**Supplement.** The supplement related to this article is available online at: https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2543-2024-supplement.

**Author contributions.** HT, RLT, and JGC designed and coordinated the study. HT, NP, SP, YL, RLT, PS, and PR gathered the bottom-up and top-down datasets and performed the post-processing, analysis, and synthesis. HT, NP, RLT, JGC, PS, PR, EAD, MJP, PC, MM, SP, WW, SZ, FZ, and RBJ wrote the paper. RLT led atmospheric inversions, teaming with PKP, KCW, DBM, and CW; HT led land biosphere modeling, teaming with NP, SP, SZ, AI, AKJ, FJ, SKG, CL, HS, QS, and QZ; PS led ocean geochemical modeling, teaming with EB, AL, SB, AJT, and FJ; PR led the synthesis of LOAC (Land-Ocean Aquatic Continuum), teaming with RL, TM, YY, MH, PR, JR, LR, MM, SB, HB, DB, and HT; JW and LB provided the N₂O flux from aquaculture data. GRW and JY provided the N₂O emissions from biomass burning data. FZ provided cropland N₂O flux data from a statistical model and field observations. MM, FNT, and WW provided N₂O inventory data. MJP provided stratospheric and tropospheric sink data. GP provided RCP and SSP scenario data and analysis. XL and GD provided a global N₂O monitoring dataset of NOAA/ESRL-GMD. JM and LMW provided a global N₂O monitoring dataset of AGAGE stations. PK provided a global N₂O monitoring dataset of CSIRO stations. All coauthors reviewed and commented on the manuscript.

**Competing interests.** At least one of the (co-)authors is a member of the editorial board of *Earth System Science Data*. The peer-review process was guided by an independent editor, and the authors also have no other competing interests to declare.

**Disclaimer.** Publisher's note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this paper. While Copernicus Publications makes every effort to include appropriate place names, the final responsibility lies with the authors.

**Acknowledgements.** This paper is the result of a collaborative international effort under the umbrella of the Global Carbon Project (a project of Future Earth and a research partner of the World Climate Research Programme) in partnership with the International Nitrogen Initiative (INI). We acknowledge all of the people and institutions who provided the data used in the global nitrous oxide budget as well as the institutions funding parts of this effort (see Table A4). We acknowledge the modeling groups for making their simulations available for this analysis. The PyVAR-CAMS modeling results were funded through the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service, implemented by ECMWF on behalf of the European Commission, and were generated using computing resources from LSCE. Hanqin Tian and Shufen Pan acknowledge computational and administrative support from the Center for Earth System Science and Global Sustainability, Schiller Institute for Integrated Science and Society at Boston College. Josep G. Canadell thanks the Australian National Environmental Science Program - Climate

Systems Hub for supporting the GHG budget activities of the Global Carbon Project (GCP), including the global and regional N₂O budget work. We are grateful to the EDGAR team (Monica Crippa, Diego Guizzardi, Edwin Schaaf, Marilena Muntean, Efisio Solazzo, Federico Pagani, and Manjola Banja) for the work needed to publish the EDGARv7.0 Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions dataset (https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dataset_ghg70, last access: 10 February 2022). Atul K. Jain thanks Shijie Shu and Tzu-Shun Lin for their involvement in developing and analyzing the ISAM model products used here. Giulia Conchedda, Griffiths Obli-Layrea, and Nathan Wanner contributed significant efforts to the generation of fertilizer, livestock, and soil nutrient data that underlie FAO's estimates of N₂O data.

**Financial support.** Please see a full list of funders in the Appendix (Table A4).

**Review statement.** This paper was edited by Yuyu Zhou and reviewed by Stephen Del Grosso and two anonymous referees.

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Saha, D., Basso, B., and Robertson, G. P.: Machine learning improves predictions of agricultural nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from intensively managed cropping systems, Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 024004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd2f3, 2021.

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nitrous oxide using MIROC4-atmospheric chemistry-transport model, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II, 100, 361–386, 2022.

Phillips, R. L., Whalen, S. C., and Schlesinger, W. H.: Influence of atmospheric CO₂ enrichment on nitrous oxide flux in a temperate forest ecosystem, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 15, 741–752, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GB001372, 2001.

Poulter, B., Bastos, A., Canadell, J., Ciais, P., Gruber, N., Hauck, J., Jackson, R., Ishii, M., Müller, J. D., and Patra, P.: Inventorying Earth's land and ocean greenhouse gases, Eos, 103, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022EO179084, 2022.

Prather, M. J., Holmes, C. D., and Hsu, J.: Reactive greenhouse gas scenarios: Systematic exploration of uncertainties and the role of atmospheric chemistry, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L09803, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL051440, 2012.

Prather, M. J., Hsu, J., DeLuca, N. M., Jackman, C. H., Oman, L. D., Douglass, A. R., Fleming, E. L., Strahan, S. E., Steenrod, S. D., Søvde, O. A., Isaksen, I. S. A., Froidevaux, L., and Funke, B.: Measuring and modeling the lifetime of nitrous oxide including its variability, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 5693–5705, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023267, 2015.

Prather, M. J., Froidevaux, L., and Livesey, N. J.: Observed changes in stratospheric circulation: decreasing lifetime of N₂O, 2005–2021, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 843–849, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-843-2023, 2023.

Prinn, R. G., Weiss, R. F., Arduini, J., Arnold, T., DeWitt, H. L., Fraser, P. J., Ganesan, A. L., Gasore, J., Harth, C. M., Hermansen, O., Kim, J., Krummel, P. B., Li, S., Loh, Z. M., Lunder, C. R., Maione, M., Manning, A. J., Miller, B. R., Mitrevski, B., Mühle, J., O'Doherty, S., Park, S., Reimann, S., Rigby, M., Saito, T., Salameh, P. K., Schmidt, R., Simmonds, P. G., Steele, L. P., Vollmer, M. K., Wang, R. H., Yao, B., Yokouchi, Y., Young, D., and Zhou, L.: History of chemically and radiatively important atmospheric gases from the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE), Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 985–1018, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-985-2018, 2018.

Prosperi, P., Bloise, M., Tubiello, F. N., Conchedda, G., Rossi, S., Boschetti, L., Salvatore, M., and Bernoux, M.: New estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from biomass burning and peat fires using MODIS Collection 6 burned areas, Climatic Change, 161, 415–432, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02654-0, 2020.

Raats, P. A. C.: Uptake of water from soils by plant roots, Transp. Porous Med., 68, 5–28, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-006-9055-6, 2007.

Raji, S. G. and Dörsch, P.: Effect of legume intercropping on N₂O emissions and CH₄ uptake during maize production in the Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia, Biogeosciences, 17, 345–359, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-345-2020, 2020.

Raoult, N., Delorme, B., Ottlé, C., Peylin, P., Bastrikov, V., Maugis, P., and Polcher, J.: Confronting Soil Moisture Dynamics from the ORCHIDEE Land Surface Model With the ESA-CCI Product: Perspectives for Data Assimilation, Remote Sens., 10, 1786, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10111786, 2018.

Ravishankara, A. R., Daniel, J. S., and Portmann, R. W.: Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): The Dominant Ozone-Depleting Substance Emitted in the 21st Century, Science, 326, 123–125, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1176985, 2009.

Reay, D. S., Davidson, E. A., Smith, K. A., Smith, P., Melillo, J. M., Dentener, F., and Crutzen, P. J.: Global agriculture

and nitrous oxide emissions, Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 410–416, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1458, 2012.

Regan, K., Kammann, C., Hartung, K., Lenhart, K., Müller, C., Philippot, L., Kandeler, E., and Marhan, S.: Can differences in microbial abundances help explain enhanced N₂O emissions in a permanent grassland under elevated atmospheric CO₂?, Global Change Biol., 17, 3176–3186, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02470.x, 2011.

Repo, M. E., Susiluoto, S., Lind, S. E., Jokinen, S., Elsakov, V., Basi, C., Virtanen, T., and Martikainen, P. J.: Large N₂O emissions from cryoturbated peat soil in tundra, Nat. Geosci., 2, 189–192, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo434, 2009.

Resplandy, L., Hogikyan, A., Müller, J. D., Najjar, R. G., Bange, H. W., Bianchi, D., Weber, T., Cai, W.-J., Doney, S. C., Fennel, K., Gehlen, M., Hauck, J., Lacroix, F., Landschützer, P., Le Quéré, C., Roobaert, A., Schwinger, J., Berthet, S., Bopp, L., Chau, T. T. T., Dai, M., Gruber, N., Ilyina, T., Kock, A., Manizza, M., Lachkar, Z., Laruelle, G. G., Liao, E., Lima, I. D., Nissen, C., Rödenbeck, C., Séférían, R., Toyama, K., Tsujino, H., and Regnier, P.: A Synthesis of Global Coastal Ocean Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 38, e2023GB007803, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GB007803, 2024.

Rogelj, J. and Lamboll, R. D.: Substantial reductions in non-CO₂ greenhouse gas emissions reductions implied by IPCC estimates of the remaining carbon budget, Commun. Earth Environ., 5, 1–5, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-01168-8, 2024.

Rosentreter, J. A., Laruelle, G. G., Bange, H. W., Bianchi, T. S., Busecke, J. J. M., Cai, W.-J., Eyre, B. D., Forbrich, I., Kwon, E. Y., Maavara, T., Moosdorf, N., Najjar, R. G., Sarma, V. V. S. S., Van Dam, B., and Regnier, P.: Coastal vegetation and estuaries are collectively a greenhouse gas sink, Nat. Clim. Change, 13, 579–587, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01682-9, 2023.

Saha, D., Basso, B., and Robertson, G. P.: Machine learning improves predictions of agricultural nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from intensively managed cropping systems, Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 024004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd2f3, 2021.

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