During flybys, the gravity signal is maximum during closest approach, but additional tracking before and after closest approach is needed to unambiguously estimate the gravity field of the central body because it allows the full reconstruction of the spacecraft trajectory. Since the coherence of the spacecraft trajectory is not maintained when interrupted by a wheel off loading maneuver, the science planning should ensure a continuous uninterrupted tracking as much as possible.

**Perturbations by the Jovian Radio Emissions** The characterization of the subsurface will be addressed primarily by RIME. Since the central frequency of RIME is within the Jovian radio emission spectral range, Jovian emissions may interfere with RIME observations when the radar will operate in active mode. On the other hand, passive radar measurement can also be performed by using the Jovian radiation as a signal, either with RIME (in passive mode) or the RPWI radio antenna. For each flyby, an analysis is performed using the Exoplanetary and Planetary Radio Emission Simulator (ExPRES, Louis et al. 2019; Cecconi et al. 2021) code to model the temporal occurrence of the occultations of the Jovian radio sources as seen from the spacecraft for a range of frequencies (in particular 1 - 40 MHz). The simulations can be used to optimize the schedule of active and/or passive radar measurements. As illustrated in Fig. 16 for the current mission scenario, the occultations of the Jovian radiation (green line) occur only during a limited time period near the closest approach, and only for a limited number of flybys. This is particularly critical in the case of Callisto where this condition is met only for 5 flybys and over only a small portion of the low-altitude ground track.

**Instrument Interferences** Interference measurements during ground testing revealed some disturbances between different instruments or instrument modes and between instruments and spacecraft sub-units. A first set of in-flights tests have been conducted during the commissioning phase of the mission and the data analyses are still on-going. For geophysics, RIME is most affected by interferences. Radio frequency interference signals were detected on RIME data, which have been identified as harmonics from the spacecraft power converter PCDU (Power Control and Distribution Unit). MAJIS also identified interferences with RIME on its infra-red channel with a significant increase of the noise, likely due to radiated coupling between RIME and the IR thermal braid. The assessment of the impact on RIME performances and the development of adequate mitigation strategies will be pursued during the cruise phase of the mission. This will also be a key factor that the science planning will have to deal with in order to maximize the science return of this ambitious mission.

**Calibrations** In-flight calibration campaigns are important for geophysical measurements. They are especially needed for ensuring the correct monitoring of the magnetic field signals from the subsurface ocean and the core of Ganymede. This requires that the magnetic field of the spacecraft at the scalar sensor is accurately known to enable calibration of the two fluxgate sensors (Dougherty et al. 2024, this collection). This is done through spacecraft roll manoeuvres when the local magnetic field around JUICE is larger than 100 nT. This condition can only be met close to JUICE perijove crossings. The calibration campaign should ideally be scheduled at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the tour phase (before Ganymede orbit insertion).

Precise gravity measurements to determine the tidal Love number $k_2$ also require in-flight calibration of the High Accuracy Accelerometer (Iess et al. 2024, this collection). At the start of GCO500 additional calibrations are needed to precisely determine the alignment direction of the GALA transmitter by performing off-nadir pointing measurements (Hussmann et al. 2024, this collection).
# 7 Summary

JUICE will be the first spacecraft to orbit an icy moon, the largest natural satellite of our solar system Ganymede, and will therefore be able to investigate Ganymede's interior in much more detail than could be done before from a few flybys. The comprehensive suite of instruments of JUICE is furthermore optimized for probing the interior from close orbit. The orbital phase at about 500 km altitude will be the prime phase for the interior investigations. After the successful launch, the spacecraft has been assessed to have sufficient resources for an even closer phase at 200 km altitude (Boutonnet et al. 2024, this collection). This lowest altitude phase will be very beneficial for geophysics since it will allow a significantly better determination of the gravity field and the electromagnetic field. In particular the higher-degree gravity field and the small induced electromagnetic field components will be much better determined from a lower altitude. The GCO200 phase is for the moment short (30 days) in the nominal mission, but could potentially last much longer if the available resources allow for a mission extension beyond October 2035. A quantitative assessment of the expected improvements in scientific results of the addition of the nearly-circular orbital phase at 200 km altitude will be performed during JUICE's cruise to Jupiter.

The radio science instrument 3GM and the laser altimeter GALA will determine detailed maps of the gravity and topography field and will measure the tides and rotation characteristics. The magnetometer J-MAG and RPWI will measure the induced electromagnetic field generated in the subsurface ocean. Taken together the data from these instruments allow the determination of the average thicknesses of the outer ice shell, ocean and high-pressure ice mantle, the salt content of the ocean, and lateral variations in shell thickness and density, if present. They may inform on the flow dynamics in the ocean and the heat flux through the hydrosphere, providing key constraints on the habitability of the subsurface ocean. Radar sounding by RIME and RPWI (only in passive mode) will provide detailed images of the structure and composition of the ice shell. As described in the previous sections, the interior tomography of Ganymede can only be fully achieved through a synergistic use of the data of these instruments because of the non-unique relation between the observable quantities and the interior. The combination of the complementary information on the interior provided by the different instrument data sets is therefore essential for reaching JUICE's objectives on the hydrosphere structure and dynamics. The interpretation of the data of these instruments often also relies on data gathered by the five other JUICE instruments: the remote sensing instruments JANUS, MAJIS, UVS, and SWI, and the in situ instrument PEP, as detailed above. JANUS and UVS will furthermore provide independent and complementary data on the rotation, shape, topography, and induced electromagnetic field of Ganymede and Callisto.

The same set of instruments will also gather information on the deeper interior. Deviations of the mass distribution and shape from their expected values for a satellite in hydrostatic equilibrium will be assessed with high precision and the mean moment of inertia, the basic constraint on the internal differentiation and radial density profile, will be significantly improved for both Ganymede and Callisto. The morphology and variation of the internal magnetic field generated in the core will be determined from which it will be possible to identify the process driving the dynamo field and to learn about the structure and dynamics of the metallic core, including maybe the possible presence and size of a solid inner core. By precisely tracking the JUICE spacecraft, the ephemerides of the Galilean moons will be improved by several orders of magnitude, which will allow us to accurately estimate the tidal dissipation in the Galilean moons and in Jupiter. This will not only provide an additional constraint on the moons' interior, but will also set constraints on the past and future evolution of the Laplace resonance.
Internal processes will also be studied and constrained through their effects on and links with the surface. By observing various geological structures with JANUS and combining these data with those of RIME, GALA and 3GM, the structure of the upper ice shell will be mapped. The composition of the surface, from MAJIS, UVS, SWI and JANUS data, in particular over recent structures that may contain materials freshly exposed to the surface, will provide insight on the composition of the subsurface and internal ocean and on the evolution of the ice shell. If plumes exist, by studying icy grains and vapor ejected from the surface, further information on the subsurface activity and composition will be obtained.

Through a synergistic approach based on a complementary set of instruments, JUICE will provide unprecedented insight into Ganymede's interior, from the metallic core where the magnetic field is generated, to the subsurface ocean and ice shell. Although Ganymede is the prime focus of the interior objectives of the mission, JUICE will also unravel the interior of Callisto. It will unambiguously determine whether Callisto has a subsurface ocean and will clarify the different evolution of Callisto compared to Ganymede. On Europa, the local structure of the ice shell beneath the two JUICE flyby trajectories will be investigated and the subsurface ocean might be directly detected by radar sounding. JUICE will also substantially improve our understanding of the orbital evolution of all the Galilean moons, which has important bearings on the evolution of the subsurface oceans and their habitability.

**Acknowledgements** We thank Francis Nimmo and an anonymous referee for their thorough reviews that have helped to improve the paper. T. Van Hoolst (since 2015) and G. Tobie (since 2017) are chairing the JUICE Working Group on the 'Internal structure, subsurface and geophysics of giant icy moons'. T. Van Hoolst acknowledges support from the Belgian PRODEX program managed by the European Space Agency in collaboration with the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office. French authors acknowledge the support from CNES in the preparation of the ESA JUICE. The Italian participation in the JUICE mission is funded by the Italian Space Agency (ASI). In particular, this work has been developed under the ASI-INAF agreement n. 2023-6-HH.0.

## Declarations

**Competing Interests** The authors declare that they have no competing financial or non-financial interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

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## Authors and Affiliations

Tim Van Hoolst¹,² ID · Gabriel Tobie³ · Claire Vallat⁴ · Nicolas Altobelli⁴ ·

Lorenzo Bruzzone⁵ · Hao Cao⁶ · Dominic Dirkx⁷ · Antonio Genova⁸ ·

Hauke Hussmann⁹ · Luciano Iess⁸ · Jun Kimura¹⁰ · Krishan Khurana¹¹ ·

Alice Lucchetti¹² · Giuseppe Mitri¹³,¹⁴ · William Moore¹⁵,¹⁶ · Joachim Saur¹⁷ ·

Alexander Stark⁹ · Audrey Vorburger¹⁸ · Mark Wieczorek¹⁹ · Alessio Aboudan¹² ·

Jan Bergman²⁰ · Francesca Bovolo²¹ · Doris Breuer⁹ · Paolo Cappuccio⁸ ·

Leonardo Carrer⁵ · Baptiste Cecconi²² · Gaël Choblet³ · Fabrizio De Marchi⁸ ·

Marie Fayolle⁷ · Agnès Fienga²³ · Yoshifumi Futaana²⁴ · Ernst Hauber⁹ ·

Wlodek Kofman²⁵,²⁶ · Atsushi Kumamoto²⁷ · Valery Lainey²⁸ · Philippa Molyneux²⁹ ·
Olivier Mousis³⁰,³¹ · Jeff Plaut³² · Walter Puccio²⁰ · Kurt Retherford³³ · Lorenz Roth³⁴ ·

Benoit Seignovert³ · Gregor Steinbrügge³² · Sanchari Thakur⁵ · Paolo Tortora³⁵ ·

Federico Tosi³⁶ · Marco Zannoni³⁵ · Stas Barabash²⁰ · Michele Dougherty³⁷ ·

Randy Gladstone³³ · Leonid I. Gurvits³⁸,⁷ · Paul Hartogh³⁹ · Pasquale Palumbo⁴⁰ ·

Francois Poulet⁴¹ · Jan-Erik Wahlund²⁰ · Olivier Grasset³ · Olivier Witasse⁴²

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

T. Van Hoolst
tim.vanhoolst@oma.be

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

G. Tobie
gabriel.tobie@univ-nantes.fr

1. Royal Observatory of Belgium, Ringlaan 3, Brussels, 1180, Belgium

2. Institute of Astronomy, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D, Leuven, 3001, Belgium

3. Nantes Université, Univ Angers, Le Mans Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géosciences, UMR 6112, 2 rue de la Houssinière, Nantes, 44322, France

4. ESAC, European Space Agency (ESA), Camino Bajo del Castillo s/n Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada (Madrid), 28692, Spain

5. Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science, University of Trento, Via Sommarive, 5, Povo, 38123, Italy

6. Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, 595 Charles E Young Dr East, Los Angeles, 90095, CA, USA

7. Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Kluyverweg 1, Delft, 2629 HS, The Netherlands

8. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

9. Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Berlin, Germany

10. Department of Earth and Space Science, Osaka University, 1-1, Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, 5600043, Osaka, Japan

11. Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA

12. INAF, Astronomical observatory of Padova, Vic. Osservatorio 5, Padova, 35122, Italy

13. International Research School of Planetary Sciences, Viale Pindaro 42, Pescara, 65127, Italy

14. Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Geologia, Università d'Annunzio, Viale Pindaro 42, Pescara, 65127, Italy

15. Department of Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Hampton University, 100 William R. Harvey Way, Hampton, 23668, VA, USA

16. National Institute of Aerospace, 100 Exploration Way, Hampton, 23666, VA, USA

17. Institute of Geophysics and Meteorology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany

18. Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Sidlerstrasse 5, Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland

19. Laboratoire Lagrange, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, Nice, France

20. Swedish Institute of Space Physics, Uppsala, 75121, Sweden

21. Center for Digital Society, Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, Povo, 38123, Italy

22. LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Paris, France

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>
23 Géoazur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, 250 av. A. Einstein, Valbonne Sophia-Antipolis, France

24 Swedish Institute of Space Physics, Bengt Hultqvists väg 1, Kiruna, SE98192, Sweden

25 Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CNES, IPAG, CS 40700, Grenoble, 38058, France

26 Centrum Badan Kosmicznych, Polskiej Akademii Nauk (CBK PAN), Bartycka 18A, Warsaw, PL-00-716, Poland

27 Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

28 IMCCE, Observatoire de Paris, Paris, France

29 Space Science Division, Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Road, San Antonio, 78238, TX, USA

30 Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CNES, Institut Origines, LAM, Marseille, France

31 Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France

32 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, 91011, CA, USA

33 Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA

34 Space and Plasma Physics, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 31, Stockholm, 11 428, Sweden

35 Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Università di Bologna, Via Fontanelle 40, Forlì, Italy

36 Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica - Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali (INAF-IAPS), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, Rome, 00133, Italy

37 Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, London, UK

38 Joint Institute for VLBI ERIC, Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, Dwingeloo, 7991 PD, The Netherlands

39 Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, Göttingen, 37077, Germany

40 Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, Roma, I-00133, Italy

41 Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale, CNRS/Université Paris-Saclay, Bâtiment 121, Orsay Cedex, 91405, France

42 European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), European Space Agency (ESA), Keplerlaan 1, Noordwijk, The Netherlands