# Imagine Yourself Dancing Waltz: The Effect of Imagination on Memory in Alzheimer's Disease

Mohamad El Haj, Frédérique Robin, Ahmed A Moustafa, Karim Gallouj

► To cite this version:

Mohamad El Haj, Frédérique Robin, Ahmed A Moustafa, Karim Gallouj. Imagine Yourself Dancing Waltz: The Effect of Imagination on Memory in Alzheimer's Disease. Current Alzheimer Research, 2023, 20 (2), pp.98-108. 10.2174/1567205020666230523155845. hal-04841513

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Short title: Self-imagination

Imagine yourself dancing waltz:

the effect of imagination on memory in Alzheimer's disease

Mohamad EL HAJ <fnref n="1" />, <fnref n="2" />, <fnref n="3" />

Frédérique ROBIN <fnref n="1" />

Ahmed A. MOUSTAFA <fnref n="4" />, <fnref n="5" />

Karim GALLOUJ <fnref n="6" />

<footnote n="1">¹ Nantes Université, Univ Angers, Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL - EA 4638), F-44000 Nantes, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² CHU Nantes, Clinical Gerontology Department, Bd Jacques Monod, F44093, Nantes, France</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ School of Psychology, Faculty of Society and Design, Bond University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg.</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Unité de Gériatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Tourcoing, Tourcoing, France</footnote>

<footnote>Correspondence concerning this manuscript should be addressed to: Mohamad EL HAJ, Faculté de Psychologie, LPPL - Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire, Université de Nantes, Chemin de la Censive du Tertre, BP 81227, 44312 Nantes Cedex 3, France. E-Mail: el.haj@hotmail.fr</footnote>
**Abstract:**

**Background:** Self-imagination refers to a mnemonic strategy consisting of imagining oneself at a scene related to a cue.

**Objective:** We tested the effect of self-imagination on memory recall in Alzheimer's disease (AD)

**Method:** Individuals with AD and healthy controls were invited to perform two conditions. In the control (i.e., semantic elaboration) condition, participants were asked to define to which semantic category (e.g., dance) words (e.g., waltz) belong to. However, in a self-imagining condition, participants were asked to imagine themselves in a scene related to the stimuli (e.g., dancing waltz). Both conditions were followed by a two free memory tests with two different intervals (20 seconds vs 20 minutes).

**Results:** Analysis showed beneficial effect of self-imagination for the 20-seconds but not for the 20-minutes recall in AD participants and controls.

**Conclusion:** Clinicians can incorporate our findings when assessing, and especially when trying to rehabilitate, episodic memory in AD.

**Keywords:** Alzheimer's disease; episodic memory; imagination; self-imagination
Introduction:

The ability to imagine an event from a personal perspective involves several cognitive
processes. When imagining oneself at the beach, one should construct a scene in which she/he is
looking at the blue water or the sky, and one may also imagine the sun warming her/his face or a
cool breeze blowing on the face. This scene construction requires cognitive processes such as
visual imagery [1-3] and spatial imagery [4], as well as retrieving information from memory to
generate elaborations that expand on previous episodes [5-8]. This scene construction also requires
self-referential processing to construct the viewpoint [9-12]. All these cognitive processes may
lead to a better integration of multimodal information into a vivid, elaborative, and personally-
relevant experience, which may facilitate the retention of this experience. Following this reasoning,
this paper will assess the effect of self-imagination on episodic memory (i.e., the ability to remember
events that occurred in particular spatial and temporal contexts) in Alzheimer's disease (AD), a
disease that is mainly characterized by episodic memory compromise [13, 14].

The effect of self-imagination on memory recognition was investigated by Grilli and
Glisky[15] who asked individuals with traumatic brain injuries (i.e., with neurological damage of
mixed etiology), in a semantic elaboration condition, to read short stories and to decide whether
sentences (e.g., a concert) fit with the stories or not. Participants were also asked, in a self-
imagination condition, to imagine themselves at the scene described by the sentences (e.g.,
attending a concert). Both the semantic elaboration and self-imagination condition were followed
by a recognition task on which participants had to decide whether sentences were new or old.
Results showed better recognition memory after self-imagination than semantic elaboration. In a
follow-up study, Grilli and Glisky[16] asked individuals with traumatic brain injuries to perform
four conditions: visual imagery, semantic elaboration, other-imagining, and self-imagining. In the
visual imagery condition, participants had to form a visual image of objects in spatial locations. In the semantic elaboration condition, participants had to generate sentences that incorporated objects and their spatial locations (e.g., a pen on desk). In the other-imagining condition, participants had to imagine with as much detail as possible a celebrity interacting with objects in spatial locations (e.g., a celebrity moving the pen from the desk). In the self-imagining condition, participants had to imagine themselves interacting with objects in spatial locations. Results showed better short-term memory after self-imagining than after the three other conditions. Beneficial effects of self-imagining were also observed on prospective memory [17] and free recall in individuals with traumatic brain injuries [18] Building on these findings, the present study examines the effect of self-reference on free recall, implemented after two different intervals (20 seconds vs 20 minutes), in AD.

Besides being associated with decline in general cognitive and executive function, AD is associated with deficits on free recall, especially when delayed [19, 20]. Delayed recall on episodic memory assessments has also been identified as one of the most discriminating factors in identifying individuals at risk of developing AD [21-23]. Long-term memory deficits in AD can be illustrated with studies on autobiographical memory, that is, long-term memory for personal knowledge [24]. Studies demonstrate an impairment of this type of memory in AD, which is associated with damages to the medial temporal lobe and the hippocampus (for a review on autobiographical compromise in AD, see, [25]. Considering the compromise of free recall and delayed recall in AD, research should assess whether this impairment may be alleviated with mnemonic strategies such as self-imagination.

The putative positive effect of self-imagination on memory in AD can be associated with the well-known self-reference effect. Research suggests that memory can be enhanced by
processing information with reference to the self [26-28]. This effect is typically observed when the processed information is associated with the self (e.g., does this trait describe you?) than with general knowledge (e.g., define this trait). Besides its potential relationship with the self-reference effect, self-imagination can enhance memory by allowing for deeper processing [29], better elaboration and organization (e.g., executive function) of information that assess well-established networks of general knowledge or even specific memories [30]. Therefore, self-imagination may enhance access to autobiographical memory and/or the ability to construct visual images, an ability that is critically involved in autobiographical reconstruction [31, 32]. Self-imagination may also enhance reliving of affective or emotional features of the imagined event. It has been demonstrated that processing of information from a personal perspective activates emotional reactions [33]. Research also demonstrates a positive effect of emotion on memory in aging [34-38].

The effects of self-imagination on memory can be understood by shedding light on neural basis of self-imagination. Neuroimaging research in healthy young adults have identified cortical midline structures, particularly the medial prefrontal cortex, as being underlying both self-related processing and memory [39]. Thus, self-imagination in individuals with AD may activate memory processing, and potentially successful memory retention, in the patients. Also, residual hippocampal function, at least in the mild stages of AD, may help to support the interaction between self-related processing and memory retention. A similar hypothesis was formulated by Carson, Rosenbaum[40] to explain effects of self-reference on memory in patients with mild cognitive impairment.

The main aim of this paper was to assess the potential positive effect of self-imagination on free recall in AD, motivated by research demonstrating similar effect in other amnesic populations [15-18, 41-44]. Because free recall is required in everyday life tasks (e.g.,
remembering a shopping list), any effect of self-imagination on memory recall may have important clinical implications. To this aim, we asked individuals with AD and control participants to semantically process a list of words, that is, defining to which category (e.g., dance) a word (e.g., waltz) belongs to. Participants were also asked to imagine themselves in a scene related to the stimuli (e.g., dancing waltz). We expected better recall (after 20 seconds as well as after 20 minutes) after self-imagination than after semantic processing in AD participants.

## Method

### Participants

The study included 31 participants with a clinical diagnosis of mild AD (22 women and 9 men; *M* age = 71.29 years, *SD* = 7.08; *M* years of formal education = 8.77, *SD* = 2.81) and 34 control older adults (23 women and 11 men; *M* age = 69.12 years, *SD* = 5.64; *M* years of formal education = 9.71, *SD* = 2.81). The individuals with AD were recruited from local retirement homes. They were diagnosed with AD dementia by an experienced neurologist or geriatrician based on the NINCDS-ADRDA clinical criteria [13]. The control participants were often spouses or companions of AD participants, and were independent and living at home. These participants were matched with the AD participants according to sex [*X*² (1, *N* = 65) = .77, *p* > .10], age [*t* (63) = 1.37, *p* > .10] and educational level [*t* (63) = 1.33, *p* > .10].

All participants freely consented to participate and were able to withdraw whenever they wished. Exclusion criteria for all participants were as follows: significant psychiatric or neurological illness, history of alcohol or drug use, and major visual or auditory acuity difficulties that could prevent assessment. We determined sample size as the maximum number of participants
we could recruit during 2021. However, a post hoc analysis with G*Power [45] have indicated fair
power of our sample size (.82 for effect size = .80) regarding the used statistical tests (Mann-
Whitney U tests and Wilcoxon signed rank tests).

## Cognitive characteristics

Participants were assessed using a battery testing general cognitive functioning, working
memory, verbal fluency, shifting, and depression. General cognitive functioning was assessed with
the Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE) and the maximum score was 30 points [46]. In the working
memory assessment, participants had to repeat a string of single digits in the same order (i.e.,
forward span) or in the reverse order (i.e., backward span); scores referred to the number of
correctly repeated digits. Verbal fluency was assessed with a task on which participants had two
minutes to generate as many words as they could beginning with the letter P. Proper nouns and
variations on words (e.g., "psychology" and "psychologist") were not allowed. The score was the
number of correctly generated words. We assessed shifting with the Plus-Minus task. The score
referred to the difference between the time for List 3 (shifting between addition and subtraction)
and the average times for Lists 1 (addition) and 2 (subtraction). We assessed depression with the
Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [47], consisting of seven items that were scored by the
participants on a four-point scale from 0 (not present) to 3 (considerable). Scores on clinical and
cognitive tasks for study participants are summarized in Table 1.

## INSERT TABLE 1 HERE

## Procedures

As illustrated in Figure 1, participants performed two conditions: semantic elaboration and
self-imagining; both conditions were followed by two free memory tests with two different
intervals (20 seconds vs 20 minutes). The semantic elaboration and self-imagining conditions were
counterbalanced and separated by approximately one week. In each condition, participants
processed one of two lists of 16 words each. Each word described an item that belongs to a different
semantic category. Words were taken from the French validation [48] of the task of Grober and
Buschke [49]. Note that the French validation of the task of Grober and Buschke [49] controlled
the words frequency, length, familiarity in French population. The words are included in
Appendix. In our procedures, each word was printed in black Times New Roman 90-point font on
a single A4 sheet of paper. As similar to procedures of the task of Grober and Buschke [49],
encoding was intentional, and participants were informed that memory for the words would be
tested later.

In the semantic elaboration condition, participants were invited to decide to which semantic
category (e.g., dance) each word (e.g., waltz) belongs to. Words were presented successively and
participants had no time constraint to provide the response. After the 16 words were presented, the
participants proceeded to a distraction phase, during which they had to count backwards from 374
in 20 seconds. The distraction phase was immediately followed by two minutes of free recall, the
number of correctly remembered words/16 was retained as a measure of recall. The recall was
followed by a 20-minutes interval, during which participants were assessed with the cognitive tests
(e.g., span, plus-minus). After the 20-minutes interval, participants were allocated two minutes to
retrieve the 16 words, the number of correctly remembered words/16 was retained as a measure of
recall.

In the self-imagining condition, participants were invited to construct a scene related to
each word. As in the studies of Grilli and colleagues [15-18], participants were invited to imagine
the scene with as much detail as possible. More specifically, they were encouraged to imagine the
scene from a personal perspective and to include spatiotemporal information, sensory details,
thoughts, and feelings that they themselves might have if they were present at the event, and these
instructions were the same for all words. For instance, when exposed to the word “waltz”,
participants were invited to imagine themselves dancing waltz in a ballroom, and they were also
invited to imagine the person they are dancing with, the steps, as well as the music and their
thoughts and feelings. Words were presented successively and participants had no time constraint
to imagine the scenes (i.e., trials were self-paced). As similar to the semantic elaboration condition,
processing of the 16 words was followed by a distraction phase, succeeded by two minutes of free
recall. Note that all the 31 participants and 34 control participants have fulfilled the semantic task
and imagination task [$X^2(1, N=130) = .00, p = 1$].

INSERT FIGURE 1 HERE

Results

We compared differences between recall on the two different intervals (20 seconds vs 20
minutes) in the semantic elaboration and self-imagining conditions in AD participants and
controls. Non-parametrical tests were used due to absence of normal distribution in some cases
(observed with Shapiro-Wilk test). Significant comparisons were reported with effect size; *d* = 0.2
can be considered a small effect size, *d* = 0.5 represents a medium effect size and *d* = 0.8 refers to
a large effect size [50]. Note that the effect size was calculated for non-parametric tests following
recommendations by Rosenthal and DiMatteo[51], and Ellis[52]. For all tests, the level of
significance was set as *p* < .05.

The number of correctly remembered words is depicted in Table 2 (see also Appendix for
raw data). Mann-Whitney U tests revealed lower recall in individuals with AD than in controls on
the 20-seconds recall (Z = -2.62, *p* < .01, Cohen's *d* = .70) and 20-minutes recall (Z = -5.89, *p* <
.001, Cohen's *d* = 2.18) after semantic processing, as well as lower recall in individuals with AD
than in controls on the 20-seconds recall (Z = -2.61, *p* < .01, Cohen's *d* = .69) and the 20-minutes
recall (Z = -6.42, *p* < .001, Cohen's *d* = 2.69) after self-imagination. Wilcoxon signed rank tests
revealed higher recall after the 20-seconds interval after self-imagination than after semantic
processing in individuals with AD (Z = -2.71, *p* < .01, Cohen's *d* = .72) and controls (Z = -2.48, *p*
< .05, Cohen's *d* = .65). No significant differences were observed between the 20-minutes recall
after self-imagination and semantic processing condition in individuals with AD (Z = -.51, *p* > .1,
Cohen's *d* = .18) or in controls (Z = -.46, *p* > .1, Cohen's *d* = .16). Together, a beneficial effect of
self-imagination was observed in individuals with AD and controls for the 20-seconds recall but
not for the 20-minutes recall.

INSERT TABLE 2 HERE

For convenience, we carried out Pearson correlations between the demographic data (i.e., age, educational level) and the number of correctly remembered words on the 20-seconds and 20-minutes recall in the two conditions in individuals with AD and older adults and found no significant correlations (*p* > .1). No significant correlations were observed between cognitive performances (i.e., MMSE, verbal fluency, Plus-Minus) or even depression, and the number of correctly remembered words on the 20-seconds and the 20-minutes recall in the two conditions in individuals with AD and older adults (*p* > .1).

Discussion

We investigated the effect of self-imagination on memory in AD. Our findings revealed
higher memory after self-imagining than after semantic processing in individuals with AD and
controls; however, the beneficial effect of self-imagining was observed for the 20-seconds recall
but not for the 20-minutes recall.

The beneficial effect of self-imagining in AD, at least for the 20-seconds recall, can be
associated with several factors. Imagination has been intimately linked to the ability to construct
visual images [10, 53-57]. Because individuals with AD may demonstrate some difficulties in
constructing visual images [32], it is possible that self-imagination provide them with an efficient
tool to construct a field perspective in which they may see the constructed scenes through one'
own eyes [58]. This field perspective can be also related to the effect of self-reference as
participants were required to project themselves into the scenes and to interact with their
environment. Such interaction might allow for deeper processing [29], better elaboration and
organization of information that assesses well-established networks of general knowledge or even
specific memories [30], than our semantic elaboration condition. Self-imagination might also
enhance the elaboration of experiential, emotional, and affective, aspects associated with the
participants' viewpoint (e.g., the affective experience that might be evoked when hearing the music
in the dance scene). In our view, all these cognitive processes (e.g., visual imagery, self-reference,
deep encoding) led to a better integration of multimodal information into a vivid, elaborative, and
personally-relevant experience, which may facilitate the retention of the words in the self-
imagining condition compared with the semantic elaboration condition.

Because we assessed the effect of self-processing on memory, it would be of interest to
highlight studies on the effect of self-reference on memory in AD and normal aging. In a study by
Kalenzaga, Bugaiska[59], individuals with AD and controls had to propose a short definition of
personality traits or to decide to what extent these traits describe themselves. Results showed better
memory in the self-reference condition than in the semantic one. Similar findings were reported
by Rosa, Deason[60] who observed positive effect of self-reference for item memory in individuals with AD and controls. Unlike individuals with AD, high benefits of self-reference were observed for source memory in controls. The effect of self-reference on memory recall was also observed in a study in which individuals with AD and controls were asked to retrieve memories after providing self-related statements and after reading a general text [61]. In both populations, results showed better memory after the retrieval of self-related statements than after the text reading. However, other studies did not observe a self-reference effect in AD [62, 63], probably due to differences in methodology, such as the use of intentional encoding [59, 62] versus incidental encoding [63], or the length of the retention interval which can range from ten seconds [62] to one minute [59] or 20 minutes [63]. It is worth noting, however, that research suggests a robust effect of self-reference on memory in normal aging [27, 28, 64, 65]. There is also evidence that self-reference may enhance encoding and recollection in normal aging [66, 67]. Altogether, the literature suggests some benefits of self-reference on item memory in normal aging, and, to some extent, in AD. Our findings contribute to this literature by demonstrating how self-imagination may be beneficial for a 20-seconds free recall in normal aging and AD. Our findings are also important as they show how, despite the decreased sense of the self in AD, individuals with mild AD can succeed to deploy self-imagination processes. Research has demonstrated a diminished sense of self in AD [61, 68-70], although individuals with mild AD can draw on some personal knowledge to maintain a continuous sense of self or even to reflect on situations in which they are concerned about their self-continuity [25, 71, 72].

The positive effects of self-imagination on the 20-seconds recall, as observed in our study, can trigger interesting ideas about memory rehabilitation in individuals with mild AD. For instance, it would be of interest to combine both self-imagination and spaced retrieval to maximize
the effects of self-imagination on memory. In other words, it would be of interest to invite individuals with mild AD to repeat the retrieved words after one minute, two minutes, four minutes and so on, which may promote long-term retention. This suggestion can be supported by research demonstrating positive effects of spaced retrieval in individuals with AD [73].

Unlike the 20-seconds recall, no benefits of self-imagination were observed for the 20-minutes recall in individuals with AD and controls. These findings can be associated with the substantial impairment of long-term recall in AD [19, 20]. Studies suggest this impairment as one of the most discriminating factors in identifying individuals at risk of progression to AD [21-23]. Long-term memory deficits have been reported by studies demonstrating compromise of autobiographical memory in AD, which is associated with damage to the medial temporal lobe and the hippocampus [25]. As for normal aging, it is likely that, when recollecting the imagined scenes on the delayed recall, our control participants had some difficulties with reconstructing the subjective experience of the imagined scenes. This suggestion can be supported by studies associating normal aging with difficulties to retrieve subjective experience of memories [74].

Despite the positive consequences of self-imagination, some unintended consequences should be considered. The imagination inflation effect is a memory distortion related to increased tendency to falsely remember that a stimulus has been processed when it has only been imagined [75-77]. In other words, imagined actions can be erroneously recalled as performed ones [78]. This bias can be illustrated by studies on source monitoring in AD [79-81]. More specifically, O'Connor, Deason[82] asked individuals with AD to listen to action statements such as “fill the pillbox”, perform the actions, or imagine performing the actions. Afterward, participants were invited to determine whether actions were or were not performed during the first session. The authors found that imagining performing actions increased the tendency of patients to falsely recall
the actions as having been performed (i.e., imagination inflation effect). Therefore, despite positive consequences on the 20-seconds recall in AD, self-imagination may result in important distortions of source memory. Future research should investigate conditions where self-imagination can either be beneficial or harmful.

One shortcoming of our paper may be the lack of a recognition test as one may expect for potential benefits of self-imagination on long-term memory if assessed with recognition tests. Another suggestion for future research would be to implement a “no-strategy” control condition or even to test vividness after self-imagination as self-imagination with high vividness ratings may increase long-term recall. Another future direction may be using eye-tracking to examine the fixations/saccades that can be activated when participants imagine the scenes, this to index the participants’ ability to construct the imagined scenes. This research can build on literature showing how eye movement can index mental imagery during recall [55, 83-86].

Clinicians may replicate our results in different conditions. For instance, when inviting patients to imagine themselves in a scene related to the to-be-retrieved information, clinicians may test whether enriching the scene with auditory stimuli (e.g., imagine yourself dancing waltz while hearing that music) may further enhance memory retrieval. Support for this assumption can be found in research demonstrating the beneficial effects of music exposure on memory in patients with mild AD [87]. Other mnemotechnics may also be tested, such as provided patients with drawings or some cue words to enhance construction of the imagined scene. Together, clinicians should incorporate our findings when assessing, and especially when trying to rehabilitate, episodic memory in AD.
## ETHICS APPROVAL AND CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE

The study was approved by the Committee for the Protection of Persons (20202-A02276-33).

## HUMAN AND ANIMAL RIGHTS

No animals were used in this research. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or research committee and with the 1975 Declaration of Helsinki, as revised in 2013.

## CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

All participants signed informed consent prior to their participation in the study.

## AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS

Raw data is available from the corresponding author, upon request.

## FUNDING

The first author was supported by the LABEX (excellence laboratory, program investment for the future) DISTALZ (Development of Innovative Strategies for a Transdisciplinary approach to Alzheimer disease).

## CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the participants.
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<caption>Table 1.</caption>

Cognitive characteristics of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and older adults

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Task</th><th>AD<br>n = 31</th><th>Older adults<br>n = 34</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>General Cognitive<br>functioning</td><td>Mini-Mental State Examination<br>(MMSE)</td><td>21.90 (1.47)***</td><td>28.35 (1.27)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Working memory</td><td>Forward span</td><td>5.45 (1.36)*</td><td>6.50 (1.79)</td></tr><tr><td>Backward span</td><td>3.71 (1.16)***</td><td>5.29 (1.42)</td></tr><tr><td>Verbal fluency</td><td>Letter “P”</td><td>16.92 (5.58)***</td><td>21.94 (5.17)</td></tr><tr><td>Shifting</td><td>Plus-Minus</td><td>12.48 (7.12)***</td><td>6.07 (3.19)</td></tr><tr><td>Depression</td><td>HADS</td><td>10.45 (3.41)***</td><td>6.62 (2.27)</td></tr></tbody></table>

*Note.* Standard deviations are given between brackets; the maximum score on the MMSE was 30 points; performances on the forward and backward span refer to the number of correctly repeated digits; the fluency score was the number of correctly generated words; scores on the Plus-Minus task refer to reaction time; the maximum score on the HADS (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) was 21 points; U Mann Whitney tests were used to compare differences between groups; differences between groups were significant at: * p < .05, ***p < .001;
Table 2.

<table><caption>The number of correctly remembered words on the 20-seconds and 20-minutes recall in the two conditions in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and older adults</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">AD</th><th colspan="2">Older adults</th></tr><tr><th>20-seconds</th><th>20-minutes</th><th>20-seconds</th><th>20-minutes</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Semantic processing</th><td>6.03 (2.21)</td><td>2.30 (1.94)</td><td>8.03 (2.83)</td><td>7.00 (2.71)</td></tr><tr><th>Self-imagining</th><td>8.03 (2.75)</td><td>2.58 (1.86)</td><td>9.88 (2.37)</td><td>7.35 (2.14)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note. Standard deviations are given between brackets; U Mann Whitney tests were used to compare differences between groups and Wilcoxon tests were used for within-groups comparisons
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1.</figcaption></figure>

In the semantic elaboration condition, participants were invited to decide to which category
words belong to. In the self-imagining condition, they were invited to imagine a scene related
to the words. Both conditions were followed by recall after two different intervals.
# Appendix

## The 48 used-words (in French, with their translation)

<table><tr><td>hareng</td><td>herring</td></tr><tr><td>gilet</td><td>vest</td></tr><tr><td>domino</td><td>domino</td></tr><tr><td>jonquille</td><td>daffodil</td></tr><tr><td>dentiste</td><td>dentist</td></tr><tr><td>groseille</td><td>currant</td></tr><tr><td>cuivre</td><td>copper</td></tr><tr><td>harpe</td><td>harp</td></tr><tr><td>mésange</td><td>tit</td></tr><tr><td>tilleul</td><td>basswood</td></tr><tr><td>judo</td><td>judo</td></tr><tr><td>céleri</td><td>celery</td></tr><tr><td>valse</td><td>waltz</td></tr><tr><td>rougeole</td><td>measles</td></tr><tr><td>tabouret</td><td>stool</td></tr><tr><td>géographie</td><td>geography</td></tr><tr><td>sardine</td><td>sardine</td></tr><tr><td>bonnet</td><td>cap</td></tr><tr><td>puzzle</td><td>puzzle</td></tr><tr><td>muguet</td><td>Lily of the valley</td></tr><tr><td>plombier</td><td>plumber</td></tr><tr><td>abricot</td><td>apricot</td></tr><tr><td>aluminium</td><td>aluminum</td></tr><tr><td>clarinette</td><td>clarinet</td></tr><tr><td>corbeau</td><td>crow</td></tr><tr><td>platane</td><td>plane tree</td></tr><tr><td>équitation</td><td>horse riding</td></tr><tr><td>épinard</td><td>spinach</td></tr><tr><td>tango</td><td>tango</td></tr><tr><td>angine</td><td>angina</td></tr></table>
Appendix: Raw data

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Semantic<br>processing<br>20<br>seconds</th><th>Semantic<br>processing<br>20<br>minutes</th><th>Self-<br>imagining<br>20<br>seconds</th><th>Self-<br>imagining<br>20<br>minutes</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>12</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>7</td><td>10</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>11</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>8</td><td>12</td><td>7</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>10</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>12</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>5</td><td>13</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>4</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>13</td><td>3</td><td>10</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>7</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>14</td><td>5</td><td>9</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>12</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>9</td><td>10</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>3</td><td>6</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>13</td><td>11</td><td>7</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>4</td><td>9</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>12</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>14</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>12</td><td>3</td><td>7</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>14</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>14</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>10</td><td>9</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>12</td><td>11</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>12</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>9</td><td>7</td><td>10</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>4</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>9</td><td>14</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>12</td><td>5</td><td>9</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>4</td><td>10</td><td>7</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>6</td><td>13</td><td>8</td><td>8</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>AD</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>8</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td>7</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>7</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>6</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>9</td><td>4</td><td>11</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>12</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>5</td><td>3</td><td>6</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>8</td><td>0</td><td>8</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>12</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>7</td><td>0</td><td>6</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>2</td><td>4</td><td>10</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>9</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>6</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>9</td><td>2</td><td>8</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>7</td><td>3</td><td>9</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>7</td><td>4</td><td>12</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>9</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td>7</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>11</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>12</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td>10</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>9</td><td>0</td><td>5</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>7</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>7</td><td>1</td><td>8</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>7</td><td>1</td><td>4</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>5</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>9</td><td>2</td><td>11</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>5</td><td>3</td><td>10</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>AD</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>12</td><td>0</td></tr></table>