# NIGERIAN SOCIAL CHALLENGES AND RELATIONSHIP WITH PERSONAL FUNCTIONING OF YOUTHS IN EASTERN NIGERIA

Ekene Emmanuel Aghadi

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Ekene Emmanuel Aghadi. NIGERIAN SOCIAL CHALLENGES AND RELATIONSHIP WITH PERSONAL FUNCTIONING OF YOUTHS IN EASTERN NIGERIA. Journal of Psychology and Behavioural Disciplines, 2024, 4 (1). [https://hal.science/hal-04853831v1](https://hal.science/hal-04853831v1)

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# NIGERIAN SOCIAL CHALLENGES AND RELATIONSHIP WITH PERSONAL FUNCTIONING OF YOUTHS IN EASTERN NIGERIA

Ekene Emmanuel Aghadi,

Department of Psychology,

Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University,

Igbariam Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria.

Email: ekkywiseaghadi@gmail.com; Phone: +2349020530240

**ABSTRACT:** Nigerian social challenges (problems) as they concern the youths are hardly given serious policy and governance attentions. This study investigated Nigerian social challenges (problems) and relationship with personal functioning of youths in Eastern Nigeria. Participants were 174 university undergraduates of mean-age 20.57 and SD 1.98 sampled through cluster and incidental sampling methods. The research instruments were Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) Scale, and Personal Functioning Scale on Likert 5-point format. Cross-sectional with descriptive and Pearson statistics were used. The findings were that "Nigerian social challenges (problems)" correlate positively but at the average level with the youths' "personal functioning" (P< 0.001> 0.000, r = 0.591, N = 174). Only "frustration" as a facet of Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) had non-significant relationship with only "identity" as a perspective of Personal Functioning (P > 0.05< 0.076, r = .135, N = 174). Recommendations were for the Nigerian youths to be equipped with behavioural skills resources necessary for managing "frustration" and quest for self-identity.

**KEYWORDS:** Nigeria Social Challenges, Personal Functioning Youths, Eastern Nigerian

## INTRODUCTION

Personal functioning is a person's extent of awareness, understanding and dealing with situations, so as to achieve the best desired goal. Personal functioning represents the internal events, processes, and experiences of an individual, whereas social functioning involves interaction with another person or with a target reference group. Functioning refers to people's physical, psychological and social capacity to cope with the day-to-day activities they find meaningful and necessary – work, studies, leisure time and hobbies, self-care and care for others – in the environment in which they live. Higher personal functioning is necessary for achievement in science, clinical medicine/health, policy and systems (Frontera, 2023). People's functioning is dependent on the positive or negative impacts of the environment.

Nigeria as a society is a type of social environment. Youths from the Eastern Nigeria have a lot of social challenges which are suspected to be playing some role on their (youths) personal functioning. It is the goal of this study to examine social challenges and their relationship with personal functioning of youths

in Eastern Nigeria. Aggression is one of the major social challenges being experienced by youths in Nigeria. The contemporary Nigerian society is very violent. Youths are becoming very aggressive to one another (Aroyewun, Adeyemo & Nnabuko, 2023). This could predispose one to think that Nigerian youths see aggression as a way of life. The family dynamics, violent films, and social crises could also be some factors maintaining aggression among Nigerian youths. Ethno-religions violence, terrorism and assassination are common occurrence in Nigeria, which Nigerian youths witness.

Ancillary to aggression is high insecurity in Nigeria as a social challenge. Nigerians feel highly unsecured, thereby making insecurity a great social challenge in the country. There are daily indiscriminate killing of people perpetuated both by individuals and the security agencies. Kidnapping is a common occurrence in Nigeria often carried out by the youths. There are increasing incidences of rape. Cases of robbery are increasing. The work places and learning institutions are characterized by various forms of gangsterism and cultism orchestrated by youths.
There are perennial cases of election violence and thuggery (ACLED, 2023) carried out by youths. Insecurity is another social challenge that bedeviled Nigerian society. Nigerians feel highly unsecured. Insecurity in Nigeria is a major challenge for Nigerians.

Indiscriminately killing of people in Nigeria is very common. Nigeria is a place where people are kidnapped easily. Increasing rape experiences in Nigeria are rising. Increasing incidence of robbery in Nigeria is discouraging. In Nigeria, places of work and worship are becoming very unsafe. Nigerian campuses are no longer safe for learning. Insecurity challenges in Nigeria have affected teaching, research, community services programme of higher education in Nigeria. The result also revealed that insecurity challenges have led to a reduction in the investment in higher education, led to the death of students, academic and non-academic staff and the destruction of infrastructural facilities in Nigeria (Ogunode, Ukozor & Ayoko, 2023).

Nigerian youths have been frustrated by the prevailing social and economic anguish, distress, and helplessness and hopelessness of the country. Frustration is everywhere in Nigeria. Many mental disorders in Nigeria are associated with frustration arising from bad governance. Nigerian is a frustrating society. Many cases of mental problems in Nigeria are caused by hopeless future. Depression is very common among Nigerians. Many citizens have lost hope in Nigeria. Suicidal tendency seems common among Nigerian youths because of poor mental health associated uncontrollable problems in living (Fagbenro, Azeez, Olagundoye & Foluke, 2019).

Another social challenge among the Nigerian youths is secret cultism. Secret societies are very common in Nigeria. A lot of Nigerian youths are initiated into secret cults. Nigerian universities are characterized by cult activities (Adegbenro, 2023). Many secondary schools in Nigeria have cult groups. In Nigeria, members of the secret cults commit various crimes. Learning institutions in Nigeria are no longer safe due to cultism. This is an act of being in a secret cult (most especially in an educational institution) whereby the group members uphold same belief,

ideology or interest. Members of secret cult are often in the possession of dangerous weapons.

This is at variance with established norms of behaviour. It is non-conforming behaviour which usually contravenes the social rules of an institution in particular and the society in general. Cultism is anti-social behaviour which is a deviant act (StopLearn, 2023). This does not promote heathy living and has become a major social challenge among Nigerian youths.

Social challenge among Nigerian youths also extends to drug/substance. This is too common among all categories of Nigerians youths. Drug abuse among Nigeria's growing young population is on the increase (Otorkpa, 2023). In Nigeria, drug use is associated with frustration. Bad habit is the major reason why Nigerians smoke. Some health problems Nigerians suffer arise from drug use. Many Nigerians do use drugs to enhance performance purposes. There are a lot of drugs/substances that many Nigerians are addicted to. Appetite for drug abuse among Nigerian young population is on the increase (Otorkpa, 2023). With the upsurge of drug usage among youths, they might not be actively involved in the voting process (Marwa, 2023) and other development goals.

Nigerian youths are also confronted with rising incidence of mental health cases. Many Nigerian youths have been traumatized by life events. Violence and terrorism are major causes of trauma for Nigerians. Nigeria is full of frightening uncertainties. Many Nigerians feel rejected/abandoned by their country (or leaders). There is a very high level of hopelessness in Nigeria. Owing to hardship in Nigeria, risking travelling abroad has become an option.

Most Nigerians have lost confidence in the usefulness of the government to them. Nigeria needs mental health awareness among its youth population. Mental health challenges among Nigerian youths is driven by the extreme economic adversities and high unemployment rates faced by young individuals. According to Obindo (2023), millions of Nigerians are suffering from mental illnesses, which creates a significant treatment gap for mental health in the country. Myths and traditional beliefs, inadequate mental health facilities, and a shortage of mental health professionals are some of the factors
hindering effective management of mental illness
in Nigeria (Obindo, 2023).

The social challenges of Nigerian youths
also involve sexual abuse and violence. A lot of
Nigerians have been sexually abused. Many
Nigerians are exposed various forms of sexual
insecurity. Most sexual offences in Nigeria go
unreported. Pornography is a common feature in
Nigeria. In Nigeria, a lot of people have sexual
experiences at a very young age. Some Nigerians
are forced into commercial sex all because of
money. A lot of Nigerians are addicted to sex.

Corruption is another social challenge impacting on Nigerian youths. Nigeria is fantastically corrupt (Buhari, 2016; Cameron, 2016). Politics in Nigeria is a game of corruption. Even the Nigerian Constitution itself is built on corruption. In Nigeria, religion of various types is loaded with corruption. Every institution/agency in Nigeria is not free from corrupt practices. A lot of people have become successful in Nigeria through corrupt means. Nigeria is a place where what you have is important, not how you made it. Very poor living standard is another social challenge the Nigerian youths are grappling with. A lot of Nigerians are homeless.

Many Nigerians find it difficult to feed.
There is very high cost of living in Nigeria.
Building materials in Nigeria are incredibly high.
Many Nigerians are unable to pay their house
rents. The standards of living for most Nigerians
are below human level. Many Nigerians are
unemployed. Owing to joblessness, many
Nigerian graduates state that education “is a
scam”. In Nigeria, the elderly refuse to retire by
falsifying their ages to retain their jobs. Nigerian
graduates roam about without jobs. Nigerian
graduates lack wealth-creation or job skills.
Desire for quick wealth makes many Nigeria
engage in atrocities to make money. Continued
deterioration of economic conditions and living
standards remain largest underlying threat to
Nigerian youths overall and meaningful
contribution to the societal development.

The social challenge of poor standard of
living is the implicated poor quality of life.
Selfishness has become a norm in Nigeria.
Nigerians exploit their fellow citizens so much.
Many Nigerians are becoming very heartless. In
Nigeria, value for human lives is very low. Many

Nigerians suffer from a number of troubling
ailments. A lot of Nigerians hardly embark on
holidays. The living environment of many
Nigerians is very poor.

Income per capita figures are not a true
measure of the standard of living in Nigeria.
Rather than relying on the conventional income
per capita estimates to measure living standards
in Nigeria, focus should be on providing
adequately essential ingredients of human
development such as good health care, quality
education, housing, and healthy environment.
These are indispensable for the building of
human capabilities and realization of human
potentialities which are central to improvement in
living standards. Building human capabilities
through investment in health care, education, and
basic infrastructures are of central importance in
the improvement of living standards in Nigeria
(Ejike, 2022).

Deceitful and dangerous politics,
injustice as well as bad governance are prevailing
social challenges being witnessed by Nigerian
youths. In Nigeria, politics is totally a very dirty
game. In Nigeria, good governance is absolutely
not in existence at all. Nigerian politicians don't
carry the citizens along. Nigerian politicians only
use and dump the citizens during and after
elections. Democracy in Nigeria is fruitless to the
citizens. Politics in Nigeria is an investment.
Nigerian politicians are insatiably corrupt. In
Nigeria, basic human rights are violated with
impunity. Judicature in Nigeria is totally absurd.
Justice delivery in Nigeria is too poor. Injustice
in Nigeria is very prevalent. Judgement can be
bought in Nigeria. Nigerian Courts are not the
hope of the common man. Rule of law is not
applicable in Nigeria. Human rights don't mean
much in Nigeria. Nigerian Executives/politicians
don't obey the Courts' orders. There is a total
failure of governance in Nigeria (Okoi & Iwara,
2021).

Even the interpersonal relations among
Nigerian youths have been afflicted with social
challenges. There high level of tribal, ethnic, and
religious attacks on one another among Nigerian
youths. Nigerians are very suspicion of one
another. Interpersonal tolerance among Nigerians
is low. Domestic violence is a common
occurrence in Nigeria. Street fighting is a
common scene in Nigeria. Nigerian unity is impossible. Many Nigerians take defrauding people as a sign of smartness. Social challenges have caused serious disparaging impacts on the personality of Nigerian youths. Even the personal functioning of the youths is not spared.

Identity as a personal functioning of the Nigerian youths seems to be adversely affected by social challenges the youths are exposed to unceasingly. Personal identity is the concept you develop about yourself that evolves over the course of your life. This may include aspects of your life that you have no control over, such as where you grew up or the color of your skin, as well as choices you make in life, such as how you spend your time and what you believe. Youths find it hard living a satisfying life. Youths waste time thinking about their experiences, feelings, and actions.

Youths pay attention to people based upon what others might do to me, or for me. Nigerian youths seem to believe so much on luck than effort. Often, the youths seem set personal standards that are very difficult to satisfy. They feel either really good or really bad about themselves. There is strive to understand their values and those that others might want them to have. Nigerian youths demonstrate portions of their personal identity outwardly through what they wear and how they interact with other people. They may also keep some elements of their personal identity to themselves, even when these parts of themselves are very important for interpersonal and societal development.

Personal or self-identities can be considered as mental representation individuals hold about who they are, which include autobiographical memories, self-attributions, beliefs, motivations, recurrent thoughts, emotions, and self-perceptions. Personal functioning is very important in managing social challenges. This happens when personal identity and habits serve to define who we are, in particular when these are considered in the context of self-related goals or central values. When habits relate to feelings of identity this comes with stronger cognitive self-integration, higher self-esteem, and a striving toward an ideal self. Linking habits to identity may sustain newly formed behaviors and may thus lead to more

effective behaviour change interventions (Verplanken & Sui, 2019).

The role of personal functioning in managing social challenges is best appreciated in the context of self-direction. Feedback from others plays a big role in determining what is important to a youth. Self-direction helps an individual manage behaviour in a manner appropriate to every situation. A youth with effective self-direction keep his emotions under control during adversities or when others disapprove of his or her objective actions. Self-direction as an attribute of personal function has relationship with optimism, emotional intelligence, academic resilience, learning and competency (Hwang & Kim, 2023) of youths.

Personal functioning is also characterized with rational empathy, which helps people understand others. Empathy one to understand how one feels or what one does, as well as appreciate the viewpoint of other people even when one disagrees with them. People with good empathy think are good at reading the feelings and motives of others. The social challenges Nigerian youths experience seems to make it easy for them to overlook the impact they are having on others. In the contemporary society, including that of Nigeria, empathy has deteriorated tremendously (Hurissa, Koricha & Dadi, 2023). This has affected the personal functioning of Nigerian youths. As a result, various forms of social vices are prevalent in Nigeria among the youths.

Personal functioning of Nigerian youths reflects in their intimacy competency. The social challenges in Nigeria seems to give many Nigerian youths new life systems of exploitation, cheating, and fraudulent practices. Most close relationships do not turn out well in the end. Divorce, intimate partners violence and money rituals are on the increase. There is increase in sexual exploitations among the youths. Social challenges in Nigeria seems to induce fear of intimacy among the youths. Selflessness in a relationship seems olden among Nigerian youths. Maintaining a healthy relationship is essential in some relationships (Naughton, 2023).

Relationships are highly individualized and can vary widely across different regions and cultures. There is no one-size-fits-all when it
comes to love and pleasure, as every couple has
its own unique set of needs and desires. Whether
seeking a traditional monogamous partnership or
exploring alternative forms of intimacy,
individuals freely express themselves and pursue
their version of happiness (Matutinovic, 2023).

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Youths are very enthusiastic, and this can
be affected by the social challenges of the socio-
environmental milieu. The debilitating
socioeconomic situation of Nigeria has made it
almost impossible for an average Nigerian youth
to function dependably. Eastern Nigeria is noted
for its sense industry and entrepreneurship. The
increasing social vices among the Nigerian
youths makes one wonder whether the prevailing
adversities in the country have impacted on the
personal functioning of the youths, especially
those from the Eastern Nigeria.

Social media interests of Nigerian youths mostly involve nude and semi-nude platforms. The fantasy and visions of most Nigerian youths involve being wealth with little or no efforts. Gratifications are no longer delayed for the future, vocational and occupational training are no longer fashionable, and integrity has been despised. It is not surprising that the youths desire cheapest and the easiest of making money without foundation.

In Nigerian, the socioeconomic situation
is a horror. Dubiousness and unscrupulous
activities are regarded as possessing smart
personality. Merits are no longer rewarded. Due
process is a waste of time. Wealth is adored
irrespective of their source. Consequently, a
typical Nigerian youth is highly disillusioned and
seem not to trust his/her functional ability as a
dependable resource for self-sustenance. Hence,
the present study aims at examining the extent the
Nigerian social challenges have impacted on the
personal functioning of the youths. This is
particular emphasizes with youths from the
Eastern Nigeria, which is a region noted for their
high sense personal and functional prowess,
irrespective any challenge.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study are as follows:

1. To investigate the relationship between
social challenges (problems) and

personal functioning of youths from the
Eastern Nigeria.

2. To examine the nature of relationships among various Nigerian social challenges (problems) and various perspectives of personal functioning.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions will be
answered with the results from the study:

1. What is the nature of the relationship between social challenges (problems) and personal functioning of youths from the Eastern Nigeria?

2. To what extent will the various Nigerian social challenges (problems) correlate with various perspectives of personal functioning?

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is very important for a number of
reasons. The reasons are identified and briefly
explained below.

1. The findings of the study explore the impact of the Nigerian social challenges on the personal functioning and prowess of a typical Nigerian youth. By this, the study will contribute knowledge and literature on the often-overlooked relationship between Nigeria social challenges and personal functioning of the youths. This situation is usually taken for granted.

2. The results of the study will highlight the areas of Nigerian social challenges that impact more or less adversity on the personal functioning of the Nigerian youths. The Nigerian social challenges have various facets. Likewise, the personal functioning has various perspectives. The study will therefore investigate and expose their respective impacts on one another. This will help a lot in decision-making.

3. Ancillary to the decision-making relevance above, the study will be of consulting relevance in policy making, especially as it concerns the youths. This is because the findings are empirically verified and very objective. The youths are said to be the leaders of tomorrow.
Therefore, their issues should be of
utmost concern to the society.

**OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS**

The variables of the study are operationally used
as briefly explained below. This is the scientific
applications of the measured variables (the
independent variables – the IVs, and the
dependent variables - the DVs), which may not
the same as their common usage parlance.

1. **Nigerian Social Challenges:** These are the social issues, also called social problems, that negatively affect the personal, social lives and wellbeing of individuals (youths), as well as the wellbeing of the community (society), as measured in fourteen facets with the 5-point Nigerian Social Challenges Scale by Nwankwo (2023).

2. **Personal Functioning:** This is the quality in an individual that is associated with the person's ability to execute tasks competently and intelligibly, as measured with an adapted and modified 5-point Personality Functioning Scale by Morey (2018).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Review

**Social Challenges (Problems)**

"Social challenges" are also called
"social problems" or "social issues". A social
challenge is an issue (a problem) within the
society that makes it difficult for people to
achieve their full potential. Poverty,
unemployment, unequal opportunity, racism, and
malnutrition are examples of social problems. So
are substandard housing, employment
discrimination, and child abuse and neglect.
Social issues are present in nearly all societies.

Social Issues

A social issue or problem is an issue that has
been recognized by society as a problem that is
preventing society from functioning at an optimal
level. It is important to understand that not all
things that occur in society are raised to the level
of social problems. **Four factors** have been
outlined that seem to characterize a social issue
or problem. These include:

1. The public must recognize the situation as a problem.

2. The situation is against the general values accepted by the society.

3. A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.

4. The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action of citizens and/or community resources.

Common Social Issues

There are a vast number of important
identified social issues in the United States today.
Let's look at five of these and why they are
problematic. First, we have
terrorism. **Terrorism** is generally defined by the
Federal Bureau of Investigation as illegal
dangerous acts to human life that are meant to
intimidate or coerce through mass destruction,
assassination, or kidnapping. Terrorism can be
both domestic or international. It has become a
social issue because of its increased domestic
prevalence within the United States. These
terrorist acts have changed the general quality
and way of life, and the majority of citizens
believe that solidarity can minimize the
occurrence of such incidents.

Next, we have poverty. **Poverty**, or
individuals lacking the finances to adequately
provide for their self or family, in the United
States is a social issue that has tremendous
impacts. The 2014 census reported that more than
45 million people in the United States today live
in poverty. This is an 11% increase over poverty
numbers recorded in 2010. With unemployment
rates having grown during the pandemic years
and the effects of inflation, more people are living
at the poverty level. Poverty, therefore, is a social
issue as it affects all Americans as the public
welfare system must absorb the increase of those
living in poverty.

Personal Functioning

People's functioning is dependent on the
positive or negative impacts of the environment.
People's functioning can be supported and their
coping in their day-to-day lives improved with
factors related to housing and the living
environment, support from other people, and
different services. Functioning is also described
as a balance between capabilities, the living and
operating environment, and the individual's
personal goals. Functioning can be described using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), as well as the dimensions of functioning.

**Functioning in the ICF:** ICF is an international classification of functioning, disability and health based on a biopsychosocial model. ICF describes an individual's functioning comprehensively as a dynamic space consisting of the combined effect of the person's health and individual and environmental factors. As ICF is a classification, it enables organizing the description of functioning hierarchically into clearly determined main and sub-categories.

**ICF describes functioning on three levels:**

* as body structures and functions

* as performance partly built on these, and

* as participation in different life situations and community life.

**Dimensions of functioning**

Functioning is a multidimensional concept structured in several different ways. The dimensions of functioning are interlinked and connected to the requirements and preconditions of the environment as well as the individual's health and other personal characteristics. Functioning is often divided into the following dimensions (domains):

* physical functioning

* mental functioning

* cognitive functioning

* social functioning.

Good physical, mental and social functioning and an environment supporting these help people feel well, find their place in society, cope with working life and manage daily life independently.

**Physical functioning**

Physical functioning refers to people's physical preconditions to cope with the day-to-day tasks that are important to them. The physiological properties of the body important for physical functioning include:

* muscular strength and endurance

* endurance fitness

* joint mobility

* control of bodily positions and movements, and

* the functions of the central nervous system that coordinate these.

Physical functioning manifests as people's ability to be physically active and move their bodies. Sense perceptions, such as vision and hearing, are in the domain of physical functioning.

**Mental functioning**

Mental functioning refers to the resources people have for coping with everyday challenges and crisis situations. Mental functioning is also related to life management, mental health and mental welfare, and covers functions related to emotions and thinking, including:

* the ability to receive and process information

* the ability to feel

* the ability to experience and form perceptions of one's self and the surrounding world

* the ability to plan one's life and make related decisions and choices.

Mental functioning also includes personality and coping with the challenges of the social environment. The ability to make informed decisions and regard the future and the surrounding world with realistic confidence is also part of good mental functioning.

**Cognitive functioning**

Cognitive functioning is a mutual effort between the different areas of information processing that enable people to cope in their day-to-day lives. Cognitive functions are functions related to the reception, processing, storage and use of information and can include:

* memory

* learning

* concentration

* attention

* perception

* orientation

* information processing

* problem solving

* executive functions

* linguistic activities.

**Social functioning**

The domain of social functioning consists of dynamic interactions between individuals, the social network, the environment, the community and society. Among other things, this domain of
functioning manifests in interactive situations, as social activity and experiences of inclusion, and includes two examined dimensions:

* people in their interactive relationships

* people as active agents, participants in communities and society.

**Personal Functioning and Positive Psychological Functioning: The Relationship**

Positive psychological functioning promotes best performance of personal functioning. Positive psychological functioning manifests in the following ways (Green, Jalal & Rizwan, 2023):

**Self-esteem:** Self-esteem is a judgment or self-evaluation of one's work or goodness and how well one feels one is doing in the areas of life that one considers important (Yang, Xu, Chen, Shi, & Han, 2016). Self-esteem has been shown to advance subjective and psychological well-being amid the pandemic (Çiçek, 2021a). Individuals may seek to enhance their self-esteem by expressing gratitude (Yildirim, Alshehri, & Aziz, 2019), cultivating positive social relationships, increasing social support, enhancing self-acceptance (Harris & Orth, 2020), engaging in self-care, and laughing more often (Goldsmith, 2010). Improving self-worth also fosters self-esteem based on such strategies as believing in oneself and being proud of one's strengths, accepting one's limitations, and seeking continuous improvement not to compete with others, but to enhance one's capacities (Preston, 2007).

Furthermore, developing the X-Factor may help in boosting self-esteem. This is likely because possessing the X-Factor enhances self-worth to equip individuals with self-confidence as well as empowers them to pursue excellence in life and work to the best of their abilities to reach their true potential. Honing the X-Factor entails bolstering the following: self-insight, personal magnetism, self-determination, self-discipline, catalytic learning capability, and optimism (Green, 2021a).

**Optimism:** Optimism is a human strength and virtue (Sheldon & King, 2001) which allows individuals to invest additional efforts and demonstrate resilience to realize their future wishes and at the same time face challenges with positivity (Ginevra et al., 2017).

Research has demonstrated that optimism and hope provided individuals a solid first step for embarking on their career construction journey to meaningful work during the pandemic (Green, Yıldırım, & Jalal, 2022). Further, lower levels of optimism and social connectedness have contributed to increased levels of COVID-19 burnout (Yıldırım, Çiçek, & Şanlı, 2021).

Overall, optimism has had a positive influence on individuals during COVID-19. As a protective factor, it has helped in reducing the psychological impact of the pandemic through its effect on perceived stress and infection stress anticipation (Puig-Perez et al., 2022). Optimism helps managers in treating problems as opportunities for professional growth, remaining calm during stressful situations, and becoming pro-active problem-solvers. Thus, optimism keeps them actively and meaningfully engaged in their work (Salminen, Mäkikangas, & Feldt, 2014). Some important guidelines for cultivating optimism include expressing gratitude more often, performing acts of kindness, learning from past mistakes, adopting a healthy lifestyle, projecting a positive, self-confident image (Green, Malik, & Maqbool, 2015), reading inspirational stories, and giving positive meaning to negative situations (Schiraldi, 2007).

**Sense Humour:** Humor involves seeing the funny side of life and being able to laugh and make others laugh easily (Seligman, 2003). Schiraldi (2007) believes that humor helps in enduring difficulties and hardships, as it is about “acceptance, optimism, and clarity.” Moreover, humor has a therapeutic effect, as when individuals are allowed to laugh, they are able to shed their inhibitions as well as feel safe and comfortable. As such, they get to be themselves. Making other people laugh and being able to laugh at oneself help in coping with challenging times. In effect, these are two precious gifts (Goldsmith, 2010).

Good humor is about enjoying all the absurd and hilarious things that one does to lighten up things. It provides level-headedness and composure in the face of one's blunders or bloopers (Schiraldi, 2007). Benefits of humor include bringing things back into perspective, relieving tension, neutralizing heated discussions, mending broken relationships (Infobase
Publishing, 2009), building positive relationships (Goldsmith, 2010). Some guidelines for developing a sense of humor include: (a) watching standup comedians, sitcoms, and comedies; (b) reading humorous books; (c) listening to funny podcasts; (d) learning simple jokes to recount; (e) spending time with funny people; and (f) knowing the difference between being witty and silly as well as being funny and mean (Theodore, 2020).

**Environmental Mastery:**

Environmental mastery is the ability to monitor, manage, and effectively model the activities and demands of everyday life as well as to live in harmony with one's goals, needs, and values (Ryff, 1989). Research has indicated that generalized self-efficacy (GSE) may influence environmental mastery (Green, 2020). This is likely because as a positive resistance resource factor (embodying such positive emotions as enthusiasm, hope, gratitude, confidence, patience pride, and satisfaction), GSE may instill internal resources (i.e., personal insight, self-reliance, effort investment, ingenuity, solution orientation, goal-orientation, and fortitude) in individuals (cf. Green, 2022a) to enable them to manage daily affairs and exercise control over the external environment.

Strategies for attaining environmental mastery include: (a) spending more time with specialists in one's field; (b) seeking out mentors; and (c) encouraging competition to improve things, get out of one's comfort zone, and develop brand new skills (Green, Munawwar, Noor, & Himayat, 2015). Furthermore, developing career adaptability resources may facilitate a smooth transition from university to work (Green, Noor, & Hashemi, 2020) and as such help in attaining mastery over the work environment. Also, personal growth initiative reflectingudemonic well-being may further environmental mastery based on enhancing personal insight, being future-oriented, addressing obstacles to personal growth, and developing a sense of autonomy regarding life and daily choices (Green & Yıldırım, 2022).

**Resilience:** Resilience refers to the resistance and toughness developed through past experiences, which assist individuals in managing hardships positively and recovering

from them without detrimental results (Skodol, 2010). Inner strength develops resilience, as it provides the strength of spirit to face life's trials and tribulations without destructive consequences. A positive mindset helps in building inner strength based on cultivating positive emotions (Green, Noor, & Ahmed, 2015). Research has indicated that positive emotions are related to higher levels of resilience (Karampas, Michael, & Stalikas, 2016).

For fostering resilience, educational interventions offering positive emotional experiences based on the emotionalized learning experiences format (Green, 2019, 2021; Green, Faizi, Jalal, Zadran, 2022; Green, Noor, & Ahmed, 2020) may be particularly worthwhile. Of note is that nurturing positive emotions among participants may enable them to identify, share, and adapt effective coping strategies to develop resilience for effectively dealing with life challenges (Green, Noor, Ahmed, & Himayat, 2022). In addition, different forms of social support have been shown to help individuals in handling adversities in life (Bloom, Stewart, Johnston, Banks, & Fobair, 2001). It is noteworthy that finding true friends and spending time with caring individuals to confide in and draw strength from help in coping with challenges (Green, Noor, & Ahmed, 2015). Research suggests that social support promotes resilience (Çiçek, 2021b), which in turn increases life satisfaction (Yıldırım & Çelik-Tanriverdi, 2020).

**Purpose in Life:** Purpose in life implies pursuing meaning goals, having a sense of meaning in life and directedness, and holding beliefs that give life meaning (Ryff, 1989). An important aspect of purpose in life, meaning in life has been shown to increase happiness, positive emotions, wellbeing, and coping strategies as well as reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression during the pandemic (Yıldırım, 2021; Yıldırım & Arslan, 2021; Yıldırım et al., 2021). Finding purpose entails (a) identifying the things one is passionate about, (b) imagining one's best future self (Suttie, 2020), (c) recognizing one's character strengths and observing them in others to further successful career adaptation (Green, 2021), (d) using one's dominant character strengths to develop one's
lesser strengths for attaining well-being (Green, 2022b), and (e) using character strengths to learn new skills or do things that could change other people's lives (Suttie, 2020). Enhancing personal insight may therefore be pertinent for finding purpose in life. Prerequisites to true personal insight include being open-minded, setting out time for self-reflection, accepting one's shortcomings, being committed to life-long learning, and being willing to accept change (Green, Malik, & Ahmed, 2015).

**Theoretical Review**
**Social Challenges**

**Labeling Theory:** This theory was propounded by Becker (1963). The theory is a major symbolic interactionist theory of social problems, which suggests that asocial condition or group is viewed as problematic if it is labeled as such. According to labeling theory, resolving social problems sometimes involves changing the meanings and definitions that are attributed to people and situations. For example, as long as teenagers define drinking alcohol as cool and fun, they will continue to abuse alcohol.

Labelling theory and its theorists focus on the groups and/or individuals who were deemed to be criminal and labelled thus by society. Labelling theorists studied the various interactions between the ‘criminal’ groups and individuals and the conformist society. Labeling theory was quite popular in the 1960s and early 1970s, but then fell into decline partly as a result of the mixed results of empirical research. This essay will go on to show the origins of labelling theory, the theory itself and will show its strengths and weaknesses using various case-studies and examples.

Tannenbaum (1938) is widely regarded as the first labelling theorist. His main concept was the ‘dramatization of evil’. He stated that if a person is described as being a criminal then he automatically becomes one. Lamert (1951) founded the “societal Reaction” theory. This theory is widely credited to be the forerunner of the present-day labelling theory. His theory basically states that a person experiences social deviance in two phases. The first phase is known as the Primary deviance phase. The second is known as the Secondary deviance phase.

According to Lemert, the primary deviance phase begins with a criminal act. He or she is then labelled criminal but has yet to accept the label. The main point of view is whether he or she has accepted the criminal label. If the person views themselves as a criminal then the secondary deviant phase has begun.

The object of whether a person views himself or herself as a criminal is what differentiates between the primary and secondary deviant phases. Lemert states that there are exceptions and people continue to stay in the primary phase, an example would be someone who rationalizes that the so called ‘criminal’ act is legal as it is necessary for them to survive and earn money (an exotic dancer would be an example). The secondary deviance phase usually begins when a person has accepted the ‘criminal’ label. They then accept themselves as being criminal as use it to counter (either by moving with similar peer groups or by other means) society’s reaction to the initial act.

Becker (1963) is held to be the architect of the modern labelling theory. He is also responsible for coining the term ‘moral entrepreneur’ which is a term used to describe law making officials who get certain ‘criminal behaviour’ illegal. Becker proposed that criminal behaviour is dynamic in nature and changes throughout time. He therefore suggested that the actual act is impertinent to the theory. What matters was the type of people going through the criminal justice system. Therefore, Becker says that personal motives and the influence by society has nothing to do with criminal behaviour. This is the most debated part of the labelling theory brought about by him.

Becker pays particular attention to how people and society react and operate with others who have the ‘criminal’ label. He mentions that once a person has the label of ‘criminal’ associated with him or her; it becomes stuck with them and acts as a constant label. This effect is so profound that Becker states that individuals with this label begin to be associated with the word criminal. All their other associations and labels such as that of parent, employee, and so on take a back seat. It becomes so extreme that it becomes their one and only status.
Foster et al, 1972 say that in certain unique cases, the label of ‘criminal’ may force an individual to integrate back into society and try and try and show them that the criminal act he or she committed was a mistake and will not happen again (cited in Labelling theory). Although in most cases secondary deviance will be accomplished in which the person accepts the label of criminal and begins to associate with similarly branded people, losing contact with friends who conform to societies rules (Becker, 1963 cited in Labelling Theory). It has occurred only when both the society and individual consider him or her to be a criminal or a deviant.

Labelling theory however has many inherent drawbacks. Firstly, according to Wellford (1975), the theory states that no acts are inherently criminal, and states that acts are only criminal when society considers them to be so. There are clearly some acts considered wrong in almost all the societies and nations in the world, murder, arson are a few such examples (cited in labelling theory). Secondly is the process of self-labelling. Hagen (1973) brings about the concept of self-labelling, in which he states the example of a murderer who has avoided all suspicion (the act is not criminal if no one is around to witness it or label him). He goes on to say that the murderer may have a conscience which will cause him to label himself or herself as a murderer. This goes against the labelling theory, which states that labelling must come from a third party.

Thirdly, labelling theory is supposed to cover all criminal activity and has an effect on everyone irrespective of their race, social class, sex and age (Becker, 1963). Other criminologists have been doubtful of this part of the theory and hold that a person's race, social class and so on do have an effect. They mention that the above-mentioned factors can either enhance or mitigate the effects of labelling theory. There is however no scientific study on the effects of the above factors. Marshall and Purdy (1972) stated that the studies conducted reflected actual behavioural differences that were reacted to differently by different people. Fourthly, it matters on who the audience is comprised of, as the level of denouncement an individual feels depends on the audience's reaction to the act.

As the labelling theory states, the first is the audience learning about the act that is considered criminal and not the act itself. As it has already been explained, if the audience doesn't know about it then it is not a crime. Different audiences may have different reactions to a crime and thus the punishment and the labelling will vary even though the same crime is being committed. The last drawback of the labelling theory is that the personality of the individual matters. This can cause problems. The level of stigmatization an individual gets varies on whether or not he cares about his label.

Studies have come across certain individuals that have personality traits which makes them resistant to the labels conferred on them by society. The biggest drawback one may say that affects labelling theory is that it has not yet been 'empirically validated'. Some studies found that being officially labeled a criminal (e.g. arrested or convicted) increased subsequent crime, while other studies did not. Although there are many studies that validate it, there are none that can offer significant data in its support. Labelling also involves both a wrong or 'deviant' act and a 'deviant' person (LawTeacher, 2023).

There are however several things that are wrong with the drawbacks. The first one mentions that murder, arson and so on are all criminal in most of the nations and societies. That is not a drawback but merely a statement of facts. It merely states what society currently thinks. In the future the mindset of society may change and acts that were previously considered to be criminal may be legalized. History has shown that society has and will change to accept criminal behaviour or to make legal behaviour illegal. An example would be that of homosexuality. In the early times, it was illegal. Now it is legal. The smoking of marijuana is another example, although it is illegal in most of the societies and nations it is now slowly being tolerated in some and even being legalized in others.

One of the other drawbacks also mentions the aspect of self-labelling. But as mentioned before, the individual or group may seek to rationalize their behaviour, thus avoiding the prospect of self labelling. An example would be a person stealing to satisfy his hunger. He would not label himself as a criminal as it was a
necessary for him to do so. Thus, most of the drawbacks can be explained (LawTeacher, 2023).

Lemert (1967) brought out the connection between social reaction and deviance through his studies and research of a number of Indian tribes in British Columbia. He noticed that in some tribes, stuttering occurred among their members and their language mentioned stuttering. Other tribes however had no mention of stuttering in their language and had no members of their tribes stuttering. Lemert could not establish a clear reason as to why that was so. He then went on to find that tribe that had stuttering, placed a very high meaning and emphasis on storytelling and oratory skills.

Children of those tribes that placed a very high emphasis on storytelling were often brought up in a culture that placed a high value on not stuttering and having good oratory skills. Those that were not able to conform to the rest of the tribe i.e. had bad storytelling and oratory skills were mocked. Lemert concluded that the pressure placed on the members of the tribe to have good skills and the subsequent mockery and social exclusion if they didn't possess the oratory skills led to the development of stuttering. He said that in tribes where good oratory skills were not expected, there was no negative reaction and hence there was no deviance of the above type. He thus said that such type of labelling leads to more deviant behaviour (LawTeacher, 2023).

Scheff (1966) published Being Mentally Ill, was the first instance of labelling theory being applied to the term of 'Mentally Ill'. Scheff said that mental ill was the product of societal influence, going against the common perceptions of the time. When society finds some act 'criminal' or deviant, they usually place the term of 'Mental Illness' on those who show that behaviour so that society can understand the reason for the behaviour and come to terms with it. According to him, society then places certain behavioural expectations on the individual and the individual subconsciously changes his behaviour to suit the expectations of society. He said that there are no different types of the mentally ill with just one type who conform to what society has labelled them to be.

Walter Grove on the other hand was vehemently opposed to the theory proposed by

Thomas Scheff. Grove argued the opposite point. He said that labelling theory and the mentally ill have no influence on one another. He said that people are said to be mentally ill, when they display behaviour that makes them to be so. Grove said that society has no influence whatsoever on mental illness. He said that due to their illness, they behave differently most of the time and are hence treated as such. There have been studies to show how after being diagnosed with a mental illness labelling has taken an effect, such as not being offered houses and jobs, but there is very little to show that labelling was the cause of mental illness in the first place. Thus, we can say that labelling does have a profound effect but has yet to be shown that it was labelling that caused the illness in the first place (LawTeacher, 2023).

Gouldner (1968) argued that labelling theorists made the individual look innocent by the application of labels by control agents such as the police and society. He pointed out that deviance was created entirely on the 'whims of authority'. An example to this would be the issue of homosexuality. Early in the century, authorities labelled it criminal and illegal. Those that were caught were persecuted as such. But now, homosexuality is an accepted fact in society and there are little or fewer stigmas and or labelling attached to it (LawTeacher, 2023).

Thus, as shown in the above essay, labelling theory has many strengths and weaknesses. Those are, no acts are inherently criminal, there can be a process of self-labelling, it covers or is supposed to cover all criminal activity, depends on the members of the society or those that do the labelling and finally it depends on the personality of the individual. However, there are already inherent drawbacks with the drawbacks given by various individual sociologists. Those are that society changes, and so does labelling. Individuals can rationalize their 'deviant' behaviour. In spite of these, the major drawback of the labelling theory is the lack of empirical data to support it. We can thus conclude that labelling theory does have an effect, but is not the primary cause for most of the acts committed (LawTeacher, 2023).
**Personal Functioning**

**Organismic Valuing Process Theory:**

This theory was championed by Carl Rogers. The organismic valuing process is one of the most central concepts within organismic theories from the humanistic psychology tradition. It refers to people's innate ability to know what is important to them, their own best directions in life that will lead them toward greater well-being and a more fulfilling existence. In Carl Rogers's theory of personality, the organismic valuing process refers to evaluating subjective experiences in order to determine the possible impact they will have on self-improvement. According to Rogers, the underlying motive that drives behavior is the need for **self-actualization**. In other words, we are always striving to become the best possible versions of ourselves that we can be.

The **actualizing tendency** motivates us toward self-actualization, but it is the organismic valuing process that helps guide this actualizing tendency. When you evaluate different experiences, the organismic valuing process influences whether you view them positively or negatively. Those that have the potential to enhance the self are viewed in a positive way. Those that post a threat or are inconsistent with how a person views themselves will be judged negatively (Cherry, 2023).

As we approach an experience or event, we consider both the short-term and long-term potential it has to aid us in our quest toward reaching our full potential. Rogers believed that, when presented with two different alternatives, people who are emotionally healthy and self-aware will always choose the option that best promotes the actualizing tendency. If you are at a party and decide to stop drinking, friends might pressure you to keep drinking in order to “have fun.” While this pressure might lead to short-social acceptance, the evaluation of the organismic valuing principle might cause you to place more weight on the long-term risks associated with getting drunk such as being arrested for drunk driving on your way home from the party. Rogers fundamentally believed that people are capable of assessing both their inner situation and external influences and

making choices that are the most beneficial to the self (Cherry, 2023).

**Empirical Review**

Aggression is a major social challenge among Nigerian youths. A study was conducted by Aroyewun, Adeyemo and Nnabuko (2023) on aggressive behavior by examining its psychological and demographic factors among university students in Nigeria. aggressive behaviour is a common occurrence among adolescents. However, there has been less work done among young adults in Nigerian universities concerning this phenomenon. Therefore, we aimed to examine the psychological and demographic factors of aggressive behaviour among undergraduate students. A total of 350 undergraduate students {Male = 110 (31.4%): Female = 240 (68.6%)} conveniently sampled from various departments in the University of Lagos were involved in the study. A correlational research design was adopted for the study.

The Parenting Style Questionnaire (PSQ), Adverse Childhood Experience International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ), and Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) were used to gather data for the study. The multiple correlation analysis identified authoritarian parenting style (r(350) = .258; p < .01) and adverse childhood experience (r(350) = .285; p < .01) positively related to aggressive behaviour. Additionally, the multiple regression analysis revealed that adverse childhood experience (B = .344, β = .233, p < .05) and authoritarian parenting style (B = .803, β = .173, p < .05) are independent predictors of aggressive behaviour. We concluded that while demographic variables, authoritative and permissive parenting did not collectively predict aggressive behaviour among university students, adverse childhood experiences and authoritarian parenting style independently predicted aggressive behaviour among university students.

Social challenge confronting Nigerian youths also includes insecurity. A study was conducted by Ogunode, Ukozor and Ayoko (2023) using content analysis design to assess the impact of insecurity challenges on higher education in Nigeria. The researchers observed that the security budgets keep on increasing to the detriments of other social and
economic institutions. Yet, insecurity keeps on
increasing beyond control. From 2016, it had had
increased from N1 trillion to N2.4 trillion in 2022
budget. In 2022, N2.41 trillion was allocated to
security and defense, this is more than the entire
allocation to education and health. The entire
budget for education in 2022 budget was N1.290
trillion.

Even health could only get 5% of the
entire budget. The entire federal allocation to
health is N811.2 billion, including funding for
vaccines and basic healthcare trust funds.
Statistically, the 7% allocation to education and
5% allocation to health, put together, are less than
the 15% allocated to security. The entire sum of
security in the 2016 budget was N1.04 trillion,
and in 2022 was N2.4 trillion. In 2017, N1.053
trillion was appropriated for defence-related
expenditure. The Ministry of Defence was
allocated N330.54 billion and N139.29 billion for
capital and recurrent expenditure. In 2018, over
N1.305 trillion was allocated to the defence-
related sector (Ogunode, Ukozor & Ayoko,
2023).

Insecurity in Nigeria has gulped a huge
sum of money. Former President Buhari
authorized the withdrawal of $1 billion from the
excess crude oil account, out of which, $496
million was used to order the 12 Tucano fighter
jets. By 2019, the allocation to security jumped to
N1.76 trillion. The breakdown is as follows:
Interior; N617.9 billion, defence; N589.9 billion,
police; N366 billion, operation Lafiya Dole N75
billion, and Office of the National Security
Adviser, N120 billion. The allocation to the
security sector increased a little bit to N1.78
trillion in 2020, while the allocation to security-
related agencies was N1.97 trillion in 2021. Also,
the implementation of the Police Trust Fund
commenced in 2021, in March, N11 billion was
approved for the fund and another N74 billion
was approved in June.

In the 2021 supplementary budget, a total
of N802 billion was allocated to security agencies
to shore up their revenue. The insecurity
challenge in Nigeria is competing with resources
in many sectors of the economy, especially the
educational An investment that was supposed to
have gone into the educational sector has been
taken by the security institutions for the fight

against insecurity in the country. The result also
revealed that insecurity challenges have led to a
reduction in the investment in higher education,
led to the death of students, academic and non-
academic staff and the destruction of
infrastructural facilities in Nigeria (Ogunode,
Ukozor & Ayoko, 2023).

Social challenge facing Nigerian youths
also include frustration. In their study to
investigate the role of self-efficacy, life
frustration, quality of life and meaning in life on
suicidal ideation among adolescents, Fagbenro,
Azeez, Olagundoye and Foluke, (2019) observed
that studies have investigated various antecedents
of suicidal ideation in developed world, little is
still known about suicidal ideation among
adolescents in a developing country like Nigeria.
Correlational design was utilized, three hundred
and eighty-five (385) respondents were selected
using simple random sampling technique (Mean=
17.14 yrs, SD = 1.35). Results of the study
revealed significant negative relationship
between self-efficacy and suicidal ideation,
positive relationship between life frustration and
suicidal ideation, negative relationship between
quality of health and suicidal ideation, negative
association between meaning in life and suicidal
ideation.

Finally, there was significant joint
prediction of self-efficacy, life frustration, quality
of health and meaning in life on suicidal ideation.
Based on the findings of the study, it is, therefore,
recommended that psychologists should develop
psychological intervention tailored toward
improving and enhancing self-efficacy, life
frustration, quality of health, and meaning in life
which invariably will help eradicate suicidal
ideation among adolescents (Fagbenro, Azeez,
Olagundoye & Foluke, 2019).

Nigerian youths also face the social
challenge of cultism. A study was conducted by
Offor, Onunkwo and Offor (2023) on female
cultism. The study investigated perceived causes
and consequences of female cultism among
undergraduates of public Universities in
Anambra State. Two research questions guided
the study. Descriptive survey research design was
adopted for the study. The population of the study
was 23,621 comprising 12639 males and 10982
females. The sample comprised of 600
undergraduate students.

The sample was composed using the multistage sampling method. Data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation. The findings of this study revealed some key causes of female cultism among undergraduate public universities in Anambra State such as fighting for perceived injustice in the institution, to acquire power to oppress their enemies and also protect themselves and their friends from being intimidated among others. The findings of the study revealed also that female students who belong to cult group cheat in examinations openly, threaten lecturers, leads to students ending up as school dropouts, increases prostitution and lesbianism, brings about teenage pregnancy, stealing, alcohol intake and untimely death among others.

It was concluded that the problem of female cultism in universities in Anambra State persist due to social and economic reasons which breeds crimes and also hamper academic achievement of female universities in Anambra State. The female cultists are potential mothers. Therefore, the activities of cultists and role of mothers are not the same. Females are encouraged to desist from joining cultism in order to save their lives and that of the members of the society. It was recommended among others that government should establish tribunal to try cultist and if found guilty should be sentenced accordingly. This will be the detriment to those who have joined or to those who have the intention of joining the secret cults (Offor, Onunkwo & Offor, 2023).

Apart from secret cultism, another social
challenge is drug/substance use and abuse.
Marwa (2023) who spoke in Lagos, at the 10th
Anniversary Lecture and Investiture into the
Realnews Hall of Fame, themed: "Drug Abuse
among Youths in Africa: Implication for Nigerian
Economy and 2023 election," said with the
upsurge of drug usage among youths, they might
not be actively involved in the voting process. He
said: "Nigerians are not ignorant about drug
trafficking and drug abuse issues.

The activities of the National Drug Law
Enforcement Agency, NDLEA, in the past 22
months have given our society a clear picture,

certainty and the severity of the drug problem in
the country. "The arrest of 19, 341 drug offenders
and subsequent conviction of 3, 111 in addition
to the seizure of 5.5 million kilograms of assorted
drugs in 22 months are incontrovertible facts of a
deeply entrenched illicit drug subculture.
Previously, many Nigerians found it hard to
believe that illicit drugs such as cocaine and
heroin are trafficked in and out of the country.
But NDLEA has made huge seizures and there is
no basis for skepticism anymore (Marwa, 2023).

"If anything, NDLEA activities since
January 2021 have further reinforced the facts of
Nigeria being an important hub in the global
illicit drug network, and secondly, that our
country is not only a transit pipeline but also a
market. "Similarly, Nigerians cannot pretend
now not to know that our young people are
abusing illicit drugs because youths have an overt
drug lifestyle. Youths of today promote the drug
subculture. It is common nowadays to hear them
say they want to be high.

It is there on the street, in songs, in the
chat rooms, in clubs and parties.” He said ‘it is
disturbing that abusing marijuana and alcohol is
the new normal for youths, especially the Gen Z
and even the Millenials,” noting that “drugs and
violence go hand in hand. We can recall the social
upheaval caused in South-East states in the last
quarter of 2021, when there was an outbreak of
abuse of methamphetamine. That episode gave us
a foresight of the kind of instability that could
result from abuse of illicit drugs by young people.
“But we can take a cue from America which has
better statistics. In 2007, the economic cost of
drug abuse in the United States was estimated at
$193 billion. Out of this, lost productivity
(Marwa, 2023).

Concerning the social challenge of drug
use among the Nigerian youths, Umejiaku,
Enemchukwu and Okeke (2023) observed that
drug abuse is a global concern that cuts across
many jurisdictions such as Africa, United States
of America and United Kingdom. Socially, more
than 20 million youths and children have dropped
out of school in Nigeria as a result of drug abuse.

The impact of drug on Igbo youths and
children cannot be over emphasized because of
its negative impact in every sphere of the society.
The aim of this study is to analyze the factors that
exacerbate drug abuse in Nigeria and examine the impact of drug abuse on Igbo youths and advocate for the protection of their rights and development of nations. The authors adopted qualitative and quantitative method of research to arrive at their findings while the approach is both comparative and analytical. The work x-rayed various legal and institutional frameworks for regulation of drug use in Nigeria. The study showed that despite plethora of legal and institutional frameworks, that drug abuse still persists.

Further, the work revealed that there is a serious nexus between drug abuse and crime, hence abatement of drug abuse will reduce crimes such as terrorism, kidnapping et cetera. Furthermore, the work discovered that drug abuse has serious health, social, economic and cultural implications. Drug abuse destroys the economy of nations because it truncates the potentials of youths who ought to be the drivers of the economy. It is observed that many youths who take drugs equally engage in all manner of crimes. Apart from that, it is notable that the Igbo tradition discriminates against drug victims thereby restricting them from accessing medication. Accordingly, the work recommends review and implementation of extant laws such as, Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, National Drug law Enforcement Agency Act, National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control Act et cetera. In fact, effective collective collaboration is germane to creating awareness on the negative impacts of drug abuse.

Social challenge of mental health is impacting seriously among Nigerian youths. With the United Nations predicting that Nigeria's population is estimated to rise to 223.8 million by mid-2023 from 216 million in 2022 and the recent rise to 41% in the country's unemployment rate according to KPMG, the urgency of addressing these issues and providing effective resources for mental health support cannot be overemphasized. According to Obindo (2023), President of APN, more than 60 million Nigerians are suffering from mental illnesses, creating a significant treatment gap for mental health in the country. Obindo pointed out several factors hindering the management of mental illness in Nigeria,

including myths and traditional beliefs, inadequate mental health facilities, and a shortage of mental health professionals.

"Mental healthcare is in a sorry state given that we have more than 60 million Nigerians suffering from various mental illnesses, and only about 10 per cent of them could access appropriate care," Obindo said. "We are left with more than 90 percent who are unable to access care, and this group is called the treatment gap for mental illnesses." One of the key challenges contributing to the treatment gap is the lack of access to appropriate care. Additionally, Nigeria faces a shortage of mental health practitioners, with the number falling below the ratio recommended by the World Health Organization. The few mental health professionals who are trained often leave the country due to various factors, including the working environment, security concerns, and inadequate remuneration. Developed countries also tend to poach already trained medical practitioners, further exacerbating the shortage of mental health professionals, particularly psychiatrists (Obindo, 2023).

## Personal Functioning

Verplanken and Sui (2019) on habit and identity. They identified two studies that investigated associations between habits and identity, in particular what people consider as their “true self.” Habit-identity associations were assessed by within-participant correlations between self-reported habit and associated true self ratings of 80 behaviors. The behaviors were instantiations of 10 basic values.

In Study 1, significant correlations were observed between individual differences in the strength of habit-identity associations, measures of cognitive self-integration (prioritizing self-relevant information), self-esteem, and an orientation toward an ideal self. Study 2 further tested the assumption that habits are associated with identity if these relate to important goals or values. An experimental manipulation of value affirmation demonstrated that, compared to a control condition, habit-identity associations were stronger if participants explicitly generated the habit and true self ratings while indicating which values the behaviors would serve. Taken together, the results suggest that habits may serve
to define who we are, in particular when these are considered in the context of self-related goals or central values. When habits relate to feelings of identity this comes with stronger cognitive self-integration, higher self-esteem, and a striving toward an ideal self. Linking habits to identity may sustain newly formed behaviors and may thus lead to more effective behavior change interventions.

Hwang and Kim (2023) on the relationship between optimism, emotional intelligence, and academic resilience of nursing students, as well as the mediating effect of self-directed learning competency. The evolution toward future education following the 4th industrial revolution and the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have changed nursing education dramatically. Online classes have become a new paradigm of education, and are expected to develop and be maintained in various forms even after the end of COVID-19. Therefore, attention is focused on finding ways to improve learners' achievements in a distance learning environment. This study aimed to examine the mediating effects of self-directed learning competency on the relationships between optimism, emotional intelligence and academic resilience among nursing students.

A cross-sectional descriptive design was conducted using convenience sampling of 195 nursing students in South Korea. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation coefficients, multiple regression, and mediation analysis using SPSS/WIN 26.0 program. There were significant positive correlations among self-directed learning competency, optimism, emotional intelligence and academic resilience. The self-directed learning competency acts as a mediator in explaining relationship between optimism, emotional intelligence and academic resilience, respectively. This study provides the evidence for the role of self-directed learning competency in the relationship between optimism, emotional intelligence and academic resilience in nursing students. Rapid changes in education are inevitable due to changes in clinical settings and the impact of repeated infectious disease outbreaks including the COVID-19 pandemic. This study suggests strengthening positive

psychology and self-directed learning capability of nursing students as a strategy to prepare for changes in education and clinical areas (Hwang & Kim, 2023).

Hye-Ja and Sunki (2023) conducted a study on the relationship between super-leadership and self-directed learning ability in online nursing education: The mediating effects of self-leadership and self-efficacy perceptions. Self-directed learning ability is a core competence that enables students to enhance their academic achievement, clinical competence, and professional growth in nursing education. Super-leadership—as a strategy to develop the learning process—promotes students’ self-leadership, which, in turn, enhances perceived self-efficacy perception and ultimately facilitates self-directed learning ability. Few studies have rigorously determined the influences of super-leadership, self-leadership, and academic self-efficacy perceptions on self-directed learning ability in online nursing education during the COVID-19 pandemic.

To determine the mediating effects of self-leadership and self-efficacy perceptions in the relationship between perceived super-leadership and self-directed learning ability. This study was conducted using a quantitative mediation analysis design. One hundred and fifty nursing students were conveniently recruited from two nursing colleges offering the same four-year nursing degree program. Participants completed a super-leadership scale, a self-leadership scale, an academic self-efficacy scale, and a self-directed learning ability inventory. Data were analyzed with Pearson's correlations, regression analysis, Sobel's test, and Hayes's Process Macro using the bootstrap method (Hye-Ja & Sunki, 2023).

Self-directed learning ability was correlated with perceived super-leadership ($r = .47, p < .001$), self-leadership ($r = 0.69, p < .001$), and academic self-efficacy ($r = 0.29, p < .001$). Super-leadership influenced self-leadership ($\beta = 0.42, p < .001$), academic self-efficacy ($\beta = 0.22, p = .002$), and self-directed learning ability ($\beta = 0.36, p < .001$). Self-leadership and academic self-efficacy mediated the relationship between super-leadership and self-directed
learning ability
(β = .42, p < .001; β = 0.35, p < .001)
(z = 1.936, p = .026 by Sobel test).

Learning strategies to enhance self-directed learning ability are required for successful super-leadership to boost self-leadership and academic self-efficacy perceptions among nursing students in the online, asynchronous COVID-19 educational environment. Therefore, this study's empirical evidence on integrating super-leadership with self-leadership and academic self-efficacy has practical and future research implications in terms of attaining core academic goals for nursing students (Hye-Ja & Sunki, 2023).

Hurissa, Koricha and Dadi (2023) carried out a study to examine the effect of empathy training on the empathy level of healthcare providers in Ethiopia. Empathy has deteriorated throughout clinical training and medical practice, and little is known about the effect of empathy training on the empathy level of healthcare providers. To address this gap, the researchers assessed the effect of empathy training on the empathy level of healthcare providers in Ethiopia. A cluster randomized controlled trial study design was conducted from 20 December 2021 to 20 March 2022. The empathy training intervention study was conducted for three consecutive days.

The study was conducted in five fistula treatment centers in Ethiopia. The participants were all randomly selected healthcare providers. Main outcome measures: Total mean score, percentage changes, and Cohen's effect size were computed. A linear mixed effects model and independent t-test were used for data analysis. A majority of the study participants were nurses in the profession, married, and first-degree holders. There was no statistically significant difference in the baseline empathy score of the intervention arm across their socio-demographic features. At the baseline, the mean empathy scores of the control and intervention arms were 102.10 ± 15.38 and 101.13 ± 17.67, respectively. The effect of empathy training on the total mean score changes of empathy of the intervention arm compared to the control arm at each follow-up time had a statistically significant difference.

After a week, a month, and three months of post-intervention, the total mean empathy scores between the intervention and control arms were as follows: (intervention 112.65 ± 18.99, control 102.85 ± 15.65, d = 0.55, p = 0.03); (intervention 109.01 ± 17.79, control 100.52 ± 12.57, d = 0.53, p = 0.034); and (intervention 106.28 ± 16.24, control 96.58 ± 14.69, d = 0.60, p = 0.016) with the overall percentage changes of 11, 8, and 5% from the baseline scores, respectively. In this trial, the empathy training intervention was found to have more than a medium effect size. However, over the follow-up intervals, there was a decreasing trend in the total mean empathy scores of healthcare providers; suggesting that there should be continued empathy training and integration of it into educational and training curriculums to enhance and sustain the empathy of healthcare providers (Hurissa, Koricha & Dadi, 2023).

A study was conducted by Hassan, Bhatti, Habib, Fatima, Bhader, Khan and Jiang (2023) to examine how fear of intimacy affects infertile men's neuropsychological functioning through mental toughness. There is a significant need in Pakistan to investigate the psychological effects of infertility on the mental health of infertile men. The current study examined how fear of intimacy affects neuropsychological impairment and evaluated its relationship to other variables including quality of life and mental toughness. An analytical cross-sectional study was carried out on infertile male patients in various healthcare settings in Punjab, Pakistan. The participants were recruited using a non-probability (purposive) sampling strategy. The sample size was 120 infertile.

SPSS 26 was used to analyze the data. Fear of intimacy was found significant impact on neuropsychological impairment (r = 0.40; ***p < 0.001), as well as fear of intimacy, significantly associated with emotional problems (r = 0.48; **p < 0.01), learning problems (r = 0.33; **p < 0.01), sensory and motor problem (r = 0.55; **p < 0.01), concentration problem (r = 0.21; **p < 0.01), mental & physical in coordination (r = 0.37; **p < 0.01) and depression (r = 0.22; **p < 0.01). Fear of intimacy has negative impact on QoL (r = -0.25; *p > 0.05). Similarly, neuropsychological
impairment was found to be negatively associated with QoL (r = -0.52; **p > 0.01). The relationship between fear of intimacy and neuropsychological impairment was found to be significantly mediated by QoL.

Furthermore, the findings revealed that mental toughness significantly moderated the relationship between fear of intimacy and neuropsychological impairment. Overall, infertile men in Pakistan had relatively high levels of fear of intimacy, which largely caused neuropsychological impairment. This study can help neuropsychological researchers, mental health professionals, as well as policymakers in improving clinical mental health practices for infertile patients (Hassan, Bhatti, Habib, Fatima, Bhader, Khan & Jiang, 2023).

Relationship between personal functioning, culture and intimacy exist not only in Nigeria but also in Western societies. Finding love in America may be tougher than ever. One in five adults say they have never been in a relationship that's lasted longer than three years, according to new research. A survey of 5,000 Americans in relationships split evenly by state finds that if you're searching for someone who will be in it for the long haul, the best place to look may be New Hampshire since they have the highest number of people whose relationship has lasted at least 15 years (Naughton, 2023). More than a third of all of those surveyed said people start dating at an earlier age now than when they did (38%), with survey-takers from Massachusetts (50%), New York (50%) and Wyoming (50%) especially noticing this trend where they live.

Respondents in Utah (35%) are most likely to identify as “hopeless romantics,” followed by those from Oklahoma (34%), West Virginia (32%), Pennsylvania (32%) and Missouri (32%). And if your partner is from Georgia (36%) or California (28%), they are some of the most likely to be the jealous type. If you’re looking for a faithful partner, the odds are not good. Over one in five of those polled admit they’ve cheated on their partner (21%), with those from Wisconsin being the most likely to have (52%) (Naughton, 2023).

The survey also found that the average person has seriously dated four people in their

lifetime. Respondents from Illinois were found to have the most serious relationships throughout their life. On average, Americans go on two dates a week with their partner, sharing their favorite activities like going out to dinner (46%), a night in together (28%) and going to the movies (22%). Still, being intimate is important to Americans since the average person surveyed has sex three times a week. Nearly a quarter say they make love most nights (24%), particularly in California (46%) and Oklahoma (44%). However, just 36 percent would rate their sex life as “excellent,” with those from Louisiana (58%), South Carolina (54%) and Delaware (50%) sharing that they have the best sex lives.

Twenty-nine percent got intimate with their current partner within a month of being with them, with respondents from Utah being most likely to have waited at least a year (31%). A majority of respondents said it's important for couples to openly discuss and explore their desires and preferences (74%), although just one in seven would tell their partner about their kinks or fetishes within the first month (Naughton, 2023).

Pulling back the curtain on some of these risqué preferences, people tend to enjoy dirty talk (20%) and being dominant/submissive (11%) with their partner the most. And many are not ashamed to shake things up, as most respondents think adult toys are becoming more mainstream and accepted in relationships (63%). When thinking about how to enhance their bedroom lives, people are interested in including vibrating underwear (16%), vibrating toys (15%) and swings (14%) into the mix (Naughton, 2023).

## Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested in the study.

1. Nigerian social challenges (problems) will not significantly correlate with youths personal functioning.

2. Facets of Nigerian social challenges (problems) will not significantly correlate with various perspectives of personal functioning.
## METHOD

**Participants:** The participants for the study were 174 with the attributes as in the table 1 below.

<table><caption>Table 1: Participants' Clusters</caption><thead><tr><th>Participants' (Variable) Dimensions</th><th>Participants' Clusters</th><th>N</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="13">DEPARTMENT</td><td>Psychology</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td>Mass Communication</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>Economics</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>English</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>Political Science</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Accounting</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>Nursing</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Law</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Criminology</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>History</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>International Relations</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Philosophy</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Banking & Finance</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Sociology</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Pharmacy</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Theatre Arts</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Crop Science</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Food Science</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Security Studies</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">FACULTY</td><td>Social Science</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>Arts</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td>Management Science</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>Health Science</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Law</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Education</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">STUDY YEAR</td><td>Agriculture</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Year 1</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>Year 2</td><td>56</td></tr><tr><td>Year 3</td><td>48</td></tr><tr><td>Year 4</td><td>40</td></tr><tr><td>Year 5</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">GENDER</td><td>Male</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>124</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">EDUCATION LEVEL</td><td>BSc</td><td>56</td></tr><tr><td>OND</td><td>80</td></tr><tr><td>WASSC</td><td>38</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">STATE OF ORIGIN</td><td>Anambra</td><td>148</td></tr><tr><td>Imo</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Ebonyi</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Enugu</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Rivers</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Bayelsa</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Nigeria</td><td>172</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">NATIONALITY</td><td>Ghana</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Christianity</td><td>172</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">CHRISTIAN DENOMINATION</td><td>Traditional</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>None</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Catholic</td><td>92</td></tr><tr><td>Anglican</td><td>64</td></tr><tr><td>Pentecostal</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">ISLAMIC DENOMINATION</td><td>Sabbath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>None</td><td>174</td></tr></tbody></table>

**SOURCE:** Primary data from the research questionnaire

The participants were 172 Nigerian and 2 Ghanian youths sampled from the Chukwuemeka

Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam
Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria, using cluster
and incidental sampling techniques across various levels (years) of study, Departments and Faculties. The mean age of the participants was 20.57 years, while the SD was 1.98.

**Instruments:** The instruments for the study were **Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) Scale** (Nwankwo, 2023), and **Personal Functioning Scale** (Morey, 2018). The Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) Scale was measured on 5-point rating scale of To a Large Extent (5), To Some Extent (4), Sometimes (3), Rarely (2), and Not at All (1). It, Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) Scale had convergent validity of 0.71 with Life Distress Scale (Nwankwo & Moneme, 2000), and split-half reliability of 0.87. Personal Functioning Scale was measured on 5-point rating scale of To a Large Extent (5), To Some Extent (4), Sometimes (3), Rarely (2), and Not at All (1). It (Personal Functioning Scale) had convergent validity of 0.88 with the Personal Self-Concept Scale (Goñi, 2011) as well as split-half reliability of 0.90.

**Procedure:** The study was conducted among university youths of Chukwuemeka

Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria. The samples for the study were collected across various levels of study, Departments, and Faculties of the University. The participants were reached based on their availability and willingness to participate in the study. Research assistants were incorporated. Ethical considerations of confidentiality and informed consent were observed.

**Design/Statistics:** The study had cross-sectional design. A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which data are collected from different individuals at a single point in time and data collected without influencing participants (Thomas, 2023). As a type of observational study design, the investigator measures the exposures and the outcome in the study (participants) at the same time (Setia, 2016). The statistics for the study was Pearson Correlation used to investigate the nature of the relationship existing between the independent variables (IVs) and the dependent variables (DVs). analyses were done with SPSS version 25.

## RESULTS

<table><caption>Table 2: Descriptive Statistics</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>N</th><th>Minimum</th><th>Maximum</th><th>Mean</th><th>Std. Deviation</th><th>Skewness</th><th>Std. Error</th><th>Kurtosis</th><th>Std. Error</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>AGE</td><td>174</td><td>18</td><td>30</td><td>20.57</td><td>1.98</td><td>1.50</td><td>.18</td><td>4.59</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td><strong>NIGERIAN SOCIAL CHALLENGES (PROBLEMS)</strong></td><td>174</td><td>239</td><td>477</td><td>417.20</td><td>49.46</td><td>-1.63</td><td>.18</td><td>2.64</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Aggression</td><td>174</td><td>17</td><td>45</td><td>34.71</td><td>6.01</td><td>-1.12</td><td>.18</td><td>1.26</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Insecurity</td><td>174</td><td>21</td><td>50</td><td>35.48</td><td>4.95</td><td>-.62</td><td>.18</td><td>2.03</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Frustration</td><td>174</td><td>12</td><td>50</td><td>27.41</td><td>5.33</td><td>1.19</td><td>.18</td><td>6.42</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Secret Cultism</td><td>174</td><td>2</td><td>35</td><td>25.48</td><td>5.51</td><td>-1.62</td><td>.18</td><td>2.93</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Drug Use Behaviour</td><td>174</td><td>14</td><td>34</td><td>26.57</td><td>4.17</td><td>-1.14</td><td>.18</td><td>.83</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Mental Health</td><td>174</td><td>15</td><td>42</td><td>30.97</td><td>4.82</td><td>-1.28</td><td>.18</td><td>2.34</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Sexual Abuse</td><td>174</td><td>17</td><td>39</td><td>30.09</td><td>4.45</td><td>-1.11</td><td>.18</td><td>.77</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Corruption</td><td>174</td><td>11</td><td>36</td><td>30.59</td><td>4.63</td><td>-1.76</td><td>.18</td><td>3.63</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Living Standard</td><td>174</td><td>13</td><td>41</td><td>27.16</td><td>3.90</td><td>-.31</td><td>.18</td><td>4.65</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Unemployment</td><td>174</td><td>12</td><td>38</td><td>28.06</td><td>3.91</td><td>-1.83</td><td>.18</td><td>6.33</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Politics &amp; Governance</td><td>174</td><td>16</td><td>40</td><td>32.03</td><td>4.30</td><td>-1.57</td><td>.18</td><td>3.11</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Quality of Life</td><td>174</td><td>3</td><td>41</td><td>33.06</td><td>7.69</td><td>-1.80</td><td>.18</td><td>3.82</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Interpersonal Relations</td><td>174</td><td>11</td><td>38</td><td>26.60</td><td>4.94</td><td>-.92</td><td>.18</td><td>1.58</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Judicature</td><td>174</td><td>12</td><td>64</td><td>30.56</td><td>6.31</td><td>.93</td><td>.18</td><td>8.56</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td><strong>PERSONAL FUNCTIONING</strong></td><td>174</td><td>185</td><td>374</td><td>305.25</td><td>60.82</td><td>-.52</td><td>.18</td><td>-1.26</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Identity</td><td>174</td><td>34</td><td>106</td><td>82.90</td><td>18.57</td><td>-.80</td><td>.18</td><td>-.22</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Self-Direction</td><td>174</td><td>49</td><td>116</td><td>86.37</td><td>18.35</td><td>-.45</td><td>.18</td><td>-1.11</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Empathy</td><td>174</td><td>38</td><td>83</td><td>62.95</td><td>12.28</td><td>-.42</td><td>.18</td><td>-1.16</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Intimacy</td><td>174</td><td>33</td><td>100</td><td>74.10</td><td>15.38</td><td>-.54</td><td>.184</td><td>-.11</td><td>.36</td></tr><tr><td>Valid N (listwise)</td><td>174</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

SOURCE: Primary data from the research questionnaire
Table 2 showed "Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems)" had mean 417.20 of 477 above the average, indicating very high social challenges (problems) experiences among Nigerian youths. SD of 49.46 indicated participants varied so much

in their social challenges (problems). "Personal Functioning" had mean 305.25 of 374, indicating very active above average personal functioning among the participants. The SD (60.82) indicated wide variations in personal functioning.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) Histogram</figcaption></figure>

SOURCE: Primary data from the research questionnaire

Figure 1 showed irregular and positively skewed performance with substantial outliers. The SD (49.464) showed Nigerian youths' highly unpredictable social challenges (problems).

Figure 1 is a mesokurtic (k = 3.0) curve accommodating wide facets of social challenges (problems).

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: Personal Functioning Histogram</figcaption></figure>

SOURCE: Primary data from the research questionnaire

Figure 2 showed undulating performance of few outliers. The SD (60.829) showed high inconsistency in personal functioning. Figure 2 is a platykurtic (k<3.0) curve of wide diversity of personal functioning.
<table><caption>Table 3: Correlation Matrix for Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) and Personal Functioning of Youths</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>6</th><th>7</th><th>8</th><th>9</th><th>10</th><th>11</th><th>12</th><th>13</th><th>14</th><th>15</th><th>16</th><th>17</th><th>18</th><th>19</th><th>20</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. NIG SOC CHAL (PR)</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2. Aggression</td><td>.766**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3. Insecurity</td><td>.681**</td><td>.549**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4. Frustration</td><td>.546**</td><td>.387**</td><td>.488**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5. Secret Cultism</td><td>.705**</td><td>.744**</td><td>.603**</td><td>.417**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6. Drug Use Behaviour</td><td>.762**</td><td>.527**</td><td>.477**</td><td>.568**</td><td>.576**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>7. Mental Health</td><td>.806**</td><td>.628**</td><td>.574**</td><td>.410**</td><td>.567**</td><td>.663**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>8. Sexual Abuse</td><td>.710**</td><td>.471**</td><td>.390**</td><td>.378**</td><td>.603**</td><td>.682**</td><td>.526**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>9. Corruption</td><td>.726**</td><td>.493**</td><td>.344**</td><td>.245**</td><td>.411**</td><td>.581**</td><td>.584**</td><td>.579**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10. Living Standard</td><td>.662**</td><td>.369**</td><td>.421**</td><td>.358**</td><td>.412**</td><td>.489**</td><td>.500**</td><td>.629**</td><td>.499**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>11. Unemployment</td><td>.670**</td><td>.481**</td><td>.401**</td><td>.384**</td><td>.397**</td><td>.473**</td><td>.523**</td><td>.445**</td><td>.467**</td><td>.524**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12. Politics &amp; Governance</td><td>.706**</td><td>.557**</td><td>.369**</td><td>.386**</td><td>.443**</td><td>.572**</td><td>.648**</td><td>.514**</td><td>.607**</td><td>.504**</td><td>.648**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>13. Quality of Life</td><td>.608**</td><td>.399**</td><td>.383**</td><td>.159*</td><td>.338**</td><td>.360**</td><td>.519**</td><td>.356**</td><td>.531**</td><td>.330**</td><td>.328**</td><td>.478**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>14. Interpersonal Relations</td><td>.674**</td><td>.459**</td><td>.452**</td><td>.482**</td><td>.437**</td><td>.551**</td><td>.497**</td><td>.450**</td><td>.300**</td><td>.481**</td><td>.527**</td><td>.467**</td><td>.367**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>15. Judicature</td><td>.680**</td><td>.574**</td><td>.384**</td><td>.313**</td><td>.397**</td><td>.528**</td><td>.483**</td><td>.430**</td><td>.450**</td><td>.541**</td><td>.503**</td><td>.486**</td><td>.468**</td><td>.657**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>16. PERSONAL FUNCT</td><td>.591**</td><td>.512**</td><td>.440**</td><td>.205**</td><td>.500**</td><td>.528**</td><td>.418**</td><td>.525**</td><td>.446**</td><td>.408**</td><td>.350**</td><td>.307**</td><td>.556**</td><td>.370**</td><td>.491**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>17. Identity</td><td>.464**</td><td>.381**</td><td>.381**</td><td>.135</td><td>.362**</td><td>.434**</td><td>.332**</td><td>.428**</td><td>.382**</td><td>.271**</td><td>.259**</td><td>.252**</td><td>.596**</td><td>.261**</td><td>.406**</td><td>.930**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>18. Self-Direction</td><td>.602**</td><td>.554**</td><td>.419**</td><td>.189*</td><td>.508**</td><td>.518**</td><td>.455**</td><td>.514**</td><td>.436**</td><td>.378**</td><td>.386**</td><td>.281**</td><td>.514**</td><td>.385**</td><td>.535**</td><td>.942**</td><td>.852**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>19. Empathy</td><td>.619**</td><td>.518**</td><td>.484**</td><td>.292**</td><td>.597**</td><td>.540**</td><td>.384**</td><td>.572**</td><td>.418**</td><td>.417**</td><td>.309**</td><td>.239**</td><td>.519**</td><td>.437**</td><td>.473**</td><td>.867**</td><td>.774**</td><td>.812**</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20. Intimacy</td><td>.604**</td><td>.527**</td><td>.420**</td><td>.221**</td><td>.471**</td><td>.551**</td><td>.469**</td><td>.484**</td><td>.503**</td><td>.454**</td><td>.403**</td><td>.416**</td><td>.501**</td><td>.354**</td><td>.445**</td><td>.852**</td><td>.743**</td><td>.782**</td><td>.678**</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

NIG SOC CHAL (PR) = NIGERIAN SOCIAL CHALLENGES (PROBLEMS); PERSONAL FUNCT = PERSONAL FUNCTIONING

**Hypothesis One:** It states that “Nigerian social challenges (problems) will not significantly correlate with youths’ personal functioning”. From the table 3, the hypothesis was rejected (P< 0.001> 0.000, r = 0.591, N = 174). It indicated that “Nigerian social challenges (problems)” had significant and positive relationship with “Personal Functioning”. It implied that “Nigerian social challenges (problems)” correlate positively but at the average level with the youths’ “personal functioning”.

**Hypothesis Two:** It states that “facets of Nigerian social challenges (problems) will not significantly correlate with various perspectives of personal functioning.” The hypothesis was accepted and significant for all the facets of Nigerian social challenges (problems) except “frustration”, and all the perspectives of Personal Functioning except “identity”. “Frustration” as a facet of Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) had non-significant relationship with “identity” perspective of Personal Functioning (P> 0.05< 0.076, r = .135, N = 174).

<footnote>** significant @ P≤ 0.001 and * significant @ P≤ 0.05; Ho; N = 174; Source: Primary Data from research questionnaire</footnote>
**Summary of Findings/Results**

The following findings were made in the study.

**Inferential/Correlation (Hypotheses) Findings**

1. "Nigerian social challenges (problems)" had significant and positive relationship as the average with "Personal Functioning", indicating that as the social challenges increase the personal functioning of the Nigerian youths increase as well, albeit at average.

2. "Frustration" as a facet of Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) had non-significant relationship with "identity" perspective of Personal Functioning.

**Descriptive (Fallout) Findings**

3. "Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems)" was above the average, indicating very high social challenges (problems) experiences among Nigerian youths.

4. There was above average active "personal functioning" among Nigerian youths.

**DISCUSSION**

Hypothesis one states that "Nigerian social challenges (problems) will not significantly correlate with youths' personal functioning". The hypothesis was rejected. It indicated that "Nigerian social challenges (problems)" had significant and positive relationship with "Personal Functioning". It implied that "Nigerian social challenges (problems)" correlate positively but at the average level with the youths' "personal functioning". "Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems)" had mean above the average, indicating very high social challenges (problems) experiences among Nigerian youths. The SD indicated participants varied so much in their social challenges (problems).

The Nigerian social challenges (problems) were irregular and positively skewed with substantial outliers. The Nigerian youths had highly unpredictable social challenges (problems), with a mesokurtic curve accommodating wide facets of social challenges (problems) experiences. The outcome of the tested hypothesis could be attributed to self-efficacy. According to Hye-Ja and Sunki (2023), self-efficacy plays a great role in harnessing personal functioning necessary in managing life adversities.

Hypothesis two states that "facets of Nigerian social challenges (problems) will not significantly correlate with various perspectives of personal functioning." The hypothesis was accepted and significant for all the facets of Nigerian social challenges (problems) except "frustration", as well as all the perspectives of Personal Functioning except "identity". "Frustration" as a facet of Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems) had non-significant relationship with "identity" perspective of Personal Functioning. This is at variance with the finding of Fagbenro, Azeez, Olagundoye and Foluke (2019) that frustration is a behavioural problem for Nigerian youths.

The outcome of the study could be explained from the perspective that Nigerian youths have suffered so much from hardship and very poor governance that life difficulty is part of their (youths') existence. Nigerian social challenges (problems) have become normal life in Nigeria. Frustration forces Nigerian youths to take very dangerous journeys across the deserts and sea in order to leave Nigeria. Identity is a goal that youths want to achieve. Nigerian social challenges (problems) seem not to have impacted on the desire to attain this goal (identity). Irrespective of the adversity and frustration associated with Nigerian social challenges (problems), Jiang and Jiang (2023) could be right that efficacy in personal functioning is necessary in managing bad situations.

**Summary of Findings**

"Nigerian social challenges (problems)" had significant and positive relationship on the average with "Personal Functioning" indicating that as the social challenges increase the personal functioning of the Nigerian youths increase as well, albeit at average. "Frustration" had non-significant relationship with "identity" perspective of Personal Functioning. "Nigerian Social Challenges (Problems)" was above the average, indicating very high social challenges (problems) experiences among Nigerian youths. There was above average active "personal functioning" among Nigerian youths.
**Limitations of the Study**

1. Only university youths were used. This may have sampling implications.

**Implications of the Findings**

The findings of the study have the following implications:

1. The study will be very necessary to those involved in behaviour modification, such as Psychologists, Priests, Counsellors, and parents.

2. The findings of the study will help immensely in policy making for the youths. Hence, government, non-governmental organizations, and social workers will find the study very valuable for handling youths social challenges (problems).

**Recommendations**

The following recommendations are proffered.

1. There is need to equip Nigerian youths with behavioural skills and other psychological resources necessary for managing “frustration”. Nigerian youths will be able to managing the enormous social challenges (problems) if they can manage frustration effectively.

2. Reorientation and value enlightenment should be inculcated in Nigerian youths to help them cope with the pressure of “identity”. Nigerian youths are inevitably motivated toward establishing “identity”. They need to be guided to this end.

**Suggestions for Further Studies**

1. Future study should include youths from other life categories, unlike the current study that sampled only university youths.

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NIGERIAN SOCIAL CHALLENGES SCALE

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th></th><th>To a Large Extent (5)</th><th>To Some Extent (4)</th><th>Sometimes (3)</th><th>Rarely (2)</th><th>Not at All (1)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="18"></td><td rowspan="8">AGGRESSION</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Nigerians are becoming very violent.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Nigerians are becoming very aggressive to one another.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Nigerians see violence and aggression as a way of life.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Conducts of some parents influence their children into violence.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Nigerians are exposed to all kinds of violent movies.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Terrorism in Nigeria is common event.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Assassinations are very rampant in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Ethnic and religious violence are very common events in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">INSECURITY</td><td>9</td><td>Nigerians feel highly unsecured.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Insecurity in Nigeria is a major challenge for Nigerians.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Indiscriminately killing of people in Nigeria is very common.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Nigeria is a place where people are kidnapped easily.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Increasing rape experiences in Nigeria is rising.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Nigerian campuses are no longer safe.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>Increasing incidence of robbery in Nigeria is discouraging.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>In Nigeria, places of work are becoming unsafe.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">FRUSTRATION</td><td>17</td><td>Frustration is everywhere in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>Many mental disorders in Nigeria are associated with bad governance.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>19</td><td>Nigerian is a frustrating society.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20</td><td>Many cases of mental problems in Nigeria are caused by hopeless future.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>21</td><td>Depression is very common among Nigerians.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>22</td><td>Many citizens have lost hope in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">SECRET CULTISM</td><td>23</td><td>Secret societies are very common in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24</td><td>A lot of Nigerian youths are initiated into secret cults.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>Nigerian universities are characterized by cult activities.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>26</td><td>Many secondary schools in Nigeria have cult groups.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>27</td><td>In Nigeria, members of the secret cults commit various crimes.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>28</td><td>Learning institutions in Nigeria are no longer safe due to cultism.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">DRUG USE BEHAVIOUR</td><td>28</td><td>Drug/substance use is common among Nigerians, especially the youths.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>29</td><td>In Nigeria, drug use is associated with frustration.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>30</td><td>Bad habit is the major reason why Nigerians smoke.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>31</td><td>Some health problems Nigerians suffer arise from drug use.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>32</td><td>Many Nigerians do use drugs to enhance performance purposes.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>33</td><td>There are a lot of drugs/substances that many Nigerians are addicted to.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">MENTAL HEALTH</td></tr><tr><td>34</td><td>Many Nigerians have been traumatized by life events.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>35</td><td>Violence is a major cause of trauma for Nigerians.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>36</td><td>Nigeria is full of frightening uncertainties.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>37</td><td>Many Nigerians feel rejected/abandoned by their country (or leaders).</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>38</td><td>There is a very high level of hopelessness in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>39</td><td>Owing to hardship in Nigeria, risking travelling abroad has become an option.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>40</td><td>Most Nigerians have lost confidence in the usefulness of the government to them.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">SEXUAL ABUSE</td></tr><tr><td>41</td><td>A lot of Nigerians have been sexually abused.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>42</td><td>Many Nigerians are exposed various forms of sexual insecurity.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>43</td><td>Most sexual offences in Nigeria go unreported.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>44</td><td>Pornography is a common feature in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>45</td><td>In Nigeria, a lot of people have sexual experiences at a very young age.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>46</td><td>Some Nigerians are forced into commercial sex all because of money.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>47</td><td>A lot of Nigerians are addicted to sex.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">CORRUPTION</td></tr><tr><td>48</td><td>Nigeria is fantastically corrupt.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>49</td><td>Politics in Nigeria is a game of corruption.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50</td><td>Even the Nigerian Constitution itself is built on corruption.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>51</td><td>In Nigeria, religion of various types is loaded with corruption.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>52</td><td>Every institution/agency in Nigeria is not free from corrupt practices.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>53</td><td>A lot of people have become successful in Nigeria through corrupt means.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>54</td><td>Nigeria is a place where what you have is important, not how you made it.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">LIVING STANDARD</td></tr><tr><td>55</td><td>A lot of Nigerians are homeless.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>56</td><td>Many Nigerians find it difficult to feed.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>57</td><td>There is very high cost of living in Nigeria.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>58</td><td>Building materials in Nigeria are incredibly high.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>59</td><td>Many Nigerians are unable to pay their house rents.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>60</td><td>The standards of living for most Nigerians are below human level.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">UNEMPLOYMENT</td></tr><tr><td>61</td><td>Many Nigerians are unemployed.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>62</td><td>Owing to joblessness, many Nigerian graduates state that education "is a scam".</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>63</td><td>In Nigeria, the elderly refuse to retire by falsifying their ages to retain their jobs.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>64</td><td>Nigerian graduates roam about without jobs.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>65</td><td>Nigerian graduates lack wealth-creation or job skills.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>66</td><td>Desire for quick wealth makes many Nigeria engage in atrocities to make money.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">POLITICS & GOVERNANCE</td></tr><tr><td>67</td><td>Politics in Nigeria is a very dirty game.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>68</td><td>In Nigeria, good governance is absolutely not in existence at all.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>69</td><td>Nigerian politicians don't carry the citizens along.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>70</td><td>Nigerian politicians only use and dump the citizens during and after elections.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>71</td><td>Democracy in Nigeria is fruitless to the citizens.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>72</td><td>Politics in Nigeria is an investment.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>72</td><td>Nigerian politicians are insatiably corrupt.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">QUALITY OF LIFE</td></tr><tr><td>73</td><td>Selfishness has become a norm in Nigeria.</td></tr><tr><td>74.</td><td>Nigerians exploit their fellow citizens so much.</td></tr><tr><td>75</td><td>Many Nigerians are becoming very heartless.</td></tr><tr><td>76</td><td>In Nigeria, value for human lives is very low.</td></tr><tr><td>77</td><td>Many Nigerians suffer from a number of troubling ailments.</td></tr><tr><td>78.</td><td>A lot of Nigerians hardly embark on holidays.</td></tr><tr><td>79</td><td>The living environment of many Nigerians is very poor.</td></tr><tr><td>80</td><td>In Nigeria, basic human rights are violated with impunity.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS</td></tr><tr><td>81</td><td>Nigerians are very suspicion of one another.</td></tr><tr><td>82</td><td>Interpersonal tolerance among Nigerians is low.</td></tr><tr><td>83</td><td>Domestic violence is a common occurrence in Nigeria.</td></tr><tr><td>84</td><td>Street fighting is a common scene in Nigeria.</td></tr><tr><td>86</td><td>Nigerian unity is impossible.</td></tr><tr><td>87</td><td>Many Nigerians take defrauding people as a sign of smartness.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">JUDICATURE</td></tr><tr><td>88</td><td>Justice delivery in Nigeria is too poor.</td></tr><tr><td>89</td><td>Injustice in Nigeria is very prevalent.</td></tr><tr><td>90</td><td>Judgement can be bought in Nigeria.</td></tr><tr><td>91</td><td>Nigerian Courts are not the hope of the common man.</td></tr><tr><td>92</td><td>Rule of law is not applicable in Nigeria.</td></tr><tr><td>93</td><td>Human rights don't mean much in Nigeria.</td></tr><tr><td>94</td><td>Nigerian Executives/politicians don't obey the Courts' orders.</td></tr></tbody></table>

SOURCE: Nwankwo, O.D. (2023). Department of Psychology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria.

PERSONAL FUNCTIONING SCALE

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th></th><th>To a Large Extent (5)</th><th>To Some Extent (4)</th><th>Sometimes (3)</th><th>Rarely (2)</th><th>Not at All (1)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">IDENTITY</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>I find it hard living a satisfying life.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>I don't waste time thinking about my experiences, feelings, and actions</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>I pay attention to people based upon what they might do to me, or for me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>I never seem to have much hope that good things will happen to me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>I set personal standards for myself that are very difficult to satisfy.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>I tend to feel either really good or really bad about myself.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>I understand my values and those that others might want me to have.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>I'm no good at stepping back and looking objectively at my life.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>I'm not sure exactly what standards I've set for myself.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>In many situations, I feel quite differently than others seem to expect me to feel.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>In very trying times, I sometimes lose sight of what is important to me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>12</td><td>Interacting with other people usually leaves me feeling confused.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Sometimes I am too harsh on myself.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>I often feel that certain people are just like me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>I'm not very cooperative because other people don't live up to my standards.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>The standards that I set for myself often seem to be too demanding.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>The way that others perceive me is totally different from the way that I really am.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>There are parts of my personality that just don't fit together very well.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>19</td><td>When I feel that I've done something well, I'm always right.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20</td><td>When I'm not doing well at something, I feel ashamed about my abilities.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>21</td><td>When I'm successful I tend to feel like an imposter.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

## SELF-DIRECTION

<table><tr><td>22</td><td>Feedback from others plays a big role in determining what is important to me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>23</td><td>I manage to behave in a manner appropriate to every situation.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24</td><td>I can handle all my different feelings pretty well.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>I can differentiate between my opinion, and the way other people want me to think.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>26</td><td>I have difficulty setting and completing goals.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>27</td><td>I have some difficulty setting goals</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>28</td><td>I have trouble deciding between different goals</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>29</td><td>I mainly act in the moment, rather than focusing on long term goals.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>30</td><td>It seems as if most other people have their life together more than I</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>31</td><td>I've got goals that are reasonable given my abilities.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>32</td><td>Life is a dangerous place without a lot of meaning to it.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>33</td><td>Many people around me have very destructive motives.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>34</td><td>Most things that I do are a reaction to what others do.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>35</td><td>My life is basically controlled by the actions of others.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>36</td><td>My motives are mainly imposed upon me, rather than being a personal choice.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>37</td><td>My personal standards change quite a bit depending upon circumstances.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>38</td><td>Other people often expect too much from me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>39</td><td>When others disapprove of me, it's difficult to keep my emotions under control.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>40</td><td>When thinking about myself, I can get pretty narrow in my focus.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>41</td><td>Events in my life can really change no matter what I do.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>42</td><td>I objectively evaluate the way that I'm feeling at any given time.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>43</td><td>I tend to let others set my goals for me, rather than doing that myself.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

## EMPATHY

<table><tr><td>44</td><td>All I can really understand about other people are their weaknesses.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>45</td><td>I have little understanding of how I feel or what I do.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>46</td><td>I can appreciate the viewpoint of other people even when I disagree with them.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>47</td><td>I can't stand it when there are sharp differences of opinion.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>48</td><td>I don't have a clue about why other people do what they do.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>49</td><td>I don't care very much about the effect I have on other people.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50</td><td>I don't understand what motivates other people at all.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>51</td><td>I typically understand other people's feelings better than they do</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>52</td><td>I'm very aware of the impact I'm having on other people</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>53</td><td>My emotions rapidly shift around.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>54</td><td>People think I am pretty good at reading the feelings and motives of others.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>55</td><td>People think I'm a "hater", but it's often more related to them than to me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>56</td><td>Sometimes all I care about are my goals.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>57</td><td>I pay attention to others even to my own detriment.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>58</td><td>I try hard to be flexible and cooperative when dealing with others.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>59</td><td>Sometimes it is easy for me to overlook the impact that I'm having on others.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">INTIMACY</td></tr><tr><td>60</td><td>Most close relationships don't turn out well in the end.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>61</td><td>I can't seem to keep any successful lasting relationships.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>62</td><td>Sometimes strong emotions get in the way of my close relationships.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>63</td><td>Getting close to others has little appeal to me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>64</td><td>Getting close to others just leaves me vulnerable.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>65</td><td>I can only get close to somebody who understands me very well.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>66</td><td>I can only get close to someone who can acknowledges and addresses my needs.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>67</td><td>I don't have many positive interactions with other people</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>68</td><td>I have a strong need for others to approve of me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>69</td><td>I have many satisfying relationships, both personally and on the job.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>70</td><td>I have relationships, but not many that I consider to be very close</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>71</td><td>I work on my close relationships because they are important to me.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>72</td><td>I'm only interested in relationships that can provide me with some comfort.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>73</td><td>In a close relationship, it's as if I can't live without the other person.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>74</td><td>In close relationships I tend to be torn between being afraid and being "clingy"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>75</td><td>Relationships are mainly a source of pain and suffering.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>76</td><td>The key to a successful relationship is whether I am getting my needs met.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>77</td><td>I mainly pay attention to how other people are likely to affect me</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>78</td><td>When feelings get too strong, I try to shut myself off from them.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>79</td><td>There is no need trying to see things from others' perspective.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

SOURCE: Adapted and modified from Morey, L.C. (2018). Level of personality functioning scale - self report questionnaire (from Morey, L.C. (2017). Development and initial evaluation of a self-report form of the DSM-5 level of personality functioning scale. *Psychological Assessment*, 29, 1302-1308.