# Farming systems and egg production: The chicken or the egg dilemma

Joël Gautron

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## To cite this version:

Joël Gautron. Farming systems and egg production: The chicken or the egg dilemma. Master. Master 2 Européen Global Quality, Clermont-Ferrand, France. 2021. hal-04217790

HAL Id: hal-04217790

https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-04217790

Submitted on 26 Sep 2023

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# Farming systems and egg production

## The chicken or the egg ?

Joël GAUTRON

Joel.gautron@inrae.fr

Directeur de recherche
Research Director
UMR BOA
(33) 2 47 42 75 40

université
de TOURS

UMR BOA

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

Biologie des Oiseaux
& Aviculture
# The chicken egg

The egg, a basic ingredient for food
Isolated chamber for embryo development

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

Must contains the entire components necessary for embryo

* Well-balanced nutritious ingredients

* Lot of compound (> 1000) with a broad range of biological activities

* Protective systems (natural defenses)

Physical defense (Mainly shell)

Chemical defense (Proteins with antimicrobial activities)

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>
The egg composition is well adapted for embryo
development

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

The well adapted composition of the yellow

- Feminal gamete
  (Clear disk of 3.5 mm)

- Nutritional reserves (lipids, proteins) and defenses
  (antibodies)

- Surrounded by a thin and translucent membrane
# The egg composition is well adapted for embryo development

The egg white, water rich (88%), proteins and glucides

- Various textures of white

- Antimicrobial molecules

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

The well adapted composition of the yellow

- Feminal gamete

(Clear disk of 3.5 mm)

- Nutritional reserves (lipids, proteins) and defenses (antibodies)

- Surrounded by a thin and translucent membrane
# The egg composition is well adapted for embryo development

The egg white, water rich (88%), proteins and glucides

- Various textures of white

- Antimicrobial molecules

Chalazae to maintain the egg in suspension

Protection of the yolk from chocks

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

## Mineral eggshell

- Ensure the physical protection

- Ensure a thermic protection

- Allow gas exchanges

- Calcium source for embryo

## The well adapted composition of the yellow

- Feminal gamete

(Clear disk of 3.5 mm)

- Nutritional reserves (lipids, proteins) and defenses

(antibodies)

- Surrounded by a thin and translucent membrane
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>
The egg as food product

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>
The egg's journey

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

Réhault et al., 2019; Nys et al., 2017

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>
Distribution of total French consumption

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

ITAVI d'après SSP, Kantar et Douanes

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>
The ovoproducts

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

shell eggs marketing

flow diagram for obtaining egg products

SANOVO
TECHNOLOGY GROUP

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>
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<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>
# Shell and yolk colours

Shell colour is only dependent of genetic

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>Brown</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>Leghorn</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /><figcaption>Marans</figcaption></figure>

Yolk colour depends of diet carotenoids

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>alfalfa</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>Corn</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /><figcaption>marigold</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /><figcaption>Paprika</figcaption></figure>

No impact on flavours and taste (but important for consumers)
# The egg composition is well adapted for human consumption

## Egg as a food

* Global composition of egg white and yolk

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

Réhault-Godbert et al., 2019

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>
# Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

## Nutritional characteristics for 2 eggs (100 g)

- **Calories**: 155

- **Total proteins**: 12,3 g

High quality biological value (reference WHO 100/ Cow milk 86)

- **Total lipids**: 11,9 g

- phospholipids rich: 31 % (soit 3,4 g)

- majority of unsaturated fatty acids

- cholesterol : 0,42 g (1,2 g / 100 g de jaune)

- High digestibility value : 98% Triglycerids, 90% Phospholipids

- **Vitamins rich**:

- A,D,E, B1, B6, B12, biotine (jaune), B2, folic acid, niacine (white)

- **Minerals**: phosphorus, iron and sulfur

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>
# The egg composition is well adapted for human consumption

## > Egg as a food

* A bad reputation for table eggs

Why this bad reputation ?

- 1968, the american heart association mentioned that no more 3 eggs per a week must be ingested → suspected association between dietary and blood cholesterol

- 1984, March 26th, time magazine's front page is devastating to the egg's reputation

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

- Since 1995, the recommendations have changed following the results obtained in vitro and in vivo

- Dietary cholesterol is not associated with blood cholesterol, but with dietary intake of saturated fatty acids (Myristic acid (14:0) and palmitic acid (16:0))

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /></figure>

INRAO

Réhault-Godbert et al2019; Nys et al., 2018; Griffin 2011, Miranda et al., 2015: Hayes et al., 1992; Pronczuk et al., 1994
# The egg composition is well adapted for human consumption

## > Egg as a food

* Nutritional characteristics of eggs

- Dietary intake of linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) lowers blood cholesterol and alpha-linoleic acid (C18:3 n-3) reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease

- In eggs, saturated fatty acids including myristic acid (14:0) are low and unsaturated fatty acids including linoleic acid are high (1.38 g/100g).

<table><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Average Content (g/100g)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>FA saturated</td><td>2.64</td></tr><tr><td>FA 4:0</td><td>&lt;0.05</td></tr><tr><td>FA 6:0</td><td>&lt;0.05</td></tr><tr><td>FA 8:0</td><td>&lt;0.05</td></tr><tr><td>FA 10:0</td><td>&lt;0.05</td></tr><tr><td>FA 12:0</td><td>&lt;0.05</td></tr><tr><td>FA 14:0</td><td>0.024</td></tr><tr><td>FA 16:0</td><td>1.96</td></tr><tr><td>FA 18:0</td><td>0.65</td></tr><tr><td>FA monounsaturated</td><td>3.66</td></tr><tr><td>FA 18:1 n-9 cis</td><td>3.51</td></tr><tr><td>FA polyunsaturated</td><td>1.65</td></tr><tr><td>FA 18:2 9c,12c (n-6)</td><td>1.38</td></tr><tr><td>FA 18:3 9c,12c,15c (n-3)</td><td>0.061</td></tr><tr><td>FA 20:4 5c,8c,11c,14c (n-6)</td><td>0.12</td></tr><tr><td>FA 20:5 5c,8c,11c,14c,17c (n-3) EPA</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>FA 22:6</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4c,7c,10c,13c,16c,19c (n-3)</td><td>0.09</td></tr><tr><td>DHA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cholesterol</td><td>0.398</td></tr></tbody></table>

Réhault-Godbert et al2019; Nys et al., 2018; Griffin 2011, Miranda et al., 2015: Hayes et al., 1992; Pronczuk et al., 1994

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>
# Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

## Egg and Cholesterol

Can we eat eggs every day?

**Yes**, studies have shown that if cholesterol levels are normal, you can eat many eggs a day without affecting cholesterol levels.

If your cholesterol level is high, **you should reduce your intake to 4** per week by cutting down on other sources of animal protein and fats.

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /></figure>

26 mars 1984

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /></figure>

19 juillet 1999
# Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

## Yellow to emulsify

* An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two immiscible liquid substances

* The lecithin in the egg yolk is used as an emulsifier in the preparation of sauces in the kitchen.

<figure><img src="image_37.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_38.png" /></figure>

## White is swelling

* Beating the whites to snow means introducing air bubbles into a liquid mixture of water and protein to create a foam. This operation is called foaming.

* These properties vary during storage (gas exchanges between the inside and outside of the egg).

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_40.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_41.png" /></figure>
Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

<figure><img src="image_42.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_43.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_44.png" /></figure>

Biscuiterie/ pâtisserie/
viennoiserie

Confiserie

Glaces

Charcuterie (quenelle)

Pâtes alimentaire

Mayonnaise/sauces
chaudes

Colorant, liant,
coagulant, moussant

Liant

Liant, émulsifiant

Colorant, liant,
pouvoir aromatique

Moussant, foisonnant,
anti-cristallisant

Anti-cristallisant
Foisonnant

Agent de texture

Emulsifiant, colorant,
Brillance (dorure)

Pouvoir aromatique

Emulsifiant

Emulsifiant, agent de
texture

<figure><img src="image_45.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_46.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_47.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_48.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_49.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_50.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_51.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_52.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_53.png" /></figure>
Egg production

<figure><img src="image_54.png" /></figure>
# Chicken eggs, products for human nutrition

## Chickens cross selected for egg production

<figure><img src="image_55.png" /></figure>

More than 300 eggs produced in one year of production, i.e. ten times the weight of the hen.

**Transformation of plant matter into animal products = an enormous metabolic challenge!**

<figure><img src="image_56.png" /></figure>
Hystory of egg production

* Before the war: Domesticated chickens => mostly self-consumption

* After the war: need to meet the demand (in quantity) and to control the sanitary conditions (in quality: zero risk) => confinement and breeding in cages.

* 80 90s => "productive egg".

<figure><img src="image_57.png" /></figure>
# Eggs and chicken strains

<figure><img src="image_58.png" /></figure>

**Table eggs**

A basic ingredient for human
consumption

<figure><img src="image_59.png" /></figure>

**Layer strains**

(more than 300 eggs per year)

Non marketable for meat

<figure><img src="image_60.png" /></figure>

**Meat strains**

(150 eggs per years)

Non marketable for eggs

<figure><img src="image_61.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_62.png" /></figure>

**Hatching eggs**

Close and self sufficient chamber to allow the
development of the chicken

(Bredders for layers and meat production)

<figure><img src="image_63.png" /></figure>
# Eggs and chicken strains

<figure><img src="image_64.png" /></figure>

Table eggs

A basic ingredient for human
consumption

70 MT of eggs are produced each year in the word
> 1400 billion eggs per year

<figure><img src="image_65.png" /></figure>

## 2013 word production

• + 2% /year 2003-13 period (+ 4% /an de 93-03)

1. China 24.7MT

2. UE-28 6.2 MT

3. USA 5.6 MT

4. India 3.8 MT

5. Japan 2.5 MT

6. Mexico 2.2 MT

Itavi d'après FAO, Commission et Frai

<figure><img src="image_66.png" /></figure>
Hystory of egg production

* Before the war: Domesticated chickens => mostly self-consumption

* After the war: need to meet the demand (in quantity) and to control the sanitary conditions (in quality: zero risk) => confinement and breeding in cages.

* 80 90s => "productive egg".

* Since the end of the 90s: new consumer demands: strong awareness of citizens on agricultural production systems in general and animal production in particular, including poultry and eggs diversification of farming methods

* The current European production models are the result of this social demand Welfare Directive for laying hens (1999/74/EC).

* This regulation is also the result of scientific research to satisfy the 5 freedoms of animal welfare: no hunger, no thirst, free of movement, no fear/distress, while allowing the expression of natural behaviour.

<figure><img src="image_67.png" /></figure>
# Eggs and layers

## Health, economic and ethical issues

<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>

**Table eggs**

14,7 billions eggs per year in France
>1400 Billions eggs in the world

A basic ingredient for human consumption

* Risks of toxi-infections for the consumer (Salmonellosis)

* Economic losses (about 8%): downgraded eggs linked to degraded egg qualities (dirty, cracked or broken shells, poor internal qualities leading to problems of white/yolk separation)

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /></figure>

**Hatchery eggs**

1,1 billion eggs per year in France

Close and self sufficient chamber to allow the development of the chicken

* 10% clear eggs (absence of fertilization, embryonic mortality)

* Elimination of male chicks from the laying strain (early in ovo sexing)
# Egg production system in Europe

## Welfare Directive for laying hens (1999/74/EC)

Rules for rearing of hens

<figure><img src="image_70.png" /></figure>

Enriched cages

<figure><img src="image_71.png" /></figure>

Alternativesystems

- The animals must be inspected at least once a day.

- The presence of perches is mandatory. If no minimum height is specified, hens must be able to put their fingers underneath.

- The presence of a nest is required. The nest is a separate space whose floor is not made of wire mesh. This nest can be provided for one or more hens.

- The nest is not considered a usable surface.

- The light program must follow a 24-hour rhythm. An uninterrupted period of darkness of an indicative duration of approximately 8 hours must be practiced in order to allow the animals to rest and to avoid eye problems. Light intensity must be sufficient to allow the animals to see and be seen, especially by the breeder during daily inspection.

<figure><img src="image_72.png" /></figure>
# Egg production system in Europe

## Welfare Directive for laying hens (1999/74/EC)

### Rules for rearing of hens

<figure><img src="image_73.png" /></figure>

Enriched cages

<figure><img src="image_74.png" /></figure>

Alternative systems

Barn or aviary systems
Indoor or Outdoor

* Code 3: Cage fitted with new standards

* Code 2: Raised on the ground or in an aviary without outside access

* Code 1: Aviary or ground + outdoor access

* Code 0: Aviary or ground + outdoor access + Organic production

<figure><img src="image_75.png" /></figure>
## Code 3: Enriched cages

All European production of code 3 eggs has been in cages since 2012: laying hen welfare directive (1999/74/EC).

* Cages with an area of at least 2000cm².

* Height of the cage increased

* Installation of perches (15cm /chicken)

* Installation of separate nests

* Scraping and pecking area

* 12 cm feeder/hen

* 100,000 hens in two buildings

before 2012

<figure><img src="image_76.png" /></figure>

since 2012

<figure><img src="image_77.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_78.png" /></figure>
## Code 3: Enriched cages

Diet: 100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins

Cereals (such as wheat, corn...), protein crops (soybeans, field peas, lupin), vegetable oils, vitamins, food supplements (amino acids or synthetic coloring), source of calcium (3.5% instead of 1% in broilers)

<figure><img src="image_79.png" /></figure>
Code 2: Barn or aviary without outdoor access

* 30,000 hens in a building

* Maximum density in the building 9 hens per m2

* Food 100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins (idem code 1)

<figure><img src="image_80.png" /></figure>
## Code 1: Aviary or ground + outdoor access

30,000 hens max. per farm.

Maximum density in the building 9 hens per m2

With access to an outdoor course (4m2 per hen, 12 ha of course for 30 000 hens)

Food (100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins)

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /></figure>
# Code 1: Label Rouge specificities

## Label Rouge specifications:

- Two buildings of 6000 hens maximum

- Access to an outdoor course (5m2 per hen, 6 ha for 12 000 hens)

- Food (100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins, 50% minimum of cereals, no additives)

<figure><img src="image_82.png" /></figure>
## Code 0: Organic eggs

- Maximum 12 000 hens, buildings of 3000 hens maximum

- Maximum density in the building 6 hens per m2

- Access to an outside run (4 m2 per hen, max 4,8 ha)

- Food: 100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins, without synthetic additives 95% minimum of raw materials from AB

- Mainly prevention, stimulation of natural defenses. Lists of authorized veterinary drugs if needed

<figure><img src="image_83.png" /></figure>
# Evolution of egg production system in France

<figure><img src="image_84.png" /><figcaption>## Number of hens in France (Thousands)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_85.png" /></figure>

ITAVI

<figure><img src="image_86.png" /></figure>
# Characteristics of various systems

<figure><img src="image_87.png" /><figcaption>## Numbers of eggs laid by hens</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_88.png" /></figure>
# Characteristics of various systems

<figure><img src="image_89.png" /><figcaption>## Mortality rate%</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_90.png" /></figure>
Characteristics of various systems

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Cage</th><th>Floor</th><th>Floor + outdoor access</th><th>Floor + outdoor access (Label Rouge)</th><th>Organic</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Code on egg</th><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><th>Outdoor access (m²/hen)</th><td>No</td><td>No</td><td>Yes (4)</td><td>Yes (5)</td><td>Yes (4)</td></tr><tr><th>Housing indoor density (nb hens/m²)</th><td>13.3</td><td>9.0</td><td>9.0</td><td>9.0</td><td>6.0</td></tr><tr><th>Size of the flock</th><td>Usually 50 000 to 100 000</td><td>Usually 20 000</td><td>Usually 15 000</td><td>6 000 per building</td><td>3 000 per building</td></tr><tr><th>Mortality (%)</th><td>3-4%</td><td>6-8%</td><td>6-8%</td><td>6-8%</td><td>8-10%</td></tr><tr><th>Dust levels in the building</th><td>Weak</td><td>High</td><td>High</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><th>Feedstuffs</th><td colspan="4">Céréals, proetaginous, Vegetal oils, vitamins and minerals</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Feed specificities</th><td colspan="2">Synthetic amino acid, dyes and additives are allowed</td><td colspan="2">Minimum 60% of cereals, No synthetic dyes, limitation of additives</td><td>Organic plant-based Raw materials (65% cereals). No synthetic amino acids, dye and additives.</td></tr><tr><th>Feed conversion ratio</th><td>2.2</td><td>2.4</td><td>2.4</td><td>2.6</td><td>2.6</td></tr></tbody></table>
Characteristics of various systems

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Cage</th><th>Floor</th><th>Floor + outdoor access</th><th>Floor + outdoor access (Label Rouge)</th><th>Organic</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Competition for the use of arable land</td><td>weak</td><td>weak</td><td>moderate</td><td>moderate</td><td>moderate</td></tr><tr><td>Organoleptic and nutritional characteristics</td><td colspan="5">No difference</td></tr><tr><td>Sanitary quality</td><td colspan="5">No or faint differences (related to density)</td></tr><tr><td>Cost of production at the farm (€ for 100 eggs)</td><td>6,41</td><td>7,35</td><td>7,82</td><td>8,65</td><td>13,64</td></tr><tr><td>Cost of production % base</td><td>100</td><td>115</td><td>122</td><td>135</td><td>213</td></tr><tr><td>Consumer selling price (€ for 6 eggs)</td><td>0,89</td><td>0,94</td><td>1,36</td><td>1,87</td><td>1,96</td></tr><tr><td>Consumer selling price percentage base</td><td>100</td><td>106</td><td>153</td><td>210</td><td>220</td></tr></tbody></table>
# Evolution of egg production systems in UE

<figure><img src="image_91.png" /><figcaption>France 2017</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_92.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /></figure>
20
HEURES

2

<figure><img src="image_94.png" /></figure>
Discussion

What is your favorite eggs and why ?

<figure><img src="image_95.png" /></figure>
And Now ?
Egg in the next decade ?

<figure><img src="image_96.png" /></figure>
# The specialized chicken lines

<figure><img src="image_97.png" /></figure>

## Layer hens

(340 eggs per year)
Meat is not marketable

<figure><img src="image_98.png" /><figcaption>ZW female chicken</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_99.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_100.png" /><figcaption>ZZ male chicken</figcaption></figure>

## Broiler Production

(<150 eggs per year)
Non marketable low
quality eggs

<figure><img src="image_101.png" /></figure>

6 billions of males are killed every year in the world

<figure><img src="image_102.png" /></figure>

Ethical and societal concern

<figure><img src="image_103.png" /></figure>

# Alternatives ?
Reduce the number of layers

<figure><img src="image_104.png" /><figcaption>✓ Use of molt cycles</figcaption></figure>

Second and third laying cycles are possible after molting of the layer
→ Need to induce artificial molt with water and feeding privation not allowed in EU

Research is needed to induce moulting while respecting animal welfare
Increasing persistency of laying hens

<figure><img src="image_105.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_106.png" /></figure>
Increasing persistency of laying hens

Breeding companies claim that they will have developed the « long life » layer, which will be capable of producing 500 eggs in a production cycle lasting 100 weeks by 2020 (Van Sambeek, 2010)

Bain et al., 2016 estimated « than even 25 more eggs per hen could potentially reduce the UK flock, including breeding hens by 2,5 millions birds per annum. »

limited by the health charter in France...

<figure><img src="image_107.png" /></figure>
# Dual purpose chickens

<figure><img src="image_108.png" /></figure>

## Layers strain

(340 eggs per year)
Meat is not marketable

<figure><img src="image_109.png" /></figure>

## Broiler strains

<150 eggs per year)
Non marketable low
quality eggs

<figure><img src="image_110.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_111.png" /></figure>

Females are reared
for egg production

Males are reared for
meat production

Low number of eggs
Quality ?

Low meat yield
Different meat texture (consumer
education)

<figure><img src="image_112.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_113.png" /></figure>

Unfavorable
environmental impact

Need to evaluate the productivity, the quality, the behaviour of animals in various housing
systems and various environmental conditions, health and costs

<figure><img src="image_114.png" /></figure>
# In ovo sexing

## Identify male eggs for removal before hatching

Postulate: male and female embryos "express" chromosomal, anatomical, physiological and molecular differences (**direct indicators/markers**) and some of these molecules may diffuse into the egg structures (**indirect indicators/markers**)

**Step 1:** Determine the sex of the embryo

**Step 2:** Search for dimorphic sex indicators / biomarkers (embryo / egg structures)

**Step 3:** Validate biomarkers on a large number of eggs from genetically different strains of laying hens

→ Towards a practical and marketable method
# Sexage in ovo

## Identify male eggs for removal before hatching

→ Towards a practical and marketable method

✓ Must be fast (20 000 to 30 000 eggs per hour)

✓ Must be cheap

✓ Must be precise (98.5 %)

✓ Without detrimental consequences on the hatchability and the viability of the chicken

✓ Must be done before XXX days of embryonic development to avoid any pain.

→ **A frantic race between states, scientists and industry to offer alternative solutions and hit the jackpot.**

<figure><img src="image_115.png" /></figure>
# How to determine sex in ovo

* Destructives and non destructive methods

* Biological approaches
  Hormonal detection
  Metabolite marker detection

* Physicochemistry approaches
  Dimorphic volatile odors between male and females

* Physical and optical approaches
  FTIR spectroscopy
  Raman spectroscopy
  Magnetic resonance imaging
  Hyperspectral analysis

* Genetic engineering
  Genome editing

<figure><img src="image_116.png" /></figure>
How to determine sex in ovo

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Principle of the method</th><th colspan="2">Structure</th><th rowspan="2">Technique</th><th rowspan="2">invasiveness / precision / capacity</th><th rowspan="2">Marketing</th></tr><tr><th>stade</th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Chromosomic</td><td>E9</td><td>Allantoïc liquid (200-300 µL)</td><td>PCR on cells suspended in allantoic fluid</td><td>Invasive, 97-99% 3000/h</td><td>PLANTegg (Allemagne)<br>En cours (ALDI)</td></tr><tr><td>Molecular</td><td>E9</td><td>Allantoïc liquid</td><td>Determination of oestrone sulphate (hormone ♀)</td><td>Invasive, 98%, SELEGGT: 3600/h<br>In Ovo: 1500/h</td><td>SELEGGT (Allemagne)<br>In ovo (Pays-Bas): Machine= Ella</td></tr><tr><td>Physiological /phénotypical</td><td>E13</td><td>Whole egg/ luminous flash</td><td>hyper-spectral imaging / feather colour</td><td>Non invasive, 95%, 20 000/h</td><td>Agri Advanced Technologies (Allemagne): Fermiers de Loué<br>Machine: CHEGGY</td></tr><tr><td>Genome editing</td><td>E0</td><td>Whole egg/ Transillumin ation</td><td>Imaging by fluorescence of a molecule produced by males after editing</td><td>Non invasive 100 %</td><td>EggXYT (Israël)</td></tr></tbody></table>

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# How to determine sex in ovo

SELEGGT - Hormonal testing (http://www.seleggt.com/) (Allemagne)

## THE SELEGGT PROCESS

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The SELEGGT process is a way to prevent chick culling. The scientific approach of endocrinological (hormone-based) gender identification in the hatching egg has been automated in the SELEGGT process and is already in use today.

INRAO

* Test performed at 9 days of incubation

* Small hole 12 mm in the shell

* Samples used a patented test to measure the level of Estrone sulfate only present in females

* Accuracy 97-98%

* Prototype developed

* Almost 100 000 eggs already hatched

* Price 1-3 cents per egg, 7 Euros per pullet

* Low throughput of approximately 1 to 3000 eggs/hour

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# Comment determiner le sexe in ovo

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*In ovo - Biomarker detection (https://inovo.nl/solutions/in-ovo-egg-sexing/) (Netherlands)*

* ✓ H NRM spectroscopy

* ✓ Fast 2 sec/oeuf

* ✓ Marketing

* ✓ Low throughput (1500 eggs/hours)

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Comment determiner le sexe in ovo

✓ Hyperspectral technic
(feather colour)

✓ 20 000 eggs/hour

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# Comment determiner le sexe *in ovo*

*EggXYt - Genetic alteration* (https://www.eggxyt.com/) (Israël)

* ✓ Genome editing

* ✓ Feasable the day of lay

* ✓ Fluorescent detection through the shell

* ✓ Transgenic chickens

* ✓ Consumer acceptance ?

* ✓ Accuracy 100 %

* ✓ Price ???

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How to determine sex in ovo

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Principle of the method</th><th colspan="2">Structure</th><th rowspan="2">Technique</th><th rowspan="2">invasiveness / precision / capacity</th><th rowspan="2">Marketing</th></tr><tr><th>stade</th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Chromosomic</td><td>E9</td><td>Allantoïc liquid (200-300 µL)</td><td>PCR on cells suspended in allantoic fluid</td><td>Invasive, 97-99% 3000/h</td><td>PLANTegg (Allemagne) En cours (ALDI)</td></tr><tr><td>Molecular</td><td>E9</td><td>Allantoïc liquid</td><td>Determination of oestrone sulphate (hormone ♀)</td><td>Invasive, 98%, SELEGGT: 3600/h In Ovo: 1500/h</td><td>SELEGGT (Allemagne) In ovo (Pays-Bas): Machine= Ella</td></tr><tr><td>Physiological /phénotypical</td><td>E13</td><td>Whole egg/ luminous flash</td><td>hyper-spectral imaging / feather colour</td><td>Non invasive, 95%, 20 000/h</td><td>Agri Advanced Technologies (Allemagne): Fermiers de Loué Machine: CHEGGY</td></tr><tr><td>Genome editing</td><td>E0</td><td>Whole egg/ Transillumin ation</td><td>Imaging by fluorescence of a molecule produced by males after editing</td><td>Non invasive 100 %</td><td>EggXYT (Israël)</td></tr></tbody></table>

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# Alternatives? Take-home messages

Few alternatives to the culling of male day-old chicks of layer lines:

* Increasing of laying period and use of molt cycles to reduce the number of births chickens for renewal

* Developing dual purpose chickens, but not for a mass market

* Strengthening the development of in ovo sexing processes

## BUT

* Today whethever method used, no fast and robust method is fully operational

* A race against time: There is an increased need for research and development before considering the industrial scale

* This change will be really challenging for producers with many technical and economical adaptations

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To conclude

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# The Chicken or the egg ?

This is the question that is poorly formulated

Birds are descendants of dinosaurs

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The chicken or dinosaurs ?

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