# Lighting in the French Building Energy Code

Christophe Martinsons

## ► To cite this version:

Christophe Martinsons. Lighting in the French Building Energy Code. IEA - International Energy Agency. Guidebook on Energy Efficiency Electric Lighting for Buildings, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, 2010, ISBN 978-952-60-3229-0. hal-04702166

HAL Id: hal-04702166

https://hal.science/hal-04702166v1

Submitted on 9 Dec 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>
Aalto University
School of Science and Technology
Department of Electronics
Lighting Unit

Espoo 2010

GUIDEBOOK ON ENERGY EFFICIENT
ELECTRIC LIGHTING FOR BUILDINGS
Guidebook on Energy Efficient Electric Lighting for Buildings

IEA - International Energy Agency

ECBCS - Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems

Annex 45 - Energy Efficient Electric Lighting for Buildings

Distribution:

Aalto University

School of Science and Technology

Department of Electronics

Lighting Unit

P.O. Box 13340

FIN-00076 Aalto

Finland

Tel: +358 9 4702 4971

Fax: +358 9 4702 4982

E-mail: lightlab@tkk.fi

http://ele.tkk.fi/en

http://lightinglab.fi/IEAAnnex45

http://www.ecbcs.org

© Aalto University School of Science and Technology

ISBN 978-952-60-3229-0 (pdf)

ISSN 1455-7541
Abstract

Lighting is a large and rapidly growing source of energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time the savings potential of lighting energy is high, even with the current technology, and there are new energy efficient lighting technologies coming onto the market. Currently, more than 33 billion lamps operate worldwide, consuming more than 2650 TWh of energy annually, which is 19% of the global electricity consumption.

The goal of IEA ECBCS Annex 45 was to identify and to accelerate the widespread use of appropriate energy efficient high-quality lighting technologies and their integration with other building systems, making them the preferred choice of lighting designers, owners and users. The aim was to assess and document the technical performance of the existing promising, but largely under-utilized, innovative lighting technologies, as well as future lighting technologies. These novel lighting system concepts have to meet the functional, aesthetic, and comfort requirements of building occupants. The guidebook mostly concerns the lighting of offices and schools.

The content of the Guidebook includes an Introduction, Lighting energy in buildings, Lighting quality, Lighting and energy standards and codes, Lighting technologies, Lighting control systems, Life cycle analysis and life cycle costs, Lighting design and a survey on lighting today and in the future, Commissioning of lighting systems, Case studies, Technical potential for energy efficient lighting and savings, Proposals to upgrade lighting standards and recommendations, and a Summary and conclusions.

There is significant potential to the improve energy efficiency of old and new lighting installations even with the existing technology. The energy efficiency of lighting installations can be improved with the following measures:

- the choice of lamps. Incandescent lamps should be replaced by CFLs, infrared coated tungsten halogen lamps or LEDs, mercury lamps by high-pressure sodium lamps, metal halide lamps, or LEDs, and ferromagnetic ballasts by electronic ballasts

- the usage of controllable electronic ballasts with low losses

- the lighting design: the use of efficient luminaires and localized task lighting

- the control of light with manual dimming, presence sensors, and dimming according to daylight

- the usage of daylight

- the use of high efficiency LED-based lighting systems.

Annex 45 suggests that clear international initiatives (by the IEA, EU, CIE, IEC, CEN and other international bodies) are taken up in order to:

- upgrade lighting standards and recommendations

- integrate values of lighting energy density (kWh/m², a) into building energy codes

- monitor and regulate the quality of innovative light sources

- pursue research into fundamental human requirements for lighting (visual and non-visual effects of light)

- stimulate the renovation of inefficient old lighting installations by targeted measures

The introduction of more energy efficient lighting products and procedures can at the same time provide better living and working environments and also contribute in a cost-effective manner to the global reduction of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
# Preface

## INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

The International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974 within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to implement an international energy programme. A basic aim of the IEA is to foster co-operation among the twenty-eight IEA participating countries and to increase energy security through energy conservation, development of alternative energy sources and energy research, development and demonstration (RD&D).

## ENERGY CONSERVATION IN BUILDINGS AND COMMUNITY SYSTEMS (ECBCS)

The IEA co-ordinates research and development in a number of areas related to energy. The mission of one of those areas, the ECBCS - Energy Conservation for Building and Community Systems Programme, is to develop and facilitate the integration of technologies and processes for energy efficiency and conservation into healthy, low emission, and sustainable buildings and communities, through innovation and research.

The research and development strategies of the ECBCS Programme are derived from research drivers, national programmes within IEA countries, and the IEA Future Building Forum Think Tank Workshop, held in March 2007. The R&D strategies represent a collective input of the Executive Committee members to exploit technological opportunities to save energy in the buildings sector, and to remove technical obstacles to market penetration of new energy conservation technologies. The R&D strategies apply to residential, commercial, office buildings and community systems, and will impact the building industry in three focus areas of R&D activities:

- Dissemination

- Decision-making

- Building products and systems

## THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Overall control of the program is maintained by an Executive Committee, which not only monitors existing projects but also identifies new areas where collaborative effort may be beneficial. To date the following projects have been initiated by the executive committee on Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems:

### ONGOING ANNEXES

<table><thead><tr><td>Annex</td><td>Title</td><td>Duration</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>55</td><td>Reliability of Energy Efficient Building Retrofitting - Probability Assessment of Performance & Cost (RAP-RETRO)</td><td>2009-2013</td></tr><tr><td>WG</td><td>Working Group on Energy Efficient Communities</td><td>2009-2012</td></tr><tr><td>54</td><td>Analysis of Micro-Generation & Related Energy Technologies in Buildings</td><td>2009-2013</td></tr><tr><td>53</td><td>Total Energy Use in Buildings: Analysis & Evaluation Methods</td><td>2008-2012</td></tr><tr><td>52</td><td>Towards Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings</td><td>2008-2013</td></tr><tr><td>51</td><td>Energy Efficient Communities</td><td>2007-2011</td></tr><tr><td>50</td><td>Prefabricated Systems for Low Energy Renovation of Residential Buildings</td><td>2006-2010</td></tr><tr><td>49</td><td>Low Energy Systems for High Performance Buildings and Communities</td><td>2006-2010</td></tr><tr><td>48</td><td>Heat Pumping and Reversible Air Conditioning</td><td>2006-2009</td></tr><tr><td>47</td><td>Cost Effective Commissioning of Existing and Low Energy Buildings</td><td>2005-2008</td></tr><tr><td>46</td><td>Holistic Assessment Tool-kit on Energy Efficient Retrofit Measures for Government Buildings (EnERGo)</td><td>2005-2008</td></tr><tr><td>45</td><td>Energy-Efficient Future Electric Lighting for Buildings</td><td>2004-2008</td></tr><tr><td>44</td><td>Integrating Environmentally Responsive Elements in Buildings</td><td>2004-2009</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre</td><td>1979-</td></tr></tbody></table>
COMPLETED ANNEXES

<table><thead><tr><th>Annex</th><th>Title</th><th>Duration</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>43</td><td>Testing and Validation of Building Energy Simulation Tools</td><td>2003-2007</td></tr><tr><td>42</td><td>The Simulation of Building-Integrated Fuel Cell and Other Cogeneration Systems (COGEN-SIM)</td><td>2003-2007</td></tr><tr><td>41</td><td>Whole Building Heat, Air and Moisture Response (MOIST-EN)</td><td>2003-2007</td></tr><tr><td>40</td><td>Commissioning of Building HVAC Systems for Improved Energy Performance</td><td>2001-2004</td></tr><tr><td>39</td><td>High Performance Thermal Insulation (HiPTI)</td><td>2001-2004</td></tr><tr><td>38</td><td>Solar Sustainable Housing</td><td>1999-2003</td></tr><tr><td>37</td><td>Low Exergy Systems for Heating and Cooling</td><td>1999-2003</td></tr><tr><td>36</td><td>Retrofitting in Educational Buildings - Energy Concept Adviser for Technical Retrofit Measures</td><td>1998-2002</td></tr><tr><td>36WG</td><td>Annex 36 Working Group Extension 'The Energy Concept Adviser'</td><td>2003-2005</td></tr><tr><td>35</td><td>Control Strategies for Hybrid Ventilation in New and Retorfitted Office Buildings (HybVent)</td><td>1998-2002</td></tr><tr><td>34</td><td>Computer-Aided Evaluation of HVAC System Performance</td><td>1997-2001</td></tr><tr><td>33</td><td>Advanced Local Energy Planning</td><td>1996-1998</td></tr><tr><td>32</td><td>Integral Building Envelope Performance Assessment</td><td>1996-1999</td></tr><tr><td>31</td><td>Energy Related Environmental Impact of Buildings</td><td>1996-1999</td></tr><tr><td>WG</td><td>Working Group on Indicators of Energy Efficiency in Cold Climate Buildings</td><td>1995-1999</td></tr><tr><td>30</td><td>Bringing Simulation to Application</td><td>1995-1998</td></tr><tr><td>29</td><td>Daylight in Buildings</td><td>1995-1999</td></tr><tr><td>28</td><td>Low Energy Cooling Systems</td><td>1993-1997</td></tr><tr><td>27</td><td>Evaluation and Demonstration of Domestic Ventilation Systems</td><td>1993-2002</td></tr><tr><td>26</td><td>Energy Efficient Ventilation of Large Enclosures</td><td>1993-1996</td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>Real Time HEVAC Simulation</td><td>1991-1995</td></tr><tr><td>24</td><td>Heat, Air and Moisture Transport in Insulated Envelope Parts</td><td>1991-1995</td></tr><tr><td>23</td><td>Multizone Air Flow Modelling</td><td>1990-1996</td></tr><tr><td>22</td><td>Energy Efficient Communities</td><td>1991-1993</td></tr><tr><td>21</td><td>Environmental Performance of Buildings</td><td>1988-1993</td></tr><tr><td>20</td><td>Air Flow Patterns within Buildings</td><td>1988-1991</td></tr><tr><td>19</td><td>Low Slope Roof Systems</td><td>1987-1993</td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>Demand Controlled Ventilating Systems</td><td>1987-1992</td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>Building Energy Management Systems - Evaluation and Emulation Techniques</td><td>1988-1992</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>Building Energy Management Systems - User Interfaces and System Integration</td><td>1987-1991</td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>Energy Efficiency in Schools</td><td>1988-1990</td></tr><tr><td>15WG</td><td>Working Group on Energy Efficiency in Educational Buildings</td><td>1992-1995</td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Condensation and Energy</td><td>1987-1990</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Energy Management in Hospitals</td><td>1985-1989</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Windows and Fenestration</td><td>1982-1986</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Energy Auditing</td><td>1982-1987</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Building HEVAC Systems Simulation</td><td>1982-1987</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Minimum Ventilation Rates</td><td>1982-1986</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Inhabitant Behaviour with Regard to Ventilation</td><td>1984-1987</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Local Government Energy Planning</td><td>1981-1983</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Energy Systems and Design of Communities</td><td>1979-1981</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Glasgow Commercial Building Monitoring</td><td>1979-1982</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Energy Conservation in Residential Buildings</td><td>1979-1982</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Ekistics and Advanced Community Energy Systems</td><td>1976-1978</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Load Energy Determination of Buildings</td><td>1977-1980</td></tr></tbody></table>
Acknowledgements

The material presented in this publication was collected and developed within an Annex of the IEA Implementing Agreement Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems (IEA ECBCS), Annex 45 Energy Efficient Electric Lighting for Buildings.

The Guidebook is the result of a joint effort by many countries. All those who have contributed to the project by taking part in the writing process or the numerous discussions are gratefully acknowledged. A list of the 20 participating and corresponding countries and members can be found in Chapter 14 of the Guidebook. Some of the Annex participants have taken more responsibility for collecting the information or writing the chapters in the Guidebook. They are:

<table><tr><td>Peter Dehoff</td><td>Zumtobel Lighting</td><td>Austria</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Wilfried Pohl</td><td>enbach LichtLabor GmbH</td><td>Austria</td><td>Subtask B leader</td></tr><tr><td>Arnaud Deneyer</td><td>CSTC</td><td>Belgium</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Alexander Rosemann</td><td>University of British Columbia</td><td>Canada</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Chen Yuming</td><td>Fudan University</td><td>China</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Liisa Halonen</td><td>Aalto University</td><td>Finland</td><td>Operating Agent</td></tr><tr><td>Eino Tetri</td><td>Aalto University</td><td>Finland</td><td>Subtask D leader</td></tr><tr><td>Pramod Bhusal</td><td>Aalto University</td><td>Finland</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Marjukka Puolakka</td><td>Aalto University</td><td>Finland</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paulo Pinho</td><td>Aalto University</td><td>Finland</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ahmad Husaunndee</td><td>Veolia Environnement</td><td>France</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Laurent Escaffre</td><td>Ingelux</td><td>France</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Marc Fontoynont</td><td>École Nationale des Travaux Publics de l'État (ENTPE)</td><td>France</td><td>Subtask A leader</td></tr><tr><td>Mireille Jandon</td><td>CSTB</td><td>France</td><td>Subtask C leader from April 2006</td></tr><tr><td>Nicolas Couillaud</td><td>CSTB</td><td>France</td><td>Subtask C leader from April 2006</td></tr><tr><td>Felix Serick</td><td>Technische Universität Berlin</td><td>Germany</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heinrich Kaase</td><td>Technische Universität Berlin</td><td>Germany</td><td>Subtask C leader until April 2006</td></tr><tr><td>Fabio Bisegna</td><td>Università di Roma "La Sapienza"</td><td>Italy</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Simonetta Fumagalli</td><td>ENEA</td><td>Italy</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Truus de Bruin-Hordijk</td><td>TU Delft</td><td>Netherlands</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Barbara Matusiak</td><td>Norwegian Univ. of Science and Tech.</td><td>Norway</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tore Kolås</td><td>NTNU</td><td>Norway</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Zbigniew Mantorski</td><td>WASKO S.A.</td><td>Poland</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Julian Aizenberg</td><td>Svetotehnika, Light House Moscow, VNISI</td><td>Russia</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lars Bylund</td><td>BAS Bergen school of architecture</td><td>Norway</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nils Svendenius</td><td>Lund University</td><td>Sweden</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Peter Pertola</td><td>WSP Ljusdesign</td><td>Sweden</td><td></td></tr></table>

On behalf of all the participants, the members of the Executive Committee of IEA ECBCS, as well as the funding bodies, are also gratefully acknowledged.

The authors want to acknowledge the financial and other support from the following: Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation, and Technology (BMVIT), Austria; BBRI through funding of the Walloon Region, Belgium; Tekes – the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation, Helvar, Senate Properties, Philips Valaistus, Finland; SenterNovem, Netherlands; WASKO S. A., Poland; Swedish Energy Agency, Sweden.
# Contents

<table><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Preface</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Acknowledgements</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Contents</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>1 Introduction</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.1 How to use the Guidebook</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.2 About the Annex 45</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.2.1 Background</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.2.2 Objectives and scope</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>1.2.3 Structure of Annex 45</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>2 Lighting energy in buildings</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>2.1 Holistic view of energy use in buildings</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>2.2 Facts and figures on lighting energy usage</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.1 Background</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.2 Worldwide Energy and Lighting Scenario</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.3 Impacts of lighting energy consumption on the environment</td><td>26</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.4 Lighting energy usage in buildings</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td>2.2.5 Evaluation of lighting energy use for buildings</td><td>36</td></tr><tr><td>3 Lighting quality</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>3.1 Lighting practices and quality in the past: historical aspects</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>3.2 Defining lighting quality</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>3.3 Visual aspects</td><td>45</td></tr><tr><td>3.3.1 Visual performance</td><td>45</td></tr><tr><td>3.3.2 Visual comfort</td><td>45</td></tr><tr><td>3.4 Psychological aspects of light</td><td>48</td></tr><tr><td>3.5 Non-visual aspects of light</td><td>49</td></tr><tr><td>3.6 Lighting and productivity</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>3.7 Effects of electromagnetic fields on health and optical radiation safety requirements</td><td>51</td></tr><tr><td>3.8 Conclusions: opportunities and barriers</td><td>52</td></tr><tr><td>3.8.1 Opportunities</td><td>52</td></tr><tr><td>3.8.2 Risks</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>4 Lighting and energy standards and codes</td><td>59</td></tr><tr><td>4.1 Review of lighting standards worldwide</td><td>59</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.1 Introduction</td><td>59</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.2 Data collection</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.3 Method</td><td>61</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.4 Display using world maps</td><td>61</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.5 Recommended illuminance levels</td><td>70</td></tr><tr><td>4.2 Energy codes and policies</td><td>70</td></tr></table>
<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.1 Europe - Energy performance of buildings directive</td>
      <td>70</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.2 Energy efficient building codes and policies in the US</td>
      <td>71</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.3 Energy efficient building codes and policies in China</td>
      <td>71</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.4 Energy efficient building codes and policies in Brazil</td>
      <td>71</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.5 Energy efficient building codes and policies in South Africa</td>
      <td>72</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.2.6 25 Energy Efficiency Policy Recommendations by IEA to THE G8</td>
      <td>72</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3 Energy-related legislation in the European Union</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.1 Introduction</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.2 EuP Directive</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.3 Energy performance of buildings</td>
      <td>76</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.4 Energy Efficiency Label</td>
      <td>78</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.5 Disposal phase of Lighting Equipment in Europe</td>
      <td>78</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.6 Notes</td>
      <td>81</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.3.7 Review of standards on electric and electromagnetic aspects</td>
      <td>81</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.4 Examples of lighting related energy programs</td>
      <td>85</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.4.1 ENERGY STAR</td>
      <td>85</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4.4.2 Top Runner program</td>
      <td>86</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td><b>5 Lighting technologies</b></td>
      <td><b>93</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.1 Introduction</td>
      <td>93</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2 Light sources</td>
      <td>94</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.1 Overview</td>
      <td>94</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.2 Lamps in use</td>
      <td>96</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.3 Lamps</td>
      <td>98</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.2.4 Auxiliaries</td>
      <td>106</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3 Solid-state lighting</td>
      <td>111</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)</td>
      <td>111</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.2 OLEDs - Organic light-emitting diodes</td>
      <td>117</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.3 LED drivers</td>
      <td>118</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.4 LED dimming and control</td>
      <td>120</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.3.5 LED roadmaps</td>
      <td>122</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.4 Trends in the future in light sources</td>
      <td>123</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.5 Luminaires</td>
      <td>124</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.5.1 Introduction</td>
      <td>124</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.5.2 Definition of a luminaire</td>
      <td>125</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.5.3 Energy aspects</td>
      <td>126</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.5.4 LED Luminaires</td>
      <td>127</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.6 Network aspects</td>
      <td>128</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.7 Hybrid lighting</td>
      <td>132</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.7.1 Introduction</td>
      <td>132</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.7.2 Energy savings, lighting quality and costs</td>
      <td>132</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.7.3 Examples</td>
      <td>133</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>5.7.4 Summary</td>
      <td>134</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td><b>6 Lighting control systems</b></td>
      <td><b>139</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>6.1 Introduction</td>
      <td>139</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>6.2 Identification of the lighting control needs</td>
      <td>140</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>6.2.1 Specification book</td>
      <td>141</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>6.3 Suitable Lighting Control Strategies</td>
      <td>142</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>6.3.1 Introduction</td>
      <td>142</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
<table><tbody><tr><td>6.3.2</td><td>Predicted occupancy control strategy</td><td>144</td></tr><tr><td>6.3.3</td><td>Real occupancy control strategy (ROCS)</td><td>145</td></tr><tr><td>6.3.4</td><td>Constant illuminance control strategy</td><td>146</td></tr><tr><td>6.3.5</td><td>Daylight harvesting control strategy</td><td>146</td></tr><tr><td>6.3.6</td><td>Lighting management system and building management system</td><td>147</td></tr><tr><td>6.3.7</td><td>Lighting control integration levels</td><td>148</td></tr><tr><td>6.3.8</td><td>Lighting control strategy analysis</td><td>152</td></tr><tr><td>6.4</td><td>Lighting control architecture</td><td>153</td></tr><tr><td>6.4.1</td><td>Lighting control levels</td><td>153</td></tr><tr><td>6.4.2</td><td>Lighting control components</td><td>157</td></tr><tr><td>6.5</td><td>Recommendations</td><td>169</td></tr><tr><td>6.6</td><td>Illustrations</td><td>172</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.1</td><td>Illustration 1: NOSS National Office for Social Security - Belgium</td><td>172</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.2</td><td>Illustration 2: The Berlaymont Building - a louvres façade - Belgium</td><td>173</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.3</td><td>Illustration 3: Intecom project - France</td><td>176</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.4</td><td>Illustration 3: DAMEX project - Finland</td><td>178</td></tr><tr><td>6.7</td><td>Conclusions</td><td>180</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Life cycle analysis and life cycle costs</td><td>185</td></tr><tr><td>7.1</td><td>Life cycle analysis</td><td>185</td></tr><tr><td>7.2</td><td>Calculation of lighting energy</td><td>187</td></tr><tr><td>7.3</td><td>Economic evaluation of lighting</td><td>190</td></tr><tr><td>7.4</td><td>Examples of life cycle costs</td><td>195</td></tr><tr><td>7.5</td><td>Long term assessment of costs associated with lighting and daylighting techniques</td><td>199</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Lighting design and survey on lighting today and in the future</td><td>205</td></tr><tr><td>8.1</td><td>Thoughts on lighting design</td><td>205</td></tr><tr><td>8.2</td><td>A technological approach</td><td>208</td></tr><tr><td>8.3</td><td>The role of LEDs</td><td>209</td></tr><tr><td>8.4</td><td>Architectural view on illuminants</td><td>210</td></tr><tr><td>8.5</td><td>Energy efficient lighting culture</td><td>211</td></tr><tr><td>8.6</td><td>Survey on the opinions of lighting professionals on lighting today and in the future</td><td>211</td></tr><tr><td>8.6.1</td><td>Introduction</td><td>211</td></tr><tr><td>8.6.2</td><td>Results</td><td>212</td></tr><tr><td>8.6.3</td><td>Summary and discussion</td><td>225</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Commissioning of lighting systems</td><td>231</td></tr><tr><td>9.1</td><td>Definition of Commissioning</td><td>231</td></tr><tr><td>9.2</td><td>Definition of the Commissioning Process</td><td>232</td></tr><tr><td>9.3</td><td>The commissioning plan: A tool to structure the commissioning process</td><td>235</td></tr><tr><td>9.3.1</td><td>Standard model of commissioning plans</td><td>236</td></tr><tr><td>9.3.2</td><td>Checklist</td><td>236</td></tr><tr><td>9.3.3</td><td>Matrix for quality control</td><td>237</td></tr><tr><td>9.4</td><td>How to execute the commissioning plan</td><td>237</td></tr><tr><td>9.4.1</td><td>Functional performance testing (FTP)</td><td>237</td></tr><tr><td>9.4.2</td><td>Using the building control system for commissioning</td><td>238</td></tr><tr><td>9.4.3</td><td>Using models at the component level</td><td>239</td></tr><tr><td>9.5</td><td>Applying commissioning process to the lighting control system</td><td>240</td></tr><tr><td>9.5.1</td><td>Objectives of lighting systems</td><td>240</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>9.5.2</td><td>Criteria for lighting systems quality</td><td>240</td></tr><tr><td>9.5.3</td><td>Indicators to evaluate the performance of lighting system</td><td>240</td></tr><tr><td>9.6</td><td>Example of a Commissioning Plan applied to the lighting system</td><td>242</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Case studies</td><td>247</td></tr><tr><td>10.1</td><td>Introduction and main results</td><td>247</td></tr><tr><td>10.2</td><td>Case study 1: Optimizing of daylighting and artificial lighting in offices</td><td>248</td></tr><tr><td>10.3</td><td>Case Study 2: Offices of a Finnish research unit</td><td>250</td></tr><tr><td>10.4</td><td>Case Study 3: Renovation of a German bank</td><td>260</td></tr><tr><td>10.5</td><td>Case study 4: High lighting quality targets with minimum electric power density</td><td>265</td></tr><tr><td>10.6</td><td>Case Study 5: Renovation of a cultural centre</td><td>271</td></tr><tr><td>10.7</td><td>Case study 6: Sture Library in Stockholm fully lit by LED lighting</td><td>272</td></tr><tr><td>10.8</td><td>Case study 7: Town hall in Stockholm</td><td>273</td></tr><tr><td>10.9</td><td>Case study 8: Turning Torso</td><td>274</td></tr><tr><td>10.10</td><td>Case study 9: Comparison of LED and fluorescent lighting in a meeting room</td><td>275</td></tr><tr><td>10.11</td><td>Case study 10: Factory in Netherlands</td><td>279</td></tr><tr><td>10.12</td><td>Case study 11: Factory in Italy</td><td>282</td></tr><tr><td>10.13</td><td>Case study 12: School - lighting refurbishment</td><td>285</td></tr><tr><td>10.14</td><td>Case study 13: School - bright classroom</td><td>289</td></tr><tr><td>10.15</td><td>Case study 14: Primary school - bright classroom</td><td>292</td></tr><tr><td>10.16</td><td>Case study 15: Primary school Beveren-Leie - lighting refurbishment</td><td>294</td></tr><tr><td>10.17</td><td>Case study 16: High school of St Eligius - lighting refurbishment</td><td>296</td></tr><tr><td>10.18</td><td>Case study 17: Primary School in Roma (1)</td><td>298</td></tr><tr><td>10.19</td><td>Case study 18: Primary School in Roma (2)</td><td>301</td></tr><tr><td>10.20</td><td>Case Study 19: Energy saving potential in the University</td><td>304</td></tr><tr><td>10.21</td><td>Case Study 20: Renovation of an auditorium</td><td>307</td></tr><tr><td>10.22</td><td>Case Study 21: Replacement of metal halide lamp by induction lamp</td><td>309</td></tr><tr><td>10-23</td><td>Appendix 1. Data list for case studies</td><td>312</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Technical potential for energy efficient lighting and savings</td><td>315</td></tr><tr><td>11.1</td><td>Light consumption in 2005</td><td>315</td></tr><tr><td>11.2</td><td>Estimated electric light consumption in 2015/2030</td><td>318</td></tr><tr><td>11.3</td><td>Estimated electric energy consumption for lighting in 2005/2015/2030</td><td>320</td></tr><tr><td>11.4</td><td>Conclusions</td><td>322</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Proposals to upgrade lighting standards and recommendations</td><td>327</td></tr><tr><td>12.1</td><td>A difficult trade-off between energy conservation and satisfaction of human needs</td><td>327</td></tr><tr><td>12.2</td><td>The origins of lighting standards and recommendations</td><td>327</td></tr><tr><td>12.3</td><td>Challenges for new lighting standards and recommendations</td><td>328</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Summary and conclusions</td><td>333</td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Participants and corresponding members</td><td>339</td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>Glossary</td><td>341</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>Abbreviations</td><td>345</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Appendix</td><td>A1-C1</td></tr></table>
# Chapter 1: Introduction

## Topics covered

<table><tr><td>1</td><td>Introduction</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.1</td><td>How to use the Guidebook</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.2</td><td>About the Annex 45</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.2.1</td><td>Background</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>1.2.2</td><td>Objectives and scope</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>1.2.3</td><td>Structure of Annex 45</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>References</td><td>16</td></tr></table>
# 1 Introduction

## 1.1 How to use the Guidebook

This Guidebook is the achievement of the work done in the IEA ECBCS Annex 45 *Energy efficient Electric Lighting for Buildings*. The Summary of the Guidebook is available as a printed copy. The whole Guidebook is available on the internet (http://lightinglab.fi/IEAAnnex45, and http://www.ec.bcs.org). Additional information in the whole Guidebook includes Annex 45 newsletters, a brochure, and appendices.

This Guidebook is intended to be useful for lighting designers and consultants, professionals involved in building operation and maintenance, system integrators in buildings, end users/owners, and all others interested in energy efficient lighting.

## 1.2 About the Annex 45

### 1.2.1 Background

Lighting is a large and rapidly growing source of energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions. In 2005 grid-based electricity consumption for lighting was 2650 TWh worldwide, which was about 19% of the total global electricity consumption. Furthermore, each year 55 billion litres of gasoline and diesel are used to operate vehicle lights. More than one-quarter of the population of the world uses liquid fuel (kerosene oil) to provide lighting (IEA 2006). Global electricity consumption for lighting is distributed approximately 28% to the residential sector, 48% to the service sector, 16% to the industrial sector, and 8% to street and other lighting. In the industrialized countries, national electricity consumption for lighting ranges from 5% to 15%, on the other hand, in developing countries the value can be as high as 86% of the total electricity use (Mills 2002).

More efficient use of the energy used for lighting would limit the rate of increase of electric power consumption, reduce the economic and social costs resulting from the construction of new generating capacity, and reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants into the environment. At the moment fluorescent lamps dominate in office lighting. In domestic lighting the dominant light source is still the inefficient incandescent lamp, which is more than a century old. At the moment, important factors concerning lighting are energy efficiency, daylight use, individual control of light, quality of light, emissions during the life-cycle, and total costs.

Efficient lighting has been found in several studies to be a cost effective way to reduce CO2 emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change for non-residential buildings concluded that energy efficient lighting is one of the measures covering the largest potential and also providing the cheapest mitigation options. Among the measures that have potential for CO2 reduction in buildings, energy efficient lighting comes first largest in developing countries, second largest in countries with their economies in transition, and third largest in the industrialized countries (Ürge-Vorsatz, Novikova & Levine 2008).

The report by McKinsey (McKinsey 2008) shows the cost-effectiveness of lighting systems in reducing CO2 emissions; see Figure 1-1. The global "carbon abatement cost curve" provides a map of the world's abatement opportunities ranked from the least-cost to the highest-cost options. This cost curve shows the steps that can be taken with technologies that either are available today or look very likely to become available in the near future. The width of the bars indicates the amount of CO2 emissions that we could abate while the height shows the cost per ton abated. The lowest-cost
opportunities appear on the left of the graph.

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1-1.** Costs of different CO₂ abatement opportunities. (McKinsey 2008)</figcaption></figure>

### 1.2.2 Objectives and scope

The goal of Annex 45 was to identify and to accelerate the widespread use of appropriate energy efficient high-quality lighting technologies and their integration with other building systems, making them the preferred choice of lighting designers, owners and users.

The aim was to assess and document the technical performance of the existing promising, but largely underutilized, innovative lighting technologies, as well as future lighting technologies. These novel lighting system concepts have to meet the functional, aesthetic, and comfort requirements of building occupants.

This guidebook mostly concerns the lighting of offices and schools.

### 1.2.3 Structure of Annex 45

The work of Annex 45 was conducted during 2005-2009. The work of Annex 45 was divided into four Subtasks.

- Subtask A Targets for Energy Performance and Human Well-being

- Subtask B Innovative Technical Solutions

- Subtask C Energy efficient Controls and Integration

- Subtask D Documentation and dissemination

#### Subtask A: Targets for Energy Performance and Human Well-Being

The objectives of this subtask were to set targets for energy use, lighting quality and human well-being. Another aim was to propose an upgrade of lighting recommendations and codes to improve the energy performance of indoor lighting installations. The performance criteria include the quality of light (spectrum, colour rendering and colour temperature) and user acceptance. The energy criteria include the energy efficiency of lighting, life-cycle energy considerations, and the maintenance and control of light. The economic criteria include the initial costs and operating costs.
## Subtask B: Innovative Technical Solutions

The objective of this Subtask was to identify, assess and document the performance, energy and economical criteria of the existing promising and innovative future lighting technologies and their impact on other building equipment and systems. The purpose was to reduce the energy use of buildings by investigating the saving potential by comparing the existing and future technologies and by providing information on concepts, products and lighting solutions. The technical solutions cover connection devices (ballast, control gear, current sources, etc.), light sources, luminaries, and control techniques.

## Subtask C: Energy-Efficient Controls and Integration

Subtask C focused on the optimal use of controls that enable energy savings to be made whilst the user (occupant, facility manager, operation and maintenance team) has the chance to adjust the electric lighting according to their personal needs and preferences, within acceptable building operation requirements.

## Subtask D: Documentation and Dissemination

The objective of Subtask D was to compile and widely disseminate the results of Subtasks A, B and C and to identify ways to influence energy policies and regulations in order to promote the use of energy efficient lighting. The aim of Subtask D was to improve current lighting practices in a manner that accelerates the use of energy efficient products, improves overall building performance and enhances the occupants' environmental satisfaction.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1-2. Structure of Annex 45.</figcaption></figure>
References

IEA, 2006 International Energy Agency. Light's Labour's Lost. IEA Publications, France. 360 p.

McKinsey, 2008. The carbon productivity challenge: Curbing climate change and sustaining economic growth. McKinsey global institute. http://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/publications/Carbon_Productivity/index.asp. (Accessed on 4 July 2008)

Mills E., 2002. Why we're here: The $320-billion global lighting energy bill. Right Light 5, Nice, France. pp. 369-385.

Ürge-Vorsatz, Novikova & Levine, 2008. Non-residential buildings for mitigating climate change: Summary of the findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Improving Energy Efficiency in Commercial Buildings Conference. Frankfurt 2008.
# Chapter 2: Lighting energy in buildings

## Topics covered

2 Lighting energy in buildings.................................................................................................................. 19

2.1 Holistic view of energy use in buildings.................................................................................. 19
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. 19
Holistic view - Whole Building Design .................................................................................. 19
Design issues............................................................................................................................................ 20
Planning and Production process.................................................................................................. 20
Environmental impact.................................................................................................................... 20
Life cycle analysis (LCA) and Life cycle costs (LCC)........................................................ 20
Energy requirements.................................................................................................................... 21

2.2 Facts and figures on lighting energy usage.................................................................................. 22

2.2.1 Background........................................................................................................................................ 22

2.2.2 Worldwide Energy and Lighting Scenario ........................................................................ 22
Worldwide energy consumption.................................................................................................. 22
Energy consumption in buildings .......................................................................................... 23
Worldwide electricity consumption.......................................................................................... 24
Electricity consumption for lighting ...................................................................................... 24
Fuel-based lighting and vehicle lighting.................................................................................. 24
Consumption of light .................................................................................................................. 25

2.2.3 Impacts of lighting energy consumption on the environment ........................................ 26
Primary energy and CO₂ emissions .................................................................................... 26

2.2.4 Lighting energy usage in buildings.................................................................................. 28
Overview.................................................................................................................................................... 28
Residential buildings.................................................................................................................. 28
Commercial Buildings .................................................................................................................. 32
Industrial Buildings.................................................................................................................... 34

2.2.5 Evaluation of lighting energy use for buildings.................................................................. 36
Codes and criteria for evaluating energy use for buildings ............................................ 36
Lighting impacts on HVAC systems .................................................................................... 37
Lighting impacts on peak electricity loads ............................................................................ 38

References........................................................................................................................................................................ 38
# 2 Lighting energy in buildings

## 2.1 Holistic view of energy use in buildings

### Introduction

Why are we designing and constructing buildings?

- to shield ourselves and various processes from weather and climatic conditions

- to create a good indoor environment

- to use resources as efficiently as possible during the construction phase

- to make buildings economical for the user and owner

Human needs as well as energy and environmental issues are essential in the building process. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has clearly shown in “Light’s Labour’s Lost” (IEA, 2006) that energy in buildings covers a large part of the energy consumption in the world and has therefore a significant impact on the environment. A more holistic view with focus in sustainability could help us to protect the environment.

### Holistic view – Whole Building Design

The introduction above shows clearly that it is not possible to make a decision in one question without considering the others. A holistic view takes into account all energy flows in the building over time in order to reach a sustainable approach (Diemer, 2008). In order to build high performance buildings (WBDG, 2008) we have to consider all the different design processes and aspects of buildings (see figure 2-1) and all the ways how buildings are used by owners and users.

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-1.** *Global objectives for High Performance Buildings. (WBDG, 2008)*</figcaption></figure>

Considering the façade as an energy filter should be the starting point of the building design process. A façade system, dynamic for the different seasons of a specific country, has possibilities for an overall energy reduction for heating, cooling and lighting. Preventing solar heat radiation from entering the building, when not needed, is a good start to keep the use of cooling system low.
Useful daylight could be used in addition to electric lighting to fulfil lighting for visual tasks and to save energy.

The sustainability of the high performance buildings should be achieved by using as little energy resources as possible during the building process as well as during the life cycle of the building. Materials should be recycled as much as possible. The means and ways for reducing energy consumption should be achieved in an economical way for the building owner and user in order to motivate them to reduce energy consumption (SEA 2007, STIL 2007).

## Design issues

The following issues in the building design phase should be taken into account:

- to carry out detailed analysis of solar shading, daylight linking, lighting and visual comfort needs

- to determine how the façade should be designed (e.g. thermal insulation, airtightness etc.)

- to study the design and operation of the ventilation system

- to study how much the internal heat gains from office equipment, lighting etc. can be minimized and whether this is enough to avoid installing mechanical cooling

- to carry out energy and indoor climate simulations, where secondary and primary energy consumption are determined

- to calculate life cycle costs

## Planning and Production process

The planning and production process is short in comparison to the lifetime of the building. In the decision process, lifetime of the building has to be considered together with the knowledge of building physics.

## Environmental impact

In addition to moving the focus from investment issues to life cycle analysis and calculations, it is necessary to consider a sustainable process. This means that environmental issues have to be taken into account at an early stage, such as:

- Energy use and peak load

- Materials used in luminaires, light sources, chemicals (for example mercury)

- Production of lighting equipment and transportations

- Light pollution

- Light trespass (unwanted light through neighbouring windows)

- Noise

## Life cycle analysis (LCA) and Life cycle costs (LCC)

Initial investment in buildings covers only less than 20% of the long term costs. The main long term costs are related to operation and maintenance of the buildings. Energy consumption in the buildings contributes a large part of the operation cost. An example is given in Figure 2-2, where the use of energy, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, solid wastes, and water use are studied in procurement, construction, operation and demolition phases of the building (Janssen 1999). We can see that the largest impact is caused by the energy use during the Operation & Maintenance phase of the building. This study was commissioned by Multiplex Constructions and carried out with their assistance by the New South Wales Department of Public Works and Services and ERM Mitchell McCotter (DPWS NSW, 1998).
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-2.** *Stadium Australia LCA results.* (Janssen, 1999)</figcaption></figure>

## Energy requirements

Lighting consumes about 19% of the total generated electricity (IEA 2006). It accounts for 30% to 40% of the total energy consumption in office buildings. The annual lighting electricity consumption per square meter of the building varies between 20 to 50 kWh/m², a (SEA 2007, STIL 2007).

There is a trend in the international community to reduce the electricity consumption of lighting with new technology to below 10 kWh/m² per year. The possible ways to reduce lighting energy consumption include: minimum possible power density, use of light sources with high luminous efficacy, use of lighting control systems and utilization of daylight.

The quality of light must be maintained when installed power for lighting is reduced. In this Guidebook different design concepts and new products, illustrated with case studies, show how lighting energy consumption can be reduced.

In the building sector, the potential for energy savings and improvements in indoor environment is often high. New buildings may have low energy consumption for heating, but on the other hand have higher electricity consumption than older ones. This is due to increased electricity use for ventilation, cooling, lighting and office equipment (Blomsterberg et al, 2007).

Daylight and solar radiation have a great influence on the energy flows in the building. Therefore the façade, and especially the glassed area of the façade could be seen as an energy filter. A way to reduce the energy flow through the façade is to use shades to block the solar radiation, utilize daylight to reduce the need of artificial lighting and therefore reduce the need of energy for cooling (Poirazis 2008, LEED 2009). But at the same time, the indoor environment has to be maintained to prevent discomfort for the users.
Energy consumption of buildings covers about 40% of the total energy consumption in Europe. In several European countries, there are initiatives for reducing energy consumption. These initiatives have timetables for implementation with aim to reduce the energy related CO₂ emissions by 20% by 2020.

## 2.2 Facts and figures on lighting energy usage

### 2.2.1 Background

Energy is an essential commodity in our lives and the use of energy is increasing with industrial development. Energy security and the environmental impacts of energy use are major concerns worldwide.

The accelerating increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has caused the world to warm by more than half a degree Celsius in the last century. It is expected that there will be at least a further warming of half a degree over the next few decades (Stern 2006). Use of energy is the main factor in the climate change, contributing a major portion of the greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC 2007). Industrialized nations are currently the sources of most of the greenhouse gas emissions but this may change in the future as the developing countries pursue industrialization. The United States and Europe together consume almost 40% while producing only 23% of the total energy use of the world. Europe depends on imports for about half of its total energy needs. With the current trend of energy consumption, the EU expects 65% of its energy needs to be fulfilled by import, which poses critical challenge on the energy security (Belkin 2007).

Energy efficiency is one of the most effective means to solve these problems. It can both save energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The EU has been the leader in the field of energy efficiency and is taking new measures to promote it. These measures include minimum efficiency requirements for energy using equipment, stronger actions on energy use in buildings, transport and energy generation. The EU has committed to its new energy policy to improve energy efficiency by 20% by 2020 (COM 2007).

### 2.2.2 Worldwide Energy and Lighting Scenario

#### Worldwide energy consumption

Global energy consumption is rising continually every year. Total global primary energy consumption in 2006 was 472 quadrillion (10¹⁵) British Thermal Units (BTU) (1 BTU = 1055.1 joules), which is equivalent to 138330 TWh (EIA 2006).

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-3.** World primary energy supply and regional consumption shares in 2006 (EIA 2006).</figcaption></figure>
The increase in the global energy consumption between 1996 and 2006 continued at an average annual rate of 2.3%. In 2006 the three most important energy sources were petroleum, coal and natural gas, accounting for 35.9%, 27.4%, and 22.8%, respectively, of total primary energy production (Figure 2-3).

## Energy consumption in buildings

Buildings, including residential, commercial, and institutional buildings account for more than one third of primary global energy demand. The building sector is the biggest energy consumer among the three energy-using sectors: transportation, industry and buildings. Global energy demand in the building sector has been increasing at an average rate of 3.5% per year since 1970 (DOE 2006). Urban buildings usually have higher levels of energy consumption per unit of area than buildings in rural areas. According to a projection by the United Nations, the percentage of the world's population living in urban areas will increase from 49% (in 2005) to 61% by 2030 (UN 2005). Thus the growth of energy consumption in building is expected to continue in the long term as a result of population growth, and also as a result of urbanization.

Energy is consumed in buildings for various end use purposes: space heating, water heating, ventilation, lighting, cooling, cooking, and other appliances. Lighting is the leading energy consumer (25%) in US commercial buildings ahead of space cooling (13%) while lighting energy consumption is less than that of space heating, space cooling and water heating in residential buildings (Figure 2-4). Heating (space and water) is the leading energy consumer in the EU domestic and commercial building sectors followed by lighting (Figure 2-5). Other main consumers are cooking, cooling and other appliances.

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-4.** Energy consumption by end use in US commercial and residential buildings (DOE 2009).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-5.** Energy consumption by end use in EU domestic and commercial buildings (EC 2007).</figcaption></figure>
## Worldwide electricity consumption

The global consumption of electricity has been increasing faster than the overall energy consumption because of the versatile nature of the production of electricity, as well as its consumption (EIA 2006). Worldwide electricity consumption in 2006 was 16378 TWh, which was 11.8% of the total primary energy consumption (EIA 2006). Because of losses in the generation process, the amount of input energy for electricity generation is much higher than the amount of electricity at its point of use. Worldwide electricity generation uses 40% of the world's primary energy supply (Hore-Lacy 2003). According to the International Energy Outlook 2009 (EIA 2009), the world's total net electricity generation in 2030 is expected to be increased by 77% from the 2006 level. The growth of the primary energy consumption for the same period will be 44%, expanding from 472 quadrillion BTU in 2006 to 678 quadrillion BTU in 2030.

## Electricity consumption for lighting

Lighting was the first service offered by electric utilities and it continues to be a major source of electricity consumption (IEA 2006).

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2-6. Global lighting energy use (EIA 2006, IEA 2006).</figcaption></figure>

Globally, almost one fifth of the total amount of electricity generated is consumed by the lighting sector. The total electricity consumption of lighting is more than the global electricity produced by hydro or nuclear power plants, and almost the same as the electricity produced with natural gas. More than 50% of the electricity used by lighting is consumed in IEA member countries, but this is expected to change in the coming years because of the increasing growth rate of lighting electricity use in non-IEA countries.

Almost half of the global lighting electricity (48%) is consumed by the service sector. The rest is distributed between the residential sector (28%), industrial sector (16%), and street and other lighting (8%). The share of electricity consumption of lighting of total electricity consumption varies from 5% to 15% in the industrialized countries, whereas the share is up to 86% (Tanzania) in developing countries (Mills 2002).

## Fuel-based lighting and vehicle lighting

Despite the dominance of electric lighting, a significant amount of energy is also used in vehicle lighting and off-grid fuel-based lighting. More than one quarter of the world's population is still without access to electricity networks and uses fuel-based lighting to fulfill their lighting needs (Mills 2002). IEA (IEA 2006) estimates that the amount of energy consumed annually in fuel-based
lighting is equivalent to 65.6 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) of final energy usage. The estimated amount of global primary energy used for lighting is 650 Mtoe. The fuel-based light sources include candles, oil lamps, ordinary kerosene lamps, pressurized kerosene lamps, biogas lamps, propane lamps, and resin-soaked twigs as used in remote Nepali villages (Bhusal et al. 2007). In developing countries, the most widely used fuel-based lighting is ordinary wick-based kerosene lamps. For example, nearly 80 million people in India alone light their houses using kerosene as the primary fuel for lighting (Shailesh 2006).

An estimated 750 million light-duty vehicles (cars, light trucks, and minivans), 50 million trucks, 14 million buses and minibuses, and 230 million two-three wheelers were used in 2005 worldwide. They consume fuel to provide illumination for driving and security needs. Although the amount of fuel used for lighting accounts a small portion (3.2%) of all road vehicle energy usage, 55 billions litres of petroleum, amounting to 47.1 Mtoe of final energy, was used to operate vehicle lights in 2002. The power demand for lighting in the vehicle is increasing to improve the driving safety and comfort. Also, an increasing number of countries are introducing policy measures to promote greater use of daytime vehicle lighting through regulation or incentives. This will further increase the amount of global energy use of vehicle lighting (IEA 2006).

## Consumption of light

The amount of consumption of light in the world has constantly been increasing with the increase in the per capita light consumption and the increase in the population. According to IEA estimation (IEA 2006), the amount of global consumption of light in 2005 was 134.7 petalumen-hours (Plmh). The electric lighting accounted for 99% of the total light consumption while vehicle lighting accounted for 0.9%, and fuel based lighting accounted for only 0.1%. The average annual per capita light consumption of people with access to electricity is 27.6 Mlmh, whereas the people without access to electricity use only 50 kilolumen-hours (klmh) per person per annum. Thus the light consumption of people with access to electricity is more than 500 times more compared to people without access to electricity. Even within the electrified places, there exist large variations in the consumption of light. The variation in light consumption among the different regions of the world is shown in Figure 2-7.

Despite the inequality in the consumption of light in different parts of the world, there had been remarkable increase in the amount of light used all over the world in past century. The annual growth of artificial lighting demand in IEA countries was 1.8% in last decade, which was lower than during the previous decades. This might be an indication of the start of demand saturation. However, the growth of lighting demand in the developing countries is increasing due to the rising average illuminance levels in those countries and also due to new construction of buildings.

The consumption of light in developing countries is expected to increase more in the future due to increasing electrification rate in the regions with no access to electricity at the moment.
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-7.** *Estimated per capita consumption of electric light in 2005 (IEA 2006).*</figcaption></figure>

### 2.2.3 Impacts of lighting energy consumption on the environment

The environmental impacts of lighting are caused by the energy consumption of lighting, the material used to produce lighting equipment, and the disposal of used equipment. Emissions during the production of electricity and also as a result of the burning of fuel in vehicle lighting and in fuel-based lighting are responsible for most of the lighting-related greenhouse gas emissions. Hazardous materials (e.g. lead, mercury, etc.) used in the lamps and ballasts, if not disposed properly, can cause harmful impacts on the environment. Lighting also affects the environment due to wastefully escaped light into the night sky (light pollution).

The environmental impacts of electric lighting depend on the electricity generation method. Thermal power generation system has the highest impact on the environment due to combustion fuel, gas emissions, solid waste production, water consumption, and thermal pollution. Electricity generated from renewable energy sources has the lowest effect on the environment. Lighting is one of the biggest causes of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions. The total lighting-related CO2 emissions were estimated to be 1900 million tons (Mt) in 2005, which was about 7% of the total global CO2 emissions from the consumption and flaring of fossil fuels (EIA 2007, IEA 2006). Energy efficient lighting reduces the lighting energy consumption and is thus a means to reduce CO2 emissions. Fuel based lighting used in developing countries is not only inefficient and expensive, but also results in the release of 244 million tons of CO2 to the atmosphere every year, which is 58% of the CO2 emissions from residential electric lighting globally (Mills 2002). Replacing fuel based lighting with energy efficient electric lighting (based e.g. on LEDs) will provide means to reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with lighting energy consumption.

#### Primary energy and CO2 emissions

Primary energy is the energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process. Primary energy is transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient forms of energy, such as electricity. Electricity can be transformed from coal, oil, natural gas, wind, etc. The total primary energy factor is defined as the non-renewable and renewable primary energy divided by the delivered energy. Here the primary energy is the amount of energy that is required to supply one unit of delivered energy, taking into account the energy required for extraction, processing, storage, transport, generation, transformation, transmission, distribution, and any other operations necessary to deliver the energy to the place where it is used. The total primary energy factor for electricity is 2.5 in Europe. This value reflects an efficiency of 40%, which is the average efficiency
of electricity production (Eurostat 2009).

The CO₂ intensity in power generation in different European countries is shown in Figure 2-8. The carbon footprint calculator takes CO₂ emission factor for electricity to be 527 g/kWh in the calculations (Carbon independent 2009).

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-8.** CO₂ intensity, g CO₂/kWh, in electricity generation in European countries for 2001. (Statistics Finland 2003)</figcaption></figure>

Figure 2-9 presents the comparison of CO₂ emissions during life time of an incandescent lamp, CFL and a future LED light source. A 75W incandescent lamp with luminous efficacy of 12 lm/W, a 15W CFL with luminous efficacy of 60 lm/W and a 6 W LED light source with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W were compared to provide the same light output. The lifetime of future LED light source is assumed to be 25 000 h. The calculation was done for 25 000 lamp burning hours. During this period one LED, 3 CFLs and 21 incandescent lamps were needed. Most of the energy consumption and CO₂ emissions were caused in the operating phase of the lamps. CO₂ emissions of the electricity production were considered to be 527 g/kWh. The CO₂ emissions during production of the lamps are also considered in the calculation.

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-9.** Comparison of CO₂ emissions during life cycle (calculated for 25 000 hours of time) of an incandescent lamp(12lm/W), CFL(60 lm/W) and future LED light source( 150 lm/W).</figcaption></figure>
### 2.2.4 Lighting energy usage in buildings

#### Overview

Lighting accounts for a significant part of electricity consumption in buildings. For example, in the US, more than 10% of all energy is used for lighting in buildings (Loftness 2004). The amount of electricity used for lighting in buildings differs according to the type of buildings. In some buildings, lighting is the largest single category of electricity consumption; office buildings, on the average, use the largest share of their total electricity consumption in lighting.

European office buildings use 50% of their total electricity consumption for lighting, while the share of electricity for lighting is 20-30% in hospitals, 15% in factories, 10-15% in schools and 10% in residential buildings (EC 2007). Furthermore, the heat produced by lighting represents a significant fraction of the cooling load in many offices contributing to the further consumption of electricity indirectly. On the other hand, heat produced by lighting can reduce the heating load during winter in the areas with cold climate. In the residential buildings, the share of electricity for lighting over total electricity use is quite low compared to the commercial buildings. However, in the developing countries, especially in electrified rural areas, almost all of the electricity consumed at homes is used for lighting. Residential buildings use the most inefficient lighting technology (incandescent lamps) compared to the commercial and industrial buildings. The share of different lighting technology used in the US building sector for year 2001 is shown in the Figure 2-10 together with annual energy consumption by each building sector.

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2-10. Shares of US sectoral electricity used by different light sources for lighting (Navigant 2002).</figcaption></figure>

#### Residential buildings

##### Energy usage

The global residential lighting electricity consumption in 2005 was estimated by the IEA to be 811 TWh (IEA 2006), which accounts for about 31% of total lighting electricity consumption and about 18.3% of residential electricity consumption. The estimated electricity consumption in residential lighting in IEA member countries was 372 TWh, which accounts for about 14.2% of total residential electricity consumption. Electric lighting is used in practically all households throughout Europe and represents a key component of peak electricity demand in many countries. According to
the DELight (Environmental Change Unit 1998) study, lighting in the residential sector consumed 86 TWh (17% of all residential electricity consumption) per year in the EU-15 in 1995. A recent study carried out by the European Commission's Institute of Environment and Sustainability reported the consumption of electricity for lighting to be 77 TWh for the EU-15, 13.6 TWh for the 10 new member states, and 4.9 TWh for the newest 3 member states (Bertoldi and Atanasiu 2006).

The household energy consumption for lighting varies greatly among EU member states. The lowest consumption is in Germany where the average annual household lighting electricity consumption is 310 kWh, while the highest annual consumption is in Malta with the value 1172 kWh per household. In the EU-15 Member states, the lighting consumption as a share of total residential electricity consumption ranges between 6% and 18%, but the share is as high as 35% in one of the newest member states.

The US Lighting Market Characterization study (Navigant 2002) calculated in the survey of 4832 households that the average US household used 1946 kWh of electricity for lighting in 2001. According to the IEA assessment (IEA 2006), the average European household used 561 kWh of electricity for lighting, which is very close to the annual lighting electricity consumption for an average Australian household, which is 577 kWh. The annual electricity consumption for lighting by an average Japanese household was 939 kWh in 2004.

Consumption of electricity for residential lighting in Russia, China, and other non OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries is lower compared to the OECD countries. The average electricity consumption for lighting in Russian households was 394 kWh per household, which provided 2 Mlmh electric light per annum per person in 2000 (IEA 2006). With the rising income of households, there has been a substantial increase in the residential lighting electricity consumption in Russia. The Chinese average residential per capita consumption of light in 2003 was 1.4 Mlmh which accounted for 181 kWh of electricity per household (IEA 2006). The share of lighting electricity consumption over total electricity consumption of households was 28%, which was quite high due to the fact that the majority of Chinese population lives in rural areas and the electricity in rural houses is mainly used for lighting.

<table><caption>**Table 2-1.** National residential lighting energy characteristics of EU-28 countries (Bertoldi and Atanasiu 2006).</caption><thead><tr><th>Countries</th><th>Number of Households (millions)</th><th>Residential electricity consumption (TWh/a)</th><th>Lighting electricity consumption (TWh/a)</th><th>Lighting consumption as share of total electricity consumption (%)</th><th>Average lighting electricity consumption per household (kWh/a)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Austria</td><td>3.08</td><td>16.00</td><td>1.10</td><td>6.88</td><td>357.14</td></tr><tr><td>Belgium</td><td>3.90</td><td>18.20</td><td>2.23</td><td>12.23</td><td>343.22</td></tr><tr><td>Denmark</td><td>2.31</td><td>9.71</td><td>1.36</td><td>14.00</td><td>589.00</td></tr><tr><td>Finland</td><td>2.30</td><td>12.20</td><td>1.70</td><td>13.93</td><td>739.00</td></tr><tr><td>France</td><td>22.20</td><td>141.06</td><td>9.07</td><td>6.43</td><td>409.00</td></tr><tr><td>Greece</td><td>3.66</td><td>18.89</td><td>3.40</td><td>18.00</td><td>1012.00</td></tr><tr><td>Germany</td><td>39.10</td><td>140.00</td><td>11.38</td><td>8.13</td><td>310.00</td></tr><tr><td>Ireland</td><td>1.44</td><td>7.33</td><td>1.32</td><td>18.00</td><td>1000.00</td></tr><tr><td>Italy</td><td>22.50</td><td>66.67</td><td>8.00</td><td>12.00</td><td>370.00</td></tr><tr><td>Luxembourg</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.75</td><td>0.01</td><td>13.00</td><td>487.50</td></tr><tr><td>Netherlands</td><td>6.73</td><td>23.75</td><td>3.80</td><td>16.00</td><td>524.00</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Portugal</td><td>4.20</td><td>11.40</td><td>1.60</td><td>14.04</td><td>427.00</td></tr><tr><td>Spain</td><td>17.20</td><td>56.11</td><td>10.10</td><td>18.00</td><td>684.00</td></tr><tr><td>Sweden</td><td>3.90</td><td>43.50</td><td>4.60</td><td>10.57</td><td>1143.00</td></tr><tr><td>United Kingdom</td><td>22.80</td><td>111.88</td><td>17.90</td><td>16.00</td><td>785.00</td></tr><tr><td>Czech Republic</td><td>3.83</td><td>14.53</td><td>1.74</td><td>12.00</td><td>455.37</td></tr><tr><td>Cyprus</td><td>0.32</td><td>1.32</td><td>0.33</td><td>25.00</td><td>1040.70</td></tr><tr><td>Estonia</td><td>0.60</td><td>1.62</td><td>0.45</td><td>28.00</td><td>753.81</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary</td><td>3.75</td><td>11.10</td><td>2.775</td><td>25.00</td><td>740.48</td></tr><tr><td>Latvia</td><td>0.97</td><td>1.47</td><td>0.41</td><td>28.00</td><td>424.16</td></tr><tr><td>Lithuania</td><td>1.29</td><td>2.07</td><td>0.62</td><td>30.00</td><td>479.72</td></tr><tr><td>Malta</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.60</td><td>0.15</td><td>25.00</td><td>1172.15</td></tr><tr><td>Poland</td><td>11.95</td><td>22.80</td><td>6.38</td><td>28.00</td><td>534.40</td></tr><tr><td>Slovakia</td><td>1.67</td><td>4.82</td><td>0.40</td><td>8.30</td><td>240.05</td></tr><tr><td>Slovenia</td><td>0.68</td><td>3.01</td><td>0.43</td><td>14.30</td><td>628.90</td></tr><tr><td>Bulgaria</td><td>2.90</td><td>8.77</td><td>0.90</td><td>10.00</td><td>420.00</td></tr><tr><td>Romania</td><td>8.13</td><td>8.04</td><td>2.91</td><td>35.18</td><td>356.75</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary</td><td>1.42</td><td>6.07</td><td>1.10</td><td>18.11</td><td>773.76</td></tr></table>

In other non-OECD countries, the consumption of electric lighting in households is lower than in Russia and China. In most of these countries the consumption of lighting electricity in rural areas is quite low compared to the urban homes. Overall, the average annual consumption of electricity for residential lighting in these non-OECD countries (except Russia and China) is estimated to be 84 kWh per capita (IEA 2006). The share of lighting electricity consumption of total electricity consumption in homes is very high (up to 86%) in developing countries, compared to OECD countries (Mills 2002). Apart from electric lighting, there are still 1.6 billion (1 billion= 10⁹) people in the world who use fuel-based light sources due to the lack of electricity. Almost all the people without electricity live in the developing countries (IEA 2002). In 2000 roughly 14% of urban households and 49% of rural households in developing countries were without electricity, and in some of the least privileged parts of Africa, e.g. Ethiopia and Uganda, only 1% of rural households were electrified (Mills 2005).

## Light sources and lighting characteristics

Residential lighting is dominated by the use of incandescent lamps but compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are taking their share gradually and LED lamps will do so in the future. The high purchase price of CFLs compared to incandescent lamps has been a major barrier to their market penetration, even though they last much longer, save energy, and have short payback periods. Though the price of CFLs has decreased due to the increased competition and they are available in many varieties, there is still lack of awareness in the public about their benefits.

The majority of the estimated 372 TWh of electricity used for domestic lighting in 2005 in IEA countries was used by inefficient incandescent lamps. The average of 27.5 lamps per household was shared by 19.9 incandescent lamps, 5.2 LFLs (linear fluorescent lamps), 0.8 halogen lamps and 1.7 CFLs. These values are average values of IEA countries and there are significant differences from country to country. Example of some IEA countries in Table 2-2 shows that the average number of lamps per households varies from 10.4 (Greece) to 43 (USA). The average lamp luminous efficiency is low in the countries dominated by incandescent lamp (USA) compared to the countries where fluorescent lamps occupy a larger share (Japan). Some of the practices of using the particular
type of lamp are quite similar in European, American and Australian/New Zealand households. For example, in all those countries the use of LFLs is mostly confined to the kitchen and bathrooms, while in the rest of the house the choice is divided among incandescent lamps, CFLs, and halogen lamps (IEA 2006).

<table><caption>**Table 2-2.** Estimated national average residential lighting characteristics for some IEA member countries (IEA 2006).</caption><thead><tr><th>Countries</th><th>Lighting electricity (kWh/ household ,a)</th><th>No. of lamps per household</th><th>Average lamp luminous efficacy (lm/W)</th><th>Light consumption (Mlmh/m², a)</th><th>Lighting electricity consumption (kWh/m²,a)</th><th>Lamp operating hours per day</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>UK</td><td>720</td><td>20.1</td><td>25</td><td>0.21</td><td>8.6</td><td>1.60</td></tr><tr><td>Sweden</td><td>760</td><td>40.4</td><td>24</td><td>0.16</td><td>6.9</td><td>1.35</td></tr><tr><td>Germany</td><td>775</td><td>30.3</td><td>27</td><td>0.22</td><td>9.3</td><td>1.48</td></tr><tr><td>Denmark</td><td>426</td><td>23.7</td><td>32</td><td>0.10</td><td>3.3</td><td>1.59</td></tr><tr><td>Greece</td><td>381</td><td>10.4</td><td>26</td><td>0.09</td><td>3.7</td><td>1.30</td></tr><tr><td>Italy</td><td>375</td><td>14.0</td><td>27</td><td>0.09</td><td>4.0</td><td>1.03</td></tr><tr><td>France</td><td>465</td><td>18.5</td><td>18</td><td>0.22</td><td>5.7</td><td>0.97</td></tr><tr><td>USA</td><td>1946</td><td>43.0</td><td>18</td><td>0.27</td><td>15.1</td><td>1.92</td></tr><tr><td>Japan</td><td>939</td><td>17.0</td><td>49</td><td>0.49</td><td>10.0</td><td>3.38</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>**Table 2-3.** United States Residential lighting characteristics for different lamp types in 2001 (Navigant 2002).</caption><thead><tr><th>Lamp type</th><th>Lighting electricity consumption (TWh/year)</th><th>Percentage of installed lamps</th><th>Average operating hours per day</th><th>Percentage of household electricity consumption</th><th>Percentage of lumen output by source type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>GLS</td><td>187.6</td><td>86%</td><td>1.9</td><td>90%</td><td>69%</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent</td><td>19.9</td><td>14%</td><td>2.2</td><td>10%</td><td>30%</td></tr><tr><td>HID (High Intensity Discharge)</td><td>0.7</td><td>0%</td><td>2.8</td><td>0.3%</td><td>1%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>208.2</td><td>100%</td><td>2.0</td><td>100%</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table>

Incandescent lamps constituted 86% of 4.6 billion lamps used in the US residential buildings in 2001 (Navigant 2002). Although the incandescent lamps were responsible for 90% of the total lighting electricity consumption, their share of the total available lumen output was only 69% (Table 2-3) due to their poor luminous efficacy. Households in Australia and New Zealand have a similar trend of the dominance of incandescent lamps. In Japan, the dominating light source in residential sector is the fluorescent lamp with 65% share (LFSs 57% and CFLs 8%); the rest is distributed between incandescent lamps 22%, halogen lamps 2%, and other lamps 11% (IEA 2006). Though most of the lamps used in the Japanese households are fluorescent lamps and their average luminous efficacy is quite high, the Japanese residential electricity consumption is high compared to those of the European and Australian/New Zealand households. This is due to the fact that Japanese households have high average illuminance levels and relatively long average operating times of lamps (Table 2-2).

In Russia, on the other hand, the incandescent lamps dominate in the residential sector, where 98% of total installed lamps are incandescent lamps. This is not very common for other non-OECD countries, where the share of fluorescent lamps over other lamp types is relatively higher. The share of fluorescent lamps was 43% in Chinese residential lighting already in 2003. Similarly, most of the
Indian electrified homes have at least four LFLs and the national LFL sales is about one third of total incandescent lamp sales (IEA 2006).

## Commercial Buildings

### Energy usage

Lighting is one of the single largest electricity users in most commercial buildings. The IEA (IEA 2006) estimated that 1133 TWh of electricity was consumed in the world by commercial lighting in 2005. This was equivalent to 43% of total lighting electricity consumption and over 30% of total electricity consumption in the commercial buildings, which was used to produce 59.5 Plmh of light at an average source luminous efficacy of 52.5 lm/W. The total consumption of 1133 TWh of electricity is distributed among different types of buildings, in which retail, offices, warehouses and educational buildings were the largest users (Figure 2-11).

The lighting electricity consumption in the commercial buildings of the IEA countries comprises 63% of the world's total electricity consumption for lighting in this sector and 28.3% of the total OECD electricity consumption in commercial buildings (IEA 2006). In the OECD countries the lighting energy intensities in commercial buildings are higher than the world average for all commercial building sectors. The US commercial lighting accounted for more than 40% of the commercial sector electricity consumption, a total of 391 TWh per year in 2001 (Navigant 2002). The US commercial buildings used more than half (51%) of the total lighting consumption. Offices, retail and warehouses are the largest contributors to US commercial lighting energy use (Figure 2-12).

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-11.** Global commercial lighting energy consumption by building type (IEA 2006).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-12.** US commercial lighting energy consumption by building type (Navigant 2002).</figcaption></figure>

The consumption of electricity for commercial sector lighting in the EU member states was estimated to be 185 TWh in 2005 (IEA 2006). There previously was a variety of estimations for European commercial lighting energy consumption with large variation in the estimated lighting energy intensities. The IEA analysis has claimed to be reliable and consistent in its estimations of commercial lighting energy consumption. In the non-OECD countries, the trend of using lighting electricity for commercial buildings is growing with the increasing economic and construction growths. In 2005, it was estimated that 41% of electricity of the non-OECD commercial buildings was consumed by lighting providing illumination for 17.5 billion square metres of floor area (IEA 2006).
## Light sources and lighting characteristics

Most of the light delivered to commercial buildings is provided by fluorescent lamps. It is common to use fluorescent lamps in the open space facilities such as open space for work or shopping. Another reason for the increased use of fluorescent lamps in commercial sector is the implementation of different energy efficiency improvement programmes.

Fluorescent lamps provided most of the light to the OECD commercial buildings in 2005; linear fluorescent lamps provided 76.5% of the light output and the rest of the light output was provided by a mixture of incandescent, compact fluorescent, and HID lamps (IEA 2006). Similarly, fluorescent lamps were the major light sources in the US commercial lighting in 2001 (Navigant 2002), accounting for 56% of lighting energy consumption, while incandescent lamps consumed 32% and HID lamps 12% of the US commercial lighting energy. The share of fluorescent lamps was 78% on total lumen output, while the incandescent and HID lamps provided only 8% and 14% respectively. In European office buildings, fluorescent lamps are the dominant light sources, the LFL (linear fluorescent lamp) being most common lamp (Tichelen et al. 2007). In a comparison between existing office lighting and new office lighting in three European countries (Belgium, Germany and Spain), it was found that existing office lighting in Belgium and Spain still has a large number of other lamps than fluorescent (Table 2-4). In the non-OECD commercial sector, the share of incandescent lamps is even lower than that in the OECD commercial sector. The estimated share of incandescent and halogen lamps in the non-OECD commercial lighting was 4.8% in 2005 (IEA 2006).

<table><caption>**Table 2-4.** Lamp types used for few European countries's office lighting (Tichelen et al. 2007).</caption><thead><tr><th>Type of lamps</th><th>Belgium</th><th>Germany</th><th>Spain</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4"><em>Existing office lighting</em></td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent lamps</td><td>80%</td><td>99%</td><td>70%</td></tr><tr><td>CFL</td><td>10%</td><td>5%</td><td>15%</td></tr><tr><td>T8 LFL</td><td>80%</td><td>90%</td><td>75%</td></tr><tr><td>T5 LFL</td><td>10%</td><td>5%</td><td>10%</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>20%</td><td>1%</td><td>30%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><em>New office lighting</em></td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent lamps</td><td>95%</td><td>100%</td><td>85%</td></tr><tr><td>CFL</td><td>16%</td><td>10%</td><td>20%</td></tr><tr><td>T8 LFL</td><td>52%</td><td>45%</td><td>50%</td></tr><tr><td>T5 LFL</td><td>32%</td><td>45%</td><td>30%</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>5%</td><td>0%</td><td>15%</td></tr></tbody></table>

There is a large variation in the annual lighting energy consumption per unit area between different types of commercial buildings (Figure 2-13). This is due to the different occupancy levels of the buildings. The average electricity consumption for lighting per square metre in healthcare buildings is the highest of all types of buildings because of the long operating periods. In addition to the efficacy of the lighting systems, lighting practices in each country and region have significant effect on the annual lighting energy consumption per unit area of buildings, e.g. the length of operating periods and the average lighting levels provided. European buildings have quite short operating hours, while the operating hours in North American commercial buildings are longer than that of Europe, Japan/Korea, and Oceania (Table 2-5). The average annual lighting energy consumption per unit area in US commercial buildings was 60.9 kWh/m² in 2001 (Navigant 2002). In the Canadian commercial buildings this value was 80.2 kWh/m² in 2003 (IEA 2006). The non-OECD commercial buildings consume electricity at the lowest average among all the regions, consuming at an average of 24.1 kWh/m² in 2005 (IEA 2006).
<table><caption>**Table 2-5.** Estimated average lighting characteristics of commercial buildings in 2000 (IEA 2006).</caption><thead><tr><th>Region</th><th>Average lighting power density (W/m²)</th><th>Annual lighting energy consumption per unit area (kWh/m²)</th><th>Average operating period (h/a)</th><th>Lighting system efficacy (lm/W)</th><th>Commercial building floor area (billion m²)</th><th>Total electricity consumption (TWh/a)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Japan/Korea</td><td>12.6</td><td>33.0</td><td>2583</td><td>62.7</td><td>1.7</td><td>54.6</td></tr><tr><td>Australia/NZ</td><td>16.5</td><td>31.7</td><td>1924</td><td>43.5</td><td>0.4</td><td>12.7</td></tr><tr><td>North America</td><td>17.4</td><td>59.4</td><td>3928</td><td>50.1</td><td>7.3</td><td>435.1</td></tr><tr><td>OECD Europe</td><td>15.5</td><td>27.7</td><td>1781</td><td>46.1</td><td>6.7</td><td>185.8</td></tr><tr><td>OECD</td><td>15.6</td><td>43.1</td><td>2867</td><td>49.6</td><td>16.1</td><td>688.2</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-13.** Estimated global lighting electricity consumption by commercial building type in 2005 (IEA 2006).</figcaption></figure>

## Industrial Buildings

### Energy usage

Most of the electricity in industrial buildings is used for industrial processes. Although the share of lighting electricity of total electricity consumption in industrial buildings was only 8.7%, it accounted for about 18% of total global lighting electricity consumption in 2005 (IEA 2006). Compared to the residential and commercial sectors, there have been very few surveys and studies about the industrial building lighting energy consumption.

The IEA estimation of European OECD countries industrial lighting consumption in 2005 was 100.3 TWh per annum, amounting to 8.7% of total industrial electricity consumption in the
European OECD countries, the same share as estimated for the global average. The estimation of Japanese industrial lighting electricity consumption was 34.9 TWh, accounting for about 7.8% of all industrial electricity consumption. The Australian industrial lighting electricity consumption accounted for 7.6% of all industrial electricity consumption. A survey of industrial lighting energy use conducted by the US Department of Energy in 2001 (Navigant 2002) estimated that the total US industrial lighting energy use was 108 TWh, accounting for 10.6% of industrial electricity consumption.

In Russia, industry and agriculture was estimated to have consumed about 56.3 TWh of electricity for lighting in 2000, of which 12.3 TWh was for agriculture (52% of agricultural electricity consumption) and 42 TWh for other industries (13.9% of industrial electricity consumption) (IEA 2006).

## Light sources and lighting characteristics

Among the three sectors (residential, commercial and industrial), industrial sector has the highest source-lumen efficacy. The electricity consumption for global industrial lighting was 490 TWh in 2005, which produced 38.5 Plmh of industrial light with an average source-lumen efficacy of 79 lm/W (IEA 2006). This is due to the fact that most of the light in industrial buildings comes from efficient fluorescent lamps and HID lamps.

Most of the US industrial lighting electricity is consumed by fluorescent lamp and HID lamps, accounting for 67% and 31% of industrial lighting electricity (Table 2-6). Only 2% of all lamps installed in the US industrial buildings are incandescent lamps. The operating period of lamps is 13.5 hours per day in the US, which is much longer than in the other sectors. The average annual lighting energy consumption per unit area varies according to the different industry buildings, ranging from 37 to 107 kWh/m². The IEA estimated that the US and Canadian industrial sectors together had average source-lumen efficacy of 80.4 lm/W in 2005 (IEA 2006).

The IEA has estimated an average source-lumen efficacy of 81.6 lm/W for Japanese industrial-sector lighting. According to the IEA estimation for OECD Europe, the average lamp luminous efficacy in industrial sector is 81.9 lm/W. Fluorescent lamps contribute for about 62% of OECD industrial illumination, HIDs for 37% and others 1%. Similarly, the Australian industrial lighting is dominated by fluorescent lamps, accounting for 55% of total lighting, and the majority of remaining 45% is attributed to HID lamps.

<table><caption>**Table 2-6.** US industrial lighting characteristics for different lamp types in 2001 (Navigant 2002).</caption><thead><tr><th>Lamp type</th><th>Lighting electricity consumption (TWh/a)</th><th>Percentage of installed lamps</th><th>Average operating hours per day (h/day)</th><th>Percentage of electricity consumption</th><th>Percentage of lumen output by source type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Incandescent</td><td>2.6</td><td>2%</td><td>16.7</td><td>2%</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent</td><td>72.3</td><td>93%</td><td>13.4</td><td>67%</td><td>71%</td></tr><tr><td>HID</td><td>33.0</td><td>5%</td><td>13.9</td><td>31%</td><td>29%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>107.9</td><td>100%</td><td>13.5</td><td>100%</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table>

Outside the OECD countries, the Chinese industrial lighting has a mixture of lamps similar to Europe. The use of the efficient T5 fluorescent lamps in Chinese industrial sector is higher than in the European industrial sector. In Russia, the HID lamps are dominant in industrial lighting. Only
36.5% of light in Russian industrial buildings is provided by LFLs, while 56.3% is by mercury-vapour lamps and the rest from other HID lamps and incandescent lamps. The average Russian industrial lighting sector source-lumen efficacy was 61 lm/W in 2000, which was far behind the European and American average (IEA 2006).

### 2.2.5 Evaluation of lighting energy use for buildings

#### Codes and criteria for evaluating energy use for buildings

Various codes and legislations providing guidelines for designing and installing lighting systems in buildings evaluate the energy efficiency criteria in terms of energy use. The most common codes set the maximum allowable installed lighting power density (LPD). The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and the Illuminating engineering Society of North America (IESNA) have provided the recommended building code in the US (ASHRAE 2004). This code applies to all buildings except low rise residential buildings and has a lighting section which specifies maximum “lighting power density” limits, in units of Watts per square metre (W/m²). Lighting codes in most of the US states are usually based on ASHRAE or IEC while California has its own code named Title 24 (Title24 2007). The Title 24 code of 2001 for residential buildings recommended energy efficient lighting with the installed lighting system efficacy greater than 40 lm/W. The 2005 version of the code defines efficient lighting based on the wattage of lamps, according to which the efficacy has to be greater than 40 lm/W for lamps rated less than 15 W, 50 lm/W for 15–40 W lamps, and 60 lm/W for lamps rated more than 40 W in power.

Before the adoption of the European Union's Energy Performance in Building Directive (2002/91/EC), very few European countries had provisions addressing lighting in their codes (ENPER-TEBUC 2003). In Denmark, some voluntary standards recommend maximum LPD levels in watts per square metre (ENPER-TEBUC 2003). The French regulation RT2000 (Réglementation Thermique 2000) specifies minimum lighting energy performance requirements for new buildings and new extensions to existing buildings (IEA 2006). The regulation specifies the efficiency requirements in three different ways, namely; whole building LPD levels, space-by-space LPD levels and normalized lighting power density limits. The normalized lighting power density limits are given as: 4 W/m² per 100 lx for spaces of less than 30 m², and 3 W/m² per 100 lx for spaces of more than 30 m². The United Kingdom building codes for domestic as well as for commercial lighting evaluate the efficiency as a luminous efficacy of the installed lighting system. The 2002 edition of the UK building code requires that the office, industrial and storage area luminaires should have an average efficacy of at least 45 lm/W (IEA 2006).

Similarly, the Australian energy efficiency provisions in Australian commercial and residential buildings have LPD limits for different areas. For large areas, the requirements include time switching or occupancy sensors (IEA 2006). Mexico and China also apply building code standards for the energy performance of lighting in buildings, where the requirements are LPD limits expressed in watts per square metre. Maximum LPD threshold in Chinese households is 7 W/m², and for normal offices 11 W/m² (IEA 2006).

Lighting power density limits are only one issue influencing the lighting energy use. The other important issues are the control of time of use and the use of daylight. The metric which includes all these elements and represents the lighting system's performance is the annual lighting energy intensity, expressed in annual lighting energy consumption per unit area (kWh/m², a). This metric would promote the use of efficient light sources and effective control systems by considering the occupancy and the utilization of daylight. There are also limitations about this metric as a building with high occupancy rates will use more lighting energy than one with a lower occupancy rate
because of the longer operating periods. Thus buildings with different behaviour have to be grouped and different requirements have to be set in developing lighting energy codes.

International Energy Conservation Code (IECC 2003) specifies that lighting control systems are required for each area, and each area must have light reduction controls and automatic lighting scheduling (DOE 2005). The most recent versions of the ASHRAE and IEC codes which are followed by most of the US states have also started placing control and daylighting options in their codes. Four European countries (Flanders-Belgium, France, Greece and the Netherlands) used a detailed calculation procedure for lighting already before the adoption of the new European Directive, Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) (ENPER-TEBUC 2003). The EPBD, which is under implementation in the European Union, directs the member countries to use a comprehensive method to calculate the energy consumption of buildings and incorporate mandatory minimum energy efficiency requirements for all building types (EC 2002).

## Lighting impacts on HVAC systems

In every lighting system, a substantial proportion of the input electrical energy is dissipated as heat. Also, when the visible radiation meets the surface, part of it is absorbed and part of it is reflected. Through successive reflections, the visible radiation is also absorbed by room surfaces. Hence, variations in the lighting energy use in buildings changes the energy requirements for space heating and cooling. Generally, reducing the lighting energy increases heating requirements during cold periods while it lowers the cooling requirements in the summer. However, the net energy balance differs from place to place depending on the building characteristics, operating conditions, and local climatic conditions.

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2-14.** *Changes in heating and cooling loads caused by a 1 kWh decline in lighting loads in existing US commercial buildings (Sezgan and Koomey 2000).*</figcaption></figure>

The change in the heating/cooling load due to the change in the lighting load for different types of US commercial buildings is shown in Figure 2-14. An analysis of the impact of lighting energy
consumption on heating/cooling requirements in different commercial buildings showed that large
savings are possible in hospitals, large offices, and large hotels by the reduction of lighting energy
consumption (Sezgan and Koomey 2000). However, in schools and warehouses, increases in the
heating load are greater than the reduction in the cooling load due to lower lighting energy
consumption.

A study of existing commercial buildings in different parts of the US showed that the warmest states have the largest reduction (30% or more) in cooling loads with a reduction in lighting energy use. The cooler states can have an increase of about 20% in the net heating load in small buildings that are dominated by heat losses. However, net cost savings from reductions in lighting energy are expected even in the cooler climates due to the higher cost of electricity for cooling compared to the cost of heating fuels, and the shorter heating seasons (Weigand 2003).

Lighting impacts on peak electricity loads

The peak electricity consumption period varies from place to place. The development stage of the
country, geographical location and the season of the year as well as building type (windows and
shading types, etc.) have great impact on the time of peak electricity demand. For example, the
electricity peak demand of most of the developing countries occurs during the evening due to the
use of electricity for residential lighting and cooking. For many utilities in industrialized countries,
peak electricity consumption period occurs during the afternoon when commercial and industrial
electricity demands are high.

The peak demand for residential lighting always occurs in the evenings, at the time between 6 to 10 pm depending on the countries. In a metering campaign of sample of households across four EU countries it was found that lighting accounted for between 10% (Portugal) and 19% (Italy) of the residential peak power demand (Sidler 2002). In developing countries where the lighting has up to 86% share on the total electricity consumption, lighting accounts for the majority of the peak power demand. In industrialized countries, commercial sector lighting peak demands coincide with the overall electrical system peak demand. The indirect influence of lighting on air-conditioning loads affects the peak demand. The reduction in peak demand is a very important aspect of energy efficiency of lighting.

References

ASHRAE, 2004. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1.2004. *Energy Standard for Buildings Except low-rise residential buildings*. ISSN 1041-2336.

BELKIN, P., 2007. The European Union's Energy Security Challenges. CRS Report for Congress, NCSE, Washington. (http://www.cnie.org/NLE/CRSreports/08Feb/RL33636.pdf)

Bertoldi, P., Atanasiu, B., 2006. Residential Lighting Consumption and Saving Potential in the Enlarged EU. Proceedings of EDAL'06 Conference, London, UK.

Bhusal, P., Zahnd, A., Eloholma, M., Halonen, L., 2007. Replacing Fuel Based Lighting with Light Emit-ting Diodes in Developing Countries: Energy and Lighting in Rural Nepali Homes. LEUKOS, The Journal of the lllu-minating Engineering Society of North America, Vol 3, no. 4, pp. 277-291.

Blomsterberg Et Al. University Of Lund. Bestfaçade. 2004. EBD-R-07/15, www.bestfacade.com, EU-project.

BOVERKET, National Board of Housing Building and Planning, Building/Living Project. Available from: www.byggabodialogen.se/templates/Page_3477.aspx

Carbon Independent 2009. Available from: http://www.carbonindependent.org/
COM, 2007. An Energy Policy for Europe: Communication from the commission to the European council and the European parliament. Commission of the European communities, Brussels, 2007.

Diemer, H. K., Diemer R. F. M. The Lighting Practice, Inc. Article: Sustainable building, PLDA Light Focus 2008.

DOE (U.S. Department of Energy), 2005. Commercial Energy Code Compliance IECC 2000/2001/2003, Compliance Lighting Requirements, Chapter 8 IECC. Building Energy Codes Program, Washington, DC.
Available from: www.energycodes.gov

DOE (U.S. Department of Energy) 2006. Strategic Plan. Climate Change Technology Program.
Available from: http://www.climatetechnology.gov/stratplan/final/CCTP-StratPlan-Sep-2006.pdf

DOE (U.S. Department of Energy) 2009. 2009 Building Energy Data Book.
Available from: http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/

DPWS NSW, 1998, Department of Public Works and Services, New South Wales: Stadium Australia Life Cycle Assessment (Inventory Results). Conducted for Multiplex Constructions (NSW) by DPWS and ERM Mitchell McCotter. Report prepared by DPWS Environmental and Energy Services.

EC (European Commission), 2002. Energy Performance of Buildings Directive. 2002/91/EC

EC (European Commission), 2007.
Available from: http://www.ec.europa.eu/comm/energy_transport/atlas/html/buildings.html

EIA (Energy Information Administration), 2006. International Energy Annual 2006. Available from
http://www.eia.doe.gov

EIA (Energy Information Administration), 2009. International Energy Outlook 2009. DOE/IEA-0484(2009).

EIA (Energy Information Administration), 2007. International emissions data: Energy Related Carbon Emissions.
Available from http://www.eia.doe.gov/environment.html

Environmental Change Unit 1998. Domestic Efficient Lighting (DELight), University of Oxford (UK), 1998. ISBN 1-874370-20-6.

ENPER-TEBUC, 2003. Energy Performance of Buildings: Calculation Procedures Used in European Countries, for the commission of the European Communities, DG-TREN SAVE Contract No. 4.1031/C/00018/2000 ENPER TEBUC.

Eurostat 2009. European Commission – Eurostat. Available from:
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home/

HORE-LACY, I. 2003. Nuclear Electricity, 7th edition. Uranium Information Centre -Australia, and World Nuclear Association -UK. ISBN 0-9593829-8-4.

IEA, 2006. International Energy Agency. Light's Labour's Lost. IEA Publications, France.

IEA, 2002. International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook. IEA Publications, France.

IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group III, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency.

Janssen, M, 1999, http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/CaseStud/Stadium/Stadium.html

Janssen, M. and Buckland, B. (2000). Stadium Australia Life Cycle Assessment – Energy Use and energy Efficient Design.

LEED 2009. http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CategoryID=19
LOFTNESS, V., 2004. Improving Building Energy Efficiency in the U.S: Technologies and Policies for 2010 to 2050. Proceedings of the workshop *The 10-50 Solution: Technologies and Policies for a Low-Carbon Future*. The PEW Center on Global Climate Change and the National Commission on Energy Policy. Washington DC.

Mills, E., 2002. Why we're here: The $320-billion global lighting energy bill. *Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Energy efficient Lighting*, Nice, France 29-31 May 2002. pp. 369-385.

Mills, E., 2005. The Specter of Fuel based Lighting. Science, Vol. 308, No. 5726, pp. 1263-1264

MTPROG (UK Market Transformation Programme). 2007. Available from: http://www.mtprog.com/

NAVIGANT (Navigant Consulting) 2002. U. S. Lighting Market Characterization Volume I: National Lighting Inventory and Energy Consumption Estimate. Building Technologies Program, US Department of Energy, Washington DC.

Poirazis H., 2008. Single and double skin glazed office buildings: Analyses of energy use and indoor climate. (Report EBD-T-08/8). Lund University.

SEA (Swedish Energy Agency), 2007. Energy statistics for offices.

STI, 2007. ER 2007:34. STIL 1, (Förbättrad energistatistik för lokaler – Stegvis STIL – Rapport för år 1 – Inventering av kontor och förvaltningsbyggnader. Statens Energimyndighet).

Sezgan, O., Koomey, J.G., 2000. Interactions between lighting and space conditioning energy use in US commercial buildings. Energy, Vol 25, no. 8, pp 793-805.

Shailesh, K.R. 2006. White LED Based Illumination Systems for Indian Villages. LEUKOS, The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, Vol 3, no. 2, pp 167-173.

Sidler, O., 2002. Demand side management. End-use metering campaign in 400 households of the European Community. SAVE Programme, Project EURECO France: Commission of the European Communities, 2002

Statistics Finland. 2003. 15.8.4. Carbon Dioxide Intensity in Power Generation in Some European Countries, g CO₂/kWh. http://pxweb2.stat.fi/sahkoiset_julkaisut/energiatilasto2003/html/suom0015.htm.

Stern, N., 2006. Stern Review: The Economics of Climate change. HM Treasury, UK.

Tichelen, P.V., Jansen, B., Geerken, T., Vanden, B. M., Hoof, V.V., Vanhooydonck, L., Vercalsteren, A. 2007. Preparatory Studies for Eco-design Requirements of EuPs Final Report Lot 8: Office lighting. Study for the European Commission DGTREN unit D3. Available from: http://www.eup-richtlinie.at/download/lot8/finalreport.pdf

TITLE 24, 2007. California's Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential and Non-residential Buildings. Available from: http://www.energy.ca.gov/title24/

UN (United Nations Population Division), 2005. World population prospects: the 2004 revision population database. Available from: http://esa.un.org/unpp/

WBDG (Whole Building Design Guide). 2008. Whole Building Design Guide. www.wbdg.org/wbdg Approach.php

Weigand, D.E. 2003. Advanced Lighting Guidelines 2003. New Building Institute. White Salmon, WA 98672. Available from: http://www.newbuildings.org
# Chapter 3: Lighting quality

## Topics covered

<table><tr><td>3</td><td>Lighting quality</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>3.1</td><td>Lighting practices and quality in the past: historical aspects</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>3.2</td><td>Defining lighting quality</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>3.3</td><td>Visual aspects</td><td>45</td></tr><tr><td>3.3.1</td><td>Visual performance</td><td>45</td></tr><tr><td>3.3.2</td><td>Visual comfort</td><td>45</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Color characteristics</td><td>46</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Uniformity of lighting</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Glare</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Veiling reflections</td><td>48</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Shadows</td><td>48</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Flicker</td><td>48</td></tr><tr><td>3.4</td><td>Psychological aspects of light</td><td>48</td></tr><tr><td>3.5</td><td>Non-visual aspects of light</td><td>49</td></tr><tr><td>3.6</td><td>Lighting and productivity</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>3.7</td><td>Effects of electromagnetic fields on health and optical radiation safety requirements</td><td>51</td></tr><tr><td>3.8</td><td>Conclusions: opportunities and barriers</td><td>52</td></tr><tr><td>3.8.1</td><td>Opportunities</td><td>52</td></tr><tr><td>3.8.2</td><td>Risks</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>References</td><td>54</td></tr></table>
# 3 Lighting quality

## 3.1 Lighting practices and quality in the past: historical aspects

The use of electrical lighting, even in the industrialised world, is quite recent. Electrical lighting began to spread widely with the development and use of the incandescent lamps. The use of incandescent lamp reached a large scale at the beginning of the 20th century.

For thousands of years, people relied mainly on daylight and fire (bonfire, torches, candles and oil). The fundamentals of lighting at that time were related to the quantity of light that was to provide light for people to see and cope in the visual environment also during the dark hours.

Powerful lamps such as fluorescent lamps came to the market in the 1950s with the following introduction of high-intensity discharge lamps. The development of powerful bright light sources lead to considerations of avoiding glare (using light diffusers, later light louvres). Moving from incandescent light sources to discharge light sources raised the issue of color rendering and color temperature. Today, LEDs are entering the lighting market and as new light sources they enable new approaches to lighting design and practice. LEDs introduce new possibilities for tuning the color of light and compared to conventional light sources they are small in size giving also freedom for luminaire design.

Today, the variety and number of lighting equipment manufacturers has grown, but the fundamentals of lighting remains the same. These are to supply enough light with proper lighting distribution in space, with good spectral qualities and little or no glare, at reasonable costs. The development of light sources and lighting equipment provides both opportunities and challenges for the lighting designers in providing lighting that is not only adequate in terms of quantity, but also meets the lighting quality demands.

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3-1.** LEDs are used today to provide lighting in versatile applications; ranging from lighting of office buildings to lighting of homes in developing countries.</figcaption></figure>

## 3.2 Defining lighting quality

What does lighting quality mean? There is no complete answer to the question. Lighting quality is depends on several factors. It depends largely on people's expectations and past experiences of electric lighting. Those who experience elementary electric lighting for the first time, for example, in remote villages in developing countries, have different expectations and attitudes towards lighting from office workers in industrialized countries. There are also large individual differences in what is considered comfortable lighting, as well as cultural differences between different regions.
Visual comfort is also highly dependent on the application, for example lighting that is considered comfortable in an entertainment setting may be disliked and regarded as uncomfortable in a working space (Boyce 2003).

Lighting quality is much more than just providing an appropriate quantity of light. Other factors that are potential contributors to lighting quality include e.g. illuminance uniformity, luminance distributions, light color characteristics and glare (Veitch and Newsham 1998).

There are many physical and physiological factors that can influence the perception of lighting quality. Lighting quality can not be expressed simply in terms of photometric measures nor can there be a single universally applicable recipe for good quality lighting (Boyce 2003, Veitch 2001). Light quality can be judged according to the level of visual comfort and performance required for our activities. This is the visual aspect. It can also be assessed on the basis of the pleasantness of the visual environment and its adaptation to the type of room and activity. This is the psychological aspect. There are also long term effects of light on our health, which are related either to the strain on our eyes caused by poor lighting (again, this is a visual aspect), or to non visual aspects related to the effects of light on the human circadian system (Brainard et al. 2001, Cajochen et al. 2005).

A number of different approaches have been suggested to define lighting quality (Bear and Bell 1992, Loe and Rowlands 1996, Veitch and Newsham 1998, Boyce and Cuttle 1998). The definition that seems most generally applicable is that lighting quality is given by the extent to which the installation meets the objectives and constraints set by the client and the designer (Boyce 2003). In this way lighting quality is related to objectives like enhancing performance of relevant tasks, creating specific impressions, generating desired pattern of behaviour and ensuring visual comfort. The constraints may be set by the available financial budgets and resources, set time-lines for completing the project and possible predetermined practices and design approaches that need to be followed.

Lighting quality is also a financial issue which can be best illustrated in the case of the luminous environment of work spaces. An assessment in French offices shows that a typical yearly electric lighting consumption amounts for about 4 €/m², and total yearly ownership cost of lighting installations is around 8 to 10 €/m² (Fontoynont 2008). This has to be compared to the yearly cost of salaries for the companies, of about 3,500 €/m², with the hypothesis of an employee costing 35,000 €/year, requiring about 10 m² of office space. Thus, average total lighting costs per employee are between 80 to 100 €/year. Assuming working hours of 1,600 hrs/year, or a cost per hour of 35,000 € /1,600 hour = 21 €/hour, it can be seen that the total cost of lighting required by an employee is equivalent to 4 to 5 hours of work per year, or 0.3% of the yearly employee costs. This figure demonstrates the risk of offering poor lighting environment to the office employees. Poor lighting conditions can easily result in losses in productivity of the employees and the resulting production costs of the employer can be much higher than the annual ownership cost of lighting.

Thus, any attempt to develop energy efficient lighting strategy should, as the first priority, guarantee that the quality of the luminous environment is as high as possible. The results presented in this guidebook demonstrate that this is achievable, even with high savings in electricity consumption. In the search for highly efficient lighting schemes, it is essential to fully understand the detailed lighting specification of given environments. The integration of this knowledge in lighting design leads to opportunities to develop win-win scenarios, offering combination of energy performance and lighting quality.
## 3.3 Visual aspects

### 3.3.1 Visual performance

One of the major aspects of the lighting practice and recommendations is to provide adequate lighting for people to carry out their visual tasks. Visibility is defined by our ability to detect objects or signs of given dimensions, at given distances and with given contrasts with the background (CIE 1978). In buildings, typical applications include lighting conditions for writing, typing, reading, communicating and viewing slides and videos, or performing detailed tasks like sorting products. Visual performance is defined by the speed and accuracy of performing a visual task (CIE 1987) and visual performance models are used to evaluate the interrelationships between visual task performance, visual target size and contrast, observer age and luminance levels (CIE 2002). Light levels that are optimised in terms of visual performance should guarantee that the visual performance can be carried out well above the visibility threshold limits. Visual performance is improved with increasing luminance. Yet, there is a plateau above which further increases in luminance do not lead to improvements in visual performance (Rea and Ouellette 1991, CIE 2002). Thus increasing luminance levels above the optimum for visual performance may not be justified and can on the contrary lead to excessive use of energy. The visual performance aspect and consumption of electricity for lighting should be in balance in order to increase energy efficiency, not of course, forgetting the lighting quality aspects.

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3-2.** *Relative visual performance as a function of background luminance and target contrast.* (Halonen 1993)</figcaption></figure>

Ensuring adequate and appropriate light levels (quantity of light) is only an elementary step in creating comfortable and good-quality luminous and visual environments. It can be agreed that bad-quality lighting does not allow people to see what they need to see and/or it can cause visual discomfort. On the other hand, lighting that is adequate for visual tasks and does not cause visual discomfort is not necessarily good-quality lighting. Also, depending on the specific application and case, both insufficient lighting and too much light can lead to bad-quality lighting.

### 3.3.2 Visual comfort

There are a number of lighting-related factors that may cause visual discomfort and there is no straight-forward path to follow in creating visually comfortable luminous environments (Boyce 2003, Veitch 1998). The current indoor lighting recommendations give ranges of illuminance values for different types of rooms and activities (EN12464-1 2002, CIBSE 1997, IESNA 2000). In
addition, guidelines on light distribution in a space, the limitation of glare, and the light color
characteristics are given. Attention also needs to be paid to the elimination of veiling reflections and
to the formation of shadows in the space. The recommendations and guidelines concern mainly the
elimination of visual discomfort, but lighting designer can add on that to provide visual comfort.
Causes of visual discomfort can be too little light and too much light, too much variation in
luminous distribution, too uniform lighting, annoying glare, veiling reflections, too strong shadows
and flicker from light sources.

Color characteristics

The color characteristics of light in space are determined by the spectral power distribution (SPD) of the light source and the reflectance properties of the surfaces in the room. The color of light sources is usually described by two properties, namely the correlated color temperature (CCT) and general color rendering index (CRI). The color appearance of a light source is evaluated by its correlated color temperature (CCT). For example, incandescent lamps with CCT of 2700 K have a yellowish color appearance and their light is described as *warm*. Certain type of fluorescent lamps or white LEDs have CCT of around 6000 K with bluish appearance and light described as *cool*. The CRI of the CIE measures how well a given light source renders a set of test colors relative to a reference source of the same correlated color temperature as the light source in question (CIE 1995). The general CRI of the CIE is calculated as the average of special CRIs for eight test colors. The reference light source is Planckian radiator (incandescent type source) for light sources with CCT below 5000 K and a form of a daylight source for light sources with CCT above 5000 K. The higher the general CRI, the better is the color rendering of a light source, the maximum value being 100. The CIE general CRI has its limitations. The shortcomings of the CRI may become evident when applied to LED light sources as a result of their peaked spectra. The CIE (CIE 2007) recommends the development of a new color rendering index (or a set of new color rendering indices), which should be applicable to all types of light sources including white LEDs. CIE technical committee TC1-69 Color rendering of White Light Sources is currently investigating the issue.

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3-3.** Light source spectrum, i.e. radiant power distribution over the visible wavelengths, determines the light color characteristics. Examples of spectra of an incandescent lamp (CCT= 2690 K, CRI= 99), a compact fluorescent lamp (CCT= 2780 K, CRI = 83) and a white LED lamp (CCT= 6010 K, CRI = 78).</figcaption></figure>

The Kruithof effect describes the psychological effects of preferences for varying CCT and illuminance level. It proposes that low CCTs are preferred at low illuminances, and high CCTs are preferred over high illuminances (Kruithof 1941). The Kruithof effect is not, however, generally supported in later studies (Boyce and Cuttle 1990, Davis and Ginthner 1990). It is also suggested that color adaptation occurs when people spend certain time in a space, after which it is no more possible to compare lamps with different CCT. It is obvious that the color temperature preferences of people are culture and climate-related, as well as dependent of the prevailing lighting practices in different regions (Miller 1998, Ayama *et al.* 2002). Recently, it has been suggested that high color
temperature light could be used in increasing human alertness (see Ch. 3.5). More research is needed to confirm this and to apply these postulates in lighting design.

## Uniformity of lighting

Uniformity of lighting in space can be desirable or less desirable depending on the function of the space and type of activities. A completely uniform space is usually undesirable whereas too non-uniform lighting may cause distraction and discomfort. Lighting standards and codes usually provide recommended illuminance ratios between the task area and its surroundings (EN12464-1 2002, CIBSE 1997, IESNA 2000). Most indoor lighting design is based on providing levels of illuminances while the visual system deals with light reflected from surfaces i.e. luminances. For office lighting there are recommended luminance ratios between the task and its immediate surroundings (EN12464-1 2002, CIBSE 1997, IESNA 2000). Room surface reflectances are an important part of a lighting system and affect both the uniformity and energy usage of lighting. Compared to a conventional uniform office lighting installation with fluorescent lamps, LEDs provide opportunities to concentrate light more on actual working areas and to have light where it is actually needed. This provides opportunities to increase the energy efficiency of lighting in the future.

## Glare

Glare is caused by high luminances or excessive luminance differences in the visual field. Disability glare and discomfort glare are two types of glare, but in indoor lighting the main concern is about discomfort glare. This is visual discomfort in the presence of bright light sources, luminaries, windows or other bright surfaces (CIE 1987, Boyce 2003). There are established systems for the evaluation of the magnitude of discomfort glare, e.g. Unified Glare Rating (UGR) (EN12464-1 2002), Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) (IESNA 2000), British Glare Rating system (CIBSE 1997), yet the physiological or perceptual mechanism for discomfort glare is not established. The present glare indices are best suitable for assessing discomfort glare induced by a regular array of fluorescent lamp luminaries for a range of standard interiors, and there are a number of questions related to their application in practice. The possible problems are related to the definition of the glare source size and luminance and its immediate background luminance (Boyce 2003).

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3-4.** Luminaires and windows can induce direct glare, while light reflections from glossy surfaces and computer screens can induce indirect glare.</figcaption></figure>

LEDs are small point sources with high intensities and arrays of these individual sources can form luminaires with very different shapes and sizes. In illuminating the space with LEDs special care has to be taken to avoid glare.
## Veiling reflections

Veiling reflections are specular reflections that appear on the object viewed and which reduce the visual task contrast (CIE 1987). The determining factors are the specularity of the surface and the geometry between the surface, observer and sources of high luminance (e.g. luminaires, windows, bright walls). Glossy papers, glass surfaces and computer screens are subject to cause veiling reflections. In rooms with several computer screens inside the task area special care has to be taken in the positioning of the luminaires to avoid luminous reflections from the screens. In using portable computers the viewing directions may change in relation to the fixed luminaires and this poses further requirements for lighting design. Also, when rearranging the working places and geometry of the working conditions, the possible causes of veiling reflections should be avoided in the typical viewing directions. With proper lighting design, i.e. positioning of luminaires related to working areas, it is possible to achieve the same visibility conditions with less energy than with incorrect positioning of luminaires causing veiling reflections to the working area.

## Shadows

Shadows in the space may be negative in obstructing the visibility of certain elements, but they can also be positive in creating an attractive and interesting visual environment. Whether shadows are considered as visually comfortable or discomfortable depends much on the application.

A good balance between direct light and diffuse light is important in order to see the way light falls on objects. In the quest for more parameters of lighting quality, it is worthwhile to study the shadows of objects in a deeper way: the light side of an object, the shadow side, the cast shadow and the presence of reflected light. This can give more connections between scientific and artistic knowledge of lighting qualities. Moreover, for the visual comfort in spaces it is necessary to pay more attention to the shadowing, especially for the comfort of elderly people and visually impaired.

## Flicker

Flicker is produced by the fluctuation of light emitted by a light source. Light sources that are operated with ac supply, produce regular fluctuations in light output. The visibility of these fluctuations depends on the frequency and modulation of the fluctuation. Flickering light is mostly as a source of discomfort, except in some entertainment purposes. For some people flicker can even be a hazard to health. Flicker from light sources can be minimized by stable supply voltage or by using high frequency electronic ballasts with fluorescent and high intensity discharge lamps (EN12464-1 2002, CIBSE 1997, IESNA 2000).

## 3.4 Psychological aspects of light

People perceive their luminous environment through their eyes, but they process this information with their brain. Light scenes are therefore judged in connection with references and expectations. The luminous environment can be appreciated in many ways e.g., more or less agreeable, more or less attractive, more or less appropriate to the function of the space, more or less highlighting the company image. Variations of luminances and colors can strengthen attractiveness, trigger emotions, and affect our mood, the impact of lighting depending much on the individuals and their state of mind. A lighting installation that does not meet the user's expectations can be considered unacceptable even if it provides the conditions for adequate visual performance. Unacceptable lighting conditions may impact on task performance and thus productivity through motivation (Boyce 2003, Gligor 2004).
## 3.5 Non-visual aspects of light

Light has also effects that are fully or partly separated from the visual system. These are called the non-visual, non-image forming (NIF) or biological effects of light and are related to the human circadian photoreception (Brainard *et al.* 2001, Cajochen *et al.* 2005).

The discovery of the novel third photoreceptor, intrinsically photoreceptive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGC), in 2002 has raised huge interest both in the circadian biology and lighting research communities (Berson *et al.* 2002). The ipRGC has been found to be the main photoreceptor responsible for entraining humans to the environmental light/dark-cycle along with other biological effects. It represents a missing link in describing the mechanism of biological effects as controlled by light and darkness. Thus, light can be thought of as an external cue that entrains the internal clock to work properly. The human biological clock drives most daily rhythms in physiology and behavior. These include sleep/wake rhythm, core body temperature, and hormone secretion. It passes on information regulating the secretion of almost all hormones, including nocturnal pineal hormone melatonin and serotonin, and cortisol. Besides the shifting of the phase of the endogenous clock by light, there is evidence of the involvement of the ipRGCs in pupillary reflex, alertness, mood, and in human performance (Dacey *et al.* 2005, Duffy and Wright 2005, Whiteley *et al.* 1998).

There is evidence that short-wavelength light is the most effective in regulating the biological clock (Brainard and Hanifin 2006, Wright *et al.* 2001, Thapan *et al.* 2001). Thus much research is currently investigating the possibility to use blue enriched light to affect human responses and behaviour like alertness and mood (Gooley *et al.* 2003, Lehr *et al.* 2007, Mills *et al.* 2007, Rautkylä *et al.* 2009). The effect of light on alertness has been much examined, but the mechanism explaining the detected reactions still remains unclear.

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3-5.** *Light has both visual and non-visual responses acting through the different retinal photoreceptors and tracts in the nervous system.*</figcaption></figure>

The biological effects of light and their effects on human performance are not yet very well known. A considerable amount of research work is still required before we can understand the non-visual effects of light and consider them in lighting practice. Research work is needed to generate an improved understanding of the interaction of the effects of different aspects of lighting on behavioral visual tasks and cortical responses and on how the biological effects of lighting could be related to these responses.
## 3.6 Lighting and productivity

Lighting should be designed to provide people with the right visual conditions that help them to perform visual tasks efficiently, safely and comfortably. The luminous environment acts through a chain of mechanisms on human physiological and psychological factors, which further influence human performance and productivity (Gligor 2004).

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3-5.** *Luminous environment and human performance.* (Gligor 2004)</figcaption></figure>

There have been several field studies on the effects of lighting conditions on productivity. The earliest studies were made in the 1920's (Weston 1922, Weston and Taylor 1926) and indicated that lighting conditions can improve performance by providing adequate illuminance for the visual tasks. Since then a number of studies have been carried out. Their results are sometimes contradictory. For example, a study in clerical office work indicated that an increase in illuminance from 500 lx to 1500 lx could increase the performance of office workers by 9% (Hughes and McNelis 1978), while another study showed that lower illuminance levels (150 lx) tended to improve performance of a complex word categorisation task as compared to a higher level (1500 lx) (Baron et al. 1992). A field study in industrial environment measured direct productivity increases in the range from 0 to 7.7% due to changes in lighting (Juslén 2007). The literature includes more
examples of null results than clear-cut effects of illuminance on task performance, over a wide range of illuminance levels and for a variety of complex and simple tasks in office work (Gligor 2004).

The effect of lighting on productivity is ambiguous. The difficulty in finding the relations between lighting and productivity is that there are several other factors that simultaneously affect human performance. These factors include motivation, relationships between workers and the management and the degree of having personal control to the working conditions (Boyce 2003). With appropriate lighting the ability to perform visual tasks can be improved and visual discomfort can be avoided. This can provide conditions for better visual and task performance and, ultimately, productivity. The difficulty of field studies in working environments is the degree of experimental control required. Several studies have investigated the effect of increase in illuminance on task performance. However, illuminance is only one of the many aspects in the lighting conditions. In making changes to lighting, which lighting aspects are changed (e.g. illuminance, spectrum, and luminance distribution) and whether there are other factors that are simultaneously changed in the working conditions (e.g. working arrangements, people, supervision of work) need to be controlled and analyzed. Recently, several studies are investigating the effects of light spectrum on human performance and the possibilities to use blue-enriched light to improve human performance through the non-visual effects of light (see Ch. 3.5).

## 3.7 Effects of electromagnetic fields on health and optical radiation safety requirements

Lighting equipment and systems produce electric and magnetic fields. The potential effects of these fields on human health depend widely on the frequency and their intensity, but the effects of human exposure to electromagnetic fields are still not fully known.

Optical radiation may have hazardous effects on human health, eyes and skin. To assess these effects the spectral distribution, the size (projected size) of the source and the distance from the source at the point of nearest human access need to be defined. The IEC/CIE Standard 62471-1/CIE S 009 Photobiological Safety of Lamps and Lamp Systems assesses the optical radiation hazards from lamps, an array of lamps and lamp systems (IEC/CIE 2006). All types of electrically powered optical radiation sources including LEDs are covered in the standard. Reference measurement techniques and a risk group classification system for defining optical radiation hazards are also included. The standard provides a basis for evaluation of potential hazards that may be associated with different lamps and lamp systems. The IEC Technical Report 62471-2 Guidance on Manufacturing Requirements Relating to Non-laser Optical Radiation Safety provides basis for safety requirements dependent on risk group classification and related examples (IEC/CIE 2008). Similarly to the IEC/CIE standard (IEC/CIE 2006) the ANSI/IESNA Recommended Practice RP-27.1-05 Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems covers the evaluation of optical radiation hazards from all lamps and lamp systems (ANSI/IESNA 2007).

The emerging LED technology brings powerful and high brightness lighting products on the market. The wider the field of light (i.e. size of the illumination source) and the brighter (higher luminance) of that source, the more potential risk it carries for the retina. The ICNIRP Statement (ICNIRP 2000) reviews the potential optical hazards from LED sources and the related standards and regulations. It is recognized that the determination of appropriate viewing durations and distances under different conditions of usage is needed for any optical radiation hazard assessment. The Statement recommends that safety evaluations and related measurement procedures for LEDs follow the guidelines for incoherent sources (other than laser). It concludes that the future development of application-specific safety standards applicable to realistic viewing conditions will reduce the unnecessary concerns regarding LED safety.
The photochemical retinal injury is often referred to as the blue light hazard (BLH). CIE TC6-14 The Blue-Light Hazard has studied the means and methods to evaluate potential BLH. The outcome of the TC6-14 work is published under CIE 138-2000 (CIE 2000). The report proposes a technique employing the ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) threshold limit value (TLV) for general use. Currently, CIE TC6-57 is preparing a draft CIE standard on the definitions and action spectra for two retinal hazard functions used in photobiological safety documents. CIE TC6-55 is studying the different methods of assessing the photobiological safety of LEDs. This work reviews the known effects from a physiological standpoint and will determine the dose relationships that pose a potential risk for eye injury from excessive irradiation.

The European Directive (2006/25/EC) includes minimum health and safety requirements for occupational exposure to artificial optical radiation. It introduces measures to protect workers from risks related to optical radiation and its effects on health and safety, particularly to the eyes and the skin. The Directive provides method to determine biophysically relevant exposure levels for UV-, visible and IR-radiation to be compared with given exposure limit values.

## 3.8 Conclusions: opportunities and barriers

Light affects human behaviour through various processes and new routes can be found in the future through the non-visual effects of light. Light can act as a stimulator (perception, alertness, etc.) or as an inhibitor (glare, heart rate variability, etc.). Any choice in lighting design will therefore have a consequence, which may sometimes be negligible, sometimes essential. Increasing the quality of lighting does not mean to use more energy. On the contrary, with careful consideration of the different lighting factors and with proper lighting equipment, the energy consumption of lighting can still be decreased while improving the quality of lighting.

In investigating lighting schemes for energy conservation, it is clear that at the existing level of knowledge, both opportunities and barriers in energy efficient lighting strategies can be identified.

### 3.8.1 Opportunities

Indoor lighting design is based largely on providing more or less uniform levels of illuminances in the room, while the perception of the luminous environment is related mainly to light reflected from surfaces i.e. luminances. Thus innovative lighting design methods could be introduced which give a high priority to the quality of the luminous environment as our eyes perceive it. The possible obstacles and constraints set by the current regulations for horizontal illumination levels should be identified, and ways for designing and implementing more innovative lighting solutions should be sought. Compared to conventional uniform office lighting installation with fluorescent lamps, with LEDs it is possible to concentrate light more on actual working areas and to have light where it is actually needed. This will help to increase the lighting energy efficiency in the future. Simultaneously, LEDs can be used to create interesting visual environments with varying luminance distributions and shadows when desired.

It is clear that the traditional assessment of light on the basis of visibility is not adequate for describing the complex, but undeniable, effects lighting can have on humans. This opens up windows for designing healthier living and working conditions for people in the future. The findings on the interactions of light and the human circadian system indicate that light can have non-visual effects on several human systems including sleep/wake rhythm, core body temperature, hormone secretion, alertness and mood. This provides opportunities to design better lighting conditions optimised for human performance and well being, with emphasis, for example, on light distribution and patterns in space and possibly dynamic light intensity and color. However,
considerable research work is still required before we can understand the non-visual effects of light and consider them in the lighting practice. The underlying mechanisms of action and the quantification of light characteristics, including exact spectral composition, light intensity, exposure duration and prior light history remain to be investigated.

Better lighting quality does not necessarily mean higher consumption of energy. While it is important to provide adequate light levels for ensuring optimized visual performance, there are always levels above which further increases in illuminance do not improve performance. More light does not necessarily mean better quality of lighting. Through the use of energy efficient lighting products and light room surfaces it is possible to design energy efficient and good quality lighting.

New technologies such as LEDs and OLEDs offer high flexibility in the control of light spectra and intensities, which enhance their attractiveness beyond their growing luminous efficacy. The increased possibilities to control both the light fluxes and spectra of light sources should allow the creation of more appropriate and comfortable luminous environments. Visual comfort requirements should benefit from the increase in the supply of light sources and components, leading to better control of the luminance distribution. Also, the development of lighting control systems, based on presence detection and the blending of electrical light with daylight, can lead to substantial increases in energy efficiency.

Daylight is a powerful light source, requiring no energy to produce. Daylight has a continuous spectral composition and provides good color rendering. Daylight is usually preferred by people working indoors and it can enhance motivation and can be linked to human circadian rhythms (Dehoff 2002). Daylighting techniques should offer new opportunities for lighting systems in buildings. Care has to be taken in utilizing daylight in indoor lighting to control it properly in order to avoid its glare effects and any veiling reflections resulting from direct or indirect sunlight.

### 3.8.2 Risks

Reduction of the size of light sources (compact HID lamps, LEDs) may lead to increased risk of glare. Standards and recommendations should be adapted accordingly.

The recent findings on the biological effects of light may induce temptations to use blue enriched light in indoor lighting in order to affect human responses. However, a considerable number of research work is still required before we can understand the non-visual effects of light and consider them in the lighting practice.

The possible adverse effects of light on health should be understood before using light to increase alertness and productivity in shift-work. For example there is hypothesis that regular bright light exposure at night-time is associated with increased likelihood of breast cancer (Stevens et al. 1997). More research is required on the effects of night-time light exposure on human health and performance.

Photons in the blue range of light are more powerful than the ones in the red range, leading to possible hazards associated with blue light when not controlled properly. The intensity of the short wavelength light, the viewing distance and the viewing duration are the determining factors here.

Energy conservation measures may lead to the risk of poor lighting environment to the office employees. Poor lighting conditions can easily result in losses in productivity of employees and the resulting production costs of the employer can be much higher than the annual ownership cost of lighting.
References

ANSI/IESNA (American National Standard Institute/ Illuminating Engineering Society of North America), 2007. 
*ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems - General Requirements*. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Web Store 10 June 2007.

AYAMA, M., ELOHOLMA, M., HYVÄRINEN, M., EDA, T., KON, D., MUKAI, K., KANAYA, S., HALONEN, L., 2002. Whiteness Perception in Japanese and Finnish under Cool and Warm Fluorescent Lamps. In: CHUNG, R. Y., RODRIGUES, A. B. J. ed. *Proceedings of the 9th Congress of the International Color Association, New York, 24-29 June 2001*. Washington: SPIE (The International Society for Optical Engineering) 4421, 279-282.

BARON, R.A., REA, M.S., DANIELS, S.G. 1992. *Effects of indoor lighting (Illuminance and spectral power distribution) on the performance of cognitive tasks and interpersonal behaviour: the potential mediating role of positive affect*, Motivation Emotion, 16, 1-33.

BEAR, A.R., BELL, R.I., 1992. The CSP index: a practical measure of office lighting quality. *Lighting Research and Technology* 24 (4), 215-225.

BERSON, D.M., DUNN, F.A., MOTOHARU, T. 2002. Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock. *Science*, 295(5557), 1070-1073.

BOYCE, P. R., 2003. *Human Factors in Lighting*. 2nd ed. London and New York: Taylor & Francis.

BOYCE, P. R., CUTTLE, C., 1990. Effect of correlated color temperature on the perception of interiors and color discrimination performance. *Lighting Research and Technology*, 22 (1), 16-36.

BOYCE, P. R., CUTTLE, C., 1998 Discussion of Veitch J.A. and Newsham G.R., Determinants of lighting quality I: State of the Science. *Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society* 27 (1), 92-106.

BRAINARD, G.C., HANIFIN, J.P., GREESON, J.M., BYRNE, B., GLICKMAN, G., GERNER, E., ROLLAG, M.D., 2001. Action spectrum for melatonin regulation in humans: Evidence for a novel circadian photoreceptor. *The Journal of Neuroscience*, 21(16), 6405-6412.

BRAINARD, G.C., HANIFIN, J.P., 2006. Photons, clocks, and consciousness. *Journal of Biological Rhythms*, 20 (4), 314-325

CAJOCHEN, C., MÜNCH, M., KOBIALKA, S., KRÄUCHI, K., STEINER, R., OELHAFEN, P., ORGÜL, S., WIRZ-JUSTICE, A., 2005. High Sensitivity of Human Melatonin, Alertness, Thermoregulation, and Heart Rate to Short Wavelength Light. *The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology et Metabolism* 90 (3), 1311-1316.

CIBSE 1997. *CIBSE Code for interior lighting 1994*: Additions and corrections 1997. ISBN 0 900953 64 0.

CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage), 1978. *A unified framework of methods for evaluating visual performance aspects of lighting*. CIE 1978; 19-2.

CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage), 1987. CIE/IEC. *International Lighting Vocabulary*. CIE 1987; 17: 4.

CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage), 2000. *CIE Collection in Photobiology and Photochemistry*. CIE 2000; 138.

CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage), 2002. *The correlation of models for vision and visual performance*. CIE 2002; 145.

DACEY, D.M., LIAO, H.W., PETERSON, B.B., ROBINSON, F.R., SMITH, V.C., POKORNY, J., YAU, K.W., GAMLIN, P.D., 2005. Melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells in primate retina signal color and irradiance and project to the LGN. *Nature* 433, 749-754.

DAVIS, R.G., GINTHNER, D.N., 1990. Correlated color temperature, illuminance level and the Kruithof curve. *Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society* 19 (1) 27-38.

DEHOFF, P., 2002. The impact of changing light on the well-being of people at work. *Proceedings of Right Light 5*,
347-351.

DUFFY, J.F., WRIGHT, K.P., 2005. Entrainment of the human circadian system by light. *Journal of Biological Rhythms*, 20(4), 326-338.

EN 12464-1, 2002. *Light and lighting – Lighting at work places – Part 1: Indoor Work Places*, European Standard.
ISBN number: 0580411281.

European Directive 2006/25/EC, 2006. On the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to risks arising from physical agents (artificial optical radiation). Official Journal of the European Union, L 114, 38-59.

FONTOYNONT, M., 2008. Long term assessment of costs associated with lighting and daylighting techniques. *Light and Engineering*, 16 (1), 19-31.

GOOLEY, J.J., LU, J., FISCHER, D., SAPER, C.B., 2003. A broad role for melanopsin in nonvisual photoreception, *The Journal of Neuroscience*, 23, 7093-7106.

GLIGOR, V., 2004. *Luminous environment and productivity at workplaces*. Thesis (Licentiate), Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo.

HALONEN, L., 1993. Effects of lighting and task parameters on visual acuity and performance. Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Technology, Helsinki University of Technology, ISBN 951-22-1845-3.

HUGHES, P.C., MCNELIS, J.F., 1978. Lighting, productivity, and the work environment. *Lighting Design + Application*, 8 (12), 32-39.

ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection), 2000. *Statement on Light-Emitting Diodes (Leds) and Laser Diodes: Implications for Hazard Assessment*. Health Physics 78 (6): 744-752

IEC(International Electrotechnical Commission), 2006. *Photobiological Safety of Lamps and Lamp Systems*. Dual IEC/CIE Standard IEC 62471-1/CIE S 009.

IEC(International Electrotechnical Commission), 2008. Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems. Part 2. Guidance on manufacturing requirements relating to non-laser optical radiation safety.

IESNA (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America) 2000. *The IESNA Lighting Handbook*, 9th ed. New York: IESNA.

JUSLÉN, H., 2007. Lighting, productivity and preferred illuminances – field studies in the industrial environment. Thesis (PhD). Helsinki University of Technology.

KRUITHOF, A.A., 1941. Tubular Luminescence Lamps for General Illumination. *Philips Technical Review*, 6 (3), 65-96.

LEHR, S., GERSTMEYER, K., JACOB, J.H., FRIELING, H., HENKEL, A.W., MEYRER, R., WILTFANG, J., KORNHUBER, J. and BLEICH, S., 2007. Blue light improves cognitive performance. *Journal of Neural Transmission*, 114 (4), 457-460.

LOE, D.L., ROWLANDS, E., 1996. The art and science of lighting: a strategy for lighting design. *Lighting Research and Technology* 28 (4), 153-164.

MILLER, N.J., 1998. *A recipe for lighting quality, Proceedings of the First CIE Symposium on Lighting Quality*. CIE x015, 40-47.

MILLS, P.R., TOMKINS, S.C., SCHLANGEN, J.M., 2007. The effect of high correlated color temperature office lighting on employee wellbeing and work performance. *Journal of Circadian Rhythms*, 5, 2.

RAUTKYLÄ, E., PUOLAKKA, M., TETRI, E., HALONEN, L. 2009. Correlated color temperature and timing of light exposure; their effects on daytime alertness in lecture environments, to be published in *Journal of Light and Visual*
*Environment*.

REA, M.S., OUELLETTE, M.J., 1991. Relative visual performance: a basis for application. *Lighting Research and Technology* 23 (3), 135-144.

STEVENS, R.G., WILSON, B.W., ANDERSON, L.W., 1997. The melatonin hypothesis: breast cancer and the use of electric power, Columbus, OH Battelle Press.

THAPAN, K., ARENDT, J. SKENE, D.J., 2001. An action spectrum for melatonin suppression: evidence for a novel non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor system in humans. *The Journal of Physiology, 535* (1), 261-267.

VEITCH, J.A., NEWSHAM, G.R., 1998. Determinants of lighting quality I: State of the Science. *Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society* 27 (1), 92-106.

VEITCH, J.A., 2001. Psychological processes influencing lighting quality. *Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society* 30 (1), 124-140.

WESTON, H.C., 1922. A study of the efficiency I fine linen-weaving, *Industrial Fatigue Research Board, Report No.* 20, London.

WESTON, H.C., TAYLOR, S.K., 1926. The relation between illumination and efficiency in fine work (type-setting by hand), Final Report of the *Industrial Fatigue Research Board and the Illumination Research Committee*, London.

WHITELEY, S.J.O., SAUVE, Y., AVILES-TRIGOEROS, M., VIDAL-SANZ, M., LUND, R.D., 1998. Extent and duration of recovered pupillary light reflex following retinal ganglion cell axon regeneration through peripheral nerve grafts directed to the pretectum in adult rats. *Exp. Neurol*, 154, 560-572.

WRIGHT, H.R., LACK, L.C., PARTRIDGE, K.J., 2001. Light emitting diodes can be used to phase delay the melatonin rhythm. *Journal of Pineal Research*, 31, 350-355.
# Chapter 4: Lighting and energy standards and codes

## Topics covered

<table><tr><td>4</td><td>Lighting and energy standards and codes</td><td>59</td></tr><tr><td>4.1</td><td>Review of lighting standards worldwide</td><td>59</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.1</td><td>Introduction</td><td>59</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.2</td><td>Data collection</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.3</td><td>Method</td><td>61</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.4</td><td>Display using world maps</td><td>61</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.5</td><td>Recommended illuminance levels</td><td>70</td></tr><tr><td>4.2</td><td>Energy codes and policies</td><td>70</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.1</td><td>Europe - Energy performance of buildings directive</td><td>70</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.2</td><td>Energy efficient building codes and policies in the US</td><td>71</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.3</td><td>Energy efficient building codes and policies in China</td><td>71</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.4</td><td>Energy efficient building codes and policies in Brazil</td><td>71</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.5</td><td>Energy efficient building codes and policies in South Africa</td><td>72</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.6</td><td>25 Energy Efficiency Policy Recommendations by IEA to THE G8</td><td>72</td></tr><tr><td>4.3</td><td>Energy-related legislation in the European Union</td><td>73</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.1</td><td>Introduction</td><td>73</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.2</td><td>EuP Directive</td><td>73</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.3</td><td>Energy performance of buildings</td><td>76</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>EN 15193- Energy requirements for Lighting LENI</td><td>76</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.4</td><td>Energy Efficiency Label</td><td>78</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.5</td><td>Disposal phase of Lighting Equipment in Europe</td><td>78</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Legislation</td><td>78</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>RoHS Directive</td><td>78</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>WEEE Directive</td><td>79</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.6</td><td>Notes</td><td>81</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.7</td><td>Review of standards on electric and electromagnetic aspects</td><td>81</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>IEC standard</td><td>81</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>CENELEC standard</td><td>82</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>European Union EMC Directive</td><td>82</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>ANSI/IEEE standards</td><td>82</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Harmonic Currents Limits</td><td>83</td></tr></table>
4.4 Examples of lighting related energy programs .................................................... 85

4.4.1 ENERGY STAR .................................................................................................... 85

4.4.2 Top Runner program................................................................................................ 86

References ........................................................................................................................................ 87
# 4 Lighting and energy standards and codes

## 4.1 Review of lighting standards worldwide

### 4.1.1 Introduction

The major international organization in charge of coordinating the management of standards, recommendations, and technical reports in the field of lighting is the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE). The CIE has published several recommendations for indoor lighting and has contributed to a joint ISO-CIE standard ISO 8995-1 (CIE, 2001/ISO 2002) concerning indoor working places.

The CIE publications related to indoor lighting are listed below:

* CIE 49-1981: Guide on the Emergency Lighting of Building Interiors

* CIE 52-1982: Calculations for Interior Lighting: Applied Method

* CIE 55-1983: Discomfort Glare in the Interior Working Environment

* CIE 60-1984: Vision and the Visual Display Unit Work Station

* CIE 117-1995: Discomfort Glare in Interior Lighting

* CIE 123-1997: Low vision - Lighting Needs for the Partially Sighted

* CIE S 008/E: 2001/ISO 8995-1:2002(E): Lighting of Work Places - Part 1: Indoor

* CIE 146/147:2002 : CIE Collection on Glare 2002

* CIE 161:2004: Lighting Design Methods for Obstructed Interiors

* CIE S 010/E:2004/ISO 23539:2005(E): Photometry - The CIE System of Physical Photometry

* CIE 097:2005: Maintenance of Indoor Electric Lighting Systems, 2nd Edition

* CIE S 009 / E:2002 / IEC 62471:2006: Photobiological Safety of Lamps and Lamp Systems

* ISO 11664-2:2008(E)/CIE S 014-2/E:2006: CIE Standard Illuminants for Colorimetry

* CIE 184:2009: Indoor Daylight Illuminants

The recommendations of the CIE have been interpreted in different manners in different countries. Hence some differences exist among lighting recommendations worldwide. Furthermore, in the North America, the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) is active in developing its own recommendations. The best known documents are the IES Lighting Handbooks which are regularly updated. The working groups of the IESNA have their own references and it is quite typical that some approaches differ from those of the CIE. For example, IESNA uses the term Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) for glare rating issues (Rea 2000), whereas the CIE glare rating is called the Unified Glare Ratio (UGR) (CIE 1995).
In the Annex 45 work the lighting recommendations worldwide were compared. The comparison is useful in identifying the potential for amending these standards, considering the growing need for the increasing energy efficiency of lighting. The review focused on office buildings.

### 4.1.2 Data collection

The first task was to collect the documents presenting national lighting recommendations from different countries through network of experts, and to translate the various published criteria of non-English documents into English. The lighting recommendation data was collected from eleven countries/regions, including both industrialised and developing countries. The collected documents related to indoor lighting recommendations from different countries are listed below.

**Argentina:**

Tonello, G. y Sandoval, J., "Recomendaciones para iluminación de oficinas" Asociación Argentina de Luminotécnica (AADL), 1997.

**Australia:**

AS/NZS 1680.0-1998 Interior lighting - Safe movement

AS 1680.1-2006 Interior and workplace lighting - General principles and recommendations.

AS 1680.2.0-1990 Interior lighting: Part 2.0 - Recommendations for specific tasks and interiors.

AS 1680.2.1-1993 Interior lighting: Part 2.1- Circulation spaces and other general areas.

AS 1680.2.2-1994 Interior lighting - Office and screen-based tasks

AS 1680.2.3-1994 Interior lighting: Part 2.1- Educational and training facilities

**Brazil:**

CIE 29.2-1986: Guide on Interior Lighting

**China:**

GB 50034-2004 Standard for lighting design of buildings.

**Europe:**

EN 12464-1:2002: Light and lighting- Lighting of work places- Part 1: Indoor Work Places.

**India:**

IS 3646 (Part 1):1992, Code of practice for interior illumination: Part 1 General requirements and recommendations for working interiors.

National Building Code of India 2005 (NBC 2005) Part 8, Section 1

**Japan:**

JIES-008 (1999)- Indoor Lighting Standard.

**Nepal:**

J.B. Gupta, Electrical installation estimation and costing, S.K. Kataria & Sons. New Delhi 1995, 7th edition.

**Russia:**

SNiP 23-05-95 Daylight and Artificial Lighting: Construction Standards and Rules of Russian Federation.

**South Africa:**
SANS 10114-1:2005 - Code of Practice for Interior Lighting.

**USA:**

ANSI/IESNA RP-1-04, American National Standard Practice for Office Lighting.

### 4.1.3 Method

The Table 4.1 shows various lighting parameters which were selected in collecting the data. Specifications for collecting data were divided into three categories: individual needs, social needs and environmental needs.

### 4.1.4 Display using world maps

Details of the lighting recommendations for office lighting are presented in *Appendix A*. In order to give a general view of the consistency of and differences in specifications in lighting standards and codes across the world, the main recommended values are presented on world maps, Figures 4-1 – 4-7. ISO/CIE standard recommendation values are also presented in the map for comparison with the national/regional recommendations. Most lighting recommendations include specifications on:

* Minimum illuminance levels on work planes (Figure 4-1)

* Minimum illuminance when working on computers (Figure 4-2)

* Minimum illuminance in the surroundings (Figure 4-3)

* Luminance ratios near task areas (Figure 4-4)

* Glare rating (Figure 4-5)

* Luminances on the ceiling and shielding angle (Figure 4-6)

* Indoor surface reflectance (Figure 4-7)

These specifications are essential, since they impose the measures to maintain the quality of lighting. These measures are the production of minimum quantities of light (lumen) in room and in task areas, recommendations in the distribution of the light in the task and surrounding areas, recommendations on the glare, etc.
<table><caption>**Table 4-1.** Various lighting parameters selected in collecting the data from the national lighting recommendations.</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="2">A. INDIVIDUAL NEEDS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>VISUAL PERFORMANCE</td><td><ul><li>Illuminance (horizontal) on task area</li><li>Illuminance (vertical) on task area</li><li>Illuminance (horizontal) on computer (keyboard, mouse)</li><li>Illuminance for drawing</li><li>Illuminance of immediate surroundings</li><li>Illuminance (vertical) on screens</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>VISUAL COMFORT</td><td><ul><li>Luminance ratio on the task area (luminances on walls, ceilings, task plane, etc.)</li><li>Ceiling luminance</li><li>Maximum luminance from overhead luminaries</li><li>Maximum wall luminance</li><li>Maximum window luminance</li><li>Recommended surface reflectances</li><li>Specification of flicker-free light sources</li><li>Illuminance uniformity on the task area</li><li>Discomfort Glare Rating</li><li>Discomfort glare in the case of use of Visual Display Terminals (VDT)</li><li>Control of reflected glare and veiling reflections</li><li>Possible specifications regarding lighting fixtures</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>COLOR APPEARANCE</td><td><ul><li>Color rendering index (CRI)</li><li>Correlated color temperature (CCT)</li><li>Possible use of saturated colors</li><li>Possible use of color variations of light</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>WELL-BEING</td><td><ul><li>View to the outside</li><li>Light quality through lighting modelling</li><li>Directional lighting</li><li>Biophilia hypothesis (Expression of recommendations to maximize daylight)</li><li>Lighting quality / Aesthetics of space</li><li>Aesthetics of lighting equipment</li><li>Individual or programmed lighting and daylight control</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>NON VISUAL EFFECTS</td><td><ul><li>Role of spectral power distribution</li><li>Daylight exposure through value of daylight factor</li><li>Daily exposure to daylight</li><li>Frequency of light (Hz)</li><li>UV (Ultra Violet) content of light</li><li>Infra red exposure associated to lighting</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">B. SOCIAL NEEDS</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><ul><li>Cost, budget</li><li>User satisfaction (expressed by reduction of complaints)</li><li>Impact of lighting quality on productivity through reduction of failures, higher satisfaction and less fatigue</li><li>Reduction of maintenance through improved quality of equipment</li><li>Impact of lighting on security issues</li><li>Impact of lighting on feeling of safety</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">C. ENVIRONMENTAL NEEDS</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><ul><li>Reduction of power consumption for lighting through efficient light sources and luminaries</li><li>Ability of lighting system to minimize peak load demand (use of daylight, adjusted power consumption)</li><li>Lighting controls (use of daylight, use of occupancy sensors)</li><li>Reduction of harmonics and power losses in electricity distribution networks</li><li>Reduction of resources for making lamps (increased life of sources)</li><li>Reduction of environmental impact (low production of pollutants)</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>
Comparison on specifications for visual performance in offices

Minimum illuminance on workplane (horizontal), for drawing, Conference room

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4-1.** *Minimum illuminance on work plane (horizontal) for drawing and minimum illuminance on conference rooms.*</figcaption></figure>
Comparison on specifications for visual performance in offices

Minimum illuminance (horizontal) for computer. Illuminance (vertical) on screens

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4- 2.** *Minimum illuminance on work plane for offices with computer screens.*</figcaption></figure>
Comparison on specifications for visual performance in offices

Illuminance of immediate surroundings

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4-3. Illuminance in the vicinity of the work place.**</figcaption></figure>
# Comparison on specifications for visual performance in offices

## Luminance ratio on task area

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4-4.** Ratios of luminance in the field of vision.</figcaption></figure>
Comparison on specifications for visual performance in offices

Unified glare ratio (UGR), Visual comfort probability (VCP)

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4-5. Glare specifications.</figcaption></figure>
# Comparison on specifications for visual performance in offices

## Ceiling luminance and shielding angle

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4-6.** Ceiling luminances and shielding angle.</figcaption></figure>
## Comparaison on specifications for visual performance in offices
### Surface reflectance

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4-7.** *Surface reflectances.*</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>
The summary of the lighting recommendations presented in Figures 4-1 – 4-7 indicate the following.

* Minimum values of illuminance on work planes for office work, drawing and conference rooms vary from 200 to 500 lx, which leads to a total discrepancy of lighting power of 1:2.5 if the lighting uniformities delivered in the rooms are identical.

* Recommendations concern minimum horizontal and vertical illuminance values. The recommendations do not take into account the luminances of computer screens.

* Ratios of luminance in the field of vision are rather consistent and similar to the CIE work recommendations.

* Glare ratings use either the Unified Glare Ratio (UGR) of the CIE or the Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) of the IESNA. These specifications are rather consistent.

* Ceiling luminance and shielding seem to be rather consistent. This is essential with the development of direct/indirect luminaires. However, no specification takes into account the risk of overhead glare, which is an issue under discussion at the CIE.

### 4.1.5 Recommended illuminance levels

Details of the recommended illuminance values for office lighting found in different national recommendations worldwide are tabulated in Appendix A. Basically, the differences in recommended illuminances are not high since they tend to be related to the CIE recommendations. However, there are countries which recommend lower values of minimum illuminance.

The ISO standard ISO 8995-1:2002 (CIE 2001/ISO 2002) states that in the areas where continuous work is carried out the maintained work plane illuminance should not be less than 200 lx. In all the reviewed recommendations, the minimum work plane illuminances in offices were higher. ISO 8995-1:2002 standard does not give any recommendation for uniformity of illuminance on the work plane, but suggests that the illuminance in the vicinity of the task should not be too low in comparison to the illuminance on task area. For example, the illuminance in the vicinity of task is 300 lx for a task with illuminance of 500 lx, 200 lx for a task with illuminance of 300 lx. However, the illuminance in the vicinity of task should be equal to the illuminance in the task area if the value for task illuminance is below 200 lx. In most countries which were reviewed, the minimum maintained illuminance on desks for regular office work is 500 lx, but lower values are recommended in India (300 lx), Denmark (300 lx), USA (depending on type of task) and Australia (320 lx). Minimum illuminance values for lounges, lobbies and corridors are specified within a range from 50 to 100 lx depending on country.

## 4.2 Energy codes and policies

### 4.2.1 Europe – Energy performance of buildings directive

The building sector in the EU area is using 40% of the total EU energy consumption and is responsible for 36% of the CO₂ emissions. There are 210 million households and the area of the households is 15 000 km², while the area of offices is 6 000 km². The EU building sector offers significant potential for cost-effective energy savings. (Wouters 2009)

The Europe Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) offers holistic approach towards more energy efficient buildings. The objective of EPBD is to promote the improvement of energy performance of buildings within the EU through cost-effective measures. The EPBD requires all EU countries to enhance their building regulations and to introduce energy certification schemes for buildings. The countries are also required to have inspections of boilers and air-conditioners.
All EU member countries have produced a status report in 2008 about the implementation of the EPBD in their country; the compiled country reports are available at the website of Concerted Action of EPBD. Many countries have set new requirements for instance for the U-values (coefficient of thermal transmission) or for the primary energy demand per square meter. (CA EPBD 2008). According to Maldonado et al. (2009), positive aspects of the EPBD are e.g.: new, more demanding building regulations to be in force throughout the EU, and further on the plans call for tougher regulations every five years. There are also now clear targets for what can be considered high-performance buildings in most member states, and the awareness of the importance of building energy efficiency is increased in EU. (Maldonado 2009)

### 4.2.2 Energy efficient building codes and policies in the US

In the US buildings consume more energy than any other sector of the US economy. Almost three-quarters of the 81 million buildings in the US were built before 1979. The building sector accounts for about 40% of the primary energy use and about for 40% of energy-related CO₂ emissions. The US buildings contribute 9% of the world CO₂ emissions. Lighting consumes about 11% of the energy of residential sector and 26% of the energy of the commercial sector. (Sunder 2009)

The following Actions have building related programs:

- Energy Policy Act (EPAct 2005)

- Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007)

- American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA 2009)

For instance the EPAct directs R&D for new buildings and retrofits including onsite renewable energy generation and extends the ENERGY STAR programme (Ch. 4.4.1) by adding new energy conservation standards and expands energy efficient product labeling. The EISA upgrades energy standards for appliances, equipment and lighting and mandates the zero-net energy commercial building initiative. The ARRA invests to improve energy efficiency of Federal buildings, schools, hospitals, and low-income houses using existing cost-effective technologies. The application of existing technologies yields efficiency improvements of 30-40%. (Sunder 2009)

### 4.2.3 Energy efficient building codes and policies in China

Urbanization is speeding up in China. Today the ecological footprint in China is 1.6 global hectares per capita, whereas the world average is 2.2 global hectares per capita. In 2006 the building area in China was estimated to be 175 000 km² (175 Mm²), and the forecast for year 2020 is 30000 000 km² (30 Gm²). (Wang 2009)

Wang gives annual energy consumption in 2004 for commercial buildings (kWh/m²,a) (government office, hotel, shopping mall, office, comprehensive business building). The majority of the buildings use less than 150 kWh/m², a and almost all buildings less than 300 kWh/m²,a. The 11th Five-Year Plan of China has set a target of improving energy efficiency. The key goal is that energy intensity relative to the country's gross domestic product should be reduced by 20% from 2005 to 2020. The targets for buildings are to build new energy efficient buildings of 1.6 Gm² building area with 50% increase in efficiency and to retrofit about 554 Mm² of existing residential and public buildings. In addition, 15 Mm² of renewable energy demonstration projects is to be built. (Wang 2009)

### 4.2.4 Energy efficient building codes and policies in Brazil

In Brazil 47.5% of the total energy consumption is produced by renewable energy, including hydro power and power from sugar cane products. However, the share of non-renewable energy is
increasing. Lighting uses 17% of the energy consumption in the residential sector. In commercial buildings the share of lighting energy of the total building energy consumption is from 12% to 57%, being 22% on average. In the public sector lighting uses 23% of the total energy consumption, while HVAC uses 48%, other equipment 15% and other loads 14%. In Brazil there are few laws and standards that include demands for energy efficiency and building performance, these are the Law 9991-2000 Investments in R&D and energy efficiency by utilities and the Law 10295 – 2001 Energy efficiency law. The standard ABNT 15220 concerns thermal performance and the ABNT 15575 gives minimum performances.

### 4.2.5 Energy efficient building codes and policies in South Africa

The CO₂ emissions of the total energy in South Africa are divided per sector as follows: residential 13%, commercial 10%, transport 16%, manufacturing 40%, mining 11% and other 10%. The energy efficiency strategy was created in 2004 and building regulations have been renewed recently. The SANS 0204 will set out the general requirements for improving energy efficiency in all types of new buildings. SANS 0204 will be incorporated into National Building regulations. (Milford 2009)

The energy efficiency strategy sets national targets for final energy demand reduction by 2015. The targets are 10% reduction in the residential sector and 15% in the commercial sector. Targets are expressed in relation to the forecast national energy demand in 2015. The means to reach the targets are legislation, efficiency labels and performance standards, energy management activities and energy audits and promotion of efficient practices. In addition there are some local initiatives. The draft for Gauteng energy strategy aims to replace incandescent lamps in government buildings by energy efficient lighting by 2012, and to reduce energy demand by 25% in government buildings by 2014. (Milford 2009)

### 4.2.6 25 Energy Efficiency Policy Recommendations by IEA to THE G8

The IEA recommendations document reports the outcome of the IEA three-year programme in support of the second focus area of the IEA G8 Gleneagles programme: energy efficiency policies. (IEA 2008). The recommendations cover 25 fields of action across seven priority areas: cross-sectoral activity, buildings, appliances, lighting, transport, industry and power utilities. It is noted that the saving by adopting efficient lighting technology is very cost-effective and buildings account for about 40% of the total energy used in most countries. The fields of action of buildings and lighting are outlined below:

#### Buildings

- Building codes for new buildings

- Passive Energy Houses and Zero Energy Buildings

- Policy packages to promote energy efficiency in existing buildings

- Building certification schemes

- Energy efficiency improvements in glazed areas

#### Lighting

- Best practice lighting and the phase-out of incandescent lamps

- Ensuring least-cost lighting in non-residential buildings and the phase-out of inefficient fuel-based lighting
## 4.3 Energy-related legislation in the European Union

### 4.3.1 Introduction

Several directives, regulations and other legislations are in force or under development in the European Union. The most important directives and other legislations at European level regarding the lighting sector are listed below:

- EuP, Energy-using Products Directive (EC 2005) which was recast in 2009 by directive of ecodesign requirements for energy related products

- Ballast Directive (EC 2000)

- EPBD, Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EC 2002)

- ESD, Energy Services Directive (EC 2006)

- EEL, Energy Efficiency Label (EC 1998)

### 4.3.2 EuP Directive

Directive 2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of July 6th 2005 establishes a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-using products and amending Council Directive 92/42/EEC and Directives 96/57/EC, and 2000/55/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. This so called EuP Directive or the Ecodesign Directive defines for which types of products shall be implementing measures shall be done and how (EC 2005).

The directive promotes environmentally conscious product design (ecodesign) and contributes to sustainable development by increasing energy efficiency and the level of environmental protection. Ecodesign means the integration of environmental aspects in product design with the aim of improving the environmental performance of the product throughout its life cycle. The EuP directive also increases the security of the energy supply at the same time.

The procedure for creating implementing measures under the EuP directive is defined in the directive. In practice, product groups are identified by the European Commission. Preparatory studies on these products aim to identify and recommend ways to improve the environmental performance of products. The performance of the products is considered throughout their lifetime at their design phase based on a methodology called MEEUP (methodology study for ecodesign of the energy-using products). MEEUP defines eight areas to be included in each preparatory study:

1. Product Definition, Standards and Legislation

2. Economics and Market Analysis

3. Consumer Analysis and Local Infrastructure

4. Technical Analysis of Existing Products

5. Definition of Base Case(s)

6. Technical Analysis of Best Available Technology (BAT)

7. Improvement Potential

8. Policy, Impact and Sensitivity Analysis

The use of MEEUP ensures that all the necessary areas are taken into account in the preparatory studies.

The European Commission writes draft implementing measures, starting from these preparatory studies and consulting the stakeholders in consultation forums. These measures are voted by the Member States and are then given to the European Parliament for the final vote.
According to the EuP directive, the requirements can be generic or specific ecodesign requirements. A generic ecodesign requirement is based on the ecological profile of an EuP, and it does not set limit values for particular environmental aspects. A specific ecodesign requirement is a quantified and measurable ecodesign requirement related to a particular environmental aspect of an EuP, such as energy consumption calculated for a given unit of output performance during usage.

The EuP directive is a product directive and has a direct consequence on the *CE marking* of the new products. Before an EuP covered by implementing measures is placed on the market, a CE conformity marking shall be affixed. A declaration of the conformity shall be issued whereby the manufacturer or its authorised representative ensures and declares that the EuP complies with all relevant provisions of the applicable implementing measure. (EC 2005)

Lighting products have been selected as one of the priority product groups in the EuP directive. Preparatory studies have been prepared for street, office and residential lighting products. The outcome of these studies is two regulations in force and one under construction. The two implementing measures have been published in the form of Commission Regulations and entered into force on the 13th of April 2009 in all Member States:

- Commission Regulation (EC) No 245/2009 of March 18th, 2009 implementing Directive 2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to ecodesign requirements for fluorescent lamps without integrated ballast, for high intensity discharge lamps, and for ballasts and luminaires able to operate such lamps, and repealing Directive 2000/55/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council.

- Commission Regulation (EC) No 244/2009 of March 18th, 2009 implementing Directive 2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and the Council with regard to ecodesign requirements for non-directional household lamps.

These regulations give generic and specific requirements for lamps, luminaires and ballasts. The directive 2000/55/EC – the so called ballast directive – is repealed by the regulation 245/2009 one year after the regulation enters into force.

The Preparatory Study for Eco-design Requirements of EuPs on "Domestic lighting – Part 2: Directional lamps and household luminaires" is almost ready and discussion with stakeholders has started.

In the lighting sector, there are three implementing measures of the EuP directive:

- Regulation 244/2009 for non-directional household lamps

- Regulation 245/2009 for fluorescent lamps without integrated ballast, for high intensity discharge lamps, and for their ballasts and luminaires

- Regulation under construction for directional lamps and household luminaires

Regulation 244/2009 sets requirements for lamps typically used in households: incandescent lamps, halogen lamps and compact fluorescent lamps with integrated ballast. The following lamps are exempted from the Regulation: (a) non-white lamps (chromaticity coordinates limits defined); (b) directional lamps; (c) lamps having a luminous flux below 60 lumens or above 12 000 lumens; (d) UV- lamps (limits are defined); (e) fluorescent lamps without integrated ballast; (f) high-intensity discharge lamps; (g) incandescent lamps with E14/E27/B22/B15 caps, with a voltage equal to or below 60 volts and without integrated transformer in Stages 1-5. Table 4-2 and Table 4-3 show how the regulation will affect the lamp market.
<table><caption>**Table 4-2.** *Regulation 244/2009 on Non-directional household lamps.*</caption><thead><tr><th>Stage</th><th>Date</th><th>Lamps to be banned (i.e. can not be "placed on the market" anymore)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">1</td><td rowspan="3">1 Sept 2009</td><td>All non-clear lamps not equivalent-class A (any power)</td></tr><tr><td>Clear lamps equivalent-class D, E, F, G with luminous flux ≥ 950 lm (e.g. power ≥ 100 W incandescent lamps, 230 V >60 W halogen lamps)</td></tr><tr><td>Clear lamps with luminous flux < 950 lm equivalent-class F, G</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">2</td><td rowspan="2">1 Sept 2010</td><td>Clear lamps equivalent-class D, E, F, G with luminous flux ≥ 725 lm (e.g. power ≥ 75 W incandescent lamps, 230 V =60 W halogen lamps)</td></tr><tr><td>Clear lamps with luminous flux < 725 lm equivalent-class F, G</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">3</td><td rowspan="2">1 Sept 2011</td><td>Clear lamps equivalent-class D, E, F, G with luminous flux ≥ 450 lm (e.g. power ≥ 60 W incandescent lamps, 230 V ≥ 40 W halogen lamps)</td></tr><tr><td>Clear lamps with luminous flux < 450 lm class F, G or equivalent</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>1 Sept 2012</td><td>Clear lamps equivalent-class D, E, F, G any power</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>1 Sept 2013</td><td>Enhanced functionality requirements</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>1 Sept 2016</td><td>Poor efficiency halogens (C)</td></tr></tbody></table>

The regulation defines maximum allowed power for given luminous fluxes. For lamps with energy label, it is easy to link the regulation requirements with class limits. In the table, the word "equivalent-class" is then used.

<table><caption>**Table 4-3.** *Regulation 244/2009 on Non-directional household lamps: Requirement for Clear Lamps.*</caption><thead><tr><th>Stage</th><th>Date</th><th>Scope</th><th>Requirement (allowed energy classes)</th><th>GLS ≥ 100 W, or conventional halogen</th><th>GLS ≥ 75 W, or conventional halogen</th><th>GLS ≥ 60 W, or conventional halogen</th><th>GLS < 60 W, or conventional halogen</th><th>Halogen B</th><th>Halogen C</th><th>CFLi</th><th>LED</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">1</td><td rowspan="2">1 Sep 2009</td><td>for >950 lm (≥80 W)</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>for the rest</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">2</td><td rowspan="2">1 Sep 2010</td><td>for >725 lm (≥65 W)</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>for the rest</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">3</td><td rowspan="2">1 Sep 2011</td><td>for >450 lm (≥45 W)</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>for the rest</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>1 Sep 2012</td><td>for > 60 lm (≥ 7 W)</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>1 Sep 2013</td><td>raising quality requirements</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">6</td><td rowspan="2">1 Sep 2016</td><td>special cap halogen</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>for the rest</td><td>A B C D E F G</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Regulation 245/2009 applies to lamps, ballasts and luminaires generally used in tertiary sector i.e. fluorescent lamps without integrated ballast and high intensity discharge lamps. The regulation sets requirements for lamps, ballasts and luminaires separately. The most important effects of the regulation 245/2009 are:

* T8 halophosphate fluorescent lamps phased out from 13 April 2010

* Stand by power consumption 1 W per ballast from 13 April 2010 and 0,5 W per ballast from 13 April 2012

* T10 and T12 halophosphate fluorescent lamps phased out from 13 April 2012

* High pressure mercury lamps phased out from 13 April 2015, retrofit high pressure sodium lamps banned then also
* Allowed ballast energy efficiency indexes A1 BAT, A2 BAT and A2 from 13 April 2017

* Efficacy and performance requirements for high pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps

The tertiary sector lighting regulation repeals the so called ballast directive (2000/55/EC). The ballast directive classified the ballasts for fluorescent lamps according to their energy efficiency and banned two of the most inefficient classes: ballasts with energy efficiency indexes (EEI) C and D. The regulation 245/2009 introduces two new EEIs, A1 BAT and A2 BAT, and phases out all other classes but A2 and these two new EEIs from 13 April 2017. This means phasing out all magnetic ballasts as they are not able to reach the energy efficiency requirements.

Both of the regulations on lighting sector use the phrase “placing on the market”. The requirements are set on the placing on the market of the products in the scope. The placing on the market means the first time the product is made available on the EU market. Products not complying with the requirements can not be placed on the market from the given date on. Examples of placing on the market:

* When one company manufactures, stores and sells the product, the placing on the market takes place when the company sells the product,

* In a corporation when the product is transferred from the possession of manufacturing department to the distribution chain, and

* Manufacturing outside the EU, placing on the market takes place when the product is transported to the EU.

After being placed on the market, the product is allowed to be further sold regardless of the requirements.

### 4.3.3 Energy performance of buildings

The four key points of the Directive 2002/91/EC on the energy performance of buildings are (EC 2002):

* a common methodology for calculating the integrated energy performance of buildings;

* minimum standards on the energy performance of new buildings and existing buildings that are subject to major renovation;

* systems for the energy certification of new and existing buildings and, for public buildings, prominent display of this certification and other relevant information. Certificates must be less than five years old;

* regular inspection of boilers and central air-conditioning systems in buildings and in addition an assessment of heating installations in which the boilers are more than 15 years old.

Deadline for transposition in the Member States was 4.1.2006.

#### EN 15193- Energy requirements for Lighting LENI

The Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator (LENI) has been established to show the annual lighting energy per m² required to fulfil lighting requirements in the building specifications.

$$LENI = \frac{W_{\text{light}}}{A} \text{ kWh/m}^2\text{/year} \qquad (4-1)$$

where

$W_{\text{light}}$ total annual energy used for lighting [kWh/year]

$A$ total useful floor area of the building [m²]
The LENI can be used to make direct comparisons of the lighting energy used in buildings which have similar categories with different size and configuration.

In CEN/TC 169 *Light and Lighting*, substructure WG 9 (Energy performance of buildings) has developed the standard EN 15193 *Lighting energy estimation* (EN 2007). The standard considers different aspects of energy consumption, namely:

- Installed load. This includes all installed luminaires

- Usage during the day. This can be controlled by using daylight-dependent lighting control and occupancy control systems.

- Usage at night. This can be controlled by using occupancy control

- Use of constant illuminance. This means control of initial illuminance (maintenance control)

- Standby. This represents parasitic power in controlled lighting components

- Algorithmic lighting and scene setting. This includes reduced energy consumption of installed power.

The standard uses the basic formula to measure and calculate the annual lighting energy for a building (W<sub>L,t</sub>):

$$W_{L,t} = \frac{\sum [P_n \times F_c \times \{ (t_D \times F_o \times F_D) + (t_N \times F_o) \}]}{1000} \text{ kWh} \quad (4-2)$$

Additionally, the annual parasitic power (W<sub>P,t</sub>) for the evaluation of stand-by power losses and power for emergency lighting completes the energy calculation.

$$W_{P,t} = \frac{\sum [P_{pc} \times \{t_y - (t_D + t_N)\}]}{1000} \text{ kWh} \quad (4-3)$$

where

P<sub>n</sub> total luminaire power in a zone [W]

F<sub>c</sub> constant illuminance factor

t<sub>p</sub> time when parasitic power is used [h]

t<sub>D</sub> time for daylight usage [h]

t<sub>N</sub> time for non-daylight usage [h]

F<sub>D</sub> daylight dependency factor

F<sub>o</sub> occupancy factor

P<sub>pc</sub> parasitic power in a zone (which generally means standby losses) [W]

t<sub>y</sub> time in a standard year (8760 h)

P<sub>em</sub> total installed charging power for emergency lighting luminaires in a zone [W]

t<sub>e</sub> emergency lighting charging time [h]

The total annual energy used for lighting is

$$W_{\text{light}} = W_{\text{L}} + W_{\text{P}} \text{ kWh/year}$$

The standard provides both a quick method and a comprehensive method. An example of the use of the quick method is given below

$$W_{\text{light}} = 6A + \frac{t_u \sum P_n}{1000} \text{ kWh/year} \quad (4-4)$$

where

t<sub>u</sub> = (t<sub>D</sub> x F<sub>D</sub> x F<sub>O</sub>) + (t<sub>n</sub> x F<sub>O</sub>) is the effective usage hour

A is the total area of the building.
The values $t_D, t_N, F_D, F_O$ are tabulated in EN 15193.

6 A indicates the energy consumption for emergency lighting and parasitic power.

Example for offices:

$$t_u = (t_D \times F_D \times F_O) + (t_N \times F_O)$$

$$t_D = 2250 \text{ h}, t_N = 250 \text{ h}, F_D = 0.8, F_O = 0.9$$

$$t_u = 1845 \text{ h}$$

### 4.3.4 Energy Efficiency Label

Directive 98/11/EC sets the requirements for energy label for household lamps. In practice, only incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps are included. All other light sources are excluded. It implements the directive 92/75/EEC, which is an “umbrella” labelling directive. It establishes that household appliances shall be labelled according to their energy consumption, and that the product information shall be harmonised.

### 4.3.5 Disposal phase of Lighting Equipment in Europe

#### Legislation

The material contents and the disposal of lighting equipment are chiefly regulated by two directives that apply to electrical and electronic equipment:

- The RoHS Directive: Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27th of January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment

- The WEEE Directive: Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27th of January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment

These directives complement European Union measures on landfill and incineration of waste. Increased recycling of electrical and electronic devices will limit the total quantity of waste going to final disposal. Producers, including manufacturers and importers, will be responsible for taking back and recycling electrical and electronic devices. This will provide incentives to design electrical and electronic equipments in more environmentally friendly and a more efficient way considering waste management aspects fully. Consumers will be able to return their waste equipments free of charge.

#### RoHS Directive

The first directive, RoHS, is mainly related to the production phase of the products, as it deals with the material composition of the products. It is not allowed to put on the market products with hazardous substances (heavy metals: lead, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chromium) and brominated flame retardants [polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)] exceeding fixed limits (EC 2003a). The RoHS directive is strongly related to the disposal phase. The absence or limited amount of hazardous substances will limit the generation of hazardous waste.

As the RoHS directive is a harmonizing directive, it approximates the legislation in Member States. The aim of the directive is to protect human health and the environment, and to encourage environmentally sound recovery and disposal of waste electrical and electronic equipment.
The directive includes a list of exemptions. Some hazardous substances may be present in different components of equipments used for lighting. For example:

- Lead in soldering alloys, electronic components, and in glass,

- Cadmium in glass, and

- Mercury in discharge lamps (fluorescent lamps, high pressure sodium lamp etc.) (EC 2003a).

## WEEE Directive

The second directive, WEEE, aims to prevent the generation of waste from electrical and electronic equipment. It promotes the reuse, recycling and other ways of recovery of such waste to reduce the disposal. The directive obliges producers to be responsible for the collection, treatment, recovery and environmentally sound disposal of WEEE. It applies also to lighting equipment in which the following products are included:

- Luminaires for fluorescent lamps except luminaires in households,

- Straight (linear) fluorescent lamps,

- Compact fluorescent lamps,

- High intensity discharge lamps, including high pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps,

- Low pressure sodium lamps, and

- Other lighting or equipment for the purpose of spreading or controlling light except filament bulbs (EC 2003b).

Ballasts are not explicitly mentioned. In the common case where luminaires are equipped with ballasts, the ballasts are considered as part of the luminaire. There is a trend to consider separate ballasts also as products under WEEE directive. Bare LEDs are not included in the directives as lamps. However, when LEDs are equipped with reflectors, lenses, they are considered as luminaires and then as products under the scope of WEEE directive.

## Example: the lamps case

In the following, material composition, and disposal phase and recycling techniques of lamps will be discussed.

### Material composition of lamps

Lamps are made of components which can be grouped as:

- lamp structure (lamp envelope, metal support parts, cap)

- electrical parts (electrodes, filaments, wiring, ballast)

- lamp envelope additives (inert gas, getter, emitter, mercury, sodium, metal-halides, fluorescent powder)

The component materials are selected for their chemical or physical properties for optimal light emission properties. The average material composition of lamps is described in Table 4-4. HID lamp group includes many different lamp types. Metal-halide lamps (MH) are selected to represent indoor applications and high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are selected to represent outdoor applications.