Wojciech Pasterkiewicz

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

# Excavation of a Bronze Age barrow at site 7 in Dukla, Krosno district. Preliminary results

## ABSTRACT

This article presents the preliminary results of the 2024 and 2025 excavation of a barrow at site 7 in Dukla, Krosno district. The fieldwork covered an area of almost 400 sq. m, including the current extent of the barrow mound and its immediate surroundings. Beneath the mound, a unique burial site comprising the remains of a funeral pyre, cremated human remains, and grave goods was unearthed. Various sepulchral features were recorded in the immediate vicinity of the mound, including “clean” urned burials, urned burials overlain by pyre debris, and pit burials containing ash, charcoal, pottery fragments, and cremated bones. Based on the ceramic material obtained, the discovered features can be associated with one of the “Transcarpathian” cultures of the Older or Middle Bronze Age.

## KEYWORDS

Jasło Foothills, barrow, Bronze Age, Transcarpathian cultural contacts
# I. INTRODUCTORY

## Information and history of research

In 1959 and 1968, Józef Janowski and Jerzy Wielowiejski conducted excavations at site 6 ("Bania") in Wietrzno in Krosno district (Janowski 1968). This resulted in the discovery of assemblages dating to the Roman period. These materials were classified as the Wietrzno-Solina type and interpreted as being influenced by the Dacian circle (Madyda-Legutko 1996: 51-54). While excavating the Wietrzno-Bania settlement, Józef Janowski also conducted surface surveys of the surrounding area in the valleys of the Jasiołka River and its tributaries. On a forested ridge between the towns of Wietrzno, Łęki DukIELSKIE-"Łazy" and Dukla, he discovered the remains of several dozen earth mounds. Ten of these were excavated in 1959 and 1969 (Janowski 1963; GINalski, Muzyczuk 1993). The examined mounds varied in size: the smaller ones measured 3-3.5 m in diameter and about 0.4 m in height, while the larger ones were 6-6.5 m in diameter and less than 0.6 m high. A large number of fragments of prehistoric clay vessels were discovered under the mounds, with traces of hearths also found in one of them (Janowski 1963: 25-26, fig. 3 and the field documentation in the archives of the Podkarpackie Museum in Krosno). In 2020, geological and geophysical research was carried out on a barrow mound designated as site 7 (AZP 113-73/28), with the aim of determining the genesis of the mound and recognising its geological structure. Based on the drilling and GPR measurements, it was determined that the mound consists of anthropogenic layers (Gębica, Pasterkiewicz, Rajchel 2021). In 2023, due to the mound being partially disturbed during forestry works, a decision was made to conduct excavations. Fieldwork was carried out during two research seasons in 2024 and 2025.

# II. LOCATION OF THE SITE

The site in question is situated in the Outer Flysch Carpathians, on the border between the Jasło-Sanok Basin and the Low Beskids (Starkel 1972a). Geomorphologically, this area belongs to the Jasło Foothills, which here comprise three smaller units: the Faliaszówka Plateau and the Pachnowa Upland Ridge, which border the Low Beskids to the south and are divided by the latitudinally running Żmigród Trough, the latter being part of the Jasło Basin (Starkel
1972b). The main relief features are hills and flat plateaus intersected by the valleys of the Iwielka River, the Łęcki Creek, and their tributaries. Absolute heights range from 320 m a.s.l. to over 500 m a.s.l. (the highest elevation being Franków Hill at 534 m a.s.l.).

The barrow under study is located on a narrow flat ridge running NW-SE separating the valleys of the Jasiółka River and its tributary called the Bekowy Creek (Fig. 1; GPS: N: 49° 34′58.61” E: 21° 41′18.03”). The maximum height at the research site is about 366 m a.s.l., while the ridge itself reaches a maximum of 374.3 m a.s.l. The elevation above the valley floor ranges from 40 to 60 m. The site's exceptional topographic location allows for visual control over the surrounding area, with the Cergowa massif (716 m a.s.l.) clearly visible to the south-east, the Jasiółka Valley to the east, and the approaches to the Dukla Pass (500 m a.s.l.) to the south. In the immediate vicinity of site 7 there are two types of soil cover: the top and slopes of the ridge are covered with eluvial deposits formed on flysch formations of the Osobnica – Bóbrka – Rogi fold, while the valley bottoms are covered by thick layers of clay and loam mixed with sand, as well as sands and gravels (Jankowski, Kopciowski 2006).

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 1. Location of site 7 in Dukla, Krosno district against the background of the Digital Terrain Model</figcaption></figure>
Research found evidence of strong denudation and soil erosion in the area under study, as well as numerous windthrow structures. These factors significantly impact the state of preservation of the barrow mound and artefacts.

### III. THE EXCAVATION

Prior to excavation, the site area was surveyed using a ground-penetrating radar (Detector Duo IDS) and a gradient magnetometer to identify expected anthropogenic structures, including sepulchral features. Among other things, the survey revealed clusters of anomalies, and subsequent fieldwork confirmed the presence of layers and features of anthropogenic origin there.

A 277.2 sq. m trench was opened to cover the entire mound and surrounding area (Figs 2; 3). The barrow was quarter sectioned along the NE-SW and NW-SE axes, leaving balks 0.4 m wide. The NW-SE axis was designated as the x-axis, and the NE-SW axis as the y-axis. The trench was divided into four quarters designated as A, B, C, and D. Exploration was carried out manually in layers 10 cm thick. The artefacts (ceramics, flints, and stones) were recorded

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 2.** Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Contour plan of the barrow showing the area of the archaeological excavations</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 3. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. General view of the archaeological trench from above with the central feature (no. 7) during exploration and the balks (photo by M. Ocias)</figcaption></figure>

in three dimensions using a tachymeter in reference to the coordinate system. The trench was excavated to natural, which was approximately 0.9-1.0/1.2 m below the current top of the mound. In 2025, an area of 103 sq. m was examined as part of the excavation adjacent to the quarters B and D. It should be emphasized that the fieldwork was very challenging due to the presence of growing trees and the extensive root systems in the subsurface layers.

# IV. NON-PORTABLE FEATURES

## Construction of the mound

The mound was located on a wide, flat ridge that gently sloped towards the southeast. The original circular mound had spread slightly towards the SE due to slope processes. The base of the mound was undercut by two forest
roads on the S-SW and N-NE sides. The upper part of the mound had also been disturbed by wind throws and trees growing there (mainly beeches and firs). At the start of the research, the barrow's diameter was approx. 15 m along the NE-SW axis and 17 m along the NW-SE axis, with a height of approx. 1.0 m. The following layers were identified within the barrow mound (Fig. 4): a 5-7 cm thick layer of forest litter, almost black in colour, overlying an approx. 35-40 cm thick eluvial layer of grey-brown dust, with an orange tint, saturated with humus (organic material). Below this was an eluvial layer of grey-brown sandy silt with an orange tint, with visible root structures and iron-manga-nese "peppers". This layer formed the core of the mound. It reached 35-40 cm in thickness in the centre of the mound and gradually decreased towards the edges until it completely disappeared approximately 7-8 m from the centre. The next layer was silty clay with aggregates (possibly weathered mudstone). It is possible that this is a buried soil marking the original ground level under the barrow. This layer was invisible in some parts of the mound, probably because the original surface had been levelled before the mound was built. Below this, at a depth of 0.8-0.9 m, there was weathered clay, which was the natural substrate on which the mound was built. It is worth noting that a similar arrangement of layers in the mound was found, among others, in

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 4.** Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Cross-sections of the barrow along the x and y axes showing the sequence of layers building the barrow; view from the S side (photo by M. Ocias)</figcaption></figure>
the Carpathian barrows of the Neolithic Corded Ware culture (Komornicki, Gerlach, Zasoński, Oleksynowa 1990; Gerlach 2008). In several places, pieces of charcoal were found on the original ground surface under the mound. A distinct cluster of charcoal, measuring approximately 70 cm by 60 cm, was found around 4 m east of the central feature. Smaller clusters, about 2 cm thick and up to 10x20 cm in size, were found in quarters B and D. Traces of burnt earth were found around the space under the mound, where the burial pit was located in the centre. They were arranged obliquely in relation to the surface of the mound. One of such traces was captured in the SE part of the mound, about 2.5 m from the "o" point. Another cluster of this type, but slightly smaller, was found further to the centre of the mound, about 3 m to the SW. It can be assumed that they were originally located across the entire area under the mound and formed during the ceremonies preceding the construction of the mound.

## Central sepulchral feature (feature 7)

The central sepulchral feature was identified at the centre of the area covered by the mound (Fig. 3; 5). It first became discernible at a depth of about 65 cm from the top of the barrow. At a depth of 70 cm, the outline became clear. It was close to a rectangle measuring approximately 2.6 m by 1.4 m, oriented with its longer side along the NE-SW axis. The edges were slightly blurred at this level, with many accumulations of charcoal evident in the central part. These were interspersed with layers of daub and clay that had been burnt to a dark brick red or almost black colour, which were particularly evident in the central part of the feature and in its southern corner. Near one of the longer sides (NW), four broken clay vessels were found lying on their sides. These included a vase and a vessel on a small foot (Fig. 13). Nearby, small pieces of burnt bone were found. The feature was basin-shaped in profile, reaching up to 10 cm in depth in the central part. A layer of burnt red silty clay up to 5 cm thick was found beneath the entire surface of the feature. In the central part and the southern corner, a cut was identified, which disturbed the charcoal-saturated deposit. The pit must have been dug after the fire had ceased burning. Measuring approximately 0.6x1.0 m and about 10 cm deep, its fill contained significant quantity of burnt bones, which formed a compact layer, probably due to the pressure of the earthen mound (Fig. 6). In the central part inserts of natural earth and smudges of charcoal were identified, which had fallen in during the digging of the pit. The structure should be interpreted as
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 5. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Plan of the central feature (no. 7) at a depth of 0.7 m (photo by M. Ocias)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 6. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Cross-section of the balk and feature no. 7. A layer of burnt material with burnt bones beneath it is visible. View from the SE (photo by the author)</figcaption></figure>
the remains of a cremation pyre *in situ*, along with traces of secondary burial. The assemblage of the central sepulchral feature consists of the remains of at least four clay vessels, heavily fragmented and showing traces of secondary burning.

**Other archaeological features in the barrow and outside the original mound**

Various features of a sepulchral nature were uncovered in different parts of the trench. Some were found beneath the original mound, some were dug into the mound itself, and some were identified in the area adjacent to the mound (Figs 7-11; Table 1).

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 7. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Plan of the mound showing the original extent of the mound and the arrangement of features at different depths</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 8. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Feature 2 - urn with burnt bones, turned upside down by a fallen tree (photo by the author)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 9. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Feature 11 - partially visible cross-section with a layer of burnt material and bones, into which fir roots have grown (photo by the author)</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 10. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Features 17 and 18 (urn grave; photo by the author)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 11. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Cross-section of feature 22 - cremation in pit (photo by the author)</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>TABLE 1. Features from other places in the barrow and outside the original mound</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Feature number</th><th rowspan="2">Location</th><th colspan="2">Depth [m]</th><th rowspan="2">Dimensions: length x width x depth [m]</th><th rowspan="2">Characteristic</th><th rowspan="2">Type of feature</th></tr><tr><th>from the top of the barrow</th><th>from the ground surface</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1A</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.25x0.45x0.3</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments, small burnt bones and stone lumps</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>1B</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.45x0.5x0.1</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments, small burnt bone, charcoal, and stone lumps</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>quarter B, outside the original mound</td><td>0.45</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.14x0.21x0.15</td><td>a damaged clay vessel with burnt bones</td><td>urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>quarter B, outside the original mound</td><td>0.7</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.15x0.2x0.07</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>quarter C, beneath the original mound</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.3x0.3x0.15</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>quarter C, outside the original mound</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.2x0.24x0.15</td><td>concentration of small burnt bones and charcoal</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.25x0.4x0.1</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments, small burnt bones, charcoal, and lumps of stone</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>quarter B, outside the original mound</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.12x0.2x0.12</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>quarter B, outside the original mound</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.6x0.12x0.06</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>quarter B, beneath the original mound</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.6</td><td>7x0.7</td><td>concentration of daub, charcoal and small burnt bones</td><td>layer of cremation (?)</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>0.9</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.1x0.13x0.05</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>0.9</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.2x0.2x0.07</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments, small pieces of charcoal and stones</td><td>damage urn grave (?)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>14</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>0.9</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.12x0.12x0.07</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>quarter B, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.10x0.12x0.02</td><td>concentration of burnt bones</td><td>damage pit grave (?)</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>quarter A, dug into the mound (?)</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.11x0.2x0.1</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones (?)</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.1</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.32x0.35x0.12</td><td>a small pit covered with stones</td><td>?</td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.1</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.18x0.18x0.2</td><td>a destroyed urn covered with burnt bones and remains of a funeral pyre</td><td>urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>19</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.45x0.54x0.18</td><td>a small pit with charcoal and burnt bones covered with stones</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>20</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.26x0.32x0.16</td><td>a small pit with charcoal and burnt bones</td><td>pit grave</td></tr><tr><td>21</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.0</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.32x0.35x0.16</td><td>a small pit with charcoal and burnt bones</td><td>pit grave</td></tr><tr><td>22</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.0</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.5x0.54x0.42</td><td>a small pit with charcoal and burnt bones covered with a stone</td><td>pit grave</td></tr><tr><td>24</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.40x0.40x0.24</td><td>a small pit with charcoal and burnt bones</td><td>pit grave</td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.25x0.25x0.13</td><td>a small pit with charcoal</td><td>pit grave (?)</td></tr><tr><td>26</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.25x0.25x0.12</td><td>a small pit with charcoal</td><td>pit grave (?)</td></tr><tr><td>27</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.08x0.2x0.09</td><td>concentration of pottery, charcoal, daub, individual stones and burnt bones</td><td>pit grave</td></tr><tr><td>28</td><td>quarter D, outside the original mound</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.17x0.17x0.08</td><td>destroyed urn vessel</td><td>urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>31</td><td>quarter A, dug into the mound (?)</td><td>0.7</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.17x0.2x0.2</td><td>concentration of pottery fragments and small burnt bones and charcoal</td><td>damage urn grave</td></tr><tr><td>32</td><td>trench 1/2025; near the quarter D</td><td></td><td>0.3</td><td>0.1x0.2x0.03</td><td>a small pit with charcoal and burnt bones</td><td>damage pit grave (?)</td></tr></table>
V. PORTABLE SOURCES

Pottery

Pottery clearly dominates among the artefacts obtained. This is typical of most Bronze Age Urnfield cultures and reflects the importance of ceramic vessels in the funeral rites, for example as containers for bones or grave goods. Research at Dukla 7 produced almost 1 200 pieces of pottery. Analysing their distribution reveals a distinct concentration along the southern edge of the barrow. This is also where the cremation graves are concentrated (Fig. 12). Smaller numbers of vessel fragments were also present in the N and NW parts of the mound. The ceramics obtained from the graves and found within the layers are heavily fragmented. Small sherds measuring a few square centimetres (most often 3x3 cm) and weighting only a few grams predominate. Very few fragments allow the reconstruction of the vessel forms. In terms of technology, the ceramic assemblage is quite uniform, dominated by brown-grey or

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 12. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Distribution of pottery fragments in the barrow according to the depth of deposition</figcaption></figure>
brick-red sherds with smooth surfaces that are tempered with crushed stone and sand. In terms of style, however, the assemblage is less homogeneous (Fig. 13, 14). We find references to forms and decorations known from the Piliny culture. This refers to decoration in the form of a combination of engraved lines, knobs, and flutes (Fig. 14: 4, 5, 7; Furmánek 1977), which are typically applied to the middle parts of thin-walled vessels. A typical form is small jugs with hollow feet, often found in grave and settlement contexts (Fig. 14: 6, 9 (?); Olšav 2023: Table 36; also typical are wide, band-shaped handles and small handles placed on the curves of the vessel bodies (Fig. 14: 2; Jílková 1961: 87, Fig. 12-13). However, the material contains no direct references to the “Lusatian” style known from southeastern Poland.

## Other artefacts

In addition to clay vessels, other artefacts were also found at site 7 in Dukla. Of particular note are the objects made of siliceous raw materials, which were found in different parts of the barrow and at various depths. These are

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 13. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Clay vessel from the central feature (no. 7) - graphic reconstruction (drawn by A. Bardec' kyj)</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 14. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Pottery from the barrow (drawn by A. Bardec' kyj)</figcaption></figure>

a retouched flake of Volhynia flint (40x39.5x8.4 mm; Fig. 15: 1), a thick flake of local hornstone (73x29x16.2 mm; Fig. 15: 2), a flake chipped from an axe (marl; 42.5x37.5x7.6 mm; Fig. 15: 3), a fragment of a local hornstone core (29x73x16.2 mm; Fig. 15: 4), a non-cortical chunk of hornstone (21x30.5x9.2 mm; Fig. 15: 5), a chunk of radiolarite (14.4x13.3x4.0 mm), a fragment of a flake (undetermined; 18 x 16.5 x 4.3 mm), a flake of stone (40x47x9.2 mm) and a core of radiolarite (54 x 31.5 x 20.6 mm).

The described artefacts were found in a secondary context, having found their way into the mound together with the earth used to construct it, which was collected from its immediate surroundings. In addition, fragments of radiolarite flakes showing signs of burning were found in four objects. The most numerous blanks (flakes and blades) probably date from the Neolithic period or the Early Bronze Age. Evidence of occupation from this period has been found in the vicinity of site 7 (Łęki Dukielskie-"Łazy"; Valde-Nowak 1988: 132;
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>FIG. 15. Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Selection of flint artefacts (photo by the author)</figcaption></figure>

axe workshop on Mała Górka in Cergowa; Budziszewski, Skowronek 2001; stone objects from Lubatowa, site 8 and 29, including an axe and grindstones - Gancarski, Pelisiak 2020). Excavation of the mound and its surroundings produced a large collection of stone artefacts (almost 70 pieces). These include slab fragments, river pebbles, two millstones and one grinder (Fig. 16). In terms of raw material, they are not very diverse; the vast majority are made of local sandstone or marl. The millstones are loaf-shaped specimens with slightly concave grinding surfaces. The grinder, on the other hand, is bipolar and shows quite clear traces of use. All the artefacts were found within the central feature (36 artefacts) and other sepulchral features. They were part of stone settings there, often placed under or around clay vessels. This was the case in features 1A, 1B, 8, 13, 17, 19, 22 and 27.
<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>**FIG. 16.** Dukla, Krosno district, site 7. Millstones and a grinder used for coving cremation graves (photo by the author)</figcaption></figure>

## VI. INTERPRETATION

The barrow at site 7 was constructed on a flat area in the middle part of a ridge, at an altitude of 365.9 m above sea level. It was built from local clayey silt collected from the immediate surroundings and mixed with the original topsoil. This process resulted in the redeposition of Late Neolithic (or Early Bronze Age) flint artefacts from the surrounding area into the mound together with the soil. Before the mound was built, the area designated for the cremation pyre was levelled. Rituals related with constructing the mound involved lighting a fire, the remains of which can be seen as clusters of charcoal and traces of burnt earth *in situ*. This may have been connected to the cleaning of the burial site. A funeral pyre was then built on the prepared place (the central feature no. 7). Documented traces indicate that the pyre burned entirely after being exposed to a very high temperature. The burning pyre baked the uppermost layer of natural soil in its immediate vicinity. This burnt layer was
not uniform, varying in depth from 5 to 8 cm. There is no doubt that the body
of the deceased along with the grave goods were cremated during the ritu-
al. Once the pyre had ceased burning and the embers had cooled down, the
area was cleared and the bone fragments were collected. It is estimated that at
least four clay vessels of average size were deposited. The collected bones were
placed in a pit dug beneath the funeral pyre. After the rites were completed,
the cremation site and the grave pit were covered with a mound. According to
field observations, its original diameter was approximately 11-12 m, with a to-
tal height of over 3 m. The next stage in the site's use involved digging graves
near the mound, particularly on the southern side (i.e. S, SE and SW). At least
three main types of grave can be distinguished, differing in form, furnishings
and the amount of human remains. Features 2, 18 and 28 are urned burials
placed in medium-sized vessels. At the time of discovery, these containers
were mostly damaged - disturbed in the upper parts or even turned upside
down. There is evidence that the urns were placed in small pits and covered
with a deposit of pyre debris and burnt bones. In the case of grave 18, the urn
was covered with stones. Notably, millstones and a grinder were employed for
this purpose. Undoubtedly, features 1A, 1B, 4-6, 8-10, 12-14, 16, 19 and 31, which
contained fragments of damaged vessels and burnt bones, were originally
urned cremation burials too. The same interpretation should also be given to
vessels found in features containing traces of charcoal and burnt bones. Some
of the urns may have stood on specially prepared pavement made of blocks of
stone and stone slabs. Another category of graves consists of burials in small
pits (features 20-27). These were mostly small depressions filled with earth
mixed with a charcoal-saturated deposit (most likely pyre debris). They do
not contain large amounts of burnt bones, but rather small clusters. Some of
these burials were covered with stones (e.g. feature 22). Finally, there are small
clusters of burnt bones without any discernible pits; these are also the remains
of destroyed pit burials. The graves were often so severely destroyed that it was
impossible to identify the grave goods. Several graves contained fragments
of additional vessels. The described forms of sepulchral behaviour are typi-
cal of cemeteries known from the southern zone of the Urnfield culture (e.g.
Furmánek, Mitáš 2009). Over time, the original mound subsided. Due to ero-
sion, the edge part spread and covered nearby cremation burials. The upper
part became overgrown with trees and undergrowth, and the wind caused
the trees to fall, forming windthrow. This undoubtedly caused the earth to be
torn out from the interior of the mound and damaged the surrounding graves.
VII. CULTURAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTION

For site no. 7 in Dukla, a single radiocarbon date was obtained for the central burial under the barrow (object no. 7), at 3205 ± 30 BP (Poz-191595). Calibration resulted in chronological ranges of 1501 BC–1446 BC (68.3%) and 1516 BC–1420 BC (95.4%). This result corresponds to the chronology of the Piliny culture settlement in northeastern Slovakia (see Furmánek 1977: 322; Furmánek 2015: 185; Olšav 2023: 24–26). Many cremation cemeteries are known from the Piliny culture area, which are close analogies to the burial complex discovered in Dukla. Examples of this type of site come from, among others, Radzovce, district of Lučenec and from Košice in Slovakia, where numerous cremation burials of various forms were recorded (Furmánek 1990; Gašaj 1985). In some cases, these graves were marked on the ground surface or equipped with stone burlial boxes, which constituted a permanent sepulchral element. Equivalents of this type of marking are also known from the Košice-Barca II cemetery (Jílková 1961: 68–79). It should be emphasized, however, that in the Piliny culture cemeteries examined so far, no cremation burials covered with earth mounds have been found. The barrow as a grave form is known, however, in cultural environments related to or contemporary with the Piliny culture, especially in the Carpathian Tumulus cultures (personal communication by Š. Olšav; J. Godiš 2019). These similarities may suggest that the tradition of building barrow mounds in Dukla is the result of southern Carpathian influences, which were one of the key factors shaping local burial rites in the Older and Middle Bronze Age.

So far, in Poland, materials classified as Piliny culture have been among the few finds, which clearly indicates the marginal extent of its influence north of the Carpathians. These artefacts are concentrated mainly within the “Carpathian” valleys of large rivers – the San, Wisłoka, Dunajec, and Raba – which served as natural communication routes connecting southern Poland with the Carpathian Basin. Grave materials have only been found in Chełmiec, Nowy Sącz district, site 2 (six urn graves; Szymaszkiewicz 1985), Chełm, Bochnia district, site 1 (one urn grave; Rodak 2003), and Gwoździec, Tarnów district, site 9 (Szpunar, Szpunar 2003; Czopek 2012, Table 1). Apart from the mentioned cemeteries, ceramic materials of the Piliny culture were also found in settlements that have been explored mainly to a limited extent in localities in the upper Dunajec river basin: Marcinkowice, site 1 (Cabalska 1974; Przybyła 2009), Maszkowice, site 1 (Przybyła 2009), Naszacowice, site 1 (Przybyła 2009). Connections with the Piliny culture are also indicated by some bronze finds from
the Polish zone of the Carpathians, interpreted as local reproductions or im-
ports from the south. This group includes deposits from Rzepedź, Sanok dis-
trict (Kotowicz et al. 2016), Strachocina, Sanok district (Blajer 2001), Stefkowa,
Ustrzyki Dolne district (Blajer 2001), Ulucz, Brzozów district (Parczewski 1984:
2063-208), Wysowa, Gorlice district (Blajer 2003: 248), and Załęże, Jasło dis-
trict (Blajer 2003: 246-248). Some of these deposits may represent traces of local
adaptations of Transcarpathian patterns, which spread northward through ex-
changes or migration (Czopek 2012: 63, 64). The grave site discovered in Dukla
should be considered a necropolis associated with people of Transcarpathian
origin, representing the direct influence of southern cultural traditions. At
the current stage of research, it is the only grave site of this type discovered
in southeastern Poland. The results of the analyses from Dukla will not only
provide a significant reference point for the interpretation of transcarpathian
contacts, but also a significant contribution to research on the dynamics of
socio-cultural change in the Central European-Carpathian borderland.

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ADDRESS OF THE AUTHOR

**Wojciech Pasterkiewicz**
Institute of Archaeology
Rzeszów University
Moniuszki 10, 35-015 Rzeszów, Poland
wpasterkiewicz@ur.edu.pl
ORCID 0000-0002-0625-7232
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