# Do chefs get lost in the sauce? The chefs' perceptions of the tensions and paradoxes between tradition and modernity in cooking with meat

Arnaud Lamy, Lucie Sirieix, Sandrine Costa, Maxime Michaud

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## To cite this version:

Arnaud Lamy, Lucie Sirieix, Sandrine Costa, Maxime Michaud. Do chefs get lost in the sauce? The chefs' perceptions of the tensions and paradoxes between tradition and modernity in cooking with meat. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 2025, 40, pp.101166. 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2025.101166. hal-05004280

HAL Id: hal-05004280

https://hal.science/hal-05004280v1

Submitted on 25 Mar 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

# Do chefs get lost in the sauce? The chefs' perceptions of the tensions and paradoxes between tradition and modernity in cooking with meat

Arnaud Lamy<sup>a,b,*</sup> <sup>□</sup>, Lucie Sirieix<sup>a</sup> <sup>□</sup>, Sandrine Costa<sup>a</sup> <sup>□</sup>, Maxime Michaud<sup>b</sup> <sup>□</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

**Keywords:**

- Paradox theory
- Sustainable cuisine
- Traditional French cuisine
- Meat consumption
- Restaurants
- Sauce

## ABSTRACT

This work aims to identify and understand the various tensions chefs face in reconciling different issues (sustainability, meat cooking, day-to-day management of the restaurant, etc.) through the study of a specific case, the replacement of traditional preparation of stocks and sauces by ready-to-use preparations. Data collected from French chefs (n = 29) were analysed through the prism of paradox theory. Traditional sauce-making is associated by chefs, directly or indirectly, with a set of practices and skills based on techniques, preparations and products that draw on culinary traditions while offering environmental benefits. However, the study shows that chefs tend to use industrial, ready-to-use preparations because of time constraints, convenience, lack of transmission within the profession or regulations (e.g. hygiene rules). The analysis of this replacement highlights paradoxes and tensions linked to the implementation of the new practice, and to performance, especially sustainability performance. The results contribute to the existing literature and assist the restaurant sector and chefs in addressing sustainability challenges.

## 1. Introduction and theoretical framework

Restaurants are at the heart of food systems, at the interface between producers and consumers, and are affected by sustainability challenges. Chefs have a central role to play in driving the transition to a more sustainable food system by influencing the menu (Gössling and Hall, 2021; Leggett et al., 2021). The ADEME (2021) (French Agency for Ecological Transition) defines sustainable cuisine (or cooking) as all the culinary practices used by chefs to reduce the environmental impact of restaurant activities and to adapt the offer accordingly.

An important aspect of sustainable cuisine is the subject of meat. Indeed, experts recommend reducing meat consumption and increasing consumption of plant-based products in Western countries, to limit the environmental impact of diets (Willett et al., 2019). According to the life cycle analyses carried out on the restaurant sector, one of the stages with the greatest impact is that of food supply, and in particular the impacts associated with meat products (Baldwin et al., 2011; Dai et al., 2020). In the case of France, this raises questions, as meat consumption is high overall, particularly in restaurants (Agreste, 2023) and meat occupies an important place in traditional French food culture (Lamy, 2024;

Melendrez-Ruiz et al., 2019).

There is therefore a need for research to better understand how chefs position themselves about the issues of sustainability and tradition with which they are confronted, particularly in the case of the use and cooking of meat. More precisely, chefs may perceive tensions between sustainability and tradition when their day-to-day practices change. From a managerial and societal point of view, it is of paramount importance to understand and address these tensions in order to help chefs meet these challenges and foster a more sustainable culinary future.

A common practice of chefs - the preparation of stocks and sauces - is strongly related to the purchase, use and cooking of meat. Stocks refer to a liquid preparation, more or less concentrated and flavoured, traditionally made by simmering trimmings of meat for a long time. Stocks can be used to make most sauces in French cuisine. Chefs can make stocks through the traditional way, but they can also use dehydrated or liquid industrial preparations called stock bases, which the food industry has been offering since the 1970s. This subject illustrates the tensions between the issues of sustainability and tradition in relation to the chefs 'professional practices regarding meat. As such, it will help to

<footnote><sup>a</sup> MOISA, Univ. Montpellier, CIRAD, CIHEAM-IAMM, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, 2 place Viala, 34060, Montpellier, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> Institut Lyfe research centre, Château du Vivier, 69130, Ecully, France</footnote>

<footnote>This article is part of a special issue entitled: ICCAS 2024 published in International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science.</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author. MOISA, Univ. Montpellier, CIRAD, CIHEAM-IAMM, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, 2 place Viala, 34060, Montpellier France.
E-mail addresses: Arnaud.lamy@inrae.fr (A. Lamy), Sandrine.costa@inrae.fr (S. Costa), Mmichaud@institutlyfe.com (M. Michaud).</footnote>
understand more generally all kinds of tensions chefs meet regarding the issues of sustainability and tradition in their day-to-day practices.

Several recent studies have looked at the way in which chefs take account of the need to reduce meat consumption in relation to environmental issues: Carrillo Ocampo et al. (2021) and Michielsen et al. (2024), in the Swedish and Dutch contexts respectively, show that the chefs interviewed all agree that meat should be reduced for environmental reasons. Carrillo Ocampo et al. (2021) show how this shapes chefs' practices and methods of food preparation and storage. Michielsen et al. (2024) focus on the role of the chef as a craftsman to show that chefs have a different relationship to meat than to plant-based products. They also show that chefs lack skills in working with plant-based products. Lamy (2024) and Lamy et al. (2023) explore French chefs' perceptions of sustainable cooking and traditional French cuisine. They show that although chefs are aware of the need to reduce meat consumption, they favour other measures in the field of sustainability (e.g., limiting waste or sourcing locally). In the case of meat, their actions are aimed at choosing higher-quality meats (in terms of seasonality, freshness, origin, farming methods, etc.). The results of this research into chefs' perceptions of sustainable cooking and traditional cooking show that these two visions are compatible. However, these papers do not explore if and how chefs perceive tensions when their day-to-day practices change. This paper proposes a secondary and complementary analysis of the Lamy (2024) and Lamy et al. (2023) dataset in the form of a case study based on a common practice of chefs: the preparation of stocks and sauces.

After a presentation of paradox framework used to identify and comprehend the diverse tensions that emerge in this case study, we describe the methodology. The results are presented in two parts, related to the implementation of the new practice, and to performance, especially sustainability performance. Implications for gastronomy are finally exposed.

## 1.1. *The theoretical framework of paradoxes*

In the contemporary era, individuals are confronted with an increasingly complex, global, and fast-paced world that generates a multitude of contradictory and interdependent demands, resulting in a range of tensions (Schad et al., 2016; Waldman et al., 2019). Smith and Lewis (2011) define paradox as contradictory but related elements that coexist simultaneously and persist over time. The incorporation of sustainability within organisations has led to an increase in tensions due to the necessity of addressing economic, environmental and social issues that do not align with the same timeframes or the same logic of action (Hahn et al., 2014).

Smith and Lewis (2011) propose an organisational framework for the study of paradoxes based on a synthesis of the literature on paradoxical approaches in organisations. The authors identify four distinct forms of paradoxes: learning, belonging, organisational and performance paradoxes (Table 1).

The aim of this article is, through an analysis of the specific case of the preparation of stocks and sauces, to use the theory of paradoxes to identify the various tensions that chefs face in balancing the issues of tradition and sustainability with everyday professional practices.

## 2. Methodology

Qualitative research using interviews was carried out between January and June 2022 with 29 chefs working in French restaurants. We recruited participants by approaching them directly and through social media. Data were collected in person or via video conference. The interviews explored chefs' views on traditional French cuisine, sustainable cuisine and meat cuisine (with and without). We collected the data using an interview guide based on these topics, following an interview guide including different sections. The first section was a presentation of the respondent, his restaurant and its menu. The second theme dealt with

<table><caption>**Table 1**
Paradox categorisation (Smith and Lewis, 2011).</caption><thead><tr><td>Type of paradoxes</td><td>Description</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Learning</td><td>The learning paradox describes tensions between the old and the new, through the construction of the future and/or the deconstruction of the past, through renewal and innovation, and which leads to instability and different orientations between the short term and the long term.</td></tr><tr><td>Belonging</td><td>The belonging paradox describes the tensions linked to competing identities, linked to different roles or individual or social affiliations, through the different values attached to identities.</td></tr><tr><td>Organising</td><td>The organising paradox describes the tensions in terms of control and flexibility, associated with competing decisions and processes leading to the same desired result.</td></tr><tr><td>Performing</td><td>The performing paradox is linked to the pursuit of different objectives or results, between the organisation's internal and external demands, or between different stakeholders who consider different objectives.</td></tr></tbody></table>

his perception of trends in food and within restaurants, his perception of traditional French cuisine and sustainable cuisine. The third and final theme was meat in general, meat cooking and meat-free cooking. The interviews were audio-recorded, pseudonymized and fully transcribed.

The first thematic analysis was done using MAXQDA 2022 (VERBI Software, 2021), following the process of thematic analysis described by (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Using Corbin and Strauss's (2015) methodology, open, axial, and selective coding was conducted. Each interview transcript was read and coded. Second, the codes were grouped into overarching themes, guided by the literature. This analysis was guided by the original research questions from Lamy (2024) and Lamy et al. (2023). One technique stood out: the technique of making stocks and sauces emerged spontaneously from the interviews, while linking the topics of sustainability, tradition and meat cooking.

A second analysis was done on this data set to answer the research question on this case study of making stocks and sauces. We used MAXQDA's search function to find all the speeches about sauces and stock-making. There were 36 quotes about sauce preparation. Sixteen chefs out of 29 talked about it (Table 2). These 16 interviews account for almost 20 h of discussion, with an average of 1 h 20 min per interview. We then analysed and categorized the verbatims according to the four types of paradoxes proposed by Smith and Lewis (2011): learning, belonging, organisational and performance paradoxes.

## 3. Results

The analysis of chefs' perceptions and practices regarding the preparation of stocks and sauces was based on the four paradoxes identified by Smith and Lewis (2011), linked to the implementation of the new practice - paradoxes of learning, belonging, organisation -, and linked to performance, especially sustainability performance.

Paradoxes linked to the implementation of the new practice: learning, belonging and organisation.

The first category covers the paradoxes of learning, linked to the deconstruction of the past in order to adopt an innovation. In the case studied, the making of sauce bases is a traditional skill in the chef's trade. However, this traditional practice was called into question by the appearance at the end of the 1970s, of ready-to-use sauce bases, produced industrially and intended specifically for the catering market. The use of these industrial sauce bases gradually became established, initially in the mass catering sector, then in the commercial catering sector "I'll take a medium-sized town. I bet 80% of sauces are made from powder." (Participant 7).

This tension linked to the deconstruction of the past is weaker for the young generations, with students learning less and less how to prepare a sauce base in the traditional way and more and more how to utilise ready-made sauce bases. It is conceivable that the replacement of
<table><caption>**Table 2**
Sample characteristics.</caption><thead><tr><th>Anonymous name</th><th>Gender</th><th>Age</th><th>Restaurant sector</th><th>Location</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Participant 1</td><td>M</td><td>31</td><td>Hospitality school</td><td>South-east, Lyon region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 2</td><td>M</td><td>58</td><td>Hospitality school</td><td>South-east, Lyon region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 3</td><td>M</td><td>50</td><td>Gastronomic, Michelin-starred cuisine</td><td>South-east, Marseille region, rural area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 4</td><td>M</td><td>31</td><td>Brasserie cuisine</td><td>South-west, Carcassonne region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 5</td><td>M</td><td>43</td><td>Gastronomic, Michelin-starred cuisine</td><td>South-east, Avignon region, rural area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 6</td><td>M</td><td>31</td><td>Bistronomic cuisine</td><td>South-west, Albi region, rural area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 7</td><td>M</td><td>43</td><td>Gastronomic cuisine</td><td>North-east, Besançon region, rural area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 8</td><td>M</td><td>38</td><td>Brasserie cuisine</td><td>Switzerland, Neufchatel region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 9</td><td>M</td><td>39</td><td>Hospitality school</td><td>South-east, Lyon region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 10</td><td>M</td><td>37</td><td>Hospitality school</td><td>South-east, Lyon region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 11</td><td>M</td><td>63</td><td>Brasserie cuisine</td><td>South-east, Geneva region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 12</td><td>M</td><td>42</td><td>Hospitality school</td><td>South-east, Lyon region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 13</td><td>M</td><td>30</td><td>Gastronomic cuisine</td><td>North, Paris region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 14</td><td>F</td><td>44</td><td>Brasserie cuisine</td><td>South-east, Lyon region, rural area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 15</td><td>F</td><td>28</td><td>Hospitality school</td><td>South-east, Lyon region, urban area</td></tr><tr><td>Participant 16</td><td>F</td><td>34</td><td>Bistronomic cuisine, self-production</td><td>Centre, Brive-la-Gaillardé region, rural area</td></tr></tbody></table>

traditional practice has been unintentionally orchestrated by the chefs of the older generations. According to Participant 2, the older generation of chefs did not necessarily wish to impart their knowledge and concealed the secrets of their recipes, particularly their sauces. He states, “*40 years ago, it was personal – you had to go to the big houses to learn certain things. The chef would hide to make the sauces. And in our minds, we used to think that these were secrets, that we had to keep them.*”

The second category of paradox linked to the implementation of the new practice is that of belonging, linked to the threats to identity. The traditional production of sauce bases adheres to a traditional vision of the chef's profession. For some, it constitutes an integral aspect of their professional identity. “You learn the basics and then adapt them into recipes. It's classic French cuisine, then you create gourmet dishes. It is essential to be able to prepare a sauce, a purée and a béchamel sauce” (Participant 6). The ability to create sauce bases is highly regarded in the culinary profession, as it is a fundamental aspect of French cuisine. The quality of a dish, and in particular the meat, is greatly enhanced by the addition of a sauce (Participant 8). Sauces are a crucial element of traditional French cooking. “Sauce is what makes the dish. It's what binds the dish together” (Participant 3).

Additionally, the role of the saucier is a distinctive professional speciality within the culinary profession. This position is typically found in a kitchen brigade, particularly in high-end restaurants. The primary responsibility of the saucier is to prepare a variety of sauces that accompany the menu items. As Participant 10 notes, “*This is where the role of the saucier is of great importance and fundamental to the restaurant's success. Not everyone is a skilled saucier.*”

The transition to industrial sauce bases is viewed negatively by some, as it calls into question a skill that is an integral part of their professional identity.

Chefs find themselves dispossessed of know-how that used to belong to them and are now being replaced by know-how that belongs to the agri-food industry.

The chefs differentiate between the culinary techniques and expertise of their own generation and those of younger ones, particularly in the preparation of sauces, where they perceive a discrepancy in knowledge and proficiency. “*It's getting a bit lost, it's like with sauces now, most chefs, even the young ones, only know powdered sauces. It's not great*” (Participant 5); “*There is a challenge in terms of training, as I have previously discussed. I am a chef trainer, and I have visited a restaurant to provide training in sauce and stock preparation. I had 2 cooks in front of me. One was 27 years of age, while the other was 38. They were unable to distinguish between a sauce and a jus. In my opinion, this is a significant issue at that age*” (Participant 7).

The last paradox linked to the implementation of the new practice is that of organising, referring to changes in decision-making and control. In this context, the development of traditional stock and the utilisation of industrial sauce bases represent competing processes with the same ultimate objective. Making traditional sauce bases involves a longer, more complex process that involves more steps (“*It requires a little bit of organisation and a little bit of work to do it*”, Participant 7) than using industrial sauce bases, which are characterised by simplicity and ease of use. Here, the new practice brings simplicity but it is also synonymous with loss of control for the chef.

### 3.1. Paradoxes linked to performance

The second category of paradox is that of performance, which arises from the plurality of stakeholders and results in different and/or contradictory objectives. In this case study, we identify three different contradictory objectives, in terms of sustainability, health and economics.

In terms of sustainability objectives, the production of traditional sauce bases is perceived by chefs as more sustainable than the use of industrial bases. According to the chefs, the positive environmental contribution of traditional sauce-making arises from the reuse of food waste to cook the sauce bases. Furthermore, it contributes to the purchase of fresh, raw meat. “*In the restaurants where I began my culinary career, we used to receive large pieces of meat all the time, so I learnt to work like that, and then there's also the side where we receive whole pieces of meat, which is also good, for example, lamb, we can make our sauces and then we have all the trimmings and it's much simpler to make sauces because sauces are one of my passions in cooking*”. (Participant 5). Conversely, the purchase of industrial sauce bases is associated with the use of plastic packaging and multiple ingredients, including additives. The indirect consequence of purchasing industrial sauce bases is that chefs no longer purchase raw or whole pieces of meat, but instead purchase individually packaged cuts. “*Instead of purchasing individually packaged cuts of meat, one may opt to purchase a whole piece of meat, which is then cut into smaller portions. It is possible to purchase a leg or three whole legs of lamb, bone them, and then make lamb stock. You can work them as you like, and you've saved on journeys to suppliers because you've ordered three pieces in one go and then you've got stock. You've saved on packaging*”. (Participant 7).

Some chefs have identified opportunities to employ the sauce base technique with vegetable products. “*I'll take a simple example, all the peelings, and instead of putting them in compost we're going to reuse them to make stocks, we can't reuse all the peelings but for example all the carrots or the leek trimmings, we keep them and we make stocks now. After all, in the kitchen, we don't really lose anything when it comes to meat and vegetables, because we reuse it to make our sauces and so on*” (Participant 5); “*Last year we made a cauliflower dish, I made my own juice with the cauliflower sides, which made really good vegetable stock. Meat isn't the only thing that can make good sauces and broths*”. (Participant 9); “*If I'm making leeks in the evening, I'll take the white of the leek, which is the most tender, and the green of the leek, I'm not going to throw it in the bin, I'll use it to make my draft sauces*” (Participant 13).
Concerning health objectives, the preparation of traditional sauce bases is perceived as restrictive due to hygiene regulations. The legislation imposes time constraints on the preparation of stocks, which require long cooking times and demand optimum traceability of the products: "*The problem is that with the hygiene rules, we can do it, but it's become complicated because, for example, a sauce base like a veal stock, requires long cooking times, although in the old days it took even longer because it was cooked for at least 24 h. Now we cook on average between 8 and 10 h, but if we listen to the law correctly, we don't really have the right to do that. They don't really like long cooking times in terms of hygiene*" (Participant 5). Some chefs believe that the regulations prohibit the use of homemade sauce bases. For instance, one chef stated, "*I think that some chefs have told you that it's forbidden. It's not forbidden, it's just that when you do it, the legislation tells you that you have 24 h to use it*" (Participant 7). Industrial sauce manufacturers are capitalizing on this perceived difficulty by emphasizing the practicality and easier traceability of their products.

Finally, in terms of economic objectives, chefs are presented with a dilemma between the time savings afforded by the ease of use of industrial sauce bases and the savings made by purchasing larger cuts of meat and utilising the products to their fullest extent.

## 4. Conclusion

The aim of this article was to identify the various tensions that chefs face in balancing the issues of tradition and sustainability with everyday professional practices. To achieve this goal, we used the organisational framework proposed by Smith and Lewis (2011), which identifies four distinct forms of paradoxes: learning, belonging, organisational and performance paradoxes. The issue of stocks brings to light several paradoxes linked to the replacement of traditional sauce-making by ready-to-use preparations, at the intersection of the chefs' attitudes and beliefs on the issues of sustainability, food tradition and meat-based cuisine. Two main categories of paradoxes appear: Firstly, paradoxes linked to sustainability performance; secondly, paradoxes linked to the implementation of the new practice: learning, belonging and organisation.

The main perceived paradoxes are linked to sustainability performance. Indeed, the traditional practices related to stocks seem to be the most sustainable in the eyes of the chefs, because they allow the optimisation of resources and can be transferred to a plant-based cuisine. The chefs thus have little sympathy for the fact that this traditional practice has been replaced by the use of industrial stock bases, even if this traditional practice is running out of steam due to time constraints, practicality, lack of transmission and regulations.

The second important paradox after sustainability performance is that of organising and belonging. According to the literature on the acceptance of new products or services by chefs (Fraser and Lyon, 2018; Robinson and Barron, 2007; Villegas, 2006), this integration takes place easily if two conditions are met. First, the chefs maintain a certain mastery of techniques and know-how; second, the new product or service does not contradict certain elements of their professional identity, such as their creative and artistic ambitions. Since the use of industrial stocks can increase chefs' sense of being dispossessed of their know-how and their identity, some chefs reject this new practice.

Our study has several managerial implications. As consumer demand for homemade, seasonal and sustainable food increases, chefs can capitalise on the environmental benefits and traditional values of homemade sauces. Culinary schools should emphasise these techniques to ensure that future generations of chefs retain this important aspect of their culinary heritage.

This study has its limitations. The results of this exploratory study need to be reinforced by other complementary work, particularly quantitative. The study population of chefs is difficult to study quantitatively because of their limited availability and low response rate. An opportunity to supplement this work with a quantitative approach

would be to survey culinary school students. It would also be interesting to extend this research to countries with different culinary traditions in terms of sauces and gastronomy, such as the region of Galicia in Spain (with a rich gastronomy and a variety of sauces, Leis Trabazo et al., 2019) and Montenegro (with culinary traditions and simple sauces, as well as the absence of elaborate sauces, Vujacić, V. V., & Kovačević, F. 2016). It can be assumed that the use of ready-made sauces will generate very different perceptions between chefs of these two types of country, with probably fewer perceived paradoxes when there is no gastronomic tradition around the preparation of sauces.

In conclusion, the preparation of sauces serves as a microcosm of the wider tensions perceived by chefs when they face a change in practices. By understanding and addressing these paradoxes, we can help chefs meet these challenges and foster a more sustainable culinary future.

## Implications for gastronomy

This article contributes to gastronomy by identifying and analysing the tensions faced by chefs, when they abandon practices that are nevertheless valued in terms of know-how, belonging and sustainability. Using sauce-making as an example, the article shows that recourse to easy solutions can lead to a decline in chefs' skills and a feeling of being dispossessed of their know-how, ultimately affecting their professional identity.

## CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Arnaud Lamy:** Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. **Lucie Sirieux:** Writing – original draft, Supervision, Conceptualization. **Sandrine Costa:** Writing – original draft, Supervision, Conceptualization. **Maxime Michaud:** Supervision, Conceptualization.

## Ethical approval

Ethical approval was received by an advisory statement from the University College of General Medicine (CUMG) of University Lyon 1. (IRB: 2021-11-23-05).

## Funding

This work was supported by the G&G Pélisson Foundation at Institut Paul Bocuse.

## Declaration of competing interest

None.

## Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

## References

* ADEME, 2021. Guide pratique Bretagne : RESTAURANTS COMMERCIAUX : Quelles actions mettre en place pour un tourisme durable. Clés pour Agir. ADEME Bretagne.

* Agreste, FranceAgriMer, 2023. La consommation de viandes en France en 2022 (No. 412), Synthèses conjoncturelles. Agreste.

* Baldwin, C., Wilberforce, N., Kapur, A., 2011. Restaurant and food service life cycle assessment and development of a sustainability standard. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-010-0234-x.

* Braun, V., Clarke, V., 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol. 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp0630a.

* Carrillo Ocampo, J.C., Marshall, M., Wellton, L., Jonsson, I.M., 2021. When sustainable cuisine imaginaries become unsustainable: storage and preservation practices in Swedish restaurants. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 24, 100353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100353.

* Corbin, J., Strauss, A., 2015. Basics of Qualitative Research. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Dai, T., Yang, Y., Lee, R., Fleischer, A.S., Wemhoff, A.P., 2020. Life cycle environmental impacts of food away from home and mitigation strategies—a review. J. Environ. Manag. 265, 110471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110471.

Fraser, S., Lyon, P., 2018. Chef perceptions of modernist equipment and techniques in the kitchen. J. Culin. Sci. Technol. 16, 88–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15428052.2017.1333935.

Gössling, S., Hall, C.M., 2021. The Sustainable Chef: the Environment in Culinary Arts, Restaurants, and Hospitality. Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315187488.

Hahn, T., Preuss, L., Pinkse, J., Figge, F., 2014. Cognitive frames in corporate sustainability: managerial sensemaking with paradoxical and business case frames. AMR (Adv. Magn. Reson.) 39, 463–487. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2012.0341.

Lamy, A., 2024. Do chefs have a beef with meat? An exploration of the professional representations and identities of French chefs in relation to traditional French cuisine and meat-based and plant-based dishes. Décisions Mark.

Lamy, A., Costa, S., Sirieix, L., Michaud, M., 2023. Less red meat to be greener? An exploratory study of the representations of sustainable cuisine among French chefs. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 31, 100627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100627.

Leggett, K., McCann, R., Brunson, M., Miller, B.A., MacAdam, J., 2021. “From a chef’s perspective or what I can sell on the menu?” Exploring culinary professionals’ attitudes toward specialty beef production and barriers to adoption. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2021.1888185, 0.

Leis Trabazo, R., de Lamas Pérez, C., Castro Pérez, X., Solla, P., 2019. Atlantic diet. Nutrition and gastronomy in Galicia. Nutr. Hosp. 36 (Spec No. 1), 7–13. doi: 10.20960/nh.02686.

Melendrez-Ruiz, J., Chambaron, S., Buatois, Q., Monnery-Patris, S., Arvisenet, G., 2019. A central place for meat, but what about pulses? Studying French consumers' representations of main dish structure, using an indirect approach. Food Res. Int. 123, 790–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.06.004.

Michielsen, Y.J.E., van der Horst, H.M., van de Nobelen, R., 2024. Beef or Beet Wellington? Chefs, meat reduction, and hindering and supportive forms of craftsmanship. Food Cult. Soc. 0, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528014.2024.2322792.

Robinson, R.N.S., Barron, P.E., 2007. Developing a framework for understanding the impact of deskilling and standardisation on the turnover and attrition of chefs. Int. J. Hospit. Manag. 26, 913–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2006.10.002.

Schad, J., Lewis, M.W., Raisch, S., Smith, W.K., 2016. Paradox research in management science: looking back to move forward. ANNALS 10, 5–64. https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520.2016.1162422.

Smith, W.K., Lewis, M.W., 2011. Toward a theory of paradox: a dynamic equilibrium model of organizing. AMR (Adv. Magn. Reson.) 36, 381–403. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2009.0223.

VERBI Software, 2021. MAXQDA 2022 [computer software].

Villegas, J., 2006. Le cuisinier du troisième type : de la cacophonie alimentaire à l'émergence d'une dynamique de goûts. Ecologie politique N°32 153–168.

Vujačić, V.V., Kovačević, F., 2016. Gastroscophy and food as cultural practice: the case of Montenegro. Anthropol. Noteb. 22 (1).

Waldman, D.A., Putnam, L.L., Miron-Spektor, E., Siegel, D., 2019. The role of paradox theory in decision making and management research. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, The Role of Paradox Theory in Decision Making and Management Research 155, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.04.006.

Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., Springmann, M., Lang, T., Vermeulen, S., Garnett, T., Tilman, D., DeClerck, F., Wood, A., Jonell, M., Clark, M., Gordon, L.J., Fanzo, J., Hawkes, C., Zurayk, R., Rivera, J.A., De Vries, W., Majele Sibanda, L., Afshin, A., Chaudhary, A., Herrero, M., Agustina, R., Branca, F., Lartey, A., Fan, S., Crona, B., Fox, E., Bignet, V., Troell, M., Lindahl, T., Singh, S., Cornell, S.E., Srinath Reddy, K., Narain, S., Nishtar, S., Murray, C.J.L., 2019. Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet 393, 447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4.