# The SAFFI project: fostering alignment and collaboration in EU-China food safety management with infant food safety as case study

Gaud Dervilly, Harrie Besselink, Sara Bover, Jianbo Hou, Kalliopi Rantsiou, Min Yue, Marcel H. Zwietering, Erwan Engel

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Gaud Dervilly, Harrie Besselink, Sara Bover, Jianbo Hou, Kalliopi Rantsiou, et al.. The SAFFI project: fostering alignment and collaboration in EU-China food safety management with infant food safety as case study. Food Research International, 2025, 213 (116600), 10.1016/j.foodres.2025.116600. hal-05015861

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Submitted on 9 May 2025

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The SAFFI project: Fostering alignment and collaboration in EU-China food safety management with infant food safety as case study

Gaud Dervilly, Harrie Besselink, Sara Bover, Jianbo Hou, Kalliopi Rantsiou, Min Yue, Marcel H. Zwietering, Erwan Engel

PII: S0963-9969(25)00938-X

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.116600

Reference: FRIN 116600

To appear in: *Food Research International*

Received date: 30 January 2025

Revised date: 3 May 2025

Accepted date: 4 May 2025

Please cite this article as: G. Dervilly, H. Besselink, S. Bover, et al., The SAFFI project: Fostering alignment and collaboration in EU-China food safety management with infant food safety as case study, *Food Research International* (2024), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.116600

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# The SAFFI project: fostering alignment and collaboration in EU-China food safety management with infant food safety as case study

Gaud Dervilly<sup>a</sup>, Harrie Besselink<sup>d</sup>, Sara Bover<sup>e</sup>, Jianbo Hou<sup>f</sup>, Kalliopi Rantsiou<sup>c</sup>, Min Yue<sup>g</sup>, Marcel H. Zwietering<sup>b</sup>, Erwan Engel<sup>h</sup>

<footnote><sup>a</sup> ONIRIS, INRAE, LABERCA, 44300, Nantes, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> Food Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Food Sciences, University of Turin, Torino, Italy</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> BioDetection Systems BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</footnote>

<footnote><sup>e</sup> Institute of Agri Food Research and Technology, IRTA, Barcelona, Spain</footnote>

<footnote><sup>f</sup> Zhejiang Academy of Science & Technology for Inspection & Quarantine, Hangzhou, China</footnote>

<footnote><sup>g</sup> Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China</footnote>

<footnote><sup>h</sup> French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE), MASS Group, UR QuaPA, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France</footnote>

<footnote>*Corresponding author: gaud.dervilly@inrae.fr</footnote>

<footnote>LABERCA, Oniris VetAgroBio, 1 route de Gachet, 44300 Nantes, France.</footnote>
**Abstract**

Ensuring food safety is a shared priority for both the European Union (EU) and China, yet differences in regulatory frameworks, enforcement mechanisms, and risk assessment approaches present challenges for harmonization. The SAFFI project (2020-2024), which concluded recently, seeks to bridge these gaps by fostering collaboration in food safety management, with a specific focus on infant food safety. Bringing together partners from several EU member states and Chinese provinces, SAFFI aimed to improve hazard identification, risk ranking, detection methods, and mitigation strategies for both microbial and chemical contaminants in infant food supply chains.

This article first provides a comparative analysis of EU and Chinese food safety regulations, highlighting key similarities and differences in legal structures, risk assessment procedures, and enforcement strategies. Infant food safety standards are particularly strict in both regions, yet inconsistencies in testing methods, contaminant limits, and monitoring approaches necessitate greater alignment.

The second part of the article details the scientific advances achieved through SAFFI to support regulatory convergence. These include structured databases and decision-support tools for hazard identification and prioritization, improved processing and preservation techniques for contaminant control, and cutting-edge analytical methods for detecting and monitoring known and emerging chemical and microbial hazards. The project also examined the role of consumer practices in mitigating risks and explored pathways for integrating rapid detection technologies into food safety systems.

Overall, the outcomes of SAFFI contribute to enhanced consumer protection, the promotion of safe international trade, and the development of more coherent, science-based food safety policies through sustained EU-China cooperation.
**Keywords:**

Baby food, microbial safety, chemical safety, detection methods, food safety management, legislation, regulation, risk, hazard, regulatory harmonization, infant nutrition, global food safety
# 1. EU & China Regulatory Standards in Food Safety

Food safety is a critical concern for public health and consumer protection, requiring robust and effective regulatory frameworks. Both European and Chinese food safety systems share the common objective of safeguarding public health and ensuring consumer protection, albeit with differences in structure, approach, and enforcement (Figure 1, Table 1). In particular, infant food safety is an area of heightened importance due to the vulnerability of infants to foodborne hazards. Infants have developing immune systems and are more susceptible to contaminants such as pathogens, chemical residues, and environmental pollutants. Their smaller body size and limited detoxification capacity mean that even low levels of harmful substances can have significant health consequences. Exposure to foodborne hazards during early development can have long-term effects, potentially leading to chronic health conditions, neurological disorders, or developmental delays. As such, protecting infants from unsafe food is crucial not only for immediate well-being but also for ensuring long-term health outcomes.

The development of food safety regulations in both the European Union (EU) and China has evolved significantly over the past few decades, shaped by both regional priorities and global influences. In the EU, food safety regulations were initially fragmented across member states until the establishment of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2002, which centralized risk assessment and contributed to the harmonization of food safety standards. Over time, the EU has adopted a precautionary approach, prioritizing consumer health while balancing scientific evidence and market access.
In China, food safety regulations began to take shape more recently, particularly after a series of high-profile food safety incidents in the 2000s. The 2009 Food Safety Law marked a pivotal point in formalizing China's food safety framework. Since then, China has worked to align its regulatory structure with international standards, often focusing on improving risk assessment, traceability, and enforcement mechanisms.

International agreements, notably the Codex Alimentarius, have played a crucial role in guiding both EU and Chinese standards. The Codex provides a set of internationally recognized guidelines for food safety, which both regions adopt to ensure the safety and quality of their food products while facilitating global trade. Codex's risk-based approach and principles of transparency have helped shape regulatory frameworks in both regions, promoting mutual recognition and cooperation in food safety practices.

The European Union (EU) operates under a harmonized legal framework, with the General Food Law (Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 and its modifications (European Parliament and Council, 2002)) serving as its foundation. This framework is supported by supranational institutions such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), which provides scientific advice to guide European Commission policies. China's food safety regulation is anchored in the Food Safety Law, whose structure is also presented in Figure 1, was significantly revised in 2015. This system has undergone substantial reforms, led by key organizations such as the China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA) and the National Health Commission (NHC). These reforms aim to address enforcement consistency and enhance public trust following past food safety challenges. Despite these structural differences, both
systems place a strong emphasis on risk management and consumer protection as core priorities.

The following sections analyze food safety regulations in the European Union and China, covering the foundations of respective regulations, comparing food safety standards, and discussing future challenges, including global trends and technological advancements. This provides a comprehensive understanding of current food safety efforts in both regions, setting the stage for presenting the work carried out within the SAFFI project.

## 1.1. *Foundations of European food safety regulations*

More specifically, within the European Union (EU), food safety regulation is grounded in a comprehensive and harmonized legal framework designed to protect consumers. The EU's approach to food safety legislation is characterized by its proactive and precautionary principles, an integrated risk analysis system encompassing risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication, as well as enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance throughout the food chain. While common guidelines and rules are established at the EU level, the responsibility for enforcement is delegated to individual member states, which implement these measures within their national contexts.

The foundation of EU food safety regulation is the General Food Law (Regulation (EC) 178/2002 (European Parliament and Council, 2002)) (Figure 1, Table 1), which sets out the fundamental principles of food safety in the EU and resulted in the establishment of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) that provides independent scientific advice (risk assessment) on food-related risks. EFSA advice informs the European commission for creating European laws, rules and policymaking. Importantly, in the EU, risk assessment
(scientific advice) and risk management (regulators/policy makers) are independent processes.
The General Food Law (2002) defines the responsibilities of food businesses, establishes
traceability requirements, and enforces the principle that unsafe food should not be placed on
the market. It also introduced the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF), a crucial
tool for the swift exchange of information between member states about food safety risks. EU
food safety regulations are further detailed in specific regulations and directives covering
various aspects of food production, processing, and distribution. These include regulations on
food hygiene (Regulations (EC) 852/2004, 853/2004, 2017/625, 2073/2005), food additives
(Regulation (EC) 1333/2008), and novel foods (Regulation (EU) 2015/2283). The regulatory
framework also encompasses rules on food labelling, contaminants (Regulation (EU)
2023/915), and materials in contact with food (Regulation (EU) 2011/10), or information to
consumers (Regulation (EU) 1169/2011), ensuring a comprehensive approach to food safety.
The EU's food safety policies is adaptive, with mechanisms for continuous improvement,
including revisions and modifications or regulations in force, and adaptation to emerging
risks, such as those posed by new technologies, global trade, and climate change. The "farm-
to-fork" strategy, a key component of the European Green Deal, reflects the EU's commitment
to sustainable food systems while maintaining rigorous food safety standards. This strategy
emphasizes the importance of reducing food waste, promoting sustainable agricultural
practices, and addressing the environmental impact of food production, all while ensuring that
food safety remains uncompromised.

1.2. *Foundations of Chinese food safety regulations*
In recent years, China has made significant strides in reforming its regulatory framework to ensure the safety of its food supply. China's approach to food safety regulation has evolved rapidly, driven by the need to address public health crises, respond to global trade demands, and modernize its food industry in line with international standards. The foundation of China's current food safety regulatory system is the Food Safety Law (FSL), initially enacted in 2009 and significantly revised in 2015 (Figure 1, Table 1). This law serves as the cornerstone of food safety governance in China, outlining the responsibilities of various government agencies, setting standards for food production and distribution, and establishing stringent penalties for violations. The 2015 revision of the FSL introduced several key improvements, including enhanced risk assessment procedures, greater emphasis on food traceability, and stricter enforcement mechanisms. The State Administration for Market Regulation (SAMR) plays a central role in the implementation and enforcement of food safety regulations in China. Established in 2018, SAMR oversees food safety supervision, integrates functions previously scattered across multiple agencies, and works to improve the consistency and efficiency of regulatory enforcement. In addition to SAMR, the National Health Commission (NHC) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) are also key players in setting food safety standards and managing food safety risks within their respective jurisdictions. The regulatory approach in China emphasizes a risk-based system, with a focus on prevention, control, and response to food safety risks. Risk assessment is central to this approach, with the China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA) providing scientific support for the development and revision of food safety standards. In recent years, China has also prioritized the modernization of food safety governance through the integration of information technologies, such as big data analytics and blockchain, to enhance traceability and transparency across the food supply chain.
1.3. Food safety standards in the EU and China (Table 1)

The regulation governing official food control in the European Union (EU) is primarily outlined in Regulation (EU) 2017/625, commonly referred to as the Official Controls Regulation (OCR). This regulation provides a comprehensive framework for the performance of official controls and other official activities to enforce food and feed laws, as well as animal health and welfare rules. While the OCR ensures a harmonized and effective system of official food control across the EU, contributing to food safety and consumer protection, the planning and implementation of these official controls are the responsibility of individual member states and their respective competent authorities. Established in 2006, the regulatory text setting EU limits for contaminants in foodstuffs (Commission Regulation (EC) 1881/2006), was recently revised under Regulation (EU) 2023/915, entering into force on July 2024. This regulation establishes maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs to ensure that they are safe for consumption and do not pose a risk to public health. The regulation covers a wide range of contaminants, including: inorganic contaminants (e.g., lead, cadmium, mercury), mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin), plant toxins (such as tropane alkaloids), nitrate in certain vegetables, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), process-induced toxicants (e.g., acrylamide), and poly- and perfluorinated compounds (PFAS). Such regulation is regularly updated and amended to reflect new scientific knowledge and risk assessments, ensuring that the limits set for contaminants are protective of consumer health. In parallel, Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs establishes food safety and process hygiene criteria to ensure the safety of food products within the EU. It defines specific limits for
microorganisms in various food categories, requiring producers to implement sampling and testing protocols to verify compliance. The regulation applies a risk-based approach, focusing on preventing, reducing, and controlling microbial hazards along the food chain. It complements the EU's broader food safety framework by supporting Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems. Compliance with this regulation helps ensure consumer protection and maintain food safety standards.

China's food safety regulations cover a broad range of aspects, including food production, processing, distribution, and consumption. The regulatory framework includes standards for food additives, contaminants, pesticide residues, and microbiological criteria. Notably, China has developed an extensive system of national food safety standards (Guobiao or GB standards), which are periodically updated to address new risks and incorporate scientific advancements. The term "Guobiao" (国标, pronounced guó biāo) literally means "national standard" in Chinese. It refers to the official system of technical standards established and enforced by the Chinese government, covering various sectors, including food safety. In the context of food safety. These standards are mandatory (unless stated otherwise) and are designed to protect public health and harmonize regulations across China. While standards for the use of food additives (GB 2760/2024) are available, maximum levels in food have been set for mycotoxins (GB 2761/2017) [aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, deoxynivalenol, penicillin, ochratoxin A and zearalenone], contaminants (GB 2762/2022) [lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, tin, nickel, chromium, nitrite, nitrate, benzo[a]pyrene, N-dimethylnitrosamine, polychlorinated biphenyls, 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol], pesticide residues (GB 2763/2022)
[112 residues], veterinary drug residues (GB 31650/2022) [41 residues] and pathogenic bacteria in prepackaged food (GB 29921/2022).

More specifically with regard to the safety of infant food, both Europe and China have their own specific regulations. In China, these national food safety standards are as follows: infant formula (GB 10765/2021), older infant formula (GB 10766/2021), young children formula (GB 10767/2021), cereal-based complementary foods for infants and young children (GB 10769/2010) (Figure 2), and canned complementary foods for infants and young children (GB 10770/2010). In the EU, the main regulation governing infant food is Commission Directive 2006/125/EC on processed cereal-based foods and foods for infants and young children. This directive sets out the composition, safety, and labelling requirements for foods intended for infants and young children. Key aspects of the regulation include strict limits on contaminants and residues, such as pesticides and heavy metals, to ensure that infant foods are safe for consumption. These limits are often set more strictly than those for general foodstuffs, reflecting the vulnerability of infants and young children. A comparison of the maximum levels set by Regulation (EU) 2023/915 reveals significant differences depending on the target population (adults vs. infants) and the specific food matrix. For pork meat, the limits are set at 1.0 pg WHO-PCDD/F-TEQ/g fat for dioxins alone, 1.25 pg WHO-PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ/g fat for the sum of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs, and 40 ng/g fat for the sum of non-dioxin-like PCBs. For milk, these thresholds are slightly higher, reaching 2.0 pg/g fat for dioxins, 4.0 pg/g fat for dioxins + DL-PCBs, and still 40 ng/g fat for NDL-PCBs. In contrast, for food intended for infants and young children, the values are expressed on a wet weight basis and are significantly stricter: 0.1 pg/g for dioxins, 0.2 pg/g for dioxins + DL-PCBs, and 1.0 ng/g
for NDL-PCBs. These differences highlight the particular attention paid by EU legislation to
the protection of vulnerable populations, especially infants. EU regulation also defines certain
permitted additives and ingredients in infant foods as well as restrictions on the use of
sweeteners and preservatives in infant foods. In addition to Directive 2006/125/EC, there are
other relevant regulations, such as Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2016/127, which
covers infant formula and follow-on formula and Regulation (CE) 2073/2005, which includes
microbiological criteria specifically for food intended for infants.

A detailed quantitative comparison between EU and Chinese regulatory frameworks was
initially envisaged; however, compiling a comprehensive comparative table proved unfeasible
due to fundamental differences in the classification of food matrices. Maximum contaminant
levels are often defined for distinct or non-equivalent food categories in each region, making
direct comparisons scientifically unreliable. For example, EU Regulation 2023/915
establishes separate limits for “infant formula,” “follow-on formula,” and “processed cereal-
based foods for infants and young children,” whereas Chinese standards typically apply to
broader categories such as “infant foods” or “milk powder.”

This divergence is evident when comparing contaminant limits for lead, cadmium, and
aflatoxins. In the EU, the maximum lead level in infant formula is 0.02 mg/kg, while China
permits up to 0.05 mg/kg under its broader definition. For cadmium, the EU limit is 0.004
mg/kg for formulae intended for infants and young children, compared to 0.02 mg/kg in China
for “infant foods.” Regarding aflatoxin B1, the EU sets a strict limit of 0.10 µg/kg in infant
products, whereas the Chinese threshold is 0.5 µg/kg, again applied to a more general
category.

These examples illustrate the challenges of aligning regulatory thresholds in the absence of harmonized food classification systems. As a result, although specific examples are discussed to highlight key differences, a full side-by-side comparison was not feasible. The lack of standardization in food category definitions not only hampers regulatory comparability but also has practical implications. For instance, shipments of infant formula have on occasion been rejected at EU borders for exceeding contaminant limits, despite complying with Chinese standards—highlighting the consequences of regulatory misalignment.

Such discrepancies underscore the need for international coordination in defining food
categories, which would improve comparability, facilitate mutual recognition, and support
safe trade. Although difficult, quantitative comparisons remain valuable for identifying
regulatory gaps and informing dialogue and harmonization efforts between both regions.

1.4. Future challenges

Despite the respective strengths and advantages of the systems detailed above, they both face
a number of challenges. In the EU, challenges remain in the implementation and enforcement
of these regulations across member states, particularly in ensuring uniform application and
addressing the complexities of cross-border food supply chains. High-profile incidents, such
as the horse meat scandal of 2013, exposed vulnerabilities in traceability and fraud detection
within the supply chain, undermining consumer trust. Similarly, the EHEC outbreak in 2011
highlighted the risks associated with foodborne pathogens and the importance of rapid, coordinated responses across member states. The establishment of the EFSA in 2002 was partly a response to earlier crises, such as the mad cow disease (BSE) epidemic, underscoring the need for scientific risk assessment and robust regulatory oversight. These incidents emphasize the importance of continuous vigilance and adaptation to evolving food safety risks, driven by factors such as climate change, technological advancements, and changes in consumer behaviour. In parallel and despite its recent advancements, China's food safety regulatory system faces also challenges. The sheer scale of China's food industry, coupled with the complexity of its supply chains and the diversity of its food products, makes consistent enforcement difficult. Additionally, high-profile food safety incidents, such as the melamine contamination scandal in 2008, or the very recent revelation that soybean oil was transported in tankers that were also used to move chemicals (2024) ("Investigation report released on illegal use of tanker trucks for transportation of edible oil," 2024), have highlighted gaps in regulatory oversight and eroded public trust. In response, the Chinese government has taken steps to strengthen regulatory capacity, improve coordination among regulatory bodies, and enhance public communication and education regarding food safety.

At the international level, and alongside their respective internal regulatory frameworks, both China and the EU play active roles in shaping international food safety standards through participation in organizations such as the Codex Alimentarius. This engagement helps align their regulations with global standards and supports the facilitation of international trade. The EU's food safety regulations, known for their rigor and comprehensive approach, often serve as a reference for regulatory practices worldwide. Similarly, China's active involvement in
international food safety bodies and its efforts to harmonize domestic standards with global practices demonstrate its commitment to international alignment. Nonetheless, China's diverse and rapidly evolving food landscape necessitates tailored approaches that address unique local challenges while striving for global competitiveness.

Harmonizing EU and Chinese food safety regulations could involve several strategic steps to bridge differences and ensure mutual recognition of standards, ultimately facilitating safer global trade. Key approaches to achieving harmonization would for instance rely on:

* Adoption of International Standards in which the EU and China could further align their regulations with international standards set by bodies like the Codex Alimentarius. This would create a common ground for both regions and simplify the process of mutual recognition.

* Bilateral agreements that recognize each other's food safety standards for specific categories of products. These agreements could be based on equivalence, where both parties accept that their regulations achieve similar levels of food safety protection.

* Regulatory Dialogue and Cooperation between EU and Chinese food safety authorities could foster mutual understanding of each other's regulatory frameworks. Joint working groups could be established to address specific issues, such as risk assessment methodologies or traceability requirements.
* Developing harmonized procedures for harmonization of official control procedures. This would involve creating shared protocols for audits and inspections.

* Enhanced transparency and data-sharing mechanisms, including the exchange of information on food safety incidents and recalls, could improve mutual trust and ensure timely responses to food safety risks.

* Capacity Building and Technical Assistance for practices harmonization.

* Participate and collaborate in joint research programs to jointly generate new knowledge of interest to issues common to both regions.

By focusing on these areas, the EU and China can work towards harmonizing their food safety regulations, ensuring higher protection standards for consumers while facilitating smoother international trade. In this context, scientific research appears a powerful lever for risk assessment in order to identify areas of cooperation and potential challenges in terms of food safety. The results of scientific research are indeed building blocks that feed into the thinking of public authorities in terms of risk management. In this context, the harmonization of the regulatory contexts in Europe and China can only be envisaged in the medium to long term, after the joint scientific work has been able to propose useful and effective options and scenarios. The EU and China have established several collaborative initiatives and agreements to enhance food safety, reflecting their shared interest in protecting consumers and facilitating trade. In particular, the EU-China Food Safety Project launched in 2012, aimed to strengthen China's food safety regulatory framework by sharing EU expertise. It focused on areas such
as risk assessment, traceability, and food safety standards, and included training programs, workshops, and study visits.

As these frameworks evolve, scientific advancements are increasingly seen as essential to address emerging risks and challenges, such as new contaminants or unforeseen hazards. This dynamic relationship between regulation and scientific innovation enables both regions to develop evidence-based, adaptive strategies to tackle food safety issues. Bridging the regulatory gaps requires continuous scientific collaboration, and thus, the work done within these joint initiatives provides a foundation for future regulatory alignment and improved food safety standards on both sides.

## 2. Harmonizing EU & China Regulatory Standards in Infant Food Safety through bilateral research initiatives

### 2.1. Context

The SAFFI project (2020-2024) targeted foods intended for 15 million children under three years of age in Europe and 45 million in China. This collaborative research and innovation action between China and Europe aimed to strengthen the identification, assessment, detection and mitigation of health risks related to microbial and chemical hazards in the EU and China infant food chains. To this end, the project proposed four main complementary levers. The first one was to develop systematic hazard identification and risk ranking procedures to ensure that hazard detection and control methods and other management actions are focused on the right hazards. The second one consisted of strengthening the control and mitigation of hazards by relying either on industrial mild processing technologies and/or on safer home practices.
The third one was to develop innovative approaches and technologies to strengthen both the surveillance of known chemical hazards and also the discovery of still unknown or unexpected hazards. Finally, the fourth lever consisted of enhancing the detection of microbial hazards and the prediction of their behaviour through the development of multi-omics approaches.

To achieve these objectives, the SAFFI project was able to rely on a multidisciplinary consortium involving academics, baby food companies, food safety authorities, paediatricians and technology SMEs. Building on a partnership from seven European Member States and two Chinese provinces, the project also aimed to generate new knowledge to contribute to the future harmonisation of food safety standards and practices between the EU and China, ensuring that infant food products are subject to comparable levels of safety monitoring in both regions. This includes aligning testing methods, regulatory frameworks, and safety criteria.

This article details the progress made in this area on the four following aspects that have been tackled within SAFFI: Hazard identification and risk ranking, Hazard control and mitigation, Chemical hazard detection and discovery and Microbial hazard detection and behaviour.

## 2.2. Hazard Identification and risk ranking

In Food Safety Management (FSM) systems, the identification of relevant hazards both in Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP, in the stage of Hazard Analysis) and in Risk Assessment (in the stage of Hazard Identification) is a relevant activity. This activity is often not performed in a structured, transparent manner, but based on general expert knowledge. To support decisions in food safety management, both from an industrial, governmental and public health perspective it would be worthwhile to make use of a systematic identification of hazards based on collection, integration, validation and analysis
of relevant available data including knowledge rules and a broad spectrum of databases. Subsequently, it would be useful to be able to rank risks of the identified chemical and microbiological hazards in infant foods. In earlier works, frameworks to structurally identify hazards and rank the risks have been developed like in van Gerwen et al. (1997), Stella et al. (2013), and Monaghan et al. (2017). In order to be able to evaluate and rank all risks, it is crucial to initially start broadly, to not miss potential hazards, but successively also being able to select the most relevant ones, using risk ranking.

A risk classification framework was thus specifically adapted to infant food products and designed to be applicable in a broad international context, facilitating comparative regulatory approaches across regions. First structured databases were set up and used to determine generically relevant chemical and microbiological hazards in infant foods (Yeak et al., 2023). Then procedures were developed for specific food products. For microbiology, first a more food-specific hazard identification procedure was developed (Yeak et al. 2024a), combining data on disease occurrence for a certain food, contamination prevalence in the food, hazard characteristics, process and product characteristics. For this procedure then an app was developed (Microbiological Hazards IDentification (MiID)) ("Microbiological Hazards IDentification,"). Then, a microbiological risk ranking procedure was developed (Yeak et al., 2024b) to assess risks quantitatively, based on the probability of the disease outcomes and by using for the severity, the Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) per case. The probability of disease outcomes was determined by making use of prevalence of contaminants and prevalence of reported diseases related to the food product, effects of processing, potential recontamination, growth potential and consumption data. All factors were given a numerical value to be able to make a quantitative ranking. Also, for this risk ranking an app was
developed (Microbiological hazards risk RAnking decision support system (MiRA))
("Microbiological hazards risk RAnking decision support system,"). For chemical risks a
similar approach was used for identification of hazards in a specific food product, but here
directly risk ranking was performed. This was done by combining the exposure to a health-
based guidance value, the contribution of the food product for the exposure of the specific
hazard, and the severity of the hazard (Palmont et al., 2023).

The systems developed are helpful to support decisions for both industry and governments in
selecting products and hazards to focus on, to make decision of most relevant hazards, what
and where to sample, and monitor. The systems can be used both in the design of products, in
existing product and processes, and in case of potential problems (outbreaks, detections) and
could fruitfully be used to complement experts. The systems are currently focusing on infant
foods and related to the mainly European (consumption data, contamination data, disease and
outbreak data), and US databases (contamination data, disease and outbreak data), but these
could be easily extended covering also other age groups (for example elderly) or geographic
regions.

In China a nationwide microbiological hazard analysis in infant-toddler foods was conducted, with an initial focus on *Bacillus cereus* as a leading bacterium of concern, further expanded to patient-originated information for global *B. cereus* infections and suggest specific food types are a significant risk. Finally, a whole-China-wide *Salmonella* meta-data analysis across human-food-animals is being conducted with preliminary results pointing out chicken as source is the major risk in China.
The current EU regulation requires the food business operators to implement a HACCP based approach focusing on hazard control measures aiming to prevent, eliminate, reduce, or keep a relevant hazard to an acceptable level not likely to pose a public health risk. The HACCP system provides flexibility with the selection of control measures to accommodate changes in food formulation, technology developments and innovations to meet the market and consumer demands. In this framework, the validation of control measures must be carried out before their commercial implementation to prove their efficacy under a worst-case scenario (CAC, 2018). The SAFFI project aimed to set and validate emerging processing and preservation technologies to control key contaminants and pathogens in infant food such as pasteurised fruit-based purees, sterilized meals based on vegetables mixed with fish or meat, powdered infant formula and infant cereals. Different hazards covered include pathogenic bacteria (*Salmonella*, *Listeria monocytogenes*), natural toxins (tropane alkaloids), process-induced contaminants (hydroxyethyl furfural, acrylamide, furans) and food packaging migrants. New and emerging technologies were investigated such as high-pressure processing (HPP) as the non-thermal alternative for pasteurisation; radiofrequency (RF) and high-pressure high temperature (HPHT) as a more efficient heating alternative to retort sterilization; and pulse spray drying (PSD) as an alternative to conventional spray drying (Torrens-Masoliver et al., 2022a).

The study of HPP effects on *L. monocytogenes*, *Salmonella* spp. and *E. coli* in banana–apple and apple purees showed a variable inactivation and sublethal injury, mainly dependent on the strain, the exposure to the product acidity and the sampling time after HPP. The CECT5947 strain of *E. coli* O157:H7 was the most piezo-resistant strain, while *L. monocytogenes* Scott A (clinical isolate) was the most piezo-sensitive, particularly when exposed to acid and
enumerated 24 h after the treatment. Being a non-thermal technology, process-induced contaminants were not accumulated (Torrents-Masoliver et al., 2024a). The studied factors should be considered when designing HPP treatments, performing product-specific validation studies (e.g. challenge testing) and setting verification procedures based on microbial testing of the processed food (Torrents-Masoliver et al., 2024a). While product and pathogen-specific predictive models of HPP inactivation are being built, a meta-analysis of available literature data enabled to obtain a conservative predictive model as a decision support tool useful for risk assessment, benchmarking and setting the HPP conditions to comply with the performance criteria in fruit and vegetable matrixes (Torrents-Masoliver et al., 2022b).

For RF heating, a prototype of a user-friendly tool was developed integrating the physical properties of the food matrix, the RF equipment characteristics and the processing conditions. Through the simulation of the heating process and the associated microbial thermal inactivation of the relevant reference pathogen, the tool allows to set the conditions of the RF treatments to achieve pasteurization and sterilization safety standards in infant food (Torrents-Masoliver et al., 2024c).

High stability of tropane alkaloids was found both in laboratory buffer and millet flour as raw material for infant cereals (both spiked and naturally contaminated) when processed at high temperatures simulating industrial drying and home cooking conditions. Atropine was more thermostable in naturally contaminated than in artificially spiked flour, suggesting a protective effect of the cereal matrix on its degradation. The SAFFI results highlight the need for an accurate monitoring of tropane alkaloids raw materials, as this chemical hazard may remain in infant cereal-based food after intense thermal processing (Torrents-Masoliver et al., 2024b).
It is well established that certain household practices, such as transport, storage, cooking, reheating, and the use of inappropriate contact or packaging materials, can increase the chemical risks associated with food consumption. However, the scientific literature also suggests that some domestic practices may effectively reduce hazardous substances. For example, proper food storage, cooking at appropriate temperatures, and avoiding the use of certain materials for reheating can significantly reduce exposure to harmful chemicals. Consumer education and awareness are key to changing behaviors that might mitigate these risks. In the SAFFI project, we focused on evaluating the impact of home practices on furan for three key reasons: first, furan is a recognized risk for vulnerable populations (ANSES, 2016; EFSA, 2017; EC, 2022); second, it can form under domestic conditions; and third, furan is a volatile compound and there are likely straightforward methods to mitigate its presence (Roberts et al., 2008; Altaki et al., 2017). Our study followed a four-step approach: 1) identifying risky home practices linked to the formation of process-induced toxicants like furan, through a Sino-European survey conducted across seven EU countries and China (Thomopoulos et al., 2024); 2) replicating critical practices in the lab to assess their impact on consumer exposure; 3) proposing mitigation strategies based on laboratory findings; and 4) disseminating recommendations and raising consumer awareness through an educational application, Saffi4all (https://saffi4all.hub.inrae.fr/). This approach was applied to two foods commonly consumed by infants: vegetable-based infant food (Sandjong Sayon et al., 2024b) and powdered infant formula (Sandjong Sayon et al., 2024c). Our findings show that, despite high consumption by infants under 6 months, powdered infant formula does not pose a significant risk of furan exposure, even when stored under worst-case conditions that promote furan formation (Sandjong Sayon et al., 2024c). In contrast, during dietary diversification, small jars of vegetable-based food may still pose a risk. However, domestic practices such as
stirring can reduce furan and its derivatives by up to 70%, though this reduction remains insufficient (Sandjong Sayon et al., 2024b).

These results provide a foundation for future recommendations in both Europe and China to mitigate furan exposure and offer new research directions focused on reducing chemical hazards through modifications in household practices.

## 2.4. Chemical hazard detection and discovery

To ensure the safety of infant food, routine monitoring typically focuses on the presence of specific priority chemicals with known health impacts, employing targeted chemical analytical methods. However, there is limited attention given to the potential risks posed by chemical mixtures or unknown/undetected contaminants, despite growing evidence that combined chemical exposures contribute significantly to the development of various chronic diseases. Consequently, increasing focus is being placed on the potential adverse health effects of complex chemical mixtures and the analysis of so-called "unknown contaminants."

In response to these concerns, scientists in both Europe and China have advanced the safety assessment of infant food by improving targeted chemical analytical methods to detect known priority contaminants, and by developing high-throughput, cost-effective monitoring approaches. Additionally, innovative non-targeted chemical analytical methods and quantitative bioanalytical techniques have been developed, facilitating the discovery of unknown or unsuspected contaminants and enabling broader analyses of complex chemical mixtures. These advancements provide a more comprehensive understanding of the potential health risks posed by such contaminants. Further research has investigated the combination
and integration of targeted and non-targeted chemical analytical methods with bioanalytical techniques to enhance the detection and identification of unwanted chemicals in infant food, aiming to further improve food safety assessments. In particular, mass spectrometry-based targeted chemical analytical methods, enhancing the sensitivity and speed of detection for a wide range of known priority contaminants have been improved. These include furan (Sandjong-Sayon et al., 2024a), PFAS, tropane alkaloids, insecticides (e.g., neonicotinoids, triazoles, fenpropathrin), fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs), packaging migrants (e.g., phthalates, MOSH/MOAH), and acrylamide. Additionally, the development of non-targeted analytical methods focused on the suspect screening of PFAS, degradation products of antioxidants, and a wide range of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), including pesticide residues, has been a key area of progress. These efforts collectively aim to enhance the detection capabilities and safety assessment of infant food, contributing to improved public health protection.

An alternative effect-based bioanalytical method was developed to detect previously unknown chemical contaminants and applied to monitor chemical hazards in infant food (van der Burg et al., 2022). Unlike traditional chemical analytical methods, these non-targeted biological methods, such as CALUX bioassays, do not identify individual compounds but rather measure the total biological activity exerted by all compounds within a mixture that produce similar biological responses. For this study, a subset of 10 CALUX bioassays was selected and optimized for screening infant food. Additionally, simple and widely applicable extraction methods were developed for isolating a broad range of bioactive substances from infant food.

To utilize the bioassay results for safety evaluation, a safety assessment model was established. This model was based on the weighted and aggregated exceedance of bioassay-
specific safety threshold levels. These threshold levels, or effect-based trigger values, were derived by analysing a large set of infant food samples using the selected CALUX bioassays. The bioassay-specific activity levels were determined below which 80% of all analysed samples exhibited a measurable biological response. This approach provides an innovative means to assess the safety of infant food by considering the combined biological activity of chemical mixtures rather than individual chemical components.

Advancements in (un)targeted methodologies and improvements in sample analysis throughput have been achieved. Since chemical exposure during the first 1000 days of life, particularly in children under three, is mainly food-related and significantly affects long-term health (ANSES, 2016), strengthening the surveillance of harmful chemical contaminants is critical. This requires enhanced monitoring by health authorities and support for food manufacturers to implement effective control at key points in their processing chains. Achieving this involves developing fast, cost-effective, and efficient detection tools, alongside strategies for their optimal implementation (Engel et al., 2022). In this context, the SAFFI project explored sample pooling, a strategy introduced by Dorfman (1943) where multiple samples are combined and tested with a single kit (Aldridge et al., 2019). This approach helps exclude negative samples while detecting positive ones at lower cost. Sample pooling has been applied in drug testing (Hann et al., 1999), pathogen detection (Currie et al., 2004), and food products (Jagadeesan, 2019), with the COVID-19 crisis highlighting its benefits for large-scale health surveillance (Malapaty, 2020; Verdun et al., 2021). A proof-of-concept study showed that pooling reduced the number of analyses by 19%, maintaining sensitivity and specificity for detecting contaminants like PCBs in pork meat (Ratel et al., 2024). Building on these results, SAFFI demonstrated the potential of sample pooling for monitoring
contaminants in infant food. Collaborations showed its value for industrial monitoring of mycotoxins in cereal-based products (Galharret et al., 2025) and regulatory monitoring of trace metals in meat. These results, once validated, could be integrated into legal frameworks for monitoring chemical hazards in both Europe and China.

Finally, initial steps were taken to integrate (non)targeted chemo-analytical and bio-analytical analysis results (bio- and chemo-informatics) to reveal and identify unsuspected/unknown chemical hazards.

## 2.5 Microbial hazard detection and behaviour

Food business operators and competent authorities employ sampling and microbiological testing in the process of managing microbial food safety. Sampling is performed on raw materials, ingredients, intermediates, final food products as well as food processing environments with the purpose of verifying conformity towards EU or national food safety regulations but also to verify that appropriate level of food safety is achieved. Most commonly, the food safety standards and therefore the related sampling and testing, is described in detail within the food safety management systems of food business operators. In this context, microbiological testing is performed in a targeted manner. In other words, the microbiological analysis aims at evaluating the presence/absence or at enumerating a target microorganism. Target microorganism(s) to test for are selected following a risk-based approach and therefore provide meaningful information to the food companies and competent authorities on the safety of a product or process.

Such targeted approach, although it has so far been invaluable for making decisions regarding microbial food safety, presents certain limitations (Rantsiou et al., 2022). First, it should be
recognized that unknown, emerging or underestimated hazards remain undetected as it is not
feasible to test for an unlimited number of pathogenic microorganisms in any given sample.
Second, even when a certain pathogenic microorganism is tested for and a qualitative
(presence/absence) or quantitative (enumeration) answer is obtained, it is not possible to have
information regarding the rest of the microbiota that potentially influences detection/not-
detection, concentration or behaviour (survival, robustness, virulence potential) of foodborne
pathogens in foods and related matrices.

Methodologies that are based on Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) provide alternative ways
to investigate the microbiological characteristics of foods. They are currently explored by food
microbiologists as they provide a comprehensive overview of the food microbial communities
and their functions. Within SAFFI, such methodologies were employed with the purpose of
integrating routine testing and to provide insights on microbial community composition and
interactions among microbial groups. The experimental approach consisted of putting together
classic, culture based analytical methods (considered the regulatory standard for pathogen
detection) and DNA based analytical methods, namely qPCR (fast and consolidated as
alternative to culturing) and metataxonomics (advanced methodology, still exploratory for
pathogen detection).

In the EU, a cereal based infant food was used as a model and a sampling and testing was
performed in a single production plant throughout a 14-month period. A total of 235 samples
were collected and included raw materials, intermediate and final products as well as
environmental samples. Focus was placed on five foodborne microorganisms; namely B.
cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus, L. monocytogenes and Salmonella
enterica. B. cereus resulted to be the most prevalent microorganism, mostly associated with
raw materials and its presence was correlated with a high diversity in the samples evaluated by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing (metataxisomy).

Overall, the integration of advanced analytical methods in routine microbiological analyses proved to be informative in relation to the distribution of microbial hazards in time and space. Even though the results obtained are plant/food specific and are not immediately transferable to other types of foods, the information and new knowledge acquired is relevant for food producers as it underscores trends regarding pathogen prevalence in foods and food production environments while also providing an example of application of NGS-based methods in the context of microbial food safety.

A parallel objective was to understand the mechanisms underlying microbial behaviour with the scope of identifying putative biomarkers to be subsequently evaluated for their applicability in the context of microbial risk assessment. For this purpose, physiological response of *Listeria monocytogenes* 10403S under *in vitro* and *in situ* conditions was investigated. The focus was placed on conditions of acidity, temperature and oxygen availability that are encountered during food processing in order to evaluate the behaviour of this strain of *L. monocytogenes*. The physiological data collected highlight that temperature and oxygen availability play a crucial role in adaptation phenomena of *L. monocytogenes*. More specifically, low temperature (10 °C) and anaerobic conditions favour survival to lethal acidity conditions. In addition, the importance of the growth phase on resistance to lethal acidity where stationary phase in protecting the microorganism from adverse acidic conditions was confirmed. Importantly, what was also shown, from both *in situ* and *in vitro* tests, is that pre-adaptation of *L. monocytogenes* to non-lethal acidic conditions leads to increased robustness of the microorganism to subsequent, lethal pH exposure. The pre-adaptation of *L*.
*monocytogenes* was further investigated by transcriptomics and volatolomics (Fakih et al., 2025) in order to infer the adaptive response at molecular level.

The SAFFI project addresses similar food safety challenges in China by developing innovative microfluidic chip technology for portable, point-of-care pathogen testing in infant food. The main objective is to create a high-capacity, portable biosafety surveillance system to evaluate food safety hazards efficiently. A microfluidic chip platform immobilizes droplets containing bacterial cells at culture temperatures using a thermosetting oil cross-linking reaction, preventing cell damage. Additionally, a digital PCR detection chip based on aptamer technology allows for the absolute quantification of *Salmonella Typhimurium* at through magnetic separation and digital PCR. A digital RPA-CRISPR/Cas12a chip integrates rapid RPA amplification, Cas12a specificity, and microfluidics-based detection for quantifying pathogens within 30 minutes. The resulting portable device is compact (220×165×140 mm), lightweight (3 kg), and capable of stable temperature control, dual fluorescence analysis, and simultaneous testing of 16 samples.

Finally, with the aim of integrating EU and China research, a cross-continental investigation of infant-toddler food hazards involving systematic collection of ~200 samples across countries among EU countries and China, and a multidisciplinary investigation of microbial hazards (6 targeted bacterial and other 19+ non-targeted but culturable bacterial agents) and chemical hazards (5 mycotoxins, 77 veterinary drug residues, 102 agricultural pesticides, and 6 heavy metals) was performed. It could be concluded that microbial hazards are the most detected from a pool of >215 hazards including five diverse categories. To further trace the
hazards along the food production chains, we found that the bacterial hazards, particularly *B. cereus* (BC), were widely persistent. To further recruit an additional 1,014 food samples focusing on *B. cereus*, we confirmed that *B. cereus* is widely prevalent (>20%). By genomic sequencing 498 isolates, we demonstrated that genotype ST26 is predominant among the foods and along the food chains. Additional genotyping and SNP analysis uncovered that the ingredients (i.e., nucleotides and wheat powder) are the hotspots of cross-contamination. To address the toxicity potential of cereulide toxin, we developed two murine intoxication models and demonstrated that cereulide toxin is a critical factor. Finally, we illustrated that spore-forming BC is essential for persistence along the food chains, and improved mitigation parameters in spore-forming BC. These works suggest a high prevalence of BC on Chinese RTE foods including infant-toddler foods (Chen et al., 2022); a high risk of vancomycin-resistant enterococci during infant food production (Wang et al., 2023a); a potential genetic difference explaining *L. monocytogenes* persistence during food production (Wang et al., 2023b). Finally, 16sRNA and metagenomic sequencing of 180 infant formula samples allowed highlighting certain correlations between integrants and foodborne pathogens, and propose a new guideline for assessing the bacterial hazards on infant formula.

### 3. Conclusion

In conclusion, both the European Union and China have made significant strides in developing and implementing robust food safety regulatory frameworks, albeit with some differences in application. As both regions increasingly adopt a risk-based approach, their regulatory systems are converging, with China aligning its framework to international standards and the EU continuing to refine its scientific, precautionary, and sustainability-driven model.
The joint efforts carried out in the SAFFI project have made it possible to address issues common to both regions. For the four areas investigated together, common problems were identified and avenues for harmonization envisaged. For example, it is clear from this work that rapid methods for detecting chemical and biological hazards will have to be systematically integrated into future control systems. The detection of emerging hazards also appears to be a major common challenge, as well as the monitoring of compounds present in cocktails. There are many associated analytical and technical challenges, but the SAFFI project again showed that state-of-the-art technologies are being implemented in both regions and that the systems used are broadly similar, which should be conducive to harmonising practices.

However, several emerging challenges require renewed attention and coordinated efforts. Climate change is increasingly affecting food production systems, with potential impacts on the prevalence of pathogens, the formation of contaminants, and the migration of harmful substances in the supply chain. Similarly, novel contaminants such as micro- and nanoplastics, or substances derived from new processing techniques, remain insufficiently understood and regulated. These evolving risks necessitate adaptive, forward-looking risk assessment methodologies and regulatory agility.

As a result of globalization, the challenges of food safety - and infant food safety in particular - are now similar, justifying scientific collaboration to jointly tackle these challenges and move towards future harmonization. These research collaborations, such as those conducted in the SAFFI project, are a step forward and are essential if we are to meet future challenges
and maintain the high standards that consumers and trading partners in the EU and China have
the right to expect.

To foster continued collaboration, concrete measures could include the establishment of
permanent joint scientific panels on emerging food risks, the creation of shared databases and
early-warning systems, and the promotion of coordinated capacity-building initiatives (e.g.,
joint training, staff exchanges, and workshops). Regular policy dialogues between regulators,
scientists, and stakeholders in both regions would further enhance mutual understanding and
trust, paving the way for greater regulatory alignment.

Looking to the future, digital technologies such as blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI), and
big data analytics offer powerful opportunities to strengthen food safety frameworks in both
the EU and China. Blockchain can improve supply chain transparency and traceability,
particularly critical for infant food, by providing tamper-proof records from farm to fork. AI-
driven models enable predictive risk assessments, rapid anomaly detection, and optimization
of monitoring and control processes based on real-time data. Moreover, integrating Internet
of Things (IoT) sensors into production environments can support continuous environmental
monitoring and early detection of deviations that could signal safety risks. These innovations,
when supported by interoperable data systems and shared digital infrastructures, could
facilitate closer cooperation and alignment between regulatory authorities. Embedding such
tools into future risk management strategies will not only enhance responsiveness and
resilience but also reinforce consumer trust and support the shared objective of safeguarding
public health.
Finally, the integration of consumer education into food safety strategies can complement regulatory efforts. For instance, providing clear, accessible information about the risks of certain food practices and the benefits of safer alternatives can empower consumers to make informed choices. Educational campaigns, food safety guidelines, and public health interventions can guide consumers toward adopting safer home practices, such as the proper handling of food to prevent contamination or the use of safer materials for packaging and reheating. In this way, consumer behavior, when informed and guided effectively, can play a critical role in reducing food safety risks and supporting the efforts of regulatory frameworks in enhancing public health.

## Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under Grant Agreement No 861917 – SAFFI as well as by the National Program on Key Research Project of China (2019YFE0103900).

## CRediT author statement

*Gaud Dervilly*: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing,
*Marcel H. Zwietering*: Writing – review and editing, *Kalliopi Rantsiou*: Writing – review and editing, *Harrie Besselink*: Writing – review and editing, *Sara Bover*: Writing – review and editing, *Jianbo Hou*: Writing – review and editing, *Min Yue*: Writing – review and editing, *Erwan Engel*: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Writing – review and editing
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>
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Figures

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Fig 2.</figcaption></figure>
**Figure captions**

**Fig. 1** - General structure of EU (top) and China (bottom) respective food safety regulatory frameworks.

**Fig. 2**- Illustration of chemical and microbiological regulatory limits in China for cereal-based complementary foods according to the standard GB 10769/2010.
<table><caption>Table 1: Comparative table summarizing key differences between EU and Chinese food safety regulations based on current frameworks</caption><thead><tr><th>ASPECT</th><th>EUROPEAN UNION (EU)</th><th>CHINA</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Legal Framework</td><td>General Food Law (Regulation (EC) No 178/2002)</td><td>Food Safety Law of the PRC (2009, revised 2015 and 2021)</td></tr><tr><td>Regulatory Authority</td><td>European Commission (DG SANTE), national agencies</td><td>SAMR, National Health Commission (NHC)</td></tr><tr><td>Risk Assessment Body</td><td>European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)</td><td>National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA)</td></tr><tr><td>Enforcement Mechanisms</td><td>Reg 2017/625 EC, RASFF (Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed), coordinated national inspections</td><td>National/local inspections, periodic updates of GB standards, e.g. GB 5009 (inspection methods)</td></tr><tr><td>Harmonization with International Norms</td><td>Codex standards are influential but adapted to EU policy</td><td>Codex standards increasingly used, especially for exports</td></tr><tr><td>Contaminant Limits</td><td><ul><li>Pesticides: Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) under Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 for various food categories</li><li>Heavy Metals: Limits set by Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 for specific metals (e.g., lead, cadmium, mercury)</li><li>Mycotoxins: Limits set by Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 for aflatoxins, ochratoxin, etc.</li><li>Other Contaminants: Regulation (EU) 2023/915 defines limits for various contaminants (PFAS, PCB, PAH, ...), including heavy metals and mycotoxins</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Pesticides: Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) detailed in GB 2763 for various food categories</li><li>Heavy Metals: Limits set by GB 2762 for contaminants like lead, arsenic, cadmium, etc.</li><li>Mycotoxins: Limits specified in GB 2762 for common mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxin)</li><li>Other Contaminants: Regular updates to GB 2760 (additives)</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Microbiological Hazards</td><td><ul><li>Pathogens: Limits for pathogens (e.g., Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes) in foodstuffs under Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005</li><li>Hygiene: Hygiene regulations for food production facilities (Regulation (EC) No 852/2004)</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Pathogens: Limits for pathogens (e.g., Salmonella, Listeria) set in GB 4789 for microbiological testing</li><li>Hygiene: Standards for food safety hygiene practices in food facilities set by GB 14881 and GB 2707</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Infant Food Regulations</td><td>Specific legislation (e.g., EC 2006/125 on food for infants and young children)</td><td>Dedicated GB standards for infant foods (e.g., GB 10765 for formula, GB 14880 for infant food)</td></tr><tr><td>Consumer Involvement</td><td>Strong advocacy, transparency rules, consumer protection laws</td><td>Emerging awareness, increasing consumer involvement through media and food safety initiatives</td></tr></tbody></table>
**Declaration of Competing Interest**

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Graphical abstract

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

**Highlights:**

* SAFFI fosters EU-China regulatory alignment for infant food safety.

* Risk ranking tools identify key microbial / chemical hazards in infant food.

* Innovation and consumer practices help reduce infant food risks.

* New methods improve detection of known and unknown food hazards.

* EU-China efforts support regulatory convergence for infant food safety.
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>