Table 15 shows that the system of three color-intensifying ideophones of continental UGCs fits in with the general Niger-Congo semantic pattern. In contrast, insular UGCs differ from the Niger-Congo (and continental UGC) model in two respects: They lack an intensifier for ‘red’, and they have developed Romance (or partially Romance)-derived ideophones — see (54) and (55) – to intensify ‘black’ and ‘white’, whereas continental UGCs have African (or at least non-Romance) intensifying ideophones for the same colors.

In sum, the semantic field of color illustrates quite well the difference between the system of continental UGC ideophones, which has stronger semantic and phonological links with Niger-Congo languages, and the system of insular UGC ideophones, whose African-derived component, albeit still visible, is weaker, both phonologically and semantically, than in continental UGCs.

### 6.4.3 Comparison of the origin and semantic behavior of insular and continental UGC ideophones

Table 16 summarizes the main commonalities and differences between continental and insular UGC ideophones regarding their origin and semantic organization.

<table><caption>**Table 16:** Comparison of the origin and semantic organization of insular (= Capeverdean) and continental UGC ideophones.</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="4">Upper Guinea Creoles</th></tr><tr><th>Feature</th><th>Continental</th><th>Insular</th><th>Balance</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Origin</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof</td><td>=</td></tr><tr><td>Inventory</td><td>&gt; 40</td><td>&lt; 40</td><td>&ne;</td></tr><tr><td>Dominant distribution type</td><td>common core</td><td>common core</td><td>=</td></tr><tr><td>Intensifying ideophones: cognates with continental UGCs</td><td>100%</td><td>50%</td><td>&ne;</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 7. Conclusion

This paper has described in great detail the phonology, morphosyntax, diatopic variation, origin and semantic properties of UGC ideophones. It has also provided a systematic comparison of the characteristics of this particular word class in two branches of UGCs: (i) continental (Casamance and Guinea-Bissau) and (ii) insular
Table 15 shows that the system of three color-intensifying ideophones of continental UGCs fits in with the general Niger-Congo semantic pattern. In contrast, insular UGCs differ from the Niger-Congo (and continental UGC) model in two respects: They lack an intensifier for ‘red’, and they have developed Romance (or partially Romance)-derived ideophones — see (54) and (55) – to intensify ‘black’ and ‘white’, whereas continental UGCs have African (or at least non-Romance) intensifying ideophones for the same colors.

In sum, the semantic field of color illustrates quite well the difference between the system of continental UGC ideophones, which has stronger semantic and phonological links with Niger-Congo languages, and the system of insular UGC ideophones, whose African-derived component, albeit still visible, is weaker, both phonologically and semantically, than in continental UGCs.

### 6.4.3 Comparison of the origin and semantic behavior of insular and continental UGC ideophones

Table 16 summarizes the main commonalities and differences between continental and insular UGC ideophones regarding their origin and semantic organization.

<table><caption>**Table 16:** Comparison of the origin and semantic organization of insular (= Capeverdean) and continental UGC ideophones.</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="4">Upper Guinea Creoles</th></tr><tr><th>Feature</th><th>Continental</th><th>Insular</th><th>Balance</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Origin</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof</td><td>=</td></tr><tr><td>Inventory</td><td>&gt; 40</td><td>&lt; 40</td><td>&ne;</td></tr><tr><td>Dominant distribution type</td><td>common core</td><td>common core</td><td>=</td></tr><tr><td>Intensifying ideophones: cognates with continental UGCs</td><td>100%</td><td>50%</td><td>&ne;</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 7. Conclusion

This paper has described in great detail the phonology, morphosyntax, diatopic variation, origin and semantic properties of UGC ideophones. It has also provided a systematic comparison of the characteristics of this particular word class in two branches of UGCs: (i) continental (Casamance and Guinea-Bissau) and (ii) insular
(Capeverdean) UGCs. In our study, we were able to identify and define several tens of ideophones in continental and insular UGCs. The existence of these ideophones seems to be mainly due to the influence exerted by the Niger-Congo African substrate (for both insular and continental UGCs) or/and adstrate (continental UGCs only). The observation that many ideophonic roots are shared by continental and insular UGCs reinforces the hypothesis of a common stage (the proto-Upper-Guinea-Creole or proto-UGC) from which both UGC branches are descended. The fact that various African-derived ideophones can be traced back to proto-UGC implies that this common stage must have been different from Portuguese (§2.2), a Romance language which does not have an ideophone category. Yet, despite obvious resemblances, continental and insular UGC ideophones also reflect a clear split between the two branches, as the influence of Niger-Congo languages is significantly heavier on the continent. This important result is confirmed by other similar findings (Rougé 1999, Quint 2000b: 99-117, Quint & Moreira Tavares 2019: 126-127) regarding the respective influence of the African substrate on insular and continental UGCs.

In the future, the present research could be expanded in several directions. Increasing the sample of ideophones would improve our knowledge of all continental and insular varieties. In particular, the three Sotavento (Southern Capeverdean) varieties other than Santiago should be thoroughly investigated, as we have almost no data for Brava and Maio and too few for Fogo. Furthermore, our assessment of the substrate and/or adstrate influence would be strengthened if more Niger-Congo languages were checked. Balant (bjt/ble), Jola, Manjak (mfv), Papel (pbo) and Nyun, which are all spoken in direct contact with one or several of today's continental UGCs, probably have a lot to offer in this respect. Finally, a refinement and an elaboration of the semantic and distribution classifications that have been proposed in this paper seems desirable. Large, accessible, searchable corpora for the UGCs would allow us to pay more attention to the collocations involving ideophones and their actual usage in spontaneous speech.

It is clear that the present study is far from having exhausted the question of UGC ideophones, which remain a most exciting topic for anyone interested in language contact effects on ideophones, in general, and the grammar and genesis of the Afro-Portuguese varieties of Cape Verde, Casamance and Guinea-Bissau, in particular.
(Capeverdean) UGCs. In our study, we were able to identify and define several tens of ideophones in continental and insular UGCs. The existence of these ideophones seems to be mainly due to the influence exerted by the Niger-Congo African substrate (for both insular and continental UGCs) or/and adstrate (continental UGCs only). The observation that many ideophonic roots are shared by continental and insular UGCs reinforces the hypothesis of a common stage (the proto-Upper-Guinea-Creole or proto-UGC) from which both UGC branches are descended. The fact that various African-derived ideophones can be traced back to proto-UGC implies that this common stage must have been different from Portuguese (§2.2), a Romance language which does not have an ideophone category. Yet, despite obvious resemblances, continental and insular UGC ideophones also reflect a clear split between the two branches, as the influence of Niger-Congo languages is significantly heavier on the continent. This important result is confirmed by other similar findings (Rougé 1999, Quint 2000b: 99-117, Quint & Moreira Tavares 2019: 126-127) regarding the respective influence of the African substrate on insular and continental UGCs.

In the future, the present research could be expanded in several directions. Increasing the sample of ideophones would improve our knowledge of all continental and insular varieties. In particular, the three Sotavento (Southern Capeverdean) varieties other than Santiago should be thoroughly investigated, as we have almost no data for Brava and Maio and too few for Fogo. Furthermore, our assessment of the substrate and/or adstrate influence would be strengthened if more Niger-Congo languages were checked. Balant (bjt/ble), Jola, Manjak (mfv), Papel (pbo) and Nyun, which are all spoken in direct contact with one or several of today's continental UGCs, probably have a lot to offer in this respect. Finally, a refinement and an elaboration of the semantic and distribution classifications that have been proposed in this paper seems desirable. Large, accessible, searchable corpora for the UGCs would allow us to pay more attention to the collocations involving ideophones and their actual usage in spontaneous speech.

It is clear that the present study is far from having exhausted the question of UGC ideophones, which remain a most exciting topic for anyone interested in language contact effects on ideophones, in general, and the grammar and genesis of the Afro-Portuguese varieties of Cape Verde, Casamance and Guinea-Bissau, in particular.
## Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Aires Semedo and Karina Moreira Tavares for their comments and advice on Capeverdean data, Braima Sam Mendes for his help during our fieldwork in Guinea-Bissau, and Jean-Baptiste Maistre for his bibliographical support. Our thanks also go to all the native speakers who were kind enough to share with us their knowledge of their respective varieties. We also are grateful to the anonymous reviewers of this paper for their helpful suggestions and to special issue editors for their meticulous editing.

## Abbreviations

<table><tr><td>1 = 1<sup>st</sup> person</td><td>IDEO/IDEO = ideophone</td><td>PL = plural</td></tr><tr><td>2 = 2<sup>nd</sup> person</td><td>IPFV = imperfective</td><td>RED = reduplicated</td></tr><tr><td>3 = 3<sup>rd</sup> person</td><td>NA = non-attested</td><td>S = stressed</td></tr><tr><td>ADI = African-derived ideophone</td><td>NEG = negation</td><td>S/S = subject</td></tr><tr><td>ASS = assertive</td><td>O/O = object</td><td>SG = singular</td></tr><tr><td>CC = Casamance Creole</td><td>PFV = perfective</td><td>SUB = subordinator</td></tr><tr><td>DEM = demonstrative</td><td>Port. = Portuguese</td><td>U = unstressed</td></tr><tr><td>F = feminine</td><td>preC = preceding consonant</td><td>UGC = Upper Guinea Creole</td></tr><tr><td>H = high tone</td><td>PROG = progressive</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HAB = habitual</td><td>PROX = proximal</td><td></td></tr></table>

## References

* Biagui, Noël B., Jean-François Nunez & Nicolas Quint. (forthcoming). *Casamance Creole*. In Lüpke, Friederike (ed.), *Oxford guide to the world's languages: Atlantic*. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* Biagui, Noël B. & Nicolas Quint. 2013. *Casamancese Creole*. In Susanne Michaelis, Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath & Magnus Huber (eds.), *Survey of pidgin and creole languages, Vol. 2: French-based, Portuguese-based and Spanish-based languages*, 40–49. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* Biagui, Noël B. 2018. *Description générale du créole afro-portugais de Ziguinchor(Sénégal)*. Paris: Karthala.

* Biagui, Noël B. (in preparation). *Dictionnaire créole casamançais-français*.

* Childs, Tucker. 1994. Expressiveness in contact situations: The fate of African Ideophones. *Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages* 9(2). 257–282.
## Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Aires Semedo and Karina Moreira Tavares for their comments and advice on Capeverdean data, Braima Sam Mendes for his help during our fieldwork in Guinea-Bissau, and Jean-Baptiste Maistre for his bibliographical support. Our thanks also go to all the native speakers who were kind enough to share with us their knowledge of their respective varieties. We also are grateful to the anonymous reviewers of this paper for their helpful suggestions and to special issue editors for their meticulous editing.

## Abbreviations

<table><tr><td>1 = 1<sup>st</sup> person</td><td>IDEO/IDEO = ideophone</td><td>PL = plural</td></tr><tr><td>2 = 2<sup>nd</sup> person</td><td>IPFV = imperfective</td><td>RED = reduplicated</td></tr><tr><td>3 = 3<sup>rd</sup> person</td><td>NA = non-attested</td><td>S = stressed</td></tr><tr><td>ADI = African-derived ideophone</td><td>NEG = negation</td><td>S/S = subject</td></tr><tr><td>ASS = assertive</td><td>O/O = object</td><td>SG = singular</td></tr><tr><td>CC = Casamance Creole</td><td>PFV = perfective</td><td>SUB = subordinator</td></tr><tr><td>DEM = demonstrative</td><td>Port. = Portuguese</td><td>U = unstressed</td></tr><tr><td>F = feminine</td><td>preC = preceding consonant</td><td>UGC = Upper Guinea Creole</td></tr><tr><td>H = high tone</td><td>PROG = progressive</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HAB = habitual</td><td>PROX = proximal</td><td></td></tr></table>

## References

* Biagui, Noël B., Jean-François Nunez & Nicolas Quint. (forthcoming). *Casamance Creole*. In Lüpke, Friederike (ed.), *Oxford guide to the world's languages: Atlantic*. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* Biagui, Noël B. & Nicolas Quint. 2013. *Casamancese Creole*. In Susanne Michaelis, Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath & Magnus Huber (eds.), *Survey of pidgin and creole languages, Vol. 2: French-based, Portuguese-based and Spanish-based languages*, 40–49. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* Biagui, Noël B. 2018. *Description générale du créole afro-portugais de Ziguinchor (Sénégal)*. Paris: Karthala.

* Biagui, Noël B. (in preparation). *Dictionnaire créole casamançais-français*.

* Childs, Tucker. 1994. Expressiveness in contact situations: The fate of African Ideophones. *Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages* 9(2). 257–282.
Couto, Hildo H. 1994. *O Crioulo Português da Guiné-Bissau*. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.

Couto, Hildo H. 1995. Exclusive particles (ideophones) in Guinea-Bissau creole. In Philip Baker (ed.), *From contact to creole and beyond*, 207–215. London: University of Westminster Press.

Creissels, Denis. 1994. *Aperçu sur les structures phonologiques des langues négro-africaines*. Grenoble: ELLUG.

Creissels, Denis. 2006. *Syntaxe structurale, une introduction typologique 1. Catégories et Construction*. Paris: Lavoisier.

Creissels, Denis. 2012. *Lexique mandinka-français*. Unpublished MS. Available online at: http://www.deniscreissels.fr/public/Creissels-lexique_mandinka_2012.pdf (Accessed 28/03/2023).

Creissels, Denis. 2013. *Le mandinka – phonologie, grammaire, textes*. Paris: Karthala.

Creissels, Denis, Sidia Jatta & Jobarteh Kalifa. 1982. *Lexique mandinka-français. Mandenkan* 3.

Dalphinis, Morgan. 1986. *African language influences in creoles lexically based on Portuguese, English and French, with special reference to Casamance Kriul* [sic], Gambian Krio and St. Lucian Patwa, Vol. 1. Doctoral dissertation, University of London.

Dieng, Sady. 1985. *Étude contrastive des lexies du créole endogène “portugais” et du wolof*. Doctoral dissertation, Université Lumière-Lyon 2.

Dingemanse, Mark. 2012. *Advances in the cross-linguistic study of ideophones. Language and Linguistics Compass* 6/10. 654–672.

Dingemanse, Mark. 2019. ‘Ideophone’ as a comparative concept. In Kimi Akita & Prashant Pardeshi (eds.), *Ideophones, mimetics and expressives*, 13–34. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Diouf, Jean-Léopold. 2003. *Dictionnaire wolof-français et français-wolof*. Paris: Karthala.

Doneux, Jean-Léonce & Jean-Louis Rougé. 1988. *En apprenant le créole à Bissau ou Ziguinchor*. Paris: L’Harmattan.

Fal, Arame, Rosine Santos & Jean-Léonce Doneux. 1990. *Dictionnaire wolof-français, suivi d'un index français-wolof*. Paris: Karthala.

Jacobs, Bart. 2012. *Origins of a creole. The history of Papiamentu and its African ties*. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Kihm, Alain. 1994. *Kriyol syntax: The Portuguese-based creole language of Guinea-Bissau*. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Couto, Hildo H. 1994. *O Crioulo Português da Guiné-Bissau*. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.

Couto, Hildo H. 1995. Exclusive particles (ideophones) in Guinea-Bissau creole. In Philip Baker (ed.), *From contact to creole and beyond*, 207–215. London: University of Westminster Press.

Creissels, Denis. 1994. *Aperçu sur les structures phonologiques des langues négro-africaines*. Grenoble: ELLUG.

Creissels, Denis. 2006. *Syntaxe structurale, une introduction typologique 1. Catégories et Construction*. Paris: Lavoisier.

Creissels, Denis. 2012. *Lexique mandinka-français*. Unpublished MS. Available online at: http://www.deniscreissels.fr/public/Creissels-lexique_mandinka_2012.pdf (Accessed 28/03/2023).

Creissels, Denis. 2013. *Le mandinka – phonologie, grammaire, textes*. Paris: Karthala.

Creissels, Denis, Sidia Jatta & Jobarteh Kalifa. 1982. *Lexique mandinka-français. Mandenkan* 3.

Dalphinis, Morgan. 1986. *African language influences in creoles lexically based on Portuguese, English and French, with special reference to Casamance Kriul* [sic], Gambian Krio and St. Lucian Patwa, Vol. 1. Doctoral dissertation, University of London.

Dieng, Sady. 1985. *Étude contrastive des lexies du créole endogène “portugais” et du wolof*. Doctoral dissertation, Université Lumière-Lyon 2.

Dingemanse, Mark. 2012. Advances in the cross-linguistic study of ideophones. *Language and Linguistics Compass* 6/10. 654–672.

Dingemanse, Mark. 2019. ‘Ideophone’ as a comparative concept. In Kimi Akita & Prashant Pardeshi (eds.), *Ideophones, mimetics and expressives*, 13–34. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Diouf, Jean-Léopold. 2003. *Dictionnaire wolof-français et français-wolof*. Paris: Karthala.

Doneux, Jean-Léonce & Jean-Louis Rougé. 1988. *En apprenant le créole à Bissau ou Ziguinchor*. Paris: L’Harmattan.

Fal, Arame, Rosine Santos & Jean-Léonce Doneux. 1990. *Dictionnaire wolof-français, suivi d'un index français-wolof*. Paris: Karthala.

Jacobs, Bart. 2012. *Origins of a creole. The history of Papiamentu and its African ties*. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Kihm, Alain. 1994. *Kriyol syntax: The Portuguese-based creole language of Guinea-Bissau*. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Mbodj, Chérif. 1979. *Phonologie du créole de Guinée-Bissau*. Dakar: Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar.

Mbodj, Chérif. 1984. *Grammaire du créole de Guinée-Bissau*. Bissau: Unpublished MS.

Moreira Tavares & Ana Karina. 2020. *Documentation et description grammaticale et lexicale du créole afro-portugais de l'île de Fogo (République du Cap-Vert, Afrique de l'Ouest) / Documentação e descrição gramatical e lexical do crioulo afro-português da ilha do Fogo (República de Cabo Verde, África Ocidental)*. Doctoral dissertation, INALCO, Paris.

Nuckolls, Janis B., Joseph A. Stanley, Elizabeth Nielsen & Roseanna Hopper. 2016. The systematic stretching and contracting of ideophonic phonology in Pastaza Quichua. *International Journal of American Linguistics* 82(1). 95–116.

Omnès, Robert. 1988. Les structures syllabiques du castillan, étude synchronique et diachronique, comparaison avec 28 autres langues. In *Actes du 3e colloque de linguistique hispanique*, 135–155. Grenoble: Université Stendhal-Grenoble 3.

Quint, Nicolas. 1998. *Dicionário de caboverdiano-português*. Lisbon: Verbalis.

Quint, Nicolas. 1999. *Dictionnaire cap-verdien-français*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2000a. *Grammaire de la langue capverdienne (description diachronique et synchronique du créole afro-portugais des îles du Cap-Vert)*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2000b. *Le cap-verdien: origines et devenir d'une langue métisse*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2006. *Phonologie de la langue koalibe*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2008. *L'élément africain dans la langue capverdienne / Africanismos na língua caboverdiana*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2009a. *The phonology of Koalib, a Kordofanian language from the Nuba Mountains (Sudan)*. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.

Quint, Nicolas. 2009b. O cabo-verdiano: uma língua mundial. *Revista de Estudos Cabo-Verdianos* 3. 129–144.

Quint, Nicolas. 2018. Koalib ideophones: a first overview of their main characteristics. In Gertrud Schneider-Blum, Birgit Hellwig & Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.), *Nuba Mountain languages studies: new insights*, 175–207. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.

Quint, Nicolas. 2023. Guinea-Bissau. In Ursula Reutner (ed.), *Manual of Romance languages in Africa*, 447–465. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Quint, Nicolas & Karina Moreira Tavares. 2019. The common African lexical core of Upper Guinea Creoles and its historical significance. *Journal of Ibero-Romance Creoles* 9. 115–161.
Mbodj, Chérif. 1979. *Phonologie du créole de Guinée-Bissau*. Dakar: Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar.

Mbodj, Chérif. 1984. *Grammaire du créole de Guinée-Bissau*. Bissau: Unpublished MS.

Moreira Tavares & Ana Karina. 2020. *Documentation et description grammaticale et lexicale du créole afro-portugais de l'île de Fogo (République du Cap-Vert, Afrique de l'Ouest) / Documentação e descrição gramatical e lexical do crioulo afro-português da ilha do Fogo (República de Cabo Verde, África Ocidental)*. Doctoral dissertation, INALCO, Paris.

Nuckolls, Janis B., Joseph A. Stanley, Elizabeth Nielsen & Roseanna Hopper. 2016. The systematic stretching and contracting of ideophonic phonology in Pastaza Quichua. *International Journal of American Linguistics* 82(1). 95–116.

Omnès, Robert. 1988. Les structures syllabiques du castillan, étude synchronique et diachronique, comparaison avec 28 autres langues. In *Actes du 3e colloque de linguistique hispanique*, 135–155. Grenoble: Université Stendhal-Grenoble 3.

Quint, Nicolas. 1998. *Dicionário de caboverdiano-português*. Lisbon: Verbalis.

Quint, Nicolas. 1999. *Dictionnaire cap-verdien-français*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2000a. *Grammaire de la langue capverdienne (description diachronique et synchronique du créole afro-portugais des îles du Cap-Vert)*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2000b. *Le cap-verdien: origines et devenir d'une langue métisse*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2006. *Phonologie de la langue koalibe*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2008. *L'élément africain dans la langue capverdienne / Africanismos na língua caboverdiana*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Quint, Nicolas. 2009a. *The phonology of Koalib, a Kordofanian language from the Nuba Mountains (Sudan)*. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.

Quint, Nicolas. 2009b. O cabo-verdiano: uma língua mundial. *Revista de Estudos Cabo-Verdianos* 3. 129–144.

Quint, Nicolas. 2018. Koalib ideophones: a first overview of their main characteristics. In Gertrud Schneider-Blum, Birgit Hellwig & Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.), *Nuba Mountain languages studies: new insights*, 175–207. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.

Quint, Nicolas. 2023. Guinea-Bissau. In Ursula Reutner (ed.), *Manual of Romance languages in Africa*, 447–465. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Quint, Nicolas & Karina Moreira Tavares. 2019. The common African lexical core of Upper Guinea Creoles and its historical significance. *Journal of Ibero-Romance Creoles* 9. 115–161.
Rougé, Jean-Louis. 1988. *Petit dictionnaire étymologique du kriol de Guinée-Bissau et de Casamance*. Bissau: Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa.

Rougé, Jean-Louis. 1999. Apontamentos sobre o léxico de origem africana dos criou-
los da Guiné e de Cabo Verde (Santiago). In Klaus Zimmermann (ed.), *Lenguas criol-
llas de base lexical espanola y portuguesa*, 49-67. Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert.

Rougé, Jean-Louis. 2004. *Dictionnaire étymologique des créoles portugais d'Afrique*. Paris: Karthala.

Scantamburlo, Luigi. 1981. *Gramática e dicionário da língua criol da Guiné-Bissau (GCr)*. Bologna: Editrice Missionaria Italiana.

Scantamburlo, Luigi. 1999. *Dicionário guineense, Vol. 1: Introdução e notas gramaticais*. Lisbon: Edições Colibri/Faspebi (Fundação para o Apoio ao Desenvolvimento dos Povos do Arquipélago de Bijagós).

Scantamburlo, Luigi. 2002. *Dicionário do guineense, Vol. 2: Dicionário guineense-português. Dictionariu guinensi-purtuguis*. Lisbon: Colibri/Faspebi.

Segerer, Guillaume & Martine Vanhove. 2019. Color naming in Africa. In Ida Raffaelli, Daniela Katunar & Barbara Kerovec (eds.), *Lexicalization patterns in colour naming: a cross-linguistic perspective*, 287-330. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Truppi, Chiara & Patrícia Costa. 2019. *On ideophones in Portuguese Creoles*, paper pre-
sented at *Societas Linguistica Europaea – 52nd Annual Meeting*, 21st–24th August 2019
in Leipzig.

Wilson, William A. A. 1962. *The Crioulo of Guiné*. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

CONTACT

nicolas.quint@cnrs.fr

biaguinoelbernard@yahoo.fr
Rougé, Jean-Louis. 1988. *Petit dictionnaire étymologique du kriol de Guinée-Bissau et de Casamance*. Bissau: Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa.

Rougé, Jean-Louis. 1999. Apontamentos sobre o léxico de origem africana dos criou-
los da Guiné e de Cabo Verde (Santiago). In Klaus Zimmermann (ed.), *Lenguas criol-
llas de base lexical espanola y portuguesa*, 49-67. Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert.

Rougé, Jean-Louis. 2004. *Dictionnaire étymologique des créoles portugais d'Afrique*. Paris: Karthala.

Scantamburlo, Luigi. 1981. *Gramática e dicionário da língua criol da Guiné-Bissau (GCr)*. Bologna: Editrice Missionaria Italiana.

Scantamburlo, Luigi. 1999. *Dicionário guineense, Vol. 1: Introdução e notas gramaticais*. Lisbon: Edições Colibri/Faspebi (Fundação para o Apoio ao Desenvolvimento dos Povos do Arquipélago de Bijagós).

Scantamburlo, Luigi. 2002. *Dicionário do guineense, Vol. 2: Dicionário guineense-português. Dictionariu guinensi-purtuguis*. Lisbon: Colibri/Faspebi.

Segerer, Guillaume & Martine Vanhove. 2019. Color naming in Africa. In Ida Raffaelli, Daniela Katunar & Barbara Kerovec (eds.), *Lexicalization patterns in colour naming: a cross-linguistic perspective*, 287-330. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Truppi, Chiara & Patrícia Costa. 2019. *On ideophones in Portuguese Creoles*, paper pre-
sented at *Societas Linguistica Europaea – 52nd Annual Meeting*, 21st–24th August 2019
in Leipzig.

Wilson, William A. A. 1962. *The Crioulo of Guiné*. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

CONTACT

nicolas.quint@cnrs.fr

biaguinoelbernard@yahoo.fr
# Appendices

## Appendix 1: Continental UGC ideophones classified according to their distribution type

<table><caption>Table 1.1: ‘CC-only’ type.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">CC ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form<sup>42</sup></th><th>English</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>bok-bok</td><td>CVC-CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>termé</td><td>‘shiver’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>ca</td><td>CV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fritá</td><td>‘fry’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>cañar</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>jugtá ~ jugutá</td><td>‘jump’</td><td>v.</td><td>caŋ ( + saltá ‘jump’) (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>cip</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>disí</td><td>‘get down’</td><td>v.</td><td>cem ~ caŋ (Cacheu2)</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>colop</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>jugtá ~ jugutá</td><td>‘jump’</td><td>v.</td><td>cas (Cacheu1 + Cacheu3); cvm ~ caŋ (Cacheu2)</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>fes</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>simí</td><td>‘disappear’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>fututut</td><td>CVCVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>kerá</td><td>‘smell’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(8)</td><td>kvc</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>jundá</td><td>‘drink’<sup>43</sup></td><td>v.</td><td>forgot (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>kèkèt</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>risu</td><td>‘be hard/tough’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="42">42 As Casamance Creole is the standard for the comparison of continental UGCs (§2.1), the form of the associated element is the one attested in CC, unless otherwise specified.</footnote>

<footnote n="43">43 The basic meaning of *jundá* is ‘pull’. However, *kis* intensifies a figurative meaning of *jundá*, namely ‘drink (alcohol)’.</footnote>
# Appendices

## Appendix 1: Continental UGC ideophones classified according to their distribution type

<table><caption>Table 1.1: ‘CC-only’ type.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">CC ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form<sup>42</sup></th><th>English</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>bok-bok</td><td>CVC-CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>termé</td><td>‘shiver’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>ca</td><td>CV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fritá</td><td>‘fry’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>cañar</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>jugtá ~ jugutá</td><td>‘jump’</td><td>v.</td><td>caŋ ( + saltá ‘jump’) (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>cip</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>disí</td><td>‘get down’</td><td>v.</td><td>cem ~ caŋ (Cacheu2)</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>colop</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>jugtá ~ jugutá</td><td>‘jump’</td><td>v.</td><td>cas (Cacheu1 + Cacheu3); cvm ~ caŋ (Cacheu2)</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>fes</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>simí</td><td>‘disappear’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>fututut</td><td>CVCVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>kerá</td><td>‘smell’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(8)</td><td>kvc</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>jundá</td><td>‘drink’<sup>43</sup></td><td>v.</td><td>forgot (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>keket</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>risu</td><td>‘be hard/tough’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="42">42 As Casamance Creole is the standard for the comparison of continental UGCs (§2.1), the form of the associated element is the one attested in CC, unless otherwise specified.</footnote>

<footnote n="43">43 The basic meaning of *jundá* is ‘pull’. However, *kis* intensifies a figurative meaning of *jundá*, namely ‘drink (alcohol)’.</footnote>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">CC ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form<sup>42</sup></th><th>English</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(10)</td><td>kamaj</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>pagá</td><td>'switch off'</td><td>v.</td><td>fup (?) (Cacheu3); vut (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>kik</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sikidu</td><td>'be straight' (pole/stake)</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>fof</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>lebi</td><td>'be light'</td><td>qual.</td><td>kef (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>koŋ</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>risu, seku</td><td>'be hard/tough, be dry'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>mɛp</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>barí</td><td>'get, win, collect'</td><td>v.</td><td>fep (Cacheu2); bup (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(15)</td><td>mes</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>perdé</td><td>'disappear'</td><td>v.</td><td>buk (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(16)</td><td>pejɛj</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>speech ('clearly')</td><td>No</td><td>kontá</td><td>'tell'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(17)</td><td>paraw</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>camí</td><td>'get drunk'</td><td>v.</td><td>tɔrɔk (Cacheu2)</td></tr><tr><td>(18)</td><td>pip</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>speech ('threateningly')</td><td>No</td><td>falá</td><td>'say'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(19)</td><td>pul</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sey</td><td>'get out'</td><td>v.</td><td>fas (Cacheu2); fat (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(20)</td><td>rat</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>dá</td><td>'drink'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(21)</td><td>tɛkɛp</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pañá</td><td>'thicken'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(22)</td><td>was</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pajigá</td><td>'scatter'</td><td>v.</td><td>buk (Cacheu3); fep (Bissau1)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">CC ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form<sup>42</sup></th><th>English</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(10)</td><td>kamaj</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>pagá</td><td>'switch off'</td><td>v.</td><td>fup (?) (Cacheu3); vut (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>kik</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sikidu</td><td>'be straight' (pole/stake)</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>fof</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>lebi</td><td>'be light'</td><td>qual.</td><td>kef (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>koŋ</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>risu, seku</td><td>'be hard/tough, be dry'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>mɛp</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>barí</td><td>'get, win, collect'</td><td>v.</td><td>fep (Cacheu2); bup (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(15)</td><td>mes</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>perdé</td><td>'disappear'</td><td>v.</td><td>buk (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(16)</td><td>pejɛj</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>speech ('clearly')</td><td>No</td><td>kontá</td><td>'tell'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(17)</td><td>paraw</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>camí</td><td>'get drunk'</td><td>v.</td><td>tɔrɔk (Cacheu2)</td></tr><tr><td>(18)</td><td>pip</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>speech ('threateningly')</td><td>No</td><td>falá</td><td>'say'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(19)</td><td>pul</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sey</td><td>'get out'</td><td>v.</td><td>fas (Cacheu2); fat (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(20)</td><td>rat</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>dá</td><td>'drink'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(21)</td><td>tɛkɛp</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pañá</td><td>'thicken'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(22)</td><td>was</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pajigá</td><td>'scatter'</td><td>v.</td><td>buk (Cacheu3); fep (Bissau1)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 1.2: ‘minority model’ type.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/bap/</td><td>bap (CC); vap (Bissau1); wap (Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens. +immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sintá/kay</td><td>‘sit, fall’</td><td>v.</td><td>rip (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/fas/</td><td>fas (CC+Cacheu1); fas (?) ~ fes (+ rapá ‘shave’) ~ feles (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>limpu</td><td>‘be clean’</td><td>qual.</td><td>wañja(η) ~ wac (?) (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/fuf/ ~ */fus/</td><td>fuf (CC+Bissau3); fus (Cacheu2+Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>mas</td><td>‘be more’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>CC+1</td><td>*/kef/</td><td>kef (CC+Cacheu1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fartá</td><td>‘be satisfied’ (eating)</td><td>v.</td><td>diŋ ~ dir (Geba); kuŋ (Geba+Cacheu2);<sup>44</sup> lip (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/kokorot/</td><td>kokorot (CC+Cacheu1 + Cacheu3+Bissau1)</td><td>CVCVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>beju</td><td>‘be old’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/las/</td><td>las (CC+Bissau1); lac (Cacheu1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>ditá</td><td>‘lie’</td><td>v.</td><td>caŋ (+ lastrá ‘stretch out’) (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>CC+1</td><td>*/net/</td><td>net (CC+CA2)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pí</td><td>‘put’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(8)</td><td>CC+1</td><td>*/pirkit/</td><td>pirkit (CC+Geba)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labantá</td><td>‘stand up’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/puf/</td><td>puf (CC+Geba+Cacheu3+)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>furá</td><td>‘make a hole,’</td><td>v.</td><td>fut (Cacheu3)</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="44">⁴⁴ As Geba and Cacheu2 have the same form (*kuŋ*), we could have considered this example as an illustration of the CC vs. Guinea-Bissau subtype of the ‘other distribution’ type (§3.3.1 and Table 1.4). However, the ideophone **/kuŋ/* is also attested in at least seven different continental UGCs as intensifying *yiñcí* ‘be full’ (Table 1.3). Hence, it seems that the form *kuŋ* attested here in Geba and Cacheu2 is due to a confusion between being ‘full’ and ‘satisfied’ (= ‘full of food’) rather than to a genuine semantic peculiarity shared by Geba and Cacheu2.</footnote>
<table><caption>Table 1.2: ‘minority model’ type.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/bap/</td><td>bap (CC); vap (Bissau1); wap (Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens. +immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sintá/kay</td><td>‘sit, fall’</td><td>v.</td><td>rip (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/fas/</td><td>fas (CC+Cacheu1); fas (?) ~ fes (+ rapá ‘shave’) ~ feles (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>limpu</td><td>‘be clean’</td><td>qual.</td><td>wañja(η) ~ wac (?) (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/fuf/ ~ */fus/</td><td>fuf (CC+Bissau3); fus (Cacheu2+Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>mas</td><td>‘be more’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>CC+1</td><td>*/kef/</td><td>kef (CC+Cacheu1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fartá</td><td>‘be satisfied’ (eating)</td><td>v.</td><td>diŋ ~ dir (Geba); kuŋ (Geba+Cacheu2);<sup>44</sup> lip (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/kokorot/</td><td>kokorot (CC+Cacheu1 + Cacheu3+Bissau1)</td><td>CVCVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>beju</td><td>‘be old’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/las/</td><td>las (CC+Bissau1); lac (Cacheu1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>ditá</td><td>‘lie’</td><td>v.</td><td>caŋ (+ lastrá ‘stretch out’) (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>CC+1</td><td>*/net/</td><td>net (CC+CA2)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pí</td><td>‘put’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(8)</td><td>CC+1</td><td>*/pirkit/</td><td>pirkit (CC+Geba)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labantá</td><td>‘stand up’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/puf/</td><td>puf (CC+Geba+Cacheu3+)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>furá</td><td>‘make a hole,’</td><td>v.</td><td>fut (Cacheu3)</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="44">⁴⁴ As Geba and Cacheu2 have the same form (*kuŋ*), we could have considered this example as an illustration of the CC vs. Guinea-Bissau subtype of the ‘other distribution’ type (§3.3.1 and Table 1.4). However, the ideophone **/kuŋ/* is also attested in at least seven different continental UGCs as intensifying *yiñcí* ‘be full’ (Table 1.3). Hence, it seems that the form *kuŋ* attested here in Geba and Cacheu2 is due to a confusion between being ‘full’ and ‘satisfied’ (= ‘full of food’) rather than to a genuine semantic peculiarity shared by Geba and Cacheu2.</footnote>
<table><thead><tr><th colspan="10">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th>Associated element</th><th>Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>No.</th><th>Distr. profile</th><th>Ideophone</th><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bissau1)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>pierce'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(10)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/tar/</td><td>tar (CC+Geba+ Cacheu3+ Bissau1); tax [tax] (Geba); par (Cacheu1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens. +onom.</td><td>No</td><td>bafatiyá</td><td>'slap'</td><td>v.</td><td>baw (Geba); paw (Cacheu1+Cacheu2)<sup>45</sup>; fak (Cacheu1); fap (Bissau3); vap (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>CC+3</td><td>*/tep/</td><td>tep (CC + +Bissau3); tep (+ fartá 'be satisfied) (Cacheu1); tip ((+ fartá) (Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>yíñcí</td><td>'fill' ~ 'be full'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>CC+1</td><td>*/tim/</td><td>tim (CC+Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom. ('hard surface')</td><td>No</td><td>kay</td><td>'fall'</td><td>v.</td><td>fat (Cacheu1); kaŋkaláŋ ~ puf (Cacheu2); tuc (Cacheu3); tup (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/wac/</td><td>wac (CC); wap (Cacheu1); vac (+ yabrí 'open') (Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fendé</td><td>'split'</td><td>v.</td><td>parac ~ tip (+ yabrí 'open') (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>CC+2</td><td>*/jambaláŋ/ ~ */wandaláŋ/</td><td>yambaláŋ (CC); wandaláŋ (Cacheu1+Cacheu2)</td><td>CVCCVCVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>visual ('desert')</td><td>No</td><td>sá (CC) (=sta)/fiká</td><td>'be'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="45">⁴⁵ Here also, as for */kef/ above, we have come to the conclusion that the common form *paw* found in Cacheu1 and Cacheu2 does not necessarily illustrate a semantic peculiarity shared by these two varieties. The sound produced by a slap is probably */tar/ across most of the UGC continental varieties, but some consultants resorted to other, less specialized sound ideophones such as *paw*, which we have found in other varieties in quite different contexts (e.g. to describe the noise produced by a broken stick in CC).</footnote>
<table><thead><tr><th colspan="10">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th>Associated element</th><th>Other continental UGC equivalents</th></tr><tr><th>No.</th><th>Distr. profile</th><th>Ideophone</th><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bissau1)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>pierce'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(10)</td><td>CC + 3</td><td>*/tar/</td><td>tar (CC + Geba + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); tax [tax] (Geba); par (Cacheu1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens. + onom.</td><td>No</td><td>bafatiyá</td><td>'slap'</td><td>v.</td><td>baw (Geba); paw (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2)<sup>45</sup>; fak (Cacheu1); fap (Bissau3); vap (Cacheu3)</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>CC + 3</td><td>*/tep/</td><td>tep (CC + + Bissau3); tep (+ fartá 'be satisfied) (Cacheu1); tip ((+ fartá) (Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>yíñcí</td><td>'fill' ~ 'be full'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>CC + 1</td><td>*/tim/</td><td>tim (CC + Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom. ('hard surface')</td><td>No</td><td>kay</td><td>'fall'</td><td>v.</td><td>fat (Cacheu1); kaŋkaláŋ ~ puf (Cacheu2); tuc (Cacheu3); tup (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>CC + 2</td><td>*/wac/</td><td>wac (CC); wap (Cacheu1); vac (+ yabrí 'open') (Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fendé</td><td>'split'</td><td>v.</td><td>parac ~ tip (+ yabrí 'open') (Bissau1)</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>CC + 2</td><td>*/jambalaŋ/ ~ */wandal aŋ/</td><td>yambalaŋ (CC); wandaláŋ (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2)</td><td>CVCCVCVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>visual ('desert')</td><td>No</td><td>sá (CC) (=sta)/fiká</td><td>'be'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="45">⁴⁵ Here also, as for */kef/ above, we have come to the conclusion that the common form *paw* found in Cacheu1 and Cacheu2 does not necessarily illustrate a semantic peculiarity shared by these two varieties. The sound produced by a slap is probably */tar/ across most of the UGC continental varieties, but some consultants resorted to other, less specialized sound ideophones such as *paw*, which we have found in other varieties in quite different contexts (e.g. to describe the noise produced by a broken stick in CC).</footnote>
<table><caption>Table 1.3: ‘common core’ type.</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="11">Continental UGC common ideophone</th></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th rowspan="2">Attested forms</th><th rowspan="2">SS</th><th rowspan="2">Etymon</th><th rowspan="2">SEM</th><th rowspan="2">RED</th><th rowspan="2">Form</th><th rowspan="2">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Meaning</th><th rowspan="2">PoS</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>CC + 7</td><td>*/baw/<sup>46</sup></td><td>baw (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau2); badaw (Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); bak (Bissau2)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>forti</td><td>‘be sour’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/bik/</td><td>bik (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kabá</td><td>‘be finished’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/buk/</td><td>buk (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kabá, pajigá</td><td>‘be finished, scatter’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/bup/</td><td>bup (CC + Bissau1); vup (Geba); bip (Cacheu1); vip (Cacheu1 + Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>kay</td><td>‘fall’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>CC + 7</td><td>*/caŋ/ ~ */kaŋ/<sup>47</sup></td><td>caŋ (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau2 + Bissau3); kaŋ (CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); taŋ (Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>firmá/sikidu</td><td>‘stand’ (person)</td><td>v./ qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/cap/</td><td>cap (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1) ~ ñap [nap] (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pañá/pegá</td><td>‘catch’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/corot/</td><td>corot (CC + Cacheu1); corot (+pikininu ‘be small’) (Geba + Cacheu2) ñeret</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>atten.</td><td>No</td><td>pañá, partí</td><td>‘take, give’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="46">⁴⁶ The form */baw/ has been retained as the base form for this ideophone against badaw, which is almost certainly an extended (expressive) form of baw.</footnote>

<footnote n="47">⁴⁷ The form */kaŋ/ is obviously the same as the one that is used to intensify tesu ‘be solid’ (see Table 1.4). Some continental UGC varieties seem to use the same form to intensify ‘be solid’ and ‘stand’, while others use one specific ideophone for each of these two meanings.</footnote>
<table><caption>Table 1.3: ‘common core’ type.</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="11">Continental UGC common ideophone</th></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th rowspan="2">Attested forms</th><th rowspan="2">SS</th><th rowspan="2">Etymon</th><th rowspan="2">SEM</th><th rowspan="2">RED</th><th rowspan="2">Form</th><th rowspan="2">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Meaning</th><th rowspan="2">PoS</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>CC + 7</td><td>*/baw/<sup>46</sup></td><td>baw (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau2); badaw (Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); bak (Bissau2)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>forti</td><td>‘be sour’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/bik/</td><td>bik (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kabá</td><td>‘be finished’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/buk/</td><td>buk (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kabá, pajigá</td><td>‘be finished, scatter’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/bup/</td><td>bup (CC + Bissau1); vup (Geba); bip (Cacheu1); vip (Cacheu1 + Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>kay</td><td>‘fall’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>CC + 7</td><td>*/caŋ/ ~ */kaŋ/<sup>47</sup></td><td>caŋ (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau2 + Bissau3); kaŋ (CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); taŋ (Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>firmá/sikidu</td><td>‘stand’ (person)</td><td>v./ qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/cap/</td><td>cap (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1) ~ ñap [nap] (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pañá/pegá</td><td>‘catch’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/corot/</td><td>corot (CC + Cacheu1); corot (+pikininu ‘be small’) (Geba + Cacheu2) ñeret</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>atten.</td><td>No</td><td>pañá, partí</td><td>‘take, give’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="46">⁴⁶ The form */baw/ has been retained as the base form for this ideophone against badaw, which is almost certainly an extended (expressive) form of baw.</footnote>

<footnote n="47">⁴⁷ The form */kaŋ/ is obviously the same as the one that is used to intensify tesu ‘be solid’ (see Table 1.4). Some continental UGC varieties seem to use the same form to intensify ‘be solid’ and ‘stand’, while others use one specific ideophone for each of these two meanings.</footnote>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="2">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="5">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(+pikininu) (Cacheu3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(8)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/culup/</td><td>culup<br>(Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1);<br>culum (CC + Cacheu2)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>fundá</td><td>‘dive, sink’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/cut/</td><td>cut<br>(CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 +<br>Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>melá</td><td>‘be sweet’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(10)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/fa(r)kat/<br>~<br>*/fe(r)ket/</td><td>ferket (CC); fakat (Cacheu1); ferket ~<br>ferket (Geba); fargat (Bissau1); fat<br>(Cacheu2); fat (+ kordá ‘wake up’)<br>(Bissau1); firgit (Cacheu3 + Bissau2)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labantá</td><td>‘stand up’</td><td>v.</td><td>caŋ<br>(Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/fandaŋ/</td><td>fandaŋ<br>(CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>braŋku</td><td>‘be white’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/fep/</td><td>fep (CC +<br>Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 +<br>Bissau1 + Bissau3); fep (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kabá</td><td>‘finish’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>CC + 7</td><td>*/fit/</td><td>fit (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Bissau1 +<br>Bissau2 + Bissau3); fis (Cacheu2); fif<br>(Cacheu3); fas (Bissau2); falas (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>pasá</td><td>‘go by’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/fitfat/</td><td>fitfat (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau1)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens. +<br>onom.</td><td>Yes</td><td>jantí</td><td>‘be hurried’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(15)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/fut/</td><td>fut (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau3); fat</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sey</td><td>‘get out’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="2">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="5">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(+pikininu) (Cacheu3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(8)</td><td>CC+5</td><td>*/culup/</td><td>culup<br>(Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1);<br>culum (CC + Cacheu2)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>fundá</td><td>‘dive, sink’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>CC+5</td><td>*/cut/</td><td>cut<br>(CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 +<br>Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>melá</td><td>‘be sweet’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(10)</td><td>CC+5</td><td>*/fa(r)kat/<br>~<br>*/fe(r)ket/</td><td>ferket (CC); fakat (Cacheu1); ferket ~<br>ferket (Geba); fargat (Bissau1); fat<br>(Cacheu2); fat (+ kordá ‘wake up’)<br>(Bissau1); firgit (Cacheu3 + Bissau2)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labantá</td><td>‘stand up’</td><td>v.</td><td>caŋ<br>(Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/fandaŋ/</td><td>fandaŋ<br>(CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>braŋku</td><td>‘be white’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/fep/</td><td>fep (CC +<br>Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 +<br>Bissau1 + Bissau3); fep (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kabá</td><td>‘finish’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>CC+7</td><td>*/fit/</td><td>fit (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Bissau1 +<br>Bissau2 + Bissau3); fis (Cacheu2); fif<br>(Cacheu3); fas (Bissau2); falas (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>pasá</td><td>‘go by’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>CC+5</td><td>*/fitfat/</td><td>fitfat (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau1)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens. +<br>onom.</td><td>Yes</td><td>jantí</td><td>‘be hurried’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(15)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/fut/</td><td>fut (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau3); fat</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sey</td><td>‘get out’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="10">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(Cacheu3+Bissau1); fup (Bissau3); fis (Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(16)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/jɔp/</td><td>yɔp (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau1); yop (CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>mojá</td><td>‘get wet’</td><td>v.</td><td>pɔcɔk (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(17)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>yem (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>friyá</td><td>‘be cold’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(18)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/kaŋ/</td><td>kaŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); kaŋ (+seku ‘be dry) (Bissau3); kaŋkaran (Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>risu</td><td>‘be hard/ tough’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(19)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/kat/</td><td>kak (CC); kat (Cacheu1 + Cacheu3); pakat/ fakat (Geba); pargat (Cacheu2); fargat (Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kebrá</td><td>‘break’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(20)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/keŋkereŋ/</td><td>keŋkereŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); kereŋ (Cacheu2); keŋ (Geba)</td><td>CVCCVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>saŋ</td><td>‘be healthy’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(21)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/kondoŋ/</td><td>kondoŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau3); kindiŋ-kondoŋ (Cacheu3 + Bissau1); konkoroŋ (Geba)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>—</td><td>atten. ‘completely alone’</td><td>No</td><td>a-mi, a-bo...</td><td>‘I, you...’</td><td>pron.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(22)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/koroc/</td><td>koroc (CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1)<sup>48</sup></td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>atten.</td><td>No</td><td>partí</td><td>‘give’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(23)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/kuŋ/</td><td>kuŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>yíñcí</td><td>‘be full’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="48">⁴⁸ A related form *koroc* ~ *ñoroc* was found in Geba (Geba) where it seems to be used only as an adjective (not as an ideophonic adverb).</footnote>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(Cacheu3+Bissau1); fup (Bissau3); fis (Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(16)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/jɔp/</td><td>yɔp (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau1); yop (CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>mojá</td><td>‘get wet’</td><td>v.</td><td>pɔcɔk (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(17)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>yem (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>friyá</td><td>‘be cold’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(18)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/kaŋ/</td><td>kaŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); kaŋ (+seku ‘be dry) (Bissau3); kaŋkararŋ (Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>risu</td><td>‘be hard/ tough’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(19)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/kat/</td><td>kak (CC); kat (Cacheu1 + Cacheu3); pakat/ fakat (Geba); pargat (Cacheu2); fargat (Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kebrá</td><td>‘break’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(20)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/keŋkereŋ/</td><td>keŋkereŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); kereŋ (Cacheu2); keŋ (Geba)</td><td>CVCCVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>saŋ</td><td>‘be healthy’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(21)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/kondoŋ/</td><td>kondoŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau3); kindiŋ-kondoŋ (Cacheu3 + Bissau1); konkoroŋ (Geba)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>—</td><td>atten. ‘completely alone’</td><td>No</td><td>a-mi, a-bo...</td><td>‘I, you...’</td><td>pron.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(22)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/koroc/</td><td>koroc (CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1)<sup>48</sup></td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>atten.</td><td>No</td><td>partí</td><td>‘give’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(23)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/kuŋ/</td><td>kuŋ (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>yíñcí</td><td>‘be full’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="48">⁴⁸ A related form *koroc* ~ *ñoroc* was found in Geba (Geba) where it seems to be used only as an adjective (not as an ideophonic adverb).</footnote>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="2">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(24)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/lot/</td><td>lot (CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); lot (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>negá</td><td>‘refuse’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(25)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/nok/</td><td>nok (CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); nok (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pretu</td><td>‘be black’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(26)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/nu(η)/</td><td>nu (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); nuŋ (CC)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kurpu-limpu</td><td>‘be naked’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(27)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/palaw/ ~ */paraw/</td><td>palaw (CC); falaw (Geba); paraw (Cacheu3 + Bissau2); paw (Cacheu1)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>visual</td><td>No</td><td>lamprá</td><td>‘shine’</td><td>v.</td><td>pas ~ feles (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(28)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/parac/</td><td>parac (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3); parat (Bissau1)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>kokó</td><td>‘defecate’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(29)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/pat/ ~ */put/</td><td>pat (CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); fat (Cacheu1); parat (Bissau1); put (CC + Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sapá</td><td>‘cut’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(30)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/pɔtɔk/</td><td>pɔtɔk (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); potok (Bissau3); botok (CC); pɔcɔk (Geba)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>moli</td><td>‘be soft’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(31)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/pɔtɔk/ ~ */pucuk/</td><td>potok (CC); pɔtɔk (Geba + Cacheu1); putuk (Cacheu2); pɔcɔk (Geba); pucuk (Cacheu3 + Bissau1); pucak (Bissau3)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>susu</td><td>‘be dirty’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(32)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/pus/</td><td>pus (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>limpu</td><td>‘be clean’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(33)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/rap/</td><td>rap (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3); rip (Cacheu3); raŋ (Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>ficá</td><td>‘close’</td><td>v.</td><td>vaŋ (Bissau1)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="2">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="5">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(24)</td><td>CC+5</td><td>*/lot/</td><td>lot (CC + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); lot (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>negá</td><td>‘refuse’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(25)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/nok/</td><td>nok (CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); nok (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pretu</td><td>‘be black’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(26)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/nu(η)/</td><td>nu (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); nuŋ (CC)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kurpu-limpu</td><td>‘be naked’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(27)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/palaw/ ~ */paraw/</td><td>palaw (CC); falaw (Geba); paraw (Cacheu3 + Bissau2); paw (Cacheu1)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>visual</td><td>No</td><td>lamprá</td><td>‘shine’</td><td>v.</td><td>pas ~ feles (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(28)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/parac/</td><td>parac (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3); parat (Bissau1)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>kokó</td><td>‘defecate’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(29)</td><td>CC+4</td><td>*/pat/ ~ */put/</td><td>pat (CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); fat (Cacheu1); parat (Bissau1); put (CC + Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sapá</td><td>‘cut’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(30)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/pɔtɔk/</td><td>pɔtɔk (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); potok (Bissau3); botok (CC); pɔcɔk (Geba)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>moli</td><td>‘be soft’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(31)</td><td>CC+5</td><td>*/pɔtɔk/ ~ */pucuk/</td><td>potok (CC); pɔtɔk (Geba + Cacheu1); putuk (Cacheu2); pɔcɔk (Geba); pucuk (Cacheu3 + Bissau1); pucak (Bissau3)</td><td>CVCVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>susu</td><td>‘be dirty’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(32)</td><td>CC+6</td><td>*/pus/</td><td>pus (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>limpu</td><td>‘be clean’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(33)</td><td>CC+5</td><td>*/rap/</td><td>rap (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3); rip (Cacheu3); raŋ (Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>ficá</td><td>‘close’</td><td>v.</td><td>vaŋ (Bissau1)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="2">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="5">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(34)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>sip<br>(Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau2); lip (CC); lip (+fartá 'be satisfied) (Cacheu3); vip (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pisadu</td><td>'be heavy'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(35)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/taw/</td><td>taw (+malgós 'be bitter') (CC); taw (+forti 'be sour')<br>(Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>malgós</td><td>'be bitter'</td><td>qual.</td><td>rok (+malgós 'be bitter')<br>(Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(36)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/tip/</td><td>tip (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1); tip (+sukuru 'be dark')<br>(Bissau3); sip (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pegá (CC)/duru (others)</td><td>'thicken'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(37)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/wak/</td><td>wak (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); wek (CC)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>burmeju</td><td>'be red'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(38)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/wandaŋ/</td><td>wandaŋ<br>(CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau2); wantaŋ (+klaru 'be clear(ed)') (Geba); wandalaŋ (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka© (QM)</td><td>intens. ('wide')</td><td>No</td><td>yabrí</td><td>'open (door)'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(39)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/wit/</td><td>wit (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kintí</td><td>'be hot'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC common ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(34)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>sip<br>(Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 +<br>Bissau1 + Bissau2); lip (CC); lip (+fartá<br>'be satisfied) (Cacheu3); vip (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pisadu</td><td>'be heavy'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(35)</td><td>CC + 4</td><td>*/taw/</td><td>taw (+malgós 'be bitter') (CC); taw<br>(+forti 'be sour')<br>(Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>malgós</td><td>'be bitter'</td><td>qual.</td><td>rok<br>(+malgós<br>'be bitter')</td></tr><tr><td>(36)</td><td>CC + 5</td><td>*/tip/</td><td>tip (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu3 +<br>Bissau1); tip (+sukuru 'be dark')<br>(Bissau3); sip (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pegá<br>(CC)/duru<br>(others)</td><td>'thicken'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(37)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/wak/</td><td>wak (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3); wek (CC)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>burmeju</td><td>'be red'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(38)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/wandaŋ/</td><td>wandaŋ<br>(CC + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau2);<br>wandaŋ (+klaru 'be clear(ed)') (Geba);<br>wandalan (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2)</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka©<br>(QM)</td><td>intens.<br>('wide')</td><td>No</td><td>yabrí</td><td>'open<br>(door)'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(39)</td><td>CC + 6</td><td>*/wit/</td><td>wit (CC + Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 +<br>Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kintí</td><td>'be hot'</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 1.4: ‘other distribution’ type: ‘CC vs. Guinea-Bissau’ and ‘no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau’ subtypes.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">CC</th><th rowspan="2">Guinea-Bissau</th><th colspan="2">Continental UGC ideophones</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (3)<sup>49</sup></td><td>[lem]</td><td>*/waŋ/</td><td>waj (Geba + Cacheu3 + Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>didiya</td><td>‘at noon’</td><td>adv.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (3)</td><td>[maj]</td><td>*/fis/</td><td>fis (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2); fis (+ sai ‘get out’) (Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka ©</td><td>speech (‘without a word’)</td><td>No</td><td>pasá</td><td>‘go by’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (4)</td><td>[liŋ]</td><td>*/kaŋ/</td><td>kaŋ (Geba + Cacheu2 + Bissau1); taŋ (Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>tesu</td><td>‘be solid’</td><td>qual.</td><td>ŋaw (Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (2)</td><td>—</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>sip (Bissau3); zip (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>gros</td><td>‘be fat/ thick’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (4)</td><td>—</td><td>*/far/</td><td>far (Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>negá</td><td>‘refuse’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (5)</td><td>—</td><td>*/caw/<sup>50</sup></td><td>caw (Geba + Cacheu2 + Bissau3); cadaw (Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka + Wolof©</td><td>intens. (‘ripe fruit’)</td><td>No</td><td>burmeju</td><td>‘red’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="49">⁴⁹ In Tables 1.4 and 1.5, the digits given in brackets in the column ‘Distribution profile’ correspond to the number of consultants who supported a given form.</footnote>

<footnote n="50">⁵⁰ The form */caw/ has been retained as the base form for this ideophone against cadaw, which is almost certainly an extended (expressive) form of caw (see also */baw/ above).</footnote>
<table><caption>Table 1.4: ‘other distribution’ type: ‘CC vs. Guinea-Bissau’ and ‘no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau’ subtypes.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th rowspan="2">CC</th><th rowspan="2">Guinea-Bissau</th><th colspan="2">Continental UGC ideophones</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>Attested forms</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>SEM</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (3)<sup>49</sup></td><td>[lem]</td><td>*/waŋ/</td><td>waj<br>(Geba + Cacheu3 + Bissau1)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>didiya</td><td>‘at noon’</td><td>adv.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (3)</td><td>[maj]</td><td>*/fis/</td><td>fis (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2); fis (+ sai ‘get out’) (Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>©</td><td>speech<br>(‘without a word’)</td><td>No</td><td>pasá</td><td>‘go by’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (4)</td><td>[liŋ]</td><td>*/kaŋ/</td><td>kaŋ<br>(Geba + Cacheu2 + Bissau1);<br>taŋ (Cacheu3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>tesu</td><td>‘be solid’</td><td>qual.</td><td>ŋaw<br>(Geba)</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (2)</td><td>—</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>sip (Bissau3); zip (Geba)</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>gros</td><td>‘be fat/<br>thick’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (4)</td><td>—</td><td>*/far/</td><td>far<br>(Geba + Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>negá</td><td>‘refuse’</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>no CC vs. Guinea-Bissau (5)</td><td>—</td><td>*/caw/<sup>50</sup></td><td>caw<br>(Geba + Cacheu2 + Bissau3);<br>cadaw (Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof©</td><td>intens.<br>(‘ripe fruit’)</td><td>No</td><td>burmeju</td><td>‘red’</td><td>qual.</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="49">⁴⁹ In Tables 1.4 and 1.5, the digits given in brackets in the column ‘Distribution profile’ correspond to the number of consultants who supported a given form.</footnote>

<footnote n="50">⁵⁰ The form */caw/ has been retained as the base form for this ideophone against *cadaw, which is almost certainly an extended (expressive) form of *caw (see also */baw/ above).</footnote>
<table><caption>**Table 1.5:** 'other distribution' type: '(CC + Guinea-Bissau) vs. Guinea-Bissau' subtype.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th colspan="3">(CC + Guinea-Bissau)</th><th colspan="2">Guinea-Bissau</th><th rowspan="2">SS</th><th rowspan="2">Etymon</th><th rowspan="2">SEM</th><th rowspan="2">RED</th><th rowspan="2">Form</th><th rowspan="2">Meaning</th><th rowspan="2">PoS</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>CF</th><th>Attested forms</th><th>CF</th><th>Attested forms</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>(CC + Guinea-Bissau)<br>(2) vs. Guinea-Bissau<br>(3)</td><td>*/mut/</td><td>mut<br>(CC + Geba)</td><td>*/mip/</td><td>mip (Cacheu3 + Bissau2 + Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>(CC + Guinea-Bissau)<br>(3) vs. Guinea-Bissau<br>(3)</td><td>*/nos/</td><td>ños (CC + Cacheu3);<br>ñok (Geba)</td><td>*/rek/</td><td>rek (Cacheu3 + Bissau1); rek<br>(+justá 'be enough')<br>(Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>'be closely related<br>(parents)'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>(CC + Guinea-Bissau)<br>(2) vs. Guinea-Bissau<br>(5)</td><td>*/mik/</td><td>mik (CC);<br>muruk<br>(Geba)</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>yem (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>'keep quiet'</td><td>v.</td><td>tik<br>(Cacheu2)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 1.5:** 'other distribution' type: '(CC + Guinea-Bissau) vs. Guinea-Bissau' subtype.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Distr. profile</th><th colspan="3">(CC + Guinea-Bissau)</th><th colspan="2">Guinea-Bissau</th><th rowspan="2">SS</th><th rowspan="2">Etymon</th><th rowspan="2">SEM</th><th rowspan="2">RED</th><th rowspan="2">Form</th><th rowspan="2">Meaning</th><th rowspan="2">PoS</th><th rowspan="2">Other CUGC equiv.</th></tr><tr><th>CF</th><th>Attested forms</th><th>CF</th><th>Attested forms</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>(CC + Guinea-Bissau)<br>(2) vs. Guinea-Bissau<br>(3)</td><td>*/mut/</td><td>mut<br>(CC + Geba)</td><td>*/mip/</td><td>mip (Cacheu3 + Bissau2 + Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>(CC + Guinea-Bissau)<br>(3) vs. Guinea-Bissau<br>(3)</td><td>*/nos/</td><td>ños (CC + Cacheu3);<br>ñok (Geba)</td><td>*/rek/</td><td>rek (Cacheu3 + Bissau1); rek<br>(+justá 'be enough')<br>(Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>'be closely related<br>(parents)'</td><td>v.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>(CC + Guinea-Bissau)<br>(2) vs. Guinea-Bissau<br>(5)</td><td>*/mik/</td><td>mik (CC);<br>muruk<br>(Geba)</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>yem (Cacheu1 + Cacheu2 + Cacheu3 + Bissau1 + Bissau3)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>'keep quiet'</td><td>v.</td><td>tik<br>(Cacheu2)</td></tr></tbody></table>
Appendix 2: Insular UGC ideophones

<table><caption>Table 2.1: Santiago ideophones.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>álbu<br/>['albu]</td><td>VCCV</td><td>Port. (§4.4.1)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>bránku</td><td>'white'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/fandaŋ/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>ban<br/>['bɛ̈]</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>intxi</td><td>'fill' ~ 'be<br/>full'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/kuŋ/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>bipu ['bipu] ~<br/>vipu ['vipu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>intxi</td><td>'fill' ~ 'be<br/>full'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/kuŋ/</td><td>No<sup>52</sup></td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>bódji-bódji<br/>['bɔdʒi 'bɔdʒi]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>gordu</td><td>'fat'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>No</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>bupu<br/>['bupu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>kai</td><td>'fall'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/bup/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>fakati<br/>[fe'kɛti]</td><td>CVCVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labánta</td><td>'stand up'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/fa(r)kat/ ~<br/>*/fe(r)ket/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>fépu<br/>['fépu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+ Wolof© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kumi/kába</td><td>'eat, finish'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/fep/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="51">51 In the column ‘semantic equivalent’, the segments printed in bold justify the existence of an etymological relationship between insular and continental UGC ideophones, and they have lead us to write ‘Yes’ in the column ‘cognate’.</footnote>

<footnote n="52">52 A possible link could be posited with the continental form */sip/, which intensifies *pisadu* ‘be heavy’ (see Table 1.3), a lexical item semantically close to ‘be full’. Furthermore, we have noted a variant *vip* [vip] in Geba, which displays an even greater similarity with Capeverdean *vipu*. However, as *vip* was only attested once and as the semantic relationship between both associated elements (*pisadu* and *intxi*) is not absolutely straightforward, we have preferred not to consider these two ideophones as cognates within the scope of this study.</footnote>
Appendix 2: Insular UGC ideophones

<table><caption>Table 2.1: Santiago ideophones.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(1)</td><td>álbu<br/>['albu]</td><td>VCCV</td><td>Port. (§4.4.1)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>bránku</td><td>'white'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/fandaŋ/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>ban<br/>['bɛ̈]</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>intxi</td><td>'fill' ~ 'be full'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/kuŋ/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>bipu ['bipu] ~<br/>vipu ['vipu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>intxi</td><td>'fill' ~ 'be full'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/kuŋ/</td><td>No<sup>52</sup></td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>bódji-bódji<br/>['bɔdʒi 'bɔdʒi]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>gordu</td><td>'fat'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>No</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>bupu<br/>['bupu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>kai</td><td>'fall'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/bup/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>fakati<br/>[fe'kɛti]</td><td>CVCVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labánta</td><td>'stand up'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/fa(r)kat/ ~<br/>*/fe(r)ket/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>fépu<br/>['fépu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+ Wolof© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kumi/kába</td><td>'eat, finish'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/fep/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="51">51 In the column ‘semantic equivalent’, the segments printed in bold justify the existence of an etymological relationship between insular and continental UGC ideophones, and they have lead us to write ‘Yes’ in the column ‘cognate’.</footnote>

<footnote n="52">52 A possible link could be posited with the continental form */sip/, which intensifies *pisadu* ‘be heavy’ (see Table 1.3), a lexical item semantically close to ‘be full’. Furthermore, we have noted a variant *vip* [vip] in Geba, which displays an even greater similarity with Capeverdean *vipu*. However, as *vip* was only attested once and as the semantic relationship between both associated elements (*pisadu* and *intxi*) is not absolutely straightforward, we have preferred not to consider these two ideophones as cognates within the scope of this study.</footnote>
<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>No.</th><th>Ideophone</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(8)</td><td>finu<br/>['finu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Port.© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>prétu</td><td>'black'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/nok/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>futi<br/>['futi]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sai</td><td>'get out'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/fut/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(10)</td><td>fututú<br/>[futu'tu]</td><td>CVCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>txera</td><td>'smell'<br/>(intr.)</td><td>v.</td><td>[fututut]</td><td>Yes</td><td>CC-only</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>góbu-góbu<br/>['gɔbu 'gɔbu]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©<br/>(QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>bedju</td><td>'old'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/kokorot/</td><td>No</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>ien ['jē] ~<br/>ian ['jē]</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kála</td><td>'be silent'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>Yes</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>iondon [jō'dō]</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>visual<br/>('desert')</td><td>No</td><td>fika</td><td>'be'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/wandalan/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>kati ['keti]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kebra</td><td>'break'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/kat/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(15)</td><td>kóti-kóti<br/>['kɔti 'kɔti]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©<br/>(QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>bedju</td><td>'old'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/kokorot/</td><td>No</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(16)</td><td>lápu ['lapu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.<br/>('tight')</td><td>No</td><td>xinta</td><td>'sit'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/bap/ ~<br/>[vap] (Bissau1)</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(17)</td><td>mápu ['mapu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pánha /<br/>pega / da</td><td>'seize, take'</td><td>v.</td><td>[mep]</td><td>Yes</td><td>CC-only</td></tr><tr><td>(18)</td><td>moku ['moku]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Wolof© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pila/kebra</td><td>'crush'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/moku/<br/>(Bissau3 + CC)</td><td>Yes</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>(19)</td><td>muku-muku<br/>['muku 'muku]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Wolof©</td><td>onom.<br/>('silent')</td><td>Yes</td><td>fika</td><td>'be'</td><td>v.</td><td>[mik] ~<br/>[muruk]</td><td>Maybe</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(20)</td><td>mus-mus<br/>['mus 'mus]</td><td>CVC-CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>perdi</td><td>'disappear'</td><td>v.</td><td>[mes]</td><td>Yes</td><td>CC-only</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(8)</td><td>finu<br/>['finu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Port.© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>prétu</td><td>'black'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/nok/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>futi<br/>['futi]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>sai</td><td>'get out'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/fut/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(10)</td><td>fututú<br/>[futu'tu]</td><td>CVCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>txera</td><td>'smell'<br/>(intr.)</td><td>v.</td><td>[fututut]</td><td>Yes</td><td>CC-only</td></tr><tr><td>(11)</td><td>góbu-góbu<br/>['gɔbu 'gɔbu]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©<br/>(QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>bedju</td><td>'old'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/kokorot/</td><td>No</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td>ien ['jē] ~<br/>ian ['jē]</td><td>CVC</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kála</td><td>'be silent'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>Yes</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(13)</td><td>iondon [jō'dō]</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>visual<br/>('desert')</td><td>No</td><td>fika</td><td>'be'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/wandalan/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(14)</td><td>kati ['keti]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>kebra</td><td>'break'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/kat/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(15)</td><td>kóti-kóti<br/>['kɔti 'kɔti]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©<br/>(QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>bedju</td><td>'old'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/kokorot/</td><td>No</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(16)</td><td>lápu ['lapu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.<br/>('tight')</td><td>No</td><td>xinta</td><td>'sit'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/bap/ ~<br/>[vap] (Bissau1)</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(17)</td><td>mápu ['mapu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pánha /<br/>pega / da</td><td>'seize, take'</td><td>v.</td><td>[mep]</td><td>Yes</td><td>CC-only</td></tr><tr><td>(18)</td><td>moku ['moku]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Wolof© (QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pila/kebra</td><td>'crush'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/moku/<br/>(Bissau3 + CC)</td><td>Yes</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>(19)</td><td>muku-muku<br/>['muku 'muku]</td><td>CVCV-CVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+Wolof©</td><td>onom.<br/>('silent')</td><td>Yes</td><td>fika</td><td>'be'</td><td>v.</td><td>[mik] ~<br/>[muruk]</td><td>Maybe</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(20)</td><td>mus-mus<br/>['mus 'mus]</td><td>CVC-CVC</td><td>Wolof©</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>perdi</td><td>'disappear'</td><td>v.</td><td>[mes]</td><td>Yes</td><td>CC-only</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">No.</th><th rowspan="2">Ideophone</th><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(21)</td><td>(nun)priti<br>[nũ'priti]</td><td>CCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.<br>('stark naked')</td><td>No</td><td>fika</td><td>'be'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/nu(ŋ)/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(22)</td><td>pan-pan<br>[pē̃ pē̃]</td><td>CVC-CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>ségu</td><td>'blind'</td><td>adj.</td><td>—</td><td>Zero</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>(23)</td><td>plátxi-plátxi<br>['platʃi 'platʃi]</td><td>CCVCV-<br>CCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>gordu</td><td>'fat'</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>No</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(24)</td><td>pran-pran<br>[prē̃ prē̃]</td><td>CCV-CCV</td><td>—</td><td>speech<br>('clearly')</td><td>Yes</td><td>fla/papia</td><td>'say, talk'</td><td>v.</td><td>[pejeŋ]</td><td>No</td><td>CC-only</td></tr><tr><td>(25)</td><td>pratxi<br>['pretʃi]</td><td>CCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>fasi kokó</td><td>'defecate'</td><td>VP</td><td>*/parac/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(26)</td><td>prikiti<br>[pri'kiti]</td><td>CCVCVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labánta</td><td>'stand up'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/pirkit/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(27)</td><td>pufu [ 'pufu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fra</td><td>'make a<br>hole, pierce'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/puf/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(28)</td><td>saki ['sɛki] ~ siki<br>[siki]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sápa</td><td>'get cut'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/pat/ ~<br>*/put/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(29)</td><td>tran ['trē]</td><td>CCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sakédu</td><td>'stand'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/caŋ/ ~<br>*/kaŋ/ ~<br>[taŋ] (Bissau1)</td><td>Maybe</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(30)</td><td>txápu<br>[tʃapu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pánha /<br>pega / da</td><td>'seize, take'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/cap/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(31)</td><td>txulupu [tʃu'lupu]<br>~ txulufu<br>[tʃu'lufu] ~<br>txufun [tʃu'fũ]</td><td>CVCVCV ~<br>CVCVCV ~<br>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.<br>('splash')</td><td>No</td><td>da</td><td>'give'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/culup/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>No.</th><th>Ideophone</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(21)</td><td>(nun)priti<br/>[nũ'priti]</td><td>CCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.<br/>(‘stark naked’)</td><td>No</td><td>fika</td><td>‘be’</td><td>v.</td><td>*/nu(ŋ)/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(22)</td><td>pan-pan<br/>[‘pē̃ pē̃]</td><td>CVC-CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>ségu</td><td>‘blind’</td><td>adj.</td><td>—</td><td>Zero</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>(23)</td><td>plátxi-plátxi<br/>[‘platʃi ‘platʃi]</td><td>CCVCV-<br/>CCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>Yes</td><td>gordu</td><td>‘fat’</td><td>adj.</td><td>*/sip/</td><td>No</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(24)</td><td>pran-pran<br/>[‘prē̃ ‘prē̃]</td><td>CCV-CCV</td><td>—</td><td>speech<br/>(‘clearly’)</td><td>Yes</td><td>fla/papia</td><td>‘say, talk’</td><td>v.</td><td>[pejeŋ]</td><td>No</td><td>CC-only</td></tr><tr><td>(25)</td><td>pratxi<br/>[‘pretʃi]</td><td>CCVCV</td><td>—</td><td>onom.</td><td>No</td><td>fasi kokó</td><td>‘defecate’</td><td>VP</td><td>*/parac/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(26)</td><td>prikiti<br/>[pri'kiti]</td><td>CCVCVCV</td><td>Mandinka<br/>+ Wolof©</td><td>immdt.</td><td>No</td><td>labánta</td><td>‘stand up’</td><td>v.</td><td>*/pirkit/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(27)</td><td>pufu [‘pufu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fra</td><td>‘make a<br/>hole, pierce’</td><td>v.</td><td>*/puf/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(28)</td><td>saki [‘sɛki] ~ siki<br/>[‘siki]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sápa</td><td>‘get cut’</td><td>v.</td><td>*/pat/ ~<br/>*/put/</td><td>No</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(29)</td><td>tran [‘trē̃]</td><td>CCVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>sakédu</td><td>‘stand’</td><td>v.</td><td>*/caŋ/ ~<br/>*/kaŋ/ ~<br/>[taŋ] (Bissau1)</td><td>Maybe</td><td>other</td></tr><tr><td>(30)</td><td>txápu<br/>[‘tʃapu]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>pánha /<br/>pega / da</td><td>‘seize, take’</td><td>v.</td><td>*/cap/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(31)</td><td>txulupu [tʃu'lupu]<br/>~ txulufu<br/>[tʃu'lufu] ~<br/>txufun [tʃu'fũ]</td><td>CVCVCV ~<br/>CVCVCV ~<br/>CVCVC</td><td>—</td><td>onom.<br/>(‘splash’)</td><td>No</td><td>da</td><td>‘give’</td><td>v.</td><td>*/culup/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>No.</th><th>Ideophone</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(32)</td><td>uandan [wē'dē]<br>~ iandan [jē'dē]</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka©<br>(QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>abri</td><td>'open'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/wandaŋ/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(33)</td><td>uátchi<br>['watʃi]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fendi</td><td>'split open'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/wac/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(34)</td><td>uís ['wis]</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>lolu</td><td>'slip'</td><td>v.</td><td>[fit] (CC)</td><td>No</td><td>NA</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th colspan="3">Santiago ideophone</th><th colspan="4">Associated element</th><th colspan="3">Continental UGC ideophone</th></tr><tr><th>No.</th><th>Ideophone</th><th>SS</th><th>Etymon</th><th>Semantic type</th><th>RED</th><th>Form</th><th>Meaning</th><th>PoS</th><th>Semantic Equiv.<sup>51</sup></th><th>Cognate</th><th>Distr. type</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(32)</td><td>uandan [wē'dē]<br>~ iandan [jē'dē]</td><td>CVCCVC</td><td>Mandinka©<br>(QM)</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>abri</td><td>'open'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/wandaŋ/</td><td>Yes</td><td>common core</td></tr><tr><td>(33)</td><td>uátchi<br>['watʃi]</td><td>CVCV</td><td>Mandinka©</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>fendi</td><td>'split open'</td><td>v.</td><td>*/wac/</td><td>Yes</td><td>minority</td></tr><tr><td>(34)</td><td>uís ['wis]</td><td>CVC</td><td>—</td><td>intens.</td><td>No</td><td>lolu</td><td>'slip'</td><td>v.</td><td>[fit] (CC)</td><td>No</td><td>NA</td></tr></tbody></table>
Appendix 3: Etymology of some UGC ideophones

<table><caption>Table 3.1: Origins of those African-derived ideophones for which a possible etymon was identified.</caption><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/caw/</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.4</td><td>other (no CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <b>cáw</b> (IDEO) ‘very [red], intensely [red]’ (Creissels 2012: 33);<br>Wolof <b>coy</b> [cɔj] (IDEO) ‘very [red]’ (Diouf 2003: 85)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[colop]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Mandinka <b>cúrúm</b> (IDEO) ‘[jump] quickly [down]’ (Creissels 2012: 34)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/corot/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>córóti</b> (v.) ‘drip, be tiny’ (Creissels 2012: 34)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/far/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.4</td><td>other (no CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>fétt</b> [fe:ttə] (IDEO) ‘[refuse] adamantly, strongly [refuse]’ (Diouf<br>2003: 126)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fas/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>fés</b> [fes] (v.) ‘be visible/conspicuous’ (Diouf 2003: 126)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fis/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.4</td><td>other (CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <b>fíw</b> (IDEO) ‘[go by] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 70)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fit/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>fít</b> (IDEO) ‘[go by] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 69); <b>fálás</b> (IDEO) ‘[go<br>by] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 58)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fitfat/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka (IDEO) <b>páfát</b> ~ <b>pápát</b> ‘[flee] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 200)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[fof]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Mandinka <b>yéf</b> (IDEO) ‘very [light]’ (Creissels 2012: 271)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fuf/ ~ */fus/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>fuuf</b> [fu:f] (adv.) ‘much [more]’ (Diouf 2003: 132)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>yóm</b> [jóm] (IDEO) ‘very [cold]’ (Creissels 2012: 273)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/jɔp/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Wolof <b>xepp</b> [xɛppə] (IDEO) ‘completely [wet]’ (Diouf 2003: 387; Fal et al.<br>1990: 256)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[kamaj]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <b>kamaj</b> [kamac] (IDEO) ‘[be] suddenly [switched off]’ (Diouf 2003:<br>181)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/kaŋ/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.3<br>+1.4</td><td>common core<br>+ other (CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>këŋ</b> [kəŋ] (IDEO) ‘very [hard/tough]’ (Diouf 2003: 185)</td></tr></tbody></table>
Appendix 3: Etymology of some UGC ideophones

<table><caption>Table 3.1: Origins of those African-derived ideophones for which a possible etymon was identified.</caption><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/caw/</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.4</td><td>other (no CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <b>cáw</b> (IDEO) ‘very [red], intensely [red]’ (Creissels 2012: 33);<br>Wolof <b>coy</b> [cɔj] (IDEO) ‘very [red]’ (Diouf 2003: 85)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[colop]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Mandinka <b>cúrúm</b> (IDEO) ‘[jump] quickly [down]’ (Creissels 2012: 34)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/corot/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>córóti</b> (v.) ‘drip, be tiny’ (Creissels 2012: 34)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/far/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.4</td><td>other (no CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>fétt</b> [fe:ttə] (IDEO) ‘[refuse] adamantly, strongly [refuse]’ (Diouf<br>2003: 126)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fas/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>fés</b> [fes] (v.) ‘be visible/conspicuous’ (Diouf 2003: 126)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fis/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.4</td><td>other (CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <b>fíw</b> (IDEO) ‘[go by] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 70)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fit/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>fít</b> (IDEO) ‘[go by] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 69); <b>fálás</b> (IDEO) ‘[go<br>by] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 58)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fitfat/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka (IDEO) <b>páfát</b> ~ <b>pápát</b> ‘[flee] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 200)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[fof]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Mandinka <b>yéf</b> (IDEO) ‘very [light]’ (Creissels 2012: 271)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/fuf/ ~ */fus/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>fuuf</b> [fu:f] (adv.) ‘much [more]’ (Diouf 2003: 132)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/jem/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>yóm</b> [jóm] (IDEO) ‘very [cold]’ (Creissels 2012: 273)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/jɔp/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Wolof <b>xepp</b> [xɛppə] (IDEO) ‘completely [wet]’ (Diouf 2003: 387; Fal et al.<br>1990: 256)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[kamaj]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <b>kamaj</b> [kamac] (IDEO) ‘[be] suddenly [switched off]’ (Diouf 2003:<br>181)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/kaŋ/</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.3<br>+1.4</td><td>common core<br>+ other (CC vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>këŋ</b> [kəŋ] (IDEO) ‘very [hard/tough]’ (Diouf 2003: 185)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[koŋ]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <b>koŋ</b> [kɔŋ] (IDEO) ‘very [dry]’ (Diouf 2003: 188)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / las /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>làcc</b> [la:ccə] (v.) ‘be exhausted’ (Diouf 2003: 193)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / mut /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.5</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>muut</b> [mu:t] (v.) ‘keep calm, stand still’ (Diouf 2003: 231)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / nok /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>nót</b> (IDEO) ‘very (black and dirty)’ (Creissels 2012: 188)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / pat / ~ * / put /</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>pát</b> (IDEO) ‘[cut] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 201); <b>pókót</b> ‘[cut] silently’ (Creissels 2012: 203); Wolof <b>pàcc</b> (IDEO) ‘[cut] into two equal parts’ (Fal et al. 1990: 256)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / pɔtɔk /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>páták</b> (IDEO) ‘very [wet]’ (Creissels 2012: 201); <b>pòtó</b> (n.) ‘clay, mud, silt’ (Creissels 2012: 203)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / pɔtɔk / ~<br>* / pucuk /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>hót</b> (IDEO) ‘very [black and dirty]’ (Creissels 2012: 82)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[pul]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <b>pëll</b> [pəllə] (IDEO) ‘[get out] quickly’ (Diouf 2003: 277-278; Fal et al. 1990: 169)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / rap /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Wolof <b>ràpp</b> [ra:ppə] (IDEO) ‘[close] tightly’ (Diouf 2003: 285)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / rek /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.5</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>rekk</b> [rɛ:kkə] (adv.) ‘only’ (Diouf 2003: 289); <b>rəkk</b> [rəkkə] ~ <b>rikk</b><br>[rikkə] (IDEO) ‘just [beside], right [next to]’ (Diouf 2003: 289, 291)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / taw /</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>láw</b> (IDEO) ‘very [bitter]’ (Creissels 2012: 156); Wolof <b>toll</b> [tɔllə] (IDEO) ‘very [bitter]’ (Diouf 2003: 347)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / tep /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>tép</b> (IDEO) ‘completely [full], [filled] to the brim’ (Diouf 2003: 58)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[was]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Mandinka <b>wásák</b> (IDEO) ‘[pour/spill] all over’, expresses the idea of ‘dispersal’ or ‘scattering’ (Creissels 2012: 264)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[koŋ]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <b>koŋ</b> [kɔŋ] (IDEO) ‘very [dry]’ (Diouf 2003: 188)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / las /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>làcc</b> [la:ccə] (v.) ‘be exhausted’ (Diouf 2003: 193)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / mut /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.5</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>muut</b> [mu:t] (v.) ‘keep calm, stand still’ (Diouf 2003: 231)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / nok /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>nót</b> (IDEO) ‘very (black and dirty)’ (Creissels 2012: 188)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / pat / ~ * / put /</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>pát</b> (IDEO) ‘[cut] quickly’ (Creissels 2012: 201); <b>pókót</b> ‘[cut] silently’ (Creissels 2012: 203); Wolof <b>pàcc</b> (IDEO) ‘[cut] into two equal parts’ (Fal et al. 1990: 256)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / pɔtɔk /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>páták</b> (IDEO) ‘very [wet]’ (Creissels 2012: 201); <b>pòtó</b> (n.) ‘clay, mud, silt’ (Creissels 2012: 203)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / pɔtɔk / ~<br>* / pucuk /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>hót</b> (IDEO) ‘very [black and dirty]’ (Creissels 2012: 82)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[pul]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <b>pëll</b> [pəllə] (IDEO) ‘[get out] quickly’ (Diouf 2003: 277-278; Fal et al. 1990: 169)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / rap /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Wolof <b>ràpp</b> [ra:ppə] (IDEO) ‘[close] tightly’ (Diouf 2003: 285)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / rek /</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.5</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Wolof <b>rekk</b> [rɛ:kkə] (adv.) ‘only’ (Diouf 2003: 289); <b>rəkk</b> [rəkkə] ~ <b>rikk</b><br>[rikkə] (IDEO) ‘just [beside], right [next to]’ (Diouf 2003: 289, 291)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / taw /</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>láw</b> (IDEO) ‘very [bitter]’ (Creissels 2012: 156); Wolof <b>toll</b> [tɔllə] (IDEO) ‘very [bitter]’ (Diouf 2003: 347)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>* / tep /</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.2</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>tép</b> (IDEO) ‘completely [full], [filled] to the brim’ (Diouf 2003: 58)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>[was]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Mandinka <b>wásák</b> (IDEO) ‘[pour/spill] all over’, expresses the idea of ‘dispersal’ or ‘scattering’ (Creissels 2012: 264)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>and/or Wolof <b>wesar</b> [wɛsar] (v.) ‘be scattered’ (Diouf 2003: 368)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/wit/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>wij</b> [wij] (IDEO) ‘very [hot]’ (Creissels 2012: 265)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/fep/ +<br>[’fɛpu]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>fɛ́w</b> (IDEO) ‘[finish] completely’ (Creissels et al. 1982: 47, Rougé<br>2004: 308)<br>and/or Wolof –<b>épp</b> (adv.) ‘completely’; <b>fɛ́pp</b> [<b>fe:ppə</b>] (adv.) ‘complete,<br>every(where)’ (Diouf 2003: 125)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/wandaŋ/ +<br>[wɛ̄’dɛ̄] ~ [jɛ̄’dɛ̄]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>wáráŋ</b> (IDEO) ‘[swing] wide open’ (Creissels 2012: 264)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/’moku/ +<br>[’moku]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>2.1</td><td>NA</td><td>Wolof <b>mokk</b> [<b>mɔ:kkə</b>] (v.) ‘be ground/crushed’ (Dieng 1985: 247; Diouf<br>2018: 226)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/fut/ + [’futi]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>farafat</b> (IDEO) ‘[come out] suddenly’ (Creissels 2012: 61)<br>and/or Wolof <b>poset</b> (IDEO) ‘(come out) suddenly’ (Fal et al. 1990: 171)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/jem/ + [’jɛ̄]<br>~ [’jɛ̄]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.5<br>+2.1</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <b>yérɛ́ŋ</b> (IDEO) ‘very [quiet]’<br>and/or Wolof <b>remm</b> [<b>re:mmə</b>] (IDEO) ‘quiet(ly) (sea)’ (Diouf 2003: 289);<br><b>xerem</b> [<b>xɛrɛm</b>] ‘completely [quiet]’ (Diouf 2003: 387)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/yambalaŋ/<br>(CC) ~<br>*/wandaŋ/<br>(Guinea-Bissau)<br>+ [jō’dō]<br>(Santiago) +<br>[ɛ̄’dɛ̄] (Fogo)</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>yàmbalaŋ</b> [ja:mbalaŋ] (IDEO) ‘wide [open], extensive, large’ (Diouf<br>2003: 398). The CC is obviously derived from Wolof. The other forms may<br>have been influenced by Mandinka <b>wáráŋ</b> ‘wide [open]’ which is the most<br>plausible etymon of continental * /wandaŋ/ and insular [wɛ̄’dɛ̄] ~ [jɛ̄’dɛ̄]<br>‘wide (open)’ (Quint & Moreira Tavares 2019: 158). Some Santiago<br>speakers consider that [wɛ̄’dɛ̄] ~ [jɛ̄’dɛ̄] can be used indifferently in lieu of<br>[jō’dō] while others maintain a distinction [jō’dō] to refer to a ‘quiet,<br>empty place’ vs. [wɛ̄’dɛ̄] to intensify the ‘opening of a door’. We have<br>considered here that the two roots are separated, which is probably<br>historically true.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>and/or Wolof <b>wesar</b> [wɛsar] (v.) ‘be scattered’ (Diouf 2003: 368)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental</td><td>*/wit/</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>wij</b> [wij] (IDEO) ‘very [hot]’ (Creissels 2012: 265)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/fep/ +<br>[’fɛpu]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>fɛ́w</b> (IDEO) ‘[finish] completely’ (Creissels et al. 1982: 47, Rougé 2004: 308)<br>and/or Wolof –<b>épp</b> (adv.) ‘completely’; <b>fɛ́pp</b> [<b>fe:ppə</b>] (adv.) ‘complete, every(where)’ (Diouf 2003: 125)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/wandaŋ/ +<br>[wɛ̄’dɛ̄] ~ [jɛ̄’dɛ̄]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>wáráŋ</b> (IDEO) ‘[swing] wide open’ (Creissels 2012: 264)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/’moku/ +<br>[’moku]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>2.1</td><td>NA</td><td>Wolof <b>mokk</b> [<b>mɔ:kkə</b>] (v.) ‘be ground/crushed’ (Dieng 1985: 247; Diouf 2018: 226)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/fut/ + [’futi]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>farafat</b> (IDEO) ‘[come out] suddenly’ (Creissels 2012: 61)<br>and/or Wolof <b>poset</b> (IDEO) ‘(come out) suddenly’ (Fal et al. 1990: 171)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/jem/ + [’jɛ̄]<br>~ [’jɛ̄]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.5<br>+2.1</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <b>yérɛ́ŋ</b> (IDEO) ‘very [quiet]’<br>and/or Wolof <b>remm</b> [<b>re:mmə</b>] (IDEO) ‘quiet(ly) (sea)’ (Diouf 2003: 289);<br><b>xerem</b> [<b>xɛrɛm</b>] ‘completely [quiet]’ (Diouf 2003: 387)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/yambalaŋ/<br>(CC) ~<br>*/wandaŋ/<br>(Guinea-Bissau)<br>+ [jō’dō]<br>(Santiago) +<br>[ɛ̄’dɛ̄] (Fogo)</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>yàmbalaŋ</b> [ja:mbalaŋ] (IDEO) ‘wide [open], extensive, large’ (Diouf 2003: 398). The CC is obviously derived from Wolof. The other forms may have been influenced by Mandinka <b>wáráŋ</b> ‘wide [open]’ which is the most plausible etymon of continental * /wandaŋ/ and insular [wɛ̄’dɛ̄] ~ [jɛ̄’dɛ̄] ‘wide (open)’ (Quint & Moreira Tavares 2019: 158). Some Santiago speakers consider that [wɛ̄’dɛ̄] ~ [jɛ̄’dɛ̄] can be used indifferently in lieu of [jō’dō] while others maintain a distinction [jō’dō] to refer to a ‘quiet, empty place’ vs. [wɛ̄’dɛ̄] to intensify the ‘opening of a door’. We have considered here that the two roots are separated, which is probably historically true.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/bap/ +<br>['lapu]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <i>mbàpp</i> [mba:ppə] (ideo) (Diouf 2003: 217) ~ <b>wàpp</b> (ideo) (Fal et al. 1990: 239) '[sit down] heavily'</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/mik/ +<br>['muku 'muku]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <i>méj</i> (ideo) 'very [quiet]' (Creissels 2012: 170)<br>and/or Wolof <i>miig</i> [mi:k] (itj.) 'hush, shh' (Diouf 2003: 225); <i>tɛkk</i> [tɛ:kkə]<br>'very (quiet)'</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>[mes] +<br>['mus 'mus]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1<br>+2.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <i>mes</i> [mes] (ideo) '[disappear] suddenly' (Diouf 2003: 225; Fal et al. 1990: 131)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/pirkit/ +<br>[pri'kiti]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>kíríbít</b> (ideo) '[stand up] suddenly' (Creissels 2012: 127)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/cap/ +<br>['tʃapu]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>cápí</b> (v.) 'take, seize' (Creissels 2012: 33); <b>cás</b> (ideo) '[catch]<br>brutally [in the air]' (Creissels 2012: 33); <b>táp</b> (ideo) '[seize] quickly'<br>(Creissels 2012: 244)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/wac/<br>+ ['watʃi]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>wác</b> ~ <b>wáj</b> (ideo) 'rip, brutally [torn]' (Creissels 2012: 263)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/fa(r)kat/ ~<br>*/fe(r)ket/ +<br>[fe'keti]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>cókót</b> (ideo) '[stand up] at once' (Creissels 2012: 33); <b>táráfát</b><br>(ideo) '[stand up] suddenly' (Creissels 2012: 245)<br>and/or Wolof <i>ñokket</i> [nɔ:kkɛt] (ideo) '[stand up] at once' (Diouf 2003: 269); <b>fojjet</b> [fɔ:jjɛt] (ideo) '[stand up] immediately' (Diouf 2003: 128)</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['bɔdʒi 'bɔdʒi]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>bòjiboji</b> (v.) 'be too ripe [fruit], too oily [dish]' (Creissels et al. 1982: 16)</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['finu]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Port.</td><td>2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>fíŋ</b> (ideo) 'black' (Creissels 2012: 67; Rougé 2004: 309)<br>and/or Port. <b>fino</b> ['finu'] (adj.) 'fine, refined'</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['gɔbu 'gɔbu]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>kób</b> (ideo) 'very (old)' (Creissels 2012: 128)</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['kɔti 'kɔti]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>kòtò/kòtóo</b> (qual./n.) '(be) old, elder' (Creissels 2012: 137)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>UGC</th><th>Proto-CUPC<br>form *// or<br>Santiago []<br>form</th><th>Origin</th><th>Table</th><th>Distribution<br>category</th><th>Etymon</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/bap/ +<br>['lapu]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Wolof <b>mbàpp</b> [mba:ppə] (IDEO) (Diouf 2003: 217) ~ <b>wàpp</b> (IDEO) (Fal et al. 1990: 239) '[sit down] heavily'</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/mik/ +<br>['muku 'muku]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>other ((CC +<br>Guinea-Bissau) vs.<br>Guinea-Bissau)</td><td>Mandinka <b>méj</b> (IDEO) 'very [quiet]' (Creissels 2012: 170)<br>and/or Wolof <b>miig</b> [mi:k] (itj.) 'hush, shh' (Diouf 2003: 225); <b>tɛkk</b> [tɛ:kkə]<br>'very (quiet)'</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>[mes] +<br>['mus 'mus]</td><td>Wolof</td><td>1.1<br>+2.1</td><td>CC-only</td><td>Wolof <b>mes</b> [mes] (IDEO) '[disappear] suddenly' (Diouf 2003: 225; Fal et al. 1990: 131)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/pirkit/ +<br>[pri'kiti]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>kíríbít</b> (IDEO) '[stand up] suddenly' (Creissels 2012: 127)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/cap/ +<br>['tʃapu]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.3<br>+2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>cápí</b> (v.) 'take, seize' (Creissels 2012: 33); <b>cás</b> (IDEO) '[catch]<br>brutally [in the air]' (Creissels 2012: 33); <b>táp</b> (IDEO) '[seize] quickly'<br>(Creissels 2012: 244)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/wac/<br>+ ['watʃi]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>1.2<br>+2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>wác</b> ~ <b>wáj</b> (IDEO) 'rip, brutally [torn]' (Creissels 2012: 263)</td></tr><tr><td>Continental<br>+ Insular</td><td>*/fa(r)kat/ ~<br>*/fe(r)ket/ +<br>[fe'keti]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Wolof</td><td>1.3</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>cókót</b> (IDEO) '[stand up] at once' (Creissels 2012: 33); <b>táráfát</b><br>(IDEO) '[stand up] suddenly' (Creissels 2012: 245)<br>and/or Wolof <b>ñokket</b> [nɔ:kkɛt] (IDEO) '[stand up] at once' (Diouf 2003: 269); <b>fojjet</b> [fɔ:jjɛt] (IDEO) '[stand up] immediately' (Diouf 2003: 128)</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['bɔdʒi 'bɔdʒi]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>bòjiboji</b> (v.) 'be too ripe [fruit], too oily [dish]' (Creissels et al. 1982: 16)</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['finu]</td><td>Mandinka<br>+ Port.</td><td>2.1</td><td>common core</td><td>Mandinka <b>fíŋ</b> (IDEO) 'black' (Creissels 2012: 67; Rougé 2004: 309)<br>and/or Port. <b>fino</b> ['finu'] (adj.) 'fine, refined'</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['gɔbu 'gɔbu]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>kób</b> (IDEO) 'very (old)' (Creissels 2012: 128)</td></tr><tr><td>Insular</td><td>['kɔti 'kɔti]</td><td>Mandinka</td><td>2.1</td><td>minority</td><td>Mandinka <b>kòtò/kòtóo</b> (qual./n.) '(be) old, elder' (Creissels 2012: 137)</td></tr></tbody></table>
Abbreviations (only used in the Appendices)

© = African etymon given in Appendix 3

adj. = adjective

atten. = attenuation

CF = common form

CUGC = Continental Upper Guinea Creole

Distr. = distribution

equiv. = equivalent

immdt. = immediate

itj. = interjection

intens. = intensifying/intensive

n. = noun

onom. = onomatopoeia (= sound ideophone)

PoS = Part of Speech

pron. = pronoun

(QM) = published in Quint &

Moreira Tavares (2019: 157-158)

qual. = qualifier

SEM = semantic type

SS = syllable structure

v. = verb

VP = verb phrase
Abbreviations (only used in the Appendices)

© = African etymon given in Appendix 3

adj. = adjective

atten. = attenuation

CF = common form

CUGC = Continental Upper Guinea Creole

Distr. = distribution

equiv. = equivalent

immdt. = immediate

itj. = interjection

intens. = intensifying/intensive

n. = noun

onom. = onomatopoeia (= sound ideophone)

PoS = Part of Speech

pron. = pronoun

(QM) = published in Quint &

Moreira Tavares (2019: 157-158)

qual. = qualifier

SEM = semantic type

SS = syllable structure

v. = verb

VP = verb phrase