# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

Dsonwa Manfo, Nimpa Giscard, Alexis Dzokom, Pettang Chrispin

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# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

## Abstract

Scientific-Article Aout 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15

Cameroon's climatic diversity, ranging from the arid Sahelian zones in the North to the humid equatorial regions in the South, poses specific challenges for sustainable construction. This study provides a comparative assessment of construction strategies adapted to the country's different climatic zones, with a focus on energy optimization, thermal comfort, and the integration of local materials. A multidisciplinary approach is employed, combining climatic, architectural, and socio-economic data. The findings indicate that the use of bio-based materials, combined with East-West building orientation, controlled openings, and shading devices, reduces indoor overheating by 4 to 8 °C. Drawing on endogenous knowledge, the integration of inner courtyards, patios, verandas, and green roofs enhances natural cooling and cross-ventilation, particularly in Central and Western Cameroon. Modern technologies applied in both equatorial and Sahelian zones enable the construction of RE 2020-compliant housing, achieving indoor temperatures 4 to 5 °C lower and significantly improving thermal comfort levels (up to +30%), thereby reconciling sustainability, climate resilience, and economic accessibility. The application of bio-based insulating materials and natural ventilation techniques derived from vernacular architecture reduces energy demand by more than 40%. The study recommends the regionalization of building standards and the training of construction stakeholders on climate-resilient innovations.
Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between
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Sahel Nature Consulting Revue (ISSN : 1401-0006 March 2025)

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# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon:
Between Innovative Strategies and Climate
Change Resilience

Dsonwa Manfo Ervé Destin¹,², Nimpa Giscard Desting², Dzokom Alexis³, Pettang Chrispin²

1. Ministry of Housing and Urban Development-Cameroon / Department of Architecture and Housing Standards

2. Laboratoire de Civil Engineering et Mécanique, École Nationale Supérieure Polytechnique de Yaoundé, Université de Yaoundé I-Cameroun

3. Sahel Nature Consulting

Adresse auteur correspondant : ervedestin@yahoo.fr

## Abstract

Cameroon's climatic diversity, ranging from the arid Sahelian zones in the North to the humid equatorial regions in the South, poses specific challenges for sustainable construction. This study provides a comparative assessment of construction strategies adapted to the country's different climatic zones, with a focus on energy optimization, thermal comfort, and the integration of local materials. A multidisciplinary approach is employed, combining climatic, architectural, and socio-economic data. The findings indicate that the use of bio-based materials, combined with East-West building orientation, controlled openings, and shading devices, reduces indoor overheating by 4 to 8 °C. Drawing on endogenous knowledge, the integration of inner courtyards, patios, verandas, and green roofs enhances natural cooling and cross-ventilation, particularly in Central and Western Cameroon. Modern technologies applied in both equatorial and Sahelian zones enable the construction of RE 2020-compliant housing, achieving indoor temperatures 4 to 5 °C lower and significantly improving thermal comfort levels (up to +30%), thereby reconciling sustainability, climate resilience, and economic accessibility. The application of bio-based insulating materials and natural ventilation techniques derived from vernacular architecture reduces energy demand by more than 40%. The study recommends the regionalization of building standards and the training of construction stakeholders on climate-resilient innovations.

**Keywords:** sustainable construction, climate, resilience, local materials, innovation, Cameroon

## INTRODUCTION

Sustainability in the building sector has become an imperative in the face of the combined challenges of climate change, rapid urbanization, and environmental degradation, particularly in developing

countries such as Cameroon. The quality of sustainable buildings requires not only a reduction in energy consumption but also the integration of environmental, social, cultural, and economic considerations
# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

© Août 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil
throughout the life cycle of structures (Bragança et al., 2014).

In Cameroon, the diverse climatic zones— ranging from the arid Sahelian region in the North to the humid equatorial region in the South—impose distinct constraints in terms of thermal comfort, material availability, and climate resilience (Sighomnou et al., 2012; Molua & Lambi, 2006). Each zone demands specific architectural and technical strategies adapted to local realities. For instance, in the Sahelian North, the use of high thermal inertia materials such as stabilized earth blocks and green roofs can enhance passive thermal comfort, whereas in the humid South, ensuring effective cross-ventilation is crucial for reducing both heat and humidity (Ngnikam, 2000; Ngwabie et al., 2022).

Sustainable construction in the Cameroonian context must also account for indigenous practices and technological innovations. Several studies highlight the potential of integrating traditional knowledge—such as vernacular housing forms—into environmentally respectful modernization approaches (Yapi-Diahou, 2001; Ebanga et al., 2020). These hybrid approaches provide a foundation for implementing resilience strategies against increasing climate variability, household energy insecurity, and land pressure in urban and peri-urban areas (UN-Habitat, 2012).

Moreover, incorporating climatic diversity into urban and architectural planning is essential to formulate sustainable responses to housing challenges. Building orientation, choice of materials, bioclimatic design, integration of renewable energies, and water and waste management systems are all levers for optimizing the environmental performance of buildings (König et al., 2010; Adegun & Adedeji, 2019).

This study therefore seeks to examine innovative and forward-looking strategies for sustainable construction across Cameroon's different climatic zones, identifying adaptation levers, appropriate technologies, and public policies capable of supporting a transition toward a resilient, resource-efficient, and socially inclusive built environment.

## MATERIALS AND METHODS

The methodological approach adopted for this study is based on a combination of literature review, field surveys, geo-climatic analysis, and sustainable architectural modeling. This mixed approach (both qualitative and quantitative) enables the establishment of a contextualized diagnosis of sustainable construction strategies across the different climatic zones of Cameroon, while simultaneously identifying ongoing endogenous and technological innovations.

### 1. Climatic and Geographical Delimitation

Cameroon is subdivided into several major climatic zones, namely:

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Studies Zones</figcaption></figure>
# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

© Août 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil

* In the Sahelian zone (North), the climate is arid, with low annual rainfall (400–900 mm) and high temperatures (exceeding 40 °C during the dry season).

* In the Sudano-Guinean zone (Adamawa), the climate is tropical dry, characterized by alternating dry and wet seasons, with mean temperatures ranging between 23–28 °C.

* The Equatorial zone (Center, South, East) is marked by high humidity, abundant rainfall (>1,500 mm/year), and a stable mean temperature (~25 °C).

* In the Mountainous zone (West/North-West), the climate is tropical temperate, with high rainfall and relatively cool temperatures (15–22 °C) (Molua & Lambi, 2006; Sighomnou et al., 2012).

Climatic data were collected from the databases of the National Meteorology Directorate of Cameroon and the IPCC (2021), and mapped using a Geographic Information System (GIS) with QGIS 3.28.

## 2. Collection and Processing of Empirical Data

A semi-structured survey protocol was developed, which included:

* **Interviews with local architects, civil engineers, traditional leaders, craftsmen, and residents** (sample: n = 90, distributed across six regions).

The theoretical sample size was determined using the following formula:

$$n = \frac{Z^2 \cdot p \cdot (1-p)}{e^2} \text{ Équation 1}$$

* where:

* Z = confidence level score (1.96),

* p = estimated proportion,

* e = tolerated margin of error (0.05 for ±5%).

* **Direct observations** were carried out on the materials used, the bioclimatic devices, and the impact of climate on the durability of dwellings.

The recorded and transcribed interviews were analyzed using NVivo 12 software, following a thematic analysis approach inspired by Braun & Clarke (2006).

## 3. Evaluation of Materials and Construction Techniques

An inventory of local construction materials (raw earth, volcanic stone, fired brick, wood, bamboo, recycled sheet metal) was conducted across three major zones (North, Center, West). The thermal performance of these materials was assessed according to the following parameters:

* **Thermal conductivity (W/m·K)** of multilayer walls (traditional and/or modern).

For a wall composed of several materials (e.g., adobe + wood + plaster), the total thermal resistance is calculated as follows:

$$R_{Total} = \sum_{i=1}^{n} \frac{e_i}{\lambda_i} \text{ Équation 2}$$

Then, the equivalent thermal conductivity of the whole assembly (if a single value of λeq is required):

$$\lambda_{eq} = \frac{e_{Total}}{R_{Total}} \text{ Equation 3}$$

* **Specific heat capacity (J/kg·K)**

The experimental formula for its determination (calorimetry) using a test:
Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between
Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

© Août 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil

$$
C_e = \frac{(m_{\text{water}} \times C_{\text{water}} + m_{\text{cal}} \times C_{\text{cal}})(T_f - T_0)}{m_{\text{sample}} \times (\theta_i - T_f)} \quad \text{Équation 4}
$$

This formula depends on the thermal
equilibrium reached in a calorimeter, with:

○ T<sub>f</sub> = final temperature,

o T₀ = initial temperature,

o θᵢ = initial temperature
of the sample, etc.,

o c = specific heat
capacity (J/kg·K),

○ **m** = mass of the material
(kg).

Passive thermal simulations were
conducted using **DesignBuilder v7**, based
on the EnergyPlus engine, in accordance
with the dynamic simulation method
recommended by Crawley et al. (2001).

4. Analysis of Bioclimatic and Innovative Strategies

Buildings were classified according to
bioclimatic criteria established by Olgyay
(1963) and Givoni (1998), adapted to
tropical zones, and structured around:

* Orientation and compactness of built volumes,

* Passive greening of roofs, walls, and courtyards,

* Natural ventilation through grills, louvers, and patios,

* Solar protection via overhangs, canopies, and reflective materials,

* **Rainwater collection and storage.**

To propose a sustainability model, a **multi-level hierarchical structure** was used to systematically assess building sustainability regardless of the reference climatic zone. This structure ensures a comprehensive evaluation, from general objectives to specific, measurable metrics.

4.1 Structuring of the Adopted Analytical Model

* **Step 1 – Definition of global objectives:** aimed at achieving a sustainable building or one with high bioclimatic performance and very high durability.

* **Step 2 – Definition of general sustainability evaluation parameters:** selected and adapted based on key sustainability challenges for buildings in Cameroon. Core parameters include materials and resources, energy, ecosystem impacts, quality of life, user comfort and health, local integration and economic viability, and public perception of the adopted models.

* **Step 3 – Definition of criteria:** derived from thematic domains within each main parameter, relevant for construction in Cameroon (e.g., energy performance, adopted standards, indoor temperatures, comfort levels, GHG emissions, local adaptation cost).

* **Step 4 – Performance indicators:** derived from quantifiable metrics associated with each criterion.

* **Step 5 – Definition of reference thresholds:** based on a comparative analysis of RT 2012 and RE 2020 tools contextualized for different climatic zones of the country.

4.2 Definition of Building Sustainability Scores

Overall scores for **bioclimatic efficiency (S)** and sustainability were aggregated according to key criteria and parameters, each normalized and weighted.

* For bioclimatic efficiency (S):

Published by Sahel Nature Consulting Revue (ISSN: 1401-0006 March 2025)

© Aout 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil
# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

© Août 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil

$$S = w_1 \times E_T + w_2 \times C_T + w_3 \times V_N + w_4 \times P_S + w_5 \times I_T \text{ équation 5}$$

<table><thead><tr><td>Symbol</td><td>Criterion</td><td>Description</td><td>Weight (w<sub>i</sub>)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>E<sub>T</sub></td><td>Overall Thermal Efficiency</td><td>Average reduction of indoor temperature (°C)</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr><td>C<sub>T</sub></td><td>Thermal Comfort</td><td>% of time where indoor temperature (T<sub>i</sub>) is within the comfort range</td><td>0.25</td></tr><tr><td>V<sub>N</sub></td><td>Natural Ventilation (score/5)</td><td>Natural ventilation score calculated (see formula above)</td><td>0.2</td></tr><tr><td>P<sub>S</sub></td><td>Solar Protection (score/1)</td><td>Efficiency of shading devices (0 to 1)</td><td>0.15</td></tr><tr><td>I<sub>T</sub></td><td>Thermal Inertia (normalized heat capacity)</td><td>Normalized heat capacity (0 to 1)</td><td>0.1</td></tr></tbody></table>

Local case studies (in Garoua, Yaoundé, Dschang, Maroua, and Bamenda) were selected for their ecological relevance, technological accessibility, and socio-cultural integration. These projects were documented through plans, photographs, in-situ thermal surveys, and interviews with the designers.

## For the Global Sustainability Index (GSI)

The aggregation combined the indicators to produce a composite GSI score, along with intermediate scores aggregated according to the parameters through double summation, based on the number of parameters and the average of the audited buildings. The resulting sustainability is expressed on a Likert scale from 0 to 10: 0–3 for critically substandard (unclassified) buildings, 4–6 for low sustainability, 6–8 for sustainable, and 8–10 for exemplary (highly sustainable) performance.

### 4.3 Prospective Analysis Method

A SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) was conducted to identify potential improvements in sustainable building policies in Cameroon. In parallel, the analysis was cross-referenced with the

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 11 and 13, in particular), alongside a technological watch on low-carbon construction innovations in Sub-Saharan Africa (UN-Habitat, 2012; Omer, 2008; Dzokom, 2023; Dzokom, 2025).

Finally, a participatory workshop was organized with institutional stakeholders (MINHDU, NGOs, local authorities) to propose strategic guidelines adapted to local contexts.

## RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

### 1. Diversity of Local Materials and Their Climatic Performance

According to Decree No. 2014/0611/PM of 24 March 2014, which sets the conditions for the use and application of high labor intensity techniques, a local material is defined as a primary or manufactured material whose imported inputs do not exceed 30% of its value. This study considers local materials as indigenous resources specific to the identified climatic zones (Sahelian, Equatorial, and Mountainous).

The results indicate differentiated use of construction materials according to Cameroon's climatic zones, based on
Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between
Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

© Août 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil
accessibility, cost, thermal performance,
and cultural anchoring.

stability, and enhanced structural
durability (Yapi-Diahou, 2001).

* In the Sahelian zone, high thermal inertia materials such as *banco*, stabilized earth, and cob are preferred. These materials reduce indoor temperature peaks by more than 6 °C compared to bare concrete or metal-sheet structures (Ebanga et al., 2020; Tchindjang et al., 2011).

* In the humid Equatorial zone, traditional timber-frame dwellings with earth or woven plant fillings (bamboo, raffia) ensure good ventilation and reduce condensation effects, which is crucial in high-humidity environments (Ngwabie et al., 2022).

* In the Mountainous zone, volcanic stone (basalt) constructions are widespread, providing better moisture resistance, high thermal

These observations confirm Givoni (1998), highlighting the relevance of selecting materials according to climatic zones and the desired thermal comfort strategy (inertia, ventilation, or insulation).

✓ Sahelian Zone (Far North)

* *Banco* (raw earth) mixed with straw provides some thermal inertia but has limited durability due to low moisture resistance.

* High indoor temperatures (>32 °C) indicate limited thermal comfort, particularly during the dry season.

* Thermal performance can be improved through natural insulating plasters or techniques such as double-wall construction (Ngwabie et al., 2022; Dsonwa et al., 2021, 2025; Dzokom et al., 2025).

<table><caption>Table 1. Comparison of Local Materials and Climatic Performance by Zone</caption><thead><tr><td>Climatic Zone</td><td>Dominant Local Materials</td><td>Thermal Conductivity λ (W/m·K)</td><td>Heat Capacity Cp (J/kg·K)</td><td>Average Indoor Temp. (°C)</td><td>Moisture Resistance</td><td>Natural Ventilation (score/5)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sahelian (Far North)</td><td>Banco, straw, cob</td><td>0.60 ± 0.06</td><td>900 ± 40</td><td>32.8 ± 2.1</td><td>Low to moderate</td><td>2.5 ± 0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Sudanian (North)</td><td>Fired clay brick, stabilized banco</td><td>0.72 ± 0.05</td><td>890 ± 35</td><td>30.5 ± 1.6</td><td>Moderate</td><td>3.1 ± 0.4</td></tr><tr><td>Western Highlands</td><td>Volcanic stone, wood, bamboo, raw brick</td><td>0.85 ± 0.08</td><td>1020 ± 50</td><td>22.2 ± 1.5</td><td>Good</td><td>4.3 ± 0.2</td></tr><tr><td>Equatorial (Center-South, Coastal)</td><td>Red wood, laterite, raffia, earth/straw brick</td><td>0.66 ± 0.04</td><td>970 ± 30</td><td>26.8 ± 1.2</td><td>Very good</td><td>4.6 ± 0.2</td></tr></tbody></table>

Data sources: in-situ temperature and humidity surveys (2022–2024), laboratory tests (thermal conductivity and heat capacity), dynamic simulation analysis (DesignBuilder v7.1, EnergyPlus v9.6).

✓ Sudanian Zone (North)

* Stabilized earth (lime or cement) improves mechanical strength and thermal regulation.
# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

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* Fired bricks, although energy-intensive to produce, display appreciable thermal stability.

* Observed average temperatures remain lower than in the Sahel due to passive ventilation techniques (Bawa et al., 2019).

## ✓ Western Highlands

* Use of volcanic stones provides strong thermal inertia suitable for cool nights.

* Local wood and bamboo facilitate natural ventilation, offering excellent thermal comfort with indoor temperatures around 22 °C (Fomété & Tchanou, 2021).

* This region also benefits from better moisture management due to regular rainfall and breathable materials.

## ✓ Equatorial Zone (Center-South, Coastal)

* Tropical hardwoods (Moabi, Iroko, Bilinga) combined with stabilized laterite ensure optimal ventilation in very humid conditions.

* Plant fibers (raffia, palm) combined with stilted structures prevent condensation and excessive indoor humidity.

* Thermal performance remains stable, with indoor temperatures between 26-27 °C (Mbé et al., 2020; Holzer et al., 2018).

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Average indoor temperature (°C) by climatic zone</figcaption></figure>

The higher the heat capacity and porosity of a material, the more effective the thermal damping in regions with high temperature fluctuations (Olotuah, 2017). Porous and lightweight materials are better suited for humid climates, as they facilitate latent heat dissipation. An integrated bioclimatic approach—considering building orientation, ventilation, and local topography—optimizes the performance of local materials (Ngwabie et al., 2022).

## 2. Contribution of Vernacular and Modern Bioclimatic Strategies

The analyses reveal that passive design strategies remain largely underutilized in modern urban settings, where inappropriate materials (concrete, corrugated metal sheets, PVC) often dominate due to aesthetic preferences or rapid construction needs (Bragança et al., 2014).

However, vernacular practices in rural areas demonstrate superior energy efficiency during heatwaves:

* East-West oriented houses, with controlled openings and shading devices, reduce indoor overheating by 4-8 °C depending on the region
# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

© Août 2025, Volume 08, Issue 15 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil

(Olgyay, 1963; Ngando et al., 2021).

* The integration of courtyards, patios, verandas, or green roofs promotes natural cooling and cross-ventilation, particularly in the Central and Western regions of Cameroon (Ebanga et al., 2020).

Dynamic thermal simulations performed using EnergyPlus confirmed that bioclimatic dwellings incorporating these parameters achieve annual energy consumption reductions of 35–55% compared to standard urban housing across all studied climatic zones.

Average performance analysis indicates high effectiveness of bioclimatic strategies, especially in temperate or high-altitude zones:

* The Western Highlands (average score: 8.2 ± 0.5) benefit substantially from the integration of traditional construction techniques (ventilated roofs, earthen walls, orientation of openings) combined with modern innovations in natural ventilation (Mbassa et al., 2019).

<table><caption>Table 2: Contribution of Bioclimatic Strategies (Vernacular and Modern) by Climatic Zone in Cameroon</caption><thead><tr><td>Climatic Zone</td><td>Average Performance (out of 10)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sahelian Zone (Far North)</td><td>7.5 ± 0.6</td></tr><tr><td>Sudanian Zone (North)</td><td>6.8 ± 0.7</td></tr><tr><td>Western Highlands</td><td>8.2 ± 0.5</td></tr><tr><td>Equatorial Zone (Centre-South, Littoral)</td><td>7.9 ± 0.6</td></tr></tbody></table>

* The equatorial zone, with a score of 7.9 ± 0.6, also shows good results. The combined use of local timber, cross-ventilation, and overhangs limiting direct solar gain fosters thermal comfort without excessive energy use (Ngom et al., 2020).

* In the Sahelian zone, despite harsh climatic conditions, strategies such as thick earthen walls, green roofs, or patios enable effective thermal regulation (score: 7.5 ± 0.6), confirming the importance of vernacular knowledge adapted to extremes (Holcman, 2018).

* In the Sudanian zone, performance remains moderate (6.8 ± 0.7), likely due to the rapid transition from traditional techniques to concrete-based construction models, limiting

bioclimatic efficiency (Nguemni et al., 2021).

The study suggests that bioclimatic strategies perform best when vernacular practices are intelligently combined with modern technological solutions, particularly in mountainous and equatorial regions. Their implementation remains more challenging in climatic transition zones (e.g., the Sudanian zone), where standards and materials are not yet fully adapted to local contexts.

## 2.1. Environmental Regulation (RE 2020) and International Standards Contextualized by Cameroon's Climatic Zones
# Sustainability Model of Buildings in Cameroon: Between Innovative Strategies and Climate Change Resilience

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The plurality of building assessment tools is evident. Internationally available tools such as HQE, RT 2012, RE 2020, LEED, BREEAM, CASBEE, SBAT, and ENVISION evaluate buildings' energy and environmental performance. Focusing on Environmental Regulation, a comparative analysis reveals the clear superiority of RE 2020 across all climatic zones of Cameroon compared to RT 2012:

1. **Energy Reduction:** RE 2020 incorporates embodied energy and carbon impact of materials, unlike RT 2012, which focuses only on primary energy consumption. → RE 2020 achieves an average energy consumption reduction of 30-40% depending on the climatic zone.

2. **Enhanced Thermal Comfort:** In equatorial and Sahelian zones, RE

2020-compliant dwellings show indoor temperatures 4-5 °C lower, significantly increasing thermal comfort rates (up to +30%).

→ RE 2020 requirements reduce overheating in hot climates by considering summer comfort, as confirmed by Fabbri & Monetti (2020).

3. **CO₂ Emission Reduction:** Annual GHG emissions per m² decrease by 30-40% due to the use of bio-based or low-carbon materials under RE 2020.

→ Kaddour & Gharbi (2021) emphasize that material selection under RE 2020 is strategic for carbon footprint reduction.

<table><caption>Table 3: Comparison of RT 2012 vs RE 2020 Performance by Cameroonian Climatic Zone</caption><thead><tr><th>Climatic Zone</th><th>Standard Applied</th><th>Energy Consumption (kWh/m².year)</th><th>Average Indoor Temp. (°C)</th><th>Thermal Comfort (%)</th><th>GHG Emissions (kgCO₂/m².year)</th><th>Local Adaptation Cost (€/m²)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Sahelian (Far North)</td><td>RT2012</td><td>89.2 ± 5.1</td><td>33.5 ± 1.2</td><td>42.1 ± 4.3</td><td>18.3 ± 1.1</td><td>84.5 ± 6.2</td></tr><tr><td>RE2020</td><td>61.8 ± 3.8</td><td>29.2 ± 0.9</td><td>71.4 ± 3.7</td><td>12.4 ± 0.9</td><td>105.3 ± 7.4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sudanian (North)</td><td>RT2012</td><td>83.5 ± 6.4</td><td>32.1 ± 1.0</td><td>51.2 ± 4.8</td><td>16.7 ± 1.0</td><td>78.0 ± 5.7</td></tr><tr><td>RE2020</td><td>59.4 ± 4.0</td><td>27.9 ± 1.1</td><td>77.6 ± 4.5</td><td>10.9 ± 0.8</td><td>98.7 ± 6.8</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Western Highlands</td><td>RT2012</td><td>74.3 ± 4.3</td><td>24.5 ± 0.7</td><td>68.9 ± 3.6</td><td>14.2 ± 0.7</td><td>76.5 ± 4.3</td></tr><tr><td>RE2020</td><td>51.0 ± 3.5</td><td>22.6 ± 0.6</td><td>82.1 ± 3.2</td><td>9.3 ± 0.6</td><td>92.1 ± 6.1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Equatorial (Centre-South, Littoral)</td><td>RT2012</td><td>95.6 ± 7.5</td><td>31.8 ± 1.3</td><td>46.5 ± 4.5</td><td>20.1 ± 1.4</td><td>85.4 ± 6.9</td></tr><tr><td>RE2020</td><td>65.2 ± 4.2</td><td>27.0 ± 1.1</td><td>73.3 ± 4.2</td><td>13.6 ± 1.0</td><td>107.5 ± 7.6</td></tr></tbody></table>

(Average values from four typical dwellings per zone - simulated via dynamic thermal and energy modeling)

4. **Adaptation Cost:** Implementing RE 2020 incurs a 20-25% higher cost, but this investment is recovered in less than 10 years through energy savings and passive comfort.

→ According to ADEME (2023), RE 2020-compliant buildings are cost-effective in the long term under hot and unstable climates.

## 2.2. Building Energy Use and CO₂ Emissions by Cameroonian Climatic Zone

Integrating RE 2020 principles into sustainable construction projects in Cameroon, though originating from the French context, provides a technical framework to simulate energy and
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environmental performance according to local climatic zones:

* In Sahelian and Sudanian zones, cooling needs (passive or active) dominate. Using bio-based insulating materials and natural ventilation techniques from vernacular architecture reduces energy demand by over 40%. RE 2020 also emphasizes thermal inertia, highly beneficial in these zones.

* In the Western Highlands, heating demand is relatively higher than in

other zones. Bioclimatic strategies (orientation, compactness, high-inertia materials) reduce energy consumption by 43% on average, adapted to altitude and relative humidity.

* In the humid equatorial zone, the main challenge is humidity management and natural ventilation. Applying RE 2020 principles combined with indigenous knowledge (high ceilings, cross-ventilation, lightweight and breathable materials) limits the need for artificial energy.

<table><caption>Table 4: Energy Demand and Potential CO₂ Reduction by Climatic Zone</caption><thead><tr><td>Climatic Zone</td><td>Energy Demand (kWh/m².year)</td><td>Standard CO₂ Emissions (kgCO₂/m².year)</td><td>Potential CO₂ Reduction with RE2020 (kgCO₂/m².year)</td><td>Projected Energy Gain (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sahelian (Far North)</td><td>80.4 ± 5.7</td><td>28.6 ± 3.1</td><td>11.8 ± 1.4</td><td>41.3 ± 2.5</td></tr><tr><td>Sudanian (North)</td><td>92.1 ± 6.2</td><td>32.4 ± 3.8</td><td>13.5 ± 1.9</td><td>37.2 ± 2.8</td></tr><tr><td>Western Highlands</td><td>68.5 ± 4.9</td><td>24.2 ± 2.5</td><td>10.1 ± 1.1</td><td>43.7 ± 3.3</td></tr><tr><td>Humid Equatorial (Centre-South, Littoral)</td><td>96.8 ± 7.3</td><td>35.7 ± 4.4</td><td>15.9 ± 2.2</td><td>38.9 ± 2.9</td></tr></tbody></table>

By introducing the Bbio, Cep, Cepnr, and Ic construction indicators, RE 2020 requires a systemic view of the building (Klein et al., 2021). Its adaptation in the Cameroonian context, however, necessitates climatic and socio-cultural adjustments (Dzokom, 2024).

## 3. Limited Adoption of Technical Eco-Innovations

Qualitative interview results highlight a low level of adoption of modern energy-efficient technologies, despite their recognized effectiveness:

<table><caption>Table 5: Adoption Rates of Technical Eco-Innovations by Climatic Zone</caption><thead><tr><td>Climatic Zone</td><td>Eco-Innovation Analyzed</td><td>Average Adoption Rate (%)</td><td>Main Reported Barriers</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sahelian Zone (Far North)</td><td>Green roofs, earth-straw insulating plaster</td><td>18.3 ± 4.5</td><td>High initial cost, lack of awareness, material scarcity</td></tr><tr><td>Sudanian Zone (North)</td><td>Stabilized earth bricks (SEB), passive solar ventilation</td><td>26.5 ± 5.2</td><td>Limited technical support, perceived low durability</td></tr><tr><td>Western Highlands</td><td>Treated bamboo roofs, insulated stone walls</td><td>32.7 ± 6.1</td><td>Poor knowledge of standards, lack of artisan training</td></tr><tr><td>Equatorial Zone (Centre-South, Littoral)</td><td>Certified timber, cross-ventilation</td><td>29.8 ± 4.9</td><td>Land pressure, urban models poorly adaptable to innovation</td></tr></tbody></table>
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Data source: Field surveys of 320 households, 40 artisans, and 12 technical services (2023–2024). Data processed with SPSS v25.

* Green roofs, solar thermal or photovoltaic panels, and rainwater harvesting systems remain poorly integrated into urban housing, mainly due to high upfront costs, limited information, and absence of targeted public incentives (Adegun & Adedeji, 2019; UN-Habitat, 2012).

* The widespread use of imported materials unsuitable for the local climate (galvanized sheets, hollow

concrete blocks without insulation) exacerbates thermal comfort issues and increases cooling energy demand, particularly in the hot and dry northern zones (Molua & Lambi, 2006).

The results thus indicate a technical gap and regulatory inefficiency that hinder the integration of sustainable innovations into the housing sector.

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Graph 3: Adoption Rates of Technical Eco-Innovations by Climatic Zone</figcaption></figure>

## General Observations

Despite the diversity of available eco-technical innovations, their adoption remains moderate to low across the four main climatic zones of Cameroon. Several structural, cultural, and economic factors limit their diffusion.

### Sahelian Zone

* Low adoption (18.3%) is primarily due to the lack of local infrastructure for producing eco-materials (Ouedraogo & Kéré, 2021).

* The perception of these techniques as “non-modern” constitutes a significant barrier (Ngwabie et al., 2022).

### Sudanian Zone

* Adoption is higher than in the Sahel, notably due to NGO-led SEB programs.

* However, the absence of technical standardization and shortage of skilled labor hinder widespread implementation (Bawa et al., 2019).

### Western Highlands

* The highest adoption rate (32.7%) reflects a strong vernacular construction tradition and availability of local materials (stone, bamboo).

* Nonetheless, the lack of regulatory recognition for traditional
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techniques limits their integration into urban projects (Fomété & Tchanou, 2021).

## Equatorial Zone

* Land constraints and vertical urban housing models restrict the integration of technical innovations such as ventilated roofs or bio-based walls.

* The influence of private developers, often insufficiently trained in eco-construction, contributes to partial adoption (Mbé et al., 2020).

## Strategic Recommendations

1. **Strengthening local capacities** through technical training and local certification programs for artisans (bamboo, SEB, certified timber).

2. **Targeted subsidies** via tax incentives or financial support for

purchasing high-performance eco-materials.

3. **Adaptation of building codes** to incorporate bio-based materials and passive construction techniques.

4. **Valorization of local knowledge** through participatory urban planning and codification of indigenous construction practices (Olotuah, 2017).

## 4. The Importance of Public Policies and Local Standards

Documentary analysis and participatory workshops revealed a lack of integrated and binding sustainable construction policies. While some cities (Yaoundé, Douala) possess urban planning documents, these do not take regional climatic constraints or available local resources into account (Tchawa, 2010).

<table><caption>Table 6: Perceived Importance of Public Policies and Local Standards in the Adoption of Sustainable Construction</caption><thead><tr><td>Climatic Zone</td><td>Average Perception of Public Policy Importance (%)</td><td>Existence of Adapted Local Standards?</td><td>Observed Regulatory Impact</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sahelian Zone (Far North)</td><td>52.4 ± 6.2</td><td>Low (not specific to arid zone)</td><td>Weak building regulation</td></tr><tr><td>Sudanian Zone (North)</td><td>59.8 ± 5.7</td><td>Medium (regional guidelines present)</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><td>Western Highlands</td><td>68.2 ± 4.5</td><td>Medium to high (traditional urbanism recognized)</td><td>Moderate to strong</td></tr><tr><td>Equatorial Zone (Centre-South and Littoral)</td><td>74.6 ± 3.8</td><td>High (urban planning codes better established)</td><td>Strong</td></tr></tbody></table>

Data source: Survey of 200 municipal officials, technical services, architects, and local NGOs between 2022 and 2024; perception scores measured on a Likert scale (1–5) and converted to normalized percentages.

The absence of climate-specific standards in Cameroon's Construction Codes (Construction and Housing Code, Urban Planning Code, Environmental Code) constitutes a major obstacle to the promotion of eco-efficient building

practices (König et al., 2010). Best practices derived from local architectural traditions are neither valorized nor codified, limiting their replicability in public projects.

## General Trends

Published by Sahel Nature Consulting Revue (ISSN: 1401-0006 March 2025)

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The data indicate a gradual increase in the
role of public policies and local standards
from the North to the South of Cameroon,
paralleling greater urbanization and better
institutional structuring.

Sahelian Zone

* Urban planning policies remain weakly integrated with local climatic realities.

* Climate resilience initiatives are primarily addressed by NGOs but are poorly embedded in local regulations (Ngwabie et al., 2022).

* The absence of regulatory development plans hinders the dissemination of sustainable construction techniques.

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>Graph 4: Perception of the Importance of Public Policies (%)</figcaption></figure>

Sudanian Zone

* Sectoral urban planning documents exist but remain fragmented.

* Local political will is present, yet it suffers from limited funding and technical expertise (Bawa et al., 2019).

* Standards are weakly enforced, allowing for often unregulated construction practices.

Western Highlands

* The existence of codified customary land regulations facilitates the consideration of certain environmental criteria in building design (Fomété & Tchanou, 2021).

* The link between local standards and traditional construction practices is stronger, but still

insufficiently integrated into
national public policies.

Equatorial Zone

* The importance of public policies is perceived as high (74.6%).

* Urban planning documents (particularly in cities such as Yaoundé and Douala) better account for energy efficiency concerns (Mbé et al., 2020).

* This zone also benefits from international partnerships and funding for pilot sustainable construction projects.

The weak coordination between local authorities and urban planning technical services hampers the enforcement of environmental standards, particularly in rural areas. The absence of national
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technical references specific to each climatic zone makes effective standardization of sustainable construction difficult (Holzer et al., 2018). Integrating local standards inspired by indigenous knowledge into construction codes appears to be a promising avenue (Olotuah, 2017; Kéré, 2021).

## 5. Prospects for Integrated and Decentralized Strategies

The synthesis of results suggests three prospective strategic axes:

* Regional adaptation of building standards according to climatic typologies;

* Valorization of bio-based materials and endogenous techniques, coupled with hybrid innovations;

* Decentralization of housing policies, enabling municipalities to integrate local climate resilience strategies into urban planning documents.

These proposals align with the conclusions of Bragança et al. (2014) and Omer (2008),

who emphasize that building sustainability relies on a multidimensional approach, integrating environmental, social, local economic, and other relevant dimensions.

### ✓ Cross-cutting observations

The momentum toward decentralized and integrated strategies remains uneven across climatic zones, despite a national commitment to sustainability articulated in policy discourse (MINHDU, 2022; MINEE, 2023).

### ◆ In the Sahelian zone (Far North)

* Low scores reflect the absence of structured territorial climate governance.

* Limited synergy exists between municipal actors, NGOs, and regional housing authorities (Ngwabie et al., 2022).

* Responses are often reactive (addressing humanitarian emergencies, droughts, floods, structural collapses, and landslides) rather than prospective.

<table><caption>Table 7: Maturity Level of Integrated and Decentralized Strategies by Zone</caption><thead><tr><td>Climatic Zone</td><td>Local Coordination of Sustainable Strategies (score/5)</td><td>Multisectoral Integration (score/5)</td><td>Observed Decentralization Capacity (score/5)</td><td>Overall Score</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sahelian (Far North)</td><td>2.1 ± 0.6</td><td>2.3 ± 0.5</td><td>1.9 ± 0.4</td><td>2.1 ± 0.5</td></tr><tr><td>Sudanian (North)</td><td>2.6 ± 0.7</td><td>2.9 ± 0.6</td><td>2.5 ± 0.5</td><td>2.7 ± 0.6</td></tr><tr><td>Western Highlands</td><td>3.3 ± 0.5</td><td>3.6 ± 0.6</td><td>3.1 ± 0.4</td><td>3.3 ± 0.5</td></tr><tr><td>Equatorial (Centre-South/Littoral)</td><td>3.7 ± 0.4</td><td>4.1 ± 0.5</td><td>3.8 ± 0.6</td><td>3.9 ± 0.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

Methodology: Delphi survey (2023-2024) with 48 experts (urban planners, mayors, NGOs, civil engineers, environmental specialists); scores standardized on a 1-5 Likert scale, reported as mean ± standard deviation.

### ◆ In the Sudanian zone (North)

* The highest coordination is observed, with pilot projects on

stabilized soil bricks (BTC), insulated roofing, and sustainable collective housing.
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* However, multisectoral integration (energy-housing-water-waste) remains embryonic (Bawa et al., 2020).

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>Graph 5: Overall Score of Integrated and Decentralized Strategies</figcaption></figure>

## ♦ In the Western Highlands

* Local authorities have initiated community strategies inspired by vernacular practices, aligned with resilience challenges (Fomété & Tchanou, 2021).

* Effective decentralization is supported by technical partners (GIZ, COMIFAC).

## ♦ In the Equatorial zone (Centre-South and Littoral)

* The integrated approach is more advanced, particularly in major metropolitan areas (Yaoundé, Douala), with programs targeting building energy performance and sustainable urban planning (Mbé et al., 2020).

* Municipalities have Commune Development Plans (PDC) incorporating climate considerations and partially autonomous budgets.

* The presence of multi-stakeholder platforms (government, international agencies, private sector) reinforces implementation.

## Prospective Recommendations

1. Strengthen local technical capacities in integrated planning (energy-water-waste-building-mobility).

2. Support territorial authorities to become drivers of ecological transition (through green taxation, carbon credits, subsidies).

3. Promote co-construction of strategies between local populations, authorities, and technical partners.

4. Develop a national sustainability framework, territorially contextualized by climatic zone (arid, humid, mountainous, etc.).

## 5.1. Comparative Sustainability: Modern vs. Vernacular Architecture
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Data analysis consistently demonstrates the superiority of vernacular architecture over modern architecture in terms of durability, maintenance cost, and thermal comfort:

* In the Sahelian and Sudanian zones, modern constructions using concrete blocks and metal sheets exhibit low thermal inertia and are more vulnerable to extreme climatic fluctuations (Holm et al., 2000; Njomo et al., 2012).

* Vernacular architecture, based on local materials such as raw earth, provides excellent hygrothermal comfort, higher climate resilience, and a reduced carbon footprint (Ngwabie et al., 2019; Thiam & Diop, 2017).

* In the Western Highlands, the use of stones and plant fibers allows for more natural insulation and greater resistance to weathering and humidity, thereby reducing

maintenance needs (Fayomi et al., 2020).

* In the Equatorial zone, despite high humidity, vernacular dwellings adapt better due to natural ventilation features (e.g., shutters, steeply pitched roofs, hygroscopic materials) (Fongang et al., 2018).

Exemplary models of highly durable vernacular architecture (using local stones and straw) are primarily located in the Western Highlands, in contrast to modern constructions in the same region, which are considered less durable.

Durable building models are identified in three zones (Sahelian, Sudanian, and Equatorial) with scores ranging from 6 to 8, all representing vernacular architecture. The lowest scores (least durable) are observed in the Far North (4.1 ± 0.7) for modern constructions based on materials such as concrete blocks, aluminum sheets, and concrete.

<table><caption>Table 8: Comparative Sustainability – Modern vs. Vernacular Architecture</caption><thead><tr><th>Climatic Zone</th><th>Dominant Architecture Type</th><th>Durability (Score/10)</th><th>Annual Maintenance Cost (FCFA/m²)</th><th>Perceived Thermal Comfort (Score/10)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Sahelian (Far North)</td><td>Modern (concrete blocks, metal sheets, concrete)</td><td>4.1 ± 0.7</td><td>3,500 ± 650</td><td>3.8 ± 0.6</td></tr><tr><td>Vernacular (raw earth, banco, dome)</td><td>7.8 ± 0.9</td><td>1,200 ± 300</td><td>7.5 ± 0.8</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sudanian (North)</td><td>Modern</td><td>4.9 ± 0.8</td><td>4,100 ± 700</td><td>4.5 ± 0.7</td></tr><tr><td>Vernacular (stabilized earth bricks)</td><td>7.3 ± 0.6</td><td>1,450 ± 400</td><td>6.8 ± 0.5</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Western Highlands</td><td>Modern (cement, corrugated metal, concrete)</td><td>5.6 ± 0.6</td><td>5,200 ± 850</td><td>5.1 ± 0.6</td></tr><tr><td>Vernacular (local stone, straw)</td><td>8.0 ± 0.5</td><td>2,000 ± 450</td><td>8.2 ± 0.4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Equatorial (Centre-South)</td><td>Modern</td><td>5.3 ± 0.9</td><td>5,800 ± 900</td><td>4.6 ± 0.8</td></tr><tr><td>Vernacular (wood, stabilized earth)</td><td>7.6 ± 0.7</td><td>2,500 ± 600</td><td>7.0 ± 0.6</td></tr></tbody></table>
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Overall, modern construction models exhibit low durability according to the scale applied in this study. Although modern architecture is valued for its image of modernity, it does not always align with local sustainability principles in the African climatic context (Baros, 2011). Conversely, updated vernacular solutions demonstrate strong potential for context-specific sustainable building strategies.

## CONCLUSION

The study of sustainable building strategies across the diverse climatic zones of Cameroon reveals a variety of approaches adapted to the environmental, social, and cultural specificities of the country. The results highlight the richness of vernacular techniques—often derived from traditional knowledge—which, although sometimes marginalized in modern urban dynamics, provide remarkable performance in terms of thermal comfort, climate resilience, and low carbon footprint.

In the Sahelian zones, the use of local materials with high thermal inertia, such as banco or stabilized earth, effectively regulates temperature fluctuations. In the humid equatorial zone, cross-ventilation systems, lightweight roofs, and open structures are essential to manage constant humidity and heat. In mountainous areas and high plateaus, volcanic stones and semi-buried constructions promote thermal stability and structural durability.

However, the study also emphasizes the still limited adoption of recent technological innovations (eco-insulation, renewable energy, green roofs, rainwater harvesting, and efficient household waste management through source separation), primarily due to economic constraints, regulatory gaps, and the absence of incentive policies. This lack

of integration between traditional practices and contemporary innovations limits the achievement of sustainability objectives in the building sector.

Transitioning to sustainable construction in Cameroon requires an integrated approach based on regional climate adaptation, the valorization of local resources, capacity building for stakeholders, and the establishment of environmental standards tailored to local territorial specificities.

## RECOMMENDATIONS

1. **Integration of Climate-Specific Standards into National Construction Policies**

o Update the Cameroonian Building Code by incorporating sustainability criteria adapted to each climatic zone (building orientation, recommended materials, natural ventilation, minimum thermal performance).

o Decentralize governance of sustainable construction by providing municipalities with the regulatory and technical tools to adapt urban plans to local climatic realities.

2. **Valorization of Local Materials and Vernacular Knowledge**

o Support local production of ecological materials (e.g., stabilized earth, compressed bricks, bamboo, natural stone) through cooperatives, micro-enterprises, and professional training.

o Promote the inclusion of local architects and traditional artisans in public
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housing and infrastructure
projects.

3. Promotion of Locally Adapted Technical Innovation

o Subsidize the integration of accessible green technologies (green roofs, natural ventilation, passive solar panels, rainwater harvesting, and source-segregated waste management) in urban and peri-urban areas.

o Encourage applied research projects on building energy efficiency through partnerships among universities, technical institutions, and local governments.

4. Strengthening Awareness and Capacity Building

○ Integrate sustainable building issues into technical, architectural, and environmental curricula.

o Develop national awareness campaigns on sustainable housing, emphasizing energy savings, passive thermal comfort, and climate resilience.

5. Establishment of Incentive-Based Financing Mechanisms

o Create a national green fund for sustainable construction to enable low-income households to access subsidized ecological materials or low-interest credit.

o Encourage public-private partnerships (PPPs) for large-scale dissemination of eco-friendly housing in disadvantaged areas.

In summary, a sustainable construction strategy in Cameroon—truly adapted to diverse climatic zones—must combine technological innovation, cultural rooting, energy efficiency, and social equity within a systemic and territorially contextualized vision of sustainable urban planning.

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