# Ultramafic float rocks at Jezero crater (Mars): excavation of lower crustal rocks or mantle peridotites by impact cratering?

O. Beyssac, E. Clavé, O. Forni, A. Udry, A.C. Pascuzzo, E. Dehouck, P. Beck, L. Mandon, Cathy Quantin-Nataf, N. Mangold, et al.

► To cite this version:

O. Beyssac, E. Clavé, O. Forni, A. Udry, A.C. Pascuzzo, et al. Ultramafic float rocks at Jezero crater (Mars): excavation of lower crustal rocks or mantle peridotites by impact cratering?. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2026, 675, pp.119746. 10.1016/j.epsl.2025.119746. hal-05399244

HAL Id: hal-05399244

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# Ultramafic float rocks at Jezero crater (Mars): excavation of lower crustal rocks or mantle peridotites by impact cratering?

O. Beyssac<sup>a,∗</sup>, E. Clavé<sup>b</sup>, O. Forni<sup>c</sup>, A. Udry<sup>d</sup>, A.C. Pascuzzo<sup>e</sup>, E. Dehouck<sup>f,†</sup>, P. Beck<sup>g</sup>, L. Mandon<sup>g,‡</sup>, C. Quantin-Nataf<sup>f</sup>, N. Mangold<sup>h</sup>, G. Lopez-Reyes<sup>i,‡</sup>, C. Royer<sup>j,‡</sup>, O. Gasnault<sup>c,‡</sup>, T.S.J. Gabriel<sup>k,‡</sup>, L. Kah<sup>l</sup>, S. Schröder<sup>b,‡</sup>, J.R. Johnson<sup>m</sup>, T. Bertrand<sup>n,‡</sup>, B. Chide<sup>c</sup>, T. Fouchet<sup>n,‡</sup>, J.I. Simon<sup>o</sup>, F. Montmessin<sup>p</sup>, A. Fau<sup>c</sup>, S. Maurice<sup>c</sup>, R.C. Wiens<sup>q</sup>, A. Cousin<sup>c</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

Editor: Dr O Mousis

Keywords:

Mars

Mantle

Peridotite

Lower crust

Olivine

SuperCam

## ABSTRACT

Based on observation and data from meteorites and in situ scientific missions, experiments as well as models, the Martian mantle is assumed to share some compositional and mineralogical affinity with the terrestrial mantle. However, there might be subtle differences like the Martian mantle being more ferroan. Yet, we do not have any direct analysis of a Martian mantle rock to confirm this assumption. NASA's *Perseverance* rover found olivine-rich boulder-sized float rocks on the upper Jezero fan (Mars). These boulders have an ultramafic composition and their mineralogy is dominantly composed of Fo<sub>73±3</sub> olivine with high-Mg orthopyroxene, Cr-rich Ti-Fe oxides and minor plagioclase and high-Ca pyroxene. Microtextural and petrological analysis reveals that these minerals crystallized at equilibrium. In addition, these boulders are different from all the bedrocks analyzed by *Perseverance* along its traverse which are crustal igneous rocks and sediments. Comparing our data to Martian meteorites and available Mars bulk silicate models (BSM), we discuss that these boulders could represent primitive melts and/or lower crustal material, and we specifically hypothesize that they could be mantle peridotites. We propose that these putative mantle rocks could have been excavated by the succession of impacts from the shallow mantle or lower crust in the Isidis region where Jezero crater is located. These olivine-rich boulders could thereby constitute the first direct analysis of a Martian mantle rock.

<footnote><sup>a</sup> Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, CNRS UMR 7590, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, 75005 Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> DLR, Institute of Space Research, Berlin, Germany</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie, Université de Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, CNES, 31400 Toulouse, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> Department of Geoscience, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA</footnote>

<footnote><sup>e</sup> Department of Earth, Environmental, Planetary Science, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA</footnote>

<footnote><sup>f</sup> Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon: Terre, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet Saint Etienne, CNRS, 69100 Villeurbanne, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>g</sup> Institut de Planétologie et Astrophysique de Grenoble, CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, 38000 Grenoble, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>h</sup> Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géosciences, CNRS, Nantes Université, Université Angers, 44000 Nantes, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>i</sup> Research group ERICA, Universidad de Valladolid (UVa), Valladolid, Spain</footnote>

<footnote><sup>j</sup> Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400 Orsay, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>k</sup> US. Geological Survey, Astrogeology Science Center, Flagstaff, AZ, USA</footnote>

<footnote><sup>l</sup> Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA</footnote>

<footnote><sup>m</sup> Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD 20723, USA</footnote>

<footnote><sup>n</sup> Laboratoire d'Instrumentation et de Recherche en Astrophysique, Observatoire de Paris-PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris Cité, 92190 Meudon, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>o</sup> Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058, USA</footnote>

<footnote><sup>p</sup> Laboratoire Atmosphères, Milieux, Observations Spatiales, CNRS, Université Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Université Paris Saclay, Sorbonne Université, 78280 Guyancourt, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>q</sup> Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Olivier.Beyssac@cnrs.fr (O. Beyssac).</footnote>
# 1. Introduction

Our knowledge of the interior of Mars has considerably progressed recently, notably owing to the NASA InSight mission which has provided key geophysical data to constrain the internal structure of the planet (Khan et al., 2021; Stähler et al., 2021; Wieczorek et al., 2022). Yet, so far, the geochemical and mineralogical composition of the Martian mantle is not known from the direct analysis of a Martian mantle rock. Indeed, neither the substantial Martian meteorite inventory, nor exploration by rovers, have provided a sample and/or an in situ analysis of the Martian mantle (Udry et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2024). Indirect constraints are available, such as estimates of the bulk composition of the planet, the modeling of the source of primitive melts for meteorites or rocks analyzed in situ, or estimates for some geophysical parameters for the mantle (e.g., density). From experimental and model data, we infer that the bulk composition of the upper Martian mantle may be globally similar to that of the Earth's upper mantle with subtle, yet important, differences such as the Martian mantle being more ferroan (Wänke and Dreibus, 1994; Taylor, 2013). For the upper mantle, the estimated mineralogical assemblage including olivine, ± pyroxene, ± an Al-rich phase like plagioclase or garnet (see Taylor 2013 and references therein) shares similarities between the two planets. Similar to Earth's mantle, the Martian mantle is likely heterogeneous in composition and mineralogy (Taylor, 2013; Yang et al., 2024), and the deeper mantle is likely stratified with various mineral phase transitions with depth (Bertka and Fei, 1997; Ruedas et al., 2013).

Here, we present the first direct analysis of rocks that could come from the Martian mantle by the NASA *Perseverance* rover at Jezero crater. This crater was selected as a landing site because it is located in one of the largest olivine- and carbonate-bearing units on Mars, and because it hosts a deltaic fan structure identified from orbit. These were considered as relevant targets to achieve the mission's astrobiological and geological objectives (Farley et al., 2020). To date (sol 1680), *Perseverance* has explored a >40 km section from the crater floor to the rim, and has already found evidence for some unexpected variability in the regional olivine-rich unit. The rocks studied in this work are float rocks encountered by *Perseverance* on the upper fan (sols 755–1006), and the exact bedrock source has not been found. Here, we present the chemical and mineralogical analysis of these rocks by the SuperCam instrument suite. We also compare the texture and composition of these rocks to other Martian rocks, including meteorites and other rocks analyzed in situ by *Perseverance*, but also to experimental data and models to discuss their origin including a possible mantle origin.

# 2. Methods

*Perseverance* carries a suite of scientific instruments to characterize in situ the structure/texture, geochemistry and mineralogy of the rocks. Here, we use data from SuperCam which performs remote characterization of the target (Wiens et al., 2021; Maurice et al., 2021). We also use the Navcam and Mastcam-Z (Bell et al., 2021) images to locate and describe the size, morphology and internal structure of boulders. For the microtextural analysis, we use images provided by the SuperCam Remote Micro Imager (RMI) and the high-resolution images provided by WATSON and ACI cameras from the SHERLOC instrument on the rover's robotic arm (Bhartia et al., 2021). SuperCam RMI uses the 110-mm telescope of SuperCam achieving a circular field-of-view of ~18.8 mrad in diameter, and an effective image resolution better than 50 microradians corresponding to <0.24 mm at 3 m. SuperCam analyses are done through rasters of several points (generally a line of 5 or 10 points, or a grid of 9 points) including RMI, Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), Raman and/or visible/near-infrared (VISIR) spectroscopy. Image resolution is (i) ~13 to 150 µm/pixel with a field of view in the range 1.7 × 2.3 cm to 18 × 24 cm depending on the working distance for WATSON, and (ii) ~10.1 µm/pixel for the ACI camera which is a context imager for the SHERLOC Raman spectrometer.

Chemical analysis is done by LIBS using a pulsed laser working at 1064 nm to ablate material and create a plasma for atomic emission spectroscopy. LIBS allows the quantification of major elements as well as the detection of many trace or light elements. We use the models presented in Anderson et al. (2022) providing major-element oxide compositions (MOC) in weight % (wt. %), and Cr abundances following the approach described by Mansbach et al. (2024). The accuracies represented by model RMSEP (root mean square error of prediction) in wt. %, are: CaO (1.3), FeO (3.1), Na₂O (0.5), K₂O (0.6), MgO (1.1), SiO₂ (6.1), TiO₂ (0.3). Previous studies showed that precision of these models is better than their accuracy, and that totals may be high in the case of olivine owing to overestimation of SiO₂, Al₂O₃ and CaO (Beyssac et al., 2023). Unless specified otherwise, we apply here the data processing and filtering given by Beyssac et al. (2023), and the data are not normalized in geochemical diagrams (see Figure SOM 1). The LIBS spot size is ~160 µm in diameter at 2 m and increases to ~450 µm at 7 m (Maurice et al., 2021). Since most LIBS analyses used in this study were acquired within 4 m, we assume an average value of ~250 µm. In general, LIBS observations are performed with 30 laser shots per point, but the first five shots are discarded to remove dust contamination. The mean LIBS spectrum for each point is built by averaging the 25 remaining spectra and the composition is calculated from this spectrum.

Mineralogical information is obtained from Raman and VISIR spectroscopy. SuperCam Raman is a remote technique using a telescope to collect the Raman signal excited by a pulsed laser (λ=532 nm) collimated at the surface of the target. The field of view of 0.745 mrad provides an analytical footprint with 1.5 mm diameter at 2 m distance, and up to 3 mm at 4 m (Wiens et al., 2021). SuperCam Raman uses time-resolved spectroscopy to reject the daylight entering the telescope, and to reject the luminescence signal which may be present for many minerals. SuperCam Raman spectra are obtained by averaging the signal from 400 laser pulses for each analyzed point. Operational details and first results on Mars are available for an apatite calibration target (Clavé et al., 2024a) or on geological targets (Beyssac et al., 2023; Beck et al., 2025).

SuperCam VISIR is a passive spectroscopy technique based on the spectral analysis of the sunlight reflected from the surface of the target in the visible (VIS - 0.40 to 0.85 µm) and the Near-Infrared (IR - 1.3 to 2.6 µm) domains. The infrared spectrometer (IRS) is described by Fouchet et al. (2022) while the spectral calibration procedure is detailed by Royer et al. (2023). The analytical footprint for the infrared spectrometer varies with the distance to the target. The IRS field of view of 1.15 mrad provides 3.45 mm diameter observations at 3 m distance, for example.

# 3. Geological context

Jezero Crater is a 45 km-diameter crater located in the Nili Fossae region of Mars. Infrared spectroscopy from orbit has identified a regional unit with an assemblage dominated by olivine and carbonate (Hoefen et al., 2003; Mandon et al., 2020, and references therein). *Perseverance* landed on the floor of Jezero crater and explored a region consisting of two main igneous formations, Máaz and Séítah (Farley et al., 2022; Wiens et al., 2022). Máaz is composed of lava flows with basaltic composition and overlies the Séítah formation (Udry et al., 2023). Séítah consists of cumulate rocks of ultramafic to mafic composition dominated by olivine (Fo₅₅-7₀ with Fo# = Mg/(Fe+Mg) molar ratio), and includes pyroxenes (augite to pigeonite and orthopyroxene), minor plagioclase and Cr-rich Ti-Fe oxides (Liu et al., 2022; Beyssac et al., 2023). These units are weakly to moderately altered with the presence of Mg-clays and carbonates (Mandon et al., 2023; Clavé et al., 2023). Then, the rover explored the Jezero delta overlying the crater floor formations, the deltaic structure of which was inferred from orbit and confirmed in situ by *Perseverance* (Mangold et al., 2021). The sedimentary pile consists of the succession of (i) a thin basal layer of siltstones to fine-grained sandstones with ultramafic bulk composition, (ii)
a front made of strongly weathered sandstones of basaltic bulk compo-
sition and (iii) an upper fan composed of sandstones with ultramafic
bulk composition with the widespread presence of olivine (Stack et al.,
2024; Dehouck et al., 2024; Royer et al., 2025). Then Perseverance
explored the Margin Unit and showed that its protolith rock has an ul-
tramafic composition with olivine (FeO₅₅·₇₉), Mg-rich orthopyroxenes to
low-Ca pigeonite and Cr-rich Ti-Fe oxides. These rocks are locally
strongly weathered as shown by the widespread presence of Fe-Mg
carbonate and hydrated silica (Clavé et al., 2024b). Since Autumn
2024, the rover has been exploring the crater rim which orbital in-
vestigations describe as a Noachian pyroxene-rich basement (Horgan
et al., 2020).

In this study, we focus on boulder-sized float rocks, which were
found on the upper fan (Fig. 1a). They may correspond to the loose
boulders observed at the top of the delta from Perseverance's landing site
and interpreted as deposited by late catastrophic floods (Mangold et al.,
2021). For this study a total of 46 targets (sols 755–1006) by the
SuperCam instrument, and one boulder was imaged by the
high-resolution WATSON and ACI cameras.

4. Results

4.1. *Structure and texture*

Fig. 1b presents a representative view of the boulder field where most boulders are resting on the sand or on the local bedrock, but some are partially buried in sand dunes. They are centimeter (pebble) to meter (boulder) sizes, and are generally moderately rounded with some faces showing angular edges. These rocks are dusty on horizontal surfaces, while the dust-poor vertical faces show that they are dark and massive. The boulders are free of any apparent internal structure, such as layering, magmatic flow, or deformation features. The RMI mosaic of the sol 792 Mount Ida target offers the best representative view for the texture, with the greatest detail and minor modification from wind abrasion (Fig. 2a,b). This rock consists of an accumulation of grains with no apparent preferred orientation suggesting that this rock is structurally isotropic. This rock shows discrete angular to subangular grains with planar, smooth surfaces and generally distinctly sharp edges. Two main populations of grains are distinguished: large millimeter-size grains, which compose the bulk of the rock, and smaller minor grains, which appear in relief at the rock surface. The large grains are dominantly equant, but some of them are elongated. Their grain sizes fall in the range of ~1.9–5 mm for the equant grains (~3.5±1 mm), while elongated grains have apparent maximum length of up to 6.5 mm. Sizes for

the small grains are hard to estimate given the image resolution and may
be on the order of 10 s to 100 s of µm. Altogether, these observations
suggest that individual large grains are predominantly monocrystalline
and that grain shape records natural or faceted crystal morphologies.
The large grains appear locally interlocking and some triple junctions
may be visible (Fig. 2b). The small grains appear along the joints of the
large grains and are wedged between them. Similar texture was
observed in other targets but the corresponding RMIs are less
informative.

The WATSON instrument was used on the Falcon Lake boulder to image at high-resolution the natural surface of the sol 847 Lake Helene target and the abraded patch of sol 851 Lake Haiyaha (Fig. 2). On the Lake Helene natural surface (Fig. 2c), some grains are clearly visible and there is variability in grain size: some areas show large, interlocked grains (grain size in the range 1 - 4.5 mm), while other areas contain much smaller grains (<1 mm). ACI images on the Lake Haiyaha abraded patch are not straightforward to interpret in terms of microtexture because the rock surface is strongly affected by the mechanical abrasion as seen by the numerous radial striations observed on the patch (Fig. 2d). Locally, some areas are preserved and grains are clearly visible with variable grain sizes up to 1 mm. These grains show triple junctions at the grain interfaces (Fig. 2e), and they are locally interlocked (Fig. 2f).

4.2. Bulk geochemistry

Fig. 3 presents some geochemical diagrams for the boulders with the mean value for each raster represented (see Table SOM 1 for data) as well as the average value for all boulders (Table SOM 2). In the Total Alkali Silica (TAS) diagram (Fig. 3a), the boulders fall in the fields of peridotite-gabbro to gabbro, with variable SiO₂ content (~37.5 to 51 wt %), while the Na₂O+K₂O values are low (<2 wt %). It is important to stress that SiO₂ is overestimated in these olivine-rich rocks by at least 3–5 wt % (Beyssac et al., 2023). Most rocks should actually fall in the peridotite-gabbro field (see Figure SOM 1 and also next section). The boulders have high FeO content in the range ~17.5 to 27.5 wt %, while MgO content is high in the range ~22 to 38 wt % (Fig. 3b). Lastly, all but two boulders show a CaO content below 4 wt %, while all but six targets have Al₂O₃ content below 4 wt % (Fig. 3c). We note that some points with higher Al₂O₃ also contain high TiO₂ which may lead to over-estimation of Al₂O₃ with the current MOC model (Anderson et al., 2022). The average composition of all boulders is ultramafic (Table 1).

These diagrams also show the average composition for the bedrock
formations encountered by *Perseverance*. In particular, Séitah and the
Margin units have an ultramafic to mafic compositional range that is

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1.** Map of Jezero crater showing the traverse of *Perseverance* from the landing site (black star) to the sol 1448 position (blue dot). (a) Geological map of the geological units visited by *Perseverance*. The red dots indicate the location where olivine-rich boulders were analyzed by SuperCam, the red square indicates the position of the Lake Haiyaha abraded patch. Note that all the olivine-rich boulders were found on the upper fan. (b) Sol 786 MastCam-Z mosaic (zcam08811) showing an outcrop with diverse olivine-rich boulders in the West Creek/Onahu area on the western rim of Belva crater. The red square indicates the approximate position for the sol 792 raster on Mount Ida target represented in Fig. 2.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2.** Microtexture of the olivine-rich boulders. (a) SuperCam RMI of the sol 792 Mount Ida target (scam01792) showing the granular massive texture of this rock. (b) close-up image in (a) as indicated by the red rectangle, showing small grains in relief (yellow arrows), elongated grains (blue arrows) and possible triple junctions between grains (red arrows). (c) Sol 847 WATSON image of the Lake Helene natural surface on the Falcon Lake boulder showing smaller grains in the bottom left side (red arrow) and large interlocked grains in the center (blue arrow). (d) Sol 850 WATSON image of the Lake Haiyaha abraded patch (~5 cm in diameter) on the Falcon Lake boulder exposing fresh rock and showing approximate location of close-up images presented in (e, yellow box) and (f, orange box). (e) Sol 852 Colorized ACI image showing triple junctions between grains. (f) Sol 851 Colorized ACI image on the location showing interlocked grains. Unless specified, scale bar is 1 mm in all images. Information for WATSON and ACI images is given in SOM Table 3.</figcaption></figure>

significantly distinct from the boulders' composition: they both have similar FeO but significantly lower MgO (Fig. 3b) as well as higher CaO and Al₂O₃ on average (Fig. 3c) compared to the boulders.

Fig. 4 presents two ternary diagrams with each individual LIBS analysis for boulders as well as the mean analysis of the mineral calibration targets on Mars. In the Si+Al – Ca+Na+K – Fe+Mg diagram (Fig. 4a), most points cluster close to the olivine and low-Ca pyroxene (ferrosilite and enstatite) standards, or between these mineral standards. Few points enriched in Ca trend towards the diopside standard, and some points enriched in Al, Ca and alkalis trend towards the andesine standard. Lastly, few points trend towards the Fe+Mg apex and mostly correspond to Fe-oxides or minor Fe-Mg carbonates. In the Ca – Mg – Fe diagram (Fig. 4b), the vast majority of points cluster close to, or between, the olivine and low-Ca pyroxene standards. Again, few points trend towards the Ca-rich pyroxene or the andesine standard. This diagram shows that most point analyses have a high Mg# (=Mg/(Fe+Mg) molar ratio), generally > 65.

### 4.3. Mineral compositions from LIBS data

When the grain size is larger than the LIBS spot size, the LIBS analysis may sample a single grain, enabling a stoichiometric analysis of data to retrieve the mineral composition. We have modified slightly the approach described by Beyssac et al. (2023), yet we use the same stoichiometric criteria. For olivine and pyroxene, these criteria are assessed for each analysis on the average MOC composition as well on the single-shot MOC composition. The single-shot composition is less accurate but helps for filtering out compositions that fit the stoichiometric criteria, but corresponds to the intimate mixture of several minerals with grain size smaller than the LIBS spot size. In addition, the single-shot data can be used to detect a possible compositional zoning within a

crystal grain fitting the stoichiometric criteria during the laser ablation. Here, an analysis is considered to represent a pure mineral composition when all stoichiometric criteria are fulfilled for the average MOC and for at least 12 shots per point in the single-shot MOC. Using this approach, we found 74 analyses consistent with olivine and four with pyroxenes as represented on Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. To keep consistency among datasets, we established new lists for stoichiometric olivine and pyroxene for Máaz and Séítah using this revised approach.

Stoichiometric olivine grains were found in most boulders (Table 1). Some rocks are nearly pure olivine: the sol 792 Mount Ida target (Fig. 2) has eight out of 10 points consistent with stoichiometric olivine, and the last two points are close to olivine in composition. This rock is almost exclusively composed of olivine, yet it shows SiO₂ contents in the range of 42–50 wt %, well above the maximal value of ~41 wt % for olivines in Martian meteorites (Udry et al., 2020), consistent with the over-prediction of SiO₂ mentioned earlier. In this rock, olivine compositions range from Fo₆₉ to Fo₇₄ (mean Fo₇₁). All boulders have a composition of Fo₆₆ to Fo₈₀ with only 14 points below Fo₇₀ and an average value of Fo₇₃ ±3 (Fig. 5). This Fo# value is consistent with the Fo₇₄ value reported by the PIXL instrument in the Lake Haiyaha abraded patch (Moreland et al., 2025). Fo#s in the boulders (Fig. 5) are significantly higher compared to the values observed with SuperCam in Séítah (Fo₅₄-7₂, mean Fo₆₄) and slightly higher to the values obtained in the Margin unit (Fo₅₅-7₉, mean Fo₇₀). Four grains consistent with stoichiometric pyroxene (Table 1) are clustered in the enstatite field with compositions of Wo₁.₃En₇₂.₇₇Fs₂₁-2₆ (Fig. 6). All these pyroxene grains have a high Mg# in the range of 75–78. There is much less diversity for the pyroxenes compared to Séítah in which orthopyroxene to augite and pigeonite were found (Beyssac et al., 2023). Notably the low-Ca pyroxenes in Séítah have lower Mg# compared to the boulders (Fig. 6a). In the Margin unit, most pyroxene grains have a composition close to the high Mg# enstatite
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 3.** Major element composition (in wt. %) for the olivine-rich boulders compared to bedrock data for the various units visited by *Perseverance*. For the boulders, data for individual targets as well as the mean data for all boulders are represented while the mean data for all targets is represented for the various bedrock formations. Data for the bedrock formations are taken from Beyssac et al. (2023) for Séitah, Udry et al. (2023) for Máaz, Dehouck et al. (2024) for the fan front and upper fan, and Clavé et al. (2024b) for the Margin Unit. For each mean data (square) the mean value with standard deviation is depicted. The data are not normalized (see Figure SOM 1 about normalization). The root mean squared errors of prediction (RMSEP) for accuracy and precision are represented on each panel as superposed red and black crosses, respectively (Anderson et al., 2022). The color code is the same for all figures. (a) TAS diagram, Na₂O + K₂O versus SiO₂, (b) CaO versus Al₂O₃, (c) FeO versus MgO.</figcaption></figure>

<caption>**Table 1**</caption>

Bulk composition of the olivine-rich boulders from LIBS calculated from the average of all boulders composition (in grey). Representative mineral compositions from LIBS for olivine and pyroxene. See Anderson et al. (2022) and text for precision and accuracy of LIBS data.

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">target name</th><th colspan="2">Bulk composition</th><th rowspan="3">Olivine<br>point #2</th><th rowspan="3">Olivine<br>point #4</th><th rowspan="3">Pyroxene<br>AEGIS 897A #2</th><th rowspan="3">Pyroxene<br>Radial Mountain<br>point #2</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">All boulders</th></tr><tr><th>mean</th><th>stdev</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>SiO<sub>2</sub></td><td>45.36</td><td>3.05</td><td>41.57</td><td>43.21</td><td>56.28</td><td>59.24</td></tr><tr><td>TiO<sub>2</sub></td><td>0.18</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.01</td></tr><tr><td>Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td>3.10</td><td>0.93</td><td>2.78</td><td>1.57</td><td>0.90</td><td>1.66</td></tr><tr><td>FeOT</td><td>23.23</td><td>2.11</td><td>24.13</td><td>27.44</td><td>17.90</td><td>18.15</td></tr><tr><td>MgO</td><td>30.96</td><td>3.94</td><td>41.52</td><td>40.47</td><td>29.85</td><td>29.14</td></tr><tr><td>CaO</td><td>2.26</td><td>0.76</td><td>1.63</td><td>1.76</td><td>1.57</td><td>0.58</td></tr><tr><td>Na<sub>2</sub>O</td><td>0.89</td><td>0.30</td><td>0.9</td><td>0.75</td><td>0.44</td><td>0.65</td></tr><tr><td>K<sub>2</sub>O</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.26</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>106.12</td><td></td><td>113.12</td><td>115.22</td><td>107.12</td><td>109.69</td></tr><tr><td>Al/Si</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.03</td></tr><tr><td>(Fe+Mg)/Si</td><td>1.45</td><td>0.16</td><td>(Fe+Mg)/Si</td><td>1.97</td><td>(Ca+Fe+Mg)/Si</td><td>1.09</td></tr><tr><td>(Ca+Fe+Mg)/Si</td><td>1.51</td><td>0.16</td><td>Fo#</td><td>75</td><td>Wo</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Mg#</td><td>70</td><td>3</td><td></td><td></td><td>En</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fs</td><td>73</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>24</td></tr></tbody></table>

composition of pyroxene in the boulders, but show more diversity with some low-Ca pyroxene trending towards lower Mg# pyroxene like ferrosilite. Noticeably, in the boulder data, no significant compositional zoning was detected either in the olivine nor in the pyroxene in the single-shot MOC data.

There is significant variability in Cr in the LIBS points obtained on the boulders, but numerous points show amounts higher than 3000 ppm (Fig. 4). There is a weak correlation between the Cr content and the Ti content of the target. Chromium is likely carried by minerals like ulvospinels or chromite that are possibly too small to be probed by a LIBS analysis. These oxides may correspond to the small grains observed in the RMIs in relief compared to larger mineral phases.

### 4.4. Mineralogy from Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy was performed on two boulder targets: the natural surface of sol 848 Mount Chapin and the abraded patch of sol 853 Lake Haiyaha (Fig. 7). For each target, the Raman raster consisted of four spectra on four distinct points that can be averaged to retrieve a spectrum with better signal to noise ratio (SNR) assuming the rock is homogeneous. The spectrum on Mount Chapin is very noisy and only a broad feature in the range 800–860 cm⁻¹ consistent with olivine is observed. All Raman spectra from Lake Haiyaha have high SNR, and they all show a doublet of peaks at ~820.1 and ~849.8 cm⁻¹, and no hydration feature in the 3200–3700 cm⁻¹ range. Fig. 7 depicts the
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 4.** Ternary diagrams showing the composition of all LIBS single analyses for the olivine-rich boulders with analysis on Mars of the SuperCam calibration targets (Cousin et al., 2022). The color code indicates the Cr concentration in ppm using the approach described by Mansbach et al. (2024). (a) Si+Al – K+Ca+Na – Fe+Mg ternary diagram. (b) Ca – Mg – Fe ternary diagram. The precision (dark grey) and accuracy (pale grey) are indicated (see text for more details).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5.** Composition of olivine as Fo# = Mg / (Fe+Mg) molar ratio in boulders compared to meteorites, Jezero bedrock units and BSM. Meteorite data are from Udry et al. (2020), Usui et al. (2009) for Yamato 980459, Gross et al. (2011) for NWA 5789, and Gross et al. (2013) for NWA 6234. Data for bedrock units visited by Perseverance are calculated with the new approach described in the text, and olivine composition at the sub-solidus of BSM calculated from pMELTS models and measured from experimental data at 3 GPa from a compilation by Yang et al. (2024). The root mean squared errors of prediction (RMSEP) for accuracy and precision are represented on each panel as superposed red and black lines, respectively (Anderson et al., 2022).</figcaption></figure>

average Raman spectrum of Lake Haiyaha with spectra from Séitah (Beyssac et al., 2023). The doublet is characteristic of olivine and is due to coupled symmetric ($v_1$) and asymmetric ($v_3$) stretching modes in the $SiO_4$ tetrahedron. Other internal vibrational modes as well as lattice modes are not detected since they are much weaker in intensity compared to the observed doublet. Subtle changes in the cation composition, $Mg^{2+}$ versus $Fe^{2+}$, cause a shift in the position of the two main peaks. Kuebler et al. (2006) established an equation to determine the Fo# composition in olivine as a function of the position of the main $v_1$ and $v_3$ peaks. Applying the DB2 calibration equation from Kuebler et al. (2006) yields a Fo#96 for the Lake Haiyaha spectrum compared to Fo#59.63 in Séitah (Beyssac et al., 2023). For SuperCam, on Mars, many factors affect the uncertainty on the Raman shift such as the instrument wavelength calibration or the relatively low SNR of the spectra, and the propagated uncertainty on Fo# estimate from Raman is $\pm$7

(Lopez-Reyes et al., 2025). In addition, the Raman analysis were performed at low temperature at the surface of Mars, which induces a downshift of the Raman peaks, hence the derived Fo# is a minimum estimate (Hibbert and Price, 2014). This Fo# extracted from Raman data is consistent within error with the Fo# estimated by LIBS for these boulders.

### 4.5. Mineralogy from VISIR spectroscopy

VISIR spectroscopy was performed after LIBS laser shots to take advantage of dust removal by the laser-induced plasma and its accompanying shock wave (Maurice et al., 2021). Fig. 8 shows representative spectra obtained from the averaging of all individual spectra for each raster on a given target (from 5 or 10 depending on the raster size). All spectra are similar with subtle differences in the detection of secondary
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 6.** Composition of pyroxenes in boulders compared to (a) bedrock units visited by *Perseverance* and calculated with the new approach described in the text, and pyroxene composition in the sub-solidus of BSM calculated from pMELTS models and measured from experimental data at 3 GPa from a compilation by Yang et al. (2024), and (b) meteorites (data from Udry et al., 2020 and references therein). Data from chassignite NWA 2737 (Beck et al., 2006), and primitive shergottites Yamato 980459 (Usui et al., 2009), NWA 5789 (Gross et al., 2011) and NWA 6234 (Gross et al., 2013) are displayed with specific symbols. Error indicated is the root mean squared error of prediction (RMSEP) in red for the accuracy and in black for the precision (Anderson et al., 2022).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.** Representative Raman spectra obtained in Séitah (sol 259 Dourbes and sol 207 Garde abraded patches in green) compared to spectrum for the olivine-rich boulder (red) acquired in the sol 851 Lake Haiyaha abraded patch. Note that the characteristic doublet for olivine is observed in all spectra. The inset is a RMI mosaic of the abraded patch locating the raster.</figcaption></figure>

phases due to alteration. Present in all spectra is a broad absorption feature between 0.7 and 1.7 µm pointing toward the presence of ferrous mineral(s) such as olivine in the case of the boulders. All spectra also show a low to moderate absorption around 1.9 µm indicating the presence of water in the rock itself and/or from residual dust present in the field of view of the IR spectrometer (Mandon et al., 2023). Most spectra show an additional feature at 2.31–2.32 µm attributed to Mg-OH bonds given the Mg-rich composition of these rocks. This band likely comes from Mg-rich phyllosilicates, though it may come from Fe-Mg carbonates in sol 846 target Snowbank Lake, as it is paired with a band at ~2.5 µm due to C-O absorption (Mandon et al., 2023; Royer et al., 2025). The sol 853 Lake Haiyaha abraded patch exhibits an asymmetric feature with a minimum at ~2.33 µm, which may correspond to the presence of serpentine.

# 5. Discussion

## 5.1. *The olivine-rich boulders are igneous ultramafic rocks*

Are the boulders igneous or sedimentary rocks, or something else? Texturally, these rocks are composed of angular to sub-angular grains with dominant millimetric grain size. These grains are interlocked, and some triple junctions are visible in the RMI and SHERLOC ACI images, while we did not observe any cement and/or matrix between the grains (Fig. 2). Such texture makes the boulders different from the Séitah rocks, in which a red-to-brown matrix composed of smaller grains was observed (Beyssac et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2022). In addition, the grain size in the boulders is variable, yet it is significantly larger compared to the grain sizes (~1.5 mm or below) observed in Séitah (Beyssac et al., 2023), and in the Margin unit (Bedford et al., 2025).

These rocks have a mineral assemblage dominated by olivine with some high-Mg orthopyroxene and minor Cr-rich Ti-Fe oxides, high-Ca
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8.** Representative VISIR spectra (relative offsets shown in legend) for various olivine-rich boulders. Although the VIS and IRS spectra are acquired from different spectrometers using different calibration techniques, all spectra generally exhibit a strong absorption band at ~1 µm indicative of olivine as well as a weak to moderate hydration band at ~1.9 µm and a band at ~2.3 µm due to metal-OH absorption, likely Mg-OH. The Snowbank Lake target shows a possible absorption at ~2.5 µm together with the band at ~2.3 µm suggestive of possible minor carbonates.</figcaption></figure>

pyroxene and plagioclase. They were affected by limited aqueous alteration, as attested by the presence of Mg-phyllosilicates and infrequent minor carbonates detected by VISIR. The bulk composition of these rocks is ultramafic with an average Mg# of 71±3. Using the average composition from all targets, we estimated the modal mineralogy using CIPW norm (Hollocher, 2004). CIPW norm is used merely as an insight into the modal mineralogy, as several parameters may limit the use of CIPW norms from SuperCam data (Beyssac et al., 2023). We assume (i) negligible abundances of Mn, S and P not quantified in the current MOC model and based on the absence or the presence of minor emission lines for these elements in LIBS data, and (ii) minor contribution of alteration mineral phases. Also, all iron is considered as FeO (Beyssac et al., 2023). CIPW returns a modal mineralogy composed by ~68.5 vol % olivine, 14 vol % plagioclase, 12 vol % low-Ca pyroxene, 4.5 vol % high Ca pyroxene and minor Cr-rich Ti-Fe oxides. Plagioclase may be overestimated by this CIPW since Al₂O₃ and SiO₂ are overestimated with the current MOC. From this CIPW norm, the calculated bulk Mg# of the rock is ~71 and the rock density ~3.4 g/cm³.

Using the Mg# of olivine and pyroxene, we can test the crystallization history of these rocks to see if these two minerals crystallized at equilibrium. For this, we calculated the Mg# of the melt in equilibrium during crystallization with olivine or pyroxene using the Fe-Mg exchange coefficients of olivine with Martian magmas (Filiberto and Dasgupta, 2011) and pyroxene with terrestrial basaltic magmas (Beattie, 1993), respectively of 0.35 and 0.28. The average Fo₇₃ for olivine yields a Mg# of ~48 for the melt while the average value of ~76 for pyroxene yields a Mg# of ~47 for the melt. The similarity of Mg# estimates for these two melts suggests that olivine and low-Ca pyroxene crystallized at equilibrium in these rocks.

Altogether, the microtextural, geochemical, and mineralogical data are consistent with an igneous origin for these boulders. Notably, these rocks are the least differentiated rocks analyzed so far by Perseverance along its traverse. Given the textural observations as well as the crystallization at equilibrium of olivine and pyroxene, they may not be cumulate rocks as the Séítah rocks (Beyssac et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2022), but rather consist of plutonic rocks like peridotite with composition close to lherzolite-harzburgite-dunite.

**5.2. Comparison with Martian meteorites: are the olivine-rich boulders lower crustal rocks?**

Martian meteorites are the only Martian samples available on Earth for laboratory studies and attest that ultramafic to granitic rocks are present at the surface of Mars (Udry et al., 2020; Malarewicz et al., 2025). Yet, Martian meteorites are all crustal rocks, although some of them may represent primary melts formed by minimal fractionation melting from the mantle (Yamato 980459 - Usui et al., 2009; NWA 5789 - Gross et al., 2011; NWA 6234 - Gross et al., 2013). The boulders do not exhibit the poikilitic texture observed in many shergottites, but rather show interlocking grains with local triple junctions rarely observed in Martian meteorites (Fig. 2). The largest grain dimensions as well as the average grain size in the boulders are also significantly higher than their counterparts observed in shergottites and chassignites, which share similar geochemistry and mineralogy and in which the average grain size is generally below 1 mm (Rahib et al., 2019; Howarth and Udry, 2017; Beck et al., 2006).

Fig. 9 compares the composition of boulders and Martian meteorites and specifically to Yamato 980459, NWA 5789, NWA 6234 and NWA 2737. In the TAS diagram (Fig. 9a), all these rocks fall in the peridotite-gabbro and gabbro fields (see SOM Fig. 1 and discussion above on the overestimation of SiO₂). Fig. 9b shows that the boulders cover the range of FeO content observed in these meteorites. However, MgO is significantly higher in the boulders compared to most shergottites including Yamato 980459, NWA 5789, and NWA 6234. The high MgO targets fit the MgO content in chassignite NWA 2737. The boulders are generally depleted in both CaO and Al₂O₃ compared to most shergottites, yet they are enriched in both oxides compared to chassignites (Fig. 9c). The boulders Mg#s are generally higher than shergottites, and higher than chassignites, except for NWA 2737 (Beck et al., 2006).

The mineral assemblage in the boulders bears similarities with assemblages observed in olivine-phyric and poikilitic shergottites as well as in the chassignite NWA 2737, but less with nakhlites, the regolith breccia NWA 7034, or ALH84001 (Udry et al., 2020). Olivine Fo#s in boulders cover the range Fo₆₅-80 with most data clustered above Fo₇₀ (Fig. 5). This corresponds to the high Fo# in meteorites, and only a few poikilitic and olivine-phyric shergottites and chassignite NWA 2737 have Fo#s matching the highest values observed in the boulders.
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 9.** Major element compositions (in wt. %) for the olivine-rich boulders compared to meteorites (data from Udry et al., 2020) and BSM (models data from Yang et al., 2024). Data from chassignite NWA 2737 (Beck et al., 2006) and primitive shergottites Yamato 980459 (Usui et al., 2009), NWA 5789 (Gross et al., 2011) and NWA 6234 (Gross et al., 2013) are displayed with specific symbols. For the boulders, data for individual targets as well as the mean data for all boulders are represented. For each mean value (square) the standard deviation is also depicted. The data are not normalized (see Figure SOM 1 about normalization). The root mean squared errors of prediction (RMSEP) for accuracy and precision are represented on each panel as superposed red and black crosses (a,b,c) or lines (d), respectively (Anderson et al., 2022). The color code is the same for all figures. (a) TAS diagram, Na₂O + K₂O versus SiO₂, (b) CaO versus Al₂O₃, (c) FeO versus MgO, (d) bulk Mg#.</figcaption></figure>

Notably, in the shergottites, high Fo#s (up to 80–84) are generally found in the core of olivine grains, while Fo#s systematically decreases towards the rim, which explains the spread of Fo#s for these meteorites (Collinet et al., 2017; Usui et al., 2009; Gross et al., 2011; Gross et al., 2013). Such a trend in Fo# is not observed for the boulders, in which Fo#s below 70 are rare, and no chemical zoning has been detected in any olivine in LIBS single-shot data. Chassignite NWA 2737 shows olivine Fo#s consistently clustered at high values (~80) with no zoning (Beck et al., 2006).

Pyroxene compositions for the boulders and meteorites are shown in Fig. 6. In the boulders, we found only high-Mg orthopyroxene (Mg# 75–78) and the fact that most pointwise analyses are clustered between this endmember and olivine (Fig. 4) suggests that orthopyroxene is the dominant pyroxene phase. This boulders pyroxene composition matches endmember compositions found in poikilitic (NWA 10961 – Rahib et al., 2019), olivine-phyric (e.g., Yamato 980459, NWA 5789, NWA 6234) shergottites and chassignite (NWA 2737), yet these meteorites systematically show at least one other population, such as lower Mg# low-Ca pigeonite and/or a trend towards high-Ca pyroxene like augite (Fig. 6b). Notably, the orthopyroxenes crystallized at equilibrium with olivine in the boulders, which is not the case for olivine-phyric shergottites (Howarth and Udry, 2017), where the pyroxene composition is at equilibrium with lower Fo# rims of olivine grains.

Some Martian rocks are interpreted as primary to low degree fractionated melts from a mantle protolith like the Martian meteorites Yamato 980459 (Usui et al., 2009), NWA 5789 (Gross et al., 2011), and NWA 6234 (Gross et al., 2013). It is also possible to estimate the composition of the primary melt for Martian rocks with recent software

tools (e.g., Hernández-Montenegro et al., 2024; Collinet et al., 2021). The boulders could represent a primary melt with no or only minor fractionation, or even cumulates formed through differentiation of primary to near-primary magmas (Wieczorek et al., 2022). The boulders would then represent fragments of the lower Martian crust. However, such formation scenario does not account for the significant differences in composition (Fig. 9), texture and mineralogy (Fig. 5–6) between the boulders and these meteorites including the most primitive Yamato 980459, NWA 5789, and NWA 6234. Alternatively, the boulders could be mantle peridotites as discussed in the next section.

### 5.3. Are the olivine-rich boulders mantle peridotites?

We do not have any direct measurement of the Martian mantle composition (Yang et al., 2024). We compare our boulder data with the inferred composition of the Martian mantle from physico-chemical modelling and experimental works. Fig. 9 shows a comparison between the boulder compositions with various estimates of the Bulk silicate Mars (BSM) as reviewed by Yang et al. (2024). The BSM composition approximates the composition of the Martian primitive mantle. BSM is obtained from various approaches from cosmochemistry and nebular components to some models based on the geophysical properties of Mars through estimates based on isotopic composition of Martian meteorites. At first glance, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, CaO and MgO in the boulders consistently fall in the range of the various BSM compositions, while FeO is higher in the boulders compared to BSM. Apart from this difference for FeO, the average bulk boulder composition matches very well with the BSM. Although SiO₂ is slightly higher and likely
overestimated, Al₂O₃ and CaO fall in the same range as the pyrolite composition for Earth's mantle (Ringwood, 1975) which is generally considered as representative of the average composition for the Earth's upper mantle; MgO is lower and FeO is higher in the boulders as expected for the more ferroan Mars mantle (Taylor, 2013). Fig. 9d presents the Mg# for the boulder targets compared to the BSM Mg#. Boulders' Mg#s cover a range from 60 to 75, with all but four targets, having Mg#s higher than 66; the average value is 71. In comparison, the BSM Mg#s fall in the range 73 to 80. This difference may reflect some weaker constraints provided by the MOC model for such ultramafic compositions (Beyssac et al., 2023). Overall, this apparent difference likely reflects some chemical heterogeneity in the Martian mantle, as we compare here a few rocks with compositions possibly from the upper mantle to a model of the bulk silicate composition of Mars.

In terms of mineralogy, a glimpse of what could be the upper Martian mantle mineralogy may be obtained by looking at the mineral assemblage at the solidus for BSM compositions in the pressure range of 2–4 GPa. This mineral assemblage has been obtained experimentally (Bertka and Fei, 1997; Ding et al., 2020; Matsukage et al., 2013; Collinet et al., 2023), and from modelling using pMELTS (Yang et al., 2024). At 2–3 GPa, experiments and models yield a mineral assemblage similar to the one observed in the boulders with dominant olivine, low-Ca and high-Ca pyroxenes and oxides with one notable difference, as garnet is present instead of plagioclase as inferred in the boulders from LIBS data and CIPW norm. However, we note that (i) low-pressure experiments yielded a mineral assemblage with plagioclase (Collinet et al., 2015), and that (ii) Khan et al. (2017) and Yoshizaki and McDonough (2020) proposed a similar mineral assemblage with plagioclase instead of garnet, based on geophysical constrains and compositional modelling, respectively. Mineral modes are slightly different between the experiments and models compared to the CIPW result for the boulders which yield more olivine and less pyroxenes. Again, this is likely a consequence of geochemical heterogeneity in the Martian mantle as we compare a bulk planetary composition to compositions of a few rocks possibly coming from the upper mantle. Measured olivine Fo#s in the experiments and modelled Fo#s for the solidus fall in the same range as the Fo#s measured in the boulders (Fig. 5). Similarly, the low-Ca pyroxene composition in the experiments and models fall at the edge between enstatite and low-Ca pyroxene with Mg# 77–82 matching well the composition of high-Mg orthopyroxene in the boulders (Fig. 6b). We infer that the boulders contain a minor high-Ca pyroxene phase, though we were not able to isolate a single grain analysis to calculate the stoichiometry, which suggests that high-Ca pyroxenes in the boulders are too small relative to the LIBS spot size.

Altogether, in terms of bulk geochemistry and mineralogy, the boulders show strong affinity with the sub-solidus composition from BSM, suggesting that they could represent a non-fractionated composition from the mantle, or a piece of the mantle itself.

### 5.4. Provenance of the olivine-rich boulders

The boulders are significantly different in terms of texture, bulk geochemistry and mineralogy from the igneous rocks analyzed in situ by SuperCam in the topographically lower Séitah and Máaz formations as well as in the topographically higher Margin Unit. These bedrocks therefore cannot constitute the source for these boulders. The source may be found elsewhere inside or outside of Jezero Crater such as in the watershed of Neretva Vallis which has transported and deposited the sediments forming the Jezero fan (Goudge et al., 2015). This watershed samples large sections of the Nili Fossae regional olivine-rich unit (Mustard et al., 2007), which is variably altered as evidenced by the detection of carbonates from orbit (Goudge et al., 2015; Mandon et al., 2020). Various origins have been proposed for this unit including impact melt from the Isidis impact basin or a peculiar type of ultramafic volcanoclastic rocks (Mustard et al., 2007; Mandon et al., 2020), although none currently explains the whole observation and data sets. In any case,

the bulk of the regional olivine-rich unit which drapes the topography (Mandon et al., 2020) likely does not consist in lower crustal or mantle rocks. Another source might be the occurrence of lower crust or mantle patches in the Noachian basement surrounding Jezero, potentially excavated by impact and eroded along the Neretva channel. These outcrops have not been detected from orbit as they may have been eroded and/or may be covered by sand. They have to be large enough and/or not too far from the Jezero fan to deliver a statistically significant contribution to account for the abundant yet local boulder fields. We note that the possible detection of lower crustal or mantle rocks from orbit at the surface of Mars, in particular in the Isidis basin, was proposed by Ody et al. (2013) based on the strong olivine detection.

In any case, an intriguing question regards the mechanism to explain the emplacement of lower crustal or mantle rocks at the surface of Mars. On Earth, such rocks are exposed locally as a consequence of plate tectonics: subduction/collision or obduction are the main geodynamic drivers to expose sections (e.g., ophiolites) of mantle or lower crust, but they did/do not exist on Mars. Lower crustal or mantle rocks may also be brought to the surface as xenoliths in other rocks by volcanic activity, yet this process may not apply for the boulders which are too large pieces of rocks composed exclusively of peridotites with no trace of any putative host rock (often a basalt on Earth).

One possible mechanism would be the local excavation of Martian lower crust or mantle as a consequence of impact processes. First, we precise that we did not detect any shock feature as the spatial resolution of our instruments may be insufficient for resolving shock microstructures. The bulk composition and mineralogy of the boulders suggest that if these are mantle rocks, they would have come from the uppermost section of the mantle. Excavation of mantle rocks by impacts has been proposed for the Moon based on hydrocode modeling (Miljkovic et al., 2015; Melosh et al., 2017), and fragments of dunitic mantle rocks have actually been described in the lunar meteorite NWA 11421 (Treiman and Semprich, 2023). On Mars, Ritzer and Hauck (2009) discussed the possibility of excavating mantle rocks at Isidis Planitia through modeling of the gravity and topography data provided by orbiters. Using numerical simulations of impact basin formations for the Moon and Mars, Stewart (2011) showed that the final impact basin could contain discontinuous patches of upper mantle rocks in the terrace zone of the impact basin. We note that Jezero Crater is actually located in a highly cratered area and stands on the outer rim of the large Isidis Planitia impact basin. This idea of local mantle excavation by the basin-scale Isidis impact was further substantiated through modelling by Trowbridge et al. (2019) who discussed the potential implications for the Mars2020 mission. Scheller et al. (2020) reviewed mineral detections from orbit and also supported the possible presence of mantle rocks in the megabreccia surrounding Jezero Crater.

Furthermore, the Isidis impact basin has one of the strongest gravity anomalies at the surface of Mars (Neumann et al., 2004). Modelling the Moho depth from gravity and topography data, these authors showed that Isidis basin has actually the shallowest Moho and lowest crustal thickness (~5.8 km) among the large impact basins considered, due to a super-isostatic uplift of mantle to compensate the crustal removal by Isidis impact. Locally, the Isidis impact could have directly excavated the lower crust and/or the mantle or, alternatively, given a lower crust and/or mantle close to the surface in the Isidis basin, it could have been excavated later by smaller superposed impacts like the one forming Jezero crater.

### CRediT authorship contribution statement

**O. Beyssac:** Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. **E. Clavé:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Formal analysis. **O. Forni:** Writing – review & editing, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. **A. Udry:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation. **A.C. Pascuzzo:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation. **E. Dehouck:**
Writing – review & editing, Investigation. **P. Beck:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation. **L. Mandon:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation. **C. Quantin-Nataf:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation. **N. Mangold:** Writing – review & editing. **G. Lopez-Reyes:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation. **C. Royer:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation. **O. Gasnault:** Writing – review & editing. **T.S.J. Gabriel:** Investigation. **L. Kah:** Investigation. **S. Schröder:** Writing – review & editing. **J.R. Johnson:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation. **T. Bertrand:** Writing – review & editing. **B. Chide:** Investigation. **T. Fouchet:** Conceptualization. **J.I. Simon:** Writing – review & editing. **F. Montmessin:** Investigation. **A. Fau:** Investigation. **S. Maurice:** Project administration, Investigation. **R.C. Wiens:** Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Investigation. **A. Cousin:** Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Investigation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:

Olivier Beyssac reports financial support was provided by Centre National d'Etude Spatiale (CNES) and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS). Wiens reports financial support was provided by NASA. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors are truly grateful for the SuperCam and Mars 2020 hardware operations teams for their investment in the mission. Funding from the Centre National d'Etude Spatiale (CNES) is acknowledged. Funding in the US was provided by NASA's Mars Exploration program. RCW was funded by grant #NNH13ZDA0180. Thanks are due to two anonymous reviewers for their insightful and constructive criticisms.

Supplementary materials

Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2025.119746.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

References

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