# Orange's Antique Theatre: Ongoing Research on Medieval and Modern Woods

Lisa Shindo, Sandrine Borel-Dubourg, Carine Cenzon-Salvayre, Alain Badie

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Lisa Shindo, Sandrine Borel-Dubourg, Carine Cenzon-Salvayre, Alain Badie. Orange's Antique Theatre: Ongoing Research on Medieval and Modern Woods. International Journal of Wood Culture, 2025, pp.1-18. 10.1163/27723194-bja10046. hal-05368361

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# Orange's Antique Theatre: Ongoing Research on Medieval and Modern Woods

Lisa Shindo | ORCID: 0000-0001-5716-4696
Service archéologie, Direction des patrimoines, 107 route de Canta Galet, 06200 Nice, France
Aix Marseille University, CNRS, CCJ, Aix-en-Provence, France
Corresponding author
lisa.shindo@nicecotedazur.org

Sandrine Borel-Dubourg | ORCID: 0000-0002-4005-3954
CNRS, Aix Marseille University, Institut de Recherche sur l'Architecture Antique, Aix-en-Provence, France
sandrine.borel-dubourg@univ-amu.fr

Carine Cenzon-Salvayre | ORCID: 0009-0006-4467-4009
Aix Marseille University, CNRS, LA3M, Aix-en-Provence, France
carine.cenzon@gmail.com

Alain Badie | ORCID: 0000-0002-8712-9880
CNRS, Aix Marseille University, Institut de Recherche sur l'Architecture Antique, Aix-en-Provence, France
alain.badie@univ-amu.fr

Received 18 November 2024 | Accepted 27 August 2025 |
Published online 4 November 2025

## Abstract

In the south of France, the Orange Theatre (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) is the only ancient theatre in the Roman West to retain such a well-preserved stage building. Since 2017, it has been the subject of a restoration campaign accompanied by archaeological studies, and the presence of scaffolding has made it possible to reach previously inaccessible parts of the building. On-site, a protocol has been gradually established to enable various trades to work alongside archaeological studies. Although stone was
the main building material, 511 wooden elements were identified in or between the stone blocks. After documented *in situ*, they were removed, either wholly or in part. Their dimensions, shapes, and species vary widely, suggesting diverse functions (structural, furnishing, etc.). Species analysis showed a predominance of wood from riparian and alluvial plains, montane and subalpine levels, and the meso-Mediterranean environment. Dendrochronological analyses have not yielded any dates, but radiocarbon dating has indicated phases of the monument's development in the 13th, 15th, and 16th centuries, when medieval and modern buildings were erected within its walls, periods that are poorly documented in texts. The building's ongoing use and adaptation since its construction has certainly contributed to its preservation to the present day. In future, this study will benefit from the contributions of the Historic Building Information Modelling process, applied to ancient buildings through an innovative and exploratory approach.

## Keywords

architecture – building archaeology – diachrony – interdisciplinarity – wood species

# 1 Introduction

The Orange Theatre is the only antique theatre in the West with a well-preserved stage building (104 m long, 36 m high, Fig. 1). Therefore, UNESCO has classified it as a World Heritage Site since 1981.

The Roman colony of Orange was founded around 30 BC in the French Rhône Valley (Fig. 2). The construction of the theatre at the foot of Saint-Eutrope Hill began at the turn of the century, during the reign of Emperor Augustus from 27 BCE to 14 CE (Fig. 3). The theatre likely hosted mime and pantomime performances, as well as religious events associated with the Empire.

The building ceased to function as a theatre at an unknown date, after the end of the third century (as there was urban shrinkage at this time) (Roumégous & Mignon 2009). The evolution of theatre between late Antiquity and the 16th century remains unknown (Badie *et al.* 2024a,b).

The castle of the Counts of Nassau was built on the hill in the 16th century, and the theatre was incorporated into the fortifications (Fig. 4). It was then repurposed for military and residential use, which preserved its elevations (Badie *et al.*, unpublished). The history of the theatre in the late 18th and early 19th centuries is well documented. The old stage building was a district for craftsmen (locksmiths, shoemakers, and wheelwrights). Workshops or stalls occupied the ground floor, and craftsmen's housing occupied these elevations.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>FIGUE 1 Aerial view of Orange's theatre
FROM GEOPORTAIL.FR</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 2 The town of Orange is in the Rhône valley
E. CASSAGNE, NICE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SERVICE, FROM
GÉOPORTAIL.FR</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 3 The ancient town of Orange: proposed reconstruction of the urban grid (in more or less dark red depending on the degree of reliability) with the rampart (in black) on an aerial view

MIGNON 2009: P. 109, FIG. 41</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 4 Plan of the Orange military fortifications. The perimeter of the theatre has been outlined in red
DÖGEN 1647</figcaption></figure>

In 1814, around one hundred houses were recorded within the theatre (Badie *et al.*, unpublished).

During the early 19th century, the theatre was progressively cleared in response to a rising European interest in Antiquity and a broader movement to rediscover the heritage of past civilisations. The Commission des Monuments Historiques ('Historic Monuments Commission') entrusted Auguste Caristie with the task of restoring the site. Simultaneously, he conducted a joint study on the triumphal arch and the theatre (1856). In 1892, the tiers of the *cavea* were rebuilt to restore the monument's function as a performance venue. In the 1930s, several thousand blocks of marble that formed part of the stage front's décor were discovered during the excavation of the stage (Jean-Camille Formigé). After the Second World War, the study of the city's ancient remains was entrusted to Robert Amy and the CNRS's Service d'architecture antique ('Antique architecture department'), which later became the Institut de recherche sur l'architecture antique ('Institute for research into antique architecture'). Since 1998, the laboratory has continued this research, and several archaeological surveys have been conducted as part of the monument's redevelopment work.

Since 2016, there has been a new campaign to align the theatre's facings with current safety standards. This has been spread over eight years (nine
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 5 The stage wall (south) before and during restoration works
© IRAA</figcaption></figure>

months per year). Installation of the scaffolding allowed access to areas that were previously inaccessible because of their preserved elevation (Fig. 5). This was an exceptional opportunity for architects and archaeologists to update their knowledge of the theatre (Badie *et al.* 2019, in press; Moretti *et al.* 2024).

Today, the dominant material is stone, but thanks to the recessed holes designed to receive the ends of the beams and the brackets on which they could rest, we know that there was a stage curtain structure and several wooden frameworks.

The publication A. Caristie (1856), describing the existence of a cantilevered roof spanning approximately 15 m over the stage platform, was a milestone in the study of ancient theatrical architecture. Vitruve (First century Roman architect) did not mention this, and until the publication of Caristie, it was difficult to imagine a cantilevered framework of such a span. Caristie affirmed the roof's existence but expressed uncertainty about the technical solution he proposed.

Recent analyses have confirmed the existence of a parallelogram-shaped ‘frame’ into which the framework was fitted (Collectif IRAA 2001). Traces of stone rubbing in certain embedded holes indicate several episodes of fire in the frameworks.

After Antiquity, though at an undetermined date, when the theatre was reoccupied, wood was used extensively for constructions leaning against the
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 6 Pierre Foudrinier, Inside view of the ancient theatre with houses, etching on paper, 18th century, purchased from Vassy 1934, inv. 34.1.9
© MUSÉE D'ART ET D'HISTOIRE D'ORANGE</figcaption></figure>

ancient walls (as illustrated in historical graphic representations, for example, in Figs 6 and 7) and, we suppose, for internal fittings (staircases, floors, niches, door frames, frameworks, formworks).

In 2016, architect-archaeologists identified numerous small pieces of wood embedded in nearly every wall. Therefore, the analysis of wooden remains was integrated into the monitoring phase of this study. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind conducted on an antique Western building. Accordingly, we examined the most effective ways to study these wooden elements (sampling, species identification, dating), and what they could tell us, to better understand the history of the theatre, including site supply and the use of wood over time.

## 2 Materials and Methods

### 2.1 *Sampling*

Considering the time constraints and co-activities associated with the site, we implemented a methodology that enabled us to recover as much xylological data as possible within a short timeframe.
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 7 Views of the buildings inside the theatre, watercolours by A. Caristie (1783–1862), undated</figcaption></figure>

© MUSÉE D'ART ET D'HISTOIRE D'ORANGE

For example, it was the architect-archaeologists who, prior to the involve-
ment of the wood-specialists, spotted the wood embedded in the walls dur-
ing their 1:20 or 1:50 scale surveys. Indeed, much of the wood is barely visible,
either because it has a colour like their surrounding material or because it is
very small (often both). Therefore, it was essential to take the time to care-
fully examine all the walls to identify any traces of wood. In addition to timber,
some roots and liana remains were identified. These are easily distinguished by
their irregular surfaces, absence of cut marks, and nonrectilinear orientation
of the wood fibres. We photographed the wood in place, removed it, measured
it, and where possible, extracted it from the walls using pointed tools. Most
of the time, it was so well fitted that only fragments could be removed to iden-
tify the species.

Some cavities contained several types of wood, including one main wood
and one or two supporting woods. The cavities were numbered sequentially
from 1 to 510 (with sub-numbers assigned to individual pieces of wood within
the same cavity. Letters were also added to indicate the place in the theatre
where the wood comes from. This makes it easy to pinpoint the location of a
sample, even if more precise referencing requires consultation of the archi-
tects' surveys.

## 2.2 *Species Identification*

In the laboratory, species are identified using thin slides taken from all three planes of the wood: transverse, tangential, and radial, observed under a transmission microscope (magnification from 100× to 1000×), and compared with anatomical atlases (Jacquiot *et al.* 1973; Schweingruber 1990). The transverse plane was used to study the distribution and shape of pores in deciduous trees, the width of woody rays, the transitions between earlywood and latewood, and the resin channels in coniferous trees. The tangential plane allowed observation of the composition of the woody rays: they can be made up of a single row of cells (said to be 'uniseriated') or several (said to be 'multiseriated' when these cells are much greater than five). The radial plane was used to identify the type of perforation (simple or scalariform) separating the vessels. In conifers, this is an important plane for identification, as the shape of the puncture of tracheids and woody rays is examined on this plane.

At the Orange Theatre, in most cases, woods are directly inserted into or between the ancient blocks, without any coating, making relative dating impossible. Therefore, absolute dating is required.

## 2.3 *Dendrochronology*

Thirty-four pieces of wood, each with a sufficient number of tree rings, were studied using dendrochronology. The ring widths were measured using the incremental measuring table LINTAB and TSAP-Win software (Rinntech 2014) with 0.01 mm accuracy. The tree-ring series were then indexed using Dendron IV software (Lambert 2006) applying the 'Corridor', a polynomial indexation that considers the amplitudes of the inter-annual variations while preserving the average frequency variations (Durost, unpublished; Lambert 2006; presentation in English in Shindo & Giraud 2021). Once indexed, the curves were cross-dated using the Student t-test. The dendrochronological references used for dating were developed from old-growth forest stands and archaeological wood by the laboratories in Marseille, Aix-en-Provence, Limoges, and Besançon<fnref n="1" /> (France) over the last 30 years. A very small portion of these references is accessible from the International tree-ring database (ITRDB), hosted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the USA,

<footnote n="1">1. Many thanks to C. Belingard, F. Blondel, V. Labbas and C. Perrault for comparing the Orange series with their references.</footnote>
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/treering.html); the majority of these references remain unpublished.

## 2.4 Radiocarbon Dating

We selected five pieces of wood for radiocarbon dating, based on (i) proximity to the last ring made by these trees, to avoid the ‘old wood’ effect (Schiffer 1986), and (ii) their location within the theatre. Due to budget availability, two laboratories conducted analyses: the Centre de datation par le radiocarbone (1 university, Villeurbanne, France) and Leibniz-Labor für Altersbestimmung und Isotopenforschung (Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Germany), using mass spectrometry coupled to a particle accelerator (AMS). The results were then calibrated on a calendar scale using the OxCal 4.4.2 calibration program with the updated InCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (Reimer et al. 2020).

# 3 Preliminary Results

## 3.1 Reconstitution of Antique Frameworks

The actual restoration work made it possible to study all the upper parts of the theatre, particularly the traces of the various ancient frameworks that partially covered the building. The existence of the following frameworks has therefore been confirmed: the roof of the portico that enclosed the cavea at the top of the tiers (studied in 2016 and 2017); the canopy roof over the stage platform (studied since 1999); the roofs that protected the staircases, parascenia, and basilicas on either side of the stage (studied since 2005); and the roof of a large gallery that has now disappeared and was located just north of the current north façade (Badie et al., unpublished).

## 3.2 Species

Currently, 50% of the samples have been identified (i.e. 254): 59% hardwood and 41% softwood. Thirty species were identified (Fig. 8). The most commonly identified species were *Populus* (poplar, 26%), *Abies* (fir, 15%) and *Picea* (spruce, 11%), which were found throughout the theatre. We also identified species that are rarely used in construction and joinery in this area, such as *Buxus semperfirens* (box tree, 3%), *Ficus carica* (fig, 1%), *Platanus* (plane tree, 1%), *Morus sp.* (mulberry tree, 1%), *Acer* (maple, 1%) and *Taxus Baccata* (yew, 1%). None of the wood samples studied showed any signs of insect or fungal attack.
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 8 254 wood species determined</figcaption></figure>

### 3.3 *Dendrochronology*

Thirty-three woods were studied through dendrochronology, having 11–66 rings (median=25; mean=26, σ=14 rings) and including a wide variety of species (*Abies*, *Quercus*, *Picea*, *Larix*, *Juniperus*, *Pinus*). The 34th sample, *Larix/Picea*, with 180 rings, stood out from the rest.

We did not find any correlation between the samples, and none of them could be dated. The limited number of rings in most samples prevented accurate alignment with a specific position in the reference chronology. As for the others, either no reference system exists yet as they are still under construction (*Juniperus* and *Pinus sylvestris*), or no satisfactory correlation has been found (*Larix/Picea*) despite collaboration of several dendrochronology laboratories. This last sample will therefore be radiocarbon dated (using the wiggle-matching technique) to establish a chronological window, after which we will again look for a dendrochronological correlation.
### 3.4 Radiocarbon Dating

In the cells on the stage wall, two pieces of wood date back to the 13th century (Table 1). One was a fragment of a cane set into the plaster of a vault, and the other was a fragment of *Pinus* sp. plank.

<table><caption>TABLE 1 Radiocarbon dating of five samples</caption><thead><tr><th>Code</th><th>Species</th><th>Date BP</th><th>Date CAL AD<br>(95.4%)</th><th>Laboratory</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>–</td><td><i>Arundo donax/phragmites</i></td><td>780±30</td><td>1219–1280</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>251</td><td><i>Pinus</i> sp.</td><td>770±30</td><td>1222–1282</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>65</td><td><i>Quercus coccifera/ilex</i></td><td>300±30</td><td>1495–1656</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>35</td><td><i>Ficus carica</i></td><td>279±20</td><td>1528–1662</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>52</td><td><i>Juglans</i></td><td>203±20</td><td>1660–1954</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>

Laboratory: 1, Centre de datation par le radiocarbone, Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France; 2, Leibniz-Labor für Altersbestimmung und Isotopenforschung, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany.

In the stage wall, *Ficus carica* and *Quercus coccifera/ilex* date from the 16–17th century. *A Juglans* is modern.

## 4 Discussion

After several years of practice and adaptation, we were satisfied with our sampling, recording, and study methodologies. However, there is still room for improvement, and we hope that this article encourages other researchers to propose further enhancements.

### 4.1 Wood Use and Supply

A high frequency of a particular species among the recovered samples should not be interpreted as definitive evidence of its widespread use in construction. It is possible that there is a fragmentation effect, and/or that some species are better preserved than others. Only once the different fragments are grouped together by structure (i.e. a framework or a staircase) will it be possible to draw conclusions about the most frequently used species.

Observation of the morphology of the wood (Marguerie & Hunot 2007) highlighted a trend: out of 37 samples of poplar, most with bark, 17 displayed
curvature of the rings; similarly, the four ash samples also had highly curved
rings. Therefore, these were pieces of wood that were made close to the pith.
Thus, poplars and ash are preferentially used as small pieces of wood.

Holm oaks are also found in branches used for pegs, whereas large timber
comes mainly from conifers.

Some species were of local origin (*Ficus carica*, *Pinus halepensis*, *Populus*, *Quercus ilex*) and had been harvested opportunistically. *Ficus* and *Populus* likely came from areas close to the alluvial plain of the Rhône, as they require sunlight and humidity. *Quercus ilex* and *Pinus halepensis* may have grown in the immediate vicinity of the theatre from Antiquity to the present day. Given the current state of the research, most of the wood samples remain undated, limiting further interpretation. However, one fact supports this hypothesis: the wide variety of taxa identified supports the idea of opportunistic harvesting.

Other species grow at higher altitudes and are imported (*Larix* and *Pinus cembra*). For example, today, the first *Abies* stands are at least 80 km away, as the crow flies, in mountainous areas. It is not the same organisation to use local or imported wood. Even if these imported timbers were reused from another site, their presence still implies the existence of well-established supply networks and human movement between Orange and mountain regions. Large-scale timber transport has been documented since Antiquity (Meiggs 1983) and has continued thereafter. Theatre walls offer tangible evidence of this historic trade.

## 4.2 *The Use of Wood over Time*

While our recent work has not (yet) made it possible to when the theatre ceased functioning as a performance venue, probably during late Antiquity, remains of reoccupations from the 13th to the 17th century have been discovered for the first time and prove that modifications were made, at least from the end of the medieval period onwards.

To date, no antique wood has been identified. The 13th century reed is the oldest dated wood preserved in this antique building. This reed was stuck in a vault in the western cell of the *postscaenium* (stage wall). Other traces of mortar with reed negatives were also found in vaults preserved in the western half of the building. Therefore, it would appear that this was a system used throughout the building and not a one-off intervention.

The technique of building vaults with reed bedding is attested as early as Antiquity, for example, in Pompeii (Adam 2023); we can see here that it has endured until recent times, as evidenced in traditional Provençal architecture (Bernardi 2011).
The *Pinus* board is also dated to the 13th century, though the number of tree rings lost during manufacture is unknown. The tree from which it comes may have been harvested as late as the 14th century. Therefore, the board could have been installed in the theatre at the same time, or after manufacturing of the reed vault.

If the history of the theatre between late Antiquity and the 12th century remains unknown, these two radiocarbon-dated elements are the first tangible evidence of medieval redevelopment carried out at a date contemporary with the first primitive castle complex built on Sainte-Eutrope Hill, when the des Baux family dominated the principality of Orange (between 1150 and 1393). This was well before the de Chalons family castle of the late 14th century, and even before the construction of the Nassau castle in the 16th century, which was destroyed in 1673 under the reign of King Louis XIV (Markiewicz 1994).

The *Quercus* and *Ficus* trees date from the 16th and 17th century and originate from the southern outer facing of the *postscaenium* (the fifth sample, *Juglans*, is too recent to be precisely dated using the radiocarbon method). These probably belonged to the earlier phases of the structures installed on the stage. The oldest known modern graphic representation of the theatre (engraving signed by Fourdrinier, circa 1700, Fig. 6) shows that during the 17th and 18th century buildings had already been constructed within the *cavea* and certainly on the site of the stage. Buildings were still visible in the early 19th century (Fig. 7). Does this mean that the theatre was reoccupied, first inside the *postscaenium*, as evidenced by the 13th-century reeds, and later on the stage, making it definitionally unusable? It is not yet possible to answer this question.

## 4.3 *Outlook*

In the coming months, the species present in the last 280 samples will be identified. This will enable us to propose a vertical map of the species used in the theatre walls and to understand their spatial distribution. We have also submitted new samples for radiocarbon dating. These may help us understand the function of the timbers studied (dowels, tenons, beam ends, etc.) and, by extension, deliver a restitution of the wooden installations in the theatre.

In the coming years, reconstructions of the ancient frameworks will be proposed in light of the latest observations made in the somital parts of the walls and the traces of embedding.

Eventually, it will be essential to integrate the results of the wood analyses (Fig. 9) into the theatre's Historic Building Information Modelling (HBIM) model (TAIC2 project (for further information, https://taic.hypotheses.org/), A*Midex; see Fig. 10). HBIM is an effective technology for the study, conservation, management, and maintenance of heritage buildings. This
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 9 Current database of woods studied in the theatre, interoperability of the HBIM process with a GIS
© F. BEGUET, IRAA</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 10 Digital theatre model
© IRAA, A-BIME</figcaption></figure>

process enables heterogeneous data — whether archaeological, technical, or documentary — to be integrated into the digital model of the building. To achieve this, in-depth knowledge of the building and its historical development is essential. In the context of our study, the HBIM process makes it possible to model hypotheses for the restoration of parts of the building that have disappeared and to visualise the different states of the theatre over the centuries. HBIM technology enables a structural analysis of the building, which is of particular interest when studying the frameworks.

Considering the technical characteristics of wood over and above the actual configuration of the systems will eventually make it possible to refine the species likely to withstand certain structural constraints, particularly where large spans are involved. The challenge is multifaceted: on the one hand, to establish a link between the technical characteristics of the wood elements (according to their species) and their function in the building, and on the other hand, to carry out a territorial study to identify the sources of supply and means by which construction materials were transported to the theatre.

## Acknowledgements

This work received support from the French government under the France 2030 investment plan, as part of the Initiative d'Excellence d'Aix-Marseille Université — A*MIDEX. It is also supported by the CNRS, Aix Marseille
University and the ARKAIA Mediterranean Archaeology Institute. We would
like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments,
which helped to improve this article.

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