UKESM1: Description and Evaluation of the U.K. Earth System Model, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 11, 4513-4558, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001739, 2019a.

Sellar, A. A., Jones, C. G., Mulcahy, J. P., Tang, Y., Yool, A., Wiltshire, A., O'Connor, F. M., Stringer, M., Hill, R., Palmieri, J., Woodward, S., de Mora, L., Kuhlbrodt, T., Rumbold, S. T., Kelley, D. I., Ellis, R., Johnson, C. E., Walton, J., Abraham, N. L., Andrews, M. B., Andrews, T., Archibald, A. T., Berthou, S., Burke, E., Blockley, E., Carslaw, K., Dalvi, M., Edwards, J., Folberth, G. A., Gedney, N., Griffiths, P. T., Harper, A. B., Hendry, M. A., Hewitt, A. J., Johnson, B., Jones, A., Jones, C. D., Keeble, J., Liddicoat, S., Morgenstern, O., Parker, R. J., Predoi, V., Robertson, E., Siahaan, A., Smith, R. S., Swaminathan, R., Woodhouse, M. T., Zeng, G., and Zerroukat, M.: UKESM1: Description and Evaluation of the U.K. Earth System Model, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 11, 4513–4558, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001739, 2019b.

Sellar, A. A., Walton, J., Jones, C. G., Wood, R., Abraham, N. L., Andrejczuk, M., Andrews, M. B., Andrews, T., Archibald, A. T., de Mora, L., Dyson, H., Elkington, M., Ellis, R., Florek, P., Good, P., Gohar, L., Haddad, S., Hardiman, S. C., Hogan, E., Iwi, A., Jones, C. D., Johnson, B., Kelley, D. I., Kettleborough, J., Knight, J. R., Köhler, M. O., Kuhlbrodt, T., Liddicoat, S., Linova-Pavlova, I., Mizielinski, M. S., Morgenstern, O., Mulcahy, J., Neininger, E., O'Connor, F. M., Petrie, R., Ridley, J., Rioual, J. C., Roberts, M., Robertson, E., Rumbold, S., Seddon, J., Shepherd, H., Shim, S., Stephens, A., Teixiera, J. C., Tang, Y., Williams, J., Wiltshire, A., and Griffiths, P. T.: Implementation of U.K. Earth System Models for CMIP6, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 12, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001946, 2020.

Sellers, W. D.: A Global Climatic Model Based on the Energy Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 8, 392–400, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0392:AGCMBO>2.0.CO;2, 1969.

Shonk, J. K. P., Guilyardi, E., Toniazzo, T., Woolnough, S. J., and Stockdale, T.: Identifying causes of Western Pacific ITCZ drift in ECMWF System 4 hindcasts, Clim. Dyn., 50, 939–954, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3650-9, 2018.

Silvy, Y.: Emergence des changements de température et de salinité dans l'océan intérieur en réponse au changement climatique : échelles de temps et mécanismes, Sorbonne Université, 245 pp., 2022.

Smagorinsky, J., Manabe, S., and Holloway, J. L.: NUMERICAL RESULTS FROM A NINE-LEVEL GENERAL CIRCULATION MODEL OF THE ATMOSPHERE, Mon. Weather Rev., 93, 727–768, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1965)093<0727:NRFANL>2.3.CO;2, 1965.

Small, R. J., Curchitser, E., Hedstrom, K., Kauffman, B., and Large, W. G.: The Benguela Upwelling System: Quantifying the Sensitivity to Resolution and Coastal Wind Representation in a Global Climate Model*, J. Clim., 28, 9409–9432, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0192.1, 2015.

Smith, R. S., Mathiot, P., Siahaan, A., Lee, V., Cornford, S. L., Gregory, J. M., Payne, A. J., Jenkins, A., Holland, P. R., Ridley, J. K., and Jones, C. G.: Coupling the U.K. Earth System Model to Dynamic Models of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 13, e2021MS002520, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021MS002520, 2021.

Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Schellnhuber, H. J., Dube, O. P., Dutreuil, S., Lenton, T. M., and Lubchenco, J.: The emergence and evolution of Earth System Science, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 1, 54–63, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-019-0005-6, 2020.

Stevens, B., Satoh, M., Auger, L., Biercamp, J., Bretherton, C. S., Chen, X., Düben, P., Judt, F., Khairoutdinov, M., Klocke, D., Kodama, C., Kornblueh, L., Lin, S.-J., Neumann, P., Putman, W. M., Röber, N., Shibuya, R., Vanniere, B., Vidale, P. L., Wedi, N., and Zhou, L.: DYAMOND: the DYNAMICS of the ATMOSPHERIC general CIRCULATION Modeled On Non-hydrostatic Domains, Prog. Earth Planet. Sci., 6, 61, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-019-0304-z, 2019.

de Szoeke, S. P., Fairall, C. W., Wolfe, D. E., Bariteau, L., and Zuidema, P.: Surface flux observations on the southeastern tropical pacific ocean and attribution of sst errors in coupled ocean-atmosphere models, J. Clim., 23, 4152–4174, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3411.1, 2010.
Terray, L., Thual, O., Belamari, S., Déqué, M., Dandin, P., Delecluse, P., and Levy, C.: Climatology and interannual variability simulated by the ARPEGE-OPA coupled model, Clim. Dyn., 11, 487–505, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00207197, 1995.

Tian, B. and Dong, X.: The Double-ITCZ Bias in CMIP3, CMIP5, and CMIP6 Models Based on Annual Mean Precipitation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087232, 2020.

Toniazzo, T. and Woolnough, S.: Development of warm SST errors in the southern tropical Atlantic in CMIP5 decadal hindcasts, Clim. Dyn., 43, 2889–2913, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-1691-2, 2013.

Torres, O., Braconnot, P., Marti, O., and Gential, L.: Impact of air-sea drag coefficient for latent heat flux on large scale climate in coupled and atmosphere stand-alone simulations, Clim. Dyn., 0, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4236-x, 2018.

Vergnes, J. P., Decharme, B., and Habets, F.: Introduction of groundwater capillary rises using subgrid spatial variability of topography into the ISBA land surface model, J. Geophys. Res., https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD021573, 2014.

Voldoire, A.: Quantifying the impact of future land-use changes against increases in GHG concentrations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024354, 2006.

Voldoire, A.: River to ocean models interpolation, CNRM, Université de Toulouse, Météo-France, CNRS, https://hal-meteofrance.archives-ouvertes.fr/meteo-02986574, 2020.

Voldoire, A., Sanchez-Gomez, E., Salas y Mélia, D., Decharme, B., Cassou, C., Sénési, S., Valcke, S., Beau, I., Alias, A., Chevallier, M., Déqué, M., Deshayes, J., Douville, H., Fernandez, E., Madec, G., Maisonnave, E., Moine, M.-P., Planton, S., Saint-Martin, D., Szopa, S., Tyteca, S., Alkama, R., Belamari, S., Braun, A., Coquart, L., and Chauvin, F.: The CNRM-CM5.1 global climate model: Description and basic evaluation, Clim. Dyn., 40, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-011-1259-y, 2013.

Voldoire, A., Claudon, M., Caniaux, G., Giordani, H., and Roehrig, R.: Are atmospheric biases responsible for the tropical Atlantic SST biases in the CNRM-CM5 coupled model?, Clim. Dyn., 43, 2963–2984, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-2036-x, 2014.

Voldoire, A., Decharme, B., Pianezze, J., Lebeaupin Brossier, C., Sevault, F., Seyfried, L., Garnier, V., Bielli, S., Valcke, S., Alias, A., Accensi, M., Arduuin, F., Bouin, M.-N., Ducrocq, V., Faroux, S., Giordani, H., Léger, F., Marsaleix, P., Rainaud, R., Redelsperger, J.-L., Richard, E., and Riette, S.: SURFEX v8.0 interface with OASIS3-MCT to couple atmosphere with hydrology, ocean, waves and sea-ice models, from coastal to global scales, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-4207-2017, 2017.

Voldoire, A., Saint-Martin, D., Sénési, S., Decharme, B., Alias, A., Chevallier, M., Colin, J., Guérémy, J.-F., Michou, M., Moine, M.-P., Nabat, P., Roehrig, R., Mélia, D. S. y, Séférian, R., Valcke, S., Beau, I., Belamari, S., Berthet, S., Cassou, C., Cattiaux, J., Deshayes, J., Douville, H., Ethé, C., Franchistéguy, L., Geoffroy, O., Lévy, C., Madec, G., Meurdesoif, Y., Msadek, R., Ribes, A., Sanchez-Gomez, E., Terray, L., and Waldman, R.: Evaluation of CMIP6 DECK Experiments With CNRM-CM6-1, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 11, 2177–2213, 2019a.

Voldoire, A., Saint-Martin, D., Sénési, S., Decharme, B., Alias, A., Chevallier, M., Colin, J., Guérémy, J. F., Michou, M., Moine, M. P., Nabat, P., Roehrig, R., Salas y Mélia, D., Séférian, R., Valcke, S., Beau, I., Belamari, S., Berthet, S., Cassou, C., Cattiaux, J., Deshayes, J., Douville, H., Ethé, C., Franchistéguy, L., Geoffroy, O., Lévy, C., Madec, G., Meurdesoif, Y., Msadek, R., Ribes, A., Sanchez-Gomez, E., Terray, L., and Waldman, R.: Evaluation of CMIP6 DECK Experiments With CNRM-CM6-1, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 11, 2177–2213, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001683, 2019b.

Voldoire, A., Roehrig, R., Giordani, H., Waldman, R., Zhang, Y., Xie, S., and Bouin, M.-N.: Assessment of the sea surface temperature diurnal cycle in CNRM-CM6-1 based on its 1D coupled configuration, Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 3347–3370, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3347-2022, 2022.
de Vries, B., Bollen, J., Bouwman, L., den ELZEN, M., Janssen, M., and Kreileman, E.: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in an Equity-, Environment- and Service-Oriented World: An IMAGE-Based Scenario for the 21st Century, Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change, 63, 137–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1625(99)00109-2, 2000.

Wade, M., Caniaux, G., and Du Penhoat, Y.: Variability of the mixed layer heat budget in the eastern equatorial Atlantic during 2005-2007 as inferred using Argo floats, J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 116, 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006683, 2011.

Wahl, S., Latif, M., Park, W., and Keenlyside, N.: On the Tropical Atlantic SST warm bias in the Kiel Climate Model, Clim. Dyn., 36, 891–906, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0690-9, 2011.

Williamson, D. B., Blaker, A. T., and Sinha, B.: Tuning without over-tuning: Parametric uncertainty quantification for the NEMO ocean model, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 1789–1816, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-1789-2017, 2017a.

Williamson, D. B., Blaker, A. T., and Sinha, B.: Tuning without over-tuning: Parametric uncertainty quantification for the NEMO ocean model, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 1789–1816, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-1789-2017, 2017b.

Yu, L. and Weller, R. A.: Objectively Analyzed Air–Sea Heat Fluxes for the Global Ice-Free Oceans (1981–2005), Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 88, 527–539, 2007.

Zhao, M., Golaz, J. C., Held, I. M., Ramaswamy, V., Lin, S. J., Ming, Y., Ginoux, P., Wyman, B., Donner, L. J., Paynter, D., and Guo, H.: Uncertainty in model climate sensitivity traced to representations of cumulus precipitation microphysics, J. Clim., 29, 543–560, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0191.1, 2016a.

Zhao, M., Golaz, J. C., Held, I. M., Ramaswamy, V., Lin, S. J., Ming, Y., Ginoux, P., Wyman, B., Donner, L. J., Paynter, D., and Guo, H.: Uncertainty in model climate sensitivity traced to representations of cumulus precipitation microphysics, J. Clim., 29, 543–560, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0191.1, 2016b.

Zheng, Y., Shinoda, T., Lin, J. L., and Kiladis, G. N.: Sea surface temperature biases under the stratus cloud deck in the southeast Pacific ocean in 19 IPCC AR4 coupled general circulation models, J. Clim., https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JCLI4172.1, 2011.

Zuidema, P., Chang, P., Medeiros, B., Kirtman, B. P., Mechoso, R., Schneider, E. K., Toniazzo, T., Richter, I., Small, R. J., Bellomo, K., Brandt, P., De Szoeke, S., Farrar, J. T., Jung, E., Kato, S., Li, M., Patricola, C., Wang, Z., Wood, R., and Xu, Z.: Challenges and prospects for reducing coupled climate model sst biases in the eastern tropical atlantic and pacific oceans: The U.S. Clivar eastern tropical oceans synthesis working group, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 97, 2305–2327, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00274.1, 2016.
# 7. Glossaire

## 7.1. Général

* CMIP : Coupled Model Intercomparison Project

* ENSO : El Niño Southern Oscillation / Oscillation australe El Niño

* ITCZ : Intertropical Convergence Zone / Zone de convergence inter-tropicale

* Transpose-AMIP : protocole de simulation en atmosphère seule (non-couplé) initialisée à partir de réanalyses

* Transpose-CMIP : protocole de simulations couplées océan-atmosphère initialisées à partir de réanalyses

## 7.2. Modèles

* ALADIN : Modèle atmosphérique à aire-limitée, dérivé du modèle global ARPEGE, utilisé pour la prévision du temps et à échelle climatique

* AROME : Modèle atmosphérique à méso-échelle et à aire-limitée, utilisé pour la prévision du temps et à échelle climatique

* ARPEGE : Modèle atmosphérique à échelle globale, utilisé pour la prévision du temps et à échelle climatique

* CTRIP : Modèle de routage de fleuves

* GELATO : Modèle de banquise utilisé dans CNRM-CM

* IMAGE : Modèle d'impact intégré développé au PBL Netherlands Environment Assessment Agency (Pays Bas).

* ISBA : Modèle de surfaces continentales intégré dans SURFEX

* Meso-NH : Modèle atmosphérique utilisé en mode recherche à fine échelle

* NEMO : Modèle d'océan utilisé dans CNRM-CM

* SURFEX : Plateforme de modélisation de surface (continents, océan, banquise)