2015). Seven respondents said that managing value conflicts, employee involvement and participation, and empowerment are all processes, and that everything falls back on leadership to achieve operational excellence in public services.

## 15.4 Recommendations

This section offers several recommendations towards achieving operational excellence in Brunei public services, through building value congruence and strong leadership, enhanced human resource management practices, service strategy and increased culture of employees' involvement in the public sector.

* Descriptions of the organisation's desired level of excellent performance and expectations must be communicated clearly to all employees in the organisation in a cogent and straightforward manner.

* With the increased use of digital technology in the public sector, a comprehensive set of policies that covers a wide range of technical and non-technical aspects—from a proper use of government computers to deliver services, issues of privacy, security and data integration, to technology disposition—should be put in place in order to sustain operational excellence improvement efforts.

* The process of making employees accept a set of norms or values established by the organisation—value internalisation—can be done in two ways: a ‘soft’ approach through socialisation and ‘hard’ approach by abiding with policy. Employees are more likely to abide with policy if they see their managers and leaders consistently following policies and procedures.

* To increase employees' sense of understanding of the organisation's goals, values and missions—value alignment—two-way communication, such as open and transparent dialogue, can help the employees to intrinsically understand the organisation's core values and align themselves with its goals. Employees can truly work towards excellence once they understand the goals. This can also help to reduce value conflicts between employees and the organisation.

* While encouraging employees to embrace organisational values, organisations should also leverage the employees' work values to accomplish many goals. For example, although being team-oriented, action-oriented, focusing on results rather than processes, and having high expectations for performance are among the most important values to operational excellence, a majority of the respondents underlined the value importance of respect for people. This is not surprising given the prevalence of Brunei's collectivist culture—a tightly knit relationship among individuals in a conservative society (Blunt 1988). When people feel respected, they are more likely to become emotionally invested in achieving the desired organisational outcomes (Hanna 2019).
* Value incongruence that may arise from value conflicts is not always a bad thing, although it can lead to negative effects (Vogel et al. 2016). Employees with different values can bring creative and innovative ideas into the service operations. Given that operational excellence relies on a dynamic combination of people, processes and environments in which public services operate, an organisation must put in place mechanisms that reinforce the case for change in the value system, maintaining momentum and strategically building on the improvements as well as their delivery.

* Creating a positive work culture and building cultural involvement contribute significantly to operational excellence. A blaming culture must be replaced with a learning culture.

* Fostering a culture of service excellence requires human capacity development, technology tools and quality management approaches. Technology can help to strengthen the public management of integrated service delivery by creating value-driven operations and aligning them with organisational strategies. Some issues that require human judgment and technological advancements are also nowhere near to human decision-making abilities. The government requires a balance in the use of information and communication technologies and human resource development and, more importantly, good governance for achieving efficiency at all levels (Denhardt 1999; Manzoor 2014). Overall, operational excellence balances the triad of people, process and technology to generate benefits for an organisation.

* Transparency must be part of the operational excellence equation. It helps in building trust with employees and society at large in the delivery of public services. Without trust, creating a high involvement culture through a value-driven change process would be tough. Without transparency, trust, participation and empowerment, creating operational excellence becomes unsustainable (Lashley 2011). Furthermore, bureaucracy must be eliminated to promote openness and responsiveness in the organisation.

* Leaders must walk to talk. Regular monitoring and control and systematic evaluation procedures must be undertaken to ensure sustainable development goals through effective delivery of public services and innovation transformation can be achieved. Leaders should find ways to break the 'working in silos' dilemma and get everyone at all levels in the right frame of mind to create full engagement and accelerate the journey towards operational excellence.

* Human resource management practices in the public sector must go beyond traditional goals and functions. Leaders of human resource management need to have organisational intelligence in order to adapt and sustain in a continuously changing environment (Liebowitz 2000). Design strategic human resource management practices to develop and manage harmonious relationships among employees and, more importantly, strike a good fit between individual and organisational values, goals and work ethics.

* Strengthening employees' sense of belonging within the organisation. This is crucial for lasting change to take hold. Employees need to be convinced of the urgency of the value change, why they are being asked to adopt, change and
adapt to other value dimensions, goals and behaviours, and how these benefit the
organisation and the roles they serve.

**15.5 Conclusion**

Achieving operational excellence requires transformational rather than discrete
changes—that is, transforming with respect to the way leaders and employees think
about operational excellence, what they work on to achieve it and the environ-
ment to make those efforts successful. There have been a number of initiatives and
programmes carried out by the Brunei government to improve public service delivery,
including the introduction of a performance-based system, the creation of digital
platforms, the use of digital payment services, streamlining workflow through coor-
dination and communication with multiple stakeholders, and greater transparency in
human resource management practices. Nonetheless, according to the respondents'
interviews, there were still noticeable gaps in the performance of public utilities and
capability gaps with respect to inadequate availability of competencies, expertise
and experience. Awareness of these issues is slowly improving, and this study calls
for the government to continue efforts to strive for a more effective public service
delivery in the future.

Operational excellence, which is often associated with efforts to create contin-
uous improvement, has brought into practice several methods like total quality
management, balanced scorecards, and programme and performance budgeting, but
these methods alone will not deliver operational excellence. It requires an integrated
management system that aligns or pulls everyone in the same direction, supporting the
same values, goals and objectives. With the pace of change and increased uncertainty
facing most organisations today, leaders of Brunei's public sector across ministries
have come together to deliberate and select how processes get locked in by standards,
procedures, and how technology allows them to make faster decisions when needed
and introduce changes where relevant.

Operational excellence is a process-based approach that also requires human intel-
ligence to make good decisions. The process-based approach not only improves deci-
sion making within the organisation's value chain processes but also allows clearer
ownership and accountability across organisations. In effective organisations, all
individual employees are expected to know the overall objectives and their indi-
vidual role in achieving operational excellence. Technology is adopted and adapted
to enhance the delivery of public services and enable and maximise the value of tech-
nology. All this calls for effective governance, and governance is about leadership.
Leaders must ensure that their organisations conduct public services and manage
resources effectively and properly. Operational excellence further requires leader-
ship by example and a change of mindset within the organisation itself. Leaders
cannot expect employees to follow the standards and procedures but not do so them-
selves. They must be able to work together as a team with employees to ingrain the
organisational value for excellence in public services.
Building a cohesive culture, including the culture of involvement, is a primary source of sustained advantage. As service strategy and operating models change, organisational values that are prescribed by leaders are expected to be continuously and fairly enforced for every employee and embedded within many processes. Similar to continuous improvement, innovation is a value dimension that must align with service strategy and be fully integrated into organisational culture. The governance structure and organisational structure play key roles in facilitating innovation in an organisation, but bureaucracy and organisational hierarchies can be a major obstacle in the Brunei public services if not tackled properly.

Leadership, human resource management practices, service strategy and a culture of involvement account for a very large element of operational excellence. Innovation and technology, together with policies appropriate to the national stages of socio-economic development, are urgently needed to improve public services. Last but not least, this study calls for future research that examines a number of crucial areas of change: the manifestation of public sector innovation, particularly on different types of innovation, in the relationship between value congruence and operational excellence in an organisation; key performance indicators and metrics for use in public services; and the overall perspective of public sector employees, not limiting this to a middle management perspective. Future studies may consider gathering data from primary sources using questionnaires or interviews to understand the real difficulties in depth and provide insights on the implications of implementing operational excellence in public services.

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**Mahani Hamdan** is a Senior Assistant Professor at UBD School of Business and Economics and currently serves as the Director for the Institute of Policy Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. She is a member of Brunei Darussalam Accounting Standards Council and Income Tax Board of Review at the Ministry of Finance and Economy. Her research interests are in the areas of operational excellence, organisational psychology, corporate social responsibility, public finance particularly budgeting, public sector leadership and accounting for non-public interest entities. She undertook a post-doctoral fellowship at the Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California, Berkeley, through the Independent Leader Scholar Programme. Her publications cover
topics related to accounting education, development of international financial reporting standards in Brunei, leadership in higher education institutions, public policy, budgeting, AI applications in various settings, Islamic governance and security studies.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

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<figure><img src="image_102.png" /></figure>

**Chapter 16**
# Understanding Employee Involvement and Participation in Brunei Darussalam: A Public Sector Organisation Undergoing Change

Wardah Azimah Sumardi

**Abstract** Most studies on employee involvement and participation, particularly those in Western Europe, North America, Britain and Japan, are conceived within a landscape that opens up the mechanism of giving employees a voice. By contrast, researchers have called for studies to look at developments in employee involvement and participation in limited or non-trade union settings in order to determine the route they follow and their implications. Addressing this call, this chapter presents an account of the development of employee involvement and participation in a public sector organisation in Brunei Darussalam, framed against the backdrop of organisational change—particularly in a system that offers minimal outlet for employees’ voice in its governance process, borne from an assertive government presence. Key findings reveal that employee involvement and participation in such a context could be interpreted as part of an efficiency control programme, which takes the form of managerial and operational-oriented processes and structures such as autonomous meetings and teamwork. Brunei is generally ruled by a strong sense of conformity and consensus in which human resource management practice in the public sector is shaped by general orders and state circulars that date to the early 1960s, covering key elements such as appointments, promotions, benefit entitlements, work etiquette and discipline. This practice seems to paint a picture of a system based on ‘unity’, where everyone allegedly strives jointly towards a common objective, following the leadership of an appointed manager or supervisor. Given such unitarist employment relations, employee involvement and participation in Brunei are primarily focused on fostering ideas to help improve organisational effectiveness rather than being about grievance procedures.

**Keywords** Brunei Darussalam · Employee involvement and participation · Employee voice · Organisational reform · Public sector

Wardah Azimah Sumardi (✉)

UBD School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Brunei
Darussalam

e-mail: azimah.sumardi@ubd.edu.bn
# 16.1 Introduction

Many scholars, such as David J. Glew et al. (1995: 417), have raised a concern that understandings of employee involvement and participation have been inhibited by a variety of factors, particularly ‘failing to establish what we actually mean when we talk about it’ (see also Budd 2020). It comes as no surprise that there are various interpretations of the practice in the literature. This growing multiplicity of definitions has resulted in a further misapprehension of the subject matter and indeed has not always assisted in clarifying the meaning of employee involvement and participation. Despite the shifting terminology, a review of the literature suggests that the concept simply highlights the role of the ‘influence’ and ‘involvement’ of employees in decision-making, which can be found iterated in many definitions (Blyton and Turnbull 2004).

Most studies on employee involvement and participation, particularly those in Western Europe, North America, Britain and Japan, are conceived within a landscape that opens up the mechanism of giving employees a voice. By contrast, researchers have called for studies to look at developments in employee involvement and participation in limited or non-trade union settings in order to determine the route they follow and their implications. Addressing this call, this chapter presents an account of the development of employee involvement and participation in a public sector organisation in Brunei Darussalam, framed against the backdrop of organisational change—particularly in a system that offers minimal outlet for employees’ voice in its governance process, borne from an assertive government presence. This leads to an overarching research question: how are employee involvement and participation developed in a non-traditional voice environment?

Given how context-dependent the concept of employee involvement and participation is and the absence of any academic research on employee involvement and participation in Brunei, a theoretical explanation for the ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions related to employee involvement and participation in the country, particularly in the public sector, adds significant value to the literature. Key findings reveal that employee involvement and participation in such a context could be interpreted as part of an efficiency control programme, which takes the form of managerial and operational-oriented processes and structures such as autonomous meetings and teamwork. According to Jawad Syed and Dk Nur’Izzati Pg Omar (2012), Brunei is generally ruled by a strong sense of conformity and consensus in which human resource management practice in the public sector is shaped by general orders and state circulars that date to the early 1960s, covering key elements such as appointments, promotions, benefit entitlements, work etiquette and discipline. This practice seems to paint a picture of a system based on ‘unity’, where everyone allegedly strives jointly towards a common objective, following the leadership of an appointed manager or supervisor. Given such unitarist employment relations, employee involvement and participation in Brunei are primarily focused on fostering ideas to help improve organisational effectiveness rather than being about grievance procedures.
The analysis set out here is of value in shedding light in two main ways. First, it provides a new contextual perspective on the issue of employee involvement and participation in a setting not commonly discussed in the literature, those countries with limited or non-union settings. Second, given that existing theory has its cultural boundaries, examining current practices in Brunei allows us to extend knowledge within the setting of an emerging economy. The discussion chapter begins, in Sect. 16.2, by providing an outline of employee involvement and participation as discussed in the literature. Section 16.3 presents an account of a public sector organisation in Brunei and specifically examines the spaces enabling employee involvement and participation, and its forms and functions in such a context. Section 16.4 offers a short conclusion that suggests that context is crucial in explaining the dynamics of employee involvement and participation.

## 16.2 Literature Review

### 16.2.1 Understanding Employee Involvement and Participation

In the human resource management literature, scholars tend to closely link the study of employee involvement and participation with notions of voice. The study of employee voice can be traced back over four decades ago to Dan Farrell's (1983) use of Albert Hirschman's (1970) classic concept of voice in relation to employees. According to Adrian Wilkinson et al. (2020a), the human resource management perspective in particular has broadened the notion of voice away from a single channel of worker representation—trade unions or collective forms of voice—to include other mechanisms—non-union or direct forms—for employees to express their interests, such as through suggestion schemes or quality circles. Even though the term 'voice' has been used widely in the human resource management literature, George Strauss (2006) argues that voice is a somewhat weak concept compared to other related terms such as employee involvement and participation because voice does not necessarily denote influence or power-sharing and may thus be no more than 'spitting in the wind'. However, Glew et al. (1995: 402) argue that 'without voice, there can be no enactment of participation'. As such, voice is considered as the prerequisite or vehicle for employee involvement and participation to be exercised. From an human resource management point of view, the extant research examining employee voice focuses primarily on the 'definitions, structures, processes and effective employee involvement and participation' (Gollan and Patmore 2013: 499).

Wilkinson et al. (2020a) acknowledge the difficulties when defining employee involvement and participation. Given the elasticity of the term, they agree that it can elicit different meanings to different groups of people. As a result, a meta-analysis by Richard B. Freeman and Morris M. Kleiner (2000) reveals varying definitions, countless practices and discrepancies in its effects on performance in
the employee involvement and participation literature. Many scholars believe that these differences may be brought about by the different disciplinary perspectives that display considerable interest in employee involvement and participation (Dundon and Wilkinson 2021). As such, considering the dilemma surrounding its conceptualisation, Wilkinson et al. (2020c: 5) develop a broad definition of employee involvement and participation, which is ‘the ways and means through which employees attempt to have a say, formally and/or informally, collectively and/or individually, potentially to influence organisational affairs relating to issues that affect their work, their interests and the interests of managers and owners’. Resonating with such an approach, this chapter believes that this would add value when discussing employee involvement and participation.

### 16.2.2 The Shifting Landscape of Employee Involvement and Participation

The employee involvement and participation literature has witnessed a considerable shift in the ways employees can have a say on matters that affect them at work. From the 1980s onwards, a single channel of an indirect form of employee involvement and participation, such as trade union representation and works councils, was no longer the dominant method. A whole variety of direct techniques, ranging from non-union works councils, quality circles, teamworking and problem-solving taskforces, among others, are part and parcel of the employment relations agenda for most employees and organisations in the modern workplace (Budd 2020).

The popularity of direct practice was prompted by the surge of deregulation and privatisation which heightened the movement towards delayering, decentralisation and debureaucratisation. Its use started in the private sector in the 1980s in Western countries and was later extended in the 1990s to the public sector. Legal and political frameworks are also seen as supportive of this movement, following the adoption of the neoliberal agenda in public policies. The micro level, meanwhile, saw organisations being influenced by consultants and top management gurus, such as Jeffrey Pfeffer (1994), on best practices which reject compliance, hierarchy and rules in today's work environment. Pfeffer claims that employers need to loosen the strict leash on the workforce so that creativity and motivation can flourish in order to achieve positive results. Prompted by such structural change, many organisations worldwide have demonstrated a preference towards management-sponsored employment relations strategies that emphasise individualised communication with employees in the search for greater workplace efficiency and productivity (Wood and Fenton-O'Creevy 2005).

Direct employee involvement and participation refer to mechanisms that allow for individual employee input. Mick Marchington and Adrian Wilkinson (2005) broadly catgeorise them as downward communication, upward problem-solving, task-based participation and teamworking.
Downward communication usually takes multiple forms, ranging from formalised documents, such as newsletters and corporate magazines, to face-to-face verbal interactions between line managers and staff, such as team briefings. The main objective of such tools is keeping employees well informed of any managerial actions and intentions aimed to reinforce employee commitment. Marchington and Wilkinson (ibid.) assert that this limited involvement strategy may achieve management's motives of ensuring they have a continuously informed workforce but may have limited impact on employees' attitudes and behaviours. Furthermore, since the type of communication is not integral to the work tasks of the employees, the level of influence and control employees have in this method is usually non-existent. Within a critical perspective, the motive for downward communication calls into question the extent to which management really seeks true participation.

Upward problem-solving is seen to offer greater influence and control for some employees, but management can be seen as shifting its motives from merely educating employees to utilising employees' ideas to enhance management decisions. Even though many merits are associated with this method, such as creating a climate of cooperation, critics insist that managers are taking advantage of employees' ideas and ironically with their active consent (ibid.). Miguel Martinez Lucio (2010: 123) defines this as a form of 'self-harm', where employees are placed under pressure in certain circumstances and feel compelled to participate continuously in providing ideas and suggestions, as in the case of Japan during the 1980s and 1990s.

Task-based participation is seen as an attempt by managers to devolve some management responsibilities to employees, often understood as a mechanism to maintain control at the same time, with a view that employees are resourceful for the organisation (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). This demonstrates both hard and soft elements of human resource management. While some even claim that it can be seen as a means to enrich employees' tasks in order to minimise task routinisation, critics see no extra involvement being introduced to the work setting, especially when it takes place horizontally which often requires minimal skill improvement. While vertical participation seems to offer more autonomy to employees, as they usually acquire more knowledge of the nature of their work and that of their managers, sceptics regard this as a form of job intensification due to the added stress of new responsibilities (Wilkinson et al. 2013).

Teamworking is seen to give employees the highest level of influence and control compared to the other mechanisms (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). This is because the groups or individuals involved are given responsibility for a complete task, and are given full autonomy in terms of work methods and time, without direct supervision and influence over the selection of members. The literature in Britain suggests that, although a large number of organisations report the use of teamworking, very few seem to be allowing teams real autonomy (Geary 2003). Despite having the advantage of working with synergies, teams are not always seen as positive. From a critical perspective, it is argued that self-managing teams represent the ultimate in terms of management control in that they work on the basis of peer pressure and surveillance and are not genuinely liberating because they are always under the control of management (Sewell and Wilkinson 1992). In particular, some authors
state that self-managing teams are the worst form of work arrangement. Some see them as management's intention to heighten control over employees as the pressures of working with peers replaces management's need to ensure that every member performs.

In the literature, direct forms of employee involvement and participation are observed to be developing slowly in other Asia-Pacific countries although Japanese companies invented many direct forms of employee involvement and participation such as quality circles, which spread across the world in the 1980s (Wilkinson et al. 2020b). Such a landscape can be demonstrated in a study of India by Vidu Badi-gannavar (2016) that shows voice to be quite low in the public services and weak in the private manufacturing and private services. This occurred despite the labour regulatory framework in India offering a conducive environment for participation in the organisational decision-making process. Additionally, Sriji Edakkat Subhakaran and Lata Dyaram (2018) find that the culture in India is perceived to be discouraging to upward communication. Meanwhile, in China authoritarian leadership is observed to hinder employee voice (Li and Sun 2015).

In sum, there are optimistic accounts of employee involvement and participation claiming that direct employee involvement and participation improve employee attitudes and behaviours in terms of their loyalty, commitment and performance, and also benefit managerial systems in terms of greater efficiency and perceived managerial responsiveness. However, also present is the critical perspective where there are many concerns over the excessively favourable limelight that direct employee involvement and participation practices have been given. Increased stress levels, conflicts and work intensification are just some of the negative effects mentioned by studies as being associated with these forms of employee involvement and participation. For example, Karen P. Harlos's (2001: 335) research suggests that direct employee involvement and participation can 'restrain autonomy or worker discretion and that opportunities to have voice do not in themselves confer perceptions of effectiveness'.

### 16.2.3 Varying Perspectives on Employee Involvement and Participation

The human resource management perspective has an established foothold in the employee involvement and participation literature, demonstrated in its prevalence in most models. For example, if we take the Harvard Business School model of Michael Beer et al. (1984), voice is central to the espoused strategic aims with the inclusion of voluntary delegation of responsibility, authority and power to both employees and their representative bodies. In the 'AMO' model proposed by Eileen Appelbaum et al. (2000), employee involvement and participation represent the foundation where employees utilise their abilities 'A', have the motivation 'M' and opportunities 'O' to participate, which is believed to increase performance. Many authors such as Pfeffer (1998) see employee involvement and participation as part of the universal
‘best practice’ ingredient for better performing firms. Christine M. Riordan et al. (2005) argue that harnessing employees’ skills and knowledge through employee involvement and participation schemes can add economic value to the firm. This is also supported by Jay Barney’s (1991) resource-based view of the firm which claims that employees’ skills and knowledge are a source of unique sustainable competitive advantage. All these human resource management models appear to present arguments in favour of employee involvement and participation, and management texts and gurus are increasingly suggesting that successful organisations are those that ‘involve’, ‘empower’ and ‘listen’ (Collins 2005: 34).

Despite this fascination with employee involvement and participation in management agendas, tensions and anxiety have always been present within academic analysis and various practitioners. Many critical writers are doubtful about the perceived logic of a 'win-win situation which sees participation as a solution to satisfy employees' needs while simultaneously achieving organisational objectives' (Strauss 2006: 778). Critical writers are particularly sceptical about the impact of participation on employees in the light of many studies reporting negative consequences such as intensification of work, higher levels of job strain and increased surveillance and control (see Danford et al. 2005; Jenkins and Delbridge 2013). In retrospect, this highlights the relevance of 'responsible autonomy (hands-off control)' introduced by Andrew L. Friedman in 1977. His core idea is that employees are given scope to have a voice, but only under conditions that are appropriate for management and perhaps only as a perception of having a voice rather than really being heard. It is claimed that responsible autonomy does not, however, remove alienation and exploitation, but simply softens their operation or draws employees' attention away from them. Its ideal is to have employees behave as though they were participating in a process which reflects their own needs, abilities and wills, rather than a process aimed at accumulation and profits. Despite such pessimism, Wilkinson et al. (2020a) believe that the advance towards employee involvement and participation will persist given the increasing market and competitive pressures faced by firms today, which have prompted many governments to formally advocate employee involvement and participation.

### 16.2.4 A Framework for Analysing Employee Involvement and Participation

The work by Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) appears to have received much recognition in the employee involvement and participation literature, evident from its citation and reference in almost all contemporary analyses. Marchington et al. (1992) deconstruct the concept into a four-dimensional matrix—depth, form, level and scope. According to Wilkinson et al. (2013), this framework can help to unpick the purpose, meaning and subsequent impact of employee involvement and participation.
First, the depth of employee involvement and participation refers to the amount of influence employees have in various aspect of management. Marchington et al. (1992) illustrate this in terms of an escalator of participation. This categorisation implies a progression in terms of the level of influence which ranges from simply being informed of changes (information) to being consulted (consultation) to actually making decisions (control), rather than simply the absence or presence of employee involvement and participation. Second, employee involvement and participation can take the form of direct or indirect participation or a combination of both, where the indirect form involves the use of representatives, usually elected from the wider group. Third, employee involvement and participation can take place at different levels—task, department, establishment or corporate headquarters. It is important to see whether employee involvement and participation are adopted at an appropriate managerial level. Fourth, employee involvement and participation are seen as comprising a range of decisions over which the non-managerial employees have some input, ranging from long-term strategic decisions that impact on the business to mundane matters such as cleanliness that have little or no influence on key management decisions. Some may argue that this wide range of issues does not by itself indicate the form of employee involvement and participation practices that can be used to cover the issue, but Paul Blyton and Peter Turnbull (2004) assert that it nevertheless still provides a useful indication to understand the degree of influence that employees have in organisations.

This tool is important as it serves to break down the components of employee involvement and participation. The four-dimensional matrix approach is recognised as overcoming some of the problems associated with the elasticity and uncertainty of definition. Marchington et al. (1992) claim that it provides a more accurate description of employee involvement and participation as it does not treat this phenomenon as a dichotomous variable, but acknowledges the fact that it is open to varying levels, thus providing an indication of the extent to which employees are engaged.

## 16.3 Understanding Employee Involvement and Participation in Brunei

To understand employee involvement and participation in Brunei, a qualitative case study was carried out in one public sector organisation undergoing change. The research employs a single case study approach, involving 65 in-depth interviews supported by documentation analysis and non-participatory observation. The study takes the organisation as the unit of analysis and is carried out in an educational institution. This institution was purposely chosen on the basis that it was undergoing
major organisational changes with the implementation of Brunei's National Education System for the 21st Century (SPN21).<fnref n="1" /> This provided the research with the best platform to study employee involvement and participation, as theoretically efforts towards employee involvement and participation are believed to be intensified in a situation of change. Within the educational institution, three research sites were approached—its headquarters, Site B and Site C. Both Site B and Site C are under the purview of the headquarters. These sites were selected based on the expectations about their information content and the variation they offered (Denzin and Lincoln 2011). In particular, Site C is structurally different from Site B, where it supports direct reporting to the headquarters. Site C is also reported to have benefited from greater autonomy which suggests a case favourable to employee involvement and participation. This study relied on three groups of respondents: 1) board members/policymakers, 2) senior management, and 3) middle- and lower-level employees. The latter are identified as the recipients and enactors of the reform programme whereas the first two groups are seen as the instigators and coordinators.

### 16.3.1 Spaces Enabling Employee Involvement and Participation

Due to Brunei's small geographical size, there was an absence of immediate pressure for decentralisation in the public sector in the early years after independence in 1984 (Lim and Nuttman 1991). There were suggestions at that time that the constraints of scarce manpower resources meant centralisation helped to simplify the task of the public sector by managing issues centrally. With a strict requirement to follow general government procedures on issues such as budgeting and procurement, a high degree of standardisation was observed. However, in view of deepening globalisation and the need for socioeconomic development, there were increasing pressures for reform in the Brunei civil service over the years. Prompted by these pressures, a series of reform initiatives have taken place, which can be traced back to the launching of the civil service review in 1991 (Haji Abd Ghani 2007). This review focused on constantly assessing the competency, quality and management performance of the civil service. Since then, modernising the civil service has reportedly been at the top of the government's agenda, with a particular desire to expand the role of the private sector, develop human resources, create a quality service culture and ensure efficient delivery of services.

In pursuit of these aspirations, Brunei undertook visible reforms in the public sector. The educational institution under study in particular embarked on reforms in 2009, with decentralisation emerging as one of the two strategies forming the central planks of the reform policy. The educational institution claimed to materialise this

<footnote n="1">¹ Examining the SPN21 reform is not within the scope of this study. Rather, it is primarily aimed at exploring the structural changes following the reform and the spaces created surrounding employee involvement and participation.</footnote>
by empowering its employees and revising its reporting system. In this study, these
changes are perceived as the spaces created and developed which might nurture or
sustain employee involvement and participation.

As part of the decentralisation initiative, a clustering system was introduced as
one of the policy directives issued by the headquarters. The cluster system entails
grouping a number of individual sites together. To demonstrate, this means that
Site B was grouped together with other sites which enabled the cluster members to
share information, ideas, good practice and current issues and formulate necessary
action plans or interventions for improvement. This could in turn be rolled out at
their individual sites. Each clusters reported to an office at the headquarters. This
structural change appears to have demonstrated a shift from the traditional hierar-
chical command structures to a more decentralised organisation, which might open
up potential spaces for devolved authority and responsibility.

It has been argued that the problem of limited and unclear autonomy in the Brunei
public sector in general might be linked to its traditional and hierarchical organisa-
tional structures and management systems (ACCSM 2009). As such, the clustering
system in particular might signal an aspiration towards employees becoming indus-
trious actors by attaining greater autonomy in terms of the management of their
respective sites, which in turn implies greater space for employee involvement and
participation. These desires, however, need to be set against Brunei's centralised
governance system and its minimal provisions for and traditions of employee voice.

16.3.2 Forms and Functions of Employee Involvement
and Participation

Based on Marchington et al.’s (1992) four-dimensional matrix, there were a number
of mechanisms initiated by the senior management that supported or had the potential
to support employee involvement and participation in the decision-making process.
At the headquarters, the use of direct downward communication was common
practice, with heavy reliance placed upon information-passing techniques such as
briefings and training, in particular to socialise the reform. The logic might be so
employees would be clearer about the motives for reform and therefore might have
been more committed to it.

The data also revealed that direct mechanisms were widely used in both Site
B and Site C. This included the use of dialogues, direct consultation, contact time
and various types of meetings. These methods largely took the form of face-to-face
communication techniques such as staff meetings, departmental meetings, contact
time and individual appraisal meetings. These meetings were said to differ in terms of
their set-up, such as size, frequency and scope of issues. Some took the form of down-
ward information passing and others appeared as alleged upward problem-solving
mechanisms which seemed to provide employees with varying degrees of influence
in the decision-making process. Directives and instructions from the headquarters
were usually cascaded down to the employees through these layers of communica-
tion lines. This top-down management style appeared to be the standard management
procedure generally accepted and complied with by the employees.

At the cluster level, employees had more opportunities for influence through so-called upward problem-solving techniques. Employees usually met in smaller specialised groups which were believed to allow for more room to exercise influence in the decision-making process. Prior to the introduction of the cluster system, there were limited formal platforms that facilitated interactions between the individual sites. With the clustering system, there was a greater tendency for employees to be given authority and responsibility. This was even more so for Site C as it enjoyed greater autonomy than Site B, where it could also report directly to the headquarters without being bound to the cluster. This suggests a case favourable to employee involvement and participation. However, despite having direct access to the headquarters, the limited scope of discussion engaged in by the employees with those at the headquarters raised questions about the arrangement offered to Site C. Given what the relationship entailed, it prompts questions on the motives of the decentralisation policy—employees appeared to be have been given scope to have a voice, but primarily under conditions that were appropriate for management. As such, one may challenge whether it was indeed a true form of participation or a form of organisational control driven by the need for efficiency—an administrative tool to gain quick cooperation in carrying out new initiatives.

**16.3.3 Interpreting Employee Involvement and Participation**

Following decentralisation, spaces for employee involvement and participation appeared to be opening up. However, given the limited arrangement of practices and processes that provided employees with the opportunities for influence which followed, what does this say about employee involvement and participation?

One may interpret employee involvement and participation in this context as an efficiency control programme which took the form of managerial and operational-oriented processes and structure such as ‘autonomous’ meetings and teamwork. The critical perspective, such as that of Martinez Lucio (2010), would explain this by arguing that this type of employee involvement and participation does not always work, and also reveals the inbuilt tensions within the paradigm of employee involvement and participation—the exposure of employee involvement and participation as management rhetoric which was played out on management’s and not employees’ terms. As Miguel Pina e Cunha et al. (2018) point out, providing employees with a mechanism to voice out on improvements may signal that employees can challenge management to some extent, but this appears not to have been the case. Despite such an arrangement, there was no strong evidence to suggest any intended challenge to the basic power relations of those in authority. Instead of an anticipated manifestation of employee resistance, evidence of high compliance and consent among the employees was broadly observed. A strong sense of loyalty was evident.
Given how largely context-dependent the concept of employee involvement and participation is, the importance of context needs to be emphasised. It can be argued that studying employee involvement and participation in a country that does not fit the context generally discussed in the literature might bring a different meaning to popular concepts. As such, we should be wary of attempting to explain phenomena in accordance with the mainstream literature. For example, relative to how Friedman (1977) sees control as a mode of exploitation, the control-oriented form of employee involvement and participation in Brunei's public organisation might not be exploitative in nature. Owing to the country's distinctive political system, unitarism seems to best define the employment relations context, with a paternalistic management seeming to govern the workplace. This is supported by Syed and Dk Nur'Izzati's (2012) study which shows that Brunei's close-knit socioculture, claimed to promote family relationships, has a significant impact on workplace relations. This view is consistent with the findings of the research conducted by Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama (1991), in which a strong preference for a leader who uses a paternalistic style is common in highly collectivist cultures, such as those demonstrated in Brunei. In effect, as asserted by Geoffrey Wood (2010), organisations characterised by paternalist managerial strategies might accord little room to employee involvement and participation.

The paternalistic model is characterised by dependence on the 'fatherly' support of seniors in return for loyalty and obedience (Fleming 2005). Alhajie Saidy Khan and Peter Ackers (2004: 130) claim that this trend remains common in many parts of the world, which is characterised strongly by the 'community relationship interweaving the employment relationship'. Arguably, even though it acknowledges some responsibilities towards employees, the concentration of power remains in the hands of managers, affording little room for employee involvement and participation. In the workplace, it is suggested that paternalist managerial strategies might see frequent meetings between management and employees, likely to be top-down (Webster and Wood 2005). Peter Fleming (2005) claims that some space may be open to feedback and dialogue as a way of strengthening the close and personal nature of the relationship. Hence, Wood (2010) believes that any participation within the paternalist model is likely to be closely confined and directly aimed at ensuring that the individual provides adequate service in return for the organisation's support and vice versa. Based on John Purcell and Keith Sisson's (1983) typology, trust is central to the cooperation developed in these contexts which serve as a prerequisite for such relationships (see also Johnstone and Wilkinson 2016). This logic might be appropriate in a unitarist employment relationship with its emphasis on common purpose and shared goals, as in the case of Brunei.
## 16.4 Conclusion

Drawing on the case study described here, it is important to note that when studying employee involvement and participation, context should not be treated merely as a binary classification—East and West, developing versus developed countries. Despite it being helpful to have such a classification, more emphasis should be placed on the sensitivities of the challenges raised by the context and how they influence the employee involvement and participation set-up. Processes that may look similar may not necessarily be the same, or rather, may not possess the same significance in a variety of different national contexts. Morover, when studying employee involvement and participation in a constrained setting, the meaning of employee involvement and participation should be stretched to recognise the significance of other potential explanations apart from those largely recognised in the literature. Perhaps what is clearly much more important is what those practices actually mean to the actors involved. This is particularly important for those contexts where formal mechanisms are constrained.

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**Wardah Azimah Sumardi** is an Assistant Professor of Human Resource Management at UBD School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. She holds a PhD in business management from Alliance Manchester Business School, United Kingdom. Her research interests are in the areas of human resource management, organisational behaviour and human resource development. She has been invited as guest speaker and trainer for several executive development programmes. Her recent publications (as coauthor) include: Empirical investigation of the relationship between organizational factors and organizational commitment in service organizations. *Journal of Strategy and Management* 11(3) (2018); The role of organisational commitment and leader-member exchange in knowledge application during the COVID-19 pandemic. *VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems* 53(2) (2023); and, Human resource management practices in creating a committed workforce for fostering knowledge transfer: A theoretical framework. *VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems* 53(4) (2023).
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Chapter 17
# Conclusion: Moving Forward

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Check for
updates

Ahmed M. Khalid and Bruno Jetin

**Abstract** This chapter provides a summary of the contributions in this book. One key argument presented throughout is that economies going through a transitional phase face several challenges such as rising unemployment, a lack of entrepreneurial and innovative skills, a dearth of expertise in economic planning and management and more. The recent economic changes experienced by Brunei Darussalam are driven by a structural transformation that occurs in all emerging countries during their development process. This shifting global Asia offers many opportunities for growth if Brunei accelerates policy implementation to innovate and diversify its economy. This is necessary to meet the challenges of the energy transition and the digital economy that are propelled by shocks like climate change and global pandemics. Brunei must also be ready for a demographic change, and invest in and modernise its education system to provide young people with the new skills that companies need. The contributions provide clear evidence that Brunei is increasingly committed to taking on the responsibility of being a more productive state. Oil and gas rents, which are an important driver of the long-run economic growth process, have been increasingly used to finance diversification and socioeconomic development, including generous welfare benefits. This chapter highlights certain niche areas, such as the development of financial sector including a focus on Islamic finance, strengthening agritourism, the services sector, an efficient public sector and more vibrant business sector, which are all key to the future success of Brunei and its ability to meet the anticipated targets as set out in Wawasan Brunei 2035 (Brunei Vision 2035).

**Keywords** Brunei Darussalam · Economic transition · Diversification · Demographic change · Socioeconomic development

A.M. Khalid (✉)

Department of Economics, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

e-mail: ahmed.khalid@lums.edu.pk

UBD School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Brunei

Darussalam

B. Jetin

Faculty of Law, Politics and Social Sciences, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Villetaneuse,
France

e-mail: bruno.jetin@univ-paris13.fr
**17.1 Introduction**

This book synthesises the recent socioeconomic changes that Brunei Darussalam has experienced in the course of the early decades of the twenty-first century. These changes are driven by the structural transformation that occurs in all emerging countries during their development process. This economic transition is all the more complex for a small resource-rich country in so far as Asia is a hotspot of globalisation and there are many competitors taking initiatives to get their share of the wealth created in this dynamic region. This shifting global Asia offers many opportunities for growth, provided Brunei accelerates policy implementation to innovate and diversify its economy. This is necessary to meet the challenges of the energy transition and the digital economy that are propelled by shocks like climate change and global pandemics. Brunei must also be ready for a demographic change, and invest in and modernise its education system to provide young people with the new skills that companies need.

**17.2 Major Observations and Findings**

This book presents multifaceted aspects of Brunei's economic transition and identifies several issues and recommendations. The chapters in Part I deal with the overarching theme of Brunei's economy in the context of shifting dynamics in Asia. Hafiizh Hashim, Stephen C. Druce and Abdul Hai Julay in Chap. 2 inaugurate one of the central issues of this volume—Brunei's economic diversification. They rely on an institutionalist approach to explain the difficulties the country faces in reducing its hydrocarbon dependency because good institutions play a critical role in economic development. For the authors, there is clear evidence that Brunei is increasingly committed to taking on the responsibility of being a more productive state. They observe that the government has invested heavily in education to make sure that all young Bruneians have access to learning. However, its international ranking performance shows that Brunei must continue to modernise the education system to become more productive and be on a par with its more proximate competitors. Updating its human capital is decisive in attracting foreign investment and absorbing new technologies that will spill over to local companies. The authors also advise policymakers to rely more on local scholars and experts and use their talent to promote and market Brunei's own brand of developmentalism. Local experts know the institutional arrangements that are conducive to success better than outsourced foreign firms. They also recommend reforms that will improve the productivity of the private sector such as shifting technology intensive activities to private companies and a strong involvement of policymakers to change the mindset of Bruneians and stress the advantages of private sector jobs.
In Chap. 3 Ly Slesman shows that this diversification away from the oil and gas industry is not only desirable but possible. Using advanced econometric estimations, he finds that oil and gas rents have been an important driver of the long-run economic growth process in Brunei and that these rents have been used to finance diversification and socioeconomic development including generous welfare benefits. In other words, natural resources have been a blessing rather than a curse that blights some other resource-rich countries. Progress has been made in economic diversification in the last 10 years or so. The non-resource private sector, though small, has grown at an average annual rate of 2.6% since 2010. However, most of the progress in the diversification of manufacturing is located in oil and gas downstream activities. Further improvement in non-resource manufacturing, modern services and agricultural sectors must be accomplished with the help of foreign investment.

Bruno Jetin in Chap. 4 draws similar conclusions. Based on the calculations of the Multidimensional Indicator of Extractives-based Development (MINDEX), he shows that Brunei is both extremely resource-rich and dependent on resources and, according to the United Nations Trade and Development (UNCTAD) export diversification index, is one of the least diversified economies of the world, much less than other Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) economies (UNCTAD 2018; Lebdioui 2021). Brunei derives high rents from these resources which it largely uses to finance Islamic welfare state objectives that emphasise universal and inclusive social policies. Brunei ranks third in public employment despite only being tenth in terms of rents. Despite this, Brunei's employment underutilisation index calculated by the International Labour Organisation is the highest in ASEAN. The absorption of this underutilised labour force can only come from the private sector, but the problem is that the majority of private jobs are in non-tradeable activities where productivity is low and salaries 30% below public sector ones. These sectors also employ a large number of migrant workers who are paid less, which does not induce private companies to invest in technology upgrading and training. Jetin concludes that these different features form a system that can only be changed with an overall policy that modifies the structure of incentives so that the private sector becomes as attractive as the public sector. This can be achieved with increasing labour mobility and flexibility. Another proposal is the citizens' income, an unconditional cash grant to all citizens that would fill the wage gap between the public and private sectors and serve as basic income security during periods of unemployment. Young entrepreneurs would receive a higher citizen income to reward their innovation efforts. Another proposal is to develop a national innovation system to contribute to the implementation of the long-term national development plan, Wawasan Brunei 2035. It could also foster innovation in new clusters linked to the energy transition, biodiversity and electric vehicles.

In Chap. 5 Biswa Nath Bhattacharyay defends the idea that the financial sector can play a significant role in achieving the national development plan. To this aim, Brunei Darussalam Central Bank (previously Autoriti Monetari Brunei Darussalam) has developed a long-term 10-year financial sector strategy to advance the country as a competitive and innovative hub. He observes that Brunei has a bank-based
financial system which performs better than ASEAN and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in terms of access to banks and financial inclusion, but below the average with respect to efficiency, depth and intermediation. He makes proposals to enhance the depth and efficiency of the banking sector as well as to resolve the maturity mismatch. To control risk, banks tend to loan for a shorter period than what businesses need. The development of efficient bond and stock markets can reduce the dependency on the banking system and the maturity mismatch. This could be achieved with the adoption of a new and appropriate legal and regulatory framework. Bhattacharyay also proposes that Brunei tries to develop a niche in international Islamic banking to provide innovative financial services that could be marketed to neighbouring countries.

The next two chapters analyse Brunei's foreign trade and investment with Asia and ASEAN. Using cutting-edge techniques and the multiregional input-output (MRIO) database of the Asian Development Bank, Angelo Jose Lumba, Mahinthan Marasingham and Arushi Gupta, in Chap. 6, examine Brunei's exports amid developments in global value chains (GVCs). This is the first time that Brunei's inclusion in GVCs has been scrutinised in detail. The authors show the country is positioned in the upstream sections of GVCs, which means that its inputs are utilised by other economies to a greater extent than other economies' inputs are utilised by Brunei. It is the opposite in Singapore which uses large shares of value added that originate from other economies and relies less on other economies for the use of its products. Brunei's forward participation rate to GVC is higher than any other Asian country, China included. This is due to the high share of oil and gas in total exports and reveals that Brunei's export vulnerability does not come so much from its suppliers' constraints but from a potential demand shock stemming from an economic crisis in its main customers which are Japan, Australia and South Korea. The diversification of the export basket and therefore of the economy is the solution to reduce this vulnerability. The authors recommend to capitalise on the low-hanging fruits, which means going beyond the rising participation to downstream oil and gas industries and increasing investment in other sectors such as *halal* food, aquaculture, and information and communication technology. The latter comprises communication, logistical and financial services that are amenities to GVCs. More broadly, Brunei should embrace the digital economy actively. The authors also recommend improving the ease of doing business and leveraging trade agreements. Brunei has signed several regional and global trade agreements and should use them more to diversify its export basket and increase its participation in GVCs.

In Chap. 7 Pang Wei Loon dovetails the previous chapter's findings and conclusions. Due to Brunei's high dependence on oil and gas, interindustry trade patterns largely dominate, while intra-industry trade is almost non-existent, which differs from ASEAN member states that have a large manufacturing base. However, due to a recent massive influx of foreign direct investment (FDI) from Japanese and Chinese companies in the downstream petrochemical industry a rise in intra-industry trade is expected. China is bound to become an important partner of Brunei because most petrochemical exports are destined for it. This is due to the investment of two major Chinese companies. Hengyi, a petrochemical company, invested USD3.45 billion in
the first phase and USD13.65 billion is committed in the second phase, which makes it the largest private Chinese investment in ASEAN. Beibu Gulf International Port Group is another important Chinese company with a global stake in many major deep seaports across the world and which operates Brunei's largest container terminal in Muara. This shows that the diversification of Brunei's economy and exports implies increased FDI and the stronger participation of multinational companies in Brunei.

Part II deals with the prospects for economic transition. Chap. 8 by Adilah Hisa, M. Muzamil Naqshbandi and Fadzliwati Mohiddin analyses the skill demands of Brunei's employers. These include not only technical expertise but also more generic soft skills or employability skills such as decision-making, problem-solving and analytics, time management and communication. Their findings reveal that employers believe Bruneian youth have major competence in oral communication, written communication, listening, learning and interpersonal skills. However, these employers felt that young people lack competence in executing skills associated with risk-taking, managing conflict, problem-solving/analytics and decision-making, suggesting that youth need to make efforts to develop these skills. The authors recommend that higher education institutions should change their curricula to fill the gap between the soft skills of the youth and employers' demands. Employability attributes should be embedded in their programmes. Employers could coordinate in order to express their expectations so that young people can be better prepared. Internships should go beyond exposing youth to the realities of the workplace and develop their knowledge, skills and all-round abilities. Internships should also be evaluated accordingly. Given the youth's preference for government office jobs, better information should be given regarding the opportunities and interests in the private sector and the requisite skills. The government training programme should also be evaluated based on the peer evaluation approach and a self-assessment questionnaire to ensure they are the most effective.

Chapter 9 by Wei Lee Chin and Siti Fatimahwati Pehin Dato Musa provides an example of diversification in community-based agritourism where specific skills are needed. Agritourism is considered a valuable tool in diversifying the economy and encouraging rural entrepreneurship. Based on field research, their study explores the potential of agritourism in Brunei. The analysis reveals the economic, environmental, sociocultural and educational benefits of agritourism but also the difficulties it faces such as the lack of internal funding, fluctuating income, premium pricing, small-scale production, limited seasonal harvests and unreliable human resources. On top of that, there are external disadvantages like the institutional support or collaboration from relevant agencies, the absence of agritourism in the national tourism framework to guide the farms, the non-existence of centralised management such as associations to represent the welfare of the farms and farmers, and inadequate promotional marketing to attract domestic tourists. These difficulties must be overcome if Brunei wants to fully develop an activity that attracts significant interest and can contribute to the much-needed diversification of the economy.

In Chap. 10 Wei Lee Chin looks at cross-border tourism between Brunei and Sarawak, Malaysia. Because wages are higher in Brunei and the exchange rate is favourable, Bruneians go en masse to Sarawak during weekends to take advantage of
cheaper goods and services, including entertainment, leisure, transit to other destinations, alternative medical and health care facilities as well as efficient postal services. This has a significant impact on Brunei's GDP because a big share of Bruneian household expenditure is being spent in Malaysia. In 2019 this was estimated at BND1.16 billion or 8.6% of GDP. It is very difficult for Brunei to compete in price for these consumer goods and services because of its small size and higher living standards.

In Chap. 11 Hairul Azrin Besar analyses the Islamic financial services available in Brunei. As seen in Chap. 5, financial services are part of the diversification of the economy envisaged by Wawasan Brunei 2035. The author retraces the development of these services, in particular the creation of the Brunei International Financial Centre in 2000 in order to attract the financial industry to operate from the country. Several Islamic banks were also established. This has provided young entrepreneurs, who could not get access to conventional financial services, with the required initial capital, allowing them to concentrate on developing their businesses without worrying about the set-up costs, renting properties or warehouses and capital equipment. The author concludes that Islamic financial services have fostered growth.

Chapter 12 by Mohammad Nabil Almunawar and Mohammad Alif Azizi Abdullah focuses on digital marketplaces in Brunei. Nowadays, many firms use the internet to advertise and market their goods and services. The COVID-19 pandemic boosted the digitalisation of transactions and pushed for the creation of local marketplaces. The drawback in a small country like Brunei is that more than 90% of enterprises are micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) and a comprehensive e-commerce system is too costly and complex to manage. The problem is not so much the marketing of goods and services that can be accomplished easily on social media. The main issue is the payment of the transaction for which a dedicated application is needed because social media do not provide a payment system. Transactions are often paid in cash or with the use of digital wallets which are on the firms' premises. The solution is the use of a digital marketplace platform that can handle all transactions swiftly, including payments. Local digital marketplaces are growing in Brunei, and they have some advantages like faster delivery and faster exchanges or refunds. Several global marketplaces do not deliver in Brunei and goods are shipped to Malaysia, and Bruneians must use additional delivery services which adds cost and delivery time. However, the main disadvantage of Bruneian marketplaces is that they do not provide a large variety of goods marketed by global brands that the consumer wants. This is why most Bruneian digital marketplaces are still relatively small and only cater to local market demand. To become a first-choice marketplace, Bruneian digital marketplaces must include global brands in their portfolios and offer same-day or speedy deliveries which implies covering the cost of logistics and storage. These improvements would also benefit local products.

Chapter 13 by Pg Md Hasnol Alwee Pg Hj Md Salleh and Roslee Baha tackles the issue of financial literacy and its effects on retirement preparedness among government employees. As we have seen previously, the government is one of the main employers in Brunei and the chapter presents the past and current retirement schemes of its employees. The capacity of current schemes to satisfy retirement needs depends on the return on investment on the principal invested, which underlines the importance
of employees' financial literacy. The authors estimate the level of financial literacy of a sample of 700 government employees. Their findings reveal that around 45% are considered financially literate. They are more prone to calculate the amount needed for retirement, attend financial seminars/roadshows and make voluntary contributions on top of the mandatory schemes, and the quality of their investments is higher. The conclusion is that policies that improve financial literacy will contribute to better retirement preparedness. Those with low-level financial literacy are relatively older, possess only a pre-college qualification and are employed in low-scale posts. They will probably get an insufficient income when they retire and the government may have to adopt specific measures to address this issue.

The last three chapters in Part III focus on the management of the public sector, a key actor and employer in Brunei. Chapter 14 by Thuraya Farhana Said analyses performance management in the public sector. Like other countries, the objective is to increase the efficiency of public administration by using private sector tools and practices. Since the 1990s several reform policies and initiatives based on new public management ideas were introduced and implemented in the Brunei public sector. Citing Ayman Adhair (2005: 24), the author states the main motives for such reforms are that ‘the role of the ministry is often not clearly stated; service delivery is generally poor, and performance measurement is not practised efficiently’. Her main findings are that the use of the new tools in the Brunei public sector is limited and may be seen as implemented ceremonially rather than substantively. Its main achievements are limited to internal transparency and the presentation of performance. One key recommendation is to integrate performance appraisal and performance-based budgeting.

In Chap. 15 Mahani Hamdan offers an extended reflection on the means of improving the management of the public sector thanks to the organisational innovations of the private sector regrouped under the umbrella concept of operational excellence. Operational excellence is closely linked to the various tools of continuous improvement in use in the private sector but is oriented towards long-term change in organisational culture while continuous improvements are aimed at short-term refinements of processes. The author focuses on the definition and implementation of operational excellence in the Bruneian context. This topic has not been much researched and public services need to improve their performance for Brunei to compete favourably with neighbour countries. Mahani employs a qualitative approach based on semi-structured interviews with middle management officers from various departments. In sum, her findings show that technical innovations, such as the digitalisation of public services, have made tremendous progress and brought improvement in efficiency and effectiveness. However, organisational innovation, like continuous improvement, has been implemented to review work processes in various administrations but has made little progress. Employees have received some training but there is limited implementation guidance in the execution of the plans. Progress is slower in departments where there is a strong institutional culture. However, it turns out that operational excellence can only be successful if the need to change to achieve improvements is a shared value among leaders and
employees. This value congruence is key to motivating employees to strive for excel-
lence. The author concludes with a long list of recommendations to better implement
operational excellence in Brunei's public services.

Chapter 16 by Wardah Azimah Sumardi complements the previous studies by precisely analysing the ways to stimulate employee involvement and participation in decision-making in public services. The concept of employee involvement and participation is largely context-dependent. Brunei is ruled by an essence of conformity and consensus, which favours a system based on unity where employees accept their place and function and follow leaders who make use of a paternalistic style. The author introduces the concept of employee involvement and participation presented by Adrian Wilkinson et al. (2020: 5), where it is broadly defined as ‘the ways and means through which employees attempt to have a say, formally and/or informally, collectively and/or individually, potentially to influence organisational affairs relating to issues that affect their work, their interests and the interests of managers and owners’. The Bruneian context influences the practice of employee involvement and participation because the concentration of power in the hands of leaders leaves little room for employee involvement and participation, favours collective expression rather than individual expression, and focuses on ways to help improve organisational effectiveness rather than being about grievance procedures. This employee involvement and participation style is not prone to radical change but is more congruent with incremental improvement which is a way to achieve continuous improvement.

**17.3 Moving Forward**

Economies going through a transitional phase face a number of challenges such as rising unemployment, a shortfall in entrepreneurial and innovative skills, a lack of expertise in economic planning and management and more. As noted, this book covers a number of topics dealing with the economic transition and transformation of Brunei from a developing country to an emerging or developed economy. The topics include fine-grained analyses of socioeconomic development, geopolitical challenges, the country's place in the changing world order, new business models to deal with the fast pace of technological development and innovations, labour issues and employee management. The deliberations and assessments presented here suggest that Brunei has designed a good set of reform policies to move towards economic transformation and away from oil and gas dependency. However, the authors also observe that the implementation of economic reform policies has been slow. The government needs to expedite this process to meet the anticipated targets stipulated in Wawasan Brunei 2035.

The debates examined in the various chapters also suggest that Brunei has great potential to diversify the economy if policies are properly designed and possess coherent mechanisms for implementation, enforcement and monitoring. The service sector is the main vantage point to improve its non-oil and gas diversification strategy.
Here we highlight some of the niche areas that Brunei should focus on to better place itself in competitive regional markets.

* Tourism is a major industry and a focus on national economic planning. However, this sector is currently not prioritised enough to attract a significant number of new tourists. To develop a thriving tourism sector, a collaborative approach is needed by engaging communications, hotel and hospitality sectors, Royal Brunei Airlines (the national carrier) and appropriate infrastructure. Brunei should follow the approach used by neighbouring countries through initiatives such as a potential Visit Brunei 2025 scheme with attractive and affordable packages targeting both visitors and local businesses. *Halal* tourism can also be explored. The Strategic Plan (2020–2022) of the Tourism Development Department identifies specialities such as culture, heritage, nature and Islamic tourism as emerging products and these should be followed through (TDD 2022).

* Islamic finance could be another attractive area for growth. But this will require the establishment and development of a domestic capital market and stock exchange, a transparent regulatory framework as well as investment in information technology. This is in line with the long-term strategy under Wawasan Brunei 2035 to achieve the goal of a dynamic and sustainable economy and to increase the Islamic finance contribution to GDP to 8% by 2035. As a key element of the overall development strategy, alternative sources of finance are needed to support business expansion and innovation and to transform the domestic financial sector into an international financial centre, with a special expertise in Islamic finance. For example, with proper infrastructure and a regulatory structure in place, Brunei can tap into the huge *syariah*-compliant bond market in the region. Given that Malaysia has emerged as the main provider of Islamic financial products creates major competition with neighbouring countries, which include Indonesia and Singapore. The current need is to improve the understanding of and develop expertise in Islamic financial technology as a way to compete in this regional market.

* As already highlighted, Brunei should focus on developing its services sector. The country has the advantage of having a large youth population that can communicate in English and possesses good technical knowledge. The outsourcing of services in banking, the financial sector and insurance industry is very common in Australia, New Zealand and Britain. Countries such as India, the Philippines and Thailand are taking advantage of these offshore services. Brunei should explore how its young people can enter this market.

* Besides service industries, Brunei should also educate local businesses, and especially MSMEs, to explore offshore markets and expand their market reach. Brunei Halal, established by the government to play a key role in the development of the food industry and diversification, could serve as an exemplar since Brunei's *halal* certification is widely accepted. There is a huge market for *halal* products in the broader Asia-Pacific region (including China, Australia and New Zealand). Brunei should take advantage of its bilateral and multilateral free trade agreements to tap into these markets with a rising demand for *halal* products including food and beverages, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
In summary, there is good potential for Brunei to improve the non-oil sectors' contribution to growth and diversification. We hope that the observations and suggestions provided in this book will help to plan an effective policy framework for the timely achievement of the goals and targets of Wawasan Brunei 2035.

## References

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Lebdioui, Amir. 2021. The multidimensional indicator of extractives-based development (MINDEX): A new approach to measuring resource wealth and dependence. *World Development* 147: 105633.

Tourism Development Department, Brunei Darussalam [TDD]. 2022. Strategic plan: Tourism Development Department for year 2020–2022. http://www.tourism.gov.bn/SiteCollectionDocuments/Strategic%20Plan/Strategic%20Plan%20TDD%202020-2022%20(English).pdf. Accessed 31 May 2024.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD]. 2018. *Export diversification and employment*. UNCTAD/ALDC/2018/3. Geneva: UNCTAD. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/aldc2018d3_en.pdf. Accessed 31 May 2024.

Wilkinson, Adrian, Tony Dundon, Jimmy Donaghey, and Richard B. Freeman. 2020. Employee voice: Bridging new terrains and disciplinary boundaries. In *Handbook of research on employee voice*, ed. Adrian Wilkinson, Jimmy Donaghey, Tony Dundon and Richard B. Freeman, 2nd ed., 2–18. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

**Ahmed M. Khalid** is Visiting Professor at the Department of Economics, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Pakistan. He is also an Adjunct Professor and former Dean of UBD School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. He holds a PhD in economics from Johns Hopkins University, USA. He previously worked at Bond Business School, Bond University, Australia, and the National University of Singapore. He has considerable experience of working as a consultant with the World Bank and as an adviser to the Ministry of Planning Development and Special Initiatives, Pakistan, as well as visiting appointments at various academic and research institutions. He is the editor-in-chief of *Journal of Business and Economic Analysis* and associate editor of *The Singapore Economic Review* and member of the editorial boards of several regional and international journals. His publications include four books, several refereed journal articles, chapters in books and numerous consultancy/project reports, technical reports, working papers and conference papers. His most recent publication, as coeditor, is *Economic integration among D-8 Muslim countries* (2023).

**Bruno Jetin** is currently an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Law, Politics and Social Sciences, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, France, and he holds a PhD in economics from the same university. He was previously an Associate Professor and former Director of the Institute of Asian Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. His current work focuses on the geopolitics of electric batteries, corruption and foreign direct investment, income distribution and growth in Asia, and the Belt and Road Initiative. His recent publications include: Wage-led demand as a rebalancing strategy for economic growth in China. *Journal of Post Keynesian Economics* 43(3) (2020, with Luis Reyes-Ortiz); Electric batteries and critical materials dependency: A geopolitical
analysis of the USA and the European Union. *International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management* 23(4) (2023); and, The effect of corruption on foreign direct investment at the regional level: Positive or negative relationship? In *Corruption and illegality in Asian investment arbitration*, ed. Nobumichi Teramura, Luke Nottage and Bruno Jetin (2024, with Jamel Saadaoui and Haingo Ratiarison).

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
Glossary of Non-English Terms

asnaf receiver of alms (zakat)

bai bithaman ajil deferred payment sale or credit sale contract

bai inah loan in the form of a sale

bidara Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana)

en plein air outdoor painting

fard al-kifayah legal obligation that must be discharged by the Muslim community
as a whole

hajj Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca

infaq charitable contribution, disbursement

jongsarat hand-woven cotton and silk cloth

kangkong water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)

madu kelulut stingless bee honey

maslahah public interest

Melayu Islam Beraja Malay Islamic monarchy

misai kucing herbal tea

muamalah contract of transactions under Islamic law

mudarabah legal contractual arrangement between two partners for profit sharing

murabaha form of cost-plus trade financing

musyarakah joint venture investment or equity raising by a group of partners

ngajat traditional Iban dance

nisab minimum threshold for giving alms (zakat)

pakis edible wild fern (Diplazium esculentum)

pucuk ubi cassava leaves

rebung bamboo shoots

riba interest or usury in business and trade

sukuk financial certificate, bond

syariah Islamic divine law

takaful cooperative insurance model

tawarruq purchase of a commodity on a deferred payment

titah order, declaration

tuhau wild ginger (Etlingera coccinea)
*ubi kayu* tapioca

*wadiah* safekeeping or custodial arrangement in Islamic finance

*waqf* endowment of a certain property for the sole benefit of a certain philanthropy

**Wawasan Brunei 2035** Brunei Vision 2035

*zakat* form of alms, considered a religious obligation
# Index

## A

**Abdul Hai Julay**, 9, 21–38, 366

Accumulation, 355; capital, 100, 173–174; human capital, 33, 50n10, 51; wealth, 273

Ackers, Peter, 360

Actors, business, 252; economic, 256, 268; social, 25–26

Adely, Fida Issa J., 192

Adhair, Ayman, 304–305, 371

**Adilah Hisa**, 12, 183–197, 369

Administration, 306, 331; government, 297, 338; public, 60, 143, 298–299, 331, 333, 371

Administrative, knowledge, 241; state, 28

Africa, 24, 40, 46

African American, student(s), 275

Ageing, financing of, 69–70; population, 14, 69–70, 73

Agency, 306, 312, 314; government, 300, 319, 327, 329, 338; tourism, 211

Agricultural, 193, 200, 247; development, 59; heritage, 200, 207–208, 213; knowledge, 202, 211; policy, 201; practices, 211; product(s), 128, 138, 157, 169; production, 201; research, 59; sector, 12, 48, 59, 64, 246, 367; skill(s), 241; worker(s), 81

Agriculture, 3n1, 6, 40, 47n5, 48, 60, 79, 143, 157, 169, 172, 173, 176, 200–202, 205, 207–211, 246–247, 275; diversification, 241; employment, 208; financing, 247; plantation(s), 201; resources, 245; worker(s), 70

Agrifood, 90n16, 205; product(s), 206, 209; production, 205, 206, 210; programmes, 213

Agritourism, 12, 199–203, 204, 205, 205–206, 208–213, 226, 365, 369; in Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 201; business, 203; Cameron Highlands, 201; community, 203, 209–213, 369; culture(s), 200, 208; development, 201; and diversification, 200–201, 369; and education, 200–201, 205, 208, 212; employment, 205, 206, 208; environmental, 199, 201, 212, 369; global, 211; implementation, 212; Indonesia, 200, 209; infrastructure, 209; Malaysia, 200–201, 209; Philippines, 200; and plantation(s), 200; product(s), 206, 211; research, 200–201, 203, 204, 213; sector, 210; in Southeast Asia, 12, 199–201; and state, 209; Thailand, 200; Vietnam, 200; and youth, 199, 208, 211–212

Alexeev, Michael, 51

Alibaba, 229, 260

AliExpress, 253, 257, 261–262, 266–267

Allee, Verna, 258

**Almunawar, Mohammad Nabil**, 13, 251–270, 370

Altfest, Lewis J., 275

Amann Shipping Group, 45

Amazon, 251, 253, 261–262, 267

AmCapital, 106

Amundi Asset Management, 106

Anaman, Kwabena A., 51, 221

Anckar, Dag, 70
Anglo-Brunei Agreement, 23

Antràs, Pol, 140, 150, 156

Apergis, Nicholas, 48

Appelbaum, Eileen, 354

Apple, 172

Applied economic theory, 5

Aquaculture, 11, 45, 145, 368

Arab Gulf, 28, 82

Asatizah, 262

ASEAN Banking Council, 102

ASEAN Bridge (Batang Baram Bridge), 225

ASEAN–China Free Trade Agreement, 166

ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), 13; investment(s), 165

ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), 137, 165

ASEAN–Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership, 166

ASEAN–Korea Free Trade Agreement, 166

ASEAN Plus Six, 166

ASEAN Plus Three (APT), 12, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170–171, 176; investment(s), 155; population, 165; trading partner, 155

ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC), 165

ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC), 165

Asia, 3, 9, 42, 96; corporate sector, 118; financial sector, 95, 102; global, 365–366; and globalisation, 366; income, 138; internet penetration, 253; military expenditure, 70; trade agreement(s), 97; welfare state in, 28

Asia-Pacific, countries, 166, 354; region, 373

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, 32

Asian, countries, 3, 51, 300, 368; economies, 50, 96–97, 118, 139; financial crisis, 4, 23, 28, 33, 43, 53, 101, 118, 160, 240; financial sector, 96–97; students, 91

Asian Development Bank, 129, 145, 147, 149, 368

Asiyah Az-Zahra Ahmad Kumpoh, 32

Assen, Marcel van, 338

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 2, 23, 31–32, 55, 70, 95, 120, 165; agritourism, 201; and Australia, 166; banking sector, 111, 113–114, 116–117, 119, 122; business density, 45; and China, 32, 166, 169, 369; and diversification,

88, 177, 367; e-commerce, 255; economic cooperation, 220; economies, 97, 117–118, 146, 172, 177; exports to, 155, 167, 167, 168, 169, 176; financial integration, 96; financial sector, 121; foreign direct investment, 174, 369; global value chain(s), 172; GDP per capita, 6, 6, 111, 255; gross domestic product, 255; imports from, 167–168, 168, 169, 170, 170; and India, 166; and Japan, 166; labour underutilisation, 76, 77, 367; manufacturing, 368; market(s), 167, 261; and New Zealand, 166; and Paris Agreement, 91; policy, 2; population, 165, 255; production, 146; public management, 299; region, 98, 105, 119, 121, 137, 165–169, 172, 174, 176–177, 185, 220; and South Korea, 166; states, 2; stock exchanges, 105; tourism, 199, 201, 211, 220, 222; trade, 167–168, 368; trade agreement(s), 97–98, 121, 137, 146, 165–166; trading partners, 137, 139, 139; unemployment, 10, 10n4, 75, 75, 76, 185; women and employment, 83

Audit Act, 309

Audit Department, 309

Australia, 48n7, 91, 137, 139, 167, 368; and Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 166; exports, 167; financial sector, 373; *halal* market, 373; market(s), 167; public management in, 333; trade agreement(s), 97, 137–138, 146, 166; trading partner, 137, 138, 167

Authoritarian leadership, 354

Authority for Info-communication Technology Industry (AITI), 262

Autoriti Monetari Brunei Darussalam (AMBD), 97, 102, 104–105, 121, 240, 276, see also Brunei Currency and Monetary Board and Brunei Darussalam Central Bank

Avalon, 266

Azaharaini Hj Mohd Jamil, 311

## B

Babakimpo, 251, 253–254, 259–262, 263, 264–265

Badan Tanmiah Brunei, 246
Badigannavar, Vidu, 354

Baiduri Bank, 45, 106, 107, 239

Balassa, Bela, 159, 170

Bali, plantation, 211

Bandar Seri Begawan, 225, 227, 228

Bank(s), 96, 99, 103–106, 107, 110–115, 117–120, 122, 237, 239–240, 254, 367–368; commercial, 45, 105, 107, 118; culture(s), 120; databases, 147; digital, 119, 122; European, 97; international, 105–106, 107, 120; Islamic, 95–96, 103, 105–106, 107, 122, 237–238, 240, 242–244, 370; liquidity of, 113; Malaysia, 105, 107, 239; Philippines, 119; regional, 105, 107; restructuring, 95; risk, 120, 122, 368; Singapore, 107–108; strategy, 117

Bank Islam Brunei Darussalam (BIBD), 106, 239, 260

Bank Negara Malaysia, 119

Bank of China (Hong Kong), 106, 107

Bank of Philippines, 239

Bank Usahawan, 107

Banking Act (1957), 239–240

Banking industry, 237–240, 244, 303, 373; culture(s), 237; product(s), 240

Banking Order (2000), 106, 240, 242

Banking sector, 11, 96, 98–99, 101, 103, 105–106, 110–113, 114, 115–118, 120–122, 368; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 111, 113–114, 116–117, 119, 122; business, 103, 107; commercial, 45; corporate, 105, 107; development of, 106, 110, 116; Islamic, 119, 240, 368; liquidity, 96, 113, 120; New Zealand, 373; regulation, 103, 120, 240; structure(s), 106

Baram River, 225

Bario, 207

Barney, Jay, 355

Barriers, non-tariff, 165–166; tariff, 7, 165

Basedau, Matthias, 24

Beblawi, Hazem, 27

Beer, Michael, 354

Beibu Gulf International Port Group, 163, 176–177, 369

Bel. Germà, 330

Belait, 59, 185, 227, 231

Beliefs, cultural, 25; personal, 334

Belongingness, 222

Ben-Salha, Ousama, 51

Beutel, Joerg, 58

Bhaskaran, Manu, 31

Bhattacharyay, Biswa Nath, 11, 95–126, 367–368

Bhutan, 90

BIBD Mobile, 260

BIBD QuickPay, 260

Bilateral trade, 147, 159–160, 169–170; agreement(s), 373

Biodiversity, 90, 206, 213, 367

Biotechnology, 45, 90n16

Blanchard, Oliver, 4

Blyton, Paul, 356

BNP Paribas, 105, 108

Boisclair, David, 274

Bond market(s), 103, 105, 110, 117–118, 122, 368, 373

Borin, Alessandro, 129, 135, 149–150

Boundary, 219, 225; cultural, 351; management, 222, 224, 231

Brander, James, 159

Brazil, 167; trade agreement(s), 146

Brexit, 97

Britain, 22n1, 23, 91, 97, 241, 299, 333, 349–350, 353; financial sector, 373; trading partner, 168

British, 27, 238, 241; protectorate, 22n1, 238; residential system, 22, 22n1, 23, 239

British Empire, 27

Brooke, James, 238

Bru-HIMS, 332

Brunei Agro Technology Park (BATP), 59

Brunei Association of Banks (BAB), 102–103

Brunei Civil Service Code, 338

Brunei Currency and Monetary Board (Brunei Currency Board), 11, 96, see also Autoriti Monetari Brunei Darussalam

Brunei Darussalam Central Bank (BDCB), 11, 14, 95, 97, 102–104, 240, 275–276, 367, see also Autoriti Monetari Brunei Darussalam

Brunei Darussalam Deposit Protection Corporation (BDPC), 104

Brunei December Festival, 226

Brunei Economic Development Board (BEDB), 32, 42, 45

Brunei Fertilizer Industries, 30, 45, 175

Brunei Gas Carriers, 41–42

Brunei Halal, 373
Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia-Philippines
East ASEAN Growth Area
(BIMP-EAGA), 220

Brunei Insurance and Takaful Association
(BITA), 104

Brunei International Financial Centre, 242

Brunei LNG, 40-42

Brunei Methanol Company, 30

Brunei-Muara, 185, 225, 231, 275

Brunei Shell Marketing, 42

Brunei Shell Petroleum, 41, 45

Brunei Shell Tankers, 41-42

Brunei Times, 306

Bruneisation policy, 78

Bucher-Koenen, Tabea, 273-274

Bureaucracy, 63, 303, 328-329, 331, 337, 341, 343

Business, 5, 9, 28, 44, 49, 61-63, 96-97,
105-106, 112, 116, 127, 143, 146,
174, 209, 227, 228, 229, 237, 239,
244-248, 251-256, 258-262, 263,
265-268, 285, 286, 303, 312, 328,
356, 368, 373; actors, 252;
agritourism, 203; banking, 103, 107;
cross-border, 9; development, 7,
105, 247, 370; digital, 13, 253;
environment, 5, 7, 30-31, 45, 58,
146, 177, 193, 305; export(s), 117;
farming, 200; financing, 99, 118,
247; infrastructure, 40; international,
105; Islamic, 238, 240, 244-248;
management, 304; marketing, 265;
model(s), 119-120, 251, 372;
opportunities, 175, 255; resilience,
120; sector(s), 115, 118, 122, 365;
services, 47n5, 60, 64, 90n16, 174;
strategy, 14, 328, 328n1;
sustainability, 245, 247; tourism,
220, 226

Butler, Richard W., 220

C

Cable, Daniel, 334

CAE Brunei MPTC, 45

Callen, Tim, 84

Cambodia, 6, 10n4, 111-112, 114-115,
167; labour underutilisation, 77;
tourism, 207; youth unemployment,
185

Cameron Highlands, agritourism, 201;
tourism, 212

Canada, 220-221; financial literacy, 273;
free trade agreement(s), 146

Capacity, government, 34; human, 14, 341;
institutional, 308; knowledge, 302;
reform, 299; state, 33; technical,
302, 319

Capital, accumulation, 100, 173-174;
cultural, 207; flows, 156, 174;
formation(s), 3, 8, 52, 129, 157;
human, 4, 29, 33, 47n4, 50n10, 51,
58, 102, 205, 208, 366; market(s), 9,
11, 13, 95, 98, 105-106, 118,
121-122, 241, 289; shareholder, 244

Caraka, Rezzy Eko, 328

Central Asia, 5

Centre for Islamic Banking, Finance and Management (CIBFM), 104

Certified Financial Planner Board of
Standards, 274

Change(s), climate, 365-366; demographic,
365-36; environmental, 1-2, 23, 26;
institutional, 4, 10, 21, 26, 30, 320;
organisational, 339, 349-350, 357;
social, 26; socioeconomic, 366;
value, 341

Chemical product(s), 41, 41n2, 60, 133, 134, 139, 163, 167-168, 169, 170

Chin, Wei Lee, 12, 199-217, 219-235, 369

China (PRC), 10, 32, 51, 85, 255, 354; and
Association of Southeast Asian
Nations, 32, 166, 169, 369;
economic growth, 97; foreign direct
investment, 32, 134, 155, 162, 177,
368; funding, 12; global value
chain(s), 368; *halal* market, 373;
integration, 166; joint venture(s), 32,
134, 155, 174, 176; market(s), 167,
176; partnership(s), 12, 32, 165-166,
368; and Southeast Asia, 32; textile
industry, 162; trade, 32, 137, 138,
155, 160, 166, 165-167, 167, 168,
168-169, 169, 170, 171-172,
175-176; trade agreement(s), 97,
137, 146, 165-166; trade war, 97;
trading partner, 32, 137, 138, 166,
167, 168, 171; tourism, 221

Chinese, 32, 169; company, 32, 162,
175-177, 368-369; economic
transition, 3; firms, 155, 176;
investment(s), 155, 175-176,
368-369; model, 3; multinational,
229

Chiphat, 207

Chor, Davin, 140, 150
CIMB Bank, see Commerce International Merchant Bankers

Citibank, 106, 113–114, 239–240

Citizens’ income, 367

CityMobile, 260

Civil conflict, 24

Civil service, 307, 333, 357; culture(s), 330; reform(s), 332, 357

Civil Service Vision of the 21st Century, 304, 305

Clark, Terry, 222

Clements, Matthew, 257

Climate change, 365–366

Coase, R.H., 256

Coffee Bean, 230

Collective culture, 318, 340

Command economies, 3

Commerce International Merchant Bankers (CIMB), 105, 108, 119

Commercial, bank(s), 45, 105, 107, 118; banking, 45

Commodity price(s), 48n4, 86; volatility, 58

Community, 242, 263, 360; agritourism, 203, 209–213, 369; ethnic, 208; farming, 199, 201, 205, 213; Iban, 202, 207; income, 205, 206; indigenous, 207; Muslim, 243, 246; services, 48n5

Community-based tourism, 200–201, 205, 210–211, 226

Companies Act, 105, 107–108

Company, 41, 44–45, 82, 105–106, 117, 156, 176, 248, 252, 255, 260–262, 263, 264–267, 365–366; Chinese, 32, 162, 175–177, 368–369; finance, 108, 119, 122, 238, 240–241; financing, 103, 105–106, 108; fintech, 119–120, 122; foreign, 91, 157, 262; industrial, 327–328; insurance, 96, 103–106, 108, 109, 119, 122; Japanese, 354, 368; listed, 118; logistics, 264; multinational, 33, 369; offshore, 106; oil, 90; petrochemicals, 159, 368; private, 34, 80–81, 327, 366–367; public, 79, 238; Singaporean, 239

Comparative advantage, 61, 85–86, 128, 158–159, 170–173

Competition, 3–4, 9, 13, 70, 156, 159, 162, 205, 211, 213, 227, 333; global, 327–328

Compliance, 301, 312, 316, 318, 352, 359; capabilities, 98, 121; financial, 309;

syariah, 13, 104, 237–238, 243, 247, 373

Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), 146

Conflict(s), 26, 100, 331, 339–341, 354; civil, 24; management, 190; managing, 186–187, 188, 188, 189, 190, 191, 191–192, 369; social, 40; Ukraine, 128

Confucian ethical code, 77

Congruence, value, 327, 329, 334, 337, 339–341, 343, 372

Coniglio, Nicola D., 85

Connectivity, 98, 121

Conrad, Robert, 51

Constraint(s), institutional, 315

Construction industry, 28

Consumer goods, 176, 370

Consumption, 48, 58, 129–130, 132, 140, 150, 157; domestic, 161; energy, 42, 176; household, 129, 157, 158; oil, 41, 49

Contract, social, 28, 34, 238, 243; theory, 5

Control(s), 14, 331, 341, 353; corporate, 100; corruption, 29, 30; employee, 353–356, 360; exchange, 103; financial, 309; government expenditure, 332; market, 4; organisational, 359; risk, 368

Cook, Frances D., 26, 33

Corden, W. Max, 47

Corporate, banking, 105, 107; control, 100; environment, 328n1; finance, 5; financing, 118; tax, 176

Corporate sector, 83; Asia, 118

Corporation(s), 49, 247, 264; multinational, 160

Corruption, control of, 29, 30

Cost(s), production, 49, 53, 160, 246; social, 69–70; start-up, 246, 248, 370; transaction, 13, 251, 254–257, 260

Countries, Asia-Pacific, 166, 354; Asian, 3, 51, 300, 368; developing, 1–4, 46–47, 156, 160, 166, 171, 174, 297, 299, 304, 372; East Asian, 11; Eastern European, 4–5; Gulf Cooperation Council, 88, 95, 111, 113–118, 121–122, 368; low-income, 85; Middle East, 39–40, 47; Muslim, 246; resource-rich, 40, 52, 77, 85, 173,
366–367; Southeast Asian, 4, 39, 77, 85, 264; Western, 352

Court, syariah, 240

Credit Bureau, 104, 240

Crisis, Asian financial, 4, 23, 28, 33, 43, 53, 101, 118, 160, 240; European debt, 118; global financial, 28, 53, 97, 101, 118, 138, 240; Latin American, 101; Mexican, 101; oil, 23, 26, 28, 33, 53; Russian, 101

Cropanzano, Russell, 335

Cross-border, business, 9; development, 220; funds, 95–96; goods, 1–2; infrastructure, 98; investment(s), 113, 166, 220; labour movement, 1–2; tourism, 12–13, 219–222, 223, 224–227, 228, 230, 232–233, 369; trade, 142

Cross-sector linkages, 129

Cultural, 76, 211, 327; activities, 207–208; beliefs, 25; boundary, 351; capital, 207; environment, 328; heritage, 201; identity, 10, 31; involvement, 339, 341; rituals, 208; shift, 311; similarities, 222, 232; tourism, 200; values, 336

Culture(s), 2, 25–26, 31, 203, 265, 299; agritourism, 200, 208; bank, 120; banking industry, 237; civil service, 330; collective, 318, 340; entrepreneurial, 63–64; Iban, 207; India, 354; indigenous, 207; institutional, 331, 333, 371; Khmer, 207; organisational, 301, 308, 310, 317, 317n4, 319–320, 327–328, 333–335, 337–341, 343, 371; public sector, 299; savings, 276; service, 357; and tourism, 207, 222, 227, 232, 373; work, 308, 341

Cunha, Miguel Pina e, 359

Currency Interchangeability Agreement (CIA), 103

Curristine, Teresa, 298–299, 309

Cybersecurity, 98, 120–122; risk, 120

Czelusta, Jesse, 46

D

Dai-Ichi Kangyo Bank, 239

Dart Brunei, 262, 263

Darussalam Assets, 176

Darussalam Enterprise (DARe), 7, 45

Data protection, 98, 121

Databases, bank(s), 147

Decentralisation, 4, 352, 357–359; policy, 358–359

Decontrol, 4

Dedrick, Jason, 4

Degradation, environmental, 205, 206, 212

Deloitte Insights, 120

Demand, energy, 23, 27

Demographic, change, 365–366; evolution, 73; transition, 71–72; trends, 10, 69–70

Denison, Daniel, 339

Department of Economic Planning and Statistics (DEPS), 58, 80n7

Dependence, 31, 85, 138, 142, 145; export, 141; family, 286; government, 102; hydrocarbon, 21–22, 366; import, 140; natural resource, 10, 50, 52, 85; oil and gas, 6–7, 10–12, 39, 44, 49, 120, 368, 372; path, 24, 27, 31, 58, 85; resource, 47, 50, 50n10, 51–52, 57, 85–86, 86n13

Deposit Protection Order, 240

Derivatives market, 118

Developing countries, 1–4, 46–47, 156, 160, 166, 171, 174, 297, 299, 304, 372

Development, agricultural, 59; agritourism, 201; of banking sector, 106, 110, 116; business, 7, 105, 247, 370; cross-border, 220; economic, 1–3, 3n1, 5–6, 10–11, 21–25, 27–28, 31, 33, 39, 48n7, 50n10, 77, 96, 98, 121, 140, 174, 220, 237, 244, 330; environmental, 29; financial sector, 10–11, 95–96, 98–99, 100–101, 102, 110–111, 116–117, 119–122, 365, 367; human, 14, 39, 77; human resource(s), 185, 205, 208, 341; implementation, 90, 367; infrastructure, 7, 98, 121; institutional, 7, 26; models, 1; policy, 21, 303, 308; political, 22; programme(s), 156, 305; social, 22, 29, 332; socioeconomic, 2, 55, 32, 97, 327, 343, 357, 365, 367, 372; strategy, 28, 30, 95–96, 102, 305, 373; sustainable, 1, 3, 33, 341; technological, 5, 330, 373

Development Bank of Brunei, 106, 239, 242

Development in transition (DiT), 1, 3

Developmentalism, 34, 366; rentier, 30
Digital, bank(s), 119, 122; business, 13, 253; economy, 365–366, 368; infrastructure, 146; investment(s), 146; marketplace(s), 13, 251–257, 259–262, 263, 264, 266–268, 370; technology, 146, 251, 340; transformation, 146, 254

Digital transformation, and economic growth, 146

Directorate of Development and Work Services, 330

Diversification, 12, 55, 85, 99, 117, 127, 146, 275–277, 289, 303, 306, 372–374; agriculture, 241; and agritourism, 200–201, 369; and Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 88, 177, 367; economic, 2, 4, 6–7, 9–11, 14, 21–23, 26–27, 29–33, 39–40, 52, 57–58, 63–64, 69, 71, 76, 84–85, 88, 90, 139–140, 142, 156, 201, 239, 241, 302, 366, 369–370; export(s), 58, 61, 85, 88, 89, 138–139, 158, 173, 176–177, 367–369; finance, 365, 367; funding, 117; and government, 28, 31, 40, 58, 63–64, 69, 71, 138, 146, 173, 373; implementation, 7, 146; manufacturing, 367; policy, 11–12, 22, 31, 40, 69, 71, 86, 90, 173; product, 145; of production, 58, 173; programme(s), 241; regulation, 31; of risk, 100–101, 121; strategy, 372; trade, 12

Dk Nur’Izzati Pg Omar, 350, 360

Domestic workers, female, 81, 83

Domestic, investment(s), 4, 118, 174; market(s), 42, 80, 119, 122, 155, 157, 173, 373; work, 72

Dongyang Gangchul, 45

Druce, Stephen C., 9, 21–38, 366

Dual labour market, 34

Dusun, 201, 207–208; heritage, 201

Dutch disease, 24, 47–49

Dyaram, Lata, 354

E

Ease of Doing Business index, 30–31, 44, 308

East Asia, 5, 33, 95

East Asian, countries, 11; economies, 4, 160; region, 165; welfare regime(s), 77

East European, 3

East Malaysia, 229; tourism, 12, 220, 225, 226

Eastern European, countries, 4–5

eBay, 251, 253, 257, 260–261, 267

E-commerce, 97, 251–256, 260–262, 263, 264, 267, 370; goods, 254

Eco Ponies Garden, 201–202, 205–208, 210, 212

Economic, actors, 256, 268; development, 1–3, 3n1, 5–6, 10–11, 21–25, 27–28, 31, 33, 39, 48n7, 50n10, 77, 96, 98, 121, 140, 174, 220, 237, 244, 330; cooperation, 32, 220; diversification, 2, 4, 6–7, 9–11, 14, 21–23, 26–27, 29–33, 39–40, 52, 57–58, 63–64, 69, 71, 76, 84–85, 88, 90, 139–140, 142, 156, 201, 239, 241, 302, 366, 369–370; environment, 244; infrastructure, 9, 40; innovation, 330; instability, 96; institutions, 24, 30; integration, 2, 95, 97, 165; model, 23, 25; outcomes, 25, 50n9, 101; partnership(s), 32n3; planning, 4, 365, 372–373; policy, 1–2, 22, 30, 40, 47, 62; reform(s), 1, 3, 26, 372; relations, 10, 165; restructuring, 27, 221; revenue(s), 221; stability, 22, 24, 127, 145, 165; structure(s), 39, 47, 49, 58, 61, 139; sustainability, 22, 210; transformation, 40, 47, 127, 372; transition, 3, 366, 369, 372; well-being, 24

Economic Blueprint, 9, 47, 58, 62–63; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 140

Economic Census of Enterprises, 117

Economic growth, 3–4, 5, 6, 9, 34, 47, 49, 49n8, 50, 50n10, 51–53, 56, 105, 113, 127, 140, 243, 246, 303; China, 97; and digital transformation, 146; and exports, 173; and finance, 10–11, 96, 98–99, 100–101, 110, 116, 118, 120–122, 238, 245; and fintech, 119; Germany, 97; and human resource development, 185; and institutions, 21–22, 24, 26; Italy, 97; Malaysia, 221; and natural resources, 51, 56–57; and oil and gas, 10, 39–40, 52, 55, 57–58, 64, 365, 367; policy, 21, 303; and public sector, 303; regional, 166; and resource rents, 52; sustainability, 6; sustainable, 2, 99, 276; and tourism,
221; and trade, 55, 156, 166, 173; and welfare, 96, 120

Economic transition, 366, 369, 372; Chinese, 3; models of, 3, 5

Economics of transition, 2

Economy, Asian, 50, 96–97, 118, 139; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 97, 117–118, 146, 172, 177; command, 3; digital, 365–366, 368; East Asian, 4, 160; energy, 24; Germany, 255; global, 1–2, 23, 33, 97, 128, 131, 156, 174; and government, 47, 333; Japan, 146, 255; knowledge, 58, 351; Malaysia, 8; market, 3, 97, 100; Pacific, 139; resource-rich, 58, 156, 158; of scale, 70, 117, 156, 159; social market, 26; Southeast Asian, 4; sustainable, 7, 40, 47, 58, 63–64, 84, 97, 121, 140, 158, 174, 373; United States, 255; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 58, 63, 97, 174, 373

Education, 7, 13, 22, 28, 33, 39, 50n10, 60, 77, 143, 184, 241, 278, 283, 284, 289, 366; and agritourism, 200–201, 205, 208, 212; financial, 104, 273, 277; and government, 366; higher, 14, 192–194, 267, 277, 369; institution(s), 208, 238, 267, 356–357, 369; programme(s), 33; religious, 241; sector, 83; system, 192, 194, 271, 273, 365–366; vocational, 185; and youth, 33

E-governance, 332

Elder, Harold W., 274

Electric vehicles, 91, 367

Electronics product(s), 161

Elisabeth, Christina Ruth, 166

Employability, 183, 193, 272; innovation, 186, 188, 189, 190, 191; and leadership, 188, 189, 190, 190, 191; skills, 183–187, 187, 188, 188, 189, 190, 190, 191, 191–193, 369; worker(s), 12, 189, 191; youth, 12, 183–188, 190–194, 369

Employee(s), control of, 353–356, 360; government, 82, 186, 272, 275, 277, 277n3, 355, 370–371; involvement, 14, 340, 349–352, 354–357, 357n1, 358–361, 372; knowledge, 337–338, 355; management, 372; participation, 14, 339–341, 349–357, 357n1, 358–361, 372;

public sector, 271, 273, 332–333, 339, 343; well-being, 191

Employees Trust Fund (ETF), 77n6

Employment, 31, 47, 49, 49n8, 52, 58, 69, 75–76, 78–79, 82, 83n11, 85, 128–129, 140, 156–157, 175, 184, 192, 194, 222, 245, 263, 263; agriculture, 208; agritourism, 205, 206, 208; female, 82, 83; government, 193; Oman, 78; policy, 69–70, 78; private sector, 61–62, 63, 70, 79, 80, 90, 157, 241–242, 303, 310, 367; public sector, 10, 28, 34, 70, 77, 78, 79, 117, 303, 367; rates, 12; relations, 349–350, 352, 360; Saudi Arabia, 78; structure(s), 70; underutilisation, 368; United Arab Emirates, 78; youth, 184–185

Empowerment, 245, 340–341

Energy, 23, 90n16, 173; consumption, 42, 176; demand, 23, 27; economy, 24; renewable, 23, 91; reserves, 139; sector, 131, 134; security, 168; transition, 90–91, 365–367

English, language, 91, 207, 373; law, 239

Ennen, Edgar, 337

Entrepreneurial, 62; culture(s), 63–64; skills, 5, 9, 45, 244, 365, 372

Entrepreneurship, 5, 45–46, 62–64, 90, 201, 209; rural, 369

Environment, 14, 58, 166, 206, 222, 231–232, 238, 341–342, 350, 354; business, 5, 7, 30–31, 45, 58, 146, 177, 193, 305; competitive, 156; corporate, 328n1; cultural, 328n1; economic, 244; geopolitical, 5; natural, 12, 201, 205, 212; policy, 128, 303; socioeconomic, 5; sustainable, 9; work, 337, 339, 352; workforce, 185; working, 335–336; workplace, 185, 193

Environmental, agritourism, 199, 201, 212, 369; challenges, 205; change(s), 1–2, 23, 26; degradation, 205, 206, 212; development, 29; goals, 7; protection, 90; resilience, 213; sustainability, 203, 205, 206; tourism, 222, 232

Ethical code, Confucian, 77

Ethnic, 76; community, 208; food, 207; groups, 201, 208, 211; identity, 208; tourism, 208

Ethnic traditions, Sarawakian, 208
Europe, 128, 229; foreign direct investment, 174; trade, 159

European, bank(s), 97; debt crisis, 118

European Commission, 147

European Union, 97, 165, 330

Evolution, demographic, 73

Exchange, 254, 256, 259; controls, 103; foreign, 28, 103; social, 336; sociocultural, 205, 207

Expansion, financial sector, 103

Expenditure, 219; government, 8, 41, 43, 50, 52–53, 55, 157, 158, 332; household, 129, 158, 370; military, 70; public, 28

Export(s), Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 155, 167, 167, 168, 169, 176; to Australia, 167; business, 117; dependence, 141; diversification, 58, 61, 85, 88, 89, 138–139, 158, 173, 176–177, 367–369; and economic growth, 173; flows, 130; goods, 140, 158, 158–159; hydrocarbon, 22–23, 158, 163; to Indonesia, 167; to Japan, 137, 155, 167, 167, 168, 168, 169, 176, 368; to Laos, 167; liquefied natural gas, 167; Malaysia, 86; to Malaysia, 137, 155, 167, 167, 176; market(s), 80, 85, 155, 167, 174; natural resource, 50–51; to North America, 162; oil, 23–24, 27, 40, 41n1, 48n4, 49–50, 50n9, 117, 167, 284; oil and gas, 30, 40, 77, 86, 132, 155, 165–166, 176, 368; petrochemicals, 368; to Philippines, 167, 167; product(s), 163, 166–167, 171–172, 173, 262, 263; productivity, 174; revenue(s), 86, 157; Russian, 128; Saudi Arabia, 88; Singapore, 85; to Singapore, 137, 155, 167, 167, 176; South Korea, 85; to South Korea, 42, 137, 166, 167, 168, 368; structure(s), 173; to Thailand, 167, 167; value-added, 139; to Vietnam, 167, 167

F

Facebook, 252, 255, 265–266

Fadzliwati Mohiddin, 12, 183–196, 369

Fally, Thibault, 140, 150

Family, 83, 208, 230–231, 273, 360; dependence, 286; farms, 200;

policy, 72; support, 271, 286–287, 287, 288–289

Farm, production, 209–211; revenue(s), 200, 205; tourism, 200, 213

Farmers’ cooperatives, 209

Farming, 12, 209–210; business, 200; community, 199, 201, 205, 213; knowledge, 209; subsistence, 201

Farrell, Dan, 351

Fasano, Ugo, 47

Federated Malay States, 239

Female, 227, 228, 230; domestic workers, 81, 83; employers, 186; employment, 82, 83; jobs, 84; labour market, 82; worker(s), 82–83, 91

Fifth National Development Plan, 241

Finance, company, 108, 119, 122, 238, 240–241; corporate, 5; diversification, 365, 367; and economic growth, 10–11, 96, 98–99, 100–101, 110, 116, 118, 120–122, 238, 245; Islamic, 7, 11, 108, 119, 122, 237–240, 242–243, 247, 365, 373; personal, 272–273, 288–289

Finance Companies Act, 240

Finance industry, 238, 240, 242; Islamic, 7, 238, 243

Financial, compliance, 309; control, 309; education, 104, 273, 277; flows, 1–2; infrastructure, 119, 121, 242, 373; innovation, 11, 119, 373; instability, 96, 99, 100, 101, 120–121; knowledge, 272–273, 276, 288; linkages, 119; market(s), 95–98, 105–106, 116, 121; planning, 13–14, 275–276, 280; policy, 3, 13, 95, 97–98, 102; product(s), 119, 122, 241, 243, 247, 268, 373; risk, 99, 120; services, 13, 64, 90n16, 95, 97, 99, 102, 104, 106, 119, 122, 146, 368, 370; stability, 98–99, 100–101, 102–105, 121, 247; structure(s), 101, 237; transformation, 13, 119; well-being, 276

Financial crisis, Asian, 4, 23, 28, 33, 43, 53, 101, 118, 160, 240; global, 28, 53, 97, 101, 118, 138, 240; Latin American, 101; Mexican, 101; and private sector, 28; Russian, 101

Financial hub, international, 242; Islamic, 13

Financial institutions, 11, 13–14, 99, 100–101, 102–103, 105–106, 115,
118, 120–122, 238, 240, 244, 247, 254; foreign, 96; international, 239; Islamic, 95, 103–104, 243, 247–248; regulation, 240

Financial literacy, 13–14, 102, 271–277, 278–279, 280, 280, 281–284, 287–290, 370–371; Canada, 273; Germany, 273; Malaysia, 273; policy, 289–290, 371; Singapore, 273; strategy, 276; United States, 273

Financial Literacy and Education Commission (USA), 273

Financial market(s), 96–98, 106, 116, 121; global, 105; Islamic, 13; liquidity, 106; regional, 95, 98

Financial Regulations, 309

Financial Sector Blueprint (FSBP), 11, 121; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 97, 102

Financial sector, 78, 99, 105, 110, 118, 373; Asia, 95, 102; Asian, 96–97; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 121; Australia, 373; Britain, 373; development, 10–11, 95–96, 98–99, 100–101, 102, 110–111, 116–117, 119–122, 365, 367; expansion, 103; instability, 96, 101, 120; integration, 97–98, 121; Islamic, 104; liberalisation, 4, 11; modernisation, 102; New Zealand, 373; reform(s), 3, 102, 118; regulation, 103–104, 242, 309; restructured, 13; stability, 99, 100, 103, 118, 121; strategy, 367; structure(s), 98, 103, 106, 107; surveillance, 98, 121; sustainable, 96

Financing, 11, 48n5, 96, 105, 110–112, 112, 114, 115, 117–118, 122, 209; of ageing, 69–70; agriculture, 247; business, 99, 118, 247; companies, 103, 105–106, 108; corporate, 118; household, 96, 99; institutions, 103; Islamic, 241–245, 247; microcredit, 45

Finger–Kreinin measure, 88n15

Fintech, 120; company, 119–120, 122; and economic growth, 119; Islamic, 11

Firm(s), 49, 63, 108, 140, 156–157, 159–160, 172, 174, 251–252, 256, 260, 262, 327–328, 328n1, 355, 370; Chinese, 155, 176; digital marketplace, 252; foreign, 33, 45, 62, 366; Japanese, 155, 176; local,

45–46, 62; offshore, 128; oil and gas, 41

First National Development Plan, 27, 241

Fiscal, policy, 41, 48n4, 50, 50n9, 52, 58; stabilisation, 58; volatility, 50

Fishery product(s), 169; food, 166, 169, 172, 173

Fjeldstad, Øystein D., 259

Fleming, Peter, 360

Flexibility, labour market, 49, 90, 367

Flows, capital, 156, 174; export, 130; financial, 1–2; foreign direct investment, 160, 165, 174; global, 129; trade, 129, 160, 168, 172

Food, 28, 39, 46, 60, 77, 91, 140, 143, 166, 169, 170, 172, 173, 202, 205, 206, 210, 212, 221, 227, 229, 231–232, 247, 253–254; ethnic, 207; *halal*, 145, 174, 368, 373; heritage, 201–202, 207; Iban, 202; imports, 59, 61; indigenous, 201, 207; industry, 172, 373; Sarawakian, 208; security, 59, 157; services, 79–80, 84; sustainable, 207; tourism, 207

Ford, 328

Foreign, company, 91, 157, 262; exchange, 28, 103; financial institutions, 96; firm(s), 33, 45, 62, 366; investment(s), 4, 12, 90–91, 96, 118, 139–140, 174, 366–368; policy, 23–24, 31–32; relations, 238; worker(s), 72, 75, 75n4, 80, 80–81, 81, 82–83

Foreign direct investment (FDI), 22, 30–33, 45–47, 62–64, 85, 160, 165, 174, 175, 176, 369; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 174, 369; China, 32, 134, 155, 162, 177, 368; Europe, 174; flows, 160, 165, 174; Indonesia, 174; Japanese, 368; and productivity, 160; Singapore, 174; spillover, 45–46, 62–63, 176; strategy, 31; technology, 34; United States, 174; Vietnam, 174, *see also Investment(s)*

Forest product(s), 239

Formation, capital, 3, 8, 52, 129, 157

Fossil fuel production, 91

Framework, institutional, 156, 309; legal, 25; monetary policy, 103; regulatory, 13, 118, 120; risk management, 128; political, 352; strategic, 11, 95, 97

France, 105, 108, 299
Free trade agreement(s), 137, 146,
165–166, 373; Canada, 146; and
trade liberalisation, 166

Freeman, Richard B., 351

Freme Rainforest Lodge, 211

Frent, Cristi, 232

Friedman, Andrew L., 355, 360

Fullerton, Thomas M., 232

Funding, 199, 247–248, 298, 369; China,
12; diversification, 117; farm, 212;
resources, 205

Funds, cross-border, 95–96

G

Gas, see Oil and gas

Gelbman, Alon, 221

Gender, 222, 227, 228, 278; and labour
market, 76

General Electric, 328

Geopolitical, 9, 21–22, 120, 127, 139;
challenges, 372; environment, 5;
influence, 32; tensions, 97

Germany, economic growth, 97; economy,
255; financial literacy, 273; imports
from, 168; trading partner, 168

Glew, David J., 350–351

Global, agritourism, 211; competition,
327–328; economy, 1–2, 23, 33, 97,
128, 131, 156, 174; financial crisis,
28, 53, 97, 101, 118, 138, 240;
financial market(s), 105; flows, 129;
integration, 156, 219; market(s), 9,
118, 128, 156–157; security, 31;
supply chains, 160; trade, 11, 32,
156, 368

Global Asia, 365–366

Global Competitiveness Index, 329;
Indonesia, 329; Malaysia, 329;
Singapore, 329; Thailand, 329

Global financial crisis, 28, 53, 97, 101, 118,
138, 240

Global value chain(s) (GVC), 11, 127–130,
132–134, 135, 135, 136, 138–143,
145–146, 149, 156–157, 160, 172,
368; Association of Southeast Asian
Nations, 172; China, 368; and
government, 128; integration, 128,
132–133, 138, 140, 146;
investment(s), 156; linkages, 132,
135, 137, 139, 141–142, 142, 150;
Malaysia, 129, 144; network, 127;
participation, 11, 127–128, 132,
134–135, 135, 136, 137, 145, 149,

368; and production, 127–128, 132,
135, 138, 141–143, 144, 145, 149,
150–151, 156–157, 160; and
productivity, 172; research, 129,
140; resilience, 146; revolution, 128;
Singapore, 129; structure(s), 146;
and trade, 130, 132, 156; and trade
agreement(s), 368; United States,
143; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 146

Globalisation, 1–2, 13, 33, 95, 128, 156,
225, 333, 357, 366; and Asia, 366;
hyper-, 156

Go Rush, 261

Goal(s), organisational, 298, 310, 338;
Wawasan Brunei 2035, 9, 11–12, 14,
30, 176, 185, 330, 372, 374

Gojek, 257, 262

Golazo, 267

Gold Coin, 46

Golden Corporation, 46

Goldmyne Hardware, 264

GoMamam, 254

Good(s), 4, 13, 49, 61, 85, 97, 100,
127–130, 141–142, 148, 151,
158–159, 161, 219–221, 224,
229–230, 232, 246–247, 256, 268,
330–331, 370; consumer, 176, 370;
cross-border, 1–2; e-commerce, 254;
export, 140, 158, 158–159;
household, 230, 264; import, 50,
158, 159, 165; intermediate, 132,
148; manufactured, 42, 61, 138, 159,
165, 169, 169, 170, 171–173;
non-tradeable, 48, 48n5, 80; oil and
gas, 40, 42; public, 246, 248; trade,
159, 170; tubular, 46; value-added,
176

Good governance, 9, 29, 62, 118, 341

Governance, 30, 51, 118, 256, 268, 308,
332–333, 342, 349–350; good, 9, 29,
62, 118, 341; of Islamic finance,
240; public sector, 298, 306; quality,
63; structure, 156, 343; system, 4,
358

Government, 4, 6, 12, 24, 27, 34, 121, 128,
139–141, 201, 209, 220, 226,
238–241, 244, 247, 252, 260, 273,
303–305, 330–332, 339, 341,
349–350, 357; administration, 297,
338; agency, 300, 319, 327, 329,
338; capacity, 34; debt, 47;
dependence, 102; developmental
projects, 29; and economic
diversification, 28, 31, 40, 58,
63–64, 69, 71, 138, 146, 173, 373;
and economy, 47, 333; and
education, 366; effectiveness, 30;
employees, 82, 186, 272, 275, 277,
277n3, 355, 370–371; and
employment, 193; expenditure, 8,
41, 43, 50, 52–53, 55, 157, 158, 332;
and foreign direct investment, 176;
and global value chain integration,
128; Indonesia, 329; and industry,
194; jobs, 9–10, 23, 78–79, 228,
241, 369; joint venture, 134, 174,
177; and market reforms, 4; officials,
199, 203, 204; organisations, 204,
310, 312, 320; and performance
management, 307, 309–310, 312,
314, 316–317, 319–320; policy,
12–14, 72, 102, 173, 289, 309; and
private sector, 45, 79, 174, 242;
programme(s), 309; and public
sector, 14, 80, 333, 342; reforms, 30,
102, 333, 372; revenue(s), 22, 41,
50, 52, 57, 86, 86n13, 120, 157, 309;
sector, 31, 79, 82–83, 186–187, 188,
190, 275; services, 44, 59, 60, 331,
342; strategy, 305n1, 306

Government Pension Scheme (GPS), 77n6, 272

Grab Dobi, 260

Grab, 262

Greenaway, David, 8

Gross capital formation, 157, 158

Gross domestic product (GDP), 22–23, 27,
32, 41, 42, 43, 44, 50, 55, 57–58, 59,
59, 61, 63, 77, 78, 83, 97, 101, 102,
110–111, 112, 118, 134, 156–157,
165, 174–175, 370, 373; Association
of Southeast Asian Nations, 255;
growth, 1, 3, 8, 28, 29, 39–40, 52,
157, 176; per capita, 6, 6, 23, 28,
42–44, 53, 55, 56, 70, 111

Gross value added (GVA), 59, 61, 61, 62, 172

Group(s), ethnic, 201, 208, 211;
indigenous, 207; social, 25

Growth, economic, 2–4, 5, 6, 9–11, 21–22,
24, 26, 34, 39–40, 47, 49, 49n8, 50,
50n10, 51–53, 55, 56, 57–58, 64,
96–99, 100–101, 105, 110, 113, 116,
118–122, 127, 140, 146, 156, 166,
173, 185, 221, 238, 243, 245–246,
276, 303, 365, 367; gross domestic

product, 1, 3, 8, 28, 29, 39–40, 52,
157, 176; Latin America, 3;
population, 157; private sector, 45,
59, 61, 64, 117; sustainable, 4, 9, 11,
33, 69, 71, 157, 173

Grubel–Lloyd index, 164

Grubel, Herbert G., 159

Guangxi Beibu Gulf International Port
Group, 176

Guardian, 230

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 83, 84;
countries, 88, 95, 111, 113–118,
121–122, 368

Gupta, Arushi, 11, 127–153, 368

Gylfason, Thorvaldur, 50–51

H

H&M, 229

Hafiiz Hashim, 9, 21–38, 366

Hairul Azrin Besar, 13, 237–250, 370

Halal, certification, 373; food, 145, 174,
368, 373; industry, 7, 9, 11, 59;
logistics, 90n16; pharmaceuticals,
46; product(s), 7, 59, 145, 373;
tourism, 373

Halal market, Australia, 373; China, 373; New Zealand, 373

Hampton, Mark P., 220

Haque, Nadeem Ul, 5

Harlos, Karen P., 354

Harrod-Domar growth model, 3

Harvard Business School, 354

Haseeb, Muhammad, 52

Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin, Sultan,
238

Hatry, Harry P., 331

Hausmann, Ricardo, 173

Health care, 22, 28, 39, 58, 77, 229, 232,
283–284, 284, 285, 289, 370

Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theory, 158

Helmke, Gretchen, 26

Hengyi Industries, see Zhejiang Hengyi

Herfindahl–Hirschman index (HHI), 61,
138–139, 139, 149–150

Heritage, 200, 205, 373; agricultural, 200,
207–208, 213; cultural, 201; Dusun,
201; food, 201–202, 207; Iban, 202;
intangible, 208; resources, 200

HeyDomo, 254

Higher education, 277; institutions, 14,
192–194, 267, 369

Hirschman, Albert, 351
Hiseaton Fisheries (B), 46

Hispanic, students, 275; women, 275

Hong Kong, 85, 107–108; cross-border tourism, 221

Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC), 46–47, 106, 113–114, 239, 241

Hongkongers, 222

Household(s), 141, 220; borrowers, 105; consumption, 129, 157, 158; expenditure, 129, 158, 370; financing, 96, 99; goods, 230, 264; income, 50; lending, 115; low-income, 116–117; products, 232

Housing, 22, 28, 39, 48n5, 78, 246, 284

Human capital, 4, 29, 33, 47n4, 50n10, 51, 58, 102, 205, 208, 366; accumulation, 33, 50n10, 51

Human development, 14, 39, 77; policy, 14

Human resource(s), 33, 58, 210, 212, 310–312, 315, 317, 319, 357, 369; development, 185, 205, 208, 341; leader(s), 341; management, 309, 320, 327, 335, 337–338, 340–343, 349–351, 353–355

Hummels, David, 129, 149

Husain, Aasim M., 50n9

Hydrocarbon(s), 42, 58, 64, 134, 173; dependency, 21–22, 366; exports, 22–23, 158, 163; industry, 302; rents, 28; resources, 28; sector, 29

Hyper-globalisation, 156

I

Iban, 201, 208; community, 202, 207; culture(s), 207; food, 202; heritage, 202; tourism, 202

IBB Kredit, 238

IBB Securities, 238

iCentre, 45, 248

Identity, 208; cultural, 10, 31; ethnic, 208; religious, 10, 31

Implementation, 97; agritourism, 212; development, 90, 367; diversification, 7, 146; performance management, 297, 300–302, 306–309, 311–312, 313, 314–321; policy, 1, 3, 9, 26–27, 31, 365–366, 372; public management, 333; Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, 98, 121; total quality management, 328; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 95

Import(s), from Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 167–168, 168, 169, 170, 170; dependence, 140; food, 59, 61; from Germany, 168; goods, 50, 158, 159, 165; from Indonesia, 168; from Japan, 169, 170; from Kazakhstan, 165, 168; from Malaysia, 167, 168; product(s), 164, 262, 263; from Singapore, 165, 167, 168; from South Korea, 168–169, 170; from Thailand, 168; from United Arab Emirates, 165, 168; from United States, 168

Income, 1–3, 6, 12; Asia, 138; government, 22; household, 50; and investment, 3; levels, 2; per capita, 7; security, 90, 367; tourism, 205, 206

India, 52, 85, 162, 373; and Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 166; culture(s), 354; trade, 138, 167; trade agreement(s), 146, 166; trading partner, 138, 167

Indigenous, 202; community, 207; culture(s), 207; food, 201, 207; group(s), 207

Indonesia, 77, 111–112, 262, 267; agritourism, 200, 209; and Asian financial crisis, 4; ATMs, 114; bank branches, 114; exports to, 167; female workers, 82–83, 83; foreign direct investment, 174; Global Competitiveness Index, 329; government bureaucracy, 329; gross domestic product per capita, 6; imports from, 168; Islamic financial products, 373; Islamic welfare, 77; labour underutilisation, 77; lending and deposit rates, 115; MINDEX, 87; net interest margin, 115; oil and gas, 86; performance management, 299, 300; population, 2, 86n14; public administration, 299; resource(s), 55, 86; resource rents, 52, 86, 86n14; return on assets, 115; trade, 137; trading partner, 137, 167, 168; unemployment, 10n4; women and employment, 83; youth unemployment, 185

Indonesia–Malaysia–Singapore growth triangle (IMS-GT), 220

Indonesian, 86; public sector, 299

Industrial, 176; activities, 241; companies, 327–328; linkages, 141, 142,
142–143, 150–151; sector, 58–59; sites, 45; worker(s), 70

Industry, construction, 28; food, 172, 373; and government, 194; *halal*, 7, 9, 11, 59; hydrocarbon, 302; insurance, 241, 373; knowledge, 238; linkages, 141–142, 142, 143, 150, 151; manufacturing, 47–48, 48n5, 49n7, 159; oil and gas, 11, 24, 39, 85, 127–128, 132–133, 139, 145, 157, 176, 239, 264, 367–368; petrochemicals, 85, 163, 174, 176–177, 368; textile, 161; value-added, 33

Information and communication technology (ICT), 4, 11, 45–46, 90n16, 98, 140, 145, 185; infrastructure, 120–121, 332; investment(s), 373

Infrastructure, 4, 11, 13, 22–23, 27, 47, 80, 102, 106, 128, 173, 225, 241, 303, 373; agritourism, 209; business, 40; cross-border, 98; development, 7, 98, 121; digital, 146; economic, 9, 40; financial, 119, 121, 242, 373; information and communication technology, 120–121, 332; utility, 49

ING Group, 119

Innovation(s), 5, 14, 70, 90, 327, 341; economic, 330; and employability, 186, 188, 189, 190, 191; financial, 11, 119, 373; Islamic financial sector, 104; management, 331; organisational, 328, 339, 343, 371; policy, 90; and productivity, 70; public sector, 337, 343; system, 90, 367; technological, 160, 372; and technology, 4–5, 160, 176, 343, 372; transformation, 341; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 90, 367; and work, 308, 331

Innovative skills, 365, 372

Instability, 85, 98, 333; economic, 96; financial, 96, 99, 100, 101, 120–121; in public management, 333

Instagram, 252, 255, 266

Institution(s), economic, 24, 30; and economic growth, 21–22, 24, 26; education, 208, 238, 267, 356–357, 369; financial, 11, 13–14, 95–96, 99, 100–101, 102–106, 115, 118, 120–122, 238–244, 247–248, 254; financing, 103; higher education, 14, 192–194, 369; international, 24

Institutional, 21–22, 29, 51n10, 76, 302; arrangements, 22, 24, 26, 34, 366; capacity, 308; challenges, 333; change(s), 4, 10, 21, 26, 30, 320; constraints, 315; culture(s), 331, 333, 371; deepening, 165; design, 25; development, 7, 26; failure, 240; framework, 156, 309; lock-in, 24, 26–27; model, 2; norm(s), 25–27, 333; pressure, 312; reform(s), 5, 10, 28, 30, 40, 45, 64; restructuring, 5; support, 12, 205, 209–210, 212, 369; system, 25, 297; upgrading, 33

Institutionalism, 25

Insurance, 46, 48n5, 271, 273–274, 285, 286, 289; company, 96, 103–106, 108–109, 119, 122; industry, 241, 373; Islamic (*takaful*), 7, 104–105, 108–109, 119, 122, 238, 240

Intangible heritage, 208

Integration, China, 166; data, 340; economic, 2, 95, 97, 165; financial sector, 97–98, 121; global, 156, 219; global value chain(s), 128, 132–133, 138, 140, 146; international, 102; investment, 174; organisational, 301, 305, 311, 321; regional, 95–96, 165; trade, 156

Intermediate goods, 132, 148

International, 105–106, 107, 120; business, 105; financial hub, 242; financial institutions, 239; integration, 102; market(s), 46, 48; network, 46; norm(s), 24; relations, 21–22, 70; school(s), 91; student(s), 263

International Bank of Brunei, 238–239

International Banking Order, 106, 242

International Business Companies Order, 242

International Country Risk Guide, 63

International Insurance and Takaful Order, 242

International Labour Organisation (ILO), 76, 367

International Limited Partnership Order, 242

International Monetary Fund (IMF), 5, 116, 118

International Trusts Order, 242

Internet penetration, 119, 251, 253, 255, 260–261; in Asia, 253

Intervention, state, 70, 76
Intracorp, 260

Investment(s), 3–5, 11, 23, 32, 40, 48n4, 50n10, 51–52, 100–101, 103, 112, 145, 157, 163, 175–176, 237, 241, 256, 272–275, 277, 284, 289–290, 328n1, 370–371; ASEAN Economic Community, 165; ASEAN Plus Three, 155; Chinese, 155, 175–176, 368–369; cross-border, 113, 166, 220; digital infrastructure, 146; domestic, 4, 118, 174; foreign, 4, 12, 90–91, 96, 118, 139–140, 174, 366–368; global value chains, 156; information technology, 373; integration, 174; Islamic, 11, 244; Japanese, 174, 176; joint venture, 244; linkages, 96; management, 105–106, 108; offshore, 11, 117; oil and gas, 24; partnerships, 12; private, 4; product(s), 289; public sector, 4–5, see also Foreign direct investment

Investment Incentives Order, 242

Involvement, employee, 14, 340, 349–352, 354–357, 357n1, 358–361, 372

i-Ready programme, 193–194

Islam, 243, 245, 247; and state, 247

Islamic, bank(s), 95–96, 103, 105–106, 107, 122, 237–238, 240, 242–244, 370; banking sector, 119, 240, 368; business, 238, 240, 244–248; finance, 7, 11, 108, 119, 122, 237–240, 242–243, 247, 365, 373; financial institutions, 95, 103–104, 243, 247–248; financial hub, 13; financial market(s), 13; financing, 241–245, 247; fintech, 11; insurance (takaful), 7, 104–105, 108–109, 119, 122, 238, 240; investment(s), 11, 244; jurisprudence, 242; law, 244; welfare regime(s), 77; welfare state, 77, 367

Islamic Bank of Brunei (IBB), 238–239, 242

Islamic Banking Order, 240

Islamic Development Bank of Brunei, 106, 239, 242

Islamic finance industry, 7, 238, 243; Malaysia, 242–243

Islamic financial products, 243; Indonesia, 373; Malaysia, 373; Singapore, 373

Islamic financial sector, innovation, 104

Islamic Religious Council Act, 245–246

Islamic welfare, 77; ethics, 77; Indonesia, 77; Malaysia, 77

Island Development Bank, 239

Italy, economic growth, 97

Itochu, 162, 175

J

J3sMart, 253, 262, 263

Japan, 12, 42, 349–350, 353; and Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 166; economy, 146, 255; exports to, 137, 155, 167, 167, 168, 168, 169, 176, 368; imports from, 169, 170; joint venture(s), 155, 176; trade with, 138; trade agreement(s), 97, 137, 146, 165–166; trading partner, 137, 138, 167, 168, 171

Japanese, company, 354, 368; firm(s), 155, 176; foreign direct investment, 368; investment(s), 174, 176; occupation, 239

Jarvis, Diane, 232

Jerudong Park Medical Centre, 229

Jetin, Bruno, 1–17, 69–94, 365–375

JiFEE, 261

Job(s), 31, 34, 72–73, 75, 83, 91, 119; female, 84; government, 9–10, 23, 78–79, 228, 241, 369; market, 184, 187, 191–194; oil and gas industry, 85; private sector, 30–31, 34, 79, 81, 366–367, 369; public sector, 10, 78–79, 81; security, 31, 34; structure(s), 69–70

JobCentre Brunei, 193

Johnson, Robert, 129

Johor Bahru, 221–222

Joint venture(s), 162, 177, 239; China, 32, 134, 155, 174, 176; government, 134, 174, 177; investment(s), 244; Japan, 155, 176; oil and gas, 41; petrochemicals, 174

Judge, Timothy, 334

Jurisprudence, Islamic, 242

Jütting, Johannes, 34

K

Kadi Courts Act, 245–246

Kandol agricultural development, 59

Kaplan, Robert S., 306, 314

Katz, Michael, 257
Kazakhstan, imports from, 165, 168; public employment, 78; trading partner, 168

Kedayan, 207

Kenali Negara Kitani (Get to Know Your Own Country) (KNK), 226

KFC, 230

Khalid, Ahmed M., 1–17, 69–94, 365–375

Khan, Alhajie Saidy, 360

Khmer, culture, 207

Kitayama, Shinobu, 360

Kleiner, Morris M., 351

Klinger, Bailey, 173

Knowledge, 34, 45, 192, 208, 245, 259, 274–275, 277, 302, 353; administrative, 241; agricultural, 202, 211; capacity, 302; economy, 58, 351; employees, 337–338, 355; farming, 209; financial, 272–273, 276, 288; industry, 238; local, 212; spillover, 62, 173; technical, 5, 128, 252, 373; transfer, 339; youth, 369

Koh, Benedict, 274

Koh, Wee Chian, 41, 45, 48n4, 50, 52

Koike, Osamu, 299

Koopman, Robert, 129

Korac, Sanja, 301

Kota Kinabalu, 225

Kraemer, Kenneth L., 4

Krugman, Paul, 159

Kuala Belait, 227, 228

Kuala Lurah, 221, 225, 226

Kuwait, 111–115, 117; public employment, 78; resource dependence, 86; women and employment, 83

L

Labour, costs, 83, 242; female, 82; force, 28, 31, 33, 52, 61, 69–70, 72–73, 75–76, 76n5, 78, 82, 185, 367

Labour market, 10, 12, 90, 192; dual, 34; flexibility, 49, 90, 367; female, 82; and gender, 76; public sector, 303; regulation, 4, 76; segmentation, 10, 69–70, 76, see also Workforce

Labour movement, cross-border, 1–2

Labour underutilisation, 69–70, 76, 76n5, 367; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 76, 77, 367; Cambodia, 77; Indonesia, 77; Laos, 77; Malaysia, 77; Philippines, 77; Singapore, 76, 77; Thailand, 77; Vietnam, 77

Lamunin, 202

Land Application and Registration Information System, 332

Language(s), 185, 232; English, 91, 207, 373; local, 2, 207

Laos, 10n4; exports to, 167; labour underutilisation, 77; GDP per capita, 6

Larraín, Felipe B., 48n5

Latin America, 40, 47; growth, 3

Latin American, financial crisis, 101

Lau, Ho-fuk, 222

Law, 5; English, 239; Islamic, 244; rule of, 29, 30; syariah, 13

Lay, Jann, 24

Lazada, 253, 260–262, 266–267

Leader(s), 304, 331, 333, 335–343, 360, 371; in energy transition, 91; human resource management, 341; paternalistic, 372; public management, 338; public sector, 333, 342

Leadership, 12, 146, 186–187, 191–192, 331, 336, 339, 342–343, 349–350; authoritarian, 354; and employability, 188, 189, 190, 190, 191; and performance management, 300, 314, 318; public sector, 327, 333, 335, 340; situational, 337; stability, 333; transformational, 337

Lean manufacturing, 327–328

Lean production, 328

Lebdioui, Amir, 86

Lederman, Daniel, 27, 51

Legal reform(s), 5

Legislative Council, 105, 309

Lending, 111–112, 115, 116, 119; household, 115; overseas, 117

Levitsky, Steven, 26

Liberalisation, 4–5; financial sector, 4, 11; price, 4; trade, 156, 166

Limbang, 221–222, 225, 261, 267

Linkages, 48, 62; cross-sector, 129; financial, 119; global value chains(s), 132, 135, 137, 139, 141–142, 142, 150; industrial, 141, 142, 142–143, 150–151; investment, 96; performance management, 316; trade, 12, 96, 155, 160–161, 169–170, 173

Lipton, David, 3

Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 22, 40–42; exports, 167; Southeast Asia, 157
Liquidity, 99, 112, 242; banking, 96, 113, 120; financial markets, 106; foreign currency, 118

Listed companies, 118

Literacy, financial, 13–14, 102, 271–277, 278–279, 280, 280, 281–284, 287–290, 370–371

Lithuania, performance management, 299

Lloyd, P.J., 159

Local market(s), 13, 85, 119, 122, 146, 209, 267, 370

Lock-in, institutional, 24, 26–27

Logistics, 46, 64, 90n16, 266, 370; company, 263, 264; *halal*, 90n16

Loibl, Căzilia, 274

Long Lamai, 207

Low, K.C. Patrick, 307

Low-income, countries, 85; earners, 275; household, 116–117

**Lumba, Angelo Jose B.**, 11, **127–153**, 368

Lusardi, Annamaria, 273–276

M

Macroeconomic, 52, 61; planning, 5; performance, 30; policy, 52, 156; stabilisation, 4–5; stability, 9, 58, 103; volatility, 40, 48n4, 50, 52, 57

**Mahani Hamdan**, 14, 307, **327–347**, 371

Mahoney, James, 26

Majlis Tertinggi Wawasan Brunei 2035 (Supreme Council of Wawasan Brunei 2035), 308

Majlis Ugama Islam Brunei (MUIB, Brunei Islamic Religious Council), 245–246

Malaysia, 13, 85, 111–115, 139, 141, 220, 241, 243, 261–262, 267; agritourism, 200–201, 209; banks, 105, 107; cross-border tourism, 226, 226, 369–370; economic growth, 221; economy, 86; exports, 86; exports to, 137, 155, 167, 167, 176; female workers, 82; financial literacy, 273; Global Competitiveness Index, 329; global value chain(s), 129, 144; imports from, 167, 168; investment management company, 108; Islamic finance industry, 242–243; Islamic financial products, 373; Islamic welfare, 77; labour underutilisation, 77; MINDEX, 87; GDP per capita, 6; performance management, 300, 300; public administration, 299;

resource rents, 52, 55, 86; tourism, 207, 212, 221; trading partner, 137, 138, 167, 168, 171; women's employment, 83; youth unemployment, 185

Malaysian, 86, 225, 243; bank(s), 239; towns, 221

Maloney, William F., 27, 51

Management, boundary, 222, 224, 231; business, 304; conflict, 190; employee(s), 372; human resource(s), 309, 320, 327, 335, 337–338, 340–343, 349–351, 353–355; innovation, 331; investment(s), 105–106, 108; organisational, 301–302; quality, 14, 327–328, 328n1, 329–330, 332–333, 341–342; public sector, 14; risk, 100–101, 104, 128; strategy, 14, 328; structure(s), 349–350, 359, see also Performance management

Management Services Department, 307, 307n2, 330

Mancini, Michele, 129, 135, 149

Manufactured, 128; goods, 42, 61, 138, 159, 165, 169, 169, 170, 171–173; products, 160, 172–173

Manufacturing, 4, 46, 51, 59, 60, 61, 64, 70, 79, 143, 162, 242, 354; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 368; diversification, 367; industry, 47–48, 48n5, 49n7, 159; lean, 327–328; oil and gas, 40, 42, 59, 61; sector, 40, 49n7, 172, 174; value chains, 146

Marchington, Mick, 352–353, 355–356, 358

**Mariasingham, Mahinthan Joseph**, 11, **127–153**, 368

Market(s), 3–5, 9, 30–31, 34, 59, 80, 82, 85, 91, 101, 119, 147, 149, 157, 159, 166, 222, 224, 229, 231–232, 267, 355; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 167, 261; Australia, 167; bond, 103, 105, 110, 117–118, 122, 368, 373; capital, 9, 11, 13, 95, 98, 105–106, 118, 121–122, 241, 289; China, 167, 176; controls, 4; derivatives, 118; domestic, 42, 80, 119, 122, 155, 157, 173, 373; economy, 3, 97, 100; emerging, 97, 100; export, 80, 85, 155, 167, 174; financial, 95–98, 105–106, 116, 121; forward, 103; global, 9, 118, 128,
156–157; *halal*, 373; international, 46, 48; Islamic financial, 13; job, 184, 187, 191–194; labour, 4, 10, 12, 34, 49, 69–70, 76, 82, 90, 192, 303, 367; local, 13, 85, 119, 122, 146, 209, 267, 370; multisided, 251, 257, 259, 267; offshore, 13, 373; reforms, 4–5, 156; regional, 373; risk, 120; social, 26; Southeast Asia, 268; stock, 96–97, 105–106, 110, 117–118, 121–122, 274, 368; world, 61, 96

Marketing, 33, 204, 206, 212, 221, 369–370; business, 265; destination, 220; products, 255–256, 262; skills, 33; strategy, 261

Marketplace(s), 183, 185–186; digital, 13, 251–257, 259–262, 263, 264, 266–268, 370; Southeast Asia, 268; youth, 183–184, 187

Markus, Hazel, 360

Martinez Lucio, Miguel, 353, 359

MC Biotech, 46

McDonald's, 230

McGuire, Mary, 299

McKinnon, Ronald I., 10, 101

Media, social, 210, 251–253, 255–257, 260–261, 265–266, 370

Melayu Islam Beraja (Malay Islamic monarchy) (MIB), 10, 31

Meteorological Department, 330

Methanol, product(s), 162, 167, 176; production, 46, 175–176

Mexican financial crisis, 101

Mexico, cross-border tourism, 221, 232; trade agreements, 146

Micro, small and medium enterprise(s) (MSME), 9, 40, 45, 47, 107, 116–117, 119, 241, 244, 246, 248, 370, 373; and digital marketplace, 252–253, 255–256, 260, 262, 263; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 112

Microcredits financing, 45

Middle East, countries, 40, 47; geopolitical tension, 97; oil-rich states, 24; resource-rich countries, 39

Migrant workers, 367

Military expenditure, Asia, 70

Millennium Development Goal (MDG), 24

Milojević, Ivana, 317

Mineral, product(s), 173; reserves, 86n13

Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports, 272

Ministry of Development, 330

Ministry of Education, 276, 289

Ministry of Finance (MoF), 240

Ministry of Finance and Economy (MoFE), 13, 58, 63, 105, 309

Ministry of Home Affairs, 261

Ministry of Primary Resources and Tourism, 201

Miri, 13, 219–222, 224–227, 228, 229–232, 261, 267

Mitchell, Olivia S., 273–276,

Mitsubishi Gas Chemical, 162, 174–175

Model(s), agritourism, 211; autoregressive distributed lag, 39, 53–55; business, 4, 119–120, 251, 372; Chinese, 3; development, 1; economic, 23, 25; of economic transition, 3, 5; Harrod–Domar growth, 3; human resource management, 354–355; institutional, 25; national, 25; new public management, 320; policy, 4; of production, 4; sustainable growth, 33; of transformation, 3

Modell, Sven, 300

Modernisation, financial sector, 102; public service, 331

Mohammad Alif Azizi Abdullah, 13, 251–270, 370

Mohd Rozan bin Dato Paduka Haji Mohd Yunos, 317

MondeB2B, 262, 263

Monetary, policy, 103; sector, 5; stability, 99, 102–103, 121

Monetary Authority of Brunei Darussalam, see Autoriti Monetari Brunei Darussalam

Monetary Authority of Singapore, 103, 119

MoneySense, 273

Monitor Group, 63–64

Mori Farm, 211

Most favoured nation (MFN), 166

Motorola, 328

Muara Container Terminal, 163, 176–177

Muara Port Company, 176

Multidimensional Indicator of Extractives-based Development (MINDEX), 86, 88, 367; Indonesia, 87; Malaysia, 87

Multilateral trade agreement(s), 373

Multinational(s), Chinese, 229; company, 33, 369; corporation(s), 160; enterprises, 159
Multiregional input-output database (MRIO), 11, 127, 129–130, 135, 145, 147, 368

Multisided markets, 251, 257, 259, 267

Muslim(s), 245–246; community, 243; countries, 246; in Southeast Asia, 264; tourism, 243, 246

Mustaffa Jaapar, 232

Myanmar, exports to, 167; GDP per capita, 6; unemployment, 10n4

MyNaindah, 266

N

Naindah, 251, 253–254, 259–260, 262, 263, 265–266

NaindahGo, 266

**Naqshbandi, M. Muzamil**, 12, 183–196, 369

Narayan, Paresh Kumar, 54

National, model, 25; planning, 331; productivity, 9

Nation-building strategy, 199, 213

National Bank of Brunei, 239

National Development Plan(s) (NDP), 22–23, 28, 40, 90; Fifth, 241; First, 27, 241; Ninth, 29, 58, 306; Second, 6, 27, 86; Seventh, 6; Tenth, 29–30, 58, 306; Third, 6

National Education System for the 21st Century (SPN21), 357, 357n1

National Financial Literacy Council (NFLC), 276

National Savings Day, 276

National Strategic Alignment Programme, 304, 304, 306–307, 307n2, 310, 312

National Strategy for Financial Literacy (Malaysia), 273

Natural environment, 12, 201, 205, 212

Natural resource(s), 7, 27, 39–40, 47, 49, 50n9, 52, 64, 69, 90, 206, 213, 241, 367; curve, 10; dependence, 10, 50, 52, 85; and economic growth, 51, 56–57; exports, 50–51; products, 58; production, 42; rents, 10, 42, 43, 44, 44, 53, 55, 56–57; revenue, 24; sector, 48, *see also* Resource(s)

*Natural resources: Neither curse nor destiny* (Lederman and Maloney), 51

Neary, J. Peter, 47

Network(s), 257–259; global value chain, 127; international, 46; production, 96, 128, 157; value, 254, 258–259

New public management, 297–299, 303, 308, 334, 371; model, 320; reform(s), 299, 371; Singapore, 299; theory, 333, *see also* Public management

New Zealand, 91; and Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 166; banking, 373; financial sector, 373; *halal* market, 373; performance management, 299; public sector, 333; trade agreements, 97, 137, 166; trading partner, 137, 167

Ni Lar, 51

Nielson, Karen, 26, 33

Nigeria, employment, 78; imports from, 165, 168; trading partner, 168

Ninth National Development Plan, 29, 58, 306

Noguera, Guillermo, 129

Non-tariff barriers, 165–166

Non-tradeable goods, 48n5, 80; price(s), 48

Norainie Ahmad, 72

Norm(s), 25, 76; institutional, 25–27, 333; international, 24; organisational, 334, 340; social, 76

North America, employee involvement, 349–350; exports to, 162

O

Office of Public Sector Development Commission (Thailand), 300

Officials, 81; government, 199, 203, 204

Offshore, assets, 112–113; company, 106; firm(s), 128; investment(s), 11, 117; markets, 13, 373; services, 373

Ohemeng, Frank, 301

Oil, company, 90; crisis, 23, 26, 28, 33, 53; consumption, 41, 49; exports, 23–24, 27, 40, 41n1, 48n4, 49–50, 50n9, 117, 167, 284; price(s), 6–7, 28–29, 41, 43, 50, 52, 78–79, 127, 132, 138–140, 145, 160, 284, 289; price volatility, 6–7, 41, 52, 57, 127, 145; production, 40, 41, 41, 41n1, 43, 160, 165, 175–176; reserves, 6, 23, 27, 40, 127, 145; revenue(s), 22, 50, 70, 175

Oil and gas, 22–23, 27, 57, 60, 70, 78, 90, 137–138, 160, 168, 172, 174; dependence, 6–7, 10–12, 39, 44, 49, 120, 368, 372; demand, 23; and economic growth, 10, 39–40, 52, 55, 57–58, 64, 365, 367; exports, 30, 40,
77, 86, 132, 155, 165–166, 176, 368; firm(s), 41; goods, 40, 42; Indonesia, 86; industry, 11, 24, 39, 85, 127–128, 132–133, 139, 145, 157, 176, 239, 264, 367–368; investment(s), 24; jobs, 85; joint venture(s), 41; manufacturing products, 40, 42, 59, 61; price(s), 10, 57–58, 64, 97, 132, 157; product(s), 61, 132, 145, 155; production, 42, 64, 145; productivity, 30; rents, 10, 39–40, 42–44, 53, 55, 56, 57, 57, 62, 365, 367; reserves, 39; resources, 6; revenue(s), 24, 41, 57, 138, 157, 241; sector, 10, 24, 28, 30, 40–42, 46–47, 52, 58, 61–62, 79, 97, 140, 146; supply chain(s), 41

Oil-rich states, Middle East, 24

Oman, 34, 111–112, 114–115, 167; employment, 78; women and employment, 83

Omar Ali Saifuddien III, Sultan, 22

Omar Ali Saifuddin II, Sultan, 238

1KIP (1 kampong 1 product), 261–262, 263, 265, 268

Operational excellence, 14, 327–329, 331–338, 340–343, 371–372

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 33, 172

Organisation(s), 187, 191, 204, 258, 298, 301–302, 312, 313, 314–315, 327–328, 334–343, 353; decentralised, 358; government, 204, 310, 312, 320; public sector, 301, 349–351, 356, 360; strategic management, 315

Organisational, 315–318, 329, 352, 372; change(s), 339, 349–350, 357; collaboration, 330; context, 299, 302; control, 359; culture(s), 301, 308, 310, 317, 317n4, 319–320, 327–328, 333–335, 337–341, 343, 371; goals, 298, 310, 338; innovation, 328, 339, 343, 371; integration, 301, 305, 311, 321; justice, 335; management, 301–302; norm(s), 334, 340; objectives, 311, 320, 355; outcomes, 184, 192, 334, 336, 338, 340; performance management, 304–305, 308, 320–321, 332; planning, 304; restructuring, 300; strategy, 305n1, 312, 341; structure(s), 304, 315,

343, 358; values, 334, 336, 339–343; value system, 338–339

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 88, 367

Outcomes, developmental, 34; economic, 25, 50n9, 101; organisational, 184, 192, 334, 336, 338, 340; performance, 298, 311; policy, 25; political, 25; youth employment, 184

Overseas lending, 117

P

Pacific economy, 139

Pang Wei Loon, 11–12, 155–180, 368

Paris Agreement, 23; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 91

Park, Jonghyun, 222, 232–233

Parker, Geoffrey G., 258

Participation, employee, 14, 339–341, 349–357, 357n1, 358–361, 372; global value chain, 11, 127–128, 132, 134–135, 135, 136, 137, 145, 149, 368

Partnership(s), China, 12, 32, 165–166, 368; economic, 32n3; investment(s), 12; public–private, 4, 5; trade, 12, see also Trading partner(s)

Path dependence, 24, 27, 31, 58, 85

Patron–client relationships, 25–26

Penan, 207

Peneraju Gagasan Gemilang untuk Rakyat (PENGERAK, Piloting Exclusive National Goals, Gearing Excellent Results and KPIs), 304, 308

Peng Ju, 221

Pension(s), 28, 39, 272, 275, 280, 280, 281, 282, 286, 286, 287, 288; fund, 77n6; scheme(s), 272, 280–281; system, 77

Peppard, Joe, 259

Performance, appraisal, 298, 301, 304, 304, 310–311, 316, 319–320, 371; macroeconomic, 30; outcomes, 298, 311

Performance management, 297–298, 303, 307–308, 311–312, 314–321; and government, 307, 309–310, 312, 314, 316–317, 319–320; implementation, 297, 300–302, 306–309, 311–312, 313, 314–321; Indonesia, 299, 300, 300; and leadership, 300, 314, 318; linkages, 316; Lithuania, 299; Malaysia, 300,
300; New Zealand, 299;
organisational, 304–305, 308,
320–321, 332; policy, 14, 302,
309–310; practice, 297, 299,
301–302, 305, 306, 310–311, 314;
and public sector, 299, 302, 304,
306, 310, 311n3, 319–320, 371;
reform(s), 301–302, 304, 309–310,
311n3, 320; Singapore, 300, 300;
system, 304, 307, 309, 311–312,
317, 320–321, 337; Thailand, 300,
300, 319; United States, 299; and
Wawasan Brunei 2035, 297, 311,
314

Performance Management and Delivery
Unit (Malaysia), 300

Personal finance, 272–273, 288–289

Petrochemicals, 173; company, 159, 368;
exports, 368; industry, 85, 163, 174,
176–177, 368; joint venture, 174;
plant, 30, 32, 134, 139; product(s),
175

Petroleum, product(s), 41, 41n2, 42, 60,
143, 162, 175–176; production, 12,
155

Petroleum Brunei, 162, 175

Pfeffer, Jeffrey, 352, 354

Pg Md Hasnol Alwee Pg Hj Md Salleh,
13, 271–293, 370

Pharmaceuticals, 90n16, 373; *halal*, 46

Philippines, 111–115; agritourism, 200;
banks, 119; exports to, 167, 167;
female worker(s), 83; GDP per
capita, 6; labour underutilisation,
77; offshore services, 373; trading
partner, 137, 138, 167;
unemployment, 10n4

Piatkowski, Marcin, 4

Planning, agritourism, 206; economic, 4,
365, 372–373; financial, 13–14,
275–276, 280; macroeconomic, 5;
national, 331; organisational, 304;
policy, 304; quality, 298; retirement,
271, 273–276, 290; strategic,
297–299, 304, 305, 305, 305n1, 306,
310–311, 313, 315–316

Plantation(s), agriculture, 201; and
agritourism, 200; Bali, 211; paddy,
59

Policy, 51, 63, 121, 140, 145–146, 308,
330, 337, 340; agricultural, 201;
Association of Southeast Asian
Nations, 2; Bruneisation, 78;

decentralisation, 358–359;
development, 21, 303, 308;
diversification, 11–12, 22, 31, 40,
69, 71, 86, 90, 173; economic, 30,
40, 47, 62; economic development,
1–2, 22; economic growth, 21, 303;
employment, 69–70, 78;
environment, 128, 303; family, 72;
financial, 3, 13, 95, 97–98, 102;
financial literacy, 289–290, 371;
fiscal, 41, 48n4, 50, 50n9, 52, 58;
foreign, 23–24, 31–32; foreign
investment, 4; government, 12–14,
72, 102, 173, 289, 309; human
development, 14; implementation, 1,
3, 9, 26–27, 31, 365–366, 372;
innovation, 90; macroeconomic, 52,
156; model, 4; monetary, 103;
outcomes, 25; performance
management, 14, 302, 309–310;
planning, 304; protectionist, 157;
public, 70, 85–86, 352; public
sector, 9, 14; reform, 4–5, 45, 63,
301, 303, 304, 320, 357, 371–372;
research and innovation, 90; rural
development, 200; social, 77, 367;
socioeconomic development, 327,
343; sustainable, 308; trade, 309;
trade liberalisation, 156

Politeknik Brunei, 330

Political, actors, 25; beliefs, 25; capacity,
70; development, 22; framework,
352; outcomes, 25; relations, 10,
165; stability, 22, 29, 30, 165, 303;
structure, 299; system, 25, 297, 360

Political economy, 5, 21–22, 24, 28

Pollitt, Christopher, 301

Population, 2, 9–10, 13, 24n2, 28, 31, 34,
70, 71, 72, 83, 85, 96, 110, 113, 114,
117, 139, 185, 210, 220, 227, 242,
255, 267, 275, 330; ageing, 14,
69–70, 73; Association of Southeast
Asian Nations, 165, 255; ASEAN
Plus Three, 165; growth, 157;
increase, 24, 59; Indonesia, 2,
86n14; by occupation, 81; ratio by
sex, 82; Singapore, 174;
working-age, 72, 73, 82; youth, 373

Porter, Michael, 259

Porterabia, 260

Post Office Savings Bank, 239

Practice(s), agricultural, 211; performance
management, 297, 299, 301–302,
305, 306, 310–311, 314; sustainable, 206, 213

Pressure, austerity, 334; competitive, 355; inflationary, 128; institutional, 312

Price(s), commodity, 48n4, 86; liberalisation, 4; non-tradeable goods, 48; oil, 6–7, 28–29, 41, 43, 50, 52, 78–79, 127, 132, 138–140, 145, 160, 284, 289; oil and gas, 10, 57–58, 64, 97, 132, 157; stability, 104; structure(s), 258; volatility, 61, 86

Prime Minister's Office, 330, 335

Private investment(s), 4

Private sector, 9–10, 40, 44, 47, 58, 63, 77n6, 90, 110–112, 117, 158, 174, 227, 272, 275, 298–300, 328, 333, 352, 357; company, 34, 80–81, 327, 366–367, 371; employment, 61–62, 63, 70, 79, 80, 90, 157, 241–242, 303, 310, 367; and financial crises, 28; and government, 45, 79, 174, 242; growth, 45, 59, 61, 64, 117; jobs, 30–31, 34, 79, 81, 366–367, 369; productivity, 34, 366–367; restructuring, 5; women in, 82; work, 78; worker(s), 80

Privatisation, 4–5, 30, 352; of state-owned enterprises, 3–4; of state-run services, 242

Processes, production, 128–129, 141, 160, 165, 172, 176; work, 371

Product(s), 137, 143, 147, 149, 155–157, 159–161, 163, 166, 168, 171–173, 176, 205, 205, 212, 222, 224, 229, 231–232, 251–259, 262–268, 328, 368, 373; agricultural, 128, 138, 157, 169; agrifood, 206, 209; agritourism, 206, 211; banking, 240; chemical, 41, 41n2, 60, 133, 134, 139, 163, 167–168, 169, 170; differentiation, 156, 159; diversification, 145; electronics, 161; export, 163, 166–167, 171–172, 173, 262, 263; financial, 119, 122, 241, 243, 247, 268, 373; fishery, 169; food, 166, 169, 172, 173; forest, 239; *halal*, 7, 59, 145, 373; household, 232; imports, 164, 262, 263; investment, 289; local, 370; manufactured, 160, 172–173; marketing, 255–256, 262; methanol, 162, 167, 176; mineral, 173; natural

resource, 58; oil and gas, 61, 132, 145, 155; online, 120; petrochemical, 175; petroleum, 41, 41n2, 42, 60, 143, 162, 175–176; textile, 143; tourism, 208–209, 373; value-added, 203, 210–211

Production, 3n1, 48, 48n6, 49, 132, 140–143, 143, 144, 145, 149–150, 150–151, 159, 173, 256, 331; agricultural, 201; agrifood, 205, 206, 210; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 146; cost(s), 49, 53, 160, 246; diversification of, 58, 173; domestic, 134; farm, 209–211; fossil fuel, 91; and global value chain(s), 127–128, 132, 135, 138, 141–143, 144, 145, 149, 150–151, 156–157, 160; lean, 328; local, 33; methanol, 46, 175–176; models, 4; natural resource, 42; network(s), 96, 128, 157; oil, 40, 41, 41, 41n1, 43, 160, 165, 175–176; oil and gas, 42, 64, 145; petroleum, 12, 155; processes, 128–129, 141, 160, 165, 172, 176; rice, 241; segmentation of, 160; sharing, 130; Singapore, 144; small-scale, 199, 205, 212, 369; state, 24, 34; structures, 138

Productive state, 29, 33, 365–366

Productivity, 3, 5, 14, 27, 40, 73, 84–85, 100, 128, 146, 247, 308–309, 339, 352; and exports, 174; farm, 200; and foreign direct investment, 160; and global value chains, 172; and innovation, 70; national, 9; oil and gas, 30; private sector, 34, 366–367; public sector, 327, 330–331, 336; and technology, 7

Profitability, sustainable, 119, 122

Programme(s), agrifood, 213; development, 156, 305; diversification, 241; education, 33; financial education, 273; government, 309; public sector reform, 306, 335, 342; reform, 30, 357; socioeconomic, 23; training, 192–193, 369

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 33

Protection, data, 98, 121; environmental, 90; trade, 48

Protectionist policy, 157

Protectorate, British, 22n1, 238
Public, company, 79, 238; expenditure, 28; goods, 246, 248; policy, 70, 85–86, 352

Public administration, 60, 143, 298–299, 331, 333, 371; Indonesia, 299; Malaysia, 299; Singapore, 299; Thailand, 299

Public management, 297, 333, 341; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 299; instability in, 333; leaders, 338, see also New public management

Public sector, culture(s), 299; and economic growth, 303; employee(s), 271, 273, 332–333, 339, 343; employment, 10, 28, 34, 70, 77, 78, 79, 117, 303, 367; governance, 298, 306; and government, 14, 80, 333, 342; Indonesian, 299; innovation, 337, 343; investment(s), 4–5; jobs, 10, 78–79, 81; labour market, 303; leader(s), 333, 342; leadership, 327, 333, 335, 340; management, 14; New Zealand, 333; organisation, 301, 349–351, 356, 360; and performance management, 299, 302, 304, 306, 310, 311n3, 319–320, 371; policy, 9, 14; productivity, 327, 330–331, 336; reform(s), 297–299, 301–303, 306, 311, 333, 357; reform programme(s), 306, 335, 342; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 306; work, 331; worker(s), 79

Public service(s), 241, 304, 308, 327, 330, 332–333, 336, 338, 343, 354, 371; delivery, 14, 329, 332, 337–338, 341–342; modernisation, 331; operational excellence, 9, 327–329, 332, 335, 340–341, 343, 372; and total quality management, 327–328; transformation, 333; and Wawasan Brunei 2035, 14

Public Service Day, 308

Public Services Department, 83

Public-private partnership(s), 4–5

Pulau Muara Besar, 42, 134, 159, 175

Purcell, John, 360

## Q

Qatar, 111–115, 117; export diversification, 88; public employment, 78; women and employment, 83

Qualitative research, 289

Quality, circles, 351–352, 354; governance, 63; management, 14, 327–328, 328n1, 329–330, 332–333, 341–342; planning, 298

Qur’an, 247, 262, 263, 264

QuranHour, 262

## R

Radnor, Zoe, 299

Rajan, Ramkishen, 169

Rashid Hussein Bank (RHB), 107, 239, see also United Malayan Banking Corporation

Razali Mat Zin, 331

Redistribution, wealth, 245

Reform(s), 4–5, 9, 44, 47, 146, 311, 321, 358, 366; capacity, 299; civil service, 332, 357; economic, 1, 3, 26, 372; financial sector, 3, 102, 118; government, 30, 102, 333, 372; institutional, 5, 10, 28, 30, 40, 45, 64; legal, 5; market, 4–5, 156; new public management, 299, 371; performance management, 301–302, 304, 309–310, 311n3, 320; policy, 4–5, 45, 63, 301, 303, 304, 320, 357, 371–372; programme(s), 30, 357; public sector, 297–299, 301–303, 306, 311, 333, 357; regulatory, 4; socioeconomic, 33; structural, 23–24, 29

Region, Asia-Pacific, 373; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 98, 105, 119, 121, 137, 165–169, 172, 174, 176–177, 185, 220; East Asian, 165; Southeast Asian, 2, 111

Regional, 1, 3; agreements, 146; bank(s), 105, 107; competition, 211, 213; economic growth, 166; financial market(s), 95, 98; integration, 95–96, 165; market, 373; security, 31–32; stability, 32; trade, 11, 146, 368; trade agreement(s), 146, 368

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), 11, 95–97, 137; implementation, 98, 121

Regionalism, 165

Regulation(s), 25, 100; banking, 103, 120, 240; business, 177; diversification, 31; financial institutions, 240; financial sector, 103–104, 242, 309; labour market, 4, 76; theory, 5
Regulatory, reform(s), 4; restructuring, 4–5, 13; structure(s), 4, 373

Relations, economic, 10, 165; employment, 349–350, 352, 360; foreign, 238; international, 21–22, 70; political, 10, 165; trade, 169

Religious, affiliations, 2; authorities, 245; education, 241; identity, 10, 31; obligation, 237; schools, 246

Renewable energy, 23, 91

Rent(s), hydrocarbon, 28; natural resource, 10, 42, 43, 44, 44, 53, 55, 56–57; oil and gas, 10, 39–40, 42–44, 53, 55, 56, 57, 57, 62, 365, 367, see also Resource rents

Rentier, 28; developmentalism, 30; state, 22, 24, 27, 29, 31

Representation, worker(s), 351

Research, 11, 58, 63, 90, 276, 288, 312, 320–321, 343, 369; agricultural, 59; agritourism, 200–201, 203, 204, 213; employee involvement, 350, 354, 356–357, 360; global value chain, 129, 140; and innovation policy, 90; qualitative, 289

Research and development (R&D), 4, 45, 91, 174

Reserves, energy, 139; mineral, 86n13; oil, 6, 23, 27, 40, 127, 145; oil and gas, 39

Residential system, British, 22, 22n1, 23, 239

Resilience, 99, 101–102, 121, 128; business, 120; environmental, 213; global value chain, 146; sociocultural, 213

Resource(s), agriculture, 245; dependence, 50, 50n10, 51, 57, 85–86, 86n13; dependency, 47, 52; heritage, 200; hydrocarbon, 28; Indonesia, 55, 86; natural, 7, 10, 27, 39–40, 42, 47, 49–50, 50n9, 51–52, 56–57, 58, 64, 69, 85, 90, 206, 213, 241, 367; oil and gas, 6; production, 42; rents, 10, 42, 43, 44, 44, 53, 55, 56–57; revenue, 24, 86, 88; sector, 48; structure(s), 40; Thailand, 52, 55, see also Natural resources

Resource endowment, 27, 47, 50; United Arab Emirates, 47

Resource rents, 43, 43n3, 50, 53, 55; and economic growth, 52; Indonesia, 52,

86, 86n14; Malaysia, 52, 55, 86, see also Natural resources

Resource-rich, countries, 40, 52, 77, 85, 173, 366–367; economy, 58, 156, 158; Middle East, 39

Restructuring, 4; bank, 95; economic, 27, 221; institutional, 5; organisational, 300; private sector, 5; regulatory, 4–5, 13

Retirement, planning, 271, 273–276, 290; preparedness, 271, 273, 275, 280, 288, 370–371; scheme(s), 77n6, 271–272, 275, 280–281, 289, 370

Retirement Age Order, 272

Revenue(s), economic, 221; export, 86, 157; farm, 200, 205; government, 22, 41, 50, 52, 57, 86, 86n13, 120, 157, 309; oil, 22, 50, 70, 175; oil and gas, 24, 41, 57, 138, 157, 241; natural resource, 24; resource, 86, 88; state, 24; sustainable, 106; tax, 157, 309

Revolution, global value chain, 128; technological, 1–2

Ricardian theory, 158

Rice, 22, 157, 208; production, 241

Richter, Ansgar, 337

Riordan, Christine M., 355

Risk, 31, 97, 113, 117–118, 244; aversion, 31; bank, 120, 122, 368; control, 368; cybersecurity, 120; diversification of, 100–101, 121; financial, 99, 120; management, 100–101, 104, 128; market, 120; money laundering, 106

Ritual(s), cultural, 208; Sarawakian, 208

Rizzo, Giuseppe, 185, 193

Rochet, Jean-Charles, 258

Rodrik, Dani, 33, 85

Rosdi Bin Haji Abdul Aziz, 333

Rose Aminah Ismail, 221

Roslee Baha, 13, 271–293, 370

Rostow, W.W., 3, 3n1

Royal Bank of Canada, 106

Royal Brunei Airlines, 373

Royal Dutch Shell Group, 41

Rudolph, Patricia M., 274

Rule of law, 29, 30

Rural, areas, 201, 207, 265; development policy, 200; entrepreneurship, 369; tourism, 200
Russian, exports, 128; financial crisis, 101; invasion of Ukraine, 127–128, 131, 139, 145

Rylander, Anna, 259

S

Sachs, Jeffrey D., 3, 48n5, 50–51

Sahay, Ratna, 99, 100, 116

Sarawak, 13, 207–208, 219–220, 238, 261, 267, 369; cross-border tourism, 220–221, 225; indigenous groups in, 207

Sarawakian, ethnic traditions, 208; food, 208; ritual(s), 208

Sarkar, Mitrabarun, 256

Saudi Arabia, 112–115; employment, 78; exports, 88; resource dependence, 86; women and employment, 83

Savings culture, 276

SC Tubular Solutions Brunei, 46

Scapens, Robert W., 331

Scheme(s), pension, 272, 280–281; retirement, 77n6, 271–272, 275, 280–281, 289, 370

School(s), 28, 246; international, 91; religious, 246

Schott, Peter K., 161

Second National Development Plan, 6, 27, 86

Sector(s), agricultural, 12, 59, 246, 367; agritourism, 210; banking, 11, 96, 98–99, 101, 103, 105–106, 110–113, 114, 115–118, 120–122, 368; business, 115, 118, 122, 365; education, 83; energy, 131, 134; government, 31, 79, 82–83, 186–187, 188, 190, 275; hydrocarbon, 29; industrial, 58–59; manufacturing, 40, 49n7, 172, 174; monetary, 5; natural resource, 48; oil and gas, 10, 24, 28, 30, 40–42, 46–47, 52, 58, 61–62, 79, 97, 140, 146; services, 175, 365, 373; value-added, 34

Securities Market Order, 105

Securities Market Regulation, 105

Security, 7, 335, 340; energy, 168; food, 59, 157; global, 31; income, 90, 367; job, 31, 34; regional, 31–32; social, 7

Segmentation, labour market, 10, 69–70, 76; of production, 160

Sen, Rahul, 169

Sengenics, 46

Serasa, 225, 226

Seria field, 27

Service(s), business, 47n5, 60, 64, 90n16, 174; culture, 357; financial, 13, 64, 90n16, 95, 97, 99, 102, 104, 106, 119, 122, 146, 368, 370; food, 79–80, 84; government, 44, 59, 60, 331, 342; sector, 175, 365, 373; social, 48n5; strategy, 327, 338, 340, 343; technical, 79; tourism, 48n5; welfare, 60, 61; worker(s), 70

Seventh National Development Plan, 6

Sewell, William H., 25

Shafi'i school, 242

Shapiro, Carl, 257

Shareholder(s), 239, 241; capital, 244

Shaw, Edward Stone, 10

Shenzhen, cross-border tourism, 221–222

Shida Irwana Omar, 233

Shopee, 261–262

Siddiqui, Shamim Ahmad, 75

Simpor Pharma, 46

Singapore, 2, 6, 23, 70, 91, 111–115, 119, 137, 141, 262, 267, 368; bank(s), 107–108; cross-border tourism, 220–221; currency, 103; exports, 85; exports to, 137, 155, 167, 167, 176; financial literacy, 273; foreign direct investment, 174; GDP per capita, 6, 28, 255; Global Competitiveness Index, 329; global value chain(s), 129; imports from, 165, 167, 168; Islamic financial products, 373; labour underutilisation, 76, 77; monetary policy, 103; new public management, 299; performance management, 300, 300; population, 174; production, 144; public administration, 299; tax, 176; trading partner, 137, 138, 167, 168, 171; women and employment, 82, 83; youth unemployment, 185

Singaporean, 222, 239; company, 239

Sisson, Keith, 360

Sistem Sumber Manusia (Human Resource System), 332

Siti Fatimahwati Pehin Dato Musa, 12, 31, 185, 199–217, 369

Siti Nabiha Abdul Khalid, 331

Siti Rozaidah Pg Hj Idris, 31, 185

Situational leadership, 337

Six Sigma, 327–328, 328n1
Skills, agricultural, 241; employability,
183–187, 187, 188, 188, 189, 190,
190, 191, 191–193, 369;
entrepreneurial, 5, 9, 45, 244, 365,
372; innovative, 365, 372;
marketing, 33; mismatch, 12, 184,
186, 192, 194; transfer, 339;
vocational, 193

Slesman, Ly, 10, 39–67, 367

Small- and medium-sized enterprise
(SME), 7, 9, 31, 45, 90, 102, 119,
261; bank, 105–106; value-added,
64

Small-scale production, 199, 205, 212, 369

Social, 222, 232, 330; actors, 25–26;
awareness, 14; change, 26; conflict,
40; context, 27, 69–70, 299;
contract, 28, 34, 238, 243; cost,
69–70; development, 22, 29, 332;
exchange, 336; group(s), 25; impact,
21, 272; market economy, 26;
media, 210, 251–253, 255–257,
260–261, 265–266, 370; norms, 76;
policy, 77, 367; security, 7; services,
48n5; stability, 22, 165; status, 78;
welfare, 157; well-being, 24; work,
83, 143; values, 76

Socialisation, 336, 340

Sociocultural, 199, 212; benefits, 369;
exchanges, 205, 207; resilience, 213

Socioeconomic, 9, 222, 227, 228, 290;
benefits, 22; change(s), 366;
commitments, 24; development, 2,
55, 32, 97, 327, 343, 357, 365, 367,
372; environment, 5; indicators, 10,
39; policy, 327, 343; programme(s),
23; reform(s), 33; strategy, 33

Soft power, 90

South Asia, 80; trading partner, 167

South Asian, worker(s), 80

South China Sea dispute, 32

South Korea, and Association of Southeast
Asian Nations, 166; exports, 85;
exports to, 42, 137, 166, 167, 168,
368; imports from, 168–169, 170;
trade agreement(s), 12, 97, 137, 146,
165–166; trading partner, 12, 137,
138, 166, 167, 168

South West Ampa, 27

Southeast Asia, 28, 91, 267; agritourism in,
12, 199–201; and China, 32;
economic development of, 220;
financial innovation in, 119;

liquefied natural gas, 157; living
standard in, 70; market, 268;
Muslims in, 264

Southeast Asian, 23; countries, 4, 39, 77,
85, 264; economy, 4; region, 2, 111,
states; students, 91, see also
Association of Southeast Asian
Nations

Soysa, Indra de, 34

Spillover, 175; foreign direct investment,
45–46, 62–63, 176; knowledge, 62,
173; technological, 62, 146;
technology, 33, 62, 146; trade, 156

Stabell, Charles B., 259

Stabilisation, fiscal, 58; macroeconomic,
4–5

Stability, 15, 31, 83, 101, 142, 320, 335,
339; economic, 22, 24, 127, 145,
165; financial, 98–99, 100–101,
102–105, 121, 247; financial sector,
99, 100, 103, 118, 121; leadership,
333; macroeconomic, 9, 58, 103;
monetary, 99, 102–103, 121;
political, 22, 29, 30, 165, 303; price,
104; regional, 32; social, 22, 165

Standard and Poor's Ratings Services, 275

Standard Chartered Bank, 107, 239

Starbucks, 230

Start-up(s), 45, 247; cost(s), 246, 248, 370

State(s), 26–27, 31–34, 70, 76, 201, 219;
administrative, 28; and agritourism,
209; Association of Southeast Asian
Nations, 2; capacity, 33;
departments, 209; intervention, 70,
76; and Islam, 247; production, 24,
34; productive, 29, 33, 365–366;
revenue(s) rentier, 22, 24, 27, 29,
31; welfare, 22, 28, 77, 367;
workforce, 79

State-owned enterprises, privatisation of,
3–4

State-run services, privatisation of, 242

Status, marital, 227, 228, 274, 277, 278;
social, 78

Stock exchanges, Association of Southeast
Asian Nations, 105

Stock market(s), 96–97, 105–106, 110,
117–118, 121–122, 274, 368

Stranger Soccer, 267

Strategic management, 306, 313, 314–315,
315, 316–319; organisation, 315

Strategic planning, 297–299, 304, 305, 305,
305n1, 306, 310–311, 313, 315–316
Strategy, 5, 305n1, 306; bank, 117;
business, 14, 328, 328n1;
competitive, 259; development, 28,
30, 95–96, 102, 305, 373;
diversification, 372; financial
literacy, 276; financial sector, 367;
foreign direct investment, 31;
government, 305n1; management,
14, 328; marketing, 261;
nation-building, 199, 213;
organisational, 305n1, 312, 341;
service, 327, 338, 340, 343;
socioeconomic, 33; tourism, 205,
207, 211, 213

Strauss, George, 16

Streeck, Wolfgang, 26

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats (SWOT) analysis, 12, 199,
201, 203–204, 205, 212–213

Structural, reform(s), 23–24, 29;
transformation, 40, 64, 127, 145,
365–366

Structure(s), banking sector, 106;
economic, 39, 47, 49, 58, 61, 139;
employment, 70; export, 173;
financial, 101, 237; financial sector,
98, 103, 106, 107; formal, 25; global
value chain, 146; governance, 156,
343; job, 69–70; managerial,
349–350, 359; organisational, 304,
315, 343, 358; political, 299; price,
258; production, 138; regulatory, 4,
373; resource, 40; trade, 88, 147,
161

Student(s), 192, 208, 228, 262, 263, 264,
273; African American, 275; Asian,
91; Hispanic, 275; international,
263; Southeast Asian, 91

Subhakaran, Sriji Edakkat, 354

Subramaniam, Thirunaukarasu, 222, 233

Subsistence, farming, 201; living, 77n6

Sumbiling Eco Village, 201–202, 206–208,
210–212

Sun Hung Kai International (Brunei), 106

Sungai Liang Industrial Park, 42, 175–176

Sungai Tujoh, 224–225, 226, 226–227

Super Squad Soccer, 251, 254, 259, 262,
263, 266–267

Supplemental Contributory Pensions Order,
272

Supply chain(s), 45, 97, 137; disruption,
128; global, 160; oil and gas, 41

Support, institutional, 12, 205, 209–210,
212, 369

Surveillance, 98, 353, 355; financial sector,
98, 121

Sustainability, 26, 206, 212; business, 245,
247; economic, 22, 210; and
economic growth, 6; environmental,
203, 205, 206; welfare, 289

Sustainable, 246; development, 1, 3, 33,
341; economic development, 23,
220; economic growth, 2, 33, 99,
276; economy, 7, 40, 47, 58, 63–64,
84, 97, 121, 140, 158, 174, 373;
environment, 9, 205; financial
sector, 96; food, 207; growth, 4, 9,
11, 33, 69, 71, 157, 173; policy, 308;
practices, 206, 213; profitability,
119, 122; revenue(s), 106

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG),
1–2, 24

Svejnar, Jan, 4

Syariah, body, 240; compliance, 13, 104,
237–238, 243, 247, 373; court, 240;
law, 13

Syariah Financial Supervisory Board
(SFSB), 104, 240

Syed, Jawad, 350, 360

System, education, 192, 194, 271, 273,
365–366; governance, 4, 358;
innovation, 90, 367; institutional,
25, 297; pension, 77; performance
management, 304, 307, 309,
311–312, 317, 320–321, 337;
political, 25, 297, 360; residential,
22, 22n1, 23, 239; training
management, 333; welfare, 23, 31,
39, 47, 157

T

Ta-Pow!, 254

Tabung Amanah Islam Brunei (TAIB), 107,
237

Tabung Amanah Pekerja, 272, 275–276,
280, 280, 281, 282, 286, 287, 289

Tabung Amanah Pekerja e-Amanah, 332

Taguchi, Hiroyuki, 51

Taiwan (Chinese Taipei), trading partner,
138

Tariff(s), 97, 165–166; barriers, 165

Tasbee Meliponiculture Farm, 201–203,
206–207, 210, 212

Tax, 83, 116, 239, 243; corporate, 176;
income, 22–23, 77; innovations,