# Cultural and Human Ecological Resilience at Early Bronze Age Bat

Jennifer Swerida, Eli N Dollarhide, Eric Fouache, Max Engel, Tara

Beuzen-Waller, Aleksandre Prosperini, Claude Cosandey, Laurence Le

Callonnec, Stéphane Desruelles, Akshyeta Suryanarayan, et al.

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► To cite this version:

Jennifer Swerida, Eli N Dollarhide, Eric Fouache, Max Engel, Tara Beuzen-Waller, et al.. Cultural and Human Ecological Resilience at Early Bronze Age Bat. Open Quaternary, 2024, 10, pp.105857. 10.5334/oq.150. hal-04925949

HAL Id: hal-04925949

https://hal.science/hal-04925949v1

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# Cultural and Human Ecological Resilience at Early Bronze Age Bat

RESEARCH PAPER

ju[ ubiquity press

JENNIFER SWERIDA ID

ELI N. DOLLARHIDE ID

ERIC FOUACHE ID

MAX ENGEL ID

TARA BEUZEN-WALLER ID

ALEKSANDRE PROSPERINI ID

CLAUDE COSANDEY

LAURENCE LE CALLONNEC ID

STEPHANE DESRUELLES ID

AKSHYETA SURYANARAYAN ID

ABIGAIL BUFFINGTON ID

ROBERT BRYANT ID

REBECCA SWERIDA ID

SELIN E. NUGENT ID

REILLY S. JENSEN

PETRA M. CREAMER ID

JESSE CASANA ID

**CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:**

Jennifer Swerida

Department of World
Archaeology, Leiden University,
Leiden, the Netherlands;
Near East Section, University
of Pennsylvania Museum,
Philadelphia, PA, United States

sweridajl@wuv.leidenuniv.nl

## ABSTRACT

The Bat landscape of northwestern Oman is one of intermittent archaeological remains and varied ecological conditions. The site has been a center for human activity since the Neolithic, most famously attested by the Early Bronze Age tombs, towers, and settlement of the UNESCO World Heritage zone. This paper presents recent research conducted by the Bat Archaeological Project in reconstructing the site's third millennium BC cultural landscape and the human-environment interactions that led to its creation and long-term occupation. Three of Bat's Early Bronze Age environs: the Settlement Slope, al-Khutm, and Rakhat al-Madrh are discussed in view of their ecological, geomorphological, and archaeological contexts. New archaeobotanical and ¹⁴C results are presented. These discoveries suggest Bat's ancient inhabitants sought out and utilized diverse environments in order to establish cultural and ecological resilience within a localized area. Ultimately, we propose an expansion to the traditional oasis model of settlement and agricultural development in southeast Arabia, arguing for a systems-based approach that incorporates roles played by environs beyond the oasis.

**KEYWORDS:**

Arabia; resilience; oasis
settlement; Early Bronze
Age; aridification; cultural
landscape

**TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:**

Swerida, J, Dollarhide, EN, Fouache, E, Engel, M, Beuzen-Waller, T, Prosperini, A, Cosandey, C, Callonnec, LL, Desruelles, S, Suryanarayan, A, Buffington, A, Bryant, R, Swerida, R, Nugent, SE, Jensen, RS, Creamer, PM and Casana, J. 2024. Cultural and Human Ecological Resilience at Early Bronze Age Bat. *Open Quaternary*, 10: 7, pp. 1–26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/oq.150

<footnote>*Author affiliations can be found in the back matter of this article</footnote>
INTRODUCTION

The concept of resilience, or the ability of a system to persist and thrive even in the face of perturbations, is applicable to both natural ecosystems and human communities (Løvschal 2022). Questions regarding the modalities of cultural and ecological resilience in arid settings are of growing relevance as modern populations contend with a warming global climate and an increase in the frequency of extreme weather events and arid periods. In southeast Arabia, archaeological studies of Early Bronze Age sites interpreted as oasis settlements (Figure 1) offer valuable insights into a resilient set of cultural behaviors and human-environment interactions during a period of environmental stability and cultural fluorescence (Cleuziou & Tosi 2020a). The oasis settlement model (Cleuziou 1998) has been central to research on emerging Arabian social complexity, technology, agriculture, and pastoralism (see Beuzen-Waller et al. 2018; Cleuziou 2009; Méry 2013; Orchard & Orchard 2007; Tengberg 2003; 2012). However, field discoveries increasingly demonstrate that oasis sites were not the only settings where such cultural phenomena took shape. In order to assemble a representative model of Early Bronze Age resilience in southeast Arabia, it is therefore necessary to revisit the concept of the oasis settlement and incorporate case studies from sites outside the structure of the established model.

In scholarly literature, the term “oasis” has been used
to describe green spaces in drylands based on a variety of
physical, ecological, and anthropological characteristics
(see Lavie & Marshall 2017). From an agronomic point of

view, oasis refers to an intensive agrosystem with multi-
layered intercropping using date palm (Phoenix dactylifera
L.) as a key species. From a geographic perspective, oasis
refers to an inhabited space with fixed resources that
acts as a node in long distance trade or transhumance
trails. Differences in applied definitions, stated or
unstated, can complicate archaeological discussions of
the roles played by such places in the human past. In this
paper, we join Beuzen-Waller et al. (2018) in adopting
an anthropogenic definition of Arabian oases as green
spaces of concentrated food and water resources in an
otherwise resource-scarce landscape formed by human
interactions with the local ecosystem. Such human-
environment interactions include but are not limited to
irrigation, soil enrichment, physical manipulation of the
topography (e.g., terracing, excavation), and cultivation
of date palms, among other species.

Located in arid northwest Oman, Bat is one of the few
known sites in the region to be occupied throughout the
entirety of the Early Bronze Age, inclusive of the Hafit and
Umm an-Nar periods (see Table 1). Archaeologists have
long been attracted to the third millennium BC tombs,
tower platforms, and settlements of the site's UNESCO
World Heritage zone (Figure 2) (de Cardi et al. 1976;
Frifelt 1976; 1985; UNESCO 1988). A particularly high
concentration of these features in the area of the site
interpreted as an ancient oasis helps to form the classic
model of an early Arabian oasis settlement (Cleuziou
1982; 1998; Frifelt 1989). Archaeological remains,
however, are found far beyond the ancient oasis. The Bat
landscape, which incorporates the wide floodplain of the
wadis al-Hijr and al-Sharsah and the surrounding hills, is

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1** Map of southeast Arabia marking Early Bronze Age sites discussed in archaeological literature as oasis settlements.
Map: Eli Dollarhide.</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>**Table 1** Bronze and Iron Age chronology adopted in this paper (after Magee 1996; Potts 1992; Swerida et al. 2021: Table 1; Swerida et al. in press).</caption><thead><tr><th>ABSOLUTE<br>DATES (BCE)</th><th>ARCHAEOLOGICAL<br>PERIOD</th><th>BAT PHASE</th><th>ACTIVE BAT AREA<br>(*) – INDICATES<br>EPHEMERAL PRESENCE</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>600–300</td><td rowspan="3">Iron Age</td><td>Iron Age III</td><td>(Operation A)</td></tr><tr><td>1100–600</td><td>Iron Age II</td><td>al-Khutm<br>(Settlement Slope)</td></tr><tr><td>1300–1100</td><td>Iron Age I</td><td>No identified occupation</td></tr><tr><td>1600–1300</td><td>Late Bronze Age</td><td>Late Bronze Age/Late Wadi Suq</td><td>(Settlement Slope)</td></tr><tr><td>2000–1600</td><td>Middle Bronze Age</td><td>Wadi Suq</td><td>Settlement Slope<br>al-Khutm<br>Rakhat al-Madrh</td></tr><tr><td>2200–2000</td><td rowspan="2">Early Bronze Age</td><td>Late Umm an-Nar</td><td>Settlement Slope<br>Rakhat al-Madrh</td></tr><tr><td>2400–2200</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 2</td><td>Settlement Slope<br>al-Rojoom<br>al-Khafaji<br>al-Khutm<br>Rakhat al-Madrh</td></tr><tr><td>2500–2400</td><td></td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 1</td><td>Settlement Slope<br>al-Khafaji<br>al-Khutm<br>Rakhat al-Madrh</td></tr><tr><td>2800–2500</td><td></td><td>Early Umm an-Nar</td><td>Settlement Slope<br>al-Khafaji<br>Matariya</td></tr><tr><td>2900–2800</td><td></td><td>Late Hafit</td><td>al-Khafaji<br>Matariya</td></tr><tr><td>3000–2900</td><td></td><td>Hafit</td><td>Settlement Slope<br>al-Khafaji<br>Matariya<br>Rakhat al-Madrh</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2** Features from Bat's UNESCO zone, including an Umm an-Nar tomb from the necropolis (upper left), al-Matariya tower in oblique (upper right), al-Rojoom tower in plan (lower left), and an Umm an-Nar house at the Settlement Slope (lower right). Photos: Bat Archaeological Project.</figcaption></figure>
one of intermittent archaeological remains and diverse ecological conditions (see below; see also Cable & al-Jabri 2018; Janjou et al. 1986). An extensive network of third millennium BC tombs and strategically positioned towers, settlements, and hydraulic features are found within a day's walk of the oasis center (Dollarhide 2019; Swerida, Cable, & Dollarhide 2020). These combined factors—sustained occupation with ample evidence for cultural activity and human-environment interaction—render Bat an especially fruitful case study for Early Bronze Age resilience both within the oasis and beyond.

In order to explore the multifaceted dynamics of the site's cultural and ecological resilience, the Bat Archaeological Project (BAP) is employing an integrated study of the site's geomorphological, paleoenvironmental, and archaeological landscape. Geomorphological study of the local wadi systems evaluates the long-term development of the landscape and crucial natural resources, and, in turn, how human interactions have influenced its evolution (e.g., Desruelles et al. 2016). An ongoing program of archaeological excavation, archaeobotanical analysis, and remote sensing targeting ancient domestic spaces is enabling us to trace the arc of Early Bronze Age activity at Bat alongside its changing environment. This work builds on BAP's existing body of research on the site's Early Bronze Age monuments (Thornton et al. 2016), funeral and settlement spaces (Cable & al-Jabri 2018; Dollarhide 2019; Swerida & Thornton 2019a; 2019b; Swerida et al., in press), land-use patterns (Desruelles et al. 2016; Swerida, Cable, & Dollarhide 2020), and chronology (Swerida 2018; Swerida, Dollarhide, & Jensen 2021).

This paper presents the theoretical framework and interdisciplinary methodologies that underpin BAP's "Beyond the Oasis" research,¹ as well as preliminary observations and hypotheses. Case studies are drawn from three areas of Early Bronze Age occupation located in significantly different physical and environmental settings within the Bat landscape. By looking "beyond the oasis," this work aims to expand and enrich existing models of human resilience in southeast Arabia.

## BEYOND THE OASIS: RESILIENCE AND THE OASIS SETTLEMENT MODEL

Due to our position at the nexus of the social and natural sciences and the deep temporality of our data sets, archaeologists are uniquely poised to speak to themes of resilience. The systemic nature of resilience theory, which looks to interactions between human and non-human agents and their surroundings to explain the formation of lasting social and ecological networks, requires an integrated humanistic and scientific approach (see Faulseit 2016; Ungar 2021). This human-non-human relationship does not necessarily result in a deterministic or binary set of outcomes (i.e., successful

resilience or failure resulting in collapse), but rather forms an adaptive framework for navigating and overcoming stress (Løvschal 2022; Winter 2024). The time-depth of the archaeological gaze allows for longevity in our perspectives on cycles of resilience and adaptation (see McAnany & Yoffee 2010; Schwartz & Nichols 2006).

Human responses to and interactions with our surroundings are influenced by a variety of factors, including the logistics of space and environment (e.g., terrain, climate, resource availability) and our socioculturally informed logic (see Latour 2005). Humans are not separate from our ecology, but are one factor in the ecological system of the space(s) and place(s) we inhabit. We are subject to environmental forces that act on the system and interact with other non-human agents at play within it (e.g., hydropshere, biosphere, pedosphere). However, due to our capacity to act in organized, culturally informed, and technologically enhanced ways, humans have an outsized ability to exert agency on a system, producing anthropogenic geosystems and landscapes (Bertrand 1978; Kempf 2020; Laland & O'Brien 2010; Marston 2015). This agency may be evidenced in the form of physical modifications to the landscape (e.g., the construction of buildings; changes to topography or hydrographic networks) or selective manipulation of certain elements of the biosphere (e.g., preferential interactions with certain plant/animal species).

As sociocultural actors, humans also behave in symbolic ways that may physically alter the landscape and its ecosystem. Imbued with meaning, cultural landscapes develop in tandem with the communities living in and engaging with them (Morrison 2018; Tilley 1994). The reciprocal process of culture/cultural landscape formation may be rapid or gradual and entails the full scope of human behaviors: active and passive, intentional and unintentional, ritual and mundane (Smith 2007). Thus shaped, cultural landscapes reflect the lifeways and social logic of their resident community and perpetuate the transmission of cultural knowledge and practice from generation to generation. The resilience of a human society can, thus, be understood as the cumulative result of cultural and ecological behaviors in place and over time. In this paper, we utilize an informal conceptualization of resilience theory (Haldon et al. 2020; Løvshal 2022; Winter 2024) that recognizes humans as key agents in entangled cultural and socio-ecological systems (see McAnany & Yoffee 2010).

In studies of southeast Arabia, archaeological conversations concerning resilience in the Early Bronze Age have predominantly focused on the oasis settlement model. Drawing on evidence from several large sites from the peninsular interior, including Bat (Frifelt 1985; 1989), Hili (Cleuziou 1989; 1998), and Bisya (Orchard & Orchard 2007), oases in this model are conceptualized as irrigated gardens formed through the interaction of humans, date palms, and various geophysical and
hydraulic aspects of the landscape (Figure 3) (Beuzen-Waller et al. 2018; Desruelles et al. 2016). The dense date palm canopy co-produced through this relationship creates a shaded humid environment in which a diversity of plants and animals, including humans, can thrive in an otherwise harsh arid setting. Oases served as fixed places of concentrated resources and social interaction on the cultural landscape (Cleuziou 2009). They are also discussed as the primary stages for developments in social complexity such as growing sedentism (Cleuziou & Tosi 2020a), agropastoralism (al-Jahwari 2009; Munoz 2017; Tengberg 2012), the construction of monumental and domestic architecture (Cable & Thornton 2013; Jean et al. 2023; Swerida & Thornton 2019b), and craft production (Méry 2013; Weisgerber 1983). The concentration of cultural and archaeobotanical materials alongside the longevity of occupation in such sites support the hypothesis that these oases were a central component in the resilience of Arabian societies in the Early Bronze Age.

Identification of ancient oases, however, is not always straightforward. In recent studies, sites have been interpreted as oases based on the presence of various material indicators, preferably in combination, such as archaeobotanical evidence of domesticated oasis crops (e.g., date palms, wheat, barley) (Tengberg 2012), evidence for ancient water management (Desruelles et al. 2016), the location of sites near hydrologically favored areas (e.g., narrow valleys, gaps, the apex of an alluvial fan) (Beuzen-Waller et al. 2018), or the presence of chemically distinct anthrosols associated with oases (Costa et al. 2021). Positive identification of such criteria depend on specialist interpretation and chance preservation that, in the increasingly developed and environmentally challenging landscape of southeast Arabia, is not always possible. Other

interpretations of sites as ancient oases cite proximity to modern oases or archaeological features hypothesized to relate to ancient water management (e.g., Early Bronze Age tower monuments) as supporting evidence (Nathan & Harrower 2023). The incomplete nature of archaeological and geophysical records and variations in identifying criteria inevitably leave a degree of uncertainty in which sites should or should not be considered oases.

Furthermore, it has long been recognized that the human subsistence strategies at play in Early Bronze Age southeast Arabia, including those practiced in landscapes proximate to oasis settlements, incorporated activities and locations outside of oases. Referencing sites interpreted as temporary or seasonal (Blin 2012; Düring & Botan 2018), resource processing centers (Schmidt & Döpper 2017; Weisgerber 1983), and trade hubs (al-Jahwari et al. 2018; Frifelt 1995; Cleuziou & Tosi 2020b), numerous studies now highlight potential roles played in such strategies by mobile pastoralism, seasonality, specialized resource exploitation, and economic interactions (Frenez 2020; Schmidt 2018; Uerpmann & Uerpmann 2008). Some scholars have gone so far as to argue that the archaeological analogy between modern date palm gardens and the human ecology of Early Bronze Age settlements may be overstated (Charbonnier 2017; Power & Sheehan 2012). Rather than refuting the oasis settlement model in its entirety, these diverse perspectives instead reflect the complex nature of identifying and interpreting the Early Bronze Age social and ecological systems in which oasis settlements played a part. Following this logic, efforts to speak to the resilience of societies in this period must consider human behaviors and relationships with species and landscapes both within oases and beyond.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3** Views of the modern Bat oasis. Photos: Reilly Jensen, 2022–2023.</figcaption></figure>
# SPATIAL ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

## SOUTHEAST ARABIA

The physical environment of the Arabian Peninsula is very sensitive to climatic fluctuations of the Late Quaternary. The time from the Last Glacial Maximum at around 20,000 years ago to the end of the Pleistocene is characterized by broad-scale aridity (Fuchs & Buerkert 2008; Parker 2010), the impacts of which vary in different landscape types (Woor et al. 2022). The onset of the Holocene is associated with more humid conditions in most parts of the Arabian Peninsula resulting in lake and wetland formation (Engel et al. 2017; Fuchs & Buerkert 2008; Neugebauer et al. 2022; Parker et al. 2016; Preston et al. 2015), better accessibility to water resources (Petraglia et al. 2020) and denser vegetation cover (Ivory et al. 2021). The rainfall surplus was mainly driven by the African and Indian Ocean monsoonal systems, in some regions supplemented by Mediterranean winter rains or tropical plumes (Enzel et al. 2015). This combination of moisture sources implies variability in the duration of this humid phase reaching from a few centuries in the north (Neugebauer et al. 2022) to several millennia in the southeast of the peninsula, where the influence of the northward shift of the summer Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and the Indian Ocean Monsoon was strongest (Fleitmann et al. 2022).

The stable isotope record from Hoti Cave in the Hajar Mountains of Oman, 65 km east of Bat, indicates an abrupt shift to drier conditions within a few decades around 4300 BC induced by a southward shift in the migration of the ITCZ. The cessation of monsoonal influence led to a shift from a summer dominance in precipitation to winter-spring rainfall (Fleitmann et al. 2022), which stems from the Mediterranean domain and is mainly controlled by the North Atlantic Oscillation (Charabi & al-Hatrushi 2010; Weyhenmeyer et al. 2002). The overall drop and seasonal shift in moisture coincides with the onset of the late Neolithic "Dark Millennium" and termination of the Arabian Bifacial Tradition (Fleitmann et al. 2022), whilst human occupation declined and population centers shifted to the shores of the southern Arabian Gulf (Petraglia et al. 2020). Towards the Early Bronze Age, increased localized moisture availability and landscape stability is reflected by palaeoenvironmental archives in southeast Arabia (Parker et al. 2016; Preston et al. 2015) coinciding with population expansion across the region and increased social, economic, and political complexity materializing in the establishment of an oasis culture during the Umm an-Nar period (Petraglia et al. 2020). Pronounced aridization at the end of the third millennium BC is observed in large parts of the peninsula (Neugebauer et al. 2022; Parker et al. 2016), possibly linked to the global aridity event of 4.2 k years ago (Staubwasser & Weiss 2006), along with a reduced number of settlements during the Wadi Suq period (Petraglia et al. 2020).

## THE BAT LANDSCAPE

The Bat landscape is located downstream in the wadis al-Hijr and al-Sharsah, on the southwestern slopes of the central Hajar Mountains of Oman. Its valley hosts one of the major networks of south-flowing wadis coming from the central mountain range, which reaches a maximum elevation of 3000 m above sea level (asl) at Jebel Shams some 55 km east of Bat. The wadi valley changes direction upstream of Bat, where it follows the orientation of the folded Alpine mountain range (NW-SE) formed by the early Campanian thrusting of a fragment of the Tethys oceanic crust and the upper mantle over the northeastern edge of the Arabian Platform (Janjou et al. 1986). Thrusting of sedimentary rocks produced major nappes, like the Samail ophiolite and the Hawasina nappe, which now overlie the pre-Maastrichtian autochthonous rock. The Hajar Mountains uplifted during the Miocene Alpine orogeny, which caused further compressive deformation (Janjou et al. 1986). Late Tertiary and Quaternary erosion of this newly created relief resulted in piedmont scree and vast coalescing alluvial fans in the southern flank of the Hajar Mountains (Woor et al. 2023).

At 500 m asl, the Bat landscape is one of steep rocky slopes separated by valley infills as well as talus slopes and alluvial fans along the contact zone between the Hawasina nappe and recent sediments (Figure 4). During the Pleistocene and Holocene eras, depending on variations in climatic conditions and rainfall amounts, the rare but sudden and violent flooding of the wadis shaped most of the interfluves. In the valley upstream of Bat, the Wadi al-Hijr flows intermittently in a braided major bed or terrace, with two older nested terrace generations at slightly elevated levels (cf. Desruelles et al. 2016).

Under the current semi-arid to arid climate, the area is characterized by low rainfall with high interannual variability (Sanlaville 2000), mostly occurring during extreme localized events. Even if Bat is affected by high-altitude rainfall from the Hajar Mountains and can be considered a relatively cool and humid area compared to other hyper-arid regions in Oman, mean annual rainfall does not exceed 90 mm (Charabi & Al-Hatrushi 2010). This is far from sufficient to sustain rain-fed agriculture or permit dryland farming, which requires a minimum annual rainfall of 200-250 mm. The water that falls on the Bat landscape runs off very quickly due to the steep terrain, the lack of vegetation, and relatively low infiltration rates as pore space in the uppermost soil horizon closes rapidly.

Associated in its hydrological functioning with the wadi that drains it, the Bat landscape's groundwater supports a perennial underflow within the low sloping terrain in the wadi valleys. However, there is no water source capable of supporting a sustainable surface flow. Water circulates in the wadis during flood events through braided channels incised into older terraces. The porosity and permeability of the local bedrock, which alternates between sandstone, limestone, and clay marl, impacts water infiltration and residence time in the soil.
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4** Map of the extended Bat landscape topography. Map: Eli Dollarhide.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5** Wadi al-Hijr landscape, including: acacia steppe (upper left); braided bed during a flood (upper right); underflow meeting the surface due to the narrowing of the valley and a bedrock outcrop (lower left); and a modern well (lower right). Photos: Eric Fouache, Claude Cosandey, and Aleksandre Prosperini, April 2024.</figcaption></figure>

The wadi valleys are occupied by an acacia steppe (Acacia tortilis) extending up to 1500 m asl (Hoffmann et al. 2016). This discontinuous steppe vegetation is most developed where groundwater is shallow, inside the floodplain or on low river beds.² These greener areas serve as grazing land. Sparse plant life can also appear on the slopes in favorable conditions (e.g., vertical or sloping strata that retain water; fine materials brought by wind or run-off; fissures in magmatic rock) or even interstices between screes, providing pasturage for goats and other nimble animals (Figure 5).

Once a rain event has passed, vegetation develops both on flooded surfaces and on those that have simply been moistened by rainfall. At least 10 mm of rain is required to moisten dry soil to a depth of 5 cm. The possibility of recharging the water reserve outside flooded areas therefore depends directly on the amount of rainfall. Once a threshold corresponding to the storage capacity of the soils has been exceeded, all water runs off without benefiting local water resources. Underflow, in contrast, is permanent because the slopes of the wadis are gentle and water migration inside the
sediments is slow. In the main branch of the Wadi al-Hijr,
this underflow resurfaces and forms small pools under
favorable morphological conditions, such as a narrowing
of the flow channel or the presence of an underground
rock dam. The under-flowing water table occupies
almost the entire interfluve, with major disparities at
individual points due to topography and permeability of
the bedrock. Wells and *falaj* underground canal systems
tap into this water table, the level of which depends
on recent rainfall and flooding events. Analysis of the
Bat hydraulic landscape finds most of the sedimentary
fill occupied by a water table, which is, in the broadest
sense, the water table accompanying the wadi.

RESEARCH PROGRAM

As an archaeological landscape, Bat has a history of
human occupation that stretches from the Neolithic
to the present day. The site is best known in the Wadi
al-Hijr valley and neighboring hills, where the highest
concentration of archaeological features, the historic
mudbrick village, and the modern community of Bat are
found (see Figure 2) (Swerida et al. 2020; Thornton et al.
2016; Young 2019). Evidence for Early Bronze Age human
activity and occupation also extend well beyond the area
identified as an ancient oasis and include a network of
small domestic settlements within a 20 km radius (i.e.,
approximately a single day's walk) (Cable & al-Jabri
2018; Dollarhide 2019). Acacia steppe has developed on
all sedimentary fill in this area (the fluvial terrace of the
Wadi al-Hijr and associated outwash from its tributaries,
whether Holocene deposits or Pleistocene legacies). Sites
are strategically situated across the landscape and offer

insights into the various forms of human-environment
interactions and behaviors that characterized this period
of cultural and ecological resilience.

The research program targets three sites of Early
Bronze Age domestic settlement (Figure 6), each located
in a different type of geophysical setting within the
Wadi al-Hijr watershed: (1) the Settlement Slope next
to the Bat oasis; (2) al-Khutm settlement located 3 km
downstream at the confluence of the wadis al-Hijr and
al-Syrar; and (3) the settlement of Rakhat al-Madrh
located 7.5 km upstream in a basin outside of the main
channel of the Wadi al-Hijr. While all part of the extended
Bat archaeological complex and each featuring at
least one indicator associated with oases, the varied
site locations and compositions suggest the resident
communities practiced distinct or complementary social
and subsistence strategies. Comparison of such closely
related but uniquely situated sites enables us to enlarge
the current definition of proto-oasian settlements and
open the discussion regarding the resilience of Early
Bronze Age human culture and ecology in southeast
Arabia.

At each location, BAP employs an integrated
methodology of traditional archaeological exploration
(survey, excavation, remote sensing) and scientific
analysis of the ancient landscape and environment
(geomorphology, archaeobotany, hydrology). As
preservation conditions in the Bat landscape are generally
hostile toward botanical and zoological remains, we
make use of diverse indicators of human-environment
interaction. Preliminary results aim to situate the
observed human cultural and ecological behaviors within
their physical and environmental contexts in the Early
Bronze Age landscape.

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6** Map of the Wadi al-Hijr indicating the location of the three case study sites. Map: Eli Dollarhide.</figcaption></figure>
## PRELIMINARY RESULTS

The case studies below describe the physical and cultural landscapes of the Settlement Slope, al-Khutm, and Rakhat al-Madrh. While each site presents a distinct history of occupation and human-environment interaction in the Wadi al-Hijr, all three settlements were active during the Hafit and Umm an-Nar periods. We present the environmental and archaeological specificities of each site to illuminate the complementary nature of their settings and the potential functions they might have served as part of an integrated system of cultural and ecological resilience in the extended Bat landscape.

## SETTLEMENT SLOPE

In the center of the Bat landscape, the Settlement Slope is located on the southern face of a 500 m long hill (maximum elevation 513 m asl) from Hawasina formation, at the northern edge of the Wadi al-Hijr valley (Figure 7). The site faces the passage of the Wadi al-Sharsah, a secondary channel collecting runoff water coming from Wadi Bani Ghafir or overflow from the Wadi al-Hijr. The position of the Settlement Slope is facing the distal part of the Wadi al-Hijr mid-Holocene palaeofloodplain (see Desruelles et al. 2016). In this area of the valley, the shallow wadi underflow that is accessible in the modern day was likely also reachable during the Early Bronze Age. The rocky hill on which the settlement is located is covered with a layer of scree. Downslope it grades into the accumulated alluvium of the valley floor, which is cut by the incised and braided bed of the Wadi al-Sharsah within meters. Geomorphological studies by Desruelles et al. (2016) at the foot of the Settlement

Slope identified an overbank alluvial infilling dominated by cemented fine sand to silty deposits.

Throughout the Early Bronze Age, the Settlement Slope hill was the site of continuous cultural activity (Figure 8). Evidence from the Hafit period is most clearly seen in a series of seven tombs marking the upper hillcrest (Cable & al-Jabri 2018). At the western end of the hill, a tower monument (site 1156) is built into bedrock and ¹⁴C dated to the Late Hafit/Early Umm an-Nar period (Thornton et al. 2016: Table IV.1). Rectilinear stone buildings, many confirmed to be houses occupied through the Middle and Late Umm an-Nar periods, are constructed on the hill's south-facing lower slope (Swerida 2022; Swerida & Thornton 2019b; Swerida et al. 2021). In at least one instance, Structure SS1, a house continued to be occupied and modified well into the Wadi Suq period in the Middle Bronze Age (Kerr 2016). Several Wadi Suq tombs are also found atop the earlier tower monument and on the hillcrest (Cable 2012; Williams & Gregoricka 2016). While few ceramics stylistically datable to the Late Bronze and Iron ages have been identified in surface contexts at the Settlement Slope (Kerr 2016: 248, fig. 143; Swerida et al. 2020), there is no evidence for significant cultural activity at the site following the Wadi Suq period.

The Settlement Slope's position at the edge of a secondary channel in the Wadi al-Hijr valley provides natural protection from seasonal floods, easy access to water and agricultural lands in the floodplain and, pending the degree and extent of date palm coverage, a wide viewshed of the terrain to the south. This position on a low hill slope adjacent to a wadi plain is typical of piedmont sites interpreted as oasis settlements (cf. Castel et al. 2020; Deadman et al. 2022; Jean et al. 2023;

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7** Geological map of the Settlement Slope and surrounding terrain. Map: Aleksandre Prosperini, Jennifer Swerida, and Eli Dollarhide.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8** Settlement Slope archaeological features and architectural plans. Map/Plan: Jennifer Swerida.</figcaption></figure>

see also Beuzen-Waller et al. 2018). Additionally, human interactions with and modifications to the hill and its surrounding landscape worked to shape the space to the benefit of the resident community.

Evidence for runoff management dating as early as the Hafit period was identified in an anthropogenic sequence (ST2) at the base of the Settlement Slope hill, where flow was directed to the south away from the settlement (see Figure 10). Channelized higher-energy flow patterns and tillage features found in this sequence are typical of irrigated contexts and may hint at early agricultural activity (Desruelles et al. 2016). This possibility is further supported by impressions in mudbrick of wheat and barley seeds and chaff and a date palm stone from the nearby Hafit tower of Matariya (Frifelt 2002; Tengberg 1998; 2016: 264). Such remarkably early water management predates the widely accepted origin of anthropogenic oases and may reflect an important evolutionary step in the development of these spaces (Desruelles et al. 2016; see also Beuzen-Waller 2020; Beuzen-Waller et al. 2018).

The Settlement Slope hill was also the stage for runoff management. While the tower at the western

end of the hill lacks the central well that is typical in many such monuments in southeast Arabia (see Cable & Thornton 2013), it is lined on three sides with a system of stepped ditches leading to a probable cistern (Mortimer & Thornton 2018). In the event of rainfall, these features would have worked together to redirect and store water. At the eastern end of the hill, two linear stone features extend from the lower slope into the wadi floodplain (Figure 9). Both were interpreted by Robert Brunswig as check dams, intended to capture sediment by slowing flood waters, and dated to the Umm an-Nar period based on associated ceramics (Brunswig 1989: 22–25). A recent BAP study revealed waterproofing of the base of one “Brunswig dam” structure, with fine sediments and reworked calcrete cementing the Early Holocene overbank deposits of the Wadi al Hijr. Such waterproofing efforts suggest the intention to collect and redirect surface runoff in the floodplain.³ Similar opportunistic use of rainfall runoff and related farming practices during protohistoric periods have been observed in other sites, such as Rustaq (Purdue et al. 2021).
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 9** Settlement Slope “Brunswig dam” – unexcavated oblique (top left) and excavated in plan (top right); profile view of BAP dam sondage (bottom). Photos property of the Bat Archaeological Project, 2011 and 2022.</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>**Table 2** Summary of <sup>14</sup>C and phytolith analyses from Structure SS12.</caption><thead><tr><th>CONTEXT</th><th>PHASE</th><th>SAMPLE TYPE</th><th>SAMPLE NUMBER</th><th>RESULTS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Structure SS12 clay oven</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 1</td><td>Wood charcoal for <sup>14</sup>C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 48474; Lot 212272b</td><td>Conventional <sup>14</sup>C Age: 3947 ± 26<br/>OxCal – IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC: 2568–2528 (16%); 2497–2343 (80%)</td></tr><tr><td>Ash lens associated with Structure SS12 clay oven</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 1</td><td>Wood charcoal for <sup>14</sup>C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 48475; Lot 221269</td><td>Conventional <sup>14</sup>C Age: 3976 ± 26<br/>OxCal – IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC: 2475–2455 (95%); 2416–2410 (1%)</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>Soil sample for phytolith analysis</td><td>Phyto ID #14; Lot 221267</td><td>Phytoliths per gram: 317725<br/>Identifications: Wild grass; Cyperaceae; Palm leaf</td></tr></tbody></table>

Excavations by BAP of numerous Umm an-Nar houses at the Settlement Slope provide insight into human interactions with other species. The houses survive as rectilinear stone foundations—typically consisting of rows of long, narrow rooms and a courtyard—built into the lower hill slope (Swerida & Thornton 2019b). A Middle Umm an-Nar phase of the Structure SS12 courtyard featured a circular clay oven and associated

ash deposits containing quantities of wood charcoal and micro-botanicals (see Table 2). Identified phytolith cell structures include wild grasses, Cyperaceae, and palm leaf—vegetation consistent with moist conditions typical of oases.⁴ These findings complement results of previous archaeobotanical analyses of Umm an-Nar contexts from Bat. Wheat (Triticum cf. aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) have been identified at the Settlement Slope
tower and the nearby al-Khafaji tower (Nathan 2017; Tengberg 1998; 2016), while evidence for date palms (Phoenix dactylifera) was found at al-Khafaji (charcoal and seeds; see Nathan 2017:187) and the tower-like Building II (charcoal; see Deckers, Döpper, & Schmidt 2019). Excavations in Structure SS1 uncovered an end segment of a copper sickle dating to the Late Umm an-Nar period (Swerida 2022: 177), further supporting the agricultural nature of the oasis community.

While no faunal remains have been recovered from Early Bronze Age houses at the Settlement Slope, or elsewhere in the Bat archaeological complex, likely due to preservational conditions, lipid residue and isotopic analyses of domestic ceramics provide the first evidence for human interaction with animals at the site. Lipid residue analysis on a collection of 17 sherds from Middle and Late Umm an-Nar contexts in Structures SS1, SS4, and SS12 found saturated fatty acids suggesting degraded terrestrial animal fats in a majority of vessels, with a single indeterminate painted body fragment from SS1 also containing tentative evidence for degraded plant waxes.⁵ Three of these sherds—a Black Slipped Jar and a suspension vessel from a Middle Umm an-Nar phase of Structure SS1, and a bowl from the Late Umm an-Nar phase of Structure SS12—had isotopic values comparable with ruminant carcass fats (e.g., cattle, goats, sheep, deer). Two fragments, both dating to the Middle Umm an-Nar (one suspension vessel from SS4 and the same indeterminate painted body fragment from SS1) had isotopic values consistent with non-ruminant fats while two others, large jars from Middle Umm an-Nar contexts from SS1 and SS4, had isotopic

values reflecting mixtures of ruminant carcass and non-ruminant fats. The preliminary lipid results provide insight into the use of different animal products as well as those of plants in vessels as part of domestic activities. Acting as a proxy for the missing faunal remains, they also highlight the pastoral nature of the oasis community.

In addition to the Settlement Slope's logistical advantages, the placement of buildings on natural prominences suggests the location was also one of cultural importance during the Early Bronze Age. The Hafit tombs and Early Umm an-Nar tower monument are positioned in locations of maximum visibility on the hill. This is also true of an Umm an-Nar tomb atypically situated on an outcrop at the eastern end of the hill, not far from Structure SS12 (Figure 10).⁶ From this tomb, an observer would have enjoyed a commanding view of the houses on the Settlement Slope hillside and the wadi plain, including glimpses of the Matariya, Khafaji, Building II, and Rojoom towers. Fragments of chipped white limestone on the hill surrounding the tomb suggest it was originally lined with bright white facing stones known from other tombs in the Bat necropolis (e.g., Böhme & al-Sabri 2011) and was once an eye-catching monument.

## KHUTM

Al-Khutm is a ca. 1 km long lithoclastic limestone ridge of the Jurassic Wahra Formation with a maximum elevation of 505 m asl, located at the confluence of the Wadi al-Hijr and Wadi al-Syrar, approximately 3 km downstream from Bat (Figure 11). Both wadis support

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 10** Oblique view of the Umm an-Nar tomb on a ridge of the Settlement Slope hill with Structure SS12, check dams, and al-Rojoom tower visible in the background. The location of the anthropogenic ST2 sequence is also indicated. Photo: Robert Bryant, January 2022.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 11** Geological map of al-Khutm hill and the surrounding terrain. Map: Aleksandre Prosperini, Jennifer Swerida, and Eli Dollarhide.</figcaption></figure>

large watersheds and drain high areas of the Hajar mountains, placing the Khutm hill at a particularly active hydraulic location at the crossroads between two major natural axes. In the modern landscape, al-Khutm hill sits along the ‘Ablah-Ad-Dariz Road between the villages of Bat and Wahrah, where it divides the wadi valley into a narrow, deeply incised northern channel and a much wider southern wadi plain. The matrix of the northern channel, controlled by the Wadi al-Syrar, is one of coarse gravel and cobbles washed downstream from the ophiolite watershed to the north. In contrast, the plain to the south of al-Khutm is related to the Wadi al-Hijr and characterized by a ground cover of khabrah deposits and sparse vegetation of acacia and tamarisk trees. The hill slope is coated by a shallow layer of scree connecting the limestone ridge with the valley floor.

The advantageous position of al-Khutm hill presents several factors, including resource availability and defensive characteristics, that made it a strategic choice for occupation. The location is at the center of the largest hydrosystem in the Bat landscape, fed by the wadis al-Hijr and al-Syrar. Residents enjoy a reliable water supply, either through surface flow or underflow, while the steep hill provides flood protection. The alluvial plain immediately south of al-Khutm hill, located on overbank deposits of the Wadi al-Hijr, is suitable for agropastoralism. The al-Hijr and al-Syrar valleys also serve as natural corridors of movement through the rugged terrain and provide passage downstream to the modern centers of al-Dariz and Ibri or upstream to the Bat oasis and the Hajar mountains beyond.

The archaeological record of al-Khutm appears to reflect an intermittent occupation spanning segments of the Bronze and Iron ages (Figure 12). A string of 20

Hafit tombs stretching along the hill ridge are the earliest features yet documented at the site (Cable 2012; Cable & al-Jabri 2018). A third millennium tower monument and surrounding features, all constructed of local limestone blocks, are built onto a low prominence at the far western end of the hill. Results of extensive excavation by the Italian mission to al-Khutm suggest a construction and use of the tower during the latter half of the Umm an-Nar period, followed by a phase of reoccupation and structural alteration in the Wadi Suq period (Cattani et al. 2017; Cocca et al. 2019). On the hill's southern face, extensive rectilinear stone architecture is found across a 275 m strip of the middle and lower slope. Ongoing survey and excavation by BAP characterize this space as a Middle Umm an-Nar settlement that was reoccupied and expanded during the Iron Age II (Swerida et al. in press).⁷

The intermittent nature of cultural activity at al-Khutm most likely relates to the site's unique situation on the landscape, at the juncture of two energetic wadis that make this location particularly prone to floods. Pending the environmental conditions of the period in question, human interactions with al-Khutm hill were necessarily influenced by the need to contend with more frequent and severe flooding events than experienced in other parts of the Wadi al-Hijr.

The known extent of al-Khutm's Early Bronze Age settlement is located along a stretch of the hill oriented northwest-southeast, away from modern channels and next to a wide expanse of flat wadi plain that may have served as agricultural fields or pastureland. The position of the Umm an-Nar buildings higher on the hillside than where comparable structures are found at the Settlement Slope may reflect the need to avoid
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 12** Al-Khutm archeological features and architectural plans. Map/Plan: Jennifer Swerida.</figcaption></figure>

elevated flood levels. Excavations at the eastern end of al-Khutm Settlement sampled an Umm an-Nar complex that incorporates a house, a square stone platform similar to monuments found next to towers elsewhere in Bat (e.g., Swerida & Thornton 2019a), and the remains of a destroyed tomb (Swerida et al. in press). Material culture from these contexts is entirely consistent with a Middle Umm an-Nar date (see Swerida, Dollarhide, & Jensen 2021). The location of the complex is reminiscent of Umm an-Nar monuments on the Settlement Slope, being situated on a natural, relatively flat plateau midway up the slope with a commanding view of the wadi valley to the south. Geophysical survey (ground penetrating radar, magnetometry) failed to detect any architecture downhill from these features, suggesting either that occupation was restricted to higher terrain or that past features lower on the hillside have been washed away by repeated flooding.⁸

Farther to the west, Umm an-Nar architecture is intermixed with a large compound (ca. 150 × 20 m) dated to the Iron Age II based on associated material culture (Swerida et al. in press). The outer southwestern

wall of this structure, ca. 40 m of which is visible to the west of an area of modern disturbance, is over 1 m wide and preserved at least three large stone courses (ca. 1.5 m) in height. It appears to create a flat terraced area in the middle hill slope onto which other buildings were constructed. Similar walled Iron Age II settlements built into hills with strategic views of a wadi valley are known throughout the Hajar piedmont (Magee 2014: 225-226; Mouton & Schiettecatte 2014: 87-93). During this period, which is characterized by decreased rainfall (see Fleitmann et al. 2022; Parker et al. 2016), the introduction of underground *falaj* technology revolutionized human ability to transport water and sustain settlements in otherwise inhospitable locations (al-Tikriti 2002). No Iron Age *falaj* has yet been identified in the Wadi al-Hijr, however an Islamic *falaj* runs through the wadi not far from al-Khutm and geoprospection identified a comparable linear feature close to the base of the hill. The Iron Age population thus likely chose to reoccupy al-Khutm Settlement due to its advantageous location with immediate access to groundwater and agropastoral land, both of which may have been further supported via *falaj*.
RAKHAT al-MADRH

The site of Rakhat al-Madrh is located 7.5 km upstream from Bat, at the periphery of the Wadi al-Hijr floodplain (Figure 13). It represents a low-lying basin, 542 m asl and about 6 ha in size, filled with accumulated deposits of sandy silt and clay. The hills surrounding the basin consist of siliceous limestone with marl intercalations from the Turonian (Upper Cretaceous) Wahrah Formation. These siliceous limestones are overlain to the east and southeast by highly cemented and weathered Plio-Quaternary fluvial conglomerates (Janjou et al. 1986). The ridge lines to the west of the basin rise to 550 m asl.

This geological context has rendered Rakhat al-Madrh unique in comparison to Bat's other ancient environs and the site has a different sedimentary history and hydrological setting from its Early Bronze Age neighbors. The contact between the bedrock of the slopes and the bottom of the basin is characterized by gently sloping colluvial deposits. To the north, a fluvial terrace of the Wadi al-Hijr stands at least one meter higher and is extended by a lateral spreading cone which suggests the hydro-sedimentary filling of the basin during major floods of the Wadi al-Hijr. The alluvial terrace forms a natural dam and limits the evacuation of water that accumulates in the basin during high floods or heavy rainfall. Drainage is carried out to the northwest of the basin edge by a small talweg.

While from a hydrological perspective, year-round water supply in Rakhat al-Madrh is less reliable

than in al-Khutm or the Settlement Slope, the site is dramatically affected by seasonal weather patterns. After rainfall, the Rakhat al-Madrh basin turns into a large ephemeral pool (Figure 14). As the pool dries, the residual moisture in the soil supports herbaceous annual plants providing an ideal spot for caprid pasturing, with the amphitheater shape of the surrounding hills forming a natural enclosure.

During the third millennium BC, Rakhat al-Madrh hosted an Early Bronze Age occupation different from other contemporaneous settlements in the Bat landscape. Archaeological investigations have so far revealed a series of stone structures lining the basin's edge and a cluster of seventeen tombs located on the surrounding conglomeratic hills.⁹ The four identified buildings (RaM 1–4) have been mapped and partially excavated (Figure 15). Each structure shares a similar form: all are organized around large, walled courtyards and feature chains of narrow rooms typical of Umm an-Nar period domestic architecture as represented at Bat's other environs. No monumental platform or tower has been found, though the area is surrounded by a cluster of Hafit cairn-type tombs typical of Umm an-Nar settlements. ¹⁴C dates from the four excavated structures range from c. 2450–2100 BC and a cultural layer below RaM 1 from c. 2900–2800 BC, confirming an initial Hafit period use of the site and a primary Middle-Late Umm an-Nar period occupation (Table 3).

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 13** Geological map of the Rakat al-Madrh basin and surrounding terrain. Map: Aleksandre Prosperini, Jennifer Swerida, and Eli Dollarhide.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 14** View from Rakhat al-Madrh with the Bat oasis visible in the upper left (top); Rakhat al-Madrh basin following a flood event (bottom). Photo: Eli Dollarhide, 2022 (top) and 2019 (bottom).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 15** Rakhat al-Madrh archeological features and architectural plans. Map/Plan: Jennifer Swerida.</figcaption></figure>

<table><thead><tr><td>CONTEXT</td><td>PHASE</td><td>SAMPLE TYPE</td><td>SAMPLE NUMBER</td><td>RESULTS</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Below RaM 1 foundations</td><td>Hafit</td><td>Wood charcoal for ¹⁴C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 048471; Lot 221551</td><td>Conventional ¹⁴C Age: 4272 ± 29<br/>OxCal - IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC: 2926-2871 (92.4%); 2800-2780 (3.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Mortar in RaM 1 interior wall foundation</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 1</td><td>Wood charcoal for ¹⁴C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 038700; Lot 201528</td><td>Conventional ¹⁴C Age: 3987 ± 29<br/>OxCal - IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC: 2576-2460 (95.4%)</td></tr><tr><td>Mudbrick associated with RaM 1 primary occupation</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 2</td><td>Wood charcoal for ¹⁴C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 048472; Lot 221555</td><td>Conventional ¹⁴C Age: 3879 ± 30<br/>OxCal - IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC: 2465-2283 (91.3%); 2260-2233 (2.9%); 2219-2210 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Hearth 221824 in RaM 2</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 2</td><td>Soil sample for phytolith analysis</td><td>Phyto ID #22; Lot 221825</td><td>Phytoliths per gram: 32239<br/>Identifications: Wheat</td></tr><tr><td>Hearth 221831 in RaM 2</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 2</td><td>Soil sample for phytolith analysis</td><td>Phyto ID #20; Lot 221831</td><td>Phytoliths per gram: 48819<br/>Identifications: Wild grass; Palm leaf</td></tr><tr><td>Oven Feature 221844 in RaM 2</td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 2/Late Umm an-Nar</td><td>Charred seed for ¹⁴C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 053202; Lot 221831</td><td>Conventional ¹⁴C Age: 3765 ± 24<br/>OxCal - IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC: 2286-2247 (17.1%); 2237-2132 (70.8%); 2086-2050 (7.6%)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3** Summary ¹⁴C and phytolith analyses from Rakhat al-Madrh structures.</caption><thead><tr><th>CONTEXT</th><th>PHASE</th><th>SAMPLE TYPE</th><th>SAMPLE NUMBER</th><th>RESULTS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td>Seeds for botanical analysis; Surrounding soil of phytolith analysis</td><td>Phyto ID #25; Lot 221839</td><td><strong>Phytoliths per gram:</strong> 68728<br><strong>Identifications:</strong> Wheat; Barley; Goatgrass; Palm leaf; Cyperacea</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>Soil sample for phytolith analysis</td><td>Phyto ID #18; Lot 221845</td><td><strong>Phytoliths per gram:</strong> 172250<br><strong>Identifications:</strong> Barley; Cyperacea; Palm leaf</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Hearth on lower courtyard floor in RaM 3</strong></td><td>Middle Umm an-Nar 2</td><td>Wood charcoal for ¹⁴C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 053204; Lot 233282</td><td><strong>Conventional ¹⁴C Age:</strong> 3806 ± 26<br><strong>OxCal - IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC:</strong> 2342-2192 (82.8%); 2180-2142 (12.6%)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Burned context on upper courtyard floor in RaM 3</strong></td><td>Late Umm an-Nar</td><td>Wood charcoal for ¹⁴C analysis</td><td>D-AMS - 053205; Lot 233287</td><td><strong>Conventional ¹⁴C Age:</strong> 3755 ± 24<br><strong>OxCal - IntCal 2020 Calib. (2-sigma) cal. BC:</strong> 2282-2251 (10.0%); 2231-2220 (1.3%); 2210-2127 (68.4%); 2092-2041 (14.7%)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Relatively few artifacts have been recovered from within and around each of the Rakhat al-Mardh structures (see Swerida et al. in press). The small collection of Umm an-Nar domestic ware sherds from excavated contexts is stylistically dated to the Middle Umm an-Nar period (see Swerida, Dollarhide, & Jensen 2021). The general paucity of artifacts at the site may be due to post-occupational cleaning, post-depositional movement following flooding events, or the use of the area as a seasonal or intermittently-occupied site that lacked the density of cultural materials/production evidenced elsewhere at Bat.

Unlike other Bat areas, Rakaht al-Madrh has proven to be particularly rich in botanical evidence. Macro- and microscopic plant remains have been identified (see Table 3). Excavations in RaM 2 were particularly rich, especially the contexts surrounding an oven (2286-2050 cal BC). The oven contained carbonized seeds, goat dung, and phytoliths from wheat, barley, goat grass, sedges, ficus, and palm leaf. The phytolith species are consistent with a marshy or intermittent wetland environment in the late third millennium BC. The presence of wheat and barley suggests that the Umm an-Nar community may have used the basin for plant cultivation, while the goat dung fuel indicates a possible pastoral component to the local subsistence strategy. Though BAP investigations at Rakhat al-Madrh are ongoing, these initial results suggest the presence of a small pastoral community at the site during the Umm an-Nar period. The site's inhabitants appear to have utilized the basin's hydrological setting and abundant botanical resources to pasture sheep/goats and potentially practice plant cultivation in a significantly different setting from the wadi valley oasis settlements interpreted at Bat, Bisya, and Hili. Whether the site was occupied intermittently, in coordination with seasonal flooding events, or on a year-round basis

requires additional archaeological excavation and inquiry regarding the depth of the water table underneath the basin.

## DISCUSSION

In the varied Bat landscape, archaeological and environmental study of the three Early Bronze Age sites presented above—the Settlement Slope, al-Khutm, and Rakhat al-Madrh—allows us to identify patterns in the modalities of cultural and ecological resilience practiced in the Wadi al-Hijr. While this research remains at an early stage, we can now posit some hypotheses concerning how and why human behavior differed at each site and in what ways the three communities may have operated symbiotically.

## OBSERVED PATTERNS & HYPOTHESES

Across the three sites, broad consistencies are apparent regarding where humans chose to reside. Each location provides the basic resources necessary to support a community for all or some of the year within the area's third millennium BC environmental framework: water access, fertile soils, and a varied topography—a spatial relationship constellation reviewed by Nathan & Harrower (2023). Less clear is to what extent each of the case studies should be considered as an oasis settlement. Of the often-cited proxies indicating the presence of an Early Bronze Age oasis, the Settlement Slope and its surrounding terrain provide the richest assortment, including evidence for irrigation, agriculture, terrain modification, and hydraulic management features. Such proxies are scarcer at al-Khutm, where we find a tower monument but have yet to identify any direct evidence for Early Bronze Age oasis activities, or at Rakhat al-Madrah,
where the botanical assemblage parallels that of oasis agriculture (see Tengberg 2012) but without evidence for irrigation or hydraulic/land management. While these absences may be partially explained by the unavoidably incomplete datasets, al-Khutm and Rakhat al-Madrh are here considered “extra”-oasis spaces. From the perspective of resilience, these differences in site situation and composition are significant for contextualizing the dynamic ways the resident communities utilized and cultivated their varying local resources, while shaping the landscape to reflect their social logic.

Consistent with the regional shift towards an agricultural subsistence strategy in the Early Bronze Age, evidence for plant and animal cultivation is found in a variety of forms on the Bat landscape. It is notable that direct and indirect evidence for grain agriculture is found at the Settlement Slope and its surroundings in the ancient Bat oasis in contexts dating from the Hafit through the Late Umm an-Nar periods. The exceptional longevity of occupation at the Settlement Slope, which continues through the Wadi Suq period despite the increasing aridization of the late third-early second millennium BC, reflects the ecological resilience of this particular location and the lifeways practiced there. The evidence for wheat and barley at Rakhat al-Madrh, far from Bat's oasis core, calls traditional oasis-centric narratives on plant cultivation and food production into question. While it is possible that the grains evidenced through seeds and phytoliths were transported to the site from Bat or another agricultural oasis setting, the probability that the residents used the basin as seasonal cropland adds a new component to the narrative of early Arabian agriculture.

Traces of date palms—seeds, stem/leaf fragments, phytoliths—were also found in third millennium BC botanical records from both the Settlement Slope and Rakhat al-Madrh. This, in conjunction with seeds and phytoliths from wheat, barley, and wetland grasses, suggests a layered biosphere typical of oasis agriculture where cultivated crops are grown alongside wild species in the shade of the date palm canopy (Tengberg 2012). The palm phytoliths identified at Rakhat al-Madrh are particularly interesting, given the inconsistent water availability that likely characterized the location in the Early Bronze Age. The presence of date palms, either wild or domesticated, may suggest that moister conditions prevailed at the site during the Middle-Late Umm an-Nar period. Given the current archaeobotanical collection, it is not possible to determine if date palm materials were brought to the site from elsewhere, if residents were opportunistically engaging with wild palms growing in the basin that may have accessed the water table through deep root systems, or if the data reflects the presence of a small oasis at Rakhat al-Madrh. Future studies at all three sites will consider soil composition with the aim of identifying oasis anthrosols, co-produced through

the interaction of humans and the dense biomass of and below a date palm canopy (Costa et al. 2021), and further characterizing human-environment interactions in the Wadi al-Hijr.

Direct evidence for animal husbandry or human interactions with wild fauna is extremely limited on the Bat landscape. This can almost certainly be attributed to soil conditions that are hostile to bone preservation, rather than an absence of original source materials. Some reliance on caprid herding can, nevertheless, be assumed based on the ruminant animal fats identified in Settlement Slope pottery and the identification of sheep/goat dung used to fuel pyrotechnic features at Rakhat al-Madrh. The prime pasturage proximate to al-Khutm and Rakhat al-Madrh were doubtless important to local subsistence strategies.

The positioning of the settlements in the Wadi al-Hijr and human modifications to the landscape can be interpreted through interrelated logistical and cultural lenses. The competing pressures of groundwater access and seasonal flood protection are apparent at all three sites, where houses and monuments are constructed on elevated points in the terrain within or next to the wadi channel. At the Settlement Slope and al-Khutm, and to a lesser extent Rakhat al-Madrh, this situation also served to augment the viewsheds from settlement spaces while avoiding the need to sacrifice farmland to accommodate domestic structures.

Human-driven landscape modification is particularly visible at the Settlement Slope, where water collection, surface flow, and sediment accumulation were manipulated through strategic ditching, irrigation, and dam construction. Leveling efforts also increased the amount of available elevated flat terrain for houses and living space. It is probable that similar activities also took place in the more volatile hydraulic landscape of al-Khutm during the Early Bronze Age, which were then augmented in the Iron Age through the terracing and possible falaj associated with the fort.

Within the sites, patterns in the organization of built and unbuilt space suggest qualities of Bat's cultural resilience. Monumental buildings (e.g., towers, tombs, platforms) dating to the Hafit and Umm an-Nar periods are consistently placed at high points that maximize their visibility. Conspicuous placement of third millennium BC funerary or monumental structures has been convincingly linked to place-based identity and territoriality over limited resources (Cable 2019; Giraud 2009). This interpretation may be especially pertinent to understanding the positioning of al-Khutm tower at the prominent northwestern spur of the hill ridge, making it especially visible to travelers moving along the wadis al-Hijr and al-Syrar. Consistency in the internal layout of houses at Bat (see also Swerida 2018; Swerida & Thornton 2019a) indicates a shared social logic and day-to-day way of life that was perpetuated over time
through the built space. In contrast, the arrangement of
structures at the site-level (e.g., houses, towers, tombs,
etc.) varies according to terrain and may emphasize the
importance of the household as a social unit.

EXPANDING THE OASIS SETTLEMENT MODEL

How do the patterns of cultural and ecological resilience
observed on the Bat landscape compare to the oasis
settlement model? It is no surprise that the Settlement
Slope presents the closest parallel to the established
paradigm: a settlement at the edge of the wadi valley
with ample evidence for organized human interaction
with water resources, date palms, and domesticated
grains. As the case study with the longest occupational
history and most densely built terrain, it is fitting to
understand the site as a key node of resources and social
interaction (cf. Cleuziou 2009) in third millennium BC
Wadi al-Hijr. The human reshaping of the Settlement
Slope landscape—facilitating oasis formation, expanding
livable terrain, and structuring the space to reflect social
logic—adds an important component to the model. The
existence of similar anthropogenic landscapes at Early
Bronze Age oasis sites elsewhere in southeast Arabia (see
al-Jahwari et al. 2020; Cleuziou 1989; Jean et al. 2023;
Schmidt & Döpper 2017) present promising subjects for
future research.

More significant deviations from the oasis settlement
model are found at al-Khutm and Rakhat al-Madrh. While
further research is necessary to better characterize the
Early Bronze Age human-environment interactions that
took place at al-Khutm in particular, preliminary evidence
suggests that agropastoralism and seasonality played
larger roles in the lifeways and subsistence strategies
practiced by these extra-oasis communities than by
the Settlement Slope oasis community. Both locations
contended with comparatively unpredictable hydraulic
activity, due to either flood or drought, making plant
cultivation less dependable. The terrain immediately next
to the settlements would have been viable pastureland in
years when violent floods or low rainfall would threaten
crops dependent on surface water, such as what may
have been grown at Rakhat al-Madrh.

The relative proximity of the sites and variation in
their resources and patterns of human-environment
interaction support the hypothesis that the resident
communities were part of a local socioeconomic network
in the Early Bronze Age. The Settlement Slope can be
envisioned as a stable node of year-round occupation
and oasis agricultural production that satellite
communities regularly interacted with and perhaps
retreated to in times of hardship. The concentration
of tombs in the Bat necropolis suggests that the site
attracted a far larger population than is represented by
known houses at the Settlement Slope and elsewhere at
the site. Downstream, the community at al-Khutm was
in an ideal location for both pastoralism in the adjacent

acacia steep and monitoring the corridors of movement
to/from the Bat oasis. Upstream, the small community
at Rakhat al-Madrh was well-positioned for opportunistic
agropastoralism and may have occupied the site on
a seasonal basis, when the landscape was especially
fruitful.

Such a combined oasis agricultural/agropastoral
subsistence strategy enhanced the resilience of the
extended Bat community, while simultaneously providing
them with access to resources from across the Wadi al-
Hijr. This resilience was further accentuated through the
practical and cultural reshaping of the landscape. The
network of interacting Early Bronze Age communities
doubtless extended beyond the three sampled in this
study, potentially including such nearby sites as al-Zebah
(Schmidt 2016; Schmidt & Döpper 2014), ‘Amlah (de Cardi
et al. 1976), or al-Arid (Castel et al. 2020). In the Middle
Bronze Age, the hypothesized social tensions (Azzarà &
De Rorre 2018; Cleuziou 2002) and aridization (Petraglia
et al. 2020; Staubwasser & Weiss 2006) of the Late Umm
an-Nar to Wadi Suq transition destabilized this system
and led to the near-total abandonment of domestic
sites outside the oasis. The continuing occupation of
the Settlement Slope and occasional sherds of Wadi
Suq pottery found at neighboring sites during this
period reflect the robust resilience of oasis settlement
lifeways and the successful cultural adaptation to a new
ecological reality.

CONCLUSIONS

As a study in cultural and ecological resilience in an
arid landscape, Early Bronze Age Bat is rich in examples
of human-environment interactions within an ancient
oasis and the surrounding Wadi al-Hijr. The behaviors
apparent across the three case studies emphasize the
importance of augmenting access to limited resources
through strategic interaction with the diverse terrain
and reshaping of the landscape. Use of varied water
and soil resources, including natural basins like Rakhat
al-Madrh or anthropogenic water and sediment traps
like those found at the Settlement Slope, worked to
maximize the ecological capacity of the Bat landscape.
While more research is necessary, results from the Wadi
al-Hijr also reflect the importance of date palm and grain
cultivation, both in the ancient Bat oasis and potentially
in the Rakhat al-Madrh basin, and caprid herding in
the local subsistence strategy. The significance of
likely “invisible” secondary pastoral products (e.g.,
textiles, milk, cheese) should not be overlooked. By
engaging with diverse resources distributed across the
landscape of the Wadi al-Hijr, including but not limited
to the oasis, the Bat community was more likely to be
able to weather unexpected environmental or social
perturbations.
The preliminary results of this research offer an expansion of the oasis settlement model for conceptualizing the intersection of human-environment relationships and emergent social complexity in third millennium BC southeast Arabia. The remarkable longevity of the Settlement Slope and the density of its cultural features demonstrate the importance of Bat's Early Bronze Age oasis in the region's development. However, the archaeological and environmental records discussed here also indicate that extra-oasis sites such as al-Khutm and Rakhat al-Madrh, played an important and thus far under-explored role. Rather than oasis settlements operating as singular monopoles, the origins of agriculture and the region's cultural landscape are better understood as lying within nested systems, where areas with differing ecological settings played important roles in building resilient sociocultural and subsistence systems. We suggest that collaborative, interdisciplinary research offers a promising means to elucidate the modalities of arid resilience practiced in third millennium BC southeast Arabia and expand the (extra-)oasis settlement model.

## DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

This manuscript provides a synthesis of previously published data as referenced in the text. Reports of related fieldwork are publicly available at https://www.batarchaeologicalproject.com/. Yet unpublished ¹⁴C and preliminary phytolith data are provided in tables in the text.

## NOTES

1. BAP's "Beyond the Oasis: The Ancient Cultural Landscape of Bat and the Sharsah Valley" project is funded by the US National Endowment for the Humanities (RFW-279340-21).

2. Modern groundwater can be found 1.5 m below the surface in Wadi al-Hijr channel wells.

3. Beuzen-Waller, T. in prep. New studies of the "Brunswig dams" at Bat, Oman.

4. Unpublished phytolith data analyzed by Abigail Buffington.

5. Suryanarayan, A. et al. in prep. Identifying pastoral products and plant oils in local and imported pottery in Early Bronze Age southeastern Arabia.

6. Swerida, J. and Nugent, S. in prep. Funerals on a Hill: a look at Umm an-Nar mortuary rituals on the Bat Settlement Slope.

7. Swerida, J., Dollarhide, EN., Bryant, RC., Smith, S., and Nugent, S. in prep. The Other Side of al-Khutm: Bronze and Iron Age Cultural Palimpsest in the Sultanate of Oman.

8. Swerida, J., Dollarhide, EN., Creamer, P., Ferwerda, C., Alperstein, J., and Casana, J. in prep. Remote Sensing of Archaeological Landscapes in Bat, Oman.

9. Dollarhide, EN., Swerida, J., and Jensen, R. in prep. Rakhat al-Madrh: an agro-pastoral settlement beyond the oasis.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Oman Ministry of Heritage and Tourism (MHT) for its steadfast support of the Bat

Archaeological Project. We would also like to thank all members of the BAP 2020-2023 archaeological and geomorphological field teams, our partners in the Bat MHT field office, and our many friends in the Bat community.

## FUNDING INFORMATION

This work was funded by an Archaeological and Ethnographic Fieldwork Research Grant from the US National Endowment for the Humanities (RFW-279340-21), with additional support from the University of Pennsylvania Museum, the Humanities Research Program for the Study of the Arab World at New York University Abu Dhabi, a SPatial Archaeology Research Collaborations award, the Observatoire des Patrimoines de l'Alliance Sorbonne Université (OPUS), the Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi Research Council Funding and the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD). Lipid residue and isotopic analyses were conducted during AS's Fyssen Foundation fellowship at Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, CEPAM, Nice, France, with support from the International Association of Study of Arabia.

## COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

## AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Paper conceptualization, writing, editing, and visualization was led by Jennifer Swerida with significant contributions from Eli Dollarhide, Eric Fouache, Max Engel, Tara Beuzen-Waller, Claude Cosandey, Laurence Le Callonnec, and Aleksandre Prosperini. Maps were produced by Eli Dollarhide, Jennifer Swerida, and Aleksandre Prosperini. Additional visualization was provided by Reilly Jensen, Robert Bryant, and Stephane Desruelles. Archaeometric and geophysical data analysis was conducted by Abigail Buffington, Akshyeta Suryanarayan, Rebecca Swerida, Selin Nugent, Petra Creamer, and Jesse Casana. Geomorphological data collection and analysis by Eric Fouache, Max Engel, Tara Beuzen-Waller, Claude Cosandey, Laurence Le Callonnec, Stephane Desruelles, and Aleksandre Prosperini. Archaeological data collection was led by Jennifer Swerida, Eli Dollarhide, Robert Bryant, and Selin Nugent.

## AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS

Jennifer Swerida orcid.org/0000-0002-5212-0069

Department of World Archaeology, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Near East Section, University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia, PA, United States
**Eli N. Dollarhide** ID orcid.org/0000-0001-7085-0076
Humanities Research Fellowship for Study of Arab World, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

**Eric Fouache** ID orcid.org/0000-0002-5392-0615
UFR de Géographie et Aménagement, UR Médiations, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France

**Max Engel** ID orcid.org/0000-0002-2271-4229
Institute of Geography, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

**Tara Beuzen-Waller** ID orcid.org/0000-0002-8052-3308
UMR 7194 HNHP, University of Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France

**Aleksandre Prosperini** ID orcid.org/0009-0002-1883-1091
UFR de Géographie et Aménagement, UR Médiations, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France

**Claude Cosandey**
UMR 8591, Laboratoire de géographie Physique, CNRS/ Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, Paris, France

**Laurence Le Callonnec** ID orcid.org/0009-0004-2366-7905
CNRS-INSU, Institut des Sciences de la Terre de Paris, ISTE P UMR 7193, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France

**Stephane Desruelles** ID orcid.org/0000-0003-3482-174X
UFR de Géographie et Aménagement, UR Médiations, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France; SUAD Research Center Environment, Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

**Akshyeta Suryanarayan** ID orcid.org/0000-0001-8739-5647
Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Abigail Buffington** ID orcid.org/0000-0002-6192-3373
International Department, Chronicle Heritage, Phoenix, AZ, United States

**Robert Bryant** ID orcid.org/0009-0000-6118-0592
Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States

**Rebecca Swerida** ID orcid.org/0009-0006-2727-7618
Maryland Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Department of Natural Resources, Annapolis, MD, United States

**Selin E. Nugent** ID orcid.org/0000-0001-9346-7926
School of Engineering, Computing, and Mathematics, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom

**Reilly S. Jensen**
Utah Division of Arts and Museums, Salt Lake City, UT, United States

**Petra M. Creamer** ID orcid.org/0000-0001-9229-9676
Middle Eastern and South Asian Studies Department, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States

**Jesse Casana** ID orcid.org/0000-0002-4445-1802
Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States

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**TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:**

Swerida, J, Dollarhide, EN, Fouache, E, Engel, M, Beuzen-Waller, T, Prosperini, A, Cosandey, C, Callonnec, LL, Desruelles, S, Suryanarayan, A, Buffington, A, Bryant, R, Swerida, R, Nugent, SE, Jensen, RS, Creamer, PM and Casana, J. 2024. Cultural and Human Ecological Resilience at Early Bronze Age Bat. *Open Quaternary*, 10: 7, pp.1–26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/oq.150

**Submitted:** 16 July 2024

**Accepted:** 26 September 2024

**Published:** 18 October 2024

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