the SIR/CIR interface. At least one of these events had evidence of local compressive acceleration, suggesting that this event provides evidence that CIR-associated acceleration does not always require shock waves.

PSP also observed ACRs with intensities increasing over energies from ~5 to ~40 MeV/nuc, a characteristic feature of ACR spectra. However, the observed radial gradient is stronger (~25 ± 5% AU) than observed beyond 1 AU. Understanding the radial gradients of ACRs in the inner heliosphere provides constraints on drift transport and cross-field diffusion models.

**Dust in the Inner Heliosphere** The zodiacal dust cloud is one of the most significant structures in the heliosphere. To date, our understanding of the near-Sun dust environment is built on both in-situ and remote measurements outside 0.3 AU. PSP provides the only in-situ measurements and remote sensing observations of interplanetary dust in the near-Sun environment inside 0.3 AU. PSP provides the total dust impact rate to the S/C. The FIELDS instrument detects perturbations to the S/C potential that result from transient plasma clouds formed when dust grains strike the S/C at high velocities, vaporizing and ionizing the impacting grain and some fraction of the S/C surface. Several features have been observed in the impact rate profiles. For the first three orbits, a single pre-perihelion peak was observed. Another post-perihelion peak also marks the subsequent orbits. Between these two peaks, a local minimum in impact rate was present near the perihelion.

Comparing the PSP data to a two-component analytic dust model shows that PSP's dust impact rates are consistent with at least three distinct populations: a bound zodiacal α-meteoroids on elliptic orbits; an unbound β-meteoroids on hyperbolic orbits; and a distinct third population of impactors. The data-model comparison indicates that the β-meteoroids are predominantly produced within $10 - 20 R_⊕$ and are unlikely to be the inner source of pickup ions, instead suggesting the population of trapped nanograins is likely this source. The post-perihelion peak is like the result of PSP flying through the collisional by-products produced when a meteoroid stream (i.e., the Geminids meteoroid stream) collides with the nominal zodiacal cloud.

At about 19 $R_⊕$, WISPR white-light observations revealed a lower increase of F-corona brightness compared to observations obtained between 0.3 AU and 1 AU. This marks the outer boundary of the DDZ. The radius of the DFZ itself is found to be about 4 $R_⊕$. The PSP imaging observations confirm a nine-decade prediction of stellar DFZs by Russell (1929).

**Venus** WISPR Images of the Venusian night side during VGAs 3 and 4 proved surprisingly revelatory, clearly showing structures on the disk. This was unexpected, as the surface of Venus had never before been imaged at optical wavelengths. The WISPR imagers are sensitive enough to detect this thermal emission within their optical bandpass. The WISPR images show the Ovda Regio plateau at the western end of Aphrodite Terra, the most extensive highland region on Venus. In addition to the thermal emission from the planet's disk, the data show an O_2 night glow emission from the planet's upper atmosphere, which previous missions had observed. Another important planetary discovery is that of the dust ring along the orbit of Venus (see §11.4.3).

PSP is over four years into its prime mission. It uncovered numerous phenomena that were unknown to us so far and which are about phenomena occurring during the solar cycle minimum, where the Sun is not very active. The activity level is rising as we approach the maximum of solar cycle 25. We will undoubtedly discover other aspects of the solar corona and inner heliosphere. For instance, we pine for the S/C to fly through many of the most violent solar explosions and tell us how particles are accelerated to extreme levels.
# 14 List of Abbreviations

## Space Agencies

<table><tr><td>ESA</td><td>European Space Agency</td></tr><tr><td>JAXA</td><td>Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</td></tr><tr><td>NASA</td><td>National Aeronautics and Space Administration</td></tr></table>

## Missions, Observatories, and Instruments

<table><thead><tr><th>Acronym</th><th>Expanded Form</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ACE</td><td>The Advanced Composition Explorer mission</td><td>Stone et al. (1998)</td></tr><tr><td>EPAM</td><td>The Electron, Proton, and Alpha Monitor instrument</td><td>Gold et al. (1998)</td></tr><tr><td>ULEIS</td><td>The Ultra Low Energy Isotope Spectrometer instrument</td><td>Mason et al. (1998)</td></tr><tr><td>AKATSUKI</td><td>The AKATSUKI/PLANET-C mission</td><td>Nakamura (2011)</td></tr><tr><td>ARTEMIS</td><td>The Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon's Interaction with the Sun mission</td><td>Angelopoulos (2011)</td></tr><tr><td>BepiColombo</td><td>The BepiColombo mission</td><td>Benkhoff et al. (2021)</td></tr><tr><td>Cluster</td><td>The Cluster mission</td><td>Escoubet et al. (1997)</td></tr><tr><td>COBE</td><td>The Cosmic Background Explorer mission</td><td>Boggess et al. (1992)</td></tr><tr><td>DIRBE</td><td>The Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment</td><td>Silverberg et al. (1993)</td></tr><tr><td>Galileo</td><td>The Galileo mission</td><td>Johnson et al. (1992)</td></tr><tr><td>GOES</td><td>The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite program</td><td>https://www.nasa.gov/content/goes-overview/index.html</td></tr><tr><td>GONG</td><td>The Global Oscillation Network Group</td><td>Harvey et al. (1988)</td></tr><tr><td>Helios</td><td>The Helios (1 & 2) mission</td><td>Marsch and Schwenn (1990)</td></tr><tr><td>ZLE</td><td>The Zodiacal Light Experiment</td><td>Leinert et al. (1975)</td></tr><tr><td>HEOS-2</td><td>The Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite-2</td><td>https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1972-005A</td></tr><tr><td>IMP-8</td><td>The Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-8</td><td>https://science.nasa.gov/missions/imp-8</td></tr><tr><td>IRAS</td><td>The Infrared Astronomy Satellite</td><td>Neugebauer et al. (1984a)</td></tr><tr><td>ISEE</td><td>The International Sun-Earth Explorer</td><td>Durney (1979)</td></tr><tr><td>Mariner 2</td><td>The Mariner 2 mission</td><td>https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mariner-2</td></tr><tr><td>MMS</td><td>The Magnetospheric Multiscale mission</td><td>Burch (2014)</td></tr><tr><td>NuSTAR</td><td>The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope ARray</td><td>Harrison et al. (2013)</td></tr><tr><td>Pioneer</td><td>The Pioneer mission</td><td>https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html</td></tr><tr><td>PSP</td><td>The Parker Solar Probe mission</td><td>Fox et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>FIELDS</td><td>The FIELDS investigation</td><td>Raouafi (2022)</td></tr><tr><td>AEB</td><td>The Antenna Electronics Board</td><td>Bale et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>DFB</td><td>The Digital Field Board</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>HFR</td><td>The High Frequency Receiver</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>MAG(s)</td><td>The Fluxgate magnetometer(s)</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>RFS</td><td>The Radio Frequency Spectrometer</td><td>Pulupa et al. (2017)</td></tr><tr><td>SCM</td><td>The Search Coil Magnetometer</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>TDS</td><td>The Time Domain Sampler</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SWEAP</td><td>The Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons Investigation</td><td>Kasper et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>SPAN</td><td>Solar Probe ANalzers (A & B)</td><td>Whittlesey et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>SPAN-e</td><td>Solar Probe ANalzers-electrons</td><td>Whittlesey et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>SPAN-i</td><td>Solar Probe ANalzers-ions</td><td>Livi et al. (2021)</td></tr></tbody></table>
# 14 List of Abbreviations

## Space Agencies

<table><tr><td>ESA</td><td>European Space Agency</td></tr><tr><td>JAXA</td><td>Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</td></tr><tr><td>NASA</td><td>National Aeronautics and Space Administration</td></tr></table>

## Missions, Observatories, and Instruments

<table><thead><tr><th>Acronym</th><th>Expanded Form</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ACE</td><td>The Advanced Composition Explorer mission</td><td>Stone et al. (1998)</td></tr><tr><td>EPAM</td><td>The Electron, Proton, and Alpha Monitor instrument</td><td>Gold et al. (1998)</td></tr><tr><td>ULEIS</td><td>The Ultra Low Energy Isotope Spectrometer instrument</td><td>Mason et al. (1998)</td></tr><tr><td>AKATSUKI</td><td>The AKATSUKI/PLANET-C mission</td><td>Nakamura (2011)</td></tr><tr><td>ARTEMIS</td><td>The Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon's Interaction with the Sun mission</td><td>Angelopoulos (2011)</td></tr><tr><td>BepiColombo</td><td>The BepiColombo mission</td><td>Benkhoff et al. (2021)</td></tr><tr><td>Cluster</td><td>The Cluster mission</td><td>Escoubet et al. (1997)</td></tr><tr><td>COBE</td><td>The Cosmic Background Explorer mission</td><td>Boggess et al. (1992)</td></tr><tr><td>DIRBE</td><td>The Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment</td><td>Silverberg et al. (1993)</td></tr><tr><td>Galileo</td><td>The Galileo mission</td><td>Johnson et al. (1992)</td></tr><tr><td>GOES</td><td>The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite program</td><td>https://www.nasa.gov/content/goes-overview/index.html</td></tr><tr><td>GONG</td><td>The Global Oscillation Network Group</td><td>Harvey et al. (1988)</td></tr><tr><td>Helios</td><td>The Helios (1 & 2) mission</td><td>Marsch and Schwenn (1990)</td></tr><tr><td>ZLE</td><td>The Zodiacal Light Experiment</td><td>Leinert et al. (1975)</td></tr><tr><td>HEOS-2</td><td>The Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite-2</td><td>https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1972-005A</td></tr><tr><td>IMP-8</td><td>The Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-8</td><td>https://science.nasa.gov/missions/imp-8</td></tr><tr><td>IRAS</td><td>The Infrared Astronomy Satellite</td><td>Neugebauer et al. (1984a)</td></tr><tr><td>ISEE</td><td>The International Sun-Earth Explorer</td><td>Durney (1979)</td></tr><tr><td>Mariner 2</td><td>The Mariner 2 mission</td><td>https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mariner-2</td></tr><tr><td>MMS</td><td>The Magnetospheric Multiscale mission</td><td>Burch (2014)</td></tr><tr><td>NuSTAR</td><td>The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope ARray</td><td>Harrison et al. (2013)</td></tr><tr><td>Pioneer</td><td>The Pioneer mission</td><td>https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html</td></tr><tr><td>PSP</td><td>The Parker Solar Probe mission</td><td>Fox et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>FIELDS</td><td>The FIELDS investigation</td><td>Raouafi (2022)</td></tr><tr><td>AEB</td><td>The Antenna Electronics Board</td><td>Bale et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>DFB</td><td>The Digital Field Board</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>HFR</td><td>The High Frequency Receiver</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>MAG(s)</td><td>The Fluxgate magnetometer(s)</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>RFS</td><td>The Radio Frequency Spectrometer</td><td>Pulupa et al. (2017)</td></tr><tr><td>SCM</td><td>The Search Coil Magnetometer</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>TDS</td><td>The Time Domain Sampler</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SWEAP</td><td>The Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons Investigation</td><td>Kasper et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>SPAN</td><td>Solar Probe ANalzers (A & B)</td><td>Whittlesey et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>SPAN-e</td><td>Solar Probe ANalzers-electrons</td><td>Whittlesey et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>SPAN-i</td><td>Solar Probe ANalzers-ions</td><td>Livi et al. (2021)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>SPC</td><td>Solar Probe Cup</td><td>Case et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>SWEM</td><td>SWEAP Electronics Module</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>IS◎IS</td><td>The Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun</td><td>McComas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>EPI-Hi</td><td>Energetic Particle Instrument-High</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>HET</td><td>High Energy Telescope</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>LET</td><td>Low Energy Telescope</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EPI-Lo</td><td>Energetic Particle Instrument-Low</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>WISPR</td><td>The Wide-field Imager for Solar PRobe</td><td>Vourlidas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>WISPR-i</td><td>WISPR inner telescope</td><td>Vourlidas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>WISPR-o</td><td>WISPR outer telescope</td><td>Vourlidas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>TPS</td><td>the Thermal Protection System</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SDO</td><td>The Solar Dynamic Observatory</td><td>Pesnell et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>AIA</td><td>The Advanced Imaging Assembly</td><td>Lemen et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>HMI</td><td>The Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager</td><td>Scherrer et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>SOHO</td><td>The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory</td><td>Domingo et al. (1995)</td></tr><tr><td>EPHIN</td><td>Electron Proton Helium Instrument</td><td>Kunow et al. (EPHIN; 1988)</td></tr><tr><td>LASCO</td><td>Large Angle and Spectrometric COronagraph</td><td>Brueckner et al. (1995)</td></tr><tr><td>SolO</td><td>The Solar Orbiter mission</td><td>Müller et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>STEREO</td><td>The Solar TERrestrial Relations Observatory</td><td>Kaiser et al. (2008)</td></tr><tr><td>SECCHI</td><td>Sun-Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation</td><td>Howard et al. (2008)</td></tr><tr><td>COR2</td><td>Coronagraph 2</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EUVI</td><td>Extreme Ultraviolet Imager</td><td>Wuelser et al. (2004)</td></tr><tr><td>HI</td><td>Heliospheric Imager (1 &amp; 2)</td><td>Eyles et al. (2009)</td></tr><tr><td>Ulysses</td><td>Ulysses</td><td>Wenzel et al. (1992)</td></tr><tr><td>VEX</td><td>Venus Express</td><td>Titov et al. (2006)</td></tr><tr><td>Voyager</td><td>Voyager (1 &amp; 2)</td><td>Kohlhase and Penzo (1977)</td></tr><tr><td>Wind</td><td>Wind</td><td>https://wind.nasa.gov</td></tr><tr><td>WAVES</td><td>WAVES</td><td>Bougeret et al. (1995)</td></tr></table>

## Models

<table><tr><td>Acronym</td><td>Expanded Form</td><td>References</td></tr><tr><td>3DCORE</td><td>3D Coronal Rope Ejection model</td><td>Weiss et al. (2021)</td></tr><tr><td>ADAPT</td><td>Air Force Data Assimilative Photospheric Flux Transport model</td><td>Arge et al. (2004)</td></tr><tr><td>CC</td><td>Circular Cylindrical model</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EC</td><td>Elliptical-Cylindrical model</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EUHFORIA</td><td>European Heliophoric FORecasting Information Asset</td><td>Pomoell and Poedts (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>GCS</td><td>Graduated Cylindrical Shell model</td><td>Thernisien (2011)</td></tr><tr><td>HELCATS</td><td>Heliospheric Cataloguing, Analysis and Techniques Service model</td><td>Bisi et al. (2014)</td></tr><tr><td>HelMOD</td><td>Heliospheric Modulation model</td><td>Boschini et al. (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>OSPREI</td><td>Open Solar Physics Rapid Ensemble Information model</td><td>Kay et al. (2022)</td></tr><tr><td>PARADISE</td><td>Particle Radiation Asset Directed at Interplanetary Space Exploration model</td><td>(Wijsen et al. 2019, 2020)</td></tr><tr><td>PFSS</td><td>Potential-Field Source-Surface model</td><td>Altschuler and Newkirk (1969), Schatten et al. (1969)</td></tr><tr><td>PIC</td><td>Particle-In-Cell</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SSEF30</td><td>The Self-Similar Expansion Fitting (30) model</td><td>Davies et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>WSA</td><td>Wang-Sheeley-Arge (PFSS) model</td><td>Arge and Pizzo (2000)</td></tr><tr><td>WSA/THUX</td><td>WSA/Tunable HUX model</td><td>Reiss et al. (2020)</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>SPC</td><td>Solar Probe Cup</td><td>Case et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>SWEM</td><td>SWEAP Electronics Module</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>IS◎IS</td><td>The Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun</td><td>McComas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>EPI-Hi</td><td>Energetic Particle Instrument-High</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>HET</td><td>High Energy Telescope</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>LET</td><td>Low Energy Telescope</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EPI-Lo</td><td>Energetic Particle Instrument-Low</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>WISPR</td><td>The Wide-field Imager for Solar PRobe</td><td>Vourlidas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>WISPR-i</td><td>WISPR inner telescope</td><td>Vourlidas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>WISPR-o</td><td>WISPR outer telescope</td><td>Vourlidas et al. (2016)</td></tr><tr><td>TPS</td><td>the Thermal Protection System</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SDO</td><td>The Solar Dynamic Observatory</td><td>Pesnell et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>AIA</td><td>The Advanced Imaging Assembly</td><td>Lemen et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>HMI</td><td>The Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager</td><td>Scherrer et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>SOHO</td><td>The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory</td><td>Domingo et al. (1995)</td></tr><tr><td>EPHIN</td><td>Electron Proton Helium Instrument</td><td>Kunow et al. (EPHIN; 1988)</td></tr><tr><td>LASCO</td><td>Large Angle and Spectrometric COronagraph</td><td>Brueckner et al. (1995)</td></tr><tr><td>SolO</td><td>The Solar Orbiter mission</td><td>Müller et al. (2020)</td></tr><tr><td>STEREO</td><td>The Solar TERrestrial Relations Observatory</td><td>Kaiser et al. (2008)</td></tr><tr><td>SECCHI</td><td>Sun-Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation</td><td>Howard et al. (2008)</td></tr><tr><td>COR2</td><td>Coronagraph 2</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EUVI</td><td>Extreme Ultraviolet Imager</td><td>Wuelser et al. (2004)</td></tr><tr><td>HI</td><td>Heliospheric Imager (1 &amp; 2)</td><td>Eyles et al. (2009)</td></tr><tr><td>Ulysses</td><td>Ulysses</td><td>Wenzel et al. (1992)</td></tr><tr><td>VEX</td><td>Venus Express</td><td>Titov et al. (2006)</td></tr><tr><td>Voyager</td><td>Voyager (1 &amp; 2)</td><td>Kohlhase and Penzo (1977)</td></tr><tr><td>Wind</td><td>Wind</td><td>https://wind.nasa.gov</td></tr><tr><td>WAVES</td><td>WAVES</td><td>Bougeret et al. (1995)</td></tr></table>

## Models

<table><tr><td>Acronym</td><td>Expanded Form</td><td>References</td></tr><tr><td>3DCORE</td><td>3D Coronal Rope Ejection model</td><td>Weiss et al. (2021)</td></tr><tr><td>ADAPT</td><td>Air Force Data Assimilative Photospheric Flux Transport model</td><td>Arge et al. (2004)</td></tr><tr><td>CC</td><td>Circular Cylindrical model</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EC</td><td>Elliptical-Cylindrical model</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>EUHFORIA</td><td>European Heliophoric FORecasting Information Asset</td><td>Pomoell and Poedts (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>GCS</td><td>Graduated Cylindrical Shell model</td><td>Thernisien (2011)</td></tr><tr><td>HELCATS</td><td>Heliospheric Cataloguing, Analysis and Techniques Service model</td><td>Bisi et al. (2014)</td></tr><tr><td>HelMOD</td><td>Heliospheric Modulation model</td><td>Boschini et al. (2018)</td></tr><tr><td>OSPREI</td><td>Open Solar Physics Rapid Ensemble Information model</td><td>Kay et al. (2022)</td></tr><tr><td>PARADISE</td><td>Particle Radiation Asset Directed at Interplanetary Space Exploration model</td><td>(Wijsen et al. 2019, 2020)</td></tr><tr><td>PFSS</td><td>Potential-Field Source-Surface model</td><td>Altschuler and Newkirk (1969), Schatten et al. (1969)</td></tr><tr><td>PIC</td><td>Particle-In-Cell</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SSEF30</td><td>The Self-Similar Expansion Fitting (30) model</td><td>Davies et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><td>WSA</td><td>Wang-Sheeley-Arge (PFSS) model</td><td>Arge and Pizzo (2000)</td></tr><tr><td>WSA/THUX</td><td>WSA/Tunable HUX model</td><td>Reiss et al. (2020)</td></tr></table>
Acronyms and Symbols

<table><thead><tr><td>Acronym</td><td>Expanded Form</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1D</td><td>One-dimensional</td></tr><tr><td>2D</td><td>Two-dimensional</td></tr><tr><td>2PL</td><td>Two spectral range continuous power-law fit</td></tr><tr><td>3D</td><td>Three-dimensional</td></tr><tr><td>3PL</td><td>Three spectral range continuous power-law fit</td></tr><tr><td>ACR(s)</td><td>Anomalous cosmic ray(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ACW(s)</td><td>Alfvén ion cyclotron wave(s)</td></tr><tr><td>AR(s)</td><td>Active region(s)</td></tr><tr><td>AU</td><td>Astronomical unit</td></tr><tr><td>AW(s)</td><td>Alfvén wave(s)</td></tr><tr><td>CIR(s)</td><td>Corotating interaction region(s)</td></tr><tr><td>CME(s)</td><td>Coronal mass ejection(s)</td></tr><tr><td>cobpoint</td><td>“Connecting with the OBserving” point</td></tr><tr><td>CR</td><td>Carrington rotation</td></tr><tr><td>DC</td><td>Direct current</td></tr><tr><td>DDZ</td><td>Dust depletion zone</td></tr><tr><td>DFZ</td><td>Dust-free zone</td></tr><tr><td>dHT</td><td>de Hoffman-Teller frame</td></tr><tr><td>DOY</td><td>Day of the year</td></tr><tr><td>ED</td><td>“Either” discontinuity</td></tr><tr><td>Enc. / Encs.</td><td>Encounter(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ES (waves)</td><td>Electrostatic waves</td></tr><tr><td>EUV</td><td>Extreme ultraviolet</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>ce</sub></td><td>Electron gyrofrequency or electron cyclotron frequency</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>cp</sub></td><td>Proton gyrofrequency or proton cyclotron frequency</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>pe</sub></td><td>Plasma frequency</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>LH</sub></td><td>Lower hybrid frequency</td></tr><tr><td>F-corona</td><td>Fraunhofer-corona</td></tr><tr><td>F<sub>A</sub></td><td>Alfvénic energy flux</td></tr><tr><td>F<sub>K</sub></td><td>Bulk kinetic energy flux</td></tr><tr><td>FITS</td><td>Flexible Image Transport System</td></tr><tr><td>FM/W</td><td>Fast-magnetosonic/whistler</td></tr><tr><td>FOV</td><td>Field of view</td></tr><tr><td>GCR(s)</td><td>Galactic cosmic ray(s)</td></tr><tr><td>HCI</td><td>Heliocentric inertial coordinate system</td></tr><tr><td>HCS</td><td>Heliospheric current sheet</td></tr><tr><td>HEE</td><td>Heliocentric Earth Ecliptic system</td></tr><tr><td>HEEQ</td><td>Heliocentric Earth Equatorial system</td></tr><tr><td>HFR</td><td>High frequency receiver</td></tr><tr><td>HHT</td><td>Hilbert-Huang transform</td></tr><tr><td>HPC</td><td>Helioprojective cartesian system</td></tr><tr><td>HPS</td><td>Heliospheric plasma sheet</td></tr><tr><td>HSO</td><td>Heliophysics System Observatory</td></tr><tr><td>HSS(s)</td><td>High-speed stream(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ICME(s)</td><td>Interplanetary coronal mass ejection(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ICW</td><td>Ion cyclotron wave</td></tr><tr><td>ID(s)</td><td>Interplanetary discontinuity(ies)</td></tr><tr><td>KAW(s)</td><td>Kinetic Alfvén wave(s)</td></tr><tr><td>LFR(s)</td><td>Large-scale flux rope(s)</td></tr><tr><td>LTE</td><td>Local thermal equilibrium</td></tr><tr><td>LOS</td><td>Line of sight</td></tr><tr><td>M<sub>A</sub></td><td>Alfvénic Mach number</td></tr><tr><td>MAG(s)</td><td>Fluxgate magnetometer(s)</td></tr><tr><td>MC(s)</td><td>Magnetic cloud(s)</td></tr><tr><td>MFR(s)</td><td>Magnetic flux rope(s)</td></tr><tr><td>MHD</td><td>Magneto-HydroDynamic</td></tr><tr><td>MOID</td><td>Earth Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance</td></tr></tbody></table>
Acronyms and Symbols

<table><thead><tr><td>Acronym</td><td>Expanded Form</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1D</td><td>One-dimensional</td></tr><tr><td>2D</td><td>Two-dimensional</td></tr><tr><td>2PL</td><td>Two spectral range continuous power-law fit</td></tr><tr><td>3D</td><td>Three-dimensional</td></tr><tr><td>3PL</td><td>Three spectral range continuous power-law fit</td></tr><tr><td>ACR(s)</td><td>Anomalous cosmic ray(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ACW(s)</td><td>Alfvén ion cyclotron wave(s)</td></tr><tr><td>AR(s)</td><td>Active region(s)</td></tr><tr><td>AU</td><td>Astronomical unit</td></tr><tr><td>AW(s)</td><td>Alfvén wave(s)</td></tr><tr><td>CIR(s)</td><td>Corotating interaction region(s)</td></tr><tr><td>CME(s)</td><td>Coronal mass ejection(s)</td></tr><tr><td>cobpoint</td><td>“Connecting with the OBserving” point</td></tr><tr><td>CR</td><td>Carrington rotation</td></tr><tr><td>DC</td><td>Direct current</td></tr><tr><td>DDZ</td><td>Dust depletion zone</td></tr><tr><td>DFZ</td><td>Dust-free zone</td></tr><tr><td>dHT</td><td>de Hoffman-Teller frame</td></tr><tr><td>DOY</td><td>Day of the year</td></tr><tr><td>ED</td><td>“Either” discontinuity</td></tr><tr><td>Enc. / Encs.</td><td>Encounter(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ES (waves)</td><td>Electrostatic waves</td></tr><tr><td>EUV</td><td>Extreme ultraviolet</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>ce</sub></td><td>Electron gyrofrequency or electron cyclotron frequency</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>cp</sub></td><td>Proton gyrofrequency or proton cyclotron frequency</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>pe</sub></td><td>Plasma frequency</td></tr><tr><td>f<sub>LH</sub></td><td>Lower hybrid frequency</td></tr><tr><td>F-corona</td><td>Fraunhofer-corona</td></tr><tr><td>F<sub>A</sub></td><td>Alfvénic energy flux</td></tr><tr><td>F<sub>K</sub></td><td>Bulk kinetic energy flux</td></tr><tr><td>FITS</td><td>Flexible Image Transport System</td></tr><tr><td>FM/W</td><td>Fast-magnetosonic/whistler</td></tr><tr><td>FOV</td><td>Field of view</td></tr><tr><td>GCR(s)</td><td>Galactic cosmic ray(s)</td></tr><tr><td>HCI</td><td>Heliocentric inertial coordinate system</td></tr><tr><td>HCS</td><td>Heliospheric current sheet</td></tr><tr><td>HEE</td><td>Heliocentric Earth Ecliptic system</td></tr><tr><td>HEEQ</td><td>Heliocentric Earth Equatorial system</td></tr><tr><td>HFR</td><td>High frequency receiver</td></tr><tr><td>HHT</td><td>Hilbert-Huang transform</td></tr><tr><td>HPC</td><td>Helioprojective cartesian system</td></tr><tr><td>HPS</td><td>Heliospheric plasma sheet</td></tr><tr><td>HSO</td><td>Heliophysics System Observatory</td></tr><tr><td>HSS(s)</td><td>High-speed stream(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ICME(s)</td><td>Interplanetary coronal mass ejection(s)</td></tr><tr><td>ICW</td><td>Ion cyclotron wave</td></tr><tr><td>ID(s)</td><td>Interplanetary discontinuity(ies)</td></tr><tr><td>KAW(s)</td><td>Kinetic Alfvén wave(s)</td></tr><tr><td>LFR(s)</td><td>Large-scale flux rope(s)</td></tr><tr><td>LTE</td><td>Local thermal equilibrium</td></tr><tr><td>LOS</td><td>Line of sight</td></tr><tr><td>M<sub>A</sub></td><td>Alfvénic Mach number</td></tr><tr><td>MAG(s)</td><td>Fluxgate magnetometer(s)</td></tr><tr><td>MC(s)</td><td>Magnetic cloud(s)</td></tr><tr><td>MFR(s)</td><td>Magnetic flux rope(s)</td></tr><tr><td>MHD</td><td>Magneto-HydroDynamic</td></tr><tr><td>MOID</td><td>Earth Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>MVA</td><td>Minimum variance analysis</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>“Neither” discontinuity</td></tr><tr><td>NIR</td><td>Near Infrared</td></tr><tr><td>PAD(s)</td><td>Pitch angle distribution(s)</td></tr><tr><td>PDF(s)</td><td>Probability distribution function(s)</td></tr><tr><td>PIC</td><td>Particle-in-cell</td></tr><tr><td>PIL(s)</td><td>Polarity inversion line(s)</td></tr><tr><td>PVI</td><td>Partial variance of increments</td></tr><tr><td>QTN</td><td>Quasi-thermal noise</td></tr><tr><td>RD(s)</td><td>Rotational discontinuity(ies)</td></tr><tr><td>RLO</td><td>Reconnection/Loop-Opening</td></tr><tr><td>RTN</td><td>Radial-Tangential-Normal frame</td></tr><tr><td>R<sub>☉</sub></td><td>Solar radius</td></tr><tr><td>SBO(s)</td><td>Streamer blowout(s)</td></tr><tr><td>SBO-CME(s)</td><td>Streamer blowout CME(s)</td></tr><tr><td>S/C</td><td>Spacecraft</td></tr><tr><td>SEP(s)</td><td>Solar energetic particle event(s)</td></tr><tr><td>SFR(s)</td><td>Small-scale flux rope(s)</td></tr><tr><td>SIR(s)</td><td>Stream interaction region(s)</td></tr><tr><td>TD(s)</td><td>Tangential discontinuity(ies)</td></tr><tr><td>TH</td><td>Taylor's hypothesis</td></tr><tr><td>TOF</td><td>Time of flight</td></tr><tr><td>TPS</td><td>Thermal Protection System</td></tr><tr><td>UT</td><td>Universal Time</td></tr><tr><td>VDF(s)</td><td>Velocity distribution function(s)</td></tr><tr><td>VGA(s)</td><td>Venus gravity assist(s)</td></tr><tr><td>VSF</td><td>Volume scattering function</td></tr><tr><td>WCS</td><td>World Coordinate System</td></tr><tr><td>WHPI</td><td>Whole Heliosphere and Planetary Interactions</td></tr><tr><td>WKB</td><td>The Wentzel, Kramers, and Brillouin approximation</td></tr><tr><td>w.r.t.</td><td>With respect to</td></tr><tr><td>WTD</td><td>Wave/Turbulence-Driven</td></tr><tr><td>ZC</td><td>Zodiacal cloud</td></tr><tr><td>ZDC</td><td>Zodiacal dust cloud</td></tr><tr><td>ZL</td><td>Zodiacal light</td></tr></table>

**Acknowledgements** Parker Solar Probe was designed, built, and is now operated by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory as part of NASA's Living with a Star (LWS) program (contract NNN06AA01C). Support from the LWS management and technical team has played a critical role in the success of the Parker Solar Probe mission.

The FIELDS instrument suite was designed and built and is operated by a consortium of institutions including the University of California, Berkeley, University of Minnesota, University of Colorado, Boulder, NASA/GSFC, CNRS/LPC2E, University of New Hampshire, University of Maryland, UCLA, IFRU, Observatory de Meudon, Imperial College, London and Queen Mary University London.

The SWEAP Investigation is a multi-institution project led by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Other members of the SWEAP team come from the University of Michigan, University of California, Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory, The NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, The University of Alabama Huntsville, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Draper Laboratory, JHU Applied Physics Laboratory, and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

The Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun (IS◎IS) Investigation is a multi-institution project led by Princeton University with contributions from JHU Applied Physics Laboratory, Caltech, GSFC, JPL, SwRI, University of New Hampshire, University of Delaware, and University of Arizona.

The Wide-Field Imager for Parker Solar Probe (WISPR) instrument was designed, built, and is now operated by the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in collaboration with JHU Applied Physics Laboratory, California Institute of Technology/Jet Propulsion Laboratory, University of Gottingen, Germany, Centre Spatiale de Liege, Belgium and University of Toulouse/Research Institute in Astrophysics and Planetology.

**Funding** O.V.A. was supported by NASA grants 80NSC19K0848, 80NSSC22K0417, 80NSSC21K1770, and NSF grant 1914670. S.B. is supported by NASA grants 80NSSC21K0012 and Parker Solar Probe as part of NASA's Living with a Star (LWS) program (contract NNN06AA01C). C.H.K.C. is supported by UKRI Future Leaders Fellowship MR/W007657/1 and STFC Consolidated Grant ST/T00018X/1. R.C. was supported
<table><tr><td>MVA</td><td>Minimum variance analysis</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>"Neither" discontinuity</td></tr><tr><td>NIR</td><td>Near Infrared</td></tr><tr><td>PAD(s)</td><td>Pitch angle distribution(s)</td></tr><tr><td>PDF(s)</td><td>Probability distribution function(s)</td></tr><tr><td>PIC</td><td>Particle-in-cell</td></tr><tr><td>PIL(s)</td><td>Polarity inversion line(s)</td></tr><tr><td>PVI</td><td>Partial variance of increments</td></tr><tr><td>QTN</td><td>Quasi-thermal noise</td></tr><tr><td>RD(s)</td><td>Rotational discontinuity(ies)</td></tr><tr><td>RLO</td><td>Reconnection/Loop-Opening</td></tr><tr><td>RTN</td><td>Radial-Tangential-Normal frame</td></tr><tr><td>R<sub>☉</sub></td><td>Solar radius</td></tr><tr><td>SBO(s)</td><td>Streamer blowout(s)</td></tr><tr><td>SBO-CME(s)</td><td>Streamer blowout CME(s)</td></tr><tr><td>S/C</td><td>Spacecraft</td></tr><tr><td>SEP(s)</td><td>Solar energetic particle event(s)</td></tr><tr><td>SFR(s)</td><td>Small-scale flux rope(s)</td></tr><tr><td>SIR(s)</td><td>Stream interaction region(s)</td></tr><tr><td>TD(s)</td><td>Tangential discontinuity(ies)</td></tr><tr><td>TH</td><td>Taylor's hypothesis</td></tr><tr><td>TOF</td><td>Time of flight</td></tr><tr><td>TPS</td><td>Thermal Protection System</td></tr><tr><td>UT</td><td>Universal Time</td></tr><tr><td>VDF(s)</td><td>Velocity distribution function(s)</td></tr><tr><td>VGA(s)</td><td>Venus gravity assist(s)</td></tr><tr><td>VSF</td><td>Volume scattering function</td></tr><tr><td>WCS</td><td>World Coordinate System</td></tr><tr><td>WHPI</td><td>Whole Heliosphere and Planetary Interactions</td></tr><tr><td>WKB</td><td>The Wentzel, Kramers, and Brillouin approximation</td></tr><tr><td>w.r.t.</td><td>With respect to</td></tr><tr><td>WTD</td><td>Wave/Turbulence-Driven</td></tr><tr><td>ZC</td><td>Zodiacal cloud</td></tr><tr><td>ZDC</td><td>Zodiacal dust cloud</td></tr><tr><td>ZL</td><td>Zodiacal light</td></tr></table>

**Acknowledgements** Parker Solar Probe was designed, built, and is now operated by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory as part of NASA's Living with a Star (LWS) program (contract NNN06AA01C). Support from the LWS management and technical team has played a critical role in the success of the Parker Solar Probe mission.

The FIELDS instrument suite was designed and built and is operated by a consortium of institutions including the University of California, Berkeley, University of Minnesota, University of Colorado, Boulder, NASA/GSFC, CNRS/LPC2E, University of New Hampshire, University of Maryland, UCLA, IFRU, Observatory de Meudon, Imperial College, London and Queen Mary University London.

The SWEAP Investigation is a multi-institution project led by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Other members of the SWEAP team come from the University of Michigan, University of California, Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory, The NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, The University of Alabama Huntsville, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Draper Laboratory, JHU Applied Physics Laboratory, and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

The Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun (IS◎IS) Investigation is a multi-institution project led by Princeton University with contributions from JHU Applied Physics Laboratory, Caltech, GSFC, JPL, SwRI, University of New Hampshire, University of Delaware, and University of Arizona.

The Wide-Field Imager for Parker Solar Probe (WISPR) instrument was designed, built, and is now operated by the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in collaboration with JHU Applied Physics Laboratory, California Institute of Technology/Jet Propulsion Laboratory, University of Gottingen, Germany, Centre Spatiale de Liege, Belgium and University of Toulouse/Research Institute in Astrophysics and Planetology.

**Funding** O.V.A. was supported by NASA grants 80NSC19K0848, 80NSSC22K0417, 80NSSC21K1770, and NSF grant 1914670. S.B. is supported by NASA grants 80NSSC21K0012 and Parker Solar Probe as part of NASA's Living with a Star (LWS) program (contract NNN06AA01C). C.H.K.C. is supported by UKRI Future Leaders Fellowship MR/W007657/1 and STFC Consolidated Grant ST/T00018X/1. R.C. was supported
by NASA grants 80NSSC18K1210, 80NSSC18K1648, and 80NSSC21K1765. K.G.K. was supported by NASA grant 80NSSC19K0912. I.M. is supported by the Research Council of Norway (grant number 262941). Support for J.S. was provided by Rutherford Discovery Fellowship RDF-U001804, which is managed through the Royal Society Te Apārangi. J.R.S, P.P., and D.M.M. acknowledge the Parker Solar Probe Guest Investigator Program, grant 80NSSC21K1764. M.A.T. was supported by NASA contract NNN06AA01C and grants 80NSSC20K1847, 80NSSC20K1014, and 80NSSC21K1662.

## Declarations

**Competing Interests** There are no conflicts of interest (financial or non-financial) for any of the co-authors of this article.

**Open Access** This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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by NASA grants 80NSSC18K1210, 80NSSC18K1648, and 80NSSC21K1765. K.G.K. was supported by NASA grant 80NSSC19K0912. I.M. is supported by the Research Council of Norway (grant number 262941). Support for J.S. was provided by Rutherford Discovery Fellowship RDF-U001804, which is managed through the Royal Society Te Apārangi. J.R.S, P.P., and D.M.M. acknowledge the Parker Solar Probe Guest Investigator Program, grant 80NSSC21K1764. M.A.T. was supported by NASA contract NNN06AA01C and grants 80NSSC20K1847, 80NSSC20K1014, and 80NSSC21K1662.

## Declarations

**Competing Interests** There are no conflicts of interest (financial or non-financial) for any of the co-authors of this article.

**Open Access** This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

## References

Abraham JB, Owen CJ, Verscharen D et al (2022) Astrophys J 931:118

Adhikari L, Zank GP, Telloni D et al (2017) Astrophys J 851:117

Adhikari L, Zank GP, Zhao LL (2020a) Astrophys J 901:102

Adhikari L, Zank GP, Zhao LL et al (2020b) Astrophys J Suppl Ser 246:38

Adhikari L, Zank GP, Zhao LL, Nakanotani M, Tasnim S (2021) Astron Astrophys 650:A16

Agapitov OV, Dudok de Wit T, Mozer FS et al (2020) Astrophys J Lett 891:L20

Agapitov OV, Drake JF, Swisdak M et al (2022) Astrophys J 925:213

Akhavan-Tafti M, Slavin JA, Eastwood JP, Cassak PA, Gershman DJ (2019a) J Geophys Res Space Phys 124:5376

Akhavan-Tafti M, Slavin JA, Sun WJ, Le G, Gershman DJ (2019b) Geophys Res Lett 46:12,654

Akhavan-Tafti M, Kasper J, Huang J, Bale S (2021) Astron Astrophys 650:A4

Alberti T, Laurenza M, Consolini G et al (2020) Astrophys J 902:84

Allen RC, Ho GC, Mason GM (2019) Astrophys J Lett 883:L10

Allen RC, Lario D, Odstrcil D et al (2020) Astrophys J Suppl Ser 246:36

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Lario D, Balmaceda L, Alzate N et al (2020) Astrophys J 897:134

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Lemen JR, Title AM, Akin DJ et al (2012) Sol Phys 275:17

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Li B, Cairns IH, Owens MJ et al (2016) J Geophys Res Space Phys 121:10,728

Liang H, Zank GP, Nakanotani M, Zhao LL (2021) Astrophys J 917:110

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**Publisher's Note** Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

## Authors and Affiliations

N.E. Raouafi¹ ID • L. Matteini² ID • J. Squire³ ID • S.T. Badman⁴,⁵ ID • M. Velli⁶ ID •

K.G. Klein⁷ ID • C.H.K. Chen⁸ ID • W.H. Matthaeus⁹ ID • A. Szabo¹⁰ ID • M. Linton¹¹ •

R.C. Allen¹ ID • J.R. Szalay¹² ID • R. Bruno¹³ ID • R.B. Decker¹ • M. Akhavan-Tafti¹⁴ ID •

O.V. Agapitov⁵ ID • S.D. Bale⁵,¹⁵ ID • R. Bandyopadhyay¹² ID • K. Battams¹¹ ID •

L. Berčič¹⁶ ID • S. Bourouaine¹ ID • T.A. Bowen⁵ ID • C. Cattell¹⁷ ID •

B.D.G. Chandran¹⁸,¹⁹ ID • R. Chhiber⁹,¹⁰ ID • C.M.S. Cohen²⁰ ID • R. D'Amicis¹³ ID •

J. Giacalone⁷ ID • P. Hess¹¹ ID • R.A. Howard¹ ID • T.S. Horbury² ID • V.K. Jagarlamudi¹ ID •

C.J. Joyce²¹ ID • J.C. Kasper¹⁴,²² ID • J. Kinnison¹ • R. Laker² ID • P. Liewer²³ ID •

D.M. Malaspina²⁴,²⁵ ID • I. Mann²⁶ ID • D.J. McComas¹² ID • T. Niembro-Hernandez⁴ ID •

T. Nieves-Chinchilla¹⁰ ID • O. Panasenco²⁷ ID • P. Pokorný²⁸,²⁹,³⁰ ID • A. Pusack²⁵ ID •

M. Pulupa⁵ ID • J.C. Perez³¹ ID • P. Riley³² ID • A.P. Rouillard³³ ID • C. Shi⁶ ID •

G. Stenborg¹ ID • A. Tenerani³⁴ ID • J.L. Verniero¹⁰ ID • N. Viall¹⁰ ID • A. Vourlidas¹ ID •

B.E. Wood¹¹ ID • L.D. Woodham² ID • T. Woolley² ID •

<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>

N.E. Raouafi

Nour.Raouafi@jhuapl.edu

1 Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD 20723, USA

2 Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK

3 Physics Department, University of Otago, Dunedin 9010, New Zealand

4 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA

5 Space Sciences Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-7450, USA

6 Earth Planetary and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA

7 Lunar & Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

8 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK

9 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA

10 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt MD 20771, USA

11 Naval Research Laboratory, Space Science Division, Washington, DC 20375, USA

12 Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA

13 National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) – Institute for Space Astrophysics and Planetology (IAPS), 00133 Rome, Italy
Zaslavsky A, Meyer-Vernet N, Mann I et al (2012) J Geophys Res Space Phys 117:A05102

Zaslavsky A, Mann I, Soucek J et al (2021) Astron Astrophys 656:A30

Zhao L, Zhang M, Lario D (2020a) Astrophys J 898:16

Zhao LL, Zank GP, Adhikari L et al (2020b) Astrophys J Suppl Ser 246:26

Zhao LL, Zank GP, Hu Q et al (2021) Astron Astrophys 650:A12

Zhou Y, Matthaeus WH, Dmitruk P (2004) Rev Mod Phys 76:1015

Zhu X, He J, Verscharen D, Duan D, Bale SD (2020) Astrophys J Lett 901:L3

Zurbuchen TH, Richardson IG (2006) Space Sci Rev 123:31

**Publisher's Note** Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

## Authors and Affiliations

N.E. Raouafi¹ ID • L. Matteini² ID • J. Squire³ ID • S.T. Badman⁴,⁵ ID • M. Velli⁶ ID •

K.G. Klein⁷ ID • C.H.K. Chen⁸ ID • W.H. Matthaeus⁹ ID • A. Szabo¹⁰ ID • M. Linton¹¹ •

R.C. Allen¹ ID • J.R. Szalay¹² ID • R. Bruno¹³ ID • R.B. Decker¹ • M. Akhavan-Tafti¹⁴ ID •

O.V. Agapitov⁵ ID • S.D. Bale⁵,¹⁵ ID • R. Bandyopadhyay¹² ID • K. Battams¹¹ ID •

L. Berčič¹⁶ ID • S. Bourouaine¹ ID • T.A. Bowen⁵ ID • C. Cattell¹⁷ ID •

B.D.G. Chandran¹⁸,¹⁹ ID • R. Chhiber⁹,¹⁰ ID • C.M.S. Cohen²⁰ ID • R. D'Amicis¹³ ID •

J. Giacalone⁷ ID • P. Hess¹¹ ID • R.A. Howard¹ ID • T.S. Horbury² ID • V.K. Jagarlamudi¹ ID •

C.J. Joyce²¹ ID • J.C. Kasper¹⁴,²² ID • J. Kinnison¹ • R. Laker² ID • P. Liewer²³ ID •

D.M. Malaspina²⁴,²⁵ ID • I. Mann²⁶ ID • D.J. McComas¹² ID • T. Niembro-Hernandez⁴ ID •

T. Nieves-Chinchilla¹⁰ ID • O. Panasenco²⁷ ID • P. Pokorný²⁸,²⁹,³⁰ ID • A. Pusack²⁵ ID •

M. Pulupa⁵ ID • J.C. Perez³¹ ID • P. Riley³² ID • A.P. Rouillard³³ ID • C. Shi⁶ ID •

G. Stenborg¹ ID • A. Tenerani³⁴ ID • J.L. Verniero¹⁰ ID • N. Viall¹⁰ ID • A. Vourlidas¹ ID •

B.E. Wood¹¹ ID • L.D. Woodham² ID • T. Woolley² ID •

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /></figure>

N.E. Raouafi

Nour.Raouafi@jhuapl.edu

1 Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD 20723, USA

2 Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK

3 Physics Department, University of Otago, Dunedin 9010, New Zealand

4 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA

5 Space Sciences Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-7450, USA

6 Earth Planetary and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA

7 Lunar & Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

8 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK

9 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA

10 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt MD 20771, USA

11 Naval Research Laboratory, Space Science Division, Washington, DC 20375, USA

12 Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA

13 National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) – Institute for Space Astrophysics and Planetology (IAPS), 00133 Rome, Italy
14 Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA

15 Physics Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-7300, USA

16 Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Dorking RH5 6NT, UK

17 School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA

18 Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA

19 Space Science Center, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA

20 California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA

21 University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA

22 BWX Technologies, Inc., Washington, DC 20002, USA

23 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA

24 Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA

25 Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80303, USA

26 Department of Physics and Technology, Postboks 6050 Langnes, 9037 Tromso, Norway

27 Advanced Heliophysics, Pasadena, CA 91106, USA

28 Astrophysics Science Division, NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA

29 Department of Physics, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 20064, USA

30 Center for Research and Exploration in Space Science and Technology, NASA/GSFC, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA

31 Department of Aerospace, Physics and Space Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA

32 Predictive Science Inc., San Diego, CA, USA

33 IRAP, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, CNES, UPS, Toulouse, France

34 Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
14 Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA

15 Physics Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-7300, USA

16 Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Dorking RH5 6NT, UK

17 School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA

18 Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA

19 Space Science Center, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA

20 California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA

21 University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA

22 BWX Technologies, Inc., Washington, DC 20002, USA

23 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA

24 Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA

25 Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80303, USA

26 Department of Physics and Technology, Postboks 6050 Langnes, 9037 Tromso, Norway

27 Advanced Heliophysics, Pasadena, CA 91106, USA

28 Astrophysics Science Division, NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA

29 Department of Physics, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 20064, USA

30 Center for Research and Exploration in Space Science and Technology, NASA/GSFC, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA

31 Department of Aerospace, Physics and Space Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA

32 Predictive Science Inc., San Diego, CA, USA

33 IRAP, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, CNES, UPS, Toulouse, France

34 Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA