# What can lithics tell us about food production during the transition to farming? Exploring harvesting practices and cultural changes during the neolithic in Southwest Asia: a view from Qminas (north-western Syria)

Fiona Pichon, Osamu Maeda, Juan José Ibáñez Estévez, Patricia Anderson

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## To cite this version:

Fiona Pichon, Osamu Maeda, Juan José Ibáñez Estévez, Patricia Anderson. What can lithics tell us about food production during the transition to farming? Exploring harvesting practices and cultural changes during the neolithic in Southwest Asia: a view from Qminas (north-western Syria). Archaeometry, 2025, 10.1111/arcm.13108. hal-05160980

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Submitted on 16 Dec 2025

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

# What can lithics tell us about food production during the transition to farming? Exploring harvesting practices and cultural changes during the neolithic in Southwest Asia: a view from Qminas (north-western Syria)

Fiona Pichon<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="2" /> ID

Osamu Maeda<fnref n="3" /> ID

Juan José Ibáñez Estévez<fnref n="1" /> ID

Patricia Anderson<fnref n="4" /> ID

**Correspondence**

Fiona Pichon and Juan José Ibáñez Estévez, Cultural Landscapes, Milá i Fontanals Institute, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain.

Email: fiona.pichon@imf.csic.es and ibanezjj@imf.csic.es

**Funding information**

The use-wear analysis was conducted under the guidance of Professor A. Tsuneki at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba, as part of the postdoctoral project 'From Tools to People: Early Neolithic Farming Societies in Southwest Asia (8th-6th mill. cal. BC)' funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS Postdoctoral Fellowship—Standard 2019, awarded to F. Pichon), with additional support from the Archéorient Laboratory (UMR 5133-CNRS, awarded to F. Pichon). The confocal analysis was

**Abstract**

This study examines the continuity and change in harvesting practices between the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (LPPNB) and the Early Pottery Neolithic at Qminas, north-western Levant, through a traceological analysis of flint sickles. By combining qualitative traceological analysis with quantitative functional approaches, we demonstrate that sickle blades were used for low-cut harvesting of ripe domesticated cereals, reflecting a fully established farming system. The production and use of sickles remained highly standardized throughout the site's occupation, with sustained investment in their manufacture. The specialized production of sickle blades for cereal harvesting at Qminas highlights the crucial role of lithic tools in food production and their broader significance in the transition to farming in Southwest Asia. The overall technical stability observed across the LPPNB and Pottery Neolithic levels indicates that the consolidation of agricultural systems in the north-western Levant was not a sudden rupture but rather a continuous process embedded within the broader trajectory of Neolithization. This evidence suggests that the transition in this region was characterized by an evolutionary shift within the same cultural framework, leading to the consolidation of a fully developed agropastoral lifestyle.

This is an open access article under the terms of the [Creative Commons Attribution License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2025 The Author(s). *Archaeometry* published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of University of Oxford.

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<footnote n="1">¹Cultural Landscapes, Milá i Fontanals Institute, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Archéorient—Environnements et sociétés de l'Orient ancien, UMR 5133, CNRS, France</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴CEPAM—Culture et Environnements, Préhistoire, Antiquité, Moyen-Age, UMR 7264, CNRS, Nice, France</footnote>
performed at the Milá y Fontanals Institute (CSIC) in Barcelona, Spain, within the framework of the extraordinary 'ERC to MSCA' grant funded by the CSIC.

KEYWORDS

agriculture, confocal microscopy, gloss texture analysis, harvesting practices, lithic specialization, Neolithic, sickle blades, Southwest Asia, tool cache, use-wear and residue analysis

INTRODUCTION

The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture marks one of the most transformative periods in human history, occurring independently across various regions of the world (Barker, 2006; Demoule, 2010). Southwest Asia, often regarded as the cradle of agriculture and animal husbandry, provides some of the earliest evidence for these practices, which gradually emerged and spread between the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene (12,000–6500 cal. BCE) (Fuller et al., 2012; Willcox, 2024; Zeder, 2011). This shift from foraging to food production marked a pivotal moment in human history, driving major changes in subsistence strategies, resource management, environmental interactions, mobility, demographic growth and social organization (Kuijt & Goring-Morris, 2002). As plants and animals came under increasing human control, wild progenitors were domesticated, fundamentally altering prehistoric diets and economic structures. Small, temporary hamlets expanded into large, permanent settlements housing hundreds or even thousands of inhabitants (Goring-Morris et al., 2009). New ideological paradigms emerged, reflected in monumental architecture, burial practices and symbolic systems (Ackerfeld & Gopher, 2022; Benz & Bauer, 2013; Verhoeven, 2002).

Current research highlights the protracted and polycentric nature of the Neolithic transformations, driven by a combination of climatic, ecological, demographic and cultural factors (Binford, 1968; Cauvin, 1994; Hodder, 2007; Verhoeven, 2004; Watkins, 2023; Weninger et al., 2009), resulting in diverse regional pathways and multiples innovation centres across the Fertile Crescent (e.g., Asouti, 2006; Bogaard et al., 2021; Finlayson et al., 2024; Fuller et al., 2012; Gebel, 2004; Ibáñez et al., 2018). Expanding regional and supra-regional complex networks enabled technological exchange and innovation among widely interconnected communities, shaping a radically new social world and facilitating the widespread adoption of the Neolithic way of life across multiple core areas (Coward, 2013; Goring-Morris & Belfer Cohen, 2022; Mithen et al., 2023; Watkins, 2008).

What can lithics indicate about food production during the transition to farming
in Southwest Asia?

Lithic industries offer crucial insights into the technological, economic and social dimensions of emerging food production practices. The characteristics of stone tools assemblages reflect shared material traditions, direct evidence of long-distance interactions, and the transmission of technological knowledge and cultural practices. During the transition to farming, lithic production became increasingly complex, as demonstrated by the adoption of bipolar blade knapping (Abbès, 2003; Borrell, 2017) and obsidian blade pressure production (Balkan-Atli & Binder, 2012), both of which required a high level of technical expertise. The emergence of new specific tool types, along with evolving strategies for managing knapping products, evidenced by lithic blades caches (Astruc et al., 2003; Barzilai & Goring-Morris, 2007), further reflect a shift toward greater technical complexity and specialization in lithic tools production and use. These major transformations were not solely driven by the adoption of new food production strategies (Quintero et al., 1997; Quintero & Wilke, 1995) but were also part of broader social
and cognitive changes that supported the establishment of the Neolithic way of life (Ibáñez & González Urquijo, 2006, 2011).

Among the tools that underwent significant transformations during this period, sickles stand out as a particularly remarkable example, playing a fundamental role in the transition to food production. Due to the poor preservation of organic hafts (Bar-Yosef & Alon, 1988; Borrell & Molist, 2007; Edwards, 2007), sickles are primarily represented in the archaeological record by sickles blades—typically made of flint or chert—which formed the cutting edge of the tool. These blades are distinguished from other stone tools by a characteristic macroscopic sheen, known as sickle gloss, which develops along the active edge after only a few hours of cutting silica-rich plants such as cereals, reeds and grasses (Anderson, 1992; Unger-Hamilton, 1992). Sickle blades first appeared at archaeological sites during the Late Epipaleolithic in the Levant, c.12th millennium cal. BCE, though in relatively low frequencies (< 5%). However, their increasing use throughout the gradual process of cultivation and domestication reached approximately 30% at some sites during the Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (MPPNB) in the eighth millennium, providing clear evidence of a growing reliance on cereal crops (Maeda et al., 2016). Traditional techno-typological approaches have suggested that the morphological changes observed in sickle blades from the Natufian to the Pottery Neolithic (PN) may indicate their crucial role in enhancing cereal crop productivity (e.g., Borrell, 2015; Vardi & Gilead, 2013). An alternative hypothesis argues that while both the northern and southern Levant exhibit a clear trend toward increased sickle production, the shift may have slightly lagged behind the rise in cereal consumption, suggesting that the growing investment in sickle blade production was more likely a response to the expansion of cereal agriculture rather than a driving force behind it (Maeda et al., 2016). Across Southwest Asia, however, the technological investment in sickle production, including the manufacture and rejuvenation of stone inserts, varied over time and between regions, reflecting local cultural dynamics and innovative adaptive strategies (e.g., Abadi & Grosman, 2019; Arimura, 2011; Astruc & Briois, 2019; Goodale et al., 2010; Vardi & Gilead, 2013).

## Quantitative use-wear analysis of lithic tools for investigating food plant-production practices

Since the 1980s, methodological advances in functional studies of lithic tools—including use-wear analysis, residue analysis and experimental archaeology—have significantly contributed to our understanding of technical strategies and innovations in food production. These approaches have provided valuable insights into cereal management, harvesting techniques, post-harvest processing, technological choices and economic adaptations in early agricultural societies (e.g., Anderson, 1992, 1994; Astruc, 2011; Astruc et al., 2012; Astruc & Briois, 2019; Groman-Yarolasvki, 2013; Ibáñez et al., 1998, 2008, 2014, 2016; Pichon, 2017, 2019; Pichon & Ibáñez, 2021; Unger-Hamilton, 1992). The recent application of quantitative techniques using confocal microscopy and three-dimensional (3D) texture analysis for studying sickle gloss allowed the achievement of a higher resolution in the study of use-wear patterns on lithic tools, revealing a gradual shift from wild plant exploitation to systematic agriculture (Ibáñez et al., 2021; Pichon et al., 2021, 2023). Furthermore, it provided evidence of a well-established dependence on cereal-based agricultural systems, not only for food production but also for various technical activities such as architecture, pottery production and animal feeding, highlighting how this system became integral to multiple aspects of life (Ibáñez et al., 2025).

Functional studies of harvesting tools explore the morphological changes and development of sickles, providing a broad overview of how harvesting technologies evolved between the 12th and seventh millennia cal. BCE in the Levant (e.g., Anderson, 1992, 1994; Astruc, 2011; Groman-Yarolasvki, 2013; Ibáñez et al., 1998, 2008; Pichon, 2017, 2019). For example, based
on a robust experimental framework replicating cereal harvesting with sickles (Astruc et al., 2012; Ibáñez et al., 1998), it has been suggested that curved sickles, which appeared during the Early PPNB (Pichon, 2017), were better adapted to harvesting tasks than the Natufian and PPNA straight sickle. Their morphology facilitated a more efficient collection of stems, improving both the harvester's gesture and rhythm. Stems could be gathered and held with a bare hand, while a swift countermotion of the sickle enabled the cutting of an entire bundle in a single movement. This innovation allowed for a more continuous and faster harvesting process. For approximately 1300 years, from the mid-ninth to the late eighth millennia cal. BCE, curved sickles with stone elements inserted parallel to the shaft remained the dominant composite harvesting tool in the Levant. Then, toward the end of the MPPNB and during the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (LPPNB), while preserving the curved shaft morphology, a more efficient design was introduced, incorporating sickle elements set at an oblique angle to enhance harvesting performance (Astruc, 2011; Astruc et al., 2012).

Use-wear analyses of sickle gloss have also revealed diachronic variations in micropolish texture between the 12th and seventh millennia cal. BCE in the Levant, correlating with the transition from wild to domesticated cereals (Anderson, 1992; Unger-Hamilton, 1989, 1992). Specifically, in earlier periods (e.g., Natufian sickles), micropolish appears domed and smooth, whereas in later periods (e.g., Neolithic sickles), it becomes flatter and more abraded. This evolution has been associated with changes in harvesting strategies related to the progressive morphological transformation of cereals during the cultivation and domestication process (Anderson, 1992; Ibáñez et al., 1998; Unger-Hamilton, 1992). In wild cereal stands, plants ripen asynchronously. Even within a single plant, spikelets mature gradually from the tip of the seed head downward and fall naturally at maturity due to their brittle rachis (Zohary et al., 2012). Experiments suggest that to prevent seed dispersal, wild cereals were likely harvested with sickles while still green—when the stems were just turning yellow, and the first grains had begun to detach—resulting in a domed and smooth micropolish. In contrast, domesticated cereals ripen more uniformly, and their spikelets remain attached even at full maturity, allowing them to be harvested at full ripeness, resulting in a flatter and more abraded micropolish (Anderson, 1992). Additionally, experimental studies suggest that to prevent grain loss and maximize yield, wild cultivated cereals were likely harvested in a semi-ripe state—when most of the crop was mature, the grain was nearly ripe, yet still largely attached to the ear (Anderson, 1992). Differences in the moisture content of cereal stems at harvest explain the contrasts in the appearance of the micropolish texture of wild, wild cultivated and domestic cereals (Anderson, 1992). Beyond cereals, use-wear analyses have shown that cutting other siliceous plants, such as reeds and grasses, also produces macroscopic gloss (Anderson, 1994; Jensen, 1994; Vaughan, 1985). These plants were widely used in the domestic sphere during the Neolithic for both food and craft purposes (Douché & Pichon, 2018; Rosen, 1992). Ethnographic studies further document their use in mat and basket weaving, partition walls in tents, windbreaks, and sheep pens (Ertuğ, 2006). However, distinguishing micropolish resulting from different plant types—such as cereals at various maturity stages, reeds and grasses—has remained challenging with traditional optical microscopy methods. To overcome these limitations, new methodologies were developed to quantify gloss microtexture and more precisely determine the type of plant cut with sickles and the conditions of harvest.

## Texture analysis of sickle gloss for measuring long-term shifts and cultural patterns in plant harvesting techniques during the transition to food production

Over the past decade, researchers have developed a method to identify different plants harvested with sickles in prehistory—including wild cereals, wild cultivated cereals, domesticated cereals, reeds and grasses—using texture analysis of gloss on both experimental and
archaeological tools with confocal microscopy (Ibáñez et al., 2014). This approach has been applied to the study of a collection of over 200 flint sickle blades from Natufian to the LPPNB contexts in Southwest Asia, providing a comprehensive view of long-term changes in plant harvesting during the transition to agriculture from the perspective of lithic stools studies (Ibáñez et al., 2016, 2021; Pichon et al., 2021, 2023). To date, the overall trend indicates a progression toward a more systematic cereal cultivation strategy in Southwest Asia, where harvesting riper crops would have led to higher yields, as cereals were collected when the grain was fully developed. However, this shift in plant harvesting strategies was neither chronologically linear nor geographically uniform (Ibáñez et al., 2021). Further analysis of sickles coming from other archaeological contexts is required to better elucidate this issue.

To contribute to a broader understanding of harvesting strategies and their regional variability, this study investigates, for the first time, the harvesting practices at the Neolithic site of Qminas in the north-western Levant. Through an unprecedented techno-typological and functional analysis of glossy flint sickle blades, we examine the continuity and transformation of agricultural practices during the LPPNB and Early PN. Our research integrates experimental replication, microwear analysis, and the application of confocal microscopy and surface texture analysis to Neolithic tools, offering new and detailed insights into cereal agriculture and its regional dynamics during this transformative period. These findings are discussed within the broader framework of the Neolithic agricultural transition debate in the region.

# QMINAS: A LPPNB TO POTTERY NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT IN NORTH-WEST SYRIA

Qminas is a Neolithic settlement located in the present-day village of Qminas (35°53'19" N, 36°40'27" E) in north-west Syria, approximate 55 km south-west of Aleppo (Maeda, 2022) (Fig. 1, a). Situated at an altitude of 395 masl, the site lies in a vast plain bordered by Mt Zawiyeh to the west and stretching toward the Euphrates Valley to the east. The region's annual rainfall exceeds 400 mm, supporting dry farming of crops such as wheat and barley. Discovered during a Japanese survey in the Idlib district (Iwasaki et al., 2009), the site was excavated in 1981 by a Syro-Japanese team led by Dr Shawqi Sha'ath from Syria's Directorate-General of Antiquities and Professor Sei-ichi Masuda from the University of Tsukuba in Japan, in collaboration with the Ancient Orient Museum (Masuda & Sha'ath, 1983). Unlike typical tells, Qminas does not form a raised mound, and no evidence of later occupation has been identified. Artefacts, including lithic and pottery assemblages, indicate a local material culture spanning the LPPNB to PN periods (Maeda, 2022).

## Stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating

A one-season excavation established a grid of seven squares (A–G) on a 200-m-diameter area where surface artefacts were found, covering a total area of 136 m² (Masuda & Sha'ath, 1983; Maeda, 2022) (Fig. 1, b–d). The occupational deposit, about 2.0–2.5 m thick above bedrock, was divided into Lower Level (LL) and Upper Level (UL) based on the presence of ceramics. The LL, devoid of pottery, featured artefacts such as lithic tools, a cache of flint and obsidian blades, ground stone tools, and a hearth structure. Radiocarbon dating of seven wood charcoal samples from this level, analysed by AMS with $\delta^{13}$C values at Beta Analytic Inc., places its occupation between c.7400 and 7000/6800 cal. BCE, confirming its LPPNB attribution (Maeda, 2022). Three samples from a reddish-brown layer in square A yielded calibrated dates of 7459–7089, 7451–7083 and 7326–7076 cal. BCE. Another sample from a reddish-brown layer in the lower part in square B was dated to 7307–7047 cal. BCE, while three samples from the fill
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 1 (a) Location of Qminas in north-west Syria and the sites mentioned in the text; (b) topography of the site and the excavation areas at Qminas—© Archaeology Laboratory of the University of Tsukuba; (c) squares A-D viewed from the south; and (d) from the south-west—© Archaeology Laboratory of the University of Tsukuba.</figcaption></figure>
of the hearth recovered on the natural bedrock at the bottom of square B dated to 7317–7065, 7062–6,821 and 7315–7061 cal. BCE (Maeda, 2022). Overall, these results confirm that the entire sequence of the LL at Qminas belongs to the LPPNB, aligning with expectations based on techno-typological analyses of flint artefacts. The UL, characterized by two architectural phases, included pits filled with ashy soil, lithic artefacts, pottery sherds and two burials. A stone wall or foundation was uncovered in squares D and De. While no radiocarbon dates are available for this level, pottery typology, lithic continuity and stratigraphic evidence suggest it dates to the Early PN and Middle PN (c.6800–6100 cal. BCE) (Maeda, 2022; Odaka, 2012). The pottery assemblage aligns with the Rouj 2a/b and Rouj 2c phases, resembling material from Tell el-Kerkh.

## Chipped stone artefacts: a summary

No significant differences were observed in the technology and typology of the lithic assemblages between the LL and UL at Qminas, indicating an uninterrupted continuity from the LPPNB to the Early PN (Maeda, 2022, 2025). Flint artefacts are the most numerous throughout the sequence (e.g., about 90% of all the chipped stone artefacts from square B are flint and 10% are obsidian). Three methods of flint blade production have been identified: bidirectional blade production using opposed-platform cores; unidirectional blade production by pressure flaking or indirect percussion with single-platform wedge-shaped cores; and unidirectional bladelet production by pressure flaking using single-platform wedge-shaped cores (Maeda, 2022, 2025). Different types of flint, varying in colour and texture—silicified fine-grained flint and poorly silicified coarse flint—were exploited for each technique. The blades/bladelets were used to manufacture different types of tools, such as projectile points with pressure retouch typical of the LPPNB and Early PN in the Northern Levant, sickle blades, end-scrapers, burins and microdrills (Maeda, 2022, 2025). This technical tradition remains consistent from the LL to the UL. Obsidian is less frequent than flint but represents about 10% of the 875 chipped stone artefacts recovered from square B, a proportion comparable with other contemporary sites in north-west Syria (e.g., Tell el-Kerkh 2; Maeda, 2003, 2009) and higher than the ratio of obsidian found at sites in the Euphrates Valley and the Southern Levant. Approximately 85% of the obsidian originates from the Göllüdağ East source in Cappadocia, with the remainder coming from the Bingöl and Nemrut Dağ sources in south-east Anatolia (Maeda, 2022).

## Sickle elements: general techno-typological traits

Sickle elements are the most common tool type in flint blade production at Qminas, spanning from the LL to the UL, corresponding to 32 and 36 pieces, respectively (Maeda, 2025). They were consistently made from unidirectional regular blades. No morphological differences were observed between the glossy blade segments and most unidirectional blade segments without gloss (Maeda, 2025). The majority are made of poorly silicified flint, ranging in colour from light brown to beige, the same type of flint utilized in the manufacture of most unidirectional blade segments. The mid-section of the blades, from which both ends were deliberately snapped by applying force from either the dorsal or ventral face to achieve a length of 2–7 cm, is predominant (Maeda, 2025) (see the results below). Lateral truncation as well as retouched truncation are very rare. The technological analysis of all the sickle gloss elements from square B (68 pieces) indicates that the sizes of most sickle elements are standardized and, as with the central unidirectional blades, those from the UL are smaller than those from the LL (Maeda, 2025) (see the Results below). The average dimensions of the blanks are 4.9 cm in length and 1.5 cm
in width in the LL and 2.6 cm in length and 1.5 cm in width in the UL. Of the 32 sickle elements from the LL, 22 were recovered from the notable blades cache in square B, along with 24 other flint blades and 12 obsidian blades.

# MATERIAL AND METHODS

## Sample

The studied material is stored in the University of Tsukuba (Tsukuba, Japan). The late Professor Sei-ichi Masuda obtained permission from Syria's Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums to export flint and obsidian artefacts from square B (5 × 5 m) and a selection of characteristic tools from other excavation areas. All the artefacts and samples analysed and reported in this paper comply with the Valletta Convention and were legally exported. The glossed sample includes 18 blades from the LL cache in square B, six from non-*in-situ* contexts in the same square, and 37 blades from the UL (29 from square B and eight from square De), for a total of 61 sickle blades (see Supplementary Material_File S1).

## Techno-functional analysis of sickle blades: a qualitative use-wear study

The function of a tool is determined by identifying its active part(s) (used area = UA), characterizing the worked material (type, hardness and condition), and analysing the kinematics involved in its use (longitudinal, transverse, rotational or percussive movements). When possible, hafting techniques are also reconstructed. Functional interpretation relies on macro- and microscopic observations of use-wear patterns, which consist of various combinations of scars, rounding, striations, micropolish and residues. These traces vary depending on the tool's raw material, duration of use, kinetics, contact materials and handling mode (e.g., González Urquijo & Ibáñez Estevez, 1994; Van Gijn, 2010; Vaughan, 1985). Identified use-wear traces are then interpreted through visual comparison with a reference collection of experimentally used tools.

To gain detailed insights into harvesting techniques, usage intensity, tool-handling gestures and hafting design, the sickle blades from Qminas were analysed at both macro- and microscopic scales following traditional use-wear analysis methods (González Urquijo & Ibáñez Estevez, 1994; Vaughan, 1985). Experimental studies have demonstrated that cutting siliceous plants (such as cereals, grasses and reeds) produces characteristic use-wear patterns on flint tools, particularly a macroscopic gloss along both faces of the active edge (e.g., Anderson, 1992; Astruc, 2002; Jensen, 1994; Pichon, 2019). Glossy surfaces, even the most marginal ones, were identified using a Perfex Science binocular magnifier (up to 45× magnification). Archaeological tools without preserved residues, along with the experimental tools used for reference, were cleaned with soapy water and alcohol to remove handling grease. A total of 61 blades were then examined under an Olympus BHM reflected-light optical microscope (100×, 200×, 400×) to document micropolish texture, striation types and surface modifications (González Urquijo & Ibáñez Estevez, 1994; Vaughan, 1985). Following the *chaîne opératoire* approach, additional technological and typological features were also recorded, including type of raw material, blank type and shape, butt type, knapping pattern, retouch characteristics, and tool dimensions. Micrographs were captured using a Hirox 3D Digital microscope and a Canon EOS 550D digital SLR camera mounted on the Olympus microscope via an OM-Mount Photomicro Adapter L.

Use-wear patterns were interpreted through visual comparison with a reference collection of experimental tools documenting traces of production, use and post-depositional alterations. This collection includes approximately 150 tools used by one to the authors (FP) in research on
Neolithic stone tool functions in Southwest Asia (Pichon, 2017: fig. 59: 204; 2019). These tools were employed in activities such as scraping, cutting, sawing, grooving and perforating various plant, animal and mineral materials. Additionally, several experiments specifically focused on harvesting wild and domestic cereals, reeds and grasses using sickle replicas fitted with blades made from fine- and coarse-grained flint (Pichon, 2017, 2019). The authors also consulted the extensive experimental reference collection at the Milá y Fontanals Institute (CSIC), which comprises approximately 1000 experimental flint tools from diverse geological sources.

## Gloss microtexture analysis through confocal microscopy and metrology software

Quantitative methods are increasingly employed in the functional analysis of lithic artefacts. In recent years, confocal microscopy and 3D texture analysis have been widely used to study microwear polishes on stone tools (Ibáñez et al., 2014, 2019; Ibáñez & Mazzucco, 2021; Pichon, Ibáñez Estevez, et al., 2025). Use-wear studies at high magnification have revealed diachronic variations in sickle gloss microtexture from the 12th to the seventh millennia cal. BCE in Southwest Asia, correlating with the transition from wild to domesticated cereals (Anderson, 1992; Unger-Hamilton, 1992). In general, sickle gloss microtexture appears domed and smooth in earlier periods (e.g., Natufian sickles), while in later periods (e.g., Neolithic sickles), it becomes flatter and more abraded. Experimental harvesting has shown that the use-wear polish produced by cutting domestic cereals is generally flatter, duller and more abraded than the domed, smooth and brighter polish left by cutting wild cereals. Microscopic textural characteristics of sickle gloss can be used to determine the state of the cereal at harvest, distinguishing between green and ripe crops (Anderson, 1991, 1992; Anderson & Valla, 1996; Unger-Hamilton, 1992). In wild cereal stands, individual plants ripen asynchronously. Even within a single plant, spikelets mature progressively from the tip of the seed head downward and fall spontaneously at maturity due to their brittle rachis (Zohary et al., 2012). In contrast, domesticated cereals—characterized by tough rachises—ripen more homogeneously in the fields, and their spikelets remain attached even at full maturity. To prevent natural seed dispersal, wild cereals were likely harvested with sickles at a green stage, when stems were just yellowing, and the first grains had begun detaching from the seed head. This process produces domed and smooth use-wear traces. Conversely, domestic cereals could be harvested at full ripeness, resulting in flatter and more abraded micropolish (Anderson, 1992). Experimental studies also suggest that wild cultivated cereals were sometimes harvested in a semi-ripe state, when most of the crop was mature enough, though some grains remained attached to the ear. At this stage, the stems were a mix of yellow and green, reflecting varying maturity among individual plants. This method allowed harvesting without excessive grain loss, thereby maximizing yield recovery (Anderson, 1992). The general diachronic evolution of sickle micropolish texture throughout the transition from wild to domesticated cereals—from brittle to tough rachises—may thus be linked to the increasingly mature crop harvest strategy adopted to maximize yield efficiency. Cutting other siliceous plants, such as reeds and grasses, also produces macroscopic gloss (Jensen, 1994; Vaughan, 1985). However, distinguishing between use-wear traces from different plant types—particularly across various maturity stages of cereals—remains challenging with traditional use-wear analysis methods. Because of these limitations, methodological innovations were developed to quantify sickle gloss microtexture and infer the precise condition of cereals at harvest during their cultivation and domestication. Through texture analysis of sickle gloss on both experimental and archaeological tools, researchers have established a method to identify the types of plants harvested in Prehistory (Ibáñez et al., 2014). By documenting variations in gloss on experimental sickles used to cut ripe domesticated cereals, semi-ripe cultivated wild cereals, green cereals from natural stands, reeds and grasses, researchers have compared these use-wear patterns with those observed on ancient tools, providing evidence of a progressive shift toward
harvesting riper cereals during the emergence of cereal agriculture (Ibáñez et al., 2021). In this study, we apply the same methodology to compare archaeological sickle gloss with experimental reference tools used for cutting domestic ripe cereals, semi-ripe cultivated wild cereals, reeds, and grasses. The objective is to determine whether the glossed tools from Qminas were used for harvesting cereals at full maturity or in a semi-ripe state, reeds or grasses. This distinction is crucial, as the shift from green to ripe cereal harvesting has been identified as a key factor in the emergence of cereal agriculture (Ibáñez et al., 2021).

Additionally, we apply confocal microscopy and texture analysis of harvesting polish to document variations in gloss patterns associated with different cutting heights when using sickles (e.g., near the ground versus near the spikelets). Cutting height plays a crucial role in agricultural practices: low cutting facilitates crop transport in bundles to threshing areas and allows for straw reuse in various activities such as livestock feeding, basketry, roofing and adobe production (Anderson-Gerfaud et al., 2006; Stordeur & Willcox, 2009). Conversely, if straw is not needed, crops can be harvested higher up, leaving stems in the field to be reaped later (Anderson, 1992; Sigaut, 1978), burned or eaten by livestock. In traditional agriculture, the practice of harvesting low, transporting crops in sheaves, threshing them and repurposing straw is a well-documented technique (Anderson, 2000; Sigaut, 1978). However, the origins of this method remain a subject of investigation. Experimental studies indicate that the degree of striation in sickle micropolish correlates with both the duration of use and the proximity of use to the ground. Consequently, when sickles are used close to the ground for an equal amount of time, their traces become more striated and abraded (Anderson, 1991, 1992). Similarly, high-magnification use-wear analyses have revealed diachronic variations in the gloss striations of sickles from the 12th to the seventh millennia cal. BCE in Southwest Asia. For example, earlier sickles (e.g., those from the Natufian culture) exhibit less striation compared with later examples (e.g., Neolithic sickles), raising the question of when low cutting—a well-documented practice in traditional agriculture—first emerged (Anderson, 1992; Unger-Hamilton, 1992). To address this issue, confocal microscopy and texture analysis were applied to experimental cereal-harvesting gloss, identifying textural parameters distinguishing low (near-ground) from high (near-ear) cutting (Ibáñez et al., 2025). These parameters were then used to classify 260 sickle blades from Natufian, Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), PPNB and Pottery Neolithic (PN) contexts in Southwest Asia (11,000–6000 cal. BCE). The results indicate a gradual shift in harvesting techniques over time. During the Natufian, wild cereals were primarily harvested unripe and near the ear. In the PPNA, as early cultivation began, high cutting remained dominant, though low cutting was occasionally practiced for cultivated crops. By the PPNB, harvesting closer to the ground became widespread, reflecting an increasing demand for straw. In the PN, low cutting became the standard, facilitating transport and threshing, a technique that persisted in the Mediterranean region until recent times (Anderson, 1998, 2000). This millennia-long transition from high to low cutting was largely driven by the growing use of straw in construction, basketry and livestock care.

The methodological approach applied in this paper follows the one proposed in previous studies (Ibáñez et al., 2014, 2019, 2021; Mazzucco et al., 2022; Pichon et al., 2021, 2023). All the sampled archaeological tools showed a well-developed micropolish visible to the naked eye. For each experimental and archaeological tool, three to 14 areas of 650 × 500 µm were measured along the edge. Measurements were taken from the portions of the edge where the micropolish was most developed (i.e., 90% of the sampled surface) using a Sensofar Plu Neox scanning confocal microscope, with a 20× (0.45 NA) objective, a spatial sampling of 0.83 mm, optical resolution of 0.31 µm, vertical resolution of 20 nm and a z-step interval of 1 µm. Confocal microscopes provide highly precise measurements of microtexture; however, a minimal level of system noise is present, quantified as the variation between two consecutive measurements of the same surface. To minimize this noise, 99.5% of the surface was scanned, ensuring comprehensive data acquisition, while the remaining 0.05% was excluded from analysis. Non-measured
points were subsequently interpolated to maintain data consistency and accuracy. The 3D images generated by the confocal microscope were processed using Mountain 7 software from Digital Surf to extract ISO 25178 texture measurement parameters. Subsamples of 200 × 200 µm showing homogeneous and well-developed micropolish without irregularities caused by the natural surface of the flint were taken from the 650 × 500 µm areas. Several leveling operators and spatial filters in the software were applied to correct the surface's horizontality and isolate the roughness component of the micropolish from the source surface. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS v. 29, employing quadratic discriminant analysis to develop predictive models for glossed archaeological tools based on experimental group data.

## Discriminating between harvested plant types

To distinguish between the types of harvested plants, 14 experimental tools used to cut semi-ripe cultivated wild cereals, ripe domestic cereals, reeds and grasses were selected as a reference framework and compared with the use-wear traces on the archaeological tools (Ibáñez et al., 2016; Pichon et al., 2023: tab. 1). For each experimental tool, the number of measured areas (650 × 500 µm) ranged from 18 to 35, yielding a total of 316 subareas, each measuring 200 × 200 µm. A total of 11 ISO 25178 surface parameters were selected based on their capacity to discriminate the four experimental groups through quadratic discriminant function analysis (Ibáñez et al., 2016). These parameters include:

* Amplitude parameters: a class of surface finish parameters that characterize the distribution of heights (Sa, mean height of the surface; Sq, square root mean height; Sz, distance between the highest peak and the deepest valley; Sp, maximum peak height; and Sv, maximum valley depth area).

* Spatial parameters, which quantify the lateral information on the x- and y-axes of the surface based on spectral analysis (Sal, expressing the content in wavelength of the surface; Str, measuring whether the surface is isotropic).

* Hybrid parameters, which consider both the amplitude and spacing (Sdq, root-mean-square value of the surface slope; Sfd, complexity of the surface using the fractal dimension theory).

* Parameters measuring the micro-valley network, obtained by vectorizing the surface to identify all the furrows and measure their mean depth (MDF) and mean density (MDenF).

Quadratic discriminant function analysis builds a predictive model for group membership by generating discriminant functions based on quadratic combinations of predictor variables, particularly when these variables exhibit differing variance-covariance matrices. The classification rule of the predictive analysis is based on Bayes' theorem. These parameters accurately classified 76.2% of the 3D experimental samples into their correct group (Pichon et al., 2023: tab. 2). Our previous studies (Ibáñez et al., 2016; Pichon et al., 2023: tab. 3) evaluated the accuracy of our predictive model in classifying a set of 14 experimental tools. The model successfully classified all tools, with at least 55% of their 3D images correctly grouped, except for one case: tool 10—a flint blade used for harvesting wild cereals—where classification accuracy dropped to 41.7%. To assess classification reliability, we established a threshold: an experimental tool is confidently assigned to a functional group if at least 55% of its 3D image samples fall into the same category. Applying this criterion to tool 10, we see that its classification falls below this threshold. If it were an archaeological find and its original use was unknown, it would be labelled as ambiguous, likely belonging to an unidentified plant-working group. Overall, the predictive model shows strong consistency: 13 out of 14 experimental tools were correctly identified, while one tool (tool 10) was categorized as unknown, meaning no incorrect classifications occurred. However, some overlap was observed between ripe and semi-ripe cereal harvesting:
18.5% of ripe samples were misclassified as semi-ripe and 22.9% of semi-ripe samples were grouped as ripe. Additionally, 13.6% of reed cutting samples were mistaken for semi-ripe cutting. Therefore, the importance of meeting the 55% classification threshold is important to ensure accurate identification of archaeological tools. Without this level of confidence, tool use cannot be reliably determined, as demonstrated by the experimental tool classifications. The same 11 ISO parameters were applied to the 3D surface measurements of the archaeological samples (see Supplementary Material_File S2: columns D–N) to assess their classification reliability using the established predictive framework.

## Discriminating between different harvest heights

To distinguish between different harvest heights, four experimental sickles were used for several hours to cut two species of wheat—*Triticum dicoccum* and *Triticum spelta*—in Quinzanas (Asturias, Spain). The cutting was performed at two distinct heights: either close to the ground or just below the spikelets (Ibáñez et al., 2025). The cereals in this experiment were cultivated using traditional farming methods, meaning herbicides were not applied. As a result, the fields contained many weeds at the time of harvesting, replicating natural conditions. For each experimental tool, between 12 and 17 areas were measured (each 650 × 500 µm) with the confocal microscope, resulting in a total of 111 subsamples, each of 200 × 200 µm (Pichon et al., 2023: tab. 4; Ibáñez et al., 2025). To assess whether 3D texture analysis of micropolish could reliably differentiate between low- and high-height harvesting, we applied quadratic discriminant analysis. This analysis compared the 3D images from these four experimental tools with those from archaeological tools that had been previously identified as cereal harvesting sickle blades based on the classification test described above (see the section on Discriminating between harvested plant types). Two key surface texture parameters were selected as predictors: Smc (inverse areal material ratio) and Sxp (peak extreme height), these had been previously validated by Mazzucco et al. (2022) to discriminate between different cutting heights. Statistical testing revealed significant mean differences in both predictors (Wilks' lambda < 0.001), confirming their effectiveness in distinguishing between low and high harvesting heights. The predictive model demonstrated a high level of accuracy, correctly classifying 90% of the 3D samples (Pichon et al., 2023: tab. 5). The two surface texture parameters, Smc (inverse areal material ratio) and Sxp (peak extreme height), were applied to the 3D surface measurements of archaeological tools previously identified as cereal harvesting sickle blades (see Supplementary Material_File S3: columns D–E).

## RESULTS

The results (see Supplementary Material_File S1) are presented together for sickle inserts from the LL and UL at Qminas to highlight the similarities and variability in farming technology, the processes involved in agricultural tool use and cereal harvesting patterns associated with the site's chronological occupation. The surfaces of the tools were slightly affected by post-depositional alterations, including fresh cone initiation scars and localized areas of abrasion, all of which are easily distinguishable from use-wear features. Thermal alterations are uncommon, affecting no blade from the LL and seven blades from the UL.

## Cutting-edge characteristics and morphology of sickle elements

Using the high-power reflected-light microscope, 24 plant-harvesting UAs were identified among the 24 glossy blades from the LL, and 41 plant-harvesting UAs were identified among
the 37 blades from the UL (Figs. 2 and 3). Only four exhibited two active edges, all from the UL. Among the blades with only one active edge, the gloss appears more often on the left edge—that is, positioning the strike plan as the proximal part, at the bottom—in both the LL (18 UA) and UL (25 UA) than on the right edge (LL: *n* = 6; UP: *n* = 8). In the LL, the cutting edges are either unretouched (10 UA) or modified by a direct semi-abrupt and slightly denticulate retouch (six UA), an inverse marginal retouch (six UA) or a semi-abrupt denticulate retouch (two UA). In the UL, most of the cutting-edge are retouched (*n* = 39/41 UA). The modifications include an inverse semi-abrupt or marginal and slightly denticulate retouch (26 UA), a direct semi-abrupt retouch (two UA), a bifacial semi-abrupt retouch (seven UA) and a well-formed denticulate retouch (four UA). According to the functional sequence (plant cutting traces → retouch → plant cutting traces), in both LL and UL, approximately 30% of the active areas were retouched during use to resharpen the edges (LL = 8/24 UA; UL = 13/41 UA) (Fig. 3: 27-QB18.UA1).

The functional analysis confirmed that most of the sickle elements were manufactured by snapping one or both ends through breakage, as evidenced by the distribution of the micropolish on the ridges of the breakage. Among the intact sickle inserts—those without post-use breakage or retouch, mesial fragments dominate in the LL (*n* = 16), followed by proximal (LL: *n* = 1) and distal segments (LL: *n* = 1). In contrast, only mesial fragments (UP: *n* = 9) have been identified among the preserved inserts in the UL. Their lengths range from 32 to 73 mm (average = 51 ± 11) in the LL and from 30 to 32 mm (average = 26.01 ± 4.31) in the UL. The average length/width ratio indicates a tendency for longer inserts in the LL (average length/width ratio = 3.57) compared with the UL (average length/width ratio = 1.81).

## Use-wear traces characterization

Blades exhibit a visible gloss to the naked eye at a macroscopic scale, extending as a parallel band 1–11 mm wide along the edge (average: LL = 3.49 mm; UP = 3 mm). Scars are distributed on both faces of the cutting-edge and measure approximately 500 µm, with a predominantly semicircular or crescent shape. They present a bending initiation and feather or snap terminations, sometimes resulting in slight serrations along the unretouched active edge. The distribution, shape and dimensions of these scars align closely with those observed on experimental blades used in cutting plants (Pichon, 2017, 2019). At the microscopic scale, sickle inserts display a well-developed and extensive band of polish along both the dorsal and ventral faces, which exhibits the same general microscopic features that formed on the experimental tools used to harvest siliceous plants (Figs 2 and 3) (Anderson, 1992; Jensen, 1994; Van Gijn, 2010; Pichon, 2017, 2019). The micropolish covers the cutting edge, rounding it uniform, and extends over the ridges and inside the retouch and the scars. The micropolish is compact, its texture is smooth to slightly rough towards the inner portion if the edge, and associated with longitudinal and parallel filled-in striations (i.e., long, narrow and dark striations filled with siliceous material) and ‘comet-like’ striations (linear comet-shaped pits), which hint to the direction of use. The degree of linkage and the texture are variable, including domed and rough to smooth polish components with micropits and interstitial spaces (Fig. 2: QBL17–54. UA1, QBL17–45.UA1, QBL17–25.UA1, QBL17–42.UA1, QBL17–31.UA1, QBL17–62.UA1; and Fig. 3: QBU170.UA1, QDeU1–5.UA1, QDeU1–6.UA1) and complete linkage of the polish components, flat in topography and smooth in texture (Fig. 2: QBL17–66.UA1, QBL17–67.UA1; and Fig. 3: QBU18.UA1, QBU237.UA1, QBU176.UA1, QBU238.UA1, QDeU1–14. UA1). This variability can be related to several factors: (1) the raw material: at Qminas, the blades are mainly produced from medium to coarse-grained cherts, which affects the formation of the microtraces in the form of polish more developed on the higher areas and separated
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 2 Archaeological use-wear micropolish from cereal harvesting observed on the sickle inserts from the lower level (square B). © F. Pichon.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**FIGURE 3** Archaeological use-wear micropolish from cereal harvesting observed on the sickle inserts from the upper level (squares B and De). © F. Pichon.</figcaption></figure>
by interstitial unpolished spaces in the lower part of the topography; (2) the time of use that
could explain the extension of gloss into the inner areas of the blades—average of 3 mm—and
the distribution of polished and unpolished areas along the edges; (3) the type of plant: experi-
ments have shown that the polish microtexture varies between different types of harvested
plants, such as cereals, reeds or grasses, related to the stem moisture and hardness
(Anderson, 1992; Ibáñez et al., 2014); and (4) the height of cut, which can create occasional
contact of the polished areas with abrasive mineral particles (Anderson, 1992, 1994; Ibáñez
et al., 2025).

Gloss microtexture analysis through confocal microscopy and metrology software

Following the methodology described above, the 3D images of the archaeological tools obtained with the confocal microscope were classified into the different groups of experimental tools through quadratic discriminant analysis to determine (1) the type of harvested plants (see Supplementary Material_File S2, column C); and (2) the height of the cut (see Supplementary Material_File S3, column C).

First, the results of the texture analysis of all the 3D surfaces, considering the 417 sub-areas
on sickle inserts from the LL and the 517 sub-areas from the UL, indicate that the most com-
mon type of gloss resembles the pattern observed on experimental tools used for harvesting ripe
cereals (Fig. 4 and Table 1). In contrast, lower proportions of gloss patterns similar to those
seen on experimental tools used for harvesting semi-ripe cereals, cutting reeds and cutting
grasses were identified. The dominance of ripe cereal harvesting gloss is evident in both phases,
representing 88.49% of the classified surfaces in the LL and 76.40% in the UL. However, gloss
from cutting semi-ripe cereals is more common on the sickle inserts from the UL (18.38% of the
classified surfaces).

There are differences in the number of 3D surface samples measured for each sickle element, ranging from eight to 21. This disparity could have biased the global results, as tools with more surfaces would have more influence on the overall outcome than those with fewer sampled 3D surfaces. A weighted average was calculated to mitigate this potential bias (Table 1: average percentage for each predictive membership). The results of the plant-cutting groups were mostly similar, whether the calculations were based on the total number of samples or the weighted average of the group percentages per tool.

In addition to assessing the global results based on all the sampled 3D surfaces, we also cal-
culated the results for each archaeological sickle element (Table 1). Following our previous test
(Ibáñez et al., 2016), we used a threshold of 55% classification of 3D surfaces in one group to
determine a correct classification. Thus, a tool is considered correctly classified when > 55% of
its 3D surfaces were assigned to a single group. If the classification in any group was < 55%, it
was considered unclassified. In both phases, when the inserts were assigned to a group, they
were used for harvesting ripe cereals (LL: n = 12; UP: n = 11). Only one sickle element in the
LL is considered unclassified, while five from the UL fall into this category. These tools were
probably used for cutting more than one type of plant, so the gloss texture shows mixed charac-
teristics. However, adding the 3D surfaces classified as ripe and semi-ripe cereals cutting is
dominant compared with those identified for reed cutting, so these tools were most probably
used for cutting cereals in a ripe/semi-ripe state.

By considering only the inserts correctly classified for harvesting ripe cereals (LL: n = 12; UP: n = 11), the 3D images were tested to determine whether they could distinguish between sickle blades used for low- or high-height cutting. The results of the classification show that 57.40% of the analysed subareas—389 3D subsamples for the LL and 381 3D subsamples for the UL—were classified as having been used for low-height reaping (Table 2). The percentage of low-height cutting is higher in the LL (61%) compared with the UL (57%).
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

FIGURE 4 Results of the quadratic discriminant analysis of the experimental tools used for reaping domestic ripe cereals (yellow dots), wild-cultivated semi-ripe cereals (green dots), reeds (blue dots) and grass (red dots) compared with the archaeological tools (grey dots) from (a) the lower level and (b) the upper level at Qminas. © F. Pichon.

Hafting mode

The parallel and straight band of gloss along the cutting edges and the longitudinal orientation
of the striations indicate that the blades were held parallel to the axis of a straight (e.g., Fig. 2:
<table><caption>TABLE 1 Classification of the archaeological tools from Qminas based on the four experimental plant cutting groups; domestic ripe cereals, wild-cultivated semi-ripe cereals, reeds and grasses.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Tool number</th><th rowspan="2">Context</th><th colspan="5">Predictive memberships</th><th colspan="3">Percentage for each predictive memberships</th><th rowspan="2">Results</th></tr><tr><th>Subsamples</th><th>Ripe</th><th>Semi-ripe</th><th>Reeds</th><th>Grasses</th><th>Ripe</th><th>Semi-ripe</th><th>Reeds</th><th>Grasses</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>5-QBL17-54</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>28</td><td>13</td><td>9</td><td>5</td><td>1</td><td>46.43</td><td>32.14</td><td>17.86</td><td>3.57</td><td>Unclassified</td></tr><tr><td>6-QBL17-35</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>21</td><td>21</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>100.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>8-QBL17-44</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>43</td><td>43</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>100.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>12-QBL17-22</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>25</td><td>16</td><td>6</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>64.00</td><td>24.00</td><td>12.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>13-QBL17-60</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>33</td><td>33</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>100.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>11-QBL17-66</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>54</td><td>54</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>100.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>14-QBL17-42</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>35</td><td>35</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>100.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>15-QBL17-31</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>15</td><td>9</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>60.00</td><td>40.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>17-QBL17-20</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>39</td><td>37</td><td>2</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>94.87</td><td>5.13</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>19-QBL17-28</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>23</td><td>20</td><td>2</td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>86.96</td><td>8.70</td><td>0.00</td><td>4.35</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>20-QBL17-67</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>50</td><td>50</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>100.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>21-QBL17-62</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B: Cache</td><td>27</td><td>23</td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>85.19</td><td>14.81</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>3-QBL-2</td><td>LPPNB, sq. B</td><td>24</td><td>15</td><td>6</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>62.50</td><td>25.00</td><td>4.17</td><td>8.33</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td colspan="12" style="text-align: center;">Average of percentage for each predictive membership</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Total of subsamples</td><td>417</td><td>369</td><td>35</td><td>9</td><td>4</td><td>84.61</td><td>11.52</td><td>2.62</td><td>1.25</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">%</td><td>100%</td><td>88.49%</td><td>8.39%</td><td>2.16%</td><td>0.96%</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>26-QBU-64</td><td>PN, sq. B</td><td>26</td><td>12</td><td>8</td><td>1</td><td>5</td><td>46.15</td><td>30.77</td><td>3.85</td><td>19.23</td><td>Unclassified</td></tr><tr><td>27-QBU-18</td><td>PN, sq. B</td><td>25</td><td>19</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>76.00</td><td>24.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>29-QBU-170</td><td>PN, sq. B</td><td>31</td><td>24</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>77.42</td><td>19.35</td><td>0.00</td><td>3.23</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>30-QBU-171</td><td>PN, sq. B</td><td>23</td><td>5</td><td>12</td><td>2</td><td>4</td><td>21.74</td><td>52.17</td><td>8.70</td><td>17.39</td><td>Unclassified</td></tr><tr><td>32-QBU-174</td><td>PN, sq. B</td><td>25</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>40.00</td><td>52.00</td><td>4.00</td><td>4.00</td><td>Unclassified</td></tr><tr><td>36-QBU-175</td><td>PN, sq. B</td><td>42</td><td>36</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>85.71</td><td>14.29</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Unclassified</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 1 (Continued)</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Tool number</th><th rowspan="2">Context</th><th colspan="5">Predictive memberships</th><th colspan="4">Percentage for each predictive memberships</th><th rowspan="2">Results</th></tr><tr><th>Subsamples</th><th>Ripe</th><th>Semi-ripe</th><th>Reeds</th><th>Grasses</th><th>Ripe</th><th>Semi-ripe</th><th>Reeds</th><th>Grasses</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>38-QBU-253</td><td>PN, sq, B</td><td>36</td><td>21</td><td>10</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td>58.33</td><td>27.78</td><td>11.11</td><td>4.76</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>40-QBU-220</td><td>PN, sq, B</td><td>33</td><td>30</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>90.91</td><td>9.09</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>49-QBU-237</td><td>PN, sq, B</td><td>36</td><td>28</td><td>8</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>77.78</td><td>22.22</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>59-QBU-176</td><td>PN, sq, B</td><td>59</td><td>54</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>91.53</td><td>8.47</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>60-QBU-238</td><td>PN, sq, B</td><td>60</td><td>57</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>95.00</td><td>5.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>51-QDEU3-5 ZUA1</td><td>PN, sq, De</td><td>20</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>45.00</td><td>40.00</td><td>10.00</td><td>11.11</td><td>Unclassified</td></tr><tr><td>53-QDEU1-5</td><td>PN, sq, De</td><td>34</td><td>30</td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>88.24</td><td>11.76</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>54-QDEU1-2</td><td>PN, sq, De</td><td>16</td><td>15</td><td>1</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>93.75</td><td>6.25</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>55-QDEU1-14</td><td>PN, sq, De</td><td>35</td><td>34</td><td>1</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>97.14</td><td>2.86</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr><tr><td>58-QDEU1-6</td><td>PN, sq, De</td><td>16</td><td>11</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>68.75</td><td>6.25</td><td>6.25</td><td>27.27</td><td>Ripe cereals</td></tr></tbody><tfoot><tr><td colspan="12">Average of percentage for each predictive membership</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Total of subsamples</td><td>517</td><td>395</td><td>95</td><td>11</td><td>16</td><td>72.09</td><td>20.77</td><td>2.74</td><td>5.44</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">%</td><td>100%</td><td>76.40%</td><td>18.38%</td><td>2.13%</td><td>3.09%</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tfoot></table>

Note: A sickle insert was classified into a particular group if > 55% of its samples fell into that group. It was considered unclassified if the predicted membership classification for any of the four groups did not reach 55%.
© F. Pichon.
<table><caption>TABLE 2 Predicted group membership of the 3D subsamples measured on the sickle elements through quadratic discriminant classification of the two groups (low- and high-height cutting).</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Level</th><th rowspan="2">Context</th><th colspan="3">N</th><th colspan="3">%</th></tr><tr><th>Low</th><th>High</th><th>Total</th><th>Low</th><th>High</th><th>Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Lower</td><td>LPPNB</td><td>241</td><td>148</td><td>389</td><td>61.95%</td><td>38.05%</td><td>100.00%</td></tr><tr><td>Upper</td><td>PN</td><td>201</td><td>180</td><td>381</td><td>52.76%</td><td>89.55%</td><td>100.00%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td></td><td>442</td><td>328</td><td>770</td><td>57.40%</td><td>42.60%</td><td>100.00%</td></tr></tbody></table>

© F. Pichon.

QBL17–54, QBL17–45, QBL17–25, QBL17–67; Figure 3: QBU170, QBU237, QBU238) or curved handle (e.g., Fig. 2: QBL17–42, QBL17–31, QBL17–62; Fig. 3: QBU18, QBU176, QDeU1–5).

Blades close to 7 cm in length could have been hafted alone in the handle, as suggested for the Natufian and PPNA at Mureybet, the PPNA of Jerf el Ahmar (Stordeur & Abbès, 2002: 580; Ibáñez et al., 2008: 401; Stordeur & Willcox, 2009: 697–698), and the Early PPNB at Dja’de el Mughara (Pichon, 2019: 310) in the northern Levant. A unique example of a charred haft containing a single blade, approximately 60 mm long, was recently discovered at Bestansur in the Central Zagros (Pichon, Richardson, et al., 2025: fig. 6). However, this seems unlikely at Qminas, where snapping the blades at one or both extremities suggests that multiple blades were likely adjusted together in the shaft (Maeda, 2025).

Light brown residues have been observed on the upper and lower faces of three blades from the UL, opposite to the cutting edge, suggesting the use of adhesive to fix the sickle inserts in the haft (Fig. 3: QDeU1–6.b). Viewed at low magnification, these residues appear shiny, with a honeycomb-like morphology, clustered and well-delimited, consistent with glue residues (Kozowyk et al., 2020; Langejans et al., 2022). They differ in colour from the residues usually observed on the sickle blades dated back to the Pre-PN in the Levant and interpreted as bitumen (Borrell & Molist, 2007; Cauvin & Abbès, 2008; Copeland & Verhoeven, 1996; Ibáñez et al., 1998; Stordeur & Abbès, 2002). Non-destructive micro-Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) spectroscopy will be conducted in future to characterize their chemical components and structure (Dominici et al., 2022; Lemorini et al., 2014, 2020; Monnier, 2018; Nucara et al., 2020; Pichon, Richardson, et al., 2025).

## DISCUSSION

The results demonstrate a continuity in harvesting practices between the LPPNB and the Early PN at Qminas. The sickle blades exhibit a high degree of standardization, manufactured from unidirectional regular blades that were intentionally snapped at both ends to produce mid-sections. Use-wear analysis reveals a similar frequency of resharpening between the LL and UL, consistently indicating that the left edge was predominantly used for harvesting. The main differences between the two levels include the dimensions of the inserts: in the LL, the average length/width ratio is higher than in the UL. Additionally, cutting edges in the UL are more frequently retouched, and the presence of well-denticulated edges is observed exclusively in this phase. While the use of both edges of the sickle element is identified only in the UL, this occurrence remains infrequent. These technological and functional characteristics at Qminas align with broader regional trends observed in the Levant. Studies on the change of lithic assemblages from the LPPNB to the PN in north-western Syria indicate similar stone tool production patterns at Ain el-Kerkh, Tell el-Kerkh 2 and Ras Shamra (Arimura, 2003, 2020). At all these sites, sickles were produced from regular unidirectional blades with slightly retouched
cutting edges. The *chaîne opératoire* for sickle element production was distinct from that of other blade tools, with specialization evident at every stage of production, including raw material selection, flaking techniques and the resulting blade types. This specialization is further evidenced at Qminas, where a cache of blades analysed in this study was exclusively associated with cereal harvesting.

These technological features are part of a broader chronological trajectory in sickle blade typology, reflecting both the increasing investment in their production and the regional variability of these harvesting tools across the Levant. During the Natufian and PPNA periods, straight composite sickles featured simple rectangular parallel inserts made from flint blades that were also used to manufacture other retouched tools. A morphological change occurred in the PPNB (c.9100–6700 cal. BCE), with the introduction of curved sickles with parallel inserts documented as early as the Early PPNB at Mureybet IVA (Ibáñez et al., 2008) and Dja'de III (Pichon, 2017) in the Middle Euphrates. The inserts were made from standardized bidirectional blades produced from opposed-platform cores (Abbès, 2003; Ibáñez et al., 1998; Pichon, 2017). While these blades exhibited a high degree of specialization, they were used for multiple tool types, suggesting that sickle blade production was not yet an entirely separate process from other lithic tool production. This tradition continued at Mureybet IVB (Ibáñez et al., 2008) and Halula during the MPPNB and LPPNB (Borrell & Molist, 2007; Ibáñez et al., 1998). Experimental studies have demonstrated that curved sickles represent a significant advancement in harvesting efficiency, enhancing both the motion and yield of reaping (Astruc et al., 2012; Ibáñez et al., 1998). Unlike the straight-handled sickles characteristic of the Natufian period, which required the harvester to gather stalks with one hand while cutting with the other, the curved handle allowed for an inward motion of the tool to group stems, followed by an outward motion to cut them (Ibáñez et al., 1998). This design, when combined with a sufficiently long cutting edge, significantly reduced the number of strokes needed during harvesting (Astruc et al., 2012).

From the LPPNB onward, sickle blades in the north-western Levant were manufactured from standardized unidirectional blades produced from single-platform prismatic cores, whereas other tools continued to be made from bidirectional blades (Arimura, 2011). This indicates a shift toward a more specialized *chaîne opératoire* for sickle blades, also documented at Çayönü and Akarçay Tepe in the Turkish Euphrates, where sickle elements were made from regular blade segments produced from single-platform prismatic cores using indirect percussion or pressure flaking techniques (Arimura, 2020). In the later phase of the LPPNB and the PN (c.7000–5700 cal. BCE), crescent-shaped sickle elements became widespread in several northern Mesopotamian sites, including Abu Hureyra, Halula and Bouqras in the Middle Euphrates Valley (Borrell & Molist, 2007; Ibáñez et al., 1998), as well as at Damishliyya (Nishiaki, 2000), Assouad (Cauvin, 1983) and Sabi Abyad II in the Balikh valley (Astruc, 2011). These were made from irregular blades and flakes requiring less knapping expertise and were inserted obliquely into curved shafts (Astruc, 2011). Meanwhile, the north-western Levant maintained the use of standardized unidirectional blades produced from single-platform prismatic cores for sickle blade production, emphasizing the continuity and increasing specialization of this technological tradition in this region. In contrast, the southern Levant saw the emergence of a distinct sickle blade type, characterized by unidirectional blade/flake segments with coarsely denticulated retouch (Gopher et al., 1996), reflecting a different approach to tool production and maintenance and highlighting distinct local technical traditions within the Levant.

The results of the gloss microtexture analysis confirm the use of glossy blades at Qminas for harvesting cereals crops, a particularly significant finding given the absence of archaeobotanical data for the site. The analysis of sickle micropolish using confocal microscopy and 3D texture parameters demonstrates that the predominant harvesting practice in both phases involved the collection of ripe domestic cereals, associated with the exploitation of fully domesticated species. In north-west Syria, einkorn (*Triticum monococcum*) and emmer (*Triticum turgidum* ssp.
dicoccum) were identified at Ain-el-Kerkh from the Early PPNB. However, the absence of rachis materials prevents clear identification of domesticated forms (Tsuneki et al., 2006). At the same site, indehiscent spikelets of wheat found in LPPNB layers (Tanno & Willcox, 2006), which are contemporaneous with the LL at Qminas, provide the earliest evidence of domestic agricultural practices in the region. Similarly, at Ras Shamra VC, LPPNB levels revealed the presence of domesticated emmer and barley (Cauvin et al., 1997). The absence of tools linked to the cutting of other plant types, such as reeds and grasses, along with the low percentage of 3D images classified as 'other plant types', aligns with a broader trend in the Levant, where sickle use became increasingly focused on agricultural crops. In contrast, earlier periods, such as the Natufian and PPNA, exhibited a greater diversity of harvested plants, particularly reeds (Anderson, 1992, 1994; Ibáñez et al., 2021; Unger-Hamilton, 1989). Interestingly, in the UL at Qminas, a more frequent reaping of semi-ripe cereals (approximately 20%) was observed during a period when domestication was well-established in the Levant (Willcox, 2024). This shift may have been influenced by various factors, including environmental and climatic conditions affecting cereal moisture content. It is also possible that domestic cereals were intentionally harvested in a semi-ripe state, as in the production of *freekeh* (Ibáñez et al., 2021). Additionally, this variability could reflect the exploitation of different cereal species, harvested at varying stages of maturity. However, without archaeobotanical evidence from the site, further investigation into this variability remains challenging at Qminas.

The results contribute to the current understanding of the evolution of cereal harvesting with sickles during the domestication process and the consolidation of farming, shedding light on an area that has remained understudied until now. In the Levant, cereals were harvested with sickles in a semi-ripe state in the Middle Euphrates in the northern Levant from the 11th millennium cal. BCE (Ibáñez et al., 2016), indicating that most probably cereals were effectively cultivated for the first time in this region at this time, as suggested by Hillman's (2000) interpretations. One millennium later, during the PPNA, cultivation of wild cereals was carried out at several sites in northern and southern Levant (Ibáñez et al., 2021; Pichon et al., 2021). Dominant ripe cereal harvesting with sickles appears in the southern Levant from the EPPNB and in the Middle Euphrates from the MPPNB onwards, likely corresponding to the exploitation of fully domesticated cereal varieties, which began in the southern Levant c.8500 cal. BCE (Arranz-Otaegui et al., 2018), a millennium earlier in the Middle Euphrates (Ibáñez et al., 2021). Despite the broader tendency to harvest more mature cereals between the 12th and seventh millennia cal. BCE in the Levant, geographical and chronological variations in the proportions of unripe, semi-ripe and mature cereals highlight an uneven process across time and space (Ibáñez et al., 2021). Notable 'involutions'—shifts toward unripe harvesting—may have occurred. For instance, the increased emphasis on semi-ripe harvesting during the LPPNB at Halula and Ba'ja, as well as during the Early PN at Qminas, contrasts with earlier data from the southern and middle Euphrates regions (Ibáñez et al., 2021). These fluctuations likely reflect local environmental conditions, cultural preferences or adaptive responses to changing agricultural landscapes.

## CONCLUSIONS

This study of the sickle blades from Qminas provides new insights into the evolution of agricultural practices between the LPPNB and the Early PN in the north-western Levant. By integrating a qualitative traceological analysis with quantitative functional approaches, we demonstrate that sickle blade use remained highly standardized throughout the occupation of the site. The specialized production of sickle blades for cereal harvesting underscores the significance of this tool type at Qminas, reflecting a persistent harvesting strategy and a sustained investment in sickle blade production.
The presence of well-denticulated sickle edges and the increased frequency of retouching in the UL suggest subtle refinements in harvesting techniques, likely reflecting adaptations to evolving cultivation strategies and cereal domestication processes. The confirmation that Qminas sickles were primarily used for harvesting cereals, despite the absence of direct archaeobotanical evidence, further supports the notion that the site played a role in fully developed agricultural systems. The observation of semi-ripe cereal harvesting in the UL is particularly noteworthy, as it aligns with broader regional trends indicating fluctuations in harvesting strategies probably driven by environmental, cultural and technological factors.

The overall technical stability observed across the LL and UL indicates that the consolidation of agricultural systems in the north-western Levant was not a sudden rupture but rather a continuous process embedded within the broader trajectory of Neolithization. This evidence suggests that the transition in this region was characterized by an evolutionary shift within the same cultural framework, leading to the consolidation of a fully developed agropastoral lifestyle.

Future research on lithic assemblages from neighbouring Neolithic sites, such as Tell Ain el-Kerkh and Kerkh 2, will provide valuable insights into the regional characteristics of agricultural practices. Indeed, the archaeological evidence from Tell Ain el-Kerkh indicates that the earliest Neolithic occupation in north-west Syria dates to the EPPNB period, revising the widely accepted hypothesis that Neolithization in this region began in the LPPNB (Tsuneki et al., 2006). Further investigations could clarify the evolution of lithic production from the early PPNB onwards and confirm the cultural changes occurring in this region throughout the Neolithization process.

Expanding on these results through comparative analyses across different sites will refine our understanding of regional agricultural dynamics and the diffusion and adaptation of farming techniques. Such studies will not only deepen our knowledge of plant food exploitation during the Neolithic in Southwest Asia but also illuminate the broader cultural and economic transformations that defined this critical period. Our findings highlight the importance of functional and technological lithic studies in reconstructing past subsistence strategies and emphasize the gradual but significant advancements that shaped early farming societies.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are deeply grateful to the researchers and institutions that facilitated this project by granting access to the lithic assemblage from Qminas. We are deeply grateful to the researchers and institutions that facilitated this project by granting access to the lithic assemblage from Qminas. The use-wear analysis was conducted under the guidance of Prof. A. Tsuneki at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba, as part of the postdoctoral project "From Tools to People: Early Neolithic Farming Societies in Southwest Asia (8th–6th mill. cal BC)" funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS Postdoctoral Fellowship – Standard 2019, awarded to F. Pichon), with additional support from the Archéorient Laboratory (UMR 5133-CNRS, awarded to F. Pichon). The confocal analysis was performed at the Milá y Fontanals Institute (CSIC) in Barcelona, Spain, within the framework of the extraordinary ‘ERC to MSCA’ grant funded by the CSIC, the PID-2022-142075NB-100 funded by MCIN/AEI, and the RED2022-134472-T funded by MCIN/AEI.

## DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that supports the findings of this study are available in the supplementary material of this article.

## PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer-review/10.1111/arcm.13108.
ORCID

Fiona Pichon https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2449-3535

Osamu Maeda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0232-4856

Juan José Ibáñez Estévez https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6394-9737

Patricia Anderson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2179-4025

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**How to cite this article:** Pichon, F., Maeda, O., Ibáñez Estévez, J. J., & Anderson, P. (2025). What can lithics tell us about food production during the transition to farming? Exploring harvesting practices and cultural changes during the neolithic in Southwest Asia: a view from Qminas (north-western Syria). *Archaeometry*, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.13108