<figure><img src="image_45.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 40.** Biobanking primordial germ cells (PGCs) and chimera chicken production at CTLGH/ILRI. PGCs are isolated from the germinal crescent of the blastoderm, from the circulating blood or from embryonic gonads at day 2.5 of their development (1), the isolated cells are immediately transferred into the freezing medium (2) and kept overnight in Mr Frosty before transfer for cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen (3). For use in the case of gonadal PGCs, the embryonic gonads removed from the liquid nitrogen are dis-</figcaption></figure>

sociated, characterized, and propagated if necessary (4) or directly
injected into a 2-day-old recipient embryo for gonad re-coloniza-
tion. The injected egg will be incubated up to day 21 to produce the
chimeric chick (6) which may be very similar to the recipient breed.
Depending on the level of gonad colonization by the donor PGCs,
the mature chimeric chicken may display some phenotypic char-
acteristics of the donor breed (7).

quired to create GA chicken lines, and reduce the number
of animals required to produce GA chicken lines. The
iCaspase9 surrogate host line has been used to create GA
chickens with altered feather traits and birds with target-
ed mutations in the *DMRT1* gene to investigate avian sex
determination.

The chicken surrogate host technology has been ap-
proved by the National Biosafety Authority of Kenya for
the biobanking and revival of the African indigenous
poultry biodiversity. It can be used to harness enhanced
resilience and productivity, and support future response
to new poultry breeding requirements.

Primordial Germ Cells for 3Rs Tropical Poultry
Research and Gene Editing

PGC technology has brought high hopes for advanc-
ing poultry research in breeding, production, and veteri-
nary health problems. The stem cell application in resto-
ration and regeneration of tissue, cloning, and transgenic
poultry production carries much promise for (1) booster
productivity and feed efficiency, (2) disease-free or dis-
ease-resistant chickens, and (3) production of heat stress
resilient chickens. McGrew has stated "Discovering a way
to easily freeze avian reproductive cells and subsequently
bring back a genetically diverse flock will help the preserva-
tion of endangered breeds of poultry, increase food security from disease outbreaks and reduce numbers of animals used in research.” The poultry PGC process allows restoration of indigenous chicken breeds from biobanked stem cells in a manner that supports the 3Rs—Reduction, Refinement, Replacement—and is animal welfare-friendly. Most importantly, the lab-based techniques developed as part of this innovation are teachable and transferable to partner institutions, thereby enabling countries across Africa to adopt chicken genetic resource biobanking.

## PGCs for Poultry Candidate Gene Screening

Biobanked poultry PGCs as precursors of sperm and egg have the potential to transmit the complete genetic and epigenetic information to the next generation [Matsui et al., 1992; Han, 2009], unlike poultry cryopreserved sperm. PGCs also exhibit unique migration and settling activity which plays a pivotal role in avian genetic resource protection and stem cell research [Burt and Pourquie, 2003; Li et al., 2004; Oishi et al., 2016]. According to Taylor et al. [2017], the ability to precisely genetically edit the chicken genome will not only allow the investigation of key developmental signaling pathways in avian species but also the examination of genes involved in egg production, disease susceptibility and resistance with a view to promoting sustainability and biosecurity in both livestock and poultry production [Tizard et al., 2016; Whyte et al., 2016].

## Biobanked Chicken PGC Lines to Support Genome Editing Research and Productivity Improvement

Chicken is one of the few vertebrate species for which the long-term in vitro propagation of primordial germ cells is possible, so performing genetic manipulation of cultured PGCs is becoming a standard practice, as demonstrated in recent studies (Fig. 41a-2). Several researchers have been developing CRISPR/Cas9 and TALENS technologies to investigate multiple genetic variations into pure breeds of chicken [Dimitrov et al., 2016; Oishi et al., 2016]. Recently, TALENs were used to target the *DDX4* locus in chicken PGCs [Taylor et al., 2017]. *DDX4* is located on the chicken Z sex chromosome and the mRNA is only expressed in the germ cell lineage. Genome editing in chicken is an emerging field and examples of gene editing in bird species other than chicken are currently lacking [Woodcock et al., 2017]. According to previous authors, genome editing can provide additional benefit to marker-assisted selection in breeding programmes, by either producing novel markers or introducing new traits to the genome. This is the case for

chickens with reduced transmission of avian influenza virus produced by lentiviral transfection of embryos to insert an RNA hairpin molecule into the genome to interfere with viral replication [Lyall et al., 2011]. Greater understanding of the pathogenicity of specific diseases could open new avenues for avian disease management, through the application of genome editing. However, most tropical countries still have a long way to go in acquiring and domesticating the genetic manipulation technologies. This is, however, in process through research from the Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health (CTLGH), and will be facilitated through improvement of poultry PGC line culture and the advances in the adoption of the surrogate host technology at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).

Collectively, rapidly developing genome-editing technology will also accelerate progress in the poultry biotechnology field, opening up new opportunities for poultry to contribute to various industries (Fig. 42).

## Candidate Genes for Genome Editing in Tropical Poultry

Poultry performance in tropical regions has been restricted by environmental conditions that cause heat stress and favour the development of parasites and diseases, impairing animal health and productivity. As stated by Professor Appolinaire Djikeng in Poultry World, “Poultry is a key livestock animal for millions of small-holder farmers in low- and middle-income countries. Any gains in efficiency, productivity and health from introducing useful traits from other poultry breeds could significantly improve the lives of these farming families through increased food production and income” [McDougal, 2021].

In a collaborative project between the Roslin Institute and ILRI under the Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health (CTLGH) and the African Chicken Genetic Gains (ACGG) program, Gheyas et al. [2021] conducted an integrated environmental genome analysis of indigenous chickens from 3 African countries (Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Tanzania) to elucidate the drivers of tropical adaptation in African indigenous chicken populations. The results from the whole-genome sequencing analysis identified some strongly supported genomic regions under selection for environmental challenges related to altitude, temperature, water scarcity, and food availability. These regions harbour several gene clusters including regulatory genes, suggesting a predominantly oligogenic control of environmental adaptation. Few candidate genes detected in relation
<figure><img src="image_46.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 41.** Protocols for the restoration of biobanked tropical poultry genetic resources and the potential dissemination of potential elite lines using chimeras (**a-1**) and gene edited surrogate host technology (**a-2** and **b**).</figcaption></figure>

to heat-stress indicate likely epigenetic regulation of thermo-tolerance for a domestic species originating from a tropical Asian wild ancestor. These results provide possible explanations for the rapid past adaptation of chickens to diverse African agro-ecologies, while also representing new landmarks for sustainable breeding improvement for climate resilience.

On the other hand, Marchesi et al. [2021] also highlighted relevant candidate genes such as *ATRNL1*, *PIK-3C2A*, *PTPRN2*, *SORCS3*, and *gga-mir-1759* that could help to elucidate the genetics of feed efficiency traits, hence providing new insights on the mechanisms underlying the consumption and utilization of food in chickens. Harnessing these genes revealed by numerous researchers, and the potential of genome editing could be a powerful tool to use tropical poultry as a key driver for global food security and poverty alleviation.
<figure><img src="image_47.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 42.** Schematic illustration for future application of genome-edited poultry to industries. Genome editing in poultry can improve disease resistance and meat productivity. By targeting egg white protein genes, genome edited poultry can economically produce protein drugs with improved biological efficacy. When the reported genes are targeted to the Z chromosome, the male embryo can be screened out before hatching by detecting fluorescence during incubation.</figcaption></figure>

Scaling Up of Poultry Biobanking for Better Livelihoods

The scaling potential of poultry conservation is illus-
trated by the ongoing close collaboration between CTL-
GH, the Tropical Poultry Genetic Solutions (TPGS)

programme, African Union – InterAfrican Bureau for
Animal Resources (AU-IBAR) and the African Nation-
al Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) like the Ke-
nyan Agricultural Research Organization (KALRO).
The collaboration is intensifying at various levels on ca-
pacity development and effective biobanking across Af-
rica and Southeast Asia. In Kenya, this is mostly sup-
ported by the regulatory authorities (the National Bio-
safety Authority - NBA) that facilitates the adoption of
the surrogate host technology for rapid recovery of the
biobanked indigenous chicken ecotypes and the inten-
sive dissemination of the elite local and locally adapted
and improved breed for the betterment of the livelihood
in local communities.

Conclusion

An extensive PGC biobank for indigenous avian breeds
will not only support research and development to pre-
vent problems with inbreeding and preserve at-risk poul-
try breeds, but will also reduce the large number of live
animals needed to be kept for research across the world.
It could also have an important role within poultry breed-
ing companies to maintain important parental lines of
mainstream poultry breeds used in commercial poultry
production, without the need to keep large populations of
live birds. Having cracked the difficult problem of chick-
en biobanking, this innovation of PGC preservation, cou-
pled with sterile surrogate use, will revolutionize the pres-
ervation and future use of diverse chicken genetics.

Stem cell technologies coupled with genome editing
have a prominent role to play in improving poultry pro-
duction in Africa. There is a need for creating an enabling
environment in Africa in general with science-based reg-
ulatory guidelines for the release and adoption of chick-
ens developed using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome ed-
iting. Some progress has been made in this regard.

Considering the high demand coming from various
African national agricultural research systems (NARS),
the Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health
(CTLGH) and the Tropical Poultry Genetics Solutions
(TPGS) project have projected to scale out activities in
Africa in collaboration with the Animal seed centres of
Excellence of African Union-Inter African Bureau for
Animal Resources (AU-IBAR), and to southeast Asia.
Several countries in Central and West Africa have already
identified the poultry value chain as their priority for food
security and poverty alleviation in rural communities. It
is further recommended that the technology be used by
the Animal Seed Working group of the African Seed and
Biotechnology Partnership Platform; a continental pro-
gram led by the African Union Commission that frames
the development of the seed sector in Africa through im-
proved decision making and policy formulation, support-
ing evidence-based advocacy, and enhanced knowledge
sharing. The critical factors of success of this initiative will

be the effective operationalization of the African regional
animal seed centres of excellence, continuous investment
from national, bilateral, and multilateral partners for de-
velopment of spearheading research, and a harmonized
legal framework for access to poultry genetic resources
and knowledge sharing between African countries and
their scientific collaborators.

Prime beneficiaries of tropical chicken biobanking will be the local National Agricultural Systems (NARS), which will have the capability and technology to cryopreserve all avian genetic resources. Similarly, this avian genetic biobanking could benefit other stakeholders in poultry value chains worldwide. Scientific and research communities, as well as public and private breeding organizations will have access to genetic material from biorepositories across Africa. However, further work is needed to support countries to enforce regulations outlined in the Na-goya Protocol related to the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors of this document declare that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

Funding Sources

The research leading to this document has received funding
from the Center of Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health (CTL-
GH) program and the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research
Organization (KALRO).

Application of Genomic Information in Layer
Breeding Programs

(Prepared by A. Wolc and J.E. Fulton)

As we are approaching 2 decades since the first draft
sequence of the chicken genome was produced [Interna-
tional Chicken Genome Sequencing Consortium, 2004],
we can reflect on the profound impact of this project on
poultry breeding. That reference sequence, plus the si-
multaneous release of 2.8 million SNP (single nucleotide
polymorphisms) identified in multiple chicken breeds
[Wong et al., 2004] provided the essential resources need-
ed to initiate genomic selection in poultry breeding pro-
grams. This information has been utilized in multiple
ways with the most impactful being the development of
high-, medium-, and low-density SNP chips that can pro-
vide SNP information for hundreds of thousands of SNP
that cover the entire genome and individual assays con-
centrated in specific locations of interest. Combination of
low- and high-density SNP panels with imputation [Wang C et al., 2013] or the use of medium density panels has enabled implementation of genomic selection in poultry breeding [Wolc et al., 2016]. Genomic selection has been used in layers to increase genetic gain through all parts of the “breeder’s equation”:

* Increasing accuracy of estimated breeding values for better choice of parents to reproduce the next generation

* Increasing selection intensity through the ability to hatch more and preselect male candidates using genotype information

* Preserving genetic variation by utilizing mendelian sampling information captured by an individual's genotypes as opposed to relying purely on family information

* Shortening generation interval by reducing the need to wait for own phenotypes or those of the closest relatives at the point of selection.

The increase in accuracy and shortened generation time has been particularly valuable for selection in egg layer programs. The important traits of egg production and shell quality cannot be measured in males, and extended production cycles require 100-plus weeks of trait measurement for the females. The ability to apply genomic selection for these traits to the males and to younger females allows the selection program to make large gains. Furthermore, genomic selection can be applied to improvement in many difficult or expensive-to-measure traits including health and resilience under challenging conditions, crossbred performance, and behaviour. While the analysis methods are still evolving, the genomic and phenotyping information is accumulating to provide expanded training sets. Studies report increases of accuracy from addition of genomic information in a range of 20% to over 100% depending on trait, population, training size, and methodology [Wolc et al., 2011; Alemu et al., 2016; Picard Druet et al., 2020]. In addition to genomic prediction, genotyping enables parentage verification and assignment (for example in identification of hens laying floor eggs [Wolc et al., 2021]) or in the use of cross-classified mating with mixed semen [Hsu et al., 2015; Wolc et al., 2015] and improved product traceability (verification of correctness of line crosses throughout the breeding pyramid). With decreasing costs of genotyping, multiple genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been performed, identifying 16,656 QTL across 370 traits as curated in the www.animalgenome.org database (as of 05/11/22). These studies, combined with additional omics data are starting to give insights into the complex biology of chickens, their health, response to environment, feed utilization, and production traits.

All these developments were made possible by the availability of SNP chips whose contents were based on genomic sequence obtained from a small number of individuals or from DNA pools. These sequence and SNP chips have also been utilized to identify copy number variants (CNV) [Kranis et al., 2013; Boschiero et al., 2015; Drobik-Czwarno et al., 2018]. This information also has “non-genomic” uses including line characterization, identification of variation within specific genes of interest, development of SNP sets to identify MHC haplotypes [Fulton et al., 2016], identification of retroviral inserts in the chicken genome [Mason et al., 2020b] and their effects on phenotypes [Fulton et al., 2021]. Until recently, deep sequencing had limited use in applied breeding due to its prohibitive cost. Sequence information from high-quality references combined with bioinformatic analysis of conserved genomic regions and homology can also be used for fine mapping of important genes such as blood types [Fulton et al., 2022]. Moreover, the development of low-pass sequencing methods with significant cost reduction relative to deep sequencing enables wider use of sequencing for basic and applied projects. Thousands of birds have been sequenced with data used for GWAS with increased resolution [Li J et al., 2022] which has allowed the exploration of low-pass sequencing to potentially improve the accuracy of genomic prediction [Wolc et al., 2022].

The initial chicken reference genome was from a Red Jungle Fowl bird, which is one of the progenitors of the modern chicken. Recently 2 additional genomes have been produced which better represent the modern chicken; one genome (GRCg7b) was from a commercial meat production bird (broiler) and the other (GRCg7w) was from a commercial egg production bird (White Leghorn) (see article by Warren et al., this report). Additional genome sequences obtained from a wide variety of other chicken breeds (pan-genomes) will provide further insights into variation that exists within the chicken and how this variation can impact health, performance, and behaviour of the birds.

The use of increasingly accurate and affordable genomic data is expected to be critical for breeding modern layers to improve bird welfare, production, and optimal use of resources for the sustainable future of egg production.

### Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
## The National Avian Research Facility

(Prepared by L.J. Henderson, A.B. Diack, L. Vervelde, M.P. Stevens, A. Balic, and M.J. McGrew)

The National Avian Research Facility (NARF) provides a range of resources and expertise for the avian research community in the UK and internationally. Areas of research supported by the NARF include avian immunology, host-pathogen interactions, physiology and behaviour, developmental biology, and genetics. The NARF was founded in 2013, and is based at The Roslin Institute, on the University of Edinburgh's Easter Bush Campus, UK. The NARF was established via capital support from The Roslin Foundation and the University of Edinburgh, in addition to funding from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and the Wellcome Trust. The facility continues to be supported by the University of Edinburgh and the BBSRC.

The facility consists of 2 units; the Greenwood building, a conventional biosecure facility and the Bumstead building that has specified pathogen-free (SPF) status. Both facilities include accommodation for the maintenance and breeding of poultry flocks for research purposes. The NARF is at the forefront of genome engineering technologies in poultry and is one of the few resources globally able to produce genetically altered (GA) chicken lines under both conventional and SPF conditions. Currently the NARF provides resources and expertise in 3 main areas: (1) Curation of unique poultry lines. The NARF maintains a wide range of transgenic chicken lines, wild-type layer lines, a broiler line, Japanese quail, and chicken lines with defined genetic characteristics. (2) Genome modification in chicken; the production and maintenance of genome-edited and transgenic chicken lines, and (3) the cryopreservation of research chicken lines, and rare or endangered chicken breeds.

### Curator of Research Poultry Flocks

The NARF is home to one of the largest collections of transgenic chicken lines, including multiple ubiquitous and gene-specific fluorescent reporter lines [Davey et al., 2018] and sterile surrogate host chicken lines [Taylor et al., 2017; Ballantyne et al., 2021a]. In the Greenwood facility, the NARF also maintains a range of wild-type poultry lines, such as commercially relevant layer lines, a broiler line, and Japanese quail. In 2014, the inbred chicken lines that were maintained at The Pirbright Institute, and formerly held at the Institute for Animal Health (IAH) Compton, were relocated to the Bumstead SPF facility.

Nine inbred White Leghorn lines (Lines 6₁, 7₂, 15L, C.B4, C.B12, N, 0, P2a, and W) and 2 closed outbred chicken lines (Rhode Island Red and Light Sussex) are housed within the Bumstead facility [Kaspers and Schat, 2022]. These lines have been studied for their susceptibility and resistance to various avian pathogens based on their known MHC I haplotypes [Bacon et al., 2000; Alber et al., 2019; Chintoan-Uta et al., 2020; Bremner et al., 2021; Russell et al., 2021; Mountford et al., 2022]. Some of the inbred lines represent a considerable investment by BBSRC and other governmental departments over many years, with some tracing their origins to the late 1920s. Information regarding available resources and poultry lines can be found on the NARF website (www.narf.ac.uk).

### Genome Modification in Chickens

The NARF provides world leading resources and expertise in genome modification in chickens. The production of GA birds has been more challenging compared with other model organisms. This was in part due to the complex structure of the avian zygote and the organisation of the avian embryo [Love et al., 1994; Sang, 2004]. However, methods like lentiviral vectors enabled the creation of a number of transgenic chicken lines that are valuable tools for developmental biology [McGrew et al., 2004; Davey et al., 2018], avian immunology [Balic et al., 2014], and biotechnology [Herron et al., 2018]. These methods have some limitations, for example to produce a stable GA chicken line, in which all offspring carry the introduced gene, requires multiple crosses and generations of chickens. This process is time-consuming and requires many animals. In addition to this, the size of the transgene introduced is limited by the vector capacity, and precise modification of genes is not possible with these methods.

Refinement of the culture conditions for chicken primordial germ cells (PGCs) [Van De Lavoir et al., 2006; Whyte et al., 2015], and the development of chicken sterile surrogate hosts [Taylor et al., 2017; Ballantyne et al., 2021a], combined with CRISPR/Cas9 methods that enable precise and targeted edits [Ballantyne et al., 2021a; Ioannidis et al., 2021], have improved the efficiency of genome editing in the chicken and consequently the creation of GA chicken lines. PGCs are stem cells that give rise to sperm or eggs and can be harvested from the blood supply of early-stage chicken embryos. PGCs can be grown in culture [Whyte et al., 2015] and modified via transgenesis [Macdonald et al., 2012] or gene-editing [Taylor et al., 2017]. These modified PGCs can be re-introduced into the blood supply of a wild-type chicken em-
bryo, where they migrate to the testes or ovaries, and give
rise to sperm or eggs once the animal is sexually mature.
However, because the introduced PGCs must compete
with endogenous PGCs, this results in variable and low
rates of chicks produced from the modified PGCs. To
avoid this, sterile surrogate host chickens have been de-
veloped, where the germ cell lineage (PGCs) of both males
and females can be ablated after the introduction of a
chemical compound using the iCaspase 9 system [Ballan-
tyne et al., 2021a]. When modified PGCs and the chemi-
cal compound are microinjected into the blood supply of
a developing sterile surrogate host embryo [Ballantyne et
al., 2021a], the endogenous PGCs are ablated and only the
modified PGCs migrate to the testes or ovaries. Mating of
male and female sterile surrogate hosts that have received
modified PGCs results in 100% transmission of intro-
duced PGCs in the first generation of offspring [Ballan-
tyne et al., 2021a]. Compared to previous methods, this
vastly reduces the number of animals used to create a GA
chicken line [Panda and McGrew, 2022] and reduces the
time required to create a GA chicken line from over 2
years to less than 1 year.

The NARF has sterile surrogate host chicken lines available for use by researchers, including the transgenic iCaspase9 chicken line that is conditionally sterile [Ballantyne et al., 2021a], and the DDX4 knockout chicken line, in which all females are genetically sterile [Taylor et al., 2017]. Sterile surrogate host chicken lines are also maintained in the SPF Bumstead facility, providing the capability to generate transgenic or gene-edited chickens under SPF conditions. Recently, the NARF's genome editing technologies have been used to investigate avian sex determination using targeted mutations in the *DMRT1* gene [Ioannidis et al., 2021], and the modification of feather traits [Ballantyne et al., 2021a]. Precision editing and transgenesis has been greatly facilitated by advances in the quality of avian reference genomes and functional annotations, including transcriptome atlases spanning cells, tissues, and developmental stages and the mapping of regulatory elements. For example, having identified genes and transcripts specific to chicken conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) [Wu et al., 2022], the NARF recently produced a novel fluorescent reporter chicken line that reports on cDCs via *XCR1* gene expression. In addition, using the iCaspase 9 system [Straathof et al., 2005], this line also enables inducible ablation of cDCs. This transgenic chicken line will provide insights into the role of cDCs in natural and vaccine-mediated immunity, which is poorly understood in avian species.

Cryopreservation of Avian Genetic Resources

The NARF is in the process of creating a biobank to maintain avian genetic resources. This resource will be a repository for cryopreserved genetic material from valuable research chicken lines and rare or endangered poultry breeds. A biobank allows for the storage and protection of this genetic diversity, by mitigating against loss of resources in the event of disease outbreak or genetic bottlenecks in closed populations. Furthermore, cryopreserving chicken lines that are not currently being used for research will reduce the number of live animals that need to be maintained annually for research purposes, thereby addressing the principles of Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction (The 3Rs) of animal use in research.

Advances in PGC culture and the development of sterile surrogate host chickens supports the NARF's ability to cryopreserve avian germplasm and re-derive cryopreserved lines. In concert with these technological advances, the NARF is in the process of designing robust and time-efficient procedures to cryopreserve avian germplasm via PGCs [Nandi et al., 2016; Ballantyne et al., 2021b] or embryonic gonads [Hu et al., 2022]. As the biobank develops it will be important to create information sharing systems, to itemise which chicken lines have been cryopreserved, so that information is shared with the scientific community, thus preventing effort and resources being used to replicate GA lines that are already available. This is in line with similar resources that exist for other model organisms, such as mice, for which there are centralised repository systems (www.findmice.org) [Jackson et al., 2021].

Change in Focus

Previously the NARF aimed to collate and share bio-
logical tools such as antibodies, primers, and reagents
for avian species, and build annotation of, and infor-
matics-based resources for avian genomes. As the
NARF's research focus has evolved, these areas are no
longer directly supported by the NARF. However, The
Roslin Institute continues to support the development
of avian antibodies, primers, and reagents through "The
Immunological Toolbox" (www.immunologicaltool-
box.co.uk), in addition to a wide array of poultry re-
search. Avian genomics and bio-informatics resources
are now supported by projects undertaken by the "Func-
tional Annotation of Animal Genomes" (FAANG) ini-
tiative (www.faang.org). Moving forward, NARF in-
tends to build on its own genome engineering technol-
ogies, the production of novel GA lines, and the
development of an avian biobank. We are keen to hear
from researchers in both academic and industry sectors
to explore how NARF can further meet the needs of the
avian research community.

Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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