood count, creatinine, electrolytes, lipid profiles, and fasting blood glucose levels (if necessary HbA1c)

* Plasma hormone levels, including free testosterone, LH, prolactin at baseline

* Body weight, BMI

* Osteodensitometry at least once a year in case of risk of osteoporosis or age >50; if not, every 2 years

* MRI brain scan at least once a year

**GnRH agonists**

GnRH agonists are only recommended in cases of patients with co-occurring CBSD and paraphilic disorders with high risks of sexual violence. The use of
<figure><img src="image_52.png" /></figure>

GnRH agonists usually leads to a complete decline of sexual functioning and should thus only be used in patients with severe CSBD symptomatology and severe paraphilic disorder with high risk of contact sexual offending (e.g., paedophilic or sexual sadism disorders). When using GnRH agonists, it should be noted that the desired effect only occurs two to four weeks after the start of treatment. In the first two to four weeks of treatment, GnRH agonists may lead to increased plasma testosterone levels (flare-up effect) and can thus even lead to increases in CSB. Therefore, the first two to four weeks of GnRH-agonist treatment should be accompanied by additional CPA treatment.

**Conclusions and recommendations:**

Though not formally approved for CSBD, GnRH agonists have been used in clinical practice for the treatment of CSBD with specific features, although more research demonstrating efficacy is needed. Until now, there are no specific studies evaluating the use of GnRH agonists to reduce CSB (level C3 of evidence). Due to the possibility of severe adverse effects, GnRH-agonist treatment should be reserved for patients with intense CSBD symptoms and co-occurring paraphilic disorders with high risk of sexual offending.

Before and during GnRH-agonist treatment, the following routine examinations should be performed at least every 3-6 months (in patients above 60 years of age, every 3 month):

* Exclusion of contraindications such as osteoporosis

* Obtaining blood samples, especially calcium and phosphate levels and liver enzymes and complete blood count, creatinine, electrolytes, lipid profiles, and fasting blood glucose levels (if necessary HbA1c)

* Plasma hormone levels, including free testosterone, LH, prolactin

* Body weight, BMI

* Osteodensitometry at least once a year in cases of risk of osteoporosis or age >50

**Medical monitoring is necessary during pharmacological treatment**

In all cases, sexual activity and fantasies (nature, intensity and frequency) should be evaluated at baseline and at least every month through self-reports of the patient and, if useful and necessary, by interviewing family members or caregivers. Assessment scales or daily planners may be helpful to help patients measure their behaviours.

At baseline, weight/body mass index, blood pressure, electrocardiogram, renal and liver function, blood cell counts, fasting blood glucose levels and lipid profiles should be systematically assessed. Concerning the

monitoring, guidelines may differ according to countries. Body weight, blood pressure, glucose and lipid profiles should be regularly checked with SSRI treatment. Liver function should be monitored in case of naltrexone treatment and electrocardiograms should be checked in cases of any cardiac symptoms with SSRIs and naltrexone. Caution is required when SSRIs are used in adolescents (they may increase the risk of suicide). Similarly, naltrexone could also increase the risk of suicide in all patients. In case of antiandrogen treatments, the WFSBP guidelines apply (see Table 1 in Thibaut et al. 2020).

**Guideline limitations**

Most reports on the treatment of CSBD are case reports or series. In general, treatment efficacy studies are marked by methodological biases. The identification of standardised and reliable measures of sexual behaviour is difficult. Self-reports of sexual activity are usually used, but they do not constitute reliable indices of sexual behaviour. Reliable methods of assessment are lacking. Finally, controlled and randomised pharmacological studies are scarce, and studies are almost absent in women.

National or international collaborative studies, including large cohorts of well-defined CSBD with long durations of follow-up, are needed to confirm these preliminary data on the efficacy of some pharmacological treatments for CSBD.

Comparisons between studies are often difficult due to methodological differences including durations of follow-up, types of CSBD with heterogeneity within and across samples, retrospective or prospective studies, types of treatment and compliance, statistical analyses, and adverse effects or dropout rates often not being reported, among others.

In addition, specific problems may occur when randomisation is adapted to psychological treatments. Therapists may have significant impacts on therapeutic outcomes if they, for example, adapt treatments to the learning styles and interpersonal approaches of patients and adjust therapies to fluctuations in individuals' motivations and moods. The controlled study design may not facilitate features of productive therapist-patient relationships.

**Treatment algorithm**

Due to the limited number of resources and randomised controlled studies available, these guidelines are 'pragmatic guidelines' with less rigorous
methodological standards than those used for most of WFSBP guidelines as described in Hasan et al. (2019). We encountered similar difficulties with the previous WFSBP guidelines on the treatment of paraphilic disorders in adults (Thibaut et al. 2020).

The aim of the treatment of CSBD using an integrated approach (Briken 2020; Briken and Turner 2021) is to find a satisfactory balance between excitatory and inhibitory factors related to sexual behaviour by doing the following, as indicated:

* Developing awareness of CSB/CSBD and motivation for change;

* Building a network of supportive people;

* Reducing shame associated with CSBD and restoring self-esteem;

* Teaching personal skills through communication;

* Addressing chemsex behaviour and treating co-occurring disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression, paraphilic disorder);

* Helping patients reacquire control of sexual behaviour and develop a healthier approach to sexuality;

* Decreasing the level of distress in persons with CSBD;

* Managing financial and legal consequences;

* Treating somatic consequences such as STIs.

Treatment choices may depend on the following:

* The patient's previous medical, psychiatric, sexual and criminal history;

* The patient's compliance and motivation for treatment;

* Co-occurring somatic and psychiatric disorders;

* The severity of CSBD;

* The type of CSBD (predominantly compulsive, impulsive or addictive type; autoerotic or partnered);

* The association of CSBD with paraphilic disorders or chemsex practices.

Psychiatric disorders such as ADHD may enhance the risk of developing CSB, which suggests that future research may be well-served by attempting to identify specific risk factors for the development of CSBD. Finally, there is evidence for the conclusion that CSBs often co-occur with a range of other impulsive and addictive behaviours such as substance use, problematic gaming, and problematic gambling, as well as with paraphilic disorders. Such comorbidity highlights the need to assess for CSBD in addiction treatment settings, particularly in settings where behavioural addictions may already be a focus of treatment, as well as in

settings where patients with paraphilic disorders are treated. Because of the shame associated with CSB, patients often do not talk about it openly. Patients are often seen at the stage of psychiatric and/or somatic symptoms associated with CSB, and these may include suicidal ideation, depression, anxiety, addictive disorders, or infectious diseases. In many patients, histories of having experienced sexual abuse may require specific and appropriate care. Finally, some people engaging in chemsex may also fulfil criteria for CSBD.

In clinical practice, we will make a distinction between three main situations:

1. the patient has only CSBD without any chemsex practice and without any paraphilic disorder;

2. the patient has a co-occurring paraphilic disorder (mainly paedophilia, exhibitionism or sexual sadism);

3. the patient engages in chemsex and has CSBD. The patient may also have addictive disorders related to the use of illicit drugs during chemsex.

### (1) CSBD without chemsex practice and without paraphilic disorder (Table 6)

Though other psychotropic drugs such as topiramate, nefazodone or psychostimulants can be used in specific cases, the level of evidence for the use of these drugs is poor when there are no psychiatric comorbidities (Level E of evidence). The efficacy of non-invasive brain stimulation techniques needs further investigation.

CPA or GnRH agonist treatments should be reserved for patients with intense CSBD symptoms and co-occurring paraphilic disorders with an at least moderate risk of sexual offending.

Specific care in case of past history of sexual abuse is necessary.

### (2) CSBD with co-occurring paraphilic disorders (mainly paedophilia, exhibitionism, or sexual sadism)

In patients with CSBD and co-occurring paraphilic disorders, the treatment algorithm of the guidelines for the treatment of paraphilic disorders should be used (see Thibaut et al. 2020).

### (3) CSBD associated with chemsex

For this group of patients, the careful search for co-occurring psychiatric and somatic disorders and somatic and psychiatric consequences of alcohol and illicit drug use and chemsex practice is important. In all cases, psychoeducation is important (reducing the risk for STIs, alcohol and/or illicit drug intoxication and related adverse effects and non-consensual sexual behaviour and sexual violence; promoting use of rapid
<figure><img src="image_53.png" /><figcaption>**Table 6.** A proposed algorithm for pharmacological treatment of CSBD without any chemsex practice and without any paraphilic disorder, based on Briken and Turner (2021) and Thibaut et al. (2020).</figcaption></figure>

<table><thead><tr><th>Level of severity</th><th>Treatment</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>LEVEL 1 – mild and mild to moderate</strong><br>Aim: support the control of sexual fantasies, compulsions, and behaviours without risk of self-harm or harm to others</td><td>Psychoeducation (prevention of unwanted pregnancies, STIs; education about the risks associated with CSB)<br>Motivational interviewing<br>Psychotherapy, preferentially CBT or ACT (level C of evidence)<br>Treatment of co-occurring depressive or anxiety disorders or addictive or other psychiatric disorders if any<br>Reduce levels of stress and impulsivity and improve self-esteem</td></tr><tr><td><strong>LEVEL 2a – moderate</strong><br>Aims: support the control of sexual fantasies, compulsions, and behaviours<br>Specifiers:<br>Presence of co-occurring depression or anxiety disorder<br>No satisfactory results at level 1</td><td>Psychotherapy, preferentially CBT or ACT<br>SSRI<sup>a</sup>: dosage gradually increased at the same level as prescribed in OCD (e.g., sertraline 50–200 mg/day or fluoxetine 20–80 mg/day or paroxetine 20–60 mg/day) (level B of evidence)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>LEVEL 2b – moderate</strong><br>Aim: support the control of sexual fantasies, compulsions, and behaviours<br>Specifiers:<br>Presence of co-occurring alcohol or substance misuse, other addictive behaviours<br>No satisfactory results at level 1</td><td>Psychotherapy, preferentially CBT or ACT<br>Naltrexone<sup>b</sup> 50–200 mg/day (level B of evidence)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>LEVEL 3 – severe</strong><br>Aim: support the control of severe CSBD symptoms<br>Specifiers:<br>No satisfactory results at level 2a and 2b</td><td>Psychotherapy, preferentially CBT or ACT<br>Add naltrexone<sup>b</sup> (50–200 mg/day) to SSRI<sup>a</sup><br>or SSRI<sup>a</sup> to naltrexone<sup>b</sup> (e.g. sertraline 50–200 mg/day or fluoxetine 20–80 mg/day or paroxetine 20–60 mg/day) (level C of evidence)</td></tr></tbody></table>

self-tests to search for STIs; informing about PrEP and PEP availability). Brief interventions for SUDs if any in addition to HIV prevention strategies should be discussed and used as indicated. In the case of alcohol use disorders, previous WFSBP guidelines may apply (Soyka et al. 2017). In case of illicit drug use disorders, to date, no pharmacological treatment is approved with indications for methamphetamine, cocaine, cannabis, GHB/GBL or cathinone addictions. No guidelines for effective management of methamphetamine, ketamine, synthetic cathinones or GHB/GBL use disorders exist presently.

## Disclosure statement

Daniel Turner, PhD, has no conflict of interest with respect to the content of this manuscript.

Prof. Briken was an advisor to the WHO with regard to the classification of sexual disorders in ICD-11. He is currently an associate editor for the Journal of Sexual Medicine. He currently receives funding from the European Union and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Germany.

Joshua B. Grubbs, Ph.D., has no conflict of interest with respect to this manuscript. Dr. Grubbs currently receives funding from the Kindbridge Research Institute, the International Centre for Responsible Gaming, the National Institute for Civil Discourse, and the Conru Foundation. Dr.

Grubbs is currently an associate editor for Archives of Sexual Behaviour and a consulting editor for the American Psychological Association's Psychology of Addictive Behaviours.

Leo Malandain has no conflict of interest with respect to the content of this manuscript. He receives funding from the region Ile de France (PHRC).

Dr. Gemma Mestre-Bach has no conflict of interest with respect to the content of this manuscript. Dr. Mestre-Bach has a postdoctoral grant from FUNCIVA.

Prof. Potenza has no conflict of interest with respect to the content of this manuscript. Prof. Potenza has consulted for and advised Game Day Data, Opiant Pharmaceuticals, Idorsia, BariaTek, the Addiction Policy Forum and AXA; has been involved in a patent application with Yale University and Novartis; has received research support from the Mohegan Sun Casino and the Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling; has participated in surveys, mailings or telephone consultations related to addictive disorders or other health topics; has consulted for or advised law offices and gambling entities on issues related to addictive disorders and behaviours; has edited journals and journal sections; has given academic lectures in grand rounds, CME events and other clinical or scientific venues; and has generated books or book chapters for publishers of mental health texts.

Prof. Thibaut is Editor-in-chief of Dialogues in Clinical Neurosciences (the journal received a grant from La Conférence Hippocrate Servier until September of 2020). She receives funding from the French government (PHRC).

<footnote><sup>a</sup>Be careful in case of adolescents; there is an increased risk of suicide for SSRIs noted across age groups. National guidelines on antidepressant use monitoring may apply.</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup>Contraindications of naltrexone: acute hepatitis or severe hepatocellular insufficiency; concomitant use of opioids; pregnancy, lactation; suicidal risk; severe kidney failure; hypersensitivity to naltrexone or one of its components; individuals under 18 or over 65 years of age (French Health Authority 2015).</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_54.png" /></figure>

## ORCID

Daniel Turner ID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2021-8253

Peer Briken ID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1360-014X

Joshua Grubbs ID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2642-1351

Leo Malandain ID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3888-7690

Gemma Mestre-Bach ID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5345-0484

Marc N. Potenza ID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6323-1354

Florence Thibaut ID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0204-5435

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