# Research Fund for Coal and Steel – A summary of the findings of the steel research technical groups – 2024

Andreas Jenet, Spyridon Merkourakis, Michael Berz, Elsa Papadopoulou,

Anastasios Tsakalidis, Sebastiano Fumero

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Andreas Jenet, Spyridon Merkourakis, Michael Berz, Elsa Papadopoulou, Anastasios Tsakalidis, et al.. Research Fund for Coal and Steel – A summary of the findings of the steel research technical groups – 2024. JW-01-25-023-EN-N, European Commission. 2025, pp.50. hal-05238613

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# Research Fund for Coal and Steel

A summary of the findings of the steel research technical groups – 2024

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Written by Jenet, A., Merkourakis, S., Berz. M., Papadopoulou E., Tsakalidis, A., Fumero, S.

August - 2025

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EUROPEAN COMMISSION

European Research Executive Agency (REA)

Unit B.1 — Future Low Emission Industries

E-mail: REA-RFCS@ec.europa.eu

European Commission
B-1049 Brussels
# Research Fund for Coal and Steel

A summary of the findings of the steel research technical groups – 2024
## Legal notice

This document has been prepared for the European Commission; however, it reflects the views only of the authors, and the European Commission is not liable for any consequence stemming from the reuse of this publication. More information on the European Union is available on the internet (http://www.europa.eu).

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ISBN 978-92-95234-68-0

doi:10.2848/5843295

JW-01-25-023-EN-N

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2025

© European Union, 2025

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The reuse policy of European Commission documents is implemented by the Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39). Except otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This means that reuse is allowed provided appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated.

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Cover: Cold rolled steel coil at storage area in steel industry plant, licenced 120923675, Adobe stock

How to cite this report: Research Executive Agency, Jenet, A., Merkourakis, S., Berz. M., Papadopoulou E., Tsakalidis, A., Fumero, S., *Research Fund for Coal and Steel – A summary of the findings of the steel research technical groups – 2024*, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2025, doi:10.2848/5843295
# Contents

<table><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Acknowledgements</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>1 Introduction</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>2 An overview of the technical group meeting outcomes</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>2.1 Projects' contributions to the European Green Deal</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>2.1.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>2.1.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>2.1.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>2.1.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>2.1.5 Steel factories - smart and human (TGA5)</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>2.2 Benefits for industry and for society</td><td>16</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)</td><td>16</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)</td><td>17</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)</td><td>17</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.5 Steel factories - smart and human (TGA5)</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>2.3 Potential of high-TRL projects to be scaled up and enter production</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>2.3.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>2.3.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>2.3.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>2.3.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>2.3.5 Steel factories - smart and human (TGA5)</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>2.4 Collaboration potential and synergies</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>2.4.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)</td><td>24</td></tr><tr><td>2.4.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)</td><td>25</td></tr><tr><td>2.4.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)</td><td>26</td></tr><tr><td>2.4.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>2.4.5 Steel factories - smart and human (TGA5)</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>2.5 Research gaps and future research areas</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td>2.5.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)</td><td>28</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>2.5.2</td><td>Downstream steel processing (TGA2)</td><td>29</td></tr><tr><td>2.5.3</td><td>Conception of steel products (TGA3)</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>2.5.4</td><td>Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>2.5.5</td><td>Steel factories - smart and human (TGA5)</td><td>32</td></tr><tr><td>2.6</td><td>Contribution to the key performance indicators of the Clean Steel Partnership</td><td>33</td></tr><tr><td>2.6.1</td><td>Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)</td><td>33</td></tr><tr><td>2.6.2</td><td>Downstream steel processing (TGA2)</td><td>34</td></tr><tr><td>2.6.3</td><td>Conception of steel products (TGA3)</td><td>35</td></tr><tr><td>2.6.4</td><td>Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)</td><td>35</td></tr><tr><td>2.6.5</td><td>Steel factories - smart and human (TGA5)</td><td>36</td></tr><tr><td>2.7</td><td>RFCS contribution to decarbonisation in the steel sector</td><td>36</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Conclusion and ways forward</td><td>38</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>References</td><td>40</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>List of abbreviations and definitions</td><td>41</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>List of tables</td><td>42</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Annex. List of RFCS project acronyms and titles</td><td>43</td></tr></table>
**Abstract**

The 2024 assessments of the RFCS Technical Groups (TGA1-TGA5) confirm the steel sector's critical role in achieving EU climate and industrial goals. Projects demonstrate strong alignment with the European Green Deal and Clean Steel Partnership, advancing decarbonisation, circularity, and digitalisation. Key achievements include hydrogen-based steelmaking, smart factories, and advanced steel grades for renewables and mobility. However, critical research gaps persist as low-TRL innovation is underfunded, casting and scrap quality need deeper focus, and hydrogen-compatible materials and standards remain underdeveloped. Workforce upskilling, regulatory harmonisation, and lifecycle-based design are essential to scale innovations. Future RFCS calls must balance high-risk research with industrial deployment, foster cross-sector collaboration, and ensure policy alignment. A strategic shift is needed to accelerate the transition to a competitive, climate-neutral, and resilient European steel industry.
Acknowledgements

A major part of this synthesis is based on reports provided following the annual meetings of the steel research technical groups (TGAs) that support the Research Fund for Coal and Steel: TGA1 – Iron and steelmaking; TGA2 – Downstream steel processing; TGA3 – Conception of steel products; TGA4 – Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets; and TGA5 – Steel factories – smart and human. The synthesis would not have been possible without the input of the members of these groups.
# 1 Introduction

The Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS) operates as a dedicated multiannual European Union research programme, functioning independently of the Horizon Europe framework. Established under its own legal statutes, the RFCS is mandated to finance collaborative research and innovation initiatives within the coal and steel sectors. Its objectives are strategically aligned with the scientific, technological, and political priorities of the EU, designed to complement research activities conducted at the Member State level and within other EU research programmes.

During the 2021-2027 programming period, the RFCS is closely tied to the strategic objectives of the European Green Deal (EGD)<fnref n="1" />, which envision the transformation of the EU into a society characterized by fairness, prosperity, and a modern, resource-efficient economy, devoid of net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050, and where economic growth is decoupled from resource utilization. Additional policy priorities that the RFCS supports include the Clean Steel Partnership (CSP)<fnref n="2" />, the new industrial strategy for Europe<fnref n="3" />, the Just Transition Mechanism<fnref n="4" />, and the sustainable Europe investment plan<fnref n="5" /> and the more recent Clean Industrial Deal<fnref n="6" /> (CID) and Steel and Metals Action Plan (SMAP)<fnref n="7" />.

The RFCS is a critical instrument in facilitating the EU's climate and industrial policy objectives. Within the steel sector, the fund directs significant resources towards research and innovation projects aimed at mitigating GHG emissions, enhancing energy efficiency, and advancing the development of low-carbon steel production technologies. With a substantial budget of approximately €568 million for the 2021-2027 period, the RFCS supports a diverse portfolio of steel-related projects, including those investigating hydrogen-based steelmaking, carbon capture and storage, and sophisticated steel recycling methodologies.<fnref n="8" />

A cornerstone of the RFCS's strategy is its close collaboration with the Clean Steel Partnership (CSP), a European Commission initiative created to expedite the European steel industry's transition to low-carbon production. By funding research and innovation that resonates with the CSP's objectives, the RFCS facilitates the crucial transfer of knowledge and technology from research to industrial application, thereby accelerating the market readiness of low-carbon steel technologies. The RFCS manages a portfolio of approximately 120 steel-related projects, with a pronounced emphasis on fostering breakthrough technologies and innovative solutions to ensure the European steel industry's decarbonization and continued global competitiveness.

The fund's implementation framework is structured around three principal action types:

* Research projects provide funding for the development of novel technologies.

* Pilot and demonstration projects support initiatives that validate the technical feasibility and scalability of new technologies in operational environments.

<footnote n="1">¹ https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² https://www.estep.eu/assets/CSP/signed_2021_09_08_MoU_Clean-Steel_Low-Carbon-Steelmaking.pdf</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ COM/2020/102 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0102</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Regulation (EU)2021/1056 http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/1056/oj</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ COM/2020/21 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0021</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ COM/2025/85 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52025DC0085</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ COM/2025/125 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52025DC0125</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸ Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094 http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec/2021/1094/oj</footnote>
* Accompanying measures support complementary activities essential for the dissemination and exploitation of research outcomes, including training and networking.

The European Research Executive Agency (REA) is entrusted with the implementation of the RFCS. This process is supported by a network of five specialized steel research Technical Groups (TGs), composed of technical experts appointed by the REA. These groups are tasked with monitoring the progress of research projects, overseeing the dissemination and exploitation of results, and providing informed feedback to policymakers. The five TGs are structured as follows:

* TGA1: Iron and steelmaking

* TGA2: Downstream steel processing

* TGA3: Conception of steel products

* TGA4: Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets

* TGA5: Steel factories – smart and human

Each TG convenes annually, providing a platform for project coordinators to present the outcomes of selected RFCS-funded projects (Vanderheyden, et al. 2025, Reichardt et al. 2024, lung et al. 2024, Ofenheimer et al. 2025, Colla et al. 2025).

<table><caption>Table 1: 2024 TG meetings</caption><thead><tr><td>TG</td><td>Date of meeting</td><td>Place of meeting</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>TGA1</td><td>22 October 2024</td><td>Online</td></tr><tr><td>TGA2</td><td>16-17 May 2024</td><td>Graz, Austria</td></tr><tr><td>TGA3</td><td>9-19 July 2024</td><td>Online</td></tr><tr><td>TGA4</td><td>12 December 2024</td><td>Online</td></tr><tr><td>TGA5</td><td>8 July 2024</td><td>Online</td></tr></tbody></table>

This report was complemented by additional information on steel projects following an RTD request to strengthen the analysis for the 2025 RFCS feedback to policy (REA 2025). This analysis was integrated in chapter 2.7 which deals with the target decarbonisation levels and the potential EU-wide impact of each project.

This report synthesises the final reports of the five TG meetings of 2024 and aims to highlight their most important outcomes. These include various findings related to the status of projects and their potential impact on the steel industry's performance (e.g. synergies, competitiveness) and regarding EU policies (e.g. the EGD). Moreover, recommendations are provided for further developing and implementing a policy framework for research and innovation through the RFCS.
**2 An overview of the technical group meeting outcomes**

**2.1 Projects' contributions to the European Green Deal**

The Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS), operating under Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094, aligns its research and innovation projects with the EGD and broader EU sustainability objectives. This chapter examines how RFCS-funded initiatives across five technical groups (TGA1-TGA5) advance the EGD's mission to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.

By addressing research and innovation priorities outlined in Articles 8–10a of the Council Decision, these projects contribute to critical areas such as low-carbon steelmaking, circular economy practices, pollution control, and workforce adaptation.

**2.1.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)**

The technical group 'iron and steelmaking' (TGA1) includes in its portfolio 14 projects under the scopes set in Articles 8 and 10 of the under Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094. The projects support the policy objectives of the EGD by focusing on sustainable and low-carbon steelmaking, promoting resource conservation, environmental protection, and advancing the circular economy. Key contributions include:

*   **Decarbonization of Steel Production:**

o **Sinter Plant:** TRANSinter involves modified sinter in Direct Reduction (DR) shafts to aid decarbonization (see Art. 8b).

o **Blast Furnace:** H2TransBF2030 project focuses on hydrogen injection to reduce emissions (see Art. 8g).

o **Electric Arc Furnace (EAF):** DevH2forEAF aims to transition from natural gas to hydrogen burners. (see Art. 8g and 10e)

o **Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) Use:** HBI C-Flex addresses reoxidation issues with Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI) (see Art. 8b).

o **Hydrogen-Rich Syngas Production:** Prosynteg explores reforming natural gas into hydrogen via coke breeze combustion to generate syngas for blast furnaces (see Art. 10e).

o **Biomass Use:** Multiple projects (BioCode, BioReSteel, BioReCast) incorporate biomass to partially replace coal in production processes and recover EAF waste heat (see Art. 8f).

*   **Conservation of Resources and Circular Economy:**

o Improved internal recycling processes for waste in the sinter plant (TRANSinter) and increased reuse of low zinc byproducts (ZincVal) (see Art. 10b).

o Valorization of coke breeze for syngas production (ProSynteg) and exploring treatment options for next-generation slags (InsGeP) (see Art. 10e).

o Converting bio-based residues into biocoal while recovering valuable materials like phosphorus (BioReSteel, BioReCast) (see Art. 8f and 10b).
* Pollution Control and Environmental Protection:

o Enhanced water management is addressed through the IndiWater project to safeguard the environment within and around steel manufacturing facilities (see Art. 10c).

## 2.1.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)

The portfolio of 'downstream steel processing' includes fourteen projects which contribute to the objectives of the EGD as well as the research objectives of the Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094. The Table 2 scores the portfolio according to the different objectives provided by Articles 8, 9, 10 and 10a.

The assessment of the TGA2 revealed that there are notable findings in areas such as re-heating, which prioritises eliminating fossil fuels and, to a lesser extent, adopting electrical heating alternatives. Several of these projects use alternative fuels such as hydrogen and electricity to reduce CO2 emissions, and are mainly summarised under cross sector & demonstrators (g) in Table 2. Several projects also emphasise process optimization and quality improvements, which are expected to enhance energy and resource efficiency—directly supporting the objectives of the EGD. Digitalisation initiatives, including predictive models, improve product quality and reduce production delays.

The portfolio of TGA2 consist overpropionationally of projects with a high technology readiness level (TRL) and several of them are pilot and demonstration projects, while research projects on novel concepts and technologies are rare. For example, the topic of development of new steels is not present, however, the validation and demonstration stages of many projects in the portfolio focus on specific steel grades, such as advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) and steels for automotive applications. Whereas more than 50% of the budget in the TGA2 portfolio is allocated to 5 projects (3 big ticket projects associated with high TRL: FULLH2REHEAT, HYDREAMS and MODIPLANT). Yet, the effort is in line and contributes to the EGD and Just Transition Fund, boosting the efficient use of resources by moving towards a clean and circular economy approach in the steel sector and thus contributing to battling climate change and local pollution.

There is a need for new projects focus on novel concepts and technologies that cover the maintenance and reliability of downstream steel production tools, and more generally to facilitate tracking along the supply chain, and full lifecycle of products making. In addition, an integrated process approach should be adopted to take advantage of the integration between casting, reheating, and rolling to reduce the waste gas emissions from the downstream steel production.

The percentage for each sub-topic is the average score showing how much the 14 projects in the portfolio address that specific topic. A score of 100% would mean that every project in the portfolio is fully dedicated to that one sub-topic.

More precisely, key contributions include:

* **Fossil-free and efficient steelmaking:** Projects like FULLH2REHEAT, HYDREAMS, and MODIPLANT focus on near-zero-carbon steelmaking processes, integrating zero-carbon energy sources and enhancing energy efficiency through waste heat recovery and hybrid heating techniques.

* **Process optimization and digitalization:** Initiatives such as OPTILOCALHT and PROTEUS-RS utilize digital tools and predictive models to improve process stability, reduce energy consumption, and enhance product quality, thereby contributing to reduced CO2 emissions.
* **Advanced steel grades:** Projects like SmartCool and RollProf develop advanced steel grades and improve steel properties, which can lead to more durable, efficient applications and reduce environmental impacts.

* **Circular economy and environmental protection:** The portfolio supports conservation of resources and environmental protection through life cycle assessments, pollution control measures, and fostering competencies for near-zero-carbon processes (DissHEAT, RollOilFreell, INNOPick).

* **Workforce Conditions:** Efforts like CentriClean and RollOilFreell aim to enhance working conditions, focusing on health, safety, and ergonomics.

<table><caption>Table 2 TGA2 portfolio scores (scores represent the percentage of specific project contributions based on the total of the 14 projects per sub-topic of the Articles.):</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Art. 8 New, sustainable and low-carbon steelmaking and finishing processes</strong></td></tr><tr><td>(a) new/improved processes</td><td>50%</td></tr><tr><td>(b) optimization</td><td>86%</td></tr><tr><td>(c) process integration</td><td>50%</td></tr><tr><td>(d) maintenance</td><td>57%</td></tr><tr><td>(e) recyclability</td><td>21%</td></tr><tr><td>(f) energy efficiency</td><td>21%</td></tr><tr><td>(g) cross-sector & demonstrators</td><td>27%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Art. 9 Advanced steel grades and applications</strong></td></tr><tr><td>(a) advanced steel grades</td><td>14%</td></tr><tr><td>(b) steel properties</td><td>7%</td></tr><tr><td>(c) prolonging life</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>(d) predictive models</td><td>64%</td></tr><tr><td>(e) forming, welding, joining</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>(f) testing methods</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>(g) high performance grades</td><td>7%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Art. 10 Conservation of resources, protection of the environment and circular economy</strong></td></tr><tr><td>(a) recycling</td><td>7%</td></tr><tr><td>(b) waste recovery</td><td>7%</td></tr><tr><td>(c) pollution control</td><td>29%</td></tr><tr><td>(d) design to recycle/reuse</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>(e) use of process gases</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>(f) LCA</td><td>29%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Art. 10a Management of work force and working conditions</strong></td></tr><tr><td>(a) competences</td><td>71%</td></tr><tr><td>(b) work conditions</td><td>29%</td></tr></tbody></table>
### 2.1.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)

The TGA3 portfolio contributes to the EGD by aligning its 15 projects with the objectives of sustainable steel production, advanced steel grades, and circular economy principles outlined in the Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094. TGA3 projects facilitate reduced emissions, improved resource efficiency, and the development of high-performance, sustainable steel products. Key contributions include:

* **Advanced steel grades and applications:** The portfolio extensively addresses Article 9 by developing new steel products and improving steel properties through projects like AUSTRONG, NanoWinTur, and HELIX. These innovations aim to reduce environmental impacts by improving the strength-to-mass ratio, longevity, and wear resistance of steel products, thus enhancing energy efficiency and sustainability in applications such as renewable energy systems and transportation.

* **Renewable energy support:** Projects like HELIX and NanoWinTur specifically focus on developing steel solutions for the offshore wind industry, improving the reliability and mechanical performance of components, thereby contributing to the EGD's goal of increasing renewable energy utilization.

* **Circular economy:** The portfolio emphasizes circular economy practices, particularly through projects like ALCOAT and COOPHS, which focus on electric arc furnace (EAF) processes, advocating resource efficiency and reduced emissions.

* **Electric mobility enhancement:** Projects like STeELS-EM and Si-Shift aim to boost electric motor performance in vehicles by enhancing the magnetic properties of electrical steels, supporting the transition to electric mobility.

* **Process efficiency and innovation:** The use of predictive modeling, digitalization, and novel processing routes such as thermo-mechanical controlled rolling (AUSTRONG) and low-temperature austempering (MARTBAIN) aim to reduce energy consumption across the steel production chain, aligning with EGD goals.

* **Additive manufacturing and material savings:** Recent projects NewAIMS and SuPreAM focus on additive manufacturing advancements, emphasizing raw material savings and optimized steel use, consistent with the EGD's resource efficiency and sustainability aims.

### 2.1.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)

The 10 projects support the objectives of the EGD by advancing resource efficiency, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and supporting sustainable practices in various sectors, particularly the construction and automotive industries. Specifically, they promote energy efficiency, sustainable resource use, and the development of durable and environmentally friendly steel applications, thus addressing the goals of reducing emissions and advancing economic decoupling from resource consumption. Key contributions include:

* **Resource efficiency and circular economy:** Projects like CONNECT4C and DreamFAB focus on steel reuse and the development of guidelines for deconstruction and refabrication, aligning with Articles 9 and 10. These efforts support the EGD goal of decoupling economic growth from resource use by promoting high rates of steel reuse (up to 90%).
* **Innovative design for durability and sustainability:** GREENVESTS aims to enhance the seismic, wind, and corrosion resistance of steel structures (by developing guidelines for green walls comprising the outer envelope of buildings) contributing to sustainable building designs that support circular economy principles. It addresses Articles 8, 9, and 10 by developing technology to improve corrosion resistance and enable easy recyclability.

* **Efficient manufacturing technologies:** IAMFAT and SMARTWELD projects utilize additive manufacturing and intelligent welding to enhance material efficiency (by 25%), energy consumption (by 15%) and reduce emissions, aligning with Articles 9 and 10. These initiatives focus on improving the lifespan and performance of steel structures by improving the resistance of steels and steel structures to heat and corrosion, mechanical and thermal fatigue and other deteriorating effects while minimizing material waste and energy use.

* **Energy efficiency:** The STWIN project targets a substantial reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (by 40%) through energy-efficient joining technology, addressing Article 8 on energy management solutions and Article 9 on improvements in steel properties and processing techniques.

* **Hydrogen utilization and infrastructure:** HYSCORE and SAFEH2PIPE projects emphasize the safe use of pipelines for hydrogen, contributing to Articles 9 and 10 by enhancing the structural integrity and service life of steel used in hydrogen applications.

* **Automotive innovations:** Sup3Form and WARP-AHSS projects focus on high-performance steels for automotive applications, supporting Articles 9 and 10 through sustainable design, lightweight construction, and life cycle assessments, aiming for significant weight reductions (up to 10-15%) in components to save resources.

### 2.1.5 Steel factories – smart and human (TGA5)

The eleven TGA5 projects contribute to the EGD by advancing cleaner energy, innovative technology, and various sustainability following objectives:

* **Cleaner energy and technological innovation:** Projects like TWINGHY directly aim at developing cleaner energy solutions and cutting-edge technologies, supporting the EGD's focus on sustainable energy transition.

* **Energy efficiency and gas management:** SMARTER explores diverse scenarios for gas and energy management, helping transition the steel industry towards more sustainable practices by optimizing energy use and integrating alternative energy sources.

* **CO₂ emissions and resource efficiency:** Several projects indirectly support EGD goals by improving energy efficiency, reducing CO₂ emissions, and enhancing resource efficiency. This is achieved through strategies like predictive maintenance, reduction in scrap rates, and better process control. For example, SILENCE facilitates the use of biochar as an alternative carbon source in steel production.

* **Digitalization and workplace improvement:** There is a significant focus on digitalization, with many projects using AI to enhance process reliability and worker safety. iSteel-Expert, for example, aims to preserve knowledge, improve worker skills, and create safer working environments by reducing worker presence in hazardous areas, thus addressing workforce management and capacity building.
## 2.2 Benefits for industry and for society

The Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS), under its legal mandate defined by Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094, is committed not only to advancing technological innovation in the steel sector but also to delivering tangible benefits for European industry and society. This dual objective is embedded in the RFCS's obligation to support research that enhances industrial competitiveness, environmental sustainability, and social well-being. The current RFCS project portfolio demonstrates how targeted research and innovation can simultaneously strengthen the EU steel sector and address broader societal challenges. Across all Technical Groups (TGA1 to TGA5), projects contribute to improving energy efficiency, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting circular economy practices, and fostering digital transformation. These efforts generate socio-economic value through job creation, skills development, and improved working conditions. By bridging industrial innovation with societal impact, the RFCS portfolio demonstrates how research investments can be a strategic tool for achieving a just and inclusive green transition in Europe.

### 2.2.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)

The TGA1 projects offer significant advantages to the steel industry by enhancing energy efficiency, reducing costs, and boosting productivity. Key contributions include:

* **Competitiveness:** If implemented, these projects can significantly enhance the competitiveness of the EU steel sector by improving process efficiency and reducing operational costs.

* **Greener steel production:** Projects focus on circular, carbon-neutral steel production, meeting the growing market demand for "green steel." This shift supports the steel sector's long-term sustainability.

* **Circular economy and resource efficiency:** Initiatives like BIOCODE, BioReSteel, and ZincVal aim to recycle byproducts and use secondary materials, saving raw materials, lowering landfilling costs, and reducing CO₂ emissions. Further, InsGeP anticipates the need to find valorisation ways for the next generation slags. BioReCast converts residual biomass into biocoal and Pyrogas using EAF waste heat. These sustainable fuels serve as alternative reductants in steelmaking, enhancing energy reuse and circularity.

* **Decarbonization:** Projects such as DevH2forEAF and H2TransBF2030 aim to lower CO₂ emissions by using hydrogen and other sustainable fuels, aiding the transition to a climate-neutral steel sector. ProSynteg develops hot H₂-rich syngas via dry reforming of coke oven gas and natural gas with hot CO₂. Primarily aimed at CO₂ emission reduction through BF injection, it also supports future DRI plant integration.

* **Intersectoral benefits:** Some projects benefit sectors beyond steel, including energy and transportation, by advancing the hydrogen economy and alternative resource supply chains.

The TGA1 portfolio contributes to addressing societal challenges by:

* **Improved circularity:** Projects like Indiwater aim to reduce water usage and enhance recycling practices, thus supporting a circular economy and addressing resource scarcity.
* **Knowledge and skill development:** Although not the primary focus, these projects enhance sector sustainability and improve skills critical for new technology implementation. Academic involvement and dissemination of findings further support this goal.

### 2.2.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)

The TGA2 portfolio of projects presents numerous benefits for both the industry and society, focusing on process optimization, cost savings, and sustainability in the EU steel sector.

Industry benefits:

* **Process optimization:** Improved efficiencies in processes like reheating and rolling enhance productivity and reduce waste.

* **Increased product quality:** Projects focus on achieving better flatness, mechanical properties, and surface quality.

* **Machine-assisted decision making:** Promotes innovation and improves decision-making efficiency.

* **Operational cost savings:** Optimized processes lead to significant cost reductions.

* **Enhanced production flexibility:** Adaptable processes and technologies increase responsiveness to market demands.

* **Economic resilience:** Enhances profitability and resilience of the European steel industry, supporting long-term economic stability.

* **Global competitiveness:** Boosts the EU steel industry's ability to compete internationally through technological and performance improvements.

Societal benefits:

* **Economic resilience:** Enhances profitability and resilience of the European steel industry, supporting long-term economic stability.

* **Machine-assisted decision making:** Promotes innovation and improves decision-making efficiency.

* **Job creation and employment opportunities:** New technologies and processes create jobs and demand skilled labor, offering long-term employment potential.

* **GHG emissions reduction:** Projects like HYDREAMS, FULLH2REHEAT, and MODIPLANT aim to significantly cut GHG emissions by replacing fossil gases with hydrogen.

While these projects offer significant advances, there remains a concern over the low number of patents or new product developments, indicating a potential area for improvement in innovation and commercial outcomes.

### 2.2.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)

The project portfolio offers significant benefits for both industry and society by advancing steel production methods and supporting the energy transition. Here's a summary of the key benefits:
Industry benefits:

* **Advanced steel production:** Projects are developing new methods for producing advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) and other components, improving energy efficiency and reducing environmental emissions.

* **Support for renewable energy and electric mobility:** Projects like NanoWinTur and HELIX focus on developing steel solutions for wind turbines and electric vehicles, contributing to the global energy transition and enhancing the competitiveness of the EU steel industry.

* **Improved energy efficiency:** Initiatives such as STeELS-EM and Si-Shift aim to create steels with better magnetic properties, increasing the efficiency of electric engines and reducing CO₂ emissions.

* **Circular economy:** Projects like COOPHS, ALCOAT, and LIGHTFORGE work towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions through improved recyclability and use of secondary materials, supporting the EU's commitment to a circular economy.

* **Innovative methodologies:** VForm-xSteels focuses on developing precise methodologies for material characterization, potentially reducing the lead-time and cost in metal part development.

Societal benefits:

* **Reduced energy consumption at consumer level:** High-strength steels with a better strength-to-mass ratio contribute to lighter vehicles, reducing fuel and energy consumption.

* **Hydrogen safety in automotives:** Projects such as AtHyCor and Feather aim to understand hydrogen embrittlement, which is crucial for enhancing safety in applications like hydrogen storage and automotive parts.

**Job creation and skills development:** International collaboration in these projects supports the development of the European steelmaking industry and contributes to enhancing competencies, leading to increased demand for highly qualified workers.

### 2.2.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)

The projects outlined provide benefits for both the steel industry and society by enhancing sustainability, efficiency, and competitiveness across various sectors. Specifically, they support industry modernization, foster the development of sustainable technologies, and offer societal benefits by addressing environmental challenges and boosting economic resilience.

Industry benefits:

* **New business opportunities:** Connect4C and DreamFAB facilitate the reuse of steel structures, opening new business avenues and supporting the export of high-performance steel products from Europe.

* **Process optimization and cost reduction:** Projects like IAMFAT, SMARTWELD, and STWIN focus on reducing energy consumption, operational costs, and material waste, enhancing the competitiveness of steel solutions in the European and global markets.
* **Competitive edge in advanced steels:** Sup3Form and WARP-AHSS projects develop advanced high-strength steels for the automotive sector, promoting lightweight solutions that enhance fuel efficiency and reduce emissions.

* **Innovation in hydrogen use:** HYSCORE and SAFEH2PIPE contribute to the hydrogen economy by developing steel resistant to hydrogen embrittlement and supporting the infrastructure needed for hydrogen transport and usage, facilitating the transition to a hydrogen-based energy system.

Societal benefits:

* **Environmental sustainability:** Projects like GREENVESTS promote green infrastructure, reducing CO2 emissions by integrating steel into ecological urban habitats and supporting the refurbishment of old buildings with eco-friendly solutions. IAMFAT aims to allow reducing material waste, carbon emissions and energy, thus contributing to resource efficiency.

* **Job creation and skills development:** By fostering the development of high-tech jobs and advanced technological skills, the projects contribute to workforce upskilling and new employment opportunities in Europe.

* **Improved health and safety:** Automation and digitalization in projects like SMARTWELD or DREAMFAB enhance workplace safety and reduce environmental impact, contributing to a healthier working environment.

* **GHG emission reduction:** Key benefits include an indirect reduction in GHG emissions through reuse rather than recycling.

### 2.2.5 Steel factories – smart and human (TGA5)

The TGA5 project portfolio contributes to the sector's economic, environmental, and social sustainability via a cluster of projects that focus on holistic and digital process optimisation, leading to increased productivity, improved product quality, greater process flexibility, and reductions in energy use, waste, and greenhouse gas emissions—all of which help lower production costs and reliance on fossil fuels. Several projects from the portfolio develop and disseminate competencies emphasising human and environmental dimensions, enhancing energy- and resource efficiency, reducing emissions and waste, and fostering safer, healthier working environments. The portfolio supports workforce development through upskilling and knowledge retention, while strengthening ties with local communities.

Industry benefits:

* **Productivity and efficiency:** Projects on digital and holistic approaches boost productivity, process reliability, and product quality while reducing energy use, waste, and emissions—lowering production costs.

* **Process optimization and innovation:** Projects on dissemination of competencies enhance process efficiency, integrate alternative energy, and reduce waste, strengthening the EU steel sector's competitiveness.
Societal benefits:

* **Environmental and community well-being:** Projects help protect the environment and improve community relations, such as the SILENCE which aims to reduce noise pollution and improve the relationship between steel plants and nearby residents.

* **Safer working environments:** By improving working conditions and skills, projects create safer, more capable workplaces.

## 2.3 Potential of high-TRL projects to be scaled up and enter production

The transition from successful demonstration to full-scale industrial production represents a critical phase in the innovation lifecycle, and it is a core objective of the Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS). Under its legal framework, particularly Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094, the RFCS is explicitly mandated to support the advancement of technologies beyond the laboratory by funding pilot and demonstration projects that bridge the gap to market access. This chapter assesses the potential of the high-technology-readiness-level (TRL) projects within the current portfolio to be successfully scaled up and integrated into commercial production. The analysis reveals a varied landscape of opportunities and challenges. Factors such as the level of required investment, the active involvement of steel companies and end-users in project consortia, and the complexity of regulatory approvals significantly influence the timeline for market entry, which can range from one to over ten years. While digitalization and process optimization projects show potential for rapid implementation, transformative technologies like those based on green hydrogen face considerable economic and infrastructural hurdles. Ultimately, the successful scaling of these innovations hinges on a combination of technological maturity, strategic partnerships, and supportive market conditions, all of which are essential for realizing the RFCS's goal of fostering a competitive and sustainable European steel industry.

### 2.3.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)

High-technology-readiness-level (TRL) projects within the TGA1 portfolio show significant potential to be scaled up and enter production, particularly due to several facilitating factors. We show in following the ability to scale high-TRL projects is influenced by financial viability, external market conditions, and strategic consortium partnerships, all of which play crucial roles in determining the speed and success of industrial implementation.

* **Involvement of steel companies:** Steel companies actively participate in these projects, using their plants for testing, which allows for rapid implementation of successful technologies across their facilities.

* **Quick implementation for certain technologies:** Projects focusing on digitalization, such as MultiSensEAF, illustrate that solutions requiring lower investments and complexity, like applied sensors, can be scaled up within 1-2 years if proven reliable.

* **Impact of investment levels:** Projects requiring lower investment (around €10 million) have a higher and faster chance of industrial implementation (up to 5 years), while those needing high investments (>€100 million) and environmental permits take longer (>10 years). Projects that require lower investments are easier to be implemented, therefore, EAF projects have generally higher chance to be realised (and also more quickly) than BF/DR projects.
* **Adaptation to market and regulatory conditions:** Projects with high TRLs aiming to replace fossil materials (solid C, natural gas) with biochar or hydrogen (BioCoDe, BioReSteel, BioRECAST, DevH2forEAF, H2TransBF2030 etc.) face external risks like market changes and resource costs. Their implementation depends on parallel developments in logistics and hydrogen production economics.

* **Consortium composition:** Including plant suppliers, measurement/IT providers, and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in project consortia boosts implementation prospects by allowing for integration into existing technology portfolios. Additionally, engaging stakeholders across the value chain, as seen in projects like HBI C-Flex, enhances the scalability potential.

In summary, the ability to scale high-TRL projects is influenced by financial viability, external market conditions, and strategic consortium partnerships, all of which play crucial roles in determining the speed and success of industrial implementation.

### 2.3.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)

High-technology-readiness-level (TRL) projects in the TGA2 portfolio demonstrate significant potential for scaling up and entering production but face varying timelines and economic considerations. While high-TRL projects have scaling potential, their success relies on extensive testing, addressing economic barriers, and a favourable transformation of the energy sector to support technologies like hydrogen.

* **Implementation timeline:**

* **Short-term (1-5 years):** Projects focused on improving process and product quality, such as AUSSENS, SmartCool, and RollProf, show a high readiness for implementation due to their focus on sensors and process optimization. Technologies like fibre Braggs for temperature monitoring are quickly becoming industry standards.

* **Medium-term (4-5 years):** Projects involving larger investments, like those targeting hydrogen use in heating systems (HYDREAMS, FULLH2REHEAT, MODIPLANT), may require longer due to the need for infrastructure maturity, though environmental pressures may accelerate their adoption.

* **Long-term (up to 10 years or more):** High-cost projects requiring significant infrastructure changes, such as transitioning to hydrogen feedstock, face economic challenges that extend the timeframe, primarily due to current high costs of green hydrogen.

* **Industrial testing and stakeholder confidence:** Extensive industrial tests on representative use cases are crucial for refining technologies, identifying potential issues, and building stakeholder confidence. Demonstrating effectiveness and reliability facilitates securing necessary approvals and investment.

* **Challenges beyond technological feasibility:** Beyond TRL 8, the primary challenges for adopting new technologies are economic rather than technological, particularly for those involving hydrogen. Future shifts in the energy sector could make these technologies economically viable.
### 2.3.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)

The potential for scaling up and entering production for the projects in the portfolio ranges from moderate to high, depending on several factors:

* **Timeframe for scaling**: The transition from TRL 5-6 to TRL 8-9, where products enter full production, varies widely from 3 to 10 years. Factors influencing this include the application sector, complexity of innovation, and the capital expenditure required for industrial scaling.

* **Sector-specific considerations**: Safety-critical sectors are more conservative, requiring alignment with standards and norms, which can affect scaling speed.

* **Complexity and innovation**: Projects like NewAIMS and SuPreAM, which involve significant innovation and complexity, especially in additive manufacturing, may take longer to scale up. However, they offer opportunities for design optimization and small-scale production.

* **Consortium involvement**: Projects involving end-users and steelmakers from early stages, such as MARTBAIN and HELIX, are more likely to scale rapidly, especially if they build on existing technologies.

* **Industry demand**: Projects focused on hydrogen protection, like AtHyCor and AUSTRONG, can scale quickly (3-4 years) due to the rapid growth and high demand in the hydrogen industry.

* **Circular economy**: Projects leveraging existing technologies for circular economy applications can transition to production swiftly, as seen in COOPHS.

### 2.3.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)

The potential for high-TRL projects to be scaled up and enter production varies widely based on several factors, including project complexity, application sector, and readiness levels. While some projects are designed for rapid adoption due to existing industry frameworks and minimal barriers, others require concerted efforts in standardisation, resource development, and regulatory navigation to achieve successful scale-up and market entry.

* **Timeframe for market entry**:

* **Short to medium term (1-5 years)**: Projects targeting the development of design guides and certain automotive applications (e.g., third generation Eurocodes, AHSS, and medium-Mn steels) are expected to reach the market within 1 to 5 years due to existing industry expertise and less complex innovation requirements.

* **Medium to long term (5-10 years)**: Other projects, such as SMARTWELD and certain robotics solutions, require more extensive validation and regulatory approval, extending their time-to-market to 5-10 years.

* **Factors influencing scale-up**:

* **Complexity and industrial standards**: Projects like IAMFAT and innovations in hydrogen applications face challenges due to the need for integration into
established construction practices and regulatory acceptance, which can delay
scaling.

○ **Consortium composition:** Projects with strong industrial backing (e.g., DreamFAB, GREENVESTS, WARP-AHSS) benefit from direct pathways to production, facilitating faster scale-up.

o **Existing technological foundation:** Technologies that build on existing industrial processes or state-of-the-art equipment (e.g., STWIN) can achieve faster practical application.

* **Role of standardization and regulatory approval:** Certification and compliance with industry standards can accelerate the adoption of new technologies, as evident in projects with certification bodies (e.g., IAMFAT), but can also pose significant hurdles if not addressed early in project development.

* **Resource and Material Innovations:** Projects like SAFEH2PIPE will require 1-3 years for broader adoption due to regulatory harmonization needs, impacting the supply chain and material qualification for hydrogen applications.

Overall, while some projects are poised for rapid adoption due to existing industry frameworks and minimal barriers, others require concerted efforts in standardization, resource development, and regulatory navigation to achieve successful scale-up and market entry.

**2.3.5 Steel factories – smart and human (TGA5)**

The high-technology-readiness-level (TRL) projects within the smart and human steel factories (TGA5) portfolio have significant potential to be scaled up and enter production, with timelines as follows:

* **Industrial scale-up:** Several projects enter production within 1-3 years if they remain within the consortium, especially those involving pilot and demonstration initiatives.

* **Market deployment:** Scaling up for broader market deployment outside the consortium is expected to take 3-5 years, depending on various factors.

* **Current readiness levels:** While most projects are at TRL 4-6, some components, particularly in pilot and demonstration projects, may already be at a higher TRL, facilitating quicker scale-up.

**2.4 Collaboration potential and synergies**

Collaboration and cross-sectoral synergies are crucial for accelerating innovation and maximizing research impact in the steel sector. The Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS) promotes cooperation within the sector and across other industrial ecosystems, research domains, and EU policy frameworks, such as Horizon Europe and the Clean Hydrogen Partnership. Chapter 2.4 explores the RFCS project portfolio's potential for collaboration, highlighting synergies in areas like hydrogen integration, digitalisation, and circular economy.

The analysis shows how collaboration can overcome barriers like fragmented regulatory frameworks and high implementation costs. For example, projects on hydrogen use in steelmaking
can align with the IPCEI Hydrogen initiative<fnref n="9" /> to harmonise safety standards. The chapter emphasises the importance of cross-TG coordination and mapping synergies to ensure cohesive, industry-wide transformation. By doing so, the RFCS can contribute to the EU's long-term sustainability and competitiveness objectives.

The involvement of industry associations, research institutes, and public authorities enhances regulatory alignment and shared infrastructure. However, the chapter also highlights the need for more structured mechanisms to formalise partnerships and realize the full potential of cross-project and cross-sector collaboration.

### 2.4.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)

The TGA1 portfolio demonstrates significant potential for collaboration both within and beyond the TG portfolio, emphasizing synergy with various European and national programs. Key areas of collaboration include:

* **Recycling:**

* **Zinc:** ZincVal findings can synergize with the ZHYRON project (ongoing CSP Horizon Europe<fnref n="10" />), the zinc sector, and initiatives like the European Raw Materials Alliance (ERMA)<fnref n="11" /> to secure sustainable zinc supply chains.

* **Slags:** Projects like InsGeP, BIORECAST, and MultiSensEAF present potential collaboration opportunities in slag management, particularly with the cement sector under A.SPIRE-P4P.<fnref n="12" />

* **Regulations:** Addressing differences in waste management regulations across EU countries is a common challenge (low Zn dust and sludge, slags, phosphorous from biomass...). Sharing insights, as done in InsGeP<fnref n="13" />, could benefit projects across the Horizon Europe Programme.

* **Water management:** For IndiWater is noteworthy potentials for collaboration under the Water4all European call, potentially enhancing water-related project synergies.

* **Hydrogen:**

* Collaborative opportunities exist across projects dealing with production vs use of hydrogen, such as iron ore reduction in BFs or DR shafts (H2-rich syngas production in Prosynteg, use at BF in H2TransBF2030, use for direction reduction in TRANSinter or CSP project MaxH2DR). Potential synergies are could be further built to IPCEI Hydrogen (i.e. HYDRA).

<footnote n="9">⁹ Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEI) https://competition-policy.ec.europa.eu/state-aid/ipcei/approved-ipceis/hydrogen-value-chain_en</footnote>

<footnote n="10">¹⁰ HORIZON-CL4-2023-TWIN-TRANSITION-01 (101138276) Valorisation of iron-rich & Zinc-containing steelmaking by-products via HYdrogen-based ReductiON</footnote>

<footnote n="11">¹¹ https://erma.eu/</footnote>

<footnote n="12">¹² https://www.aspire2050.eu/p4planet/about-p4planet</footnote>

<footnote n="13">¹³ https://insgep.eu/about/</footnote>
* Areas like hydrogen's impact on refractories and transport involve safety and regulatory discussions beneficial for national and European programs (DevH2forEAF and H2TransBF2030).

* Collaboration with Spain's PERTE program<fnref n="14" /> or the Belgian Hydrogen Council<fnref n="15" />, can help address challenges like hydrogen transport, storage, and feeding, including safety and regulatory issues, driving progress in sustainable steel production.

* **CCUS:** Prosynteg offers a collaborative edge in carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS), applicable beyond steel production.

* **Biomass and alternative carbon sources:** Results from projects like TACOS, COACH, and BioReSteel, among others, are advantageous for cross-industry collaboration, such as in CSP Horizon Europe's *GreenHeatEAF*<fnref n="16" />, enhancing secondary carbon carrier research through events like *'SecCarb4Steel'*<fnref n="17" /> by ESTEP.

* **Digitalisation:** Potential collaborations between projects like MultisensEAF and CSP-HEU's *HiYield*<fnref n="18" /> focus on AI and sensors to optimize scrap management and energy use in EAF processes.

## 2.4.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)

The TG portfolio identifies four key areas with high potential for collaboration among projects, as well as opportunities to synergize with other European or national programs:

1. **Sensor Development and Application:** Projects like HYDREAMS, RollProf, and BURNER 4.0 can benefit from shared dissemination activities to enhance collaboration on sensor technologies.

2. **Numerical Modelling:** Projects such as HYDREAMS (CFD/combustion) and PROTEUS-RS (FEM) have potential for shared learning and collaboration in numerical modeling, leveraging common computational methods.

3. **Heating, Temperature Control, and Energy:** Projects like ReduHeatLoss, SmartCool, and FULLH2REHEAT are ripe for collaboration, possibly aligning with Sweden's Energy Agency calls.

4. **Digitalisation:** BURNER 4.0 and RealTimeCastSupport can explore synergies in digitalization, potentially linking with Sweden's Vinnova innovation calls.

The dissemination project DissHEAT exemplifies collaboration by involving major research institutes. However, despite these identified opportunities, especially in hydrogen-related projects like HYDREAMS and FULLH2REHEAT, collaboration has not yet materialized.

<footnote n="14">¹⁴ https://www.prtr.miteco.gob.es/es/perte/perte-de-energias-renovables-hidrogeno-renovable-y-almacenamiento.html</footnote>

<footnote n="15">¹⁵ https://www.belgianhydrogencouncil.be/</footnote>

<footnote n="16">¹⁶ https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101092328</footnote>

<footnote n="17">¹⁷ https://www.estep.eu/events/seccarb4steel-estep-workshop</footnote>

<footnote n="18">¹⁸ https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101058694</footnote>
To address this, a dedicated session for reheating technologies, including projects such as SmartCool and MODIPLANT, is recommended. Additionally, dissemination workshops could foster future collaborations, inviting Nordic and Belgian projects for broader engagement.

Overall, while there is significant potential for collaboration within the TG portfolio, formalized exchanges and partnerships have yet to be fully realized.

### 2.4.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)

The TG portfolio presents several projects with potential for collaboration both within its portfolio and with other European or national funded programs. Key projects that exemplify this collaborative potential include:

* **Hydrogen Embrittlement:** Projects (HELIX, AUSTRONG, AtHyCor, FEATHER) aim to mitigate material degradation due to hydrogen. They can collaborate with EU programs like the Clean Hydrogen Partnership<fnref n="19" /> to develop robust materials for hydrogen energy systems.

* **Electrical Steels:** STeELS-EM and Si-Shift focus on improving materials for efficient electric motors. Collaborations could enhance renewable energy applications and align with EU energy efficiency initiatives.

* **Advanced Steel Grades:** AUSTRONG, MARTBAIN, FEATHER, Si-Shift, and NanoWinTur develop enhanced steel compositions for various industrial uses. These projects could collaborate to integrate new materials into sustainable EU applications, facilitated by programs like SteelTogether for knowledge exchange.<fnref n="20" />

* **Numerical Modelling:** AtHyCor, Vform-xSteels, and SuPreAM offer advanced modeling techniques. Collaboration could optimize material designs across sectors such as construction and automotive.

* **Additive Manufacturing:** SuPreAM and NewAIMS use 3D printing for complex steel parts, with potential collaboration on large-scale manufacturing projects like Grade2XL in the Netherlands.<fnref n="21" />

* **Circular Economy:** ALCOAT and COOPHS promote recycling and sustainable material use. They can collaborate with EU circular economy programs to improve waste management and material lifecycle practices.

The potential for collaboration extends to other EU and national programs, particularly in the energy transition sector. There's a strong chance to link with funded programs like the Clean Hydrogen Partnership and Repower EU, focusing on renewable energies and hydrogen as an energy carrier. The projects also emphasize dissemination through various channels to promote knowledge sharing and cooperation, although it is noted that this potential is not fully exploited, especially within TG portfolios, and can be expanded, notably in energy transition fields. There is

<footnote n="19">¹⁹ https://www clean-hydrogen europa.eu/index_en</footnote>

<footnote n="20">²⁰ https://nanowintur com/steeltogther/</footnote>

<footnote n="21">²¹ https://www grade2xl.eu/</footnote>
room for better cross-awareness and collaboration among TGs, especially concerning decarbonization projects.

### 2.4.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)

The TG portfolio features several projects that either exemplify collaboration or have potential for collaborative efforts within the portfolio and with other European or national programs:

* **DreamFAB and Connect4C:** These projects are synergistic in the area of steel reuse and circularity, offering collaboration potential. DreamFAB can leverage findings from past RFCS projects like PROGRESS and REDUCE, and participate in clustering activities with construction robotics projects, such as those under the Built4People Partnership.<fnref n="22" />

* **GREENVESTS:** While not connected to past RFCS projects, this project can benefit from clustering with ongoing initiatives like NATURANCES,<fnref n="23" /> which focus on green façades and Nature-based solutions.

* **STWIN and IAMFat:** STWIN has contact points with IAMFat, focusing on additive manufacturing and friction welding integration, and shares goals with CONSTRUCTADD.<fnref n="24" /> These projects can benefit from synergies in resource-efficient construction technologies.

* **STWIN and SMARTWELD:** STWIN is an example of collaboration through its integration with SMARTWELD, which develops advanced welding systems, enhancing both projects' outputs.

* **HYSCORE and SafeH2PIPE:** These projects have collaborative potential in hydrogen storage and distribution, focusing on material selection for hydrogen pipelines. Their integration can influence future hydrogen standards, facilitated by platforms like ENTSOG's EU database.<fnref n="25" />

* **WARP-AHSS and Sup3rForm:** These projects can collaborate on developing high-performance automotive steels, potentially supported by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) to advance industrial technologies.

### 2.4.5 Steel factories – smart and human (TGA5)

The analysis of the TGA5 portfolio highlights several projects with strong collaborative potential within the portfolio and with other European or national programs:

* **TWINGHY:** This project can collaborate with EU initiatives such as HYINHEAT (HE), DevH2forEAF (RFCS), dissHEAT (RFCS), and the IPCEI project HYDRA (HE), focusing on hydrogen use and renewable energy integration in transportation.

* **SMARTER:** Linked to the MaxH2DR project, it can apply its models in future RFCS Big-Ticket and Horizon Europe projects. It also connects with projects on energy flow

<footnote n="22">²² https://built4people.eu/</footnote>

<footnote n="23">²³ https://www.naturanceproject.eu/</footnote>

<footnote n="24">²⁴ https://www.constructadd.eu/</footnote>

<footnote n="25">²⁵ https://www.entsog.eu/hydrogen</footnote>
management and innovative storage systems to enhance interactions and achieve higher
TRL applications.

* **DeepQuality:** Naturally connected to the SurfConInspect project, both focus on surface quality using deep learning tools, enabling shared advancements in developing these techniques.

* **iSteel-Expert:** Can leverage collaborations sparked by the European Year of Skills with projects like [BEYOND4.0](https://www.beond40.eu/)<fnref n="26" /> and [HECAT](http://www.heimatentwicklung.de/)<fnref n="27" />, enhancing skill development and applying advanced technologies.

* **iSlag:** Focused on slag valorisation, it collaborates with the InSGEP project and connects with the RFCS Symbio-Steel project on Industrial Symbiosis, facilitating research without confidentiality barriers. It's also a candidate for refractory design projects.

* **DynReAct_PDP:** It explores transferring its approach beyond the steel industry to sectors like aluminium, copper, and electronics, where the management of non-standard products is critical, offering significant cost-saving potential.

**2.5 Research gaps and future research areas**

A core responsibility of the Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS) is to identify and bridge research gaps that hinder the sustainable transformation of the European steel sector. In this chapter we outline key research gaps and emerging priorities across the RFCS project portfolio, emphasizing the need for strategic investment in areas such as decarbonization, hydrogen integration, digitalization, circular economy practices, and advanced steel applications. While high-TRL demonstration projects have made advances, a pressing need exists to invest in low-to mid-TRL research to sustain a pipeline of innovation. Critical gaps span the steel value chain, from process optimization and carbon capture utilization (CCU) in TGA1 (iron and steelmaking) to fossil-free casting technologies in TGA2 (downstream processing), hydrogen-compatible alloys and standardised testing in TGA3 (steel product conception) and TGA4 (applications), and digital governance and workforce upskilling in TGA5 (smart and human factories). The following list could also provide some insights for strategic research investment.

**2.5.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)**

The TGA1 portfolio identifies several technological and other gaps for future funding to support the steel sector's transition to zero carbon:

* **Scrap Management:** Develop techniques to improve scrap quality and recyclability, focusing on innovative upgrading technologies and advanced process controls including the development of sensor-based technologies and advanced process control tools to optimize scrap usage in BF and EAF.

<footnote n="26">²⁶ https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/822296</footnote>

<footnote n="27">²⁷ https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/870702</footnote>
* **Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCUS):** Initiatives needed to capture CO₂, chemical looping and improve process gas conditioning CO/CO₂ containing process gases. This involves cross-sector collaborations for cost-effective solutions and greater acceptance of CCUS.

* **Process Gases and Integration:** Enhance the optimal use of process gases and further integrate current production processes like blast furnaces and coke plants.

* **Blast Furnace (BF) R&D:** Focus on greening BF operations, hearth R&D, fuel injection (including hydrogen/biomass use), and carbon-lean burdens.

* **Direct Reduction (DR):** Develop new DR processes and address integration with EAF or ESF (Electric Smelting Furnace), focusing on melting behaviour and quality management.

* **Electrolytic Reduction:** Push for research in low-TRL electrolytic reduction technologies within Europe.

* **Hydrogen in EAF:** Investigate the impact of hydrogen burner flames on processes and products, and refractories, and explore hydrogen for FeO reduction.

* **Energy Efficiency:** Support research on reducing energy consumption per tonne, new electric heating technologies, and waste heat recovery.

* **Circular Economy:** Address new byproduct challenges, recovering waste heat from hot slag streams, increase collaboration across value chains, maximizing the use and reuse of valuable components in waste streams and develop solutions for processing concentrated waste.

* **Secondary Metallurgy:** Explore impacts on refining phases due to new steel processes and circular economy initiatives.

* **Environmental Concerns:** Study polluting impacts (e.g., from burners/injections), enhance air and water quality controls, and promote life-cycle analyses.

* **Digitalization:** Utilize advanced digital tools, AI, and new sensors for improved process control and handling variable input materials.

### 2.5.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)

The technological and strategic gaps identified for the TG portfolio to focus on in the future include:

* **Casting processes:** The portfolio currently has limited coverage on casting activities, which are crucial for addressing zero emissions and CO₂ reductions. There's a need for mechanisms to assess the impact of process development in energy, CO₂ emissions, and clean hydrogen economic matters for casting processes.

* **Fossil-free steel challenges:** Transitioning to fossil-free steel poses challenges with residual elements affecting castability and yield, which could impact the viability of steelmakers. Detailed studies are necessary to manage composition variations expected in fossil-free steels during casting and rolling processes.

* **"Mini-mill" concept adaptation:** Adapting the "mini-mill" concept using electric arc furnaces requires extensive research to maintain flexibility and quality in casting a wide
range of high-value grades. New casting formats and technologies need development to
achieve productivity like conventional casters.

* **Regional adaptation of reheating technologies:** The portfolio should explore region-specific adaptation of reheating technologies based on local resources, such as electrical heating in regions with abundant hydropower and hydrogen-based solutions where applicable.

* **Near net shape casting:** Revival of "near net shape casting" can minimize CO₂ emissions by reducing heat loss from reheating and rolling processes. Exploring its use with existing casting machines for a broader product mix is suggested.

* **Research on processing linkages:** Investigating the links between casting and rolling processes, particularly regarding surface defects, oxide formation, and descaling, is recommended.

* **Effect of residual elements:** With an increasing share of steel production from electric arc furnaces, it is important to study the impact of residual elements on product quality and processability.

* **Advanced high-strength steel studies:** Research on segregation mechanisms during continuous casting and the effects of process parameters is crucial. Development of automated inspection systems for segregation is suggested.

* **Hydrogen in reheating furnaces:** The portfolio should examine the use of mixed hydrogen and methane fuels in reheating furnaces, including the impact on operational practices and refractories.

* **Role of hydrogen in final products:** Understanding the influence of hydrogen on microstructure and properties of steel is vital as hydrogen-based solutions are developed.

These areas outline opportunities for future research and funding proposals to support industry transformations towards less carbon-intensive and more efficient steel production technologies.

### 2.5.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)

The gaps identified for the TG portfolio to address in the future include:

* **Advanced steel solutions:** There is a need for more projects focused on advanced steel solutions for new energy sources and electric mobility. Gaps exist in surface treatments, corrosion resistance, and lifetime prediction of steel products. Extending applications to construction, building, and offshore environments, and promoting steel solutions for renewable energy infrastructure are important. Breakthrough activities in novel alloy development, as well as improvement of steel surface properties for smart behaviour, should be pursued.

* **Harsh environment steels:** Few projects address steels designed for harsh environments. Further development of steels and products for high- and low-temperature, aggressive environments is needed to support clean energy initiatives like offshore wind and tidal energy.
* **Final processing technologies:** The portfolio needs greater focus on the final processing of steel, such as forming, welding, and joining, particularly for high-strength steels. The standardization of testing and evaluation methods in these processes should be explored.

* **Decarbonization and sustainability:** Increased effort is needed toward decarbonization, recyclability, and sustainability in steel manufacturing. This includes developing new heat treatments, evaluating the impact of decarbonized routes, and promoting high-performance, low-CO₂ footprint steel grades. Circular economy aspects, including the impact of impurities from recycling, should be more prominent in the portfolio.

* **Predictive simulation models:** There is a need for more development in predictive simulation and modelling for forming processes, and the use of digital twins for real-time process and quality control in manufacturing.

* **Standardization of testing methods:** The development of standard testing and evaluation methods, especially for new areas like hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion resistance, is lacking. Standardized protocols for evaluating material properties throughout the manufacturing and service life stages are necessary.

These areas represent opportunities to enhance the TG portfolio and align future research funding with industry needs and sustainability goals.

### 2.5.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)

Considering the area of steel applications and solution main research gaps were identified for innovations that enhance sustainability, circularity, and digitalisation across key steel application sectors.

Research gaps and future research areas for steel applications and solutions in the building and construction sector, represented by projects such as CONNECT4C, DREAMFAB, and GREENVESTS, future funding should target hybrid steel systems to enhance circularity and reduce embodied carbon. These systems offer potential for disassembly, reuse, and repurposing, aligning with circular economy principles. Additionally, the development of design rules for steel and steel-concrete composites, including for seismic regions and fire performance of green façades, remains a critical gap. Key gaps include:

* **Sustainable Hybrid Systems:** Development of steel-timber composites and other hybrid systems with bio-based materials to lower embodied carbon. This includes design rules for disassembly and reuse.

* **Digital Integration:** Leveraging digital tools like BIM, machine learning, and VR to manage material information flows, design for multiple life cycles, and assess the residual life of existing steel elements.

* **Eurocode Advancement:** Creating improved and simplified design rules for steel and steel-composite structures, including for earthquake-prone regions, for inclusion in the next generation of Eurocodes.

* **Climate Resilience:** Research into the robustness of steel structures against extreme weather events aggravated by climate change (e.g., high winds, floods).
* **Circularity and Reuse:** Establishing standard verification methods for reused steel sections and developing design guides for deconstruction and upgrading of steel profiles.

In manufacturing and digitalisation, gaps persist in additive manufacturing (AM) for steel. The EU must lead in standardisation and safety protocols for AM to avoid reliance on non-EU standards. Projects like iAMFat demonstrate the potential of 3D printing for critical steel components, while SMARTWELD and STWIN focus on zero-defect manufacturing and intelligent welding systems. Projects like iamFAT, SMARTWELD, and STWIN highlight the need for integrated digital tools—from machine learning to BIM, XR, and VR—to optimise steel production and enable lifecycle-based design. These tools can support the evaluation of residual life, multi-cycle component design, and material flow management. Key gaps include:

* **Additive Manufacturing (AM):** Promoting the application of AM for steel components, focusing on standardisation and safety protocols for critical parts to ensure EU leadership.

* **Digital Lifecycle Management:** Exploiting AI, machine learning, and virtual sensors across the entire lifecycle of steel structures—from design and manufacturing to end-of-life processes.

* **Circular Economy Models:** Closing gaps in steel reuse, including demountable structures, condition assessment, certification, and developing viable business models for reused steel products.

The transition to a hydrogen economy and the demands of the energy and automotive sector present distinct challenges:

* **Hydrogen Infrastructure:** While projects address main pipeline distribution (HYSCORE and SAFEH2PIPE), a gap exists in the "last mile" of hydrogen (H2) delivery. Funding should target safety regulations, material interactions, and component design for end-user applications.

* **Advanced Automotive Steels:** Automotive applications of new steels (e.g., Projects SUP3FORM, WARP-AHSS) and medium-Mn steels require validation for safety-critical components and adaptation of tooling for warm forming.

### 2.5.5 Steel factories – smart and human (TGA5)

In the scope of smart and human steel factories several research gaps and future research areas in technology, sustainability, and workforce development were identified:

* **Cyber-security,** trustful data sharing, AI-based assessment of data quality, and data governance, as well as factory-wide data management, to ensure the secure and efficient use of data in steel production.

* **Longevity,** resilience, and robustness of software developed for real-time analysis and control is critical, which is essential for maintaining the reliability and efficiency of steel manufacturing processes.

* **Deep learning tools** and technologies exploitation is also crucial, particularly in terms of enhancing trust in end-users, limiting costs, and promoting Explainable-AI and Green AI, to ensure that these technologies are used in a responsible and sustainable manner.
* **Specific sensors** and improved instrumentation development and adaptation at steelmaking stages, such as ladle metallurgy, are necessary to provide high-quality data for digital twins, online models, and ML models, which are essential for optimizing steel production.

* **Valorising off-gases** through CO₂ capture and purification to produce valuable by-products, and collecting thermal residual value, is vital for reducing emissions from reheating furnaces and minimizing the environmental impact of steel production.

* **Life cycle assessment** and thinking approaches, as well as the development of concepts and case studies for product data exchange along the whole product life cycle, are also essential for meeting the challenges of circular economy and recycling of steel products, and for creating a Digital Product Passport for Iron and Steel Products.

* **Upskilling workers** for faster deployment of new technologies and solutions, including lifelong learning and new training concepts, is necessary to ensure that the steel industry can adapt and benefit from the latest technologies and challenges, such as digitalization, greening, and circular transformation, and to disseminate project results effectively.

## 2.6 Contribution to the key performance indicators of the Clean Steel Partnership

The Clean Steel Partnership (CSP)² represents a cornerstone of the European Union's strategy to achieve climate neutrality in the steel sector, and the Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS) plays a role in supporting its objectives. Under Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094, the RFCS is required to align its funding priorities with broader EU research and innovation frameworks, including partnerships such as the CSP. This alignment ensures that RFCS-funded projects contribute meaningfully to the CSP's Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), which track progress toward decarbonization, energy efficiency, circularity, and global competitiveness. This chapter evaluates how the RFCS project portfolio supports these KPIs, both directly and indirectly. While many projects demonstrate strong alignment with CSP operational objectives and goals, particularly in areas such as CO₂ emissions reduction, hydrogen integration, and high-TRL technology deployment, the analysis also reveals specific gaps in coverage, such as electrolytic reduction and advanced scrap recycling. The RFCS serves not only as a complementary funding mechanism to CSP but also as a critical enabler of upstream research and pilot-scale innovation that feeds into the CSP pipeline. While the RFCS portfolio demonstrates strong contributions to decarbonization and process innovation, challenges remain in quantifying impacts, addressing specific operational objectives, and strengthening cross-sectoral collaboration. The following sections provide a detailed analysis of how each technical group advances the CSP's KPIs, offering insights into strategic priorities for future funding and alignment with the EU's decarbonization roadmap.

### 2.6.1 Iron- and steelmaking (TGA1)

The TGA1 portfolio contributes to the KPIs of the Clean Steel Partnership (CSP) by ensuring that all projects align with at least one KPI. However, there are gaps concerning specific operational objectives:
* **Contributions:** Most TGA1 projects address various KPIs of the CSP, contributing to the overall strategy. Also, The project "BioReCast" is particularly aligned with the revised CSP objective of energy efficiency, focusing on waste energy recovery by converting offgas heat into biochar.

* **Gaps:** There is no coverage for CSP operational objectives (OO) regarding electrolytic reduction (OO-3), CO₂ capture for CCU/CCS (OO-6), and conditioning of metallurgical gases for alternate uses (OO-7). Furthermore, the updated CSP objectives emphasize enhanced recycling of steel scrap (OO-11), which is only partially addressed (InsGeP and ZincVal). New projects dealing explicitly with low-quality post-consumer scrap are lacking, even though MultiSensEAF could potentially help in broadening input material utility.

* **Complementarity and opportunities:** Despite certain gaps, RFCS serves as a valuable framework aiding the CSP proposal pipeline, encouraging fundamental research on breakthrough technologies crucial for long-term steelmaking evolution and EU decarbonization targets.

* **Impact assessment:** Quantified EU-level impacts from projects are underrepresented in reports and presentations. There's a need for periodic updates on expected impacts for RFCS projects, including potential deployment scales and estimated global impacts over the years.

Overall, while contributing significantly to CSP KPIs, the TGA1 portfolio can enhance alignment by addressing specific operational objectives and improving impact assessments.

## 2.6.2 Downstream steel processing (TGA2)

The TGA2 portfolio contributes significantly to the operational objectives of the Clean Steel Partnership (CSP) through the following areas:

* **Reducing CO₂ emissions (OO-1):** The portfolio supports projects that enable steel production through carbon direct avoidance (CDA) technologies, reducing Scope I and II CO₂ emissions at a demonstration scale.

* **Reducing energy consumption (OO-9):** Projects focus on developing deployable technologies that improve energy and resource efficiency in steel production, such as Smart Carbon Usage (SCU) Process Integration.

* **Recycling and circular economy (OO-10):** The portfolio contributes to increasing the recycling of residues, supporting a circular economy model in the EU by focusing on the recycling of solid residues from the steel production process and reducing landfill rates.

* **High-TRL projects (OO-12):** The portfolio includes high technology readiness level projects that demonstrate clean steel technologies, contributing to climate-neutral steelmaking.

Additionally, the TGA2 portfolio aligns with CSP's specific objectives by strengthening the global competitiveness of the EU steel industry and supporting circular resource usage.
### 2.6.3 Conception of steel products (TGA3)

The TGA3 portfolio contributes to the operational objectives (OO) of the Clean Steel Partnership (CSP) in several keyways:

* **CO₂ emission reduction:** Nearly all projects focus on reducing CO₂ emissions through various strategies, such as energy savings in steel production, development of high-strength steels, and improved electrical properties for electric engines. These efforts support decarbonization goals and align with CSP objectives, particularly OO-1 and OO-2.

* **Development of renewable energies:** Projects like HELIX, FEATHER, NanoWinTur, Si Shift, and STeELS-EM work on steel solutions vital for renewable energy development and electrification, thereby contributing to the steel industry's decarbonization OO-1 and OO-2.

* **Hydrogen resistance and economy:** Projects addressing hydrogen resistance in steels support the hydrogen economy and play a crucial role in the CO₂ mitigation roadmap, aligning with CSP objectives OO-1 and OO-2.

* **Energy efficiency in production:** Projects such as AUSTRONG and OPTIDAMATOL focus on advanced high-strength steels, aiming to reduce energy use per tonne of steel by potentially removing an annealing step, aligning with OO-3.

* **Circular economy and scrap usage:** Projects like COOPHS and LIGHTFORGE aim to increase steel scrap usage, supporting circular economy goals (OO-4) and the creation of markets for "clean steel" products (OO-6).

* **Collaboration and competitiveness:** The portfolio promotes collaboration between companies, technical centres, and universities, fostering innovation. The RFCS programme plays a crucial role in maintaining the EU steel industry's international competitiveness (OO-6).

While the qualitative contributions of TGA3 to CSP objectives are clear, the quantitative impact on KPIs is challenging to assess. More efforts may be needed to evaluate and quantify these contributions effectively.

### 2.6.4 Steel applications and solutions for existing and new markets (TGA4)

The TG portfolio contributes to the operational objectives of the Clean Steel Partnership (CSP), through various projects and initiatives:

* **CO₂ emission reduction (OO-1):** Projects like Sup3rForm, SAFEH2PIPE and HYSCORE contribute by reducing emissions through lightweight automotive steels and implementing Carbon Direct Avoidance technologies.

* **Energy and resource efficiency (OO-2):** SMARTWELD reduces energy consumption with intelligent welding systems, while GREENVESTS enhances resource efficiency in construction.

* **Recycling of steel and waste (OO-3):** DreamFAB focuses on building decomposition technologies to recover and reuse steel, supporting increased recycling.
* **Global competitiveness (OO-4):** CONNECT4C promotes modular constructions, boosting the steel sector's competitiveness.

### 2.6.5 Steel factories – smart and human (TGA5)

The TG portfolio contributes to the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and operational objectives of the Clean Steel Partnership (CSP) in the following ways:

* **Cleaner energy and technological innovation:** Replacing carbon with renewable energy (OO-1). Projects such as TWINGHY (Cluster 1) and SMARTER, iSteel-Expert (Cluster 2) focus on demonstrating reductions (OO-2) in Scope I and II CO₂ emissions.

* **Smart carbon usage (SCU):** Increasing the use of non-fossil carbon (OO-5). The SILENCE project (Cluster 2) addresses carbon capture technologies in steelmaking to cut emissions from fossil fuels (OO-6).

* **Energy and resource efficiency:** Decreasing energy use per tonne of steel for clean steelmaking (OO-9). Projects like DeepQuality, SmartLadle, STEELAR, and TWINGHY (Cluster 1) along with iSteel-Expert, SMARTER, and EnerMIND (Cluster 2), contribute to improving energy and resource efficiency through process integration.

* **Recycling and circular economy:** Reuse and recycling of solid residues, reducing landfill rates (OO-10). The iSlag project (Cluster 2) is focused on increasing the recycling of steel scrap and production residues (OO-11).

* **Global competitiveness:** Strengthening the global competitiveness of the EU steel industry (OO-15). All TGAS projects support establishing the EU as a leader in low-carbon steel, enhancing R&D collaboration, and upskilling the workforce.

While TGAS projects align with CSP's KPIs and operational objectives, further refinement in measuring impact (e.g., estimating CO₂ and energy savings) is suggested. Additionally, increased focus on near-zero-carbon steel processes is recommended, alongside strategies to maintain competitiveness by applying clean steel KPIs to imported products.

## 2.7 RFCS contribution to decarbonisation in the steel sector

The decarbonisation of the steel sector is a cornerstone of the European Union's climate strategy, and the RFCS plays a supportive role in this transition. As outlined in the introduction, this analysis is based on an independent assessment (REA, 2025) rather than originating from the technical groups. Its inclusion has been prompted by the European Commission's requirement for this information in policy reporting and project impact assessment, and in future reports, this aspect will be covered by the technical committees.

In 2024, five RFCS-funded pilot and demonstration projects were identified as directly targeting decarbonisation. The selection of meaningful projects was carried out based on the list of projects that are financed under the current valid RFCS legal base (Council Decision (EU) 2021/1094) spanning from 2021-2027 through a focused analysis using the keywords “decarbonisation,” “emission,” and “CO₂”. Only projects with TRL 5-8 where selected that are closer to implementation and show robust results. These projects—ProSynteg, HYDREAMS, TWINGHY, MODIPLANT, and BIOCODE—represent advanced technological efforts close to market uptake, with the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions in steel production.
<table><caption>Table 3. How selected steel projects contribute to decarbonization policy objectives of the clean steel partnership and EGD</caption><thead><tr><td>Project</td><td>Focus Area</td><td>TRL</td><td>Estimated CO<sub>2</sub> Reduction</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ProSynteg</td><td>Hydrogen-rich syngas for blast furnaces</td><td>3-6</td><td>14 kg CO<sub>2</sub>/t steel; up to 9.86 Mt/year (EU-wide potential)</td></tr><tr><td>HYDREAMS</td><td>Waste heat to clean hydrogen</td><td>4-7</td><td>75 kg CO<sub>2</sub>/t steel; 14,000 t/year (Ugine plant)</td></tr><tr><td>TWINGHY</td><td>Hybrid H<sub>2</sub>/NG burners and digital twin</td><td>5-7</td><td>85 kg CO<sub>2</sub>/t steel; up to 351 t/year (100% H<sub>2</sub> scenario)</td></tr><tr><td>MODIPLANT</td><td>Electrification of heating systems</td><td>6-9</td><td>5-16 kg CO<sub>2</sub>/t steel; up to 10,000 t/year for flat products (electrification)<br>3,000 t/year for flat products (HDG line)<br>7,969 t/year for long products</td></tr><tr><td>BIOCODE</td><td>Biomass substitution in coke production</td><td>5-7</td><td>400 kg CO<sub>2</sub>/t coke; 0.24-0.48 Mt/year</td></tr></tbody></table>

Each project addresses specific operational objectives (OO) of the CSP, such as hydrogen-based melting (OO-2), smart carbon usage (OO-4), electrolytic reduction (OO-3), and energy/resource efficiency (OO-9). For example, the HYDREAMS and TWINGHY projects focus on hydrogen integration, using waste heat and hybrid burners to generate and apply clean hydrogen in reheating furnaces. These technologies have demonstrated CO₂ reductions of up to 85 kg per tonne of steel produced. MODIPLANT introduces hybrid heating systems powered by renewable electricity, achieving reductions of up to 16 kg CO₂ per tonne in rolling mills. BIOCODE, on the other hand, targets the substitution of fossil coal with biochar in coke production, potentially avoiding up to 400 kg CO₂ per tonne of coke.

While the technology readiness levels (TRLs) of these projects vary—from TRL 3 (lab-scale) to TRL 9 (operational environment)—their collective impact is substantial. The five projects together are estimated to abate approximately 35,000 tonnes of CO₂ annually across 1.5 million tonnes of steel production. Extrapolated to the EU level, assuming broader adoption, these technologies could mitigate up to 10 million tonnes of CO₂ per year. For this estimate we excluded ProSynteg as it is a project on lab level (TRL 3-6) and doesn't provide figures that can be yet extrapolated to industrial conditions. In general it must be mentioned, that successful implementation depends on overcoming challenges such as access to clean hydrogen, biomass logistics, regulatory harmonisation, and economic viability.

Importantly, these five projects represent only 6% of the RFCS portfolio, with the majority (78%) consisting of research projects that may yield future decarbonisation breakthroughs. This highlights the RFCS's dual role: supporting near-market technologies while also investing in early-stage research to ensure a continuous innovation pipeline. Through its legal obligation to support the CSP and its operational objectives, the RFCS is not only enabling technological advancement but also reinforcing the EU's leadership in clean, competitive, and climate-resilient steelmaking.
## 3 Conclusion and ways forward

The 2024 portfolio of RFCS-funded projects reveals a dynamic and forward-looking steel research landscape, with each technical group contributing distinct yet complementary innovations aligned with EU policy priorities. The collective effort underscores the sector's commitment to climate neutrality, digital transformation, and industrial resilience. Nevertheless, the portfolio assessments also revealed a shared understanding among experts: to maintain momentum and ensure long-term impact, future RFCS funding must strategically address persistent research gaps and systemic challenges.

Advancing the green deal objectives - RFCS projects have demonstrated strong alignment with the Green Deal, particularly in hydrogen-based steelmaking, smart factory development, and advanced steel grades for clean mobility and renewable energy. Yet, experts caution that these successes are concentrated in high-TRL demonstration projects. To sustain innovation, future calls must rebalance the portfolio by investing in low- to mid-TRL research. This includes early-stage work on carbon capture and utilisation, hydrogen-compatible materials, and circular economy solutions that go beyond recycling to include reuse and remanufacturing.

Maximising societal and industrial benefits - The societal value of RFCS projects is clear: reduced emissions, improved working conditions, and new skills for a changing workforce. However, experts stress that these benefits must be more systematically captured and amplified. Future research should focus on standardisation, certification, and regulatory harmonisation—particularly in areas such as hydrogen safety, steel reuse, and lifecycle-based design. These are essential to unlock market uptake and ensure that innovation translates into tangible outcomes for industry and society.

Scaling innovation from lab to market - Many RFCS projects are ready for industrial deployment, but their success depends not only on technical maturity. Experts highlight the need for support mechanisms that address economic viability, infrastructure readiness, and stakeholder confidence. This includes funding for industrial-scale testing, exploitation planning, and cross-sector partnerships. At the same time, the pipeline of early-stage research must be maintained to ensure that future breakthroughs are not lost due to short-term focus.

Fostering collaboration and synergies - Collaboration remains a critical enabler of innovation. While the RFCS portfolio shows promising examples of cross-project and cross-sector synergies, experts call for more structured mechanisms to formalise these connections. Future research should prioritise joint initiatives with other EU programmes - such as Horizon Europe, the Clean Hydrogen Partnership, and regional innovation ecosystems - to maximise impact and avoid duplication.

Addressing strategic research gaps - Experts identify several priority areas for future research:

* Decarbonisation: Further work is needed on scrap quality, process gas integration, and low-TRL electrolytic reduction.

* Hydrogen integration: Research should focus on hydrogen's impact on materials, processes, and infrastructure, including safety and standardisation.

* Digitalisation: There is a need for robust, explainable AI, secure data governance, and digital twins that support lifecycle optimisation.

* Circular economy: Beyond recycling, research should explore reuse, remanufacturing, and business models for secondary steel markets.

* Workforce and social innovation: Upskilling, lifelong learning, and inclusive transition strategies must be embedded in future projects.
Aligning with Clean Steel Partnership - While RFCS projects contribute meaningfully to the Clean Steel Partnership's key performance indicators, gaps remain in areas such as electrolytic reduction, advanced scrap recycling, and quantifiable impact assessment. Future calls should explicitly target these areas and improve mechanisms for tracking and reporting outcomes.

Recent RFCS findings have quantified the significant impacts of decarbonization efforts. Notably, four demonstration plants have achieved a combined direct emission abatement of approximately 35,000 tonnes of CO2 per year, based on a production volume of 1.5 million tonnes of steel. When scaled up to the EU level, assuming moderate uptake of these technologies, the potential reduction in CO2 emissions could reach up to 10 million tonnes annually. Furthermore, the emission reduction per tonne of steel varies substantially, ranging from 5 kg to 85 kg, highlighting the considerable mitigation potential of these innovative solutions.

Looking ahead, the RFCS must deepen its strategic role in supporting the EU's decarbonisation agenda by expanding its investment in both near-market and early-stage research. While flagship projects like HYDREAMS, TWINGHY, and BIOCODE demonstrate the potential of hydrogen integration, hybrid heating, and bio-based carbon alternatives, these represent only a fraction of the portfolio. Systemic barriers such as access to clean hydrogen, biomass logistics, and regulatory fragmentation must be addressed through coordinated research and policy alignment. Also the need for robust methodologies to quantify emissions reductions and track deployment potential across the EU. By reinforcing its dual mandate—supporting both technological readiness and long-term innovation—the RFCS can ensure that Europe's steel sector not only meets its climate targets but also leads the global transition to sustainable, competitive, and resilient industrial production.
## References

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Iung, T., Montemor, M. F., de la Fuente, D., Ermolaeva, N. S., Frisk, K., Idoyaga Olano, Z., Iza-Mendia, A., Kuntz, M., Larnicol, M., Prosek, T., Przybysz-Gloc, S., Salvatori, I., Sanchez, S., Schuhmacher, B., 'Technical report of the annual meeting of the technical group 3 on conception of steel products', 9-10 July 2024, remotely, Ares(2024)5922803, not published.

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List of abbreviations and definitions

<table><thead><tr><td>Abbreviations</td><td>Definitions</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>AHSS</td><td>advanced high-strength steels</td></tr><tr><td>AI</td><td>artificial intelligence</td></tr><tr><td>CCUS</td><td>carbon capture, utilisation and storage</td></tr><tr><td>CFD</td><td>computational fluid dynamics</td></tr><tr><td>CSP</td><td>Clean Steel Partnership</td></tr><tr><td>EAF</td><td>electric arc furnace</td></tr><tr><td>ESF</td><td>Electric Smelting Furnace</td></tr><tr><td>EGD</td><td>European Green Deal</td></tr><tr><td>GHG</td><td>greenhouse gas</td></tr><tr><td>KPI</td><td>key performance indicator</td></tr><tr><td>RFCS</td><td>Research Fund for Coal and Steel</td></tr><tr><td>TG</td><td>technical group</td></tr><tr><td>TGA</td><td>steel research technical group</td></tr><tr><td>TRL</td><td>technology readiness level</td></tr></tbody></table>
List of tables

Table 1: TG meeting schedule for 2024 .................................................................................................................. 10

Table 2 TGA2 portfolio scores (scores represent the percentage of specific project contributions based on the total of the 14 projects per sub-topic of the Articles.):.................................................................................. 13

Table 3. How selected steel projects contribute to decarbonization policy objectives of the clean steel partnership and EGD .................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Annex. List of RFCS project acronyms and titles

<table><thead><tr><td>Acronym</td><td>Project Number</td><td>TG</td><td>Title</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>BioReCast</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112601</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Biobased residues conversion to advanced fuels for sustainable steel production</td></tr><tr><td>BioReSteel</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112383</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Valorization of wet biomass residues for sustainable steel production with efficient nutrient recycling</td></tr><tr><td>Blemab</td><td>RFCS-2019-899263</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Blast furnace stack density estimation through on-line muons absorption measurements</td></tr><tr><td>COACH</td><td>RFCS-2019-899318</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Cold-bonded agglomerates for blast furnace ironmaking with chemically engineered binders</td></tr><tr><td>DevH2forEAF</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034081</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Developing and enabling H₂ burner utilization to produce liquid steel in EAF</td></tr><tr><td>H2transBF2030</td><td>RFCS-2021-101057790</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Minimisation of CO₂ emissions from the BF by hydrogen containing injectants and use of DRI/HBI during transition to new ironmaking processes until 2030</td></tr><tr><td>Hydropick</td><td>RFCS-2018-847256</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Analysis and control of hydrogen content during steelmaking</td></tr><tr><td>Indiwater</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034072</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Independent industrial water supply by digitalization, simulation and innovative treatment technologies</td></tr><tr><td>Minsideg</td><td>RFCS-2018-847285</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Minimise sinter degradation between sinter plant and blast furnace exploiting embedded real-time analytics</td></tr><tr><td>OnlyPlastic</td><td>RFCS-2019-899415</td><td>TGA1</td><td>EAF working with polymers derived from plastic residue in substitution of fossil fuel</td></tr><tr><td>PlasmaPilot</td><td>RFCS-2019-899223</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Flexible ladle preheating procedures using plasma heated refractory</td></tr><tr><td>Prosynteg</td><td>RFCS-2021-101057965</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Production of hot hydrogen-rich syngas in integrated plants for efficient injection in the blast furnace and CO₂ mitigation</td></tr><tr><td>Sinbyose</td><td>RFCS-2018-847319</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Sintering with high by-products recycling rate and environmental optimization by selective preparation</td></tr><tr><td>TACOS</td><td>RFCS-2018-847322</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Towards a zero CO₂ sintering</td></tr><tr><td>BioCode</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112264</td><td>TGA1</td><td>BIOmass for COkemaking DEcarbonization</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>HBI C-Flex</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112479</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Reoxidation behaviour and stability of direct reduced and hot briquetted iron with variable iron and carbon content to promote safe handling and transport for a future decarbonized steel production</td></tr><tr><td>InsGep</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112665</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Investigations of Slags from Next Generation Steel Making Processes</td></tr><tr><td>MultiSensEA F</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112488</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Multi-Sensor Systems for an optimized EAF Process Control</td></tr><tr><td>TRANSinter</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112600</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Sintering process role in the (partial) transition to the Direct Reduction Route.</td></tr><tr><td>ZincVal</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112631</td><td>TGA1</td><td>Valorisation of low zinc-containing residues</td></tr><tr><td>Aussens</td><td>RFCS-2019-899391</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Phase transformation measurement for mechanical properties control and assessment</td></tr><tr><td>Burner 4.0</td><td>RFCS-2018-847237</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Development of a new burner concept: Industry 4.0 technologies applied to the best available combustion system for the steel industry</td></tr><tr><td>Centriclean</td><td>RFCS-2018-847341</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Metallic coating bath cleaning by centrifugation</td></tr><tr><td>Dissheat</td><td>RFCS-2021-101057930</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Dissemination of the heating technology research results for emission minimization and process optimization towards today's fossil-free heating agenda</td></tr><tr><td>Flexgap</td><td>RFCS-2017-800672</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Industrial demonstration of novel adaptive flat bearing with adjustable thickness for flexible gap control in rolling mills</td></tr><tr><td>FULLH2REHE AT</td><td>RFCS-2022-CSP-101099132</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Demonstrator of industrial transformation with hydrogen for HAV long products rolling mills</td></tr><tr><td>Hatflat</td><td>RFCS-2020-101033991</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Holistic assistance for cross-process analysis and prediction of strip and plate flatness</td></tr><tr><td>Hydreams</td><td>RFCS-2022-CSP-101098480</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Clean hydrogen and digital tools for reheating and heat treatment for steel</td></tr><tr><td>Modiplant</td><td>RFCS-2022-CSP-101099118</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Modular hybrid technology in the steel plant production</td></tr><tr><td>OPTILOCALH T</td><td>RFCS-2018-847269</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Optimisation of local heat transfer in the CC mould for casting challenging and innovative steel grades</td></tr><tr><td>Proteus-RS</td><td>RFCS-2019-899455</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Long product quality optimisation through enhancement and utilisation of residual stress minimising process strategies</td></tr><tr><td>RealTimeCas tSupport</td><td>RFCS-2018-847334</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Embedded real-time analysis of continuous casting for machine-supported quality optimisation</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>ReduHeat-Loss</td><td>RFCS-2019-899290</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Reduction of heat losses during hot rolling of long products</td></tr><tr><td>Rollprof</td><td>RFCS-2019-882678</td><td>TGA2</td><td>On-line and real time measurement of roll profile in hot and cold rolling mills</td></tr><tr><td>SmartCool</td><td>RFCS-2021-101057274</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Smart controlled actuator to homogenize the temperature of the transfer bar</td></tr><tr><td>Innopick</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112270</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Development of INNOvative PICKling technologies to achieve a sustainable process in carbon steel strips</td></tr><tr><td>RollOilFree II</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112433</td><td>TGA2</td><td>Transfer of aqueous oil free lubricants into stee cold rolling practice</td></tr><tr><td>Alcoat</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112544</td><td>TGA3</td><td>recycled aluminium alloy coatings with chemically tailored electrochemical potential for safe protection of steel structures</td></tr><tr><td>AtHyCor</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034041</td><td>TGA3</td><td>modelling of hydrogen activity from atmospheric corrosion in ultra-high strength steels for light structure application</td></tr><tr><td>Austrong</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034012</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Development of new high strength austenitic stainless steels for large lightweight storage applications</td></tr><tr><td>Biofire</td><td>RFCS-2018-847229</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Advanced coated steels for new demanding biomass firing environment having a high recycling behaviour and an improved service life</td></tr><tr><td>COOPHS</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112485</td><td>TGA3</td><td>low CO₂ imprint on press hardened steels</td></tr><tr><td>Crystal</td><td>RFCS-2019-899406</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Control of risk for hydrogen embrittlement in steels for automotive applications</td></tr><tr><td>Delighted</td><td>RFCS-2019-899332</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Design of lightweight steels for industrial applications</td></tr><tr><td>Dynaustab</td><td>RFCS-2019-899482</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Austenite stability under dynamic loading</td></tr><tr><td>Feather</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112471</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Steel for next generation H₂ cylinders</td></tr><tr><td>HELIX</td><td>RFCS-2021-101057239</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Hydrogen embrittlement resistant new steel links solutions for off-shore wind turbines</td></tr><tr><td>HYDRO-REAL</td><td>RFCS-2019-899335</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Hydrogen interaction with retained austenite under static and cyclic loading conditions</td></tr><tr><td>Initial</td><td>RFCS-2018-847165</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Advanced implementation of novel corrosion resistant managing steels with improved process robustness via tuned intermetallic nano-precipitation</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Lightforge</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112392</td><td>TGA3</td><td>sustainable forging steels for automotive lightweighting</td></tr><tr><td>Martbain</td><td>RFCS-2019-899251</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Innovative martensite-bainite microstructures to provide industrially viable solutions to the need for high performance steel grades</td></tr><tr><td>MiPRE</td><td>RFCS-2019-899268</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Advanced metallurgical and micromechanical modelling to deploy the microstructural tailoring potential of press hardening</td></tr><tr><td>Nanowintur</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112398</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Nanostructured surface layer of gear steel for wind turbines</td></tr><tr><td>NewAIMS</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112371</td><td>TGA3</td><td>New approach to additive manufacturing of microstructurally optimized steels</td></tr><tr><td>Optidamatol</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034039</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Optimisation of high damage tolerance at very high strengths by the quenching and partitioning process</td></tr><tr><td>Si-Shift</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112518</td><td>TGA3</td><td>High-performant non-oriented electrical steels with a silicon content beyond today's limits: new materials for an electrified future</td></tr><tr><td>Supream</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112346</td><td>TGA3</td><td>Predictive simulation of finishing operations in steel additive manufacturing for optimal surface integrity</td></tr><tr><td>vForm-xSteels</td><td>RFCS-2019-888153</td><td>TGA3</td><td>toward virtual forming and design: thermomechanical characterization of advanced high strength steels through full-field measurements and a single designed test</td></tr><tr><td>STeELS-EM</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034063</td><td>TGA3</td><td>STabilized Electrical Steels for Electric Mobility</td></tr><tr><td>Con-structADD</td><td>RFCS-2021-101057957</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Resource-efficient steel construction using additive manufacturing</td></tr><tr><td>Cut-tingEdge4.0</td><td>RFCS-2018-847213</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Facing edge-cracking in AHSS: towards zero-defect manufacturing through novel material characterization and data driven analytics for process monitoring</td></tr><tr><td>Dreamers</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034015</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Design research, implementation and monitoring of emerging technologies for a new generation of resilient steel buildings</td></tr><tr><td>Fateco</td><td>RFCS-2019-847284</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Improvement of the fatigue performance of automotive components through innovative ecofriendly finishing operations</td></tr><tr><td>First-Wire</td><td>RFCS-2019-899299</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Fiber reinforced steel wires for high performance lightweight ropes and cables operating in demanding scenarios</td></tr><tr><td>Fishwall</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034083</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Fire and seismic performances of hybrid fire walls in case of single-storey industrial and commercial steel buildings</td></tr><tr><td>IAMFat</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112614</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Intelligent additive manufacturing for improving fatigue strength of welded connections</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>InCSEB</td><td>RFCS-2020-101033984</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Innovative ultra-low carbon building steel envelop systems with bio-based insulation</td></tr><tr><td>IntellCutProcess</td><td>RFCS-2019-899331</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Optimisation of cutting processes using intelligent cutting tools</td></tr><tr><td>Lastts</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034038</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Laser cutting technology for tubular structures</td></tr><tr><td>Progress</td><td>RFCS-2016-747847</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Provisions for greater reuse of steel structures</td></tr><tr><td>REUSteel</td><td>RFCS-2018-839227</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Dissemination of results of the european projects dealing with reuse and recycling of by-products in the steel sector</td></tr><tr><td>STEEL S4 EV</td><td>RFCS-2017-800726</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Steel solutions for safe and smart structures of electric vehicles</td></tr><tr><td>Stir4Steel</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034068</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Friction stir welding for improving joinability of high-performance steels for automotive components to boost green road mobility</td></tr><tr><td>TopGear</td><td>RFCS-2020-101033989</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Gears with top in-service performance developed for hybrid and electric vehicles</td></tr><tr><td>Winduction</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034069</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Eco-design of an alternative production route for planet gears of wind turbine gearboxes</td></tr><tr><td>CONNECT4C</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112300</td><td>TGA4</td><td>High-strength steel connections for circular construction</td></tr><tr><td>DreamFAB</td><td>RFCS-2022-101111547</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Deconstruction and refabrication for the reuse of steel buildings</td></tr><tr><td>Greenvest</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112158</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Green vertical steel wall design</td></tr><tr><td>HYSCORE</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112571</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Hydrogen Storage and Carriage as Opportunity for Renewable Energy Transition</td></tr><tr><td>SafeH2Pipe</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112650</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Guidelines for material selection and qualification for safe transportation of H2-NG mixtures in EU pipelines</td></tr><tr><td>Smartweld</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112414</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Development of a SMART system integrating automatic/robotic hybrid WELDing technologies, digital-twin-assisted quality monitoring, and WPS predictive tool</td></tr><tr><td>STWIN</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112504</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Advanced, non-destructive technologies to improve steel stir welding process through artificial intelligence and smart digital twin</td></tr><tr><td>Sup3rForm</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112540</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Exploiting the full potential of 3rd Generation Q&P and medium-Mn steels with superior formability for lightweight structural applications in future mobility</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>WARP-AHSS</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112425</td><td>TGA4</td><td>Warm Press-Formed Zinc-Coated Third Generation Advanced High Strength Steels with High Crash and Corrosion Resistance and Minimized Microcracking</td></tr><tr><td>Autosurveil-lance</td><td>RFCS-2018-847202</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Automatic surveillance of hot rolling area against intentional attacks and faults</td></tr><tr><td>Controlln-Steel</td><td>RFCS-2019-899208</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Dissemination and valorisation of RFCS-results in the field of 'advanced automation and control solutions in downstream steel processes' and development of a strategic vision for future research</td></tr><tr><td>DeepQuality</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034037</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Use of robust deep learning methods for the automatic quality assessment of steel products</td></tr><tr><td>Dynreact</td><td>RFCS-2018-847203</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Refinement of production scheduling through dynamic product routing, considering real-time plant monitoring and optimal reaction strategies</td></tr><tr><td>Enermind</td><td>RFCS-2019-899345</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Energy management in the era of Industry 4.0</td></tr><tr><td>Integrated</td><td>RFCS-2019-899248</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Development of innovative TEG systems optimized for energy harvesting from EAF off-gas cooling water and radiative waste heat sources designed to be cost-effectively integrated within steel plants</td></tr><tr><td>iSlag</td><td>RFCS-2019-899164</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Optimising slag reuse and recycling in electric steelmaking at optimum metallurgical performance through on-line characterization devices and intelligent decision support systems</td></tr><tr><td>OMA</td><td>RFCS-2018-847296</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Online microstructure analytics</td></tr><tr><td>RoboInspect</td><td>RFCS-2019-899252</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Mobile robots for inspection of steel plants</td></tr><tr><td>Smarter</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034060</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Steam and gas networks revamping for the steelworks of the future</td></tr><tr><td>SmartLadle</td><td>RFCS-2020-101034017</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Smart consideration of actual ladle status monitored by novel sensors for secondary metallurgy process parameters and ladle maintenance strategies</td></tr><tr><td>Steelar</td><td>RFCS-2020-101033790</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Steel components assessment using a novel non-destructive residual stress ultrasonic technology</td></tr><tr><td>Twinghy</td><td>RFCS-2022-CSP-101099158</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Digital twins for green hydrogen transition in steel industry</td></tr><tr><td>iSteel-Expert</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112102</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Remote expert virtual system enhancing human management capabilities and favors preservation, transfer and continuous evolution of knowledge for steelmaking operations</td></tr><tr><td>Silence</td><td>RFCS-2022-101112516</td><td>TGA5</td><td>Real-time acoustic sensorS and artificial Intelligence applications for the rEducation of local eNvironmental impaCt due to noise Emissions</td></tr></table>

NB: BF, blast furnace; CC, continuous casting; DRI, direct reduced iron; H2, hydrogen; HAV, high added value; HBI, hot briquetted iron. TEG, thermoelectric generator;
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