# The tectono-sedimentary evolution of a major seismogenic zone with low slip rate activity: A geochronological and sedimentological investigation of the Dobrá Voda Depression (Western Carpathians)

Michal Šujan, Regis Braucher, Martin Šujan, Jozef Hók, Pavel P. Povinec, František Šipka, Georg Rugel, Andreas Scharf

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## ► To cite this version:

Michal Šujan, Regis Braucher, Martin Šujan, Jozef Hók, Pavel P. Povinec, et al.. The tectono-sedimentary evolution of a major seismogenic zone with low slip rate activity: A geochronological and sedimentological investigation of the Dobrá Voda Depression (Western Carpathians). Sedimentary Geology, 2019, 383, pp.248-267. 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2019.02.003. hal-02059886

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Submitted on 11 Aug 2025

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1 The Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of a Major Seismogenic Zone

2 with Low Slip rate Activity: A Geochronological and Sedimentological

3 Investigation of the Dobrá Voda Depression (Western Carpathians)

4 Michal Šujan¹*, Régis Braucher², Martin Šujan³, Jozef Hók¹, Pavel P. Povinec⁴,

5 František Šipka³, AsterTeam²**

6 1 - Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava,

7 Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia

8 2 - Aix-Marseille Univ., CNRS-IRD-Collège de France, UM 34 CEREGE, Technopôle de

9 l'Environnement Arbois-Méditerranée, BP80, 13545 Aix-en-Provence, France

10 3 - EQUIS Ltd., Račianska 57, 831 02 Bratislava, Slovakia

11 4 - Department of Nuclear Physics and Biophysics, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics,

12 Comenius University, 84248 Bratislava, Slovakia

13 * - corresponding author

14 ** - Georges Aumaitre, Didier L. Bourlès, Karim Keddadouche

15 Abstract

16 Seismically active fault zones receive a great deal of attention due to their potential for
17 quantification of seismic hazards. Zones with low slip rates pose a challenge, however, since
18 their poor topographic expression is related to difficulties in the quantification of fault
19 movement. This study focuses on the Dobrá Voda Depression, an area with the highest level
20 of seismic activity in the Western Carpathians. The Quaternary tectono-sedimentary evolution
21 of the small intramontane basin was investigated with the use of facies analysis of cores,
22 dated with the use of cosmogenic nuclide depth profiles (¹⁰Be, ²⁶Al and ³⁶Cl), together with
23 ²⁶Al/¹⁰Be burial dating and radiocarbon dating. A set of archived boreholes and geoelectric
24 survey data was used for the correlation of results with those from new boreholes across the
25 depression. Four facies associations were distinguished: (FA1) Colluvial deposits that
26 comprise subaerial debris flows and mudflows; (FA2) Fluvial deposits with high sediment
supply: accommodation ratio, composed mostly of sandy-gravelly channel fill deposits; (FA3)
Fluvial deposits with low sediment supply: accommodation ratio, consisting mostly of
floodplain muds, overbank heterolithic facies and minor sandy-gravelly channel fills; and
(FA4) Swamp deposits, which are mostly made up of peat. Geochronological results suggest
that the studied part of FA3 was deposited before 1.0 Ma due to a rise in the base level
following a major incision event. Overbank-dominated deposits of FA3 covered an incision
surface, resulted in a difference of ca. 65 m of elevation of these strata, which represents the
minimal thickness of FA3. The second phase of incision was related to reactivation of
Miocene normal faults resulting in further topographic differentiation. The initiation of fault
activity is recorded by the deposition of colluvial FA1 before ca. 250 ka. FA2 accumulated
between ca. 160 and 100 ka, mostly at the toes of slopes bounding the fault scarps on the
basin margins. The last documented phase of evolution represents an increase of
accommodation, which was connected to the deposition of Holocene peat in swamps as well
as floodplain muds of FA4 above FA2. The observed settings imply that variation between
incision and accumulation in a scale of hundreds of thousands of years is characteristic for
low relief tectonically active zones. The presented research demonstrates the significance of
sedimentological analysis for reconstruction of tectonic evolution in areas with low slip rate
activity.

**Keywords:** Western Carpathians, Quaternary, neotectonics, cosmogenic nuclide dating, facies analysis

## 1. Introduction

Recognition of the Quaternary evolution of seismically active fault zones is crucial for the
prediction of their activity and related hazards. Zones that produce major seismic events, such
as the Magnola fault, Italy (e.g., Palumbo et al., 2004; Carcaillet et al., 2008; Schlagenhauf et
al., 2011), the Northern Anatolian Fault, Turkey (e.g., Meghraoui et al., 2012; Avşar et al., 2015; Yönlü et al., 2017), and the Longriba Fault system, Tibet (e.g., Ren et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2015), have been the subject of numerous studies. Related research requires the application of geomorphologic and tectonic analysis, which is supported by subsurface data for the reconstruction of the geometry of structures that accommodate deformation (e.g., McCalpin and Nelson, 2009; Burbank and Anderson, 2011; Bemis et al., 2015). Sedimentary records may also provide convincing evidence for the presence of seismic activity (e.g., Owen et al., 2011; Kremer et al., 2017). Seismogenic zones that generate destructive earthquakes are commonly expressed by distinct topography with noticeable morpholineaments, fault scarps and displacements of sedimentary bodies. These indications commonly available in zones with high tectonic activity allow in combination with geochronological proxies (such as deformed and datable sedimentary units) for precise estimates of slip rates in palaeoseismological research.

However, investigations in seismogenic zones with low slip rate activity are often complicated by a number of factors, such as low topographic relief, reduced topographic expression of tectonic structures, sedimentary cover and by the overprinting of fault activity signature by other processes like slope movements and glaciogenic deformations (e.g., Font et al., 2006; Vanneste et al., 2008; Špaček et al., 2017; Weissl et al., 2017). These zones are generally of high importance, since they could generate strong earthquakes ($M_w>6$) with long recurrence intervals on the order of $10^2$ to $10^3$ years (e.g., Perea et al., 2006, 2012; Galli and Peronace, 2015; Landgraf et al., 2017; Baratin et al., 2018). The need for the determination of the level of geohazard risk is a strong motivation for bridging the gap between these obstacles.

Application of geochronological methods is fundamental for obtaining a time scale for fault zone evolution. A frequently used approach is dating of sedimentary bodies disrupted by fault
76 activity (e.g., Le Dortz et al., 2011; Olszak, 2017). Successive deposition of several units can
77 be used for investigation of cumulative fault displacement in the case of river terraces or
78 alluvial fans. One particular approach, which has experienced progress recently, is to date the
79 gradual exposure of a fault plane during fault movement with cosmogenic nuclides and then
80 directly calculate the cumulative slip rate of the fault (Palumbo et al., 2004; Carcaillet et al.,
81 2008; Schlagenhauf et al., 2011). In most major faults that generate strong earthquakes, time
82 scales of 10² to 10⁴ years are sufficient for precise fault slip reconstruction. When considering
83 a low slip rate seismogenic structure, it is necessary to investigate longer time scales, which
84 may prove challenging for many standard geochronological approaches in the study of
85 neotectonics.

86 This paper focuses on the Dobrá Voda Depression (DVD), which is located in the western
87 part of the Western Carpathians (Central Europe) (Fig. 1). The DVD represents the most
88 active seismogenic zone in Slovakia as the SK1 seismic source zone with documented
89 earthquakes up to M<sub>w</sub> 5.7 (Hók et al., 2016b). This area is located in a densely populated area
90 close to two capital cities (Vienna and Bratislava), and therefore its seismic potential is of
91 high importance. Several studies have examined the seismicity, focal mechanisms and deep
92 geological structure of the DVD (Briestenský and Stemberk, 2007; Briestenský et al., 2007;
93 Fojtíková et al., 2010; Jechumtálová and Bulant, 2014; Hók et al., 2016a, b; Gribovszki et al.,
94 2017a, b), yet none have uncovered the Quaternary tectono-sedimentary processes of the area.
95 This study attempts to determine a succession of depositional events through facies analysis
96 of the Quaternary strata, investigate evolution of the erosional base and its related vertical
97 movements, and provide a geochronological framework with the use of cosmogenic nuclides.
98

## 2. Geological setting

The Dobrá Voda Depression (DVD) is located in the northeast termination of the Malé Karpaty Mountains., which are the westernmost morphostructure included in the Western Carpathians of Central Europe (Hók et al., 2014). This mountain horst separates the Vienna Basin from the Danube Basin, which is a depocentre of the Pannonian Basin System (Kováč, 2000). The DVD is surrounded by Mesozoic complexes of the Hronic nappe, which form the hilly relief of the Brezovské Karpaty Mountains (a subassembly of the Malé Karpaty Mountains; Mazúr and Lukniš, 1978). The DVD is a small ca. 5 km wide triangular basin, filled with Quaternary fluvial and colluvial deposits (Began et al., 1984), without any more precise age information. The basin margins are composed of early-middle Miocene siliciclastics and of Mesozoic, mostly carbonate rocks, both of which form the pre-Quaternary basement in the depression (Fig. 2).

The mainly Mesozoic carbonate complexes of the Hronic nappe were thrust northwards during the Eocene-Oligocene, and then back-thrusted to the SE and E during the Oligocene-earliest Miocene (Marko et al., 1990; Hók et al., 2016b; Pelech et al., 2017). NE-SW normal to strike slip fault activity was accompanied by alluvial fan deposition leading to deltaic sedimentation during the early to middle Miocene (Kováč et al., 1991; Marko et al., 1991).

The evolution of the DVD area has been linked to the activity of the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault according to several authors (Decker et al., 2005; Hausmann et al., 2010; Hinsch and Decker, 2011). The Vienna Basin Transfer Fault played a key role in the opening of Vienna Basin depocentres with accumulation of several kilometers' thick succession during the middle Miocene (Kováč et al., 2017; Lee and Wagreich, 2017). Neotectonic activity of this fault zone has been documented by the presence of several grabens filled with Quaternary deposits from a transtensional origin (Decker et al., 2005; Maglay et al., 2009; Beidinger and
Decker, 2011). It has been previously proposed that the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault is genetically connected to the Mur-Murz-Leitha fault zone, and its movement is transferred across the DVD towards the Váh river valley up to the External Western Carpathians near Žilina (e.g., Jarosiński et al., 2006; Bada et al., 2007; Špaček et al., 2015; Tokarski et al., 2016; Marko et al., 2017). However, a recent detailed geological investigation has proven that the youngest Quaternary fault population in the DVD is oriented NNE – SSW and ENE – WSW with a normal sense of movement (Hók et al., 2018) (Fig. 2). The sense of movement and geometry of the youngest population of faults in the Dobrá Voda fault zone is incompatible with kinematics of the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault, and hence could not represent its segment, as proposed by Hinsch and Decker (2011). Due to the complicated kinematics of the faults present in the DVD, a detailed study of the Quaternary depositional evolution of the depression is necessary for sufficient understanding of these structures.

## 3. Methods

### 3.1 Sedimentology

General information on the distribution of Quaternary successions across the DVD was gained through investigation of archived boreholes (35), geo-electrical profiles (10, ~25 km length) and new resistivity tomography profiles (8), since the area lacks outcrops due to low topography relief. Location of five cores drilled to depth between 8 and 16 m depth (DV-6, DV-10, DV-11, DV-12, DV-13) was based on the resulting map of distribution the Quaternary successions. The cores were subject to facies analysis and sampled for radiometric dating. The 16 cm wide cores were described in the field, with focus on the grain size, texture, sedimentary structures (cohesive sediment only), bed thickness, colour and secondary alterations. The genetically defined facies associations were later correlated in the DVD using all available data.
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## 3.2 Sampling strategies for geochronology

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Four cores were used to date the deposition of the studied successions. Only general information was available regarding the possible age of deposits in question (e.g., Decker et al., 2005; Gabris and Nador, 2007; Vojtko et al., 2008; Kováč et al., 2011; Minar et al., 2011; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2016; Šujan et al., 2016). Thus, it was decided to apply the exposure dating with cosmogenic nuclide depth profiles (Braucher et al., 2009) and $^{26}$Al/$^{10}$Be burial dating (Granger and Muzikar, 2001; Balco and Rovey, 2008) along with radiocarbon dating for the uppermost strata containing organic material.

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In situ cosmogenic nuclides are produced by nuclear interactions of secondary particles that enter Earth's environment with target atoms from surficial rock minerals. Due to the efficient dissipation of their energy through nuclear reactions in the lithosphere, the flux of nuclear active particles and the accompanying cosmonuclide production rates decrease exponentially with the mass of the overlying material with a characteristic attenuation length $\Lambda$ (g cm$^{-2}$). Attenuation length is specific for each particle, e.g. for high-energy neutrons reaches 150-180 g cm$^{-2}$, what means that in a rock with density of 2.65 g cm$^{-3}$ will 37% of particles penetrate below ~60 cm depth and only <1% below ~300 cm (Dunai, 2010). On the other hand, 37% of muons will penetrate to the depth below ~25 m depth in the same rock (Braucher et al., 2013). Therefore, modelling of measured cosmogenic nuclide concentrations along a depth profile may be used to determine the age of exposure and the denudation rate of the study area.

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When field observations or previous studies suggest a complex history of the investigated site, the ratio $^{26}$Al/$^{10}$Be may be used for further investigation of the mechanisms involved in landscape evolution. When a previously exposed rock is shielded from cosmic radiation due to burial, concentrations of both nuclides ($^{10}$Be and $^{26}$Al) decrease through radioactive decay. Although there is an infinite number of possible paths (corresponding to the complex histories
170 of periodic exposure and burial), a minimum burial time may be calculated, as well as the
171 palaeo-denudation rate prevailing before the burial event.

172 In the case of multiple layer deposition, the depth profile approach can be used to inform on
173 the periodicity of deposition (Fig. 3). This is performed with a forward model starting from
174 the deeper layer, which is returned to the surface and exposed for a time of T<sub>deep</sub> and with
175 a denudation E<sub>deep</sub>. Afterwards, this layer is covered by a new layer. Thus, the previously
176 accumulated <sup>10</sup>Be during T<sub>deep</sub> is considered as inheritance and both layers are again
177 modelled. This approach assumes that the layers are covered before being eroded, implying
178 that the original exponential decrease is completely recovered in the measured depth profile.
179 In fact, the top samples exposed on the surface may be eroded and therefore, the exponential
180 decrease is truncated and can only be partially proven by measurements (Fig. 3).

181 In the case of core DV-12, quartz-rich clastic material was suitable for <sup>10</sup>Be and <sup>26</sup>Al analysis
182 and 11 samples were taken. Cores DV-6, DV-10 and DV-13 contained mostly clasts of
183 carbonates, which was sampled in depth profiles consisting of 11 (DV-6), 11 (DV-10) and 9
184 (DV-13) samples. The uppermost samples of the profiles were taken 1.1 m (DV-6), 1.5 m
185 (DV-10) and 2.8 m (DV-13) below the present-day surface due to the occurrence of muddy
186 deposits in the uppermost part of the profiles. The uppermost mud-prone succession
187 containing peat in core DV-13 served for three radiocarbon analyses. The lowermost part of
188 the DV-13 also contained, quartz sandy particles, which were collected for <sup>26</sup>Al/<sup>10</sup>Be burial
189 dating (at depths of 6.5, 7.1 and 7.7 m). Core DV-6 penetrated into the Miocene clastics in its
190 lowermost part, which were sampled for <sup>26</sup>Al/<sup>10</sup>Be burial dating. Similarly, the lowermost two
191 <sup>36</sup>Cl depth profile samples (7 m and 8 m depths of DV-6) contained quartz material and were
192 processed as one sample for burial dating. Sample ID contains the name of the core and depth
193 of the sampling, e.g., DV-6-1.2 is a sample from core DV-6 taken from a depth of 1.2 m.
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**3.3 Sample processing**

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All samples from core DV-6 were taken from crushed pebble material, which was then sieved into fractions of 0.25–1.0 mm. Samples from cores DV-10 and DV-13 represent sieved sandy fractions of 0.25–1.0 mm. The variable lithology of core DV-12 allowed us to take pebble material in all depths except at 1.8 m and 4.7 m, which were sandy samples sieved into a range of 0.25–1.0 mm. Pebbles were crushed and sieved into the same fraction. Samples taken for radiocarbon dating from core DV-13 consisted of bulk peat material.

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Samples taken for ¹⁰Be and ²⁶Al analysis underwent sequential leaching in HF for decontamination of the grains from atmospheric ¹⁰Be. Pure decontaminated quartz was spiked with a ⁹Be weighted carrier solution (~100 mg of a (3025±9) ppm of ⁹Be solution) and completely dissolved in HF. An aliquot for ICP-OES measurements of the stable aluminium content was taken after evaporation of the solution. Al and Be were separated using standard procedures of ion exchange chromatography (Merchel and Herpers, 1999). Beryllium and aluminium hydroxides were oxidized and cathoded with metal powder (Niobium for Be and Silver for Al) for AMS measurements, which were performed at the French national facility ASTER (CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence).

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Crushed and sieved carbonate samples were processed according to the workflow described in detail by Merchel et al. (2013). In total, 100 to 250 g of sieved material was used for treatment. The procedure involved a cleaning process by ultrapure water in order to remove any suspended particles, followed by a partial dissolution process in 2M HNO₃. Samples were then spiked with 270 µg of an enriched ³⁵Cl/³⁷Cl solution (³⁵Cl/³⁷Cl ~800) to determine the ³⁵Cl natural content. The sample was then fully dissolved by carefully adding 2M HNO₃. Residues were filtered from the solution and weighted. Solution aliquot with volume of 1 ml was collected from the filtered solution for Ca determination. Afterwards, Cl was precipitated
218 as AgCl using AgNO₃. The precipitate was then dissolved with ammonia and sulfur was
219 reduced by the addition of a saturated Ba(NO₃)₂ solution. The solution was filtered and a
220 second precipitation of AgCl was performed with HNO₃. The dried AgCl was finally suitable
221 for the AMS measurements. The AMS measurements of ³⁶Cl were carried out at the French
222 national facility ASTER (CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence) in the case of DV-6, while samples
223 from the drillings at DV-10 and DV-13 were measured at DREsden AMS (DREAMS) facility
224 in the Helmholtz-Zentrum, Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR).

225 The chemical composition of carbonates varies significantly when compared to quartz, and
226 thus the calculation of ³⁶Cl production should be performed with knowledge of bulk rock
227 elemental concentrations. In total, 16 representative samples were selected for this purpose
228 and analysed in the Bureau Veritas laboratories in Vancouver, Canada. Pulverised samples
229 underwent ICP-ES for major element concentrations and ICP-MS to determine trace element
230 concentrations. The content of B and Cl was measured by AES-ISP and X-Ray Fluorescence
231 Spectroscopy in the laboratories of the Slovak Geological Survey. The compositions are
232 included in Supplementary Table 1.

233 The measured ¹⁰Be/⁹Be ratios were calibrated against the ¹⁰Be/⁹Be SRM 4325 NIST (National
234 Institute of Standards and Technology) standard with an assigned value of (2.79 ± 0.03)·10⁻¹¹
235 (Nishiizumi et al., 2007). The measured ²⁶Al/²⁷Al ratios were calibrated against the ASTER
236 in-house standard SM-Al-11 whose nominal value is ²⁶Al/²⁷Al = (7.401 ± 0.064)·10⁻¹²
237 (Merchel and Bremser, 2004). The used half-lives (¹⁰Be: 1.387 ± 0.012 Ma; Korschinek et al.,
238 2010; Chmeleff et al., 2010; ²⁶Al: 0.705 ± 0.024 Ma; Norris et al., 1983) and the
239 standardization method used at ASTER (SM-Al-11/07KNSTD) implies that the ²⁶Al/¹⁰Be
240 spallation production ratio is ~6.61 ± 0.52. Analytical uncertainties included the statistics of
241 counting, machine stability (~0.5%; Arnold et al., 2010, for ¹⁰Be) and blank correction.
For the DV-6 borehole samples, both <sup>36</sup>Cl and Cl concentrations were measured at the national French Accelerator mass spectrometry facilities. The concentrations were normalized to a <sup>36</sup>Cl standard (KNSTD1600, with a given <sup>36</sup>Cl/<sup>35</sup>Cl value of 2.11 ± 0.06 10<sup>-12</sup> (Fifield et al., 1990; Sharma et al., 1990). Samples from the DV-10 and DV-13 boreholes were measured at DREAMS (HDZR Dresden) (Akhmadaliev et al., 2013; Rugel et al., 2016) and were normalized to the SM-Cl-13 standard with a given ratio of 1.515 10<sup>-12</sup> ± 1.92 % (Merchel et al., 2011). The decay constant of 2.303 ± 0.016 10<sup>6</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> that was used corresponds to a <sup>36</sup>Cl half-life (T<sub>1/2</sub>) of 3.014 10<sup>5</sup> years. The analytical uncertainties included computation of statistics, machine stability and blank correction.

The samples taken for radiocarbon dating consisted of peat and were subject to standard preparation for carbon-bearing organic material according to Povinec et al. (2015). Samples were cleaned mechanically and then decontaminated using the acid-base-acid method. Combustion of the material for 1 h at 650°C in a quartz tube followed, using a water trap with temperature of -45°C to isolate water. The resulting CO<sub>2</sub> underwent separation of other elements like sulfur in presence of copper dioxide and silver wool. The gaseous samples were then mixed with hydrogen in the average ratio of 1:2 in a reactor and graphitized using ca. 2-3 g of iron powder at a temperature of 900°C. The graphite and iron material was then filled into cathodes and carbon isotopic ratios were measured at CENTA facility (Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia). The obtained radiocarbon dates were calibrated using OxCal 4.3.2 (Ramsey, 2017) based on the IntCal13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al., 2013).

## 3.4 Age calculations

Scaling of all production rates was based on polynomial analysis presented by Stone (2000).

For <sup>10</sup>Be, a high latitude sea level (HLSL) production rate of 4.02 ± 0.18 at g<sup>-1</sup>a<sup>-1</sup> (Borchers et
al., 2016) was used, and for ³⁶Cl, the HLSL production rate used is 42.2 ± 4.8 at g⁻¹a⁻¹
(Braucher et al., 2011; Schimmelpfennig et al., 2011). Muon production rates for all nuclides
are the same ones produced by Braucher et al. (2011). Chlorine calculations were performed
on a modified Excel sheet based on the work by Schimmelpfennig et al. (2009).

As can be seen below, the concentration changes with depth in the studied depth profiles are
not composed of a unique exponential decrease as expected in simple exposure histories, but
of a superimposed exponential decrease that results from multiple layer deposition. Therefore,
we have adapted the depth profile approach (Braucher et al., 2009) for that purpose. In order
to determine cosmic-ray exposure ages from the measured concentrations, the following
equation was used (Braucher et al., 2009, 2011):

$$
\begin{equation}
\begin{split}
C(x, \varepsilon, t) = & C(x, \varepsilon', t') \exp(-\lambda t) + \frac{P_{\text{sp}} \exp\left(-\frac{x}{L_n}\right) \left(1 - \exp\left(-t\left(\frac{\varepsilon}{L_n} + \lambda\right)\right)\right)}{\frac{\varepsilon}{L_n} + \lambda} + \\
& \qquad \frac{P_{\text{uslow}} \exp\left(-\frac{x}{L_{\mu \text{ slow}}}\right) \left(1 - \exp\left(-t\left(\frac{\varepsilon}{L_{\mu \text{ slow}}} + \lambda\right)\right)\right)}{\frac{\varepsilon}{L_{\mu \text{ slow}}} + \lambda} + \frac{P_{\text{ufast}} \exp\left(-\frac{x}{L_{\mu \text{ fast}}}\right) \left(1 - \exp\left(-t\left(\frac{\varepsilon}{L_{\mu \text{ fast}}} + \lambda\right)\right)\right)}{\frac{\varepsilon}{L_{\mu \text{ fast}}} + \lambda}
\end{split}
\tag{Eq. 1}
\end{equation}
$$

where C(x,ε,t) is the nuclide concentration as a function of the attenuation depth x (typically expressed as a function of depth z, in cm, and bedrock density ρ, in g cm⁻³), denudation rate ε,ε' (in g cm⁻² a⁻¹), and exposure times t' and t (in years). The term C(x, ε', t') is the inherited concentration. Pₛₚ, Pµslow, and Pµfast and Lₛₚ (160 g cm⁻²), Lµslow (1500 g cm⁻²), and Lµfast (4320 g cm⁻²) (Braucher et al., 2011) are the production rates and attenuation lengths of neutrons, slow muons and fast muons, respectively; λ is the radioactive decay constant of the terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide under investigation.

To demonstrate the modeling approach with variations of cosmogenic nuclide concentrations
with depth, we consider three depositional units (Units 1 to 3) that have been successively
288 exposed to cosmic rays (Fig. 3, Table 1). Unit 1 was exposed during T₁ with a denudation E₁.
289 Afterwards, Unit 2 covered Unit 1 and both units were exposed during T₂ with a denudation
290 E₂. Then Unit 3 was deposited and exposed for T₃ with denudation E₃. After each depositional
291 step, the previously accumulated concentrations are considered as inheritance. Thus, Unit 3
292 was exposed for a time span of T₃ years, Unit 2 for a time span of T₂+T₃ years and T₁ for a
293 total time span of T₁+T₂+T₃. Therefore, Equation 1 was used three times in the cascade to
294 model the three units.

## 295 **4 Results**

296 **4.1 Facies analysis**

297 The nine lithofacies determined in the cores are summarized in Table 2. Four facies
298 associations are interpreted below, based on depositional processes of lithofacies and their
299 stacking patterns (Table 3). Examples of coarse- and fine-grained lithofacies are depicted in
300 Figures 4 and 5. Sedimentological logs of the studied cores are included in Figure 6.

301 **FA1: Colluvial deposits**

302 FA1 was observed only in the upper 5.5 m of the DV-10 core (Fig. 6). It consists of two
303 lithofacies, of which Gd is more common in the lower portion of the log, while Fd dominates
304 upwards. The most common lithofacies Fd is composed of massive to poorly stratified,
305 reddish to bright brown muds with floating angular clasts of 0.5-4.0 cm in diameter, with
306 occasional coarse sandy laminae (Fig. 4A). The second lithofacies Gd is represented by
307 matrix-supported angular chaotic gravel with muddy matrix and forms 5-30 cm thick
308 horizons (Fig. 4B, C). Clasts consists of carbonates and carbonate conglomerates, which from
309 outcrops in a distance of several tens of meters.
The absence of sorting and a high content of muddy matrix of the lithofacies Gd indicates a subaerial concentrated cohesive density flow – debris flow (Nemec and Steel, 1984; Major and Iverson, 1999; Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Sanders, 2010). Similarly, the appearance of lithofacies Fd with numerous floating clasts implies subaerial cohesive mudflows transported over a short distance (Pe and Piper, 1975; Nakayama and Yoshikawa, 1997; Mazumder and van Loon, 2012). The periodic surge-like deposition of subaerial density flows is associated with colluvial deposits forming slope talus successions. An increase of mud-prone lithofacies Fd upwards in the DV-10 log could have resulted from a decrease in sediment supply or from a change in the lithology of eroded material. Rock massifs with the same composition as the described clast lithotypes were recently exposed at a short distance to the DV-10 core.

## FA2: Fluvial deposits with high sediment supply: accommodation ratio

This facies association is predominantly composed of coarse-grained gravel or sandy strata. Gravel with medium to well-rounded pebbles, clast- to matrix-supported, form horizons 30–100 cm thick with infrequent normal grading (Gk; Fig. 4d, f). Average pebbles grain size can reach up to 8 cm (DV-6). The presence of boulders up to 20 cm in diameter is common at the base of the units. Clast lithotypes are represented mostly by carbonates and less so by clasts of conglomerates containing carbonates. The few lithified horizons observed do not exhibit any kind of stratification. Lithofacies Gm is thinner (10–30 cm) and exhibits lower content of gravel reflected in the coarse sandy matrix-supported structure (Fig. 4g).

Coarse-to-medium-grained sands with frequent floating medium-to-well-rounded granules to pebbles with a thickness of 5–20 cm are less frequently present (Sm; Fig. 4h, i). Also observed are bright brown to grey clayey muds with mm-thick lamination (Fh; Fig. 5a, c, f), poorly stratified to massive bluish grey clayey muds with plant remnants (Fig. 5b, e) and
333 heterolithic deposits composed of alterations of fine-to-medium-grained sandy layers and
334 layers of clayey mud (SFh; Fig. 4j, k).

335 FA2 appears in cores DV-6 (depth 0.0-8.8 m) and DV-13 (depth 2.8-5.5 m; Fig. 6). The
336 depositional record in core DV-6 is composed of one horizon which has a normally graded
337 cycle comprising facies Gk, Gm, and Sm in the interval of 5.0-8.8 m. It is overlain by several
338 amalgamated Gk horizons separated by two thin intervals of Fp. The uppermost 1.1 m is mud-
339 prone with a predominance of Fh. The FA2 profile of DV-13 is highly amalgamated with two
340 observable units of Gk, with a normal graded top composed of Gm and Sm.

341 Lithofacies Gk, Gm and Sm were formed by a channelized traction current, indicated by the
342 sorting character (a relatively stable grain size and absence of fine fraction) and clast
343 roundness (Fig. 4D-I). The depth of the stream was insufficient for flow separation,
344 considering the relatively coarse-grain size of the transported material, and thus stratification
345 of accumulated sediment did not occur (Mironer, 1979; Nelson et al., 1995; Storms et al.,
346 1999). Gk deposited in the main part of the channel is frequently amalgamated in the case of
347 FA2, which hampers any estimation of channel depth. Few units present are ~1 m thick,
348 which is the best constraint for channel depth. Units of Gm and Sm were likely deposited on
349 the channel margin during floods. Muddy lithofacies represent deposition from suspension in
350 an overbank environment (e.g., Aslan and Autin, 1999).

351 The dominance of channel fill facies over overbank strata implies a high sediment supply:
352 accommodation ratio. The resulting amalgamation may have been related to the braiding
353 pattern of the stream channel, where the channel's banks were highly erodible due to the
354 absence of cohesive sediments. Fine-sandy and muddy fractions were bypassed to the lower
355 reaches of the stream basin (Martinsen et al., 1999; McLaurin and Steel, 2007; Püspöki et al.,
356 2013). The gravel material was derived from rock outcrops that build the recent margins of
357 the depression.

358 **FA3: Fluvial deposits with low sediment supply: accommodation ratio**

359 FA3 appears in the entire profile of cores DV-11 and DV-12, in the interval 5.5–13.0 m of
360 core DV-10, and 5.45–10.0 m of core DV-13 (Fig. 6). Facies association 3 is predominantly
361 composed of distinct to medium laminated clayey to fine sandy bright brown to grey muds
362 (Fh; Fig. 5a, c, f). Laminae are mm thick and occasionally form 1 cm high ripples and are
363 sporadically inclined with a maximum 10° inclination. Very common features are reddish
364 mottles and calcareous secondary incrustations or nodules. Other lithofacies are composed of
365 brown to beige or grey heterolithic deposits which comprise 0.5–2.0 cm (up to 4 cm) thick
366 horizontal layers of fine- to medium-grained sands and clayey muds (SFh; Fig. 4j, k). Layers
367 occasionally dip up to 10° and contain floating granules. The sandy/muddy layers ratio ranges
368 from 1:2 to 2:1. Less frequent mud-prone lithofacies Fp differs from Fh by being poorly
369 bedded to massive, having a bluish grey colour and frequent plant remnants. Another
370 difference is absence of reddish mottles and calcerous incrustations or nodules (Fig. 5b, e).

371 Coarse grained facies are a minor component of the FA3, reaching 10% (DV-11, DV-13),
372 25% (DV-12) and 33% (DV-10). The most frequent is clast- to matrix-supported gravel
373 reaching 30–80 cm thick (Gk; Fig. 4d, f), which usually forms vertically limited bodies
374 separated from each other by thick sequences of Fh and SFh. The base the Gk is associated
375 with the presence of boulders up to 25 cm in diameter. Lithofacies Gm and Sm (described in
376 FA2) are commonly present and are separated by fine-grained strata. Clasts are composed of
377 highly weathered quartzite, carbonates and polymictic or carbonate conglomerates.

378 Vertical stacking of the facies appears random; a few upward fining cycles could be observed
379 in intervals 11.3–12.3 m, 10.2–11.3 m (DV-11) and 14.6–15.5 m, 7.5–8.8 m and 1.5–2.9 m
380 (DV-12). Cores DV-11 and DV-12 are separated by a distance of less than 10 m, with ca. 1.5
381 m vertical difference. Considering the lateral continuity of the facies, Gk horizons in the
382 interval 6.0–9.5 m (DV-12) could be followed laterally by sandier facies of Gm and Sm in the
383 depth range 8.5–11.3 m (DV-11). The facies Gk which appears at a depth of 2.0–3.0 m in core
384 DV-12 has no lateral equivalent in core DV-11. Generally, gravelly facies (Gk, Gm) form
385 vertically isolated bodies without amalgamation, divided by overbank muddy strata. Coarse
386 grained facies constitute a minor component of FA3, reaching 10% (DV-11, DV-13), 25%
387 (DV-12) and 33% (DV-10).

388 The fine-grained character of lithofacies Fh and its appearance (Fig. 5A, C, F) implies
389 deposition from suspension in a stable water column. Considering the frequent presence of
390 indicators of subaerial exposure and pedogenic processes such as ferric mottles and calcretes,
391 Fh strata were deposited on a well-drained floodplain (Aslan and Autin, 1999; Campo et al.,
392 2016). Thin silty ripples present in Fh might have resulted from a slow-flowing water column
393 (0.1–0.5 m s⁻¹; Yawar and Schieber, 2017) (Fig. 5F). In contrast, lithofacies Fp lacks
394 indicators of subaerial exposure and contains preserved plant remnants (Fig. 5B, E),
395 suggesting its origin in a poorly drained floodplain (Aslan and Autin, 1999; Campo et al.,
396 2016).

397 The heterolithic appearance of lithofacies SFh (Fig. 4J, K) resulted from the alternation of
398 very shallow traction currents and deposition from suspension in a water column. Each sandy
399 layer with thickness of 0.5–2.0 cm was deposited by a single traction current event, which
400 was either too shallow for flow separation, or transport capacity was rapidly reduced and
401 hence no ripples were formed. The inferred depositional processes imply accumulation in an
402 overbank environment close to a channel, probably a levee or crevasse splay (e.g., Smith et
403 al., 1989; Campo et al., 2016; Burns et al., 2017), in which the content of sandy layers in a
404 vertical section is proportional to its distance from a channel.
405 Lithofacies Gk represents channel fill facies, while Gm and Sm were deposited on a channel margin (details in FA2). Depth of a palaeoflow is closely related to the thickness of a channel fill (Bridge and Tye, 2000). Despite a high degree of uncertainty given by the low thickness of channel fill units, the palaeoflow depth probably did not exceed values in the order of 1 m.
406
407
408
409 The transport of boulders in such a shallow channel would require high variations in overflow (Alexander and Cooker, 2016). The channels were probably of low width, since these units do not correlate in the DV-11 and DV-12 profiles. A coarse-grained character of the channel fills with restricted dimensions implies deposition in a cut-and-fill regime (Harvey et al., 2011).
410
411
412

413 High preservation of overbank strata and low proportion of the channel fill facies indicates a
414 low sediment supply: accommodation ratio. The streams were relatively small and unable to
415 compensate for base level rise, despite the proximity of eroded rock massifs suggested by the
416 coarse character of the channel fills. Local pebble material was derived from river basins of a
417 low areal extent. The uppermost 1.3 m and 1.4 m of the profiles of DV-11 and DV-12,
418 respectively, were reworked by the most recent slope processes.
419

419 FA4: Swamp deposits

420 This facies association was documented in the uppermost 2.8 m of the DV-13 core. The
421 dominant lithofacies O represents peat to humic mud with extensive occurrence of plant
422 fragments. Bluish grey mud appears in the matrix or as separate horizons a few cm thick. One
423 20 cm thick horizon of lithofacies Gm is present within the dominant strata of lithofacies O
424 (Fig 5D, G). The colour of peat in the DV-13 profile gradually changes upwards in the
425 interval 1.0–2.0 m from black to brown, which implies decrease in the degree of coalification.
426 The peat succession is capped by a silty horizon containing plant debris and overlain by
427 poorly laminated grey mud (Fp).
428
This facies association was deposited in a low energy and poorly drained environment that provided redox conditions of a swamp (McCabe, 1987; Campo et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2017). In this environment there appeared the accumulation and preservation of up to 2.5 m thickness of peat. The sporadic appearance of gravelly sediments in the peat facies implies that the swamp was present on a floodplain and affected by flood events. The decrease of plant content upwards may be interpreted as a result of filling of available accommodation space, or increased bacterial decomposition of the organic material

## 4.2 Spatial and vertical distribution of facies associations

Facies associations from cores were correlated with archival borehole profiles, as well as to archival and newly conducted geoelectrical surveys. The distribution of the input data is shown in Figure 7, representing the thickness map of the Quaternary strata in the DVD. Since several facies associations overlie each other, the spatial and vertical stacking is depicted in the geological section in Figure 8.

FA1 deposits are bounded to the margins of the basin. They are thickest (<20 m) below the slopes of the northwestern and eastern margin. Their thickness is reduced in areas of recent stream floodplains, indicating redeposition of slope talus deposits by fluvial processes. In addition to several maxima, the average thickness of FA1 attains only a few metres. The altitude of FA1 distribution varies with the morphology of the basin margin.

Sandy-gravelly deposits of FA2 are bounded to areas of recent stream floodplains of the Blava, Hlavina and Jaseňový Potok streams. FA2 successions form linear accumulations in the topographically lowest positions. Their base appears as an erosional surface situated above pre-Quaternary sequences, which are above the FA1 or FA3 deposits. Their thickness commonly reaches 5-10 m and up to 15 m below the Blava Creek near the confluence with the Jaseňový Potok Creek.
The strata of FA3 are most widely distributed across the depression, covering most of its central part. The fine-grained fluvial succession occurs in altitudes from 225 m a.s.l. to 310 m a.s.l. and overlies pre-Quaternary sequences erosionally. Its thickness attains more than 20 m and varies greatly. The succession is truncated by the recent erosional surface.

FA4 is present only in the recent floodplain of the Blava Creek, south of the Dobrá Voda village in the centre of the DVD. It was penetrated by four cores and its thickness reaches 1.5-3.0 m. The FA4 strata is composed mostly of peat that sharply overlies the gravelly deposits of FA2.

## 4.3 Geochronology

The geochronology of the sequences in question is based on exposure dating with ¹⁰Be, ²⁶Al and ³⁶Cl depth profiles, as well as ²⁶Al/¹⁰Be burial and radiocarbon dating. Each sampling locality (core) is individually described below. Sediment density used for cosmogenic nuclide production calculations was estimated due to the varying lithology of all cores. The vertical axis in the depth profile cosmogenic nuclide concentration graphs is scaled in g cm⁻² as a standard approach to compare horizons with different densities directly on a single graph. The term depositional events boundary is related to a divide of horizons with different exposure histories within the performed models.

As shown in Table 4, almost all the samples measured for ³⁶Cl exhibit a high natural chlorine (³⁵Cl) content that can distort the age calculation, since the ³⁶Cl high latitude sea level production rate is determined for a rich Ca sample content with no ³⁵Cl present (Braucher et al., 2011; Schimmelpfennig et al., 2011). In addition, it can be seen that most of the depth profiles result from repeated deposition and erosion events.
474

### 4.3.1 DV-6

475

Core DV-6 was the subject of eleven carbonate samples for analysis of ³⁶Cl concentration.

476

The isotope concentration values are included in Table 4. Despite having a relatively high natural chlorine content (90 to 207 ppm), we attempted to model the DV-6 depth profile concentrations.

477

478

479

As can be seen in Figure 9, the ³⁶Cl concentrations can be separated into two exponential decreases as a function of depth. Sample DV-6-2.0 will be considered as an outlier with anomalous values. Because of this distribution of ³⁶Cl, the best-fit model corresponds to two depositional events, separated by a boundary between 3.0 and 3.5 m depth. Facies analysis revealed changes in deposition at depths 2.8–3.0 m and 3.8–4.0 m, however, a hiatus in deposition appeared according to ³⁶Cl concentrations at a depth of 3.2 m. Thus, one can assume that the samples DV-6-3.5 to DV-6-8 were first exposed and then covered by the samples DV6-1.2 to DV-6-3. Using a density of 2.5 g cm⁻³, the model yielded an exposure age of 115 ± 10 ka and a denudation rate of 16.1 ± 0.2 m Ma⁻¹ for the last deposit (DV-6-1.2 to 3), as well as an exposure age of ~3 ka for the first deposit (DV-6-3.5 to 8), yielding a total exposure age of 118±10 ka for this layer.

480

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

488

489

490

The DV-6 core penetrated the Miocene conglomerate that contained quartz at its base. The ²⁶Al/¹⁰Be ratio obtained from the sample at a depth of 8.8–9.0 m served as the simple burial age with a value of 1.2 ± 0.52 Ma (Table 5).

491

492

493

### 4.3.2 DV-10

494

Eleven carbonate samples from the DV-10 core served for the analysis of ³⁶Cl (Table 4). The distribution of concentrations at each depth is shown in Figure 10 and does not show an ideal exponential decrease. The results indicate the presence of at least three depositional events (DV-10-1.5; DV-10-2.6 to 5.3 and DV-10-6.2 to 12.6).

495

496

497
The model assumes that the lowermost unit (samples DV-10-6.2 to 12.6) was deeply buried and then exhumed by erosion. The abrupt increase of chlorine concentrations upwards to the second unit (samples DV-10-2.6 to 5.3) is considered to be related to inheritance of $ ^{36}Cl $ concentration from previous exposure of the material. If an inheritance of 833 ± 100 kat g⁻¹ is assumed for this unit, the exposure age of the interval 2.6 m to 12.6 m depth could be modelled with an age of 237 ± 2 ka. However, the second unit exhibits a characteristic slope of the concentration that decreases as a function of depth which is higher (~550 g cm⁻²) than expected for a neutron-like attenuation (~155 ± 5 g cm⁻²). This may suggest that this unit was truncated before being buried. Therefore, by considering this deposit at the surface, our model implies that its exposure age will be of a minimum age only (if samples DV-10-2.6 to 5.3 had been deeper, more time would have been needed to produce their concentrations).

The upper sample does not fit to the exponential decrease of the second unit, which implies that the deposit located below it was exposed before accumulation of the uppermost ~2.5 m of the profile. Therefore, this needs to be considered by introducing a specific exposure age of this deposit, as well as a denudation rate. The model which comprises the uppermost sample in its specific position requires an exposure lasting 225 ± 25 ka to produce the measured $ ^{36}Cl $ concentration.

#### 4.3.3 DV-12

Borehole DV-12 was a source of 11 quartz-bearing samples analyzed for concentrations of $ ^{10}Be $ and $ ^{26}Al$ (Table 5). These concentrations exhibit an exponential decrease with depth for both isotopes (Fig. 11). The best fit is obtained for an exposure age of a 1.0 ± 0.1 Ma and a mean long-term denudation rate of 2.0 ± 1.5 m/Ma.
520

#### 4.3.4 DV-13

521

The DV-13 borehole was the subject of three peat samples for radiocarbon dating, nine carbonate samples for ³⁶Cl depth profile exposure age modelling, and three quartz bearing samples for ²⁶Al/¹⁰Be burial dating (identical with the lowermost three ³⁶Cl samples).

522

523

524

The radiocarbon measurements yielded ages in a normal stratigraphic order: 2622–2356 cal BP (depth 1.85 m), 4301–3982 cal BP (depth 2.25 m) and 5758–5582 cal BP (depth 2.65 m), according to calibration using OxCal 4.3.2 (Fig. 12).

525

526

527

The distribution of ³⁶Cl concentrations along the depth profile is not so straightforward to model, and again it appears that we are dealing with a multi-deposition profile. The exponential decrease slope (concentration versus depth) of the two upper samples, as well as the four below, shows a higher value (~ 1500 g cm⁻²) typical of a muon contribution. This implies that the top surface of each deposit may have been eroded.

528

529

530

531

532

In this condition, the fit of the two upper samples yields to a minimum exposure age of 105 ± 10 ka with an estimated density of 2.5 g cm⁻³. The second deposit (samples DV-13-3.8 to 5.4) can be approximately modelled with a minimum exposure age of ~160 ka. If we consider that the top of these deposits has been eroded, which implies deeper samples, exposure ages for both profiles must have been older.

533

534

535

536

537

The three lowermost samples contained a relatively high proportion of residuum after ³⁶Cl treatment. This quartz-bearing material served for analysis of ¹⁰Be and ²⁶Al contents and yielded the simple burial ages of 2.16 ± 0.56 Ma, 3.51 ± 1.21 Ma and 2.69 ± 0.96 Ma (Fig. 14; Table 5). The intersection of these values is 2.53 ± 0.23 Ma.

538

539

540
541

### 4.3.5 Timing of depositional events

542

The dating results reveal that the oldest documented succession represents the widely distributed FA3 of fluvial deposits with a low sediment supply: accommodation ratio. This formation accumulated during the Early Pleistocene around 1.0 Ma, yet probably lasted for a longer period. The exposure and burial age modelling indicate that the FA3 deposits described in borehole DV-13 comprise redeposited material of the Early Pleistocene FA3, which is reflected by the burial ages of around 2.5 Ma. This material was accumulated after erosion in a comparable alluvial condition of high accommodation/low sediment supply during the Early Pleistocene.

543

544

545

546

547

548

549

550

The succession of slope density flow deposits (FA1) began to accumulate in the Middle Pleistocene before 237 ± 2 ka. The documented settings in the drilling DV-10, where FA1 overlies the deposits of FA3, allows for a scenario of continual transition between the two types of deposition. Another possibility is denudation of FA3, a short exposure of the surface at a depth of 5.5 m and the abrupt accumulation of FA1. According to the abrupt change of <sup>36</sup>Cl inheritance at 5.5 m depth in DV-10 core, the burial age of FA3 and the position of drilling DV-10 (269.4 m a.s.l.) in comparison with DV-12 (279.1 m a.s.l.), the second scenario is considered more likely.

551

552

553

554

555

556

557

558

The coarse-grained alluvial succession of FA2 from the late Middle Pleistocene (ca. 160 ka, late Saalian) up to the early Late Pleistocene (118 ± 10 ka to 105 ± 10 ka, early Eemian). The youngest succession is represented by the Holocene peat-bearing FA4 and accumulated between 3.63–0.67 ka cal BC.

559

560

561
562 **5 Interpretation of sedimentary evolution**

563 A conceptual model of the depositional history of the Dobrá Voda Depression is shown in
564 Figure 15. The earliest documented history is represented by the presence of an erosional base
565 of FA3 across the DVD. Considering the range of its topographical position (~65 m relief), it
566 represents a phase of incision, which most likely resulted from a significant relative base level
567 fall. This event took place before 1.0 Ma, however evidence for more precise age estimation
568 is lacking.

569 When considering the described evolution of the Dobrá Voda Depression in frame of the
570 regional structural changes, the first (>1 Ma) incision phase appeared most probably between
571 5.0 and 2.0 Ma. The possible driving factor is Pliocene inversion of the Pannonian Basin
572 System (Horváth, 1995; Horváth and Cloetingh, 1996; Kováč et al., 2011; Šujan et al., 2016,
573 2018). This phase of regional compression, which took place at ~5 Ma, caused erosion on the
574 margins of the Pannonian Basin System depocenters, and the DVD was most probably
575 affected by this event. Another phase of relative uplift is expected to appear later, associated
576 with formation of river terrace staircases in the region which took place from the Early
577 Pleistocene (e.g., Šujan and Rybár, 2014; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2016). This uplift phase
578 was recorded before 1.7 Ma in the Malé Karpaty Mountains (Šujan et al., 2017) and could be
579 related to the gravitational collapse of the Western Carpathian orogen (e.g., Mazzoli et al.,
580 2010; Olszak, 2017).

581 After this period, base level rise resulted in a continual increase of accommodation space. The
582 incised surface was gradually covered by the overbank dominated alluvial succession of FA3,
583 which was supplied by material outside the DVD (weathered quartzites and polymictic
584 conglomerates) – the river network exceeded the present-day limits of the depression.
Later, a second base level fall was associated with activity of WSW – ENE normal faults. These faults were reactivated, since their fault-slip also affected the Miocene formations (Marko et al., 1991; Hók et al., 2018). This phase led to intense erosion of the Miocene deposits and Mesozoic horsts bounding the depression, as well as erosion of the Early Pleistocene succession inside the DVD. The whole area was relatively uplifted despite the differential movements of faults within the DVD. Erosion was associated with deposition of subaerial gravity flow deposits (FA1), which contained Miocene clastics and Mesozoic carbonates. The FA1 accumulations mainly occur along the northern margin of the depression. At DV-10, fault movement caused the descent of a small graben and deposition of FA1 over the partially preserved FA3. If timing of the accumulation of colluvial deposits coincided with the beginning of topographic differentiation, then an age of ~250 ka could be estimated as the lower limit of fault activity initiation. Evidence for an event comparable to the second phase of incision (0.25–0.10 Ma) is missing in the broader region of the study area, but reactivation of faults in the southwestern Vienna basin at the same time is reported by Salcher et al. (2017), as well as formation of river terraces in the central Vienna Basin (Braumann et al., in press).

The recent shape of the DVD was formed before ~160 ka, when slip of the NNE – SSW and ESE – WNW oriented normal faults caused the formation of slopes facing WNW and NNE. The new accommodation space below the slopes started to be filled during the period 160–100 ka by FA2 in a low accommodation/high sediment supply alluvial environment. A more complicated evolution was documented in the central part of the depression below recent floodplain sediments of the Blava Stream. The filling of accommodation space began with an abrupt rise of base level, recorded in deposition of mostly fine-grained strata of a poorly drained floodplain (redeposits of FA3) in the lower part of the DV-13 core. Later, the sediment supply: accommodation ratio decreased and the gravelly FA2 accumulated.
The Holocene depositional history is characterized by a low energy environment. The presence of a FA4 swamp succession over FA2 in the Blava Stream floodplain indicates a rapid increase of local base level (Martinsen et al., 1999), since a continuous change in conditions would be accompanied by a smooth transition in lithofacies (Ielpi, 2012; Burns et al., 2017). Swamp deposition lasted between ~5.76–2.36 ka cal BP. This phase was accompanied by deposition of overbank muds in the floodplains of the Hlavina and Jaseňový Potok streams.

## 6 Conclusions

As the most important seismogenic zone in the Western Carpathians, the Dobrá Voda Depression was an object of sedimentological and geochronological investigation, providing a tectono-sedimentary model of its evolution though the neotectonic phase. Facies analysis was performed on five cores, and the resulting facies associations were correlated across the depression using geoelectrical surveys and archival cores. Exposure dating using the depth profiles of ¹⁰Be, ²⁶Al and ³⁶Cl, as well as radiocarbon dating, revealed the following succession of events in the study area:

* >1.0 Ma: A major base level fall and incision attaining at least 65 m. The regional structural evolution implies age constraints of 5.0–2.0 Ma for this phase.

* ~1.0 Ma: Alluvial deposition in a low sediment supply: high accommodation environment, with dominance of overbank facies (FA3), which covered a widespread area.

* ~250 ka: The reactivation of normal faults inherited from the Miocene, which caused topographic differentiation, uplift of the area and formation of the present-day shape
of the depression. The topographic differentiation induced a second phase of the incision, while formation of the fault bounding the slopes is recorded in the deposition of colluvial gravity flow deposits (FA1).

* ~160–100 ka: Accumulation of gravelly channel-filled facies dominated in areas of recent stream floodplains (FA2) under high sediment supply: low accommodation conditions. This deposition post-dates the beginning of activity of the faults bounding the depression and marks a period of base level rise.

* ~5.76–2.36 ka cal BP: An increase of accommodation recorded in the deposition of up to 2.5 m thick peat in a swamp environment (FA4), as well as accumulation of overbank fines above FA2.

The presented framework demonstrates the importance of sedimentological investigation in neotectonically active zones with low slip rates and low topographic relief, where alternation of accumulation and incision phases in the order of hundreds of thousands of years is common. The approach allowed us to uncover two events of base level fall, of which the latest event at 0.25–0.1 Ma is connected to the most recent fault activity. Absence of precise sedimentological reconstruction in such an active area may hinder proper recognition of evolution phases related to vertical tectonic movements, which may lead to inaccuracy in determination of fault activity, even if a well-established geochronological model is achieved.

## Acknowledgements

This work was supported financially by the Jadrová energetická spoločnosť Slovenska, a.s. and by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contracts APVV-14-0118, SK-FR-2015-0017 and APVV-16-0121 as well as by the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences (VEGA) within the project 1/0115/18. This research was initiated and
supported by the EQUIS, Ltd. Isotopic measurements of ¹⁰Be, ²⁶Al and ³⁶Cl were carried out by ASTER AMS French national facility (CEREGE, Aix en Provence) and by AMS DREAMS facility (Ion Beam Centre, Helmholtz Zentrum, Rossendorf, Germany). We would like to thank Silke Merchel and Georg Rugel for their valuable assistance during chlorine AMS measurements. ASTER AMS national facility (CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence) is supported by the INSU/CNRS, the ANR through the "Projets thématiques d'excellence" program for the "Equipements d'excellence" ASTER-CEREGE action and IRD. Radiocarbon measurements were accomplished on the CENTA facility at the Department of Nuclear Physics & Biophysics, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics (Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia). Zdenka Keblovská and Štefánia Sliacka are kindly thanked for their assistance during preparation of samples. We are grateful to Jozef Minár for his insightful comments to the draft version of the manuscript. An anonymous reviewer and the editor Jasper Knight are thanked for their comments, which significantly improved the manuscript.

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1011 Špaček, P., Bábek, O., Štěpančíková, P., Švancara, J., Pazdírková, J., Sedláček, J., 2015. The Nysa-Morava Zone: an active tectonic domain with Late Cenozoic sedimentary grabens in the Western Carpathians' foreland (NE Bohemian Massif). International Journal of Earth Sciences 104, 963-990.

1015 Špaček, P., Valenta, J., Tábořík, P., Ambrož, V., Urban, M., Štěpančíková, P., 2017. Fault slip versus slope deformations: Experience from paleoseismic trenches in the region with low slip-rate faults and strong Pleistocene periglacial mass wasting (Bohemian Massif). Quaternary International 451, 56-73.

1019 Tokarski, A.K., Márton, E., Świerczewska, A., Fheed, A., Zasadni, J., Kukulak, J., 2016. Neotectonic rotations in the Orava-Nowy Targ Intramontane Basin (Western Carpathians): An integrated palaeomagnetic and fractured clasts study. Tectonophysics 685, 35-43.

1023 Vanneste, K., Verbeeck, K., Petermans, T., 2008. Pseudo-3D imaging of a low-slip-rate, active normal fault using shallow geophysical methods: The Geleen fault in the Belgian Maas River valley. Geophysics 73, B1-B9.
1026 Vojtko, R., Hok, J., Kovac, M., Sliva, L., Joniak, P., Šujan, M., 2008. Pliocene to Quaternary stress field change in the western part of the Central Western Carpathians (Slovakia).
1027
1028 Geological Quarterly 52, 19-30.

1029 Weissl, M., Hintersberger, E., Lomax, J., Lüthgens, C., Decker, K., 2017. Active tectonics and geomorphology of the Gaenserndorf Terrace in the Central Vienna Basin
1030
1031 (Austria). Quaternary International 451, 209-222.

1032 Yawar, Z., Schieber, J., 2017. On the origin of silt laminae in laminated shales. Sedimentary
1033 Geology 360, 22-34.

1034 Yönlü, O., Altunel, E., Karabacak, V., 2017. Geological and geomorphological evidence for the southwestern extension of the East Anatolian Fault Zone, Turkey. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 469, 1-14.

1037 Zhou, F., Shields, D., Titheridge, D., Tyson, S., Esterle, J., 2017. Understanding the geometry and distribution of fluvial channel sandstones and coal in the Walloon Coal Measures, Surat Basin, Australia. Marine and Petroleum Geology 86, 573-586.

1040
1041 **Figure and table captions:**

1042 Fig. 1. Location of the studied area - the Dobrá Voda Depression, with distribution of
1043 earthquake epicentres according to the unified and homogenized SLOVEC (2011) catalogue.

1044 The fault network was compiled from Bielik et al. (2002), Lenhard et al. (2007), Beidinger
1045 and Decker (2011) and Hók et al. (2016). VBTF – Vienna Basin Transfer Fault.

1046 Fig. 2. Geological map of the study area according to Hók et al. (2018) with location of newly
1047 drilled boreholes.

1048 Fig. 3. Evolution of depth profile concentrations of an *in situ*-produced cosmogenic nuclide in
1049 a scenario with three deposition-erosion events. The codes U (unit number), X (unit
1050 thickness), D (denudation), and T (time) are explained in the Table 1 and in the text.

1051 Fig. 4. Examples of gravely and sandy lithofacies described from the studied well cores.

1052 The lithofacies codes are explained in Table 2. The arrows indicate a downwards orientation
1053 of the core.

1054 Fig. 5. Examples of mud-prone lithofacies described from the studied well cores.

1055 The lithofacies codes are explained in Table 2. The arrows indicate a downwards orientation
1056 of the core.

1057 Fig. 6. Sedimentological logs of the studied wells, based on continuous core analysis.

1058 The lithofacies codes are explained in Table 2 and the FA codes (facies associations) are
1059 explained in Table 3. Lithological codes: fs – fine sand; cs – coarse sand; gr – granule; peb –
1060 pebble; cob – cobble.

1061 Fig. 7. Thickness map of the Quaternary deposits based on well and geoelectric data. An areal
1062 distribution of correlated facies associations is depicted by dashed lines.
1063 Fig. 8. Schematic section across the Dobrá Voda Depression, depicting spatial and vertical
distribution of facies associations.

1065 Fig. 9. Depth profile with measured and modeled concentrations of ³⁶Cl in borehole DV-6.
1066 The depth profile model exhibits a good fit with two depositional events. A detailed
1067 lithological log is seen in Figure 6.

1068 Fig. 10. Depth profile with measured and modeled concentrations of ³⁶Cl in the drilling DV-
1069 10. The uppermost sample likely represents a distinct depositional event, while the samples
1070 2.6 to 5.3 and 6.2 to 12.6 are considered as a further two depositional events, separated by the
1071 boundary of FA1 and FA3. The unit comprising samples 2.6 to 5.3 is expected to contain
1072 significant inherited ³⁶Cl concentrations, which caused the abrupt change at ~5.5 m depth. A
1073 detailed lithological log can be seen in Figure 6.

1074 Fig. 11. Depth profile with measured and modeled concentrations of ¹⁰Be and ²⁶Al in the DV-
1075 12 borehole. A detailed lithological log can be seen in Figure 6.

1076 Fig. 12. Calibration plots of the three radiocarbon analyses from the DV-13 drilling according
to OxCal 4.3.2 export (Ramsey, 2017) based on the IntCal13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et
1077 al., 2013).

1079 Fig. 13. Depth profile with measured and modeled concentrations of ³⁶Cl in the drilling DV-
1080 13. The uppermost two samples are considered as the lowermost part of a mainly eroded
depositional event. The lower lying seven samples are modelled as a single depositional event
1081 across the stratigraphic boundary of FA2 and FA3. A detailed lithological log can be seen in
1082 Figure 6.

1084 Fig. 14. Plot of three burial ages obtained from the lower portion of the borehole DV-13.
1085 Fig. 15. A conceptual model of the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Dobrá Voda
1086 Depression. The position of the studied cores is indicated by the red dots. The model
1087 considers the influence of the base-level movements and activity/reactivation of the faults
1088 (according to Hók et al., 2018) as the main factors of the depositional history.

1089

1090 Table 1. The steps involved in developing a depth profile exposure model for three successive
depositional events (Fig. 3).

1092 Table 2. Summary of lithofacies observed in well cores.

1093 Table 3. Characteristics of facies associations based on analysis of well cores.

1094 Table 4. Information from measured chlorine nuclide concentrations of DV-6 samples by
1095 AMS at ASTER (Aix-en-Provence, France) and of DV-10 and DV-13 samples by AMS at
1096 DREAMS (Dresden, Germany; Akhmadaliev et al., 2013) and calculated Ca – concentration
1097 from bulk measurements for dissolved fractions.

1098 Table 5. Information from measured Be and Al nuclide concentrations of DV-6, DV-12 and
1099 DV-13 samples by AMS at ASTER (Aix-en-Provence, France).
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

E10'

E17'

E18'

E19'

E20'
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

QUATERNARY

colluvial
deposits
loess

fluvial
deposits
peak

EARLY-MIDDLE MIOCENE

conglomerates, sandstones,
mudstones

MESOZOIC

Late Cretaceous

Gosau Group

Schötzphaya
Limestone

Early Jurassic

variabilated
sandy limestone

Triassic

Dachstein
Limestone
Hauptdolomite

Reifing
Limestone

Luzn
Formation

Steinlimin
Limestone

Wetterstein
 Dolomite

Ramsau
 Dolomite

Wetterstein
Limestone

Guttenstein
Limestone

Raming
Limestone

Oponice
Limestone

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

faults covered /
inferred / thrust lines
streams

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

newly drilled borehole

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

elevation point (m a.s.l.)

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

settlement

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

Dobra Voda Depression (DVD)
boundary

4 km

2

1

3
Step 1: First deposit

<table><thead><tr><th>T (°C)at<br>1 (deposits)</th><th>T (°C)at<br>2 (deposits)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>surface</td><td>surface</td></tr><tr><td>inherence</td><td>inherence</td></tr><tr><td>new exposure</td><td>new exposure</td></tr><tr><td>X<sub>1</sub></td><td>X<sub>1</sub></td></tr><tr><td>U<sub>1</sub></td><td>U<sub>1</sub></td></tr></tbody></table>

Erosion phase

Step 2: Second deposit

<table><thead><tr><th>T (°C)at<br>2 (deposits)</th><th>T (°C)at<br>1 (deposits)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>surface</td><td>surface</td></tr><tr><td>inherence</td><td>inherence</td></tr><tr><td>new exposure</td><td>X<sub>1</sub></td></tr><tr><td>X<sub>2</sub></td><td>X<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td>U<sub>2</sub></td><td>U<sub>2</sub></td></tr></tbody></table>

Erosion phase

Step 3: Third deposit

<table><thead><tr><th>T (°C)at<br>3 (deposits)</th><th>T (°C)at<br>1 (deposits)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>surface</td><td>surface</td></tr><tr><td>inherence</td><td>inherence</td></tr><tr><td>new exposure</td><td>X<sub>1</sub></td></tr><tr><td>X<sub>2</sub></td><td>X<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td>U<sub>2</sub></td><td>U<sub>2</sub></td></tr></tbody></table>

Cosmogenic nuclide concentration

original depth distribution of nuclide concentrations

nuclide concentration change after new exposure phase

single deposit

denudation preceding depositional phase
A

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

B

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

C

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

D

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

E

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

F

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

G

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

F

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

H

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

K

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

I

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

J

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>
A 1.65 - 1.95 m (DV-11)

B 1.60 - 1.80 m (DV-5)

C 9.9 - 9.95 m (DV-10)

D 2.65 - 2.85 m (DV-6)

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>

E 6.85 - 7.0 m (DV-13)

F 12.90 - 17.0 m (DV-10)

G 2.75 - 2.95 m (DV-13)

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>
UE17.53

E17.54

E17.56

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

Quaternary facies
associations extent:

Quaternary
thickness [m]:

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>

Explorations:

● new fully cored well

● archival well

● new ERT survey

● geol. section Fig. 8

A
N

0.5 1 km

NAB 58
m.a.s.l.

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

## Quaternary - sequences documented in the studied well-cores

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>FA1</td><td>Colluvial density flow deposits: muds with floating angular clasts, layers of angular chaotic gravels</td></tr><tr><td>FA2</td><td>Fluvial deposits with high sed. supply / accommodation ratio: mostly channel fill facies - amalgamated gravely and sandy layers up to 1 m thick, less overbank muds</td></tr><tr><td>FA3</td><td>Fluvial deposits with low sed. supply / accommodation ratio: mostly overbank facies - muds and heterolithitic deposits, less channel fill facies - gravelly and sandy layers up to 1 m thick</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /><figcaption>Pre-Quaternary basement</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>
"Cl concentration [atom.g-1]"

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /></figure>

Well profile

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_37.png" /></figure>

compounds
¹⁴C concentration [atom. g⁻¹]

<figure><img src="image_38.png" /></figure>

Well profile

999999

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000
Radiocarbon
determination (BP)

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_40.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_41.png" /></figure>
"Cl concentration [atom g⁻¹]

<figure><img src="image_42.png" /></figure>

Wall profile

<figure><img src="image_43.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_44.png" /></figure>
2.53 ± 0.23 Ma

DV-13-6.5

<figure><img src="image_45.png" /></figure>

2.69 ± 0.95 Ma

DV-13-7.1

3.51 ± 1.21 Ma

<figure><img src="image_46.png" /></figure>

2.16 ± 0.56 Ma

DV-13-7.7

Age [Ma]

0

1

2

3

4

5
### Exploratory:

<table><tr><td>Expeditions</td><td>Early Palaeozoic FAZ sequence</td></tr><tr><td>Volcanic rocks</td><td>Volcanic rocks from active volcanism</td></tr><tr><td>Metamorphosed rocks</td><td>Metamorphosed rocks from faulting, faulting, and/or fault gravity flows</td></tr></table>

### Early Palaeozoic FAZ sequence

<table><tr><td>Volcanic rocks</td><td>Volcanic rocks from active volcanism</td></tr><tr><td>Metamorphosed rocks</td><td>Metamorphosed rocks from faulting, faulting, and/or fault gravity flows</td></tr></table>

### Late Palaeozoic FAZ sequence

<table><tr><td>Volcanic rocks</td><td>Volcanic rocks from active volcanism</td></tr><tr><td>Metamorphosed rocks</td><td>Metamorphosed rocks from faulting, faulting, and/or fault gravity flows</td></tr></table>

### Early Palaeozoic FAZ sequence

<table><tr><td>Volcanic rocks</td><td>Volcanic rocks from active volcanism</td></tr><tr><td>Metamorphosed rocks</td><td>Metamorphosed rocks from faulting, faulting, and/or fault gravity flows</td></tr></table>

### Late Palaeozoic FAZ sequence

<table><tr><td>Volcanic rocks</td><td>Volcanic rocks from active volcanism</td></tr><tr><td>Metamorphosed rocks</td><td>Metamorphosed rocks from faulting, faulting, and/or fault gravity flows</td></tr></table>

<figure><img src="image_47.png" /><figcaption>1-8 Ma
The sediment supply, high accommodation deposits in alluvial environment (FAZ)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_48.png" /><figcaption>1-80 Ma</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_49.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_50.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_51.png" /><figcaption>1-80 Ma & 1-80 Ma ESE FAZ activity, erosion, removed block deposits. Non-tectonic block, alluvial, and/or fault gravity deposits (SGA).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_52.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_53.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_54.png" /><figcaption>1-80 Ma to 2.6 Ma cal BC
forming a low dynamic sealing environment and deposition of FAZ (deposited by a tectonic)</figcaption></figure>
<table><thead><tr><th>Depositional history</th><th>Unit</th><th>Thickness</th><th>Total depth</th><th>Total exposure age</th><th>Denudation rate</th><th>Comment or assumption</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Step 1: (U<sub>1</sub> only)</td><td>Unit 1</td><td>X<sub>1</sub></td><td>X<sub>1</sub></td><td>T<sub>1</sub></td><td>E<sub>1</sub></td><td>Top sample of U<sub>1</sub> is at surface</td></tr><tr><td>Step 2: (U<sub>2</sub> covers U<sub>1</sub>)</td><td>Unit 2</td><td>X<sub>2</sub></td><td>X<sub>2</sub></td><td>T<sub>2</sub></td><td>E<sub>2</sub></td><td>Top sample of U<sub>2</sub> is at surface</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Unit 1</td><td>X<sub>1</sub></td><td>X<sub>1</sub>+X<sub>2</sub></td><td>T<sub>1</sub>+T<sub>2</sub></td><td>E<sub>1</sub></td><td>All concentration of step 1 are considered as inherited</td></tr><tr><td>Step 3: U<sub>3</sub> covers U<sub>2</sub> and U<sub>1</sub></td><td>Unit 3</td><td>X<sub>3</sub></td><td>X<sub>3</sub></td><td>T<sub>3</sub></td><td>E<sub>3</sub></td><td>Samples are at their sampling depth</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Unit 2</td><td>X<sub>2</sub></td><td>X<sub>2</sub>+X<sub>3</sub></td><td>T<sub>2</sub>+T<sub>3</sub></td><td>E<sub>2</sub></td><td>All concentrations of step 2 are considered as inherited</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Unit 1</td><td>X<sub>1</sub></td><td>X<sub>1</sub>+X<sub>2</sub>+X<sub>3</sub></td><td>T<sub>3</sub>+T<sub>2</sub>+T<sub>1</sub></td><td>E<sub>1</sub></td><td>All concentrations of step 2 are considered as inherited</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><td>Lithofacies code</td><td>Lithological description</td><td>Depositional process</td><td>Sedimentary environment</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Fd</td><td>Massive to poorly stratified fine sandy to clayey mud, with the presence of floating angular clasts (0.5–4 cm in diameter) with local origin, sporadic layers of coarse sand up to 1 cm thick, reddish and bright brown</td><td>Amalgamated layers of periodic subaerial surge-like density flows – mudflows</td><td>Colluvial deposits resulting from slope erosional and accumulation processes</td></tr><tr><td>Gd</td><td>Angular, chaotic, poorly sorted massive matrix-supported gravel, clasts composed of carbonates and carbonate conglomerates with diameter of up to 10 cm, matrix composed of fine sandy mud, in horizons 5–30 cm thick, reddish and bright brown</td><td>Deposit of subaerial concentrated cohesive density flow – debris flow</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gk</td><td>Clast- to matrix-supported gravel, medium to well-rounded clasts, clasts composed of carbonates, less conglomerates containing carbonates (in case of FA3 also weathered quartzite and polymictic conglomerates), poorly sorted, matrix coarse sand, horizons 30–100 cm thick, locally indistinct normal grading, no stratification in a few lithified horizons, average clasts diameter up to 8 cm, on the base up to 10–25 cm in diameter, bright brown to beige</td><td>Traction current in a channelized environment</td><td>Shallow channel</td></tr><tr><td>Gm</td><td>Matrix-supported gravel, medium- to coarse-grained sandy matrix, locally coarse gravelly sands, medium to well-rounded clasts, clasts composed of carbonates, less conglomerates containing carbonates, in horizons 10–30 cm thick, bright brown to beige</td><td>Traction current in a channelized environment</td><td>Margin of a shallow channel, deposition during floods</td></tr><tr><td>Sm</td><td>Medium- to coarse-grained sand, massive or poorly stratified, horizons 5–20 cm thick, frequent presence of well-rounded granules to pebbles, yellow to bright brown</td><td>Traction current in a channelized environment</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SFh</td><td>Heterolithic sediment composed of horizontal layers of fine- to medium-grained sand and plastic mud, sporadic dip of layers up to 10°, sand contains granules locally, layers are 0.5 to 2 cm thick, occasionally up to 4 cm, sandy to fine-grained layers ratio ranges from 1:2 to 2:1, brown to beige or grey</td><td>Alteration of very shallow traction currents and deposition from suspension in a water column</td><td>Overbank depositional environment close to a channel, with occasional deposition during floods, levee or crevasse-splay (?)</td></tr><tr><td>Fh</td><td>Clayey to fine sandy muds, mm thick laminae, 1 cm high ripples occasionally, sporadic dip of layers up to 10°, bright brown to grey, with reddish mottles and calcareous secondary incrustations/nodules</td><td>Deposition from suspension or from slow movement of water column (10-50 cm/s), altered by pedogenic processes during subaerial exposure</td><td>Overbank deposition in a well-drained floodplain</td></tr><tr><td>Fp</td><td>Poorly stratified to massive muds, locally fine sandy, occasionally presence of coalified plant remnants and floating granules, grey to bluish grey</td><td>Deposition mostly from suspension, without subaerial exposure and pedogenic processes</td><td>Overbank deposition in a poorly drained floodplain</td></tr><tr><td>O</td><td>Peat and plant fragments with various degree of coalification, brown to black, with humic mud as a matrix, locally with presence of bluish grey mud layers</td><td>Accumulation of plant material in very low dynamic and poorly drained environment, with low oxygen conditions and low clastic material input</td><td>Sedimentation in a swamp from stable water column</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><td>Facies association code</td><td>Facies association definition</td><td>Major lithofacies</td><td>Minor lithofacies</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>FA1</td><td>Colluvial deposits of subaerial density flows on slopes</td><td>Fd, Gd</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>FA2</td><td>Fluvial deposits with high sediment supply: accommodation ratio</td><td>Gk, Gm</td><td>Sm, Fh, Fp, SFh</td></tr><tr><td>FA3</td><td>Fluvial deposits with low sediment supply: accommodation ratio</td><td>Fh, SFh, Gk, Gm, Sm, Fp</td><td>O</td></tr><tr><td>FA4</td><td>Swamp deposits</td><td>O</td><td>Fp, Gm</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>Sample ID</th><th>Depth (cm)</th><th>Latitude</th><th>Longitude</th><th>Altitude</th><th><sup>36</sup>Cl (kat/g)</th><th><sup>35</sup>Cl (ppm)</th><th>CaO (%) Target</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>DV-6-1.2</td><td>120</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>318.4 ± 23.2</td><td>136.90</td><td>52.70</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-1.5</td><td>150</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>238.3 ± 16.1</td><td>93.30</td><td>48.91</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-2.0</td><td>200</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>316.3 ± 20.4</td><td>120.96</td><td>52.60</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-2.5</td><td>250</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>154.5 ± 12.2</td><td>90.32</td><td>51.05</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-3.0</td><td>300</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>138 ± 12.5</td><td>109.99</td><td>49.65</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-3.5</td><td>350</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>179.1 ± 13.9</td><td>115.51</td><td>50.87</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-4.0</td><td>400</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>157.9 ± 15.6</td><td>206.67</td><td>45.90</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-5.0</td><td>500</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>109.8 ± 11.4</td><td>135.41</td><td>50.34</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-6.0</td><td>600</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>89.1 ± 12.5</td><td>202.89</td><td>46.55</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-7.0</td><td>700</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>86 ± 9.7</td><td>128.77</td><td>51.05</td></tr><tr><td>DV-6-8.0</td><td>800</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>50.2 ± 6.3</td><td>115.90</td><td>45.55</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-1.5</td><td>150</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>886.9 ± 60.5</td><td>220.81</td><td>22.42</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-2.6</td><td>260</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>1082.4 ± 72.7</td><td>252.72</td><td>23.40</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-3.5</td><td>350</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>996.6 ± 67.1</td><td>228.39</td><td>22.86</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-4.4</td><td>440</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>832.3 ± 57.3</td><td>253.60</td><td>23.31</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-5.3</td><td>530</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>636.9 ± 46.6</td><td>216.28</td><td>23.98</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-6.2</td><td>620</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>187.0 ± 19.0</td><td>301.57</td><td>23.35</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-7.8</td><td>780</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>163.4 ± 16.6</td><td>307.05</td><td>22.72</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-9.3</td><td>930</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>138.6 ± 13.8</td><td>268.07</td><td>22.12</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-10.3</td><td>1030</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>137.2 ± 15.2</td><td>292.97</td><td>21.69</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-11.7</td><td>1170</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>107.2 ± 10.8</td><td>211.71</td><td>22.60</td></tr><tr><td>DV-10-12.6</td><td>1260</td><td>48.60142</td><td>17.53554</td><td>269.37</td><td>73 ± 8.3</td><td>203.40</td><td>22.30</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-2.8</td><td>280</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>157.2 ± 10.3</td><td>41.32</td><td>34.07</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-3.4</td><td>340</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>140.8 ± 9.1</td><td>32.91</td><td>34.93</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-3.8</td><td>380</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>836.1 ± 48.1</td><td>240.42</td><td>25.36</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-4.4</td><td>440</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>923.1 ± 52.3</td><td>236.17</td><td>25.72</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-4.8</td><td>480</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>887.8 ± 48.2</td><td>227.75</td><td>26.41</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-5.4</td><td>540</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>792.6 ± 62.6</td><td>222.14</td><td>24.52</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-6.5</td><td>650</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>160.6 ± 20.2</td><td>209.02</td><td>31.17</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-7.1</td><td>710</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>142.4 ± 18.3</td><td>164.68</td><td>32.68</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-7.7</td><td>770</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>172.3 ± 17.8</td><td>160.92</td><td>34.02</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>Sample ID</th><th>Depth (cm)</th><th>Latitude</th><th>Longitude</th><th>Altitude</th><th><sup>26</sup>Al (at/g)</th><th><sup>10</sup>Be (at/g)</th><th><sup>26</sup>Al/<sup>10</sup>Be</th><th>Paleodenustration rate before deposition (m/Ma)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>DV-6-9.0</td><td>900</td><td>48.58472</td><td>17.55816</td><td>239.70</td><td>5 212 ± 939</td><td>21 002 ± 8 226</td><td>4.03 ± 1.74</td><td>424.56</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-0.9</td><td>90</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>202 5956 ± 89 735</td><td>590 362 ± 18 149</td><td>3.43 ± 0.19</td><td>3.26</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12.1.8</td><td>180</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>553 333 ± 42 345</td><td>188 175 ± 5 826</td><td>2.94 ± 0.24</td><td>12.46</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-2.2</td><td>220</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>671 406 ± 57 261</td><td>171 908 ± 5 346</td><td>3.91 ± 0.35</td><td>13.20</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-2.7</td><td>270</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>779 069 ± 59 849</td><td>219 926 ± 6 854</td><td>3.54 ± 0.29</td><td>10.17</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-3.5</td><td>350</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>281 330 ± 31 484</td><td>37 477 ± 1 814</td><td>7.51 ± 0.92</td><td>65.77</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-4.7</td><td>470</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>152 907 ± 22 084</td><td>33 881 ± 1 905</td><td>4.51 ± 0.7</td><td>72.06</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-6.4</td><td>640</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>62 586 ± 14 061</td><td>29 196 ± 1 713</td><td>2.14 ± 0.5</td><td>91.67</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-7.0</td><td>700</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>196 026 ± 29 691</td><td>25 391 ± 1 689</td><td>7.72 ± 1.28</td><td>97.86</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-8.1</td><td>810</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>126 273 ± 34 710</td><td>27 046 ± 1 437</td><td>4.67 ± 1.31</td><td>92.31</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-9.5</td><td>950</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>138 022 ± 32 417</td><td>24 227 ± 1 956</td><td>5.7 ± 1.41</td><td>408.61</td></tr><tr><td>DV-12-15.2</td><td>1520</td><td>48.59056</td><td>17.53575</td><td>279.08</td><td>107 197 ± 28 367</td><td>17 083 ± 1 229</td><td>6.28 ± 1.72</td><td>117.49</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-6.5</td><td>650</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>55 529 ± 12 731</td><td>21 747 ± 2 641</td><td>2.55 ± 0.66</td><td>61.42</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-7.1</td><td>710</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>30 710 ± 9 718</td><td>22 776 ± 3 010</td><td>1.35 ± 0.46</td><td>29.13</td></tr><tr><td>DV-13-7.8</td><td>780</td><td>48.59279</td><td>17.53932</td><td>237.48</td><td>37 700 ± 12 187</td><td>18 925 ± 2 575</td><td>1.99 ± 0.7</td><td>53.99</td></tr></tbody></table>