# EcoLabware: Assessing the carbon footprint of single-use plastic ware versus reusable glassware

Sophie Schbath, Max-Henri Chanut, Marianne De Paepe

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## To cite this version:

Sophie Schbath, Max-Henri Chanut, Marianne De Paepe. EcoLabware: Assessing the carbon footprint of single-use plastic ware versus reusable glassware. 2025. hal-04889693

HAL Id: hal-04889693

https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-04889693v1

Preprint submitted on 15 Jan 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>
# EcoLabware: Assessing the carbon footprint of single-use plastic ware versus reusable glassware

Sophie Schbath<fnref n="1" />, Max-Henri Chanut²,³, and Marianne De Paepe³,*

¹Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, MaIAGE, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France

²Ecovamed, 75005, Paris, France

³Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, Micalis, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France

*Corresponding author

January 14, 2025 – version 1

EcoLabWare calculator<fnref n="1" /> aims at comparing the carbon footprint and the water scarcity footprint (method AWARE) of reusable and single-use labware items, either pipettes, tubes or conical flasks (Erlenmeyer). The analysis concerns the labware item itself, but not its use. For single-use labware items, this includes manufacturing, sterilization (optional), decontamination (optional), transport and end-of-life. For reusable glassware, this includes manufacturing, decontamination (optional), soaking, manual wash (optional), machine wash, sterilization (optional), transport and end-of-life. If default values are provided for most of the activity data (described in this note), few ones need to be entered by the user.

This technical note is organized as follows. In section 1, we first define the notation for all activity data and emission factors needed to compute the footprint of glassware. Then we detail, for each steps listed above, how to compute the corresponding impacts and we give the mathematical formula. Section 2 concerns the computing of the footprint of plastic ware, and has the same structure than the previous section. Finally, we put in appendix the default values used for activity data and detail some less straightforward issues.

# 1 Reusable glassware

## 1.1 Activity data and emission factors

### Activity data provided by the user

* $p_v$ is the weight of the glassware (in kg),

* $\tau$ is the autoclave filling rate,

* the manufacturing geographical zone $z_v$ of the glass material (Europe, Asia or America),

* $N_v$ is the number of times a glassware item is reused (31 by default),

* $n_g$ is the number of pairs of protective gloves used per reuse (1 by default),

* $n_a$ is the number of times the autoclave is used per week (10 by default),

* $L$ is the number of liters of hot water (37°C) used for glassware manual wash.

<footnote n="1">¹https://shinyproxy-dev.migale.inrae.fr/app/EcoLabWare</footnote>
**Fixed activity data** ; unless specified, their values are given in Table 1.

* $q_a^{deio}$ is the quantity of deionized water used by a 600L autoclave per autoclaving,

* $N_a$ is the total number of times the autoclave is used: it is the product of $n_a$ times 52 weeks times 20 years (the average lifetime of an autoclave considered here),

* $E_a^{man}$ is the footprint of the manufacturing of an autoclave, it depends on its size (or weight),

* $k_a$ is the electric consumption of the autoclave per labware item, it depends on the type of glassware (see Table 2),

* $C_a$ is the default autoclave capacity (number of glassware items that can be placed into a 600L autoclave), it depends on the type of glassware (see Table 3),

* $C_a^{user}$ is the autoclave capacity calculated from the autoclave characteristics eventually supplied by the user. It depends on the type of glassware.

* $C_w$ is the capacity of washer (number of items per washer), it depends on the type of glassware (see Table 3),

* $N_w$ is the total number of times the washer is used,

* $E_w^{man}$ is the footprint of the manufacturing of the washer,

* $K_w$ is the electric consumption of the washer per machine wash,

* $q_s^{det}$ is the quantity of detergent used per glassware item in the soaking step, it depends on the type of glassware,

* $q_w^{det}$ is the quantity of detergent used per glassware item in the manual wash step, it depends on the type of glassware,

* $q_w^{det}$ is the quantity of detergent used per machine wash,

* $q_s^{water}$ is the volume of tap water used in the soaking step,

* $q_w^{water}$ is the volume of tap water used per machine wash,

* $q_w^{deio}$ is the volume of deionized water per machine wash,

* $e_{hot}^{water}$ is the amount of energy required to heat 1 liter of water from 15°C to 37°C, considering 35 % of loss in boiler and distribution,

* $E_g$ is the footprint of a pair of single-use nitrile gloves,

* $\alpha$ is the number of glassware items that can be manually scrubbed in one hour

**Emission factors** ; have been calculated and provided by Ecovamed (https://www.ecovamed.com). Each term below corresponds either to a carbon emission factor, expressed in kg CO2eq (method IPCC 2021 AR6), or to a water scarcity factor, expressed in m3 world eq (Available Water Remaining (AWaRe) model). All calculations are the same for both impacts, only the values and units of the emission factors change.

* $f_v^{man}(z_v)$ is for the glass manufacturing in zone $z_v$ (either Europe or out of Europe)

* $f_v^{end}$ is for the end of life of glass

* $f_{small}^t$ is for the transportation by middle size lorry

* $f_{big}^t$ is for the transportation by large lorry
* $f_{sea}^t$ is for the transportation with container ship

* $f_{tap}^{water}$ is for the production of tap water

* $f_{deio}^{water}$ is for the production of deionized water

* $f_{det}$ is for the manufacturing of detergent for soaking

* $f_w^{det}$ is for the manufacturing of detergent for machine wash

* $f^{home}$ is for the commuting of personnel by car (mean for French citizen)

* $f^{elec}$ is for the production and distribution of electricity, it depends on the country selected by the user

* $f^{gas}$ is for the production of energy with natural gas

## 1.2 Manufacturing

The impacts $E_v^{man}$ of the manufacturing of the glassware are given by

$$E_v^{man} = \frac{p_v f_v^{man}}{N_v} \qquad (1)$$

where $p_v$ is the weight of the glassware, $f_v^{man}$ is the emission factor of laboratory glassware manufacturing (it depends on the country of production) and $N_v$ is the number of times the glassware is reused. The default value of the later was obtained as follows. For each type of item, a ratio was obtained by dividing the number of items washed per year by the number of items bought per year in Micalis unit (average purchases over 5 years); $N_v$ is the mean of these ratios.

## 1.3 Transport

The impacts $E_v^{transport}$ of the transport of the glass material are given by

$$E_v^{transport} = \frac{p_v t}{N_v} \qquad (2)$$

where $p_v$ is the weight of the glassware (in kg), $N_v$ is the number of times the glassware is reused, and $t$ is the footprint generated to transport 1kg of labware (from factory to lab and from lab to incinerator). $t$ depends on the geographic zone of manufacturing entered by the user (see the appendix for the details of its computation).

## 1.4 Autoclaving

The impacts of autoclaving $E_v^{autoclave}$ result from the following activities: the use of deionized water, commuting of the personnel, manufacturing of the autoclave and the electric consumption of the autoclave. All these parts vary with the type of glassware considered, as the number of glassware items $\tau C_a$ that can be placed in an autoclave depends on the type of glassware. The part related to the manufacturing of the autoclave may depend on parameters entered by the user, which explains the use of $C_a^{user}$ in the formula below; if the user does not provide any autoclave characteristics, then one should replace $C_a^{user}$ by the default capacity $C_a$ of the autoclave. We hypothesized that the quantity of water and personnel working time per item does not vary with the size of the autoclave. The amount of time required for loading and unloading a 600L autoclave is hypothesized to be one hour. The mean of electrical consumption per glassware item $k_a$ was found to vary little with the size of the autoclave (see the appendix), and is therefore a constant per type of item. It corresponds to a classical sterilization program (120°C for 20 minutes). The formula is

$$E_v^{autoclave} = \frac{q_a^{deio} f_{deio}^{water} + f^{home}}{\tau C_a} + \frac{\frac{E_a^{man}}{N_a}}{\tau C_a^{user}} + k_a f^{elec} \qquad (3)$$
## 1.5 Soaking

The impacts of soaking $E_v^{soak}$ result from two activities: the use of tap water and the use of detergent, leading to

$$E_v^{soak} = q_s^{water} f_{tap}^{water} + q_s^{det} f^{det} \quad (4)$$

where $q_s^{water}$ and $q_s^{det}$ are the quantities of water and detergent used (they depend on the type of glassware, see Table 1), and $f_{tap}^{water}$ and $f^{det}$ are the emission factors for the production of water and detergent.

## 1.6 Manual wash

The impacts of manual wash $E_v^{man\_wash}$, if any, result from the following activities: the use of tap water, the heating of the water (either with natural gas or electricity), the use of detergent and the employee's commuting, which is proportional to the manual wash duration. All these parts appear explicitly in the formula below:

$$E_v^{man\_wash} = \frac{f^{home}}{\alpha} + L f_{tap}^{water} + q^{det} f^{det} + L e_{hot}^{water} f^{energy} \quad (5)$$

where $\alpha$ is the number of glassware items that can be manually scrubbed in one hour (it has been evaluated to 120 for tubes and 60 for Erlenmeyer flasks), $f^{energy}$ is equal to $f^{elec}$ or $f^{gas}$, depending on the energy used to heat the water, and $q^{det}$ is the amount of detergent used. The later depends on the type of material and is given in the appendix Table 1.

## 1.7 Machine wash

The impacts of machine wash $E_v^{wash}$ result from the following activities: the use of tap water, the use of the deionized water, the use of detergent, the employee's commuting, the manufacturing of the washer, the eventual gloves used and the electric consumption of the washer. All these parts vary with the type of item. They have been determined from the analysis of the water and electricity consumption of 7 washers of different brand and sizes, that showed a linear correlation between capacity and consumptions. All these parts appear explicitly in the formula below:

$$E_v^{wash} = \frac{1}{C_w} \left( q_w^{water} f_{tap}^{water} + q_w^{deio} f_{deio}^{water} + q_w^{det} f_w^{det} + f^{home} + \frac{E_w^{man}}{N_w} + n_g E_g + K_w f^{elec} \right) \quad (6)$$

## 1.8 End of life

The impacts $E_v^{end}$ of the end of life of the glassware are given by

$$E_v^{end} = \frac{p_v f_v^{end}}{N_v} \quad (7)$$

where $p_v$ is the weight of the glassware, $N_v$ is the number of times the glassware is reused, and $f_v^{end}$ is the emission factor of the end of life by incineration with energy recovery of glass.

## 1.9 Total impacts

Finally, the total carbon footprint and water scarcity footprint $E_v$ of the reusable glassware are the sum of 8 activities: (1) manufacturing, (2) transport, (3) sterilization, (4) soaking, (5) manual wash, (6) machine wash, (3) decontamination and (7) end-of-life. The impacts of decontamination and sterilization are equal to the impacts of autoclaving.

$$E_v = E_v^{man} + E_v^{transport} + E_v^{soak} + 2 E_v^{autoclave} + E_v^{man\_wash} + E_v^{wash} + E_v^{end}$$
# 2 Single-use plastic ware

## 2.1 Notations and constants

### Activity data provided by user

* the plastic type p among polypropylene, polystyrene or polycarbonate

* $p_p$ is the weight of the plasticware item (in kg)

* the manufacturing zone $z_p$ of the plasticware among Europe, Asia and America

### Fixed activity data

* $e^{ebeam}$ is the amount of energy to sterilize by e-beam 1kg of plasticware (kWh/kg)

* $K_a$ is the electricity consumption of a 600L autoclave for a classical decontamination program,

* $C_{waste}$ is the quantity of plastic waste that can be placed in a 600 L autoclave (in kg).

**Emission factors** required for the computation; their values have been determined and provided by Ecovamed.

* $f_p^{prod}(z_p)$ is for the plastic manufacturing in one of the 2 zones ($z_p$ =Europe or out of Europe), and for the 3 types of plastic p

* $f_p^{mould}(z_p)$ is for the injection moulding in one of the 2 zones ($z_p$ =Europe or out of Europe), and for the 3 types of plastic p

* $f_p^{end}$ is for the end of life, it depends on the type of plastic p.

## 2.2 Manufacturing

The impacts of manufacturing $E_p^{man}$ result from 3 different activities: the production of plastic raw material, the injection moulding to create the plasticware item and finally its sterilization, if any. All these parts appear explicitly in the formula below:

$$E_p^{man} = p_p \left( f_p^{prod} + f_p^{mould} + e^{ebeam} \times f^{elec} \right) \quad (8)$$

where $p_p$ is the weight of the plastic labware item, $f_p^{prod}$ and $f_p^{mould}$ are the emission factors corresponding respectively to the production of plastic raw material and the injection moulding (they depend on the production zone) and $e^{ebeam}$ is the amount of energy required for sterilization by e-beam.

## 2.3 Decontamination

The impacts of decontamination by autoclaving $E_p^{autoclave}$, if any, result from the use of deionized water, commuting of the employee, manufacturing of the autoclave and the electric consumption of the autoclave. The calculations are based on the use of a 600L autoclave, but can be transposed to any type of autoclave, as the amount of energy consumed per unit of internal volume varies little with the size of the autoclave. The amount of time required for loading and unloading the autoclave is hypothesized to be 15 minutes. It gives

$$E_p^{autoclave} = \frac{p_p}{C_{waste}} \left( q_a^{deio} \times f_{deio}^{water} + 0.25 f^{home} + \frac{E_a^{man}}{N_a} + K_a \times f^{elec} \right) \quad (9)$$
## 2.4 Transport

The footprint $E_p^{transport}$ related to the transportation of the plastic ware is given by

$$E_p^{transport} = p_p t \qquad (10)$$

where $p_p$ is the weight of the plastic ware and $t$ is the footprint generated by the transport of 1 kg of plastic labware (from factory to lab and from lab to incinerator; see appendix for its computation).

## 2.5 End of life

The footprint $E_p^{end}$ related to the end of life of plasticware is given by

$$E_p^{end} = p_p f_p^{end} \qquad (11)$$

where $p_p$ is the weight of the item (in kg) and $f_p^{end}$ is the emission factor of plastic's end of life.

## 2.6 Total footprint

Finally, the total footprints of the single-use plastic ware are the sum of 4 activities: (8) for the manufacturing, (10) for the transport, (9) for the decontamination and (11) for the end of life:

$$E_p^{man} + E_p^{transport} + E_p^{autoclave} + E_p^{end}.$$

# Appendix

## Activity data

<table><caption>Table 1 gives the value or hypothesis regarding fixed activity data.</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="2">Activity data</th><th>Value, hypothesis</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>General</td><td>Distance from home to work place</td><td>24,5 km (round trip)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Autoclaving</td><td>Volume of deionized water per autoclaving</td><td>200 L</td></tr><tr><td>Life expectancy of an autoclave</td><td>20 years (average life-time in Micalis unit)</td></tr><tr><td>Working time to load and unload an autoclave</td><td>1 hour for an autoclave of 600 L</td></tr><tr><td>Footprint of autoclave manufacturing</td><td>Proportional to its size, 13,166 kg CO<sub>2</sub>eq and 5,834 m<sup>3</sup> world eq for an autoclave of 600 L</td></tr><tr><td>Electricity consumption per autoclaving</td><td>21 kWh for an autoclave of 600 L</td></tr><tr><td>Weight of plastic waste per autoclave</td><td>15 kg per autoclave of 600 L</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Soaking</td><td>Working time for autoclaving plastic waste</td><td>12 minutes per autoclaving</td></tr><tr><td>Volume of water for soaking per item</td><td>Proportional to the internal volume of glassware products: 1x for flasks and bottles, 2x for tubes and 3x for pipettes</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Manual wash</td><td>Volume of detergent per item</td><td>5% of the volume of water used for soaking</td></tr><tr><td>Working time per item</td><td>30 s for tubes and pipettes, 1 min for others</td></tr><tr><td>Energy required to heat 1 L of water</td><td>0.04 kWh/L, to heat water from 15°C to 37°C, with a yield of 65%</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Machine wash<br>(washer of 180L)</td><td>Volume of detergent per item</td><td>1% of the internal volume of the glassware</td></tr><tr><td>Electricity consumption per wash cycle</td><td>10 kWh</td></tr><tr><td>Volume of tap water per wash cycle</td><td>120 L</td></tr><tr><td>Volume of deionized water per wash cycle</td><td>60 L</td></tr><tr><td>Footprints of washer manufacturing</td><td>774 kg CO<sub>2</sub>eq and 343 m<sup>3</sup> world eq</td></tr><tr><td>Working time to load and unload a washer</td><td>1 hour per machine wash</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Transport</td><td>Total number of use of a laboratory washer</td><td>1170</td></tr><tr><td>Volume of detergent per wash cycle</td><td>0.12 L</td></tr><tr><td>Transport</td><td>Transport from lab to incinerator</td><td>150 km, by road</td></tr></tbody></table>

<caption>Table 1: Summary of fixed activity data</caption>

## Estimation of $k_a$, the amount of kWh per item for autoclaving

We compiled the electric consumption per item, based on the assumption that the autoclave if filled with a single type of glassware, of nine models of autoclave: Tuttnauer 2840EL, 3850 EL, 3870 EL, 5050 EL, 5075 EL, 2840 ELV, 3850 ELV and 5050 ELV models, and Steam A-line 600 model. The
internal volume of these autoclaves ranges from 28 L to 600 L. The number of items that can be placed in an autoclave was obtained either from the documentation of the manufacturer for Erlenmeyer flasks, or for measurements on a smaller number of models (Tuttnauer 2840EL and 5050WEL and A-Line 600) for tubes and pipettes. We found that the amount of kWh per item is relatively independent of the autoclave model. We therefore defined $k_a$ as the median of the values (in kWh/item) obtained for the 9 autoclaves. $k_a$ values for each type of item are given in Table 2.

<table><caption>Table 2: Electricity consumption per item and per autoclaving</caption><thead><tr><td>Type of glassware</td><td>k<sub>a</sub> per item (kWh)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Tube 10 ml</td><td>0.010</td></tr><tr><td>Tube 20 ml</td><td>0.014</td></tr><tr><td>Tube 30 ml</td><td>0.018</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 100 ml</td><td>0.105</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 250 ml</td><td>0.200</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 500 ml</td><td>0.291</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 1 L</td><td>0.583</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 2 L</td><td>1.00</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 5 L</td><td>2.10</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 2 ml</td><td>0.009</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 5 ml</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 10 ml</td><td>0.023</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 25 ml</td><td>0.037</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Capacity calculation

The default $C_a$ corresponds to the number of items of a given type that can be placed into a Steam A-line 600 autoclave. The user capacity $\tau C_a^{user}$ is calculated by first determining the volume required per item for each type of glassware across the 9 previously described autoclave models. The average volume was then calculated, and the user's entered autoclave volume is divided by this average to obtain $\tau C_a^{user}$. If the weight is entered, the $\tau C_a^{user}$ is calculated similarly, by first multiplying the weight by 1.66 to obtain the volume of the autoclave. $C_{wash}$ corresponds to the number of items that can be placed into a 180 L laboratory washer (Lancer Ultima 1300LX). $C_a$, $\tau C_a^{user}$ and $C_{wash}$ values are given in Table 3.

## Transport calculation

$t$ corresponds to the footprint generated by the transport of 1kg of labware from the geographical zone of manufacturing (Europe, Asia or America) to France<fnref n="2" />, both from factory to lab, and lab to incinerator:

* Assumption for transport from factory to laboratory: Europe: 500km factory-warehouse by road with a trailer truck and 500 km warehouse-lab by delivery truck; Asia: 500km factory-port by road with a trailer truck, 20,000km by sea, 500km port-warehouse road by trailer truck, 500km warehouse-lab by delivery truck; Americas: 1000km factory-port by road with a trailer truck, 10,000km by sea, 500km port-warehouse road by trailer-truck, 500km warehouse-lab by delivery truck)

* Assumption for transport from lab to incinerator: 150km lab-to-incinerator route by delivery truck.

<footnote n="2">²For more generality, one should also consider the case where the user is not in France; this is part of future development</footnote>
<table><caption>Table 3: Autoclave and washer capacities per item (number of items per machine)</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Type of glassware</th><th colspan="3">Autoclave</th><th rowspan="2">Washer<br/>C<sub>w</sub></th></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">Default capacity<br/>C<sub>a</sub></th><th colspan="2">User capacity C<sup>a</sup><sub>user</sub></th></tr><tr><th></th><th>If volume X is<br/>entered (L)</th><th>If weight X is<br/>entered (kg)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>tube 10 ml</td><td>2112</td><td>X/0.227</td><td>X/0.38</td><td>1689</td></tr><tr><td>tube 20 ml</td><td>1512</td><td>X/0.317</td><td>X/0.53</td><td>1210</td></tr><tr><td>tube 30 ml</td><td>1152</td><td>X/0.417</td><td>X/0.69</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 100 ml</td><td>200</td><td>X/2.40</td><td>X/4.00</td><td>112</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 250 ml</td><td>105</td><td>X/4.04</td><td>X/7.75</td><td>112</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 500 ml</td><td>72</td><td>X/6.61</td><td>X/12.64</td><td>112</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 1 L</td><td>36</td><td>X/10.96</td><td>X/20.72</td><td>36</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 2 L</td><td>21</td><td>X/22.96</td><td>X/38.10</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>Erlenmeyer 5 L</td><td>10</td><td>X/48.00</td><td>X/80.00</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 2 ml</td><td>2380</td><td>X/0.25</td><td>X/0.42</td><td>196</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 5 ml</td><td>1680</td><td>X/0.36</td><td>X/0.59</td><td>196</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 10 ml</td><td>896</td><td>X/0.67</td><td>X/1.12</td><td>64</td></tr><tr><td>Pipette 25 ml</td><td>560</td><td>X/1.07</td><td>X/1.79</td><td>64</td></tr></tbody></table>

It leads to:

$$1000t = \begin{cases} 500f_{big}^t + 500f_{small}^t + 150f_{small}^t & \text{if } zone = \text{Europe} \\ 500f_{big}^t + 20000f_{sea}^t + 500f_{big}^t + 500f_{small}^t + 150f_{small}^t & \text{if } zone = \text{Asia} \\ 1000f_{big}^t + 10000f_{sea}^t + 500f_{big}^t + 500f_{small}^t + 150f_{small}^t & \text{if } zone = \text{America} \end{cases}$$

## Autoclave and washing machine manufacturing footprint calculation

**Washing machine** The footprints (both carbon and water scarcity) of the manufacturing of a laboratory washer was calculated proportionally to its weight, using the footprints of the household dishwasher Kitchen Aid KDTM354ESS [1].

**Autoclave** The footprints of an autoclave manufacturing is similarly calculated proportionally to its weight, using the carbon footprint that has been calculated for the GSS-P 91413 Gettinge autoclave: 34 220 kg CO2e [2]. To get the water scarcity footprint, we used the same ratio between CO2eq and m3 world eq for the autoclave and the washer.

## Estimation of detergent quantity

The amount of detergent used for soaking glassware is one twentieth of the volume of water required for soaking, which is one fold the internal volume of labware for flasks and bottles, twice the internal volume for tubes and three times the internal volume for pipettes.

## Bibliography

[1] Porras et al. (2020). A Guide to Household Manual and Machine Dishwashing through a Life Cycle Perspective. Environ. Res. Commun. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2515-7620/ab716b

[2] Hella and Madhusoodhanan (2022). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a GSS-P 91413 Autoclave Produced in the Gettinge Factory, Master's thesis in Mechanical Engineering, Halmstad University, http://hh.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1673121&dswid=-325