# US-China Competition

Ali, G., 2019. China-Pakistan maritime cooperation in the Indian Ocean. Issues & Studies, 55(3), pp.1-20.

Barton, B., 2021. Leveraging the "String of Pearls" for strategic gains? An assessment of the Maritime Silk Road Initiative's (MSRI) economic/security nexus in the Indian Ocean region (IOR). Asian Security, 17(2), pp.216-235.

Beckley, B.M., 2012. China and Pakistan: Fair-weather friends. Yale Journal of International Affairs, [online] Available at: <https://www.yalejournal.org/publications/china-and-pakistan-fair-weather-friends> [Accessed 15 August 2022].

Blackwill, R.D., 2019. Trump's foreign policies are better than they seem. Council on Foreign Relations, [online] April. Available at: <https://www.cfr.org/report/trumps-foreign-policies-are-better-they-seem> [Accessed 10 August 2022].

Blanchard, J.M.F., 2018. China's Maritime silk road initiative (MSRI) and Southeast Asia: A Chinese 'pond' not 'lake' in the works. Journal of Contemporary China, 27(111), pp.329-343.

Cai, P., 2017. Understanding China's belt and road initiative. Lowy Institute for International Policy. Available at: <https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-china-s-belt-road-initiative> [Accessed 22 August 2022].

Caverley, J.D. and Dombrowski, P., 2020a. Cruising for a bruising: Maritime competition in an anti-access age. Security Studies, 29(4), pp.671-700.

Caverley, J.D. and Dombrowski, P., 2020b. Too important to be left to the admirals: The need to study maritime great-power competition. Security Studies, 29(4), pp.579-600.

Choi, J.K., 2015. Crisis stability or general stability? Assessing Northeast Asia's absence of war and prospects for liberal transition. *Review of International Studies*, 42(2), pp.287-309.

Colley, C., 2021. A future Chinese Indian Ocean fleet? *War on Rocks*, [online] 2 April.

Available at: <https://warontherocks.com/2021/04/a-future-chinese-indian-ocean-fleet/> [Accessed 27 October 2022].

Cronin, P.M., Rapp-Hooper, M., Krejsa, H., Sullivan, A. and Doshi, R., 2017. Beyond the San Hai: The challenge of China's blue-water navy. Center for a New American Security. Available at: <https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/beyond-the-san-hai> [Accessed 8 April 2023].

Cunningham, F.S., 2020. The maritime rung on the escalation ladder: Naval blockades in a US-China conflict. Security Studies, 29(4), pp.730-768.

Ellis-Petersen, H. 2020. "Namaste Trump": India welcomes US president at Modi rally. The Guardian, [online] 24 February. Available at:

<https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/24/namaste-donald-trump-india-welcomes-us-president-narendra-modi-rally> [Accessed 11 August 2022].

Faisal, M., 2020. Pakistan-China relations: Beyond CPEC. Strategic Studies, 40(2), pp.23-44.

Fravel, M.T., 2019. Active defense: China's military strategy since 1949. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Goldstein, A. 2013. First things first: The pressing danger of crisis instability in U.S.-China relations. International Security, 37(4), pp.49-89.

Gul, A., Munir, M., Shafiq, M. and Imran, S., 2021. Contours of China-Pakistan strategic cooperation: Implications for India and its counter-strategies. Journal of Public Affairs. Available at: <https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pa.2599> [Accessed 19 July 2022].

Heath, T.R. and Thompson, W.R., 2018. Avoiding U.S.-China competition is futile: Why the best option is to manage strategic rivalry. Asia Policy, 13(2), pp.91-119.

Hussain, M., 2017. Impact of India-United States civil nuclear deal on China-Pakistan strategic partnership. Journal of South Asian Studies, 5(1), pp.13-25.

Hussain, M., 2021. CPEC and geo-security behind geo-economics: China's master stroke to counter terrorism and energy security dilemma. East Asia, 38(4), pp.313-332.

Hussain, M. and Jamali, A.B., 2019. Geopolitical dynamics of the China-Pakistan economic corridor: A new great game in South Asia. Chinese Political Science Review, 4(3), pp.303-326.

Information Office, State Council, PRC, 2015. China's military strategy. Available at: <https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2015/05/27/content_281475115610833.htm> [Accessed 8 April 2023].

Jaiswal, P. and Bhatt, D.P., ed., 2021. Rebalancing Asia: The Belt and Road Initiative and Indo-pacific strategy. Singapore: Springer.

Jamali, A.B. and Liu, H., 2021. China-US maritime competition: Destined for strategic miscalculations? Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, 33(4), pp.639-663.
# US-China Competition

Ali, G., 2019. China-Pakistan maritime cooperation in the Indian Ocean. Issues & Studies, 55(3), pp.1-20.

Barton, B., 2021. Leveraging the "String of Pearls" for strategic gains? An assessment of the Maritime Silk Road Initiative's (MSRI) economic/security nexus in the Indian Ocean region (IOR). Asian Security, 17(2), pp.216-235.

Beckley, B.M., 2012. China and Pakistan: Fair-weather friends. Yale Journal of International Affairs, [online] Available at: <https://www.yalejournal.org/publications/china-and-pakistan-fair-weather-friends> [Accessed 15 August 2022].

Blackwill, R.D., 2019. Trump's foreign policies are better than they seem. Council on Foreign Relations, [online] April. Available at: <https://www.cfr.org/report/trumps-foreign-policies-are-better-they-seem> [Accessed 10 August 2022].

Blanchard, J.M.F., 2018. China's Maritime silk road initiative (MSRI) and Southeast Asia: A Chinese 'pond' not 'lake' in the works. Journal of Contemporary China, 27(111), pp.329-343.

Cai, P., 2017. Understanding China's belt and road initiative. Lowy Institute for International Policy. Available at: <https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-china-s-belt-road-initiative> [Accessed 22 August 2022].

Caverley, J.D. and Dombrowski, P., 2020a. Cruising for a bruising: Maritime competition in an anti-access age. Security Studies, 29(4), pp.671-700.

Caverley, J.D. and Dombrowski, P., 2020b. Too important to be left to the admirals: The need to study maritime great-power competition. Security Studies, 29(4), pp.579-600.

Choi, J.K., 2015. Crisis stability or general stability? Assessing Northeast Asia's absence of war and prospects for liberal transition. *Review of International Studies*, 42(2), pp.287-309.

Colley, C., 2021. A future Chinese Indian Ocean fleet? *War on Rocks*, [online] 2 April.

Available at: <https://warontherocks.com/2021/04/a-future-chinese-indian-ocean-fleet/> [Accessed 27 October 2022].

Cronin, P.M., Rapp-Hooper, M., Krejsa, H., Sullivan, A. and Doshi, R., 2017. Beyond the San Hai: The challenge of China's blue-water navy. Center for a New American Security. Available at: <https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/beyond-the-san-hai> [Accessed 8 April 2023].

Cunningham, F.S., 2020. The maritime rung on the escalation ladder: Naval blockades in a US-China conflict. Security Studies, 29(4), pp.730-768.

Ellis-Petersen, H. 2020. "Namaste Trump": India welcomes US president at Modi rally. The Guardian, [online] 24 February. Available at:

<https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/24/namaste-donald-trump-india-welcomes-us-president-narendra-modi-rally> [Accessed 11 August 2022].

Faisal, M., 2020. Pakistan-China relations: Beyond CPEC. Strategic Studies, 40(2), pp.23-44.

Fravel, M.T., 2019. Active defense: China's military strategy since 1949. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Goldstein, A. 2013. First things first: The pressing danger of crisis instability in U.S.-China relations. International Security, 37(4), pp.49-89.

Gul, A., Munir, M., Shafiq, M. and Imran, S., 2021. Contours of China-Pakistan strategic cooperation: Implications for India and its counter-strategies. Journal of Public Affairs. Available at: <https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pa.2599> [Accessed 19 July 2022].

Heath, T.R. and Thompson, W.R., 2018. Avoiding U.S.-China competition is futile: Why the best option is to manage strategic rivalry. Asia Policy, 13(2), pp.91-119.

Hussain, M., 2017. Impact of India-United States civil nuclear deal on China-Pakistan strategic partnership. Journal of South Asian Studies, 5(1), pp.13-25.

Hussain, M., 2021. CPEC and geo-security behind geo-economics: China's master stroke to counter terrorism and energy security dilemma. East Asia, 38(4), pp.313-332.

Hussain, M. and Jamali, A.B., 2019. Geopolitical dynamics of the China-Pakistan economic corridor: A new great game in South Asia. Chinese Political Science Review, 4(3), pp.303-326.

Information Office, State Council, PRC, 2015. China's military strategy. Available at: <https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2015/05/27/content_281475115610833.htm> [Accessed 8 April 2023].

Jaiswal, P. and Bhatt, D.P., ed., 2021. Rebalancing Asia: The Belt and Road Initiative and Indo-pacific strategy. Singapore: Springer.

Jamali, A.B. and Liu, H., 2021. China-US maritime competition: Destined for strategic miscalculations? Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, 33(4), pp.639-663.
Jety, R., 2012. Sino-Pakistan strategic entente: Implications for regional security. *ISAS Working Paper*. National University of Singapore. 143. [Pdf] Available at:

<https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/137392/ISAS Working Paper 143 _ _ Email _ _ Sino_Pakistan_StrategicCHAT _ 14022012160926.pdf> [Accessed 20 October 2022].

Jha, P. and Star, S., 2021. India–Australia: Defining new horizons of engagement. *Strategic Analysis*, 45(5), pp.411–430.

Jiacheng, L., 2017. Developing China's Indian Ocean strategy: Rationale and prospects. *China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies*, 3(4), pp.481–497.

Liu, H. and Jamali, A.B., 2021. India's indo-pacific strategy: A pragmatic balancing between The United States and China. *Pacific Focus*, 36(1), pp.5–39.

Mearsheimer, J.J., 1986. A strategic misstep: The maritime strategy and deterrence in Europe. *International Security*, 11(2), pp.3–57.

Menon, S., 2020. How Trump and Modi refashioned the relationship between America and India. *Foreign Affairs*. Available at: <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-08-11/modi-india-league-nationalists> [Accessed 4 October 2022].

Ministry of External Affairs, G. of I., 2015. US-India joint strategic vision for the Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean region. New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Govt. of India.

Montgomery, E.B., 2014. Contested primacy in the western pacific: China's rise and the future of U.S. power projection. *International Security*, 38(4), pp.115–149.

Morrison, W., 2018. China's economic rise: History, trends, challenges, and implications for the United States. USA: Congressional Research Service. [pdf] Available at:

<https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20190625_RL33534_088c5467dd11365dd4ab5f72133db289fa10030f.pdf> [Accessed 18 October 2022].

Mukherjee, R., 2020. Chaos as opportunity: The United States and world order in India's grand strategy. *Contemporary Politics*, 26(4), pp.420–438.

Munir, M., 2018. Pakistan-China strategic interdependence. *Strategic Studies*, 38(2), pp.21–42.

Rahman, Z.U., Khan, A., Lifang, W. and Hussain, I., 2021. The geopolitics of the CPEC and Indian Ocean: Security implication for India. *Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs*, 13(2), pp.122–145.

Rajagopalan, R.P., 2019. Tiger triumph: US-India military relations get more complex.

*Diplomat*. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/tiger-triumph-us-india-military-relations-get-more-complex/> [Accessed 25 October 2022].

Rapp-Hooper, M. and Lissner, R.F., 2019. The open world: What America can achieve after

Trump. *Foreign Affairs*. Available at: <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/open-world> [Accessed 22 July 2022].

Rashid, W., 2020. String of Pearls – China's emerging strategic culture. *STRAFASIA*, [online] 5

December. Available at: <https://strafasia.com/string-of-pearls-chinas-emerging-strategic-culture/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].

Ratner, E., 2020. Rising to the China challenge: Renewing American competitiveness in the Indo-Pacific. Washington, DC: Center for a New American Security.

Sahakyan, M., 2021. 'The Sino-Russian tandem in Eurasia and the changing world order: The dawn of the EAEU and the BRI's complementary cooperation and development', in Sahakyan, M. and Gärtner, H., eds., China and Eurasia rethinking cooperation and contradictions in the era of changing world order. Abingdon/New York: Routledge, pp.77–98.

Sahakyan, M., ed., 2023. China and Eurasian powers in a multipolar world order 2.0 security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

Schelling, T.C., 1960. The strategy of conflict. London: Harvard University Press.

Simón, L., 2020. Between punishment and denial: Uncertainty, flexibility, and U.S. military strategy toward China. *Contemporary Security Policy*, 41(3), pp.361–384.

Singh, A., 2019. Sino-Indian dynamics in littoral Asia–the view from New Delhi. *Strategic Analysis*, 43(3), pp.199–213.

Stokes, J., 2020. China's periphery diplomacy: Implications for peace and security in Asia. 467 Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.

Till, G., 2012. Asia's naval expansion: An arms race in the making? Abingdon: Routledge.

Trump, D., 2017. National security strategy 2017. *Foundations of Homeland Security: Law and Policy: Second Edition*. [pdf] Available at: <https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf> [Accessed 15 August 2022].
Jety, R., 2012. Sino-Pakistan strategic entente: Implications for regional security. *ISAS Working Paper*. National University of Singapore. 143. [Pdf] Available at:

<https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/137392/ISAS Working Paper 143 _ _ Email _ _ Sino_Pakistan_StrategicCHAT _ 14022012160926.pdf> [Accessed 20 October 2022].

Jha, P. and Star, S., 2021. India–Australia: Defining new horizons of engagement. *Strategic Analysis*, 45(5), pp.411–430.

Jiacheng, L., 2017. Developing China's Indian Ocean strategy: Rationale and prospects. *China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies*, 3(4), pp.481–497.

Liu, H. and Jamali, A.B., 2021. India's indo-pacific strategy: A pragmatic balancing between The United States and China. *Pacific Focus*, 36(1), pp.5–39.

Mearsheimer, J.J., 1986. A strategic misstep: The maritime strategy and deterrence in Europe. *International Security*, 11(2), pp.3–57.

Menon, S., 2020. How Trump and Modi refashioned the relationship between America and India. *Foreign Affairs*. Available at: <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-08-11/modi-india-league-nationalists> [Accessed 4 October 2022].

Ministry of External Affairs, G. of I., 2015. US-India joint strategic vision for the Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean region. New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Govt. of India.

Montgomery, E.B., 2014. Contested primacy in the western pacific: China's rise and the future of U.S. power projection. *International Security*, 38(4), pp.115–149.

Morrison, W., 2018. China's economic rise: History, trends, challenges, and implications for the United States. USA: Congressional Research Service. [pdf] Available at:

<https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20190625_RL33534_088c5467dd11365dd4ab5f72133db289fa10030f.pdf> [Accessed 18 October 2022].

Mukherjee, R., 2020. Chaos as opportunity: The United States and world order in India's grand strategy. *Contemporary Politics*, 26(4), pp.420–438.

Munir, M., 2018. Pakistan-China strategic interdependence. *Strategic Studies*, 38(2), pp.21–42.

Rahman, Z.U., Khan, A., Lifang, W. and Hussain, I., 2021. The geopolitics of the CPEC and Indian Ocean: Security implication for India. *Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs*, 13(2), pp.122–145.

Rajagopalan, R.P., 2019. Tiger triumph: US-India military relations get more complex.

*Diplomat*. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/tiger-triumph-us-india-military-relations-get-more-complex/> [Accessed 25 October 2022].

Rapp-Hooper, M. and Lissner, R.F., 2019. The open world: What America can achieve after

Trump. *Foreign Affairs*. Available at: <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/open-world> [Accessed 22 July 2022].

Rashid, W., 2020. String of Pearls – China's emerging strategic culture. *STRAFASIA*, [online] 5

December. Available at: <https://strafasia.com/string-of-pearls-chinas-emerging-strategic-culture/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].

Ratner, E., 2020. Rising to the China challenge: Renewing American competitiveness in the Indo-Pacific. Washington, DC: Center for a New American Security.

Sahakyan, M., 2021. 'The Sino-Russian tandem in Eurasia and the changing world order: The dawn of the EAEU and the BRI's complementary cooperation and development', in Sahakyan, M. and Gärtner, H., eds., China and Eurasia rethinking cooperation and contradictions in the era of changing world order. Abingdon/New York: Routledge, pp.77–98.

Sahakyan, M., ed., 2023. China and Eurasian powers in a multipolar world order 2.0 security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

Schelling, T.C., 1960. The strategy of conflict. London: Harvard University Press.

Simón, L., 2020. Between punishment and denial: Uncertainty, flexibility, and U.S. military strategy toward China. *Contemporary Security Policy*, 41(3), pp.361–384.

Singh, A., 2019. Sino-Indian dynamics in littoral Asia–the view from New Delhi. *Strategic Analysis*, 43(3), pp.199–213.

Stokes, J., 2020. China's periphery diplomacy: Implications for peace and security in Asia. 467 Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.

Till, G., 2012. Asia's naval expansion: An arms race in the making? Abingdon: Routledge.

Trump, D., 2017. National security strategy 2017. *Foundations of Homeland Security: Law and Policy: Second Edition*. [pdf] Available at: <https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12–18–2017–0905.pdf> [Accessed 15 August 2022].
US Department of Defense, 2022. National defense strategy. Available at:
<https://www.defense.gov/National-Defense-Strategy/> [Accessed 10 March 2023].

US Department of Defense, 2019. Indo-Pacific strategy report: Preparedness, partnerships, and promoting a networked region. pp.1–55. [Pdf] Available at:
<https://media.defense.gov/2019/Jul/01/2002152311/-1/-1/1/DEPARTMENT-OF-DEFENSE-INDO-PACIFIC-STRATEGY-REPORT-2019.PDF> [Accessed 2 October 2022].

US Government, 2018. Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy. In National Defense Strategy. [pdf] Available at: <https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf> [Accessed 15 August 2022].

White House, 2021. U.S.-India joint leaders' statement: A partnership for global good, [online] Available at: <https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/24/u-s-india-joint-leaders-statement-a-partnership-for-global-good/> [Accessed 14 July 2022].

Wu, Z., 2019. Towards naval normalcy: "open seas protection" and Sino-US maritime relations. Pacific Review, 32(4), pp.666–693.

Zhao, K. and Zhang, H., 2019. Projecting political power: China's changing maritime strategy. Chinese Journal of International Politics, 12(2), pp.229–261.

## Unpacking the Discursive Strategies and Drivers of Chinese Visions of an Alternative World Order

Acharya, A., 2017. After liberal hegemony: The advent of a multiplex world order. Ethics International Affairs, 31, pp.271–285.

Allison, G.T., 2017. Destined for war: Can America and China escape Thucydides's trap? Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Anghie, A., 2014. 'Towards a postcolonial international law', in Singh, P. and Mayer, B., eds., Critical international law: Postrealism, postcolonialism and transnationalism. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.123–142.

Blum, Y.Z., 1965. Historic titles in international law. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Boyle, M.J., 2016. The coming illiberal order. Survival, 58, pp.35–66.

Brook, T., 2019. Great state: China and the world. London: Profile Books.

Buszynski, L., 2017. Law and realpolitik: The arbitral tribunal's ruling and the South China Sea. Asian Yearbook of International Law, 21, pp.121–140.

Buzan, B., 2010. Culture and international society. International Affairs, 86, pp.1–25.

Buzan, B. and Lawson, G., 2014. Rethinking benchmark dates in international relations. European Journal of International Relations, 20, pp.437–462.

Cabestan, J.-P., 2022. La politique internationale de la Chine: entre intégration et volonté de puissance [China's international policy: Between integration and power]. Paris: Sciences po, les presses.

Cai, C., 2013. New great powers and international law in the 21st century. European Journal of International Law, 24, pp.755–795.

Callahan, W.A., 2008. Chinese visions of world order: Post-hegemonic or a new hegemony? International Studies Review, 10, pp.749–761.

Callahan, W.A., 2012. Sino-speak: Chinese exceptionalism and the politics of history. Journal of Asian Studies, 71, pp.33–55.

Callahan, W.A. and Barabantseva, E., eds., 2011. China orders the world: Normative soft power and foreign policy. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.

Carlson, A., 2007. China's conflicted Olympic moment. Current History, 106, pp.252–256.

Christensen, T.J., 2006. Fostering stability or creating a monster? The rise of China and U.S. policy toward East Asia. International Security, 31, pp.81–126.

Clark, I., 2014. International society and China: The power of norms and the norms of power. Chinese Journal of International Politics, 7, pp.315–340.

Clément, M., Lindemann, T. and Sangar, E., 2017. The "Hero-protector narrative": Manufacturing emotional consent for the use of force. Political Psychology, 38, pp.991–1008.

Coicaud, J.-M., 2001. 'Legitimacy, socialization, and international change', in Kupchan, C., Adler, E., Coicaud, J.-M. and Khong, Y.F., eds., Power in transition: The peaceful change of
US Department of Defense, 2022. National defense strategy. Available at: <https://www.defense.gov/National-Defense-Strategy/> [Accessed 10 March 2023].

US Department of Defense, 2019. Indo-Pacific strategy report: Preparedness, partnerships, and promoting a networked region. pp.1–55. [Pdf] Available at: <https://media.defense.gov/2019/Jul/01/2002152311/-1/-1/1/DEPARTMENT-OF-DEFENSE-INDO-PACIFIC-STRATEGY-REPORT-2019.PDF> [Accessed 2 October 2022].

US Government, 2018. Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy. In National Defense Strategy. [pdf] Available at: <https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf> [Accessed 15 August 2022].

White House, 2021. U.S.-India joint leaders' statement: A partnership for global good, [online] Available at: <https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/24/u-s-india-joint-leaders-statement-a-partnership-for-global-good/> [Accessed 14 July 2022].

Wu, Z., 2019. Towards naval normalcy: "open seas protection" and Sino-US maritime relations. Pacific Review, 32(4), pp.666–693.

Zhao, K. and Zhang, H., 2019. Projecting political power: China's changing maritime strategy. Chinese Journal of International Politics, 12(2), pp.229–261.

## Unpacking the Discursive Strategies and Drivers of Chinese Visions of an Alternative World Order

Acharya, A., 2017. After liberal hegemony: The advent of a multiplex world order. Ethics International Affairs, 31, pp.271–285.

Allison, G.T., 2017. Destined for war: Can America and China escape Thucydides's trap? Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Anghie, A., 2014. 'Towards a postcolonial international law', in Singh, P. and Mayer, B., eds., Critical international law: Postrealism, postcolonialism and transnationalism. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.123–142.

Blum, Y.Z., 1965. Historic titles in international law. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Boyle, M.J., 2016. The coming illiberal order. Survival, 58, pp.35–66.

Brook, T., 2019. Great state: China and the world. London: Profile Books.

Buszynski, L., 2017. Law and realpolitik: The arbitral tribunal's ruling and the South China Sea. Asian Yearbook of International Law, 21, pp.121–140.

Buzan, B., 2010. Culture and international society. International Affairs, 86, pp.1–25.

Buzan, B. and Lawson, G., 2014. Rethinking benchmark dates in international relations. European Journal of International Relations, 20, pp.437–462.

Cabestan, J.-P., 2022. La politique internationale de la Chine: entre intégration et volonté de puissance [China's international policy: Between integration and power]. Paris: Sciences po, les presses.

Cai, C., 2013. New great powers and international law in the 21st century. European Journal of International Law, 24, pp.755–795.

Callahan, W.A., 2008. Chinese visions of world order: Post-hegemonic or a new hegemony? International Studies Review, 10, pp.749–761.

Callahan, W.A., 2012. Sino-speak: Chinese exceptionalism and the politics of history. Journal of Asian Studies, 71, pp.33–55.

Callahan, W.A. and Barabantseva, E., eds., 2011. China orders the world: Normative soft power and foreign policy. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.

Carlson, A., 2007. China's conflicted Olympic moment. Current History, 106, pp.252–256.

Christensen, T.J., 2006. Fostering stability or creating a monster? The rise of China and U.S. policy toward East Asia. International Security, 31, pp.81–126.

Clark, I., 2014. International society and China: The power of norms and the norms of power. Chinese Journal of International Politics, 7, pp.315–340.

Clément, M., Lindemann, T. and Sangar, E., 2017. The "Hero-protector narrative": Manufacturing emotional consent for the use of force. Political Psychology, 38, pp.991–1008.

Coicaud, J.-M., 2001. 'Legitimacy, socialization, and international change', in Kupchan, C., Adler, E., Coicaud, J.-M. and Khong, Y.F., eds., Power in transition: The peaceful change of
international order. Tokyo: United Nations University Press, pp.68–100.

Coicaud, J.-M., 2016. 'The question of emotions and passions in mainstream international relations, and beyond', in Ariffin, Y., Coicaud, J.-M. and Popovski, V., eds., Emotions in international politics:Beyond mainstream international relations. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.23–47.

deLisle, J., 2012. Troubled waters: China's claims and the South China Sea. Orbis, 56, pp.608–642.

deLisle, J., 2017. 'Chinas territorial and maritime disputes in the South and East China Seas', in deLisle, J. and Goldstein, A. eds., China's global engagement. Cooperation, competition, and influence in the 21st century. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press, pp.235–290.

Doshi, R., 2021. The long game: China's grand strategy to displace American order. New York: Oxford University Press.

Dupuy, F. and Dupuy, P.-M., 2013. A legal analysis of China's historic rights claims in the South China Sea. American Journal of International Law, 107, pp.124–141.

Dutton, M.R., 2002. Lead us not to translation. Nepantla Views South, 3, pp.495–537.

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Ishikawa, Y., 2021. The new great game: Central Asia struggles to balance three powers. Nikkei Asia, [online] 20 October. Available at: <https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/The-Big-Story/The-new-Great-Game-Central-Asia-struggles-to-balance-three-powers> [Accessed 1 June 2023].

Jiang, B., Li, J. and Gong, C., 2018. Maritime shipping and export trade on “Maritime Silk Road.” The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 34(2), pp.83–90.
Liang, X. and Tian, N., 2023. The proposed hike in Japan's military expenditure. SIPRI Commentary, [online] 2 February. Available at: <https://www.sipri.org/commentary/topical-backgrounder/2023/proposed-hike-japans-military-expenditure> [Accessed 2 June 2023].
Mahadzir, D., 2021. 10 Chinese Russian warships sail through Japanese islands. USNI News, [online] 19 October. Available at: <https://news.usni.org/2021/10/19/10-chinese-russian-warships-sail-through-japanese-islands> [Accessed 28 May 2023].

Mahmud, F. and Satoh, R., 2023. Bangladesh Deep-Sea Port promises strategic anchor for Japan, India. Nikkei Asia, [online] 12 April. Available at: <https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Bangladesh-deep-sea-port-promises-strategic-anchor-for-Japan-India> [Accessed 30 May 2023].

MFA, Japan, 2007. Confluence of the two seas – Speech by HE Mr. Shinzo Abe, Prime Minister of Japan at the Parliament of the Republic of India. Available at: <https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/pmv0708/speech-2.html> [Accessed 31 May 2023].

MFA, Japan, 2016. Address by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe at the Opening Session of the Sixth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD VI). Available at: <https://www.mofa.go.jp/afr/af2/page4e_000496.html> [Accessed 29 May 2023].

MFA, Japan, 2023. The future of the Indo-Pacific – ‘Japan’s new plan for a Free and Open Indo-Pacific’ – ‘Together with India, as an indispensable partner’. [pdf] Available at: <https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/100477739.pdf> [Accessed 30 May 2023].

MFA, PRC, 2023. President Xi Jinping Chairs the Inaugural China-Central Asia Summit and Delivers a Keynote Speech. Available at: <https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/202305/t20230519_11080116.html> [Accessed 29 July 2023].

Ministry of Defense Japan, 2022. Defense of Japan (Annual White Paper).

Ohashi, H., 2018. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in the context of China's Opening-up Policy. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 7(2), pp.85-103.

Pomeranz, K., 2001. The great divergence: China, Europe and the making of the modern world economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Sahakyan, M., ed., 2023. China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. New York: Routledge.

SCO, 2022. The Samarkand Declaration of the Heads of State Council of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Available at: <http://eng.sectsco.org/load/914622/> [Accessed 1 June 2023].

Shinde, V., 2023. India and Japan are fostering friendships in Central Asia. East Asia Forum. Available at: <https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/22/india-and-japan-are-fostering-friendships-in-central-asia/> [Accessed 30 July 2023].

US Department of State, 2023. Economic Resilience in Central Asia Initiative. Available at: <https://www.state.gov/economic-resilience-in-central-asia-initiative/> [Accessed 1 June 2023].

Venzon, C., 2023. Philippines, US, Japan coast guards to hold first joint drills. Nikkei Asia, [online] 29 May 2023. Available at: <https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Philippines-U.S.-Japan-coast-guards-to-hold-first-joint-drills> [Accessed 3 June 2023].

White House, 2022. Quad Joint Leaders' Statement. Available at: <https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/05/24/quad-joint-leaders-statement/> [Accessed 30 May 2023].

Wrobel, R.M., 2019. Chinese geopolitics in Southeast Asia: A new pattern of economic power within ASEAN? Asiatische Studien – Etudes Asiatiques, 73(1), pp.149-191.

Yoshihara, T. and Bianchi, J., 2021. Seizing on weakness: Allied strategy for competing with China's globalizing military. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments.

## China's Belt and Road Initiative and Sri Lanka

Abeygoonasekera, A., 2021. Before the Phoenix nest: Questions surrounding the port city of Colombo. LSE Blog, [online] 08 July. Available at: <https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/cff/2021/07/08/before-the-phoenix-nest-questions-surrounding-the-port-city-of-colombo/> [Accessed 15 January 2023].
Liang, X. and Tian, N., 2023. The proposed hike in Japan's military expenditure. SIPRI Commentary, [online] 2 February. Available at: <https://www.sipri.org/commentary/topical-backgrounder/2023/proposed-hike-japans-military-expenditure> [Accessed 2 June 2023].
Mahadzir, D., 2021. 10 Chinese Russian warships sail through Japanese islands. USNI News, [online] 19 October. Available at: <https://news.usni.org/2021/10/19/10-chinese-russian-warships-sail-through-japanese-islands> [Accessed 28 May 2023].

Mahmud, F. and Satoh, R., 2023. Bangladesh Deep-Sea Port promises strategic anchor for Japan, India. Nikkei Asia, [online] 12 April. Available at: <https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Bangladesh-deep-sea-port-promises-strategic-anchor-for-Japan-India> [Accessed 30 May 2023].

MFA, Japan, 2007. Confluence of the two seas – Speech by HE Mr. Shinzo Abe, Prime Minister of Japan at the Parliament of the Republic of India. Available at: <https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/pmv0708/speech-2.html> [Accessed 31 May 2023].

MFA, Japan, 2016. Address by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe at the Opening Session of the Sixth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD VI). Available at: <https://www.mofa.go.jp/afr/af2/page4e_000496.html> [Accessed 29 May 2023].

MFA, Japan, 2023. The future of the Indo-Pacific – ‘Japan’s new plan for a Free and Open Indo-Pacific’ – ‘Together with India, as an indispensable partner’. [pdf] Available at: <https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/100477739.pdf> [Accessed 30 May 2023].

MFA, PRC, 2023. President Xi Jinping Chairs the Inaugural China-Central Asia Summit and Delivers a Keynote Speech. Available at: <https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/202305/t20230519_11080116.html> [Accessed 29 July 2023].

Ministry of Defense Japan, 2022. Defense of Japan (Annual White Paper).

Ohashi, H., 2018. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in the context of China's Opening-up Policy. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 7(2), pp.85-103.

Pomeranz, K., 2001. The great divergence: China, Europe and the making of the modern world economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Sahakyan, M., ed., 2023. China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. New York: Routledge.

SCO, 2022. The Samarkand Declaration of the Heads of State Council of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Available at: <http://eng.sectsco.org/load/914622/> [Accessed 1 June 2023].

Shinde, V., 2023. India and Japan are fostering friendships in Central Asia. East Asia Forum. Available at: <https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/22/india-and-japan-are-fostering-friendships-in-central-asia/> [Accessed 30 July 2023].

US Department of State, 2023. Economic Resilience in Central Asia Initiative. Available at: <https://www.state.gov/economic-resilience-in-central-asia-initiative/> [Accessed 1 June 2023].

Venzon, C., 2023. Philippines, US, Japan coast guards to hold first joint drills. Nikkei Asia, [online] 29 May 2023. Available at: <https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Philippines-U.S.-Japan-coast-guards-to-hold-first-joint-drills> [Accessed 3 June 2023].

White House, 2022. Quad Joint Leaders' Statement. Available at: <https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/05/24/quad-joint-leaders-statement/> [Accessed 30 May 2023].

Wrobel, R.M., 2019. Chinese geopolitics in Southeast Asia: A new pattern of economic power within ASEAN? Asiatische Studien – Etudes Asiatiques, 73(1), pp.149-191.

Yoshihara, T. and Bianchi, J., 2021. Seizing on weakness: Allied strategy for competing with China's globalizing military. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments.

## China's Belt and Road Initiative and Sri Lanka

Abeygoonasekera, A., 2021. Before the Phoenix nest: Questions surrounding the port city of Colombo. LSE Blog, [online] 08 July. Available at: <https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/cff/2021/07/08/before-the-phoenix-nest-questions-surrounding-the-port-city-of-colombo/> [Accessed 15 January 2023].
Ahalawat, D. and Cogan, M.S., 2023. Can small island states escape China's influence? The cases of Sri Lanka and Fiji. Geopolitics. DOI: 10.1080/14650045.2023.2174852

Attanayake, C., 2021. India's answer to China's ports in Sri Lanka. The Interpreter, [online] 9 November. Available at: <https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/india-s-answer-china-s-ports-sri-lanka> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Bandara, K., 2020. MCC discontinues $480m compact with sl. Daily Mirror, [online] 17 December. Available at: <https://www.dailymirror.lk/print/front_page/MCC-discontinues-480m-compact-with-sl/238-201988> [Accessed 18 January 2023].

Choudhury, A., 2022. India's opportunity in post-crisis Sri Lanka. Diplomat. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2022/11/indias-opportunity-in-post-crisis-sri-lanka/> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Ghoshal, D. and Jayasinghe, U., 2023. Exclusive: China promises Sri Lanka deal on debt treatment in coming months-letter. Reuters, [online], 8 March. Available at: <https://www.reuters.com/markets/asia/china-offers-sri-lanka-debt-moratorium-promises-deal-debt-treatment-letter-2023-03-08/> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Glosserman, B., 2020. 'Debt trap' Diplomacy is a game China seldom plays in Belt and Road initiative. The Japan Times, [online] 1 September. Available at: <https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2020/09/01/commentary/debt-trap-diplomacy-bri-china/> [Accessed 06 May 2023].

Jayatilleka, D., 2021. Colombo Port City, geopolitical realities and national interest. Daily Financial Times, [online] 20 May. Available at: <https://www.ft.lk/columns/Colombo-Port-City-geopolitical-realities-and-national-interest/4-718069> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Jones, L. and Hameiri, S., 2020. Debunking the myth of 'debt-trap diplomacy': How recipient countries Shape China's Belt and Road Initiative. Chatham House. Available at: <https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/08/debunking-myth-debt-trap-diplomacy/4-sri-lanka-and-bri> [Accessed 06 May 2023].

MacDonald, J.A., 2004. Energy future in Asia: Final report. Virginia: Booz Allan Hamilton.
Mallawarachi, B., 2022. U.S. officials arrive in Sri Lanka to address unprecedented economic crisis. PBS News Hour, [online] 26 June. Available at: <https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/u-s-officials-arrive-in-sri-lanka-to-address-unprecedented-economic-crisis> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Moramudali, U., 2020. The Hambantota Port deal: Myths and realities. Diplomat. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/the-hambantota-port-deal-myths-and-realities/> [Accessed 17 January 2023].

Nair, A., 2022. China's debt trap diplomacy in Sri Lanka. Vivekananda International Foundation, [online] 30 July. Available at: <https://www.vifindia.org/article/2022/july/30/china-s-debt-trap-diplomacy-in-sri-Lanka> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Raiser, M., 2023. Sri Lanka's crisis offers an opportunity to reset its development model. World Bank Blogs, [online] 27 February. Available at: <https://blogs.worldbank.org/endpovertyinsouthasia/sri-lankas-crisis-offers-opportunity-reset-its-development-model> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Ranaraja, Y., 2022. What to expect from Colombo Port City? China Daily, [online] 28 September. Available at:

<https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202209/28/WS6333be1aa310fd2b29e7a38b.html> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Ranjan, R. and Senevirathna, A., 2022. Sri Lanka-China relations: Analysing Sri Lankan, Chinese and Indian perspectives. Economic & Political Weekly, 57(37), pp.31–36.

Revi, V., 2022. Sri Lanka: Navigating the geopolitics of Asia. Observer Research Foundation, [online] 07 October. Available at: <https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/sri-lanka-navigating-the-geopolitics-of-asia/> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Sahakyan, M., eds., 2023. China and Eurasian powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. New York: Routledge.

Senevirathna, A., 2021. 'Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and Indo-Pacific Strategy (IPS): Challenges and opportunities for Sri Lanka', in Jaiswal, P. and Bhatt, P.B., eds., Rebalancing Asia: Belt and Road Initiative and Indo-Pacific strategy. Singapore: Springer, pp.181–192.

Senevirathna, A., 2022. 'China's twenty-first-century Maritime Silk Road and its influence on the development of South Asia', in Ranjan, R. and Changgang, G., eds., China and South Asia changing regional dynamics, development and power play. Abingdon: Routledge, pp.111–124.
Ahalawat, D. and Cogan, M.S., 2023. Can small island states escape China's influence? The cases of Sri Lanka and Fiji. Geopolitics. DOI: 10.1080/14650045.2023.2174852

Attanayake, C., 2021. India's answer to China's ports in Sri Lanka. The Interpreter, [online] 9 November. Available at: <https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/india-s-answer-china-s-ports-sri-lanka> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Bandara, K., 2020. MCC discontinues $480m compact with sl. Daily Mirror, [online] 17 December. Available at: <https://www.dailymirror.lk/print/front_page/MCC-discontinues-480m-compact-with-sl/238-201988> [Accessed 18 January 2023].

Choudhury, A., 2022. India's opportunity in post-crisis Sri Lanka. Diplomat. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2022/11/indias-opportunity-in-post-crisis-sri-lanka/> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Ghoshal, D. and Jayasinghe, U., 2023. Exclusive: China promises Sri Lanka deal on debt treatment in coming months-letter. Reuters, [online], 8 March. Available at: <https://www.reuters.com/markets/asia/china-offers-sri-lanka-debt-moratorium-promises-deal-debt-treatment-letter-2023-03-08/> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Glosserman, B., 2020. 'Debt trap' Diplomacy is a game China seldom plays in Belt and Road initiative. The Japan Times, [online] 1 September. Available at: <https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2020/09/01/commentary/debt-trap-diplomacy-bri-china/> [Accessed 06 May 2023].

Jayatilleka, D., 2021. Colombo Port City, geopolitical realities and national interest. Daily Financial Times, [online] 20 May. Available at: <https://www.ft.lk/columns/Colombo-Port-City-geopolitical-realities-and-national-interest/4-718069> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Jones, L. and Hameiri, S., 2020. Debunking the myth of 'debt-trap diplomacy': How recipient countries Shape China's Belt and Road Initiative. Chatham House. Available at: <https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/08/debunking-myth-debt-trap-diplomacy/4-sri-lanka-and-bri> [Accessed 06 May 2023].

MacDonald, J.A., 2004. Energy future in Asia: Final report. Virginia: Booz Allan Hamilton.
Mallawarachi, B., 2022. U.S. officials arrive in Sri Lanka to address unprecedented economic crisis. PBS News Hour, [online] 26 June. Available at: <https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/u-s-officials-arrive-in-sri-lanka-to-address-unprecedented-economic-crisis> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Moramudali, U., 2020. The Hambantota Port deal: Myths and realities. Diplomat. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/the-hambantota-port-deal-myths-and-realities/> [Accessed 17 January 2023].

Nair, A., 2022. China's debt trap diplomacy in Sri Lanka. Vivekananda International Foundation, [online] 30 July. Available at: <https://www.vifindia.org/article/2022/july/30/china-s-debt-trap-diplomacy-in-sri-Lanka> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Raiser, M., 2023. Sri Lanka's crisis offers an opportunity to reset its development model. World Bank Blogs, [online] 27 February. Available at: <https://blogs.worldbank.org/endpovertyinsouthasia/sri-lankas-crisis-offers-opportunity-reset-its-development-model> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Ranaraja, Y., 2022. What to expect from Colombo Port City? China Daily, [online] 28 September. Available at:

<https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202209/28/WS6333be1aa310fd2b29e7a38b.html> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Ranjan, R. and Senevirathna, A., 2022. Sri Lanka-China relations: Analysing Sri Lankan, Chinese and Indian perspectives. Economic & Political Weekly, 57(37), pp.31–36.

Revi, V., 2022. Sri Lanka: Navigating the geopolitics of Asia. Observer Research Foundation, [online] 07 October. Available at: <https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/sri-lanka-navigating-the-geopolitics-of-asia/> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Sahakyan, M., eds., 2023. China and Eurasian powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. New York: Routledge.

Senevirathna, A., 2021. 'Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and Indo-Pacific Strategy (IPS): Challenges and opportunities for Sri Lanka', in Jaiswal, P. and Bhatt, P.B., eds., Rebalancing Asia: Belt and Road Initiative and Indo-Pacific strategy. Singapore: Springer, pp.181–192.

Senevirathna, A., 2022. 'China's twenty-first-century Maritime Silk Road and its influence on the development of South Asia', in Ranjan, R. and Changgang, G., eds., China and South Asia changing regional dynamics, development and power play. Abingdon: Routledge, pp.111–124.
Shepard, W., 2016. Sri Lanka's Colombo Port City: The frontline of China and India's geopolitical showdown. Forbes, [online] 12 August. Available at:

<https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/08/12/a-look-at-colombo-port-city-the-frontline-of-china-and-indias-geopolitical-showdown/?sh=521a85622675> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Stone, R., 2022. China is losing ground in Sri Lanka. The Interpreter, [online] 19 August. Available at: <https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-losing-ground-sri-lanka> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Tan, Y., 2022. Chinese 'spy ship' Yuan Wang 5 docks in Sri Lanka despite Indian concern. BBC, [Online] 16 August. Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62558767> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Yadav, S., 2022. India replaces China in agreement with Sri Lanka to build 3 RE farms. Saur Energy International, [online] 30 March. Available at: <https://www.saurenergy.com/solar-energy-news/india-replaces-china-in-sri-lanka-to-build-3-wind-farms> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Wignaraja, G., Panditaratne, D., Kannangara, P. and Hundlani, D. 2020. Chinese investment and the BRI in Sri Lanka. Chatham House, [online] 24 March. Available at: <https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/03/chinese-investment-and-bri-sri-lanka-0/2-economy> [Accessed 06 May 2023].

Wills, J., 2021. Breaking the paradigm(s): A review of the three waves of international relations small state literature. Pacific Dynamics: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 5(1), pp.8–32.

# Mongolia and China's Belt and Road Initiative in Multipolar World Order 2.0

ADB, 2022. Mongolia: Preparing the infrastructure development for green and resilient new satellite city in the Khushig Valley area [pdf]. Available at:

<https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-documents/56298/56298-002-tar-en.pdf> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

AidData, 2023. Search project records [search Mongolia]. Available at:

<https://china.aiddata.org/#search_form> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

AIIB, 2020. AIIB approves first loan to Mongolia in support of COVID-19 response. Available at: <https://www.aiib.org/en/news-events/news/2020/AIIB-Approves-First-Loan-to-Mongolia-in-Support-of-COVID-19-Response.html> [Accessed 12 March 2023].

AIIB, 2022. Mongolia: Weathering exogenous shocks program. Available at:

<https://www.aiib.org/en/projects/details/2022/approved/Mongolia-Weathering-Exogenous-Shocks-Program.html> [Accessed 12 March 2023].

AIIB, 2023. Members and prospective members of the bank. Available at:

<https://www.aiib.org/en/about-aiib/governance/members-of-bank/index.html> [Accessed 11 March 2023].

Amgalanbayar, P., 2022. Mongolchuudyg evropt khërgekh khaalga 'Naransevstei' boomt [The gateway to Europe for Mongolians, 'Naransevstei' Port]. Polit.mn, [online] 2 May. Available at: <https://www.polit.mn/a/95016> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

Ankhtuya, B., 2022. Mongolia to construct new city in Khushigt Valley. News.mn, [online] 19 August. Available at:

<https://news.mn/en/797744/#:~:text=The%20Khushigt%20Valley%20%E2%80%93%20New%20Settlement,around%20the%20country%27s%20capital%20Ulaanbaatar> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

Batchimeg, B., 2018. Prime Minister meets Deputy Prime Minister of Russia Yu. P. Trutnev. Montsame, [online] 27 April. Available at: <https://montsame.mn/en/read/134807> [Accessed 11 March 2023].

Batchimeg, B., 2020. Additional loan agreement with China enters into force. Montsame, [online] 22 April. Available at: <https://www.montsame.mn/en/read/223122> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

Batchimeg, B., 2020. Additional loan agreement with China enters into force. Montsame, [online] 22 April. Available at: <https://www.montsame.mn/en/read/223122> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

Bayarlkhagva, M., 2022. Russia poised to exploit Mongolia on Soyuz-Vostok pipeline. Bne

IntelliNews, [online] 24 April. Available at: <https://www.intellinews.com/comment-russia-poised-
Shepard, W., 2016. Sri Lanka's Colombo Port City: The frontline of China and India's geopolitical showdown. Forbes, [online] 12 August. Available at:

<https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/08/12/a-look-at-colombo-port-city-the-frontline-of-china-and-indias-geopolitical-showdown/?sh=521a85622675> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Stone, R., 2022. China is losing ground in Sri Lanka. The Interpreter, [online] 19 August. Available at: <https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-losing-ground-sri-lanka> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Tan, Y., 2022. Chinese 'spy ship' Yuan Wang 5 docks in Sri Lanka despite Indian concern. BBC, [Online] 16 August. Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62558767> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Yadav, S., 2022. India replaces China in agreement with Sri Lanka to build 3 RE farms. Saur Energy International, [online] 30 March. Available at: <https://www.saurenergy.com/solar-energy-news/india-replaces-china-in-sri-lanka-to-build-3-wind-farms> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Wignaraja, G., Panditaratne, D., Kannangara, P. and Hundlani, D. 2020. Chinese investment and the BRI in Sri Lanka. Chatham House, [online] 24 March. Available at: <https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/03/chinese-investment-and-bri-sri-lanka-0/2-economy> [Accessed 06 May 2023].

Wills, J., 2021. Breaking the paradigm(s): A review of the three waves of international relations small state literature. Pacific Dynamics: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 5(1), pp.8-32.

# Mongolia and China's Belt and Road Initiative in Multipolar World Order 2.0

ADB, 2022. Mongolia: Preparing the infrastructure development for green and resilient new satellite city in the Khushig Valley area [pdf]. Available at:

<https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-documents/56298/56298-002-tar-en.pdf> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

AidData, 2023. Search project records [search Mongolia]. Available at:

<https://china.aiddata.org/#search_form> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

AIIB, 2020. AIIB approves first loan to Mongolia in support of COVID-19 response. Available at: <https://www.aiib.org/en/news-events/news/2020/AIIB-Approves-First-Loan-to-Mongolia-in-Support-of-COVID-19-Response.html> [Accessed 12 March 2023].

AIIB, 2022. Mongolia: Weathering exogenous shocks program. Available at:

<https://www.aiib.org/en/projects/details/2022/approved/Mongolia-Weathering-Exogenous-Shocks-Program.html> [Accessed 12 March 2023].

AIIB, 2023. Members and prospective members of the bank. Available at:

<https://www.aiib.org/en/about-aiib/governance/members-of-bank/index.html> [Accessed 11 March 2023].

Amgalanbayar, P., 2022. Mongolchuudyg evropt khërgekh khaalga 'Naransevstei' boomt [The gateway to Europe for Mongolians, 'Naransevstei' Port]. Polit.mn, [online] 2 May. Available at: <https://www.polit.mn/a/95016> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

Ankhtuya, B., 2022. Mongolia to construct new city in Khushigt Valley. News.mn, [online] 19 August. Available at:

<https://news.mn/en/797744/#:~:text=The%20Khushigt%20Valley%20%E2%80%93%20New%20Settlement,around%20the%20country%27s%20capital%20Ulaanbaatar> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

Batchimeg, B., 2018. Prime Minister meets Deputy Prime Minister of Russia Yu. P. Trutnev.

Montsame, [online] 27 April. Available at: <https://montsame.mn/en/read/134807> [Accessed 11 March 2023].

Batchimeg, B., 2020. Additional loan agreement with China enters into force. Montsame, [online] 22 April. Available at: <https://www.montsame.mn/en/read/223122> [Accessed 13 March 2023].

Bayarlkhagva, M., 2022. Russia poised to exploit Mongolia on Soyuz-Vostok pipeline. Bne

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Analysing CPC's Image-Building for the EU and the US in the Context of NATO

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Xi, J., 2019. The governance of China III (2020). Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

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Ying, F., 2016b. China and the future of international order. Chatham House. [pdf] Available at <https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/events/special/2016-07-08-China-International-Order_0.pdf> [Accessed 20 April 2023].
# Legal Aspects of the Digital Silk Road

Abbott, C., 2021. Get with the program – China's new privacy laws are coming. The National Law Review, [online] 28 August. Available at: <https://www.natlawreview.com/article/get-program-china-s-new-privacy-laws-are-coming> [Accessed 28 February 2023].

Aluf, D., 2022. China's digital footprint grows in the Middle East & North Africa. Map Global China, [online] 31 October. Available at: <https://mapglobalchina.com/research_briefs/chinas-digital-footprint-grows-in-the-middle-east-north-africa/> [Accessed 2 March 2022].

Brown, R., 2017. Beijing's Silk Road goes Digital. Council on Foreign Relations [online], 6 June. Available at: <https://www.cfr.org/blog/beijings-silk-road-goes-digital> [Accessed 2 May].

Caspian Policy Center, 2020. China's growing influence in Central Asia through surveillance systems. [pdf] Available at: <https://api.caspianpolicy.org/media/uploads/2020/09/PB-Chinas-growing-influence-in-CA-through-surveillance-systems.pdf> [Accessed 10 May 2023].

Castillo, T.B., 2021. The Digital Silk Road: A view in Central Asia. European Guanxi, [online] 3 December. Available at: <https://www.europeanguanxi.com/post/the-digital-silk-road-a-view-in-central-asia> [Accessed 5 March 2023].

Cheney, C., 2019. China's Digital Silk Road: Strategic technological competition and exporting political illiberalism. Issues & Insights. Working Paper 19, WP8. [pdf] Available at: <https://pacforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/issuesinsights_Vol19-WP8FINAL.pdf> [Accessed 15 March 2023].

Das, A., 2021. China's new personal information protection law. The National Law Review, [online] 2 December. Available at: <https://www.natlawreview.com/article/china-s-new-personal-information-protection-law> [Accessed 10 March 2023].

Dekker, B., Okano-Heijmans, M. and Zhang, S.E., 2020. Unpacking China's Digital Silk Road. Clingendael Report. Netherlands Institute of International Relations. [pdf] Available at: <https://www-clingendael.org/sites/default/files/202007/Report_Digital_Silk_Road_July_2020.pdf> [Accessed 19 March 2023].

Erie, M.S. and Streinz, T., 2021. The Beijing effect: China's Digital Silk Road as transnational data governance. New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 54(1), pp.1–92.

Fung, F.C., Aminian, N., Fu, H.M. and Tung, C.Y., 2018. Digital Silk Road, Silicon Valley and connectivity. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, 16(3), pp.313–336.

Ito, A., 2019. Digital China: A fourth industrial revolution with Chinese characteristics? Asia-Pacific Review, 26(2), pp.50–75.

Jardine, B., 2019. China's surveillance state has eyes on Central Asia. Foreign Policy, [online], 15 November. Available at: <https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/15/huawei-xinjiang-kazakhstan-uzbekistan-china-surveillance-state-eyes-central-asia/> [Accessed 11 May 2023].

Jun, O., 2022. Chinese dream of hegemony. Asia-Pacific Review, 29(1), pp.32–43.

Kawate, O., 2021. Thailand and UAE join China's global digital currency push. Available at: <https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Currencies/Thailand-and-UAE-join-China-s-global-digital-currency-push> [Accessed 25 April 2023].

Liang, H. and Zhang, Y., 2019. The theoretical system of Belt and Road Initiative. Singapore: Springer.

Ly, B., 2020. Challenge and perspective for Digital Silk Road. Cogent Business & Management, 7(1), pp.1–19.

National People's Congress, PRC, 2021. Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Renxinxı Baohufa [Personal Information Protection Law of the People's Republic of China (PIPL)]. [online] Available at: <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c30834/202108/a8c4e3672c74491a80b53a172bb753fe.shtml> [Accessed 10 February 2023].

Parzyan, A., 2021. 'China's Digital Silk Road and the Eurasian Economic Union's Digital Agenda: Cooperation over competition', in Sahakyan, M. and Gärtner, H., ed., China and Eurasia: Rethinking cooperation and contradictions in the era of changing world order. London/New York: Routledge, pp.37–54.

People's Bank of China, 2021. Digital Currency Institute of PBC Joins m-CBDC Bridge Project. Available at: <http://www.pbc.gov.cn/en/3688110/3688172/4157443/4196114/index.html> [Accessed 22 April 2023].

Rakhmat, Z., 2022. China's Digital Silk Road in Indonesia: Progress and implications. LSE IDEAS. Strategic Update. [pdf] Available at: <https://www.lse.ac.uk/ideas/Assets/Documents/updates/2022-SU-IndoChina-Updated.pdf>
## Legal Aspects of the Digital Silk Road

Abbott, C., 2021. Get with the program – China's new privacy laws are coming. The National Law Review, [online] 28 August. Available at: <https://www.natlawreview.com/article/get-program-china-s-new-privacy-laws-are-coming> [Accessed 28 February 2023].

Aluf, D., 2022. China's digital footprint grows in the Middle East & North Africa. Map Global China, [online] 31 October. Available at: <https://mapglobalchina.com/research_briefs/chinas-digital-footprint-grows-in-the-middle-east-north-africa/> [Accessed 2 March 2022].

Brown, R., 2017. Beijing's Silk Road goes Digital. Council on Foreign Relations [online], 6 June. Available at: <https://www.cfr.org/blog/beijings-silk-road-goes-digital> [Accessed 2 May].

Caspian Policy Center, 2020. China's growing influence in Central Asia through surveillance systems. [pdf] Available at: <https://api.caspianpolicy.org/media/uploads/2020/09/PB-Chinas-growing-influence-in-CA-through-surveillance-systems.pdf> [Accessed 10 May 2023].

Castillo, T.B., 2021. The Digital Silk Road: A view in Central Asia. European Guanxi, [online] 3 December. Available at: <https://www.europeanguanxi.com/post/the-digital-silk-road-a-view-in-central-asia> [Accessed 5 March 2023].

Cheney, C., 2019. China's Digital Silk Road: Strategic technological competition and exporting political illiberalism. Issues & Insights. Working Paper 19, WP8. [pdf] Available at: <https://pacforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/issuesinsights_Vol19-WP8FINAL.pdf> [Accessed 15 March 2023].

Das, A., 2021. China's new personal information protection law. The National Law Review, [online] 2 December. Available at: <https://www.natlawreview.com/article/china-s-new-personal-information-protection-law> [Accessed 10 March 2023].

Dekker, B., Okano-Heijmans, M. and Zhang, S.E., 2020. Unpacking China's Digital Silk Road. Clingendael Report. Netherlands Institute of International Relations. [pdf] Available at: <https://www-clingendael.org/sites/default/files/202007/Report_Digital_Silk_Road_July_2020.pdf> [Accessed 19 March 2023].

Erie, M.S. and Streinz, T., 2021. The Beijing effect: China's Digital Silk Road as transnational data governance. New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 54(1), pp.1–92.

Fung, F.C., Aminian, N., Fu, H.M. and Tung, C.Y., 2018. Digital Silk Road, Silicon Valley and connectivity. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, 16(3), pp.313–336.

Ito, A., 2019. Digital China: A fourth industrial revolution with Chinese characteristics? Asia-Pacific Review, 26(2), pp.50–75.

Jardine, B., 2019. China's surveillance state has eyes on Central Asia. Foreign Policy, [online], 15 November. Available at: <https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/15/huawei-xinjiang-kazakhstan-uzbekistan-china-surveillance-state-eyes-central-asia/> [Accessed 11 May 2023].

Jun, O., 2022. Chinese dream of hegemony. Asia-Pacific Review, 29(1), pp.32–43.

Kawate, O., 2021. Thailand and UAE join China's global digital currency push. Available at: <https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Currencies/Thailand-and-UAE-join-China-s-global-digital-currency-push> [Accessed 25 April 2023].

Liang, H. and Zhang, Y., 2019. The theoretical system of Belt and Road Initiative. Singapore: Springer.

Ly, B., 2020. Challenge and perspective for Digital Silk Road. Cogent Business & Management, 7(1), pp.1–19.

National People's Congress, PRC, 2021. Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Renxinxı Baohufa [Personal Information Protection Law of the People's Republic of China (PIPL)]. [online] Available at: <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c30834/202108/a8c4e3672c74491a80b53a172bb753fe.shtml> [Accessed 10 February 2023].

Parzyan, A., 2021. 'China's Digital Silk Road and the Eurasian Economic Union's Digital Agenda: Cooperation over competition', in Sahakyan, M. and Gärtner, H., ed., China and Eurasia: Rethinking cooperation and contradictions in the era of changing world order. London/New York: Routledge, pp.37–54.

People's Bank of China, 2021. Digital Currency Institute of PBC Joins m-CBDC Bridge Project. Available at: <http://www.pbc.gov.cn/en/3688110/3688172/4157443/4196114/index.html> [Accessed 22 April 2023].

Rakhmat, Z., 2022. China's Digital Silk Road in Indonesia: Progress and implications. LSE IDEAS. Strategic Update. [pdf] Available at: <https://www.lse.ac.uk/ideas/Assets/Documents/updates/2022-SU-IndoChina-Updated.pdf>
[Accessed 23 March 2023].

Sahakyan, M., 2022. 'China's Belt and Road Initiative and Central Asia', in Arase, D. and Amakasu Raposo de Medeiros Carvalho, P.M., eds., The Belt and Road Initiative in Asia, Africa, and Europe. London/New York: Routledge, pp.90–106.

Sahakyan, M., 2023. 'Introduction: China, Eurasia, and the Multipolar World Order 2.0', in Sahakyan, M., ed., China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0. Security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. London/New York: Routledge, pp.1–7.

Wang, H., 2020. China and Central Asian countries jointly building the Digital Silk Road: Foundations, challenges and paths. China International Studies, 82, pp.141–176.

Willett, M., 2020. China's investment in digital technologies and the digital great game. Adelphi Series, 60(487–489), pp.23–36.

Wohlforth, W., 2008. 'Realism', in Reus-Smit, C. and Snidal, D., eds. The Oxford handbook of international relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.131–149.

Yau, T., 2019. Smart cities or surveillance? Huawei in Central Asia. Diplomat. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2019/08/smart-cities-or-surveillance-huawei-in-central-asia/> [Accessed 11 May 2023].

Zeiger, H., 2019. Why China leans hard on Central Asia. Mind Matters, [online] 3 December. Available at: <https://mindmatters.ai/2019/12/why-china-leans-hard-on-central-asia/> [Accessed 11 May 2023].

## Exploring the Competition and Technological Decoupling between the US and China

Acharya, A. and Dunn, B., 2022. Comparing US and Chinese contributions to high-impact AI research. CSET. [pdf] Available at: <https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/comparing-u-s-and-chinese-contributions-to-high-impact-ai-research/> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Aliyeva, K., 2018. Smart City project to be launched in Kyrgyzstan in late January. Azernews, [online] 12 January. Available at: <https://www.azernews.az/region/125419.html> [Accessed 16 June 2023].

Badlam, J., Clark, S., Gajendragadkar, S., Kumar, A., O'Rourke, S. and Swartz, D., 2022. The CHIPS and Science Act: Here's what's in it. McKinsey & Company. Available at:

<https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/the-chips-and-science-act-heres-whats-in-it> [Accessed 19 January 2023].

Bateman, J., 2022. Maintaining a military edge over China. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [pdf] Available at: <https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/04/25/maintaining-military-edge-over-china-pub-86901> [Accessed 11 January 2023].

BBC, 2020. US says China has 'not altered' unfair trade practices. [online] 18 November.

Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/business-46285284> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Belta, 2023. Kitajskie marketplejsy i rossijskij rynok. Koroteev ob osnovnyh tendencijah razvitija "Velikogo kamnja" [Chinese marketplaces and Russian market. Karatseyeu on the main trends in the development of Great Stone]. [online] 13 July. Available at:

<https://www.belta.by/interview/view/kitajskie-marketplejsy-i-rossijskij-rynok-koroteev-ob-osnovnyh-tendentsijah-razvitija-velikogo-kamnja-8259/> [Accessed 3 May 2023].

Bonesh, F., 2023. Kyrgyzstan's opportunities and challenges from China's Belt & Road Initiative. Silk Road Briefing, [online] 14 March. Available at:

<https://www.silkroadbriefing.com/news/2023/03/14/kyrgyzstans-opportunities-and-challenges-from-chinas-belt-road-initiative/> [Accessed 28 April 2023].

Chan, G., 2022. China's Digital Silk Road: Setting standards, powering growth. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Chao, S., 2023. US sanctions will not halt rise of China's chip industry. NikkeiAsia, [online] 20 April. Available at: <https://hbr.org/2022/10/competing-in-the-new-talent-market> [Accessed 05 May 2023].

Cheng, Y., 2023. Tianjin, Kazakhstan vocational schools to cooperate. China Daily, [online] 2 March. Available at:

<https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202303/02/WS640096ffa31057c47ebb1cf8.html> [Accessed 14 May 2023].
[Accessed 23 March 2023].

Sahakyan, M., 2022. 'China's Belt and Road Initiative and Central Asia', in Arase, D. and Amakasu Raposo de Medeiros Carvalho, P.M., eds., The Belt and Road Initiative in Asia, Africa, and Europe. London/New York: Routledge, pp.90–106.

Sahakyan, M., 2023. 'Introduction: China, Eurasia, and the Multipolar World Order 2.0', in Sahakyan, M., ed., China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0. Security, diplomacy, economy and cyberspace. London/New York: Routledge, pp.1–7.

Wang, H., 2020. China and Central Asian countries jointly building the Digital Silk Road: Foundations, challenges and paths. China International Studies, 82, pp.141–176.

Willett, M., 2020. China's investment in digital technologies and the digital great game. Adelphi Series, 60(487–489), pp.23–36.

Wohlforth, W., 2008. 'Realism', in Reus-Smit, C. and Snidal, D., eds. The Oxford handbook of international relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.131–149.

Yau, T., 2019. Smart cities or surveillance? Huawei in Central Asia. Diplomat. Available at: <https://thediplomat.com/2019/08/smart-cities-or-surveillance-huawei-in-central-asia/> [Accessed 11 May 2023].

Zeiger, H., 2019. Why China leans hard on Central Asia. Mind Matters, [online] 3 December. Available at: <https://mindmatters.ai/2019/12/why-china-leans-hard-on-central-asia/> [Accessed 11 May 2023].

Exploring the Competition and Technological Decoupling between the
US and China

Acharya, A. and Dunn, B., 2022. Comparing US and Chinese contributions to high-impact AI research. CSET. [pdf] Available at: <https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/comparing-u-s-and-chinese-contributions-to-high-impact-ai-research/> [Accessed 16 January 2023].

Aliyeva, K., 2018. Smart City project to be launched in Kyrgyzstan in late January. Azernews, [online] 12 January. Available at: <https://www.azernews.az/region/125419.html> [Accessed 16 June 2023].

Badlam, J., Clark, S., Gajendragadkar, S., Kumar, A., O'Rourke, S. and Swartz, D., 2022. The CHIPS and Science Act: Here's what's in it. McKinsey & Company. Available at:

<https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/the-chips-and-science-act-heres-whats-in-it> [Accessed 19 January 2023].

Bateman, J., 2022. Maintaining a military edge over China. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [pdf] Available at: <https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/04/25/maintaining-military-edge-over-china-pub-86901> [Accessed 11 January 2023].

BBC, 2020. US says China has 'not altered' unfair trade practices. [online] 18 November.

Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/business-46285284> [Accessed 15 January 2023].

Belta, 2023. Kitajskie marketplejsy i rossijskij rynok. Koroteev ob osnovnyh tendencijah razvitija "Velikogo kamnja" [Chinese marketplaces and Russian market. Karatseyeu on the main trends in the development of Great Stone]. [online] 13 July. Available at:

<https://www.belta.by/interview/view/kitajskie-marketplejsy-i-rossijskij-rynok-koroteev-ob-osnovnyh-tendentsijah-razvitija-velikogo-kamnja-8259/> [Accessed 3 May 2023].

Bonesh, F., 2023. Kyrgyzstan's opportunities and challenges from China's Belt & Road Initiative. Silk Road Briefing, [online] 14 March. Available at:

<https://www.silkroadbriefing.com/news/2023/03/14/kyrgyzstans-opportunities-and-challenges-from-chinas-belt-road-initiative/> [Accessed 28 April 2023].

Chan, G., 2022. China's Digital Silk Road: Setting standards, powering growth. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Chao, S., 2023. US sanctions will not halt rise of China's chip industry. NikkeiAsia, [online] 20 April. Available at: <https://hbr.org/2022/10/competing-in-the-new-talent-market> [Accessed 05 May 2023].

Cheng, Y., 2023. Tianjin, Kazakhstan vocational schools to cooperate. China Daily, [online] 2 March. Available at:

<https://chinadaily.com.cn/a/202303/02/WS640096ffa31057c47ebb1cf8.html> [Accessed 14 May 2023].