## Influence of rhizobacteria on crop health

The rhizospheric bacterial population which exerts encouraging effects on the plant growth is termed as Plant Growth Promoting rhizobacteria (Gouda et al., 2003). Plant Growth Promoting rhizobacteria are diverse soil microbes, grown in the association to host plant, such association enhances the growth of the host plant, rhizobia have shown to stimulate the plant growth by monitoring the pathogenic organism and stress circumstances (Olanrewaju et al., 2017, Ojuederie et al., 2019). These microorganisms usually live more or less closely to plant roots exudates, which are a source of nutrition for its growth (Doornbos et al., 2012). A number of bacterial genera for example *Bacillus*, *Azospirillum*, *Variovorax*, *Pseudomonas*, *Azotobacter*, *Klebsiella*, *Enterobacter*, and *Burkholderia*, have distinctive effects on plant growth, characterized as Plant Growth Promoting rhizobacteria (Glick et al., 2007 and Nadeem et al., 2010). Rhizobacteria can increase plant growth via several mechanisms such as nutrient recycling, Nitrogen fixation, production of the phytohormone, nutrients solubilization such as, K, Fe and P, improve the plant resistance against several pests as well as diseases (Gouda et al., 2003 and Berg 2009). Similarly, they produce siderophores, organic acids, ACC-deaminase and chitinase and protect the plants through several enzymes (Hayat et al., 2010). Moreover; it plays a significant role in nutrient uptake, root health as well as sustains environmental stress (Danish et al., 2020). Recent research showed that Plant Growth Promoting rhizobacteria can give various benefits to the plants, such as improving the nutrient acquirement, and production of exopolysaccharide and rhizobitoxine, that supports plant growth in stress atmospheres (Rosier et al., 2018). Studies have identified the specificity of Plant Growth Promoting rhizobacteria that varies from species to strain level which confers its support to host plant and evidence available about PGPR effects on the plant traits (Friesen et al., 2011). Researchers are devoting their research struggles in developing the combinations of diverse beneficial microbes that can provide maximum effects to plants and the environment (Dessaux et al., 2016). In recent studies, the use of rhizosphere bacteria or plant growth promoting rhizobacteria products (pyoverdine, siderophore) has affected the plant response towards nutrients (Trapet et al., 2016 and Castrillo et al., 2017). It means that this is helpful to plant nourishment. They can also increase the release of different nutrients, scavenging particles for plant growth (Zhou et al., 2016).

## Microbial interactions regulates Rhizosphere structure

Rhizosphere is the most complex zone for symbiotic, chemical and physical associations. Root exudates many molecules in the rhizosphere (Nkwine and Zake 1990). In rhizosphere the plant root interactions can include root-microbe, root-insect as well as root-root interactions, ensuing in more production of root exudates, eventually favours more bacterial communities in the rhizosphere. The application of
molecular approaches showed that variations in rhizobacterial composition results in vital changes in the plant-microbe interactions (Herschkovitz et al., 2005). In rhizospheric interactions, PGPR might colonize the rhizosphere, root surface, or can even colonize superficially in intercellular spaces (McCully 2001). Studies indicated that PGPRs formed a number of molecules through complex mechanisms in the rhizosphere, which vary from the simple amino acids to larger polysaccharides, proteins, different metabolites in the rhizosphere, which severe indirectly as a chemoattractant to other PGPR and also increase the release of different nutrients scavenging particles and have multiple variable effects on the plant physiology (Zhou et al., 2016 and Rosier et al., 2018). Root exudate is a significant source for the growth of microbes in the rhizosphere. These mainly include the ions, water, mucilage, enzymes and diverse primary and secondary metabolites (Singh 2012). In these metabolic compounds, organic acid shows a major role in the metabolism and biogeochemical reactions in the soil. More, these are specific to plant sp. in quantity and composition and more common in those plants that grow in less nutrient soil and consume root exudates other than the symbiotic relationship to microbial populations in the rhizosphere (Dakora and Phillips 2002). Nevertheless, the interactions involved in the rhizosphere as a result of exudates are so far not clear (Hayat et al., 2017). A number of studies have identified the specificity of PGPR from species to strain level which showed its benefits to the host plant and evidence also available about PGPR effect on the plant traits (Dessaux et al., 2016, Finkel et al., 2017). Genomic basis studies of these associations can allow the manipulation of rhizospheres, which could encourage as well as induce the plant growth (Rosier et al., 2018, Dakora and Phillips 2002). As plant roots, exudates are enormously species-specific, which can explain the specificity of microbial populations to host plants. Complete genome of *Psuedomonas. putida* has shown its significance as stress adopters (Matilla et al., 2007). Clearly, the microbes in the rhizosphere could influence the plants directly via the release of different metabolites, as well as other minute signaling molecules (Rosier et al., 2018). Several bacterial species are normally related to a small number of or even a single plant sp. like, Rhizobium–legumes association. Likewise, Sinorhizobium meliloti efficiently colonize the genera of plant *Medicago*, *Melilotus* as well as *Trigonella*, where *Rhizobium leguminosarum* produces the nodules in the *Pisum vicea*, similarly in Lathyrus plant. Generally, roots initiate the cross talk to the soil microorganisms through the production of signals which are recognized by other microbes, in response produced signals which initiate colonization (Bais et al., 2006). Motile organisms are mostly preferred as they participate and respond in the cross talk (Kowalchuk et al., 2002). For instance, teeming of the *Serratia liquefaciens* seemed to be precisely encouraged by the exudates of the *Pisum sativum* (Eberl et al., 1999). Similarly, Martínez-Granero, et al., 2006 chosen phenotypes of the *Psuedomonas fluorescens* with higher motility rates in the rhizosphere colonization of the alfalfa.
Effect of rhizobacteria on nitrogen fixation and plant growth

Although 78% of the atmosphere comprises of Nitrogen, nevertheless its direct
assimilation to plants is unavailable (Ahemad and, Kibret 2014). It is becoming one of
the limiting factors in the agricultural ecosystems because of huge losses of available
N2 via heavy rainfall as well as mineral leaching. Presently, many industrial nitrogen
fertilizers are used for improving agricultural yield. However, environmental, economic
as well as renewable energy fears dictate the usage of biological substitutes
(Bhattacharyya and, Jha.2012). Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria could provide a
biologically alternative way to fix atmospheric nitrogen for plant growth (Kuan et al.,
2016). Investigations have shown that inoculum of biological nitrogen fixing
rhizobacteria on the crops could stimulate plant growth, disease management as well as
sustains the N2 level in the agricultural soil (Damam et al., 2016). A number of PGPR
like, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Beijerinckia, Pantoea agglomerans as well as Rhizobium
species are described to fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil as well as make it
accessible to plants (Bhattacharyya and, Jha.2012). PGPR could fix the atmospheric
nitrogen both in symbiotically and non-symbiotically. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation
(SNF) to leguminous plants through the inoculation of PGPRs is well identified (Barea
et al., 2005 Esitken et al.,2006). Many rhizobia, for example, Azotobacter, Beijerinckia
species have the capability to fix the atmospheric nitrogen symbiotically. Nevertheless,
the process of SNF is only limited to the legume plants (Laranjo et al.,2014) while non-
symbiotic nitrogen fixation mostly occurs in free living diazotrophs, Azoarcus,
Azospirillum bacterial strain, Burkholderia sp, Gluconacetobacter as well as
Pseudomonas (Mirza et al.,2006). In a study, a strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens B16
was discovered in tomatoes roots, exhibiting the development of plant height, fruit
weight as well as flower number (Minorsky 2008). Currently in agriculture,
approximately 65% of nitrogen is produced through biological nitrogen fixation.
Legume plants show biological nitrogen fixation, that is proficient and meet its N2
requirements. A huge amount of N2 is fixed in the leguminous plants like grains,
whereas soil and succeeding crops get benefited from it in root and shoot deposits.
Hence leguminous plants significantly decrease the N2 requisite from the peripheral
sources (Bhattacharyya and, Jha.2012). The most studied and plant beneficial feature of
mutual SNF is revealed in Rhizobia (Udvardi and Poole 2013). It can be used for
improving the nitrogen fixation and evidence has proved that they are effectively
colonized in the soil for several years even in the absence of the plant host (Sanginga et
al., 1994). Rhizobium as well as Bradyrhizobium can produce in the nodules of the root
surface of legume plants like, soybean, peanut, pea as well as alfalfa, in which beneficial
bacteria converts and process the nitrogen into beneficial form, could be consumed by
plants as an N2 source (Van and Vanderleyden 1995, Gil-Díez et al., 2019). However
other nutrient acquirement mechanisms have been noticed which enable the plant access
to macro as well as micro nutrients (Rosier et al., 2018). The rhizobium-legume
symbiosis (*Rhizobium/Mesorhizobium/ Bradyrhizobium*), source of N2 and an active agronomic approach that ensured the supply of N2 than the use of nitrogen fertilizer (Foye *et al.*, 2019). However, several environmental aspects limit the N₂ fixation, for example, deficiency of soil moisture, excesses temperature, osmotic stress, acidity, salinity, insufficiency of nutrient, soil alkalinity, overdoes of fertilizers as well as pesticides; as all these aspects affect the persistence as well as infectivity of the rhizobia, which is vital for the process of nitrogen fixation (Zahran 1999). *Azospirillum* is another free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria that might fertilize sorghum, wheat and maize. Although *Azospirillum* play role in N2 fixation, it is also attributed to increasing the yield, mainly increases the root development and therefore enhances the rates of water as well as mineral uptake to plants upper part (Okon *et al.*, 1998).

## Impact of rhizobacteria on phosphate solubilization and plant growth

Phosphorous is known as the second most important macronutrient for plant growth as well as development, as it participates essentially in many metabolic pathways specifically in respiration, photosynthesis cell signalling as well as macromolecules synthesis (Khan *et al.*, 2010). Nevertheless, it is one of the limiting nutrients for plant development. It occurs in an inorganic as well as an organic form. When phosphorous is applied to the soil, its 90%-95% is reduced and inaccessible to the plants via changes to insoluble organic form (for example, phosphomono and triesters/inositol phosphate) and inorganic minerals form (phosphates of iron mostly apatite and aluminum and calcium) (Pandey and Maheshwari 2007). The soil remains the highest source that supplied Phosphorus to the plants (Sharma *et al.*, 2013). The accessibility of phosphate to plants is affected by various abiotic factors as well as available soil microorganisms (Buol *et al.*, 1999). Low concentration of the soluble phosphate could limit plant growth (Antoun 2012, Wang *et al.*, 2017). Phosphate fertilizer supplied the available form of phosphate to plants; too much use of it is not only expensive but also destructive to the environment (Zou *et al.*, 1992). Phosphorus solubilizing microbes are most prevalent in rhizospheres (Vázquez *et al.*, 2019). In this case, Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria play a key role in releasing organic phosphates to solubilize inorganic phosphate form (Otieno *et al.*, 2015). Many researchers described the role of Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria in plant development. Joe et al. used *Acinetobacter* sp. isolates of the *Phyllanthus amarus*, *Bacillus* sp. with phosphate solubilizing and salt-tolerant properties (Joe et al., 2016). Secretion of the root exudates for example organic ligands could also modify the Phosphorus concentration in the soil (Hinsinger 2001). The PGPR has various influences on the soil surrounding plant roots for example phosphorous solubilization (Alori *et al.*, 2017) [123]. The solubilization of Phosphorus in the rhizosphere is a more prevalent mechanism used by PGPR that rise the nutrients available to the host plant (Richardson 2001). Various Phosphorus solubilizing microbes are recognized which change the insoluble Phosphorus to soluble
form via several mechanisms, Such as, acidification process, exudation of organic acids also through chelation as well as exchange reactions (Richardson et al., 2009). Soil microorganisms support the release of phosphate to plants and plants only absorb the soluble form of Phosphorus (monobasic ($H_2PO_4^-$) form, also dibasic ($H_2PO_4\cdot2^-$) form (Bhattacharyya and Jha D K 2012). Rhizobia, containing *Rhizobium leguminosarum*, *Azotobacter*, *Azospirillium Bradyrhizobium* and *Bacillus japonicum* (Rodrigues *et al.*, 2006) has been shown to play a role in improving Phosphorus solubilizing capability and has been studied in chickpea as well as in barley plants (Peix *et al.*, 2001).

Modulation of abiotic stress in crops by rhizobacteria

Rhizobacteria can impart some degree of tolerance to plants towards abiotic stresses like drought, chilling injury, salinity, metal toxicity and high temperature. Bacteria belonging to different genera including *Rhizobium*, *Bacillus*, *Pseudomonas*, *Pantoea*, *Paenibacillus*, *Burkholderia*, *Achromobacter*, *Azospirillum*, *Microbacterium*, *Methylobacterium*, *variovorax*, *Enterobacter* etc. have been reported to provide tolerance to host plants under different abiotic stress environments. Use of these microorganisms can alleviate stresses in agriculture thus opening a new and emerging application of microorganisms. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed behind microbial elicited stress tolerance in crops.

a. Drought

The role of rhizobacteria has been studied to understand the adaptation of living
organisms to extreme environments (Marulanda *et al.*, 2010). The plant growth-
promoting endophytic bacteria *Burkholderia phytofirmans* was used to investigate the
potential to ameliorate the effects of drought stress on the growth, physiology, and yield
of wheat (*Triticum aestivum* L.) under natural field conditions. Inoculation of wheat
with *Burkholderia phytofirmans* significantly diluted the adverse effects of drought on
relative water content and CO₂ assimilation rate, thus improving the photosynthetic rate,
water-use efficiency, and chlorophyll content over the un-inoculated control. Grain
yield was also decreased when plants were exposed to drought stress at the tillering and
flowering stage, but inoculation resulted in better grain yield (up to 21% and 18%
higher, respectively) than the respective un-inoculated control (Naveed *et al.*, 2014).
*Achromobacter piechaudii* ARV8, which produced 1-aminocyclopropane-1-
carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, conferred IST (induced systemic tolerance) against
drought and salt stress in pepper and tomato (Mayak *et al.*, 2004). Waqas *et al.* (2012)
reported an increase in plant biomass, assimilation of essential nutrients, and reduced
the sodium toxicity in cucumber by endophytic *Phoma glomerata* and *Penicillium* sp.
under sodium chloride and polyethylene glycol induced salinity and drought stress when
compared with control plants. Nadeem *et al.* (2017) showed that application of
*Pseudomonas fluorescens* alone and in combination with biochar and/or compost
reduced the negative impact of water-deficit stress on cucumber growth, improved relative water content of leaves, and reduced the electrolyte leakage Aslam *et al.* (2018) indicated that drought-tolerant carbonic anhydrase-producing bacteria improved chlorophyll content, photosynthetic rate, and relative water content and biomass of wheat seedlings under water-deficit conditions compared to un-inoculated plants

## b. Salinity

Plants have inbuilt mechanisms to tolerate salinity such as synthesis of osmolytes and polyamines, reducing ROS, the antioxidant defense mechanism, ion transport (Zhu, 2002), and compartmentalization (Gaxiola *et al.*, 1999). Tank and Saraf (2010) isolated a few PGPR strains from tomato fields and adapted their cultures to 6% NaCl concentration after which they showed phosphate solubilization potential and produced phytohormones, siderophores, and ACC deaminase enzyme in potcultured tomato plants. The three PGPR isolates, *Pseudomonas alcaligenes* PsA15, *Bacillus polymyxa* BcP26, and *Mycobacterium phlei* MbP18, conferred tolerance against high temperature and salt stress to maize growing in nutrient-deficient calcisol soil (Egamberdiyeva, 2007). On constant exposure to 500 mM NaCl solution (seawater levels to mimic exposure of plants in their native beach habitat), nonsymbiotic plants Leymus mollis became severely wilted and desiccated within 7 days and were dead after 14 days. Exopolysaccharides produced by bacteria impart increased resistance to water and salinity stress by improving soil structure (Sandhya *et al.*, 2009).

## c. Temperature tolerance

The fluctuating temperature causes damage to the physiochemical properties of plant cell membrane. To avoid oxidative damage due to high temperature, plants adapt to de novo synthesis of organic compatible solutes or osmolytes and accumulate several secondary metabolites like polyphenols to ameliorate stress responses (Cheruiyot *et al.*, 2007). Antioxidants like reduced glutathione prevent damages to important cellular components upon exposure to ROS invasion. When cucumber plants inoculated with bacteria *Paecilomyces formosus* LHL10 were exposed to high temperature (38°C), the plants showed higher growth attributes. Plants respond to a sudden increase in temperature by inducing the synthesis of specific group of polypeptides known as heat shock proteins (HSPs). HSPs consist of chaperons (such as GroEL, DnaK, DnaJ, GroES, ClpB, ClpA, ClpX, small heat shock proteins (sHSP) and proteases). Chaperons are involved in the proper folding of denatured proteins and proteases are required for the degradation of irreversibly damaged proteins (Munchbach *et al.* 1999). A thermotolerant *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* strain AMK-P6 isolated from semi-arid location showed induction of HSPs when exposed to high temperature (Ali *et al.* 2009).
Conclusions

Rhizospheric microorganisms produce diverse benefits such as encourage the plant growth, resistance to diseases and existence in stressful circumstances with many other anonymous benefits. Enormous studies have concerted on the potential for an individual microbial strain to give maximum benefits to the plants and it is furthermore apparent that microbes could act symbiotically to influence plant health, development as well as abiotic factors. Multiple interactions that cause such association and persistence of the root micro-biome are exceptionally confusing and not clear. Genetically modified Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria can increase plant development much better than the normal Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. It is suggested that more research should be done on beneficial rhizospheric microorganisms and its interactions with each other and plant hosts, to determine how to shape them more competent for plant health and incessant yield production Some microbial species and strains could play an important role for understanding plant tolerance to stress, adaptation to stress, and mechanisms that develop in plants under stress conditions. However, complete information on the identifying techniques and assortment of the novel Rhizobateria for the rhizosphere competency to increase the field level success is required to explore. In order to improve knowledge of Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria study to a more advanced level, it might be essential to choose and document the genetic as well as molecular mechanisms used in such beneficial interactions. Further a well understanding of how the beneficial Rhizobia and its molecules are influencing the plant growth will allow effective progress of rhizobacterial importance in the field. Subsequently, a comprehensive study to benefits from the potential Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria could offer development of current research and can develop plant growth, sustainability, and finally will raise the agriculture products.

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# PLANT NUTRIENTS

Rahul Sharma ¹, A N Mishra ², Raghvendra Kumar Aryan ³

M.Sc. (Ag.), Department of Agricultural Meteorology,
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology
Kumarganj Ayodhya - 224229 (U.P.)

## Plant Nutrients:

Any chemical compounds which supply plant nutrition after application in soil is called plant nutrient.

Plant nutrition is defined as the supply and absorption of chemical compounds required for plant growth and metabolism. It is the process of absorption and utilization of essential elements for plant growth and reproduction.

### Three criteria as proposed by Arnon & Stout (1939)

(1) The deficiency of any essential element plant cannot be complete their life cycle.

(2) Role play be essential element is specific and it cannot be replaced by the elements.

(3) Essential element directly involved in metabolic process of plant.

Plant contains more than 90 elements, out of which, 17 elements are known to be essential which are classified as macronutrients and micronutrients based on their relative supply in plants.

### According to Arnon and Stout –

16 Elements are essential for growth and development of plant.

### According to Brown –

In 1987 Ni (Nickel) element is Introduce as essential plant nutrient by Brown now 17 essential elements are required for growth and development of plant.

(Essentials elements)

<table><tr><td>N</td><td>Cl</td><td>C</td></tr><tr><td>P</td><td>Cu</td><td>H (Found in air and water)</td></tr><tr><td>K</td><td>Zn</td><td>O</td></tr><tr><td>Ca</td><td>Mn (Found in soil and mineral)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mg</td><td>Mo</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>S</td><td>B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ni</td><td>Fe</td><td></td></tr></table>
**Beneficial element / Functional nutrient not Essential** - Concept of functional nutrient was proposed by Nicholas

* Na, Si, Co, V are functional element but not essential.

$$ \text{Total Functional element} = 17 + 4 = 21 $$

## Classification of Essential Elements

### 1. On the basis of Mobility:

#### A. Mobility in Soil -

**Mobile element** - The Mobile Nutrient is highly soluble and is not absorbed on clay complex.

$$ \text{Ex} - \text{No}_3\text{-, So}_4\text{-, Bo}_3\text{-, Cl} - & \text{Mn}^{++} $$

**Less Mobile** - Such elements are also soluble but absorbed on clay complex and this thus their mobility is reduced.

$$ \text{Ex} - \text{NH}_4\text{+}, \text{K}^+, \text{Ca}^{++}, \text{Mg}^{++}, \text{Cu}^{++}, \text{Fe}^{++} $$

#### B. Immobile element - P, Zn

Highly reactive and get fixed in the soil.

$$ \text{Ex} - \text{H}_2\text{PO}_4\text{-, HPo}_4\text{-, Po}_4\text{-, & Zn}^{++} $$

**Mobility in Plant -**

Highly Mobile - N, P, K, Mg, Mo

Moderate - Zn

Less Mobile - S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Ni

Immobile - Ca, B

### 2. On the basis of function -

Provide basis structure element - C, H, O

Energy storage transfer - N, P, K

Cation balancing element - K, Mg, Ca

Electron transferring - Fe, Mn, Mg, Cu

Oxidation & Reduction element - All Micronutrients

Catalytic elements - Cu, Fe, Mn, S
# Functions of Essential Nutrients in plants

## Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (C, H, O)

* C, H & O provide basic structure of plant. (More than 95%)

* C, H & O work as frame elements.

* C, H & O are major constituents of organic matter.

## Nitrogen ($N_2$)

* Nitrogen provides succulence (softness) and bounding power of plants.

* Excess doges of Nitrogen create more disease and pest susceptibility.

* Nitrogen provides late maturity of plant / crops.

* Nitrogen major portion of protein, amino acid and nucleic acid.

## Phosphorus ($P_{2O5}$)

* Major function is to storage energy and its translocations.

* It helps root development and growth.

* It is major portion of nucleic acid protein and fat.

* Key of life/ Energy element.

* P is major portion of nucleic acid, protein and fat.

* Strengthens straw and decreases lodging tendency.

## Potassium ($K_2O$)

* Its Help in transport of manufactured food material
  Ex- Carbohydrate, Glucose, Starch.

* It provides disease and drought resistance.

* It prevents lodging of plant.

* It helps opening and closing of stomata.

* Increase availability of N, S, and P.

* Essential for activation of most of enzymes.

## Calcium (Ca)

* Ca is a major element middle lamella and it increase stiffness of plants.

* Specific function in the organization of chromatin or of the mitotic spindle.

* Ca is known as cation balancing element.

* Increasing availability of N, P, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn.

## Magnesium (Mg)

* Mg is a major portion of chlorophyll and a cofactor for many enzymatic reactions.
Advanced Farming

* Dark green colour in leaves.

* It helps chlorophyll formation in plants.

* Vital role in the activation of enzyme RuDP corboxylase which is found in chlorophyll.

Sulphur (S)

* It is also important element for garlic onion.

* It is required for the synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids cystine, cystein & methionine.

* It creates pungency in onion & garlic.

* Sulphur major essential element for oil seed crops.

Iron (Fe)

* It provides oxidation and reduction process inside the plants.

* It helps as oxygen carrier.

Boron (Bo)

* It helps transporting of carbohydrate sugar and starch.

* It helps pollen grain formation in androcium.

Manganese (Mg)

* Help in photolysis of water in photosynthesis.

* Promote seed germination.

* Plant maturity essential for nitrogen and protein formation.

Molybdenum (Mo)

* Mo is a major portion leghemoglobin. (Pulse root)

* It helps in nitrogen fixation in leguminous crop.

Chlorine (Cl)

* Stimulate photosynthesis and help in root growth.

Copper (Cu)

* Active various enzymes also play a role in chlorophyll production.

Nickel (Ni)

* Key component selected enzyme involve in N metabolism and biological H fixation.
## Zinc (Zn)

* Zn work as enzyme activation or enzyme regulator, role of synthesis of portion enzyme and growth hormones.

### Beneficial Element

**Silicon (Si)** Strength cell wall energy transform and drought resistance reduces water prevent fungal growth.

**Cobalt (Co)** Essential of nitrogen fixation.

**Sodium (Na)** replaces potassium in certain function in helophyte plant.

**Vanadium (Va)** Essential for green algae.

### Deficient -

When an essential element is at a low concentration that severely limits yield and produces move or less distinct deficiency symptoms. Extreme de will be death of plant.

### Insufficient -

When the level of an essential plant nutrient is below that require for optimum yield.

### Deficiency symptoms

Identification of deficiency symptoms can be distinguished on the basis of following

* Region of occurrence

* Presence and absence of dead spot

* Presence of chlorosis

* Interveinal chlorosis

### Deficiency symptoms on old leaves

#### Without dead spots – N, P, Mg

**Nitrogen** - Uniform chlorosis of leaves including cereals show characteristic ‘V’ shaped yellowing at the tip of lower leaves. The leaves are erect and stiff (Hard) in cereals.

**Phosphorus** - Small erect, usually dark green leaves with a greenish red, greenish brown or purplish tinge. The rear side develops bronzy appearance ripening of crop.
**Magnesium** - The deficiency symptoms of Mg is same as N deficiency but it is deferring form N due to only interveinal part leaf become yellowish and veins of leaf are remaining green. (Interveinal chlorosis)

With dead spot - K, Mo

**Potassium:** Yellowing starts from tips or margins of leaf extending to the centre of the leaf. The difference b/w green and yellow and necrotic (dead spot) portion. Curling of leaves towards.

Tip burn margin scorching brown spots near margin rolling of laminae, barley most susceptible, potato show, abnormal, dark green colour of foliage followed by browning, cotton bolls are either small.

Molybdenum -

Mo deficiency cause translucent spots of Irregular shape in light green yellow or brassica sp. Most susceptible yellow spot of citrus, whiptail of cauliflower.

Middle leaf - Zn

**Zinc** - Zn deficiency leaf become narrow and small lamina become chlorosis including veins and margin of leaf in extent deficiency under certain deficiency of lamina become chlorotic and veins remain green. Deficiency of Zn some time dead spot is found b/w veins White bud of Maize- Khaira disease of Rice.

Zn deficiency symptoms show from upper 2-4 leaf.

New leaf – Fe, Mn, S, Cu

Veins remaining green, Interveinal chlorosis Fe, Mn

**Iron-** The principal veins remain conspicuously green and other portions of the leaf turn yellow tending towards whiteness chlorosis from base of leaf.

**Manganese** - The principal veins as the smaller veins are green interveinal portion is yellowish not tending towards whiteness complete interveinal chlorosis leaf top remains green and base dies grey speck of oat pahala blight of sugarcane.

Uniform yellowish - S & Cu

**Sulphur-** Deficiency same of N but nitrogen deficiency symptoms occurs on old leaf sulphur deficiency plants not loss the lower leaves. Vegetable leaves develop yellowish green colour and become thick and firm.

**Copper-** Cu deficiency leaf is yellowish tending towards whiteness. In extreme de chlorosis of veins occurs and leaf loses lustre.

Terminal bud - Ca, B
**Calcium** - Ca deficiency leaf of terminal bud start yellowing from tip, yellow portion of leaf toward whiteness very sown. Whiteness is start from tip of leaf toward to base.

**Boron**- Bo deficiency cause yellowing or whiteness which starts from base to tip. The tip becomes very elongated in to whip structure hollow stem of cauliflower, browning of cauliflower curd. Top sickness of tobacco and hard fruit of citrus.

**Excessive**

When the cone of an essential plant nutrient is sufficient high to result in a corresponding shortage of another nutrient.

**Toxic**

When the concentration of either essential of other element is sufficient high to Inhibit plant growth to a great extent severe toxicity will be result in death of plant.

**Toxicity symptom**

When plant nutrient found in excess amount to plant requirement in soil the plant absorbed excess amount of plant nutrient and causes imbalance in plant unlike deficiency symptoms, toxicity symptoms less common.

**Nitrogen**- Lodging and abortion of flowers delay maturity susceptible to pests and disease succulency of plant.

**Phosphorus** - When P is found in excess amount causes deficiency of Fe and Zn Toxic symptom of causes purple colour leaf in maize.

**Iron**- Brown spot appearance or old leaf and starting from tips. Iron toxicity causes deficiency of Zn.

**Manganese** - Mn toxicity symptoms as same as Fe toxicity but it defers from the spot are found leaf and leaf sheath. Grey spike disease of maize wheat and barley.

**Boron**- Due to B toxicity chlorosis of lower leaf and veins remain green grey or brownish spots.

**References**

* Katyayan Arun. Fundamentals of Agriculture. KUSHAL PUBLICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTORS VARANASI. Vol-1 Pp. 260- 274.

* Sharma R. K. Agriculture at a Glance. Daya publishing House A division of Astral International Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi- 110002 Pp. 229- 235.
# PRE-HARVEST BAGGING IN DIFFERENT FRUIT CROPS

Harvindra Pal¹, Bhag Chand Shivran¹, Anuj Pal², Vikram Singh³ and Nitish Kumar⁴

¹Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow-226 025 U.P. India

²Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut-250 110 U.P. India

³Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur-208 002 U.P. India

⁴M. Tec Food Processing & Technology, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida-201308 U.P. India

E-mail: hharvnder02singh@gmail.com

## Abstract:

Pre-harvest fruit bagging has emerged as an effective method. Bagging is a physical protection method which not only improves the visual quality of fruit by promoting skin coloration and reducing blemishes, but can also change the micro-environment for fruit development, which can have several beneficial effects on internal fruit quality. Pre-harvest bagging of fruit can also reduce the incidence of disease, insect pest and mechanical damage, sunburn of the skin, fruit cracking, agrochemical residues on the fruit, and bird damage. Due to its many beneficial effects, fruit bagging has become an integral part of Banana, apple, pear, grape, mango, and loquat cultivation in Japan, Australia, China and the USA. Several studies have been conducted to identify the desirable effects of pre-harvest fruit bagging on skin colour development and quality, but contradictory results have been reported. These may be due to different type of bag used, the stage of fruit development when bagged, the duration of fruit exposure to natural light following bag removal, or fruit, cultivar specific responses. Bagging is laborious and its cost benefit ratio must be investigated in order to promote adoption of the method in much of the World. The main objective of this chapter is to improve the beneficial effects of bagging in different fruit by collecting information so more number of growers could consider using this method on a commercial scale.

**Keyword:** Bagging *Guava*, *Banana*, *Mango*, *Litchi*, *Loquat*, *Grape*, *Apple*, *Pomegranate* and *Jackfruit*, Physical and Chemical Improvement in Fruit Production.

## Introduction:

Bagging is a physical protection technique, commonly applied to many fruit, which not only improves their visual quality by promoting peel colouration and reducing the incidence of fruit cracking and russetting, but can also change the microenvironment for fruit development, which can have multiple effects on internal fruit quality. Bagging has been used extensively in several fruit crops to improve skin colour and to reduce the incidence of disease, insect pests,
mechanical damage, sunburn of the skin, agrochemical residues on the fruit, and bird damage During their growth and development, fruit undergo several physical and chemical changes and are susceptible to insect pest infestations, bird attack, various pathogens, and mechanical damage, all of which can reduce the commercial value of the fruit as physical appearance & quality and thereby cause significant yield and economic losses to growers. To prevent the losses caused by biotic and abiotic factors, several good agricultural practices (GAP) are becoming popular throughout the World. Furthermore, the development of alternative techniques to improve the appearance and quality of fruit and to reduce disease and insect infestations is becoming increasingly important as consumer anxiety over the use of manmade agro-chemicals and environmental awareness increases. Thus, more emphasis is being placed on reducing the use of pesticides to ensure worker safety, consumer health, and environmental protection. Among several such alternatives, pre-harvest fruit bagging has emerged as an effective approach in different parts of the World. In this technique, individual fruit or fruit bunches are bagged on the tree for a specific period Pre-harvest bagging of fruit is practiced in Japan, Australia, and China during peach, apple, pear, grape, and loquat cultivation in order to optimise fruit quality by reducing physiological and pathological disorders and to improve fruit colouration to increase market value. Some countries such as Mexico, Chile, Argentina do not import apples unless they are bagged.

**Advantages of fruit bagging:**

A new idea of pre-harvest fruit bagging showing a great potential to minimise the problems regarding to insect pest attack & some physiological disorders.

* Bagging has a great effect on colour improvement.

* It prevents the fruit from mechanical injury, brushing and wind damage.

* Bagging is environment friendly, cheap and safe.

* It helps to produce better quality and biggest size fruits.

**Planning of work:**

Uniform aged trees of guava litchi and mango from orchard of the Different coloured polythene bags (Transparent, Green, Thin White, Yellow, Black, Blue,) Muslin Cloth, Brown & butter paper Bag were used to bagged the fruits. Each bag was provided with minute holes for perforation. Bagging was distributed equally in four directions and different height of tree Fruit were bagged about 1- 2 months prior to harvest. fruits were harvested at commercial mature stage. Various physical attributes, i.e., weight, length, width, volume was recorded. Quality attributes like TSS, acidity, Reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar, total sugar and vitamin-C.

**Different covering materials as used to bag the different fruit crops:**

* Transparent polyethylene bag.

* Green polyethylene bag.

* Thin white polyethylene bag.

* Thick White polyethylene bag.

* Yellow polyethylene bag.

* Muslin Cloth.

* Brown Paper.
* Black polyethylene bag.

* Blue polyethylene bag.

* Butter paper.

* Cellophane bag.

* Newspaper bag.

## Effect of Bagging in Guava:

Guava (*Psidium guajava*), apple of tropics is one of the important commercial fruits in India. It is the fourth most important fruit after mango, banana and citrus. It is native to tropical America and was introduce in India in the early 17th century. It is a very popular fruit and is available throughout the year except during the summer season. Being very hardy, it gives an assured crop even with very little care. Owing to its hardy nature, it is now cultivated in most tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Guava is one of the most nutritious fruit crops. Depending on cultivars & species, it contains vitamin C (up to 300 mg /100 g) 4 times more than oranges, vitamin A, vitamin B, magnesium, potassium and another nutrient. It also contains the group of major antioxidants like polyphenols and carotenoids, which are responsible for its high nutritional value. Bagging, a physical protection technique, not only protects fruit from pests and diseases but also effects the quality of the produce by changing microenvironment of fruit during development. Pre harvest bagging of fruit is practiced in Japan, Australia, and China during peach, apple, pear, grape, and loquat cultivation in order to optimise fruit quality by reducing physiological and pathological disorders and to improve fruit colouration to increase market value leading to an improved appearance Bagging increases humidity and temperature and decreases light intensity on the fruit. It also reduces fruit transpiration water loss during growth. Various bagging materials have been tested by pre-harvest bagging of guava fruits. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of different bagging materials on the fruit quality of guava fruits.

Fruit bagging of guava was found maximum under yellow polythene but maximum vitamin C content was recorded under white polythene. For overall improvement, various fruit covering materials bagging with yellow coloured polythene was found to be the best on physico-chemical quality of winter season guava cv. L-49. This technology was used in guava to get spotless fruit in the bagged ones. In addition, protection from diseases and pest boost the volume of high price exportable guava. Covering with a two layers bag when fruit diameter reaches 2-3 cm helps reduce damages caused by diseases and insects. It is another way of preventing contact between the host and insects and diseases as well as minimize mechanical injuries thus improving quality. Bagging with different paper materials like thick waxy magazine significantly prevented fruit fly damage with infestation ranging from zero to less than one per cent.

## Effect of Bagging in Litchi:

Litchi (*Litchi chinensis* Sonn.) is most important subtropical evergreen fruit tree. Litchi belongs to family Sapindaceae and subfamily Nepheleae. It is also known queen of subtropical fruits. Litchi originated in the region between latitude 23 and 27 N in the south China, northern Vietnam and Malaysia where it has been cultivated for over 3000 years. It was introduced to
India by the end of 17th century. It yields best in regions with cool dry frost-free winter and warm summers with high rain fall and humidity its cultivation is highly successful in areas having minimum temperature of 10°C from December to February and 38°C from April to June. In litchi growing areas in India, the temperature varies from 21°c to 37.8°C during flowering and fruiting. The dry hot wind in summer during fruit development is very harmful. It causes fruit cracking and subsequent damage to the pulp.

There are few reports of fruit bagging for litchi fruit with improved quality. Bagging increased the percentage of fruit in first class, mainly because of the increased visual quality of fruit. The effect of panicle bagging in litchi was reported and found that both BP and NP bags showed the highest fruit weight. The highest fruit weight was observed in NP bag. They also examined the effect of panicle bagging in litchi and reported that transparent, semitransparent cellophane bags had advanced maturity of fruits and delayed maturity of fruits in newspaper bag over 10 days.

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

## Bagging in Guava and Litchi Plants

### Effect of Bagging in Pomegranate:

Bagging fruits of pomegranate prevent the sunburn damage completely and enhanced anthocyanin contents in skin and seed. Also, it can be recommended from the study that, bagging pomegranate fruits with butter pepper bags was the best in reducing fruit disorders with improving fruit quality as well as increasing the net profit for the farmer. It needs to be revealed that bagging does not affect the size, colour and taste of the fruit. The results were obtained with the bagged 'Ganesh' cultivar, which develops the fruit's red colour quite early as a means to provide some protection against sunscald,

and 85% of fruit were found exportable. Similarly, bagging provides, as expected, good mechanical protection against serious pest infestation after bagging. A white bag is the most effective treatment for increasing quality and reducing sunburn in pomegranate fruit. Therefore, the use of white bags, due to the enhancing of quality and decreasing of sunburn,

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>

## Bagging in Pomegranate Plants
can be useful for pomegranate. This could then serve as a useful tool for pomegranate growers to use white single layer bags to increase fruit quality and control sunburn.

## Effect of Bagging in Banana:

Banana bunch protections by sleeving/bagging are used throughout the commercial banana growing areas of the world. For improving fruit yield and quality for the export markets, these protection bags are mainly used. It can improve the quality and appearance of the fruits, faster and more uniform harvest, adequate ripening of the banana, prevents mechanical injuries (marks, bruises and scratches), protects from external biotic and abiotic conditions (wind, rain, sun damage, insects, pathogens etc.), and prevents birds, insects and fruit flies from damaging the fruit and causing spots. Non-covered dessert type banana, bunches show the appearance of spots, bruises, harbour of spiders and

insects with the decline in the quality of the produce. Banana fruit protection bags also are known as banana ripening bags, banana bunch covers and banana sleeves are used during the commercial banana growing areas of the world. To get rid of blemishes and freeness from pests some of the farmers were using pesticides over bunches. Commercial producers use expensive plastic banana bunch bags that often are soaked with insecticides to protect banana bunches. Bunch covers provide protection against pathogens, wind damage, leaf, petiole scarring, dust, light hail, sunburn, bird feeding, and handling damage during harvest and transport. Bunch covers can also be used in temperate country to protect bunches from low temperatures. Export quality like appealing skin colour, reduced sunburn, reduced fruit splitting, and increased finger length and bunch weight among others. The net effect of bunch cover use is better fruit quality and increased marketable yield. Market returns for bananas in international markets are economic for large fruit that are blemish-free.

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>Bagging in Banana Plants</figcaption></figure>

## Effect of Bagging in Apple:

Bagged fruits showed lower lipoxygenase activity at harvest, which indicates that non-bagged fruits were more senescent than bagged fruits. Also, lipoxygenase activity increased during storage in bagged and non-bagged apples both but increase in lipoxygenase activity was slower in bagged apples than in non-bagged apples. Covering apple fruit with paper bags, increased levels of anthocyanin one month after flowering. Studies revealed that bagged apples had a fairly higher level of soluble solids and ascorbic acid content at harvest than non-bagged apples. Pre harvest fruit bagging in apple influences fruit colour and quality of apple.

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /><figcaption>Bagging in Apple plant</figcaption></figure>
## Effect of Bagging in Mango:

Mango protections by bagging are used throughout the commercial mango growing areas of the world. For improving fruit yield and quality for the export markets, these protection bags are mainly used. It can improve the quality and appearance of the fruits, faster and more uniform harvest, adequate ripening of the mango, prevents mechanical injuries, protects from external biotic and abiotic conditions (wind, rain, sun damage, insects, pathogens etc.), and prevents birds, insects and fruit flies from damaging the fruit and causing spots. fruit volume was significantly influenced by bagging material used. The maximum fruit volume was recorded with brown paper bag followed by green polyethylene bag & white polyethylene bag whereas the minimum fruit volume was recorded in blue polyethylene bag followed by unbagged fruits.

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /><figcaption>Bagging in Mango plant</figcaption></figure>

## Effect of Bagging in Grape:

Organic grapes are increasingly traded internationally. The main principle of organic grape production is the avoidance of synthetic pesticides to protect fruits from pests and diseases. As a physical control measure, cluster bagging with different types of bags was evaluated under field conditions. Cluster bagging, with or without pesticide treatment, using brown paper bags has significantly reduced grape berry moth infestation, black mold, gray mold, and powdery mildew, respectively, compared to non-bagged control where 95.2% clusters were damaged by the insect larvae, 93% rotten by the secondary infection of black mold, 26.1% by gray mold, 63.1% damaged by powdery mildew, and 15.2% attacked by birds. The application of pesticides did not increase the efficiency of bagging since bagging with brown paper bags without pesticides has provided grape clusters with almost complete physical protection against grape berry moth, black and gray molds, powdery mildew, and attacking birds which make it suitable for organic agriculture. Furthermore, the use of brown paper bags has improved fruit quality and yield of grapes but delayed the time of ripening compared to the use of clear or black plastic bags that have made grape cluster to ripen early. The use of clear plastic bags has resulted in developing abnormal overgrowths and sunburn. Therefore, the use of paper bagging could provide a useful tool to protect grape clusters from pests and diseases and to improve its organic production.

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /><figcaption>Bagging in Grape Plant</figcaption></figure>
## Effect of Bagging in Loquat:

The bagging is an operation of extreme importance in the loquat culture because it provides fruit quality, and allows minimization of chemical products use. However, there is still lack of information, related to the adequate moment to carry through the operation, especially considering the limit of bagging stage, in which there are fruits of marketable quality. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the quality of bagged fruits of loquat cultivars in different stadiums of development. Three stages of bagging in loquat, that is, when fruits reached an average diameter of 0.5cm, 1.0cm and 1.5cm. After fruits reached the size in accordance the panicles were bagged using newsprint. When mature, the fruits were harvested and evaluated regardless to length, diameter and fruit mass, presence of internal and external damages. The bagging at different developmental stages interfered in the quality of loquat fruit. Bagged with diameters between 0.5 and 1.0 cm were the ones that had presented the best commercial quality.

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /><figcaption>Bagging in Loquat plants</figcaption></figure>

## Effect of Bagging in Jack fruit:

Jack fruit has another name called tooth lasting, jackfruit, (Artocarpus heterophyllus) candied winter melon growth and good health etc. Be world-renowned tropical fruit (tree), belong to Moraceae jack fruit and belong to aiphyllium. Due to the fruit that jack fruit is heavy, the most maximum in the world, generally weigh 5-20 kg, the heaviest more than 50 kg, and fruit is plump soft, fresh and sweet good to eat in addition, aromatic flavour, therefore is described as tropical fruit (tree) queen. Containing abundant carbohydrate, protein, B1, B2, B6, vitamin C, mineral matter, fatty wet goods in jack fruit. In jack fruit pulp, content of calcium and magnesium is high especially, also containing beneficial elements such as more zinc, iron, sodium, manganese. The utility model relates to a protective sheath bag for jackfruit, including the bag body that is used for holding the jackfruit fruit, the sack department of the bag body is equipped with the thread gluing area that is used for the involution sack, and bag body upper portion both sides are equipped with the hand-strap, and bag body bottom is the fly net structure, bag side off plate layer is the fly net structure, and bag side face inlayer is waterproof non-woven fabrics protective layer. The utility model discloses a bag physical stamina enough cooperates growing of jackfruit fruit butterfly, and the sack is fixed easily, and convenient the harvesting possesses good waterproof nature, gas permeability, fastness and toughness to can effectively reduce the emergence of plant diseases and insect pests. And improve the quality of fruit like fruit weight, fruit length and shining of fruit.
<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

Bagging in Jackfruit Plants

Bagging Effect on the Physical Characters of different fruit:

The different bagging materials were showing positive effects on fruit weight, fruit length & width and fruit volume over no bagging fruits. The increased volume attributed to the increased weight of the fruits. After fruit set, fruit grow slowly and increase in size to maturity. Covering fruit with a bag at a particular developmental stage may influence their growth and development. The abiotic factors viz. temperature and humidity play critical role in fruit growth and development. Bagging on fruits alters the microenvironment around fruits. Fruit weight in the bagged was increased, indicating that the temperature increased within the bags, which might be a major cause of increased flesh and fruit weight. Increasing fruit size by bagging is thought to result from increased temperature or humidity within the bag. Bagging affected fruit size and fruit weight of pomegranate. The pre harvest bagging was found beneficial to increase to fruit weight of BC-2, Fuji Apple. Banana bunches sealed with polyethylene bags had increased fruit size at harvest. Pre-harvest bagging with different wavelength selective bags on mango in Taiwan and reported that bagging increased fruit weight, size, and sphericity over un-bagged fruit. Bagging with plastic bags increased fruit weight in carambola when applied 10 days after full bloom.

Bagging Effect on the Chemical Characters in different fruit:

Different bagged fruits had more total soluble solids contain as compare to non-bagged
fruits. This may be due to the higher temperature under the bag favored the conversion of starch
into sugars. increase in SSC content of Zaghloul dates might be due to the conversion of
carbohydrates into sugars, organic acids and other soluble materials by metabolic processes
during development. pre harvest bagging increase soluble solids concentration of guava fruits.
Bagging modifies the microenvironment in which fruit develop, which influences both the
internal quality of fruit and the external quality. Improvements in total soluble solids containt
by bagging have been also reported in loquat. Acidity of the bagged fruits also affected by
different bagged materials. Acidity was low in different bagged materials as compare to non-
bagged fruits. Bagging increase soluble solids and decline the acidity in loquat fruits. reported
that the blue polyethylene bags decreased fruit TSS and acidity concentrations compared to the
unbagged. In the same time, he added that the white polyethylene bags decreased the fruit
acidity. Reducing sugar and total sugar both of bagged fruits were positive influenced by different bagging materials. During ripening of fruits, carbohydrates undergo metabolic transformation, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Starch is completely hydrolysed to glucose, fructose and sucrose in climacteric fruits including apple, mango and banana as ripening progresses. The variation observed in chemical composition of guava fruits can be attributed to the changed microenvironment around fruit during its growth and development. The bagged fruits recorded highest content of vitamin C, sucrose, glucose and fructose over control in Zill mango. Sweetness in 'Granny Smith' apple fruit was improved by bagging in brown paper bags at the golf-ball size of fruit development. Grape, banana, guava, pear, mango, litchi, and Apple. Also found that sugars varied significantly in pomegranate fruit with different polyethylene bagging. The bagging of date palm fruits improved the total sugars. Bagging with paper bags significantly increased total sugar content in dates. Bagging materials had also a significant effect on ascorbic acid content of the fruits found that bagging with parchment paper bags enhanced ascorbic acid content but reduced tannin levels in fruit. Also found that bagging improved ascorbic acid contents of the apple fruits.

**Method of Measures Quality parameters:**

**1. Length and Diameter of Fruit (cm):**

The length from stalk end to the apex of fruit and diameter was measured with the help of digital Vernier caliper expressed in centimeters (cm).

**2. Fruit Weight (g):**

The weight of fruit was recorded by using mono pan electronic balance and expressed in grams (g).

**3. Titratable Acidity:**

5g pulp of was crushed in mortar and pestle and transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask. Distilled water was added to make volume up to 100 ml. Then the sample was filtered and 25 ml filtrate was taken in the beaker and was titrated against 0.1N NaOH using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The results were expressed in percent of citric acid.

**4. Total Soluble Solids (TSS):**

Total soluble solids (TSS) were measured in ⁰Brix according to AOAC (1990) using hand refractometer at room temperature.

**5. Reducing Sugars:**

5 g of pulp was crushed in mortar and pestle. It was transferred to 250 ml volumetric flask. To this, 100 ml of distilled water was added and the contents were neutralized by 1N Sodium Hydroxide. Then, 2 ml of 45 per cent lead acetate was added to it. The contents were mixed well and kept for 10 minutes. Appropriate quantity (2.5 ml) of 22 per cent potassium oxalate was added to it to precipitate the excess of lead. The volume was made to 250 ml with
distilled water and solution was filtered through What man No.40 filter paper. Determination of reducing sugars. The results were expressed on per cent basis.

$$ \% Reducing sugars = \frac{\text{mg of invert sugar} \times \text{Dilution} \times 100}{\text{Titre} \times \text{Wt. or Vol. of} \times 100} $$

## 6. Total Sugars:

Total sugar content in fruit juice was determined as per “Lane and Eynon Method” and given as blow (Ranganna, 1979). 25 ml of sample sugar dilution was taken in a 100 ml volumetric flask and 5 ml of HCL (1+1) was added. This was kept for 24 hours at the ambient temperature for the hydrolysis of non-reducing sugars to the reducing ones. Thereafter the content was neutralized with 1 N NaOH and made up to 100 ml of distilled water. It was titrated against freshly prepared and standardized Fehling’s reagent as mentioned above.

$$ \text{Total sugars} = \frac{\text{mg of invert sugar} \times \text{Dilution} \times 100}{\text{Titre value} \times \text{Wt. or Vol. of} \times 100} \quad (\% \text{ invert sugars}) $$

## 6. Non Reducing sugar (%):

Non reducing sugars were calculated by subtracting reducing sugars from the total sugar content and expressed in per cent.

$$ \text{Non reducing sugars (\%)} = (\text{total sugars} - \text{Reducing sugars}) \times 0.95 $$

## 7. Ascorbic Acid (mg/100g of Fruit Pulp):

Determination of ascorbic acid was done by 2, 6 - dichlorophenol indophenol dye method as described by Ranganna (1979). 5 ml of sample was blended with 3 per cent metaphosphoric acid (HPO₃) to make the final volume of 100 ml and then filtered. 25 ml quantity of aliquot was titrated against 0.025 per cent 2,6 - dichlorophenol indophenol dye to a pink colour end point. The ascorbic acid content of the sample was calculated taking into consideration the dye factor and expressed as mg ascorbic acid per 100 g fruit pulp.

## 8. Orgnolactic:

The ripe fruits were also examined for their sensory qualities for assessing colour, flavour and texture by panel of five judges with nine-point Hedonic Scale viz.1-Dislike extremely, 2-Dislike very much, 3-Dislike moderately, 4-Dislike slightly, 6-Like slightly, 7-Like moderately, 8-Like very much and 9-Like extremely.

## REFERENCES:

* Amarante, C., Banks, N. H. and Max, S. (2002). Pre-harvest bagging improves packout and fruit quality of pears (Pyrus communis). *New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science*, (30), 93–98.

<footnote>*Titre value obtained after inversion of sugars</footnote>
* Arakawa, O., Uematsu, N. and Nakajima, H. (1994). Effect of bagging on fruit quality in apples. *Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture*, (57), 25–32.

* Awad, M. A. (2007). Increasing the rate of ripening of date palm fruit (*Phoenix dactylifera* L.) cv. Helali by pre-harvest and post harvest treatments. *Post harvest Biology and Technology*, (43), 121–127.

* Bentley, W. J. and Viveros, M. (1992). Brown-bagging Granny Smith apples on trees stop codling moth damage. *California Agriculture*, (46), 30–32.

* Chonhenchob, V., Kamhangwong, D., Kruenate, J., Khongrat, K., Tangchantra, N., Wichai, U. and Singh, S. P. (2011). Pre-harvest bagging with wavelength-selective materials enhances development and quality of mango (*Mangifera indica* L.). *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture*, (91), 664–671.

* Debnath, S. and Mitra, S. K. (2008). Panicle bagging for maturity regulation, quality improvement and fruit borer management in litchi (*Litchi chinensis*). *Acta Horticulturae*, (773), 201–208.

* Guzman, E. C. (2004). Effect of fruit bagging on sanitation and pigmentation of six. *Acta Horticulturae* (645), 195–199.

* Niu, T. Q., Zhang, H. R., Li, M. L. and Hao, Y. Y. (2003). Influences on fruit quality under the micro environment of bagging and analysis about its mechanism. *J. Shangxi Agric. Univ.* (23), 255–259.

* Rajan, R., Ahmad, M. F., Pandey, K. and Solankey, S. S. (2020). Bagging of fruit crops a low cost sustainable technology for quality fruit production. *Jaya Publishing House*, Delhi, India, 121–140.

* Ranganna, S., (1979). Manual of Analysis of Fruit and Vegetable Products, second ed. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, pp. 634.

* Watanawan, A., Watanawan, C. and Jarunate, J. (2008). Bagging in mango during development affects colour and fruit quality. *Acta Horticulturae*, (787), 325–328.
# IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE AND WEATHER FORECASTING

Siddhant Gupta¹, Grijesh Kannaujiya², Satya Prakash Gupta³

¹Department of Agricultural meteorology, ²Department of Extension education, A.N.D.U.A.&T, Kumarganj, Ayodhya (U.P.) INDIA,

³Department of Agronomy, S.V.P.U.A&T, Modipuram, Meerut (U.P.)
INDIA

## What is climate change?

Climate change refers to changes in the average atmospheric condition that are caused by both natural factors such as the orbit of earth's revolution, volcanic activities and crustal movements and the artificial factors i.e., the increase in the concentration of GHGs (greenhouse gases) and aerosol.

Climate change by means of global warming, refers to the average increase in global temperature, has become a mega trend that will lead to significant global changes in the future. Concerning its impacts, the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) presented considerable scientific evidences in its fourth report on climate change (2007) and they have become clearly recognized worldwide. In addition, people have become more aware of the facts that global warming cannot be avoided due to the continued increase in greenhouse gas emissions and the changes in the climate.

The Club of Rome Report 1972 officially raised global warming as an international issue and in 1985, World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) officially declared carbon dioxide as the principal cause of global warming. In order to effectively manage the global warming issues, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 and has carried out systematic research and deep studies on climate change.

Global warming not only causes a change in average temperature and precipitation, but also increases the frequency of floods, droughts, heat waves, cold waves and the intensity of cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons following the change in temperature and precipitation patterns. The impact of climate change is also shown in various forms all over the world including the rise of sea level, melting of glaciers, northward movement of plant habitats, animal habitat changes, rise of ocean's surface temperature, short winters and early arrival of spring.

The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and was later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly. The membership for the IPCC is open to all the members of the WMO and UN. The IPCC produces report that contributes to the work of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
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The objective of the UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". The IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report was the critical scientific input into the UNFCCC's Paris Agreement 2015.

The IPCC embarked on its sixth assessment cycle. Besides the Sixth Assessment Report, which is to be completed in 2022, the IPCC released the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C in October 2018. The Special Report published online on 7 August, on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL) and the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) released on 25 September 2019, this makes the sixth assessment cycle the most ambitious in the IPCC's 32 years history.

Global Climate Change

The past few decades, gaseous composition of the atmosphere has undergone a
significant change mainly through increased industrial emissions, fossil fuel combustion,
widespread deforestation and burning of biomass, besides land management practices. These
anthropogenic activities have resulted in an increased emission of naturally occurring radiative
active gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), popularly
known as greenhouse gases (GHGs). These gases trap the outgoing infrared radiation from the
earth's surface and thus raise the temperature.

Green House Gases (GHGs)

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases (sometimes abbreviated GHGs). Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect on the planets and the primary greenhouse gases of Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O), methane (CH₄), and ozone (O₃). The average temperature of Earth's surface would be about -18 °C, rather than the present average of 15 °C, without the greenhouse gases. The atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain greenhouse gases.

Impact of climate change on agriculture

The effect of climate change on agriculture is related to variabilities in local climates
rather than in global climate patterns. The international aspect of trade and security in terms of
food, fibre and fodder implies the need to consider the effects of climate change on a global
scale.

In the report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change published in 2014 says that the world may reach ‘A threshold of global warming beyond which current agricultural practices can no longer support large human civilizations by the middle of the 21st century’. In 2019, it published reports in which it says that millions of peoples are already suffering from food insecurity due to climate change and predicted decline in global crop production of about 2- 6% by decade.

Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C target is possible but would require deep
emissions reductions, rapid far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.
Furthermore, the report finds that limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would
reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems and human health and that 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic Sea Ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems.

Climate change induced by increasing greenhouse gases is likely to affect the crops differently from place to place. More favourable effect on yield tends to depend to a large extent on realization of the potentially beneficial effects of carbon dioxide on crop growth and increase of efficiency in water use. Decrease in potential yields is likely to be caused by shortening of the growing span, decrease in water availability and poor vernalization.

## The climate change can affect the agriculture in several ways

* **Productivity:** climate change can affect the productivity in terms of quantity and quality of the crops.

* **Agricultural practices:** climate change can affect the agricultural practices through changes of water use (irrigation) and agricultural inputs such as herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers application.

* **Environmental effects:** climate change has also environmental effects particular in relation of frequency and intensity of soil drainage (leading to nitrogen leaching), soil erosion, reduction of crop diversity.

* Climate change may affect the rural space by the loss and gain of cultivated lands, land speculation, land renunciation, and hydraulic amenities.

* **Adaptation:** organisms may become more or less competitive as well as humans may develop urgency to develop more competitive organisms such as flood resistant or salt tolerant cultivars.

## Insect pests

Global warming can lead to an increase in insect pest population, harming productions of food crops like wheat, soybeans, mustard, chickpea, lentils and corns. While warmer temperatures create longer growing seasons and faster growth rates for plants. It also increases the metabolic activities and number of breeding cycles of insect populations. Insects that pastly had only two breeding cycles per year could gain an additional breeding cycle if warm growing seasons extend, causing a population boom. Temperate regions and higher latitudes are more likely to experience a dramatic change in insect and pest populations.

## Plant diseases

Climate change may modify the developmental stages of plant pathogens that can affect the crops. Change in weather patterns and temperature due to climate change leads to dispersal of plant pathogens as hosts migrate to areas with more favourable situations. This may result to increase more crop losses due to diseases. It has been predicted that the effect of climate change would add a level of complexity to figuring out how to conserve sustainable agriculture.

## Effect of greenhouse gases on agriculture

A greenhouse gas (GHG) is that which absorbs and emits radiational energy within the thermal infrared range. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water
## Advanced Farming

vapor (H₂O), methane (CH₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and ozone (O₃). Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about -18 °C, rather than the present average of 15 °C.

Human activities, since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (around 1750) have produced about 45% increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm (parts per million) in 1750 to 415 ppm in 2019. last time the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide was this high over 3 million years ago. The vast majority of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions are come from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, natural gas and petroleum, with additional contributions coming from deforestation and other changes in land use. The leading source of anthropogenic CH₄ emissions is agriculture, closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil fuel industry. The traditional rice cultivation is the second biggest agricultural source of methane after livestock with a near-term warming impact equivalent to the carbon dioxide emissions from all aviation.

## Effect of global climate change

Global climate changes can affect agriculture through their direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, livestock and pests.

### Direct effects

* Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration increases growth and productivity of C4 crop.

* Increase in temperature.

* Reduces crop duration.

* Increases crop restoration rates.

* Alter photosynthetic partitioning to economic organs.

* Influences the survival and distribution of pest population.

* Hasten nutrient mineralization in soil.

* Decrease fertilizer use efficiency.

* Increase evapotranspiration

## Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture

### Crop Phenology

There may be about 6-8% reduction in maturity duration for each 1°C rise in temperature. In wheat for each °C rise in temperature, the reduction about 5 days in flowering date and 4 days form flowering to maturity has been recorded in North India. Increased temperature during critical periods of crop development (grain filling in wheat) result in accelerated leaf senescence, decline in canopy photosynthesis and forced maturity in winter cereal crop.

### Evapotranspiration

Vapour pressure deficit, one of the governing factors for Evapotranspiration will increase by 7 per cent for each 1°C rise in temperature, provided RH remains unchanged. Increased temperature from 28 to 35°C causes 30 per cent increase in transpiration in soybean
at both 330 and 800 ppm CO₂ concentration. A linear increase in chickpea transpiration was also observed with increase in Temperature from 10 to 42°C at 330 ppm CO₂ concentration. Under field condition, a sudden rise in ET with increased temperature above 20 °C in barley, chickpea, mustard and wheat is recoded (Singh et al. 1991, Yadav et al. 1987).

## Yield

Increased temperature by 1 to 2 °C above mean temperature of 17°C during grain filling period reduces yield due to increased rate of senescence of flag leaf and reduction in grain filling duration.

## Most observed impacts of climate change

* Shifting in precipitation patterns.

* Longer periods of heavy rains and dryness.

* Increase in temperature average levels.

* Hotter summers and warmer winters may affect plants cycles and lead to early blooming, lesser pollination and frost damages.

* Increase in flooding.

* Causes crop damaging.

* Water pollution.

* Soil erosion.

* Affects plants survival

* Increases the risk of wildfires.

* Degraded soils.

* Monoculture cropping system turns soil into low organic contents, more prone to soil erosion and water pollution.

## Weather forecasting

We all know that the weather has a significant impact on the agriculture and allied sectors/ industries. Indeed, crop needs the basics of moisture, temperature and sun to thrive well. But what is less obvious is how the details of weather information can drive a grower's business decisions, helping them to plan efficiently, minimize costs and maximize yields and profits as a result.

Weather plays a prominent role determining the success or the failure of agricultural production or enterprises. It manifests itself through its effects on soil and plant growth as well as on every stage of animal growth and development. However, the crop losses can be reduced substantially by affecting adjustments through periodic and accurate weather forecasts.

## Types of Weather Forecasting

Weather forecasts are provided on a variety of time-scales, the weather forecasts are classified as follows-

### 1. Nowcasting

* The validity for the now casting is less than 12 hours.
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➤ It emphasise thunderstorm, dust storm, heat waves, cold waves, cyclones.

➤ It has a very high level of accuracy up to 90%.

2. Short-range forecast

> Range from a few hours to about 48 hours or sometimes upto 72 hours.

> It emphasises high and low temperature, wind velocity and direction, sunshine duration, time and amount of precipitation, relative humidity.

> Accuracy of short-range forecast is about 70-80%.

> Generally, it used for irrigation scheduling, time of field operation, protection of plants from frost, spray application, insect-disease effect and drying rate of soil.

3. Medium-range forecast

> This forecast covers a period ranging from 3 days to about 3 weeks.

> Forecast accuracy is 60-70%.

> This range of weather forecast is most important from agricultural point of view.

> It works on change of weather type, sequence of rainy days, normal weather hazards in farming such as strong winds, extended dry or wet spells.

> This forecast is applied-

❖ To determine the depth at which seeds to be sown to achieve an optimal rate of emergence,

❖ To determine whether to sow a crop in this period or not,

❖ To take account of expected rainfall while to planning irrigation,

❖ To decide whether to harvest a crop in this period or not.

4. Long-range forecast

The term long-range forecast has been reserved for general and broad outlooks covering a
longer period of time, say, one or more seasons or years. Sometimes also referred as seasonal
forecast.

> Forecast accuracy is 60%.

> Emphasising abnormalities in temperature and precipitation.

> Applications of this forecast-

❖ In soil moisture management’

❖ In determining irrigation frequency,

❖ To decide whether to grow marginal crops or not.

❖ To choose varieties more likely to thrive in the expected pattern of weather,

❖ To determine crop yield.

Uses of Weather Forecasting in Agriculture

Weather is the dominant factor determining the success or failure of agriculture. This is because farmers have no control over this. Weather manifests its influence on agricultural operations and farm productions through its effects on soil, plant growth as well as on every phase of animal growth and development.
* **Crop growth/Irrigation:** Crop growth or yield, requires adequate amount of moisture, light, and temperature. Detailed and accurate weather information can help farmers better understand and track the growth status/stage to make informed decisions. Having access to this data can guide farmers in making significant decisions like when and how much to irrigate.

* **Fertilizer application:** One of the most important decisions that farmers have to take is determining the proper time fertilizer application, as well as the application rate and fertilizer form to apply. Weather forecasts can be used to ensure that fertilizer is applied in the right conditions i.e. when it's dry enough so that it doesn't wash away but moist enough so that it gets worked into the soil. Proper timing of the fertilizer application increases the production and productivity of the crops, reduces nutrient losses and avoids destruction of the environment. Wrong timing and not predicting the weather may result to waste of fertilizer and even may damage the crop. According to research, in plants, fertilizer application in winter is not good as the crops do not actively grow. Actual temperatures may shift above and below averages from time to time.

* **Pests and Disease Control:** Certain weather condition encourages the development and growth of pests and diseases which can destroy crops. The consequences of changes in temperature and their potential negative effects on host plants and pests are well known. Unseasonably rise in temperatures may lead to lower plant productivity and more pests on the farm. Applying disease and pest control measures are very important to protect the farm and crops from the pest and diseases. Weather forecast help the farmers to know, when to apply the pesticides and chemicals to avoid the wastage. Climate smart pest management system is a cross-sectoral approach that aims to reduce the pest induced crop losses. Wind forecast also plays a great role in this decision as crop dusters, aircraft that spray fungicidal or insecticidal chemicals on plants from above, must be utilized when wind conditions favorable for the operation.

* **Field Workability:** Field workability refers to the availability of days that are suitable for field operations. It is primarily dependent upon soil moisture and temperature. Accurate field level weather information can help farmers assess the workability of their fields and become more efficient in their day-to-day field operations.

## Agro advisories Based on Weather Forecast

The digests are discussed with the subject matter specialists in various agricultural disciplines e.g. Agronomy, Plant pathology, Entomology, Agricultural Meteorology, Vegetable / Horticulture, Soil Science etc. various agencies and the specialists are contributing to the weather and crop outlook.

## Agro-met Advisory Services (ASS)

The agro-met advisory service based on medium range weather forecasting (3-10 days) has been made operational by **National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF)**. The ICAR and agricultural universities co-operate in this task. NCMRWF has proposed to establish 127 agro-meteorological field units (**AMFUs**) in all the agro-climatic
zones, which cover the entire country. The agro-climatic zones were delineated by the ICAR under the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP). The AMFUs prepare ASS bulletins.

References:

Allen, L.H. Jr. (1990). Plant Response to Rising Carbon Dioxide and Potential interaction with Air Pollutants. *J. Environ. Qual.* **19**: 15-34.

Dr. V. Radha Krishna Murthy. Basic Principles of Agricultural Meteorology. BS Publications 4-4 309, Giriiraj Lane, Sultan Bazar, Hyderabad- 500095 (A.P.).

Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved 29 October 2019.

Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

G.S.L.H.V.P Rao, (2014), Agricultural Meteorology, PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi 110092.

H.S. Mavi (1994) Intoduction to Agrometeorology, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. 113-B Shahpur Jat Asian Games Village Side New Delhi 110049, India.

Mann, Michael E. (2014). Earth Will Cross the Climate Danger Threshold by 2036. Scientific American. Retrieved 30 August 2016.

Milius S. (2017). The climate change will quietly steal nutrients from major food crops. Science News. Retrieved 21 January 2018

NASA GISS. Science Briefs: Green house Gases: Refining the Role of Corbon Dioxide.
[www.giss.nasa.gov](http://www.giss.nasa.gov). Retrieved 26 April 2016.

The Club of Rome Report (1972).

The Current state of agriculture trade and the World Trade Organization. International Food Policy Research Institute. 29 July 2020.
# USE OF BIOFERTILIZERS IN AGRICULTURE

Shivam Kumar Verma¹, Dharmendra Kumar² and Durgesh Nandan¹

Research Scholar,
Career Point University, Kota, Rajasthan¹
Sangam University, Bhilwara²

Email id: shivam58460523@gmail.com

## Introduction:

Bio-fertilizers or bio-inoculants are productions containing living organisms such as nitrogen fixers or phosphorus solubilizes which are useful for agricultural production. Biofertilizers play a significant role in improving soil fertility and plant growth.

* by fixing atmospheric nitrogen both in association with plants and without plants

* Solubilize insoluble soil phosphates into soluble phosphates there by increasing the availability of phosphorus

* Secrete growth promoting substances and supplies to the inoculated plants.

Verma and Bhattacharyya (1994) classified the bio fertilizers based on the nutrient provided, which is as follows.

### I. Rhizobium inoculant:

Belongs to the family Rhizobiaceae and symbiotic in nature. Rhizobium establishes symbiotic relations with pulses and other legumes and can fix 50 to 100 kg N ha-1 by which application of chemical nitrogen fertilizers could be reduced and supplemented nearly 80-90 per cent of nitrogen requirement of crop is met by nitrogen fixation in root nodules of legume crops. It is used for pulse legume crops like chick pea, red gram, chickpea, lentil, black gram etc., and oil seed legumes like soybean and groundnut and forage legumes like besrseem, lucerne and pillipesara. On average yield increase was 15-30 % due to rhizobium inoculation. The rhizobia show host specificity to some extent. In other words, rhizobia isolated from ground nut cannot be used for red gram. Particular rhizobium species has the ability to form nodules only on roots of limited and related plant species. Again, effective strains are to be selected for effective nodulation.

The response of inoculation is governed by

1. Host plant

2. Strains effectiveness

3. Soil type and

4. Rain fall
**Method of preparation:**

This biofertilizer is available commercially as carrier based (lignite or peat) biofertilizers. Direct application of rhizobium to seed is the most common form of legume inoculation (seed coat). However, for groundnut, slurry of peat based inoculam in the seed furrows is recommended as the seeds are fragile. The recommended quantity of rhizobium fertilizer is 2-3 packets / ha (packet: 200 grams). The rhizobium culture is available in the market by names of

JAWAHAR CULTURE

RHIZOBIUM COMPOSITE

Nitrogen R-H

II. Azotobacter inoculant:

Azotobacter belongs to the family Azoto bacteriaceae, which is a chemoautotrophic in nature, free living, non-symbiotic in nature and is recommended for application to non-legume crops. It thrives well in many types of soils, with a minimal dose of phosphorus and carbon compounds. It grows best in neutral to alkaline soils. By the application of Azotobacter to various crops, the amount of recommended doses of nitrogenous fertilizers can be reduced by 10-20%. It produces plant growth promoting substances like vitamins of B group, Indole acetic acid, Gibberellic acid by which plants grow quickly and healthy. Yield increase of 10-15% was noticed in some millets. This biofertilizer is recommended for rice, wheat, millets and other cereals, vegetables, sunflower, mustard, tobacco sugarcane, cotton etc., and also fruit crops.

**Method of usage:** It is carrier based biofertilizer (lignite / peat). Azotobacter can be applied by seed inoculation, seedling inoculation, or by broad casting in the field after mixing with FYM or with well decomposed compost. Seed inoculation: Seed is treated with Jaggery to make it sticky and then treated with biofertilizer and shade dried. Seedling inoculation: Make slurry of biofertilizer and dip the roots in it. The recommended dose of Azotobacter is 2-3 packets /ha.

### **III. Azospirillum Inoculant:**

It belongs to the family spirillaceae, chemoautotrophic and associative in nature. It is an associative nitrogen fixing organism was found to be beneficial for sorghum, wheat, maize, barley, fodder grasses and minor millets. Yield increase was 15-30 %. By the application of this fertilizer nitrogen saving is 20-30 kg /ha. It also produces growth regulating substances.

**Application of this biofertilizers results in:**

1. Increased mineral uptake

2. Increased water up take

3. Root development

4. Vegetative growth

5. Make the plant drought resistant

**NOTE:** Principle and mode of application is that of Azotobacter

### **IV. AZOLLA** [Botanical name is *Azolla pinnata*]:
1. It belongs to the family Azollaceae. Azolla is a water fern. It is considered as aquatic weed commonly found in floating in idle ponds, tanks shallow ditches and canals. Azolla is associated with rice field. A blue green algae (BGA) *Anabaena azolla* living in the epidermal cavity of lower side of the leaf of Azolla. The symbiotic association of *Azolla pinnata* and *Anabaena azollae* is termed as Azolla Anabaena complex. This algae fixes atmospheric nitrogen for Azolla and in exchange, the plant provides shelter and food to the algae. As this complex fixes atmospheric nitrogen, it has great potentiality for use, in agricultural field as biofertilizer and can be used as an alternative to nitrogen fertilizers. It is recommended as green manure because of its large biomass and high N content (4-6%N) for sub merged rice fields, with in maximum temperature of 380C. The yield increase is 15-20% Fresh Azolla contains 90-95 water. Decomposed Azolla contains the following plant foods

<table><thead><tr><td>S.No.</td><td>Nutrient</td><td>Per cent (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Nitrogen</td><td>4 to 6</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Phosphorus</td><td>0.5 to 0.9</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Potassium</td><td>2 to 6</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Calcium</td><td>0.4 to 1</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Magnesium</td><td>0.5</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Manganese</td><td>0.11 to 0.16</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Iron</td><td>0.06 to 0.16</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Total ash</td><td>9 to 10</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Ideal conditions for growth and multiplication of Azolla

1. Depth of water should be maintained at 8-10 cm in the field

2. Temperature in between 14 to 35°C.O ptimum for quick growth and multiplication is 20 to 28°C.

3. Suitable soil pH is 6.0 to 8.0

4. Single Super Phosphate should be applied at the rate of 20-25 kg ha-1, should be applied

5. Furadon granules @2-3 kg /week should be applied to control leaf eating insects and snails.

## Methods of growing Azolla:

1. Green manuring

2. Dual cropping

3. Composting

4. Just growing

1. **Green manuring:** When there is standing water in the field, Azolla is grown by spreading 200-500 kg /ha fresh Azolla. After 25 days of the whole field will be covered by Azolla, if condition is ideal. Green Azolla is incorporated by ploughing after dewatering in the field. This will add 30-40 kg of N fertilizer /ha.

2. **Dual cropping:**

A) Azolla nursery is prepared simultaneously with the paddy nursery

B) The area of Azolla nursery should be half that of paddy nursery (seed bed).

C) The Azolla nursery should be kept free from other aquatic weeds and there should be 8-10 cm standing water in the Azolla nursery.
D) Where the paddy seeds are sown in the paddy nursery fresh Azolla is spread in the Azolla nursery @40-80 grams per square meter.

E) After 25 days the Azolla will increase an extent of 60 times and super phosphate is applied @25 grams/Sq.Meter/week.

F) Within 25 days the paddy seedlings will be ready for transplanting. Before transplantation of paddy seedlings, there will be standing water in the main field. Azolla is taken out from the Azolla nursery and spread in the transplanted field @ 200-500 kg/ha.

G) Single super phosphate @25-50 kg/ha/week is applied for 3 weeks and water level is maintained 5-10 cm.

H) After another 25 days, the whole field may be covered by Azolla. Azolla is incorporated after dewatering the field. This will add 30-40 kg N/ha besides another nutrients.

**3. Composting:** Azolla is grown in permanent Azolla nursery. The Azolla is collected every week from the nursery and kept in layers on the side of nursery. Within 10 days, the Azolla will decompose and can be used in any crop.

**4. Just growing:**

Azolla can be grown along with paddy. nitrogen will be added where it is not incorporated. Azolla when grown in one hectare of land throughout the year and ideal conditions are maintained it can fix 800 kg of nitrogen per hectare. Azolla is suitable for only flooded rice and fixes up to 40-80 kg N/ha.

Symbiotically with *Anabaena azollae*. The yield increase is 15-20 %.

**Advantages of azolla:**

1. It contains higher Nitrogen content

2. Release of nitrogen is easy

3. There is no leaching loss

4. Releases nutrient slowly

5. Weed interference is less were grown as dual crop

**V. Blue green algae or Cyanobacteria:**

BGA is phototrophic in nature. These are photosynthetic, prokaryotic microorganisms and capable of fixing molecular nitrogen. BGA are found to grown in a paddy filed and marshland. It is used as biofertilizer for irrigated rice crop.

The rice field ecosystem provides an environment favourable for the growth of BGA with respect to their requirements viz., light, water and temperature. Nitrogen fixation by BGA have been estimated to be 25-30 kg N/ha. Yield increases by 10-15 %. BGA has some species viz., Nostoc, Anabaena, Olocia, Calothrix, Tolipothix etc., They fix nitrogen in the presence of sunlight. They also contain growth promoting substances like auxin, Indole acetic acid and Gibberellic acid. Recommendation: application of 10 kg /ha flakes of BGA. It is applied 10 days after the transplanting of rice crop.

**Algal production technology:**

Mainly three methods are followed.

1) Trough method

2) Pit method
### 3) Field scale

#### 1. Trough method:

* Take 3 m x 2 m x 20 cm size (L x B x h) galvanized iron sheet trough or to the convenient size. Add about 8 to 10 kg of soil and well mixed with 200 grams of SSP. The soil pH should be about neutral. If acidic correct by lime. Add water to the trough 5-15 cm (height) to protect from insects, and add Carbofuran 3.0 G at the rate of 25 grams / tray.

* Sprinkle the algal culture on the surface of the standing water and keeping it in air (open) and exposed to sunlight.

* In hot summer months, the growth of algae will be rapid in about 7 to 10 days and form a thick mat, where algal growth becomes sufficiently thick stop watering and allow the water to evaporate completely, the dry algae crack in to flakes

* Collect the dry algal flakes from the trough and store in bags for the use in the field. One trough gives 1.5 to kg mats.

#### 2. Pit-method:

* Adopted by number of farmers in south India

* Demark the area in the field for algal production

* Flood the area with a depth of about 12.5 cm

* Apply SSP @12.0 kg /40 m2 area

* Apply the algal culture

* In clayey soils good growth of algae takes place in about two weeks in clear sunny weather while in loamy soils it takes about 3-4 weeks

* Once algal growing mats are formed, they are allowed to dry up in the field and deed algal flakes are thin collected and stored in bags.

* BGA benefit the rice crop up to 25-30 kg N /ha

* Dose: Apply BGA @10-15 kg /ha after transplanting.

### VI. MYCORRHIZAE:

Mycorrhizae means root fungi or VAM. These are obligate symbiotic. They are ubiquitous in nature and with very few exceptions found on a wide range of plant species. They form vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) symbiosis. VAM fungi infects and spreads inside the root by providing an aseptate mycelium. Vesicles which are sac like structure provided by these fungi are known to store phosphorus as phospholipids. Arbuscules formed inside the cortical cells are attributed to help in the exchange of nutrients. Common genera that form VAM associations are **Glomus**, **Gigaspora**, **Enterospora etc.**,

#### Advantages:

1. VAM fungi enhancing the nutrient uptake of P, Zn and S

2. Enhances the water uptake under drought conditions

3. Enhances resistance to root damage

4. Increases the yield

It is recommended for forest trees, forage grasses, maize, millets, sorghum and barely and also leguminous crops. Mycorrhizae can substitute up to 560 kg phosphorous fertilizer per
hectare for citrus. Only enriched soil in the presence of suitable plant has to multiplication are
not yet known.

Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms

Phosphorus is present in soils in both organic and inorganic forms and most of which is insoluble and unavailable to plants. Several soil bacteria particularly those belonging to the genera **Pseudomonas** and **Bacillus** and fungi belonging to the genera **Pencillium** and **Aspergillus** possess the activity to bring insoluble phosphates in the soil to the soluble forms by secreting organic acids such as acetic acid, propionic acid etc., These acids lower the pH and bring about the dissolution of the bound phosphate forms.

Mode of applications: As that of VAM fungi

Constraints in usage of biofertilizers

1. Farmer's acceptance has been for from satisfaction

2. Difficult to demonstrate striking increase in yield due to biofertilizers unlike chemical fertilizers

3. Strains fail to establish if the soil moisture in the surface in the surface zone

4. Fungicide treatment is a problem in crops like groundnut

5. Inoculant's manufacturing is for below the requirement

6. Availability of quality of inoculants is another problem

7. Seed inoculation is no more suitable when seeds are sown on dry soil under

8. When seeds are coated with toxic chemicals and pesticides

9. Soil containing higher number of ineffective native rhizobia

10. Seeds have fragile seed coat

11. When seed coat is toxic to rhizobia. In such situation soil inoculation with granulated inoculant is followed in USA, New Zealand, France etc., Granulated inoculation is prepared using grains of sand, gypsum, peat etc.,

12. Problem like transport form the manufacturing centre.

Reference:

Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad (2011), Manures,
Fertilizers And Agricultural Chemicals, Department of Soil Science and Agril.
Chemistry.

Mateusz Mącik Agata GrytaMagdalena Frąc, (2020) Biofertilizers in agriculture: An overview on concepts, strategies and effects on soil microorganismsin Advances in Agronomy.

Dal Cortivo Cristian, Ferrari Manuel, Visioli Giovanna, Lauro Marta, Fornasier Flavio, Barion Giuseppe, Panozzo Anna, Vamerali Teofilo (2020) Effects of Seed-Applied Biofertilizers on Rhizosphere Biodiversity and Growth of Common Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the Field, Frontiers in Plant Science, https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpls.2020.00072
# INM OF FRUIT CROP PRODUCTION

Mr. Rohit Kumar

Research Scholar,

Department of Horticulture,

Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan

Email Id: rohit.kumar.9889@gmail.com

## Introduction:

India has been bestowed with wide range of climate and physio-geographical conditions and as such is most suitable for growing various kinds of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, spices and plantation crops (coco nut, cashew nut and cocoa). Its horticulture production has increased by 30 per cent in the last five years. This has placed India among the foremost countries in horticulture production, just behind China. During 2012-13, its contribution in the world production of fruits was 12.6 %. Total production of fruits during 2012-13 was 81.2 million tonnes. Though production of fruits has increased manifold over the last decade but there exists a gap between the demand and supply of fruits. The present fruit production in India meets only the 46% of the total demand. Thus, there is strong need to increase the production and productivity through crop diversification and use of best horticultural techniques among which Integrated Nutrient Management is the one.

The productivity of fruits is comparable to China and some other leading fruit producing countries of the world but India still lags behind USA and Indonesia in terms of productivity. This might be because of improper orchard management particularly nutrient management. The continuous use of chemicals fertilizers particularly NP&K has impaired the soil fertility and decreased the factor productivity. The increasing cost of fertilizers with poor purchasing capacity and their negative effect on soil health has led to intensified attempts to the use of bio-fertilizers and organic matter along with inorganic fertilizers. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) is a system that helps to restore and sustain crop productivity, and also assists in checking the emerging micro-nutrient deficiencies. Further, it brings economy and efficiency in the use of fertilizers. Integrated plant nutrient management can also be referred to as maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply to optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. It envisages the use of chemical fertilizers in conjunction with organic manures, green manures, crop residues, and legumes in a cropping system and locally available resources with objectives of sustaining high yield and ensuring environmental safety. Objectives of integrated plant nutrient management are:

(i) to reduce inorganic fertilizer requirement;

(ii) to restore the organic matter in soil and to increase nutrient use efficiency;

(iii) to maintain quality in terms of physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and
(iv) to maintain the nutrient balance between the supplied nutrient and nutrient removed by plant and to improve soil health and productivity on sustainable basis.

## Nutrient Management

Nutrient management is the science and art directed to link soil, crop, weather, and hydrologic factors with cultural, irrigation, and soil and water conservation practices to achieve the goals of optimizing nutrient use efficiency, yields, crop quality, and economic returns, while reducing off-site transport of nutrients that may impact the environment. Nutrient management, particularly in horticultural crops, is the skilful task of matching a specific field, soil, climate, and crop management conditions to rate, source, timing, and place (commonly known as the 4R nutrient stewardship) of nutrient application. Some important factors that need to be considered when managing nutrients include

(a) the application of nutrients considering crop quality and achievable optimum yields;

(b) application, and timing and management, of nutrients using a budget based on all sources and sinks active at the site; and

(c) the management of soil, water, and crop to minimize the off-site transport of nutrients from nutrient leaching out of the root zone, surface runoff, and volatilization (or other gas exchanges).

## Goal of INM:

Sustainable agricultural production incorporates the idea that natural resources should be used to generate increased output and incomes, especially for low-income groups without depleting the natural resource base. INM's goal is to integrate the use of all natural and man-made sources of plant nutrients, so that crop productivity increases in an efficient and environmentally benign manner, without sacrificing soil productivity of future generations. INM relies on a number of factors, including appropriate nutrient application and conservation and the transfer of knowledge about INM practices to farmers through extension personnel.

## Current status of INM:

Keeping the importance of organic resources in view, a lot of research has been done on integrated nutrient management during last two decades in natural resource management (NRM) institutions and state agricultural universities. Development of INM practices for major crops; Understanding the enhanced role of organic manures in increasing input use efficiency due to their favourable effect on physical, chemical and biological condition of the soil; Establishing the beneficial role of integrated use of organic manures in improving nutrient cycling in different production systems in various types of soils; Beneficial role of INM in improving soil chemical, physical and biological quality for sustainable crop production; and The work on INM has been compiled and published in the form of books/bulletins by several institutions.
**Challenges:**

The promotion of integrated nutrient management in different parts of the world, and particularly in rural areas of developing countries where most of the poor live, will require a concerted effort by a multitude of actors. The following sections discuss the key components of a strategy for building appropriate institutions involved in research, extension, and participatory work on INM.

**Components**

1. **On-site resource generation:** On-site generation of resources stipulates recycling of crop residues, animal manure etc.

2. **Mobilisation of off-site nutrient resources:** The mobilisation of off-site nutrient resources stipulates the addition of chemical nutrients from outside sources.

3. **Resource's integration:** The resources responsible for on-site generation of nutrients and energy have to be appropriately integrated with chemical forms of nutrients and other management factors which enhances productivity.

4. **Resources management:** All the sources have to be appropriately managed at the optimum level of efficiency. In practical terms, the integrated nutrient supply system stipulates the management of the farming system as a whole, involving cattle, poultry, animals and plant resources and the use of chemicals for their conversion into food-grains and other forms of food.

**Determinants**

1. Nutrient requirement of cropping system as a whole.

2. Soil fertility status and special management needs to overcome soil problems, if any

3. Local availability of nutrients resources (organic, inorganic and biological sources)

4. Economic conditions of farmers and profitability of proposed INM option.

5. Social acceptability.

6. Ecological considerations.

7. Impact on the environment

**Advantages**

1. Enhances the availability of applied as well as native soil nutrients

2. Synchronizes the nutrient demand of the crop with nutrient supply from native and applied sources.

3. Provides balanced nutrition to crops and minimizes the antagonistic effects resulting from hidden deficiencies and nutrient imbalance.

4. Improves and sustains the physical, chemical and biological functioning of soil.

5. Minimizes the deterioration of soil, water and ecosystem by promoting carbon sequestration, reducing nutrient losses to ground and surface water bodies and to atmosphere.
**Use of Cheap Sources of Nutrients:**

Cost of nutrients is a major expenditure in crop production. As far as possible attempts must be made to reduce the cost on nutrients through use of cheap sources of nutrients like rock phosphate, gypsum, pyrites, crop residues etc.

Rock phosphate: In acid soils rock phosphate can be used directly as a source of phosphorus. It is more convenient to use rock phosphate in perennial crops than annual crops as the P from rock phosphate becomes slowly available.

Gypsum: It is the cheapest source of sulphur available today. Gypsum as a source of S can be used on any type of soils. It will give additional benefits as a source of Ca in acid soils.

Pyrite: Pyrites can be used as a source of both sulphur and iron in neutral and alkaline soils. Use of pyrite in alkaline soils helps in increasing the availability of other nutrients by reducing the soil pH.

Biofertilizers: Biofertilizers are inputs containing useful microorganisms. They are capable of mobilizing plant nutrients from unavailable forms to available forms through biological processes. They are cost-effective and inexpensive sources of plant nutrients. Biofertilizers are grouped under three distinct categories viz., N-fixers, phosphate solubilises and mycorrhizal fungi. Nitrogen-fixing organisms associated with horticultural crops are Rhizobium sp. associated with legume vegetables and free-living microorganisms belonging to Azotobacter sp. and Azospirillum sp. which live in association with root systems of non-leguminous horticultural crops. Several soil bacteria particularly those belonging to the genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus and fungi belonging to the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus poses the ability to convert insoluble P in soil into soluble forms. The vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) are formed by the fungi belonging to the genera Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora and Sclerocystis which produce vesicles and arbuscules inside the root system. Arbuscles are highly branched fungal hyphae and the vesicles are bulbus swellings of these fungal hyphae. These fungi make nutrients available to the host plants. Chemical fertilisers and biofertilizers should not be applied together as the microorganisms in biofertilizers may get killed.

**Composts from weeds and other bio wastes:**

Large quantity of weed biomass is available in rural areas during monsoon season which are rich sources of plant nutrients. They can be both directly incorporated into the soil before seeding or can be converted into enriched compost and used in crop production.

**Importance of Balanced Fertilisation in Horticultural Crops Conceptually:**

Integrated nutrient management would essentially mean rational use of fertilisers and organic manures for supply of nutrients for production in such a manner that would ensure

(i) maximum efficiency of fertiliser use,

(ii) harnessing best possible positive and synergistic interactions amongst the various factors of production (planting material, water, agrochemicals etc.),

(iii) least adverse effect on environment by minimizing nutrient losses,

(iv) maintaining soil productivity, and

(v) sustaining high yields commensurate with the biological potential of the crop variety under the unique soil, climate and agro ecological set-up. Integrated nutrient management for a crops / cropping systems is the only viable strategy advocating accelerated and enhanced use
of fertilisers with matching adoption of organic manure and biofertilizers so that productivity is maintained for a sustainable agriculture. Balance has to be maintained in the soil - crop system and it has also to take care of all other factors of production and make allowances for residual effects of past fertiliser applications, N fixation etc., and to ensure that there is no toxicity / deficiency of any element. Perennial fruit crops are quite a bit different from annual crops. Annual crop growers can almost predict what their final yield will be from the number of fertilisers they apply. In case of perennial fruit crops more than 90% of the absorbed nutrients get locked-up in the woody part of the tree and the current application will not influence the yields of current season. It is because of this, yield predictions to applied nutrients are difficult in perennial fruit crops. However, the deep root systems help them to bring in nutrients from a large volume of soil and can store nutrients in the vegetative part and resume them again and again during later growing seasons. Thus, the annual crops (vegetables, flowers, etc.) and perennial crops need to be tackled differently under integrated nutrient management strategies. Because of this complex nature of perennial fruit crops growers seem to worry most about, whether they are applying enough fertilisers.

**How can we balance nutrient applications under these complex situations:**

Growers believe that if they spend money to add fertilisers to spray some foliar nutrient mixtures then their yields would increase. However, an immediate benefit in such case is not seen. This also leads to imbalanced use of nutrients and leads to many complications in fruit production. Too much nitrogen fertilisers result in excess vegetative growth and reduce the reproductive growth which otherwise is needed to maintain large yields of fruits. Excess nitrogen can result in soft fruits with poor colour in apple and predispose vegetables to attacks of pests and diseases. It will delay ripening in grapes. A thick vegetative canopy increases diseases by slowing the drying. Too much potassium can cause bitter pit in apples and mango by upsetting calcium uptake. The ultimate effects of these are that yields do not increase. Hence in crop production one should know the concentration of nutrients in plant tissue before fertilising the trees and for mid-term corrections in vegetables. Methods to Enhance Nutrient Use Efficiency Source: Commonly used pilled urea is modified to improve its use efficiency by making it slowly soluble through physical transformation (eg. Urea super granules (USG), coated with lac etc.,) and chemical/biological modifications (sulphur-coated, neem oil/extract-coated, guar- gum-blended, tar-coated etc.). Urea is also useful for foliar application and fertigation. Ammonium sulphate is not recommended in high rainfall areas due to its high residual acidity. Calcium ammonium nitrate is useful where supplement with calcium is necessary. Single superphosphate and DAP are the most common phosphatic fertilisers used. Muriate of potash is widely used potassic fertiliser. In crops like potato and grape in which chlorides interfere with quality, sulphate of potash is recommended. The latter is also convenient for foliar application and fertigation. Several compound/complex fertilisers are available that contain more than one major nutrient but need to supplement with straight fertilisers to meet the exact needs of the crops.

**References:**

Integrated Nutrient Management - Department of Agriculture, Government of Meghalaya
(megagriculture.gov.in)

Nutrient Management: Integrated Nutrient Management (tnau.ac.in)
Disket Dolker, Parshant Bakshi, V.K. Wali, Stanzin Dorjey, Kiran Kour and Amit Jasrotia. 2017. Integrated Nutrient Management in Fruit Production. *Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci.* 6(7): 32-40. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.607.005

Kenworthy, A.L., Fruit, Nut and Plantation Crops (1964). A guide for collection of foliar samples for nutrient element analysis. Hort. Dept. Memo. Michigan State Univ., East Lansing.

Stewart, W.M., Dibb, D.W., Johnston, A.E. and Smyth, T.J., The contribution of commercial fertilizer nutrients to food production. *Agron. J.*, 97:1-6 (2005)

Raghupathi, H.B., Ganeshamurthy, A.N. and Ravishankar, H., Comparison of DRIS ratio norms of selected fruit crops. *Indian J. Hort.* 71(2): 168-175 (2014)
# STATUS OF GRAIN STORAGE IN INDIA AND STORAGE MODELS

Sachinª*, Mukesh Kumar Gargª, Vijay Kumar Singhª, Sushant Bhardwajª, Parveenᵇ and Ajay Kumarª

Email: ersachin202@gmail.com & ersachin202@hau.ac.in

## Abstract

Food grains were the nation's main source of income and were stored until the next harvest. Government bodies buy surplus agricultural commodities from farmers, support grain storage, and transfer grain from excess supply to deficit regions. Grain was stored in a variety of ways, including gunny bags, metal bins, and large quantities in the open space. Small farmers in India store food grains in conventional structures. Excess grains were stored by government agencies such as the Food Corporation of India (FCI), as well as the State and Central Warehousing Corporations. The most common storage method was Cover and Plinth (CAP) storage, which was cost-effective but results in grain loss. These agencies do have a few scientific storage structures, such as silos. So even though the country doesn't have enough storage capacity right now, the government was preparing to take steps to build silos for long-term safe grain storage. Private enterprise cooperation must be empowered through soft loan services for both the development of agricultural godowns in possible locations, as well as tax cuts for such enterprises. In this book chapter, numerous advanced methods for efficient grain storage management were briefed, including hermetic storage, computer-aided administration for grain storage, simulation analysis, efficient surveillance, and a three-dimensional thermal monitoring system. This book chapter examines the status of grain storage in India, the evaluation of numerous conventional storage structures used in different regions, improved modern storage methods, storage models used around the world, and recommendations for grain storage.

## 1. Introduction:

Grain productivity was continuously rising due to development in different technologies ranging from genetically enhanced grains to more innovative farming methods. However, inappropriate collection and storage resulting in significant loss of grains. Grains loss in the storage constitutes 10 to 20 percent of total output, and initial storage failures were attributable to insufficient storage capacity, bug, and pest attacks (Phillips and Throne, 2010). It was believed that 60-70 percent of food grain production in the region was kept at the household level in traditional storage facilities. The storage techniques vary from mud constructions to advanced bins. The bins were constructed from a range of local materials varying in shape, size, and functionality (Negi and Solanki, 2015). Also, with the emergence of Container Freight Stations (CFS), Bonded Warehouses, and Industrial warehouses, the private players and stakeholders on Agricultural Warehousing such as PSUs, now shifting their assets towards such financially more appealing and feasible alternatives. Corporate sector involvement should also be promoted through soft credit facilities to develop rural godowns at appropriate sites and provide

<footnote>ªDepartment of Processing and Food Engineering, COAE&T, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar.</footnote>

<footnote>ᵇDepartment of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, COAE&T, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India.</footnote>
government incentives and tax benefits to these enterprises. Probably, this constructive attitude from either the part of the planning commission and proposals of the sub-advisory committee of the governments may go a far toward reducing the gap here between production and distribution requisites and help feed millions of poverties surrounded the current population (Chaturvedi and Anilraj, 2015). Although food commodities were the government's largest source of revenue, these must be conserved till the following season. Insects and fungi may contaminate the grains. The main issue with sustainability in Indian agricultural production was a lack of facilities and inefficient supply chain monitoring (Akila and Shalini, 2018).

Grain quality was determined by its overall appearance, adequate nutrition, hygiene practices, and commercial characteristics. Insect and fungus significant damage was the primary source of quantity and quality reductions in crop storage, especially mycotoxins. It was a significant issue, particularly in maize, which constitutes the grain unsuitable for human intake or livestock feed. Mycotoxins generated by storage fungus infect a significant proportion of wheat grains, about 25-40% worldwide (Kumar and Kalita, 2017). Controlling grain moisture content using sealed or hermetic storage and insect control by using some essential oils i.e. turmeric also shown promising results (Sachin et al., 2020). These were among the essential biological parameters in suitable grain storage system. Excessive moisture percentage causes storage issues as it promotes insect pests' growth, rate of respiration, and germination percentage. Rapid innovations in more economical storage alternatives, including hermetically storage systems, may prevent insect waste since its sealed bins consume oxygen gradually, terminating insect pest survival (Baoua et al., 2012). The use of proper temperature control settings was another important factor in preserving grain quality. Especially with the use of conventional grain storage methods that used various airtight bulk quantity bins, crop deterioration happened due to elevated temperatures, wetness, and air pressure via the massive grain pile. The primary cause of grain damage in areas with wet and tropical climates was a lack of drying equipment. The two-stage grain drying method lowers the grain moisture level to a certain permissible storage minimum level. As a result, there was a need to create an efficient, automated, and real-time monitoring and regulating system for adequate grain storage (Parvin et al., 2018).

## 2. Storage capacity available in India

FCI was the largest stakeholder in warehousing, representing 30% of India's agricultural storage capacity. SWCs provide 20% of total capacity in India, although state civil supplies, cooperative sector, and also private sector shares constitute 10%, 14%, and 17%, proportionately (Figure 1). The volume currently available at FCI, as well as a portion of the warehouse storage capacity available at CWC and SWCs, was utilized for the storing of food grains purchased by government bodies towards the Central Reserve. Overall storage capacity provided throughout the country was insufficient to store the acquired supplies. Instead, as a consequence, a significant amount of grain crops was kept in Cover and Plinth Storage (Sayyad and Patil, 2016). The current agricultural produce control system throughout India was marked by the government's control in production, product marketing, and storage (Figure 2). Today, the government makes all policies, all from input price to post-harvest management to further cross-border commerce. Buffer stocking was a crucial part of the nation's underlying agricultural production management. FCI, state governments engaged in the decentralized procurement program, and state agencies purchase everything offered by the central government if they meet required specifications. FCI's acquisition operations were, by government policy, mostly restricted to wheat and rice. Other authorities manage the purchasing procedures for oilseed crops and legumes through the price support scheme whenever the market rate of a specific commodity drops even under its minimum support price. Besides the economic considerations of acquiring and warehousing such a massive
number of commodities, private businesses were squeezed outside of the markets, causing prices throughout the open market to fall. (Saini and Kozicka, 2014).

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Percentage share of storage capacity of various sectors in India</figcaption></figure>

Source: Warehousing Development and Regulatory Authority Report, 2019

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Current Indian food-administration diagram</figcaption></figure>

Source: Saini and Kozicka, 2014

**3. Grain storage structures in India**

Grains were kept in India at the farmer, merchant, and commercial stages. Conventional grain storage systems were primarily used to preserve grains from infestations for a relatively short time, and therefore were not of high quality. Modern technologies for the storage and transportation of grains have been established throughout all regions of the world. Grain storing systems were a set of structures for grains being used following harvesting to safely store grains till they were consumed or transported somewhere (Tiwari *et al*., 2011).

**3.1 Conventional grain storage structures**

Agricultural produce is preserved in a variety of ways, notably inside, outside the house, and perhaps even buried underground. Traditional storage methods do not provide protection against main
storage insect pests of grains, resulting in a greater proportion of losses, especially owing to post-harvest insect infestations and grain diseases (Tefera *et al.*, 2011). Kanaja was made of bamboo beneath the ground grain store structure. The bottom was typically circular, with a large aperture at the top. Height and capacity vary substantially. To avoid grain overflow and pilferage, the kanaja was coated with mud puddles and dairy cow-dung mix. The roof was also coated with mud puddles and cattle manure or usually covered with crop residues or gunny cloth. Sanduka, or wooden boxes, were also often used for keeping lesser amounts of grains, lentils, and plant seeds. The storage space of such containers may range between 3 and 12 q. Partition barricades could often be made within the container to hold two to three sorts of grains at once. A large lid on the upper side with a small hole allows the grains to be removed. The box was raised 12 inches (30.5 cm) just over the ground surface with the assistance of stands/legs to protect the grains from moisture in the air. To keep the box in good condition, it must be polished on a regular basis. Another structure is used to store rice (Oryza sativa L.) and jowar or sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] which was the kothi structure. A chamber with a big entrance was constructed for the purpose of discharging grains. Grains were extracted from a narrow orifice. Likewise, earthen pots were often used as household storage bins for relatively small amounts of grains. These were all produced locally utilizing completely burnt clay but were of various sizes and shapes. These were placed on the ground and were known as dokal, when they were stacked one on top of the other (Mann *et al.*, 2016). Bamboo baskets and earthen pots, which were the most frequently used storing devices in nearly every home, mostly for the short time storage, and were named by many regional names such as Chabri and Kulhi in Himachal Pradesh, Urai and Paanai in Tamil (Sharon *et al.*, 2014). Grains were kept in fairly tall earthen pots or containers known as Kuthir in south India, which were composed of plant fibers and clay soil. The bin's height varies from 1-3 m. (Sundaramari *et al.*, 2011). Mara thombarai and Kodambae were 1000 kg storage capacity wooden structures built in the rear of farmland (Karthikeyan *et al.*, 2009). With many years of knowledge, the Adi tribe from Arunachal Pradesh has used a traditional technique of rodent proofing granary named Nahu. By the combination of a stones pad at the base, a hardwood plate in the centre, and a hermetic chamber there at the top creates one-of-a-kind and creative storage architecture. The capacity ranges between 5.0 to 8.0 tonnes, based on the proportion of the farmer's farm holdings. The native communities of Orissa's Koraput region use their own traditional method of preserving grains and crop seeds known as Khaniki and Dhoosi. It was constructed of spirally twined long straw rope. Grain storage buildings constructed of bamboo, thatched grass, or wooden poles were used by the Garo tribe of Meghalaya (Sharon *et al.*, 2014). Structures with square shapes were made of bricks, mud, and cement, and have a Bukhari exit on the ground floor were popular in the Punjab state. The top layer was composed of mud and stalks. It consists of a polyethylene layer that protects the structure from water penetration. Bharola was a clay storage container in the form of an eggshell. It was a moving structure with a top opening. It may hold up to 40-80 kg of storage (Dhaliwal and Singh, 2010).

### 3.2 Improved grain storage structures

PAU bin by the Punjab Agricultural University was constructed with galvanized iron. The bin's capacity ranges from 1.5 to 15 quintals. Pusa bin was usually known as a layered LDPE bin. It implies that the storehouse structure was constructed of clay or brick, with a polyethylene film between the walls. Because of the excellent insulating characteristics of LDPE, the designed bin has minimal moisture transmission while warehousing. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE) made the coal-tar drum bin with a capacity of 200 kg. It was a low-cost container that was readily accessible at the household level. Household Hapur bin with capacity ranges from 200 to 1000 kg. It's a cylindrical form, constructed of aluminium sheet or galvanized iron, and has a tiny hole at the bottom for removal of the grain (Said and Pardhan, 2014). Locally made metal silo with a capacity of 1-1.8 tons restricts
their use by small farmers, especially in developing nations. Its primary production costs include a GI sheet, transportation, and labour (Manandhar *et al.*, 2018).

## 3.3 Commercial grain storage structures

Excess agricultural grains were stored in large warehouses in India by the Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC), Food Corporation of India (FCI), and the State Warehousing Corporations (SWCs). However, they also even have an infrastructure with conveniently placed storage facilities across India (Singh, 2010). FCI holds about 30 million metric tonnes of storage space (owned and leased) in about 1825 godowns throughout India. Such facilities incorporate silos and also a local system called Cover and Plinth (CAP), invented by FCI. It was open storage of food grains with appropriate safeguards such as rodents, and moisture-proof plinths, the use of Dunnage, and the covering of stacks with specifically manufactured polythene coverings, among others. It entails the construction of masonry pillars 14 inches above the ground having slots through which wooden containers have been attached for storing sacks of food grains. These stacks were protected by LDPE sheets (250 microns) on all four sides. Grains, including maize, wheat, gram, sorghum, and rice, were usually kept for 6 to 12 months under CAP storage (Sharon et al., 2014). To store grain, hermetically packing technology combines one or two sheets of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) sacks with some other layer of traditional sacks and a polypropylene sheet. Super Grain Bags and Purdue Improved Crop Storage bags were two kinds of hermetically sealed bags that have been broadly employed by small-scale farmers in developing nations in recent decades (Bruin et al., 2012).

## 3.4 Advanced storage methods

Many developed nations have indeed implemented advanced storage methods like aeration, chilled storage, airtight storage systems, modified atmospheric grain storage systems, and perhaps India was going the same way. However, airtight storage systems have been used in villages and small whereas, across India, their adaption via considerable modification has yet to meet up with large holdings. Some of the methods for avoiding storage losses include insect tracking and dosage administration through innovative intervention.

### 3.4.1 Cold storage system for grains

The atmospheric air was conditioned and then transported over through the large quantities of grains through an established aeration system under this method. Chilled aeration was used to reduce the temperature of dry grain in subtropical regions whenever atmospheric temperatures have become too high for untreated air to reduce insects significantly. An initial expenditure for a cold storage system was somewhat expensive, but when combined with the dehumidified air technique, it may offer solutions to the feasibility of aeration for sustainable industrial storage for tropical regions (Said and Pardhan, 2014).

### 3.4.2 Modified Atmosphere Technology

Various studies have examined ambient environment compositions for grain protection (Adler et al., 2000; Navarro, 2006). Hermetic or airtight storage was also considered effective in India, Argentina, and North Africa to preserve grain viability. To correctly manage insect pests that affect stored grain, oilseeds, industrially processed products, and certain packed foods, the modified atmospheres storage (MAS) and controlled atmospheres storage (CAS) provide an alternative to the use of traditional residue generating chemical fumigants. In addition, the CAS inhibits fungal development and preserves the quality of the product (Said and Pardhan, 2014).
### 3.4.3 Hermetic storage

The term ‘hermetic storage’ or ‘Airtight storage’ refers to sealed storage. During the respiratory activity, insect pests, as well as various aerobic organisms in the product or the commodities themselves, develop the changing environment by decreasing oxygen ($O_2$) and raising carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) levels. The respiration activity of the living organisms creates an atmosphere containing about 1-2% oxygen and around 20% carbon dioxide (Jayas and White, 2003). Pest treatment performance with airtight storage treatment was similar to traditional fumigants (about 99.9% death), while insect activities total losses were minor (about 0.15%) decrease in weight in 15 months storage period. Insect pests generally got killed in lower $O_2$ and higher $CO_2$ settings, while aerobic fungi were prevented from reproducing. Increasing $CO_2$ levels and decreased $O_2$ concentrations will usually keep storage grain viability for a relatively long time. Cereals, oilseed, legumes, cocoa, and coffee may be securely kept for several months while sustaining excellent quality, minimizing mycotoxins and molds (Said and Pardhan, 2014).

## 4. Loopholes in the grain storage systems

### 4.1 Regional Imbalance

In the leading consumption regions, about just 20-22% of total capacity was accessible. Also, many states possess storage capacity that would be less than one month's worth of overall requirements. Even as noticeable variables such as accessibility to the state's major disparities in the volumes of grain crops produced inside the state, and so on were the leading causes of regional disparities, other important factors such as the degree of involvement and motivation showed by bank officials in incorporating the development of rural godowns to regional business owners, publicity and understanding created about the government schemes. In summary, most of the godowns and storage spaces were occupied by leading producers of agricultural commodities and associated farm products (Shah, 2015).

The graph shows that storage capacity in India was mainly concentrated around commercial areas below:

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /><figcaption>**Figure:** Grain storage regional distribution in India</figcaption></figure>

**Source:** Shah, 2015

### 4.2 Higher storage costs and losses due to inadequate capacity

Over the corresponding period, FCI's estimated annual expansion rate in storage space was a mere 4.5%, while paddy and wheat stockpiles in the central pool grew at a pace of over 18%. As a result, storage issues have arisen. Also, as a consequence, an excessive amount of grain was kept in the wide-open under CAP storage, resulting in grain quality degradation. According to state government storage potential analysis, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya
Pradesh account around for greater than 64% of the nation's total storage potential. Fourteen states/UTs control more significant than 95% of the government's storage capability, implying that the other 21 states squeak out merely 5% of total storage space. Except for a few states, the majority of states in this group consume grain. The lack of storage space in these regions places a significant burden on the states' distribution and transportation systems. FCI's storage and transit losses rose by almost 147% in actual figures between 2006 and 2007, also according to data from 2011-2012, with a 164% increment in storage cost accounting for the majority of the increase (Shah, 2015).

## 4.3 Gap between per capita production and availability

While the country's net food grain production has increased by almost 23% in the past 15 years, the country's net accessible food grains have increased by just over 15%. Nearly 260 metric tons of total grains were harvested in 2012-13, with rice and wheat accounting for 199 metric tons. The amount of food grain yield indicates a daily availability of 583 grams per capita for 1.2 billion people. As per the Directorate of Economics and Statistics preliminary estimates from 2012, the country has lesser than 500 grams of grains per individual per day. During 2000 and 2012, paddy and wheat output increased by 29%, while per capita net food grain availability fell by almost 1%. The goal of buffer stocking was compromised when government storage levels restrict grain accessibility for consumers. The aim was to buy grain and redistribute it to those in need, which ultimately boosts food grain availability and accessibility. However, when the grain was purchased, kept, and not dispersed when required, it may create food insecurity, which was counterproductive to the system's goals (Saini and Kozicka, 2014).

## 4.4 Bottlenecks

Although with sufficient storage occupancy development mandated under the NCDC and NABARD schemes, it was therefore estimated that 25-30% of the total grain harvest was totally wasted in the country due to limited storage space, lack of appropriate scientific storage systems, the state imbalance in stokes and warehouses, and unproductive supply chain management. The majority of Indian food-growing states lack a sufficient and appropriate number of purchasing centres denying farmers the opportunity to negotiate for their product. Each grain sack was reported to be carried at an average of six times before being actually opened for treatment, resulting in greater warehousing and transport cost as well as increased food grain wastage during mass transit and processing. Owing to the non-availability of purchasing centres, regional government bodies store food grains stockpiles in the open air, causing quality to degrade and losses to rise (Mogale et al., 2020). Moreover, State agencies' storage capacity was used mostly for maintaining the centralized reserve of grains for the buffer stock, government programs, and public distribution supply chain, leaving only a very few amounts of space for other participants to store their product. However, the government has begun to concentrate on increasing storage capacity via different programs; maintaining storage of wheat and rice, which were essential foods and remains a significant priority.

Furthermore, owing to the current regional imbalance, the government's ability to purchase production beyond Northwest India was restricted, which has lately resulted in a drop-in wheat price levels forcing farmers to trade their output far below MSP. Considering all of these problems, significant work has to be done to increase storage capacity, fixing existing warehouses, and create a robust NWR system to offer more money to farmers while also ensuring protection to lenders. (Gaur and Gaur, 2018).
# 5. Grain Storage optimization models

## 5.1 Development of Computer-Aided Management for Grain Storage in Nigeria

The purpose of the research was to create a computer-as wasted management system in Nigeria to reduce post-harvest grain loss mainly at the time of storage. To assess the condition of metal silos by government and country's warehouses, questionnaire surveys were distributed and analyzed. A robust GSMS, which was a grain stock management system, was developed and verified for a case study silos complex to cover all operations at grain storage. Grains acquisition, sample size, loading, stocking control, air circulation, pest control, maintenance of equipment, and storage supervision were divided into eight components. The software program was divided into three sections: the user interface was created using Dreamweaver 8, the coding was created with Pre-processor Hypertext Program code, and the repository was created with MySQL. Hectolitre weight (65-75 Kg/Hl), moisture content (12%), insect damage (1%), foreign matter content (1%), and mold damage (1%) were the essential storage criteria employed. The moisture and temperature of the stored products were measured and calculated on a daily basis for monitoring purposes. The program would save two-third of human operation. When moisture rises, molds proliferations develop quicker (> 100 ⁰C), it was more precise, and it saves energy. Since it was a web platform, the interaction between all storage users was feasible at every stage of grain management practice. The GSMS would decrease the damage from the existing national allowance of 5% to 1%. The most suitable solution to address significant administrative and technical issues connected with grain storage in Nigeria was computer-aided management (Olorunfemi et al., 2018).

## 5.2 Numerical Simulation and Experimental Study on Static Storage of Bulk Grain

The typical elemental space in bulk grain was chosen to build the heat and mass transfer model using the localized thermodynamic equilibrium methodology, based on the features of stable stored bulk grain and the hypothesis of a virtually continuous medium. Further, the stable storage phase of wheat was simulated using a coupled mass and heat transport model. As per the storage studies, the model successfully developed using the COMSOL Multiphysics tool with specified starting and boundary conditions. The experimental and simulated values were quite close to each other. The model was used to mimic natural air circulation in the bin, mass and heat transport in the grain heap, and the hazardous zone under which condensation would develop. To avoid storage risks, it was essential to adopt preventative steps (Chen et al., 2016).

## 5.3 Optimised Sensor-Based Smart System for Efficient Monitoring of Grain Storage

In order to improve food security and the long-term viability of food systems, many nations have prioritized research into food waste. The issue of food waste was addressed from two perspectives: one owing to environmental concerns and the other due to consumer reasons. Food waste occurs at many phases of the food supply chain, including agricultural production, processing, shipping, packaging, wholesalers, retailers, and all the way up to consumption. As a result, diverse measures and a lack of data collecting standards were used, making it impossible to quantify and calculate food waste across nations and research projects. Since an exact estimate of worldwide food waste was difficult to come by, estimates suggest that food waste accounts for approximately one-third of all produced food. Globally, it was indeed projected that approximately $1 trillion was wasted due to food loss. In this work, the capacities of cyber-physical systems were utilized to suggest smart, automated surveillance and monitoring system that may be used to control grain storing systems (Parvin et al., 2018).
## 5.4 Recent development in food grain storage structure for Kohlan area of Jharkhand

A one-tonne farm building made of available locally stone with Portland cement as a binder and a RCC roofing was designed and was claimed as cost-effective, and sustainable. Food grain engineering properties were determined and the laterite stone's compressive strength (510 N/cm²) and water absorption were reported. Both depth and size of the bin were designed using conventional theory. The bin had a safe depth of 1.6 meters and a diameter size of 1.2 meters. The rice, as well as other grain grains, imposed a peak lateral pressure of 250 kg m⁻² upon on walls of the bin with the specified dimensions. The foundation depth, wall thickness, and total load sustained were 750 mm, 150 mm, and 7935.93 kg m⁻², respectively. The bin's roof was planned as a round R. C. C. block with a designed depth of 100 mm and a design diameter size of 6 mm, with 140 mm c/c space. The roofing span was 2 m, and 0.2 m overhangs. The dimensions of the laterite bin were calculated and built accordingly. The structure's overall cost was 7275 INR. Throughout the day, the mean paddy temperature stays almost constant. Due to the heat supplied by the rice grains' metabolism, the axial temperature value was higher than the peripheral. The paddy in the middle had a higher average moisture level than the lower side. The moisture difference caused by the change in relative humidity may have contributed in the wetting of the upper paddy. Due to the extreme vapor condensation caused by the currently stored paddy's respiration, the relative humidity within the bin was higher than outside (Reddy et al., 2018).

## 5.5 Modelling of a Three-Dimensional Dynamic Thermal Field under Grid-Based Sensor Networks in Grain Storage

Since temperature plays such an important part in grain storage, temperature control was a significant job in storehouses. The precise collection and update of the complete thermal field information produce a valuable indicator for grain quality monitoring and storage management. Moreover, considering the unknown causes of local risks, such as localized grain degradations and fungus, which may significantly alter the temperature environment in storehouses, suitable field dynamics analysis continues to be a difficult job. This study adopts a three-dimensional nonlinear dynamics model combined with a deterministic spatial and temporal model to record a three-dimensional dynamic temperature map to solve this problem. Researchers incorporate a Kriging model into the Gaussian Markov randomized field model by incorporating an anisotropic covariance function to better harness available temperature records from the grid-based sensor nodes. To validate the suggested technique, researchers performed both simulated and real-world case analysis, and the findings indicate that it outperforms existing field estimating approaches (Wang et al., 2018).

## 5.6 Experiment and simulation research of storage for small grain steel silo

Knowledge of the temperature profile in a storage facility was a convenient method to manage the grain storage operation. The temperature fluctuation in a tiny grain steel bin under quasi-steady conditions was studied using a 3D numerical model. Experiments were carried out in this research, and a porous media model has been used. The findings of numerical modelling and experimentation were compared, and it was discovered that grain temperatures were affected by wall temperatures, grain stacks height, and grain-to-wall distance. The temperature rises faster as the wall temperature rises. The impact of walls on ambient temperature dispersion was considerable when the temperature was lower. The ambient temperature there at the top of the grain changed dramatically when the temperature in the interface region changed. Generally, the simulation results matched experimental findings, indicating that the model developed in this research was useful for forecasting grain temperatures in the steel silos (Xi et al., 2016).
## 5.7 Analysis of the Formation Mechanism of Partial Condensation for the Stored Grain in Steel Squat Silo

The research examined the stoked wheat silo in the Tianjin region. The condensation over the grain layer throughout the squat steel silo was studied in the previous winter and the following spring for this purpose, and the multi-field temperature, micro-airflow, and humidity were reported. Humidity and temperature stratification were observed under the effect of temperature, micro-airflow, humidity, and grain thermal properties. Heat transmission and moisture migration were aided significantly by the humidity and temperature differences. As a result, the path of the micro-airflow rate as well as moisture dispersion in cold and hot regions will be different. The impact of moisture transmission was amplified as all were pointing in a similar direction. On the other hand, it was weakened because of their similar direction. Moisture accumulation occurs on the grain surface during the low-temperature season. As a result, the grain layer condensate would appear in past winter and the next spring. The observations would open up new avenues for studying the preferential condensation in preserved grain (Yin et al., 2015).

## 5.8 Simulation study on micro-environment of grain storage in silo

Temperature, dry matter, and moisture loss contribute to a highly complex ecology in the silo's microenvironment. Governed by the laws of heat and mass balance through the stored grain and a numerical model of correlated mass and heat transfer, the research uses a program written in Fortran to simulate natural convection, moisture transfer, and heat transfer problems concerns in grain and investigates the effects of aeration on dry matter deterioration and insect pests in grain quantity. The experimental data were correlated to the simulated predictions of aeration. The findings indicate that the predicted and experimental data were in good correlation. The most significant temperature variation was 2°C. The highest moisture content error rate was 5.9%, which, although significant, was within the permitted range for product storage. Compared to specific other CFD simulators, the Fortran software program theoretical model simulates in a pretty short period, and thus the program was not restricted to grain type, allowing just physical parameters to be adjusted. Moisture and temperature simulation results indicate a nearly symmetrical spread; however, the impact of solar radiation and the temperature boundary layer was higher than those in the centre point of the whole silo. Simultaneously, temperature, time, and moisture distribution influence the quantity of dry matter loss and Trichoderma harzianum in the silo (Zifeng et al., 2018).

## 5.9 Comparison of equilibrium models for grain aeration

During the post-harvest process of grains, fruits and vegetables, and other agricultural products, mathematical modelling had played a major role. Simulations have become more popular for the optimum design, management, and operations of grain aeration systems. Several models have been developed, and many have been modified, to mimic this process. There have been two equilibria models among them that do not need costly solution methods and may be used to assess process duration, grain moisture content, and grain temperature changes without requiring costly solution procedures. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate these models by comparing simulation findings to experimental data. The results revealed that both models performed similarly and had an excellent correlation with experiments. The two models that were examined were simple to apply in computer programs, resulting in significant advancements in process development, and grain quality management during the period of storage (Lopes et al., 2015).
## 5.10 Measuring the moisture distribution of grain in the silo-based on microwave image technology

Grain moisture was an important risk indication; yet, there was no online method for monitoring moisture dispersion. To address the issue, the microwave imaging technique with a rotating parabolic reflector was suggested in this article. To begin, a detecting probe has been designed. The microwave transmission mechanism inside a grain silo was then simulated using the Finite Difference Time Domain technique. The reflected signal was then processed using a 1D moisture distribution invert model. Finally, using a linear combination of all 1D data, a map of moisture dispersion was created. Following analysis, the suggested technique can accurately scan grain moisture, particularly in the normal region and the core of the irregular section, with an error of less than 0.5 %. Moreover, the anomalous profile and size may be easily recognized. Above everything, the suggested technique can satisfy the requirements for grain moisture dispersion in a silo in real-time, and it has a wide range of applications (Zhang et al., 2017).

## 6. Recommendations for storage infrastructure

Based on the above facts and statistics, it can be inferred that unless extremely severe steps were made to enhance food grain storage capacity, food grain waste would continue, which might otherwise be used to feed millions of poverty-stricken people. From expanding established storage space to building new ones through a variety of public and private means, including joint ventures, the urgent use for the hour was to redesign the nation's existing food grain storage planning and hold people and departments responsible and accountable for their roles in guaranteeing food security. Integration of India's entire storage industry through MWAS will go a big step toward ensuring timely choices were made to maximize the use of existing facilities (Chaturvedi and Anilraj, 2015).

Some of the recommendations, not in any particular order, for ensuring that the storage losses were minimized were discussed as under:

* The amount of money paid to SGAs as leasing and carry-over costs may be used to build additional storage spaces with appropriate vision and preparation in reserving the stockpile of the central pool of timely from SGAs.

* Both for scientific and secure CAP storage, sufficient personnel and monitoring were needed.

* To save money, suitable plinths should be developed on empty government capital land so that food grains may be temporarily stored during maximum procuring seasons.

* FCI's hiring costs will continue to rise significantly in the future until leased storage space was increased proportionally rather than storage capacity being created for assured leasing by FCI.

* Poor and irresponsible management, as well as burdensome documentation, should be dealt with properly by decentralized structure, even if space was occupied by damaged stock due to a lack of disposal authorization from FCI.

* Non-compliance with secure and scientifically valid storage techniques should be dealt with harshly, with the harshest punishments enacted and accountability established.

* At the rate of 5000 tons per godown, the total number of closed storages needed to fulfil the 35 million MT deficit was 7000 godowns. The entire funds need for building 7000 numbers of closed storage at present prices was 5,075 Cr INR, excluding the cost of land, at roughly 1,450 INR21 per tonne demand of funds for the godowns.

* Complementary routes such as the Private Entrepreneurial Guarantee (PEG) program should be actively promoted.

* The need of instant was to establish a central database with daily updates from all warehouses mostly on the availability of coated, CAP storage, and storage facilities in order to effectively
manage inventories with sufficient responsibility and accountability, as well as an adequately skilled workforce, high-level supervision, and quick decision-making freedom and delegation of powers to the nodal heads.

* Timely and thorough evacuation planning may result in the use of empty storage space and the reduction of carry-over costs paid to SGAs, which can be used to build covered storage.

* Planning ahead of time for the pilfering of railroad rakes may help to reduce losses and maximize the economics and effective use of available storage space.

* Effective implementation of all was as efficient and robust MWAS staffed by efficient and knowledgeable personnel would undoubtedly bring about the much-needed transformation in the storage industry.

* State government interference in selecting and turning over land for covered storage space development without excessive delay in getting different permissions would speed up the increase of storage capacity.

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# FARM MECHANIZATION

Er. Harish D. Nahate

Assistant Professor,

C.A.E.T., Jalgaon Jamod (Maharashtra)

Email: harishnahate@gmail.com

## A. Concept

Indian agriculture plays an important role in the India's growing economy. In changing global agricultural scenario, over-dependence on traditional practices of farming and traditional crops is not enough for sustainable livelihood of farming community. Farm mechanization is nothing but use of machines instead of human or animal power. It is the application of both engineering and technology to do a job in a better way to boost the crop production. In our country there is need of shifting traditional agriculture into scientific and modern agriculture. The mechanization of agriculture that took place led to major changes in performing various agriculture operations. Mechanization is a need based process for self adjustment or to do a different field operation in better way. Various steps of agricultural development and levels of mechanization can be Manual, using manual tools, by using animals for implements and machines, using animal and mechanical power combined, using mechanical power, Automatic machines. There is great modernization in agricultural technologies such as GIS, GPS, Aerial drones etc. Due to these modern technologies the farmer brought precision in agriculture and enhanced the production to great extent. The population goes on increasing but resources are limited. The pace of the mechanization has to be increased to adopt advanced agricultural technologies and therefore trained manpower is essentially required for proper and efficient utilization of the existing resources. Hence almost care is needed for increasing agricultural production with limited resources like water and land. The mechanization level in the country as a whole is still at very low level hence farm machinery industry will have to renovate their products & also improve comfort, safety and energy conservation.

There is need of farm mechanization in following aspects

a. To increase yields and cropping intensity, productivity per agriculture worker

b. To increase income of agricultural workers

c. To mechanize the farms of all categories

d. To reduce health hazards and increase safety in operation of farm machinery

e. To utilize properly the natural resources such as land and water.

f. To utilize efficiently the inputs such as seeds, chemicals, and fertilizers

g. To change the character of farm work, making it less arduous and more attractive

h. In order to minimize cost of production of crops
i. To improve quality of field operation for better soil tilth

j. To provide consequence to farm worker.

**A. Scope of Farm Mechanization**

Farm mechanization is widely scoped in India due to following aspects,

a. Development of high-quality seeds

b. Instigation of high dose of fertilizers and pesticides for different crops

c. Introduction of new crops in different parts of the country

d. Modified irrigation facility in the area

e. Development of modern Agriculture processing machineries

f. Intercropping, Multicropping, Mixed cropping etc in the area

These factors are responsible to encourage Agriculture mechanization.

**D. Importance of ergonomics in Agriculture**

a. Ergonomics is defined as an applied science for adjusting work to man in the light of his anatomy, physiology and psychology also for enhancing human performance.

b. Its purpose is to increase the comfort, safety and performance of a product or an environment, such as an office.

c. Ergonomics uses anthropometrical data to design machine or equipment.

d. The psychological as well as physiological fatigue affects performance of the operator.

e. Therefore, the application of ergonomics helps in increasing the productivity, work performance, efficiency and work duration of farm workers with enhanced comfort and safety.

**E. Advantages of farm mechanization**

There are various advantages of farm mechanization

a. Precision and timeliness of operation

b. Advancement of work environment

c. Magnification of safety

d. Depletion of loss of crops and food products

e. Increased productivity of land and improved dignity of farmers

f. Increased economic return to farmer

g. Improvement and prosperity in rural areas

**F. Restrictions in farm mechanization**

a. Small scale and dispersed land holdings

b. Non-availability of good quality implements/ farm machinery

c. Poor investing capacities of the farmers

d. Shortage of labour at peak time
e. Drudgery to labour

f. Shortage of suitable farm machine for different operation

g. Lack of repair and servicing facilities for machines

h. Shortage of trained man power

i. Lack of coordination between manufacturer and research organization

j. High cost of machines

k. Insufficient quality control of machine

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /><figcaption>Fig. Advances in Agriculture Technology (Source: Google)</figcaption></figure>

**G. Recommendation for improvement of farm mechanization**

a. To set up an apex body for implementation of the national policy on farm mechanization

b. To start training and testing centres for farm power and machinery.

c. Custom hiring system is required to be encouraged in rural areas.

d. To establish sufficient centres for repairs and spare parts of machines

e. To open adequate training centres for giving training to engineers, mechanics, technicians, operators, and users on the farm machinery regarding proper selection, operation, maintenance and repair of machines.

f. To develop a national policy on farm mechanization.

g. To strengthen tractor testing station on the lines of international testing stations
Advanced Farming

h. Agricultural engineering Extension Education is required.

i. The landless workers need financial assistance to own hand tools to improve their earnings

j. Post-harvest technology deserves special attention.

References:

1. Textbook of Elements of Agricultural Engineering by Dr. Jagdishwar Sahay

2. http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2300

3. Textbook of Tractors and Their Power Units.
# IMMUNITY AND IMMUNE BOOSTING FOODS

Jharana Panda

Research Scholar, Department of Food and Nutrition, Dr. RPCAU,
Bihar- 848125.

Email ID: Anjali.ay.7790@gmail.com

## Introduction:

Naturally, a human body fights against infection by generating immune responses that activate a network of mechanism to remove the foreign agent from the system thereby preventing from various infection. According to WHO, "good nutrition is crucial for health; particularly in times when the immune system might need to fight back" (WHO, 2020). Providing diet rich in nutrients especially those having vitamins and minerals helps to support an optimal function of the immune system by supplementing antioxidants to slow down the damage of cells which is caused by free radicals (Lobo, 2010) or through T-cell production (Cohen, 2017).

## Immunity:

Immunity, in short can be defined as "the guardian of the body from various diseases". It is the state of being immune i.e. able to resist pathogens. Pathogens are the disease-causing foreign bodies like bacteria, viruses, parasites, etc. to which the human body gets exposed to in their day-to-day life. These pathogens carry the antigens on their surface and stimulate an immune response in the body. An immune response is the body's defence system to combat against these antigens and protect the body from different infections and diseases.

Immunity can be of innate (first-line of defence against pathogens and is achieved by physical barriers like hair, skin; defence mechanism such as enzymes, mucus; and immune system's responses); passive immunity (which is a temporary type and is achieved by the action of antibodies provided externally to the body) and active immunity (a memory based immunity that develops by an exposure to any infection).
<figure><img src="image_37.png" /></figure>

## The role of nutrition in the immune system:

Our immune system is a complex structure which is influenced by an ideal balance of several factors like proper sleep, exercise, low stress and a healthy lifestyle along with good nutrition. While maintaining a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle helps in keeping the immune system stronger, there are certain foods known as "immune-boosting foods" which contains essential nutrients required by the body to fight off the pathogens causing infections or diseases. The nutrients crucial for the effective growth and normal functioning of immune cells includes vitamin C, vitamin D, zinc, selenium, iron and majorly protein. Therefore, a change in diet consisting of the above-mentioned nutrients helps the immune cells to function effectively.

## Immune Boosting Foods:

The following foods which help to boost the immune system having various health benefits include:

### 1. Turmeric:

Turmeric is also known as "haldi" or "golden spice" (due to its bright yellow colour). The main active ingredient present in turmeric is curcumin that acts as a strong antioxidant and is found to be having powerful anti-inflammatory properties. This ingredient prevents infections by blocking free radicals and also helps in retarding skin ageing.

### 2. Garlic:

A commonly used spice in most of the Indian dishes, garlic is also used to maintain several superficial and systemic infections. It has antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties. The bulbs of this spice contain a rich number of antioxidants. Garlic also plays a crucial role in reducing blood pressure and hardening of the arteries and its immune-boosting properties are due to the presence of high concentration of sulphur containing compounds i.e. "allicin".
**3. Ginger:**

A root tuber known for its anti-inflammatory effect against infections, ginger has been seen in demand when a person has a sore throat or illness. It contains gingerol (a phenol compound), which helps to reduce chronic pain and cholesterol levels.

**4. Yoghurt:**

Yoghurt having been consumed for decades, is proven to be very nutritious and a great immune booster for fighting diseases. It is a great source of vitamin D, B-vitamins; particularly vitamin B12 and riboflavin, minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and potassium. Vitamin D regulates the immune system and boosts natural defence mechanism while B12 protects against certain neural tube birth defects. Calcium and phosphorus are the important minerals for bone and teeth development.

**5. Citrus fruits:**

Citrus fruits such as orange, Indian gooseberry, lime, etc. are an excellent source of vitamins especially, vitamin C (a nutrient essential to strengthen the immune system) and minerals. In addition, they are rich in certain plant compounds such as varieties of flavonoids and carotenoids which have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects along with various health benefits. These are also a good source of fibre, which helps lower cholesterol and aids digestion.

**6. Almonds:**

Rich in vitamin E (antioxidant), almonds help to fortify the immune system. It has a high amount of protein and fiber compared to other nuts and also contains zinc, which has been known to link to the prevention and treatment of the infections. Studies reveal that, almond skins improve the ability of the white blood cells (WBCs) to detect pathogens further improving the body's ability to prevent viruses from multiplying inside the body.

**7. Green Tea:**

Green tea has the highest concentration of polyphenols compared to other types of tea and this is due to the fact that, it is the less processed type of tea. It contains two particular polyphenols compounds i.e., epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and epicatechin gallate (ECG), which has the ability to suppress the activities of the pathogens thereby boosting the immunity.

**8. Mushrooms:**

Rich in vitamins like folate, riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, vitamin C, vitamin D and minerals such as potassium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, choline, calcium and selenium; mushrooms are the edible fungi. Selenium has anticancer, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and thus helps to reduce and prevent cancer, heart disease risks and thyroid disease. Mushroom has a special amino acid- ergothioneine which provides protection from free radicals during infections and thus boosts immunity.
**Conclusion:**

Our immune system plays a vital role in fighting against the pathogens that affects the body causing several damages. While there is no particular way to avoid any infection entirely, strengthening the immune system with specific food is a better method to reduce the risk of infection in a long way. Consuming these immune boosting foods not only helps the person to stay healthy but also tends to achieve a stronger immune system. Moreover, we have to understand that we cannot just eat a specific food and expect a quick boost in immunity. A better combination of a healthy diet with regular exercise and adequate sleep results to a healthy immune system.

**References:**

1. Cohen S, Danzaki K, MacIver NJ. 2017. Nutritional effects on T-cell immune-metabolism. 47(2):225-235.

2. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320721

3. Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, Chandra N. 2010. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. 4(8):118-126.

4. WHO. 2020. Food and Nutrition tips during self-quarantine. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov-technical-guidance/food-and-nutrition-tips-during-self-quarantine.
# NEWER APPROACHES IN FOOD PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY

Anjali Yadav¹ and Usha Singh²

¹M.Sc. Scholar, Department of Food and Nutrition, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, BIHAR – 848125

²Professor cum Chief Scientist, Department of Food and Nutrition, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar – 848125

Email ID: Anjali.ay.7790@gmail.com

## Introduction

Packaging can be considered as art as well as science which protect the food from external environmental hazards that ultimately leads to spoilage. It is the primary impression that compels consumers towards particular product. Packaging technology provides safe delivery of food product by enclosing material under shield. Packaging has very crucial link between manufactures as well as consumers, if it not performed precisely then not only product deteriorates in terms of its quality but also customers lose confidence. Good quality of packaging plays indispensable role in supplying safe and hygienic food by protecting it from physical, mechanical including microbial damage. The packaging materials basically performed four functions viz. Protection (against spoilage due to mechanical, microbial, biological damage), Communication (special instructions or nutritional information are given), Convenience (easy to access, disposed, visibility of product) and Containment (hold and secure the food product until use) whereas, secondary function including Traceability (ability to track) and Tamper indication increases its importance. Therefore, novel food packaging technologies are associated in food products which proved best in technological research areas moreover, catch consumer demands.

## REQUIREMENT OF EFFICIENT FOOD PACKAGING

* It should be easily convenient and peacefully open.

* Relatively non-poisonous, non-irritating.

* Perform barrier against moisture and oxygen.

* Packaging material should deteriorate the quality of food.

* It should be protecting from physical damage.

* Should be of low cost and disposed easily.

* Information should be clearly visible.

* It should be easy to handle.
# SOME RECENT ADVANCES IN FOOD PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY

## 1. EDIBLE PACKAGING:

The food packaging consists of a thin layer of edible film prepared from polysaccharides (starch, galactomannan), proteins (whey, egg white), lipids, resin can be either use individually or mixture of all on food and can be eaten together with food. The edible film is manufactured by moulding, extrusion along with casting then applied on food by the process of spraying, emersion, fluidization etc. Moreover, biofilms and coatings, by themselves or acting as a carriers of food additives (i.e., antioxidants and antimicrobials) have been considered particularly for food preservation because of their ability to extend the shelf-life. Consequently, this type of food packaging is environment friendly, decreases the discarding problems, biocompatible, non-toxic, inexpensive, delays moisture migration and also retain volatile flavor.

## 2. ANTIMICROBIAL PACKAGING:

The type of novel packaging in which antimicrobial agent are assimilated either directly into the food substance or through packaging material where it is released during a particular period of time to sustain products quality or improves shelf-life. The microorganism's characterization is very important for the selection of antimicrobial agent. Therefore, the incorporation of antimicrobials suddenly into the food packaging film formulations often results immediate inhibition of unwanted microorganisms, though some antimicrobial agents are used in packaging viz. as Organic acids (benzoic acid, sorbates), fungicide (benomyl), enzymes (lysozyme, EDTA), essential oils (clove oil), polymers (chitosan), gas (ethanol), natural extract (eugenol).

## 3. SELF-HEATING, SELF-COOLING PACKAGING:

This type of packaging alters the temperature as per environment necessity. Self-heating is a type of packaging which has the capability to heat food without any external thermal power, though it uses exothermic reaction which initiates by pressing the can. This type of packaging is more valuable nowadays due to its unique features moreover, convenient to use during military operations and natural disasters when conventional cooking is not available yet also applicable in routine life as people want hot food anywhere at any time. Can is manufactured containing three layers of wall. As soon as people press the can, a rod pierces the membrane, allowing the water and heating agent to mix consequently, exothermic reaction generates heat and hence warms the beverage surrounding it. Self-cooling utilizes endothermic chemical reaction to induce cooling effect; it is relevant in hiking, open-air tourism, camping etc. to provide cold refreshing drink to consumers during hot and sunny days without the requirement of refrigerator.

## 4. WATER SOLUBLE PACKAGING:

That means it can dissolve in hot water, here products are not purely made up of true plastic instead of shall be made from bio-based material (Polyvinyl alcohol) that is not only sustainable but eco-friendly also. Thus, it is a synthetic polymer created without the heavy
toxic metals that are often damaging to the planet while odorless, biodegradable including water-soluble respectively.

**5. INTELLIGENT AND SMART PACKAGING:**

It is basically manufactured to observe and communicate the given information regarding quality of food. They have ability to disseminate information without interacting food material, moreover performs various functions like: detecting, recording, tracing, communicating, sensing, extend storage capacity and enhance food safety and its quality. Intelligent packaging is more advanced one with reference to time and facilities furthermore, it utilizes Radio Frequency Indicators (RFID), Biosensors, Ripeness Monitors, Time Temperature Indicators (TTI).

* **Time and Temperature Indicator:** Conveys the information regarding the temperature of food products as well as time duration, on to which food had been packed, also informs that whether food is fit for consumption or not presently.

* **Freshness Indicator:** There are 2 types of alteration named as- Microbial alteration (bad smelling, unpleasant odor, change in pH, formation of undesirable compounds), lipid oxidation which produces foul smelling, off flavor, discoloration. So, these type of details uses in perishable food commodity like- cakes, milk, vegetables so on.

* **Pathogen Indicator:** Helps to examine the growth of pathogens by detecting immobilized antibodies. Toxin Guard TM is a material that produces polyethylene-based packaging material to detect pathogenic bacteria.

**6. MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING (MAP):**

It modifies or replaces the air inside the package with a predetermined mixture of gases before sealing. Gases involved in MAP are commercially applied viz. as CO2, N2, and O2. Carbon dioxide reacts with water present in food products which forms carbonic acid and ultimately lowers the pH whereas, reduces the microbial count. Nitrogen has no direct effect on microorganisms or food apart from replaces oxygen (retards the oxidation of fat). There is exception in case of oxygen though it only uses in the packaging of red meat to retain its color, due to oxygenation of the myoglobin pigments.

**7. NANO PACKAGING:**

Nanotechnology is a newer system of food packaging which uses various devices or materials with a dimension having length of 1-100nm. It enables manufacturers to modify the structure of packaging materials in terms of molecular scale or give desirable characteristics to packaging. There is varied category of nano-sensors used in food packaging viz. as Array biosensors, Nano-cantilevers, Nano-test strips, Nanoparticles in solution and electronic noses. Nano-sensors have unique importance to detect the condition of products as well as containers, moreover determine the gases present in food material which leads to spoilage and changes color of packaging. By incorporating nanoparticles, people can achieve packages with more resistance to light as well as fire, better mechanical and thermal properties. Presently, various categories of nano-material