# The Burial from Aleti Tunu Bibi Cave, Atauro Island, East Timor: A Possible Victim of a Crocodile Attack?

Anne-Marie Bacon, Philippe Duringer, Jean-Luc Ponche, Tania Delabarde, Renaud Joannes-Boyau, Sahra Talamo, Laura Tassoni, Lukas Wacker, Mélanie Ligot, Fabrice Demeter, et al.

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Anne-Marie Bacon, Philippe Duringer, Jean-Luc Ponche, Tania Delabarde, Renaud Joannes-Boyau, et al.. The Burial from Aleti Tunu Bibi Cave, Atauro Island, East Timor: A Possible Victim of a Crocodile Attack?. 2025. hal-05382245

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# The Burial from Aleti Tunu Bibi Cave, Atauro Island, East Timor:
A Possible Victim of a Crocodile Attack?

Anne-Marie BACON, Philippe DURINGER, Jean-Luc PONCHE, Tania DELABARDE, Renaud JOANNES-BOYAU, Sahra TALAMO, Laura TASSONI, Lukas WACKER, Mélanie LIGOT, Fabrice DEMETER, and Jean-Christophe GALIPAUD

Anne-Marie Bacon (corresponding author) is a Palaeontologist in the BABEL Laboratory (Université Paris Cité and Centre national de la recherche scientifique [CNRS]). Philippe Duringer is a Geologist in the Ecole et Observatoire des Sciences de la Terre, Institut de Physique du Globe at the Université de Strasbourg. Jean-Luc Ponche is a Geochemist in the Image Ville Environnement Laboratory at the Université de Strasbourg. Tania Delabarde is a Forensic Anthropologist in the BABEL Laboratory (Université Paris Cité and CNRS). Renaud Joannes-Boyau (ORCID: 0000-0002-0452-486X) is a Geochronologist with the Geoarchaeology and Archaeometry Research Group at Southern Cross University. Sahra Talamo is a Professor of Chemistry and Laura Tassoni (ORCID: 0000-0002-0110-3656) is a Chemist, both in the Department of Chemistry “Giacomo Ciamician” at the University of Bologna. Lukas Wacker is a Lecturer at the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences in the Laboratory for Ion Beam Physics at Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich. Mélanie Ligot is a Doctoral Student in the Technologie et Ethnologie des Mondes Préhistoriques Laboratory at the Université Paris-Nanterre. Fabrice Demeter is a Palaeoanthropologist at the University of Copenhagen and in the Eco-anthropology Laboratory (Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle [MNHN]). Jean-Christophe Galipaud (corresponding author) is an Archaeologist at the Research Institute for Development and MNHN.

**Abstract:** The Aleti Tunu Bibi cave, located on the small volcanic island of Atauro close to the island of Timor, is a sacred site for the region's inhabitants. The cave's archaeological potential was revealed in 2015 with the discovery of artifacts, rock art depicting marine fauna (mammals and reptiles), human remains, and a few remains of marine and terrestrial fauna. New material discovered in 2017 included sporadic remains of marine fauna, goats, and pigs, and a partial human skeleton with perimortem bone lesions. The analysis of these additional elements is presented here. Direct dating of the skeleton ($^{14}$C AMS and U-series on bones and teeth) gave a burial date of ca. 4900 cal. B.P., indicating that this individual lived during the Holocene. The burial context suggests a primary burial. After thorough examination of the bone lesions, it was concluded that the individual may have been attacked by a saltwater crocodile (*Crocodylus porosus*), which is probably represented by the zoomorphic figures painted on the cave wall. The more recent remains of goats and pigs are associated with sacrificial rituals. Overall, the evidence points to intermittent use of the Aleti Tunu Bibi cave site as early as 18,000 years ago. Rock art and the intentional human burial allow us to describe the symbolic behavior of hunter-gatherers who heavily depended on a maritime environment.

**Keywords:** Wallacea, *Homo sapiens*, mortuary rituals.
**Introduction**

Wallacea is a biogeographic region stretching between Sundaland and the Sahul Shelf (Fig. 1a). Despite wide fluctuations in sea levels during the earliest phase of *Homo sapiens* settlement, the region has remained insular and today comprises more than ten thousand small islands. Given that *Homo sapiens* can be found in Sumatra by about 63,000 years ago (Louys et al. 2022; Westaway et al. 2017) and in northern Australia by 65,000 years ago (Clarkson et al. 2017), there is no doubt that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers were able to cross the islands and ocean spanning Wallacea and had the capacity to exploit new environments (Roberts and Stewart 2018).

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. Location of Atauro Island in Southeast Asia: (a) map of Island Southeast Asia showing the Wallace, Huxley, and Lydekker lines delimiting the biogeographic area of Wallacea; (b) location of Atauro and Timor Islands; (c) aerial view of Atauro Island showing location of study area (Aleti Tunu Bibi cave) in the southwest on the southern edge of Atekru Bay.</figcaption></figure>

The oldest known indirect evidence of modern human settlement in Wallacea is currently dated to between 50,000 and 45,000 years ago (Détroit et al. 2004; Rabett et al. 2006; Sutikna et al. 2018). Atauro is one of these small volcanic islands; it has never been connected to any of the nearby islands of Alor, Wetar, or Timor, even during low sea level periods (Sathiamurthy and Voris 2006). Given Atauro's limited resources and small land area—140 km² versus 31,000 km² for nearby Timor—it remains to be demonstrated if such small islands could have been steps on a possible southern migration route to Australia (Roberts et al. 2022).
The dispersal of modern humans in a maritime and estuarine environment underlines the foraging mobility and adaptive skills of hunter-gatherers (Kaifu et al. 2020; Kealy et al. 2016, 2018; Kealy et al. 2020) and implies that they used watercraft and sophisticated technologies made of stone, bone, or teeth for hunting terrestrial and marine animals and processing foods, plants, and animals (Amano et al. 2016; Ono et al. 2021). Excepting artifacts recovered in Niah Cave in Borneo (ca. 45,000 cal. B.P.) (Rabett 2005; Rabett and Piper 2012), the first evidence of osseous and lithic artifacts remains rare for this insular region during the Late Pleistocene. However, they become common and demonstrate a growing level of sophistication toward the end of the Pleistocene and during the Holocene. Furthermore, the study of archaeological sites in the region highlights cultural transmission among modern humans, notably through mortuary practices (see Samper Carro 2024 and references therein for a review of burial practices) and belief systems in an island environment (Langley et al. 2019).

In this context, the data found on Atauro Island provides new evidence of these practices. During the 2014 survey of Atauro, archaeologists located a site of interest, the Aleti Tunu Bibi (ATB) cave site, which was used from as early as 18,000 years ago (Galipaud et al. 2016). Two seasons of fieldwork revealed stone artifacts, marine and terrestrial faunal remains, isolated human remains, and rock art made with various red and black pigments (Galipaud et al. 2016). The rock art includes parallel lines, dots, and short lines; a possible boat; and at least ten zoomorphic paintings depicting lizard or crocodile and sea mammal or fish figures. One elaborate panel of three zoomorphic figures could depict a specific event involving several marine crocodiles. The choice of motifs, lack of anthropomorphic representations, and the simple dot and line designs were interpreted as belonging to an older art tradition than the Austronesian Painting Tradition (O'Connor and Oliveira 2007; Wilson 2004). Based on this initial evidence, Galipaud and colleagues (2016) concluded that *The cave was primarily used as a sacred space, likely for mortuary rituals. Interestingly, today the cave is also known as a sacred location. The name of the cave roughly translates to "the place where goats are roasted to chase away demons." While goats are a recent introduction to Timor, the presence of rock art and human remains suggests the cave may have been associated with sacred rituals since ancient times.* (Galipaud et al. 2016:142)

New excavation in 2017 yielded more human remains, including a partly intact human burial, as well as a few marine (i.e., shell, crab, and sea urchin present sporadically) and terrestrial fauna (i.e., goat and pig). Our analysis of the additional evidence is presented here. We attempt to date the interment context of this primary burial by directly dating the human teeth and bones and one shell artifact (a blank of an oval-shaped shell object) using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) ¹⁴C and U-series dating methods. We also analyze the impact of taphonomy on the preservation of the bones. Our study of the skeleton enables us to describe the inhumation body position and body treatment and compare them with local and regional Late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene burial practices (Pawlik et al. 2019; Piper 2016; Samper Carro 2024). Some long bones in the human burial exhibit marked bone modifications, so we focus our analysis of this skeleton and seek to identify the perimortem nature and origin of the trauma among various possible agents, including monitor lizards, vultures, saltwater crocodiles, and killer whales. We also describe the goat and pig remains and place them in the recent history of the rock shelter. Finally, we consider all the evidence (human burials, faunal remains, rock art) to understand what rituals
might have been practiced in the ATB shelter by populations living in what was essentially a
coastal and maritime environment.

Chronology of *Homo sapiens* migration in Wallacea and adaptive skills of hunter-gatherers

Wallacea is situated between the Asian and Australian continental shelves as delineated by
the Wallace and Huxley lines in the west and the Lydekker line in the east (Huxley 1868; Wallace
1860) (Fig. 1a). Based on AMS ¹⁴C dating (cal. B.P.) of charcoal samples and shells, the dispersal of
hunter-gatherers in east Wallacea has been dated to ca. 39,000 years ago on Palawan Island at
Tabon cave (Xhauflair et al. 2024), with a possible earlier date at ca. 47,000 years ago supported
by a U-series dating of a human bone (Détroit et al. 2004), and to ca. 45,000 years ago on the
island of Borneo at Niah cave (Rabett et al. 2006). In the northern part of Wallacea, which
includes the Philippines, the oldest known indirect evidence of modern human settlement is
currently dated to at least ca. 35,000 years ago on Ilin Island at the Bubog-1 rockshelter (Pawlik
et al. 2019; Pawlik et al. 2025). In Central Sulawesi, radiocarbon dates on charcoal samples
provide an age for *H. sapiens* occupation of ca. 42,000 years ago at the Goa Topogaro 2 site (Ono
et al. 2022), while a new U-series analysis of calcite deposits overlying parietal rock art in South
Sulawesi indicates it was present 51,200 years ago (Aubert et al. 2019; Brumm et al. 2021;
Oktaviana et al. 2024). At the southern limit of Sundaland, AMS ¹⁴C dates (cal. B.P.) indicate a
human dispersal at ca. 46,000 years ago in Flores at Liang Bua (Sutikna et al. 2018), ca. 44,000
years ago at Laili cave (Hawkins et al. 2017) and the Asitau Kuru/Jerimalai shelter (O'Connor et
al. 2011), ca. 42,000 years ago at the Lene Hara cave (O'Connor et al. 2010) in East Timor, and ca.
40,000 years ago at the Makpan cave on Alor Island (Kealy et al. 2020). Social behaviors of modern
humans linked to a high degree of care for the members of the group have also been observed,
including a case of surgical amputation of a child's lower leg at Liang Tebo cave in Borneo dated
as early as ca. 31,000 years ago (Maloney et al. 2022).

There are multiple, outstanding examples of osseous technology in the region, including: a
projectile point, possibly carved from human or saltwater crocodile bone and hafted using mastic
and cordage, at Matja Kuru 2, East Timor (ca. 34,000 cal. B.P.) (O'Connor et al. 2014); an
assemblage of bipoint, unipoint, and spatula artifacts manufactured from bones of mammals for
different uses at the Lemdubu site on Aru Island (ca. 18,000-17,000 cal. B.P.) (Pasveer 2006); and
the highly morphologically diverse points carved from bones and teeth of pig (Sus celebensis),
anoa (Bubalus depressicornis), and babirusa (Babryousa babyrussa) at several sites in Southeast
Sulawesi showing a local evolution from predominant use as hafted projectile points to use as
penetrative tools (ca. 9500 cal. B.P.) (Aplin et al. 2016; Olsen and Glover 2004). The eastern part
of Sulawesi also provides evidence of highly specialized bone tool technology related to stone
tool technology by 26,000 years ago (ca. 26,000-16,000 cal. B.P.) at the Goa Topogaro site (Ono
et al. 2021). The adaptive skills of foragers are demonstrated in fishing technology, as shown in
the occurrence of fishhooks in various assemblages that were either used to capture deep-sea
fish off the coast of Timor Island (found in Jerimalai Cave, dated ca. 23,000-16,000 cal. B.P.)
(O'Connor et al. 2011) or Alor Island (found in the Tron Bon Lei rockshelter, dated ca. 12,000 cal.
B.P.) (O'Connor et al. 2017) or used in the context of a mangrove swamp in the Philippines (as
seen at Bubog I, dated ca. 30,000 cal. B.P.) (Boulanger et al. 2019).
In the region studied, proximity to the coast was evidently a key factor in modern humans'
reliance on aquatic resources, and marine species remained food resources even for humans at
inland sites. For example, at Asitau Kuru in East Timor, remains of 15 marine species, including
pelagic fish (e.g., tuna), sea turtles, and shellfish, have been found dating from ca. 42,000 years
ago to modern times (Glover 1986; O'Connor and Aplin 2007; O'Connor et al. 2011; cf. Anderson
2013 for an alternative interpretation of Pleistocene deep-sea fishing). Increasing reliance on
terrestrial floral and faunal resources started around 20,000 years ago (Roberts et al. 2020). At
the Laili cave site, East Timor, there are a few fish, rays, and sharks, but turtles (marine and
freshwater) and mollusks remained prey species throughout the sequence (44,600–11,200 cal.
B.P.) (Hawkins et al. 2017). At the inland Matja Kuru 2 site (36,800–2200 cal. B.P.), located 10 km
from the coast of Timor Island, populations consumed a broad range of shellfish (O'Connor et al.
2014).

During the Neolithic, starting around 4000 years ago, Austronesian-speaking populations employed their open-sea navigation skills to migrate to the islands of Southeast Asia and later Oceania (Boulanger 2024). They introduced domesticated animals (i.e., pigs, dogs, and chickens) and new plants (i.e., rice and millet) along with new crafts to the Wallacea region. The assemblages of marine invertebrates and cultural objects at Makpan on Alor Island, including new stone materials (i.e., a reduction in obsidian and an increase in chert) and the introduction of pottery, provide evidence of a change in subsistence strategy (Kealy et al. 2020). Non-domesticated mammals, including the spotted cuscus (Phalanger orientalis) (O'Connor 2015), palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), porcupine (Hystrix javanica), and long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), were also introduced during the mid-Holocene (van den Bergh et al. 2009). Maritime trade routes and population interaction have been hallmarks of the region into the modern era (Bellwood 2018).

Atauro Island and the Aleti Tunu Bibi cave site

Atauro Island belongs to the Dili District of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (East Timor) (Fig. 1b). It is approximately 22 km long and 10 km wide (ca. 140 km²), with an elevation of 1000 m above sea level (asl) (Fig. 1c). Atauro is separated from the eastern end of Timor Island by a deep (ca. 3500 m) sea trench. As part of the northern volcanogenic arc, Atauro has a different geological history than that of the large island of Timor, which belongs to the southern orogenic arc. Atauro is in a geologic region known as the Wetar zone, which is characterized by ancient volcanism that ceased around three million years ago (3.1–3.5 million years ago for Atauro) (Ely et al. 2011) and the subsequent uplift of fringing coral reefs. The dominant landforms are strongly controlled by a geology comprising flat to sloping limestone terraces. Current habitats include montane forests, open eucalyptus forests, tropical dry forests, and savannah. There are no sources of fresh water except for that flowing through volcanic rock.
Excavation of Aleti Tunu Bibi

In 2014, Jean-Christophe Galipaud surveyed Atauro Island as part of a French-Timorese cooperation funded by the French Research Institute for Development and located the ATB cave site south of Atekru village. The cave is situated along a limestone terrace dated ca. 125,000 years ago (Chappell and Veeh 1978) at an altitude of ca. 60 m asl, less than ca. 200 m from the current shoreline (Fig. 2a). The cave covers an 8 m × 7 m surface area and stands 2.5 m high, with the opening facing the sea (Fig. 2b). Some pottery, hematite, and stone artifacts made from obsidian and chert were unearthed from a small test pit.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2. Aleti Tunu Bibi cave site: (a) view of shoreline on southern edge of Atekru Bay, with approximate location of ATB marked (red rectangle); (b) entrance to ATB cave; (c) excavation plan (modified from Galipaud et al. 2016:132, fig. 4); (d) photo of TP3 being excavated in 2017.</figcaption></figure>

The following year, two test pits, TP1 (2 m × 1 m) and TP2 (1.5 m × 1 m), were excavated up to a depth of 0.7 m and 1.4 m, in stratigraphic units 201–207 and 301–309, respectively (Fig. 2c, Table 1). During this fieldwork season, each of the stratigraphic units was roughly 10 cm deep. The test pits yielded more chert and obsidian flakes, artifacts associated with marine and terrestrial fauna, along with disarticulated elements of one human skeleton (Galipaud et al. 2016). From TP1, only the remains of a small ungulate (1 molar, 1 vertebra, 1 metacarpal, 2 phalanges) found in the upper layer (U202) are studied here. Dating of some small *Tridacna* shells from the cultural layers indicates that the shelter had been used as early as 18,000 years ago (Galipaud et al. 2016).
<table><caption>Table 1. Remains recorded in Test pits TP2 and TP3 at Aleti Tunu Bibi</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Layer</th><th rowspan="2">Units TP2<sup>a</sup></th><th rowspan="2">Units TP3<sup>b</sup></th><th rowspan="2">Marine fauna<sup>c</sup></th><th colspan="2">Terrestrial fauna<sup>d</sup></th><th rowspan="2">Human<sup>e</sup></th></tr><tr><th>Sus cf. scrofa</th><th>Capra cf. hircus</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">A</td><td>301</td><td rowspan="5">301</td><td rowspan="3">Fish (1 vertebra)</td><td rowspan="3">Maxillae, vertebrae, distal femur, bone fragments</td><td rowspan="3">Metapodial, diaphyseal fragments, vertebrae, ilium</td><td rowspan="5"></td></tr><tr><td>302</td></tr><tr><td>303</td></tr><tr><td>304</td><td>Tridacna sp.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>305</td><td>Fish (1 vertebra) Crab (1 claw)</td><td>Metapodial, fragment of vertebrae, bone fragments</td></tr><tr><td>B</td><td>306</td><td>302</td><td>Tridacna sp.</td><td></td><td></td><td>Partial human skeleton (buiral); Proximal femur, rib fragments, mandible, distal phalange, bone fragments</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">C</td><td>307</td><td rowspan="3">303</td><td rowspan="3"></td><td rowspan="3"></td><td rowspan="3"></td><td rowspan="3"></td></tr><tr><td>308</td></tr><tr><td>309</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Turbo sp.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Tridacna sp.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote><sup>a</sup> TP2 from 2015 and 2017 fieldwork seasons.</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> TP3 from 2017 fieldwork season.</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> TP1 also produced sporadic marine fauna through units 203–207 (i.e., 12 crab claws, 3 urchin spines, 2 fish vertebrae).</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> Additional goat (*Capra cf. hircus*) remains in TP1 unit 202 belong to one adult individual (MNI = 1). TP1 produced few microvertebrates remains.</footnote>

<footnote><sup>e</sup> Additional human bones in TP1 units 205 and 206 were covered with calcite; these bones might belong to one individual (Galipaud et al. 2016).</footnote>
In 2017, the excavation of TP2 was extended toward the bottom of the shelter with a new pit (TP3) (2 m × 1 m) (Fig. 2c,d). As shown in Figure 3, the depth of the layers varied considerably, so we defined the units for this new pit as corresponding roughly to the sedimentary characteristics visible while excavating. These units yielded the additional faunal and human remains studied here. All excavated units that produced remains (301–309 in TP2 and 301–303 in TP3) were later reconciled into three depositional layers: A (ca. 50 cm at the thickest part); B (ca. 30 cm at the thickest part); and C (ca. 40 cm at the thickest part) (Fig. 3, Fig. 4a, Table 1). The basal Layer C covered the reef limestone substratum of the cave. Part of Layer B contained the human burial in TP3, and isolated human bone fragments belonging to a second distinct individual were found nearby, scattered throughout the layer. We also observed a few post-burial anthropogenic or animal disturbances that suggest the shelter had been long abandoned prior to the deposition of Layer A.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3. Stratigraphy of Aleti Tunu Bibi cave site, with details of Layers A, B, C at section X seen lower right.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 4. Stratigraphy of Aleti Tunu Bibi cave site: (a) drawing showing 3 layers (A, B, C) with location of human burial (D) discovered at the base of Layer B and intruding into Layer C; (b,c) photographs with dashed lines marking stratigraphic layers.</figcaption></figure>

## Dating shells

A new radiocarbon age (AMS $^{14}$C) of a worked shell (Turbo sp.) (code number of the sample OxA-4129) from the top of Layer C was estimated at between 11,654 and 11,210 cal. B.P. (95.1%) at Oxford University (Fig. 4a–c). The dating results for other shells (Tridacna sp.) recovered throughout the three cultural layers had previously been published (Galipaud et al. 2016). In Table 2, uncalibrated results are given in radiocarbon years B.P. (Before Present, that is, years before A.D. 1950) using the half-life of 5568 years. Isotopic fractionation was corrected in order to use $^{13}$C values measured on the AMS. The quoted $^{13}$C values were measured independently on a stable isotope mass spectrometer to 0.3 per ml relative to the Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite isotope reference. Chemical pretreatment followed the processes established by Ramsey and colleagues (2004) and Brock and colleagues (2010). The calendar age ranges were generated using the Oxcal (v4.4) computer program (Ramsey et al. 2020) using either SHCal20 or Marine 20 calibration curves. $\Delta R$ was calculated from available values in the region (Reimer and Reimer 2001) for a Weighted Mean $\Delta R = -99 \pm -39$.
<table><caption>Table 2. New dating results for materials from ATB cave.</caption><thead><tr><th>Sample</th><th>Test pit-Unit</th><th>Layer</th><th>Method</th><th>Material</th><th>13C (‰)</th><th>uncalibrated date</th><th>Calibrated date (cal. B.P.) and probability</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Beta-419825</td><td>TP2-304</td><td>A</td><td><sup>14</sup>C</td><td>shell (Tridacna sp.)</td><td>+1.9</td><td>1990 ± 30</td><td>1673 (95.4%)-1330 B.P.</td><td>Galipaud et al. 2016</td></tr><tr><td>OxA-X-3007-38</td><td>TP3-301-302</td><td>B</td><td><sup>14</sup>C</td><td>human molar from the skeleton (burial)</td><td>-11.95</td><td>4139 ± 24</td><td>4948 (0.3%)-4943 B.P.<br>4876 (67.8%)-4799 B.P.<br>4760 (21.8%)-4695 B.P.<br>4676 (5.6%)-4644 B.P.<sup>A</sup><br>(Courbe SHCal20)</td><td>This study</td></tr><tr><td>CGG-607</td><td>TP3-301-302</td><td>B</td><td>U-series</td><td>human molar from the skeleton (burial)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>2.7 ± 1.4 ka</td><td>This study</td></tr><tr><td>Cranium fragment</td><td>TP3-301-302</td><td>B</td><td>U-series</td><td>Human parietal from the skeleton (burial)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>4.9 ± 1.3 ka</td><td>This study</td></tr><tr><td>CGG-608</td><td>TP3-301-302</td><td>B</td><td>U-series</td><td>human tooth (isolated mandible)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>2.6 ± 1.3 ka</td><td>This study</td></tr><tr><td>Beta-419826</td><td>TP2-306</td><td>B</td><td><sup>14</sup>C</td><td>shell (Tridacna sp.)</td><td>+1.7</td><td>8160 ± 30</td><td>8789 (95.4%)-8384 B.P.</td><td>Galipaud et al. 2016</td></tr><tr><td>OxA-4129</td><td>TP3-303</td><td>C</td><td><sup>14</sup>C</td><td>shell (Turbo sp.?)</td><td>+1.61</td><td>10304 ± 26</td><td>11654 (95.4%)-11210 B.P.</td><td>This study</td></tr><tr><td>Beta-419827</td><td>TP2-309</td><td>C</td><td><sup>14</sup>C</td><td>shell (Tridacna sp.)</td><td>+2.4</td><td>15060 ± 50</td><td>17844 (95.4%)-17256 B.P.</td><td>Galipaud et al. 2016</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote>a Calibrated according to the Southern Hemisphere Calibration Curve (SHCal20).</footnote>
## Dating human remains

Three dating methods were attempted on the skeletal remains of both individuals discovered in Layer B. Dating methods for the individual in the burial site included: (1) radiometric dating (AMS ¹⁴C) on the enamel of one molar from the mandible (code number of the sample OxA-X-3007-38) was conducted at Oxford University in the United Kingdom; (2) U-series dating on one cranium fragment and a second molar was conducted at Southern Cross University, Australia; and (3) radiometric dating (AMS ¹⁴C) on the same molar and on bones from the mandible and cranium was conducted at the BRAVHO laboratory at the University of Bologna, Italy (Table 2, Table 3). The code number of the samples taken from this individual is CGG-607.

Two of these methods were applied to the individual that was represented by isolated elements, including the mandible and bones: (1) U-series dating of one tooth at Southern Cross University; and (2) radiometric dating (AMS ¹⁴C) on the same tooth at the BRAVHO laboratory at the University of Bologna (Table 2, Table 3). The code number of the samples taken from this individual is CGG-608.

<table><caption>Table 3. Overview of ¹⁴C pretreatment of samples from ATB cave.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">BRAVHO code <sup>a</sup></th><th rowspan="2">Burials ATB</th><th rowspan="2">Bone type</th><th rowspan="2">¹⁴C pretreatment method</th><th colspan="3">Collagen yield</th><th rowspan="2">Notes</th></tr><tr><th>Samples taken</th><th>[mg]</th><th>[%]</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>BRA-5900.1</td><td>CGG_607</td><td>molar (burial)</td><td>Talamo et al. 2021</td><td>322</td><td>0.7</td><td>0.2%</td><td>sticky</td></tr><tr><td>BRA-5901.1</td><td rowspan="2">CGG_607</td><td rowspan="2">mandible (burial)</td><td>Talamo et al. 2021</td><td>532</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.0%</td><td>sticky</td></tr><tr><td>BRA-5901.2</td><td>Fewlass et al. 2019</td><td>637</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.1%</td><td>sticky</td></tr><tr><td>BRA-5904.1</td><td rowspan="2">CGG_607</td><td rowspan="2">cranium fragment (burial)</td><td>Talamo et al. 2021</td><td>575</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.1%</td><td>sticky</td></tr><tr><td>BRA-5904.2</td><td>Fewlass et al. 2019</td><td>744</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.1%</td><td>sticky</td></tr><tr><td>BRA 6130A.2</td><td rowspan="3">CGG_607</td><td rowspan="3">3 cranium fragments (A, B, C) (burial)</td><td rowspan="3">Fewlass et al. 2019</td><td>671</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.2%</td><td>sticky - black powder</td></tr><tr><td>BRA 6130B.2</td><td>560</td><td>1.6</td><td>0.3%</td><td>sticky - black powder</td></tr><tr><td>BRA 6130C.2</td><td>624</td><td>2.1</td><td>0.3%</td><td>sticky - black powder</td></tr><tr><td>BRA-5902.1</td><td rowspan="2">CGG_608</td><td rowspan="2">tooth (isolated mandible)</td><td>Talamo et al. 2021</td><td>511</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.2%</td><td>sticky</td></tr><tr><td>BRA-5902.2</td><td>Fewlass et al. 2019</td><td>415.8</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.1%</td><td>sticky</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote><sup>a</sup> All samples were processed at the BRAVHO laboratory in Italy. Samples with .1 extension in the code were processed using the ¹⁴C pretreatment method in Talamo et al. (2021); samples with .2 extension followed the ¹⁴C pretreatment protocol in Fewlass et al. (2019).</footnote>
Radiometric (AMS ¹⁴C) dating method and results

Two pretreatment methods were used at the BRAVHO laboratory at the University of Bologna (Table 3). The first method followed the acid-base-acid procedure described by Talamo and colleagues (2021). Subsamples of approximately 500 mg were demineralized in 0.5 ml HCl at 4°C until soft, rinsed with Milli-Q water, treated with 0.1 ml NaOH for 30 minutes at room temperature to remove humic acids, and re-acidified in 0.5 ml HCl for 15 minutes. Gelatinization was performed in acidic water (HCl pH 3) at 70°C for 20 hours. The resulting gelatin was filtered through Ezee-filter™ separators (Elkay Laboratory, UK) to remove particles >80 µm. Following this step, Sartorius VivaSpin® Turbo 15 filters were used to perform ultrafiltration to effectively separate low molecular weight contaminants and degraded proteins (<30 kDa) from the larger molecules (>30 kDa). Ezee-filters and ultrafilters were meticulously pre-cleaned to prevent any contamination risks associated with the filter membranes. The >30 kDa and <30 kDa fractions were frozen for 24 hours, freeze-dried over 48 hours, and promptly weighed using a microbalance to calculate the percentage yield.

A second protocol, adapted from Fewlass and colleagues (2019), was applied using the same bone sample size (ca. 500 mg) as the first method. Samples were demineralized in 0.5 ml HCl at 4°C until CO2 effervescence stopped. They were treated with 0.1 ml NaOH for 10 minutes at room temperature to remove humic acid contamination, followed by re-acidification in 0.5 ml HCl. Collagen was gelatinized in acidic water (HCl pH 3) at 70°C for 4–6 hours. The subsequent steps—filtration through Ezee-filters, ultrafiltration, freezing, freeze-drying, and weighing to calculate the percentage yield—were conducted as in the first protocol.

Unfortunately, neither of the two protocols (Fewlass et al. 2019; Talamo et al. 2021) provided enough collagen to proceed with the necessary steps to obtain a radiocarbon date (Table 3). Typically, the graphitization step at the BRAVHO lab (Tassoni et al. 2023) involves the use of the Elemental Vario ISOTOPE Select, coupled with the AGE 3 (Automated Graphitization Equipment, IonPlusAG, Switzerland) (Wacker, Němec et al. 2010). The resulting graphite targets are then analyzed using the latest model of the MICADAS AMS (Wacker, Bonani et al. 2010). However, in this case, the collagen yields were too low, and the carbon content in the samples was insufficient to move forward with the measurements.

U-series dating method and results

Teeth were sectioned in half using a high-precision, low-speed rotary diamond saw, exposing dentine and enamel tissues. The exposed surface of each sample was then polished to <5 microns smoothness to offer a clean ablation surface.

Uranium-series measurements were undertaken by laser ablation multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (LA-MC-ICPMS) at the Geoarchaeology and Archaeometry Research Group Biomics facility, Southern Cross University. Laser ablation was performed with a New Wave Research 193 nm laser equipped with a TV2 cell. Thorium (²³⁰Th, ²³²Th) and uranium (²³⁴U, ²³⁵U, ²³⁸U) isotopes were measured on a Thermo Neptune XT MC-ICPMS mounted with jet sample and x-skimmer cones. All five isotopes were collected in static mode, with both ²³⁴U and ²³⁰Th collected in the ion counter and in a compact discrete dynode electron multiplier,
respectively. Helium and Nitrogen flow rates (850 and 6 ml/min, respectively) and other MC-ICP-MS parameters were tuned with NIST610 element standard to derive a ²³²Th/²³⁸U ratio greater than 0.85, thus minimising the differences in fractionation between Th and U. Tuning was achieved with a fluence of ca. 8 J/cm², pulse rate of 100 Hz, spot size of 110 µm, and scan speed of 5 µm/s, yielding ca. 4.3 V of ²³⁸U and 3.78 V of ²³²Th with NIST610.

Teeth were ablated using rasters of >2 min each (ca. 650 µm long). Before and after the samples, NIST612, MK10, and MK16 (Woodroffe et al. 1991) standards were measured, as well as a fossil *Hippopotamus* tooth with known isotopic ratios (Zhang et al. 2024). The ²³⁴U/²³⁸U and ²³⁰Th/²³⁸U isotopic ratios were corrected for elemental fractionation and Faraday cup/SEM yield by comparison with MK10 coral, for which ratios were previously characterised internally by solution analysis (Woodroffe et al. 1991). Detrital-corrected ²³⁰Th-U ages were calculated for each analysis using IsoPlotR (Vermeesch 2018) with an assumed detrital (²³⁰Th/²³²Th) activity ratio of 0.8 ± 0.8 (Paul et al. 2003). Concentrations of U and Th were determined using NIST612 glass as a calibration standard. Background subtraction, concentration quantification, and ratio corrections were performed using lolite™ software (Paton et al. 2011). The corrected (²³⁴U/²³⁸U) and (²³⁰Th/²³⁸U) isotope ratios for the secondary standard (MK16 coral) were within the error of the value determined by solution analysis. A rhinoceros tooth with known concentration (Grün et al. 2014) was used as a control on matrix effect.

Both fossil teeth samples show little to no leaching, with a homogenous distribution of uranium across the dental tissues. By contrast, the cranium bone fragment shows some variable uranium distribution characteristic of a U-shaped diffusion pattern (Pike et al. 2002), but there was no indication of apparent leaching. The ²³⁴U/²³⁸U exhibit a typical diffusion pattern from the outside into the center of the bone, which is identically reflected in the uranium concentration and age distribution. The age was calculated following a diffusion-adsorption (DA) model (Dosseto and Marwick 2022) using 18 rasters for each tooth; the rasters were spaced at regular intervals from the lingual enamel surface toward the pulp cavity (Table 4, Appendix A). For the bone fragment, 15 rasters were used, also spaced at regular intervals, starting from the outer cranium surface toward the inner surface in contact with the brain.

The human teeth from the isolated mandible (CGG-608) and the mandible belonging to the skeleton (CGG-607) from the burial return a similar U-series minimum age of 2700 +1400/-1000 B.P. and 2600 +1300/-1100 B.P., respectively (Table 2, Table 4, Appendix A). Alternatively, the cranium fragment belonging to the individual from the burial returns a U-series age of 4900 +1300/-1100 B.P., which is most likely the minimum age for the sample. This is consistent with the radiocarbon dating of the second tooth (OxA-X-3007-38) of the same individual dated at 4948-4943 cal. B.P. (95.4%) (Table 2). Taken together, these results indicate that the burial has a minimum age of approximately 4900 years, though the true age may be somewhat older.
<table><caption>Table 4. U-series results.</caption><thead><tr><th>Sample <sup>a</sup></th><th>Age (ka)</th><th>Age +1SD (ka)</th><th>Age -1SD (ka)</th><th>R48_0</th><th>R48_0 (+1SD)</th><th>R48_0 (-1SD)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>CGG-607 (tooth)</td><td>2.67</td><td>1.44</td><td>0.97</td><td>1.12</td><td>&lt;0.01</td><td>0.03</td></tr><tr><td>CGG-608 (tooth)</td><td>2.61</td><td>1.31</td><td>1.07</td><td>1.11</td><td>&lt;0.01</td><td>0.02</td></tr><tr><td>CGG-607 (cranium)-DA <sup>b</sup></td><td>4.94</td><td>1.27</td><td>1.1</td><td>1.11</td><td>&lt;0.01</td><td>0.02</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Description of human remains

The isolated human remains extracted in TP1 and TP2 consist of cranial and appendicular skeletal elements found in scattered places in the ATB cave (Table 1). With the exception of the mandible used for dating, all these remains had to be reburied and were therefore not available for the present study.

The other partial human skeleton found in TP3 (Layer B) was lying above limestone blocks in a supine position with an east-west orientation. The skull was fragmented into several pieces, including an occipital bone, partial parietal bones, and a frontal bone, that could not be reassembled (Fig. 5). The frontal bone was represented by two main pieces, one bearing part of the coronal suture and another representing a partial right upper orbit with part of the nasion. The glabella did not show any protuberance. The base of the right temporal showed a shallow glenoid cavity. The mandible was present, although broken in several pieces with no mandibular condyle preserved. The only remaining teeth were the right molars 1 and 2. Except for three left mandibular molars lost antemortem, the other teeth (i.e., incisors, canines, premolars) had been broken post-mortem to the alveolar bone. The occipital bone exhibited a very flat nuchal crest (stade 1-2) (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994); the gracile morphology of the frontal, along with the overall gracile shape of the mandible; and the loss of the teeth with a resorbing alveolar bone accompanying a heavy state of wear of the two remaining teeth (Stade I, 45-55 years) (Lovejoy 1985) all suggest a female individual of an advanced age.

<footnote><sup>a</sup> See Appendix A for U-series results for each raster.</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> DA = Diffusion-adsorption model.</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 5. Diagram showing relative state of preservation of different skeletal elements found in the ATB burial.</figcaption></figure>

The upper body was intact with many elements still in anatomical position. The upper limbs were represented by the scapulae and clavicles; diaphyses of humeri, radii, and ulnae; and some metacarpals and phalanges (Fig. 5). The arms were flexed with hands on either side of the skull, suggesting that the individual may have been buried with arms crossed over the chest, but the arms collapsed to either side of the body during decomposition (Fig. 6a). Only a few vertebrae were intact, but they were pulverized and reduced to a powder when excavated due to the fragility of the vertebral bodies. The elements of the lower body were highly fragmented or missing. The lower limbs were represented by the left leg with shafts of the tibia, fibula, and femur, along with some metatarsals and numerous bone fragments (Fig. 6b). The pelvic bones, sacrum, and right leg were missing. Only the cortical portion of the diaphyses of the long bones was preserved, whereas the spongy portion of bones (i.e., epiphyses) was missing or deteriorated.
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 6. Bone modifications on the skeleton from the ATB burial possibly due to crocodile predation: (a) photo of early stage of excavation revealing skeletal elements; (b) photo of fragments of lower left limb long bones with locations of bone modifications marked by black arrows; (c) photo of bisected pit (outlined) on a fragment of tibial crest with small chips (white arrows) corresponding to crown carinae of crocodile; (d) photo of bisected pit (outlined) on a femoral fragment with small chips corresponding to crown carinae of crocodile; (e) photo of saltwater crocodile, *Crocodylus porosus* (stock photo from http://jooinn.com); (f) photo of crocodile maxillae in lateral view showing molariform teeth (specimen no. 1930-182, MNHN-Paris collection); (g) photo of palate of same specimen (no. 1930-182); (h) magnification of the maxillae showing molariform teeth with two carinae on the mesial and distal sides of crowns.</figcaption></figure>

Analysis of damages on human bones

We did not observe modifications like burn marks that could be evidence of cremation or the perforations or linear marks on the bones that could correspond to anthropogenic cut marks. However, some of the skeletal bone fragments (ca. 10 cm long) exhibited distinct marks on their outer surfaces (Fig. 6b). Using terminology from Binford (1981) and Njau and Gilbert (2016), we
identified the following mark patterns: bisected, rounded, or jagged pits (Fig. 6c,d, Fig. 7c); small rounded perforations of the cortical bone or punctures (Fig. 7b); striations on the surface of the bone (Fig. 7g) or striae on the internal surface of a mark (Fig. 7c); a pseudo-cut mark; a hook-like mark (Fig. 7d); and drag-snag marks (Fig. 7a,e). The most common pattern is that of large oblong or round pits (ca. 1 cm diameter) (Table 5).

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

Fig. 7. Photographs of bone modifications to the skeleton in the ATB burial showing predator signatures: (a) two drag-snag marks on fragment of long bone (scale 5 mm); (b) small rounded pit and pseudo-cut on femoral fragment (scale 5 mm); (c) jagged pit with internal striae (scale 2 mm); (d) fragment of bone (likely femur) with puncture (perforation of thick cortical bone) and hook-like mark outlined (scale 5 mm); (e) two bisected marks showing drag-snags (arrow) on the contour (scale 5 mm); (f) striations on the outer surface of a bone likely caused by small mammals or invertebrates (scale 3 mm).
<table><caption>Table 5. Morphology and size of the most visible marks observed on human skeletal bone fragments from primary ATB burial.</caption><thead><tr><th>Type of bone</th><th>Dimensions of marks (D x d) <sup>a</sup></th><th>Morphology of marks <sup>b</sup></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">Femur (diaphysis below small trochanter)</td><td>12.61 x 9.34</td><td>1 bisected pit</td></tr><tr><td>15.42 (broken bone)</td><td>1 drag-snag</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>1 rounded pit</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>1 pseudo-cut</td></tr><tr><td>Tibial crest (proximal half of bone)</td><td>9.16 x 8.91</td><td>1 bisected pit</td></tr><tr><td>Fibula diaphysis</td><td>9.85 x 8.28</td><td>1 jagged pit</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Fibula diaphysis</td><td>12.21 x 7.44</td><td>1 drag-snag</td></tr><tr><td>7.46 x 7.15</td><td>1 rounded pit</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>several drag-snags</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Fibula diaphysis (?)</td><td>9.30 x 8.16</td><td>1 bisected pit</td></tr><tr><td>6.55 x 5.82</td><td>1 rounded pit</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>striations, small pits</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>1 jagged pit with internal striae</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Long bone</td><td>14.34 (broken bone)</td><td>2 close pits or drag-snags</td></tr><tr><td>9.40 x 7.30</td><td>1 jagged pit</td></tr><tr><td>Thick cortical bone</td><td>10.44</td><td>puncture</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Thick cortical bone</td><td>-</td><td>1 puncture</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>1 hook mark</td></tr><tr><td>Long bone</td><td>-</td><td>Striations</td></tr></tbody></table>

There were very few terrestrial animals capable of inflicting lesions on bones at that time on the island. Among reptiles, monitor lizards (*Varanus timorensis*) can be excluded because of their small size: adults have a maximum body length of around 60 cm (D’Amore and Blumenchine 2009). Considering the location of the cave site, it is plausible that cliff-nesting birds such as vultures might have left these marks (Margalida and Bertran 2000), but the hypothesis that large birds scavenged the human body is not supported by the evidence. The impact of beaks usually leaves linear marks up to 4 cm in length and shallow scratches on defleshed bones (Reeves 2009) or marks having V or L shapes (Fetner and Sołtysiak 2013).

The location of the site so close to the coastline naturally drove us to consider large marine predators such as the saltwater crocodile (*Crocodylus porosus*) (Rasmussen et al. 2011) and killer whale (*Orcinus orca*) (Carwardine 2019; Wandrey 1999). Both species have conical to rounded tooth crowns, unlike reef sharks, which have pointed teeth with slanted cusps. Our results show that the dimensions of the bite marks on the bones match the tooth size of an adult crocodile; orca dentition is much larger, even in juveniles (Table 6). The morphology of the marks, particularly the bisected and rounded pits and punctures, also suggests that the animal had large conical and rounded tooth crowns, as is typical of *C. porosus* (Fig. 6e–h). Some adult specimens

<footnote><sup>a</sup>Dimensions are D (great diameter) x d (small diameter).</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup>Terminology for describing crocodile-induced bone modifications from Njau and Gilbert (2016: fig. 2).</footnote>
have molariform teeth with highly worn apices, giving a bulbous morphology to the crowns. Furthermore, their tooth crowns are bicarinated and exhibit two ridges of enamel running from the cervical margin to the tip of the tooth (Njau and Blumenchine 2006) (Fig. 6g,h). The contour of the crowns fits well with the contour of bisected pits on human bones, showing two small notches or chips clearly visible under higher magnification (Fig. 6c,d, Fig. 7e). Such marks, along with hook marks and drag-snags, are particularly considered to be signatures of specific types of injuries caused by crocodiles (Baquedano et al. 2012; Njau and Blumenchine 2012; Njau and Gilbert 2016; Sahle et al. 2017; Westaway et al. 2011). According to Njau and Gilbert (2016), the presence of striations can also be modifications induced by the bite of crocodiles, some being associated with drag-snags or in the form of long striations with internal striae. This is what we observed on one jagged pit (Fig. 7c).

We cannot rule out that some of the damage to the bones, particularly the striations observed on the outer surface of one bone (Fig. 7f), could have been caused by other factors. However, the striations are different from the cracking aspect due to weathering or from the sinuous, dendritic aspect due to root etching as described by Lyman (1994). They better resemble damage caused by small mammals or invertebrates.

<table><caption>Table 6. Rane in dimensions of marks on human bones compared with dimensions of tooth crowns in *Crocodylus porosus* and *Orcinus orca* specimens.</caption><thead><tr><th>Species (specimen n°)<sup>a</sup></th><th>Length of specimen</th><th>Teeth (N)<sup>b</sup></th><th>Length<sup>c</sup> (mm)</th><th>Width<sup>d</sup> (mm)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="5">Marks on human bones</td></tr><tr><td><i>Crocodylus porosus</i> (1930-182)</td><td>Skull ~43 cm</td><td>Mandible (6)</td><td>L (7.63 – 11.23)</td><td>W (5.66 – 9.95)</td></tr><tr><td><i>Crocodylus porosus</i> (1944-228)</td><td>Skull ~37 cm</td><td>Maxilla (4)</td><td>L (6.10 – 7.79)</td><td>W (4.87 – 5.77)</td></tr><tr><td><i>Orcinus orca</i> (juvenile) (A3209)</td><td>Skull ~60 cm</td><td>Maxilla (6)<br>Mandible (12)</td><td>L (12.07 – 15.36)<br>L (14.68 – 20.55)</td><td>W (11.03 – 15.85)<br>W (17.46 – 25.57)</td></tr><tr><td><i>Orcinus orca</i> (1880-260)</td><td>Mandible ~85 cm</td><td>Mandible (9)</td><td>L (14.70 – 21.27)</td><td>W (16 – 28.84)</td></tr><tr><td><i>Orcinus orca</i> (A3234)</td><td>Mandible ~75 cm</td><td>Mandible (6)</td><td>L (13.46 – 17.63)</td><td>W (19.73 – 22.40)</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote><sup>a</sup> All specimens from the collection at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (MNHN) in Paris.</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> N = number of teeth</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> D = great diameter of mark on human bone; L = mesio-distal length of teeth</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> d = small diameter of mark on human bone; W = bucco-lingual width of teeth.</footnote>
Moreover, the bite marks observed on the ATB skeleton are relatively few and isolated. Experimental studies on modern bones have demonstrated that this is typical of the damage inflicted by saltwater crocodiles (Westaway et al. 2011). On some of the ATB bones, the distances between two marks (e.g., 16.97 mm; 22.36 mm; 37.70 mm) are consistent with the distances between teeth on the jaws of an adult *C. porosus*, which range 14.00–25.71 mm on the maxilla and 16.11–30.22 mm on the mandible. The locations of the bite marks on the skeleton indicate that the upper part of the thigh and calf of the left leg might have been grasped and held between the teeth.

The fact that we did not find the right leg of the individual could be due either to the possible perimortem reduction (i.e., dismemberment) of the body after capture by the crocodile or simply to the disturbance of the sediments when other individuals were buried; the latter conjecture is suggested by the discovery of isolated skeletal elements. While it is impossible to ascertain whether the individual died as a direct result of the crocodile bites or sometime thereafter from other causes, the forensic literature reports that dismemberment and punctures of vital structures due to bites are the immediate causes of death from crocodile attacks in Australia (Caldicott et al. 2005; Chattopadhyay et al. 2013). What is clear, however, is that the body was recovered, moved up to the hill, and buried with care in the rock shelter.

## Faunal remains

A fragmentary right maxilla of an old pig individual (Grant 1982) was also recovered in Layer A (Fig. 8a, Table 1). We compared its teeth with that of *Sus scrofa* specimens from the Vasino site in East Timor (Brockwell et al. 2020). The M2 is smaller (length of 15.67 mm vs. 18.05–18.42 mm at Vasino; width of 13.23 mm vs. 14.73–14.8 mm at Vasino), but the P4 is slightly larger (length of 11.80 mm vs. 11.03 mm; width of 12.08 mm vs. 11.01 mm at Vasino). Despite the absence of the most diagnostic teeth, M3 and m3 (Cucchi et al. 2009; Hardjasasmita 1987), only the small size and square shape of the molars and the slightly developed styles on P4 suggest that the pig remains in ATB Layer A should be attributed to *Sus scrofa* rather than to the warty pig *Sus celebensis* (Groves 1985).
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 8. Ungulate remains from Aleti Tunu Bibi cave site: (a) pig maxilla (scale 1 cm); juvenile goat (b) metapodial; (c,d) diaphyses; (e) iliac blade (scale 1 cm); another juvenile goat (f) metapodial; (g) vertebra fragment (scale 1 cm); adult goat (h) phalanx in posterior view and (i) lateral view, with arrows indicating key goat features (1) V-shaped articulation, (2) semi-circular shape of articulation, and (3) pronounced ligament marks (scale 1 cm); (j) fragmentary lower molar of another goat (scale 1 cm).</figcaption></figure>

Several axial and postcranial elements of goats extracted from Layer A in TP2 show the unfused status of bones of two juveniles, each less than one year in age (Zeder and Lapham 2010) (Fig. 8b–g, Table 1). The black color of some of the goat bones may be due to fire. A lower molar (Fig. 8j) and two phalanges (Fig. 8h,i), along with other axial and diaphyseal fragments, belong to one adult goat (Zeder and Pilaar 2010). The articulation of the proximal end of the phalanges, with a semi-circular shape in lateral view, has the clear V-shape typical of *Capra* sp. (Zeder and Lapham 2010; Fig. 8). There are also pronounced ligament marks on the posterior side of phalanges (cf. sheep *Ovis* sp.). The length of the molar (>13.96 mm) is close to that of one lower m2 of a goat from the Vasino site (Brockwell et al. 2020). The remains at ATB are insufficient for clear assignment to a species, but Holocene sites in Bali, Java, and Timor have yielded the domestic goat *Capra hircus* (Brockwell et al. 2020; Fenner et al. 2018; Morwood et al. 2008; O’Connor et al. 2020).

## Discussion

The ATB cave site on Atauro Island displays biological and cultural evidence relating to death and its rituals, and our data support the hypothesis that the cave was used intermittently during the Late Pleistocene, then used for specific practices thereafter. The oldest date recorded—ca. 18,000 years ago—is from a *Tridacna* sp. shell in cultural Layer C; this date suggests the cave was first used during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) approximately 31,000–15,000 years ago (Lambeck et al. 2014). At 18,000 years ago, the LGM was still in its critical phase with sea levels
as low as –130 m (compared to present times) (Yokoyama et al. 2018). Two other dates, one on a *Tridacna sp.* shell at ca. 8000 B.P. and one on a worked *Turbo sp.* shell at ca. 11,000 B.P., suggest the cave was used during a post-LGM period marked by a sea level rise from ca. –100 to –10 m asl (Lambeck et al. 2014). This period saw increasing populations and intensified use of sites throughout the region studied (Hawkins et al. 2017; Kealy et al. 2020).

Direct dating of the skeleton at ATB yielded one radiocarbon date of 4900 cal. B.P. and one U-
series date providing a minimum age of 4900 ± 1300 B.P.; both dates place the burial in the mid-
Holocene. There is no doubt that the people who settled in the region by that time were
experienced fishers who used boats, projectile points, fishhooks, and nets (Anderson 2013;
O'Connor et al. 2011; O'Connor et al. 2014). The possibility of being killed by large marine
predators is likely to have been integrated into the culture and storytelling of the local people on
Atauro, as it is still today throughout Australasia. This is supported by the zoomorphic figures
painted on the walls of the ATB cave. These figures, described as "thick elongated bodies with
two to four appendices and, in some instances, a tail" (Galipaud et al. 2016:136), may represent
foragers' frequent encounters with crocodiles during hunting and fishing activities (Fig. 9).
Although we are unable at this time to establish a chronological link between the human burial
displaying trauma caused by a crocodile and the rock art featuring marine animals, possibly a
hunting scene, the findings from the ATB cave clearly indicate interactions between humans and
animals within an essentially coastal and marine ecosystem. This association of burial and rock
art has previously been observed at coastal sites in West Papua during the same period (Arifin
and Delanghe 2004:64).

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

Fig. 9. Zoomorphic figures likely representing saltwater crocodiles on panel 3 recorded in Aleti Tunu Bibi cave: (a) three zoomorphs on cave wall; (b) design extracted from background; (c) isolated zoomorph with lines and dots made with red pigment (reproduced with permission from Galipaud et al. 2016:138, fig. 9).
Ever since the arrival of the first hominins in Australasia, it seems that crocodiles have been a source of danger to humans (Westaway et al. 2011). Throughout the Pleistocene and the Holocene, the region was likely home to large populations of crocodiles in rivers, estuaries, and coastal habitats. For example, starting 1.5 million years ago, *Homo erectus* lived on Java near aquatic resources (e.g., coastal habitats, rivers, lakes, swamp forests, and lagoons) frequented by crocodiles (Joordens et al. 2009). The coexistence of humans with freshwater and terrestrial crocodiles is also documented in Australia since the arrival of *Homo sapiens* around 50,000 years ago (Trueman et al. 2005). The saltwater crocodile continues to pose a threat to local populations on Timor Island today (Kaiser et al. 2009). The saltwater crocodile is an opportunistic feeder that eats fish, invertebrates, snakes, turtles, birds, and large-bodied mammals captured both in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Based on the behavior and ecology of saltwater crocodiles, we suggest that the attack on the individual buried at ATB may have taken place on the beach or in shallow waters along the coastline.

Today, various beliefs and narratives involving wild crocodiles are found throughout Wallacea. The saltwater crocodile is considered the ancestor of current populations in the studied region (Brackhane et al. 2019). Stories from elsewhere in Island Southeast Asia describe the double birth of a child and a reptile, either a snake, monitor lizard, or crocodile (Ermacora 2023). Such creation myths highlight the importance of this animal to humans and, furthermore, suggest that humans emerged from the depths of the oceans. After modern humans reached Sunda, Wallacea, and Sahul, the populations dispersed through various terrestrial and coastal environments, where they engaged in rich and diverse cultural and symbolic expressions (Brumm et al. 2024; see also Langley et al. 2019 for a review of symbolic evidence in Island Southeast Asia during the Pleistocene). In short, in seeking to understand the rock art featuring zoomorphic paintings, lines, and dots, the sacred nature of the Aleti Tunu Bibi cave must be considered.

Perceptions of death and burial practices should also be examined. Throughout Mainland and Island Southeast Asia, a large number of sites from the Late Pleistocene to the mid-Holocene provide evidence for a wide diversity of burial practices, with flexed burials being the most common (Pawlik et al. 2019; Piper 2016; Samper Carro 2024). The Early Holocene Niah Cave in Borneo is most remarkable for demonstrating highly diverse styles of inhumation in terms of body position and treatment (Barker and Lloyd-Smith 2012; Lloyd-Smith 2012). Several burials at Tron Bon Lei on Alor Island dated between ca. 12,000 and 7500 cal. B.P.—or possibly as early as 17,000 years ago based on U-series dating on bone—present diverse practices before burial (e.g., dismemberment), at the time of deposition (i.e., seated, flexed, or extended bodies), and in terms of the association of grave materials (i.e., large rocks, cobbles with ochre coating, and fishhooks). There is also evidence of diverse anthropogenic actions after the burial, including secondary treatments such as the removal of some skeletal elements, disarticulation, bone manipulation, or reburial (O'Connor et al. 2017; Samper Carro 2024; Samper Carro et al. 2019; Samper Carro et al. 2022). By comparison with other burials known from nearby sites on Alor Island, the primary adult burial at ATB differs in terms of body positioning, absence of grave goods, and lack of evidence for post-burial manipulation of the skeleton. The interment context of the primary burial at ATB also appears relatively simple, with no evidence of particular burial treatments, such as cremation or application of ochre to bones, observed (Samper Carro et al. 2022). The only object associated with the burial is one long, partially worked, broken stone located above the skull. Nevertheless, the individual was interred with great care on an artificial layer of beach sand
and between large flat slabs. This suggests that a burial ritual was performed. The sand, which is rich in olivine crystals, can only be found today on the beach around the village of Maker, which is located a few kilometres to the south. Similar intentional deposits of limestone slabs in graves have been found in some Mainland sites such as in the flexed burial at Moh Khiew in southern Thailand, which is dated to ca. 9000–13,000 cal. B.P. (Auetrakulvit et al. 2012; Pookajorn et al. 1994). One can also cite the accumulation of large rocks and cobbles placed above a seated burial at Tron Bon Lei that has been dated to ca. 10,000 cal. B.P. (Samper Carro et al. 2022) or similar rock accumulations associated with the flexed burial at Bubog 1 on Ilin Island in the Philippine archipelago, dated ca. 5000 cal. B.P. (Pawlik et al. 2019).

The presence of the remains of domestic animals that were introduced to Atauro Island, including goats (*Capra* sp.) and pigs (*Sus* cf. *scrofa*), is another feature that can be linked to more recent regional burial rituals. Their presence in the ATB cave is estimated at around 1600 years ago (based on AMS ¹⁴C dating of the *Tridacna* shell in Layer A). A pig femur shows clear signs of fracture, but no cut marks were observed on the fragmented axial and appendicular bones, suggesting that the animal had not been hunted or consumed in the cave. In the Philippines, Amano and colleagues (2013) describe Neolithic populations depending mainly on fishing and hunting for subsistence and suggest that the domestic pigs found in the faunal assemblages may have been used for ritual purposes.

The discovery of goat remains in the ATB cave provides evidence of another introduction of domesticated species. Its recent age—also ca. 1600 years ago—is consistent with findings of domestic goat on the nearby island of Bali (Fenner et al. 2018) and other findings of the species in Indonesia from ca. 2000 years ago (Brockwell et al. 2020; Glover 1986; Morwood et al. 2008). Given that the current local name of the cave, ATB, translates as “the place where goats are roasted to chase away demons” (pers. comm., Chief Moses of Atekru village 2014), the presence of some burnt goat bones there is not surprising and only highlights the cave’s sacred nature.

## Conclusion

Our analysis of the skeleton in the primary burial at ATB cave on Atauro Island allowed us to reconstruct the possible events in the story of an individual from the time of death to inhumation during the mid-Holocene period. It is possible that this individual was attacked by a saltwater crocodile, but it is not possible to demonstrate whether this was the direct cause of the death. However, the cave art paintings, along with evidence of a careful and intentional burial of this injured, probably female, individual, emphasize the importance of the maritime environment to the local hunter-gatherer population in terms of their belief systems and in the risks and dangers such an environment posed. The rock art and interment practices specifically hint at the potential antiquity of widely shared contemporary cultural beliefs concerning the saltwater crocodile, including a complex mix of respect and fear. While future research will help locate these beliefs in time, the evidence from the ATB cave has already revealed that the symbolic behaviors of modern humans are likely deeply rooted in the history of island populations.
<table><caption>Appendix A. Uranium series results for each raster of three samples from the human individuals at ATB.</caption><thead><tr><th>R28</th><th>ERR [R28]</th><th>R48</th><th>ERR [R48]</th><th>R08</th><th>ERR [R08]</th><th>AGE_T (KA)</th><th>ERR T (KA)</th><th>R48_0</th><th>ERR [R48_0]</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="10" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">SAMPLE CGG-607 (CRANIUM)-DA<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.113</td><td>0.008</td><td>0.049</td><td>0.004</td><td>4.9</td><td>0.7</td><td>1.115</td><td>0.015</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.113</td><td>0.008</td><td>0.050</td><td>0.003</td><td>5.0</td><td>0.5</td><td>1.115</td><td>0.016</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.111</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.044</td><td>0.002</td><td>4.4</td><td>0.4</td><td>1.113</td><td>0.013</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.103</td><td>0.008</td><td>0.042</td><td>0.002</td><td>4.2</td><td>0.4</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.016</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.107</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.042</td><td>0.003</td><td>4.2</td><td>0.5</td><td>1.108</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.019</td><td>0.059</td><td>0.015</td><td>6.0</td><td>2.8</td><td>1.106</td><td>0.038</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.111</td><td>0.009</td><td>0.040</td><td>0.002</td><td>4.0</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.112</td><td>0.018</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.012</td><td>0.039</td><td>0.003</td><td>4.0</td><td>0.5</td><td>1.101</td><td>0.025</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.099</td><td>0.012</td><td>0.037</td><td>0.003</td><td>3.7</td><td>0.5</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.023</td></tr><tr><td>0.001</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.122</td><td>0.031</td><td>0.069</td><td>0.022</td><td>6.9</td><td>4.1</td><td>1.125</td><td>0.063</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.116</td><td>0.017</td><td>0.050</td><td>0.010</td><td>5.0</td><td>1.9</td><td>1.117</td><td>0.034</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.113</td><td>0.044</td><td>0.249</td><td>0.208</td><td>27.5</td><td>48.6</td><td>1.122</td><td>0.109</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.111</td><td>0.018</td><td>0.053</td><td>0.014</td><td>5.3</td><td>2.6</td><td>1.112</td><td>0.038</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.113</td><td>0.008</td><td>0.047</td><td>0.004</td><td>4.7</td><td>0.7</td><td>1.115</td><td>0.015</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.102</td><td>0.008</td><td>0.045</td><td>0.006</td><td>4.5</td><td>1.2</td><td>1.103</td><td>0.016</td></tr><tr><td colspan="10" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">SAMPLE CGG-607 (TOOTH)</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.029</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.9</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.106</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.108</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.7</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.109</td><td>0.010</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.108</td><td>0.007</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.7</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.109</td><td>0.013</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.028</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.8</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.111</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.031</td><td>0.008</td><td>3.1</td><td>1.6</td><td>1.112</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.109</td><td>0.008</td><td>0.033</td><td>0.012</td><td>3.3</td><td>2.4</td><td>1.110</td><td>0.016</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.010</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.101</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.103</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.024</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.4</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.103</td><td>0.012</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.004</td><td>0.023</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.3</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.008</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.101</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.023</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.3</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.102</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.024</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.4</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.010</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.023</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.3</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.106</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.106</td><td>0.004</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.107</td><td>0.007</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.102</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.024</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.4</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.103</td><td>0.010</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.109</td><td>0.003</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.7</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.110</td><td>0.007</td></tr></table>

SAMPLE CGG-608 (TOOTH)

<table><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.096</td><td>0.007</td><td>0.032</td><td>0.002</td><td>3.3</td><td>0.4</td><td>1.097</td><td>0.015</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.093</td><td>0.007</td><td>0.030</td><td>0.002</td><td>3.0</td><td>0.4</td><td>1.094</td><td>0.014</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.099</td><td>0.004</td><td>0.029</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.9</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.008</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.097</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.8</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.097</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.099</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.7</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.009</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.097</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.098</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.098</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.024</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.4</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.098</td><td>0.010</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.098</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.026</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.6</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.099</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.106</td><td>0.010</td><td>0.034</td><td>0.018</td><td>3.4</td><td>3.6</td><td>1.108</td><td>0.020</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.104</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.105</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.023</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.3</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.101</td><td>0.011</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.007</td><td>0.025</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.4</td><td>1.101</td><td>0.014</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.099</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.024</td><td>0.002</td><td>2.4</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.100</td><td>0.013</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.110</td><td>0.012</td><td>0.043</td><td>0.028</td><td>4.3</td><td>5.6</td><td>1.111</td><td>0.025</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.097</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.026</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.6</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.098</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.095</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.027</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.7</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.096</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.093</td><td>0.010</td><td>0.026</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.6</td><td>0.2</td><td>1.094</td><td>0.020</td></tr><tr><td>0.000</td><td>0.000</td><td>1.098</td><td>0.006</td><td>0.029</td><td>0.001</td><td>2.9</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.098</td><td>0.012</td></tr></table>

<footnote>a DA = Diffusion-adsorption model.</footnote>
## Acknowledgments

Excavation of ATB was undertaken as part of a research project conducted by Jean-Christophe Galipaud in Timor between 2014 and 2018 in collaboration with the State Secretary for Arts and Culture (SSEAC) in Dili. The material excavated has been deposited at SSEAC in Dili. After being studied in situ, the human remains were reburied on-site in compliance with the wishes of local landowners. Local owners and Timorese authorities granted agreement for some limited samples to be removed and exported. The authors thank the curators of the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, Joséphine Lesur, Christine Lefevre, and Salvador Bailon, and collection managers Céline Bens and Aurélie Verguin for the study of terrestrial and marine fauna. We wish to thank Rebecca Kinaston for her invaluable participation in all stages of excavation and research on the site in 2014 and 2015.

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