<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>2.3.</td>
      <td>Analysing the structural change process in landlocked countries.</td>
      <td>72</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.</td>
      <td>Literature review linking agricultural land expansion and structural change</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion and structural change: Theoretical Frameworks</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.1.</td>
      <td>The root link approach to agricultural land expansion for structural change</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.1.1.</td>
      <td>The physiocrat surplus of agriculture as a base of structural change</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.1.2.</td>
      <td>The Hirschman structural change model and agricultural expansion</td>
      <td>75</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.2.</td>
      <td>The inefficiency approach of agricultural land expansion for structural change</td>
      <td>76</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.2.1.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion from the Marxian theory of class view: Landowners and structural change</td>
      <td>76</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.2.2.</td>
      <td>The law of diminishing marginal returns in agriculture and the Ricardian doubt of structural change</td>
      <td>77</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.</td>
      <td>Agricultural expansion and structural change: Empirical literature review</td>
      <td>78</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.1.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion promoting structural change, growth and development</td>
      <td>78</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.2.</td>
      <td>Agricultural intensification</td>
      <td>80</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.3.</td>
      <td>Agricultural growth as determinant of structural change</td>
      <td>83</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.4.</td>
      <td>Other aspects of land expansion and structural change, growth and development</td>
      <td>84</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.4.1.</td>
      <td>Land productivity: the traditional versus the modern context</td>
      <td>84</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.4.2.</td>
      <td>Fragmentation of Farms</td>
      <td>85</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.4.3.</td>
      <td>Land registration</td>
      <td>85</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.4.4.</td>
      <td>Land tenure</td>
      <td>86</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.4.5.</td>
      <td>Small – Commercial Farms, large scale farms and plantations</td>
      <td>86</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.4.6.</td>
      <td>Increasing land area and agricultural productivity with respect to population density</td>
      <td>87</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.</td>
      <td>Methodology of analysis of the effects of land expansion on structural change</td>
      <td>88</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.1.</td>
      <td>Data, sources and variable construction</td>
      <td>88</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.1.1.</td>
      <td>Data and Data sources</td>
      <td>88</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.1.2.</td>
      <td>Construction of variables</td>
      <td>89</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.1.2.1.</td>
      <td>Building the variable type of structural change</td>
      <td>89</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.1.2.2.</td>
      <td>Building the Governance index</td>
      <td>90</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.</td>
      <td>Descriptive statistics</td>
      <td>90</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.1.</td>
      <td>Markov chain analysis of the structural change</td>
      <td>90</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.1.1.</td>
      <td>Transition probabilities</td>
      <td>91</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.1.2.</td>
      <td>Graphics of transition</td>
      <td>91</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.2.</td>
      <td>Graphical analysis of variables</td>
      <td>92</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.</td>
      <td>Estimation strategy</td>
      <td>92</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.1.</td>
      <td>Baseline model and estimation techniques</td>
      <td>92</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.2.</td>
      <td>Justification of variables in the model and expected type of structural change</td>
      <td>94</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.3.</td>
      <td>Interpretation of the parameters of the model</td>
      <td>96</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.</td>
      <td>Results and Discussions</td>
      <td>98</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.1.</td>
      <td>Descriptive statistics</td>
      <td>98</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.1.1.</td>
      <td>Summary details of variables</td>
      <td>98</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>5.1.2.</td>
      <td>Analysing the within and between variation of types of structural change</td>
      <td>99</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion and labour movements</td>
      <td>100</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.1.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion evolution</td>
      <td>100</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.2.</td>
      <td>Sectors value added response to agricultural land expansion</td>
      <td>100</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.3.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion and labour spillovers: Overall</td>
      <td>102</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.3.1.</td>
      <td>Linking agricultural land and labour spillovers: Overall</td>
      <td>102</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.3.2.</td>
      <td>Linking agricultural land and labour spillovers: within variation</td>
      <td>103</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.3.3.</td>
      <td>Linking agricultural land and labour spillovers between variation</td>
      <td>104</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.</td>
      <td>Estimation results</td>
      <td>105</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.1.</td>
      <td>Stationarity tests</td>
      <td>105</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.2.</td>
      <td>Baseline model results</td>
      <td>106</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.2.1.</td>
      <td>Estimation Results</td>
      <td>106</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.2.2.</td>
      <td>Margins effects of agricultural land on structural change</td>
      <td>111</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.3.</td>
      <td>Robustness Check</td>
      <td>117</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.3.1.</td>
      <td>Alternative model estimation</td>
      <td>117</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.3.2.</td>
      <td>Varying the model specification: Fixed effects</td>
      <td>120</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>6.</td>
      <td>Conclusion</td>
      <td>123</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td colspan="2">ESSAY III EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL LAND EXPANSION ON BIODIVERSITY LOSS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA</td>
      <td>124</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>1.</td>
      <td>Introduction</td>
      <td>125</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>2.</td>
      <td>Stylised Facts on the Biodiversity status in Africa</td>
      <td>126</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>2.1.</td>
      <td>Evolution of the extinction risk of species in the world</td>
      <td>126</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>2.2.</td>
      <td>Evolution of groups of species</td>
      <td>127</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>2.3.</td>
      <td>Some facts on biodiversity in Africa</td>
      <td>128</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.</td>
      <td>Literature review linking agricultural land and biodiversity loss</td>
      <td>129</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.</td>
      <td>Expansion of agricultural land and biodiversity change: Theoretical Background</td>
      <td>129</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.1.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion and biodiversity change: a protectionist approach</td>
      <td>129</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.1.1.</td>
      <td>Pigouvian externalities from agricultural land expansion</td>
      <td>129</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.1.2.</td>
      <td>Coase property rights to prevent agricultural land sourcing biodiversity loss</td>
      <td>130</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.2.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion and biodiversity change: an extensive margin approach</td>
      <td>131</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.2.1.</td>
      <td>The Ricardian theory of diminishing returns and biodiversity loss</td>
      <td>131</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.2.2.</td>
      <td>Kuznets Environmental Curve: Agricultural growth and biodiversity loss</td>
      <td>132</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.2.3.</td>
      <td>The environmental sociology ecological modernisation theory</td>
      <td>132</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.3.</td>
      <td>Spatial economics approaches</td>
      <td>133</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.3.1.</td>
      <td>The land rent theory of natural habitat destruction</td>
      <td>133</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.3.2.</td>
      <td>Displacement Effects of agricultural land and natural habits losses</td>
      <td>134</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.4.</td>
      <td>Agricultural land expansion and biodiversity loss debate: Temporality approach</td>
      <td>135</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.4.1.</td>
      <td>The theory of the atemporality of natural resources and agricultural expansion</td>
      <td>135</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.1.4.2.</td>
      <td>The Hotelling temporal theory of natural resources and agricultural land expansion</td>
      <td>136</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>3.2.</td>
      <td>Expansion of agricultural land and biodiversity change: Empirical literature</td>
      <td>137</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
<table>
  <tr>
    <td>3.2.1. Land expansion for agriculture affects species biodiversity</td>
    <td>137</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>3.2.2. Land expansion and effects on natural habitats</td>
    <td>141</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4. Methodology of analysis of the effects of agricultural expansion on biodiversity loss</td>
    <td>144</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.1. Nature, data sources and scope of the study</td>
    <td>144</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.1.1. Measures of biodiversity change</td>
    <td>145</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.1.1.1. The IUCN Red List Index</td>
    <td>145</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.1.1.2. The Living Planet Index</td>
    <td>146</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.1.1.3. The Biodiversity Intactness Index</td>
    <td>146</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.2. The baseline model and description of variables</td>
    <td>147</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.2.1. Justification and expected relationships of variables with biodiversity change</td>
    <td>148</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>4.2.2. Estimation strategy</td>
    <td>150</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5. Results and discussion</td>
    <td>152</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.1. Descriptive statistics of variables</td>
    <td>152</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.2. Graphical analysis agricultural land expansion and biodiversity loss</td>
    <td>153</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.2.1. Agricultural land and endemic species threats</td>
    <td>153</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.2.2. Agricultural land and total species threats</td>
    <td>154</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.3. Econometric results</td>
    <td>155</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.3.1. Baseline results</td>
    <td>155</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.3.2. Using an alternative estimation technique</td>
    <td>160</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>5.3.3. Using alternative model specification and measures of agricultural land expansion</td>
    <td>161</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>6. Conclusion</td>
    <td>162</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>GENERAL CONCLUSION</td>
    <td>164</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>• Main results</td>
    <td>164</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>• Recommendations</td>
    <td>166</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>• Recommendations from the first essay</td>
    <td>166</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>• Second essay recommendations</td>
    <td>167</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>• Third essay recommendations</td>
    <td>167</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>• Limitations of the study</td>
    <td>168</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>Bibliography</td>
    <td>169</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>Annexes</td>
    <td>190</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>Table of contents</td>
    <td>201</td>
  </tr>
</table>