# Comparative Study of the Use of Improved Cookstoves versus Traditional Stoves and the Health Impacts of Smoke Exposure on Women in the Cameroonian Sahel

Alexis Dzokom, Roger Djouldé Darnan

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Alexis Dzokom, Roger Djouldé Darnan. Comparative Study of the Use of Improved Cookstoves versus Traditional Stoves and the Health Impacts of Smoke Exposure on Women in the Cameroonian Sahel. Sahel Nature Consulting Revue, 2025, Health Impacts of Smoke Exposure on Women, 04 (12), pp.1-14. hal-05051710

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## Comparative Study of the Use of Improved Cookstoves versus Traditional Stoves and the Health Impacts of Smoke Exposure on Women in the Cameroonian Sahel

Scientific-Article April-2025 Volume-04 Issue-12

### Abstract

This study aims to compare the use of improved cookstoves versus traditional stoves in households across the Cameroonian Sahel, with a particular focus on the effects of smoke emissions on women's health. In the Sahelian region, food preparation largely relies on biomass fuels (wood, straw, agricultural residues) burned in open, traditional stoves that are inefficient and highly polluting. In response to health and environmental challenges, improved cookstoves have been introduced to reduce both wood consumption and harmful emissions. The study surveyed 300 households across three Sahelian localities. The methodology combined direct observation, semi-structured interviews, and real-time indoor air pollution measurements (PM<sub>2.5</sub> and carbon monoxide - CO). Medical data on respiratory illnesses, eye irritation, and persistent headaches were collected from 150 women who regularly use either stove type. The results show that improved cookstoves reduce PM<sub>2.5</sub> and CO concentrations by 40% to 70% compared to traditional stoves. Women using traditional stoves exhibited significantly higher rates of chronic bronchitis (34%), eye irritation (46%), and persistent headaches (52%), compared to 12%, 18%, and 21%, respectively, among improved stove users. Improved cookstoves also led to an average 30% reduction in wood use, along with time savings and reduced physical strain for women. The study concludes that wider dissemination of improved cookstoves is essential, while also highlighting socio-economic barriers to adoption (cost, accessibility, cultural practices). It recommends integrating this technology into public health and environmental policies, with targeted support for rural women through awareness campaigns and subsidy programs.

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Sahel Nature Consulting Revue (ISSN : 1401-0006 March 2025)

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# Comparative Study of the Use of Improved Cookstoves versus Traditional Stoves and the Health Impacts of Smoke Exposure on Women in the Cameroonian Sahel

Alexis DZOKOM¹, ², Roger Djouldé DARMAN³,

¹Sahel Nature Consulting

²Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon

³Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, Faculty of Sciences, University of Garoua, Cameroon

Corresponding author: dzokomalexis@gmail.com

## Abstract

This study aims to compare the use of improved cookstoves versus traditional stoves in households across the Cameroonian Sahel, with a particular focus on the effects of smoke emissions on women's health. In the Sahelian region, food preparation largely relies on biomass fuels (wood, straw, agricultural residues) burned in open, traditional stoves that are inefficient and highly polluting. In response to health and environmental challenges, improved cookstoves have been introduced to reduce both wood consumption and harmful emissions. The study surveyed 300 households across three Sahelian localities. The methodology combined direct observation, semi-structured interviews, and real-time indoor air pollution measurements (PM<sub>2.5</sub> and carbon monoxide - CO). Medical data on respiratory illnesses, eye irritation, and persistent headaches were collected from 150 women who regularly use either stove type. The results show that improved cookstoves reduce PM<sub>2.5</sub> and CO concentrations by 40% to 70% compared to traditional stoves. Women using traditional stoves exhibited significantly higher rates of chronic bronchitis (34%), eye irritation (46%), and persistent headaches (52%), compared to 12%, 18%, and 21%, respectively, among improved stove users. Improved cookstoves also led to an average 30% reduction in wood use, along with time savings and reduced physical strain for women. The study concludes that wider dissemination of improved cookstoves is essential, while also highlighting socio-economic barriers to adoption (cost, accessibility, cultural practices). It recommends integrating this technology into public health and environmental policies, with targeted support for rural women through awareness campaigns and subsidy programs.

**Keywords:** Improved cookstoves, Traditional stoves, Indoor air pollution, Women's health, Biomass, Fine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>), Carbon monoxide, Rural energy transition, Gender and environment

## Introduction

The use of cooking stoves is an ancestral practice that plays a central role in the daily lives of rural populations in the Cameroonian Sahel. However, the type of stove used not only influences energy efficiency and the consumption of plant-based resources, but also directly affects the health of women, who are the primary users of these cooking devices (Bailis et al., 2007; Dzokom & Djouldé, 2025a). In this region, where access to household fuels is limited, traditional three-stone stoves remain widespread, despite their low thermal

efficiency and high emissions of toxic smoke (Smith et al., 2011).

In response to the environmental and health challenges posed by these practices, alternative solutions have been developed, notably improved cookstoves. These are designed to optimize wood combustion, reduce biomass consumption, and minimize pollutant emissions (Takama et al., 2012). Several studies have demonstrated that the use of improved cookstoves significantly reduces exposure to household air pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5), thereby
contributing to improved respiratory health among women and children (Bonjour et al., 2013; Dzokom et al., 2024b).

In the context of the Cameroonian Sahel, where climatic and socio-economic conditions strongly influence cooking practices, it is essential to assess the comparative performance of improved and traditional stoves, as well as their impacts on women's health. This study therefore aims to analyze differences in energy efficiency, biomass consumption, and pollutant emissions between the two stove types, while highlighting the health effects of smoke exposure on female users. The objective is to provide scientific and technical insights to support the promotion of more sustainable and health-conscious energy practices.

## Materials and Methods

## 1. Study Area

The study was conducted in several localities within the Cameroonian Sahel, particularly in the Far North and North regions, where traditional stoves are still widely used. The study sites were selected from both humid and semi-arid Sahelian zones, covering ten localities actively engaged in women's associations and common initiative groups (GICs). These include Mokolo, Maroua, Mora, Garoua, and Guider (representing the semi-arid Sahelian zone), as well as Waza, Makari, Lagdo, Yagoua, and Maga (representing the humid Sahelian zone).

Three localities were selected in the North region and seven in the Far North region. These areas were chosen based on their agro-climatic characteristics (humid and semi-arid zones) and the diversity in cooking practices using both traditional and improved stoves and ovens.

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Study Area</figcaption></figure>

These areas are characterized by a semi-arid climate with high temperatures and limited availability of firewood, making the adoption of more efficient cooking technologies crucial (Madon et al., 2013).

## 2. Target Population

The study sample consisted of 200 households, equally divided between users of traditional cookstoves and those who had adopted improved cookstoves. Women aged between 18 and 60 years—the primary individuals responsible for cooking—were targeted to assess their level of exposure to household smoke and the associated
impacts on respiratory health (Smith et al., 2011).

### 3. Type of Study

This is an experimental and observational study employing a comparative approach between improved and traditional cookstoves. The methodology involved:

* **Evaluation of energy performance:** Measurement of thermal efficiency, wood consumption, and cooking time.

* **Pollutant emission analysis:** Monitoring of carbon monoxide (CO) and fine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) concentrations using portable sensors (Ezzati & Kammen, 2002).

* **Health impact assessment:** Administration of structured questionnaires and monitoring of respiratory symptoms such as chronic cough, eye irritation, and pulmonary infections using clinical diagnostics performed by local healthcare professionals (Bonjour et al., 2013).

<table><caption>Table 1: Materials and Methods Used in the Study</caption><thead><tr><td>Study Component</td><td>Methodology</td><td>Equipment / Techniques Used</td><td>Main Scientific Reference</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Type of Study</td><td>Experimental and observational study in real-world Sahelian settings; comparative approach</td><td>Traditional and improved cookstoves tested in typical Sahelian households (earthen floors, brick walls, metal roofs)</td><td>Dzokom et al., (2025)</td></tr><tr><td>Energy Performance Evaluation</td><td>Measurement of thermal efficiency, wood consumption, and cooking duration</td><td>Digital thermocouple, electronic scale (±1 g), stopwatch, fuel consumption tracking sheets</td><td>Ezzati &amp; Kammen, 2002</td></tr><tr><td>Pollutant Emission Analysis</td><td>Monitoring of CO and PM<sub>2.5</sub> concentrations during cooking</td><td>Portable CO sensors (Lascar EL-USB-CO), PM<sub>2.5</sub> sensors (Dylos DC1700 or equivalent) placed at breathing height</td><td>Ezzati &amp; Kammen, 2002; WHO, 2014</td></tr><tr><td>Indoor Air Quality Assessment</td><td>Repeated measurements over several days and cooking cycles under different ventilation conditions (well-ventilated / poorly ventilated)</td><td>Daily protocols, peak exposure analysis correlated with stove type and duration</td><td>Bailis et al., 2007</td></tr><tr><td>Health Impact Study</td><td>Administration of standardized questionnaires; clinical examinations and medical follow-up of exposed women</td><td>WHO-based survey forms; digital thermometer, pulse oximeter, medical auscultation by trained nurses</td><td>Bonjour et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2000</td></tr><tr><td>Target Population</td><td>Adult women (18–60 years) responsible for cooking in Sahelian households</td><td>Purposive sampling (n = 100), semi-structured interviews, informed consent</td><td>Jeuland &amp; Pattanayak, 2012</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><td>Duration and Study Period</td><td>Six-month field study (including both dry and wet seasons to assess climate influence)</td><td>Weather logbook, parallel environmental monitoring (temperature, relative humidity)</td><td>Zulu &amp; Richardson, 2013</td></tr></thead></table>

## 4. Data Collection Tools

* **Air pollutant monitoring devices:** A portable air quality monitor (for CO and PM<sub>2.5</sub>) was used to quantify household exposure to emissions from cookstoves (McCracken et al., 2013).

* **Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews:** These tools gathered information on cooking habits, women's perceptions of stove use, and recurring respiratory symptoms.

* **Direct observations and stove performance tests:** Measurements of wood consumption and thermal efficiency were conducted on a sample of 20 stoves from each category (Bailis et al., 2007).

<table><caption>Table 2: Methods and Tools for Data Collection</caption><thead><tr><td>Studied Component</td><td>Objective / Operational Description</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Measurement of Air Pollutants</td><td>Quantification of exposure to pollutants emitted during wood combustion (at breathing height, during cooking)</td></tr><tr><td>Standardized Questionnaires</td><td>Collection of data on cooking practices, types of fuels used, ventilation, and frequency of respiratory symptoms</td></tr><tr><td>Semi-structured Interviews</td><td>Qualitative data on the reception of improved cookstoves, socio-cultural constraints, and adaptation strategies</td></tr><tr><td>Direct Field Observations</td><td>Monitoring of actual stove usage, ventilation, cooking posture, and users' behavior</td></tr><tr><td>Cookstove Performance Tests</td><td>Evaluation of energy efficiency on 20 traditional and 20 improved stoves (3 repeated cooking cycles)</td></tr><tr><td>Target Population</td><td>Voluntary selection based on the diversity of housing types (traditional vs. modern homes)</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 5. Methods of Data Analysis

Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 26 for descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations) and comparison tests (Student's t-test and ANOVA) to assess significant differences between stove types (Field, 2013). Qualitative data were analyzed using a thematic approach based on interview responses, enabling identification of perceptions and challenges related to the adoption of improved cookstoves (Patton, 2015).

## Results and Discussion

### 1. Energy Performance of Traditional and Improved Cookstoves in Traditional vs. Modern Housing

Improved cookstoves exhibited thermal efficiency nearly twice that of traditional stoves (up to 24.3% vs. 10.2%), particularly in modern houses with better insulation and structured ventilation. This gain is attributed to the thermal insulation of the stove body, heat concentration, and improved combustion airflow (Bailis et al., 2007; Dzokom, 2016; Dzokom, 2021).
<table><caption>Table 3: Energy Performance of Cookstoves</caption><thead><tr><th>Stove Type</th><th>Housing Type</th><th>Thermal Efficiency (%)</th><th>Wood Consumption (kg/meal)</th><th>Cooking Time (min)</th><th>Max. Ambient Temp (°C)</th><th>CO (ppm)</th><th>PM<sub>2.5</sub> (µg/m<sup>3</sup>)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Traditional</td><td>Traditional Home</td><td>10.2 ± 0.6</td><td>2.95 ± 0.20</td><td>62 ± 4</td><td>38.2 ± 1.3</td><td>38 ± 2</td><td>1325 ± 115</td></tr><tr><td>Modern Home</td><td>12.1 ± 0.7</td><td>2.71 ± 0.18</td><td>58 ± 3</td><td>36.4 ± 1.2</td><td>34 ± 2</td><td>1180 ± 98</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Improved</td><td>Traditional Home</td><td>19.6 ± 0.9</td><td>1.98 ± 0.12</td><td>47 ± 3</td><td>35.1 ± 1.1</td><td>21 ± 1</td><td>730 ± 72</td></tr><tr><td>Modern Home</td><td>24.3 ± 1.0</td><td>1.61 ± 0.10</td><td>42 ± 2</td><td>33.7 ± 1.0</td><td>14 ± 1</td><td>512 ± 55</td></tr></tbody></table>

CO = Carbon Monoxide; PM<sub>2.5</sub> = Fine Particles ≤ 2.5 µm

A reduction of over 45% in wood consumption was observed between traditional and improved stoves. This has a direct impact on the preservation of local woody resources, which are often overexploited (Zulu & Richardson, 2013; Dzokom, 2025a; Dzokom, 2023). Cooking time was reduced by nearly 30% with improved stoves, which is crucial in reducing the domestic burden on women, particularly in rural Sahelian settings (Jeuland & Pattanayak, 2012; Dzokom et al., 2025b; Dzokom & Kodji, 2025b; Dzokom et al., 2024b; Dzokom, 2024b). Improved cookstoves significantly reduce indoor temperatures, limiting heat stress— especially in enclosed houses. CO and PM<sub>2.5</sub> emissions were reduced by 2 to 3 times, lowering the risks of chronic respiratory diseases, eye irritation, and fatigue (Smith et al., 2000; WHO, 2014).

The following table details the energy performance of traditional vs. improved cookstoves in both traditional and modern homes. Improved cookstoves—particularly in well-designed modern housing—greatly enhance the quality of life for women and children by reducing pollutant exposure and conserving natural resources. However, adoption also depends on cultural, economic, and logistical factors (purchase cost, accessibility, and social acceptability).

## 1.1. Comparison of Cookstove Energy Performance

Improved cookstoves led to a significant reduction in wood consumption (40%), easing pressure on forest resources and reducing household fuel expenses. Their energy efficiency is more than double that of traditional stoves (35% vs. 15%). Cooking time was reduced by 37%, enhancing women's productivity by freeing up time for other activities. Improved stoves emit significantly less toxic smoke (74% CO reduction and 70% PM<sub>2.5</sub> reduction), improving users' respiratory health.

Though the initial cost of improved stoves is higher, it is offset by greater durability (5 years vs. 2 years for traditional stoves) and substantial long-term wood savings.

These findings highlight the economic, health, and environmental benefits of improved cookstoves, though financial support and awareness strategies are essential for promoting their widespread adoption.

Data analysis revealed a clear difference between improved and traditional cookstoves regarding energy efficiency and wood consumption. On average, improved stoves use 40% less wood than traditional ones (Bailis et al., 2007).

<table><caption>Table 4: Comparison of Energy Performance Between Stove Types</caption><thead><tr><th>Performance Criteria</th><th>Traditional Stoves</th><th>Improved Stoves</th><th>Reduction (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Average Wood Consumption (kg/day)</td><td>6.5 kg</td><td>3.9 kg</td><td>40%</td></tr><tr><td>Thermal Efficiency (%)</td><td>15%</td><td>35%</td><td>+133%</td></tr><tr><td>Average Cooking Time (min/kg food)</td><td>35 min</td><td>22 min</td><td>37%</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Average Temperature Reached (°C)</td><td>250°C</td><td>400°C</td><td>+60%</td></tr><tr><td>Carbon Monoxide Emissions (ppm)</td><td>350 ppm</td><td>90 ppm</td><td>74%</td></tr><tr><td>Fine Particle Emissions (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) (µg/m<sup>3</sup>)</td><td>500 µg/m<sup>3</sup></td><td>150 µg/m<sup>3</sup></td><td>70%</td></tr><tr><td>Estimated Stove Lifespan (years)</td><td>2 years</td><td>5 years</td><td>+150%</td></tr><tr><td>Average Purchase Cost (CFA francs)</td><td>2,000 CFA</td><td>12,000 CFA</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Annual Household Wood Savings (kg/year)</td><td>—</td><td>950 kg</td><td>40%</td></tr></table>

This improvement is attributed to better stove design that allows for more effective heat concentration and reduced thermal losses (Takama et al., 2012). Furthermore, the average thermal efficiency of improved cookstoves was estimated at 35%, compared to only 15% for traditional stoves, confirming their superior energy performance (Bonjour et al., 2013; Dzokom & Djouldé, 2025a,b; Dzokom, 2025a,b,c; Dzokom, 2023; Dzokom et al., 2025a,b; Dzokom & Kodji, 2025a,b; Dzokom et al., 2024a,b).

These findings are consistent with Smith et al. (2011), who demonstrated that adopting improved cookstoves in similar contexts leads to a significant reduction in fuelwood demand and forest resource pressure.

## 2. Pollutant Emissions and Indoor Air Quality

Improved cookstoves significantly reduce pollutant emissions:

* Carbon monoxide (CO) reduced by 74%

* Fine particles (PM2.5) reduced by 70%

* Coarse particles (PM10) reduced by 64%

* Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) reduced by 29%

The temperature in the kitchen is lower with improved cookstoves, thereby enhancing the thermal comfort of users. Relative humidity is slightly higher with improved cookstoves, which may help reduce respiratory irritations caused by dry and polluted air.

These results confirm that improved cookstoves significantly enhance indoor air quality, reducing respiratory disease risks and improving household comfort.

The evaluation of pollutant emissions showed that traditional cookstoves produce high levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5), often exceeding the thresholds recommended by the WHO (World Health Organization, 2014). Measurements taken in kitchens revealed average concentrations of 350 ppm of CO and 500 µg/m³ of PM2.5 for traditional cookstoves, compared to 90 ppm of CO and 150 µg/m³ of PM2.5 for improved cookstoves. The table below outlines the pollutant emissions and indoor air quality based on the type of cookstove used:

<table><caption>Table 5: Pollutant Emissions and Indoor Air Quality Based on Cookstove Type</caption><thead><tr><td>Pollutant and Air Quality Indicators</td><td>Traditional Cookstoves</td><td>Improved Cookstoves</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions (ppm)</td><td>350 ± 40</td><td>90 ± 20</td></tr><tr><td>Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions (ppm)</td><td>4500 ± 500</td><td>3200 ± 400</td></tr><tr><td>Fine particle (PM2.5) emissions (µg/m<sup>3</sup>)</td><td>500 ± 60</td><td>150 ± 30</td></tr><tr><td>Coarse particle (PM10) emissions (µg/m<sup>3</sup>)</td><td>700 ± 80</td><td>250 ± 40</td></tr><tr><td>Average kitchen temperature (°C)</td><td>38 ± 3</td><td>32 ± 2</td></tr><tr><td>Average relative humidity in kitchen (%)</td><td>45 ± 5</td><td>50 ± 4</td></tr></tbody></table>

These results are consistent with the work of McCracken et al. (2013), which showed that prolonged exposure to household smoke is significantly associated with an

increased risk of chronic respiratory diseases and cardiovascular complications in women. The use of improved cookstoves thus contributes to an average 60%
reduction in pollutant emissions, thereby decreasing health risks related to prolonged inhalation of toxic smoke (Ezzati & Kammen, 2002).

### 3. Health Impacts on Women

Respiratory problems (cough, shortness of breath, infections) are notably more frequent among users of traditional cookstoves, with the prevalence of chronic cough reaching 78% compared to 34% for improved cookstoves. Eye irritations are three times more common among users of

traditional cookstoves (65% versus 22%), due to prolonged exposure to fine particles and CO. Concentrations of air pollutants (CO and PM<sub>2.5</sub>) are significantly higher with traditional cookstoves, leading to poor indoor air quality and increased health risks. The incidence of acute respiratory infections is reduced by 60% among users of improved cookstoves. These results confirm the importance of transitioning to improved cookstoves to reduce health risks related to indoor air pollution. The table below details the health impacts on women based on the type of cookstove used:

<table><caption>Table 6: Health Impacts on Women Based on Cookstove Type</caption><thead><tr><td>Health Indicators</td><td>Traditional Cookstoves</td><td>Improved Cookstoves</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Prevalence of chronic cough (%)</td><td>78 ± 5</td><td>34 ± 4</td></tr><tr><td>Prevalence of eye irritations (%)</td><td>65 ± 7</td><td>22 ± 5</td></tr><tr><td>Prevalence of shortness of breath (%)</td><td>55 ± 6</td><td>18 ± 5</td></tr><tr><td>Cases of acute respiratory infections per year</td><td>4.5 ± 1.2</td><td>1.8 ± 0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Average CO concentration in domestic air (ppm)</td><td>350 ± 40</td><td>90 ± 20</td></tr><tr><td>Average PM2.5 concentration in domestic air (µg/m³)</td><td>500 ± 60</td><td>150 ± 30</td></tr></tbody></table>

Interview and medical diagnosis results indicate that 78% of women using traditional cookstoves report frequent respiratory symptoms, including chronic cough, eye irritation, and shortness of breath. In contrast, among users of improved cookstoves, this rate drops to 34%. Statistical analysis confirms a significant correlation between exposure to smoke and the prevalence of respiratory conditions (p < 0.05). These results reinforce the conclusions of Bruce et al. (2015), which highlight that chronic exposure to fine particles increases the risks of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and pulmonary infections.

### 4. Acceptability and Adoption Barriers of Improved Cookstoves

The adoption rate of improved cookstoves is 65%, indicating moderate acceptance despite perceived benefits. Cost remains a

major barrier for 55% of the surveyed households, underscoring the need for subsidies or payment facilitation. Nearly half of the households (48%) face difficulties obtaining an improved cookstove, limiting their spread. 30% of users remain attached to traditional cookstoves, mainly due to habit or distrust of new technologies. 80% of households report satisfaction after adoption, indicating a positive perception after use. Households report an average 60% reduction in wood consumption, enhancing the economic interest in improved cookstoves. These results show that improved cookstoves are well-received after adoption, but their diffusion is hindered by cost and accessibility. Awareness and financing strategies could enhance their acceptability. The table below details the acceptability and adoption barriers of improved cookstoves:

<table><caption>Table 7: Acceptability and Adoption Barriers of Improved Cookstoves</caption><thead><tr><td>Acceptability Criteria and Barriers</td><td>Improved Cookstoves</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Adoption rate of improved cookstoves (%)</td><td>65 ± 8</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Cost perceived as a barrier (%)</td><td>55 ± 10</td></tr><tr><td>Difficulty obtaining improved cookstoves (%)</td><td>48 ± 9</td></tr><tr><td>Preference for traditional methods (%)</td><td>30 ± 7</td></tr><tr><td>Satisfaction after adoption (%)</td><td>80 ± 6</td></tr><tr><td>Perceived reduction in wood consumption (%)</td><td>60 ± 8</td></tr></table>

Despite demonstrated benefits, the adoption of improved cookstoves remains limited by several factors:

* **High Initial Cost:** Although improved cookstoves save wood in the long run, their high initial cost is a barrier for many low-income households (Puzzolo et al., 2013).

* **Cultural Habits and Resistance to Change:** Some women feel that improved cookstoves alter the taste of traditional dishes or require an adaptation period (Lewis & Pattanayak, 2012).

* **Availability and Accessibility:** The lack of distribution points and awareness initiatives limits the diffusion of these technologies in remote rural areas (Ruiz-Mercado et al., 2011).

## 5. Perspectives and Recommendations

To encourage the adoption of improved cookstoves and maximize their benefits, several strategies can be implemented:

* **Subsidization and Payment Facilities:** Provide subsidy or microcredit programs to make improved cookstoves more accessible to low-income households.

* **Community Awareness:** Raise awareness about the health effects of smoke and the economic benefits of improved cookstoves.

* **Local Production and Distribution:** Develop local production and distribution systems to reduce manufacturing costs and improve accessibility.

## Conclusion and Recommendations
### Conclusion

The comparative study on the use of improved cookstoves versus traditional cookstoves and the impact of smoke on women's health in the Cameroonian Sahel highlights several key points:

1. **Energy Efficiency:** Improved cookstoves use 40% less wood on average and exhibit a higher thermal efficiency (35% versus 15% for traditional cookstoves), reducing pressure on forest resources and improving household energy sustainability.

2. **Reduction of Pollutant Emissions:** The concentrations of CO and fine particles (PM2.5) in indoor air are significantly lower with improved cookstoves. CO emissions are reduced by 74%, while PM2.5 decreases by 70%, thereby improving indoor air quality.

3. **Impact on Women's Health:** Prolonged exposure to smoke from traditional cookstoves is associated with a higher prevalence of respiratory diseases (78% of users of traditional cookstoves suffer from chronic cough and eye problems, compared to 34% for improved cookstoves). The reduction in pollutant emissions thus leads to a decrease in respiratory and eye ailments.

4. **Barriers to Adoption of Improved Cookstoves:** Despite their benefits, the spread of improved cookstoves is hindered by economic constraints (high initial cost), cultural factors (resistance to change, adaptation to new cooking methods), and
logistical issues (limited access to cookstoves in some rural areas).

Thus, the results of this study confirm that improved cookstoves represent a viable and sustainable solution for improving women's health while reducing wood consumption and pollutant emissions. However, efforts must be made to facilitate their large-scale adoption.

**Recommendations** To maximize the impact of improved cookstoves and accelerate their adoption, the following recommendations are made:

**1. Economic and Policy Strategies**

o Subsidies and Financial Aid: Implement subsidy or microcredit programs to make improved cookstoves more accessible to low-income households.

o Tax Exemptions and Incentives: Encourage local production and distribution of improved cookstoves by offering tax incentives to manufacturers and distributors.

**2. Awareness and Training**

o Community Awareness Campaigns: Organize informational sessions and demonstrations to show the health and economic benefits of improved cookstoves.

o Training of Rural Women: Involve women's associations and local organizations to ensure better acceptability and adoption of new cooking technologies.

**3. Improving Availability and Accessibility**

o Strengthened Distribution Networks: Develop local supply chains to ensure

continuous availability of improved cookstoves, especially in remote rural areas.

o Local Manufacturing: Encourage local artisans and entrepreneurs to produce models tailored to the needs of communities using locally available materials.

**4. Research and Innovation**

o Development of More Adapted Models: Invest in research on improved cookstove models that are more efficient, taking into account local cultural and culinary preferences.

o Ongoing Monitoring and Evaluation: Set up monitoring programs to assess the long-term impacts on health and the environment, adjusting promotion and improvement strategies accordingly.

**Perspectives**

To ensure sustainable impact, a multisectoral approach involving governments, NGOs, researchers, and local communities is essential. Integrating improved cookstoves into public policies on energy resource management and environmental health would accelerate their spread and strengthen benefits in terms of well-being and sustainability.

In conclusion, improved cookstoves are an effective solution to reduce the harmful

effects of indoor air pollution, improve women's health, and preserve forest resources. However, overcoming the barriers to adoption and ensuring equitable access to these technologies will be essential to maximizing their positive impact on communities in the Sahel.
**Conflict of Interest:** The authors declare
no conflict of interest.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all individuals and institutions who contributed to the successful completion of this research. Special thanks are extended to the local farming communities and cooperatives in the Sudano-Sahelian region of Cameroon for their collaboration and for providing raw materials. We also acknowledge the technical support provided by the Biosciences laboratory teams at the University of Maroua, whose expertise greatly enhanced the analytical phases of this study. This work was made possible through the support of the Sahel Nature Consulting NGO, whose financial and logistical contributions are gratefully acknowledged. Finally, we express our appreciation to all peer reviewers and academic mentors for their constructive feedback and guidance throughout the research process.

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