# Traditional medical practices for children in five islands from the Society archipelago (French Polynesia)

François Chassagne, Jean-François Butaud, Raimana Ho, Eric Conte, Édouard Hnawia, Phila Raharivelomanana

► To cite this version:

François Chassagne, Jean-François Butaud, Raimana Ho, Eric Conte, Édouard Hnawia, et al. Tradit
ional medical practices for children in five islands from the Society archipelago (French Polynesia).
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2023, 19 (1), pp.44. 10.1186/s13002-023-00617-0. hal-
04612628

HAL Id: hal-04612628

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# Traditional medical practices for children in five islands from the Society archipelago (French Polynesia)

François Chassagne, Jean-François Butaud, Raimana Ho, Eric Conte, Édouard Hnawia, Phila Raharivelomanana

► To cite this version:

François Chassagne, Jean-François Butaud, Raimana Ho, Eric Conte, Édouard Hnawia, et al. Tradit
ional medical practices for children in five islands from the Society archipelago (French Polynesia).
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2023, 19 (1), pp.44. 10.1186/s13002-023-00617-0. hal-
04612628

HAL Id: hal-04612628

https://ut3-toulouseinp.hal.science/hal-04612628v1

Submitted on 14 Jun 2024

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
RESEARCH

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# Traditional medical practices for children in five islands from the Society archipelago (French Polynesia)

François Chassagne<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="2" />*, Jean-François Butaud<fnref n="3" />, Raimana Ho<fnref n="4" />, Eric Conte<fnref n="2" />, Édouard Hnawia<fnref n="5" /> and Phila Raharivelomanana<fnref n="4" />

**Abstract**

**Background** Traditional Polynesian medicine for children has been poorly documented, and few data are available on their efficacy and safety. In this context, the aim of this study was to identify traditional practices used for treating children and then assess the efficacy and safety of the most cited remedies by reviewing the literature.

**Methods** In 2022, a semi-structured survey was carried out on five islands from the Society archipelago (Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea, Raiatea, and Tahiti). A total of 86 participants were interviewed including 19 experts in herbalism. A thorough literature review was performed on the most cited plant species to gather the relevant ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and clinical data of each remedy.

**Results** Participants mentioned using 469 remedies to treat 69 health disorders. The most represented health categories were digestive system, skin disorders, infectious diseases, and respiratory system. A total of 67 plant species (representing 731 use-reports) were mentioned and *Annona muricata*, *Gardenia taitensis*, and *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis* were the main plants reported. Regarding the safety of cited remedies, one plant (*Microsorum grossum*) showed high risk of toxicity, and its use should be avoided in infants and children.

**Conclusion** Our survey confirms the importance of traditional medical practices for children in the Society Islands. A lack of data in children for most cited remedies demonstrate the need for more pharmacological and toxicological research on Polynesian medicinal plants. Finally, the potential risk of toxicity for some cited plant species reported calls for a better information of traditional medicine users and healers.

**Keywords** Pacific, Traditional medicine, Ethnobotany, Safety, Efficacy

<footnote>*Correspondence:
François Chassagne
francois.chassagne@ird.fr</footnote>

<footnote n="1">¹ UMR 152 PharmaDev, Université Paul Sabatier, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Toulouse, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Maison des Sciences de l'Homme du Pacifique (UAR 2503), Université de la Polynésie Française / Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Tahiti, French Polynesia</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Correspondant du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (PatriNat), Paris & Consultant en foresterie et botanique polynesienne, Tahiti, French Polynesia</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ UMR 214 EIO, Université de Polynésie Française, IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Faa'a, Tahiti, French Polynesia</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ UMR 152 PharmaDev, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Nouméa, New Caledonia</footnote>
RESEARCH

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# Traditional medical practices for children in five islands from the Society archipelago (French Polynesia)

François Chassagne<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="2" />*, Jean-François Butaud<fnref n="3" />, Raimana Ho<fnref n="4" />, Eric Conte<fnref n="2" />, Édouard Hnawia<fnref n="5" /> and Phila Raharivelomanana<fnref n="4" />

**Abstract**

**Background** Traditional Polynesian medicine for children has been poorly documented, and few data are available on their efficacy and safety. In this context, the aim of this study was to identify traditional practices used for treating children and then assess the efficacy and safety of the most cited remedies by reviewing the literature.

**Methods** In 2022, a semi-structured survey was carried out on five islands from the Society archipelago (Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea, Raiatea, and Tahiti). A total of 86 participants were interviewed including 19 experts in herbalism. A thorough literature review was performed on the most cited plant species to gather the relevant ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and clinical data of each remedy.

**Results** Participants mentioned using 469 remedies to treat 69 health disorders. The most represented health categories were digestive system, skin disorders, infectious diseases, and respiratory system. A total of 67 plant species (representing 731 use-reports) were mentioned and *Annona muricata*, *Gardenia taitensis*, and *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis* were the main plants reported. Regarding the safety of cited remedies, one plant (*Microsorum grossum*) showed high risk of toxicity, and its use should be avoided in infants and children.

**Conclusion** Our survey confirms the importance of traditional medical practices for children in the Society Islands. A lack of data in children for most cited remedies demonstrate the need for more pharmacological and toxicological research on Polynesian medicinal plants. Finally, the potential risk of toxicity for some cited plant species reported calls for a better information of traditional medicine users and healers.

**Keywords** Pacific, Traditional medicine, Ethnobotany, Safety, Efficacy

<footnote>*Correspondence:
François Chassagne
francois.chassagne@ird.fr</footnote>

<footnote n="1">¹ UMR 152 PharmaDev, Université Paul Sabatier, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Toulouse, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Maison des Sciences de l'Homme du Pacifique (UAR 2503), Université de la Polynésie Française / Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Tahiti, French Polynesia</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Correspondant du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (PatriNat), Paris & Consultant en foresterie et botanique polynesienne, Tahiti, French Polynesia</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ UMR 214 EIO, Université de Polynésie Française, IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Faa'a, Tahiti, French Polynesia</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ UMR 152 PharmaDev, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Nouméa, New Caledonia</footnote>
## Introduction

In French Polynesia, traditional medicine is still used today by the population. These practices are still alive because it is part of their heritage and culture just like Polynesians tattoo, dance, and music. It is also important in addressing a lack of access to healthcare in some remote islands. Traditional medicine in Polynesia encompasses rituals, manipulative practices such as massage, bee venom therapy, and the use of remedies mainly based on plants [1–3]. So far, about 200 medicinal plants have been described in French Polynesia, and they are used to treat and prevent a wide range of diseases including digestive, musculoskeletal, nervous, respiratory, skin, and urogenital disorders [4].

In a recent survey, we have noticed that a large part of the traditional medicine from six Polynesian islands were dedicated to infant and children. In this study, childhood illnesses represented the second most cited category of disorders for which traditional medicine was used after musculoskeletal disorders [1]. In another survey, about 65% of tradipractitioners from Raiatea and Tahaa reported that infant and children were their main patients [5].

While traditional Polynesian medicine seems to be mainly used for children, some reports of death and poisonings by herbal remedies and traditional practices were already published. From 1966 to 1972, 183 cases of poisonings (including 56 deaths) due to the use of herbal remedies were recorded in children [4]. More recently, a 16-month-old infant from Bora Bora died of bronchopneumopathy and a superinfected abscess after the victim's family decided to opt for traditional medicine instead of consulting a medical doctor [6].

As compared to adults, infant and children are more susceptible to the adverse effects and toxicity of traditional practices especially herbal medicines. This vulnerability is due to differences in physiology, immature metabolic enzyme systems, dose per body weight, and a developing central nervous and immune systems [7].

Because the use of herbal remedies for infants and children in French Polynesia is frequent and toxicity events already occurred, we decided to perform a survey aiming to document the traditional practices used to treat children (from 0 to 12 years old). Based on this data, we provided an evaluation of the efficacy and potential toxicity of the most cited practices and herbal remedies.

Our study focuses on five islands from the Society Islands because case reports of poisonings mainly came from these places, and also because these represent the most densely populated islands from French Polynesia.

## Materials and methods

### Study area

The Society Islands are one of the five archipelagos of French Polynesia located in the South Pacific and they cover a land area of about 1600 km². The Society Islands have the largest population from French Polynesia with about 242,726 inhabitants representing 88% of the total population of French Polynesia. Tahitian and French are the two main languages spoken in the area. Administratively, the Society archipelago is subdivided into two groups: the Windward islands (Îles du Vent) and the Leeward islands (Îles Sous-le-Vent). The Windward islands include four islands (i.e., Maiao, Meetia, Moorea, Tahiti) and one atoll (Tetiaroa) which represent 1200 km² of land area in total. The Leeward islands include five islands (i.e., Bora Bora, Huahine, Maupiti, Raiatea, and Tahaa) and four atolls (i.e., Manuae, Mopelia, Motu One, and Tupai) which cover a land area of 408 km² [8].

In this study, a total of five islands was investigated including two in the Windward islands (i.e., Moorea, Tahiti) and three in the Leeward islands (i.e., Bora Bora, Huahine, Raiatea) (Fig. 1). In 2017, Tahiti had the largest population of French Polynesia with about 200,000 inhabitants, while Moorea had 17,700 inhabitants, Bora Bora had 10,600 inhabitants, Huahine had 6,100 inhabitants, and Raiatea had 12,200 inhabitants [9].

### Data collection

This survey was performed in French Polynesia from February to April 2022. Participants were first selected based on the list of tradipractitioners and key informants provided by the Honoea association (non-profit organization aiming to promote and preserve Polynesian medicine), or by using a snow-ball approach. In the latter method, initial participants were randomly selected, and then, they were invited to nominate through their social networks other participants susceptible to contribute to the study. All interviews were conducted in-person, except for one which was conducted online (using WhatsApp application).

Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire comprising different parts:

* Socio-demographic data: age, gender, place of residence, place of birth, number of children, occupation, education, religion.

* General knowledge on health disorders treated in children: Tahitian/French names, specificity of affected children (age, gender), symptoms, causes, method of diagnosis, recommendations and avoidance.
**Introduction**

In French Polynesia, traditional medicine is still used today by the population. These practices are still alive because it is part of their heritage and culture just like Polynesians tattoo, dance, and music. It is also important in addressing a lack of access to healthcare in some remote islands. Traditional medicine in Polynesia encompasses rituals, manipulative practices such as massage, bee venom therapy, and the use of remedies mainly based on plants [1–3]. So far, about 200 medicinal plants have been described in French Polynesia, and they are used to treat and prevent a wide range of diseases including digestive, musculoskeletal, nervous, respiratory, skin, and urogenital disorders [4].

In a recent survey, we have noticed that a large part of the traditional medicine from six Polynesian islands were dedicated to infant and children. In this study, childhood illnesses represented the second most cited category of disorders for which traditional medicine was used after musculoskeletal disorders [1]. In another survey, about 65% of tradipractitioners from Raiatea and Tahaa reported that infant and children were their main patients [5].

While traditional Polynesian medicine seems to be mainly used for children, some reports of death and poisonings by herbal remedies and traditional practices were already published. From 1966 to 1972, 183 cases of poisonings (including 56 deaths) due to the use of herbal remedies were recorded in children [4]. More recently, a 16-month-old infant from Bora Bora died of bronchopneumopathy and a superinfected abscess after the victim's family decided to opt for traditional medicine instead of consulting a medical doctor [6].

As compared to adults, infant and children are more susceptible to the adverse effects and toxicity of traditional practices especially herbal medicines. This vulnerability is due to differences in physiology, immature metabolic enzyme systems, dose per body weight, and a developing central nervous and immune systems [7].

Because the use of herbal remedies for infants and children in French Polynesia is frequent and toxicity events already occurred, we decided to perform a survey aiming to document the traditional practices used to treat children (from 0 to 12 years old). Based on this data, we provided an evaluation of the efficacy and potential toxicity of the most cited practices and herbal remedies.

Our study focuses on five islands from the Society Islands because case reports of poisonings mainly came from these places, and also because these represent the most densely populated islands from French Polynesia.

**Materials and methods**

**Study area**

The Society Islands are one of the five archipelagos of French Polynesia located in the South Pacific and they cover a land area of about 1600 km². The Society Islands have the largest population from French Polynesia with about 242,726 inhabitants representing 88% of the total population of French Polynesia. Tahitian and French are the two main languages spoken in the area. Administratively, the Society archipelago is subdivided into two groups: the Windward islands (Îles du Vent) and the Leeward islands (Îles Sous-le-Vent). The Windward islands include four islands (i.e., Maiaao, Meetia, Moorea, Tahiti) and one atoll (Tetiaroa) which represent 1200 km² of land area in total. The Leeward islands include five islands (i.e., Bora Bora, Huahine, Maupiti, Raiatea, and Tahaa) and four atolls (i.e., Manuae, Mopelia, Motu One, and Tupai) which cover a land area of 408 km² [8].

In this study, a total of five islands was investigated including two in the Windward islands (i.e., Moorea, Tahiti) and three in the Leeward islands (i.e., Bora Bora, Huahine, Raiatea) (Fig. 1). In 2017, Tahiti had the largest population of French Polynesia with about 200,000 inhabitants, while Moorea had 17,700 inhabitants, Bora Bora had 10,600 inhabitants, Huahine had 6,100 inhabitants, and Raiatea had 12,200 inhabitants [9].

**Data collection**

This survey was performed in French Polynesia from February to April 2022. Participants were first selected based on the list of tradipractitioners and key informants provided by the Honoea association (non-profit organization aiming to promote and preserve Polynesian medicine), or by using a snow-ball approach. In the latter method, initial participants were randomly selected, and then, they were invited to nominate through their social networks other participants susceptible to contribute to the study. All interviews were conducted in-person, except for one which was conducted online (using WhatsApp application).

Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire comprising different parts:

* Socio-demographic data: age, gender, place of residence, place of birth, number of children, occupation, education, religion.

* General knowledge on health disorders treated in children: Tahitian/French names, specificity of affected children (age, gender), symptoms, causes, method of diagnosis, recommendations and avoidance.
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1** Map showing the locations of the 86 interviews in the five islands (i.e., Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea, Raiatea, and Tahiti) from the Society archipelago. Fourteen participants were from Bora Bora (i.e. Faanui, Farepiti, Matira, Nunue, Tiipoto, and Vaitape districts), 18 from Huahine (i.e., Fare, Fiti, Haapu, Maeva, Maroe, Tefarerii districts), 17 from Moorea (i.e., Atiha, Haumi, Maharepa, Maatea, Paopao, Papetoai, Pihaena, Teavaro, Temamutu, Urufara, Vaiare districts), 18 from Raiatea (i.e., Avera, Faaroa, Uturoa, Vaiaau districts), and 19 from Tahiti (i.e., Faaa, Paea, Papara, Papeete, Punaauia, Vairao districts)</figcaption></figure>

* General information on traditional practices: type of treated persons (children only or children and adults, inside or outside family or both, neighbors or patients from other villages/islands), type of used traditional practices (herbal therapies, massage, apitherapy, others), type of treated diseases (all types, some diseases only, others).

* Therapeutic management of each cited health disorder: type of remedies used (herbal therapy, zootherapy including apitherapy, etc.), vernacular name of plant, part of plant, method of preparation, method of administration, posology, local perception of the pharmacology and toxicology of the plant.

* Another question focused on the Polynesian traditional practices known to be dangerous.

Musée de Tahiti et des îles, Punaauia, Tahiti, Polynésie française, and the other one was deposited at the herbarium from the Jardin Botanique Henri Gaussen (TL), Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Toulouse, France. Botanical identification of each plant species was realized by the first and second authors of this article. For sterile samples, a botanical identification was performed by comparing them with other samples already present at PAP. The collection numbers of each voucher specimen shown in Table 3 represent the initials of the first author (FC) followed by a unique number of collection. All plant names have been checked and updated according to international and local databases: Plants of the World Online (https://powo.science.kew.org/), the French inventory of natural heritage (INPN) (https://inpn.mnhn.fr/accueil/index), and the Nadeaud database from French Polynesia (https://nadeaud.ilm.pf/).

## Botanical identification

Plants cited by participants were collected in the field or in homegardens (Fa'a'apu) by following a guideline for collection of plant materials previously published [10]. First, photographs of the plant to be collected were taken, and then, information on the plant characteristics, location, and habitat was recorded. Finally, two similar voucher specimens of each plant species were collected and deposited at two different herbariums. One was brought to the Herbier de Polynésie française (PAP),

## Ethical considerations

A declaration of research regarding access to biological resources (ABS) and associated traditional knowledge was recorded to the Direction of Environment (DIREN) from French Polynesia (n°41/MCE/ENV, January 10th, 2022). Before each interview, an explanation of the survey (objectives, location sites, duration, content of the questionnaires, valorization of research results) was provided, and a prior informed consent was obtained. No
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1** Map showing the locations of the 86 interviews in the five islands (i.e., Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea, Raiatea, and Tahiti) from the Society archipelago. Fourteen participants were from Bora Bora (i.e. Faanui, Farepiti, Matira, Nunue, Tiipoto, and Vaitape districts), 18 from Huahine (i.e., Fare, Fiti, Haapu, Maeva, Maroe, Tefarerii districts), 17 from Moorea (i.e., Atiha, Haumi, Maharepa, Maatea, Paopao, Papetoai, Pihaena, Teavaro, Temamutu, Urufara, Vaiare districts), 18 from Raiatea (i.e., Avera, Faaroa, Uturoa, Vaiaau districts), and 19 from Tahiti (i.e., Faaa, Paea, Papara, Papeete, Punaauia, Vairao districts)</figcaption></figure>

* General information on traditional practices: type of treated persons (children only or children and adults, inside or outside family or both, neighbors or patients from other villages/islands), type of used traditional practices (herbal therapies, massage, apitherapy, others), type of treated diseases (all types, some diseases only, others).

* Therapeutic management of each cited health disorder: type of remedies used (herbal therapy, zootherapy including apitherapy, etc.), vernacular name of plant, part of plant, method of preparation, method of administration, posology, local perception of the pharmacology and toxicology of the plant.

* Another question focused on the Polynesian traditional practices known to be dangerous.

## Botanical identification

Plants cited by participants were collected in the field or in homegardens (*Fa'a'apu*) by following a guideline for collection of plant materials previously published [10]. First, photographs of the plant to be collected were taken, and then, information on the plant characteristics, location, and habitat was recorded. Finally, two similar voucher specimens of each plant species were collected and deposited at two different herbariums. One was brought to the Herbier de Polynésie française (PAP),

Musée de Tahiti et des îles, Punaauia, Tahiti, Polynésie française, and the other one was deposited at the herbarium from the Jardin Botanique Henri Gaussen (TL), Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Toulouse, France. Botanical identification of each plant species was realized by the first and second authors of this article. For sterile samples, a botanical identification was performed by comparing them with other samples already present at PAP. The collection numbers of each voucher specimen shown in Table 3 represent the initials of the first author (FC) followed by a unique number of collection. All plant names have been checked and updated according to international and local databases: Plants of the World Online ([https://powo.science.kew.org/](https://powo.science.kew.org/)), the French inventory of natural heritage (INPN) ([https://inpn.mnhn.fr/accueil/index](https://inpn.mnhn.fr/accueil/index)), and the Nadeaud database from French Polynesia ([https://nadeaud.ilm.pf/](https://nadeaud.ilm.pf/)).

## Ethical considerations

A declaration of research regarding access to biological resources (ABS) and associated traditional knowledge was recorded to the Direction of Environment (DIREN) from French Polynesia (n°41/MCE/ENV, January 10th, 2022). Before each interview, an explanation of the survey (objectives, location sites, duration, content of the questionnaires, valorization of research results) was provided, and a prior informed consent was obtained. No
personal information (last name, first name, date of birth, personal address) was collected during the survey, which make the responses in the questionnaires not sufficient to identify the participants to the survey. Of note, authors of this article (FC, JFB, RH, PR) are members of a local non-profit organization (Honoea) involved in the promotion and preservation of traditional medicine in French Polynesia.

## Data analysis and visualization

All collected data were compiled in an Excel file. Descriptive analysis was performed based on this Excel database. ICD-11 online browser was used to classify the health disorders cited (https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en).

For Polynesian plant and disease names that participants mentioned, we used the online dictionary of the Tahitian Academy (Fare Vāna'a) to check for correct spellings (http://www.farevanaa.pf/dictionnaire.php).

Use-Reports (UR) were recorded for each plant species and other ingredients following the definition provided by Chellappandian and coauthors [11].

Fidelity Level (FL) was calculated by using the formula described by Friedman and coauthors [12]. FL is an index commonly used to identify plant species dedicated to the treatment of specific disorders. The higher the index, the more the plant is used for a given condition (or a category of disease).

Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was calculated by following the work from Trotter and Logan [13]. ICF is used to assess consensus among participants for the use of similar plant species in a given disease category. The higher the index, the more convergence was attributed in the type of plants used in a given disease category. ICF ranges from 0 to 1.

The efficacy and toxicity assessment of the most cited remedies was performed based on preclinical studies (in vitro and animal studies) found in the literature. For each most cited remedy, a bibliographic search was realized by searching the electronic database Google Scholar, and by using the following keywords: “scientific name of the plant” AND [“ethnobotany” OR “pharmacology” OR “toxicology” OR “phytochemistry”]. Only scientific articles and reviews published in journals with impact factor above 1 and present in the Scimago database (https://www.scimagojr.com/) were included in the analysis. We organized the ethnobotanical discussion by geographical areas, presenting data on neighboring countries first, then expanding to more distant countries, in order to unveil similar uses that could have been transferred to Polynesians ancestors through their migration from Asia to Polynesia a few thousand years ago.

QGIS software v. 3.30.0 was used to make the map representing the study sites. Layers for French

<table><caption>**Table 1** Socio-demographic characteristics of the 86 participants interviewed in the five islands from the Society archipelago</caption><thead><tr><th>Characteristics</th><th>Frequency</th><th>Percent (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Gender</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>8</td><td>9.3</td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>78</td><td>90.7</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Age</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20–30 years</td><td>5</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td>31–40 years</td><td>11</td><td>12.8</td></tr><tr><td>41–50 years</td><td>13</td><td>15.1</td></tr><tr><td>51–60 years</td><td>29</td><td>33.7</td></tr><tr><td>61–70 years</td><td>20</td><td>23.3</td></tr><tr><td>71–80 years</td><td>8</td><td>9.3</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Residence</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bora Bora</td><td>14</td><td>16.3</td></tr><tr><td>Huahine</td><td>18</td><td>20.9</td></tr><tr><td>Moorea</td><td>17</td><td>19.8</td></tr><tr><td>Raiatea</td><td>18</td><td>20.9</td></tr><tr><td>Tahiti</td><td>19</td><td>22.1</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Education</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Primary School</td><td>15</td><td>17.4</td></tr><tr><td>Secondary School</td><td>38</td><td>44.2</td></tr><tr><td>Vocational diploma</td><td>8</td><td>9.3</td></tr><tr><td>High School</td><td>17</td><td>19.8</td></tr><tr><td>University</td><td>5</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>3</td><td>3.5</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Religion</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Protestant</td><td>49</td><td>56.9</td></tr><tr><td>Mormon</td><td>11</td><td>12.8</td></tr><tr><td>Catholic</td><td>9</td><td>10.5</td></tr><tr><td>Adventist</td><td>9</td><td>10.5</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>7</td><td>8.1</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>1.2</td></tr></tbody></table>

ND Not documented

Polynesian islands were found on the website https://www.data.gouv.fr/ under the section “BD Carto PF.” OpenStreetMap was used to make the world map.

## Results and discussion

### Socio-demographic data and classification of healers

In this study, 86 participants were interviewed on the five studied islands. Among them, 36 (41.9%) were from the Windward islands, and 50 (58.1%) were from the Leeward islands (Table 1).

The age range of the participants was between 20 and 77 years old with a mean age of 53.9 years old and a median of 56 years old. Most of participants were females (78, 90.7%) and stopped their education before
personal information (last name, first name, date of birth, personal address) was collected during the survey, which make the responses in the questionnaires not sufficient to identify the participants to the survey. Of note, authors of this article (FC, JFB, RH, PR) are members of a local non-profit organization (Honoea) involved in the promotion and preservation of traditional medicine in French Polynesia.

## Data analysis and visualization

All collected data were compiled in an Excel file. Descriptive analysis was performed based on this Excel database. ICD-11 online browser was used to classify the health disorders cited (https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en).

For Polynesian plant and disease names that participants mentioned, we used the online dictionary of the Tahitian Academy (Fare Vāna'a) to check for correct spellings (http://www.farevanaa.pf/dictionnaire.php).

Use-Reports (UR) were recorded for each plant species and other ingredients following the definition provided by Chellappandian and coauthors [11].

Fidelity Level (FL) was calculated by using the formula described by Friedman and coauthors [12]. FL is an index commonly used to identify plant species dedicated to the treatment of specific disorders. The higher the index, the more the plant is used for a given condition (or a category of disease).

Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was calculated by following the work from Trotter and Logan [13]. ICF is used to assess consensus among participants for the use of similar plant species in a given disease category. The higher the index, the more convergence was attributed in the type of plants used in a given disease category. ICF ranges from 0 to 1.

The efficacy and toxicity assessment of the most cited remedies was performed based on preclinical studies (in vitro and animal studies) found in the literature. For each most cited remedy, a bibliographic search was realized by searching the electronic database Google Scholar, and by using the following keywords: “scientific name of the plant” AND [“ethnobotany” OR “pharmacology” OR “toxicology” OR “phytochemistry”]. Only scientific articles and reviews published in journals with impact factor above 1 and present in the Scimago database (https://www.scimagojr.com/) were included in the analysis. We organized the ethnobotanical discussion by geographical areas, presenting data on neighboring countries first, then expanding to more distant countries, in order to unveil similar uses that could have been transferred to Polynesians ancestors through their migration from Asia to Polynesia a few thousand years ago.

QGIS software v. 3.30.0 was used to make the map representing the study sites. Layers for French

<table><caption>**Table 1** Socio-demographic characteristics of the 86 participants interviewed in the five islands from the Society archipelago</caption><thead><tr><th>Characteristics</th><th>Frequency</th><th>Percent (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Gender</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>8</td><td>9.3</td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>78</td><td>90.7</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Age</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20–30 years</td><td>5</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td>31–40 years</td><td>11</td><td>12.8</td></tr><tr><td>41–50 years</td><td>13</td><td>15.1</td></tr><tr><td>51–60 years</td><td>29</td><td>33.7</td></tr><tr><td>61–70 years</td><td>20</td><td>23.3</td></tr><tr><td>71–80 years</td><td>8</td><td>9.3</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Residence</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bora Bora</td><td>14</td><td>16.3</td></tr><tr><td>Huahine</td><td>18</td><td>20.9</td></tr><tr><td>Moorea</td><td>17</td><td>19.8</td></tr><tr><td>Raiatea</td><td>18</td><td>20.9</td></tr><tr><td>Tahiti</td><td>19</td><td>22.1</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Education</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Primary School</td><td>15</td><td>17.4</td></tr><tr><td>Secondary School</td><td>38</td><td>44.2</td></tr><tr><td>Vocational diploma</td><td>8</td><td>9.3</td></tr><tr><td>High School</td><td>17</td><td>19.8</td></tr><tr><td>University</td><td>5</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>3</td><td>3.5</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Religion</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Protestant</td><td>49</td><td>56.9</td></tr><tr><td>Mormon</td><td>11</td><td>12.8</td></tr><tr><td>Catholic</td><td>9</td><td>10.5</td></tr><tr><td>Adventist</td><td>9</td><td>10.5</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>7</td><td>8.1</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>1.2</td></tr></tbody></table>

ND Not documented

Polynesian islands were found on the website https://www.data.gouv.fr/ under the section “BD Carto PF.” OpenStreetMap was used to make the world map.

## Results and discussion

### Socio-demographic data and classification of healers

In this study, 86 participants were interviewed on the five studied islands. Among them, 36 (41.9%) were from the Windward islands, and 50 (58.1%) were from the Leeward islands (Table 1).

The age range of the participants was between 20 and 77 years old with a mean age of 53.9 years old and a median of 56 years old. Most of participants were females (78, 90.7%) and stopped their education before
high school (61, 70.9%). The most represented religion was Protestantism with 49 participants (56.9%).

In our study, a high proportion of women were interviewed. Most ethnobotanical studies in French Polynesia have already found this predominance of females over males [1, 2, 5]. Indeed, women (i.e., mothers and grand-mothers) have the role of health careers in the community, especially for children. And they are often in charge of the pharmacopeia dedicated to the care of persons living in their family [14]. Following the Polynesian healers classification previously described [1], 38 (44.2%) participants were categorized as non-specialists, 26 (30.2%) were classified as knowledgeable, and 22 (25.6%) as specialists. Among the specialists, 16 (72.7%) were experts in herbalism only, two (9.1%) were experts in massage only, one (4.5%) was expert in apitherapy only, two (9.1%) were experts in herbalism and massage, and one (4.5%) was expert in herbalism, apitherapy and massage. Out of these 22 specialists, three reported that they were specialized in the treatment of children. Among the knowledgeable persons, eight (30.8%) reported to treat all types of patients (and not just family members), seven (26.9%) were known by other people in the area for being able to heal, four (15.4%) mentioned to treat all types of patients and had a reputation of healing people, four others (15.4%) were in the process of learning, and three (7.7%) had a reputation of healing and possessed a book of homemade remedies.

Mean age of non-specialists was 50.4 years old, 55.5 years old for knowledgeable, and 57.9 years old for specialists. The mean age of specialists was significantly higher than the mean age of non-specialists (p=0.031). Similar results were obtained in a previous study where specialists were significantly older than the two other groups [1]. This indicates that people with higher knowledge in Polynesian medicine tend to be the eldest.

## Overview of health disorders reported for children

A total of 69 health disorders belonging to 17 different health categories (as defined by the International Classification of Diseases 11th) were reported (Table 2). The most represented health category was digestive system (12 cited disorders, 17.6%) followed by skin disorders (10, 14.7%), respiratory system (8, 11.8%), infectious diseases (8, 11.8%), injury, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes (7, 10.3%), and genitourinary system (7, 10.3%). In terms of number of citations by participants, respiratory system ranked first (86 citations, 19.6%), followed by digestive system (76 cit., 17.3%), mental, behavioral or neurodevelopmental disorders (61, 13.9%), skin disorders (46 cit., 10.5%), and injury, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes (43 cit., 9.8%).

Of the 69 health disorders reported, a group of behavioral symptoms called “ira” and described by participants as infants and children presenting restlessness, irritability, and jerk ranked first in terms of citations (60 participants, 69.8%). Sinusitis ranked second (35, 40.7%), followed by ranula (salivary cyst) (25, 29.1%), teething (24, 27.9%), cough (23, 26.7%), fracture (18, 20.9%), fever (17, 19.8%), and vaginal and urethral discharge (15, 17.4%).

While some disorders could be clearly identified thanks to their Tahitian and/or French names (e.g., cough=“hota”, fever=“fiva”, filariasis=“māriri”, sinusitis=“nanu”), others disorders could not be identified precisely. Indeed, some disorders were named based on the body part affected (e.g., lower abdomen=“tia”, teeth=“niho”, umbilic=“pito”), their causative agents (e.g., to be penetrated by the cold=“puta to’eto’e”), their main symptoms (e.g., discharge or presence of pus=“tui”, yellow body=“ira re’are’a”), and their foreign names (e.g., “rūmati”=rheumatism, “covid”=COVID-19). This specificity of Polynesian diseases classification was already described in others islands such as the Samoan islands and the Society Islands [15, 16].

Another set of disorders called “he’a” was difficult to translate in biomedical terms. “He’a” could be categorized into two main health categories: skin disorders and disorders of the genitourinary system (e.g., menstrual bleeding disorders, urinary tract infection, vaginal or urethral discharge). It was defined by participants as something bad/impure inside the body that needs to be expelled. Naturally, these impurities are expelled either by the skin, or by the vaginal or urethral way, and thus, symptoms are skin disorders, leucorrhea, urinary tract infection, or menstrual disorders. The *he’a* category was reported to be transmitted from mother to child. When women give birth and are not previously treated by a *rāau he’a* (remedy for *he’a*), they transmit diseases through their vagina which induce health disorders on the skin of the babies. Later, the children can also develop vaginal (for females) or urethral (for males) diseases if not treated. To prevent or treat this set of disorders, Polynesian people reported using remedies that clean the body or expel internal impurities, so we classified them as detoxifying agents. The *he’a* category was already described as an important type of diseases in the Society Islands as it is one of the three categories of diseases (along with *ira* and *fati*) being predisposing factors for other diseases. It was defined by French scientists as an “humoral illness” following the medical concepts developed by Hippocrates [16, 17]. The *he’a* category is called “epa” in the Marquesas islands [2]. In Tongan islands, the “kahi” category is reported to be caused by an internal blockage and encompasses various
high school (61, 70.9%). The most represented religion was Protestantism with 49 participants (56.9%).

In our study, a high proportion of women were interviewed. Most ethnobotanical studies in French Polynesia have already found this predominance of females over males [1, 2, 5]. Indeed, women (i.e., mothers and grand-mothers) have the role of health careers in the community, especially for children. And they are often in charge of the pharmacopeia dedicated to the care of persons living in their family [14]. Following the Polynesian healers classification previously described [1], 38 (44.2%) participants were categorized as non-specialists, 26 (30.2%) were classified as knowledgeable, and 22 (25.6%) as specialists. Among the specialists, 16 (72.7%) were experts in herbalism only, two (9.1%) were experts in massage only, one (4.5%) was expert in apitherapy only, two (9.1%) were experts in herbalism and massage, and one (4.5%) was expert in herbalism, apitherapy and massage. Out of these 22 specialists, three reported that they were specialized in the treatment of children. Among the knowledgeable persons, eight (30.8%) reported to treat all types of patients (and not just family members), seven (26.9%) were known by other people in the area for being able to heal, four (15.4%) mentioned to treat all types of patients and had a reputation of healing people, four others (15.4%) were in the process of learning, and three (7.7%) had a reputation of healing and possessed a book of homemade remedies.

Mean age of non-specialists was 50.4 years old, 55.5 years old for knowledgeable, and 57.9 years old for specialists. The mean age of specialists was significantly higher than the mean age of non-specialists (p=0.031). Similar results were obtained in a previous study where specialists were significantly older than the two other groups [1]. This indicates that people with higher knowledge in Polynesian medicine tend to be the eldest.

## Overview of health disorders reported for children

A total of 69 health disorders belonging to 17 different health categories (as defined by the International Classification of Diseases 11th) were reported (Table 2). The most represented health category was digestive system (12 cited disorders, 17.6%) followed by skin disorders (10, 14.7%), respiratory system (8, 11.8%), infectious diseases (8, 11.8%), injury, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes (7, 10.3%), and genitourinary system (7, 10.3%). In terms of number of citations by participants, respiratory system ranked first (86 citations, 19.6%), followed by digestive system (76 cit., 17.3%), mental, behavioral or neurodevelopmental disorders (61, 13.9%), skin disorders (46 cit., 10.5%), and injury, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes (43 cit., 9.8%).

Of the 69 health disorders reported, a group of behavioral symptoms called “ira” and described by participants as infants and children presenting restlessness, irritability, and jerk ranked first in terms of citations (60 participants, 69.8%). Sinusitis ranked second (35, 40.7%), followed by ranula (salivary cyst) (25, 29.1%), teething (24, 27.9%), cough (23, 26.7%), fracture (18, 20.9%), fever (17, 19.8%), and vaginal and urethral discharge (15, 17.4%).

While some disorders could be clearly identified thanks to their Tahitian and/or French names (e.g., cough=“hota”, fever=“fiva”, filariasis=“māriri”, sinusitis=“nanu”), others disorders could not be identified precisely. Indeed, some disorders were named based on the body part affected (e.g., lower abdomen=“tia”, teeth=“niho”, umbilic=“pito”), their causative agents (e.g., to be penetrated by the cold=“puta to’eto’e”), their main symptoms (e.g., discharge or presence of pus=“tui”, yellow body=“ira re’are’a”), and their foreign names (e.g., “rūmati”=rheumatism, “covid”=COVID-19). This specificity of Polynesian diseases classification was already described in others islands such as the Samoan islands and the Society Islands [15, 16].

Another set of disorders called “he’a” was difficult to translate in biomedical terms. “He’a” could be categorized into two main health categories: skin disorders and disorders of the genitourinary system (e.g., menstrual bleeding disorders, urinary tract infection, vaginal or urethral discharge). It was defined by participants as something bad/impure inside the body that needs to be expelled. Naturally, these impurities are expelled either by the skin, or by the vaginal or urethral way, and thus, symptoms are skin disorders, leucorrhea, urinary tract infection, or menstrual disorders. The *he’a* category was reported to be transmitted from mother to child. When women give birth and are not previously treated by a *rāau he’a* (remedy for *he’a*), they transmit diseases through their vagina which induce health disorders on the skin of the babies. Later, the children can also develop vaginal (for females) or urethral (for males) diseases if not treated. To prevent or treat this set of disorders, Polynesian people reported using remedies that clean the body or expel internal impurities, so we classified them as detoxifying agents. The *he’a* category was already described as an important type of diseases in the Society Islands as it is one of the three categories of diseases (along with *ira* and *fati*) being predisposing factors for other diseases. It was defined by French scientists as an “humoral illness” following the medical concepts developed by Hippocrates [16, 17]. The *he’a* category is called “epa” in the Marquesas islands [2]. In Tongan islands, the “kahi” category is reported to be caused by an internal blockage and encompasses various
<table><caption>**Table 2** Children illnesses and their disease categories reported during the survey by the 86 participants from the five islands in the Society archipelago</caption><thead><tr><th>ICD-11 classification</th><th>Disorders (English translation)</th><th>Disorders (Tahitian and/or French names)</th><th>Number and percent of informants citing the disorder</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="12">Digestive system</td><td>Colic</td><td>colique (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>hī (Tahitian), diarrhée (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Indigestion</td><td>indigestion (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Jaundice</td><td>ira re'are'a (Tahitian), jaunisse (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Lip and mouth swelling</td><td>vaha pē (Tahitian), bouches et lèvres gonflées (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>tia (Tahitian)</td><td>12 (14%)</td></tr><tr><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>'oromo'o, vaha pē (Tahitian), aphte (French)</td><td>4 (4.7%)</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>arero ma'a (Tahitian), double langue (French)</td><td>25 (29.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Rectal prolapse</td><td>descente d'organe chez le garçon (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>'ōuma pē (Tahitian)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Teething</td><td>niho (Tahitian)</td><td>24 (27.9%)</td></tr><tr><td>Yellow lip</td><td>lèvres jaunes (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Skin disorders</td><td>Acute blistering skin eruption</td><td>cloques partout sur la peau (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>he'a pa'a (Tahitian), eczema (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess, and other disorders with pus exudation</td><td>tui (Tahitian), furoncles et abcès (French)</td><td>13 (15.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Heat rash</td><td>bourbouille (French)</td><td>5 (5.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Pustular rash</td><td>boutons de pus partout sur la peau (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (associated with He'a)</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), bobos dù au he'a (French)</td><td>12 (14%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (not specified)</td><td>ma'i 'iri (Tahitian)</td><td>7 (8.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin fungal infections</td><td>champignons sur la peau (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin infections (due to mosquito bite)</td><td>infections dues aux piqûres de moustiques (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin lesions</td><td>tūtu'a (Tahitian)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Respiratory system</td><td>Asthma</td><td>ahopau (Tahitian), asthme (French)</td><td>13 (15.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>tūto'o (Tahitian), bronchite, toux grasse (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>hota (Tahitian), toux (French)</td><td>23 (26.7%)</td></tr><tr><td>Dyspnea</td><td>fati 'ōuma pē (Tahitian), difficulté à respirer (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Nasopharyngitis, cold</td><td>hūpē (Tahitian), rhume (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Respiratory disorders</td><td>maladies respiratoires (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>nanu (Tahitian), sinusite (French)</td><td>35 (40.7%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Infectious diseases</td><td>Tonsillitis, sore throat</td><td>ma'i 'arapo'a (Tahitian), angine, maux de gorge (French)</td><td>8 (9.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Acute rheumatic fever</td><td>rhumatisme articulaire aigu, R.A.A. (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Chickenpox</td><td>'ōniho (Tahitian), varicelle (French)</td><td>11 (12.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Filariasis</td><td>māriri (Tahitian), filariose (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 2** Children illnesses and their disease categories reported during the survey by the 86 participants from the five islands in the Society archipelago</caption><thead><tr><th>ICD-11 classification</th><th>Disorders (English translation)</th><th>Disorders (Tahitian and/or French names)</th><th>Number and percent of informants citing the disorder</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="12">Digestive system</td><td>Colic</td><td>colique (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>hī (Tahitian), diarrhée (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Indigestion</td><td>indigestion (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Jaundice</td><td>ira re'are'a (Tahitian), jaunisse (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Lip and mouth swelling</td><td>vaha pē (Tahitian), bouches et lèvres gonflées (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>tia (Tahitian)</td><td>12 (14%)</td></tr><tr><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>'oromo'o, vaha pē (Tahitian), aphte (French)</td><td>4 (4.7%)</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>arero ma'a (Tahitian), double langue (French)</td><td>25 (29.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Rectal prolapse</td><td>descente d'organe chez le garçon (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>'ōuma pē (Tahitian)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Teething</td><td>niho (Tahitian)</td><td>24 (27.9%)</td></tr><tr><td>Yellow lip</td><td>lèvres jaunes (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Skin disorders</td><td>Acute blistering skin eruption</td><td>cloques partout sur la peau (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>he'a pa'a (Tahitian), eczema (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess, and other disorders with pus exudation</td><td>tui (Tahitian), furoncles et abcès (French)</td><td>13 (15.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Heat rash</td><td>bourbouille (French)</td><td>5 (5.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Pustular rash</td><td>boutons de pus partout sur la peau (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (associated with He'a)</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), bobos dù au he'a (French)</td><td>12 (14%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (not specified)</td><td>ma'i 'iri (Tahitian)</td><td>7 (8.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin fungal infections</td><td>champignons sur la peau (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin infections (due to mosquito bite)</td><td>infections dues aux piqûres de moustiques (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Skin lesions</td><td>tūtu'a (Tahitian)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Respiratory system</td><td>Asthma</td><td>ahopau (Tahitian), asthme (French)</td><td>13 (15.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>tūto'o (Tahitian), bronchite, toux grasse (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>hota (Tahitian), toux (French)</td><td>23 (26.7%)</td></tr><tr><td>Dyspnea</td><td>fati 'ōuma pē (Tahitian), difficulté à respirer (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Nasopharyngitis, cold</td><td>hūpē (Tahitian), rhume (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Respiratory disorders</td><td>maladies respiratoires (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>nanu (Tahitian), sinusite (French)</td><td>35 (40.7%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Infectious diseases</td><td>Tonsillitis, sore throat</td><td>ma'i 'arapo'a (Tahitian), angine, maux de gorge (French)</td><td>8 (9.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Acute rheumatic fever</td><td>rhumatisme articulaire aigu, R.A.A. (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Chickenpox</td><td>'ōniho (Tahitian), varicelle (French)</td><td>11 (12.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Filariasis</td><td>māriri (Tahitian), filariose (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 2 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>ICD-11 classification</th><th>Disorders (English translation)</th><th>Disorders (Tahitian and/or French names)</th><th>Number and percent of informants citing the disorder</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Injury, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes</td><td>Gonorrhea</td><td>'opi, 'opitapu (Tahitian), blennoragie (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Infestation by parasitic worms</td><td>vers intestinaux (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Measles</td><td>rougeole (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Ringworm</td><td>seka seka (Tahitian), eczema (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Zoster</td><td>māriri 'opūpū (Tahitian), zona (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Bruise</td><td>coups, bleus (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Dislocation</td><td>fati rei (Tahitian), déplacement d'os (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>puta to'eto'e (Tahitian), attraper froid (French)</td><td>11 (12.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>fati (Tahitian), fracture, enfant mal tenu (French)</td><td>18 (20.9%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Genitourinary system</td><td>Organ displacement</td><td>déplacement d'organes (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>'o'i, mā'o'i (Tahitian), foulure, entorse (French)</td><td>8 (9.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Wound, cut, burn</td><td>blessure, coupure, brûlure, plaies (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Difficulties with micturition</td><td>difficulté à uriner (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), problèmes liés aux régles (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Musculoskeletal system</td><td>Retractile testis migrans</td><td>hua tūpito (Tahitian), testicules remon-tés (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Scrotal swelling</td><td>ira hua (Tahitian), grosseur des testicules (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>he'a fa'atahe (Tahitian), incontinence (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary tract infection</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), infection urinaire (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal or urethral discharge</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), pertes vaginales ou uréthrales (French)</td><td>14 (16.3%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Developmental anomalies</td><td>Muscle soreness</td><td>courbature (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Rheumatism</td><td>rūmati (Tahitian), rhumatisme (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Scoliosis</td><td>scoliose (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Bones deformity</td><td>os malformés (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">General symptoms</td><td>Fever</td><td>fiva (Tahitian), fièvre (French)</td><td>17 (19.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>māuiui upo'o (Tahitian), maux de tête (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Mental, behavioral or neurodevelop-mental disorders</td><td>Hyperactivity</td><td>hyperactivité (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>ira (Tahitian)</td><td>60 (69.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Visual system</td><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>mata vare (Tahitian), conjonctivite (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 2 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>ICD-11 classification</th><th>Disorders (English translation)</th><th>Disorders (Tahitian and/or French names)</th><th>Number and percent of informants citing the disorder</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Injury, poisoning, and other consequences of external causes</td><td>Gonorrhea</td><td>'opi, 'opitapu (Tahitian), blennoragie (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Infestation by parasitic worms</td><td>vers intestinaux (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Measles</td><td>rougeole (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Ringworm</td><td>seka seka (Tahitian), eczema (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Zoster</td><td>māriri 'opūpū (Tahitian), zona (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Bruise</td><td>coups, bleus (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Dislocation</td><td>fati rei (Tahitian), déplacement d'os (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>puta to'eto'e (Tahitian), attraper froid (French)</td><td>11 (12.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>fati (Tahitian), fracture, enfant mal tenu (French)</td><td>18 (20.9%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Genitourinary system</td><td>Organ displacement</td><td>déplacement d'organes (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>'oí, mā'oí (Tahitian), foulure, entorse (French)</td><td>8 (9.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Wound, cut, burn</td><td>blessure, coupure, brûlure, plaies (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Difficulties with micturition</td><td>difficulté à uriner (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), problèmes liés aux régles (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Musculoskeletal system</td><td>Retractile testis migrans</td><td>hua tūpito (Tahitian), testicules remon-tés (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Scrotal swelling</td><td>ira hua (Tahitian), grosseur des testicules (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>he'a fa'atahe (Tahitian), incontinence (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary tract infection</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), infection urinaire (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal or urethral discharge</td><td>he'a (Tahitian), pertes vaginales ou uréthrales (French)</td><td>14 (16.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Muscle soreness</td><td>courbature (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Developmental anomalies</td><td>Rheumatism</td><td>rūmati (Tahitian), rhumatisme (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Scoliosis</td><td>scoliose (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>General symptoms</td><td>Bones deformity</td><td>os malformés (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Mental, behavioral or neurodevelop-mental disorders</td><td>Fever</td><td>fiva (Tahitian), fièvre (French)</td><td>17 (19.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>māuiui upo'o (Tahitian), maux de tête (French)</td><td>3 (3.5%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Visual system</td><td>Hyperactivity</td><td>hyperactivité (French)</td><td>1 (1.2%)</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>ira (Tahitian)</td><td>60 (69.8%)</td></tr><tr><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>mata vare (Tahitian), conjonctivite (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 2** (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>ICD-11 classification</th><th>Disorders (English translation)</th><th>Disorders (Tahitian and/or French names)</th><th>Number and percent of informants citing the disorder</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td>Eye disorders</td><td>ma'i mata (Tahitian), problèmes des yeux (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Ear or mastoid process</td><td>Otitis</td><td>tari'a ma'i, tui (Tahitian), otite (French)</td><td>13 (15.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Endocrine, nutritional or metabolic diseases</td><td>Obesity</td><td>obésité (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Nervous system</td><td>Epilepsy</td><td>hōpi'i, ira hōpi'i (Tahitian), épilepsie (French)</td><td>8 (9.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>New diseases</td><td>COVID-19</td><td>COVID-19 (French)</td><td>4 (4.7%)</td></tr><tr><td>Perinatal period</td><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>pito (Tahitian), soins du nombril (French)</td><td>12 (14%)</td></tr><tr><td>Substances</td><td>Detoxifying agent</td><td>he'a or pu'a roto (Tahitian), nettoyer les impuretés intérieures (French)</td><td>14 (16.3%)</td></tr></tbody></table>

genitourinary disorders similar to those described in the *he'a* category [18].

Regarding the set of disorders called “ira” it was mainly defined as a group of behavioral disorders including restlessness, irritability, to wake with a start, and convulsion. It was also frequently associated with blue spots on the skin, medically known as Mongolian blue spots. While most of the participants (51, 85%) employed the term “ira” only, a few others added a modifier to precise the type of “ira” treated. For example, “ira ʻiriti” was cited by six participants and could be defined as an “ira” with spasms and convulsions. “Ira manu” was cited by five participants and could be defined as an “ira” with children presenting a face or doing movements similar to birds. “Ira re'are'a” was cited by one participant and could be defined as an “ira” with jaundice. “Ira to'eto'e” was cited by one participant and could be defined as an “ira” with cold sweat. Less frequently, the term “ira” was also combined with terms used to define specific disorders such as “nanu” for sinusitis, “niho” for teething and “pito” for umbilic cord care. In these few cases (i.e., *ira nanu*, *ira niho*, *ira tūpito*), no changes in the meaning of the original disorders were noted. The *ira* category is widely known throughout Polynesia (especially, in the Cook, French Polynesian, Tongan, and Samoan islands), and it is also called “ila” in some places (e.g., Samoan and Tongan islands) [15, 19]. In these islands, *ira* (or *ila*) refers to childhood diseases and can also be defined as a mark on the skin such as a mole or a freckle [20]. In the Society Islands, Lemaître reported 20 varieties of *ira*, of which 6

were detailed (i.e., *ira ʻiriti*, *ira ʻofera*, *ira to'eto'e*, *ira vāhi*, *ira vau*, and *ira moe*) [21]. This author defined *ira* as productive of nervous disorders. In the same area, Grépin and Grépin noted that fever, spasms, and nervous symptoms are the main characteristics of *ira* [17]. They also mentioned the blue spots on the skin from the lumbar region as being part of the *ira* category. In the Samoan and Tongan islands, the definition of *ira/ila* seems to have slightly different meanings. In Tonga, it was reported that “ila” refers to red patches (similar to burns) on the skin of children [19]. In Samoa, it was defined as a childhood diarrhea by some authors [20]. Overall, *ira* represents one of the most important categories of childhood diseases in the area, and thus, Polynesian people have developed a rich pharmacopeia to prevent and treat it.

Further details on the *he'a* and *ira* categories as well as on other ailments are provided in the sections below.

## Overview of Polynesian medical practices for children

Overall, the Polynesian medical practices used for children included biologically based practices (reported by 86 participants, 100%), and manipulative practices (i.e., massage [39 participants, 45.3%], blowing into the mouth [8 participants, 9.3%], pushing on the gingiva [4 participants, 4.7%], and cutting the gingiva [3 participants, 3.5%]). Among the biologically based practices, herbal ingredients rank first in terms of citations (731 UR, 93%), followed by the use of animal ingredients (24 UR, 3.0%), a Polynesian cosmetic product called monoi (23 UR, 2.9%),
<table><caption>**Table 2** (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>ICD-11 classification</th><th>Disorders (English translation)</th><th>Disorders (Tahitian and/or French names)</th><th>Number and percent of informants citing the disorder</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td>Eye disorders</td><td>ma'i mata (Tahitian), problèmes des yeux (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Ear or mastoid process</td><td>Otitis</td><td>tari'a ma'i, tui (Tahitian), otite (French)</td><td>13 (15.1%)</td></tr><tr><td>Endocrine, nutritional or metabolic diseases</td><td>Obesity</td><td>obésité (French)</td><td>2 (2.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>Nervous system</td><td>Epilepsy</td><td>hōpi'i, ira hōpi'i (Tahitian), épilepsie (French)</td><td>8 (9.3%)</td></tr><tr><td>New diseases</td><td>COVID-19</td><td>COVID-19 (French)</td><td>4 (4.7%)</td></tr><tr><td>Perinatal period</td><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>pito (Tahitian), soins du nombril (French)</td><td>12 (14%)</td></tr><tr><td>Substances</td><td>Detoxifying agent</td><td>he'a or pu'a roto (Tahitian), nettoyer les impuretés intérieures (French)</td><td>14 (16.3%)</td></tr></tbody></table>

genitourinary disorders similar to those described in the *he'a* category [18].

Regarding the set of disorders called “ira” it was mainly defined as a group of behavioral disorders including restlessness, irritability, to wake with a start, and convulsion. It was also frequently associated with blue spots on the skin, medically known as Mongolian blue spots. While most of the participants (51, 85%) employed the term “ira” only, a few others added a modifier to precise the type of “ira” treated. For example, “ira ʻiriti” was cited by six participants and could be defined as an “ira” with spasms and convulsions. “Ira manu” was cited by five participants and could be defined as an “ira” with children presenting a face or doing movements similar to birds. “Ira re'are'a” was cited by one participant and could be defined as an “ira” with jaundice. “Ira to'eto'e” was cited by one participant and could be defined as an “ira” with cold sweat. Less frequently, the term “ira” was also combined with terms used to define specific disorders such as “nanu” for sinusitis, “niho” for teething and “pito” for umbilic cord care. In these few cases (i.e., *ira nanu*, *ira niho*, *ira tūpito*), no changes in the meaning of the original disorders were noted. The *ira* category is widely known throughout Polynesia (especially, in the Cook, French Polynesian, Tongan, and Samoan islands), and it is also called “ila” in some places (e.g., Samoan and Tongan islands) [15, 19]. In these islands, *ira* (or *ila*) refers to childhood diseases and can also be defined as a mark on the skin such as a mole or a freckle [20]. In the Society Islands, Lemaître reported 20 varieties of *ira*, of which 6

were detailed (i.e., *ira ʻiriti*, *ira ʻofera*, *ira to'eto'e*, *ira vāhi*, *ira vau*, and *ira moe*) [21]. This author defined *ira* as productive of nervous disorders. In the same area, Grépin and Grépin noted that fever, spasms, and nervous symptoms are the main characteristics of *ira* [17]. They also mentioned the blue spots on the skin from the lumbar region as being part of the *ira* category. In the Samoan and Tongan islands, the definition of *ira/ila* seems to have slightly different meanings. In Tonga, it was reported that “ila” refers to red patches (similar to burns) on the skin of children [19]. In Samoa, it was defined as a childhood diarrhea by some authors [20]. Overall, *ira* represents one of the most important categories of childhood diseases in the area, and thus, Polynesian people have developed a rich pharmacopeia to prevent and treat it.

Further details on the *he'a* and *ira* categories as well as on other ailments are provided in the sections below.

## Overview of Polynesian medical practices for children

Overall, the Polynesian medical practices used for children included biologically based practices (reported by 86 participants, 100%), and manipulative practices (i.e., massage [39 participants, 45.3%], blowing into the mouth [8 participants, 9.3%], pushing on the gingiva [4 participants, 4.7%], and cutting the gingiva [3 participants, 3.5%]). Among the biologically based practices, herbal ingredients rank first in terms of citations (731 UR, 93%), followed by the use of animal ingredients (24 UR, 3.0%), a Polynesian cosmetic product called monoi (23 UR, 2.9%),
and other products (i.e., mint alcohol [2 UR], saccharose [2 UR], seawater [2 UR], salt [1 UR.], starch [1 UR], and vinegar [1 UR]). The total number of UR is 787.

A total of 469 remedies were reported to be used for children, of which 347 were unique remedies (meaning that these remedies had different ingredients, different uses, and different part of plants used if the ingredients were similar). Up to 17 ingredients were mixed in the remedies. Of the 347 unique remedies, mono-ingredient remedies were the most represented (145 remedies, 224 UR), followed by two-ingredient remedies (97 remedies, 125 UR), four-ingredient remedies (38 remedies, 44 UR), three-ingredient remedies (36 remedies, 45 UR), and remedies with five and more ingredients (31 remedies, 31 UR). The mean number of remedies cited by participants was 5.4 remedies.

Regarding the number of remedies reported by category of diseases, the set of disorders called “ira” presented the highest number of cited remedies (50 remedies, 95 UR), followed by sinusitis (30 remedies, 39 UR), ranula (salivary cyst) (17 remedies, 27 UR), cough (15 remedies, 25 UR), fracture (14 remedies, 21 UR), otitis (13 remedies, 15 UR), and lower abdominal disorders (13 remedies, 13 UR).

## Herbal ingredients

A total of 67 plant species (representing 731 UR) belonging to 40 botanical families were identified (Table 3). The ten most frequently cited plant species were *Cocos nucifera* (47 participants citing the plants, 57 UR [including different citations by the same participant]), *Gardelia taitensis* (40 participants, 56 UR), *Annona muricata* (33 participants, 35 UR), *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis* “Carnaation” (33 participants, 36 UR), *Saccharum officinarum* (33 participants, 52 UR), *Citrus x aurantiifolia* (30 participants, 40 UR), *Curcuma longa* (29 participants, 35 UR), *Cordyline fruticosa* (25 participants, 27 UR), *Microsorum grossum* (24 participants, 27 UR), and *Spondias dulcis* (23 participants, 28 UR). Among these plants, two (*Citrus x aurantiifolia*, *Saccharum officinarum*) can be considered as excipients as they were mainly used in combinations with other plants. Indeed, remedies including *Citrus x aurantiifolia* or *Saccharum officinarum* were multi-ingredient remedies in 97.5 and 96% of the cases, respectively. *Citrus x aurantiifolia*, which is a modern introduction and so a newly incorporated ingredient in Polynesian TM, may be considered as vitamin C provider and flavor enhancer, while *Saccharum officinarum* can be considered as a sweetener. Although *Cocos nucifera* was also employed as an excipient in most of the remedies, nine out of 43 remedies (17.3%) consisted of *Cocos nucifera* only, suggesting the role of this plant as a bioactive

ingredient. Pétard already reported that coconut oil, coconut water, and sugarcane juice are mainly used as excipients [4]. This author also mentioned coconut oil as a bioactive ingredient, especially for its purgative property. Regarding lime juice, the same author reported similar findings and confirmed it is mainly used in combination with other plants. However, its role as an excipient is not clearly mentioned.

Of the reported 40 botanical families, Lamiaceae ranked first (7 species), Malvaceae ranked second (4 species), and Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, and Zingiberaceae ranked third (3 species each). *Coleus* and *Hibiscus* were the most represented genera (3 species each), followed by *Allium*, *Citrus*, *Cyperus*, and *Ficus* (2 species each).

The most common used plant organs were leaf (39 species), followed by leafbud (15 species), fruit (14 species), flower (8 species), whole plant (8 species), and bark (7 species). In terms of citations, leaf ranked first again (266 UR), followed by fruit (163 UR), leafbud (58 UR), stem (54 UR), rhizome (44 UR), and whole plant (39 UR). The importance of leaves and fruits in the Polynesian pharmacopeia can be partly explained by their ease of access and also by the fact that it lends itself perfectly to the method of preparation expressing the juice of the plant by pressure.

The most common methods of preparation reported were, respectively: to crush and press the plant(s) in a cloth to get the juice (52 species), to boil the plant(s) in water (37 species), to crush the plant(s) and let it/them ferment for a few days (12 species), to heat the plant(s) (7 species), to use the plant(s) without any preparation (6 species). In terms of citations, crushing and pressing the plant(s) in a cloth to get the juice ranked first (441 UR), boiling the plant(s) in water ranked second (231 UR), crushing the plant(s) and let it/them ferment for a few days ranked third (15 UR), cooking the plant(s) ranked fourth (14 UR), and using the plant(s) without any preparations ranked fifth (13 UR). Previous studies already reported the importance of crushing the plant and getting the juice by expression in the Polynesian pharmacopeia [2, 4, 5, 14]. This practice is strongly associated with the widespread use of tools (i.e., mortar and pestle) in Polynesian cuisine (Fig. 2). Here, these utensils are employed to crush the plants. Regarding the expression of juice, it can be realized with homemade fiber cloths made either from *Cyperus javanicus* stems or from coconut fluff [14]. Nowadays, these homemade fiber cloths have been mainly replaced by a commercialized cotton cloth.

The most common methods of administration mentioned were oral (48 species), local application (34 species), bath (28 species), bath and oral (12 species), and
and other products (i.e., mint alcohol [2 UR], saccharose [2 UR], seawater [2 UR], salt [1 UR.], starch [1 UR], and vinegar [1 UR]). The total number of UR is 787.

A total of 469 remedies were reported to be used for children, of which 347 were unique remedies (meaning that these remedies had different ingredients, different uses, and different part of plants used if the ingredients were similar). Up to 17 ingredients were mixed in the remedies. Of the 347 unique remedies, mono-ingredient remedies were the most represented (145 remedies, 224 UR), followed by two-ingredient remedies (97 remedies, 125 UR), four-ingredient remedies (38 remedies, 44 UR), three-ingredient remedies (36 remedies, 45 UR), and remedies with five and more ingredients (31 remedies, 31 UR). The mean number of remedies cited by participants was 5.4 remedies.

Regarding the number of remedies reported by category of diseases, the set of disorders called “ira” presented the highest number of cited remedies (50 remedies, 95 UR), followed by sinusitis (30 remedies, 39 UR), ranula (salivary cyst) (17 remedies, 27 UR), cough (15 remedies, 25 UR), fracture (14 remedies, 21 UR), otitis (13 remedies, 15 UR), and lower abdominal disorders (13 remedies, 13 UR).

## Herbal ingredients

A total of 67 plant species (representing 731 UR) belonging to 40 botanical families were identified (Table 3). The ten most frequently cited plant species were *Cocos nucifera* (47 participants citing the plants, 57 UR [including different citations by the same participant]), *Gardelia taitensis* (40 participants, 56 UR), *Annona muricata* (33 participants, 35 UR), *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis* “Carnaation” (33 participants, 36 UR), *Saccharum officinarum* (33 participants, 52 UR), *Citrus x aurantiifolia* (30 participants, 40 UR), *Curcuma longa* (29 participants, 35 UR), *Cordyline fruticosa* (25 participants, 27 UR), *Microsorum grossum* (24 participants, 27 UR), and *Spondias dulcis* (23 participants, 28 UR). Among these plants, two (*Citrus x aurantiifolia*, *Saccharum officinarum*) can be considered as excipients as they were mainly used in combinations with other plants. Indeed, remedies including *Citrus x aurantiifolia* or *Saccharum officinarum* were multi-ingredient remedies in 97.5 and 96% of the cases, respectively. *Citrus x aurantiifolia*, which is a modern introduction and so a newly incorporated ingredient in Polynesian TM, may be considered as vitamin C provider and flavor enhancer, while *Saccharum officinarum* can be considered as a sweetener. Although *Cocos nucifera* was also employed as an excipient in most of the remedies, nine out of 43 remedies (17.3%) consisted of *Cocos nucifera* only, suggesting the role of this plant as a bioactive

ingredient. Pétard already reported that coconut oil, coconut water, and sugarcane juice are mainly used as excipients [4]. This author also mentioned coconut oil as a bioactive ingredient, especially for its purgative property. Regarding lime juice, the same author reported similar findings and confirmed it is mainly used in combination with other plants. However, its role as an excipient is not clearly mentioned.

Of the reported 40 botanical families, Lamiaceae ranked first (7 species), Malvaceae ranked second (4 species), and Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, and Zingiberaceae ranked third (3 species each). *Coleus* and *Hibiscus* were the most represented genera (3 species each), followed by *Allium*, *Citrus*, *Cyperus*, and *Ficus* (2 species each).

The most common used plant organs were leaf (39 species), followed by leafbud (15 species), fruit (14 species), flower (8 species), whole plant (8 species), and bark (7 species). In terms of citations, leaf ranked first again (266 UR), followed by fruit (163 UR), leafbud (58 UR), stem (54 UR), rhizome (44 UR), and whole plant (39 UR). The importance of leaves and fruits in the Polynesian pharmacopeia can be partly explained by their ease of access and also by the fact that it lends itself perfectly to the method of preparation expressing the juice of the plant by pressure.

The most common methods of preparation reported were, respectively: to crush and press the plant(s) in a cloth to get the juice (52 species), to boil the plant(s) in water (37 species), to crush the plant(s) and let it/them ferment for a few days (12 species), to heat the plant(s) (7 species), to use the plant(s) without any preparation (6 species). In terms of citations, crushing and pressing the plant(s) in a cloth to get the juice ranked first (441 UR), boiling the plant(s) in water ranked second (231 UR), crushing the plant(s) and let it/them ferment for a few days ranked third (15 UR), cooking the plant(s) ranked fourth (14 UR), and using the plant(s) without any preparations ranked fifth (13 UR). Previous studies already reported the importance of crushing the plant and getting the juice by expression in the Polynesian pharmacopeia [2, 4, 5, 14]. This practice is strongly associated with the widespread use of tools (i.e., mortar and pestle) in Polynesian cuisine (Fig. 2). Here, these utensils are employed to crush the plants. Regarding the expression of juice, it can be realized with homemade fiber cloths made either from *Cyperus javanicus* stems or from coconut fluff [14]. Nowadays, these homemade fiber cloths have been mainly replaced by a commercialized cotton cloth.

The most common methods of administration mentioned were oral (48 species), local application (34 species), bath (28 species), bath and oral (12 species), and
<table><caption>**Table 3** Ethnobotanical data of the 67 plant species recorded from the 86 participants in the five islands from the Society archipelago</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Achyranthes aspera L. var. aspera</td><td>Amaranthaceae</td><td>FC560</td><td>Pol</td><td>'aerofai</td><td>3</td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Adenostemma viscosum J.R.Forst. & G.Forst</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>FC557</td><td>Ind</td><td>vaianu</td><td>6</td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Dislocation</td><td>Stern</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Stern</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Aleurites molucanus (L.) Willd</td><td>Euphorbiaceae</td><td>FC535</td><td>Pol</td><td>ti'a'iri</td><td>7</td><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Flower/Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Massage</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders</td><td>Bark/Seed</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath/Local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Allium cepa L</td><td>Amaryllidaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>oignon (French)</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>Bulb</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Allium sativum L</td><td>Amaryllidaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>ail (French)</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>Bulb</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f</td><td>Asphodelaceae</td><td>FC540</td><td>Mod</td><td>aloé (French)</td><td>4</td><td></td><td>COVID-19</td><td>Whole leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bruise</td><td>Leaf (inner gel)</td><td>None</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Eye disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Alpinia purpurata (Vieill.) K.Schum</td><td>Zingiberaceae</td><td>FC547</td><td>Mod</td><td>'öpuhi</td><td>2</td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3** Ethnobotanical data of the 67 plant species recorded from the 86 participants in the five islands from the Society archipelago</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Achyranthes aspera L. var. aspera</td><td>Amaranthaceae</td><td>FC560</td><td>Pol</td><td>'aerofai</td><td>3</td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Adenostemma viscosum J.R.Forst. & G.Forst</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>FC557</td><td>Ind</td><td>vaianu</td><td>6</td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Dislocation</td><td>Stern</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Stern</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Aleurites molucanus (L.) Willd</td><td>Euphorbiaceae</td><td>FC535</td><td>Pol</td><td>ti'a'iri</td><td>7</td><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Flower/Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Massage</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders</td><td>Bark/Seed</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath/Local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Allium cepa L</td><td>Amaryllidaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>oignon (French)</td><td>1</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Allium sativum L</td><td>Amaryllidaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>ail (French)</td><td>1</td><td>Otitis</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f</td><td>Asphodelaceae</td><td>FC540</td><td>Mod</td><td>aloé (French)</td><td>4</td><td>COVID-19</td><td>Whole leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bruise</td><td>Leaf (inner gel)</td><td>None</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Eye disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Alpinia purpurata (Vieill.) K.Schum</td><td>Zingiberaceae</td><td>FC547</td><td>Mod</td><td>'öpuhi</td><td>2</td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz</td><td rowspan="4">Lecythidaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC503</td><td rowspan="4">Ind</td><td rowspan="4">hotu, hutu</td><td rowspan="4">2</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral, massage</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Zoster</td><td>Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Calophyllum inophyllum L</td><td>Calophyllaceae</td><td>FC538</td><td>Pol</td><td>tāmanu,āti</td><td>12</td><td>Chicken pox</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Capsicum frutescens L</td><td rowspan="6">Solanaceae</td><td rowspan="6">NC</td><td rowspan="6">Mod</td><td rowspan="6">'oporo</td><td rowspan="6">4</td><td>Measles</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Pustular rash</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin fungal infections</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Carica papaya L<br/>Casuarina equisitifolia L</td><td rowspan="6">Caricaceae<br/>Casuarinaceae</td><td rowspan="6">FC492<br/>FC539</td><td rowspan="6">Mod<br/>Ind</td><td rowspan="6">'itā<br/>'aito</td><td rowspan="6">1<br/>2</td><td>COVID-19</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Grate</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don</td><td rowspan="4">Apocynaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC518</td><td rowspan="4">Mod</td><td rowspan="4">pervenche (French)</td><td rowspan="4">1</td><td>Acute rheumatic fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Difficulties with micturition</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Infestation by parasitic worms</td><td>Flower</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz</td><td rowspan="4">Lecythidaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC503</td><td rowspan="4">Ind</td><td rowspan="4">hotu, hutu</td><td rowspan="4">2</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral, massage</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Zoster</td><td>Seed</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Calophyllum inophyllum L</td><td>Calophyllaceae</td><td>FC538</td><td>Pol</td><td>tāmanu,āti</td><td>12</td><td>Chicken pox</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Capsicum frutescens L</td><td rowspan="10">Solanaceae</td><td rowspan="10">NC</td><td rowspan="10">Mod</td><td rowspan="10">'oporo</td><td rowspan="10">4</td><td>Measles</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Pustular rash</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin fungal infections</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>COVID-19</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Carica papaya L<br>Casuarina equisitifolia L</td><td rowspan="4">Caricaceae<br>Casuarinaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC492<br>FC539</td><td rowspan="4">Mod<br>Ind</td><td rowspan="4">'itā<br>'aito</td><td rowspan="4">1<br>2</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Grate</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Acute rheumatic fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Difficulties with micturition</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Infestation by parasitic worms</td><td>Flower</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don</td><td>Apocynaceae</td><td>FC518</td><td>Mod</td><td>pervenche (French)</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Centotheca lapacea (L.) Desv</td><td>Poaceae</td><td>FC565</td><td>Ind</td><td>'ohé'ohé, piripiri mou'a, ofe'ofe</td><td>1</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Citrus x sinensis (L.) Osbeck</td><td>Rutaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>'ānani</td><td>2</td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Citrus x aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle</td><td rowspan="10">Rutaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC495</td><td rowspan="10">Mod</td><td rowspan="10">tāporo</td><td rowspan="10">30</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>COVID-19</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral, Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Cocos nucifera L</td><td rowspan="4">Arecaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC487</td><td>Pol</td><td rowspan="4">ha'ari</td><td rowspan="4">47</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Coconut milk/ Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)/Boil</td><td>Oral/Oral, massage/Local application</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Bark/Coconut sprout/Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Fermentation/None</td><td>Oral/Oral, local application</td><td>6</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Centotheca lapacea (L.) Desv</td><td>Poaceae</td><td>FC565</td><td>Ind</td><td>'ohé'ohé, piripiri mou'a, ofe'ofe</td><td>1</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Citrus x sinensis (L.) Osbeck</td><td>Rutaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>'ānani</td><td>2</td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Citrus x aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle</td><td rowspan="10">Rutaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC495</td><td rowspan="10">Mod</td><td rowspan="10">tāporo</td><td rowspan="10">30</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>COVID-19</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral, Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Press (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Cocos nucifera L</td><td rowspan="4">Arecaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC487</td><td rowspan="4">Pol</td><td rowspan="4">ha'ari</td><td rowspan="4">47</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Coconut milk/ Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)/Boil</td><td>Oral/Oral, massage/Local application</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Bark/Coconut sprout/Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Fermentation/None</td><td>Oral/Oral, local application</td><td>6</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/None</td><td>Massage/Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders (other)</td><td>Coconut milk/ Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Coconut milk</td><td>Cook (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Coconut milk/ Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Coconut milk/ Fruit</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Dislocation</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/None</td><td>Massage/Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders (other)</td><td>Coconut milk/ Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Coconut milk</td><td>Cook (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Coconut milk/ Coconut water</td><td>Cook (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Coconut milk/ Fruit</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Dislocation</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Codiaeum variegatum (L.) A.Juss</td><td>Euphorbiaceae</td><td>FC561</td><td>Mod</td><td>croton</td><td>4</td><td>Heat rash<br>Ranula (salivary cyst)<br>Sprain</td><td>Coconut milk<br>Coconut water</td><td>None<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Coffea arabica L</td><td>Rubiaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>taofe, caféier (French)</td><td>2</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus amboinicus Lour</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC562</td><td>Mod</td><td>niauri</td><td>4</td><td>Umbilical cord care<br>Vaginal and urethral discharge<br>Zoster</td><td>Coconut sprout<br>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus barbatus (Andrews) Benth. ex G.Don</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC516</td><td>Mod</td><td>plante doliprane/ sauge doliprane</td><td>1</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC534</td><td>Mod</td><td>terevete</td><td>8</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature<br>Cough<br>Nasopharyngitis, cold<br>Otitis<br>Restlessness, irritability, jerk<br>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf<br>Leaf<br>Leaf<br>Leaf<br>Leaf</td><td>Boil<br>Boil<br>Boil<br>Boil<br>Boil</td><td>Bath/Steam bath<br>Bath, massage</td><td>2<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wound, cut, burn<br>Fever</td><td>Leaf<br>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Boil<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Smell<br>Bath, steam bath<br>Bath, steam bath</td><td>1<br>1<br>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)/Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Local application</td><td>5<br>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Codiaeum variegatum (L.) A.Juss</td><td>Euphorbiaceae</td><td>FC561</td><td>Mod</td><td>croton</td><td>4</td><td>Heat rash<br>Ranula (salivary cyst)<br>Sprain</td><td>Coconut milk<br>Coconut water</td><td>None<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Coffea arabica L</td><td>Rubiaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>taofe, caféier (French)</td><td>2</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus amboinicus Lour</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC562</td><td>Mod</td><td>niauri</td><td>4</td><td>Umbilical cord care<br>Vaginal and urethral discharge<br>Zoster</td><td>Coconut sprout<br>Coconut water</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus barbatus (Andrews) Benth. ex G.Don</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC516</td><td>Mod</td><td>plante doliprane/ sauge doliprane</td><td>1</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC534</td><td>Mod</td><td>terevete</td><td>8</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature<br>Cough</td><td>Leaf<br>Leaf</td><td>Boil<br>Boil</td><td>Bath/Steam bath<br>Bath, massage</td><td>2<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Nasopharyngitis, cold<br>Otitis<br>Restlessness, irritability, jerk<br>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf<br>Leaf</td><td>Boil<br>Boil</td><td>Bath, steam bath<br>Smell</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wound, cut, burn<br>Fever</td><td>Leaf<br>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Boil</td><td>Bath, steam bath<br>Smell</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush</td><td>Local application<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application<br>Local application</td><td>3<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Colorasia esculenta (L.) Schott</td><td>Araceae</td><td>FC524</td><td>Pol</td><td>taro</td><td>1</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cordia subcordata Lam</td><td>Boraginaceae</td><td>FC504</td><td>Ind</td><td>tou</td><td>21</td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral/Oral, local application</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Bark, leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Heat rash</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Indigestion</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin lesions</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath, Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)/Rub in hot water</td><td>Bath, local application, massage, water spraying/ Bath, massage/ Bath/Oral, bath/Oral, massage, water spraying</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A.Chev</td><td>Asparagaceae</td><td>FC484</td><td>Pol</td><td>'auti</td><td>25</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Colorasia esculenta (L.) Schott</td><td>Araceae</td><td>FC524</td><td>Pol</td><td>taro</td><td>1</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cordia subcordata Lam</td><td>Boraginaceae</td><td>FC504</td><td>Ind</td><td>tou</td><td>21</td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral/Oral, local application</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Bark, leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Heat rash</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Indigestion</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin lesions</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Bath, Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)/Rub in hot water</td><td>Bath, local application, massage, water spraying/ Bath, massage/ Bath/Oral, bath/Oral, massage, water spraying</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A.Chev</td><td>Asparagaceae</td><td>FC484</td><td>Pol</td><td>'auti</td><td>25</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Curcuma longa L</td><td rowspan="10">Zingiberaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC522</td><td rowspan="10">Pol</td><td rowspan="10">ré'a tahiti</td><td rowspan="10">29</td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Crush, heat/Rub</td><td>Bath/Bath, local application/Bath, massage</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Oral, massage</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Colic</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>None</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Rub in water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever, muscle soreness</td><td>Leaf</td><td>None</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>ND</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush, press</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Zoster</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral/Local application</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>COVID-19</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (pu'a roto)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Curcuma longa L</td><td rowspan="10">Zingiberaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC522</td><td rowspan="10">Pol</td><td rowspan="10">ré'a tahiti</td><td rowspan="10">29</td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil/Crush, heat/Rub</td><td>Bath/Bath, local application/Bath, massage</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Oral, massage</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Colic</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>None</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Rub in water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever, muscle soreness</td><td>Leaf</td><td>None</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>ND</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush, press</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Zoster</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral/Local application</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>COVID-19</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (pu'a roto)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Cyperus javanicus Houtt</td><td rowspan="10">Cyperaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC537</td><td rowspan="10">Ind</td><td rowspan="10">mō'u</td><td rowspan="10">6</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Heat rash</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary tract infection</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal prutit</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Cyperus min-dorensis (Steud.) Huygh</td><td rowspan="4">Davalliaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC555</td><td rowspan="4">Ind</td><td rowspan="4">ti'ati'amou'a, titi</td><td rowspan="4">10</td><td>Wound, cut, burn</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Inflorescence stem</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral, bath</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>ND</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Inflorescence</td><td>Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral, massage</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cyperus min-dorensis (Steud.) Huygh</td><td rowspan="2">Davalliaceae</td><td rowspan="2">FC555</td><td rowspan="2">Ind</td><td rowspan="2">ti'ati'amou'a, titi</td><td rowspan="2">10</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Local application/Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Cyperus min-dorensis (Steud.) Huygh</td><td rowspan="5">Davalliaceae</td><td rowspan="5">FC555</td><td rowspan="5">Ind</td><td rowspan="5">ti'ati'amou'a, titi</td><td rowspan="5">10</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Press</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Cyperus javanicus Houtt</td><td rowspan="10">Cyperaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC537</td><td rowspan="10">Ind</td><td rowspan="10">mō'u</td><td rowspan="10">6</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Heat rash</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary tract infection</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal prutit</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Cyperus min-dorensis (Steud.) Huygh</td><td rowspan="4">Davalliaceae</td><td rowspan="4">FC555</td><td rowspan="4">Ind</td><td rowspan="4">ti'ati'amou'a, titi</td><td rowspan="4">10</td><td>Wound, cut, burn</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Inflorescence stem</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral, bath</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>ND</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Inflorescence</td><td>Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral, massage</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cyperus min-dorensis (Steud.) Huygh</td><td rowspan="2">Davalliaceae</td><td rowspan="2">FC555</td><td rowspan="2">Ind</td><td rowspan="2">ti'ati'amou'a, titi</td><td rowspan="2">10</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Local application/Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Cyperus min-dorensis (Steud.) Huygh</td><td rowspan="5">Davalliaceae</td><td rowspan="5">FC555</td><td rowspan="5">Ind</td><td rowspan="5">ti'ati'amou'a, titi</td><td rowspan="5">10</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Press</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntze</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Pol</td><td>ta'ata'ahiara</td><td>5</td><td>Teething<br>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Rhizome<br>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)<br>Dislocation</td><td>Whole plant<br>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Local application</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lower abdominal disorders<br>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Leafbud<br>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Euphorbia hirta L</td><td>Euphorbiaceae</td><td>FC502</td><td>Mod</td><td>'ea'ea</td><td>1</td><td>Bronchitis, productive cough<br>Pustular rash</td><td>Leaf<br>Leaf</td><td>Chew<br>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Bath</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ficus prolixa G.Forst</td><td>Moraceae</td><td>FC563</td><td>Ind</td><td>'orá</td><td>3</td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)<br>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf<br>ND</td><td>Boil<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath<br>ND</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ficus tinctoria G.Forst</td><td>Moraceae</td><td>FC554</td><td>Pol</td><td>mati</td><td>7</td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)<br>Eczema<br>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation<br>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders<br>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fig (sap)<br>Fig<br>Fig (sap)<br>Fig (sap)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Boil<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Oral/Oral, local application<br>Bath<br>Oral</td><td>Oral/Oral, local application<br>Bath<br>Oral</td><td>3<br>1<br>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="6">Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntze</td><td rowspan="6">Asteraceae</td><td rowspan="6">NC</td><td rowspan="6">Pol</td><td rowspan="6">ta'ata'ahiara</td><td rowspan="6">5</td><td>Teething</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dislocation</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Euphorbia hirta L</td><td rowspan="3">Euphorbiaceae</td><td rowspan="3">FC502</td><td rowspan="3">Mod</td><td rowspan="3">'ea'ea</td><td rowspan="3">1</td><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Chew</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Pustular rash</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Ficus prolixa G.Forst</td><td rowspan="3">Moraceae</td><td rowspan="3">FC563</td><td rowspan="3">Ind</td><td rowspan="3">'orá</td><td rowspan="3">3</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>ND</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Fig (sap)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Oral, local application</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Fig</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Ficus tinctoria G.Forst</td><td rowspan="3">Moraceae</td><td rowspan="3">FC554</td><td rowspan="3">Pol</td><td rowspan="3">mati</td><td rowspan="3">7</td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Fig (sap)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Fig (sap)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fig (sap)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gardenia taitensis<br>DC</td><td>Rubiaceae</td><td>FC493</td><td>Pol</td><td>tiare tahiti</td><td>40</td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Flowerbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, local<br>application,<br>massage/Bath,<br>massage/Bath,<br>massage, oral/<br>Bath, massage,<br>oral, water, spraying/<br>Bath, oral/<br>Local application/<br>Massage,<br>water spraying/<br>Oral/Oral, local<br>application, massage/Smell</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Flower/Flowerbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Oral, bath,<br>water spraying/<br>Oral, local application</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Filariasis</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application/Oral, local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush</td><td>Bath, massage/<br>Smell</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral, local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gardenia taitensis<br>DC</td><td>Rubiaceae</td><td>FC493</td><td>Pol</td><td>tiare tahiti</td><td>40</td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Flowerbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, local<br>application,<br>massage/Bath,<br>massage/Bath,<br>massage, oral/<br>Bath, massage,<br>oral, water, spraying/<br>Bath, oral/<br>Local application/<br>Massage,<br>water spraying/<br>Oral/Oral, local<br>application, massage/Smell</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Flower/Flowerbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Oral, bath,<br>water spraying/<br>Oral, local application</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Filariasis</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application/Oral, local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/<br>Crush</td><td>Bath, massage/<br>Smell</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Flowerbud/Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral, local application</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Heliotropium arboreum<br>(Blanco) Mabb</td><td rowspan="10">Boraginaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC521</td><td rowspan="10">Ind</td><td rowspan="10">tāhinu</td><td rowspan="10">14</td><td>Dyspnea</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Massage, water spraying</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Massage, water spraying</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Scrotal swelling</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Gargling/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Tonsillitis, sore throat</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Gargling/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Wound, cut, burn</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath, massage/ Bath, massage, oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Hibiscus x archeri</td><td>Malvaceae</td><td>FC514</td><td>Mod</td><td>'aute</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>W.Watson</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Heliotropium arboreum (Blanco) Mabb</td><td rowspan="10">Boraginaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC521</td><td rowspan="10">Ind</td><td rowspan="10">tāhinu</td><td rowspan="10">14</td><td>Dyspnea</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Massage, water spraying</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Massage, water spraying</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Scrotal swelling</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Flowerbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Gargling/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Tonsillitis, sore throat</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Gargling/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Wound, cut, burn</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath, massage/ Bath, massage, oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Hibiscus x archeri</td><td>Malvaceae</td><td>FC514</td><td>Mod</td><td>'aute</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>W.Watson</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. "Carna- tion"</td><td rowspan="10">Malvaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC531</td><td rowspan="10">Mod</td><td rowspan="10">'aute 'ü'umu</td><td rowspan="10">33</td><td rowspan="10">Restlessness, irrita- bility, jerk</td><td rowspan="10">Flower/Leaf</td><td rowspan="10">Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td rowspan="10">Bath/Bath, local application/Bath, massage/Bath, massage, oral/ Bath, massage, oral, water spray- ing/Bath, oral/ Local application, massage, oral/ Massage, water spraying/Steam bath</td><td rowspan="10">2</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Massage, water spraying</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Nasopharyngitis, cold</td><td>Boil</td><td>Steam bath</td></tr><tr><td>Scrotal swelling</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Chicken pox</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Crush, fermenta- tion</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (not specified)</td><td>Cook (in mixture)</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td>Skin infections (due to mosquito bites)</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hibiscus tiliaceus L</td><td rowspan="2">Malvaceae</td><td rowspan="2">FC509</td><td rowspan="2">Ind</td><td rowspan="2">pūrau</td><td rowspan="2">7</td><td rowspan="2">Restlessness, irrita- bility, jerk</td><td rowspan="2">Leaf</td><td rowspan="2">Boil (in mixture)</td><td rowspan="2">Local application</td><td rowspan="2">2</td></tr><tr><td>Root</td><td>Bath, massage</td></tr><tr><td>Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosberg</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>FC523</td><td>Pol</td><td>māpē</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="12">Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. "Carna- tion"</td><td rowspan="12">Malvaceae</td><td rowspan="12">FC531</td><td rowspan="12">Mod</td><td rowspan="12">'aute 'ü'umu</td><td rowspan="12">33</td><td rowspan="12">Restlessness, irrita- bility, jerk</td><td rowspan="12">Flower/Leaf</td><td rowspan="12">Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td rowspan="12">Bath/Bath, local application/Bath, massage/Bath, massage, oral/ Bath, massage, oral, water spray- ing/Bath, oral/ Local application, massage, oral/ Massage, water spraying/Steam bath</td><td rowspan="12">2</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, oral, water spraying</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Flower</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Nasopharyngitis, cold</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Scrotal swelling</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Chicken pox</td><td>Flower</td><td>Boil</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Bark, leafbud</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Bark</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (not specified)</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush, fermenta- tion</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Skin infections (due to mosquito bites)</td><td>Flower</td><td>Cook (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Root</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Hibiscus tiliaceus L</td><td rowspan="2">Malvaceae</td><td rowspan="2">FC509</td><td rowspan="2">Ind</td><td rowspan="2">pūrau</td><td rowspan="2">7</td><td rowspan="2">Restlessness, irrita- bility, jerk</td><td rowspan="2">Leaf</td><td rowspan="2">Boil (in mixture)</td><td rowspan="2">Crush (in mix- ture)</td><td rowspan="2">Local application</td></tr><tr><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage</td></tr><tr><td>Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosberg</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>FC523</td><td>Pol</td><td>māpē</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Leucas decemden-tata (Willd.) Sm</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC549</td><td>Pol niu</td><td></td><td>8</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Aerial part/Stem/ Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush and heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Oral, massage</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush, fermentation (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Dislocation</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Aerial part</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Macropiper latifolium (L.f.) Miq</td><td>Piperaceae</td><td>FC559</td><td>Ind 'a'ava raro</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Mangifera indica L</td><td>Anacardiaceae</td><td>FC500</td><td>Mod vi popa'á õhure pi'o</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Grate</td><td>Local application, oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Mentha sp.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod õtime</td><td>4</td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Whole plant</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Aerial part/Leaf</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Microsorum grossum (Langsd. & Fisch.) S.B.Andrews</td><td>Polypodiaceae</td><td>FC505</td><td>Ind metuapua'a</td><td>24</td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Rhizome</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage, water spraying/Local application/Oral</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Local application/Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>In mixture</td><td>ND</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf/Rhizome</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, local application/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Leucas decemden-tata (Willd.) Sm</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC549</td><td>Pol niu</td><td></td><td>8</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Aerial part/Stem/ Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush and heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Oral, massage</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush, fermentation (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Dislocation</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Aerial part</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Macropiper latifo-lium (L.f.) Miq</td><td>Piperaceae</td><td>FC559</td><td>Ind 'a'a'ava raro</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Mangifera indica L</td><td>Anacardiaceae</td><td>FC500</td><td>Mod vi popa'a'ohure pi'o</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Grate</td><td>Local application, oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Mentha sp.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod 'o'time</td><td>4</td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Whole plant</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Aerial part/Leaf</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Microsorum grossum (Langsd. & Fisch.) S.B.Andrews</td><td>Polypodiaceae</td><td>FC505</td><td>Ind metuapua'a</td><td>24</td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Rhizome</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage, water spraying/Local application/Oral</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Local application/Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>In mixture</td><td>ND</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Teething</td><td>Leaf/Rhizome</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, local application/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Morinda citrifolia L</td><td rowspan="10">Rubiaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC488</td><td rowspan="10">Ind</td><td rowspan="10">noni, nono</td><td rowspan="10">14</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/ Fruit (unripe)/ Fruit (ripe), Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush/None</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>COVID-19</td><td>Fruit (ripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/ Fruit (ripe), Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Fruit (ripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath, steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Rectal prolapse</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (due to mosquito bite)</td><td>Root</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Flower, leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Filariasis</td><td>Flower/Stern</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Fruit (immature)</td><td>None</td><td>Bath, steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Aerial part/Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ocimum basilicum L</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC543</td><td>Mod</td><td>miri</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Moringa oleifera Lam</td><td>Moringaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>moringa</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Musa x paradisiaca L</td><td>Musaceae</td><td>FC491</td><td>Mod</td><td>rnei'a</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Morinda citrifolia L</td><td rowspan="10">Rubiaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC488</td><td rowspan="10">Ind</td><td rowspan="10">noni, nono</td><td rowspan="10">14</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/ Fruit (unripe)/ Fruit (ripe), Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush/None</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>COVID-19</td><td>Fruit (ripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/ Fruit (ripe), Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit (ripe)/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of reduced temperature</td><td>Fruit (ripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath, steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Rectal prolapse</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (due to mosquito bite)</td><td>Root</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Flower, leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Filariasis</td><td>Flower/Stern</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Fruit (immature)</td><td>None</td><td>Bath, steam bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Aerial part/Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ocimum basilicum L</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC543</td><td>Mod</td><td>miri</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Moringa oleifera Lam</td><td>Moringaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mod</td><td>moringa</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Musa x paradisiaca L</td><td>Musaceae</td><td>FC491</td><td>Mod</td><td>mei'a</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Oxalis corniculata L</td><td>Oxalidaceae</td><td>FC517</td><td>Pol</td><td>pātoa 'ava 'ava</td><td>2</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature<br>Cough</td><td>Aerial part<br>Whole plant</td><td>Boil<br>Crush</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Pandanus tectorius var. laevis Warb</td><td>Pandanaceae</td><td>FC564</td><td>Pol</td><td>paëore</td><td>1</td><td>Fever<br>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant<br>Shoot</td><td>Crush<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Local application</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Paspalum vaginatum Sw</td><td>Poaceae</td><td>FC553</td><td>Ind</td><td>matie tātahi</td><td>4</td><td>Asthma<br>Effects of reduced temperature<br>Flariasis</td><td>Leafbud<br>Aerial part<br>Aerial part</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Boil</td><td>Oral<br>Oral<br>Steam bath</td><td>1<br>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td>Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.Gómez</td><td>Polygonaceae</td><td>FC541</td><td>Ind</td><td>tamore, pitorea</td><td>9</td><td>Umbilical cord care<br>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Aerial part/Leafbud/Stem/Leafbud<br>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Ora/Local application, oral</td><td>4<br>2</td></tr><tr><td>Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb.*</td><td>Phyllanthaceae</td><td>FC532</td><td>Mod</td><td>moemoe</td><td>7</td><td>Lower abdominal disorders<br>Sprain</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud<br>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Local application</td><td>2<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Aerial part/Whole plant</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage, water spraying/Massage, water spraying</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Leaf/Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Heat/Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Physalis angulata L</td><td>Solanaceae</td><td>FC499</td><td>Pol</td><td>tāmaru ha'ari</td><td>1</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Oxalis corniculata L</td><td>Oxalidaceae</td><td>FC517</td><td>Pol</td><td>pātoa 'ava 'ava</td><td>2</td><td>Effects of reduced temperature<br>Cough</td><td>Aerial part<br>Whole plant</td><td>Boil<br>Crush</td><td>Steam bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Pandanus tectorius var. laevis Warb</td><td>Pandanaceae</td><td>FC564</td><td>Pol</td><td>paëore</td><td>1</td><td>Fever<br>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant<br>Shoot</td><td>Crush<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Paspalum vaginatum Sw</td><td>Poaceae</td><td>FC553</td><td>Ind</td><td>matie tātahi</td><td>4</td><td>Asthma<br>Cough<br>Effects of reduced temperature<br>Flariasis</td><td>Leafbud<br>Aerial part<br>Aerial part</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Boil</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.Gómez</td><td>Polygonaceae</td><td>FC541</td><td>Ind</td><td>tamore, pitorea</td><td>9</td><td>Umbilical cord care<br>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Aerial part/Leafbud/Stem/Leafbud<br>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb.*</td><td>Phyllanthaceae</td><td>FC532</td><td>Mod</td><td>moemoe</td><td>7</td><td>Lower abdominal disorders<br>Sprain</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud<br>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Aerial part/Whole plant</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Leaf/Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Heat/Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage, water spraying/Massage, water spraying</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Physalis angulata L</td><td>Solanaceae</td><td>FC499</td><td>Pol</td><td>tāmaru ha'ari</td><td>1</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Premna serratifolia L.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC548</td><td>Ind</td><td>'ävaro</td><td>1</td><td>Pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Psidium guajava L.</td><td>Myrtaceae</td><td>FC567</td><td>Mod</td><td>tuava, tuvava</td><td>13</td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk<br>Ranula (salivary cyst)<br>Asthma</td><td>Fruit/Leaf/Leafbud<br>Leafbud<br>Fruit</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage, oral/Oral<br>Local application/Oral<br>Oral</td><td>4<br>3<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Bark, leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever<br>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leafbud<br>Leafbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)<br>Chew/Crush</td><td>Oral<br>Local application</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders<br>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Leaf<br>Fruit</td><td>Boil (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Fruit (ripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)<br>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Scrotal swelling<br>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leaf<br>Leaf/Whole plant</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath<br>Local application/Oral</td><td>1<br>8</td></tr><tr><td>Rorippa sarmen-tosa (Sol. ex G.Forst. ex DC.)<br>J.F.Macbr</td><td>Brassicaceae</td><td>FC530</td><td>Ind</td><td>pätoa pürahi, moahau'a'ino</td><td>15</td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)<br>Tonsillitis, sore throat<br>Asthma</td><td>Whole plant<br>Leaf/Whole plant<br>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation<br>Crush/Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral<br>Gargling/Oral<br>Oral</td><td>2<br>2<br>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Premna serratifolia L.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>FC548</td><td>Ind</td><td>'ävaro</td><td>1</td><td>Pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Psidium guajava L.</td><td>Myrtaceae</td><td>FC567</td><td>Mod</td><td>tuava, tuvava</td><td>13</td><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk<br>Ranula (salivary cyst)<br>Asthma</td><td>Fruit/Leaf/Leafbud<br>Leafbud<br>Fruit</td><td>Boil/Boil (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)<br>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage, oral/Oral<br>Local application/Oral<br>Oral</td><td>4<br>3<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Bark, leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever<br>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leafbud<br>Leafbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)<br>Chew/Crush</td><td>Oral<br>Local application</td><td>1<br>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis</td><td>Fruit (ripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Scrotal swelling</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Rorippa sarmen-tosa (Sol. ex G.Forst. ex DC.)<br>J.F.Macbr</td><td>Brassicaceae</td><td>FC530</td><td>Ind</td><td>pätoa pürahi, moahau'a'ino</td><td>15</td><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Leaf/Whole plant</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application/Oral</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Tonsillitis, sore throat</td><td>Leaf/Whole plant</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Gargling/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Rosa sp.</td><td rowspan="3">Rosaceae</td><td rowspan="3">FC550</td><td rowspan="3">Mod</td><td rowspan="3">rōti 'ute'ute</td><td rowspan="3">7</td><td>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Yellow lip</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Saccharum officinarum L</td><td rowspan="6">Poaceae</td><td rowspan="6">FC520</td><td rowspan="6">Pol</td><td rowspan="6">tō</td><td rowspan="6">33</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush with brown sugar</td><td>Local application/Local application, oral/Oral/Smell</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud/ Stern</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage/Bath, massage, local application/Bath, massage, oral/ Bath, massage, oral/water spraying/Bath, oral/ Local application, massage, oral/ Local application, oral/ Massage, water spraying</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Heat/Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Stem</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Local application, oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Local application, oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Stem</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Rosa sp.</td><td rowspan="3">Rosaceae</td><td rowspan="3">FC550</td><td rowspan="3">Mod</td><td rowspan="3">rōti 'ute'ute</td><td rowspan="3">7</td><td>Cryptorchidism</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Yellow lip</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Saccharum officinarum L</td><td rowspan="10">Poaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC520</td><td rowspan="10">Pol</td><td rowspan="10">tō</td><td rowspan="10">33</td><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush with brown sugar</td><td>Local application/Local application, oral/Oral/Smell</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Leaf/Leafbud/ Stem</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Bath, massage/Bath, massage, local application/Bath, massage, oral/ Bath, massage, oral/water spraying/Bath, oral/ Local application, massage, oral/ Local application, oral/ Massage, water spraying</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Heat/Heat (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Stem</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Local application, oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Umbilical cord care</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral/Local application, oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Stem</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Crush (in mixture), fermentation</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3** (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Spondias dulcis L</td><td rowspan="10">Anacardiaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC501</td><td rowspan="10">Pol</td><td rowspan="10">vi tahiti</td><td rowspan="10">23</td><td>Teething</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, oral, water spraying/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Massage, water spraying</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application, oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Fruit (unripe)/ Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage/ Bath, oral/Gargling/Oral</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Syzygium malacense (L.) Merr. &amp; L.M.Perry</td><td rowspan="7">Myrtaceae</td><td rowspan="7">FC529</td><td rowspan="7">Pol</td><td rowspan="7">'ahi'a</td><td rowspan="7">18</td><td>Tonsillitis, sore throat</td><td>Fruit (unripe)/ Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush/Leaf</td><td>Bath, massage/ Gargling/Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush</td><td>Bath, massage/ Bath, oral/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leaf/Leaf, Leaf with gall</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Spondias dulcis L</td><td rowspan="10">Anacardiaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC501</td><td rowspan="10">Pol</td><td rowspan="10">vi tahiti</td><td rowspan="10">23</td><td>Teething</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, oral, water spraying/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Bronchitis, productive cough</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Boil (in mixture)</td><td>Massage, water spraying</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Local application, oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Stem</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Fruit (unripe)/ Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage/ Bath, oral/Gargling/Oral</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Syzygium malacense (L.) Merr. &amp; L.M.Perry</td><td rowspan="5">Myrtaceae</td><td rowspan="5">FC529</td><td rowspan="5">Pol</td><td rowspan="5">'ahi'a</td><td rowspan="5">18</td><td>Tonsillitis, sore throat</td><td>Fruit (unripe)/ Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush/Leaf</td><td>Bath, massage/ Gargling/Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Ranula (salivary cyst)</td><td>Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Fruit/Leaf</td><td>Boil (in mixture)/ Crush</td><td>Bath, massage/ Bath, oral/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Leaf/Leaf, Leaf with gall</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Terminalia catappa L</td><td rowspan="10">Combretaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC558</td><td rowspan="10">Mod</td><td rowspan="10">'autara'a</td><td rowspan="10">2</td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Gargling</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>Leaf with gall</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal prunt</td><td>Leaf with gall</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Acute blistering skin eruption</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Filariasis</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage, oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol.ex Corréa</td><td rowspan="2">Malvaceae</td><td rowspan="2">FC508</td><td rowspan="2">Ind</td><td rowspan="2">miro</td><td rowspan="2">15</td><td>Fever</td><td>Fruit/Fruit (sap)/ Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/ Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath/Bath, local application/ Oral/Oral, local application</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Heat rash</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Chicken pox</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Eczema</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Eye disorders</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Terminalia catappa L</td><td rowspan="10">Combretaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC558</td><td rowspan="10">Mod</td><td rowspan="10">'autara'a</td><td rowspan="10">2</td><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Eczema</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flu</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Menstrual cycle bleeding disorders</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Gargling</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary incontinence</td><td>Leaf with gall</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal prunt</td><td>Leaf with gall</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Acute blistering skin eruption</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Boil</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Filariasis</td><td>Leafbud</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath, massage, oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol.ex Corréa</td><td rowspan="2">Malvaceae</td><td rowspan="2">FC508</td><td rowspan="2">Ind</td><td rowspan="2">miro</td><td rowspan="2">15</td><td>Fever</td><td>Fruit/Fruit (sap)/ Fruit (unripe)</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/ Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath/Bath, local application/ Oral/Oral, local application</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Furuncles, abscess and others disorders with pus exudation</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Boil/Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Bath/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Heat rash</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Chicken pox</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Eczema</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Eye disorders</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Torenia crustacea (L.) Cham. & Schltdl</td><td rowspan="10">Linderniaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC542</td><td rowspan="10">Pol</td><td rowspan="10">haeha, piriate</td><td rowspan="10">7</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (due to mosquito bite)</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal pruit</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Zingiber officinale Roscoe</td><td rowspan="5">Zingiberaceae</td><td rowspan="5">FC499</td><td rowspan="5">Mod</td><td rowspan="5">re'a tinitó</td><td rowspan="5">5</td><td>COVID-19</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Heat, and crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

A slash ("/") corresponds to the term "or"; a comma (,") correspond to the term "and"; Ind. = Indigenous; Mod = Modern introduction; NC = Not Collected; ND = Not documented; Pol = Polynesian introduction

* The plant called "moemoe" in Tahitian includes different species such as *Phyllanthus amarus*, *P. tenellus*, *P. virgatus*, and *P. urinaria*. In our study, we only collected *P. tenellus*
<table><caption>**Table 3 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Origin</th><th>Tahitian name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plant</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of UR for each disorder treated</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Torenia crustacea (L.) Cham. & Schltdl</td><td rowspan="10">Linderniaceae</td><td rowspan="10">FC542</td><td rowspan="10">Pol</td><td rowspan="10">haeha, piriate</td><td rowspan="10">7</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Local application</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (he'a)</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Skin disorders (due to mosquito bite)</td><td>Fruit (sap)</td><td>Cut and mix with water</td><td>Bath</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lower abdominal disorders</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Sinusitis</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Restlessness, irritability, jerk</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal pruit</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Zingiber officinale Roscoe</td><td rowspan="5">Zingiberaceae</td><td rowspan="5">FC499</td><td rowspan="5">Mod</td><td rowspan="5">re'a tinitó</td><td rowspan="5">5</td><td>COVID-19</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (he'a)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Detoxifying agent (puaroto)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)/Heat, and crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal and urethral discharge</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush (in mixture)</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

A slash ("/") corresponds to the term "or"; a comma (,") correspond to the term "and"; Ind. = Indigenous; Mod = Modern introduction; NC = Not Collected; ND = Not documented; Pol = Polynesian introduction

* The plant called "moemoe" in Tahitian includes different species such as *Phyllanthus amarus*, *P. tenellus*, *P. virgatus*, and *P. urinaria*. In our study, we only collected *P. tenellus*
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2** Main methods of preparation used in Polynesian traditional medicine as reported by the 86 participants from the five islands in the Society archipelago. **A** Mortar and pestle used to crush the ingredients; **B** Cotton cloth used to express the juice from the crushed ingredients; and **C** Method of assembling herbal ingredients before putting them in boiling water for decoction</figcaption></figure>

bath and massage (10 species). In terms of citations, oral administration ranked first (370 UR), followed by bath (121 UR), local application (86 UR), bath and massage (23 UR), and bath and oral (20 UR). Although oral administration and massage are largely described in the Polynesian literature [1, 2, 5], taking a bath was not so common in adults. Therefore, we can hypothesize that this method of administration is mainly used for babies and children.

Of the 469 reported remedies, 223 (47.5%) were administered for 3 days, 11 (2.3%) were advised to be taken until healing, 5 (1.1%) until the remedy is finished, 3 were administered for 7 days, 3 others were administered for

1 day, and 3 others were administered as much as the patient wanted. For 212 (45.2%) of the remedies, no duration of intake was reported. The 3-day rules of administration are one of the most remarkable specificity of Polynesian pharmacopeia [14, 22]. However, it does not seem to be limited to the French Polynesian islands as this practice was also described in the Cook Islands [20]. This could be explained by a link to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, albeit it is difficult to ascertain this information [5].

Regarding their biogeographical origin, 28 (41.8%) plant species were introduced by Europeans and other