The average participation rate during practical sessions using the andragogy method for people displaced due to insecurity is 98.7±4.11% among women and 97±9.48% among men while the average participation rate during practical sessions using the teaching method for people displaced by insecurity is 97.6±7.58% among women and 98.9±3.48% among men (Graph 3). It is clear that the practical andragogy method was more captivating for women while the practical pedagogy method was more captivating for men during the environmental education sessions than for people displaced by the insecurity (Graph 3).

<figure><img src="image_61.png" /><figcaption>Graph 3: Average participation rate in practical training sessions</figcaption></figure>

People from the host population were poorly participatory during the practical sessions via the andragogy method with an average participation rate of 99.5±0.85% among women and 96.2±2.94% among men while people from the host population were poorly participatory during the practical sessions via the teaching method with an average participation rate of 75.7±4.08% among women and 36.6±4.20% among men. It is clear that the practical andragogy method was more captivating during the environmental education sessions than the practical pedagogy method for the host populations (Graph 3).

## 3-2 Level of satisfaction of those trained
Overall, the satisfaction levels of people trained during the different practical training modules are higher than the satisfaction levels of people trained during the different theoretical training modules.

The observation of the satisfaction levels of the people trained during the different practical training modules via the pedagogy method is lower (with 96.01±3.13% of participants who are completely satisfied) than the people trained during the various practical training modules via the andragogy method (with 99.28±0.93% of participants who are completely satisfied).

It is clear that the practical andragogy method made it possible to better transmit practical and reproducible knowledge by the participants during the environmental education sessions than the practical pedagogy method (Graph 4).

<figure><img src="image_62.png" /><figcaption>Graph 4: Average satisfaction levels of people trained in good environmental practices</figcaption></figure>

Among the youngest (] 7-30 [years), the theoretical method of pedagogy made it possible to better transmit practical and reproducible knowledge by the participants
during environmental education sessions than the theoretical method of andragogy (Graph 4).

<figure><img src="image_63.png" /><figcaption>Graph 5: Average satisfaction levels of people trained in good environmental practices by andragogy method training modules</figcaption></figure>

The teaching of the training modules in bioenergy production and soil restoration were more satisfactory (100%) than the training modules in intelligent reforestation (99.07%) and the production of organic fertilizers (at 98.05%) via the practical andragogy method (Graph 5). The theoretical method of andragogy was not satisfactory enough for the participants.

Furthermore, when using the educational method, the teaching of the training modules in intelligent reforestation (99.07%) and the production of organic fertilizers (98.05%) were more satisfactory than the modules training in bioenergy production (94.67%) and soil restoration (92.26%) via the practical teaching method (Graph 6). The theoretical method of teaching therefore did not satisfy the participants.
<figure><img src="image_64.png" /><figcaption>Graph 6: Average satisfaction levels of people trained in good environmental practices by training modules with the educational method</figcaption></figure>

Overall, the observation of the satisfaction levels of people trained during the different practical training modules via the pedagogy method is lower than that of people trained during the different practical training modules via the andragogy method. The teaching of the training modules in bioenergy production and soil restoration were more satisfactory (100%) than the training modules in intelligent reforestation (99.07%) and the production of organic fertilizers (100%). 98.05%) when using the practical andragogy method (Graph 5) while when using the practical educational method, the teaching of intelligent reforestation training modules (99.07%) and the production of organic fertilizers (98.05%) were more satisfactory than during the
training modules on bioenergy production (94.67%) and soil restoration (92.26%) (Graph 6).

<figure><img src="image_65.png" /><figcaption>Graph 7: Average satisfaction levels of people trained in good environmental practices by training module</figcaption></figure>

It is clear that the practical andragogy method made it possible to better transmit practical and reproducible knowledge by the participants during the environmental education sessions than the practical pedagogy method (Graph 4).

Discussion
The results obtained show that more than 95.87% of the people trained and surveyed can perfectly reproduce the demonstration sessions of good environmental practices and are able to better use the knowledge in their daily lives in their household, by adult learners. This result obtained is close to those obtained by Akouété (2021, p. 34) which indicates that:

"80% of participants believe they are capable of applying the training acquired in their professional position."

In the opinion of the people trained and surveyed, it appears that the competence of the trainers, the quality of the training modules, and the schedules for which the training took place were favorable elements that enabled them to agree to be trained on the one hand and to better understand the deep meaning of the training on the other hand.

"The andragogical animation, the profiles of the trainers and the educational resources made available promoted a healthy learning climate. » Akouété (2021, p. 34).

The environmental conditions of the organization's location, taking into account the thermal and hygienic comfort of training locations, the establishment of a system of audibility of sounds and speech, the elimination of annoying olfactory and increased ventilation of training areas, installation of visual safety indicators and permanent lighting in the training location and/or in the training room, meals, snacks and per diems representing costs transportation of the participants allowed them to feel the level of serenity linked to the training and to follow the proposed modules sparingly. However, 4.13% of those trained and surveyed are not completely satisfied. This observation allows us to consider continuous improvement of training modules because, according to Schwartz (1968) cited by Akouété (2021, p 34):

"We must instead establish an educational and training system that takes into account the particular needs of adults who are more difficult to satisfy."

Adult learning is strongly linked to their desire to learn in order to be able to find a solution to a problem that confronts them. It is in this sense that adults often voluntarily, consentingly and actively participate in a process of acceptance of learning depending on their immediate environmental and socio-economic needs. As the Chinese proverb of Confucius says: Tell me and I will forget it, Show me and maybe I will remember, Involve me and I will understand. During the theoretical phases of learning via the two methods (pedagogical and andragogical) the learners did not perceive the immediate link of the theoretical presentations with their daily experience because what was presented to them was experienced elsewhere and did not necessarily reflect their own reality. . The theoretical phase of all learning is essential to lay the foundations for complete adult training. But to be effective, environmental education must be based on the valorization of existing environmental elements (saying words that encourage and motivate the learner while leading them to understand the multitude of possibilities existing in their surroundings). Furthermore, it is important to note that adults learn better in the presence of certain facilities which
allow them to easily decode the message transmitted to them and which give them the opportunity to express themselves. Facilitation would then consist of preserving the motivation and enthusiasm of the people trained around the questions that it wishes to address. It is in this sense that Lebrun, (2007, p. 128) cited by Imad (2021, p. 112):
> *"proposes a model based on active methods anchored in a meaningful context, offering varied resources, relying on interaction between partners to achieve production that mobilizes high-level skills: "Learning through problem solving, [...] cooperative learning, [...] Project or project-based pedagogy".*

Taking all these elements into account, and if it had been fully taken into account by the trainers during the theoretical phase, the people trained would have all been completely satisfied. Considering that trained people do not all learn in the same way, and that learning styles are numerous and varied, whatever the learning style, the most important thing is the involvement of the learner in their learning. Without this involvement, it is not possible to obtain a result.

## CONCLUSION

The objective in this article is to measure the achievement of the training goals via educational and andragogical methods by analyzing the perception that the participants have of their training achievements. The levels of satisfaction obtained with the pedagogical and andragogical training methods sufficiently show that the methodological principles of pedagogy and andragogy have been well respected in practice. The results obtained show that more than 95.87% of the people trained and surveyed can perfectly reproduce the demonstration sessions of good environmental practices and are able to better use the knowledge in their daily lives in their household, by adult learners.

The teaching of the training modules in bioenergy production and soil restoration were more satisfactory (100%) than the training modules in intelligent reforestation (99.07%) and the production of organic fertilizers (100%). 98.05%) when using the practical andragogy method while using the practical teaching method, teaching training modules for intelligent reforestation (99.07%) and production of organic fertilizers (98.05%) were more satisfactory than during the training modules on bioenergy production (94.67%) and soil restoration (92.26%).

People from the host population were poorly participatory during the practical sessions via the andragogy method with an average participation rate of 99.5±0.85% among women and 96.2±2.94% among men while people from the host population were poorly participatory during the practical sessions via the teaching method with an average participation rate of 75.7±4.08% among women and 36.6±4.20% among men.

The average participation rate during practical sessions using the andragogy method for people displaced due to insecurity is 98.7±4.11% among women and 97±9.48% among men while the average participation rate during practical sessions via the
teaching method for people displaced due to insecurity is 97.6±7.58% among women and 98.9±3.48% among men

## Bibliographic reference

Alexis DZOKOM. VALORISATION ENERGETIQUE ET ENVIRONNEMENTALE DES DECHETS PAPIERS ET CARTONS. Ingenieurie de l'environnement. Ecole Nationale Supérieure Polytechnique de Maroua (Cameroun), 2021. Français. -Archive ouverte HAL https://hal.science/tel-03624011

Akouété-Hounsinou F. (2021). Contribution des Techniques Andragogiques au Succès de la Formation Continue : Cas de la Mise en Œuvre des Objectifs de Développement Durable au Benin. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 17 (42), 23. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2021.v17n42p23

Lebrun, M. (2007). Théories et méthodes pédagogiques pour enseigner et apprendre : Quelle place pour les TIC dans l'éducation ? Paris : De Boeck Supérieur.

Imad BELGHIT (2021). L'ANDRAGOGIE ET SES IMPLICATIONS SUR LA FORMATION CONTINUE DES ENSEIGNANTS. ANNALS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CRAIOVA, Psychology - Pedagogy, year XIX, N° 41

Rosalie Dallaire, 2023. L'éducation relative à l'environnement au niveau collégial : enjeux et opportunités d'intégration: Essai présenté au Centre universitaire de formation en environnement et en développement durable en vue de l'obtention du grade de maître en environnement (M. Env.), Université de Sherbrooke, Mai 2023. Pp 88.

Ayotte, C. (2020). Engagement politique des jeunes dans la lutte aux changements climatiques : rôle de l'éducation relative à l'environnement (Essai de maîtrise). Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada.

Carine Villemagne et Lucie Sauvé, 2021. « L'éducation relative à l'environnement auprès des adultes : mouvances et repères », Éducation relative à l'environnement [En ligne], Volume 16 - 1 | 2021, mis en ligne le 10 mars 2021, consulté le 27 mai 2021. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ere/7229 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/ere.7229

GIOLITTO Pierre, 1982. Pédagogie de l'environnement Presses Universitaires de France (PUF), Paris.

GIOLITTO Pierre, 1993 L'éducation à l'environnement en France (Avec la collaboration du Programme International d'éducation relative à l'environnement) Paris: UNESCO-PNUE

# EXERCISES AND CORRECTIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE
# PERFORMANCE OF TWO TRAINING METHODS IN SAHELIAN FARMING ENVIRONMENTS

Here is a series of exercises accompanied by their corrections on environmental education, with a focus on the comparative study of the performance of two training methods in Sahelian farming environments.

---

## Exercise 1: Identification of Training Methods

**Objective:** Understand and compare two environmental training methods used in Sahelian farming environments.

**Instructions:**

1. Describe two environmental training methods that could be implemented in Sahelian farming environments. For example, the participatory approach and the lecture approach.

2. Compare these methods in terms of their potential impact on skills acquisition and farmers' awareness of environmental issues.

**Corrected:**

**1. Training methods:**

- **Participatory approach:** This method actively involves farmers in the learning process through interactive workshops, practical field demonstrations, and group discussions. It promotes local knowledge and promotes the appropriation of knowledge by participants.

- **Lecture approach:** This method is based on theoretical lessons given by a trainer. Farmers receive information more passively, through conferences, presentations, or written documents. This approach is more directive and structured.

**2. Comparison of methods:**

- **Impact on skills acquisition:**

- **Participatory approach:** Promotes better understanding and application of concepts through the active involvement of participants. Farmers are more likely to implement learned practices on their own farms.

- **Lecture approach:** Can be effective in conveying a large amount of information in a short time, but participants may have difficulty applying concepts without practical support.
- Raising awareness of environmental issues:

- **Participatory approach:** Creates a strong link between the practices taught and local realities, which can strengthen farmers' commitment to environmental protection.

- **Lecture approach:** Awareness raising may be less effective if it is not followed by discussions or practical activities that allow participants to appropriate the concepts.

---

**Exercise 2: Measuring Method Yields**

**Objective:** To analyze the results obtained after the implementation of the two training methods, based on specific performance indicators.

**Instructions:**

1. You have the following data after implementing the two training methods in two separate villages:

- Village A (Participatory approach): 75% of participants adopted at least one environmental practice taught.

- Village B (Lectorial approach): 40% of participants adopted at least one environmental practice taught.

2. Calculate the adoption rate of environmental practices for each village.

3. Discuss the factors that could explain the difference in yield between the two villages.

**Corrected:**

**1. Adoption rate:**

- Village A (Participatory approach): Adoption rate = 75%

- Village B (Magisterial approach): Adoption rate = 40%

**2. Analysis of results:**

- The participatory method has a significantly higher adoption rate than the lecture method, which suggests that the active involvement of farmers in the training process promotes better adoption of the practices taught.

- Explanatory factors:

- **Personal commitment:** The participatory approach engages farmers in learning, which increases their motivation to apply environmental practices.
- Local adaptation: The participatory method makes it possible to better adapt lessons to local realities, making practices more relevant and therefore more easily adoptable.

- Support and monitoring: In the participatory approach, there is often post-training monitoring which encourages farmers to continue to apply the practices, which may be lacking in the lecture-based approach.

---

**Exercise 3: Long-Term Impact Study**

**Objective:** Evaluate the long-term impact of the two training methods on the sustainability of environmental practices in farming environments.

**Instructions:**

1. Imagine that after two years, an assessment is carried out in the two villages to see how many farmers continue to apply the environmental practices taught.

- Village A: 60% of participants continue to apply the practices.

- Village B: 25% of participants continue to apply the practices.

2. Analyze the results in terms of sustainability of the practices adopted. Which method seems to have the greatest long-term impact and why?

**Corrected:**

**1. Assessment results:**

- Village A (Participatory approach): 60% of participants continue to apply the practices.

- Village B (Magisterial approach): 25% of participants continue to apply the practices.

**2. Sustainability Analysis:**

- **Long-term impact:** The participatory approach shows a better retention rate of environmental practices in the long term, suggesting that methods that actively involve participants and are adapted to the local context are more effective in ensuring the sustainability of changes behavioral.

- **Success factors:**

- **Adaptive properties:** Practices taught in a participatory manner are often more in tune with local realities, which makes them more viable in the long term.
**- Capacity building:** The participatory approach strengthens not only knowledge, but also the innovation and adaptation capacities of farmers, allowing them to continue to apply and adjust practices according to needs.

---

**Exercise 4: Proposal for Improvement of Methods**

**Objective:** Propose improvements for each of the two methods in order to increase their effectiveness in training farmers in environmental practices.

**Instructions:**

1. Suggest modifications to the participatory approach to make it even more effective.

2. Propose modifications to the lecture approach to improve its adoption rate and long-term impact.

**Correction:**

**1. Improvements for the participatory approach:**

**- Integration of community leaders:** Involve local leaders more in the training process to strengthen credibility and adoption of the practices taught.

**- Continuous monitoring:** Establish a regular monitoring system after training to provide additional support and adjust practices based on feedback from farmers.

**- Inter-village exchanges:** Organize visits and exchanges between villages to allow farmers to share their experiences and learn from the successes and challenges encountered by other communities.

**2. Improvements for the lecture approach:**

**- Integration of practical activities:** Complete theoretical sessions with field demonstrations or practical workshops to reinforce the understanding and application of the concepts taught.

**- Use of visual and audio-visual supports:** Integrate videos, diagrams, and other visual supports to make sessions more engaging and accessible.

**- Encouragement of participation:** Incorporate question-and-answer sessions, group discussions, and case studies to encourage active farmer participation, even in a more formal setting.

---

These exercises provide a basis for evaluating and improving training methods in environmental education in Sahelian farming environments, taking into account local specificities and environmental challenges.
CHAPTER 2. STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL
WARMING ON THE PRODUCTIVITY AND HUMAN
COMFORT OF WORKERS OF FARMERS'
ORGANIZATIONS IN THE SAHELIAN ZONE OF
CAMEROON

Alexis DZOKOM ¹, Roger DJOULDE DARMAN²

¹Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon

² Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon

ABSTRACT

The objective of this work is to characterize the impact of heat wave situations on the productivity and human comfort of workers in peasant organizations in the Cameroonian Sahel zone. The Active Method of Participatory Research and Planning (MPRP) made it possible to collect socio-economic data through a series of 250 questionnaires. With Microsoft Office Excel, R and SPSS software, the descriptive analysis of the data consisted of calculating proportions (percentages, means and standard deviations), and creating graphs and tables. Overall, 3.85±0.83 women/hectare and 6.73±1.18 men/hectare work on a farm in the semi-arid Sahelian zone. In the dry season, a light work intensity of 156 watts induces a need for rest periods each hour in men starting at a WBGT of 30 °C, with a cumulative of 5±0.5 hours of rest during work times. While in women, a light work intensity of 156 watts induces a need for rest periods every hour at a WBGT of 30°C, with a cumulative 4.5±0.1 hours of rest during work times. During the dry season, the metabolic heat generated by physical activity in women in humid areas is 42.33±1.86°C and 42.32±1.17°C in semi-arid areas while in men in humid zones, it is 44.21±0.51°C and 45.69±1.66°C in semi-arid zones. These impacts of heat wave situations on the productivity and human comfort of workers in farmer organizations will provide a tool for managing heat wave risks in the Cameroonian Sahel environment.

**Keywords:** Sahelian zone, Heat waves, Impacts, Climate Change, Farmers' Organizations.

INTRODUCTION

Cities will be exposed to climate change due to greenhouse gas-induced radiative forcing and localized effects of urbanization such as urban heat islands (Mark et al., 2010). Urban microclimates have long been recognized (Mark et al., 2010; Oke, 1987;
Howard, 1833) in monitoring the detection of global climate change as being one of
the consequences of urbanization most influencing the recording the history of climate
change (Parker, 2010). This includes classic heat stress in addition to heat-induced
episodes of pre-existing illnesses (i.e. respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous system
disorders, etc.) (Mastrangelo et al., 2006; Ishigami et al., 2008; O'neill and Ebi, 2009),
generally in the very old, very young and those with a history of poor health (Falk,
1998; Davis et al., 2003; Donaldson et al., 2003). The global average temperature is
increasing and is estimated to increase by a further 1.8 to 4.08°C (estimated average
3.08°C) by 2100, depending on measures taken to limit gas emissions to greenhouse
effect (IPCC, 2008). It was then that climate change became a major concern of the
international scientific community and countries around the world because of its
potential and proven negative impacts on humans and ecosystems (Maurice et al.,
2015). Regular observation of the frequency of extreme climatic events, false starts of
rainy seasons, recent floods, recurrent droughts making the Sahel more and more
victims, prove that climate change has ceased to be a strictly scientific question.
Concerning the distant future of the planet to become a real and serious problem for
our society. Projections from the latest generation of climate models (Kattenberg et al.,
1995) suggest that global surface air temperatures will increase significantly in the
future due to the radiative effects of increasing atmospheric gas concentrations at
greenhouse effect (Thomas et al., 2014.). The urban population will be estimated at 6
billion city dwellers by 2050 (Mark P. et al., 2010). Ranging from rural to urban settings,
many studies have explored perceptions of potential changes in the climate system
associated with global warming (Kattenberg et al., 1995; Warrick et al., 1995; Stone,
1995; Santer et al., 1995).

As part of this study, we examine the impact of global warming on workers' work
productivity and human comfort through surveys carried out among workers in
Sahelian environments. In other words, the objective of this article is to determine the
periods favorable to productivity in a socio-professional environment in relation to
changes in the measured heat index and the heat felt by workers in the Sahelian
environment. This objective will make it possible to predict the behavior of humans in
a socio-professional environment in the Sahel.

# 1- MATERIALS AND METHOD

## 1.1-Study sites

The study sites were identified in the regions of the Far North and North Cameroon,
Sahelian zone, in ten localities, among members of associative movements and
common initiative groups (GIC). These are the localities of Mokolo, Maroua, Mora,
Garoua and Guider (for the Sahelian semi-arid zone according to the Ramsar
Convention, 2006) and Waza, Makari, Lagdo, Yagoua and Maga (for the Sahelian
humid zone according to the Ramsar Convention, 2006). These localities were chosen
due to the fact that they are part of humid zones and semi-arid zones:

<figure><img src="image_66.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Coordinates of the chosen localities</figcaption></figure>

Three localities in the Northern region were chosen for the study while the other seven localities belong to the Far North region.

**1.2- Data collection method**

The Active Method of Research and Participation Planning (MARPP) used as part of this work consisted of more or less structured interviews (Dzokom, 2021). This socio-economic data collection tool aims to obtain information in person, individually or in small groups, through a series of questions asked. The information collected is recorded in a sheet serving as a conversation guide with the possibility of readjusting the questions during the interview. This method of data collection was carried out mainly during intense activities during daytime and nighttime heatwave periods in production sites: secretariats, households, schools, university establishments, training centers, libraries, shops, hospitals, administrations, agricultural sites, livestock areas, fishing sites, motorcycle taxis (etc.) in order to determine the impact of the heat felt on
professional productivity and their economic performance specifically during these
periods.

In total, 250 workers were surveyed in the ten study locations, i.e. 25 workers per location and 05±02 workers per sector of activity/per location. The workers surveyed were chosen randomly from the directory of workers available from formal state and union services. The survey took place from 2021 to 2023. The amount of information to be reported depends on the type of survey tools used and the stages of the survey. Overall, the questionnaire used included 9 sections:

* Identification of the worker: name, gender, age, level of education and experience in the professional environment;

* The worker's targets;

* Description of the activity carried out: targets, production levels, optimal production periods, means of production;

* The means of combating heat peaks: availability, capacity, type of energy used, cost, surface area covered by the activity, the method of combating high heat during work;

* The source of labor;

* Activities related to the profession carried out and warmth felt during these moments;

* The professional productivity system adopted during heat peaks;

* The perception of climatic disturbances;

* The experienced and/or perceived impacts of climate disruption;

* Adaptation strategies to climate disruptions.

## 1.3-Data analysis

The raw data are collected from each questionnaire, entered and formatted with Microsoft Office Excel software and imported in the form of text files (separator: tabulation) into R and SPSS software for subsequent statistical analyses, namely: analysis descriptive and the correlation test. The descriptive analysis consisted of calculations of proportions (percentages), means and standard deviations. Graphs and tables were constructed. The sperman correlation test made it possible to create a typology of the farms surveyed on the basis of the types of disturbance perceived. Given that the study sample was made up equally of men and women, only the variables "age" and "level of education" linked to workers were retained for this typology:

- The "age" variable has three modalities: the "Young" (JEUN) modality for workers whose age is < 45 years old, the "Aged" (AG) modality for workers
whose age is between 45 years old and 60 years and the "Very elderly" (TAG) modality for workers whose age is > 60 years;

- The "level of education" variable has three categories: "workers without a formal level of education" (ANALF), workers who have reached the primary level of formal education (PRIM) and workers who have reached the secondary level (SEC) and more.

### 1.3.1- Assessment of heat stress in the workplace

To protect workers from the effects of heat exposure, "heat stress indices" and protection guidelines have been developed (Ramsey and Bernard, 2000). The most commonly used index in occupational health is the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index developed by the US Army several decades ago (USDAAF, 2003). This index takes into account air temperature, radiant temperature, humidity and air movement, and forms the basis for working time limitations according to different heat exposure standards (stress index thermal, sweat rate predicted over four hours) (Tord et al., 2009; Kerslake, 1972) and are likely to be correlated with the WBGT which is only a combination of three local climate measurements (NIOSH, 1986):

* The natural temperature of the wet bulb, $T_{nwb}$;

* the global temperature, $T_g$; And

* air temperature, $T_a$.

When $WBGT_{-outside} = 0,7 \times T_{nwb} \times 0,2 \times T_g \times 0,1 \times T_a$; $WBGT_{-interior} = 0,7 \times T_{nwb} \times 0,3 \times T_g$.

The felt temperature (TR) is the link between the ambient temperature ($T_a$) and the wind speed (V). The temperature felt is expressed as follows:

$$TR = 13,12 + 0,6215Ta + (0,3965Ta - 11,37)V^{0,16}$$

### 1.3.2- Physiological and clinical impacts of heat stress

The human body is designed to maintain a core body temperature of 37°C (Tord et al., 2009). A person engaging in physical activity (e.g. while working) creates metabolic heat inside the body, which must be transferred to the person's external environment in order to avoid a dangerous increase in core body temperature (Parsons, 2003). The measurement of the physiological and clinical impact due to heat stress on workers will be done through the evaluation of the heat balance determined by the "six fundamental factors" following the Parsons method (2003), namely:

- (1) air temperature;

- (2) radiant temperature;

- (3) humidity;

- (4) air movement (wind speed);
- (5) clothing;

- (6) metabolic heat generated by human physical activity.

## 1.4- Impacts of heat exposure in the workplace

The physiological basis of the different levels of clinical damage to health has been briefly described above and more details are given by Parsons (2003) and Bridger (2003). Beyond acute heat stress, more chronic effects on the heart and kidneys can develop after excessive body heating or repeated dehydration (Bridger, 2003). Heat-related deaths at work have occasionally been reported when the "tolerance time" of working at different intensities until the core body temperature reaches 39°C (Tord et al., 2009). The factors studied here to determine the impact of heat exposure in the workplace are as follows:

- chronic effects on the heart and kidneys of heat in the workplace;

- effects of excessive body heating or repeated dehydration;

- heat-related deaths.

### 1.4.1- Impacts of heat exposure on worker productivity in the workplace

Protective clothing increases heat stress and reduces performance (Bernard, 1999). Heat stress is likely common during hot seasons, but culturally accepted methods to reduce impacts on health and work capacity (such as "napping") are generally effective in avoiding serious health impacts. However, these culturally accepted methods will undoubtedly reduce the hourly productivity of exposed workers. The factors studied here to determine the impact of heat exposure on worker productivity in the workplace are:

- Number of nap hours during hot weather during work times;

- Productivity for workers in indoor climates in relation to times of air conditioning needs;

- The time to slow down work as a defense mechanism during strong exposure to heat;

- The effect of heat on work performance;

- The appearance of illnesses due to the effect of heat on workers.

## 1.5- Trends in climate change and heat stress in Sahelian cities

Ongoing global climate change has so far been described primarily in terms of average global temperature and temperature change. To describe changes in the workplace, heat stress requires analysis of trends in local temperature, humidity, wind speed and solar radiation (Tord et al., 2009). We will show temperature trends for selected locations as indicators of likely trends in actual local heat stress, but more detailed analysis is needed for projections of future impacts of local heat stress in the Sahel.
## 2-) - RESULT AND DISCUSSION

### 2-1) - Characteristics linked to the workers, operators and farms surveyed

The distribution of workers in the GICs and associations of the study sample by gender shows that these members surveyed are made up of 50% men (M) and 50% women (F) in the humid and semi-arid zone of the Cameroonian Sahel. In the humid zone, the average age of these workers is 32.63±1.29 years, while in the semi-arid zone the age of the surveyed workers is 31.95±1.25 years (Table 1).

In the humid zone, the majority of male members of the peasant organizations in the sample studied have a level of pre-school education, i.e. 83.94±12.21%, while in the semi-arid zone, we observe 87.23±11.11% of workers having a pre-school level of education. Furthermore, in the humid zone, the majority of female members of peasant agricultural organizations in the sample studied have a level of pre-school education of 97.93±0.82%, while in the semi-arid zone, we observe 97.21±0.16% of women in peasant organizations with a pre-school level of education (Table 1).

We note in the wet zone that the male workers of GIC and associations achieve 4.57±0.39 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per rainy season and 1.94±0.06 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per dry season, while those in semi-arid zones have 4.24±0.10 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per rainy season and 1.92±0.04 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per dry season. We observe on average 3.85±0.83 women per farm who are sources of mainly salaried labor and often represent 95.45±3.43% in the semi-arid zone, while in the wetland, we observe on average 3.66±1.83 women per farm who are sources of mainly salaried labor and often represent 91.40±7.42% (Table 1).

The plant species most produced within GICs and associative and community movements, both in the dry season and in the rainy season in the two agro-ecological zones of the Sahelian environment are: Sorghum (99.62%); Onion (93.07%); Corn (84.78%); Peanut (60.84%); Cowpea (56.21%); Carrot (53.25%); Tomato (51.21%); potatoes (46.26%) and cabbages (45.83%) with a diversification index of 0.91 ± 0.09 per year, produced on average on 0.76 ± 0.48 hectares in the dry season, mainly near lowlands, rivers and lakes and on 0.67±0.74 hectares in the rainy season (Table 1).

In humid areas, the average output of men's work within associative movements is 966.28±221.22 kilograms/hectare in the dry season while in the rainy season, on average 846.94±163.73 kilograms/hectare is exploited by these men from the associative movements. In semi-arid areas, the average work output of associative movements is on average 962.54 ± 193.18 kilograms/hectare in the dry season, mainly near lowlands, rivers and lakes while. In the rainy season, on average 803.80 ± 133.58 kilograms/hectare is exploited by these associative movements. Furthermore, in
humid areas, the average return on work of women in associative movements is 390.99±112.00 kilograms/hectare in the dry season and on average 508.12±248.33 kilograms/hectare in the rainy season while in semi-arid zones, the average labor output of women in associative movements is 230.20±60.27 kilograms/hectare in the dry season and on average 375.54±133.20 kilograms/hectare in the rainy season (Table 1).
<table><caption>Table 1: Characteristics of workers in the GICs and associations surveyed: gender, average age, level of education and number of years of professional experience</caption><caption>Characteristics of workers in the GICs and associations surveyed: gender, average age, level of education and number of years of professional experience</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sites</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">Sex (%)</th><th colspan="2">Middle Age (ans)</th><th colspan="2">N.I.Prés (%)</th><th colspan="2">N.I.P. (%)</th><th colspan="2">N.I.Sec (%)</th><th colspan="2">Number of years of professional experience (years)</th></tr><tr><th>M</th><th>W</th><th>M</th><th>W</th><th>M</th><th>W</th><th>M</th><th>W</th><th>M</th><th>W</th><th>M</th><th>W</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Wet area</td><td></td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>97.93±03.82</td><td>03.04±022.06</td><td>57.45±02.67</td><td>43.04±4.06</td><td>97.57±07.83</td><td>03.44±2.26</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td>Semi-arid zone</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>83.94±12.21</td><td>16.85±03.94</td><td>53.55±04.21</td><td>16.85±3.94</td><td>93.43±09.63</td><td>06.55±4.88</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Estimated production gains per season (Tons/hectare)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Wet area</td><td>Dry season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>1.94±0.06T/ha</td><td>1.92±0.04T/ha</td><td>2.25±0.97T/ha</td><td>2.91±0.74T/ha</td><td>2.65±0.44T/ha</td><td>2.95±0.54T/ha</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td>Rainy season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>4.57±0.39T/ha</td><td>4.24±0.10T/ha</td><td>7.45±0.97T/ha</td><td>5.65±1.76T/ha</td><td>7.78±0.33T/ha</td><td>5.87±0.65T/ha</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Dry season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>1.79±0.28T/ha</td><td>1.36±0.36T/ha</td><td>9.17±2.86T/ha</td><td>6.44±1.88T/ha</td><td>9.54±2.56T/ha</td><td>6.76±1.33T/ha</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td>Rainy season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>2.80±1.12T/ha</td><td>1.12±0.37T/ha</td><td>8.32±1.54T/ha</td><td>7.89±1.31T/ha</td><td>8.86±1.87T/ha</td><td>7.94±0.19T/ha</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Characteristics (Proportions of people) linked to the farms used and surveyed (%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Wet area</td><td></td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>09.06±0.82</td><td>91.40±7.42</td><td>60.09±05.77</td><td>39.41±0.93</td><td>96.34±04.55</td><td>03.65±3.53</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td>Semi-arid zone</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>05.49±0.61</td><td>95.45±3.43</td><td>50.98±02.61</td><td>49.54±8.67</td><td>95.08±01.26</td><td>04.59±6.87</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Main plant species produced</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Wet area</td><td></td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>Sorghum (99.62%); Onion (93.07%); Corn (84.78%); Peanut (60.84%); Cowpea (56.21%); Carrot (53.25%); Tomato (51.21%); Potato (46.26%) and Cabbage (45.83%).</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td>Semi-arid zone</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>Sorghum (99.62%); Onion (93.07%); Corn (84.78%); Peanut (60.84%); Cowpea (56.21%); Carrot (53.25%); Tomato (51.21%); Potato (46.26%) and Cabbage (45.83%).</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Area covered by the activity (hectare/day)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Wet area</td><td>Dry season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>0.76±0.48 ha</td><td>0.67±0.74 ha</td><td>0.86±0.55ha</td><td>0.82±0.63ha</td><td>0.98±0.07ha</td><td>0.89±0.83ha</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td>Rainy season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>2.35±0.92 ha</td><td>1.58±0.62 ha</td><td>2.78±0.29ha</td><td>1.93±0.85ha</td><td>2.93±0.78ha</td><td>1.99±0.09ha</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Dry season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>0.83±0.02 ha</td><td>0.23±0.65 ha</td><td>0.92±0.84ha</td><td>0.34±0.33ha</td><td>0.98±0.32ha</td><td>0.47±0.09ha</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td>Rainy season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>1.34±0.34 ha</td><td>0.94±0.62 ha</td><td>1.97±0.22ha</td><td>0.97±0.75ha</td><td>1.98±0.29ha</td><td>0.99±0.83ha</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Producers' labor yield (kilogram/hectare)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Wet area</td><td>Dry season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>846.94±63.73 Kg/ha</td><td>390.99±11.00 Kg/ha</td><td>868.39±22.03 Kg/ha</td><td>393.23±02.51 Kg/ha</td><td>894.05±09.06 Kg/ha</td><td>402.64±09.93 Kg/ha</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td>Semi-arid zone</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>846.94±63.73 Kg/ha</td><td>390.99±11.00 Kg/ha</td><td>868.39±22.03 Kg/ha</td><td>393.23±02.51 Kg/ha</td><td>894.05±09.06 Kg/ha</td><td>402.64±09.93 Kg/ha</td><td>9.77±0.23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td>Rainy season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>32.63±1.29</td><td>30.28±1.04</td><td>966.28±21.22kg/ha</td><td>508.12±48.33Kg/ha</td><td>974.03±02.23g/ha</td><td>574.12±35.64Kg/ha</td><td>989.74±08.92g/ha</td><td>593.73±08.05Kg/ha</td><td>9.77±0,23</td><td>09.57±0.44</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Dry season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>962.54±13.18Kg/ha</td><td>230.20±60.27Kg/ha</td><td>968.59±96.81Kg/ha</td><td>239.08±93.66Kg/ha</td><td>979.52±06.33Kg/ha</td><td>289.55±04.92Kg/ha</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr><tr><td>Rainy season</td><td>50%</td><td>50%</td><td>31.95±1.25</td><td>29.98±0.93</td><td>803.80±33.58Kg/ha</td><td>375.54±13.20Kg/ha</td><td>844.23±03.02Kg/ha</td><td>394.92±04.20Kg/ha</td><td>892.97±08.97Kg/ha</td><td>407.89±02.85Kg/ha</td><td>9.59±0.69</td><td>09.78±0.68</td></tr></table>

With M=men and F=women
In semi-arid zones, the surface area of land covered by activity is higher than in humid zones. This would be due to the problem of access to fertile land because, during our study we noted that the land rented to them is mostly unproductive compared to that exploited by men.

## 2-2)- Assessment of heat stress in the workplace within GICs and associations

During the dry season, at a light work intensity of 156 watts, the need for rest periods per hour for men begins at a WBGT of 30°C, with a cumulative 5±0.5 hours of rest during periods work, while at an intense work intensity of 200 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 30°C with a cumulative 5±1.5 hours of rest during work times. The need for preventive actions to avoid excessive heat exposure in men begins even earlier, during rest: during the dry season, at an approximate metabolic rate of 96 watts, the need for rest periods every hour in men begins at a WBGT of 33°C, with a cumulative rest of 5±1.5 hours, while at an approximate metabolic rate of 100 W during the rainy season this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 33 °C with a cumulative rest of 5±2 hours.

During the dry season, for women, at a light work intensity of 156 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 30°C, with a cumulative of 4.5±0.1 hours of rest during work times, while at an intense work intensity of 200 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 30°C with an accumulation of 3±1.5 hours of rest during time of work. The need for preventive actions in women, to avoid excessive exposure to heat, begins even earlier, during rest: during the dry season, at an approximate metabolic rate of 96 watts, the need for rest periods every hour begins at a WBGT of 33°C, with a cumulative rest of 4±0.1 hours, while at an approximate metabolic rate of 100 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 33°C with a cumulative 3±0.2 hours of rest.
<figure><img src="image_67.png" /></figure>

With M=men and F=women

**Graph 1: Light workplace heat stress during dry and rainy seasons**

During the dry season, for men, at an average work intensity of 262 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 28°C, with a cumulative 6±1.5 hours of rest during the dry season. work time, while at an average work intensity of 300 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 28°C with a cumulative 5±1.5 hours of rest during work times. During the dry season, for men, at an intense work intensity of 374 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 25°C, with a cumulative 8±1.5 hours of rest during the dry season. work time, while at an average work intensity of 400 W during the rainy season, this threshold
occurs at a WBGT of around 25°C with a cumulative 5±0.5 hours of rest during work times (Graph 2). The need for preventive actions to avoid excessive exposure to heat begins even earlier in men, during very intense work.

<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>

With M=men and F=women

**Graph 2: Thermal stress at the work site medium, intense and very intense during the dry and rainy seasons**

During the dry season, at an approximate metabolic rate of 437 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 23°C, with a cumulative rest of 7±1.5 hours, while at a rate approximate metabolic rate of 500 W during the rainy season,
this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 23°C with a cumulative 5±1.5 hours of rest (Table 10). Very intense work is often reserved for men.

During the dry season, for women at an average work intensity of 289 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 28°C, with a cumulative 4.5±0.5 hours of rest during work times, while at an average work intensity of 329 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 28°C with an accumulation of 3.5±0.5 hours of rest during work times. During the dry season, for women at an intense work intensity of 394 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 25°C, with a cumulative 6.5±0.5 hours of rest during work times, while at an average work intensity of 428 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 25°C with an accumulation of 3.5±0.5 hours of rest during work times (Graph 2).

## 2-3-) - Metabolic heat generated by human physical activity

The number of hours of rest in the shade between [10-16] (Hours) in women is higher than in men and is a function of age in both sexes. The age group between [26-40] years rests on average for 2 hours for women and 1.5 hours for men while the age group between [41-100] years rests on average for 4 hours 30 minutes for women and 3 hours 30 minutes for men, per day on sunny days.

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /><figcaption>Graph 3: Protection against sunstroke and number of hours of rest in the shade between 10 a.m.-4 p.m.</figcaption></figure>
The level of protection against sunstroke is more marked in the age group [61-100] years for both women and men. The number of baths and cold hydration are higher in the young age group between [26-30] years both in women and in men while in the same age group we observe a high consumption of hot drink while it is low in women during sunny days.

<figure><img src="image_70.png" /><figcaption>Graph 4: Level of protection against sunstroke via hydration and water supply</figcaption></figure>

The rates of use of non-renewable energy ventilation systems and exposure to open air are higher in all young age groups, both women and men. Artificial ventilation is used
much more by the age groups of [26-30]years and that of [31-40]years while natural ventilation is used much more in the same age group both among women and at men's. Exposure to the open air is preferred for all units except in the event of the presence of particles and dust in the air.

<figure><img src="image_71.png" /><figcaption>Graph 5: Level of protection against insolation via ventilation systems.</figcaption></figure>
Overall, a low level of protection against sunstroke is observed in the age group of [0-30]years during sunny days while in the age groups of [31-100]years, the level of protection against sunstroke via the use of ventilation systems is higher

<figure><img src="image_72.png" /></figure>

With M=men and F=women

<caption>Graph 6: Level of protection against sunstroke via clothing protection systems</caption>

The rate of use of towels and other cloths to wipe away heat changes with age and is more pronounced among women than among men. However, the average number of
items of clothing used to protect themselves from the sun by women is 02 items of
clothing per day. The level of protection against sunstroke varies according to the age
of the respondents.

<figure><img src="image_73.png" /></figure>

With M=men and F=women

**Graph 7:** Level of protection against sunstroke depending on the average metabolic temperature generated by human physical activity (°C)
The level of protection against sunstroke depends on the average metabolic temperature generated by physical activity: In humid areas as in semi-arid zones, the level of protection against sunstroke is averagely higher in the dry season (1, 1 in humid zone and 1.2 in semi-arid zone) than in the rainy season (0.6 in humid zone and 0.7 in semi-arid zone) while the average metabolic temperatures generated by the physical activity of women is averagely higher in the dry season (42.33°±1.43°C in humid zone and 29.95±1.99°C in semi-arid zone) than in men (44.95±4.29 °C in humid areas and 28.14°±1.05°C in semi-arid areas). In the rainy season, the average metabolic temperatures generated by the physical activity of women are averagely lower (30.00±0.29°C in humid zones and 29.91±1.04°C in semi-arid zones).

<figure><img src="image_74.png" /></figure>

With M=men and F=women

<caption>Graph 8: Activity level according to the average metabolic temperature generated by human physical activity (°C)</caption>
The activity level is a function of the average metabolic temperature generated by physical activity: In humid areas, the activity level is averagely lower in the dry season (1.78±0.07 in women and 1.40 ±0.03 in men) than in the rainy season (3.91±0.04 in women and 3.25±0.04 in men). In semi-arid zones, the activity level is averagely lower in the dry season (1.98±0.01 in women and 1.04±0.08 in men) than in the rainy season (4.01±0.03 in women and 3.40±0.05 in men).

In humid areas, the average metabolic temperatures generated by physical activity are also averagely higher in the dry season (42.34±01.06 °C in women and 42.32±01.04 °C in men) less high in the rainy season (27.86±00.67°C in women and 30.00±01.31°C in men). In semi-arid zones, the average metabolic temperatures generated by physical activity are also averagely higher in the dry season (42.33±01.74 °C in women and 45.69±01.65 °C in men ) lower in the rainy season (29.91±01.75°C for women and 28.48±01.15°C for men)

In humid areas, the activity level is averagely lower in the dry season (1.78±0.07 in women and 1.40±0.03 in men) than in the rainy season (3.91± 0.04 in women and 3.25±0.04 in men). In semi-arid zones, the activity level is averagely lower in the dry season (1.98±0.01 in women and 1.04±0.08 in men) than in the rainy season (4. 01±0.03 in women and 3.40±0.05 in men).
<figure><img src="image_75.png" /></figure>

With M=men and F=women

<caption>**Graph 9: Activity level according to the level of protection against sunstroke**</caption>

In humid areas, the level of protection against sunstroke is averagely higher in the dry season (1.1 for men and 1.9 for women) than in the rainy season (0.6 for men and 1.64 among women). In semi-arid zones, the level of protection against sunstroke is averagely higher in the dry season (1.2 in men and 1.5 in women) than in the rainy season (0.7 in men and 1.85 in women).
## 2-4) - Physiological and clinical impacts of heat stress

The results collected in the dry season show that the average air temperature is 41.56±1.17 °C in the humid zone and 41.45±1.63 °C in the semi-arid zone with a radiant temperature of 42.68±0.97°C in humid areas and 42.56±1.52°C in semi-arid areas. The metabolic heat generated by the physical activity of women in the humid zone is 42.33±1.86 °C and 42.32±1.17 °C in the semi-arid zone while the metabolic heat generated by the physical activity temperature of men in humid zones is 44.21±0.51°C and 45.69±1.66°C in semi-arid zones. The average air humidity is 07.422±0.92% in the humid zone and 01.83±0.31% in the semi-arid zone and the average wind speed is 14.02±1.03 Km/s in humid areas and 16.8±1.41 Km/s in semi-arid areas.

<figure><img src="image_76.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 10: Evaluation of the heat balance due to work in the dry season**</figcaption></figure>

In the rainy season, the average air temperature is 41.56±1.17°C in the humid zone and 41.45±1.63°C in the semi-arid zone with a radiant temperature of 42.68±0.97°C in humid areas and 42.56±1.52°C in semi-arid areas. The metabolic heat generated by the
physical activity of women in the humid zone is 42.33±1.86 °C and 42.32±1.17 °C in the semi-arid zone while the metabolic heat generated by the activity The physical temperature of men in humid zones is 44.21±0.51°C and 45.69±1.66°C in semi-arid zones. The average air humidity is 07.422±0.92% in the humid zone and 01.83±0.31% in the semi-arid zone and the average wind speed is 14.02±1.03 Km/s in humid areas and 16.8±1.41 Km/s in semi-arid areas.

<figure><img src="image_77.png" /><figcaption>Graph 11: Evaluation of the heat balance due to work in the dry season</figcaption></figure>

If cooling by transpiration and convection (by contact with cooler air and by air movement) is not sufficient, metabolic heat generation must be reduced to avoid thermal stress and heat stroke. (Tord et al., 2009; Ramsey and Bernard, 2000) which could be limitations to the extent that physical activity and work performance can be maintained without rest periods. When physical activity is high in a hot working
environment, the worker risks an increase in body temperature (above 38°C), a decrease in physical work capacity (Kerslake, 1972, Bridger; 2003), decreased mental work capacity (Ramsey, 1995) and increased accident risk (Ramsey et al., 1983), and possibly heat exhaustion or heat stroke (Hales and Richards, 1987).

The main factor causing these effects is increased core body temperature (Leithead, 1964), but dehydration due to sweating and insufficient fluid intake is also of major importance (Schrier et al., 1970). Symptomatic exhaustion and clinical illness, particularly kidney disease (Schrier et al., 1970), can be the result of excessive dehydration (Bridger; 2003). When body temperature exceeds 39°C, acute heat disorders (heat stroke) can occur, and above 40.68°C, potentially fatal “severe hyperpyrexia” begins to occur (Leithead, 1964). The first report on this issue in the context of global climate change (Kjellstrom, 2000) compared the effect of heat on work performance to “disability” caused by defined illnesses, and concluded that this effect could contribute to disability in a population to a greater extent than most diseases.

## 2-5) - Impacts of heat exposure in the workplace

In the dry season, at a WBGT of 32°C, the tolerance time during light work drops below one hour and it decreases by 12 minutes per 8°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 31°C, the tolerance time during light work goes above 3/4 of an hour and decreases by 15 minutes by 10°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 39°C is observed.

For average work, in the dry season, at a WBGT of 30°C, the tolerance time drops below one hour during intense work (50% rest/hour) and it decreases by 10 minutes per increase of 9 °C of the WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 38°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 28°C, the tolerance time in average work goes above 3/4 of an hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C.
<figure><img src="image_78.png" /><figcaption>Graph 12: Work intensity during light and medium work</figcaption></figure>

In the dry season, at a WBGT of 29°C, the tolerance time during heavy work drops below one hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 27°C, the tolerance time during heavy work goes above 3/4 of an hour and decreases by 15 minutes by 10°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 36°C is observed.

During average work, in the dry season, at a WBGT of 27°C, the tolerance time drops below one hour during very heavy work (50% rest/hour) and it decreases by 10 minutes per increase in 10°C of the WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 36°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 25.5°C, the tolerance time during average work passes above 3/4 hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 34°C is observed.
<figure><img src="image_79.png" /><figcaption>Graph 13: Work intensity during heavy and very heavy work</figcaption></figure>

In humid areas, the "calculated Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index (WBGT)" is governed by the natural temperature of the average wet bulb (Tnwb) which is 37.74±0.15°C, the WBGT-(without solar radiation) Calculated average of 33.73±0.49°C, the WBGT-(with solar radiation) Calculated average of 35.58±0.19°C under an average air temperature (Ta) °C of 41, 57±1.17°C.
<figure><img src="image_80.png" /><figcaption>Graph 14: Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index calculated</figcaption></figure>
In semi-harsh areas, the "*calculated Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index (WBGT)*" is governed by the natural temperature of the average wet bulb (T<sub>nwb</sub>) which is 37.28±0.19°C, the WBGT-(without radiation solar) Calculated average of 33.59±0.13°C, the WBGT-(with solar radiation) Calculated average of 35.24±0.09°C under an average air temperature (T<sub>a</sub>) °C of 41.45±1.63°C.

The relationship between exposure to heat in the workplace and productivity determined by Axelsson (1974), Holmer (1996) and Tord et al., (2009) made it possible to quantify this relationship in work situations where workers follow their own pace (Tord et al., 2009).

Slowing down work as a defense mechanism during high heat exposure is referred to as "*autonomous adaptation*" by Ebi et al. (2005) in their work on climate change.

Productivity has also been analyzed for indoor climates in relation to air conditioning requirements (Parsons, 2003). A number of recent studies have analyzed different aspects of the effects of heat exposure on productivity. In outdoor environments, increased exposure to heat reduces the performance of field workers and leads them to observe alternative rest times more or less equal to work time. Thus, reducing the air temperature in fields in humid areas improves the perception of the working environment better than in semi-arid areas.

Protective clothing increases heat stress and reduces performance in the dry season. Heat stress is likely common during hot seasons, but culturally accepted methods to reduce impacts on health and work capacity (such as "naps") are generally effective in avoiding serious health impacts (Bernard, 1999; Tord et al., 2009). However, these culturally accepted methods will undoubtedly reduce the hourly productivity of female workers exposed to health fields (Tord et al., 2009).

## 2-6) - Trends in climate change and heat stress in Sahelian cities

Maximum mean and minimum temperature trends for humid and semi-arid areas were compiled over 10 years (2013-2023).

In the dry season in the humid Sahel zone, the average maximum daytime temperature is +41.56± 1.16°C/season while the average maximum nighttime temperature is +31.31± 1.05°C/season. In the semi-arid zone, in the dry season, the average maximum daytime temperature is +41.45± 1.63°C/season while the average maximum nighttime temperature is +30.42± 3.15°C/season.

In the rainy season in the humid Sahel zone, the average maximum daytime temperature is +39.59± 0.69°C/season while the average maximum nighttime temperature is +22.16± 1.56°C/season. In the semi-arid zone, in the rainy season, the
average maximum daytime temperature is +39.83± 1.32°C/season while the average
maximum nighttime temperature is +25.47± 4.01°C/season.

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /><figcaption>Graph 15: Maximum temporal trends, fitted line and temperature increase for humid and semi-arid areas</figcaption></figure>

In the dry season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime temperature is +41.15± 1.07°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +29.94± 1.16°C/season. In
the semi-arid zone, in the dry season, the average daytime temperature is +40.76±
1.26°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +29.72± 3.21°C/season.

In the rainy season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime temperature is +38.78± 0.62°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +21.64± 1.37°C/season. In the semi-arid zone, in the rainy season, the average daytime temperature is +39.09± 1.34°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +25.20± 3.94°C/season.

<figure><img src="image_82.png" /><figcaption>Graph 16: Mean temporal trends, fitted line, and temperature increase for humid and semi-arid areas</figcaption></figure>
In the dry season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime minimum temperature is 37.05± 1.07°C/dry season while the average nighttime minimum temperature is +25.66± 1.96°C/season dried. In the semi-arid zone, in the dry season, the average minimum daytime temperature is +37.38±2.27°C/dry season while the average minimum nighttime temperature is +22.46±3.78°C/ dry season.

In the rainy season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime minimum temperature is +34.07± 1.10°C/ rainy season while the average nighttime minimum temperature is +21.64± 1.37°C/ rainy season. In the semi-arid zone, in the rainy season, the average minimum daytime temperature is +33.25±1.91°C/rainy season while the average minimum nighttime temperature is +20.25±3.83°C/ rainy season.

<figure><img src="image_83.png" /><figcaption>Graph 17: Temporal trends mean minimums, fitted line, and temperature increase for humid and semi-arid areas</figcaption></figure>
In many of these regions, maximum temperatures during the hottest part of the year are already close to 40°C (Tord et al., 2009) and increasing over time (Figure 17). An additional temperature of 3°58°C will make work (e.g. in agriculture and construction work) very difficult during the hottest periods in most of these cities and in tropical countries in general. Ongoing temperature changes are caused in part by the "heat island effect" in many of these cities.

## CONCLUSION

As part of this study, the objective is to examine the perceptions of women workers within women's peasant organizations from various economic, social and environmental sectors of activity and a direct measurement of the impact of global warming on their productivity to work and human comfort.

In sum, 3.85±0.83 women/hectare and 6.73±1.18 men/hectare work on a farm in the semi-arid Sahelian zone. 95.45±3.43% of women are a source of labor and 62.49±0.61% are a predominantly community source of labor. 01.72±1.13% of women are owners of the land made available for the agricultural activities of peasant organizations in the rainy season compared to 91.07±2.04% of the land is made available by male owners of GIC for agricultural activities in the rainy season.

During the dry season, at a light work intensity of 156 watts, the need for rest periods per hour for men begins at a WBGT of 30°C, with a cumulative 5±0.5 hours of rest during periods work while in women, at a light work intensity of 156 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 30°C, with a cumulative 4.5±0.1 hours of rest during work times. The number of hours of rest in the shade between [10-16] (Hours) in women is higher than in men and is a function of age in both sexes. The results collected in the dry season show that the average air temperature is 41.56±1.17 °C in the humid zone and 41.45±1.63 °C in the semi-arid zone with a radiant temperature of 42.68±0.97°C in humid areas and 42.56±1.52°C in semi-arid areas. The metabolic heat generated by the physical activity of women in the humid zone is 42.33±1.86 °C and 42.32±1.17 °C in the semi-arid zone while the metabolic heat generated by the activity physical condition of men in humid zone is 44.21±0.51 °C in and 45.69±1.66 °C in semi-arid zone.

The level of protection against sunstroke depends on the average metabolic temperature generated by physical activity: In humid areas as in semi-arid zones, the level of protection against sunstroke is averagely higher in the dry season (1, 1 in humid zone and 1.2 in semi-arid zone) than in the rainy season (0.6 in humid zone and 0.7 in semi-arid zone) while the average metabolic temperatures generated by the physical activity of women is averagely higher in the dry season (42.33°±1.43°C in humid zone and 29.95±1.99°C in semi-arid zone) than in men (44.95±4.29 °C in humid areas and 28.14°±1.05°C in semi-arid areas). In the rainy season, the average metabolic
temperatures generated by the physical activity of women are averagely lower (30.00±0.29°C in humid zones and 29.91±1.04°C in semi-arid zones).

The activity level is a function of the average metabolic temperature generated by physical activity: In humid areas, the activity level is averagely lower in the dry season (1.78±0.07 in women and 1.40 ±0.03 in men) than in the rainy season (3.91±0.04 in women and 3.25±0.04 in men). In semi-arid zones, the activity level is averagely lower in the dry season (1.98±0.01 in women and 1.04±0.08 in men) than in the rainy season (4.01±0.03 in women and 3.40±0.05 in men).

In humid areas, the average metabolic temperatures generated by physical activity are also averagely higher in the dry season (42.34±01.06 °C in women and 42.32±01.04 °C in men) and lower in the rainy season (27.86±00.67°C for women and 30.00±01.31°C for men). In semi-arid zones, the average metabolic temperatures generated by physical activity are also averagely higher in the dry season (42.33±01.74 °C in women and 45.69±01.65 °C in men ) lower in the rainy season (29.91±01.75°C for women and 28.48±01.15°C for men)

In the dry season, at a WBGT of 32°C, the tolerance time during light work drops below one hour and it decreases by 12 minutes per 8°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/ hour) where we observe 39°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 31°C, the tolerance time during light work goes above 3/4 of an hour and decreases by 15 minutes by 10°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 39°C is observed.

For average work, in the dry season, at a WBGT of 30°C, the tolerance time drops below one hour during intense work (50% rest/hour) and it decreases by 10 minutes per increase of 9 °C of the WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 38°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 28°C, the tolerance time in average work goes above 3/4 of an hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C.

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# EXERCISES AND ANSWERS ON THE STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING ON THE PRODUCTIVITY AND HUMAN COMFORT OF WORKERS OF PEASANT ORGANIZATIONS IN THE SAHELIAN ZONE OF CAMEROON

Here are five additional exercises with answers, adapted for an in-depth study of the impacts of global warming on the productivity and comfort of agricultural workers in the Sahel zone.

---

## Exercise 1: Identifying heat stress risks

1. **Question:** List and explain four risks of heat stress specific to agricultural workers in the Cameroonian Sahel zone.

2. **Correction:**

- **Rapid dehydration:** The dry and hot climate causes excessive loss of body fluids, increasing the risk of dehydration.

- **Heat exhaustion:** Long hours of work in extreme temperatures lead to rapid fatigue.

- **Increased risk of heat stroke:** The body's inability to cool itself properly in extreme heat can cause heat stroke.

- **Reduced alertness and reflexes:** Heat stress affects concentration, making workers more prone to accidents.

---

## Exercise 2: Analysis of economic consequences

1. **Question:** Describe how global warming has an economic impact on farmer organizations through reduced productivity.

2. **Correction:**

- **Lower yield:** Workers tired by the heat produce less, leading to a reduction in harvests.

- **Additional health care cost:** Expenses increase to treat heat-related conditions (heat stroke, dehydration).

- **Reduction in income:** The drop in productivity reduces the quantities of agricultural products, limiting sales and reducing income.
**- Increase in prevention costs:** Investments are necessary to create shaded areas and provide water, which affects the budget.

---

**Exercise 3: Adaptation of agricultural practices**

**1. Question:** Propose three adaptation strategies to limit the impact of heat on worker productivity.

**2. Correction:**

- **Schedule rotation:** Alternate shifts to work during cooler periods of the day.

- **Improvement of surrounding vegetation:** Plant trees around fields to provide shade and reduce local temperatures.

- **Equipment and training:** Offer sun protection equipment and train workers in heat prevention measures.

---

**Exercise 4: Observation of productivity by temperature**

**1. Question:** Using fictitious data, calculate the average productivity of workers per hour under three different temperatures (25°C, 35°C, 40°C). Use the following data:

- **At 25°C:** productivity of 100 units per hour.

- **At 35°C:** decrease of 20%.

- **At 40°C:** reduction of 40%.

**2. Correction:**

- At 25°C: 100 units/hour.

- At 35°C: $100 - (100 \times 0.20) = 80$ units/hour.

- At 40°C: $100 - (100 \times 0.40) = 60$ units/hour.

Productivity is observed to drop significantly with increasing temperature, highlighting the direct impact of climate on yield.

---

**Exercise 5: Prevention and worker comfort**

**1. Question:** Based on climate studies, propose a prevention plan to improve the comfort of workers during periods of high heat. Include three concrete actions and describe their potential effectiveness.
## 2. Correction:

- **Installation of mobile shaded areas:** This allows workers to take regular breaks away from the heat, reducing the risk of exhaustion.

- **Frequent hydration:** Having drinking water points in the fields encourages regular hydration, essential to prevent dehydration.

- **Heat management training:** Training workers on the symptoms of heat stress and prevention methods improves their ability to respond to climate risks.

---

These exercises cover risk analysis, adaptation of practices and comfort management, providing an overview of climate issues for agricultural workers in the Sahel zone. They help develop an understanding of the effects of global warming and adaptation strategies in a rural Sahelian context.
# CHAPITRE 3. GENDER, PERCEPTION OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE CAMEROONIAN SAHEL AND IMPACTS ON WOMEN'S PEASANT ORGANIZATIONS

Alexis DZOKOM<fnref n="1" />, Jules BALNA<fnref n="2" />, Anastasia KONGNYUY <fnref n="2" />, Félix WATANG ZIEBA <fnref n="2" />, Roger DJOULDÉ DARMAN<fnref n="3" />

## ABSTRACT

The increase in temperature, floods and globalized declines in agricultural productivity observed in the Sahel zone of Cameroon shed light on the perception of climate change by women workers within peasant organizations. The objective of this study is to analyze the perceptions of women workers within peasant women's organizations and the direct impact of global warming on their productivity at work. The Active Method of Participatory Research and Planning (MARPP) made it possible to collect socio-economic data through a series of 1,500 questionnaires. With Microsoft Office Excel, R and SPSS software, the descriptive analysis of the data consisted of calculating proportions (percentages, means and standard deviations), and creating graphs and tables. Overall, 3.85±0.83 women/hectare work on a farm in the semi-arid Sahelian zone but 95.45±3.43% are a source of labor while 01.72±1.13% of women are owners of land made available for the agricultural activities of peasant organizations in the rainy season compared to 1.09±0.14% in the dry season. In the Sahelian humid zone, the most perceived rainfall disturbances are the late start of rains (14.69± 2.76%) and heavy rains (22.59± 3.03%), deficits on rainy days (21. 39±0.74%), the early end of the rains (11.331±1.97%) and the drop in cumulative rainfall (21.50±1.67%). Examining the perceptions of climate change among peasant women within farmer organizations will provide a tool for managing natural environments in the Cameroonian Sahel.

**Keywords:** Sahelian zone, Cameroon, Women, Perceptions, Climate Change.

## INTRODUCTION

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, article 1) defines: "*Climate Change is a change in climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity which alters the composition of the global atmosphere...*". The warming of the global climate system is unequivocal and probably constitutes the major challenge of modern and contemporary times. According to the IPCC (2008) and Cameroon's

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts Letters and Social Sciences, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>
Climate Change Adaptation Plan (Maurice et al., 2015) which hypothesize that, even if nations succeed in drastically reducing their greenhouse gas emissions, greenhouse, the inertia of the climate system would cause at least an increase of 1.5° in the climate system at the end of the 21st century, compared to the pre-industrial era. The global average temperature is increasing and is estimated to increase by a further 1.8 to 4.08°C (estimated average 3.08°C) by 2100, depending on measures taken to limit gas emissions to greenhouse effect (IPCC, 2008). It was then that climate change became a major concern of the international scientific community and countries around the world because of its potential and proven negative impacts on humans and ecosystems (Maurice et al., 2015). Regular observation of the frequency of extreme climatic events, false starts of rainy seasons, recent floods, recurrent droughts making the Sahel more and more victims, prove that climate change has ceased to be a strictly scientific question. Concerning the distant future of the planet to become a real and serious problem for our society. Projections from the latest generation of climate models (Kattenberg et al., 1995) suggest that global surface air temperatures will increase significantly in the future due to the radiative effects of increasing atmospheric gas concentrations at greenhouse effect (Thomas et al., 2014).

Climate change and its negative effects must be understood as a development issue (UNFCCC, 2010), this implies that it has gender implications, transversal to all development sectors. Men and women are affected differently by climate change because it worsens gender inequalities and vulnerability (Masika, 2002). The global urban population will be estimated at 6 billion city dwellers by 2050 (Mark et al., 2010) and, "As women make up the largest percentage of the world's poorest populations, they are more affected by climate change. Children and young people - especially girls - and older women are generally the most vulnerable" (IDS, 2008).

Ranging from rural to urban settings, many studies have explored perceptions of potential changes in the climate system associated with global warming (Kattenberg et al., 1995; Warrick et al., 1995; Stone, 1995; Santer et al., 1995).

As part of this study, the objective is to examine the perceptions of women workers within women's peasant organizations from various economic, social and environmental sectors and a direct measure of the impact of global warming on their productivity at work and human comfort.

# 1- MATERIALS AND METHOD

## 1-1- Study sites

The study sites were identified in the Far North and North Cameroon regions, Sahelian zone, in ten localities, among female members of associative movements and common initiative groups (GIC). These are the localities of Mokolo, Maroua, Mora, Garoua, Guider (for the Sahelian semi-arid zone) and Waza, Makari, Lagdo, Yagoua and Maga
(for the Sahelian humid zone). These localities were chosen because they are part of
humid zones and semi-arid zones:

<figure><img src="image_84.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Coordinates of the chosen localities</figcaption></figure>

Three localities from the Northern region were chosen for the study while the other seven localities belong to the Far North region.

**1-2-Data collection method**

The Active Method of Participatory Research and Planning (MARPP) used as part of
this work consisted of more or less structured interviews (Dzokom, 2021).

<figure><img src="image_85.png" /></figure>
**Photo 1:** Debriefing meeting with leaders of women's associative movements for the implementation of MARP

This socio-economic data collection tool aims to obtain information in person, individually or in small groups, through a series of questions asked. The information collected is recorded in a sheet serving as a conversation guide with the possibility of readjusting the questions during the interview. This method of data collection was carried out mainly during intense activities during daytime and nighttime heatwave periods in production sites in order to determine the impact of the heat felt on professional productivity and their socio-economic performance specifically during these periods. In total, 1,500 women workers in associations were surveyed in the ten study localities, i.e. 150 women workers in associations per locality and 05±02 workers per sector of activity/per locality. The women workers in associations surveyed were chosen randomly from the directory of association members available from services in associations and unions. The survey took place from 2021 to 2023. The amount of information to be reported depends on the type of survey tools used and the stages of the survey. Overall, the questionnaire used included 9 sections:

* Identification of the worker: name, gender, age, level of education and experience in the professional environment;

* The worker's targets;

* Description of the activity carried out: targets, production levels, optimal production periods, means of production;

* The means of combating heat peaks: availability, capacity, type of energy used, cost, surface area covered by the activity, the method of combating high heat during work;

* The source of labor;

* Activities related to the profession carried out and warmth felt during these moments;

* The professional productivity system adopted during heat peaks;

* The perception of climatic disturbances;

* Perceived impacts.

**1-3-Data analysis**

The raw data are collected from each questionnaire, entered and formatted with Microsoft Office Excel software and imported in the form of text files (separator: tabulation) into R and SPSS software for subsequent statistical analyses, namely:
analysis descriptive and the correlation test. The descriptive analysis consisted of calculations of proportions (percentages), means and standard deviations. Graphs and tables were constructed. The sperman correlation test made it possible to create a typology of the farms surveyed on the basis of the types of disturbance perceived. Given that the study sample consisted of young girls, elderly women and very elderly women, only the "age" and "level of education" variables linked to female workers were retained for this typology:

- The "age" variable has three modalities: the "Young" (FAST) modality for workers whose age is < 45 years old, the "Aged" (AG) modality for workers whose age is between 45 years old and 60 years old and the "Very elderly" (TAG) modality for workers whose age is > 60 years old;

- The variable "level of education" has three modalities: "workers without formal level of education" (ANALF), workers who have reached the primary level of formal education (PRIM) and workers who have reached the secondary level (SEC) and more.

## 1-4- Assessment of heat stress in the workplace

To protect female workers from the effects of heat exposure, "heat stress indices" and protection guidelines have been developed (Ramsey and Bernard, 2000). The most commonly used index in occupational health is the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index developed by the US Army several decades ago (USDAAF, 2003). This index takes into account air temperature, radiant temperature, humidity and air movement, and forms the basis for working time limitations under different heat exposure standards (Tord et al., 2009).

Other indices of heat exposure are heat stress (heat stress index, four-hour predicted sweat rate) (Kerslake, 1972) are likely to be correlated with WBGT. The WBGT is a combination of three local climate measurements (NIOSH, 1986):

* the natural temperature of the wet bulb, Tnwb;

* the temperature of the globe, Tg; And

* air temperature, Ta.

When WBGT-exterior = 0.7 Tnwb 0.2 Tg 0.1 Ta; WBGT-interior = 0.7 Tnwb 0.3 Tg.

The felt temperature (TR) is the link between the ambient temperature (Ta) and the wind speed (V). The temperature felt is expressed as follows:

$$T R = 13,12 + 0,6215Ta + (0,3965Ta - 11,37)V^{0,16}$$

## 1-5- Physiological and clinical impacts of heat stress
- The human body is designed to maintain a core body temperature of 37°C (Tord et al., 2009). A person engaging in physical activity (e.g. while working) creates metabolic heat inside the body, which must be transferred to the person's external environment in order to avoid a dangerous increase in core body temperature (Parsons, 2003). The measurement of the physiological and clinical impact due to heat stress on workers will be done through the evaluation of the heat balance determined by the "six fundamental factors" following the Parsons method (2003), namely:

(1) air temperature;

(2) radiant temperature;

(3) humidity;

(4) air movement (wind speed);

(5) clothing;

(6) metabolic heat generated by human physical activity.

**1-6- Impacts of heat exposure in the workplace**

The physiological basis of the different levels of clinical damage to health has been briefly described above and more details are given by Parsons (2003) and Bridger (2003). Beyond acute heat stress, more chronic effects on the heart and kidneys can develop after excessive body heating or repeated dehydration (Bridger, 2003). Heat-related deaths at work have occasionally been reported when the "tolerance time" of working at different intensities until the core body temperature reaches 39°C (Tord et al., 2009). The factors studied here to determine the impact of heat exposure in the workplace are as follows:

- chronic effects on the heart and kidneys of heat in the workplace;

- effects of excessive body heating or repeated dehydration;

- heat-related deaths

**1-7-Impacts of heat exposure on worker productivity in the workplace!**

Protective clothing increases heat stress and reduces performance (Bernard, 1999). Heat stress is likely common during hot seasons, but culturally accepted methods to reduce impacts on health and work capacity (such as "naps") are generally effective in avoiding serious health impacts. However, these culturally accepted methods will undoubtedly reduce the hourly productivity of exposed female workers. The factors studied here to determine the impact of heat exposure on the productivity of female workers in the workplace are:

o Number of nap hours during hot weather during work hours;

o Productivity for workers in indoor climates in relation to the times of air conditioning needs;

o The time to slow down work as a defense mechanism during strong exposure to heat;
* The effect of heat on work performance;

* The appearance of illnesses due to the effect of heat on workers.

## 1-8- Trends in climate change and heat stress in Sahelian cities

Ongoing global climate change has so far been described primarily in terms of average global temperature and temperature change. To describe changes in the workplace, heat stress requires analysis of trends in local temperature, humidity, wind speed and solar radiation (Tord et al., 2009). We will show temperature trends for selected locations as indicators of likely trends in actual local heat stress, but more detailed analysis is needed for projections of future impacts of local heat stress in the Sahel.

# RESULTS

## 1- CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO THE FARMS SURVEYED

### 1-1- Characteristics linked to the workers and operators surveyed

The variables linked to the workers and operators surveyed are essentially six types. These are gender, age, level of education, professional experience in agricultural activity, estimated production gains per season. The variables "sex", "age", "level of education" and "professional experience" in agricultural activity in associative environments are recorded in Table 1 and those linked to estimated gains in production per season in cultivation are mentioned in Table 2.

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Characteristics of the members of the GICs and associations surveyed: gender, average age, level of education and number of years of professional experience</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sites</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">Sex (%)</th><th colspan="3">Average age (%)</th><th colspan="3">Level of instruction (%)</th><th rowspan="2">Number of years of professional experience</th></tr><tr><th>H</th><th>F</th><th>[0-45[ (ans)</th><th>[46-60[ (ans)</th><th>[61-100[ (ans)</th><th>Level of Preschool Instruction</th><th>Primary Education Level</th><th>Secondary Education Level</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>81.31±0.59</td><td>27.36±0.09</td><td>08.67±0.01</td><td>98.91±0.05</td><td>01.76±0.24</td><td>00.33±0.06</td><td>33.67±0.03</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>84.13±0.03</td><td>06.00±0.05</td><td>09.87±0.21</td><td>97.01±0.45</td><td>01.07±0.08</td><td>01.92±0.04</td><td>35.67±0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>84.24±0.07</td><td>08.20±0.08</td><td>07.56±0.03</td><td>97.10±0.32</td><td>01.76±0.04</td><td>01.23±0.07</td><td>34.67±0.06</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>81.07±0.40</td><td>10.22±0.11</td><td>08.71±0.84</td><td>97.02±0.66</td><td>01.55±0.03</td><td>01.43±0.07</td><td>31.65±0.08</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>85.82±0.93</td><td>05.60±0.56</td><td>08.58±0.45</td><td>97.19±0.54</td><td>01.69±0.02</td><td>01.12±0.07</td><td>33.57±0.05</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Semi-arid areas</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>71.54±0.15</td><td>20.87±0.71</td><td>07.59±0.88</td><td>97.43±0.06</td><td>01.65±0.28</td><td>00.92±0.05</td><td>34.22±0.04</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>86.61±0.21</td><td>06.65±0.43</td><td>06.74±0.87</td><td>97.15±0.87</td><td>02.03±0.01</td><td>00.82±0.08</td><td>33.63±0.10</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>85.65±0.57</td><td>08.57±0.37</td><td>05.78±0.42</td><td>97.07±0.98</td><td>01.56±0.07</td><td>01.37±0.03</td><td>31.48±0.04</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>81.87±0.95</td><td>09.87±0.69</td><td>08.26±0.03</td><td>97.34±0.67</td><td>01.55±0.03</td><td>01.11±0.07</td><td>32.59±0.07</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>70.32±0.01</td><td>18.26±0.09</td><td>11.42±0.48</td><td>97.09±0.38</td><td>02.01±0.05</td><td>00.90±0.08</td><td>32.09±0.03</td></tr></tbody></table>

The distribution of members of GICs and women's associations in the study sample shows that these members surveyed are made up of 100% women (F) and 0% men (M) both in humid areas and in semi-arid Sahelian region. In the wetland, the age of these members varies from the young population [0-45 [ years (83.31±2.05%), to the elderly population [46-60 [ years (11.47±0.9, 0.7%) to the young population [61-100 [years (08.31±0.82%) while in the semi-arid zone the age of these members varies from the
young population [0-45 [years (79,19±7.76%), to the elderly population [46-60 [years (12.84±06.31%) to the young population [61-100 [years (07.96±2.15%).

In the humid zone, the female farmers in the sample studied have a majority pre-school education level of 97.93±0.82%, while in the semi-arid zone, we observe 97.21±0.16% of members with pre-school education.

<table><caption>**Table 2:** Estimated production gains per season</caption><thead><tr><th>Sites</th><th></th><th>Estimated production gains per rainy season (Tons/Ha)</th><th>Estimated production gains per dry season (Tons/Ha)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>1.03±0.03</td><td>1.31±0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>1.23±0.01</td><td>1.78±0.04</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>1.53±0.02</td><td>1.97±0.02</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>1.38±0.06</td><td>1.95±0.08</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>1.72±0.02</td><td>1.97±0.07</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Semi-arid areas</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>1.98±0.08</td><td>1.77±0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>1.32±0.07</td><td>0.98±0.04</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>1.12±0.06</td><td>0.91±0.02</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>1.13±0.01</td><td>1.11±0.07</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>1.23±0.08</td><td>0.84±0.01</td></tr></tbody></table>

We note in the wet zone that the members of the GIC and women's associations have 33.85±1.49 years of professional experience and achieve 1.38±0.27 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per rainy season and 1.79±0.28 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per dry season, while those from semi-arid zones have 32.80±1.12 years of professional experience with 1.36±0.36 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per rainy season and 1.12±0.37 tons/hectare of estimated production gains per dry season.

## 1-2)- Characteristics linked to the farms surveyed

The variables linked to farms are essentially of 3 orders. This concerns the number of people per farm, the source of labor and the method of using the land.

In the semi-arid zone, we observe on average 3.85±0.83 people per farm with a source of mainly salaried labor of 95.45±3.43% while in the humid zone, we observe on average 3.66±1.83 people per farm with a source of mainly salaried labor of 91.40±7.42%.

<table><caption>**Table 3:** Average number of people per farm and workforce</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sites</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Average number of people per farm</th><th colspan="3">Source of labor (%)</th></tr><tr><th>Community workforce</th><th>Salaried workforce</th><th>Family labor</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>03.57±0.12</td><td>01.05</td><td>80.33</td><td>18.62</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>06.78±0.03</td><td>02.18</td><td>87.32</td><td>10.50</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td>Lagdo</td><td>02.89±0.04</td><td>01.33</td><td>97.27</td><td>01.40</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Yagoua</td><td>02.01±0.08</td><td>02.27</td><td>97.32</td><td>00.41</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Maga</td><td>03.07±0.01</td><td>03.79</td><td>94.77</td><td>01.44</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Semi-arid areas</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>04.08±0.01</td><td>06.89</td><td>92.38</td><td>00.73</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>03.04±0.09</td><td>03.29</td><td>91.17</td><td>05.54</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>05.03±0.06</td><td>00.28</td><td>98.81</td><td>00.91</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>04.04±0.01</td><td>01.37</td><td>97.82</td><td>00.81</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>03.06±0.05</td><td>01.49</td><td>97.05</td><td>01.46</td></tr></table>

However, in wetlands, 00.86±0.43% of women own land which is made available to GICs for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 01.34±0.09% of women who own land made available to GICs for agricultural activities in the rainy season, available in the dry season. In the semi-arid zone, 01.72±1.13% of women own land made available for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 1.09±0.14% of women own land made available in the rainy season. Just like men, women are increasingly affected by the grabbing of agricultural land, which has caused the displacement of certain entire communities, GICs and associations both in humid zones and in semi-arid zones in the Sahel.

Worldwide, women represent approximately 43% of the agricultural workforce and less than 15% of all agricultural landowners (FAO, 2013). Our study reveals that in humid zones, 99.14±0.43% of women do not own the land which is made available to GICs for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 98.86±0.09% of women, who do not own land made available during the dry season. In semi-arid zone, 98.28±1.13% of women do not own the land made available for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 98.90±0.13% of women who do not own the land made available in the dry season.

<table><caption>**Table 4:** Method of promoting land used by women within GICs and associations (%)</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Sites</th><th rowspan="3"></th><th colspan="4">Land use method (%)</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Rainy season</th><th colspan="2">Dry season</th></tr><tr><th>Owners</th><th>Tenants</th><th>Owners</th><th>Tenants</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>01,03</td><td>98,97</td><td>01,08</td><td>98,92</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>00,08</td><td>99,92</td><td>01,06</td><td>98,94</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>01,01</td><td>98,99</td><td>01,28</td><td>98,72</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>01,07</td><td>98,93</td><td>01,09</td><td>98,91</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>01,09</td><td>98,91</td><td>01,17</td><td>98,83</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Semi-arid areas</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>01,07</td><td>98,93</td><td>01,01</td><td>98,99</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>03,71</td><td>96,29</td><td>01,07</td><td>98,93</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>01,21</td><td>98,79</td><td>01,04</td><td>98,96</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>01,59</td><td>98,41</td><td>01,03</td><td>98,97</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>01,04</td><td>98,96</td><td>01,34</td><td>98,66</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 1-3)- Main plant species produced, areas exploited and yields

The plant species most produced within associative and community activities, both in the dry season and in the rainy season in the two agro-ecological zones of the Sahel environment are: cabbage (93.24±9.34%), Sorghum (90.13±6.95%), onion
(84.37±11.05%), carrot (62.79±4.07%), potato (62.43±4.86%), tomato (57.47±3.39%), peanut (47.85±5.22%), cowpea (46.36±5.09%) and corn (38.08±4.30%).

<table><caption>**Table 5:** Main cultivated species and % of workers practicing agricultural activity</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sites</th><th colspan="2">Plant species produced in humid areas (%)</th><th colspan="2">Plant species produced in semi-arid zone (%)</th><th colspan="2">% of GIC workers and associations involved in agricultural activity</th></tr><tr><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Corn</td><td>0</td><td>68.56</td><td>0.65</td><td>60.76</td><td>0.72</td><td>97.78</td></tr><tr><td>Peanuts</td><td>0</td><td>95.43</td><td>0</td><td>96.72</td><td>0.71</td><td>94.25</td></tr><tr><td>Cowpea</td><td>0</td><td>93.36</td><td>0</td><td>97.33</td><td>0</td><td>87.46</td></tr><tr><td>Onion</td><td>76.31</td><td>76.54</td><td>88.45</td><td>71.78</td><td>94.09</td><td>99.04</td></tr><tr><td>Tomato</td><td>91.98</td><td>12.23</td><td>63.96</td><td>45.94</td><td>32.04</td><td>98.69</td></tr><tr><td>Carrot</td><td>3.54</td><td>99.97</td><td>22.03</td><td>91.91</td><td>74.29</td><td>85.02</td></tr><tr><td>Cabbage</td><td>99.92</td><td>99.72</td><td>97.96</td><td>90.99</td><td>75.41</td><td>95.42</td></tr><tr><td>Sorghum</td><td>90.97</td><td>89.56</td><td>97.09</td><td>93.75</td><td>92.44</td><td>76.95</td></tr><tr><td>Potato</td><td>0</td><td>87.76</td><td>0</td><td>97.28</td><td>94.49</td><td>95.05</td></tr></tbody></table>

However, the involvement of GIC and association workers in agricultural activities is 51.58±4.27% in the dry season and 92.18±7.49% in the rainy season. Over one year (dry season and rainy season), it appears overall that the study sites present a diversity of plant production with a diversification index of 2.91 ± 0.03. Climate change, and in particular the scarcity of water resources, has a serious impact on food production in the semi-arid Sahelian zone. In the Sahel, where temperatures are rising 1.5 times faster than the rest of the world, reports indicate that as climate change worsens, groundwater reserves will dwindle without recharging, drying out the aquifers.

### 1-4)- Area covered by the activity and output of producers' work

In wetlands, the average altitude of the land used is 296.40±37.66 meters compared to sea level with an average area covered by activity of 0.17±0.01 hectare in the dry season, mainly near lowlands, rivers and lakes while in the rainy season, on average 0.24±0.07 hectares is exploited by women from associative movements. In semi-arid areas, the altitude of the land used varies between 547.60±129.62 meters above sea level with an average area covered by activity of 0.148±0.03 hectares in the dry season, mainly near lowlands, rivers and flood-prone areas while in the rainy season, on average 0.476±0.53 hectares is exploited by the women of these movements associative.

<table><caption>**Table 6:** Average area covered by the activity/Operator and average work output</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Site</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Altitude(m)</th><th rowspan="2">Geographic coordinates</th><th colspan="2">Average labor yield (kg/Ha)</th></tr><tr><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>312</td><td>11°40'18"N, 14°57'02"E</td><td>291.01 ± 13.63</td><td>376.28 ± 23.12</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>298</td><td>12°21'38"N, 14°18'17"E</td><td>398.74 ± 14.05</td><td>291.73 ± 36.56</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>234</td><td>5°9'08"N, 12°27'01"E</td><td>567.89 ± 21.92</td><td>910.11 ± 62.01</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>335</td><td>9°0'03"N, 13°49'61"E</td><td>297.45 ± 30.33</td><td>382.71 ± 31.07</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td rowspan="6">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Maga</td><td>303</td><td>10°50'38"N, 14°57'24"E</td><td>399.88 ± 23.84</td><td>579.79 ± 96.78</td></tr><tr><td>Mokolo</td><td>630</td><td>4°07'35"N, 14°08'07"E</td><td>294.11 ± 38.01</td><td>571.27 ± 23.96</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>612</td><td>5°9'08"N, 12°27'01"E</td><td>297.77 ± 29.28</td><td>387.71 ± 79.84</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>507</td><td>11°02'46"N, 14°08'24"E</td><td>183.99 ± 31.09</td><td>201.78 ± 86.92</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>651</td><td>5°19'58"N, 12°55'0"E</td><td>180.09 ± 12.35</td><td>387.97 ± 91.22</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>338</td><td>9°55'60"N, 13°56'48"E</td><td>195.04 ± 13.43</td><td>328.99 ± 10.72</td></tr></table>

In humid areas, the average return on the work of women in associative movements is 390.99± 112.00 kilograms/hectare in the dry season and on average 508.12± 248.33 kilograms/hectare in the rainy season while in the wetlands semi-arid zones, the average work output of women in associative movements is 230.20±60.27 kilograms/hectare in the dry season and on average 375.54±133.20 kilograms/hectare in the rainy season.

<figure><img src="image_86.png" /><figcaption>Graph 1: Average area covered by agricultural activity/Farmer</figcaption></figure>

In semi-arid zones, the surface area of land covered by activity is higher than in humid zones. This would be due to the problem of access to fertile land because, during our study we noted that the land rented to them is mostly unproductive compared to that exploited by men.

## 2- Perception of rainfall disturbances
The perception of climatic disturbances comes in two forms in agro-ecological zones.
For the members of the GICs surveyed, rainfall disturbances and its perceived
consequences have an impact on agricultural work.

Rainfall disturbances according to local perceptions are governed by heavy rains, drop in cumulative rainfall, heavy rains, deficit of rainy days, late start of rains and early end of rains. On all sites, both in humid zones and in semi-arid zones, the women of the GIC and association are unanimous regarding the observation of rainfall disturbances.

<figure><img src="image_87.png" /><figcaption>Graph 2: Perception of rainfall disturbances</figcaption></figure>
In humid areas, among the perceived rainfall disturbances, the most perceived are the late start of rains (14.69±2.76%) and heavy rains (22.59±3.03%), deficits on rainy days (21.39±0.74%), the early end of the rains (11.331±1.97%) and the drop in cumulative rainfall (21.50±1.67%) while in the semi-arid zone the rainfall disturbances the most perceived are heavy rains (22.02±0.69%), the drop in cumulative rainfall (21.26±0.43%), deficits on rainy days (21.19±0.77%), the late start of the rains (14.79±2.47%) and the early end of the rains (12.06±0.79%).

On the basis of the different responses collected, it also appears that the consequences of rainfall disturbances impact all agricultural activities via pockets of drought, floods and the findings of climatic disturbances and make it possible to clearly see the extent of the phenomenon on agricultural activities in the Sahel.
<figure><img src="image_88.png" /><figcaption>Graph 3: Perception of the consequences of rainfall disturbances</figcaption></figure>

Overall, pockets of drought are more and more perceptible in the semi-arid zone (81.68±9.21%) than in the humid zone (45.95±1.10%). However, these pockets of drought are more perceived by GIC workers in the semi-arid zones in Garoua (94.16%) and lower in the humid zone of Makari (30.12%).
Floods are perceived much more in the humid zone (95.40±2.62%) than in the arid zone (7.63±8.58%). Furthermore, these floods are often perceived by the workers of Maga (98.12%) while the lowest flooding is perceived by the workers of Guider (1.86%).

## 3- Perception of thermal disturbances

There are two types of perception of thermal disturbances in agro-ecological zones. For the members of the GICs surveyed, thermal disturbances during agricultural work are differentiated by the ambient temperatures and the temperatures felt during the dry and rainy seasons which condition the duration of work and consequently, the profitability of agricultural activities.

Thermal disturbances felt according to local perceptions are governed by wind speed and local ambient temperatures. On all sites in both humid areas and semi-arid areas, GIC and association workers are unanimous in the observation of thermal disturbances on the profitable time taken to work.

Among the thermal disturbances perceived in humid areas, the average time slot favored by GIC workers is from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. during the dry season, while during the rainy season, GIC workers prefer to work from 6 a.m. to 1 p.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. in the evening.

<table><caption>**Table 7:** Working hours and main professional activities carried out by workers, members of the GIC (Time)</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Site</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">Dry season</th><th colspan="2">Rainy season</th></tr><tr><th>Morning</th><th>Evening</th><th>Morning</th><th>Evening</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>6H-10H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-13H</td><td>14H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>6H-9H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-13H</td><td>14H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>6H-10H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-13H</td><td>14H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>6H-10H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-13H</td><td>14H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>6H-10H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-13H</td><td>14H-18H</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>6H-11H</td><td>14H-18H</td><td>6H-13H</td><td>14H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>6H-9H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-11H</td><td>15H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>6H-9H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-11H</td><td>15H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>6H-9H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-11H</td><td>15H-18H</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>6H-10H</td><td>15H-18H</td><td>6H-13H</td><td>15H-18H</td></tr></tbody></table>

In the semi-arid zone, the average time slot favored by GIC workers is 6 hours to 9 hours 30 minutes in the morning and 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. during the dry season, while during the rainy season, workers in GIC prefer to work from 6 a.m. to 11:30 a.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. in the evening. The duration of avoiding heat stroke is longer in the dry season (between 5 and 6 hours) while it ranges from 2 to 4 hours in the rainy season.
<figure><img src="image_89.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 4:** Temperature felt on site during working hours and main professional activities carried out by GIC members (°C)</figcaption></figure>
In humid areas, the average wind speed on the sites is 19.82±6.45 km/h, during the dry season, while during the rainy season the average wind speed is 14.87±1.48 km/h. In the semi-arid zone, the average wind speed on the sites is 12.4±1.94 Km/h, during the dry season, while during the rainy season the average wind speed is 11.00±1.87 km/h.

In the humid zone, during the dry season, the average local ambient temperature on the sites is 37.73±1.35°C with an average heat felt locally on the sites of 42.33±1.85°C, while during the rainy season the average local ambient temperature is 26.16±2.37°C with an average heat felt locally on the sites of 27.86±2.90°C. In the semi-arid zone, the average local ambient temperature on the sites is 38.07±1.98°C with an average heat felt locally on the sites of 42.32±2.28°C, during the dry season, while during the rainy season the average local ambient temperature on the sites is 26.57±2.60°C with an average heat felt locally on the sites of 28.41±3.11°C.

#### 4)- Typology of operations depending on the type of disturbance perceived

The Typology of farms according to the type of disturbance perceived is broken down into correlations (Spearman correlation) between the types of disturbance perceived and the characteristics of the members of the GICs and associations, respectively in humid zones and in semi-arid zones.
<figure><img src="image_90.png" /><figcaption>Graph 5: Correlation between perceived types of disturbance and farmer-related parameters</figcaption></figure>
The analysis of these correlation matrices between the types of perceived disturbance and the characteristics of the members of the GICs and associations, respectively in the humid zone and in the semi-arid zone on all the sites shows values of Spearman's rho more or less lower.

There are therefore no strong links between the modalities of the variable "perceived types of disturbance" and the modalities of the variable "characteristics linked to members of GICs and associations, respectively in humid zones and in semi-arid zones on the all sites. These results show that no typology of operations can be made on the basis of the types of disturbance perceived.

## 5- Impacts of exposure to heat on climate perceptions within GICs and associations
### 5-1)- Assessment of heat stress in the workplace

During the dry season, at a light work intensity of 156 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 30 °C, with a cumulative 5±0.5 hours of rest during work times, while at an intense work intensity of 200 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 30°C with an accumulation of 5±1.5 hours of rest during work times.

The need for preventive actions to avoid excessive heat exposure begins even earlier, during rest: during the dry season, at an approximate metabolic rate of 96 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 33°C, with an accumulation of 5±1.5 hours of rest, while at an approximate metabolic rate of 100 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 33°C with an accumulation of 5±2 hours of rest.

<table><caption>**Table 8:** Light workplace heat stress during dry and rainy seasons</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Labor intensity</th><th colspan="2">Rest</th><th colspan="2">Light work</th></tr><tr><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Approximate metabolic rate(W)</td><td>96</td><td>100</td><td>156</td><td>200</td></tr><tr><td>WBGTb reference values (°C)</td><td>33</td><td>33</td><td>30</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>Duration of rest during work times (Hour)</td><td>5±1.5</td><td>5±2</td><td>5±0.5</td><td>5±1.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

During the dry season, at an average work intensity of 262 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 28 °C, with a cumulative of 6±1.5 hours of rest during work times, while at an average work intensity of 300 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 28°C with an accumulation of 5±1.5 hours of rest during work times.

During the dry season, at an intense work intensity of 374 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 25 °C, with a cumulative 8±1.5 hours of rest during work times, while at an average work intensity of 400 W during the rainy
season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 25°C with an accumulation of 5±0.5 hours of rest during work times.

<table><caption>**Table 9:** Thermal stress at the work site medium, intense and very intense during the dry and rainy seasons</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Labor intensity</th><th colspan="2">Average work</th><th colspan="2">Intense work</th><th colspan="2">Very intense work</th></tr><tr><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Approximate metabolic rate(W)</td><td>262</td><td>300</td><td>374</td><td>400</td><td>437</td><td>500</td></tr><tr><td>WBGTb reference values (°C)</td><td>28</td><td>28</td><td>25</td><td>25</td><td>23</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>Duration of rest during work times (Hour)</td><td>6±1.5</td><td>5±1.5</td><td>8±1.5</td><td>5±0.5</td><td>7±1.5</td><td>5±1.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

The need for preventive actions to avoid excessive exposure to heat begins even earlier, during very intense work. During the dry season, at an approximate metabolic rate of 437 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 23°C, with a cumulative rest of 7±1.5 hours, while at a rate approximate metabolic rate of 500 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 23°C with a cumulative 5±1.5 hours of rest.

## 5-2)- Metabolic heat generated by human physical activity

The number of hours of rest in the shade between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. (hours) for women depends on age. The age group between [26-40]years rests on average for 2 hours while the age group between [41-100]years rests on average for 4 hours 30 minutes per day during sunny days.
<figure><img src="image_91.png" /><figcaption>Graph 6: Protection against sunstroke and number of hours of rest in the shade between 10 a.m.-4 p.m.</figcaption></figure>

The number of baths and cold hydration are higher in the young age group between [0-40]years while in the same age group we observe a low consumption of hot water
with a low level protection against sunstroke in the age group of [0-40]years during sunny days

<figure><img src="image_92.png" /><figcaption>Graph 7: Level of protection against sunstroke via hydration and water supply</figcaption></figure>
The rates of use of non-renewable energy ventilation systems and exposure to open air are higher among all young age groups. Artificial ventilation is used much more by the age groups of [26-30]years and that of [31-40]years while natural ventilation is used much more in the same age group.

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /><figcaption>Graph 8: Level of protection against insolation via ventilation systems</figcaption></figure>
Overall, a low level of protection against sunstroke is observed in the age group of [0-30]years during sunny days while in the age groups of [31-100]years, the level of protection against sunstroke via the use of ventilation systems is higher

<figure><img src="image_94.png" /><figcaption>Graph 9: Level of protection against sunstroke via clothing protection systems</figcaption></figure>
The rate of use of towels and other cloths to wipe away heat changes with age. However, the maximum number of items of clothing used by women to protect themselves from the sun is 2 items of clothing per day. The level of protection against sunstroke varies depending on the age of the respondents.

<figure><img src="image_95.png" /><figcaption>Graph 10: Level of protection against sunstroke depending on the average metabolic temperature generated by human physical activity (°C)</figcaption></figure>

The level of protection against sunstroke depends on the average metabolic temperature generated by women's physical activity: In humid areas as in semi-arid zones, the level of protection against sunstroke is averagely higher in the dry season (
1.1 in humid zone and 1.2 in semi-arid zone) than in the rainy season (0.6 in humid zone and 0.7 in semi-arid zone) while the average metabolic temperatures generated by the activity physical health of women is averagely higher in the dry season (42.33°C in humid zone and 42.32°C in semi-arid zone) than in the rainy season (27.86°C in humid zone and 28.41 °C in semi-arid zone)

<figure><img src="image_96.png" /><figcaption>Graph 11: Activity level according to the average metabolic temperature generated by human physical activity (°C)</figcaption></figure>
The activity level is a function of the average metabolic temperature generated by the physical activity of women: In humid zones as in semi-arid zones, the activity level is averagely higher in the dry season (1.4 in humid zones and in semi-arid zone) with the average metabolic temperatures generated by the physical activity of women also averagely higher in the dry season (42.33°C in humid zone and 42.32°C in semi-arid zone). In the rainy season the level of activity is averagely lower (3.6 in humid zones and 3.4 in semi-arid zones) while the average metabolic temperatures generated by the physical activity of women are averagely lower in the rainy season. rain (27.86°C in humid zone and 28.41°C in semi-arid zone)
<figure><img src="image_97.png" /><figcaption>Graph 12: Activity level according to the level of protection against sunstroke</figcaption></figure>

The level of activity depends on the level of protection against sunstroke during physical activity of women: In humid zones as in semi-arid zones, the level of activity is averagely higher in the dry season (1.4 in humid zone and semi-arid zone) with averagely higher levels of protection against insolation in the dry season (1.1 in humid zone and 1.2 in semi-arid zone).
In the rainy season the level of activity is averagely lower (3.6 in humid areas and 3.4 in semi-arid areas) while the level of protection against insolation is also averagely lower in the rainy season ( 0.6 in humid zone and 0.7 in semi-arid zone).

**5-3)- Physiological and clinical impacts of heat stress**

The results collected show that the average air temperature is 41.56±1.17°C in the humid zone and 41.45±1.63°C in the semi-arid zone with a radiant temperature of 42.68± 0.97°C in humid areas and 42.56±1.52°C in semi-arid areas. The metabolic heat generated by the physical activity of women in humid areas is 42.33±1.86 °C in and 42.32±1.17 °C in semi-arid areas with average air humidity in rainy season of 57.86±2.90% in humid zone and 58.41±3.11% in semi-arid zone and an average wind speed is 13.2±1.30 Km/s in humid zone and 13.4±1.14 Km/s in semi-arid zone.
<figure><img src="image_98.png" /><figcaption>Graph 13: Evaluation of the heat balance due to work</figcaption></figure>
If cooling by transpiration and convection (by contact with cooler air and by air movement) is not sufficient, metabolic heat generation must be reduced to avoid thermal stress and heat stroke. (Tord et al., 2009; Ramsey and Bernard; 2000) which could be limitations to the extent that physical activity and work performance can be maintained without rest periods.

When physical activity is high in a hot working environment, the worker risks an increase in body temperature (above 38°C), a decrease in physical work capacity (Kerslake, 1972, Bridger; 2003), decreased mental work capacity (Ramsey, 1995) and increased accident risk (Ramsey et al., 1983), and possibly heat exhaustion or heat stroke (Hales and Richards, 1987). The main factor causing these effects is increased core body temperature (Leithead, 1964), but dehydration due to sweating and insufficient fluid intake is also of major importance (Schrier et al., 1970). Symptomatic exhaustion and clinical illness, particularly kidney disease (Schrier et al., 1970), can be the result of excessive dehydration (Bridger; 2003). When body temperature exceeds 39°C, acute heat disorders (heat stroke) can occur, and above 40.68°C, potentially fatal "severe hyperpyrexia" begins to occur (Leithead, 1964). The first report on this issue in the context of global climate change (Kjellstrom, 2000) compared the effect of heat on work performance to "disability" caused by defined diseases, and concluded that this effect could contribute to disability in a population to a greater extent than most diseases.

## 5-4)- Impacts of heat exposure in the workplace

In the dry season, at a WBGT of 32°C, the tolerance time during light work drops below one hour and it decreases by 12 minutes per 8°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 31°C, the tolerance time during light work goes above 3/4 of an hour and decreases by 15 minutes by 10°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 39°C is observed.
<figure><img src="image_99.png" /><figcaption>Graph 14: Work intensity during light and medium work</figcaption></figure>

For average work, in the dry season, at a WBGT of 30°C, the tolerance time drops below one hour during intense work (50% rest/hour) and it decreases by 10 minutes per increase of 9 °C of the WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 38°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 28°C, the tolerance time in average work goes above 3/4 of an hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 39°C is observed.
In the dry season, at a WBGT of 29°C, the tolerance time during heavy work drops below one hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 27°C, the tolerance time during heavy work goes above 3/4 of an hour and decreases by 15 minutes by 10°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 36°C is observed.

During average work, in the dry season, at a WBGT of 27°C, the tolerance time drops below one hour during very heavy work (50% rest/hour) and it decreases by 10 minutes per increase in 10°C of the WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 36°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 25.5°C, the tolerance time during average work passes above 3/4 hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 34°C is observed.

<figure><img src="image_100.png" /><figcaption>Graph 15: Work intensity during heavy and very heavy work</figcaption></figure>

In humid areas, the "calculated Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index (WBGT)" is governed by the natural temperature of the average wet bulb (Tnwb) which is 37.74±0.15°C, the WBGT-(without solar radiation) Calculated average of 33.73±0.49°C, the WBGT-(with
solar radiation) Calculated average of 35.58±0.19°C under a temperature of average air (Ta) °C of 41.57±1.17°C.

<figure><img src="image_101.png" /><figcaption>Graph 16: Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index calculated</figcaption></figure>

In semi-hard areas, the "calculated Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index (WBGT)" is governed by the natural temperature of the average wet bulb (Tnwb) which is 37.28±0.19°C, the WBGT-(without radiation solar) Calculated average of 33.59±0.13°C, the WBGT-(with solar radiation) Calculated average of 35.24±0.09°C under an average air temperature (Ta) °C of 41.45±1.63°C.

The relationship between exposure to heat in the workplace and productivity determined by Axelsson (1974, Holmer (1996) and Tord et al., (2009) made it possible to quantify this relationship in work situations where workers follow their own pace (Tord et al., 2009).
Slowing down work as a defense mechanism during high heat exposure is referred to as "autonomous adaptation" by Ebi et al. (2005) in their work on climate change.

Productivity has also been analyzed for indoor climates in relation to air conditioning requirements (Parsons, 2003). A number of recent studies have analyzed different aspects of the effects of heat exposure on productivity. In outdoor environments, increased exposure to heat reduces the performance of field workers and leads them to observe alternative rest times more or less equal to work time. Thus, reducing the air temperature in fields in humid areas improves the perception of the working environment better than in semi-arid areas.

Protective clothing increases heat stress and reduces performance in the dry season. Heat stress is likely common during hot seasons, but culturally accepted methods to reduce impacts on health and work capacity (such as "naps") are generally effective in avoiding serious health impacts (Bernard, 1999; Tord et al., 2009). However, these culturally accepted methods will undoubtedly reduce the hourly productivity of female workers exposed in health fields (Tord et al., 2009).

**5-5)- Trends in climate change and heat stress in Sahelian cities**

Maximum mean and minimum temperature trends for humid and semi-arid areas were compiled over 10 years (2013-2023).

In the dry season in the humid Sahel zone, the average maximum daytime temperature is +41.56± 1.16°C/season while the average maximum nighttime temperature is +31.31± 1.05°C/season. In the semi-arid zone, in the dry season, the average maximum daytime temperature is +41.45± 1.63°C/season while the average maximum nighttime temperature is +30.42± 3.15°C/season.

In the rainy season in the humid Sahel zone, the average maximum daytime temperature is +39.59± 0.69°C/season while the average maximum nighttime temperature is +22.16± 1.56°C/season. In the semi-arid zone, in the rainy season, the average maximum daytime temperature is +39.83± 1.32°C/season while the average maximum nighttime temperature is +25.47± 4.01°C/season.

In the dry season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime temperature is +41.15± 1.07°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +29.94± 1.16°C/season. In the semi-arid zone, in the dry season, the average daytime temperature is +40.76± 1.26°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +29.72± 3.21°C/season.
<figure><img src="image_102.png" /><figcaption>Graph 17: Maximum temporal trends, fitted line, temperature increase for humid and semi-arid areas</figcaption></figure>

In the rainy season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime temperature is +38.78± 0.62°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +21.64±
1.37°C/season. In the semi-arid zone, in the rainy season, the average daytime temperature is +39.09± 1.34°C/season while the average nighttime temperature is +25.20± 3.94°C/season.

<figure><img src="image_103.png" /><figcaption>Graph 18: Mean temporal trends, fitted line, temperature increase for humid and semi-arid areas</figcaption></figure>

In the dry season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime minimum temperature is 37.05± 1.07°C/dry season while the average nighttime minimum
temperature is +25.66± 1.96°C/season dried. In the semi-arid zone, in the dry season, the average minimum daytime temperature is +37.38±2.27°C/dry season while the average minimum nighttime temperature is +22.46±3.78°C/ dry season.

In the rainy season in the humid Sahel zone, the average daytime minimum temperature is +34.07± 1.10°C/ rainy season while the average nighttime minimum temperature is +21.64± 1.37°C/ rainy season. In the semi-arid zone, in the rainy season, the average minimum daytime temperature is +33.25±1.91°C/rainy season while the average minimum nighttime temperature is +20.25±3.83°C/ rainy season.

<figure><img src="image_104.png" /><figcaption>Graph 19: Temporal trends mean minimums, fitted line and temperature increase for humid and semi-arid areas</figcaption></figure>
In many of these regions, maximum temperatures during the hottest part of the year are already close to 40°C (Tord et al., 2009) and increasing over time (graph). An additional temperature of 3°58°C will make work (e.g. in agriculture and construction work) very difficult during the hottest periods in most of these cities and in tropical countries in general. Ongoing temperature changes are caused in part by the "heat island effect" in many of these cities.

## CONCLUSION

As part of this study, the objective is to examine the perceptions of women workers within women's peasant organizations from various economic, social and environmental sectors and a direct measure of the impact of global warming on their productivity to work and human comfort. In the semi-arid zone, we observe on average 3.85±0.83 people/hectare per farm with a source of mainly salaried labor of 95.45±3.43% while in the humid zone we observe on average 3.66±1.83 people/hectare per farm with a source of mainly salaried labor of 91.40±7.42%. However, in humid areas, 00.86±0.43% of women own land which is made available to GICs for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 01.34±0.09% of women who own land made available in the dry season. In the semi-arid zone, 01.72±1.13% of women own land made available for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 1.09±0.14% of women own land made available in the rainy season. The involvement of GIC and association workers in agricultural activities is 51.58±4.27% in the dry season and 92.18±7.49% in the rainy season. Over one year (dry season and rainy season), it appears overall that the study sites present a diversity of plant production with a diversification index of 2.91 ± 0.03. During the dry season, at an approximate metabolic rate of 437 watts, the need for rest periods each hour begins at a WBGT of 23°C, with a cumulative rest of 7±1.5 hours, while at a rate approximate metabolic rate of 500 W during the rainy season, this threshold occurs at a WBGT of approximately 23°C with a cumulative 5±1.5 hours of rest. In the dry season, at a WBGT of 32°C, the tolerance time during light work drops below one hour and it decreases by 12 minutes per 8°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 31°C, the tolerance time during light work goes above 3/4 of an hour and decreases by 15 minutes by 10°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where 39°C is observed. For average work, in the dry season, at a WBGT of 30°C, the tolerance time drops below one hour during intense work (50% rest/hour) and it decreases by 10 minutes per increase of 9 °C of the WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 38°C while in the rainy season, at a WBGT of 28°C, the tolerance time in average work goes above 3/4 of an hour and it decreases by 10 minutes per 11°C increase in WBGT during rest (100% rest/hour) where we observe 39°C.

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Convention Cadre sur les Changements Climatiques (UNFCCC), 2010. Rapport sur la réunion informelle des représentants des Parties et des Organisation et experts visant à étudier les résultats des activités menées à bien avant la réunion. Organe subsidiaire de conseil scientifique et technologique, Cancun, 2010, Pp 18.

Masika RACHEL, 2002. Gender, development and climate change. University of Brighton, Publisher Oxfam. Taylor & Francis. Ltd. Vol. 10, N°. 2, Climate Change (Jul, 2002). ISBN: 0 85598 479 1, Pp 2-9. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030568

Warrick, R. A., Le Provost, C., Meier, M. F., Oerlemans, J., and Woodworth, P. L.: 1995, 'Changes in Sea Level', in Climate Change 1995 – The Science of Climate Change, Chapter 7, Cambridge University Press

## EXERCISES AND CORRECTIONS ON WOMEN (GENDER), PERCEPTION OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN SAHEL ZONES AND IMPACTS ON WOMEN'S FARMER ORGANIZATIONS

Here are exercises accompanied by their corrections on the theme of women (gender), the perception of climate change in Sahelian zones, and the impacts on women's peasant organizations.

---

### Exercise 1: Understanding Perceptions of Climate Change by Women in Sahelian Zones

**Objective:** Analyze the perception of climate change by women in Sahelian zones and understand the reasons for these perceptions.

**Instructions:**

1. Describe how women in Sahelian areas perceive climate change. What are the main indicators they use to evaluate these changes?

2. Discuss the social, economic and cultural factors that influence women's perceptions of climate change in these regions.

**Correction:**

**1. Perception of climate change:**

- Women in Sahelian zones perceive climate change mainly through observable phenomena such as irregular rainfall, longer periods of drought, land degradation, and reduced agricultural yields.
- They use indicators such as reduced harvests, livestock deaths, reduced access to water resources, and changing seasons to assess these changes.

**- Social factors:** Women's traditional role in managing natural resources (water, wood, food) makes them more sensitive to climate variations, as these changes directly impact their daily responsibilities.

**- Economic factors:** Women's dependence on subsistence agriculture and natural resources pushes them to be more attentive to environmental changes that affect their main source of income.

**- Cultural factors:** Traditional knowledge and local practices, often passed down from generation to generation, influence how women perceive and interpret climate change.

---

**Exercise 2: Impact of Climate Change on Women's Farmer Organizations**

**Objective:** To examine the impacts of climate change on women's farmers' organizations in the Sahelian regions.

**Instructions:**

1. Identify three major impacts of climate change on women's farmers' organizations in the Sahelian regions.

2. Propose strategies that these organizations could adopt to mitigate these impacts.

**Correction:**

**1. Major impacts of climate change:**

**- Reduced agricultural yields:** Climate variations lead to reduced yields, directly affecting the incomes of women's farmers' organizations that depend on agriculture.

**- Limited access to natural resources:** The scarcity of resources such as water and wood forces women to travel longer distances to collect them, increasing the workload and reducing the time available for other economic activities.

**- Increased vulnerability:** Women, often economically and socially marginalized, become more vulnerable to climate shocks, which weakens the organizations they lead or participate in.

**2. Mitigation strategies:**

**- Diversification of income sources:** Encourage women to diversify their economic activities, for example through livestock, crafts or trade, to reduce their dependence on agriculture.
- **Capacity building:** Train women in resilient agricultural practices, such as agroforestry or the use of drought-resistant varieties, to better cope with climate change.

- **Access to resources and information:** Facilitate women's access to financial resources (microcredits, subsidies) and climate information (weather forecasts, agricultural advice) so that they can make informed decisions.

---

**Exercise 3: Case Study on a Women's Farmer Organization**

**Objective:** To study the adaptation of a women's farmer organization to climate change in a specific Sahelian region.

**Instructions:**

1. Select a women's farmer organization in the Sahelian zone (real or fictitious).

2. Describe how this organization has been affected by climate change.

3. Analyze the actions taken by this organization to adapt to new climatic conditions.

**Correction :**

1. Selected organization: Association of Women Farmers of Mokolo

2. Impacts of climate change:

- Decreased rainfall has led to reduced harvests of millet, the main crop of the association members.

- Rising temperatures have worsened soil degradation, making the land less fertile.

- Water resources have become increasingly scarce, complicating the irrigation of crops.

3. Adaptation actions:

- Introduction of resistant crops: The association has introduced drought-resistant millet varieties to maintain agricultural production despite low rainfall.

- Water management: A drip irrigation system has been installed to optimize the use of available water.

- Awareness and training: Training sessions have been organized to teach members soil conservation and agroforestry techniques to protect land from erosion and improve fertility.

---
**Exercise 4: Analysis of Policies to Support Women in the Face of Climate Change**

**Objective:** Analyze the effectiveness of local or national policies aimed at supporting women in Sahelian areas in the face of climate change.

**Instructions:**

1. Identify an existing policy or program that aims to support rural women in adapting to climate change in the Sahelian area.

2. Evaluate the effectiveness of this policy in terms of achieving objectives, including women, and improving the living conditions of rural women.

**Correction:**

1. **Selected Policy:** Climate Resilience Program for Rural Women in the Sahel

2. **Effectiveness Evaluation:**

- **Achievement of Objectives:** The program successfully introduced resilient agricultural practices in several communities, increasing food security and incomes of women-headed households.

- **Inclusion of Women:** The program specifically targeted women heads of households and members of women's farmer organizations, providing them with training, resilient seeds, and microcredits to start income-generating activities.

- **Improvement of Living Conditions:** Thanks to the program, many women were able to diversify their sources of income, improve their family's nutrition, and invest in their children's education, showing an overall improvement in living conditions.

---

These exercises are designed to help understand the role of women in the face of climate change in the Sahelian regions and the challenges they face, while exploring potential solutions and adapted support policies.
CHAPTER 4. CHARACTERISTICS, PERCEPTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE HUMID AND SEMI-ARID ZONE AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES OF FARMER ORGANIZATIONS TO THE EFFECTS OF THE RISE IN AMBIENT TEMPERATURE OF THE SAHELIAN REGION

Alexis DZOKOM<fnref n="1" />, Jules BALNA<fnref n="2" />, Roger DJOULDÉ DARMAN<fnref n="3" />

ABSTRACT

In a context of global warming, manifested by temperature increases, floods and global declines in agricultural productivity, this study highlights the perception of change and the problems related to the consequences of climate change are perceived a little differently, depending on whether one is in a humid zone or in a semi-arid Sahelian zone. The objective of this study is to determine the characteristics and perceptions of workers within peasant organizations in the agro-pastoral sectors in humid and semi-arid zones, and their adaptation strategies to the effects of the increase in ambient temperature in the Sahelian environment. The Active Research and Participatory Planning Method (MARPP) used in this work made it possible to collect socio-economic data in person, individually or in small groups, through a series of questionnaires. With Microsoft Office Excel software, R software and SPSS software, the descriptive analysis of the data consisted of calculating proportions (percentages, means and standard deviations) and producing graphical data and tables. The sperman correlation test made it possible to make a typology of the farms surveyed on the basis of the types of disturbance perceived. It emerges overall that the local economic adaptation strategy within the peasant organizations (Common Initiative Groups (GIC) and associations) of the wetlands allows them to have more agricultural professional experience and to realize more estimated production gains of 2.94±0.98 tons/hectare/rainy season and 1.54±0.83 tons/Hectare/dry season than those of the semi-arid zones where it is realized 2.72±0.9 tons/hectare/rainy season and 0.41±0.94 tons/hectare/dry season due to market gardening production and off-seasons. Among the perceived thermo-periodic disturbances, the average time slots preferred for work on production sites by GIC workers are from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. during the dry season when the average ambient temperature is 37.73±1.35°C, 42.33±1.85°C in perceived heat with average wind speeds of 19.80±6.45 Km/h. The local environmental adaptation strategy to climate disturbances within GICs and associations during the dry season indicates that water

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts Letters and Social Sciences, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>
resource management is centered around irrigation or watering of the field which is low (91.60±1.87%) in humid zones compared to that of the semi-arid zone which is higher (98.15±1.87%).

**Keywords:** Climate Change; Sahelian Wetland; Semi-Arid Sahelian Zone; Adaptation Strategies; Peasant Organizations

## INTRODUCTION

The warming of the global climate system is unequivocal and probably the major challenge of modern and contemporary times. According to the IPCC (2008) and the Cameroon Climate Change Adaptation Plan (Maurice et al., 2015) which hypothesize that, even if nations succeed in drastically reducing their greenhouse gas emissions, the inertia of the climate system would cause at least a 1.5° increase in the climate system by the end of the 21st century, compared to the pre-industrial era. The global average temperature is increasing and is estimated to increase by another 1.8 to 4.08 °C (estimated average 3.08 °C) by 2100, depending on the measures taken to limit greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2008). It was then that climate change became a major concern of the international scientific community and countries around the world because of its negative impacts, potential and proven, on humans and ecosystems (Maurice et al., 2015). Regular observation of the frequency of extreme climatic events, false starts of rainy seasons, recent floods, recurring droughts making the Sahel more and more victim, prove that climate change has ceased to be a strictly scientific question concerning a distant future of the planet to become a real and pressing problem for our society.

Projections from the latest generation of climate models (Kattenberg et al., 1995) suggest that global surface air temperatures will increase significantly in the future due to the radiative effects of increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Thomas et al., 2014). The urban population will be estimated at 6 billion by 2050 (Mark et al., 2010). From rural to urban settings, many studies have explored perceptions of potential changes in the climate system associated with global warming (Kattenberg et al., 1995; Warrick et al., 1995; Stone, 1995; Santer et al., 1995). In this study, we examine the perceptions of workers in peasant organizations in the agro-pastoral sectors in humid and semi-arid zones, and their adaptation strategies to the effects of rising ambient temperatures. In addition, a direct measurement of the outcome of these strategies of peasant organizations could make it possible to propose a map of labor productivity according to the type of activity carried out in the semi-arid and humid Sahelian zone. The heat index makes it possible to determine the combined effects of temperature and atmospheric humidity on workers' adaptation strategies to heat peaks and their impact on their productivity. Periods of very high heat index have been associated with adverse consequences on human activity in the workplace following the method used by Kalkstein and Smoyer (1993), while surveys and
analysis of evidence of observation of upward trends in heat index values in the Sahelian environment have made it possible to establish the link between the information collected and recorded in a form serving as a conversation guide with the possibility of readjusting the questions during the interview. This method of data collection was conducted mainly during intense activities during periods (dry season) of daytime and nighttime heat waves and relatively humid periods in agricultural production sites, in order to determine the perception of workers within peasant organizations in the agro-pastoral sectors in humid and semi-arid zones, and their economic, social and environmental adaptation strategies to periods favorable to work and certain microclimates in Sahelian environments.

The objective of this article is to determine the perceptions of workers within peasant organizations in the agro-pastoral sectors in humid and semi-arid zones, and their adaptation strategies to the effects of rising ambient temperatures in the Sahelian environment. This objective will make it possible to predict the strategic behavior of humans in socio-professional environments in the Sahel in the event of a local increase in temperatures. The results illustrate the important consequences that increasing atmospheric heat levels can impose on human comfort in socio-professional environments in a context of global warming.

# 1- MATERIALS AND METHOD

## 1-1 Study sites

The study sites were identified in the Far North and North regions of Cameroon, Sahelian zone, in ten localities, among members of 30 associative movements and 30 common initiative groups (GIC).
Figure 1: Coordinates of the selected localities

These are the localities of Mokolo, Maroua, Mora, Garoua, Guider (for the semi-arid Sahelian zone) and Waza, Makari, Lagdo, Yagoua and Maga (for the Sahelian wetland). These localities were chosen because they are part of the wetland and/or the semi-arid Sahelian zone:

Three localities from the Northern region were chosen for the study while the other seven localities belong to the Far North region

**1-2 Data collection method**

The Active Research and Planning Participation Method (MARPP) used in this work consisted of more or less structured interviews (Dzokom, 2021). This socio-economic data collection tool aims to obtain information in person, individually or in small groups, through a series of questions asked (Dzokom, 2021). The effects of rising ambient temperatures in the Sahelian environment. A total of 600 workers were surveyed in the ten study locations, i.e. 60 per location and 30±02 workers per sector of activity (market gardening and cash crops in the dry season and rainy season) per

<figure><img src="image_105.png" /></figure>

location. The workers surveyed were selected randomly from the directory of workers available from the formal services of associative movements and joint initiative groups. The survey took place from 2021 to 2024. The amount of information to be
communicated depends on the type of survey tools used and the stages of the survey.
Overall, the questionnaire used included 9 sections:

* Identification of the worker: name, gender, age, level of education and experience in the professional environment;

* The targets of the worker;

* The description of the activity carried out: targets, production levels, optimal production periods and means of production;

* The means of combating heat peaks: availability, capacity, type of energy used, cost, area covered by the activity, the method of combating high heat during work;

* The source of labor;

* The professional productivity system adopted during heat peaks;

* The perception of climate disturbances;

* Strategies for adapting to climate disturbances.

## 1-3- Data analysis

Raw data are collected from each questionnaire, entered and formatted with Microsoft Office Excel software and imported as text files (tab separator) into R and SPSS software for subsequent statistical analyses, namely: descriptive analysis and correlation test. Descriptive analysis consisted of calculating proportions (percentages), means and standard deviations. Graphs and tables were constructed. The sperman correlation test made it possible to create a typology of the farms surveyed based on the types of disturbance perceived. Given that the study sample was equally composed of men and women, only the variables "age" and "educational level" related to workers were retained for this typology:

- The variable "age" has three modalities: the "Young" modality (JEUN) for workers whose age is < 45 years, the "Old" modality (AG) for workers whose age is between 45 and 60 years and the "Very old" modality (TAG) for workers whose age is > 60 years;

- The variable "educational level" has three modalities: "workers without formal education" (ANALF), workers who have reached the primary level of formal education (PRIM) and workers who have reached the secondary level (SEC) and above.

## RESULTS

### 1) - Characteristics related to the farms of the GICs and associations surveyed

#### 1-1) - Characteristics related to the workers and operators of the GICs and associations surveyed
The variables related to the workers and operators surveyed are essentially of six types. These are the variables sex, age, level of education and professional experience in agricultural activity which were recorded in Table 1 and those related to the estimated gains of production per season in the crop were recorded in Table 2.

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Characteristics of the members of the GICs and associations surveyed: sex, average age, level of education and number of years of professional experience</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sites</th><th colspan="2">Sexe (%)</th><th rowspan="2">Average Age</th><th colspan="3">Level of education (%)</th><th rowspan="2">Number of years of professional experience</th></tr><tr><th>H</th><th>F</th><th>N.I.Prés</th><th>N.I.P.</th><th>N.I.Sec</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>50</td><td>50</td><td>40.11±5.09</td><td>71,39±1,23</td><td>17,59±2,34</td><td>11,02±0,19</td><td>22,51±0,28</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>41.28±3.51</td><td>70,51±2,12</td><td>18,58±1,87</td><td>10,91±0,20</td><td>24,32±0,83</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>50</td><td>50</td><td>42.34±2.73</td><td>70,11±2,31</td><td>18,57±1,02</td><td>11,32±0,92</td><td>23,54±0,49</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>41.05±4.47</td><td>70,72±1,73</td><td>20,06±1,05</td><td>9,22±0,22</td><td>21,11±0,72</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>50</td><td>50</td><td>45.12±3.43</td><td>71,93±0,27</td><td>15,59±0,32</td><td>12,48±0,93</td><td>21,53±0,48</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>41.32±5.12</td><td>72,47±1,08</td><td>15,60±2,84</td><td>11,93±2,94</td><td>21,17±0,29</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>50</td><td>50</td><td>46.51±6.41</td><td>71,51±1,43</td><td>17,38±1,61</td><td>11,11±0,85</td><td>23,54±0,11</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>45.28±5.74</td><td>71,71±2,30</td><td>16,54±1,72</td><td>11,75±0,26</td><td>21,53±0,93</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>50</td><td>50</td><td>41.37±2.94</td><td>73,39±1,38</td><td>15,05±3,32</td><td>11,56±0,37</td><td>22,12±0,22</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>40.51±1.31</td><td>70,99±3,32</td><td>17,06±0,91</td><td>11,95±0,28</td><td>20,39±0,84</td></tr></tbody></table>

The distribution of members of the GICs and associations of the study sample by gender shows that these surveyed members are 54±5.47% men (M) and 46±5.47% women (F) in the humid zone of the Sahel while we note 56±5.47% men (M) and 44±5.48% women (F) in the semi-arid zone. In the humid zone, the age of these members varies from 40.11±5.09 to 45.12±3.43 years, while in the semi-arid zone the age of the surveyed members varies from 40.51±1.31 to 46.51±6.41 years. In the humid zone, the farmers in the sample studied are mostly at pre-school level, i.e. 70.93±0.12%, while in the semi-arid zone, we observe a majority of 71.56±0.61% of members at pre-school level.

<table><caption>**Table 2:** Estimated production gains per season</caption><thead><tr><th>Sites</th><th></th><th>Estimated production gains per rainy season (Tons/Ha)</th><th>Estimated production gains per dry season (Tons/Ha)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>3±0,8</td><td>0,31±0,03</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>3,2±0,1</td><td>1,63±0,01</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>3,5±0,2</td><td>1,94±0,08</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>2,3±0,6</td><td>1,89±0,04</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>2,7±0,4</td><td>1,93±0,09</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>2,9±0,2</td><td>0,27±0,02</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>2,3±0,7</td><td>0,18±0,06</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>2,1±0,6</td><td>0,11±0,02</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>3,1±0,1</td><td>1,28±0,05</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>3,2±0,8</td><td>0,23±0,03</td></tr></tbody></table>

It is noted in the wetland that members of GICs and associations have 22.60±0.41 years of professional experience and achieve 2.94±0.98 tons/hectare of estimated gains from
production per rainy season and 1.54±0.83 tons/hectare of estimated gains from production per dry season, while those in semi-arid areas have 22.56±0.62 years of professional experience with 2.72±0.9 tons/hectare of estimated gains from production per rainy season and 0.41±0.94 tons/hectare of estimated gains from production per dry season.

## 1-2) Characteristics related to the farms of the GICs and associations surveyed

The variables related to the farms are essentially of 3 types. These are the number of people per farm, the source of labor and the method of using the land. In the semi-arid zone, there is an average of 6.73±1.18 people per farm with a predominantly community source of labor of 62.49±0.61% while in the humid zone there is an average of 7.46±0.22 people per farm with a predominantly community source of labor of 69.06±0.82%.

<table><caption>Table 3: Average number of people per farm and labor</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sites</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Average number of people per farm</th><th colspan="3">Source of labor (%)</th></tr><tr><th>MOC</th><th>MOS</th><th>MOF</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>07,19±2,01</td><td>77,19</td><td>22,81</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>08,23±1,03</td><td>78,23</td><td>21,77</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>09,57±2,04</td><td>97,57</td><td>0,43</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>07,03±1,32</td><td>67,03</td><td>32,97</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>05,29±0,92</td><td>25,29</td><td>74,71</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>06,73±2,11</td><td>66,19</td><td>32,81</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>07,61±1,02</td><td>88,23</td><td>11,77</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>06,82±1,91</td><td>91,82</td><td>8,18</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>05,21±3,22</td><td>17,03</td><td>82,97</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>07,32±2,21</td><td>49,21</td><td>50,79</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>

However, in wetland areas, 91.07±2.04% of land is made available by private owners and other members of the GICs for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 86.41±0.33% of land made available in the dry season. In semi-arid areas, 72.46±0.24% of land is made available for agricultural activities in the rainy season compared to 100% of land made available in the dry season.

<table><caption>Table 4: Proportion of land used</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Sites</th><th rowspan="3"></th><th colspan="4">Land use method (%)</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Rainy season</th><th colspan="2">Dry season</th></tr><tr><th>Owners</th><th>Tenants</th><th>Owners</th><th>Tenants</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Wetland</td><td>Waza</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>8</td><td>92</td></tr><tr><td>Makari</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>6</td><td>94</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>44,63</td><td>55,37</td><td>28</td><td>72</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>9</td><td>91</td></tr><tr><td>Maga</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>17</td><td>83</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Semi-arid zone</td><td>Mokolo</td><td>49,72</td><td>50,28</td><td>100</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Maroua</td><td>45,71</td><td>54,29</td><td>100</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>1,24</td><td>98,76</td><td>100</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Garoua</td><td>40,99</td><td>59,01</td><td>100</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>0,02</td><td>99,98</td><td>100</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>
## 1-3)- Main plant species produced, areas exploited and yields

The plant species most produced during associative and community activities, both in the dry season and in the rainy season in the two agro-ecological zones of the Sahelian environment are: Sorghum (99.62%), onion (93.07%), tomato (84.78%), potato (60.84%), cabbage (56.21%), carrot (53.25%), corn (51.21%), peanut (46.26%) and cowpea (45.83%).

In the humid zone, the main cultivated species are at 48.10±0.40% during the dry season and at 77.70±0.26% during the rainy season while in the semi-arid zone, these main cultivated species are 49.65±0.42% during the dry season and 87.25±0.17% during the rainy season.

<table><caption>**Table 5:** Main cultivated species and % of workers practicing agricultural activity</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sites</th><th colspan="2">Plant species produced in wetlands</th><th colspan="2">Plant species produced in semi-arid zone</th><th colspan="2">% of workers in GICs and associations involved in agricultural activity</th></tr><tr><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th><th>Dry season</th><th>Rainy season</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Tomato</td><td>76,11%</td><td>85,58%</td><td>88,65%</td><td>88,76%</td><td>49,72</td><td>50,28</td></tr><tr><td>Onion</td><td>94,02%</td><td>93,45%</td><td>92,13%</td><td>92,67%</td><td>45,71</td><td>54,29</td></tr><tr><td>Cabbage</td><td>35,65%</td><td>76,33%</td><td>15,54%</td><td>97,33%</td><td>51,24</td><td>48,76</td></tr><tr><td>Carrot</td><td>31,67%</td><td>54,67%</td><td>54,88%</td><td>71,78%</td><td>40,99</td><td>40,99</td></tr><tr><td>Potato</td><td>91,98%</td><td>12,23%</td><td>93,66%</td><td>45,49%</td><td>30,02</td><td>69,98</td></tr><tr><td>Corn</td><td>3,54%</td><td>99,97%</td><td>2,23%</td><td>99,11%</td><td>49,72</td><td>50,28</td></tr><tr><td>Sorghum</td><td>99,92%</td><td>99,72%</td><td>99,76%</td><td>99,09%</td><td>45,71</td><td>54,29</td></tr><tr><td>Cowpea</td><td>0%</td><td>89,56%</td><td>0%</td><td>93,75%</td><td>47,24</td><td>52,76</td></tr><tr><td>Peanuts</td><td>0%</td><td>87,76%</td><td>0%</td><td>97,28%</td><td>44,99</td><td>55,01</td></tr><tr><td>Average</td><td>48,10%</td><td>77,70%</td><td>49,65%</td><td>87,25%</td><td>45,03</td><td>52,96</td></tr></tbody></table>

However, the involvement of GIC and association workers in agricultural activities in associative environments is 45.03 ± 6.05% in dry seasons and 52.96 ± 7.25% in rainy seasons. Over a year (dry season and rainy season), it appears overall that the study sites present a diversity of plant production with a diversification index of 0.91 ± 0.09.

## 1-4) - Area covered by the activity and output of the producers' work

In wetlands, the altitude of the land used varies between 230-340 meters above sea level with an average area covered by activity within the associative movements of an average of 0.76±0.48 hectares in the dry season, mainly near lowlands, rivers and lakes while in the rainy season, an average of 0.67±0.74 hectares is exploited by these associative movements. In semi-arid areas, the altitude of the land used varies between 330-655 meters above sea level with an average area covered by the activity by associative movements of 0.83±0.02 hectares in the dry season, mainly near lowlands and watercourses while in the rainy season, on average 1.34±0.34 hectares is exploited by these associative movements. In wetlands, the average yield of the work of
associative movements is 966.28±221.22 kilograms/hectare in the dry season while in the rainy season, on average 846.94±163.73 kilograms/hectare is exploited by these associative movements.

<figure><img src="image_106.png" /><figcaption>Graph 1: Average area covered by agricultural activity/Operator</figcaption></figure>

In semi-arid areas, the average yield of the work of associative movements is on average 962.54 ± 193.18 kilograms/hectare in the dry season, mainly near lowlands
and watercourses, while in the rainy season, on average 803.80 ± 133.58 kilograms/hectare is produced by these associative movements.

## 2- Perception of rainfall disturbances

The perception of climatic disturbances is of two kinds in agro-ecological zones. For the members of the GICs surveyed, rainfall disturbances and their perceived consequences impact on agricultural work. Rainfall disturbances according to local perceptions are governed by heavy rains, drop in cumulative rainfall, heavy rains, deficit of rainy days, late start of rains and early end of rains. On all sites, both in wetlands and semi-arid zones, GIC and association workers are unanimous in their observation of rainfall disturbances.

<figure><img src="image_107.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 2:** Perception of rainfall disturbances</figcaption></figure>

Among the rainfall disturbances, the most perceived are the late start of the rains (20.80± 4.82%) and heavy rains (19.80± 3.49%). The deficits of rainy days (13.64±3.45%), the early end of the rains (13.14±2.05%) and the decrease in cumulative rainfall (13.05±4.43%) by GIC and association workers. These results are slightly lower than
those obtained by Yacouba et al. (2017) and Wangbé et al. (2022) who indicate having
obtained in certain localities of the semi-arid zone that the disturbance "rainy day
deficit" is perceived by less than 50% of producers. Based on the various responses
collected, it also appears that the consequences of rainfall disturbances also impact
agricultural activities: pockets of drought, floods and observations of climate
disturbances make it possible to clearly see the extent of the phenomenon on
agricultural activities in the Sahel.

Overall, pockets of drought in production sites are increasingly noticeable in the semi-arid zone (14.62±3.47%) than in the humid zone (11.59±1.10%). However, these pockets of drought are more perceived by GIC workers in the semi-arid zones in Garoua (19.64%) and lower in the humid zone of Lagdo (10.01%), in the northern region.

Floods are perceived much more in the humid zone (7.03±2.47%) than in the semi-arid
zone (0.57±0.08%). Moreover, these floods are often perceived by workers in Yagoua
(10.41%) while the lowest flood is perceived by workers in Guider (0.01%).
<figure><img src="image_108.png" /><figcaption>Graph 3: Perception of the consequences of rainfall disturbances</figcaption></figure>

However, the consequences of rainfall disturbances are more perceived by GIC workers in wetlands (4.59±2.02%) and lower in semi-arid areas (3.04±1.34%). Furthermore, these consequences of rainfall disturbances are more perceived by GIC workers in the wetlands of Lagdo (7.39±0.02%) and lower in the semi-arid area of Mora (1.88±0.01%).

3- Perception of thermo-periodic disturbances

The perception of thermo-periodic disturbances is of two kinds in the Sahelian agro-
ecological zones. For the members of the GICs surveyed, thermal disturbances during
agricultural work are differentiated by ambient temperatures and temperatures felt
during the dry and rainy seasons which condition the duration of work on the production sites and consequently, the profitability of agricultural activities.

<figure><img src="image_109.png" /><figcaption>Graph 4: Temperature felt on site during working hours and main professional activities carried out by GIC members (°C)</figcaption></figure>
Thermal disturbances felt according to local perceptions are governed by wind speed and local ambient temperatures. On all sites, both in humid and semi-arid areas, GIC and association workers are unanimous in their observation of thermal disturbances on the time spent on work. Among the thermo-periodic disturbances perceived in humid zones, the average time slot preferred for work on production sites by GIC workers is from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. during the dry season when the average ambient temperature is 37.73±1.35°C, the perceived heat is 42.33±1.85°C with average wind speeds of 19.80±6.45 km/h, while during the rainy season the time slots from 6 a.m. to 1 p.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. in the evening are preferred, when the average ambient temperature is 26.16±2.37°C, the perceived heat is 27.86±2.90°C with average wind speeds of 14.80±1.48 km/h.

In semi-arid areas, the preferred average time slot is from 6 a.m. to 9:30 a.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. during the dry season, where the average ambient temperature is 38.07±1.99°C, 42.33±2.28°C in perceived heat with average wind speeds of 12.40±1.95 km/h, while during the rainy season, the preferred time slots are from 6 a.m. to 11:30 a.m. in the morning and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. in the evening. The duration of heat stroke avoidance is higher in the dry season (between 5 and 6 hours) while it ranges from 2 to 4 hours in the rainy season where the average ambient temperature is 26.57±2.60°C, 28.41±3.11°C in perceived heat with average wind speeds of 11.00±1.87 km/h. These results corroborate those of Ahmadou and Khalifa (2022) who surveyed 87% of respondents who say that there has been an increase in temperatures in recent years in the Sahelian zone of Niger.

**4- Typology of farms according to the type of disturbance perceived**

The Typology of farms according to the type of disturbance perceived is broken down into correlations (Spearman correlation) between the types of disturbance perceived and the characteristics of the members of the GICs and associations, respectively in humid zones and semi-arid zones. The analysis of the correlation matrices between the types of disturbance perceived and the characteristics of the members of the GICs and associations, respectively in humid zones and semi-arid zones on all sites shows very low values of Spearman's rho.

The trend of the moving average curve shows that two climatic elements are not perceived during a first period in both semi-arid and humid zones while during the second period, four climatic elements are perceived.
<figure><img src="image_110.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 5:** Correlation between perceived disturbance types and parameters related to farmers</figcaption></figure>

There are therefore no strong links between the modalities of the variable "perceived disturbance types" and the modalities of the variable "characteristics related to members of GICs and associations, respectively in humid zones and semi-arid zones on all sites. These results show that no typology of farms can be made on the basis of the perceived disturbance types.
However, there is a strong correlation between the deficit of rainy days, pockets of drought and the drop in cumulative rainfall at the end of the seasons on the one hand and on the other hand, the link is strong between heavy rains, the late start of rains and floods at the beginning of the seasons.

**5-Local strategies for adaptation to climate disturbances within GICs and associations**

**5-1- Local economic strategies for adaptation to climate disruptions within GICs and associations**

In the dry season, the average rate of use of fertilizers and chemical inputs is 8.6±0.55% in both humid and semi-arid zones, while the average rate of use of fertilizers and organic inputs is 1.6±0.89% in humid zones and 2.6±3.58% in semi-arid zones within the GICs and associations. The average rate of change in the need for water to be put in the fields is 93.04±0.39% in humid zones and 93.46±0.27% in semi-arid zones, while the average rate of change in the spacing between rows is 4.8±3.19% in humid zones and 11.80±7.25% in semi-arid zones. The average rate of changes in the spacing between the pockets during transplanting in order to minimize losses when the plants emerge is 4.00±2.55% in humid areas and 4.20±3.56% in semi-arid areas, while the average rate of changes in the depth of transplanting holes in order to ensure water retention and saving at ground level is 39.40±7.57% in humid areas and 37.00±15.73% in semi-arid areas. Our results are in agreement with those obtained by Yakouba et al. (2017) in certain localities of the Sahelian semi-arid zone (in Laf) which indicates that it is the use of herbicides (96.67% of farmers) and the transplanting of lowlands (58.33% of farmers) which are mainly mentioned.
<figure><img src="image_111.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 6:** Economic strategy for adapting field production during the dry season

In the rainy season, the average rate of use of fertilizers and chemical inputs is 86.40±5.55% in humid areas and 89.20±5.31% in semi-arid areas, while the average rate of use of fertilizers and organic inputs is 16.40±9.12% in humid areas and 13.20±4.02% in semi-arid areas within the GICs and associations. The average rate of modification of the water requirement to be put in the fields is 30.40±3.97% in humid areas and 33.80±3.42% in semi-arid areas while the average rate of modification of the spacing between the lines is 15.20±2.68% in humid areas and 14.60±3.84% in semi-arid areas. The average rate of changes in the spacing between the pockets during transplanting in order to minimize losses during plant emergence is 23.80±2.77% and 23.80±3.96 in humid areas than in semi-arid areas while the average rate of changes in the depth of transplanting holes in order to ensure water retention and saving at ground level is 25.80±3.27% in humid areas and 22.20±2.77% in semi-arid areas. In the dry season, the average immediate sale after harvest, made within the GIC and association is 837.57±135.90 kilograms/season in humid zones and 795.00±40.56 kilograms/season in semi-arid zones while the average sale after harvest storage is 519.89±60.04 kilograms/season in humid zones and 596.6±100.44 kilograms/season in semi-arid zones.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_112.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 7:** Economic strategy for adapting field production during the rainy season
The transformations and sales of products carried out within the GIC and association are 23.37±22.02 kilograms/season in humid zones and 04.00±02.54 kilograms/season in semi-arid zones.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_113.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 8:** Economic adaptation strategy linked to the sale of products harvested by season</figcaption></figure>

In the rainy season, the average immediate sale after harvest, made within the GIC and association is 795.57±79.61 Kilogram/Season in humid zone and 829.57±46.23 Kilogram/Season in semi-arid zone while the average sale after storage harvest is 611.29±86.00 Kilogram/Season in humid zone and 645.60±165.36 Kilogram/Season in semi-arid zone. The transformations and sales of products made within the GIC and association is 12.32±7.23Kilogram/Season in humid zone and 04.82±03.33 Kilogram/Season in semi-arid zone.
## 5-2- Local social strategy for adaptation to climate disturbances within GICs and associations

In the dry season, the average rate of diversification of forms of mutual aid is 88.80±4.43% in humid zones and 92.20±7.01% in semi-arid zones, while the average rate of Request for donations in the form of agricultural materials or support, seeds and nursery is 16.40±9.12% in humid zones and 13.20±4.02% in semi-arid zones. Faced with climatic hazards, some GICs and associations opt for prayer sessions or rites of invocation of the gods, including 30.40±3.97% in humid zones and 33.80±3.42% in semi-arid zones and this situation is observed more in certain localities of the semi-arid Sahelian zone (in Guirvidig and Laf than in Mindif) according to Yakouba et al. (2017). Solidarity between members of certain GICs and associations is on average 15.20±2.68% in humid zones and 14.60±3.85% in semi-arid zones, while the average of favorable responses to inter-association (or GIC) requests, a guarantee of solidarity with other GICs is 23.80±2.77% in humid zones and 23.80±3.96% in semi-arid zones.

<figure><img src="image_114.png" /></figure>
**Graph 9:** Social strategy to adapt field production during the dry season

The social strategy to adapt field production during the rainy season indicates that the average rate of diversification of forms of mutual aid is 25.80±3.27% in humid zones and 22.20±2.77% in semi-arid zones, while the average rate of request for donations in the form of agricultural materials or support, seeds and nursery is 85.00±9.13% in humid zones and 89.60±5.02% in semi-arid zones. Faced with climatic hazards, some GICs and associations opt for prayer sessions or rites of invocation of the gods, including 91.80±7.01% in humid zones and 94.00±3.31% in semi-arid zones. Solidarity between members of some GICs and associations is on average 63.20±15.62% in humid zones and 88.00±7.42% in semi-arid zones, while the average of favorable responses to inter-associative requests (or GICs), a guarantee of solidarity with other GICs is on average 4.20±3.56% in humid zones and 4.00±2.55% in semi-arid zones. Social and religious adaptations are reflected in the purchase and/or donation of nurseries and invocation rites in the event of a rainfall deficit scenario (Yakouba et al., 2017). Many beliefs attribute the decrease in "water from the sky" to divine punishment due to non-compliance with divine rules such as libidinal practices in production fields and the desecration of sacred places (Brou et al., 2005; Yakouba et al., 2017). This results in the organization of specific rituals performed in order to bring back rain.
<figure><img src="image_115.png" /><figcaption>**Graph 10:** Social strategy for adapting field production during the rainy season

**2-3- Local environmental adaptation strategy to climate disturbances within GICs and associations**</figcaption></figure>

The local environmental adaptation strategy to climate disturbances within GICs and associations during the dry season indicates that the average rate of irrigation or watering of the field is 91.60±1.87% in humid zones and 98.15±1.87% in semi-arid zones while the average rate of irrigation or watering of nurseries is 91.64±0.99% in humid zones and 97.32±1.19% in semi-arid zones. The average rate of use of varieties to adapt to the lack of water is 93.16±2.76% in humid areas and 97.96±0.83% in semi-arid areas while the average rate of use of some varieties to adapt to the lack of humidity is 23.50±2.90% in humid areas and 78.36±4.95% in semi-arid areas.
<figure><img src="image_116.png" /><figcaption>Graph 11: Average rates of local environmental adaptation strategic elements to climate disturbances within the GICs and association during the dry season</figcaption></figure>

The average rate of modification of the sowing date is 90.27±4.54% in humid areas and 97.51±3.13% in semi-arid areas while the spread of the crop establishment period is 25.80±3.27% in humid areas and 70.56±6.09% in semi-arid areas.

The average crop diversification rate is 20.40±4.82% in humid areas and 50.80±4.96% in semi-arid areas while the average rate of bund construction is 97.78±1.11% in humid areas and 58.32±12.42% in semi-arid areas.

The average drainage rate is 83.14±2.54% in humid areas and 61.20±3.71% in semi-arid areas while Plowing before transplanting the average plowing rate before transplanting is 86.34±16.72% in humid areas and 96.74±3.00% in semi-arid areas.
The average rate of use of raised land is 93.98±6.63% in humid zones and 96.74±3.00% in semi-arid zones while the average rate of use of lowlands and watercourses is 94.94±2.11% in humid zones and 96.74±3.00% in semi-arid zones

Our results are in agreement with those obtained by Yakouba et al. (2017) in some localities of the semi-arid Sahelian zone (in Guirvidig) where the major changes observed are the construction of dikes (98.3% of farmers), the use of herbicides (96.77% of farmers), the transplanting of lowlands (93.33% of farmers) and the diversification of crops (50% of farmers).

During the rainy season, the local environmental strategy for adaptation to climate disturbances within the GICs and associations indicates that the average rate of irrigation or watering of the field is 11.14±0.99% in humid zones and 18.54±2.00% in semi-arid zones while the average rate of irrigation or watering of nurseries is 58.94±6.12% in humid zones and 77.38±3.41% in semi-arid zones. The average rate of use of varieties to adapt to the presence of humidity is 96.80±3.02% in humid zones and 96.16±2.96% in semi-arid zones while the average rate of use of certain varieties to adapt to the presence of water is 33.00±4.55% in humid zones and 58.02±7.01% in semi-arid zones.

The average rate of modification of the sowing date is 93.86±2.65% in humid zones and 96.54±1.46% in semi-arid zones while the spread of the period of establishment of crops is 43.72±2.83% in humid zones and 96.22±3.00% in semi-arid zones.

The average crop diversification rate is 93.28±3.79% in humid zones and 98.54±2.00% in semi-arid zones while the average rate of construction of bunds is 62.90±4.48% in humid zones and 79.78±11.64% in semi-arid zones.

The average drainage rate is 85.34±8.95% in humid zones and 96.64±2.38% in semi-arid zones while the average rate of plowing before sowing is 97.04±3.16% in humid zones and 98.02±1.78% in semi-arid zones.
<figure><img src="image_117.png" /><figcaption>Graph 12: Average rates of local environmental strategic elements for adaptation to climate disturbances within the GICs and association during the rainy season</figcaption></figure>
The average rate of use of raised land is 87.18±2.06% in humid areas and 77.54±1.82% in semi-arid areas while the average rate of use of lowlands and watercourses is 11.42±2.64% in humid areas and 16.22±3.00% in semi-arid areas. Depending on the rainfall scenario (deficit or excess), farmers adapt the cropping system by making various changes: the construction of dikes that promote soil water recharge (Yakouba et al., 2017).

## CONCLUSION

The objective of this study is to determine the characteristics and perceptions of workers within peasant organizations in the agro-pastoral sectors in humid and semi-arid zones, and their adaptation strategies to the effects of rising ambient temperatures in the Sahelian environment. Overall, it appears that members of GICs and associations in humid zones have more agricultural professional experience and achieve more estimated production gains than those in semi-arid zones due to market gardening and off-seasons. However, the involvement of GIC and association workers in agricultural activities in associative environments is lower (45.03 ± 6.05%) in dry seasons than in rainy seasons (52.96 ± 7.25%). Over one year (dry season and rainy season), it appears overall that the study sites present a diversity of plant production with a diversification index of 0.91 ± 0.09. The average output of the work of the associative movements is intense, mainly near the lowlands and watercourses in the dry season than in the rainy season. Among the rainfall disturbances, the most perceived are the late start of the rains (20.80± 4.82%) and heavy rains (19.80± 3.49%). The deficits of rainy days (13.64±3.45%), the early end of the rains (13.14±2.05%) and the drop in cumulative rainfall (13.05±4.43%) are perceived almost at the same level. There is therefore a strong correlation between the deficit of rainy days, pockets of drought and the drop in cumulative rainfall at the end of the seasons on the one hand and on the other hand, the link is strong between heavy rains, the late start of the rains and floods at the beginning of the seasons. However, the consequences of rainfall disturbances are more perceived by GIC workers in wetlands (4.59±2.02%) and lower in semi-arid areas (3.04±1.34%). Specifically, these consequences of rainfall disturbances are more perceived by GIC workers in wetlands of Lagdo (7.39±0.02%) and lower in semi-arid area of Mora (1.88±0.01%).

Among the thermal disturbances perceived in humid areas, the average preferred time slot for work on production sites by GIC workers is from 6 am to 10 am in the morning and from 3 pm to 6 pm during the dry season, while during the rainy season, GIC workers prefer to work from 6 am to 1 pm in the morning and from 3 pm to 6 pm in the evening. In semi-arid areas, the average preferred time slot by GIC workers is from 6 am to 9:30 am in the morning and from 3 pm to 6 pm during the dry season, while during the rainy season, GIC workers prefer to work from 6 am to 11:30 am in the morning and from 3 pm to 6 pm in the evening. The duration of heat stroke avoidance
is higher in the dry season (between 5 and 6 hours) while it ranges from 2 to 4 hours
in the rainy season.

The local economic adaptation strategy to climate disturbances within the GICs and associations, in the dry season, indicates that the average use of fertilizers and chemical inputs is the same in both humid and semi-arid zones (8.6±0.55%) while the use of fertilizers and organic inputs is low (1.6±0.89%) in humid zones than in semi-arid zones (2.6±3.58%) within the GICs and associations. In the dry season, the average immediate sale after harvest, made within the GIC and association is 837.57±135.90 kilograms/season in humid zones and 795.00±40.56 kilograms/season in semi-arid zones while the average sale after storage harvest is 519.89±60.04 kilograms/season in humid zones and 596.6±100.44 kilograms/season in semi-arid zones. The transformations and sales of products made within the GIC and association are 23.37±22.02 kilograms/season in humid zones and 04.00±02.54 kilograms/season in semi-arid zones. In the rainy season, the average immediate sale after harvest, made within the GIC and association is 795.57±79.61 Kilogram/Season in humid zone and 829.57±46.23 Kilogram/Season in semi-arid zone while the average sale after storage harvest is 611.29±86.00 Kilogram/Season in humid zone and 645.60±165.36 Kilogram/Season in semi-arid zone. The transformations and sales of products made within the GIC and association is 12.32±7.23Kilogram/Season in humid zone and 04.82±03.33 Kilogram/Season in semi-arid zone.

The local social strategy for adaptation to climate disturbances within the GICs and associations in the dry season indicates that the diversification of forms of mutual aid is low in humid areas (88.80±4.43%) than in semi-arid areas (92.20±7.01%), while requests for donations in the form of agricultural equipment or support, seeds and nurseries are higher in humid areas (16.40±9.12%) than in semi-arid areas (13.20±4.02%). Faced with climatic hazards, some GICs and associations opt for prayer sessions or rites of invocation of the gods, weakly in humid areas (30.40±3.97%) and more notable in semi-arid areas (33.80±3.42%). Solidarity between members of some GICs and associations is higher in humid zones (15.20±2.68%) than in semi-arid zones (14.60±3.85%), while the average of favorable responses to inter-association (or GIC) requests, a guarantee of solidarity with other GICs is lower (23.80±2.77%) in humid zones than in semi-arid zones (23.80±3.96%).

The local environmental adaptation strategy to climate disturbances within GICs and associations during the dry season indicates that irrigation or watering of the field is low (91.60±1.87%) in humid zones compared to that of the semi-arid zone which is higher (98.15±1.87%). The use of varieties to adapt to the absence of water is also low in humid zones (93.16±2.76%) compared to those used in semi-arid zones (97.96±0.83%) with average rates of use of certain varieties to adapt to the absence of humidity lower in humid zones (23.50±2.90%) than in semi-arid zones (78.36±4.95%).
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## EXERCISES AND CORRECTIONS ON THE CHARACTERISTICS, PERCEPTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE HUMID AND SEMI-ARID ZONE OF THE SAHELIAN AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES OF FARMER ORGANIZATIONS TO THE EFFECTS OF THE RISE IN AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

**Exercise 1: Characteristics of Climate Change in Sahelian Humid and Semi-Arid Zones**

**Question 1:** Describe the main characteristics of climate change observed in Sahelian humid zones.

**Question 2:** Compare the characteristics of climate change in Sahelian humid and semi-arid zones.

**Question 3:** Explain how climate variability influences agricultural production in semi-arid zones of the Sahel.