<table><caption>Table S24. Confidence intervals (95%) and p-values for coefficients reported in Table 4</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Basic Adjustments</th><th colspan="3">Fixed Effect for:</th></tr><tr><th>Est</th><th>Occ</th><th>Occ-Est</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Canada</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.223, -0.218]</td><td>[-0.174, -0.169]</td><td>[-0.212, -0.207]</td><td>[-0.173, -0.167]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Czechia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.284, -0.275]</td><td>[-0.229, -0.220]</td><td>[-0.246, -0.236]</td><td>[-0.184, -0.174]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Denmark</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.179, -0.177]</td><td>[-0.134, -0.131]</td><td>[-0.160, -0.158]</td><td>[-0.096, -0.094]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Netherlands</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.218, -0.187]</td><td>[-0.163, -0.128]</td><td>[-0.182, -0.151]</td><td>[-0.124, -0.081]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">France</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.111, -0.110]</td><td>[-0.109, -0.107]</td><td>[-0.107, -0.106]</td><td>[-0.079, -0.078]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Germany</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.250, -0.232]</td><td>[-0.172, -0.164]</td><td>[-0.286, -0.268]</td><td>[-0.146, -0.138]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hungary</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.108, -0.104]</td><td>[-0.107, -0.103]</td><td>[-0.155, -0.151]</td><td>[-0.121, -0.117]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Israel</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.354, -0.318]</td><td>[-0.218, -0.177]</td><td>[-0.315, -0.279]</td><td>[-0.188, -0.137]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Japan</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.356, -0.345]</td><td>[-0.333, -0.322]</td><td>[-0.325, -0.314]</td><td>[-0.269, -0.258]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">South Korea</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.412, -0.400]</td><td>[-0.249, -0.240]</td><td>[-0.406, -0.395]</td><td>[-0.220, -0.211]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Norway</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.207, -0.204]</td><td>[-0.130, -0.127]</td><td>[-0.187, -0.185]</td><td>[-0.104, -0.101]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Slovenia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.192, -0.188]</td><td>[-0.171, -0.166]</td><td>[-0.180, -0.176]</td><td>[-0.140, -0.135]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sweden</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.180, -0.170]</td><td>[-0.122, -0.114]</td><td>[-0.149, -0.138]</td><td>[-0.096, -0.090]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table S25. Confidence intervals (95%) and p-values for coefficients reported in Table 5</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Basic Adjustments</th><th colspan="3">Fixed Effect for:</th></tr><tr><th>Est</th><th>Occ</th><th>Occ-Est</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Canada</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.223, -0.218]</td><td>[-0.168, -0.162]</td><td>[-0.136, -0.131]</td><td>[-0.121, -0.114]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Czechia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.284, -0.275]</td><td>[-0.226, -0.216]</td><td>[-0.186, -0.174]</td><td>[-0.126, -0.115]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Denmark</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.179, -0.177]</td><td>[-0.134, -0.131]</td><td>[-0.110, -0.107]</td><td>[-0.074, -0.071]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Netherlands</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.218, -0.187]</td><td>[-0.166, -0.133]</td><td>[-0.142, -0.109]</td><td>[-0.090, -0.043]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">France</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.111, -0.110]</td><td>[-0.108, -0.107]</td><td>[-0.083, -0.082]</td><td>[-0.062, -0.061]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Germany</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.250, -0.232]</td><td>[-0.179, -0.171]</td><td>[-0.222, -0.204]</td><td>[-0.144, -0.135]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hungary</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.108, -0.104]</td><td>[-0.106, -0.103]</td><td>[-0.097, -0.093]</td><td>[-0.091, -0.087]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Israel</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.354, -0.318]</td><td>[-0.223, -0.181]</td><td>[-0.216, -0.177]</td><td>[-0.162, -0.103]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Japan</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.356, -0.345]</td><td>[-0.325, -0.313]</td><td>[-0.305, -0.293]</td><td>[-0.256, -0.244]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Norway</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.207, -0.204]</td><td>[-0.132, -0.129]</td><td>[-0.125, -0.122]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.084]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Slovenia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.192, -0.188]</td><td>[-0.172, -0.167]</td><td>[-0.160, -0.155]</td><td>[-0.143, -0.138]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Spain</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.164, -0.153]</td><td>[-0.179, -0.165]</td><td>[-0.174, -0.163]</td><td>[-0.126, -0.111]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sweden</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.180, -0.170]</td><td>[-0.123, -0.116]</td><td>[-0.101, -0.090]</td><td>[-0.080, -0.074]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table S26. Confidence intervals (95%) and p-values for coefficients reported in Table 6</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Basic Adj.</th><th colspan="3">Fixed Effect for:</th></tr><tr><th>Est</th><th>Occ</th><th>Occ-Est</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Canada</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.520, -0.512]</td><td>[-0.326, -0.318]</td><td>[-0.308, -0.299]</td><td>[-0.206, -0.196]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Czechia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.337, -0.327]</td><td>[-0.250, -0.241]</td><td>[-0.209, -0.197]</td><td>[-0.145, -0.134]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Denmark</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.184, -0.182]</td><td>[-0.134, -0.132]</td><td>[-0.109, -0.106]</td><td>[-0.073, -0.070]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Netherlands</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.598, -0.572]</td><td>[-0.379, -0.351]</td><td>[-0.411, -0.381]</td><td>[-0.246, -0.205]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">France</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.197, -0.195]</td><td>[-0.156, -0.155]</td><td>[-0.141, -0.140]</td><td>[-0.103, -0.102]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Germany</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.445, -0.430]</td><td>[-0.309, -0.300]</td><td>[-0.347, -0.328]</td><td>[-0.246, -0.238]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hungary</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.101, -0.097]</td><td>[-0.105, -0.101]</td><td>[-0.090, -0.085]</td><td>[-0.090, -0.085]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Israel</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.470, -0.434]</td><td>[-0.266, -0.224]</td><td>[-0.265, -0.225]</td><td>[-0.193, -0.132]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Japan</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.723, -0.710]</td><td>[-0.531, -0.517]</td><td>[-0.578, -0.563]</td><td>[-0.414, -0.400]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Norway</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.308, -0.305]</td><td>[-0.170, -0.167]</td><td>[-0.163, -0.160]</td><td>[-0.109, -0.106]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Slovenia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.213, -0.208]</td><td>[-0.182, -0.178]</td><td>[-0.174, -0.169]</td><td>[-0.150, -0.145]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Spain</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.382, -0.370]</td><td>[-0.227, -0.213]</td><td>[-0.351, -0.339]</td><td>[-0.155, -0.140]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sweden</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.226, -0.215]</td><td>[-0.143, -0.135]</td><td>[-0.116, -0.105]</td><td>[-0.092, -0.085]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table S27. Confidence intervals (95%) and p-values for coefficients reported in Table 7</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Basic Adj.</th><th colspan="3">Fixed Effect for:</th></tr><tr><th>Est</th><th>Occ</th><th>Occ-Est</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Canada</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.191, -0.187]</td><td>[-0.173, -0.168]</td><td>[-0.138, -0.133]</td><td>[-0.125, -0.118]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Czechia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.241, -0.230]</td><td>[-0.214, -0.204]</td><td>[-0.171, -0.160]</td><td>[-0.115, -0.103]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Denmark</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.141, -0.139]</td><td>[-0.132, -0.129]</td><td>[-0.097, -0.095]</td><td>[-0.069, -0.067]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Netherlands</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.191, -0.159]</td><td>[-0.174, -0.138]</td><td>[-0.129, -0.095]</td><td>[-0.110, -0.055]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">France</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.110, -0.108]</td><td>[-0.110, -0.109]</td><td>[-0.083, -0.081]</td><td>[-0.065, -0.064]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Germany</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.240, -0.221]</td><td>[-0.182, -0.173]</td><td>[-0.223, -0.206]</td><td>[-0.137, -0.129]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hungary</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.094, -0.090]</td><td>[-0.116, -0.112]</td><td>[-0.096, -0.091]</td><td>[-0.088, -0.083]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Israel</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.301, -0.261]</td><td>[-0.208, -0.162]</td><td>[-0.195, -0.155]</td><td>[-0.128, -0.064]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Japan</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.384, -0.373]</td><td>[-0.357, -0.345]</td><td>[-0.318, -0.306]</td><td>[-0.264, -0.253]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Norway</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.164, -0.161]</td><td>[-0.126, -0.123]</td><td>[-0.115, -0.112]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.084]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Slovenia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.072, -0.066]</td><td>[-0.126, -0.121]</td><td>[-0.130, -0.124]</td><td>[-0.120, -0.114]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">South Korea</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.479, -0.467]</td><td>[-0.305, -0.296]</td><td>[-0.384, -0.372]</td><td>[-0.233, -0.223]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Spain</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.064, -0.053]</td><td>[-0.167, -0.154]</td><td>[-0.159, -0.148]</td><td>[-0.126, -0.111]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sweden</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.134, -0.122]</td><td>[-0.114, -0.106]</td><td>[-0.090, -0.078]</td><td>[-0.075, -0.068]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">United States</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.365, -0.137]</td><td>[-0.221, -0.205]</td><td>[-0.229, -0.189]</td><td>[-0.153, -0.141]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table S28. Confidence intervals (95%) and p-values for coefficients reported in Table 8</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Basic Adj.</th><th colspan="3">Fixed Effect for:</th></tr><tr><th>Est</th><th>Occ</th><th>Occ-Est</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Canada</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.219, -0.212]</td><td>[-0.164, -0.158]</td><td>[-0.142, -0.135]</td><td>[-0.125, -0.118]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Czechia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.245, -0.233]</td><td>[-0.192, -0.182]</td><td>[-0.174, -0.162]</td><td>[-0.128, -0.117]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Denmark</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.150, -0.147]</td><td>[-0.104, -0.101]</td><td>[-0.097, -0.095]</td><td>[-0.073, -0.071]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Netherlands</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.184, -0.068]</td><td>[-0.109, -0.057]</td><td>[-0.124, -0.032]</td><td>[-0.102, -0.049]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">France</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.136, -0.134]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.086]</td><td>[-0.080, -0.079]</td><td>[-0.065, -0.064]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Germany</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.241, -0.227]</td><td>[-0.143, -0.135]</td><td>[-0.191, -0.179]</td><td>[-0.134, -0.125]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hungary</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.168, -0.162]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.083]</td><td>[-0.128, -0.123]</td><td>[-0.091, -0.086]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Israel</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.332, -0.247]</td><td>[-0.196, -0.132]</td><td>[-0.164, -0.097]</td><td>[-0.149, -0.089]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Japan</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.321, -0.307]</td><td>[-0.283, -0.271]</td><td>[-0.301, -0.288]</td><td>[-0.263, -0.251]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Norway</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.177, -0.174]</td><td>[-0.107, -0.104]</td><td>[-0.109, -0.106]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.084]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Slovenia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.225, -0.219]</td><td>[-0.168, -0.163]</td><td>[-0.184, -0.178]</td><td>[-0.143, -0.137]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">South Korea</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.328, -0.315]</td><td>[-0.203, -0.194]</td><td>[-0.298, -0.285]</td><td>[-0.193, -0.183]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Spain</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.213, -0.195]</td><td>[-0.158, -0.142]</td><td>[-0.182, -0.165]</td><td>[-0.129, -0.114]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sweden</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.148, -0.140]</td><td>[-0.103, -0.097]</td><td>[-0.093, -0.085]</td><td>[-0.079, -0.072]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table S29. Confidence intervals (95%) and p-values for coefficients reported in Table 9</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Basic Adj.</th><th colspan="3">Fixed Effect for:</th></tr><tr><th>Est</th><th>Occ</th><th>Occ-Est</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Canada</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.191, -0.188]</td><td>[-0.139, -0.135]</td><td>[-0.125, -0.120]</td><td>[-0.106, -0.100]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Czechia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.255, -0.247]</td><td>[-0.202, -0.194]</td><td>[-0.167, -0.158]</td><td>[-0.109, -0.100]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Denmark</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.158, -0.156]</td><td>[-0.120, -0.118]</td><td>[-0.094, -0.092]</td><td>[-0.065, -0.063]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Netherlands</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.182, -0.161]</td><td>[-0.147, -0.122]</td><td>[-0.114, -0.090]</td><td>[-0.109, -0.073]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">France</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.108, -0.107]</td><td>[-0.105, -0.104]</td><td>[-0.081, -0.080]</td><td>[-0.064, -0.063]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Germany</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.231, -0.217]</td><td>[-0.164, -0.157]</td><td>[-0.204, -0.190]</td><td>[-0.128, -0.121]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hungary</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.092, -0.089]</td><td>[-0.090, -0.087]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.084]</td><td>[-0.079, -0.075]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Israel</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.326, -0.297]</td><td>[-0.222, -0.187]</td><td>[-0.205, -0.173]</td><td>[-0.152, -0.103]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Japan</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.300, -0.291]</td><td>[-0.273, -0.264]</td><td>[-0.259, -0.251]</td><td>[-0.215, -0.207]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Norway</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.188, -0.185]</td><td>[-0.117, -0.115]</td><td>[-0.105, -0.103]</td><td>[-0.075, -0.073]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Slovenia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.186, -0.182]</td><td>[-0.166, -0.162]</td><td>[-0.157, -0.152]</td><td>[-0.140, -0.135]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">South Korea</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.343, -0.333]</td><td>[-0.216, -0.209]</td><td>[-0.273, -0.264]</td><td>[-0.170, -0.163]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Spain</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.147, -0.138]</td><td>[-0.159, -0.147]</td><td>[-0.155, -0.146]</td><td>[-0.112, -0.098]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sweden</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.165, -0.157]</td><td>[-0.113, -0.107]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.078]</td><td>[-0.070, -0.065]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">United States</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.466, -0.090]</td><td>[-0.187, -0.175]</td><td>[-0.188, -0.152]</td><td>[-0.123, -0.115]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p=.0038</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table S30. Confidence intervals (95%) and p-values for coefficients reported in Table 10</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Basic Adjustments</th><th colspan="3">Fixed Effect for:</th></tr><tr><th>Est</th><th>Occ</th><th>Occ-Est</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Czechia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.284, -0.275]</td><td>[-0.229, -0.220]</td><td>[-0.185, -0.173]</td><td>[-0.128, -0.117]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Denmark</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.183, -0.180]</td><td>[-0.138, -0.135]</td><td>[-0.112, -0.109]</td><td>[-0.076, -0.074]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Netherlands</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.307, -0.283]</td><td>[-0.208, -0.181]</td><td>[-0.210, -0.185]</td><td>[-0.159, -0.122]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">France</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.123, -0.120]</td><td>[-0.119, -0.115]</td><td>[-0.096, -0.093]</td><td>[-0.075, -0.070]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hungary</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.127, -0.123]</td><td>[-0.114, -0.110]</td><td>[-0.107, -0.102]</td><td>[-0.097, -0.091]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Israel</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.355, -0.318]</td><td>[-0.218, -0.176]</td><td>[-0.215, -0.176]</td><td>[-0.149, -0.089]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Norway</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.207, -0.204]</td><td>[-0.130, -0.127]</td><td>[-0.121, -0.118]</td><td>[-0.087, -0.084]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Slovenia</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.192, -0.188]</td><td>[-0.171, -0.166]</td><td>[-0.160, -0.155]</td><td>[-0.143, -0.137]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Spain</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.164, -0.153]</td><td>[-0.182, -0.169]</td><td>[-0.170, -0.159]</td><td>[-0.129, -0.114]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Sweden</td><td>Confidence interval</td><td>[-0.180, -0.170]</td><td>[-0.122, -0.114]</td><td>[-0.098, -0.087]</td><td>[-0.079, -0.072]</td></tr><tr><td>P-value</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td><td>p&lt;.0001</td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Figure S2. Trends in Czech Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure S3: Trends in Danish Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>Figure S5: Trends in French Gender Differences in Earnings
(from EDP - DADS 1% Panel w/out Education in the Model)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Figure S6: Trends in German Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Figure S8: Trends in West German Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure S9: Trends in Hungarian Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Figure S11: Trends in Japanese Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>Figure S12: Trends in Dutch Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>Figure S14: Trends in Slovenian Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>Figure S15: Trends in South Korean Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>Figure S17: Trends in Swedish Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>Figure S18: Trends in US Gender Differences in Earnings</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>
Abstract

Extant research on the gender pay gap suggests men and women who do the same work for the same employer receive similar pay, so that processes sorting people into jobs are thought to account for the vast majority of the pay gap. Data that can identify women and men who do the same work for the same employer are rare, and research informing this crucial aspect of gender differences in pay is several decades old and from a limited number of countries. Using recent linked employer-employee data from 15 countries, this study shows that the processes sorting people into different jobs account for substantially less of the gender pay differences than was previously believed and that within-job pay differences remain consequential.

Authors

A. Penner¹*, T. Petersen², A. S. Hermansen³, A. Rainey⁵, I. Boza⁶, M. Elvira⁷, O. Godechot⁸, M. Hällsten⁴, L. Henriksen⁹, F. Hou¹⁰, A. Kanjuo Mrčela¹¹, J. King¹², N. Kodama¹³, T. Kristal¹⁴, A. Křížková¹⁵, Z. Lippényi¹⁶, S. M. Melzer¹⁷, E. Mun¹⁸, P. Apascaritei⁷, D. Avent-Holt¹⁹, N. Bandelj¹, G. Hajdu²⁰, J. Jung¹⁸, A. Poje¹¹, H. Sabanci⁷, M. Safi⁸, M. Soener⁸, D. Tomaskovic-Devey⁵, Z. Tufail¹

Affiliations:

1. University of California, Irvine

3. University of Oslo

5. University of Massachusetts, Amherst

7. IESE Business School

9. Copenhagen Business School

11. University of Ljubljana

13. Meiji Gakuin University

15. Institute of Sociology, Czech Academy of Sciences

17. Pompeu Fabra University

19. Augusta University

- 2. University of California, Berkeley

- 4. Stockholm University

- 6. Institute of Economics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences

- 8. Sciences Po

- 10. Statistics Canada

- 12. Independent Researcher

- 14. University of Haifa

- 16. University of Groningen

- 18. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

- 20. Vienna University of Economics and Business

Keywords

gender gap, earnings, international comparison

Version électronique, en ligne | On-line version

http://www.sciencespo.fr/osc/fr/content/osc-papers

Également disponible sur SPIRE Hal, l'archive ouverte de Sciences Po | Institutional repository:
https://hal-sciencespo.archives-ouvertes.fr/

Pour citer cet article | Cite this paper

Andrew Penner, et al., "Within-Job Gender Pay Inequality in 15 Countries", OSC Papers, n° 2022-3, March 2022.
DOI: 10.25647/osc.papers.03

Edition de ce numéro | Editorial board

Bernard Corminboeuf (Communication Officer, Sciences Po-CNRS)
bernard.corminboeuf@sciencespo.fr

Cover image: Dmitri Demidovich, via Shutterstock

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OSC, 2022