as well as the γ angular correlations with respect to the fission axis by applying the differential technique and two bombarding energies [390]. It is proposed to simultaneously measure the high-energy γ decay with the PARIS array [336] and, in coincidence, the fragments from binary reactions with the two-arm of a TOF spectrometer based on the CORSET project [391] already available at LNL. Such type of measurements recently proved to allow for a better understanding of the reaction mechanism [392, 393].

### Isospin dependence of compound nucleus formation and decay (LNL-RD-FU-b1)

The isospin content of a compound nucleus is expected to play a crucial role in its formation and in the competition among the various de-excitation channels like Fusion-Evaporation and Fission-Like processes, thus providing information about fundamental nuclear quantities such as level density and fission barrier. For example, the level density parameter plays a key role in the thermal properties (entropy) of excited nuclei [394–396]. It is also related to the effective mass of nucleons in the nuclear medium, a property of the effective mean-field interaction that is sensitive to the neutron-proton composition of nuclei. In addition, the fission barriers depend clearly on the symmetry energy that is weakly constrained by existing data [397, 398], specifically in the nuclear surface region.

Novel information on these nuclear properties can be gained from the variation of the fusion cross section across long isotopic chains of compound nuclei, extending from the neutron-rich to neutron-poor side, all produced with comparable excitation energies and angular momenta. Examples of such experimental campaigns are available [399–401] and have shown that the neutron richness of the projectiles seems to discourage the formation of a compound nucleus.

The key observables are the reaction cross-sections as well as multiplicities, angular, mass, momentum distributions for the various emitted species (Light Charge Particles, Intermediate Mass Fragments, heavy products and Evaporation Residues). The choice of inverse kinematics can be advantageous in such measurements since the method boosts and concentrates reaction products in the forward direction.

At LNL, SPES will offer the opportunity to produce excited nuclei in unexplored regions of the nuclear landscape, allowing also to study spin and internal degrees of freedom; besides experiments with radioactive beams might provide additional constraints on the sophisticated models attempting to describe statistical and/or dynamical properties in the formation and decay of excited nuclei [402–409].

State-of-the-art isotopic resolution and broad angular acceptance with high angular resolution could be assured using the FARCOS or FAZIA particle detectors. Experiments in this framework will be realized by studying the reactions induced by $^{88}$Kr and $^{94}$Kr on $^{40}$Ca and $^{48}$Ca targets at 10 MeV/u.

### 5.1.2 α-Clusters in compound nucleus decay

#### α-correlations and clustering (LNL-RD-FU-a0)

Many recent works demonstrated the persistence, in light (and medium light) excited nuclei, of cluster structures like those predicted by the Ikeda diagram [410]. In particular, signals of an underlying α clustered structure have been put into evidence in fusion-like reactions especially between self-conjugate systems forming compound nuclei (CN), also well beyond the threshold for particle emission [411–415] and even at bombarding energy in the Fermi domain [416, 417] where the multifragmentation channel is open [418]. In some cases also the occurrence of molecular structures has been suggested [419]. These α-clustering effects have been shown by means of refined studies on the de-excitation chains of the CN. In particular, the branching ratios associated to evaporation residues reachable through the emission of (only) α particles have been compared to the prediction of the statistical model not containing specific refinements on nuclear structure; the experimental branching ratios for these channels are significantly higher than predicted ones. When the α-particle emission is accompanied by neutrons, favoured configurations with the α particles emitted one after the other have been found [411, 414, 415]. Despite the large amount of experimental data already available, some aspects still need elucidation. We mention here some examples: the role of cluster structures in compound nuclei close to the self-conjugate configuration and the persistence of such structures far from the $N=Z$ line; the maximum spin and excitation energy achievable in compound systems; the role of molecular configurations and their trend with the angular momentum and, finally, the sequential or instantaneous nature of the multi-α emission from excited $N=Z$ nuclei such as $^{12}$C or $^{16}$O [417].

The main experimental observables useful to investigate such topics are the branching ratios associated to the specific decay chains, in coincidence with the measurement of the charge and, possibly, of the mass of the evaporation residue, particle correlations and Jacobi coordinates to study the decay topology. Morevoer, Dalitz plots, built from the particle relative energies, can be used to investigate the nature (sequential or instantaneous) of the disintegration of light clusters into α particles. From the point of view of the experimental setup, the detection of complete (in charge) events for light and medium-mass systems (up to $Z=15–20$, depending on the energy) is very useful to identify the involved configurations and decay chains. It is mandatory to tag and, at least partially, identify the evaporation residue; its mass identification, when possible, is very useful to estimate the free neutron multiplicity. Since particle correlations are extremely important to reconstruct the different steps of the decay chain, and to investigate the resonances associated to excited states of the nuclei (for example, the α-decaying levels of $^{12}$C) a relatively high granularity is mandatory. At LNL there is an ongoing effort to continue the work reported in references [411, 414, 415]. The GARFIELD array will be used to extend the scope of exploration to more asymmetric and energetic systems like $^{16–17–18}$O+$^{12–13}$C up to 300 MeV incident energy.
Clearly, the availability of the future SPES n-rich beams of unstable isotopes will allow to extend the present studies on some of the previously mentioned physics cases, in the limit of the beam energies below 15 MeV/u.

### 5.1.3 Out-of-equilibrium processes

#### Onset of pre-equilibrium emission in medium mass systems. (LNL-RD-FU-a1)

The intermediate step of the fusion process is characterized by a rapid transfer of energy and angular momentum of the projectile and target relative motion into the internal degrees of freedom. Several models allow to describe the excited Compound Nucleus (CN) cooling mechanisms consisting, mainly, in light particle and γ-ray emission, in competition with fission for heavy systems. Pre-equilibrium emissions decrease the excitation energy and the angular momentum and must be determined precisely because these quantities have a major influence on the CN survival probability. This has a direct effect on the synthesis of very exotic systems such as the superheavy nuclei (SHN). For high beam energy, apart from quasifission, the pre-equilibrium emission of the particles should be taken into consideration as it changes the mass-over-charge ratio of the CN and its excitation energy. The observation of relatively narrow resonances (Γ ≈ 100–200 keV), in the elastic and inelastic channels of α-like nuclei, [363] inspired many studies on the formation of highly deformed excited systems, with lifetimes comparable to those of the compound nuclei. Although the nature of these states and the production reaction mechanisms involved are not yet completely understood, different interpretations, relying on the existence of largely-deformed intermediate dinuclear system, have been proposed. These states could act as doorway states to fusion with a strong memory of the entrance channel (see [420]). In this regard, the dependence on the entrance channel dynamics may affect the evaporative decay, if the dinuclear complex is formed in a highly deformed configuration. The phase-space may not be fully sampled or limited for the compound nucleus (CN) if formed from particular entrance channels. Resonances are indeed demonstrations of the production and the surviving of a particular nuclear state. Lately, the peculiar behavior of the branching ratio for the exit channels where only α-particles (and possibly neutrons) are emitted [388] was also observed and underlines the importance of nuclear structure effects in the decay of the compound nucleus. The idea is to set up an experimental campaign to scan the evolution of the non-equilibrium emissions from to 16 MeV/u. Such investigation will aim to study the out-of-equilibrium emissions from an energy region beyond the onset of the pre-equilibrium emission, to a region where it has the most important role. Studying $^{16-18}$O-induced reactions at the LNL highest available energies (16 MeV/u), where the pre-equilibrium part is well assessed can also be a way to reach the information about α-particles emitted before full equilibration of the projectile-target system into compound nucleus.

#### Pre-equilibrium emission of α-particles at highest spins (LNL-RD-FU-a2)

Since the α-particles are emitted from the hot CN in the beginning of the de-excitation cascade, they retain the information about the spin and the deformation of the equilibrated system. The measurements of the γ-decay yield at bombarding energies on- and off-resonance have allowed to enlighten a strong resonant effect in the inelastic channels and, to a minor extent, in certain fusion–evaporation channels, see for instance the measurements of the $^{48}$Cr nuclei [421]. A deeper understanding of this mechanism requires the use of other probes: in fact various decay branches of the highly excited CN are energetically possible and, in particular at high spin, the α-particle evaporation is dominant with respect to the γ-ray emission. The search for extremely elongated configurations in rapidly rotating medium-mass nuclei, that has been pursued exclusively by using γ-ray spectroscopy, will indeed benefit of observables related to light charged particle emissions. This has been shown in previous experiments (see for instance [422–425]) where deformation effects in γ yields might be washed out by particle-decay evaporation. In those cases the α-particle energy spectra and correlations clearly indicate the presence of significantly large deformations. The analysis of light-particle energy spectra and angular correlations, in the framework of the statistical model (SM), indicates, for several nuclei [423, 424, 426], the onset of large nuclear deformations at high spin. In the rotating liquid-drop model (RLDM), these nuclei do not survive such high spins. A possible description can be provided by cranked cluster model predicting an axis ratio up to 3:1 at values of spin sustainable only assuming cluster structures. A similar outcome is provided by a new version of the Lublin-Strasbourg-drop (LSD) model [349] that predicts Jacobi transitions implying a dramatic shape instability consisting in the rapid increase in elongation for relatively small changes in the values of spin. More precisely, the LSD model indicates that nuclei change their shapes from oblate (with spin parallel to the symmetry axis) to elongated prolate or triaxial shapes at high spins. However, the α particles are not the solely probe indicating the presence of the Jacobi shape transitions: the Giant Dipole Resonance strength functions, measured in the $^{46}$Ti [427] and $^{45}$Sc [428] composite system decays and a number of superdeformed bands of discrete γ-ray transitions (e.g. [429–432]) support this hypothesis (see also 4.5.3).

#### Entrance channel mass asymmetry-deformation dependent pre-equilibrium emission

The evolution of the nuclear dynamics of hot rotating nuclei is one of the aspects that were explored through the study of the GDR γ decay, see for instance [315]. In addition to the thermally excited GDR described before, a pre-equilibrium GDR, liable to the charge equilibration process between the colliding nuclei, can take place during the dinucleus phase. Therefore this fast relaxation of the charge asymmetry degree of freedom occurring before complete damping of the kinetic energy, i.e. the formation of the CN, can be investigated. A comparative analysis of observables measured for the same composite system, populated using different projectile/target combinations, can elucidate on the emission from the pre-equilibrium phase and the connection with the mass asymmetry equilibration can be studied. Large γ-ray multiplicities are produced in reactions with stronger damping of the kinetic
energy and/or with more extensive mass transfer. Therefore, the γ-fold measurement can provide a tool to discriminate between faster (e.g. pre-equilibrium) and slower processes (like those originating from CN decays). Complementary information on the nature of the emission process can be obtained from the α-spectra and α-evaporation residue correlations over a wide angular range, being these observables, together with the more exclusive α-α and α-α-α correlations, dependent on both the nuclear temperature and the shape of the emitting nuclei. Different examples on how the high spin deformation can affect the α-particle spectra and correlations can be found in [433, 434]. Although the proton emission usually occurs at lower angular momenta with respect to the α-particle one, it should be taken into account as it represents the main competing mechanism in the CN decay. Therefore simultaneous measurements of charged particles, γ rays and evaporation residues are needed to undertake studies of the composite system shape evolution; the rich information on the detected events will allow stringent tests of model predictions. Several experimental studies, based on non-comprehensive data sets, seem to indicate the presence of doorway states for fusion at angular momenta higher than the critical ones in the mass region of A ≈ 40–50. A similar behaviour has been recently predicted even for larger mass nuclei A ≈ 60–70. The wide variety of beams delivered by the LNL accelerators allow to perform highly desirable systematic studies on nuclei at high spins, as well as to modify the neutron/proton ratios in the entrance channels to evaluate how they influence the reaction. As for experimental equipment, the hard γ emission and γ multiplicities can be efficiently measured with the powerful PARIS modules [11, 336].

## 5.2 Transfer processes and particle spectroscopy

The process of transferring one or more nucleons between colliding nuclei plays a critical role in heavy-ion reactions. In such process, mass, energy and angular momentum are exchanged by the projectile and target nuclei. Therefore, transfer reactions are generally highly selective and are very often used as a tool for studying the nuclear structure of light-to-medium mass nuclei. As an example, for relatively light systems, peripheral collisions lead to transfer reactions involving few nucleons. In these reactions the projectile exchanges some nucleons with the target through a fast and direct process, leaving the residual populated in excited states. From a measurement of charge, mass and momentum of the leftover, it is possible to reconstruct the excitation energy of the residual nucleus. This requires particle identification capabilities and good angular and energy resolution. Angular distributions of the differential cross section contain information on the reaction mechanism and, for direct processes, provide information on the angular momentum transfer. The comparison of the experimental distributions to DWBA calculations leads to the $C^2S$ spectroscopic factors. The latter are phenomenological quantities used to estimate the single or multi-particle nature of the excited state under investigation (see, as an example, reference [435]). Another approach deals with the description of the asymptotic properties of the residual nucleus, assuming a single or multi-particle nature, in terms of the so-called Asymptotic Normalization Coefficient [436]. This information can be linked to direct radiative capture rates, useful in astrophysics, which cannot be easily constrained with direct laboratory experiments due to the low cross section, making transfer reactions particularly interesting as surrogate methods for astrophysics [437]. Another important application of transfer reactions is in indirect measurements, where an alternative projectile and target combination is used to extract relevant information of certain key reactions that, under particular conditions, present very low cross sections. Although being model dependent, this method is heavily exploited in studying reactions related to nuclear astrophysics.

### 5.2.1 Population of n-rich heavy nuclei via multi-nucleon transfer reactions

Multi-nucleon transfer reactions, characterized by the exchange of many nucleons at energies around the Coulomb barrier, have been extensively used in the last decades to populate mid-mass neutron-rich nuclei [438–440]. The use of light stable projectiles on heavy targets allows to populate in the quasi-elastic regime only proton stripping and neutron pick-up channels of the projectile-like fragments [438]. With neutron-rich projectiles the trend should turn and the proton pick-up and neutron stripping channels open up, leading to the population of neutron-rich heavy fragments [441–445]. However, secondary processes, such as neutron evaporation and fission, can significantly modify the final yield distribution of heavy primary nuclei.

**Populating n-rich nuclei with stable and radioactive ion beams (LNL-RD-TR-a0)**

New experiments will be proposed to continue and extend the research started with the large-acceptance magnetic spectrometer PRISMA [13, 446] coupled to a second arm detector NOSE [447, 448], DANTE [442] or a gamma array [13]. In this respect, several combinations of stable ($^{48}$Ca, $^{124}$Sn, $^{136}$Xe, $^{208}$Pb, $^{238}$U) and radioactive ($^{94}$Rb, $^{132}$Sn, $^{140,144}$Xe) projectiles and neutron-rich targets ($^{48}$Ca, $^{124}$Sn, $^{208}$Pb) offer great opportunity to study the production of neutron-rich nuclei. While stable beams are already employed at LNL, the radioactive projectiles will soon become available with the development of the SPES facility. In order to populate nuclei far from the stability it is also important to understand the evolution of quasi-elastic to deep-inelastic scattering and quasi-fission. Insight can be gained by identifying reaction products in mass and charge, and by measuring Q-value distributions, angular distributions and total cross sections, as well as by comparing these observables with theoretical calculations.
<table><caption>**Table 5** Selected examples of reactions with SPES beams which are relevant for transfer studies at Coulomb energies. Neutron transfer Q-values given in units of MeV</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">System</th><th colspan="3">Pickup</th><th colspan="3">Stripping</th></tr><tr><th>+1n</th><th>+2n</th><th>+3n</th><th>-1n</th><th>-2n</th><th>-3n</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><sup>58</sup>Ni+<sup>124</sup>Sn</td><td>0.510</td><td>5.952</td><td>4.952</td><td>-6.483</td><td>-8.540</td><td>-19.656</td></tr><tr><td><sup>69</sup>Ni+<sup>124</sup>Sn</td><td>-1.183</td><td>-2.865</td><td>-4.789</td><td>1.147</td><td>1.545</td><td>1.265</td></tr><tr><td><sup>70</sup>Ni+<sup>124</sup>Sn</td><td>-4.225</td><td>-3.280</td><td>-8.142</td><td>-1.573</td><td>2.031</td><td>-0.234</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 5.2.2 Nucleon-nucleon correlations in transfer reactions

One of the still unanswered questions is whether and to which extent the transfer of a pair of nucleons affects the behaviour of the cross section. These measurements are best performed at the energies near and below the Coulomb barrier, where the conditions to study particle-particle correlations with two-nucleon transfer reactions are most suitable. The studies of the neutron-neutron correlations have shown significant progress in the past years where different systems have been measured using the PRISMA setup to measure reactions in inverse kinematics [449–453]. The experimental transfer probabilities for <sup>116</sup>Sn+<sup>60</sup>Ni have been well reproduced, for the first time with heavy ions, in absolute values and in slope by microscopic calculations which incorporate nucleon-nucleon pairing correlations, microscopically calculated optical potentials and successive transfer processes [450, 451].

#### Transfer of n-n and p-p pairs to probe the pairing force (LNL-RD-TR-a1)

The role of the transfer of a pair should be better understood by using different superfluid combinations (for instance <sup>208</sup>Pb+<sup>144</sup>Sm, <sup>144</sup>Sm+<sup>88</sup>Sr which involve superfluid proton nuclei) or doubly-magic nuclei (for instance <sup>208</sup>Pb+<sup>48</sup>Ca). The role of proton-proton correlations is here particularly interesting since it is even less understood and yet to be thoroughly investigated. Finally, the use of nuclei with an extended neutron distribution should allow the possibility to study the density dependence of the pairing force. The use of <sup>132</sup>Sn beam and different targets (<sup>40</sup>Ca, <sup>64</sup>Ni, <sup>208</sup>Pb) and comparison of data with microscopic calculations, as well as cross comparison between reactions performed with stable and radioactive beams, will provide valuable insight into this topic. In recent years, microscopic theories have been extensively developed with the use of supercomputers. For instance, it is nowadays possible to take into account quantal fluctuations and correlations going beyond the time-dependent Hartree-Fock (TDHF) approach [454]. The stochastic mean-field (SMF) theory [455, 456] or time-dependent random phase approximation (TDRPA) [457] is one of those theories, which enables a quantitative comparison with experimental data, providing not only the mean values of observables, but also their distributions. Further, dynamic effects of pairing correlations can be studied within a fully microscopic framework, called time-dependent superfluid local density approximation (TDSLDA) [458]. New experiments in close collaborations with theoretical groups will certainly develop our understanding of low-energy heavy-ion reactions.

Moreover, the data of Ref. [450] were recently interpreted as a manifestation of a nuclear Josephson effect, where entangled neutron pairs play the role of Cooper pairs tunneling between the superfluid nuclei [459–461]. A gamma ray emission, associated with the oscillating motion of a neutron pair between the interacting binary partners, is expected to be centered at ~4 MeV with a broad distribution. These predictions can be experimentally tested thanks to the powerful coupling of PRISMA and AGATA [9] by measuring the same system at an energy close to the Coulomb barrier in inverse kinematics.

### 5.2.3 Competition between transfer and near-barrier fusion

Despite the fact that the mechanisms of nuclear reactions and the properties of nuclear structure have been largely investigated, the interplay of multi-nucleon transfer and fusion reactions still represents an extremely complex problem both experimentally and theoretically. Since the neutron transfer process can act as a doorway to fusion [462], it is expected that such reactions with positive Q-values enhance the sub-barrier fusion cross sections [449, 463]. To validate this assumption, a considerable number of reactions involving different isotope combinations have been investigated in the last decades. The overall results have confirmed that, in fact, most positive Q-value neutron-transfer reactions enhance the fusion cross sections at energies below the Coulomb barrier. However, for few systems with positive Q-values for the neutron transfer channel, no enhancement has been observed [464]. This means that the role of neutron transfer on the sub-barrier fusion cross sections has not yet been completely explained from both macroscopic and microscopic aspects.

#### New systematic studies on transfer at the Coulomb barrier (LNL-RD-TR-a2)

To understand the dynamics of neutron transfer and its effect on the sub-barrier fusion reactions, a systematic investigation involving several different systems will be pursued.

The advent of high power accelerators producing intense radioactive ion beams paves a new road to explore the dynamics of nuclear reactions involving isotopes with exotic neutron to proton ratios, the bulk properties of such nuclear species and their interactions. Different combinations of stable and radioactive projectiles, impinging on the same targets, can shed some light on the role of positive Q-value neutron transfer on sub-barrier fusion reactions. As shown in Table 5, the <sup>58,69,70</sup>Ni + <sup>124</sup>Sn reactions are good candidates for a systematic study, since the pickup and stripping neutron transfer Q-values can be quite different. The
projectiles can be produced at SPES and all the relevant channels can be measured using the electrostatic deflector PISOLO installed at the LNL [465, 466]. With such apparatus, the fusion cross sections can be experimentally determined by directly detecting the corresponding evaporation residues. In addition, the other relevant reaction channels, such as the elastic scattering, the inelastic excitation of low-lying states, and the transfer of one or few neutrons, can be measured either by installing silicon surface barrier detectors around the $^{124}$Sn target in the reaction chamber or by performing complementary experiments with magnetic spectrometers such as PRISMA. The new data will be valuable in the development of realistic models aiming to describe simultaneously all the relevant reaction channels [467].

### 5.2.4 Transfer reactions to constrain the asymptotic normalization constant (ANC)

Transfer reactions constitute a useful tool for studying the nuclear structure, especially of nuclei presenting a single-particle nature. These are for instance halo nuclei, composed of a compact core and one weakly-bound proton or neutron, such as the one-neutron halo nuclei $^{11}$Be and $^{15}$C, or the one-proton halo nucleus $^{8}$B. Also nuclei described by a cluster structure with a compact core and a valence $\alpha$ particle, e.g. $^{16}$O clusterised as $^{12}$C + $^{4}$He, present a single-particle nature. Following Ref. [468], it has been suggested to rely on the strong sensitivity of transfer reaction to the single-particle structure of the nucleus to measure the asymptotic normalization constant (ANC) of the wavefunction describing the valence particle. The idea would be to measure the transfer of the valence particle $x$ to the target A, e.g. in a A(d,$x$)B reaction, where $x$ is a neutron or a proton. A particularly precise estimate of the ANC would be obtained selecting transfer data at low beam energy and forward scattering angles, i.e. $E < 10$ MeV/u and $\theta < 12^\circ - 15^\circ$. This method has been presented in [469] and recently applied to study the cases of $^{10}$Be(d,p)$^{11}$Be and $^{14}$C(d,p)$^{15}$C [470, 471]. In the case of $^{11}$Be the obtained ANC was in agreement with ab initio predictions [472] and has been used to solve an apparent discrepancy in the $^{11}$Be dB(E1)/dE estimate for this nucleus [473]. The $^{15}$C structure has been used as the only input to the excellent description of Coulomb breakup at intermediate and high energies and radiative capture [471]. Such radiative capture theoretical prediction resulted to be the best prediction in comparison with the latest direct measurement of radiative capture from GSI [474]. The method to extract the ANC from peripheral transfer data is detailed in [469-471]. Besides precise models of reactions, it requires a description of the effective interaction $V_{Ax}$ based on halo effective field theory (halo EFT) [475-477]. The ANC is one of the most relevant parameters for purely peripheral processes, like radiative capture [468]. Radiative capture reactions, e.g. (n,$\gamma$), (p,$\gamma$), or ($\alpha$,$\gamma$) involving halo or clusterised nuclei, are considered crucial processes in nuclear astrophysics for the production of heavy elements in inhomogeneous big-bang nucleosynthesis and have been shown to be part of possible reaction routes in the nuclear chart during the r-process [478, 479] (see also chapter 3). Direct measurements of radiative capture cross section at astrophysical energies are possible yet challenging, and indirect methods are normally used to deduce the cross section of radiative capture at low energies. Therefore, transfer reactions is suited as surrogate method for radiative capture. In fact, from the analysis of the transfer differential cross section of A(d,$x$)B reaction one can constrain the ANC of the nucleus B ground state, and finally use this information to infer the radiative capture cross section A($x$,$\gamma$)B.

#### ANCs of $^{8}$B and $^{8}$Li mirror nuclei (LNL-RD-TR-b0)

The Legnaro facilities are suited for this particular measurements, thanks to the low beam energy available and the excellent purity and intensity of the light radioactive ion beams that can be produced.

A possible case study that can be developed at LNL is the investigation of $^{8}$Li and $^{8}$B mirror nuclei. To extract $^{8}$B and $^{8}$Li ANC, these two nuclei could be measured through $^{7}$Li(d,p)$^{8}$Li and $^{7}$Be(d,n)$^{8}$B in inverse kinematics, using $^{7}$Li and $^{7}$Be from the EXOTIC facility. Measurements of $^{7}$Li(d,p)$^{8}$Li are available in literature [480, 481], but there is a lack of data in the conditions for a peripheral reaction, i.e. low beam energy and forward scattering angles. To avoid the uncertainties in the scattering angle when detecting neutrons, (d,n) reactions could be substituted by ($^{3}$He,d), possibly measured in inverse kinematic using a $^{3}$He cryogenic target. The theoretical model to extract the ANC in this case has not been tested, thus giving the opportunity to expand the applicability of this precise method. Direct measurements of the radiative capture process are available [482, 483] to compare the theoretical predictions extracted by peripheral transfer measurements. To have an idea of the magnitude of transfer cross section in these conditions, preliminary calculations for the differential cross section of such reactions at different low beam energies are shown in Fig. 13. These results are obtained using the computer code TWOFNR [484] in the adiabatic distorted wave approximation (ADWA), KD03 optical potential [485], selecting the simpler approximations (such as zero-range and non locality) and default options. Besides being a way to investigate indirectly two radiative capture reactions relevant for nuclear astrophysics, such a measurement could also be a good occasion to test the theory for mirror nuclei (e.g. [468]).

This theoretical method applied to ($^{3}$He,d) reactions could be tested also in the case of $^{16}$O($^{3}$He,d)$^{17}$F (see Fig. 13). Such a measurement at low energy and forward angles would allow us to extract precisely the ANC of $^{17}$F, that together with its binding energy, would allow us to provide a precise $^{16}$O(p,$\gamma$)$^{17}$F radiative capture estimate. This reaction is part of the CNO cycle, a series of reactions that is believed to take place in the hydrogen-burning shells of red giant stars [478]. The direct measurements available for this proton capture process [486-488], would provide a benchmark to consolidate the method.

Another interesting reaction is $^{12}$C($\alpha$,$\gamma$)$^{16}$O, part of the He burning reactions. When measured at low energy, it allows to extract the phase-shift of the continuum state from which the alpha is captured, a valuable information for ab initio theories. This reaction can
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 13** Theoretical predictions of transfer cross sections for different reactions. The calculations were performed at 3 bombarding energies. The corresponding results are shown as solid black, dashed red and dotted blue curves</figcaption></figure>

be investigated through indirect methods studying ¹²C(^6Li,d)¹⁶O and ¹²C(^7Li,t)¹⁶O transfer processes, updating the measurements obtained in [489].

## 5.3 Fission and sub-barrier fusion

### 5.3.1 Nuclear fission

A detailed investigation of fusion-fission is of paramount importance for the understanding of the dynamics of nuclear systems and quantum shell effects. Shell closures play a fundamental role in the mass splitting of thermally equilibrated compound systems [490], resulting usually in asymmetric decompositions, which reflect the shell structure of the nuclei populated in the exit channel. For example, recent fusion-fission studies succeeded in pointing out the existence of the Z = 52 and Z = 56 closed shells, associated with pear-like deformation in medium-mass systems [491]. In the last years, the study of nuclear fission is experiencing a certain revival thanks to the development of new experimental techniques and powerful and detailed models. Much of the attention is focused on the interplay between collective and intrinsic properties, such as the influence of nuclear structure and shells, and the study of fission dynamics, such as dissipative effects and energy balance.

Recent models profit from comprehensive descriptions of the system and high computational power in order to track the time evolution of the fission process along and reveal the dynamics involved. The application of energy density functionals in real-time frameworks are just one example of these new approaches [491, 492].

Experimentally, the use of inverse kinematics and magnetic spectrometers permits to access the neutron and proton content of the full distribution of fission fragments, together with a wealth of new observables that can be directly connected to theoretical descriptions. The most recent examples are the campaigns being carried out with Coulomb-induced fission at GSI with the ALADIN spectrometer, where neutron-deficient minor actinides are studied [493, 494], and with transfer- and fusion-induced fission at GANIL with the VAMOS spectrometer, where fission from a wide region between sub-lead neutron-deficient systems and trans-fermium isotopes can be accessed [495–500].

At LNL, the availability of the large-acceptance spectrometer PRISMA [15, 16, 501] and heavy-ion beams with energies around the Coulomb barrier and intensities of more than 10⁹ particle per second offer the possibility of performing experimental fission studies with inverse kinematic and fully identified fragments, and contribute to the fission campaigns already in place at GSI and GANIL.

The layout of PRISMA is very similar to that of VAMOS, with a wide acceptance and the possibility of rotating the spectrometer axis in order to scan the angular distribution of the fragments. However, the maximum magnetic field is presently limited to somewhere below 1.2 Tm; a limitation that can effectively reduce the scan of the angle in c.m. and, for some systems, may represent a severe cut in the measured yields. Besides this limitation, PRISMA, and LNL in general, has an important asset in the ensemble of ancillary detectors available on-site that can complement the direct observables measured from the fragments. As discussed in
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 14** A sample of compound systems (red dots) produced in fusion-fission reactions from beams around lead (red empty circles) and $^{9}$Be, $^{10}$B, $^{12}$C, $^{24}$Mg, and $^{27}$Al targets. The blue-shaded regions correspond to expected asymmetric fission, while the green-shaded region shows expected symmetric fission [504]</figcaption></figure>

chapter 4, high resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy of the fission fragments will be performed by coupling PRISMA with state of the art gamma-ray arrays such as AGATA.

In general, we can think of three main reaction channels related to fission that can be produced and studied in a setup like PRISMA: Fusion-induced fission, quasi-fission reactions, and transfer-induced fission (including inelastic channels). In the following sections, we address fusion-induced and transfer-induced fission.

### Fusion-induced fission (LNL-RD-FF-a0)

Fusion-induced fission reactions produce a well-defined compound system, with a unique excitation energy that is directly determined by the participants and the c.m. energy. In addition, an angular momentum distribution that can easily reach tens of $\hbar$ is also induced in the compound system. These reactions provide a good setting to study the influence and resilience of nuclear structure in fission from hot systems. Traditionally, one would expect that a high excitation energy would wash out structure effects, but recent data suggest that this may not be the case and that nuclear structure still has an impact in particular aspects of the process such as the configuration at scission or the energy sharing between fragments [496]. Still open is also the question whether this is a consequence of a partial cooling down through neutron or $\gamma$ evaporation before the process [502, 503].

Fusion-induced fission reactions can be studied with PRISMA at LNL right away. No major modifications of the setup are needed, and the available beams and energies provide a wide collection of systems to be produced. Figure 14 shows a sample of compound systems in the region around lead that can be populated with the present beams available at LNL and a collection of typical light targets. We can see how such a set of measurements would be able to track the evolution from asymmetric to symmetric fission for neutron-deficient systems.

### Transfer-induced fission (LNL-RD-FF-b0)

The upcoming $^{238}$U beam that is being expected at LNL with energies around the Coulomb barrier opens the possibility of using transfer and inelastic reactions to produce fissioning systems around the actinide region. The excitation energy gained in these binary reactions is enough to allow the beam-like heavy system to overcome the fission barrier. In addition, this excitation energy is produced following distributions that depend on the particular channel being populated and spanning tens of MeV. In this way, it is possible to study the properties of low-energy fission as a function of the excitation energy [505, 506].

At these relatively low energies, the effect of nuclear shells is particularly strong, and their impact on observables such as the fragments yields, the fragments kinetic and excitation energies, the neutron evaporation, or the neutron-to-proton content allows to obtain evidences on features like the scission configuration, the energy balance, or the dissipation for different initial excitation energies.

Isomers measured at the focal plane of PRISMA (LNL-RD-FF-c0)

As a future perspective, the equipment of the focal plane of PRISMA with an array of gamma-ray detectors could provide the possibility of studying the decay of implanted long lived isomers in the actinide region populated in fission reactions induced both by stable and radioactive ion beams.
### 5.3.2 Sub-barrier fusion

In recent years, the study of fusion cross sections well below the Coulomb barrier has seen a noticeable increase of interest, especially due to advancements in the experimental techniques needed to measure rare events (see e.g. [90, 364] and references therein). Close to the Coulomb barrier, couplings to collective excitations in the fusion participants seem to describe well the enhancement of the sub-barrier fusion cross section, which cannot be fully accounted for by simple Coulomb-penetrability arguments. At deep-sub-Coulomb energies, a damping of the coupling effect is observed, leading to the so-called fusion hindrance. A relevant theoretical effort has been recently done to understand the hindrance effect [507–513], but additional experimental data seem to be still required to fully constrain the models. The hindrance effect appears unavoidable for heavy systems with negative Q-values for the fusion. However, whether the hindrance effect might play a role in astrophysically relevant light systems (which have usually $Q > 0$) is still an open question. Some recent data, involving light-to-medium mass systems at deep-sub-Coulomb energies, have shown the evidence for the occurrence of hindrance of the fusion cross section in $Q > 0$ systems [514], but a direct observation of these effects in astrophysically important reactions is still missing. Similar investigations require high-purity targets and intense and high-quality beams at low energies, which are readily available at LNL.

#### Fusion far below the barrier by particle-γ coincidences (LNL-RD-FF-a1)

Fusion measurements far below the barrier using the combined set-up of AGATA [9] and silicon-array EUCLIDES [21] will be performed to identify and count the fusion events by coincidences between the prompt γ-rays and the light charged particles evaporated from the compound nucleus. This powerful method has been recently developed for the measurement of very small fusion cross sections in light systems of astrophysical interest. The first experiments of this type were performed at Argonne National Laboratory where the Gammasphere [515] array was used in coincidence with a compact set of three annular double-sided silicon strip detectors located inside the target chamber, to measure $^{12}$C + $^{12}$C fusion at very low energies [516]. Complementary to this technique, measurements at relatively larger cross sections will be performed using the electrostatic deflector set-up PISOLO [517] where the absolute cross sections scale can be fixed to within ±7–8% even down to around 1 μb. In this way the results of the γ-particle coincidence experiments will be normalised to the higher energy cross sections. Far-reaching consequences in astrophysics may be envisaged, when very low energies and/or lighter systems are considered, which are known to be relevant for stellar evolution. In the system $^{12}$C + $^{30}$Si fusion hindrance was observed a few years ago at the level of $\sigma_{fus} \sim 90$ μb [518]. This case will be used for a test of the method, to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion measurements in the nano-barn range. This will open the door to further experiments along this line, using intense beams like $^{16}$O, $^{19}$F, $^{12}$C and $^{13}$C and light targets.

#### Sub-barrier fusion with exotic neutron-rich nuclei (LNL-RD-FF-b1)

The use of extremely neutron-rich projectiles might give access to unexpected phenomena in the fusion process below the Coulomb barrier. In particular, systematic data on the role of transfer in fusion are required, as anticipated in Sect. 5.2.3. We would like to start an experimental activity in this field by exploiting selected beams that will be produced by the SPES facility. Starting from the two isotopes $^{96}$Sr and $^{94}$Kr (that will be provided with intensities in excess of $10^5$ pps) on $^{40}$Ca and $^{28}$Si targets, we will continue along Se, Sr and Kr isotopic lines. For the mentioned systems, neutron transfer reactions with Q-values as large as +26 MeV are available. The low-energy structure of the involved nuclei is well known and can be reliably included in model calculations, so to clearly point out the effects of transfer. Heavier beams like $^{134}$Sn, $^{136}$Te will be produced with comparable intensities, and in a second step their fusion with lighter targets will be investigated. Our goal is to measure cross sections smaller than 1 mb, where transfer couplings effects show up more clearly. The beam quality (stability, energy definition and size of the spot on target) and its purity are essential for fusion experiments below the Coulomb barrier. This is not always the case with radioactive beams, therefore particular care will be put in the arrangement of the experimental setup. For low intensity beams, placing a detector right along the beam path and detecting the forward-peaked fusion–evaporation residues (ER) with almost 100% efficiency will be possible, provided the detectors can withstand high counting rates and one can filter out the overwhelming beam-like background. The electrostatic deflector set-up (PISOLO) we are using for the experiments near $0^\circ$ with stable beams has a very good beam rejection factor (≈$10^8$) but a very low efficiency (≈$10^{-3}$). A substantial upgrade will be needed, as recently done at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) [519, 520]. Other exotic beams of interest will be $^{94}$Sr, $^{92}$Kr, $^{132}$Sn, $^{134}$Te and $^{140, 142}$Xe that are produced with higher intensities (ranging from $10^6$ to $10^8$ pps). In this case, the experiments will need a more standard approach using the electrostatic beam deflector PISOLO, possibly coupled to the innovative, multi-sampling ionization chamber mentioned in the next paragraph.

#### Beyond the limits in heavy-ion fusion and astrophysics with a multi-sampling ionization chamber and the exotic beams of the SPES facility (LNL-RD-FF-c1)

Fusion of light heavy-ions is known to be very relevant in the late evolution of massive stars, where their reaction rates determine the quantity of heavier elements produced. Concerning the very important case of $^{12}$C + $^{12}$C, recent data have been published [88, 516, 521]. Establishing the behaviour of the S-factor at the very low energies of interest for stellar fusion is very challenging and still much debated, due also to the many resonances observed.

Despite the efforts ongoing worldwide to perform direct measurements, astrophysicists still rely on model-based extrapolations of these cross sections. The existence of hindrance would lead to significant changes in the abundances of many isotopes. Moreover it would increase the estimated ignition temperature of $^{12}$C + $^{12}$C both for quiescent C burning in massive stars and for explosive
**Fig. 15** (top) Typical signals for beam (in black) and for fusion events (in red), obtained in the recent experiment at Florida State University. See text for further details. (bottom) Scheme of the segmented anode for the new Ionization Chamber

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

C burning in accreting white dwarfs, eventually giving rise to thermonuclear supernovae (the standard candles of cosmology). The $^{12}$C + $^{12}$C reaction has also been proposed to be a trigger for the super-bursts at the surface of accreting neutron stars.

It appears then that the investigation of systems slightly heavier than $^{12}$C + $^{12}$C and $^{16}$O + $^{16}$O is of great interest since their behaviour at very low energy will give us reliable guidances for the low-energy extrapolation of the lighter systems. Therefore we propose to study the existence of the hindrance effect in $^{12}$C + $^{19}$F, $^{26}$Mg with stable beams as a first step, by developing and constructing a multi-sampling ionization chamber (IC) with a segmented anode, getting inspiration from the design of the MUSIC detector [522, 523].

This chamber will work as an active target detector measuring energy losses of the beam ions and of the fusion-evaporation residues (ER) produced in the interaction of the beam with the nuclei of the filling gas (see Fig. 15, (up)). The ER will experience much higher energy loss inside the chamber gas. As a consequence, fusion events will produce a peaked signal in the detector, while beam particles will gradually lose energy throughout the chamber (see Fig. 15, (down, right)). Being segmented, the chamber will also allow to determine the position where the reaction takes place. Since the beam energy decreases moving forward in the chamber, fusion cross sections will be measured simultaneously at different energies in a single run.

The experience gained in the measurement of the systems $^{12}$C+$^{24}$Mg and $^{30}$Si [518, 524] will be exploited to test the set up with low-intensity beams. The SPES facility will be able to provide light exotic beams, such as proton rich isotopes of aluminium ($^{24,25,26}$Al), using silicon carbide (SiC) primary targets. Those beams will be used on $^{12}$C and $^{19}$F targets, filling the IC with CH$_4$, C$_4$ H$_{10}$ or CF$_4$. We point out that fusion reactions involving $^{26}$Al may be influenced by the existence of an isomeric state $0^+$ at 228 keV whose importance in astrophysics is well known [525].

## 6 Applications

Nuclear physics applications cover a wide range of fields, ranging from medicine to material science, from nuclear waste management up to targets and detector development and characterization, radiation damage, etc. In the next years LNL will offer a variety of accelerator facilities opening the possibility to perform a wide range of experiments for interdisciplinary and applied physics, considering proton, neutron and, in future, also deuteron and $\alpha$ beams. The SPES facility will enlarge the possibilities related not only to nuclear physics and astrophysics, but also to applied research, such as the production of novel medical radionuclides. In this framework, LNL will be a unique centre in Europe, able to exploit both the direct activation method with the LARAMED project [526] and the ISOL-technique with the ISOLPHARM project [527]. This emerging role of the LNL is already under the spotlight of the international community gathered in the PRISMAP consortium [528]. The recent *Radioisotope Service for Medicine and Applied Physics* of the LNL Research Division will coordinate these activities and will provide medical radionuclides for internal and external users, driving forward the development of new radiopharmaceuticals.

Considering the SPES cyclotron and the future beamlines in the A9 bunker (a. 17) [526], the refurbished XTU-Tandem, and the upgrades at the CN, LNL is in the position to offer a suite of neutron beams ($E_n \ge$ thermal) capable of serving a worldwide community, spread over a broad range of physics, from basic to applied research, presented in Sects. 6.1 and 6.3. It is also important to
<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 16** Summary of nuclear physics application activities that could be performed at LNL in the next future, sorted according to the time phase</figcaption></figure>

underline the role in the next years of several applied and interdisciplinary activities carried out at the AN2000, CN and Tandem-ALPI accelerators, that strongly support various experiments of the nuclear physics community, as described in Sect. 6.3.

Figure 16 provides a snapshot of possible activities: Nuclear cross sections measurements and modelling for direct radionuclide production and neutron beam lines at SPES (WG1), ISOL and laser applications at the SPES facility (WG2) and Development, characterization and modifications of materials for applied nuclear physics (WG3), which could take place at LNL over the next years, while Table 6 shows a selection of the nuclear reactions of interest for the community working in the applications of nuclear physics. The next sections provide a more detailed description of each activity.

## 6.1 Nuclear cross sections measurements and modelling for direct radionuclide production and neutron beam lines at SPES

The status of the SPES infrastructure devoted to applications, described in Sect. 2.5, is shown in Fig. 17, where the A9 bunker will be devoted to SPES-$\delta$, exploiting high energy neutron beams as described in Sect. 6.1.3. The LARAMED bunkers will be devoted to the measurement of the excitation functions with low-intensity beams (100 nA, provided by the L3c beamline, expected to be installed in 2023) and to produce limited amounts of novel radioisotopes for research purposes by using high-current proton beams (bunker RI#3).

The selection of an appropriate radionuclide for medical use depends on several criteria and parameters [529]. The theranostic approach, that combines therapy and diagnostic using the same radiopharmaceutical, has been widely explored [530], since it allows the selection of the patients with a high chance to positively respond to the therapy, performing SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) or PET (Positron Emission Tomography) imaging prior the treatment. This goal can be achieved by using a “single” theranostic radionuclide (e.g., $^{67}$Cu, $^{47}$Sc, etc.), with decay characteristics suitable to perform both diagnosis ($\gamma$ or $\beta^+$ emission) and therapy ($\beta^-$, Auger-e or $\alpha$ emission) with the same radiopharmaceutical. On the other hand, it is also possible to use the so-called “real theranostic pairs” (e.g., $^{64}$Cu/$^{67}$Cu, $^{43}/^{44}$eSc/$^{47}$Sc, etc.), to label the same molecule with specific radioisotopes of the same element, to perform low-dose imaging prior therapy assuring also in this case an identical biodistribution. Currently, radionuclides of elements with similar chemistry are used worldwide to label the same molecule to have the essential information to tailor patient’ dosimetry (e.g., $^{99m}$Tc/$^{188}$Re, $^{68}$Ga/$^{177}$Lu, etc.).

In general, an ideal radiotracer must be characterized by (i) high specific activity (i.e., activity/mass of isotopic carrier), (ii) high activity concentration (i.e., activity/volume or mass of substrate), (iii) high radionuclidic, radiochemical and chemical purities. Furthermore, to allow the use of these labelled compounds on living organisms, it is necessary to guarantee their biological compatibility with in vitro and in vivo experiments. High specific activity radionuclides can be obtained by either p, d or $\alpha$ irradiation, followed by selective radiochemical separation from the irradiated target in No Carrier Added (NCA) form, reaching specific activity values close to the theoretical “carrier-free” one.
<table><caption>**Table 6** Summary of key applied nuclear physics topics and reactions that could be addressed at LNL in the next years. The activities are sorted according to the working group discussing the proposal and the time phase</caption><thead><tr><th>Tag</th><th>Description</th><th>Reaction</th><th>Phase</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>LNL-APP-SPES-a0</td><td>Benchmark experiments for cross section (xs) beam line characterization</td><td><sup>nat</sup>Ni(p,x)<sup>57</sup>Ni, <sup>nat</sup>Ti(p,x)<sup>46</sup>Sc, etc</td><td>A</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-SPES-a1</td><td>Proton-induced xs measurements for medical radionuclides (RN) production</td><td><sup>70</sup>Zn(p,x)<sup>67,64</sup>Cu, <sup>159</sup>Tb(p,x)<sup>155</sup>Dy/<sup>155</sup>Tb, etc</td><td>A</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-TH-a2</td><td>Modeling nuclear xs for medical RN production</td><td><sup>159</sup>Tb(p,x)<sup>155</sup>Dy/<sup>155</sup>Tb, <sup>48,49,50</sup>Ti(p,x)<sup>47</sup>Sc, etc</td><td>A</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-SPES-c0</td><td>Neutron beam lines at SPES for cross section of SEE</td><td>n-n scattering up to 70 MeV, <sup>45</sup>Sc(n,p)<sup>45</sup>Ca, etc</td><td>C</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-SPES-c1</td><td>Deuteron-induced xs measurements for medical RN production</td><td><sup>48,49,50</sup>Ti(d,x)<sup>47</sup>Sc, <sup>70</sup>Zn(d,x)<sup>67,64</sup>Cu, etc</td><td>C</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-SPES-c2</td><td>Alpha-induced xs measurements for medical RN production</td><td><sup>nat</sup>Eu(α,x)<sup>4x</sup>Tb, <sup>44</sup>Ca(α,p)<sup>47</sup>Sc, etc</td><td>C</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-ISOL-a0</td><td>ISOL experiments with off-line front-end</td><td></td><td>A</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-ISOL-a1</td><td>ISOL targets development</td><td></td><td>A+B</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-ISOL-b0</td><td>ISOL experiments with on-line front-end</td><td></td><td>B</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-ISOL-b1</td><td>Decay spectroscopy on ISOL-produced RN</td><td></td><td>B+C</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-LE-a0</td><td>Target characterization (IBA) for nuclear and astrophysics experiments</td><td>EBS, NRA, PIXE and PIGE</td><td>A</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-LE-a1</td><td>xs measurements for IBA experiments</td><td>EBS xs (p,p') on <sup>49,50</sup>Ti, <sup>30</sup>Si, <sup>15</sup>N, <sup>17</sup>O</td><td>A</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-LE-a2</td><td>Ion-solid interactions and neutron-damage experiments</td><td><sup>51</sup>V(n,p)<sup>51</sup>Cr, <sup>14</sup>N(<sup>7</sup>Li,x), <sup>8</sup>B(p,n), etc</td><td>A+B</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-LE-a3</td><td>SEE, bulk damage, single ion and large area irradiation experiments</td><td>Light and heavy ions beams</td><td>A+B</td></tr><tr><td>LNL-APP-LE-b0</td><td>Detector development and tests, Quenching effects in scintillators</td><td>(n,p) reactions from thermal to 4 MeV, Neutron endurance tests</td><td>B</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 6.1.1 Cross section measurements for medical radionuclides production

To optimize the radionuclidic purity two main approaches must be considered: (i) an accurate knowledge of “experimental” cross sections of the reactions involved, as well as of the excitation functions of both stable and radioactive isotopes produced by side reactions; (ii) the optimization of very selective radiochemical separations for the produced radionuclide.

Nuclear cross sections measurements are thus key ingredients in the optimization of medical radionuclides production. The experiments rely on an activation process (i.e., the bombardment of thin targets, often assembled in the “stacked-foils” configuration) followed by γ-spectrometry to identify and to quantify the radionuclides produced. For this purpose it is necessary to have a precise knowledge of the energy, and of the energy spread, of the charged particle beam extracted and of the charge deposited in the targets, possibly with < 1% errors. Since the use of monitor reactions is useful in determining the energy and intensity of the bombarding beam [531], the firsts experiments at the L3c beamline will be devoted to benchmark measurements of the well-known reactions <sup>27</sup>Al(p,x)<sup>24</sup>Na, <sup>nat</sup>Ni(p,x)<sup>57</sup>Ni, <sup>nat</sup>Ti(p,x)<sup>46</sup>Sc, <sup>nat</sup>Cu(p,x)<sup>56</sup>Co and <sup>nat</sup>Cu(p,x)<sup>58</sup>Co, available in the IAEA database [532].

Among the priority radionuclides for the LARAMED project, there are the theranostic <sup>67</sup>Cu, <sup>47</sup>Sc and the Tb-isotopes [526]. <sup>67</sup>Cu (t<sub>1/2</sub> 61.83 h) is a β⁻ and γ emitter and it is considered one of the most promising theranostic radionuclides [529, 533–536]. It can also be used as therapeutic counterpart of the PET <sup>64</sup>Cu (t<sub>1/2</sub> 12.7 h), already available. Currently, there is not a clear consensus about the best nuclear reaction to be used for <sup>67</sup>Cu massive production, due to the impact of the co-produced isotopic <sup>64</sup>Cu, occurring with some specific routes [533, 535, 536]. Nuclear data are therefore important to help defining benefits and drawbacks associated with specific production routes. Among the feasible ones are the <sup>68</sup>Zn(p,2p) and <sup>70</sup>Zn(p,x) nuclear reactions. The measurement of the <sup>70</sup>Zn(p,x)<sup>67,64</sup>Cu cross sections in the 30–50 MeV range, where no data are available [535, 537], is therefore very interesting also in view of the dosimetric impact on Cu-labelled radiopharmaceuticals [538]. <sup>47</sup>Sc (t<sub>1/2</sub> 3.3492 d) is another example of theranostic radionuclide under the spotlight of the scientific community thanks to its β⁻ and γ-radiation (β⁻ mean energy 162 keV, 100% int.; Eγ =159.381 keV, 68.3% int.) [529, 534]. The interest in <sup>47</sup>Sc comes also from the possibility of pairing it with β⁺ emitting isotopes (e.g., <sup>44</sup>gSc or <sup>43</sup>Sc) to perform PET with the same radiopharmaceutical. Among the possible proton-induced routes to produce <sup>47</sup>Sc, the most intriguing are with <sup>nat</sup>V and Ti targets [539–541]. In particular, considering the composition of <sup>nat</sup>Ti (<sup>50</sup>Ti: 5.18%,
<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 17** A detailed layout of the underground level in the SPES building, showing the A1 bunker with the cyclotron, the LARAMED bunkers RI#3 (green lines) and A9c (blue lines), and the future neutron facilities in the A9 bunker (orange lines)</figcaption></figure>

$^{49}$Ti: 5.41%, $^{48}$Ti: 73.72%, $^{47}$Ti: 7.44%, $^{46}$Ti: 8.25%) it is not possible to extract the contribution of each titanium isotope to the production of the specific radionuclide of interest. Since no data are available for the $^{49}$Ti(p,x)$^{47}$Sc reaction and only a limited set of data are published for $^{50}$Ti(p,x)$^{47}$Sc and $^{48}$Ti(p,2p)$^{47}$Sc cross sections, it will be desirable to add these experimental data points to evaluate which production routes can be competitive with the $^{nat}$V(p,x)$^{47}$Sc reaction [542]. Terbium-isotopes have been named "Swiss knife of nuclear medicine" [543] because of their four valuable radioisotopes, $^{149}$Tb, $^{152}$Tb, $^{155}$Tb, and $^{161}$Tb. $^{149}$Tb is the only Tb-radioisotope promising for targeted α-therapy, emitting α and β⁺, with an additional γ-ray (E$_{γ}$ = 165 keV, I$_{γ}$ = 26.4%), which helps its detection. $^{152}$Tb is a multiple β⁺ emitter with prominent end-point energies at 2.62 MeV (5.9%) and 2.97 MeV (8%) and it could be used for in-vivo PET dosimetry to monitor $^{149}$Tb bio-distribution in radiotherapy; $^{152}$Tb is also a potential SPECT candidate thanks to its multiple γ-lines. In the $^{155}$Tb decay some X-ray and γ-ray are emitted in addition to Auger electrons, that having a high LET (Linear Energy Transfer) can be effective in reducing the survival capacity of cancer cells. However the most promising tool in nuclear oncology is $^{161}$Tb, which mainly decays by release of Auger electrons and β⁻ particles. These terbium isotopes can be produced with several projectile/target/energy ranges, obtaining different yields and contaminant profiles [529]. For example, $^{155}$Tb production is mainly relied on the $^{155}$Gd(p,n) and $^{156}$Gd(p,2n) reactions [544] but $^{155}$Tb can be also produced with a $^{155}$Dy → $^{155}$Tb generator system, exploiting the $^{155}$Dy decay. In this case, $^{155}$Dy can be produced with high energy p-beams and natural Tb-targets, using the $^{159}$Tb(p,5n)$^{155}$Dy reaction.

Additional examples of radionuclides with potential interest in the next years are also $^{117}$mSn, $^{119}$Sb and $^{133/135}$La. $^{117}$mSn has theranostic decay emissions consisting in short-range conversion electrons and the main γ-ray (E = 158.56 keV, I = 86.4%) useful for SPECT imaging. Some applications of $^{117}$mSn have been investigated already, including bone pain palliation treatment of oncological diseases [545]. A possible way to produce $^{117}$mSn using a 70 MeV p beam is exploiting the $^{nat}$Sb(p,x) reaction. The main co-produced contaminants are $^{113}$Sn and $^{121}$g/mSn that can be avoided using enriched $^{121}$Sb targets; however, measurements to evaluate the $^{113}$Sn co-production are still demanded. $^{nat}$Sb targets can be also used to indirectly produce $^{119}$Sb, a promising candidate
**Fig. 18** Top: $^{nat}$In($\alpha$,x)$^{117m}$Sn cross section. TALYS “min/max” refers to the minimum/maximum values of cross section for the set of calculations, “Q1-Q3” denotes the interquartile band of the set, and “band median” indicates its center. Bottom: $^{nat}$V($\alpha$,x)$^{52g}$Mn cross section. The band median is reported as dash-dot line and the gray area denotes the interquartile band. The newly TALYS optimized curve [559] is represented with the solid blue line

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

for targeted Auger therapy [546], via the precursor system $^{119/119}$mTe. Few $^{nat}$Sb(p,x) cross section data are available in literature and they are often discordant from one another [547]: for this reason, a new set of measurements is advisable. It will be interesting to study also the $^{119}$Sb production by using the enriched $^{121}$Sb target as there are no literature data. Even if the $^{133/135}$La theranostic pair has been recently introduced [548, 549], it has already been successfully employed in animal trials [550]. The Auger electrons from $^{135}$La have the potential for targeted Auger therapy [551], while $^{133}$La has suitable characteristics for PET imaging ($E_\beta^-$, mean = 460 keV, I = 7.2%). To achieve a high specific activity product, the $^{nat}$Ba(p,xn) and $^{nat}$Ce(p,2pxn) reactions can be studied, as few cross section data are available in literature in both cases [552, 553]. In particular, experimental data on $^{133}$La production from $^{nat}$Ba target and on $^{135}$La production from $^{nat}$Ce target are currently missing.

Considering the possible future developments of the SPES cyclotron, it is worth noting that some nuclear cross sections induced by *d* and *α* beams could also be studied for the production of medical radionuclides with potential impact in nuclear medicine [529, 554].

### 6.1.2 Modelling of nuclear cross sections for applications

Modern nuclear-reaction codes are openly available for modeling and simulating nuclear reactions at low (< 20 MeV), intermediate (< 70 MeV), and high energy (70–150 MeV) ranges. A not exhaustive list of known codes involves TALYS [555], EMPIRE [556], FLUKA [557], and PHITS [558], each one characterized by its specificity (Monte Carlo, deterministic, semi-classical, etc). These codes provide the fundamental reaction quantity, i.e., the cross section in both its angular dependence and integral form, generally for proton and neutron beams; *α* projectiles are included in their capabilities and so are the deuteron beams, in most cases. The upgrade of the FLUKA code including *d* as projectiles is almost ready to be released. Currently, photon beams are being upgraded in some of the codes, as well.

Open Source codes should be preferred, as well as codes with the possibility to select specific key theoretical ingredients, such as the optical models, level-density models, or different pre-equilibrium approaches. Not all the codes possess these features: TALYS, for example, provides several pre-equilibrium (PE) and level-density (LD) models (and so does EMPIRE), as described in [539, 559]. The combination of these possibilities leads to the calculation of up to 30 cross sections, as shown in Fig. 18 referring to the $^{nat}$In($\alpha$,x)$^{117m}$Sn [559, 560] (top panel) and $^{nat}$V($\alpha$,x)$^{52g}$Mn reactions [554] (bottom panel).

The variability of these models can be described statistically introducing an interquartile band (shown as a gray area in Fig. 18), measuring the model dispersion between the lower Q1 and the upper Q3 quartile. The median of the band provides an evaluation
of the cross section representative of all models; the corresponding half-band width indicates an evaluation of the theoretical indetermination. It is evident from Fig. 18 that a collective description, gathering most of the model combinations in the code within a statistical band, is much more informative with respect to a single model line as obtained with a FLUKA curve or the TALYS "default" one. In fact, this approach better shows the potential and the limitation of the cross sections modelling. Recently, few other analyses using this statistical band approach appeared in literature [554, 559]. Not in all cases the improvements achieved with the statistical band approach were sufficient for an accurate estimate of the radionuclide production cross section. This is the case of the $^{nat}V(\alpha,x)^{52}gMn$ reaction (Fig. 18 bottom panel), where the production cross section for the paramagnetic PET tracer $^{52}gMn$ could not be reproduced in the peak region (dashed dotted line) [554]. To obtain a satisfactory cross section reproduction, as given by the blue solid line, one had to resort to an optimization technique for the level densities, explained in detail in Ref. [559]. In addition, optical model parameters could be varied, since they may not be well known close to the Coulomb barrier.

Another aspect that will become dominant in SPES physics is pre-equilibrium, since its overall effect in the cross section grows with energy. In the recent TALYS-1.95 GDH version [561], the Geometry Dependent Hybrid model [562, 563] has been added. It has been observed [559] that the calculated excitation function with the GDH model better reproduces the experimental data at higher energies. FLUKA [557] is another reaction code that gives good description at intermediate energy. This code couples a classical intranuclear cascade model, supplemented with quantum corrections, with a pre-equilibrium framework inspired by the GDH approach. The performance of FLUKA is not optimal at low energies, close to the reaction thresholds, but it generally provides better results at higher energies. Beyond 100 MeV, the difficulty of describing charged-particle nuclear reactions, relevant to the production of established and novel radioisotopes, has been addressed in a recent study, with the default code predictions largely failing to reproduce the measurements due to consistent underestimation of the pre-equilibrium emissions. A standardized procedure was developed to determine the best parametrization for the pre-equilibrium two-component exciton model, to improve the description of measured data [564].

In conclusion, it is clear, from this overview, that modeling accuracy is crucial in the development and optimization of the production routes. When nuclear data are missing, it is possible to introduce a statistical-band approach to predict cross sections and to quantify the theoretical indeterminacy due to model dependence (or variability). Instead, when some reliable nuclear data are present, it is possible to introduce an optimization of the parameters connected to the nuclear level densities, obtaining reliable cross section simulations to extract more accurate production quantities. In sum, nuclear reaction simulations can be performed in a completely global sense, where varying nuclear models gives an estimate on the uncertainty or, on the other hand, precisely fitted to experimental data. The latter may lead to trends in nuclear model parameters which then, in turn, can improve the global models, leading to better predictive power. An assessment of the global predictive power of a model code is important, since it may determine the priority list of the experimental measurements.

### 6.1.3 Neutron beam lines at SPES

There is growing interest in neutrons in the 1-to-tens of MeV energy range driven by nuclear astrophysics and material science, nuclear waste transmutation, generation-IV reactors, accelerator-driven-systems, fusion reactors, and decommissioning of first-generation fission reactors. Other important application fields are neutron detection, dosimetry, radiation protection, medical physics, and the study of neutron-induced radiation damage effects in electronics for very diverse applications such as high-energy physics, space, avionics, and information technology. In particular, for what concerns space, over the last few years neutrons are of particular concern because of health issues in manned missions to Mars. For all these fields, Quasi Mono-energetic Neutron (QMN) beams and suitable shaped neutron energy beams are mandatory. The high current variable energy SPES cyclotron opens the possibility to build an irradiation facility with *p* and *n* in the 20–70 MeV energy range (beam intensity up to 1 mA). The description of the first (NEPIR-0) and the final configuration (NEPIR-1) of the future neutron facility in the SPES building can be found in Sect. 2.5. The Atmospheric Neutron EMulator (ANEM) target, whose facility layout is shown in Fig. 19, will be able to produce an intense beam of fast neutrons with an atmospheric-like energy distribution in the 1–70 MeV energy range. This neutron flux will be mainly devoted to study the low energy neutron effects in state-of-the-art digital electronics. Neutrons are the main threat, inducing Soft Errors (SE) in digital electronics [565–567] and ANEM can provide single event effect (SEE) tests, even of full devices (like a PC). Japanese private companies (NTT, for instance) already defined a protocol for testing telecommunication servers using a compact accelerator neutron source with beam energies up to 70 MeV.

Higher energy neutrons than those available at the CN at 4 MeV (as described in Sect. 6.3) are required to follow the energy dependence of the SE cross section curve from threshold to higher energies, towards the knee and onwards to the saturation value ($E_n \ge 20$ MeV). These measurements can be carried out at the QMN (quasi-monoenergetic) neutron beam line. QMN finds application in several fields, since it is possible to study excitation functions for different measurements, as for example fundamental physics, SEE, applied physics (energy and non energy applications, radiopharmaceutical production, dose effects). Within the SPARE project, selected materials suitable for space mission are planned to be tested at QMN at different neutron energies.

The REMO (Radiotrazadores para el estudio de Ecosistemas Marinos y Oceánicos) project shows how radiotracers play an essential role in monitoring biological processes of environmental interest [568]. As the release of carbon dioxide from humankind’s industrial and agricultural activities has increased, the Ocean Acidification (OA) process has decreased the pH of seawater, making carbon ions less abundant [569]. As many marine shelled organisms need $CO_3^{2-}$ to build the calcium carbonate (CaCO$_3$) shells and
<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 19** Layout of the foreseen
neutron-facilities at SPES</figcaption></figure>

skeletons, the project aims at measuring the calcification rate at different water pH, using <sup>45</sup>Ca as radiotracer. Tests are performed placing the organisms in tanks filled with the same amount of <sup>45</sup>Ca but with water at different pH levels and then, at the end of the incubation period, the skeleton is dried to measure the <sup>45</sup>Ca activity with scintillator counters. In general, <sup>45</sup>Ca (t<sub>1/2</sub>=163 d) is produced at reactors using <sup>44</sup>Ca targets and applying an isotopic separation from <sup>41</sup>Ca (t<sub>1/2</sub> = 10<sup>5</sup> y). It is therefore interesting to investigate a new route based on the insertion of a <sup>45</sup>Sc target close to the SPES one, exploiting the <sup>45</sup>Sc(n,p)<sup>45</sup>Ca nuclear reaction; in this case, only a chemical separation is required. To estimate the <sup>45</sup>Ca production it is necessary to know the cross section at neutron energies available at SPES (1–10 MeV) [570]: since there are no experimental data up to 6 MeV, it is proposed to measure the <sup>45</sup>Sc(n,p)<sup>45</sup>Ca cross section up to 10 MeV.

6.2 ISOL and laser applications at the SPES facility

ISOL (Isotope Separation On-line) is regarded as one of the main method for the production of high intensity and high quality Radioactive Ion Beams (RIBs), to be employed in several fields of research, ranging from nuclear physics studies to technological applications [527, 571]. Typically, an ISOL system consists of a series of different steps: isotope production, thermalization of the produced nuclei, ionization and subsequently extraction, mass separation, eventually cooling and charge-state breeding, and acceleration. As these processes are governed by physical and chemical phenomena, both physical (e.g., production cross section, decay half life, ionization potential) and chemical (e.g., molecular formation probability, volatility) properties of the nuclei of interest and of the target material have to be taken into account. In such framework, the SPES facility (Selective Production of Exotic Species) represents the LNL declination of the ISOL technology and foresees the production of intense neutron-rich RIBs by impinging a multi-foil uranium carbide target with a 70 MeV proton beam. Details of such facility are provided in the previous sections. Among the applications of the SPES facility, ISOLPHARM is a collaborative experiment aimed at developing innovative radiopharmaceuticals starting from ISOL-produced nuclides, that are intrinsically of high purity. Such mission is accomplished by collecting SPES RIBs of medical interest on an appropriate implantation substrate, placed at the end of a dedicated beam line on the low-energy experimental area. After irradiation, the collection target are dissolved and the nuclides of interest are chemically harvested. The combination of chemical purification and mass separation, provided by the ISOL technique, ensures the high purity of the collected radionuclides, used to label No Carrier Added radiopharmaceuticals. One of the most promising nuclides in the ISOLPHARM program is <sup>111</sup>Ag, which was studied with the CSN5 experiments ISOLPHARM_Ag and ISOLPHARM-EIRA [572, 573].

6.2.1 Laser spectroscopy and applications

LIS (Laser Ion Source), the most effective ionization strategy to produce ion beams of high purity, is based on the photo-ionization
principle and it is used in the SPES project to produce RIBs. Photo-ionization is the physical process in which an ion is formed
from the interaction of a photon with an atom or molecule, and usually involves a photon absorption ladder within the electronic
levels of the atom. Mainly three different routines can be adopted to provide to an electron of the neutral atom an amount of energy
above the ionization threshold. The first one foresees the step-wise excitation of the electron directly to the continuum, with a
precise combination of different photons, whose wavelengths are opportunely tuned according to the atomic levels of the element of
interest. A second approach consists in exploiting an auto-ionizing state that allows the spontaneous emission of one of the outer-shell
electrons. Indeed, the quantum emitted by the de-excitation of one electron provides the energy needed to remove another electron
on the same excited state. The third method exploits a ionization scheme including highly excited Rydberg states, that are a series
of high-lying excited states with energy slightly below the ionization potential. Such states are very sensitive to external effects, and
lead to the electron emission in presence of sufficiently intense electric fields of atomic collisions.

In the SPES project, the basic principle of LIS is to convert the neutral vaporised atoms to ions through interaction with laser light(s) of precise wavelength(s). If compared to other ionization methods, LIS provides several advantages, such as higher element selectivity and reduced isobaric contamination. In the specific case of SPES, the interaction region of the ionizing lasers with the effusing neutral atoms corresponds to the internal space of a tubular hot cavity, directly connected to the production target. The typical effusion time of the atoms through the hot cavity is of the order of 100 µs, therefore, in order to ensure at least one laser pulse-atom interaction, the minimum laser repetition rate must be around 10 kHz. The hot cavity for the LIS source shares its design with the one adopted for the SPES Surface Ion Source, and has to work at high temperature (above 2000°C) to avoid the sticking of the effusing atoms on its internal surfaces. However, such design solution comes with the clear disadvantage of contamination from the surface-ionized isobars (produced by thermal ionization of low-ionization potential species with the high temperature surface of the hot cavity). In the framework of the ISOL community the development of more effective ionization schemes for the widest variety of elements represents a challenge. Indeed, more than 50% of the elements for which photo-ionization has been currently realized rely on a last non-resonant ionization step. In this particular case, the last step which ionizes is not saturated, and the ionization efficiency is proportional to the available laser power for this step. In a different scenario the efficiency can be significantly improved if the final step populates an Auto-Ionizing State or a highly excited Rydberg state by exploiting the favourable cross section for these levels respect to a non resonant step. Another challenge is represented by the reduction of the surface-ionized contaminants, for which several techniques have been employed and other are being studied, with the aim to enhance the quality of the RIBs provided to the users. At SPES the laser spectroscopy activities are being performed in two different laboratories, equipped with different laser set-ups. In the new SPES building the online laser laboratory will be exploited for the actual production of RIBs, using three TiSa lasers which provide around 6–7 W power laser beam in the fundamental wavelength at repetition rate of 10 kHz. These lasers beams are further delivered to the ion source with the aid of position sensing closed loop mirrors setup, which ensure beam pointing stability. The SPES-laser group has also an offline laser lab where laser spectroscopy is performed with the use of low rep-rate dye lasers, Hollow Cathode Lamps (HCLs) and a Time-of-Flight Mass Separator. Several ionization schemes of several elements including Al, Sn, Mo have been successfully studied. At the moment, photo-ionization scheme of Ag is being studied and a two-step ionization scheme has been successfully identified. These schemes will be employed in the online laser lab once the SPES facility will be fully operative.

6.2.2 Nuclide production with ISOL for medicine and nuclear physics

One of the fundamental steps to evaluate the feasibility of an experiment with ISOL-produced RIBs is the identification of the most suitable target for the production of the desired nuclides, to be employed for both medicine and nuclear physics. Indeed, the achievable yield producible with ISOL depends on many target-related factors, from the atomic composition to its micro-structure. On one hand, the in-target nuclear reaction products are dependent only from the impinging beam energy and particle and target isotopic composition; on the other hand, the possibility of extracting them as a beam depends on many other phenomena, in particular their release from the target. The nuclide release is governed by the diffusion and effusion phenomena, that are activated and boosted if the target working temperature is maximized. For such reason, ISOL targets are normally designed to withstand temperature in the 1500–2000 °C range, implying that only material characterized by high melting point are usable. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that porous materials have enhanced release properties, as the atomic effusion through the target pores is much faster than the diffusion through the bulk material. The typical SPES ISOL target is a porous uranium carbide multi-foil target, designed for a 40 MeV 200 µA proton beam, made up of seven coaxial disks (40 mm diameter and 0.8 mm thickness), opportunistely spaced and positioned inside a cylindrical graphite box, closed at its extremities by thin graphite disks. The main advantages of such target design are the increased acceptable proton beam intensity, since the beam power deposition is split between the seven disks, and the improved release capabilities, since the diffusion paths through the target are generally shorter. The 8 kW proton beams (40 MeV 200 µA) is completely absorbed by the 7 disks uranium carbide target, which, thanks to the sole contribute of the deposited power, is capable of reaching a temperature level generally above 2000°C. In addition, the target disks are opportunistely spaced in order to guarantee a homogeneous temperature level in the target. Such target can be employed for producing a characteristic set of neutron-rich radionuclides, with mass ranging from 70 to 160 amu. However, the RIBs availability at SPES can be enlarged if other targets are developed, enabling for instance the production of lighter nuclei or neutron-deficient radionuclides. In particular, some aluminum RIBs can be produced with a Silicon Carbide target, currently under development, whereas the ongoing research on Titanium Carbide for ISOL could provide the possibility of producing Scandium isotopes of medical interest (⁴³Sc, ⁴⁴Sc and ⁴⁷Sc) in the framework of ISOLPHARM. Other possibilities could be provided by several other materials, such as Zirconium Carbide, Boron Carbide, Lanthanum Carbide, Zirconium Oxide, Hafnium Oxide, Cerium Oxide, Zirconium Germanide, Cerium Sulfide and many others. In case of SPES, target materials have to meet some specific mandatory requirements: they have to be solid (liquid targets are not yet foreseen at SPES); they have to be refractory (indeed the higher the working temperature the faster the release); they have to be porous (as the presence of open porosity enhances the releases of the produced nuclides). Additionally, they have to withstand extreme conditions, in terms of high power, thermal stresses, radiation damage. As a consequence, each new target
material requires efforts in its development and characterization before being ready for irradiation. Considering such requirements and the typical SPES multi-foil target architecture, ceramic materials are the most suitable for such application. The typical ceramic targets production methods are the dry method, which consists in cold pressing of pre-milled powders (with eventual organic binders) and sintering at high temperature and the Sol-gel method which foresees the addition of a gel solution to the powder. The latter, in particular, is used for the production of micro- or nano-structured materials with high porosity (usually 30-70%), that currently represent the state-of-the-art method to produce high performance carbide targets. Currently, in the framework of the INFN-E Project AM4INFN, in collaboration with INFN-PD and UNIPD, the possibility of producing such materials Additive Manufacturing (AM) is being explored [574]. AM of ceramic regular structures can provide several advantages, in particular, the maximization of radiative heat transfer, which can imply an increment of the sustainable proton beam intensity, and improved release properties thanks to the regularity of the micro-structure. In addition to the equipment and furnaces for the production of ceramic disk-shaped targets, in the framework of SPES specific test apparatuses were developed for the high temperature tests, thermal and structural characterization of the target material of interest. Several carbides such as Uranium Carbide, Lanthanum Carbide and Silicon Carbide were already characterized and tested. This is a fundamental step as it allows the identification of the limit working conditions for each material in terms of acceptable proton beam intensity and maximum temperature. Target material research would greatly benefit for a coordinated approach and a facilitated transnational access. Complementary laboratories including characterization techniques are present across all ISOL facilities, for instance, institutions like SCK CEN have very large service infrastructure for materials characterization (including nuclear materials and post-irradiation examination) whereas LNL has a consolidated expertise of thermal and structural characterization of multi-foil target. The collaboration with the ISOL community could also allow the development of consistent characterization and material production protocols making possible state-of-the-art operation at all involved facilities.

### 6.2.3 Decay spectroscopy of nuclide of medical interest

ISOLPHARM required the development of a device able to handle the collection targets and perform spectroscopic analysis for the quality control of the collected radionuclides that will be located in the SPES low energy experimental hall. Indeed, precise quantification of the radionuclide yields is of fundamental importance for assessing the final product quality and performing the subsequent labeling process; moreover, the spectroscopic characterization of irradiated targets will allow the efficiency quantification of the whole production process. For this reason, a dedicated spectroscopy system will be designed and characterized at LNL; preliminary studies will focus on the selection of the most suitable detection strategy: for γ-counting, High-Purity Germanium detectors represent the gold standard in γ-spectroscopy, ensuring energy resolution as good as 1.5 keV at 1.1 MeV, allowing for high-resolution energy spectra acquisition. The overall energy spectra should not present many peaks, since the radioactive ion beam deposited onto the target is expected to be isobaric; for this reason, the use of inorganic scintillators can be a viable alternative. Nowadays, there are some appealing choices for inorganic scintillators with good energy resolution, such as LaBr3 and LBC crystals, which can reach 2.5% at 1.3 MeV. Different detectors will be evaluated not only in terms of their performance (efficiency, energy resolution, noise rate) but also by their ease of operations and the need for dedicated infrastructures, such as the requirement of cryogenic temperatures and the overall cost. Results from Monte Carlo simulations will drive the spectroscopic system designs carried out using different codes like GEANT4, FLUKA, and PHITS. The performance of the selected design will be evaluated using γ-ray calibration sources, and the obtained data will be compared with simulated results. The spectroscopic system will be coupled to a custom deposition target handling station, controlling the coupling of the disk with the beam line and the subsequent transportation towards the counting position. The whole system should be designed and assembled in order to be ready for commissioning before the first SPES RIBs will be delivered. Such system, called IRIS (ISOLPHARM Radionuclide Implantation Station), will open new experimental possibilities as it could be also used for the production of calibrated mono-isotopic radioactive sources, that can be employed for other applications. Such sources can be created collecting the high purity RIBs from SPES (especially if photo-ionization is used) on appropriate substrates.

### 6.3 Development, characterization and modifications of materials for applied nuclear physics

Several research activities are carried out at the AN2000, CN and Tandem-ALPI accelerators for nuclear physics applications. An overview of some experiments performed and of the communities involved is given hereafter. These research activities have a consolidated background at the LNL but also a florid perspective, considering the wide network of INFN divisions, Italian Universities and international groups involved. As an example, the new low-energy irradiation facilities ASIF and ASIDI will be fully operative in the next years at the AN2000 and CN accelerators, respectively; the material characterization experiments such as ANT and HIX has been recently started and will continue in the future, as long as the bounded nuclear physics studies will be pursued. In addition, novel HPGe detectors, developed in the framework of N3G as an example, already play a key role in nuclear physics and will increase their impact in the next years. Details of these applied and interdisciplinary research activities are given below.
### 6.3.1 Ion beam micro-analysis for nuclear targets development and cross section measurements for applied nuclear physics

In the last few years the constant growth request of isotopically enriched targets with specific characteristics imposed the Ion Beam Analysis (IBA) for advanced nuclear target development and characterization as a new specific research field of nuclear physics. In some cases, the target production processes may be driven by the IBA outcomes, that include Elastic Backscattering Spectrometry (EBS), Nuclear Reaction Analysis (NRA), Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis (ERDA), Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE), Particle-induced gamma emission (PIGE) and Ion beam-induced luminescence (IBIL) analysis, that are all part of LNL background. The experiments reported hereafter are examples where the IBA techniques are used as complementary tools to provide compositional information and dose measurements to support, or in some cases allow, nuclear physics experiments.

* ANT (Advanced Nuclear Target) involves IBA techniques for target characterization in the framework of LUNA collaboration for astrophysics experiments. The low background experiments require accurate characterization of targets' and substrates' composition and elemental composition for measurements with very low nuclear cross section, where Beam Induced Background (BIB) could compromise the measurement and therefore the experiment success. ANT has a new approach regarding targets preparation and characterization based on EBS and NRA techniques, focusing on contaminants reduction (oxygen, deuterium and fluorine) using high purity materials and specific LNL apparatus for high quality targets synthesis [575]. In collaboration with the LNL Target Service, the classical evaporated target are characterized with IBA, and the design, production and characterization of novel solid targets is carried out for each specific experiment to improve the LUNA cross section measurements quality.

* DES (Deposition of Elements on Substrates) since 2018 performs RBS measurements at the AN2000, using α-beams or protons at 2 MeV. The studied samples are prototypes of target systems designed for the next phase of the NUMEN experiment, based at the LNS. These target systems are composed by a 2 µm thick substrate made of Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite, on which a very thin (few hundreds of nm) target layer is deposited. The RBS measurements are crucial to study the graphite substrate and target layer thicknesses, and their elemental composition [576].

* The HEAT (Hydrogen desorption from carbon Targets) project [577], funded by INFN-CSN5 young researchers grant, aims to establish an effective and reproducible method for H and $^2$H desorption in carbon targets via sample heating, up to 1200°C. The setup core is the fully programmable heater module, installed on linear actuators for XYZ motion and azimuth rotation to adopt different target-beam geometries depending on the Ion Beam Analysis of interest. To check the effectiveness of the desorption ERDA and NRA were performed before and after the sample heating. From preliminary results the glassy carbon targets show a significantly lower initial $^2$H content, however the $^2$H content was reduced by 40% in graphite targets. The HEAT setup have proved high performance and versatility and in next future the campaign on carbon targets for the planned measurement at the 3.5 MV accelerator of the Bellotti Ion beam facility will be completed.

* The HIX (characterization of HIVIPP targets for REMIX) project deals with IBA characterization of isotopically enriched targets produced using the HIVIPP (High energy Vibrational Powder Plating) technique [578, 579]. Information regarding the precise knowledge of target properties, such as thickness (at/cm$^2$ or mg/cm$^2$), homogeneity over the surface, purity either isotopically or chemically, are essential for proper analysis of the experimental data. The targets characterized at the AN2000 accelerator with RBS and PIXE are then irradiated at the ARRONAX facility (Nantes, France) for nuclear cross section measurements [580]. Thin isotopically enriched $^{48,49,50}$Ti targets to produce the theranostic radionuclide $^{47}$Sc were prepared at LNL in the framework of PASTA and REMIX projects (funded by INFN-CSN5) [541]. In future the LARAMED beam line devoted to nuclear cross section measurements will be exploited.

The constant growth in the request of isotopically enriched target showed a lack of data concerning elastic scattering cross sections in the 0.3–5 MeV energy range. For several elements (e.g., $^{30}$Si, $^{49}$Ti, $^{25}$Mg, $^{15}$N, $^{17}$O) there are few experimental data relative to the EBS nuclear cross section and, in some cases, there are no data. For these reasons a novel scattering chamber has been designed and will be soon available at the CN and AN2000 facilities to fill the gap of the EBS cross sections data. The new scattering chamber, funded by CSN5 with the SALVIA (Setup for Analysis with MeV accelerators of Isotopic Targets and their preparation) young researcher grant, includes a cryogenic electron suppressor to improve the charge quality measurement and, at the same time, drastically reduce the carbon buildup induced by hydrocarbon cracking. A polarized sample holder allows the beam energy changement and thus to obtain high energy resolution cross section measurements. The same chamber could be used also for the analysis of AN2000 and CN beam characteristics, i.e., beam energy, energy spread and long-term stability.

### 6.3.2 Ion-solid interaction, development and radiation damage of materials, detectors and devices

The study of radiation effects (natural and artificial) on materials, detectors and devices is an important and lively field of scientific and technological research. Tolerance to radiation is an important issue in many applications of electronic devices and sensors (HEP at accelerators, space, telecommunications, avionics, nuclear plants, medical imaging, etc.). Furthermore, the improvement in the use of ion beams to study and tune material and devices properties for applications in quantum and detector and sensing technologies requires both the development of new sophisticated experimental techniques and apparatus.

The SIRAD facility at the Tandem-ALPI complex [581] is an example of apparatus routinely used by University and INFN groups to study Single Event Effects (SEE) and bulk damage effects in electronic devices, systems, and semiconductor detectors.
SIRAD was developed in 1997 to use p and Li beams for bulk damage studies; heavy ion beams experiments began in 1999 and have become the main activity. The facility was significantly upgraded in 2004 to perform SEE sensitivity micro-mapping. An additional post-acceleration foil stripping system was installed before the switching magnet to have SIRAD serviced by ALPI, significantly improving the energy, hence the range of all available ion beams at LNL. The SIRAD irradiation facility was continuously maintained and improved over the years to increase the flexibility for many types of users and experiments.

ASIF (ASI Supported Irradiation Facilities) facility [582] instead of SIRAD facility has been designed for large irradiated area (up to 400 cm²) using light and monochromatic ion beams ($H^+$ and $He^+$) at lower energy (0.1–5.5 MeV) available using AN2000 and CN accelerators. The reason of a new facility development is aimed by the constant growth of low energy proton irradiation on materials, devices and optical components used in geosynchronous satellites. The new facility available at LNL provides a high uniform irradiation area with an accurate dose measurement ($10^9-10^{16}$) using multiple Faraday cup system, in order to simulate the damage effects of 10–15 years of natural space radiation exposure. Furthermore, ASIF facility has been designed in order to guarantee the ASI/ESA compliance tests.

ASIDI (Advances in Single Ion Deterministic Irradiation) is a new facility installed in AN2000 experimental room. The specific design of sub-micrometrical monolithic dual collimator allows the availability of an achromatic beam irradiation from single-ion hit up to $10^4$ ions/s in 200–2200 keV energy range. Moreover, the high precision sample positioning system (50 nm in the beam plane) allows the reproducibility in the target positioning. The facility is involved in different research activities, which include detector development and tests (PIXEL, 3D, Microstrip, PDA, etc.), radiation damage studies (electronics, detectors), characterization of the electronic features of micro-devices and detectors with unprecedented level of resolution, material modification, functionalization (semiconductors, SC oxides, SC thin films), investigation of advanced SS material modifications at the sub-micron scale (QUANTUM), localized implantation (color centers in diamond and other high band-gap semiconductors, low D materials).

The set of available beams (CN and Tandem), or the incoming ones at SPES (NEPIR, see 6.1.3), can provide mono-energetic or quasi mono-energetic (QMN) neutron beams with energies from a few keV up to 70 MeV [583]. The neutrons are produced by bombarding low-Z targets (D,T, $^7$Li, $^8$Be) with light ions. At the CN facility the beam lines were recently upgraded with an electric kicker system that can throw out a sequence of proton beam bunches and deliver single well separated bunches onto neutron production targets, allowing well defined TOF measurements with an intrinsic time resolution well below 1 ns (sigma). This new tool adds more possibilities to the already rich basic and applied physics research programs. In particular, it is used to measure the *n* energy spectra of new tens-of-µm thin lithium targets (in a copper beam stopper), which has been especially designed to have low mass and thus low *n* spectra perturbation. Higher energy *n* are produced at Tandem using other nuclear reactions, e.g., $^1$H($^{11}$B,n)$^{11}$C, $^1$H($^{15}$N,n)$^{15}$O, to produce kinematically focused 11 and 14 MeV neutrons.

The HERETIC Experiment (HEat REsistance Test for Irradiated Cooled targets) [584] regards irradiated target studies for endurance test. It is aimed at validating a new kind of fixed target system for future nuclear physics experiments (NUMEN project) with high intensity beams ($10^{13}$ pps) of swift heavy ions (Z<20 and energy>10 MeV/u). Thanks to the reduced total thickness of the target/substrate assembly (about 2.5 µm), it is a viable solution for high energy resolution measurements. The system is composed by an isotopically enriched thin target, deposited on a 2 µm thick Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite (HOPG) substrate, and chilled using a dedicated cryocooler. In the experiment, the Tandem will provide 1 µA of $^{16}$O ions at 50 MeV to irradiate up to 10 h Ge, Te, and HOPG targets to study their thermal behaviour and radiation damages.

### 6.3.3 Novel detectors development and test

LNL is involved in several research programs regarding design, development and validation of novel detectors for different applications in particle detection and spectroscopy. The prototype detectors are tested using different radiation sources available (ions, *n*, X-ray and γ-ray) at AN2000, CN and Tandem-XTU.

* N3G (Next Generation Germanium Gamma Detectors) aims to implement Pulsed Laser Melting (PLM) technology to produce complex Hyperpure Germanium (HPGe) segmented detectors and to test their potential to face the challenge of nuclear spectroscopy experiments under conditions of high flux and high damage [585]. The basic idea is to exploit the fast laser processing that does not contaminate HPGe to produce thin n-doped junctions that can be segmented to produce insolated contacts indispensable for localize γ event and allow the tracking. The challenge that is ongoing is to bring this technology to produce complex geometry γ detectors such as coaxial segmented detectors. In addition to innovative crystals processing, complete prototypes will be implemented with dedicated electronics and DAQ; cold ASIC preamplifier with smart functionalities for high flux γ managing are under prototyping. Besides the development of advanced instruments for science, the possibility of producing segmented γ detector with complex geometry and low-cost processes can produce future benefit in medicine and security.

* FIRE (Flexible organic Ionizing Radiation dEtectors) project [586], funded by the INFN-CSN5, aims at the fabrication of a fully flexible indirect dosimeter (NEPRO). The core element is a thin layer of stretchable siloxane scintillator, whose development has been studied and accomplished at the LNL. Optimal flexibility is known for siloxanes, besides their water equivalency nature, hence the possibility to use them in small-scale wearable devices to monitor dose rates has been pursued. The indirect device has been fabricated, coupling the siloxane scintillator synthesized at LNL with the flexible organic photo transistor manufactured at INFN-ROMA3. Optimal performance has been demonstrated by irradiation with 5 MeV $H^+$ (Labec-INFN) as for (i) linear response with proton flux, (ii) limit of detection (0.026 Gy/min), (iii) measurement repeatability, (iv) sensitivity in the dose rates
range used in proton-therapy (fluxes $10^6-10^9$ H+/cm$^2$s). In the next future, tests at the proton therapy facility APSS in Trento will be carried out using a NEPRO device installed in an anthropomorphic phantom.

* NEUNOSCINT (Neutron Interactions in Scintillators for Neutrino detection) experiments aim at study the neutron responses of liquid scintillators for neutrino physics experiments [587], such as JUNO, BOREXINO and SNO. Proton recoils due to neutron scattering form an important background for antineutrino detection, which is realized via inverse beta decay where an electron antineutrino scatters off a proton creating a positron and a neutron. Backgrounds to these signals are due to neutrons which scatter off protons during thermalisation before capture. If the proton recoil has sufficient energy, a signal similar to the coincidence signal of the inverse beta decay channel will be induced. A complete knowledge about proton quenching is necessary to understand the potential impact of this background. Furthermore, particle identification can be used, for instance, to identify neutrino-proton elastic scattering for supernova neutrino detection; another example is the identification of neutral current reactions of atmospheric neutrinos with neutron production, which form a severe background for the detection of the diffuse supernova neutrino background in our universe. A possible particle identification technique for background discrimination in large-scale liquid scintillator detectors is based on the time profile of scintillation light emitted in response to a recoiling proton as it may differ from electron-like events due to quenching effects. This could be exploited in a pulse-shape discrimination analysis leading to background reduction by orders of magnitude.

* IBIC (Ion Beam Induces Charge) detectors: High precision ion irradiation is a strategic tool for the study of radiation effects in very localized sites or regions at the (sub-)micrometer-scale; in particular, for single-atom device development or for single ion response and damage studies, the control over both the absolute number of ions and the accurate positioning is needed [588]. This control can be achieved through the development of diagnostic tools for the assessment of both the spatial resolution and the accuracy of the ion beam with single-ion sensitivity. Within the INFN-ASIDI experiment, two different strategies were pursued to develop position-sensitive detectors based on the IBIC technique. The former relies on the IBIC mapping of a Si photodiode expressly nano-machined by means of a keV Focused Ion Beam (FIB): the beam resolution is assessed by the analysis of CCE (Charge Collection Efficiency) profiles through these FIB microstructures, which act also as reference markers for the accurate location of the ion impact point. The second method is based on the analysis of the induced charge shared among three graphitic electrodes fabricated by Deep Ion Lithography in a diamond detector: the triangulation of the three signals allows the evaluation of the impact position of individual ions.

* RREACT (Reliability and Radiation Effects on Advanced Components and Technologies) experiment: Ionizing particle beam detection is a crucial issue in many applications, including space, high-energy physics, medical, etc. Recently, the implementation of a particle detector using 3D NAND Flash memories has raised significant interest in the radiation community [589]. The monitor operates detecting the number of affected cells in the array. The key advantage of using floating-gate-based memories over other memories is the fact that, with proper techniques, the cell threshold voltage can be measured, in addition to the digital content. Other advantages due to the non-volatility are the very low power consumption, the avoidance of data loss if a single event functional interrupt occurs, and the possibility of designing passive detectors to be measured offline with a separate reader. Being a simple memory, such detector could be used for various purposes inside a system (data/code storage) and a part of it could be dedicated to particle detection. As a semiconductor memory, it is compact and low-cost. Concerning the array architecture, there are several benefits of using a 3D array compared to a planar one. The most obvious advantage is that the direction of impinging particles can be tracked in a 3D volume. In addition, the analysis of threshold voltage shifts in 3D tracks potentially offers a larger set of information, allowing a higher precision in determining the beam features. The reported linearity between the linear energy transfer (LET) of the impinging particle and the threshold voltage shift can be exploited to measure the LET of the beam.

## 7 Conclusions

In conclusion, the Nuclear Physics Mid Term Plan in Italy was a great opportunity to trigger and coordinate new ideas from the whole international community, promoting the collaboration between groups working on different topics. There was also a large involvement of young nuclear physics researchers, that will lead nuclear research in the future. The four working groups of the LNL session - Nuclear Astrophysics, Nuclear Structure, Nuclear Dynamics and Applications - collected a wide range of science cases that can be realistically addressed in the upcoming years, exploiting both accelerator facilities that are already running and SPES. Alongside the wide range of beams available, LNL will host a variety of cutting edge detectors and target systems, both resident and itinerant. This puts the laboratory in a favourable condition to be at the forefront in nuclear science and technology.

**Funding** Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi di Padova within the CRUI-CARE Agreement.

**Data availability** No data associated in the manuscript.

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