# Bioremediation of microplastic pollution: A systematic review on mechanism, analytical methods, innovations, and omics approaches

Shilpi Khurana, Sajid Ali, Atul Kumar Srivastava, Anuradha Singh, Himanshu Agarwal, Ritu Chauhan, Naveen Chandra Joshi, Laurent Dufossé, Abhishek Chauhan

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Shilpi Khurana, Sajid Ali, Atul Kumar Srivastava, Anuradha Singh, Himanshu Agarwal, et al.. Bioremediation of microplastic pollution: A systematic review on mechanism, analytical methods, innovations, and omics approaches. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 2025, 19, pp.100777. 10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100777. hal-05491000

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# Bioremediation of microplastic pollution: A systematic review on mechanism, analytical methods, innovations, and omics approaches

Shilpi Khurana<sup>a,*</sup>, Sajid Ali<sup>b</sup>, Atul Kumar Srivastava<sup>c</sup>, Anuradha Singh<sup>d</sup>, Himanshu Agarwal<sup>e</sup>, Ritu Chauhan<sup>f</sup>, Naveen Chandra Joshi<sup>g</sup>, Laurent Dufossé<sup>h,*</sup>, Abhishek Chauhan<sup>i</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

### Keywords:

- Biodegradation

- Enzymes

- Environmental pollutants

- Microbial consortia

- Omics technologies

- Sustainable ecosystems

## ABSTRACT

Microplastic pollution represents an alarming environmental crisis, affecting ecosystems and posing significant threats to biodiversity and human health. This systematic review explores microbial bioremediation as an effective microplastics (MPs) removal approach, focusing on bacterial, fungal, and algal degradation mechanisms. Unlike conventional methods, microbial bioremediation leverages enzymatic activity, biofilm formation, and metabolic pathways to break down MPs into less harmful byproducts. Key influencing factors, such as polymer crystallinity, molecular weight, surface properties, and environmental conditions, play a crucial role in determining microbial degradation efficiency. Analytical methods, including FTIR, SEM, TGA, and gravimetric analysis, provide critical insights into MPs degradation pathways and microbial interactions. Recent innovations, such as bioaugmentation, genetically engineered microbial strains, and enzymatic bioreactors, have further enhanced the efficiency of MPs biodegradation. The integration of omics technologies, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, has advanced the understanding of microbial metabolic pathways and the identification of novel plastic-degrading enzymes. This review also discusses the specific roles of bacteria, fungi, and algae in MPs degradation, highlighting their enzymatic capabilities and interactions with different polymer types. Despite significant advancements, challenges such as scalability, varying degradation rates across environments, and potential ecological risks remain. Future research should focus on optimizing microbial consortia, improving enzymatic activity, and developing large-scale applications to effectively address MPs pollution.

## 1. Introduction

MPs defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, have emerged as one of the most pressing environmental pollutants of the 21st century (Ho et al., 2024). Ubiquitously distributed across terrestrial (He and Luo, 2020; Ge et al., 2021), freshwater (Wagner, et al., 2014; Parker et al. 2021) and marine ecosystems (Liu et al., 2023). MPs originate from the breakdown of larger plastic items and the direct release of primary

microplastics such as microbeads in personal care products. The persistent nature of MPs, combined with their potential to absorb and transport toxic substances, raises significant concerns regarding their ecological, environmental, and human health impacts (Okoye et al., 2022). Understanding and addressing this pollution is critical for sustainable development and the preservation of ecosystem integrity.

The bioremediation of MPs has garnered attention as a promising approach to mitigate their adverse effects. Bioremediation, the process

<footnote><sup>a</sup> Department of Chemistry, Deshbandhu College (University of Delhi), Kalkaji, Delhi 110019, India</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025, India</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> PG. Department of Chemistry, Magadh University, Bodh Gaya 824234, India</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> Department of Chemistry, Acharya Narendra Dev Kisan P G College, Babhnan, 271313, India</footnote>

<footnote><sup>e</sup> Independent Researcher, Asian Publication Corporation, Sahibabad, 201005, India</footnote>

<footnote><sup>f</sup> Department of Biotechnology, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India</footnote>

<footnote><sup>g</sup> Amity Institute of Microbial Technology, Amity University, Noida 201313, India</footnote>

<footnote><sup>h</sup> Chemistry and Biotechnology of Natural Products, CHEMBIOPRO, Université de La Réunion, ESIROI Agroalimentaire, 15 Avenue René Cassin, CS 92003, CEDEX 9, F-97744 Saint-Denis, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>i</sup> Amity Institute of Environmental Toxicology Safety and Management, Amity University, Noida, U.P., India</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding authors. E-mail addresses: skhurana@db.du.ac.in (S. Khurana), laurent.dufosse@univ-reunion.fr (L. Dufossé).</footnote>
of using living organisms or their enzymes to degrade or transform pollutants, offers an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional methods such as incineration and landfill disposal (Bala et al., 2022; Ihsanullah et al., 2024). While conventional methods are effective in removing plastics, they often exacerbate environmental issues through greenhouse gas emissions, leachate production, and resource consumption (Yang et al., 2021; Hou et al., 2021). In contrast, bioremediation utilizes natural mechanisms to target MPs in a sustainable manner, with minimal secondary pollution (Bala et al., 2022; Ihsanullah et al., 2024).

Abiotic and biotic factors play a pivotal role in the fate and degradation of MPs. Abiotic components, including UV radiation, temperature, and mechanical forces, can induce the physical fragmentation and chemical transformation of MPs (Ge et al., 2023; Dhaundiyal and Mittal, 2024). These processes often facilitate subsequent microbial colonization and degradation. On the other hand, biotic components such as bacteria, fungi, and algae contribute directly to MP breakdown through enzymatic actions (Jain et al., 2023). Recent studies have identified various microbial species capable of degrading polyethylene (Shankar et al., 2019), polypropylene (Rana et al., 2022; Wróbel et al., 2023), polystyrene (Mohan et al., 2016; Ho et al., 2018), and other common plastic polymers (Nanthini Devi et al., 2021). For instance, microbial consortia and bioengineered strains have shown promising results in laboratory conditions, targeting MPs with varying efficiencies (Table 1-6) (Ho et al., 2018; Shankar et al., 2019).

The interface between abiotic and biotic processes is particularly intriguing, as it suggests synergistic mechanisms for MP degradation. UV-induced oxidation, for example, increases the hydrophilicity of MPs, enhancing microbial attachment and enzymatic action (Ge et al., 2023). Similarly, mechanical abrasion can increase the surface area of MPs, providing more sites for microbial colonization (Ali et al., 2021). Despite these advancements, challenges remain, including the limited scalability of laboratory findings, variations in MPs degradation rates across environments, and the lack of comprehensive studies on the ecological risks of bioremediation byproducts (Priya et al., 2022).

To address these challenges, researchers are exploring innovative approaches such as the integration of advanced materials with microbial systems (Urso and Pumera, 2022; Cao et al., 2024), genetic engineering of microbial strains for enhanced plastic-degrading capabilities, and the use of consortia to mimic natural ecosystems (Jaiswal et al., 2020; Saini et al., 2024). Furthermore, advances in omics technologies, including genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, have significantly enhanced our understanding of the metabolic pathways involved in MPs biodegradation. Such insights are crucial for optimizing bioremediation strategies and assessing their feasibility in diverse environmental contexts (Sharma et al., 2022; Hualpa-Cutipa et al., 2024; Shafana Farveen and Narayanan, 2024).

The global urgency to manage MPs aligns with broader sustainability goals, particularly the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 14 (Life Below Water) (United Nations, 2015). Effective bioremediation strategies for MPs can contribute to these objectives by addressing pollution at its source, promoting circular economies, and safeguarding aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity (Ameen et al., 2024). However, realizing these benefits requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates environmental science, biotechnology, materials science, and policy-making (Das et al., 2021).

The aim of this systematic review is to explore the potential of microbial bioremediation as a sustainable solution for microplastic pollution. It seeks to evaluate microbial mechanisms, such as enzymatic degradation and biofilm formation, involved in breaking down common plastic polymers. The review highlights advancements in analytical methods, omics technologies, and bioengineering that enhance biodegradation efficiency. It also examines factors influencing microbial activity and addresses challenges in scaling up laboratory findings to real-world applications. By consolidating recent research, the review

identifies knowledge gaps and future directions for effective microplastic management.

## 2. Methodology

### 2.1. Search strategy

Comprehensive literature searches were conducted across multiple electronic databases, including PubMed, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Wiley Online, Web of Science, and Scopus. The following keywords and phrases were used: "Microbial bioremediation" combined with "microplastics," "enzymatic degradation," "biofilm formation," "polyethylene degradation," "polypropylene degradation," "polystyrene degradation," "polyvinyl chloride degradation," "bacteria," "fungi," "algae," "genetic engineering," "omics technologies," "analytical methods," and "biodegradation efficiency. Selected studies were systematically reviewed for their relevance, quality, and alignment with the objectives of this systematic review.

### 2.2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

#### Inclusion criteria

* Articles investigating the role of bacteria, fungi, and algae in the degradation of microplastics, focusing on polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride.

* Studies exploring enzymatic degradation mechanisms, biofilm formation, and microbial metabolic pathways involved in plastic biodegradation.

* Research employing advanced omics technologies, such as genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, to understand microbial interactions with microplastics.

* Studies discussing the impact of environmental factors (e.g., temperature, salinity, pH) on microbial biodegradation efficiency.

* Articles highlighting innovations like bioaugmentation, genetically engineered microbes, and enzymatic bioreactors for large-scale microplastic remediation.

* Experimental studies that assess microbial degradation through analytical methods such as FTIR, SEM, TGA, and gravimetric analysis.

#### Exclusion criteria

* Studies not related to microplastic degradation or microbial bioremediation of plastic.

* Articles focusing on non-microbial approaches, such as mechanical or chemical methods for plastic degradation.

* Papers lacking full-text access or written in languages other than English.

* Reviews, editorials, commentaries, and opinion pieces without original experimental data.

* Research focusing on plastic not relevant to microplastic pollution

(Fig. 1)

## 3. Bioremediation approaches: A sustainable solution for microplastic removal

Bioremediation has emerged as a sustainable and eco-friendly method to mitigate the adverse effects of microplastics, addressing their widespread environmental impact. Unlike physical and chemical methods, biological approaches rely on mild conditions, consume minimal energy, and produce fewer harmful byproducts, making them highly compatible with natural ecosystems (Ahmed et al., 2021). These techniques leverage microbial and enzymatic degradation processes that are versatile due to microbes' ability to adapt to diverse habitats and
<table><caption>**Table 1**
Bacterial, fungal, algal degradation of polyethylene.</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Bacterial Degradation of Polyethylene</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paenibacillus sp.</td><td>Weight loss of LDPE was measured</td><td>SEM, FTIR</td><td>Bardají et al. (2019)</td></tr><tr><td>Acinetobacter bumannii</td><td>Biomass production, 37 °C Non-pretreated PE</td><td>GC-MS, FTIR</td><td>Pramila et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus cereus strain A5, a</td><td>Mean weight reduction of 35.72±4.01 % on LDPE sheets</td><td>Weight loss analysis, FTIR, GC-MS</td><td>Muhonja et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Brevibacillus borstelensis strain B2,2</td><td>Mean weight reduction of 20.28±2.30 % on LDPE sheets</td><td>Weight loss analysis, FTIR, GC-MS</td><td>Muhonja et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus oryzae strain A5,1</td><td>Mean weight reduction of 36.4 ± 5.53 % on LDPE sheets</td><td>Weight loss analysis, FTIR, GC-MS</td><td>Muhonja et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas, Cellulosimicrobium, Lysinibacillus</td><td>Implicated as LDPE degraders based on hydrocarbon degradation; aldehyde, ether, and carboxyl groups appeared after incubation with LDPE sheets</td><td>16S rDNA, 18S rDNA sequencing, FTIR</td><td>Muhonja et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Actinobacteria and Firmicutes (from Lumbricus terrestris gut)</td><td>Reduction in LDPE-MP particle size and production of long-chain alkanes (octadecane, eicosane, docosane, tricosane) as byproducts of LDPE decay</td><td>16S rRNA genes sequencing TEM</td><td>Lwanga et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Aneurinibacillus aneurinilyticus btDSCE01, Brevibacillus agri btDSCE02, Brevibacillus sp. btDSCE03, Brevibacillus brevis btDSCE04</td><td>Combination of four isolates demonstrated highest weight reduction: 58.21 ± 2 % (LDPE strips), 46.6 ± 3 % (HDPE strips), 56.3 ± 2 % (PP strips); 45.7 ± 3 % (LDPE pellets), 37.2 ± 3 % (HDPE pellets), 44.2 ± 3 % (PP pellets)</td><td>FTIR, SEM, AFM, EDS, NMR, GC-MS, 16S rDNA sequencing</td><td>Skariyachan et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Alcanivorax borkumensis</td><td>Formation of thick biofilms on LDPE and degradation of this petroleum-based plastic</td><td>16S rRNA microbiome profiling</td><td>Delacuvellerie et al., 2019</td></tr><tr><td>Ideonella sakaiensis</td><td>75 % at 28 °C PET Degradation in 70 days</td><td>SEM</td><td>Taniguchi et al., 2019</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus subtilis</td><td>74.59–1.75 % PET Degradation in 1 month</td><td>Weight loss</td><td>Nakkabi et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Streptococcus pyogenes</td><td>3.922–3.846 % PET Degradation in 1 month</td><td>Weight loss</td><td>Asmita et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Fungal Degradation of Polyethylene</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus fumigatus</td><td>PHB films were almost completely degraded after incubation with 76T-3 at 45 °C for 17 h</td><td>LC-MS/MS</td><td>Jung et al. (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>Penicillium oxalicum NS4, Penicillium chrysogenum NS10</td><td>Degradation of HDPE and LDPE plastic sheets over 90 days; morphological changes observed</td><td>RSM optimization, FE-SEM, AFM, FTIR</td><td>Ojha et al., 2017b</td></tr><tr><td>Zalerion maritimum</td><td>Capable of biodegrading PE pellets, resulting in reduced mass and size of the pellets</td><td>FTIR-ATR, NMR, mass difference quantification</td><td>Paço et al., 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus clavatus</td><td>Capable of biodegrading LDPE in aqueous medium, with changes in weight, CO₂ evolution, and morphological changes</td><td>SEM, AFM, FTIR, Strum test, 18S rRNA analysis</td><td>Gajendiran et al., 2016</td></tr><tr><td>Trichoderma harzianum</td><td>Degradation was monitored by observing weight loss, T. harzianum was able to degrade treated polyethylene (40 %)</td><td>SEM, FTIR and NMR analyses</td><td>Sowmya et al. (2014)</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus flavus</td><td>Reduction of 16 % in molecular weight</td><td>Halo test, weight loss</td><td>Deepika and Madhuri, 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus fumigatus</td><td>Weight loss for PE and PU after 90 days, reduction in tensile strength</td><td>UV irradiated for 50 h, Halo test, weight loss</td><td>Raghavendra et al., 2016b</td></tr><tr><td>Microsphaeropsis arundinis</td><td>3.0–2.0 % PET Degradation 14 days</td><td>SEM</td><td>Malafatti-Picca et al., 2019</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus flavus</td><td>16.2 % weight loss of polyethylene</td><td>Weight loss, tensile strength, SEM, FTIR</td><td>Alshehrei, 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus fumigatus</td><td>20.5 % weight loss of polyethylene</td><td>Weight loss, tensile strength, SEM, FTIR</td><td>Alshehrei, 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus niger</td><td>19.5 % weight loss of polyethylene</td><td>Weight loss, tensile strength, SEM, FTIR</td><td>Alshehrei, 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus terreus</td><td>21.8 % weight loss of polyethylene</td><td>Weight loss, tensile strength, SEM, FTIR</td><td>Alshehrei, 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Pleurotus ostreatus</td><td>13 % PET Degradation 45 days</td><td>Weight loss, DSC</td><td>de Faria et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus niger</td><td>Reduction of 26 % in Mn</td><td>Halotest, weight loss</td><td>Deepika and Madhuri, 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus sydowii</td><td>Weight loss of 37.94 ± 3.06 %, cracks and holes visible via SEM</td><td>Weight loss, tensile strength, SEM, FTIR</td><td>Sangale et al., 2019</td></tr><tr><td>Mucor sp.</td><td>1.3 % PET Degradation in 2 months</td><td>Physical changes</td><td>Iparraguirre and Vivanco, 2015</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Algal Degradation of Polyethylene</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scenedesmus dimorphus (Green Algae)</td><td>Proliferates on LD polyethylene sheets, leading to erosion and degradation</td><td>SEM</td><td>Kumar et al., 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Anabaena spiroides (Blue-green Alga)</td><td>Highest degradation of LD polyethylene (8.18 %), with clear evidence of degradation and proliferation</td><td>SEM, Transverse Section analysis</td><td>Kumar et al., 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Navicula pupula (Diatom)</td><td>Proliferates on polyethylene sheets, but less effective compared to other microalgae</td><td>SEM</td><td>Kumar et al., 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Microalga)</td><td>Engineered to produce and secrete PETase, which degrades PET and PETG in a saltwater-based environment at mesophilic temperatures (21 °C)</td><td>Synthetic biology, PETase secretion, Degradation experiments</td><td>Moog et al., 2019</td></tr><tr><td>Phormidium lucidum and Oscillatoria subbrevis (Cyanobacteria)</td><td>Efficiently degrade LDPE, with structural, morphological, and chemical changes observed in the polyethylene</td><td>FT-IR, SEM, NMR, CHN analysis, CHN content, thermal and tensile strength, enzyme activity (laccase and manganese peroxidase)</td><td>Sarmah and Rout, 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Green algae)</td><td>Expresses PETase enzyme, catalyzes PET degradation to terephthalic acid (TPA), showing surface changes like holes and dents on PET film</td><td>High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)</td><td>Kim et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Spirulina sp.</td><td>48.61 % Degradation of PET in 112 days</td><td>SEM, FTIR, EDX</td><td>Khoironii et al., 2019</td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection process (Nascimento et al., 2019).</figcaption></figure>

target multiple polymers. Moreover, bioremediation aligns with the principles of the circular economy by converting MPs waste into valuable byproducts like bioenergy and biomass, offering cost-effective and scalable solutions for regions with limited resources (Gao et al., 2022).

MPs, primarily consisting of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), persist in the environment due to their durable chemical structures and additives. Improper waste management, inadequate recycling, and excessive plastic use have led to their accumulation in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, adversely affecting biodiversity and human health (Zurier and Goddard, 2021; Miri et al., 2022). Microbial bioremediation is increasingly recognized for its potential to degrade MPs, with bacteria, fungi, and algae showing enzymatic capabilities for MPs breakdown. However, degradation efficiency depends on polymer type, crystallinity, and surface functional groups (Emisha et al., 2024). Enhancing microbial activity through bioaugmentation and biostimulation has shown promising results (Shabbir et al., 2020).

Despite these advancements, challenges persist. Biodegradable plastics, often labeled as eco-friendly, may paradoxically release MPs during enzymatic hydrolysis (Wei et al., 2022). Additionally, wastewater treatment plants are significant contributors to MPs pollution, necessitating systemic interventions and optimized biocatalytic solutions (Zurier and Goddard, 2021). Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary research to develop scalable bioremediation strategies and reduce MPs' ecological footprint effectively. Bioremediation stands as a sustainable alternative, supporting environmental resilience and pollution mitigation.

## 4. Methods for assessing bioremediation

Various analytical methods are employed to assess microbial-

mediated plastic degradation, each offering distinct insights into the process (Fig. 2). One common approach is gravimetric measurements, where the weight loss of plastics exposed to microbial cultures is monitored over time. This method has been used to study plastics like PE and polyurethane, with strains such as *Fusarium oxysporum*, *Aspergillus fumigatus*, and *Trichoderma harzianum* showing significant degradation (Raghavendra et al., 2016a; Munir et al., 2018). *Bacillus cereus* strain A5 demonstrated a 35.72 % weight reduction in LDPE, with degradation confirmed using gravimetric analysis alongside FTIR and GC-MS (Muhonja et al., 2018).

Although inexpensive and easy to perform, gravimetric methods cannot differentiate between physical degradation and microbial breakdown, and biomass growth is not always quantified (Wayman and Niemann, 2021). Recent studies using this method reported an 18 % weight loss of PP after 60 days with glucose as an additional carbon source, and a 13 % loss without glucose, highlighting the influence of nutrient availability on degradation efficiency (Shabbir et al., 2020).

Another method involves the formation of clearance zones, where microbial growth on plastics leads to the creation of halos, indicating plastic degradation. This technique is particularly useful for screening potential microbial strains but lacks specificity, as the observed clearance can also result from plastic solubilization rather than biodegradation (Deepika and Madhuri, 2015; Brunner et al., 2018). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) provides high-resolution images of plastic surfaces, revealing microbial colonization and surface deformations. It is a powerful tool for visualizing changes in plastic structure during degradation but does not confirm biodegradation as it cannot identify the specific microorganisms involved (Zettler et al., 2013; Paço et al., 2017). For example, SEM imaging was used to visualize the biofilm formation of *Alcanivorax borkumensis* on LDPE, confirming surface deterioration and microbial attachment (Delacuvellerie et al., 2019).
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2. Various analytical methods for assessing bioremediation of microplastics.</figcaption></figure>

Further, Xie et al. (2021) observed concave deformations, grooves, and erosion pits on polyamide 6, PE, and PVC microplastics exposed to natural mangrove conditions, supported by the presence of *Bacillus* species within eroded zones, affirming biofilm-associated degradation.

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) offers a similar advantage, allowing for the visualization of plastic surface changes at the nanoscale, such as roughness and cracking. However, like SEM, AFM cannot identify the microbial agents responsible for degradation (Ojha et al., 2017a). In a related example, *Penicillium oxalicum* and *Penicillium chrysogenum* showed HDPE and LDPE surface roughness and erosion through FE-SEM and AFM, highlighting their degradation capability (Ojha et al., 2017b).

Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) detects chemical changes in plastics by analyzing their infrared absorption spectra, which can reveal oxidation or polymer breakdown (Álvarez-Barragán et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2019). This technique is particularly useful for identifying chemical modifications, but it can be influenced by biofilm presence, requiring careful sample preparation. As an illustration, FTIR analysis confirmed functional group formation such as carbonyl and hydroxyl groups during degradation of LDPE by *Pseudomonas* and *Cel-lulosimicrobium* strains (Muhonja et al., 2018). The use of FTIR-ATR further enhances surface analysis precision. Zhao et al. (2021) demonstrated that microbial exposure caused surface cracks and the development of a biofilm on PVC particles, which corresponded to new FTIR peaks and weakened signals, indicating oxidation and functional group transformation.

For more precise monitoring, some studies use labeled polymers, such as ¹³C or ¹⁴C, to track the incorporation of carbon into microbial biomass during degradation. This method provides quantitative data but is costly and complex (Lanctôt et al., 2018; Taipale et al., 2019). Respiratory assays, which measure microbial oxygen consumption or CO₂ production, offer a simpler approach to track microbial activity during plastic degradation. However, they do not directly link metabolic activity to plastic breakdown (Wayman and Niemann, 2021).

Other methods, such as Tensile Resistance, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Differential Scanning Calorimetric Analysis (DSC), provide insights into the physical and thermal properties of plastics after microbial treatment. These techniques can reveal changes in plastic structure and stability but are not exclusive indicators of biodegradation

(Tian et al., 2017; Almond et al., 2020). For instance, DSC and FTIR were employed to assess PET degradation by *Pleurotus ostreatus*, demonstrating reduced thermal stability and molecular changes (de Faria et al., 2015). DSC analysis also reveals that degradation typically starts in amorphous regions before affecting crystalline parts, indicating preferential microbial targeting (Tarafdar et al., 2021).

Additional advanced methods include Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC), which evaluates polymer degradation by measuring changes in molecular weight distribution. Faheem et al. (2020) reported a reduction in Mn and Mw in microplastics exposed to biofilms and methane, indicating polymer chain scission. Similarly, SEM-EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) has been used to detect increases in oxygen content on eroded microplastic surfaces, linking elemental changes to microbial degradation processes (Wu et al., 2022).

Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) is another valuable technique for visualizing the extent of microbial colonization and EPS matrix coverage on plastic surfaces (Salomez et al., 2019; Sturm et al., 2022). Changes in surface hydrophilicity can also be tracked using contact angle measurements, providing a simple indicator of increased plastic wettability due to microbial degradation (Sturm et al., 2022).

Each of these methods contributes to a holistic understanding of microbial-mediated plastic degradation, with a combination of techniques often necessary to fully characterize the process.

## 5. Factors influencing microbial bioremediation

Environmental factors, including polymer composition, size, surface area, and functional groups, significantly influence microbial colonization and enzymatic activity (Fig. 3) (Gu, 2007; Mohan, 2011; Yuan et al., 2020). The crystallinity and chemical structure of the polymer play a critical role in determining its susceptibility to microbial attack. Amorphous regions of the polymer degrade more readily than crystalline areas, which are more resistant to enzymatic action. The size and surface area of MPs also directly impact microbial attachment and colonization, affecting degradation efficiency (Sun et al., 2022; Guo et al., 2025).

However, recent research suggests that environmental conditions often exert a greater and more sustained influence on microbial
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3. Factor affecting biodegradation of Microplastic (Bule Možar et al., 2024).</figcaption></figure>

colonization than microplastic physicochemical properties alone, particularly in freshwater and marine ecosystems (Z. Wang et al., 2020; Kesy et al., 2019).

Process conditions such as pH, temperature, agitation speed, salinity, cell density, and humidity are essential for successful biodegradation experiments. Continuous agitation ensures proper aeration for aerobic microorganisms, with the speed depending on the experimental setup, organism type, and nutrient source (Hall et al., 2013). The pH of the medium is a critical parameter, as most bacteria thrive in a neutral range of 5 to 8 (Doelle et al., 2009), while fungi prefer a slightly acidic to neutral range of 3 to 7 (Ali et al., 2017). pH is especially influential in biofilm formation, impacting enzyme activity and mucilage production, which directly affect microplastic degradation (Auta et al., 2018). Nutrient availability, particularly total nitrogen and total phosphorus, significantly enhances biofilm development and microbial degradation rates (Li et al., 2019; Miao et al., 2020).

The surface chemistry and morphology of microplastics particles must support microorganism adhesion and biofilm formation (Bahl et al., 2020). Hydrophobicity is a key factor in adhesion; hydrophobic cells adhere strongly to hydrophobic surfaces, while hydrophilic cells attach better to hydrophilic surfaces (Krasowska and Sigler, 2014). However, the hydrophobic nature of plastics makes adhesion challenging, as most microorganisms are hydrophilic. For instance, bacterial cells are generally hydrophilic, while in fungi, only aerial hyphae and conidia are hydrophobic, whereas yeast cells and vegetative hyphae remain hydrophilic (Bayry et al., 2012).

Salinity has a dual role—it suppresses microbial activity and biofilm growth while enhancing community diversity (Li et al., 2019). Seasonal variation also impacts biofilm characteristics; higher temperatures in summer accelerate microbial metabolism and biofilm thickness (Chen et al., 2019; Jin et al., 2020). Moreover, UV radiation indirectly contributes to biofilm dynamics by altering the molecular structure of microplastics and triggering initial degradation (Royer et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021).

To optimize microplastic degradation, it is crucial to: (1) ensure optimal environmental parameters such as pH, temperature, and UV exposure; (2) modify microplastics to enhance biodegradability by targeting amorphous regions and specific functional groups; (3) pre-treat plastics to alter hydrophobicity and surface roughness; and (4) promote biofilm formation using resilient microbial strains under optimized conditions (Sun et al., 2023; Bule Možar et al., 2024). Understanding these interconnected environmental factors is essential for optimizing bioremediation strategies and addressing microplastic pollution effectively.

## 6. Innovations in bioremediation approaches

Technological advances in bioremediation have significantly enhanced efforts to address the growing microplastic pollution, especially in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Bioaugmentation techniques, applied in systems such as activated sludge, sequencing batch reactors, and membrane bioreactors, have proven effective in improving microplastic removal rates. Additionally, innovations like enzymatic membrane reactors and biological filters further enhance the efficiency of these processes (Tang and Hadibarata, 2022). Beyond conventional methods, photoautotrophic microorganisms, including microalgae and cyanobacteria, offer a promising solution for degrading microplastics while producing valuable byproducts like carbohydrates and lipids through sunlight and CO₂ assimilation. The engineering of strains expressing enzymes such as PET hydrolases has further boosted the efficiency of plastic degradation, with microalgal-bacterial consortia and photo-biocatalytic techniques providing synergistic solutions for tackling microplastics in diverse ecosystems (Barone et al., 2024).

Advanced wastewater treatment technologies, including membrane bioreactors, rapid sand filtration, electrocoagulation, and photocatalytic degradation, have demonstrated remarkable efficacy in the removal of microplastics (Sun et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2019; Lares et al., 2019). Natural bioremediation approaches, such as the use of sea grasses,
lugworms, and blue mussels, show great potential for incorporation into WWTPs as natural microplastic traps, further enhancing microplastic mitigation in aquatic ecosystems (Krishnan et al., 2023). Microbial remediation also plays a vital role in tackling microplastic pollution. Specialized bacterial strains and consortia have been identified to degrade microplastics into eco-friendly byproducts like CO₂, CH₄, and H₂O. Research continues to optimize bacterial formulations and degradation mechanisms to improve efficiency, providing a sustainable and eco-friendly solution for mitigating MPs contamination in aquatic environments (Jeyavani et al., 2021).

In the field of microbial biodegradation, technological advances focus on targeting micro-nano plastics (MNPs) through specialized microbial strains and enzymatic pathways. Innovations in enzymatic degradation, advanced molecular tools, and bio-membrane technologies are advancing MNP removal efficiency in systems like wastewater, municipal sludge, and composting. These eco-friendly technologies offer promising solutions to reduce the biological and environmental impacts of MNP pollution (Zhou et al., 2022). Furthermore, microbial biodegradation of plastics such as PE, PS and PET has been successfully demonstrated, with strategies aiming to provide cost-effective and eco-friendly remediation methods (Wu et al., 2017). Technological advances in the analysis of microplastics also play a crucial role in bioremediation. Modern analytical techniques, including Raman and FT-IR spectroscopies, gas chromatography, and advanced imaging techniques, are being utilized to accurately characterize and track microplastics and nanoplastics in ecosystems. These tools aid in understanding the distribution and interaction of microplastics, supporting the development of more effective remediation strategies, particularly in freshwater environments (Pico et al., 2019). Additionally, new biotechnological strategies, such as the application of surfactant sophorolipid, have shown promise in enhancing the dissipation of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) in soils contaminated with microplastics. This method addresses the negative impact of microplastics on the dissipation of pollutants like tetracycline and ARGs, and highlights the critical role of soil bacteria and phages as reservoirs for ARG transmission (Sun et al., 2018). While bioremediation strategies hold significant promise for managing microplastics, challenges remain due to the stability of these materials and the need for optimal conditions for microbial activity, which are not always achievable in field conditions.

However, with continued research and technological development, bioremediation is emerging as a viable solution to combat microplastic pollution (Shen et al., 2019).

## 7. Omics technologies

Omics technologies have revolutionized bioremediation by providing comprehensive insights into microbial processes involved in addressing Enviornmental challenges, including microplastic pollution (Fig. 4) (Sharma et al., 2022). By utilizing tools such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, these technologies allow the identification of key genes, enzymes, and metabolic pathways critical for plastic degradation (Shafana Farveen and Narayanan, 2024). This integrated approach aids in uncovering novel plastic-degrading microorganisms and understanding their ecological roles, offering promising solutions for mitigating plastic waste in diverse environments (Tiwari et al., 2022). Multi-omics frameworks, when combined with advanced molecular tools, further enhance the design of targeted and efficient strategies for microplastic bioremediation (Zhang et al., 2023).

Genomics serves as the foundational omics technology, providing valuable insights into the genetic blueprints of microorganisms involved in MPs degradation. By sequencing microbial genomes, researchers can identify genes and enzymes that enable plastic degradation. For example, metagenomics allows for the analysis of microbial communities in the plastisphere, uncovering novel organisms and functional genes that were previously inaccessible using traditional culture methods (Tiwari et al., 2022). Studies have identified critical genes in *Thioclava* sp. and *Bacillus* sp. that are involved in the degradation of polyethylene terephthalate (Wright et al., 2021). However, genomic studies face challenges, including incomplete knowledge of gene-enzyme relationships and the difficulty of cultivating diverse microorganisms from the plastisphere (Zhang et al., 2023). Despite these hurdles, genomics has paved the way for identifying novel microbes with high biodegradation potential, underscoring its role in advancing bioremediation.

Transcriptomics builds on genomic insights by examining RNA expression to identify active genes and pathways involved in MPs degradation. This approach provides a dynamic view of microbial responses to environmental conditions and highlights the metabolic

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 4. Omics technologies in microplastic bioremediation.</figcaption></figure>
processes activated during biodegradation. For instance, transcriptomic studies have shown that MPs can trigger pathways such as lipid metabolism and amino acid synthesis in microbial communities (Li et al., 2024). A specific study involving earthworms exposed to biodegradable MPs revealed disruptions in neurotransmission and immune responses, illustrating the molecular-level impact of MPs (Zhao et al., 2024). However, transcriptomics also faces limitations, such as high variability in gene expression under different environmental conditions and the complexity of interactions between MPs and microbial systems. Despite these challenges, transcriptomics remains a powerful tool for uncovering the mechanisms underlying microbial adaptation to MPs.

Proteomics complements genomic and transcriptomic analyses by focusing on proteins expressed by microorganisms, including enzymes directly involved in MPs degradation. This approach is instrumental in identifying functional proteins and understanding their roles in biodegradation pathways. Enzymes such as multi-copper oxidases and hydrophobic surface-binding proteins have been identified as crucial players in the degradation of polyethylene (Siaperas et al., 2024). Proteomics studies have also elucidated mechanisms like PET hydrolysis and alkane oxidation, which are critical for breaking down plastics (Wright et al., 2021). However, challenges persist, such as isolating stable enzymes from environmental samples and achieving sufficient protein yields for detailed analysis. Proteomics thus offers essential insights into the enzymatic machinery of microbial communities, enabling the development of targeted approaches for plastic degradation.

Metabolomics, another pivotal omics approach, focuses on the small molecules produced during microbial biodegradation. By analyzing metabolites, researchers gain real-time insights into microbial metabolic processes and their interactions with MPs. For example, metabolomic studies have revealed that PE microplastics interfere with amino acid synthesis in plant rhizospheres, causing oxidative stress and stunted growth (Li et al., 2024). Additionally, the identification of PET hydrolysis intermediates has confirmed the biodegradation capabilities of marine microbial isolates (Wright et al., 2021). However, challenges in metabolomics include the rapid depletion of metabolites during experiments and the need for sophisticated tools to differentiate MPs-related metabolites from environmental background signals. Nevertheless, metabolomics provides critical information for optimizing microbial consortia and enhancing bioremediation efficiency.

The integration of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics into a multi-omics framework represents a significant advancement in bioremediation research. Multi-omics approaches enable a comprehensive understanding of microbial interactions with MPs, revealing synergistic microbial consortia, novel enzymes, and functional pathways. For instance, multi-omics studies have shown that biodegradable and conventional MPs have distinct impacts on microbial communities, highlighting the complexity of their ecological interactions (Zhao et al., 2024). Multi-omics has also been instrumental in designing synthetic microbial consortia optimized for MPs degradation, combining insights from various omics technologies to enhance efficiency (Zhang et al., 2023). Additionally, integrating multi-omics with synthetic biology and gene-editing tools opens new avenues for engineering microorganisms with superior biodegradation capabilities.

Despite the promise of omics technologies in MPs bioremediation, several challenges remain. Translating laboratory findings into real-world applications is hindered by environmental variability, scalability issues, and ethical concerns regarding the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Furthermore, the complexity of microbial ecosystems and the intricate interactions between MPs and microbial communities necessitate further research. Future directions for omics-driven bioremediation include the development of bioreactors utilizing synthetic microbial consortia, the application of advanced bioinformatics tools for predictive modeling, and the establishment of regulatory frameworks to monitor and mitigate MPs pollution (Bhagat et al., 2022). Omics technologies have undoubtedly revolutionized the field of microplastic bioremediation, offering unprecedented insights into

microbial mechanisms and interactions. As the understanding of microbial ecology and biotechnology deepens, omics-driven strategies hold immense promise for delivering effective solutions to one of the most pressing Environ. Challeng. of our time.

## 8. Mechanism of microplastic degradation by bacteria, fungi, and algae

Microplastic degradation in the environment is a biologically driven, multi-step process that involves microbial colonization, enzymatic activity, and intracellular metabolism. These steps are facilitated and influenced by environmental factors and the physicochemical nature of the plastic polymers. As illustrated in Fig. 5, the process begins with the attachment of bacteria, fungi, or algae to the surface of microplastics, followed by the formation of biofilms that create enzyme-rich micro-environments. Microorganisms then secrete a variety of enzymes—such as esterases, lipases, oxygenases, laccases, and peroxidases—that contribute to the fragmentation and functionalization of plastic polymers. The resulting low-molecular-weight products are assimilated and metabolized into carbon dioxide, water, and biomass. This entire degradation cascade is influenced by environmental factors like nutrient availability, oxygen levels, and polymer surface characteristics, which ultimately determine the extent of microplastic biodegradation. These degradation processes, rooted in enzymatic activity, biofilm development, and microbial metabolism, are broadly applicable but exhibit important differences depending on the polymer type and microbial species involved (Thakur et al., 2023). Enzymatic breakdown is typically mediated by hydrolases, oxidases, and peroxidases. For instance, esterases and lipases target polyester-based plastics, while oxygenases initiate the oxidation of polyolefin-based plastics such as PE and PP, facilitating further degradation (Kothawale et al., 2023). These processes are often enhanced when microorganisms form biofilms on the surface of microplastics, creating microenvironments enriched with enzymes and metabolites that accelerate degradation (Qin et al., 2024; Sooriyakumar et al., 2022). In aquatic environments, periphytic communities—comprising bacteria, fungi, and algae—play a crucial role in plastic degradation by establishing biofilms and secreting oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes (Shabbir et al., 2020).

The biodegradation of PE generally involves enzymatic biofragmentation of high-molecular-weight polymers into smaller fragments, followed by bioassimilation of those with a molar mass <500 g/mol (Bonhomme et al., 2003; Montazer et al., 2019). Many PE-degrading microbes also metabolize long-chain alkanes such as para-n (C44H90), which can be degraded within 20 days (Haines, 1975; El-Shafei et al., 1998). The degradation process begins with hydroxylation of C–C bonds by enzymes such as alkane hydroxylases (AlkBs), leading to alcohols, aldehydes or ketones, and eventually carboxylic acids, which enter the β-oxidation pathway (Yoon et al., 2012). *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* harbors two AlkBs (alkB1 and alkB2), while *Rhodococcus* sp. TMP2 contains five (alkB1–alkB5) (Stempfle et al., 2016). Similarly, AlkB enzymes from *Pseudomonas putida* GPO1 and *P. aeruginosa* strain E7 oxidize terminal carbons, promoting the degradation of low molecular weight PE into carbon dioxide (Rojo, 2009; Yoon et al., 2012). Laccases from strains like *Rhodococcus rubber* also contribute to PE degradation. Interestingly, AlkB enzymes cloned in *Pseudomonas* sp. E4 exhibit degradation activity independently of rubredoxin and rubredoxin reductase, suggesting the potential for engineering microbial strains with enhanced plastic-degrading capabilities (Yoon et al., 2012).

Polypropylene (PP) degradation by bacteria begins with colonization of the polymer surface, often involving *Pseudomonas putida*, *Bacillus cereus*, and *Rhodococcus ruber* (Hadar and Sivan, 2004; Arkatkar et al., 2010). These organisms secrete oxygenases, lipases, and oxidoreductases that introduce functional groups such as hydroxyl and carbonyl moieties, enhancing the polymer’s hydrophilicity and making it more susceptible to enzymatic cleavage. The resulting oligomers and
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5.** Mechanism of microplastic degradation by bacteria, fungi, and algae via biofilm formation, enzymatic action, and intracellular metabolism, influenced by environmental factors.</figcaption></figure>

monomers are then assimilated as carbon and energy sources and ulti-
mately converted into microbial biomass, carbon dioxide, and water
(Hadiyanto et al., 2021; Sponza and Öztekin, 2023). Fungi also degrade
PP by producing extracellular enzymes including laccases, manganese
peroxidases, and lignin peroxidases, which initiate oxidative modifica-
tion and support polymer fragmentation (Bautista-Zamudio et al., 2023;
Khatua et al., 2024; Ong et al., 2024). Algae contribute to PP degrada-
tion through secretion of oxygenases and hydrolases that oxidize the
polymer surface and promote subsequent microbial attack (Hadiyanto
et al., 2021).

PS degradation by bacteria involves surface colonization followed by
enzymatic oxidation, which introduces reactive functional groups that
aid in fragmentation into styrene oligomers or monomers, which are
metabolized further (Mor and Sivan, 2008; Parthasarathy et al., 2022).
Algae also secrete extracellular enzymes such as oxygenases and hy-
drolases that catalyze oxidation of PS surfaces, making them more
amenable to microbial degradation (Gowthami et al., 2025).

9. Microbial degradation of polyethylene (PE)

PE pose a significant environmental challenge; however, recent
research highlights the potential of microorganisms, including bacteria,
fungi, and microalgae, to degrade these plastics, providing promising
solutions to mitigate plastic pollution (Table-1). *Paenibacillus* sp.,
exhibited measurable degradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE),
confirmed through techniques like SEM and FTIR (Bardají et al., 2019).

Similarly, *Acinetobacter bumannii* showed significant biomass production when incubated at 37 °C, with degradation of non-pretreated polyethylene analyzed by GC-MS and FTIR (Pramila et al., 2015). *Bacillus cereus* strain A5 demonstrated a 35.72 % weight reduction of LDPE, with the process analyzed using weight loss methods and FTIR (Muhonja et al., 2018). Other bacteria such as *Pseudomonas* and *Cellulosimicrobium* also displayed degradation capabilities by breaking down hydrocarbons and forming functional groups like aldehydes, ethers, and carboxyls (Muhonja et al., 2018). Bacterial consortia like *Aneurinibacillus aneurinilyticus* btDSCE01 achieved the highest weight reduction (58.21 %) in LDPE strips and pellets, utilizing techniques such as FTIR, SEM, and GC-MS for analysis (Skariyachan et al., 2018). Additionally, *Alcanivorax borkumensis* formed biofilms on LDPE, further contributing to the degradation of this petroleum-derived plastic (Delacuvellerie et al., 2019).

Fungi have also shown significant potential in polyethylene degra-
dation (Table-1). *Aspergillus fumigatus* degraded both poly-
hydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyethylene at 45 °C, achieving nearly
complete degradation in just 17 h (Jung et al., 2018). Species such as
*Penicillium oxalicum* NS4 and *Penicillium chrysogenum* NS10 were able to
degrade LDPE and HDPE plastic sheets over a 90-day period, with
morphological changes monitored through FE-SEM and AFM (Ojha
et al., 2017b). *Aspergillus clavatus* exhibited polyethylene degradation in
aqueous media, with significant weight loss and CO₂ production
(Gajendiran et al., 2016). *Trichoderma harzianum* achieved 40 %
degradation of treated polyethylene, analyzed using SEM, FTIR, and
NMR (Sowmya et al., 2014). Additionally, *Aspergillus flavus* showed a 16 % reduction in the molecular weight of polyethylene, with SEM analysis confirming its degradation (Deepika and Madhuri, 2015). *Aspergillus terreus* achieved up to 21.8 % weight loss of polyethylene, supported by SEM and FTIR data (Alshehrei, 2017).

Microalgae have also demonstrated the ability to degrade polyethylene (Table-1). *Scenedesmus dimorphus*, a green alga, grew on LDPE sheets, causing both erosion and degradation. *Anabaena spiroides*, a blue-green alga, showed the highest degradation of LDPE (8.18 %), confirmed through SEM and transverse section analysis (Kumar et al., 2017). Additionally, *Phaeodactylum tricornutum*, engineered to produce PETase, an enzyme capable of degrading PET, contributed to degradation in saltwater environments (Moog et al., 2019). Cyanobacteria like *Phor-midium lucidum* and *Oscillatoria subbrevis* also efficiently degraded LDPE, resulting in noticeable structural and chemical changes in the plastic (Sarmah and Rout, 2018).

## 10. Microbial degradation of polypropylene (PP)

PP is widely utilized in packaging, textiles, and automotive components but is non-biodegradable, causing significant Environ. Pollut. (L. Wang et al., 2020; Hossain et al., 2024). However, some bacterial species have demonstrated potential for degrading polypropylene under controlled conditions (Table-2). Despite the potential, the degradation process is slow, and large-scale applications face challenges related to optimizing bacterial growth conditions (Auta et al., 2018).

Fungi such as *Aspergillus niger*, *Aspergillus flavus*, and *Penicillium chrysogenum* have been identified as effective polypropylene degraders in laboratory studies (Sabellico et al., 2025). The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by these fungi further accelerates the degradation process by oxidizing the polymer more efficiently. The degradation leads to the formation of smaller molecules like organic acids, which are subsequently metabolized into carbon dioxide, water, and fungal biomass (Samat et al., 2023). Although fungal degradation offers a potential solution to polypropylene pollution, challenges such as slow degradation rates and the need for optimal environmental conditions remain. Ongoing research is focused on improving fungal enzyme production and exploring synergistic interactions with bacterial communities to enhance degradation efficiency (Pallavi et al., 2023).

Research into algal degradation of polypropylene is still emerging, with microalgae showing potential for polymer degradation due to their enzymatic capabilities and eco-friendly nature. Microalgal species such as *Chlorella vulgaris* and *Spirulina* sp. have been studied for their ability to degrade plastics (Table 2). These algae can form biofilms on the polymer surface, promoting localized degradation through enzyme secretion. Additionally, algae secrete ROS, which enhance the degradation process by further oxidizing the polymer (Khoironi et al., 2019). Algal degradation also benefits from the natural synergy between algae and bacteria, as algae can support bacterial growth and activity, facilitating a combined degradation process (Sponza and Öztekin, 2023). The potential for algae to contribute to sustainable plastic waste management is further supported by their ability to grow in diverse environments, including wastewater and nutrient-deficient habitats, while capturing carbon dioxide through photosynthesis (Parit et al., 2023). However, the degradation rate remains slow, and further optimization is required for practical applications. Future research aims to identify more efficient algal strains and improve enzyme production to accelerate the degradation process (Sponza and Öztekin, 2023).

## 11. Microbial degradation of polystyrene (PS)

PS is a widely used plastic, particularly in packaging and disposable products, known for its high resistance to natural degradation, which poses significant Environ. Challeng. (Chaukura et al., 2016; Muthukumar et al., 2024). However, recent research (Ho et al., 2018; Hou and Majumder, 2021) has demonstrated that certain bacterial strains can

<table><caption>**Table 2**
Bacterial, fungal and algal degradation of polypropylene.</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Bacterial Degradation of Polypropylene</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas sp. ADL15</td><td>17.3 % weight loss of PP after 40 days, significant functional group changes</td><td>Growth on PP microplastics in Bushnell Haas medium, weight loss, FTIR analysis</td><td>Habib et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Rhodococcus sp. ADL36</td><td>7.3 % weight loss of PP after 40 days, significant functional group changes</td><td>Growth on PP in Bushnell Haas medium, weight loss, FTIR analysis</td><td>Habib et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus sp. strain 27</td><td>4.0 % weight loss of PP after 40 days, structural and morphological changes observed</td><td>Growth on PP, weight loss, FTIR and SEM analysis</td><td>Auta et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Rhodococcus sp. strain 36</td><td>6.4 % weight loss of PP after 40 days, structural and morphological changes observed</td><td>Growth on PP, weight loss, FTIR and SEM analysis</td><td>Auta et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas sp. ADL15</td><td>17.3 % weight loss of PP after 40 days, significant functional group changes</td><td>Growth on PP in Bushnell Haas medium, weight loss, FTIR analysis</td><td>Habib et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus paramycoides</td><td>78.99 % weight loss of PP after 21 days, formation of new functional groups, biofilm formation</td><td>Growth on polypropylene microplastics in shake flask, weight loss, surface area changes, functional group formation</td><td>Nanthini Devi et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus cereus</td><td>63.08 % weight loss of PP after 21 days, formation of new functional groups, biofilm formation</td><td>Growth on PP in shake flask, weight loss, surface area changes, functional group formation</td><td>Nanthini Devi et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus cereus &amp; Bacillus paramycoides (combined)</td><td>78.62 % weight loss of PP after 21 days, formation of new functional groups, biofilm formation</td><td>Growth on PP in shake flask, weight loss, surface area changes, functional group formation</td><td>Nanthini Devi et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Fungal Degradation of Polypropylene</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Coniocheta hoffmannii</td><td>Degradation of pure PP with distinct bond alterations, colonization of plastic fibers</td><td>Growth on PP films, SEM, Raman spectroscopy, FTIR-ATR analysis, whole genome and transcriptome sequencing, enzymatic assays</td><td>Porter et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Pleurostoma richardsiae</td><td>Degradation of pure PP with distinct bond alterations, colonization of plastic fibers</td><td>Growth on PP films, SEM, Raman spectroscopy, FTIR-ATR analysis, whole genome and transcriptome sequencing, enzymatic assays</td><td>Porter et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Ascotricha sinuosa SPF21</td><td>25 % weight loss of PP after 90 days, surface pore formation, changes in hydrophilicity and functional groups</td><td>Mass loss, FTIR analysis, contact angle measurement, SEM analysis</td><td>Pallavi et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Bjerkandera adusta</td><td>Degradation of PP/ biomass composites, formation of</td><td>SEM analysis, atomic force microscopy, FTIR analysis, contact angle measurements,</td><td>Butnaru et al., 2016</td></tr></tbody></table>

(continued on next page)
<table><caption>**Table 2 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Staphylococcus sp.</td><td>cracks and scrap particles</td><td>rheological and chemiluminescence tests</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus fumigatus</td><td>18.08 % degradation of PP after 6 months of incubation</td><td>In vitro broth conditions, weight loss percentage, SEM analysis, FTIR analysis</td><td>Oliya et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Penicillium sp. 1, Aspergillus sp., Penicillium levitum, Talaromyces louisianensis, Aspergillus tamarii, Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Aspergillus niger</td><td>18.08 % degradation of PP after 6 months of incubation</td><td>In vitro broth conditions, weight loss percentage, SEM analysis, FTIR analysis</td><td>Oliya et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus terreus ATCC 20,542, Engyodontium album BRIP 61534a</td><td>High laccase and manganese peroxidase activity, growth on PP as sole carbon source</td><td>Bushnell Haas Broth for detecting laccase and MnP activity, PP degradation</td><td>Ong et al., 2024</td></tr><tr><td>Kluyveromyces lactis (yeast expressing fungal recombinant laccase)</td><td>Change, and utilise PP as a carbon source, with pre-treatment aid; exhibited notable weight loss (25.29 % and 22.13 % for UV and heat-treated MFPP, respectively).</td><td>PP granule, and metallised film pre-treated by UV, heat, or Fenton's reagent; biomass production, reduction rate, FTIR, and SEM analyses.</td><td>Samat et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Cladosporium halotolerans</td><td>Induces oxidation of PP film, increases water wettability, and modifies the polymer surface (formation of humped and exfoliated regions).</td><td>Laccase redox mediators ABTS and DMP used to induce oxidation of PP in aerobic conditions. Laccase produced by recombinant yeast.</td><td>Sabellico et al., 2025</td></tr><tr><td>Lasiodiplodia theobromae</td><td>Degradation of PP in aqueous medium; weight loss of 4.2 % (untreated), 6.1 % (UV-exposed), and 8.6 % (sunlight-exposed).</td><td>Incubation for 8 months, FTIR spectroscopy to analyze degradation, no physical treatment or UV light exposure.</td><td>Parit et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Algal Degradation of Polypropylene</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella vulgaris</td><td>PP microplastic degradation</td><td>Removal of PP MPs using microalgae biomass under aerobic and anaerobic conditions</td><td>Sponza and Öztekin, 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Spirulina sp.</td><td>PP microplastic degradation; decreased phycocyanin yield by 8.7 %, decreased protein content by 0.108 %, surface damage to Spirulina sp. Cells</td><td>Interaction of Spirulina sp. with PP microplastics (500 mg/500 mL) in culture, FTIR, SEM, EDX analysis</td><td>Hadiyanto et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Spirulina sp.</td><td>PP microplastic degradation; decreased tensile strength of PP by</td><td>Interaction of Spirulina sp. with PP microplastics (1 mm, 150–275 mg/500</td><td>Khoironi et al., 2019</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>**Table 2 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td>0.1977 MPa/day, carbon decrease of 36.7 %, growth rate reduction by 75 % with increasing microplastic concentration</td><td>mL), EDX, FTIR analysis</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

degrade polystyrene under specific conditions, offering an eco-friendly approach to managing this persistent pollutant Table 3 (Miloloza et al., 2022). Notable bacterial species capable of degrading polystyrene include *Pseudomonas putida*, *Exiguobacterium* sp., and *Bacillus cereus*. These microorganisms have demonstrated the ability to break down polystyrene in various forms, including expanded polystyrene foam. *Exiguobacterium* sp., for example, degrades polystyrene through a pathway involving an atypical oxygenase and a hydrolase (Parthasarathy et al., 2022). Similarly, *Bacillus cereus* and *Pseudomonas alcaligenes* have been identified as effective PS degraders, with studies highlighting the influence of environmental factors such as agitation speed, PS size, and concentration on biodegradation efficiency (Miloloza et al., 2022). In some instances, bacterial degradation is enhanced through pretreatment methods such as UV radiation or chemical oxidation, which increase the material's susceptibility to microbial attack. For instance, UV treatment of polystyrene has been shown to make it more amenable to microbial colonization and degradation (Chaudhary et al., 2021). Despite the promise of bacterial degradation, the process is relatively slow and requires optimal environmental conditions, including temperature, oxygen levels, and moisture (Jiang et al., 2021). Ongoing research is focusing on improving bacterial efficiency through genetic engineering, optimizing microbial consortia, and exploring synergistic interactions with other organisms, which could eventually lead to a more rapid and efficient degradation process (Xiang et al., 2023).

Fungal degradation of PS has emerged as another potential biological solution to the growing problem of plastic waste (Umamaheswari and Murali, 2013; Srikanth et al., 2022). Fungi are capable of degrading this resistant polymer, offering an eco-friendly alternative to traditional waste management methods (Chaudhary and Vijayakumar 2020). The degradation process begins when fungi colonize the surface of polystyrene and secrete extracellular enzymes such as lignin peroxidases, laccases, and esterases. These enzymes catalyze the oxidation and hydrolysis of the polystyrene chains, introducing functional groups like hydroxyl and carbonyl groups. This transformation increases the polymer's hydrophilicity, breaking it down into smaller fragments that are easier for fungi to metabolize (Osorio et al., 2024). Fungal species such as *Aspergillus niger*, *Penicillium simplicissimum*, and *Fusarium solani* have demonstrated the capacity to degrade polystyrene. Some fungi can adhere to the surface of polystyrene foam, producing biofilms that enhance enzymatic activity and accelerate the degradation process. The fragmented products, including styrene monomers, can then be utilized by the fungi as carbon sources for growth (Akerele et al., 2021). However, the degradation rate is relatively slow, and challenges remain in optimizing the environmental conditions, such as temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability, for large-scale applications (Chaudhary et al., 2021).

Although research on algal degradation of polystyrene is still emerging, certain algae species have shown potential in breaking down this polymer, providing a promising eco-friendly solution to plastic pollution. Microalgae such as *Chlorella vulgaris* and *Scenedesmus* have been explored for their role in degrading polystyrene. These algae form biofilms on the surface of polystyrene, which promotes localized degradation. The process is further enhanced when algae coexist with
<table><caption>**Table 3**
Bacterial, fungal and algal degradation of polystyrene.</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Bacterial Degradation of Polystyrene</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Bacillus velezensis</td><td>Maximum weight loss of PS microplastics: 43.5 ± 0.8 % after 60 days (half-life: 74.9 d)</td><td>SEM, FTIR, thermogravimetric analysis, high-temperature gel chromatography</td><td>Xiang et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Acinetobacter radioresistens</td><td>Maximum weight loss of PS microplastics: 16.7 ± 0.6 % after 60 days (half-life: 251.1 d)</td><td>SEM, FTIR, thermogravimetric analysis, high-temperature gel chromatography</td><td>Xiang et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>S. maltophilia, B. velezensis, and A. radioresistens</td><td>Weight loss of PS microplastics: 17.0 ± 0.2 % after 60 days (half-life: 224.2 d)</td><td>SEM, FTIR, thermogravimetric analysis, high-temperature gel chromatography</td><td>Xiang et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus cereus CH6</td><td>10.7 % weight loss in 50 days; 0.967 mg/day degradation rate</td><td>Surface morphology analysis, protein concentration changes, and esterase activity monitoring</td><td>Yuan et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas lini JNU01 and Acinetobacter johnsonii JNU01</td><td>Growth increased &gt;3-fold in the presence of PS; oxidized PS confirmed by FTIR</td><td>FTIR, scanning electron microscopy, water contact angle measurements, and bioinformatics analysis</td><td>Kim et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Lysinibacillus sp. PS-L and Pseudomonas sp. PS-P</td><td>Maximum weight loss: 2.25 % (film) and 6.99 % (microplastic) in 30 days</td><td>FTIR, water contact angle, quantitative PCR, genome annotation</td><td>Wang et al., 2024</td></tr><tr><td>Gordonia sp. and Novosphingobium sp.</td><td>Degradation rates ranged from 2.7 % to 7.7 % after one month</td><td>SEM, ATR-FTIR, contact angle analysis</td><td>Liu et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp.</td><td>Bacillus spp.: 23 % weight loss of HIPS film in 30 days; 94 % turbidity reduction in 4 days</td><td>NMR, FTIR, SEM, HPLC, TGA, TTC assay</td><td>Mohan et al., 2016</td></tr><tr><td>Enterobacter colebella (Klebsiella) (strain PD-1)</td><td>1.8 % weight loss on PS film (untreated); 2.5 % (nitric acid-treated PS film)</td><td>UV and nitric acid pretreatment, strain isolation, physiological and biochemical assays</td><td>Zheyu et al., 2024</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus spp., Burkholderia, Moraxella</td><td>Bacillus spp.: 0.12–0.78 % degradation after 30 days, 0.21–2.15 % after 60 days</td><td>FTIR, contact angle analysis, biofilm formation, bacterial growth on PS surfaces</td><td>Šunta et al., 2025</td></tr><tr><td>Stenotrophomonas indicatrix (strain DAI2m/c)</td><td>Greatest PS degradation potential, involved in styrene degradation pathways</td><td>Genome sequencing, enzyme-encoding gene analysis</td><td>Zarra et al., 2025</td></tr><tr><td>Brevibacterium sp. EDX</td><td>Most efficient PS-degrading strain based on surface morphology and chemical modification</td><td>SEM, FTIR, WCA analysis, biofilm formation</td><td>Arunrattiyakorn et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td>Acinetobacter sp. AnTc-1</td><td>PS-degrading capacity, reduced mass weight and molecular weight of PS</td><td>GPC, 1H NMR, TGA, SEM, mass and molecular weight reduction</td><td>Z. Wang et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus sp. ITP 10.1.1</td><td>PS-degrading capacity, 29 % weight reduction</td><td>Enrichment method, spread plate, SEM, weight reduction calculation</td><td>Ruslan et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Massilia sp. FS1903</td><td>PS-degrading capacity, 12.97 % weight loss after 30 days</td><td>SEM, X-ray energy dispersive spectrometry, water contact angle assay, XPS</td><td>Jiang et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Exiguobacterium sp. RIT 594</td><td>PS degradation through orphan aromatic ring-cleaving dioxygenase and hydrolase, oxygen-dependent</td><td>FTIR spectroscopy, genome annotation, oxygen-deprivation experiments</td><td>Parthasarathy et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas alcaligenes, Bacillus cereus</td><td>PS biodegradation influenced by agitation speed, PS size, and optical density</td><td>Full factorial design, RSM methodology, CFU, TOC, TIC analysis, FTIR-ATR spectroscopy</td><td>Milolozova et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Fungal Degradation of Polystyrene</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillium spp., Geomyces sp., Mortierella sp.</td><td>Degradation of polystyrene</td><td>FTIR, Weight Loss Analysis, Artificial Aging Chamber</td><td>Oviedo-Anchundia et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Cephalosporium sp., Mucor sp.</td><td>Degradation of polystyrene</td><td>FTIR, SEM, TGA, GC-MS, Gel Permeation Chromatography</td><td>Chaudhary and Vijayakumar 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Bacterial and fungal isolates (Tropical)</td><td>PS degradation resulted in weight reduction from 1 g to 0.7 g over 7 weeks; removal of toxic constituents like O-xylene, cis-9-hexadecenal, and 3-phenol pentadecyl</td><td>GCMS, Weight Loss Analysis, One-Way ANOVA</td><td>Akerele et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Cephalosporium strain NCIM 1251</td><td>UV and chemical pre-treatment enhanced PS degradation; 20.62 ± 1.47 % weight reduction in 8 weeks; changes in pH, TDS, conductivity, and thermal stability observed.</td><td>FTIR, Gravimetric Study, SEM, TGA</td><td>Chaudhary et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Acremonium sclerotigenum</td><td>10 % weight loss by co-culture</td><td>Biofilm formation, Weight Loss, SEM, FTIR</td><td>Safdar et al., 2024</td></tr><tr><td>Penicillium variabile</td><td>Mineralized [U-ring-14C]-PS and [β-14C]-PS; ozonation pretreatment enhanced mineralization of [β-14C]-PS. Surface roughness and reduced molecular weight observed.</td><td>14CO2 capture, SEM, FTIR, GPC</td><td>Tian et al., 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus niger</td><td>Degraded medium-density EPS sheets by 2.12 % over 30 days using crude enzymatic extracts. Structural losses observed microscopically.</td><td>Enzymatic extracts from cassava peel substrate, SDS PAGE</td><td>Osorio et al., 2024</td></tr><tr><td>Xylaria sp. SDM (wild type and mutant strains)</td><td>Demonstrated fungal colonization and physical damage (holes, cracks, crevices) on polystyrene after 50 days of incubation.</td><td>SEM</td><td>Abecia et al., 2019</td></tr><tr><td>Gloeophyllum trabeum</td><td>Degrades PS</td><td>Size exclusion chromatography</td><td>Krueger et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Algal Degradation of Polystyrene</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Marine microalgae: Synechocystis sp., Amphora sp., Picochlorum maculatum, Dunaliella salina, Navicula sp., Limnospira indica</td><td>Degradation of polystyrene microplastics (PS MPs) by biofilm formation, structural damage (pits, erosion), and laccase-driven enzymatic breakdown. Synechocystis sp. showed maximum weight loss of 23.2 ± 0.21 %, while Amphora sp. had a minimum weight loss of 11.3 ± 0.026 %. The reduction rate for Synechocystis sp. was 0.0058 g/day, with a half-life of 119.34 days.</td><td>Weight reduction, ATR-FTIR (chemical modification confirmation), SEM (surface damage analysis), and molecular docking (laccase interaction with PS derivatives).</td><td>Gowthami et al., 2025.</td></tr></tbody></table>
bacteria, forming a symbiotic relationship in which the microbial con-
sortia work together to break down polystyrene into smaller fragments,
making it more accessible for biodegradation (Safdar et al., 2024). The
advantages of algal degradation include the algae's ability to grow in
diverse environments, such as wastewater or nutrient-poor settings, and
their capacity to sequester carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
(Gowthami et al., 2025). However, like bacterial and fungal degrada-
tion, the process remains slow, and further research is needed to opti-
mize this method for large-scale applications.

12. Microbial degradation of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

PVC, one of the most widely used synthetic polymers, poses signifi-
cant Enviornmental challenges due to its high resistance to natural
degradation. In recent years, microbial degradation has emerged as a
promising eco-friendly approach for PVC bioremediation. Various bac-
teria and fungi have demonstrated the capacity to degrade PVC (Table 4)
Pseudomonas citronellolis and Bacillus flexus have been shown to degrade
PVC by utilizing enzymes like esterases and dehalogenases, which cleave
the carbon-chlorine bonds in the polymer (Giacomucci et al., 2019).
Pseudomonas citronellolis, for example, uses the chlorine atoms in PVC,
forming less toxic byproducts (Giacomucci et al., 2019). Studies also
suggest that bacteria can accelerate degradation by forming biofilms on
PVC, increasing enzyme concentration on the polymer surface
(Khandare et al., 2021). Bacterial consortia from marine environments
have also demonstrated the ability to degrade PVC. Citrobacter koseri,
isolated from the gut of superworms (Zophobas atratus), showed prom-
ising results in PVC degradation (Nyamjav et al., 2023). Furthermore,
Bacillus toyonensis, identified for its PVC-degrading properties, has been
studied for its potential in bioremediation (Wang et al., 2024). Although
bacterial degradation rates are typically slow, factors such as tempera-
ture, moisture, and nutrients significantly influence the efficiency of the
process.

Fungal degradation is generally slower than bacterial degradation but offers an advantage in nutrient-deficient or wastewater environments, making it a viable option for bioremediation (Vivi et al., 2019). Fungal species have also shown potential for degrading PVC, mainly through enzymatic action. Fungi like Aspergillus niger and Penicillium simplicissimum can secrete enzymes such as esterases and laccases that break down the chlorine-carbon bonds in PVC (El-Dash et al., 2023). Similar to bacteria, fungi can enhance degradation by forming biofilms, increasing enzyme activity on the polymer's surface (Bule Mozar et al., 2024). Additionally, oxidative stress and the production of ROS by fungi may contribute to PVC breakdown (El-Dash et al., 2023). Algal degradation of PVC, though less studied, is an emerging area of research. Algae can indirectly contribute to PVC degradation by secreting bioactive compounds and forming biofilms.

13. Microbial degradation of polylactic acid (PLA)

Several bacterial strains have demonstrated high efficacy in PLA
degradation (Table 5). Pseudomonas geniculata and Serratia marcescens
produce proteases and lipases that hydrolyze PLA into lactic acid
monomers, which can be utilized as carbon sources (El-Meihy, 2016;
Bubpachat et al., 2018). Similarly, Bacillus safensis and Bacillus altitudinis
possess PLA depolymerases that facilitate weight loss and surface
etching of PLA films, showing potential for biotechnological applica-
tions (Wang et al., 2023; Bordel et al., 2023). In compost systems,
Nocardiopsis chromatogenes effectively degrades PLA at moderate tem-
peratures, indicating its adaptability to diverse environments
(Kawashima et al., 2022). Environmental factors such as pH, moisture,
and nutrient availability significantly influence PLA biodegradation.
Neutral pH and moderate soil moisture enhance bacterial activity, while
nitrogen sources like soytone boost degradation rates under soil and
submerged conditions (Pattanasuttichonlakul et al., 2018; Zhang et al.,
2022). Coculture systems, such as Pseudomonas mendocina with

<table><caption>**Table 4**

Bacterial and fungal degradation of polyvinyl chloride.</caption>
  <thead>
    <tr>
      <th>Microorganism</th>
      <th>Biodegradation Potential</th>
      <th>Method Used</th>
      <th>References</th>
    </tr>
  </thead>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td colspan="4"><strong>Bacterial Degradation of Polyvinyl Chloride</strong></td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Vibrio sp.,<br/>Alteromonas<br/>sp., Cobetia sp.</td>
      <td>Degradation of PVC using esterase enzyme. Esterase activity was highest in Cobetia sp. (223.70 U mg<sup>-1</sup>), followed by Vibrio sp. (58.62 U mg<sup>-1</sup>) and Alteromonas sp. (42.35 U mg<sup>-1</sup>). Other enzymes like lipase, laccase, and manganese peroxidase were negligible in comparison. Enzyme stability was observed at pH 6.0-7.5, temperature 30-35 °C, and salinity 3-3.5 M.</td>
      <td>Plate assay for esterase production, enzyme activity assay, and Sephadex G-50 column purification to isolate and purify esterase enzyme.</td>
      <td>Khandare et al., 2025.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Bacillus<br/>toyonensis<br/>Cbmb3</td>
      <td>Degradation of PVC using genes encoding enzymes identified through genome sequencing. Strain isolated from farmland soil utilizing PVC as the sole carbon source. The genome contains 5835 open reading frames with a GC content of 35.45 %, revealing genes involved in PVC degradation and phytoprobiotic properties.</td>
      <td>Isolation from farmland soil, complete genome sequencing (circular chromosome, 5768,926 bp), bioinformatic analysis for enzyme-coding genes and phylogenomic characterization.</td>
      <td>Wang et al., 2024.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Bacterial<br/>Consortia I &amp; II</td>
      <td>Indigenously developed bacterial consortia (Pseudomonas otitidis, Bacillus cereus, and Acanthopleurobacter pedis) were compared for their ability to degrade PVC. Consortium II was more effective in degrading PVC, utilizing scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, FT-IR spectra, and gel permeation chromatography to analyze the degradation process.</td>
      <td>Use of bacterial consortia from waste disposal sites, 16S rDNA sequencing, progressive degradation analysis using multiple characterization methods (SEM, AFM, UV-Vis, FT-IR, DSC, GPC).</td>
      <td>Anwar et al., 2016.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Bacterial<br/>Consortium<br/>EF1</td>
      <td>Enriched from the gut of Tenebrio molitor larvae, this consortium efficiently degrades additive-free PVC. Degradation involved mass reduction, dechlorination, and biofilm formation. The intermediates identified include</td>
      <td>Enrichment from insect gut, characterization of bio-treated PVC using atomic force microscopy, SEM, FT-IR spectroscopy, DSC, and ion chromatography, with identification of degradation</td>
      <td>Xu et al., 2023</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>

(continued on next page)
<table><caption>Table 4 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Klebsiella sp. EMBL-1</td><td>medium-chain aliphatic alcohols and fatty acids. Isolated from the gut of Spodoptera frugiperda larvae, Klebsiella sp. is able to depolymerize and utilize PVC as the sole energy source. Proteomic, transcriptomic, and genomic analysis identified genes involved in PVC degradation, including catalase-peroxidase and dehalogenases.</td><td>intermediates via GC-MS. Isolation from insect gut, multi-omic analysis (genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic), enzymatic assays for catalase-peroxidase.</td><td>Zhang et al., 2022.</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas citronellolis</td><td>Degradation of PVC films. Biofilm formation and modifications in FTIR spectra of biomass-free PVC films. The polymer's molecular weight decreased by 10% after 45 days of incubation.</td><td>FTIR spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, gravimetric weight loss analysis of PVC films, and microbial degradation assays.</td><td>Giacomucci et al., 2019.</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus flexus</td><td>Degradation of PVC films, similar to Pseudomonas citronellolis. Degradation involved biofilm formation and modifications in FTIR spectra. PVC fragmentation was observed after 45 days.</td><td>FTIR spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, gravimetric weight loss analysis of PVC films, and microbial degradation assays.</td><td>Giacomucci et al., 2019.</td></tr><tr><td>Vibrio, Alteromonas, Cobetia</td><td>Bioremediation of PVC using marine bacteria. PVC degradation led to biofilm formation, weight loss, and dechlorination, confirmed by SEM, AFM, and FTIR.</td><td>Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), FTIR spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, tensile strength, contact angle measurements.</td><td>Khandare et al., 2021.</td></tr><tr><td>Marine bacterial consortia (enriched from marine samples)</td><td>Biodegradation of PVC under anaerobic conditions. After 7 months, biofilms were observed on PVC, with a weight loss of up to 11.7%.</td><td>Microbial consortia enrichment, anaerobic microcosms, FTIR spectroscopy, gravimetric weight loss, microbial community analysis.</td><td>Giacomucci et al., 2020.</td></tr><tr><td>Citrobacter koseri</td><td>Biodegradation of PVC by Citrobacter koseri isolated from superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae). The bacteria were capable of oxidation of PVC, leading to the formation of carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.</td><td>XPS, FTIR, FE-SEM, and EDS analysis of the PVC surface, as well as comparison with gut microbiota degradation.</td><td>Nyamjav et al., 2023.</td></tr><tr><td>Fungal Degradation of Polyvinyl Chloride Chaetomium globosum</td><td>Minimal biodegradation of PVC.</td><td>Inoculation of polymer samples with fungal inoculum (10<sup>6</sup> spores) and</td><td>Vivi et al. (2019)</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 4 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Aspergillus brasiliensis</td><td>limited PVC degradation.</td><td>incubation at 28 °C for 28 days. Morphological, mass loss, OM, and SEM analysis.</td><td>Vivi et al. (2019)</td></tr><tr><td>Malassezia species</td><td>Promising PVC biodegradation using weight reduction and SEM analysis.</td><td>Similar methods as above, with ISO 846-1978 standards. Soil isolates were incubated; optimal conditions included 40 °C, acidic pH, and FeCl<sub>3</sub>-enhanced depolymerase activity.</td><td>El-Dash et al. (2023)</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus fumigatus</td><td>Effective PVC degradation under optimized conditions.</td><td>Similar to Malassezia species with weight reduction, SEM, and depolymerase activity analysis.</td><td>El-Dash et al. (2023)</td></tr><tr><td>Candida parapsilosis</td><td>Enhanced biodegradation of PVC</td><td>UV-C/H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and UV-C/S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub><sup>2-</sup> pretreatment followed by biodegradation experiments under specific pH and agitation conditions.</td><td>Bule Mozar et al. (2024)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Actinomucor elegans, synergistically enhance PLA degradation by producing complementary enzymes (Jia et al., 2021). Furthermore, Papilio trea laurentii, a fungal strain, demonstrates simultaneous degradation of PLA and PBAT blends, highlighting its versatility in bioremediation (Wang et al., 2024). Bacterial colonization on PLA surfaces results in biofilm formation, increasing hydrophilicity and promoting ester bond hydrolysis. This activity alters PLA's mechanical properties and produces degradation byproducts like lactic acid and terephthalic acid, which are further metabolized by microbial communities (Sun et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2024). Advanced genomic analyses, such as for Bacillus altitudinis, reveal a rich enzymatic arsenal for PLA breakdown, underscoring its potential for industrial applications (Bordel et al., 2023). The synergistic effects of bacterial consortia, optimized environmental conditions, and novel microbial isolates underscore promising strategies for PLA biodegradation. Further research into genetic and enzymatic pathways will enhance the scalability of these methods for sustainable waste management.

Fungal degradation of PLA has garnered significant attention due to its potential to address the environmental burden of biodegradable plastics. Studies have highlighted various fungal species capable of degrading PLA under specific conditions. Stol器u et al. (2017) demonstrated that Phanerochaete chrysosporium, a white-rot fungus, can degrade PLA-based materials. The fungus attached to PLA surfaces, enhancing degradation through enzymatic activity, as evidenced by increased crystallinity and reduced molecular weight of the polymer. Gamma irradiation and plasma treatment further facilitated fungal colonization and degradation by increasing surface roughness and protein concentration. Saadi et al. (2012) emphasized the critical role of temperature in fungal degradation kinetics, with compost environments at 58 °C enabling synergistic fungal and bacterial activity. The study revealed hydrolysis and mineralization as key stages in the biodegradation process, supported by molecular and thermal analyses. Karimi-Avargani et al. (2020) investigated Aspergillus flavus and its enzymes in PLA and PLA-jute composites, finding substantial reductions in molecular weight and thickness. The inclusion of jute appeared to accelerate PLA degradation due to enzymatic synergy. Chai et al. (2022) showed that Aspergillus niger caused notable degradation in wheat straw/PLA composites, particularly with increased sodium alginate
<table><caption>**Table 5**
Bacterial, fungal and algal degradation of polylactic acid.</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Bacterial Degradation of Polylactic Acid</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Stenotrophomonas pavanii</td><td>PLA degradation, protease production</td><td>PLA-degrading enzyme production on emulsified PLA agar at mesophilic conditions</td><td>Bubpachat et al. (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas geniculate</td><td>PLA degradation, PLA-degrading enzyme production</td><td>PLA-degrading enzyme production on emulsified PLA agar at mesophilic conditions</td><td>Bubpachat et al. (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas</td><td>PLA/PBAT degradation in soil</td><td>Microcosm soil incubation with varying moisture and pH; microbiome analysis via 16S rRNA sequencing</td><td>Zhang et al. (2022)</td></tr><tr><td>Chryseobacterium sp., Sphingobacterium sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa</td><td>PLA degradation at ambient temperature</td><td>PLA degradation rate measurement through molecular weight reduction, biofilm formation on PLA</td><td>Satti et al. (2017)</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus safensis PLA1006</td><td>PLA degradation, protease and lipase production</td><td>PLA growth on emulsion medium, weight loss measurement, SEM analysis, FTIR analysis</td><td>Wang et al. (2023)</td></tr><tr><td>Microbial consortium (including Actinomadura)</td><td>PLA and cPLA degradation</td><td>UV-C irradiation and burial in soil with microbial consortium from dairy wastewater sludge</td><td>Pattanasuttichonlakul et al. (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas geniculata WS3</td><td>PLA biodegradation enhancement</td><td>Bioaugmentation with soytone and Pseudomonas geniculata WS3 under submerged and soil burial conditions</td><td>Boonluksiri, Prapagdee, & Sombatsompop (2021)</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas sp. MYK1, Bacillus sp. MYK2</td><td>PLA degradation via biofilm formation</td><td>Polymer film-based screening and isolation of PLA-degrading microorganisms from digester sludge</td><td>Kim et al. (2017)</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus pumilus B12</td><td>PLA degradation under varying nutrient conditions</td><td>Analysis of PLA degradation using l-lactate release, atomic force microscopy, and SEM</td><td>Bonifer et al. (2019)</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus sp. and others</td><td>PLA/PHB blend degradation</td><td>Microbial community analysis in soil burial and respirometric tests for PLA/PHB blend degradation</td><td>Jeszeová et al. (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens ML274</td><td>PLA degradation in composting experiments</td><td>Composting with kitchen waste and statistical analysis of microbial community composition</td><td>Li et al. (2024)</td></tr><tr><td>Nocardidioides zeae EA12, Stenotrophomonas pavanii EA33, Gordonia desulfuricans EA63, Chitinophaga jiangningensis EA02 Serratia marcescens (ZH5) and Pseudomonas fluorescence (ZH6)</td><td>Complete PLA film disintegration (35 days), 77-82% molecular weight reduction (16 days), increased CO2 liberation, and enhanced mineralization during traditional composting<br>Significant PLA weight loss, pH reduction, and surface damage on PLA films over 60 days</td><td>Bioaugmentation with a defined bacterial consortium in traditional composting</td><td>Mistry et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudomonas mendocina and Actinomucor elegans</td><td>PLA/PBAT degradation rate of 18.95 wt % in 5 days, significantly higher than monocultures</td><td>In vitro study using bacterial strains to produce proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes for PLA degradation</td><td>El-Meihy, 2016</td></tr><tr><td>Papilotrema laurentii S2P4P</td><td>Efficiently degrades PLA/PBAT blend films at 30 °C in mineral salt medium, achieving ~14% weight loss in 30 days. Observed roughened film surface, increased hydrophilicity, mechanical property changes, and ester bond degradation products such as lactic acid and adipic acid.</td><td>Coculture system producing synergistic enzyme activities (proteases and lipases) to hydrolyze ester bonds in PLA/PBAT films</td><td>Jia et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Bacillus altitudinis B12</td><td>Efficient PLA- and keratin-degrading bacterium with a 3.8-Mb genome encoding keratinase and PLA depolymerase. Offers potential for biotechnological applications in environmental remediation and various industries.</td><td>Isolation from agricultural soils; studied using enzymatic activity (esterase) and metabolic analysis to identify degradation products</td><td>Wang et al., 2024</td></tr><tr><td>Biofilm-covered PLA microplastics</td><td>Increased Cu(II) adsorption capacity due to microbial colonization and biofilm formation</td><td>Genome sequencing and secretome analysis identified enzymes responsible for PLA and keratin degradation</td><td>Bordel et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Nocardiopsis chromatogenes</td><td>Degrades PLA films effectively, isolated from pig waste-based compost</td><td>Analysis of microbial degradation and Cu(II) adsorption using FTIR</td><td>Sun et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Fungal Degradation of Polylactic Acid</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Phanerochaete chrysosporium</td><td>Increased enzyme activity (catalase and superoxide dismutase) and fungal growth on PLA/chitosan films.</td><td>Screening compost samples using agar plate-based methods without emulsifiers</td><td>Kawashima et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus flavus</td><td>Significant weight loss of PLA and PLA-Jute composites due to fungal and enzymatic treatment.</td><td>Monitored biochemical parameters, FTIR, GPC, SEM, and AFM.</td><td>Stoleru et al., 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus niger</td><td>Surface colonization, mass loss, increased hydroxyl and carbonyl groups, and reduced crystallinity in PLA composites.</td><td>GPC, DSC, and TGA were used to assess molecular and thermal degradation.</td><td>Karimi-Avargani et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Mixed fungi (ASTM standards)</td><td>Weight loss and reduced mechanical properties in jute/ PLA composites after fungal exposure.</td><td>Microstructural analysis, FTIR, thermal properties, and XRD.</td><td>Chai et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td>Fungal communities in soil/compost</td><td>Synergistic fungal and bacterial degradation of poly(l-lactide) under composting and soil conditions.</td><td>GPC, SEM, DSC, and mechanical property analysis.</td><td>Ding et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Aspergillus nidulans</td><td>Potential for enzymatic degradation of poly(lactic acid) (PLA), releasing lactic acid and reducing weight.</td><td>Respirometric tests, IR spectroscopy, SEC, and DSC.</td><td>Saadi et al., 2012</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Algal Degradation of Polylactic Acid</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Algae Biomass</td><td>Enhanced degradation of PLA biocomposites</td><td>Recombinant cutinase enzymes (ANCUT 1), proteinase K comparison, enzymatic degradation.</td><td>Alvarado et al., 1994.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Thermophilic composting, biodegradation</strong></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>Thermophilic composting, biodegradation</td><td>Kalita et al., 2021</td></tr></tbody></table>
content, leading to surface colonization, crack formation, and reduced crystallinity. Algal biomass has been shown to enhance the degradation of PLA biocomposites, particularly through thermophilic composting and biodegradation processes (Kalita et al., 2021). While studies on the role of algae in microplastic bioremediation remain limited, this approach offers a sustainable method for accelerating the breakdown of PLA and potentially other plastic pollutants.

## 14. Microbial degradation of nylon

Bacterial degradation of nylon is a promising method for managing the environmental impact of nylon waste (Tiwari et al., 2024). Nylon, a synthetic polymer, is notoriously resistant to biodegradation, causing significant pollution in landfills. However, certain bacteria have demonstrated the ability to degrade nylon through various enzymatic processes (Table 6) (Bell et al., 2024). This biological method offers an eco-friendly alternative to traditional disposal techniques, such as incineration or landfill accumulation. Marine bacteria, including *Bacillus cereus*, *Bacillus sphericus*, *Vibrio furnisii*, and *Brevundimonas vesicularis*, have been shown to degrade nylon 6 and 66 in mineral salt medium under submerged conditions (Sudhakar et al., 2007). These bacteria utilize nylon as their sole carbon source, resulting in the formation of new functional groups like NHCHO, CH₃, CONH₂, CHO, and COOH. The degradation process significantly reduces the molecular weight of nylon, with the maximum degradation observed in *Bacillus cereus* (Sudhakar et al., 2007). Additionally, studies on *Anoxybacillus rupiensis* Ir3, a thermophilic bacterium, showed its ability to degrade nylon 6 under optimal conditions, confirming its potential for bioremediation (Mahdi, Ameen, and Ibrahim, 2016). Further research by Tiwari et al. (2022) demonstrated that *Brevibacillus brevis*, a soil isolate, could effectively

degrade micro-sized nylon 6,6, with a 22 % weight loss after 35 days of incubation. This bacterium also altered the shape of the nylon micro-plastics, creating cracks and holes. The biodegradation pathway involves the release of organic acids, such as adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine, indicating complete mineralization of the polymer (Tiwari et al., 2022). Similarly, other thermophilic strains like *Geobacillus thermocatenulatus* have shown the ability to degrade nylon 66, further highlighting the wide range of bacterial species involved in nylon degradation (Tomita et al., 2003).

Fungal degradation of nylon-6 has emerged as a promising method for plastic waste reduction. Fungi such as *Bjerkandera adusta*, *Trametes versicolor*, and *Aspergillus niger* have demonstrated the ability to break down nylon-6 through enzymatic processes, primarily involving manganese peroxidase (Friedrich et al., 2007; Chonde et al., 2012; Sanuth and Fagade, 2013). These fungi cause physical changes in the nylon fibers, including the formation of grooves and cracks, while also chemically modifying the polymer, resulting in the formation of new functional groups such as CH₃, CHO, and COOH (Chonde et al., 2012; Sanuth and Fagade, 2013). The degradation process, which involves oxidation and hydrolysis, leads to a reduction in molecular mass and the formation of smaller, soluble degradation products (Friedrich et al., 2007; Sanuth and Fagade, 2013). This suggests the potential for large-scale biodegradation of nylon-6 as a means of reducing plastic waste (Chonde et al., 2012).

## 15. Conclusion and future prospects

Based on the discussions, microbial bioremediation emerges as a promising and sustainable approach to addressing microplastic pollution. Due to their enzymatic capabilities and metabolic adaptability,

<table><caption>**Table 6**

Bacterial and fungal degradation of nylon.</caption><thead><tr><th>Microorganism</th><th>Biodegradation Potential</th><th>Method Used</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Bacterial Degradation of Nylon</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><em>Bacillus cereus</em>, <em>Bacillus sphericus</em>, <em>Vibrio furnisii</em>, <em>Brevundimonas vesicularis</em></td><td>Degradation of nylon 6 and nylon 66</td><td>Submerged enrichment conditions with nylon as the sole carbon source at 35 °C and pH 7.5</td><td>Sudhakar et al., 2007</td></tr><tr><td><em>Anoxybacillus rupiensis</em> Ir3 (JQ912241)</td><td>Degradation of nylon 6</td><td>Growth in chemical defined media (CDM) with nylon 6, at 65 °C for 7 days, HPLC and FTIR analysis</td><td>Mahdi et al., 2016</td></tr><tr><td><em>Brevibacillus brevis</em></td><td>Biodegradation of micro sized nylon 6,6 microplastics</td><td>Shake flask assay, SEM, TEM, TGA, FTIR, Mass spectrometry</td><td>Tiwari et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td><em>Geobacillus thermocatenulatus</em></td><td>Degradation of nylon 12 and nylon 66</td><td>Isolation from soil at 60 °C, reduction of molecular weight</td><td>Tomita et al., 2003</td></tr><tr><td><em>Brevibacterium epidermidis</em> BS3</td><td>Degradation of caprolactam and nylon oligomers</td><td>Gas chromatography, growth on caprolactam, HPLC</td><td>Esikova et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td><em>Alcaligenes faecalis</em> G</td><td>Degradation of caprolactam for bioremediation</td><td>Use of caprolactam in nylon-6 plant wastewater, COD reduction, HPLC analysis</td><td>Baxi et al., 2002</td></tr><tr><td><em>Pseudomonas</em> sp. JG-B</td><td>Degradation of 11-aminoundecanoic acid from nylon 11</td><td>Genome analysis, growth on 11-aminoundecanoic acid</td><td>Gatz-Schrupp et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td><em>Bacillus</em> sp. strains</td><td>Degradation of polyethylene terephthalate and nylon</td><td>SEM analysis of soil-isolated Bacillus sp. strains</td><td>Demirkan et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td><em>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</em> HE858284</td><td>12.82 % reduction in molecular weight (Mn) and 5.23 % weight loss within 90 days</td><td>High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Fourier Transmittance Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), average molecular mass analysis (Mn)</td><td>Sanuth et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td><em>Arthrobacter</em> sp. KI72</td><td>Conversion of 6-aminohexanoate to adipate with >90 % yield</td><td>Genetic cloning, enzyme purification, biochemical studies</td><td>Takehara et al., 2018</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Fungal Degradation of Nylon</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><em>Bjerkandera adusta</em></td><td>Disintegrated nylon-6 fibers, reducing molecular mass from 16,900 to 5600 over 60 days; significant degradation of polymer.</td><td>Submerged culture, molecular mass analysis, thermal property analysis, manganese peroxidase detection.</td><td>Friedrich et al., 2007</td></tr><tr><td><em>Trametes versicolor</em> NCIM 1086</td><td>Substantial degradation of nylon-6, formation of new functional groups (CH₃, CHO, COOH), weakening and breaking of polyamide bonds.</td><td>I.R. spectroscopy, mechanical analysis, submerged culture incubation.</td><td>Chonde et al., 2012</td></tr><tr><td><em>Aspergillus niger</em> AF3</td><td>23.95 % weight loss and 29.77 % reduction in molecular mass of nylon-6; change in pH and discoloration of nylon-6, with evidence of hydrolytic-oxidation mechanisms.</td><td>Submerged culture, FT-IR spectroscopy, pH and weight loss analysis.</td><td>Sanuth et al., 2013</td></tr><tr><td><em>Bjerkandera adusta</em></td><td>Degrades Nylon-6</td><td>Halo test, SEM, DSC, HPLC, Enzyme activity assay</td><td>Friedrich et al., 2007</td></tr><tr><td><em>Fusarium</em> sp.</td><td>Degrades Nylon-4</td><td>Weight loss, BOD, NMR, MALDI-TOF, SEM</td><td>Tachibana et al., 2010</td></tr></tbody></table>
bacteria, fungi, and algae exhibit significant potential in breaking down resistant plastic polymers such as PE, PP, PS, and PVC. Advances in bioengineering and omics technologies further enhance their degradation efficiency, offering a viable alternative to conventional plastic waste management methods. Microbial consortia can efficiently colonize microplastic surfaces, secrete extracellular enzymes, and catalyze the breakdown of polymers into smaller, more degradable fragments. However, environmental variability, polymer properties, and scalability remain key challenges. To enhance the applicability of microbial bioremediation, further research is needed to optimize microbial strains, improve enzymatic activity, and develop hybrid remediation techniques combining microbial processes with chemical or physical methods. The integration of genomics, metabolomics, and high-throughput screening can facilitate the discovery of novel plastic-degrading enzymes and microbial strains. Additionally, advanced bioreactors equipped with microbial consortia can provide scalable solutions for wastewater treatment plants and industrial facilities. The development of interdisciplinary strategies that merge microbiology, materials science, and environmental policy is essential for achieving practical and large-scale implementation. Furthermore, policy measures and public awareness play a crucial role in promoting microbial bioremediation technologies. Governments and environmental organizations must invest in research and enforce regulations to minimize plastic waste generation. Collaborative efforts between academic institutions, industry stakeholders, and policymakers will accelerate the commercialization of bioremediation solutions, ensuring a sustainable and effective approach to mitigating microplastic pollution and safeguarding ecosystems for future generations.

No external funding for this research

### CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Shilpi Khurana:** Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. **Sajid Ali:** Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. **Atul Kumar Srivastava:** Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. **Anuradha Singh:** Data curation. **Himanshu Agarwal:** Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. **Ritu Chauhan:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation. **Naveen Chandra Joshi:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation. **Laurent Dufossé:** Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision. **Abhishek Chauhan:** Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Project administration.

### Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

### Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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