high enough to separate, e.g., NO⁺ peak from O₂⁺ peak) within 30 minutes for keV ranges and 10 minutes for cold ions.

5. Employ a high mass resolution design of m/Δm ≥ 60, to separate Al⁺ (m = 27) from Si⁺ (m = 28) or N₂⁺ (m = 28) at least above the ionosphere and in the ring current. The CELIAS/MTOF instrument on the SOHO spacecraft provided such a mass resolution for solar wind ions, i.e., for 0.5–30 keV/nucleon ions (Hovestadt et al. 1995). There are designs and prototyping for such instruments that allow even for m/Δm > 100 (Wurz et al. 1998). Rosetta was equipped with a design for cold (< 10 eV) ions (Balsiger et al. 2007). The technology is also available for hot (0.05–10 keV) ions in Kaguya/IMA (Saito et al. 2010), i.e., m/Δm > 15, and improved to m/Δm > 40 for Mio (launched 2018), and m/Δm > 100 for MMX (to be launched in 2026).

6. Time resolution must be sufficient to separate different possible supply routes (e.g., the direct supply from the ionosphere and detoured supply through the tail) and to complete the traversal over each region. Here, the mass resolution and time resolution are related, and higher energy ranges generally require longer integration time due to the much lower ion flux in the Earth's magnetosphere. If we require as low as m/Δm > 15, instruments that fulfill this requirement (tens of minutes to hours to move from one region to another for high-altitude mission) are available almost all energy ranges.

The monitoring of the heavy ions is needed both in the magnetospheric region and in the possible source region. While the solar wind is being monitored at L1 for space weather monitoring purposes, a new monitoring spacecraft or base is needed for the Moon and the upper atmosphere (ionosphere and upper mesosphere). Here, the ionosphere includes both lower altitudes (thermosphere part) and above the exobase. To correlate any "event" in the source region with the magnetospheric observation, time resolution must be comparable or better than such an "event" duration, which means a time resolution < 10 minutes (e.g., substorms) for ionospheric origin low energy ions and hours for Moon origin ions or magnetospheric high-energy ions. This imposes a severer requirement on the instrument sensitivity because the STICS instruments on board Geotail and Wind (the only instruments that detected metallic ions in the Earth's magnetosphere) detected Fe⁺ ions only at the level of one count per half a month on average (see Sect. 4.3.1). We need to improve the detection ability (sensitivity) of the metallic ions of this energy range (> tens of keV) by two-three orders of magnitude.

On the other hand, the duration of heavy ion events in the magnetosphere can be as long as a few days, i.e., the time scale of magnetic storms. Also, CME and CIR last from several hours to a day. The question is then whether the heavy ions are supplied intermittently or continuously, or simply at one time with a slow and long decay. To distinguish between them, we need continuous monitoring (i.e., for the same spacecraft to return to the same region) over several days in raw. These time-scale requirements limit the types of acceptable spacecraft orbits.

## 5.3 Desired Missions and Observations

For in-situ observations, the best is to have dedicated missions, even as a secondary objective of any mission. Alternatively, placing a set of instruments on non-science missions such as Earth Observation satellites and Space Safety missions (including geostationary ones) or the transfer spacecraft to or from the upcoming Lunar Gateway. The current plan for the Lunar Gateway is to be equipped with HERMES (Heliophysics Environmental and Radiation Measurement Experiment Suite) instrument package, comprising also the SPAN-Ai Ion Mass Spectrometer (0.02–40 keV ions, although m/Δm is currently about 10).
In all cases, the key instruments are (1) an ion mass spectrometer with $m/\Delta m > 60$ for a wide mass range of $m/q > 60$, and (2) another ion mass spectrometer of lower mass resolution ($m/\Delta m > 15$) but sufficient angular resolution of at least $22.5^\circ$ ($6^\circ$ is ideal because, for example, this is needed to detect the position where the ions are generated around the Moon), while keeping the mass range up to $m/q > 60$. (3) In addition, adding a total ion flux instrument without mass resolution but with very good $\Delta E/E$ is a good complement for absolute accuracy in density and velocity. The energy range of the instruments is divided into (a) cold, (b) hot up to few tens of keV, and energetic. For the hot ions, it would be wise to divide the design into two different energy ranges to have better energy and mass resolution. In this case, it is also wise to use different detection methods for different (divided) energies. In addition to the ion instruments, the technology of (4) optical limb observation from satellites has also advanced, e.g., sounding of $Mg^+$. If limb observation becomes possible for the other metallic species, this would be a strong satellite tool in the future.

Any of these key instruments are useful to be placed on the other (non-dedicated) missions mentioned above (as a package). As for the dedicated mission, it would be good to have a multi-spacecraft mission with the spacecraft having different orbits, such as low altitude (400–4000 km), mid altitude (2000–30000 km), and high altitude (4–10 $R_E$), as well as the ionospheric source altitude (200–500 km). Monitoring of the possible source population is also important. For the solar wind source, L1 monitoring spacecraft has been providing and will provide key information, whereas for the Moon source, the coming Lunar Gateway would be a good platform to place key instruments like Kaguya/IMA.

If only one spacecraft is available, then the mission should aim for all escaping ions, and have a highly elliptic orbit because most of the Earth observation satellites are in nearly circular orbits, such as the ESCAPE (European SpaceCraft for the study of Atmospheric Particle Escape) mission, which was proposed to ESA in response to the M5 call (Dandouras et al. 2018). The proposed ESCAPE mission spacecraft was designed as a slowly spinning spacecraft on a high inclination 500 km × 33 000 km orbit, i.e., with a perigee at the terrestrial exobase, and was equipped with instrumentation responding to the above criteria. With many ion mass instruments with an optical monitor of the exospheric heavy atoms, it was designed to separate even nitrogen and oxygen. With modern technology, several dips into much lower altitudes to cover the middle thermosphere and ionosphere could be considered, similar to what the MAVEN satellite did on Mars with the Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer (NGIMS) instrument onboard.

The monitoring of the source region is also essential. Since the Moon monitor is mentioned in the previous subsection, we describe here the Earth (ground-based) part of the observations including the ultimate source of meteorites. Here, the important outputs are how much of the source ions may reach the exobase and topside ionosphere. This requires, in addition to monitoring the geomagnetic activity that is already available, (1) instruments and models that provide upward transport of heavy ions in the mesosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere with high spatial resolution, and (2) monitoring of possible source population (although it is only “possible” source with current understanding) of the metallic ions and atoms in the lower part of the ionosphere. A candidate for (1) is modern incoherent scatter radar such as EISCAT_3D, and a candidate for (2) is lidars.

For lidars, we need to keep the existing observation sites, and even expand to more observation sites (ideally two latitudes, at ~80° and ~60°, respectively, in both hemispheres corresponding to two major outflow latitudes that e-POP revealed, and three longitudinal locations to separate temporal and diurnal variations) as well as target species. We particularly need to monitor the $Ca^+$ layer (ionized form) and the Fe layer (originating from mainly meteoroids, but space debris/waste might become detectable the first among all metallic
species), while searching for AlO (the Al species observable by lidar) could be useful for evaluating the contribution from the space debris/waste, although its current AlO density predicted by an atmospheric model is very low (Plane et al. 2021).

Since it is unclear how much transient enhancements of the metal layer influence the total upward transport (such as by meteor showers and large re-entry events of space debris/waste) it is desirable to gain a more complete picture of the current input of mass to the atmosphere. This also includes the observation of the ablation process, by which the material is distributed in the atmosphere. These observations should be performed using many different detection methods (e.g. dust detectors, lidars, radars, optical systems) and missions.

Observations of the actual ablation process are particularly important for evaluating the ablation of space debris/waste in depositing the minor species in the upper ionosphere because modelling and indirect observations suggest that minor species such as Al, Cu, Ge, Li and Pb coming from space debris/waste might already constitute a significant contamination to the naturally occurring particles from meteoroids. To evaluate this effect, a multi-probe experimental flight through a possible ion cloud (measurement by the second probe during its re-entry after re-entry of the first probe that imitates the space debris/waste) would be useful. Such an experiment would gather information about the ablated amount and altitude distribution, as well as the effectiveness of vertical transport of the generated ion cloud. For such an experiment, remote observations from LEO satellites should also be added by aligning the re-entry orbit to the ideal LEO satellite for monitoring. As a similar attempt, the Deadalus proposal (Sarris et al. 2020) can make such an attempt although the target is ionosphere but not mesosphere or stratosphere where the ablation of re-entry objects takes place.

## 5.4 Modelling of Upward Transport of Metallic and Molecular Ions in the Ionosphere and Mesosphere

It would be ideal if one can assimilate the relatively rare observations (e.g., in Sect. 4) into thermospheric and ionospheric transport models. The molecular ion upflow at sub-auroral latitude and sudden expansion of the metal layer (see the example in Sect. 4.3.2 for Na) are examples that need to be reproduced by transport models.

For modelling (particularly for evaluating the ablation of space debris/waste), the source flux for the solar wind and the upper atmospheric molecular ion distribution as the ground state are well understood. Also, in the case of the mesospheric metal layers, the current understanding is quite mature, and we have a long history of measurements and models. As such, for the purpose of transport to the magnetosphere, the mass input to these metal layers by meteoroids is no longer required in modelling except for the increasing input from the ablation of the space debris/waste.

On the other hand, understanding the transport of heavy metals from the mesosphere to higher altitudes needs further understood because of lack of monitoring satellites for these heavy ions for past 40 years as summarized in Table 7. The last capable satellite was DE-2 in early 1980s and flight much higher altitude than exobase. Alongside such additional observations, model development is also needed to evaluate the transport of metallic ions to beyond the exobase. Currently WACCM-X reaches 500 km altitude but not further. One possible development could be to couple such atmospheric and ionospheric models with magnetospheric models of wave-particle interaction. This would extend the modelling regime into the magnetosphere and would yield predictions that could be compared with measurements.

Although the meteoric mass input to the atmosphere is roughly known and it is possible to estimate the contribution from the re-entry of human-made objects (e.g., satellites and
space debris), the details concerning the ablation needs more modelling and observations, and total influx estimates and its composition need refining. Without these details, one cannot evaluate in what way and how much these influxes contribute to the mesospheric metal layer. Such evaluations are particularly important in prognoses of the future evolution of the metal layer by space debris/waste, and hence ultimately by the increasing launch of rockets to the space. Almost no observational work has been done on examining the deposition altitude distribution and composition from deorbiting debris. Thus, comprehensive modelling of the ablation process of space debris/waste is needed. Due to the complex nature of the ablation and the subsequent chemical and physical processing of the injected material, modelling should be complemented and validated by more detailed and numerous observations of spacecraft re-entries, especially of spacecraft resembling typical orbital and mass characteristics of the already numerous low-Earth orbit communication satellites (LCS). Although there are estimates on the total influx of debris based on the mass of objects contained in regions that will deorbit, the deposition altitudes are key to understanding the impact on our atmosphere. In some areas it might be time-critical to intensify the research before the anthropogenic influence due to the increase in re-entry of space debris/waste reaches a level that causes significant perturbations to natural environment in the atmosphere and the space.

# 6 Conclusion

Very minor ions in the magnetosphere carry unique information because of their low flux (no single source is hiding the other source like the case for H⁺ or O⁺), on both the source and the transport route. However, their transport is not well understood because of the lack of observations, which partly results from the instrument capabilities for the terrestrial missions in the past and present. While we need new observations with suitable instrumentation, the technology and design of which are already available and are used in current planetary missions, re-examining the existing datasets, and combining different datasets can also give new insights on this subject. We have shown several examples for such re-examinations of data, e.g., the importance of considering the Moon and space debris/waste as the detectable sources for the metallic ions in the magnetosphere. Therefore, a related database of measurements taken by old instruments listed in Sect. 3 with designs more than 20-years old are still useful, along with more recent models. This in turn means that we need new observations and missions in the near future with available technology, as summarized in Sect. 5.

**Acknowledgements** The work was supported by International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern, through ISSI International Team project #518. JMCP was supported by the European Office of Aerospace Research and Development (award no. FA8655-21-1-7031). We thank Victoria Foss for providing Fig. 18, which is from her thesis research and is to be submitted for publication, and thank Wuhu Feng (National Centre for Atmospheric Science, UK) for providing the WACCM-X data shown in Fig. 25. The French participation in the Cluster project (part of the work by ID) has been supported in part by CNES. IM's work is within a project funded by Research Council of Norway, NFR 275503.

Dst and AE (used in Sect. 4.2.1 and Sect. 4.3.2) are provided by the World Data Center for Geomagnetism, Kyoto (https://wdc.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/wdc/Sec3.html). Tromsø geomagnetic field (used in Sect. 4.3.2) is provided by Tromsø Geophysical Observatory (https://flux.phys.uit.no/stackplot/). Kp (used in Sect. 4.1.1 and 4.2.1) is provided by GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences (https://isdcgfz-potsdam.de/kp-index/). SOHO proton monitor data (used in Sect. 4.1.2) is provided by the SOHO/CELIAS/MTOF Proton Monitor team (https://space.umd.edu/pm/). Geotail STICS, LEP, and orbit data (used in Sect. 4.1.2) are provided by GEOTAIL/EPIC Science Data Center (http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/Geotail/Years_dir.html), Geotail database (https://www.stp.isas.jaxa.jp/geotail/) and ERG Science Center (https://ergsc.isee.nagoya-u.ac.jp/cef/orbit.cgi), respectively. ACE level 3 data (used in Sect. 4.1.2) are provided by the ACE team (https://izwl.caltech.edu/ACE/ASC/DATA/level3/summaries.html). All Cluster data are available at the Cluster Science Archive (https://csa.esac.esa.int/csa-web/).
**Author Contribution** All contributed discussion and Sects. 1 and 3. MY overviewed all sections. For Sects. 2 and 4, the main contributors are: Solar wind observations (CS, LMK, PW), the Moon observations and models (YS, PW, MY), magnetospheric observations (CS, ID, SH, LMK, YS, MY), ionospheric outflow observation and model (ID, SW, MY, AWY), ionosphere (AWY), meteoroid/debri ablation (DK, JMCP, LS, IM), metal layers (SN, JMCP). Finally, Sect. 5 is contributed by ID, DK, LMK, JMCP, LS, YS, PW, MY, and AWY.

**Funding** See acknowledgement.

**Data Availability** See tables in Sect. 3 and acknowledgement.

**Code Availability** Summarized in tables in Sect. 3.

**Declarations**

**Competing Interests** Not applicable.

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## Authors and Affiliations

M. Yamauchi¹ ID • S. Christon² ID • I. Dandouras³ ID • S. Haaland⁴ ID • D. Kastinen¹ ID •

L.M. Kistler⁵ ID • I. Mann⁶ ID • S. Nozawa⁷ ID • J.M.C. Plane⁸ ID • Y. Saito⁹ ID • L. Schulz¹⁰ ID •

S. Watababe¹¹ ID • P. Wurz¹² ID • A.W. Yau¹³ ID

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /></figure>

M. Yamauchi

M.Yamauchi@irf.se
1 Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF), Kiruna, Sweden

2 Focused Analysis and Research (FAR), Charleston, SC, USA

3 Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie (IRAP), Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)/Université de Toulouse/Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), Toulouse, France

4 The University Centre in Svalbard, Longyearbyen, Norway

5 University New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA

6 Department of Physics and Technology, UiT Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

7 Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research (ISEE), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

8 School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

9 Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Sagamihara, Japan

10 nstitute of Geophysics and Extraterrestrial Physic, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany

11 Hokkaido Information University, Ebetsu, Japan

12 Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

13 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada