# Public Health Problems Associated With Urbanization
In Africa: Challenges, Solutions & Prospects

Andy Anyalewachi Ukah, Oche Joseph Otorkpa

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## To cite this version:

Andy Anyalewachi Ukah, Oche Joseph Otorkpa. Public Health Problems Associated With Urbanization In Africa: Challenges, Solutions & Prospects. 2018. [DOI: 10.5893/hal-04805893](https://doi.org/10.5893/hal-04805893)

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Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Public Health Problems Associated With Urbanization In Africa: Challenges,
Solutions & Prospects

BY

Andy Anyalewachi Ukah & Oche Joseph Otorkpa

An invited paper, presented on the occasion Investiture, Organized by the
African Institute of Public Health Professionals, held on the 1st of December,
2018, at Grace Point Hotel, FCT, Abuja

1st December, 2018
# Contents of the Presentation

1. Preamble: Information About Africa

2. Definitions/Explanations of Relevant Terms

3. Causes of urbanization in Africa

4. Problems/Consequences of urbanization in Africa

5. Solutions/Control/Prevention of the Problems

6. Constraints/Challenges in solving the problems

7. Prospects of urbanization in Africa

8. Conclusion

9. References
## Preambles: Information About Africa

Africa, one of the seven continents of the world, is unique for being the only continent that spans all four hemispheres—North, South, East, and West. It is the second-largest continent by area, covering approximately 30,370,000 square kilometers (11,730,000 square miles), making up a significant portion of the Earth's landmass.

With a population of approximately 1.225 billion people, Africa is the second most populous continent, accounting for about 14% of the global population. Despite its vast size, it represents only 6% of the Earth's total surface area but occupies 20% of its land area. The continent is composed of 54 independent countries, making it the continent with the highest number of countries in the world. Additionally, Africa has 10 territories (dependent countries) and two de facto states that function with their own unique entities, special rights, or recognition, though they do not officially belong to Africa.

A striking feature of Africa's demographic makeup is that over 50% of its population is under the age of 25, highlighting the continent's youthful character. Africa is experiencing rapid urbanization, with projections suggesting that this shift will occur faster than in other regions of the world. While the majority of the population still resides in rural areas, Africa is one of the fastest urbanizing regions globally (Guneralp et al., 2017).

## Public Health

Public health is both an art and a science, focused on preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting health across populations. This includes efforts in sanitation, hygiene, the control of infectious diseases, and the organization of health services. According to Abanobi (2010), public health aims to prevent premature death, disability, and disease by fostering organized community efforts. These efforts are designed to promote optimal health and functionality among individuals in their communities, taking into account their environment.

The importance of community action in promoting health and preventing and treating diseases has long been recognized. The practice of public health emerged from the collective recognition that addressing social and health problems requires a coordinated approach that involves the community. Public health not only aims to improve the health of individuals but also seeks to create environments
conducive to overall well-being, with a focus on education, disease prevention, and
health promotion.

## Urban

Urban areas are characterized as built-up and densely populated regions, typically encompassing a municipality and generally having a population of at least 50,000 people (Business Dictionary, 2018). The defining criteria for urban areas include factors such as population size, population density, space, and economic organization (Long, 1998). The term “urban” often denotes areas where the infrastructure, economic activities, and social organization differ significantly from rural settings.

According to Johns Hopkins (2009), urbanization is marked by several defining characteristics:

* Population density

* Land use patterns

* Housing materials and construction styles

* Economic differentiation

* Sanitation and water supplies

* Access to services such as healthcare and education

* Transportation systems

## Urbanization

Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, resulting in a gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban settings. It encompasses the ways in which societies adapt to these demographic changes. As more people migrate to cities, urban areas expand, and the socio-economic dynamics of these regions evolve. According to the National Library of Medicine (2014), urbanization is not just about population movement but also about the transformation in lifestyle, infrastructure, and services as the society adjusts to the growth of urban centers.

Urbanization is often measured in two ways:

* **Urbanization Ratio:** The proportion of the total national population living in areas classified as urban, expressed as a percentage, ratio, or fraction.

* **Urban Growth:** The absolute number of people living in urban areas, which refers to the actual increase in the urban population.
This shift toward urban living is a key feature of the global demographic trend, particularly in Africa, where rapid urbanization is anticipated to continue in the coming decades. As cities grow, managing the challenges of urban development, including providing adequate services, infrastructure, and healthcare, becomes increasingly crucial for improving the quality of life in these expanding urban areas.

## General Public Health Problems

Generally, Africa faces many public health problems and challenges that need to be addressed urgently. These include: communicable and non-communicable diseases, sewage management, water supply and sanitation, soil contamination, air pollution, noise pollution, solid waste management, housing (provision and sanitation), disaster management, disease control and vector management, poor sanitation and hygiene, maternal mortality, infant mortality, access to health care, doctor population ratio, health personnel-population ratio, population-bed ratio, population per health facility, health financing, poor disease surveillance; incessant doctors strike, smoking of tobacco, drug/substance abuse, brain drain, rapid urbanization, alcohol abuse, environmental degradation, road traffic injuries, etcetera (Muhammad, et al, (2017).

## World Urbanization Trends (United Nations, 2014)

Global urban population is growing at rapid rate from 21%, in 1950 to 30% in 2001, 54% in 2015 and expected to increase to 60% in 2030.

- The most urbanized continent is North America - 82%

- Latin America and the Caribbean Continent - 80%

- European continent - 73%

- Asia continent - 48%

- African continent - 40%
However, Asian and African continents are urbanizing faster than other continents and projected to be 64% and 56% in 2050, respectively.

## Africa Fastest Growing cities 2010-20130 (UN, 2014)

- Population growth per hour;

- Nigeria- Lagos; 77 people per hour

- DR Congo-Kinshasha: 61 people per hour

- Egypt -Cairo 44 people per hour

- Angola -Luanda: 34 people per hour

- Burkina Faso-Quagaduoguo: 23 people per hour

- South Africa-Johanessburg: 22 people per hour

- Kenya - Nairobi: 21 people per hour

- Sudan-Khartoum: 21 people per hour

- Mali-Bamako: 19 people per hour.
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Lagos, Nigeria.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Lagos, Nigeria.</figcaption></figure>
<table><thead><tr><th>S/N o.</th><th>Continent</th><th>Area (km2)</th><th>Area (mi2)</th><th>% of World Landmass</th><th>2010 population</th><th>% of total world</th><th>Population Density (per km2)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Asia</td><td>43,820,000</td><td>16,920,000</td><td>29.50%</td><td>4,164,252,000</td><td>60%</td><td>246</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Africa</td><td>30,370,000</td><td>11,730,000</td><td>20.40%</td><td>1,022,234,000</td><td>15%</td><td>87</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>North America</td><td>24,490,000</td><td>9,460,000</td><td>16.50%</td><td>542,056,000</td><td>8%</td><td>57</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>South America</td><td>17,840,000</td><td>6,460,000</td><td>12.00%</td><td>392,555,000</td><td>6%</td><td>57</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Antarctica</td><td>13,720,000</td><td>5,300,000</td><td>9.20%</td><td>0*</td><td>0%</td><td>0.00078</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Europe</td><td>10,180,000</td><td>3,930,000</td><td>6.80%</td><td>738,199,000</td><td>11%</td><td>183</td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td>Australia</td><td>9,008,500</td><td>3,478,200</td><td>5.90%</td><td>29,127,000</td><td>0.40%</td><td>8.3</td></tr></tbody></table>

*Antarctica has no permanent residents

Source: Dempsey, 2014

<table><caption>Table 1: Top Ten Countries with the Highest Population (Internet World starts, 2017)</caption><thead><tr><th>S/No.</th><th>Country</th><th>2000 population</th><th>2018 Population</th><th>Growth % Population 2000-2018</th><th>2050 Expected Population</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>China</td><td>1,268,301,605</td><td>1,415,045,928</td><td>11.6</td><td>1,301,627,048</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>India</td><td>1,006,300,297</td><td>1,354,854</td><td>34.6</td><td>1,656,553,632</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>United States</td><td>282,162,411</td><td>326,766,748</td><td>15.8</td><td>389,328,349</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Indonesia</td><td>214,090,575</td><td>266,794,980</td><td>24.6</td><td>300,183,166</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Brazil</td><td>174,315,386</td><td>210,867,954</td><td>21.0</td><td>232,304,177</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Pakistan</td><td>152,429,036</td><td>200,813,818</td><td>31.7</td><td>290,847,790</td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td>Nigeria</td><td>123,945,463</td><td>195,875,237</td><td>58.0</td><td>391,296,754</td></tr><tr><td>8.</td><td>Bangladesh</td><td>128,734,627</td><td>166,368,149</td><td>29.2</td><td>193,092,763</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>9.</td><td>Russia</td><td>147,053,966</td><td>143,964,709</td><td>-2.1</td><td>129,908,086</td></tr><tr><td>10.</td><td>Mexico</td><td>99,773,434</td><td>130,759,074</td><td>31.1</td><td>150,567,503</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Top 10 countries</td><td>3,597,108,845</td><td>4,411,308,451</td><td>22.6</td><td>4,950,140,178</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Rest of the world</td><td>2,547,898,144</td><td>3,233,449,451</td><td>29.6</td><td>4,329,774,958</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Total world population</td><td>6,145,000,989</td><td>7,634,757,932</td><td>25.5</td><td>9,374,484,225</td></tr></table>

Source: Internet World Starts, 2017
<table><caption>Table 2: World most populated urban cities (Jakarta, 2017; Myricks, 2017; Rosenberg, 2018.</caption><thead><tr><td>S/No.</td><td>Country</td><td>City</td><td>Population</td><td>Projected population by 2030.</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Japan</td><td>Tokyo</td><td>38,140,000</td><td>37,190,000</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>China</td><td>Shanghai</td><td>34,000,000</td><td>44,751,000</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Indonesia</td><td>Jakarta</td><td>31,700,000</td><td>40,751,000</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Pakistan</td><td>Karachi</td><td>27,500,000</td><td>37,838,000</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>India</td><td>Delhi</td><td>26,500,000</td><td>36,060,000</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>South Korea</td><td>Seoul</td><td>25,500,000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td>China</td><td>Guangzhou</td><td>25,000,000</td><td>33,574,000</td></tr><tr><td>8.</td><td>China</td><td>Benign</td><td>24,900,000</td><td>31,706,000</td></tr><tr><td>9.</td><td>USA</td><td>New York</td><td>23,700,000</td><td>24,885,000</td></tr><tr><td>10.</td><td>China</td><td>Shenzhen</td><td>23,300,000</td><td>28,673,000</td></tr><tr><td>11.</td><td>Mexico</td><td>Mexico City</td><td>21,300,000</td><td>23,865,000</td></tr><tr><td>12.</td><td>Brazil</td><td>Sao Paulo</td><td>21,200,000</td><td>23,444,600</td></tr><tr><td>13.</td><td>Nigeria</td><td>Lagos</td><td>21,000,000</td><td>32,239,000</td></tr><tr><td>14.</td><td>India</td><td>Mumbai</td><td>20,700,000</td><td>26,797,000</td></tr><tr><td>15.</td><td>Japan</td><td>Osaka</td><td>19,300,000</td><td>18,976,000</td></tr><tr><td>16.</td><td>Egypt</td><td>Cairo</td><td>19,000,000</td><td>24,502,000</td></tr><tr><td>17.</td><td>China</td><td>Wuhan</td><td>19,000,000</td><td>Increase</td></tr><tr><td>18.</td><td>Russia</td><td>Moscow</td><td>19,000,000</td><td>20,200,000</td></tr><tr><td>19.</td><td>China</td><td>Chengdu</td><td>18,100,000</td><td>Increase</td></tr><tr><td>20.</td><td>Bangladesh</td><td>Dhaka</td><td>17,200,000</td><td>28,374,000</td></tr><tr><td>21.</td><td>China</td><td>Chongqing</td><td>17,000,000</td><td>23,380,000</td></tr><tr><td>22.</td><td>Argentina</td><td>Buenos Aires</td><td>15,334,000</td><td>16,956,000</td></tr><tr><td>23.</td><td>India</td><td>Kolkata</td><td>14,980,000</td><td>19,095,000</td></tr><tr><td>24.</td><td>Turkey</td><td>Istanbul</td><td>14,365,000</td><td>16,694,000</td></tr><tr><td>25.</td><td>Philippines</td><td>Manila</td><td>13,131,000</td><td>16,756,000</td></tr><tr><td>26.</td><td>Brazil</td><td>Riode Janeiro</td><td>12,317,000</td><td>14,174,000</td></tr><tr><td>27.</td><td>USA</td><td>Los Angeles</td><td>12,317,000</td><td>13,126,000</td></tr><tr><td>28.</td><td>DR Congo</td><td>Kinshasa</td><td>12,071,000</td><td>19,996,000</td></tr><tr><td>29.</td><td>China</td><td>Tianjin</td><td>11,0558,000</td><td>14,655,000</td></tr><tr><td>30.</td><td>France</td><td>Paris</td><td>10,925,000</td><td>11,803,000</td></tr><tr><td>31.</td><td>India</td><td>Bangalore</td><td>10,456,000</td><td>14,762,000</td></tr><tr><td>32.</td><td>United Kingdom</td><td>London</td><td>10,434,000</td><td>11,467,000</td></tr><tr><td>33.</td><td>United Kingdom</td><td>London</td><td>10,34,000</td><td>14,762,000</td></tr><tr><td>34.</td><td>India</td><td>Madras (Chennai)</td><td>10,163,000</td><td>13,921,000</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Jakarta, 2017; Myricks, 2017; Rosenberg, 2018
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>
## Causes of Urbanisation

1. Industralisation (Industry Revolution)

- Trend representing a shift from old agricultural economics to non-agricultural economics

- Creates modernized society

- Through industrial revolution more people are attracted to move from rural to urban areas on account of improved employment opportunities

- Leading to good pay and improved living standards

2. Commercialization

- Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization

- The distribution of goods and services and commercial transactions in the modern era has developed modern marketing institutions and exchange methods that have tremendously given rise to the growth of towns and cities.

3. Social Benefits and Services

- There are numerous social benefits attributed to life in the cities and towns-better educational facilities, better living standards, better sanitation and housing, better health care, better revelation facilities and better social life in general.

4. Employment Opportunities

- There are ample job opportunities, in cities and towns, that continually draw people from the rural areas to seek better livelihood.

5. Modernisation and Changes in the made of living

- Modernization plays a very important role in the process of urbanization

- People believe they can lead a happy life in the cities when urban areas become more technologically savvy together with highly sophisticated communication, infrastructure, medical facilities dressing code, enlightenment, liberalization and other social amenities availability.

- In urban areas, people embrace changes in the modes of living namely, residential habits, attitudes, dressing, food and belief; as a result, people
migrates to cities and the cities grow by absorbing the growing number of
the people day after day.

6. Rural-urban Transformation

- Localities become more fruitful and prosperous due to the discovery of minerals, resource exploitation, or agricultural activities, cities start emerging as the rural areas transform to urbanism

- The increase in productivity will lead to economic growth and higher value-added employment opportunities

- The development brings about the need to develop better infrastructure, better education institutions, better health facilities, better transportation networks, establishment of banking institutions, better governance, and better housing.

- The rural communities start to adopt the urban culture and ultimately become urban centres that continue to grow as more people move to such locations in search of a better life.

7. Security

- People migrate at an increasing rate to safe places like cities, town and urban areas where security is assured.

8. Family

The migration of people from rural to urban areas is sometimes influenced by family member who have previously migrated and have become comfortable in these urban areas.

9. Marriage

Marriage is one of the reasons why people migrate to urban centres from rural settlement

- People in urban areas still go to rural areas to marry wives because of the presumed hard working nature and good character of village girls

10. Education

The availability of social infrastructure and better equipped schools makes the urban areas the preferred location for education
- A vast majority of tertiary institutions are located in urban areas, which forces teenagers and youths to migrate to urban centres to further their education in higher institutions, even secondary schools.

## Problems of Urbanization in Africa

* Waste Management

* Sewage Management

* Housing

* Over crowding

* Air Pollution

* Water pollution

* Lack of adequate sanitary infrastructures

* Unemployment

* Collapsed Building

* Soil Contamination

* Development of Slums

* Diseases and Disorders

* Traffic Congestion and Accidents

* Urban Crime

* Food Fraud and Contamination

* Pest and Vector Management

* Urban Threating

* Migration
# 1. Waste Management problems in Africa

In Africa countries, failure to correctly manage waste disposal has led to flooding and the outbreak of diseases (Kaledzi, 2017) poor waste management practices in particular, the widespread dumping of wastes in water bodies and uncontrolled dump sites, aggravates the problem of generally low sanitation levels across the African continent (UNIDO, 2002).

Urbanisation is on the rise in Africa and this trend the infrastructure and land use planning, including for waste management is not coping with the growth of urban areas (around 3.5% annually, highest in the world). This is particularly urgent in slum areas which constitute a big part of many of the cities and towns in Africa (UNIDO, 2009).

Plastic waste is littering our oceans and threatening the lives of millions of marine animals. Seas, whales, dolphins, seabirds, fish, crabs and many other sea animals are dying and becoming sick because of this deadly environmental concern; In 2014, an estimated 15 to 51 trillion microplastic particles were floating in the world's oceans, weighing between 93,000 and 236,000 tonnes. Again, 80% microplastics are from land-based source, like bottles and bags (WAP, 2017).

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

## 2. Sewage Management
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>
## 2. Housing problems

The influx of people leads to population increase and scarcity of house, due to insufficient expansion space for housing and public utilities

Due to lack of affordable land

Due to poverty, unemployment and costly building

Materials which can only be afforded by few individuals

Living in uncompleted building, batchers, slums.

- A situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small space (congestion)

- Due to overpopulation of people

- Due to day-to-day migration from rural to urban areas

- Mention number of people migrating per hour
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>
## Unemployment

Problem of joblessness is higher in urban areas and it is even higher among the educated people. It is estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around the globe live in urban/metropolitan cities.

As much as increase in urban areas is high, the cost of living make the incomes to seem horribly low.

The increasing relocation of people from rural, or developing areas to urban areas, is the leading cause of urban unemployment.

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>
## Food Problem in Africa

Inspite of the high rates of economic growth achieved by African countries in the last decade; despite the fact that Africa is a continent, rich in both natural and human resources, yet it is still up till now the world's poorest continent, however, the problem of food security and safety is still rampant in the African continent.

The main factors causing the problem of food insecurity and unsafety in Africa can be summed up as follows: low agricultural productivity; high population growth rate; inefficient system and policies of food distribution; poverty and low income; and the spread of AIDS (Al-Baguri, 2014). Other factors include conflict environment, governance (WHES, 2017).

Goal two of the sustainable Development Goals developed in 2016, strives for 'Zero Hunger" by 2030; unfortunately, hunger and malnutrition remain a large barrier of development in many regions, including Africa (WHES, 2017). Global estimates of undernourishment rose from 777 million in 2015 to 821 in 2017, Africa has the highest prevalence of undernourishment, estimated in 2016 to be 20% of the population (FAQ, 2017).

<table><caption>Table 4: Percentage and Number of People Affected by Severe Food Insecurity in 2016.</caption><thead><tr><td>S/No</td><td>Continent/World</td><td>Percentage</td><td>Millions</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>World</td><td>9.3 (+0.4)</td><td>688.5 (+27.6)</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Africa</td><td>27.4 (±0.7)</td><td>333.2 (±8.6)</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Asia</td><td>7.0 (+0.6)</td><td>309.9(±26.0)</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Latin America</td><td>6.4(±0.3)</td><td>38.3(±2.0)</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Northern America and Europe</td><td>1.2 (±0.1)</td><td>13.0(±1.3)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: World Hunger Education Services
Top 12 Foods you should eat organically (From Lowest to Highest amount of Pesticides)

1. Apples: 42 Pesticides, Residues

* Carcinogens - 7

* Hormone disruptors - 19

* Neurotoxins - 10

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 6

* Honeybee toxins - 17

2. Cherries: 42 Pesticide Residues

* Carcinogens - 7

* Hormone disruptors - 22

* Neurotoxins - 7

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 8

* Honeybee toxins - 18

3. Green Beans: 44 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 8

* Hormone disruptors - 22

* Neurotoxins - 11

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 8

* Honeybee toxins - 18

4. Collard Greens - 46 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 9

* Hormone disruptors - 22

* Neurotoxins - 11

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 8

* Honeybee toxins - 18
**5. Spinach** – 48 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 8

* Hormone disruptors - 25

* Neurotoxins - 8

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 6

* Honeybee toxins - 23

**6. Sweet Bell Peppers** – 49 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 11

* Hormone disruptors - 26

* Neurotoxins - 13

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 10

* Honeybee toxins - 19

**7. Lettuce** – 51 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 12

* Hormone disruptors - 29

* Neurotoxins - 9

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 10

* Honeybee toxins - 21

**8. Blueberries** – 52 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 8

* Hormone disruptors - 24

* Neurotoxins - 14

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 7

* Honeybee toxins - 21

**9. Strawberries** – 48 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 9

* Hormone disruptors - 24

* Neurotoxins - 11

* Developmental/reproductive toxins - 12
* Honeybee toxins – 19

**10. Kale (Type of Cabbage) – 55 Pesticides Residues**

* Carcinogens - 9

* Hormone disruptors - 27

* Neurotoxins – 10

* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 23

**11. Peaches – 62 Pesticides Residues**

* Carcinogens - 10

* Hormone disruptors - 29

* Neurotoxins – 12

* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 11

* Honeybee toxins – 25

**12. Celery (Vegetable) – 64 Pesticides Residues**

* Carcinogens - 13

* Hormone disruptors - 31

* Neurotoxins – 12

* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 14

* Honeybee toxins – 20

**13. Bananas – 12 Pesticides Residues**

* Carcinogens - 4

* Hormone disruptors - 7

* Neurotoxins – 2

* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 5

* Honeybee toxins – 2

**14. Grape fruit – 11 Pesticides Residues**

* Carcinogens - 4

* Hormone disruptors - 4

* Neurotoxins – 4
* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 4

* Honeybee toxins – 2

**15. Spinach** – 9 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 1

* Hormone disruptors - 4

* Neurotoxins – 3

* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 0

* Honeybee toxins – 4

**16. Asparagus (Vegetable)** – 9 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 1

* Hormone disruptors - 7

* Neurotoxins – 4

* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 3

* Honeybee toxins – 5

**17. Onion** – 1 Pesticides Residues

* Carcinogens - 0

* Hormone disruptors - 0

* Neurotoxins – 0

* Developmental/reproductive toxins – 0

* Honeybee toxins – 0

**Honourable Mentions**

1. **Broccoh**: It contains 33 known Pesticides residues

2. **Cucumbers**: They contain 35 known pesticides residues

3. **Grapes**: They Contain 34 Pesticide residues

4. **Potatoes**: They contain 37 known Pesticides residues

5. **Tomatoes**: They contain 35 known residues

**Development of Slums**

The cost of living in urban areas is very high.
When this is combined with random and unexpected growth, as well as unemployment will result to the spread of unlawful resident settlements represented by slums and squatters in urban areas is further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization, lack of developed land for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of better life and the elevated prices of land beyond the reach of the urban.

## Traffic Congestion, vehicular pollution and Road accidents

One of the major challenges posed, when more people move to towns and cities, is in the transport system. To move people round the urban areas means increased numbers of vehicles which leads to traffic congestion, vehicular pollution and traffic accident pollution.

## 4. Water Pollution
<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>
## Urban Crime

Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, lack of social services and education, habitually leads to many social problems, in urban vicinities.

Most of the prominent crimes often reported in urban vicinities are murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assaults, theft, robbery and hijacking.

These acts in urban crime normally upset the peace and tranquility of cities/towns

## Constraints In Solving the ProblemsChallenges Urbanisation in Africa

The constraints /challenges that the managers of urban areas in Africa are confronted with solving the problems of urbanization are among the biggest in the world (Guneralp, et al, 2017). These include among others the following challenges.

* The provision of basic urban services like water supply, road network, electricity, etc, has already been lacking across most cities on the continent even before the latest surge in urbanization

* Poor governance and inadequate service infrastructure in urban areas are hindering the control of urbanization problems in Africa

* Lack of institutional arrangements (framework is constraint in solving the problems of urbanization

* Persistent political instability discourages consistent policy implementation of urban area management and maintenance of Africa.

* Some African countries do not have any urban planning and development departments to handle the problems of urbanization in Africa.

* The rigid zoning in central areas of many cities inadvertently contribute to the proliferation of slums and the sprawling development of residential areas, issues that are major problems of urbanization in Africa.

* Encroachment of urban areas towards natural habitats and increasing demands of growing urban populations on natural resources put direct and indirectly pressures on the ecosystems.
* Africans need to spend between 130 and 170 billion dollars annually, to meet the continent's basic infrastructural needs. Yet, the region is already facing financing shortfalls of 68 to 108 billion dollars

* A majority of the current financing is coming from only the public sector because instability and regulatory confusion deters private capital, in urbanization management.

* The lack of city planning, inefficient land use, regulatory blockages and vested interests are holding African cities back, leading city decay.

* African cities are remarkably expensive to live in. According to the World Bank, African cities are 29% more expensive in overall than non-African cities with similar income levels. The “locals” pay a whooping 100% more for transport, 55% more for housing, 42% more for electricity and 35% more for food.

* Municipal governments are cash-strapped and struggle to generate tax revenue to manage urban areas in Africa

* City authorities often lack the political discretion and financial autonomy to take action, in urban planning, implementation and evaluation.

* Already some 70% of Africans are 30 youngsters accounting for roughly 20% of the population, 40% of the workforce and 60% of the unemployed. Runaway urbanization and a growing youth bulge with most young people lacking meaningful job prospects, is a time bomb that affects the management and maintenance of urban areas.

## Solutions of Urbanisation

### 1. Waste Management

Waste management involves western generation, segregation, storage, collection, transportation, treatment/process disposal. We can also adopt the “Rs” in waste management. For example, reduction, recovery, reuse, recycling, returning, reporting/rejecting, etc.

Waste can also be used to generate energy, bio-gas, waste paper industry, waste food industry, waste calcium carbide industry, composting, conversion, etc.
African is known to be the least developed region in the world with 38%-40% urbanization (Bello, et al, 2016, UN, 2014). African Countries are now faced with huge amount of waste which has direct effect on the human health, safety and environment (Bello, et al, 2016).

Other recommendations include policy and planning; legal aspects and enforcement; involvement of key stakeholders, their roles and coordination and partnerships; and cleaner production (UNIDO, 2009).

To enhance a better waste management in African counties; the Heads of African Countries should seek support from the international community; the people's perception and orientation about waste needs to change; relevant international agreements on waste management and provision of assistance to African Countries should be met; and Private Sectors should be actively involved Bello, et al, 2016).

## 2. Building sustainable and Environmental Friendly cities

- Governments should pass laws that aim at the planning and provision of environmentally sound cities and smart growth techniques, considering that people should not reside in unsafe and polluted areas

- African governments, private sectors should endeavor to build sustainable cities that embrace improved environmental conditions and safe habits for all urban populations.

- Governments, private sectors and individuals in the Africa continent should encourage sustainable use of urban resources and support an economy based on sustainable environment.

- Investment is given infrastructure, sustainable industries, recycling and environmental campaigns, pollution management, renewable energy, green public transportation and water recycling and reclamation

## 3. Provision of Essential Services

- Urban stakeholders must ensure all populations within the urban areas have access to adequate essential social services namely; education, health, sanitation and clean water, technology, electricity and food.
- Provision and implementation of employment opportunities and wealth creation activities so that people can earn a living to pay for the maintenance of other services.

- Subsidies can also be availed by the governments of Africa, to lower the costs of basic healthcare, basic education, energy, education, public transportation, communication systems and technology

3. Creation of More Jobs

- To lessen the negative effects of rapid urbanization, while at the same time considering natural ecosystems, private investments should be encouraged so as to utilize natural resources and create more jobs for the urban populations.

Population Control

- Key stakeholders in urban areas must provide campaigns and counseling for effective medical health clinics and family planning to help reduce the high rates of population growth.

* Medical health clinics oriented towards family planning options must be made available and accessible across the entire urban area population growth.
## Food

The UNDP report proposes some steps to resolve the problem of food insecurity (unsafety) in Africa. These are: (1) Improving the productivity of small farmers by enabling them to access technologies and modern production inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizers and financial services; (2) The dissemination of culture and health education about proper nutrition, especially among females in remote areas; (3) Building the capabilities of individuals and community organisations through social safety nets, crop insurance, the application of food for work programmes and other initiatives; (4) Enabling females and other marginalized groups to get piece of land and other and to participate in decision-making (UNDP, 2012). Other factors include (5) encouraging the innovative and entrepreneurial spirit of Africa's growing youth population to further stimulate rural economies is particularly important; (6) African countries must develop coordinated interventions which boost nutrition while expanding access to health services, education, sanitation and supply of clean water; (7) African countries should take measures to lower people's and communities' vulnerability to natural disasters and civil conflict, seasoned, or volatile changes in food prices and climate change; and (8) Ensuring access to land, markets, information and social justice, is an important step to empowerment (The Guardian 2012). It is on this premise that the UNDP (2012) opined... Africa can only grow, if it solves hunger crises.

## Adopt Smart Growth Concepts/Principles for Urban Development in Africa (USEPA, 2017).

Smart growth is an urban planning and transportation theory that concentrates growth in compact walkable urban centres to avoid sprawls (to cause to spread or extend awkwardly).

There are 10 accepted concepts, or principles that define smart growth.

i. Create a range of employment opportunities

ii. Mix land uses

iii. Take advantage of competent building design
iv. Create walkable neighbourhoods and range of housing opportunities and choices

v. Faster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place

vi. Preserve open space, farm land, natural beauty and critical environmental areas

vii. Strengthen and direct development towards existing communities

viii. Provide, in advance, a variety of transportation choices (transit-oriented, walk, bicycle, motor-bicycle, taxes, etc), urban and social infrastructure, based on population projections.

ix. Make development decisions sustainable predictable, fair and cost effective (e.g instead of Master Plan, adopt structural plan, that is more flexible).

x. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decision.

## 6. Observe Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene

We have observed that some urban environmental problems include inadequate water and sanitation, lack of proper waste management, environmental pollution, disease spread to mention but a few.

The solution to the problems is the holistic adoption of “environmental sanitation and hygiene. This may include but not limited to the following.

- Waste management (solid, sewage, excreta, medical waste water)

- Provision of safe and adequate water supply

- Food security and safety

- Pests and vectors, management

- Animal of reservoir of infection control

- Prevention of atmospheric pollution

- Control of other hazards like noise, radiation, etc

- Environmental surveillance (sanitary premises inspection)

- Market/Abattoir, schools and institutions' sanitation

- Management of urban drainage

- Hygiene education and promotion
- Professional collaboration (public environmental health officers, urban /city/town planning. Architects urban designer) quantity surveyors, building/construction engineers real estate developers, etc.

- Research fund research funding.

- Information education and communication

- Behavioural change

- Advocacy

- Enforcement

<table><caption>Table 3: Waste Decomposition Times (Western Plastics, 2018)</caption><thead><tr><td>S/No.</td><td>Waste</td><td>Decomposition period</td><td>Remarks</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Banana peels</td><td>2-10 days</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Cotton</td><td>5-15 months</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Cigarette butts</td><td>1-12 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Aluminium</td><td>250-500 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Glass bottles</td><td>1,000,000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Sugarcane</td><td>30-60 days</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td>Treat</td><td>3-14 months</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>8.</td><td>Paper bags</td><td>2-6 weeks</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>9.</td><td>Rope</td><td>4-14 months</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10.</td><td>Orange peels</td><td>6 months</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>11.</td><td>Leather shoe</td><td>25-40 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12.</td><td>Nylon clothes/fabric</td><td>30-40 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>13.</td><td>Plastic bottles</td><td>70-450 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>14.</td><td>Plastic bags</td><td>500-1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>15.</td><td>Sanitary Napkins & diapers</td><td>500-800 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>16.</td><td>Milk packet</td><td>5 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>17.</td><td>Fluinsier metal (Tin can steel)</td><td>50 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>18.</td><td>Foam cup</td><td>50 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>19.</td><td>Rubber boot soles</td><td>50-80 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20.</td><td>Milk cartons</td><td>5 years</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>21.</td><td>Batteries</td><td>100 years</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

## Prospects of Urbanisation in Africa

Today, 55% of the world's population lives in urban areas, and it is expected to increase to between 68% and 70% by 2050; the future increases in the size of the
world's urban population are expected to be highly concentrated in just a few countries - India, china and Nigeria which will account for 35% of the projected growth of the world's urban population between 2018 and 2050 (UN, 2018).

Again, by 2050, it is projected that India would add 416 million urban dwellers, China, 255 million and Nigeria 189 million. Those growths would result in the following:

* Growth in Trade and commerce continues migration to urban areas of people with different backgrounds, skills and experiences, engage in a vast number of businesses and trade will promote commercial activities of the African countries.

* There will be more growth in commercial and trade; and the markets will be richly developed.

* Cultural Exchange urbanization in African countries, will continue to create the avenue for people of different cultures to mix and learn each other's cultures which will promote peace, unity and understanding.

* Rapid development: Due to the population growth the government will invest more in these areas, coupled with the investments of the residents, making for a rapid development in these areas and the countries as a whole growth in industrial production.

* One thing that urbanization brings about for sure is labour. Labour will continue to move from rural areas to urban areas and will make industrial production possible.

* The production in various industrial sectors like cement, pharmaceutical, textile, iron and steel for fertilizer food, etc will help in the economic growth of the countries in Africa.

* The technological advancements: Urbanisation has its advantages and adds to so much to the economic and fosters development due to wise application of technological know how an urban development and maintenance.

* Urbanization in Africa will continue to provide improved transportation and communication, infrastructural advancements, quality education, medical facilities and improved standards of living.

* The physical expansion of urban areas and concentration of people in urban areas would seem to ease off the pressure on natural habitats.
* Urbanization in Africa, if well managed, can act as a catalyst to move to local, regional, national and international governance mechanisms in the continent towards more effective conservation of biodiversity.

* The African continent, having several regions with exceptional biodiversity, has much to offer to its urban populations in terms of recreation, a legacy of natural history and a source of natural pride.

* African biodiversity and ecosystems can also serve as foundations for green infrastructure that can meet the needs of rapid growing. Urban populations, while not ravaging these very ecosystems on which both rural and urban livelihoods ultimately depend.

## Conclusion

I will like to conclude this paper with a portion of the observations of the United Nations (2018): "Understanding the key trends in urbanization, likely to unfold over the coming years, is crucial to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development; including efforts to forge a new framework of urban development. Urbanization is an unavoidable occurrence in every part of the world as a whole and African in particular as people are constantly in search of a greener pastures.

As the world continues to urbanise, sustainable development depends increasing on the successful management of urban growth, especially in low-income and lower-middle-income countries, where the pace of urbanization is projected to the fastest.

Many countries (in Africa) will face challenges in meeting the needs of their growing urban populations, including for housing, transportation, energy systems and other infrastructure, as well as for employment and basic services such as education and healthcare.

Integrated policies to improve the lives of both urban and rural dwellers are needed, while strengthening the linkages between urban and rural areas, building on their existing economic, social and environmental ties. And focusing on the needs of the urban poor and other vulnerable groups for housing, education, healthcare, decent work and a safe environment. By so doing, the alarming hazards and disadvantages created by urbanization will be controlled and properly managed in Africa.

By 2050 it is predicated that more than 1.3 billion Africans will call a city home. If they are to live with dignity and seize tomorrow's opportunities, Africa needs to
assemble the greatest minds in urban planning, technology and sustainability, today.

Thanks for your patience!
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