# Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem

Gérald Delelis

► To cite this version:

Gérald Delelis. Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2023, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 64 (6), p.710-718. 10.1111/sjop.12930. hal-04452636

HAL Id: hal-04452636

https://hal.univ-lille.fr/hal-04452636

Submitted on 14 Feb 2024

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
# Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem

Gérald Delelis

► To cite this version:

Gérald Delelis. Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2023, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 64 (6), p.710-718. 10.1111/sjop.12930. hal-04452636

HAL Id: hal-04452636

https://lilloa.hal.science/hal-04452636v1

Submitted on 14 Feb 2024

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Empirical Article

# Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem

GÉRALD DELELIS ID

SCALab, CNRS UMR 9193, Univ Lille, Lille, France

Delelis, G. (2023). Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem. *Scandinavian Journal of Psychology*, *64*, 710–718.

Can self-esteem reduce the deleterious effects of solitude on adolescents' mental and social health? Solitude is twofold because it can be chosen (self-determined) or forced (not self-determined). When it is not a chosen behavior (e.g., social ignorance, exclusion, or fear of others' judgment), individuals experience higher levels of anxiety and depression and feel the deleterious effects of loneliness more. On the other hand, the level of self-esteem relates positively to lower levels of anxiety and depression as well as to good social relationships. We hypothesized that self-esteem moderates the effects of unchosen solitude. Eighty high school students participated in this study by filling out a self-report booklet of questionnaires. We first examine the links between unchosen solitude and anxiety, depression, loneliness, hopelessness, and quality of the connection to family and peers; next, we examine the moderating role of self-esteem in these links. Regression analyses confirm the classic negative effect of not-self-determined solitude on the health outcomes considered, and moderation analyses show that a good level of self-esteem decreases this effect, at least on depression, hopelessness, and connection to peers. We suggest further studies to complete and refine these results and propose to assess more systematically the adolescents' self-esteem and to reinforce it to prevent negative mental and social health outcomes.

**Key words:** Unchosen solitude, self-esteem, adolescents, health.

Gérald Delelis, Département de Psychologie, Université de Lille, Site de Pont de Bois, BP 60149, F-59653 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France. E-mail: gerald.delelis@univ-lille.fr

## INTRODUCTION

Numerous authors point out that social isolation and solitude strongly impact the health of people and, in particular, the health of adolescents (e.g., Hall-Lande, Eisenberg, Christenson & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007). The isolation and lockdowns due to the recent COVID-19 pandemic have also led to the observation of increased levels of anxiety and depression as well as a loss of sense of community (for reviews, see Cooper et al., 2021; Jetten, Reicher, Haslam & Cruwys, 2020; Loades et al., 2020; Oliveira et al., 2020). Furthermore, Twenge et al. (2021) document that many authors have observed a general increase in adolescent depression and loneliness across the world during the last decade (see also Office of the Surgeon General, 2021). Thus, identifying the health outcomes influenced by loneliness and especially the factors likely to limit this influence is a public health priority.

### Solitude and health

Solitude is a complex subjective phenomenon (Coplan & Bowker, 2014; Coplan, Hipson & Bowker, 2021; Long, Seburn, Averill & More, 2003). It is the feeling of being alone, the feeling of being isolated from others. It is an imbalance between a desired social interaction and actual social interactions (Ernst & Cacioppo, 1999; Weiss, 1973), but it can also be a choice made by individuals. While in this second case the effects are positive (e.g., sense of intimacy, personal growth, or appeasement; Andersson, 1998; Galanaki, 2013; Larson & Lee, 1996; Lay, Pauly, Graf, Mahmood & Hoppmann, 2020; Leary, Herbst & McCrary, 2003; Long & Averill, 2003; Long, Seburn, Averill &

More, 2003; Nguyen, Ryan & Deci, 2018; Ost Mor, Palgi & Segel-Karpas, 2020), in the first, they are not.

Indeed, when solitude is not a chosen condition, its effects are seen as being highly aversive: general disorders (social, cognitive, or emotional as well as physical; Bossi, Gallucci & Ricciardelli, 2018; Hall-Lande, Eisenberg, Christenson & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007; Loades et al., 2020; Menec, Newall, Mackenzie, Shooshtari & Nowicki, 2020), anxiety, stress, and cardiovascular diseases (Hakulinen et al., 2018), substance abuse (McKay, Konowalczyk, Andretta & Cole, 2017), depression, and increased risk of death (Holt-Lunstad, Smith, Baker, Harris & Stephenson, 2015; Shankar, Mcmunn, Banks & Steptoe, 2011), for example.

These findings are particularly relevant to adolescents' health and social outcomes. Indeed, others, others' comments, and relations to others are very susceptible to engendering problematic behaviors and degraded well-being (Berndt, 1979; Helfert & Warschburger, 2011). For people in the process of identity and social development, who need thus to be surrounded by peers, perceiving that others evaluate them negatively or thinking that they do could impair motivation, feelings of self-efficacy, and academic and social performance (McFarlane, Bellissimo & Norman, 1995; Samter, 2003; Short, Sandler & Roosa, 1996; Wentzel, 1998) and could increase anxiety, depression, and psychic disorders (Aseltine, Gore & Colten, 1994; Dishion, McCord & Poulin, 1999; Gardner & Steinberg, 2005; La Greca & Moore, 2005; Parker & Asher, 1987; Steinberg & Scott, 2003).

Thus, solitude can be self-determined or not self-determined. Nicol (2006) develops this distinction based on the theory of self-
Empirical Article

# Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem

GÉRALD DELELIS ID

SCALab, CNRS UMR 9193, Univ Lille, Lille, France

Delelis, G. (2023). Deleterious effects of unchosen solitude on adolescents' mental and social health: The moderating role of self-esteem. *Scandinavian Journal of Psychology*, *64*, 710–718.

Can self-esteem reduce the deleterious effects of solitude on adolescents' mental and social health? Solitude is twofold because it can be chosen (self-determined) or forced (not self-determined). When it is not a chosen behavior (e.g., social ignorance, exclusion, or fear of others' judgment), individuals experience higher levels of anxiety and depression and feel the deleterious effects of loneliness more. On the other hand, the level of self-esteem relates positively to lower levels of anxiety and depression as well as to good social relationships. We hypothesized that self-esteem moderates the effects of unchosen solitude. Eighty high school students participated in this study by filling out a self-report booklet of questionnaires. We first examine the links between unchosen solitude and anxiety, depression, loneliness, hopelessness, and quality of the connection to family and peers; next, we examine the moderating role of self-esteem in these links. Regression analyses confirm the classic negative effect of not-self-determined solitude on the health outcomes considered, and moderation analyses show that a good level of self-esteem decreases this effect, at least on depression, hopelessness, and connection to peers. We suggest further studies to complete and refine these results and propose to assess more systematically the adolescents' self-esteem and to reinforce it to prevent negative mental and social health outcomes.

**Key words:** Unchosen solitude, self-esteem, adolescents, health.

Gérald Delelis, Département de Psychologie, Université de Lille, Site de Pont de Bois, BP 60149, F-59653 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France. E-mail: gerald.delelis@univ-lille.fr

## INTRODUCTION

Numerous authors point out that social isolation and solitude strongly impact the health of people and, in particular, the health of adolescents (e.g., Hall-Lande, Eisenberg, Christenson & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007). The isolation and lockdowns due to the recent COVID-19 pandemic have also led to the observation of increased levels of anxiety and depression as well as a loss of sense of community (for reviews, see Cooper et al., 2021; Jetten, Reicher, Haslam & Cruwys, 2020; Loades et al., 2020; Oliveira et al., 2020). Furthermore, Twenge et al. (2021) document that many authors have observed a general increase in adolescent depression and loneliness across the world during the last decade (see also Office of the Surgeon General, 2021). Thus, identifying the health outcomes influenced by loneliness and especially the factors likely to limit this influence is a public health priority.

### Solitude and health

Solitude is a complex subjective phenomenon (Coplan & Bowker, 2014; Coplan, Hipson & Bowker, 2021; Long, Seburn, Averill & More, 2003). It is the feeling of being alone, the feeling of being isolated from others. It is an imbalance between a desired social interaction and actual social interactions (Ernst & Cacioppo, 1999; Weiss, 1973), but it can also be a choice made by individuals. While in this second case the effects are positive (e.g., sense of intimacy, personal growth, or appeasement; Andersson, 1998; Galanaki, 2013; Larson & Lee, 1996; Lay, Pauly, Graf, Mahmood & Hoppmann, 2020; Leary, Herbst & McCrary, 2003; Long & Averill, 2003; Long, Seburn, Averill &

More, 2003; Nguyen, Ryan & Deci, 2018; Ost Mor, Palgi & Segel-Karpas, 2020), in the first, they are not.

Indeed, when solitude is not a chosen condition, its effects are seen as being highly aversive: general disorders (social, cognitive, or emotional as well as physical; Bossi, Gallucci & Ricciardelli, 2018; Hall-Lande, Eisenberg, Christenson & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007; Loades et al., 2020; Menec, Newall, Mackenzie, Shooshtari & Nowicki, 2020), anxiety, stress, and cardiovascular diseases (Hakulinen et al., 2018), substance abuse (McKay, Konowalczyk, Andretta & Cole, 2017), depression, and increased risk of death (Holt-Lunstad, Smith, Baker, Harris & Stephenson, 2015; Shankar, Mcmunn, Banks & Steptoe, 2011), for example.

These findings are particularly relevant to adolescents' health and social outcomes. Indeed, others, others' comments, and relations to others are very susceptible to engendering problematic behaviors and degraded well-being (Berndt, 1979; Helfert & Warschburger, 2011). For people in the process of identity and social development, who need thus to be surrounded by peers, perceiving that others evaluate them negatively or thinking that they do could impair motivation, feelings of self-efficacy, and academic and social performance (McFarlane, Bellissimo & Norman, 1995; Samter, 2003; Short, Sandler & Roosa, 1996; Wentzel, 1998) and could increase anxiety, depression, and psychic disorders (Aseltine, Gore & Colten, 1994; Dishion, McCord & Poulin, 1999; Gardner & Steinberg, 2005; La Greca & Moore, 2005; Parker & Asher, 1987; Steinberg & Scott, 2003).

Thus, solitude can be self-determined or not self-determined. Nicol (2006) develops this distinction based on the theory of self-
determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000), which postulates that human beings are active organisms “naturally” inclined toward the development and mastery of their environment and toward the integration of their personal and social experiences into a coherent self. Thus, they are inclined to prefer (and persist in) activities that they have chosen (called “self-determined”) rather than activities that have been imposed on them (called “non-self-determined”).

Self-determined motivation for solitude is then an intrinsic motivation associated with individual autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and, in this case, solitude is a choice or even a general preference; the behavior concerned reflects thus a choice, an interest, and a pleasure. When they decide *themselves* and for *themselves* to isolate socially, individuals can feel pleasure in being alone. The motivation bases here can be the opportunity to resource themselves, to be creative, to experience intimacy, or to find peace (e.g., Galanaki, 2013; Ost Mor, Palgi & Segel-Karpas, 2020).

On the other hand, not-self-determined motivation for solitude is an extrinsic motivation and is at play when an individual believes that her or his social network does not meet his or her interpersonal expectations or may even pose a real (or perceived) threat to her or him (Nicol, 2006). The motivation bases here can be social unease, fear of others' judgment, avoidance of social interactions, or the perception that being with others may conflict with personal goals or self-image.

Then, depending on these intrinsic or extrinsic motivations, the effects of solitude on individuals differ: positive on the one hand (a self-determined behavior – here solitude – being related to individual psychic and psychosocial well-being) and negative on the other hand (a not-self-determined solitude being related to negative effects for the individuals) (Nicol, 2006; Thomas & Azmitia, 2019).

Because not-self-determined solitude relies on a fear of judgment, an anticipation of social rejection, we argue that the way people evaluate themselves (self-esteem) can act as a buffer between them and negative health issues.

## Self-esteem and health

Self-esteem refers to the subjective value that individuals attribute to themselves, to the extent to which they like or dislike themselves, value themselves or not, perceive that they are competent or not competent, and are able or not able to meet their needs (Coopersmith, 1967; Pelham & Swann, 1989; Rosenberg, 1979). It is based on the general tendency to perceive oneself as a moral person, worthy of respect and consideration. The self-esteem of individuals determines their actions, feelings of self-acceptance, and self-respect, as well as their relationships in social environments.

To have high self-esteem enables one to know better one's feelings, to feel fewer negative emotions (Goswick & Jones, 1981; Mund, Finn, Hagemeyer, Zimmermann & Neyer, 2015). Self-esteem has thus a protective effect on health, with high self-esteem associated with better mental and physical health outcomes in adolescence and adulthood, while low self-esteem is considered problematic as it is associated with depression, anxiety, or poor health (Baumeister, Campbell,

Krueger & Vohs, 2003; Bolognini & Prêteur, 1998; Chabrol *et al.*, 2004; de Moor, Hutteman, Korrelboom & Laceulle, 2019; Dumont & Provost, 1999; Moksnes & Espnes, 2013; Orth, Robins & Widaman, 2012; Trzesniewski *et al.*, 2006; Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002; see also Jafflin, Pfeiffer & Bergman, 2019).

To have high self-esteem also enables one to react in a more adapted way in encountered situations. Thus, according to Leary, Tambor, Terdal, and Downs (1995), self-esteem monitors the individuals' reactions and signals the state of their relationships with others (acceptance vs. rejection). It is therefore a subjective marker of the extent to which the individuals feel integrated with others, and it is involved in the maintenance of interpersonal relationships (Orth & Robins, 2014; Sowislo & Orth, 2013).

The behaviors of individuals with lower self-esteem are influenced by their doubts and their focus on protecting themselves from failure and rejection. Their strategy is mainly avoidance – a strategy that also results in lower self-esteem. Individuals with higher self-esteem focus on their strengths and try to maintain them; they would most often seek opportunities for success. This strategy of confrontation helps to further increase their level of self-esteem (Bolognini & Prêteur, 1998). For example, Murray, Holmes, MacDonald, and Ellsworth (1998) and Murray, Holmes, and Griffin (2000) show that a good self-esteem enables individuals to feel more confident regarding the way people will evaluate them, and that this will in turn help them feel good about engaging in social encounters. This is an important fact because in late adolescence, low self-esteem and feelings of loneliness are present in a joint manner (Vanhalst, Luyckx, Scholte, Engels & Goossens, 2013; see also Moeller & Seehuus, 2019), and low self-esteem is also related to negative health outcomes such as depression (Mirabel-Sarron, Vera & Samuel-Lajeunesse, 2001; Short, Sandler & Roosa, 1996) and low feeling of self-efficacy as well as low effective performances (Jessor, Van Den Bos, Vanderryn, Costa & Turbin, 1995; McFarlane, Bellissimo & Norman, 1995).

## The present study

Several studies support the idea that unchosen solitude impairs adults' and adolescents' mental and social health. On the other hand, many studies highlight that high levels of self-esteem relate to good mental health and social functioning. We thus postulate that self-esteem could be a moderator of the effects of not-self-determined motivation for solitude on individual mental and social health issues (cf. Cutrona, 1982; Vanhalst, Luyckx, Scholte, Engels & Goossens, 2013). We explore this in adolescents by considering issues such as anxiety, depression, and hopelessness because most researchers point out that these feelings and states strongly affect the personal and social development of adolescents (e.g., Goossens, 2006; Goswick & Jones, 1981, 1982; Heinrich & Gullone, 2006; Lasgaard, Goossens & Elklit, 2011; McMillan, Gilbody, Beresford & Neilly, 2007), their feelings of solitude, and their family and peer social connections because loneliness is related to the subjective quality of social relationships and perceived social acceptance (Asher & Paquette, 2003) and because self-esteem is likely to impact these issues that are
determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000), which postulates that human beings are active organisms “naturally” inclined toward the development and mastery of their environment and toward the integration of their personal and social experiences into a coherent self. Thus, they are inclined to prefer (and persist in) activities that they have chosen (called “self-determined”) rather than activities that have been imposed on them (called “non-self-determined”).

Self-determined motivation for solitude is then an intrinsic motivation associated with individual autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and, in this case, solitude is a choice or even a general preference; the behavior concerned reflects thus a choice, an interest, and a pleasure. When they decide *themselves* and *for themselves* to isolate socially, individuals can feel pleasure in being alone. The motivation bases here can be the opportunity to resource themselves, to be creative, to experience intimacy, or to find peace (e.g., Galanaki, 2013; Ost Mor, Palgi & Segel-Karpas, 2020).

On the other hand, not-self-determined motivation for solitude is an extrinsic motivation and is at play when an individual believes that her or his social network does not meet his or her interpersonal expectations or may even pose a real (or perceived) threat to her or him (Nicol, 2006). The motivation bases here can be social unease, fear of others' judgment, avoidance of social interactions, or the perception that being with others may conflict with personal goals or self-image.

Then, depending on these intrinsic or extrinsic motivations, the effects of solitude on individuals differ: positive on the one hand (a self-determined behavior – here solitude – being related to individual psychic and psychosocial well-being) and negative on the other hand (a not-self-determined solitude being related to negative effects for the individuals) (Nicol, 2006; Thomas & Azmitia, 2019).

Because not-self-determined solitude relies on a fear of judgment, an anticipation of social rejection, we argue that the way people evaluate themselves (self-esteem) can act as a buffer between them and negative health issues.

## Self-esteem and health

Self-esteem refers to the subjective value that individuals attribute to themselves, to the extent to which they like or dislike themselves, value themselves or not, perceive that they are competent or not competent, and are able or not able to meet their needs (Coopersmith, 1967; Pelham & Swann, 1989; Rosenberg, 1979). It is based on the general tendency to perceive oneself as a moral person, worthy of respect and consideration. The self-esteem of individuals determines their actions, feelings of self-acceptance, and self-respect, as well as their relationships in social environments.

To have high self-esteem enables one to know better one's feelings, to feel fewer negative emotions (Goswick & Jones, 1981; Mund, Finn, Hagemeyer, Zimmermann & Neyer, 2015). Self-esteem has thus a protective effect on health, with high self-esteem associated with better mental and physical health outcomes in adolescence and adulthood, while low self-esteem is considered problematic as it is associated with depression, anxiety, or poor health (Baumeister, Campbell,

Krueger & Vohs, 2003; Bolognini & Prêteur, 1998; Chabrol *et al.*, 2004; de Moor, Hutteman, Korrelboom & Laceulle, 2019; Dumont & Provost, 1999; Moksnes & Espnes, 2013; Orth, Robins & Widaman, 2012; Trzesniewski *et al.*, 2006; Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002; see also Jafflin, Pfeiffer & Bergman, 2019).

To have high self-esteem also enables one to react in a more adapted way in encountered situations. Thus, according to Leary, Tambor, Terdal, and Downs (1995), self-esteem monitors the individuals' reactions and signals the state of their relationships with others (acceptance vs. rejection). It is therefore a subjective marker of the extent to which the individuals feel integrated with others, and it is involved in the maintenance of interpersonal relationships (Orth & Robins, 2014; Sowislo & Orth, 2013).

The behaviors of individuals with lower self-esteem are influenced by their doubts and their focus on protecting themselves from failure and rejection. Their strategy is mainly avoidance – a strategy that also results in lower self-esteem. Individuals with higher self-esteem focus on their strengths and try to maintain them; they would most often seek opportunities for success. This strategy of confrontation helps to further increase their level of self-esteem (Bolognini & Prêteur, 1998). For example, Murray, Holmes, MacDonald, and Ellsworth (1998) and Murray, Holmes, and Griffin (2000) show that a good self-esteem enables individuals to feel more confident regarding the way people will evaluate them, and that this will in turn help them feel good about engaging in social encounters. This is an important fact because in late adolescence, low self-esteem and feelings of loneliness are present in a joint manner (Vanhalst, Luyckx, Scholte, Engels & Goossens, 2013; see also Moeller & Seehuus, 2019), and low self-esteem is also related to negative health outcomes such as depression (Mirabel-Sarron, Vera & Samuel-Lajeunesse, 2001; Short, Sandler & Roosa, 1996) and low feeling of self-efficacy as well as low effective performances (Jessor, Van Den Bos, Vanderryn, Costa & Turbin, 1995; McFarlane, Bellissimo & Norman, 1995).

## The present study

Several studies support the idea that unchosen solitude impairs adults' and adolescents' mental and social health. On the other hand, many studies highlight that high levels of self-esteem relate to good mental health and social functioning. We thus postulate that self-esteem could be a moderator of the effects of not-self-determined motivation for solitude on individual mental and social health issues (cf. Cutrona, 1982; Vanhalst, Luyckx, Scholte, Engels & Goossens, 2013). We explore this in adolescents by considering issues such as anxiety, depression, and hopelessness because most researchers point out that these feelings and states strongly affect the personal and social development of adolescents (e.g., Goossens, 2006; Goswick & Jones, 1981, 1982; Heinrich & Gullone, 2006; Lasgaard, Goossens & Elklit, 2011; McMillan, Gilbody, Beresford & Neilly, 2007), their feelings of solitude, and their family and peer social connections because loneliness is related to the subjective quality of social relationships and perceived social acceptance (Asher & Paquette, 2003) and because self-esteem is likely to impact these issues that are
relevant for the development of both good relationships and a positive identity (Cutrona, 1982; Galanaki, 2013; Gazelle & Druhen, 2009; Goswick & Jones, 1982; La Greca & Moore, 2005; Vanhalst, Luyckx, Scholte, Engels & Goossens, 2013).

We therefore hypothesize that (1) not-self-determined solitude increases levels of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and hopelessness and decreases connections to family and peers, (2) self-esteem decreases levels of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and hopelessness and increases connections to family and peers, and (3) the level of self-esteem reduces the deleterious effects hypothesized for not-self-determined solitude.

## METHOD

### Participants

We recruited the participants in collaboration with student investigators who approached them first. We thus invited high school students in Grades 10 and 11 to participate in the study. After distribution of consent forms and agreement of the participants and their parents, we first gave them oral information about the study and then asked them to complete the consent form before receiving, a few days later, a booklet of questionnaires. They were not paid or compensated for their participation. The high school students answered the questionnaires in their classrooms in the (distant) presence of the person in charge of administering it. Once the questionnaires were completed, we asked the students to express their feelings or ask any questions about the study. Finally, we asked them not to hesitate to contact us if they wished to discuss something in private. Eighty participants agreed to take part in the study and submitted fully usable questionnaires. Among the participants, girls ranged in age from 15 to 17 years (N = 47, M = 15.6, SD = 0.71) and boys from 15 to 18 years (N = 33, M = 15.8, SD = 0.75).

### Materials

**Self-esteem.** We assessed the participants' global self-esteem using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965, French version: Vallières & Vallerand, 1990), a 10-item measure to be completed by indicating one's degree of agreement using a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = *Strongly disagree* to 4 = *Strongly agree*. The higher the score, the better the self-esteem, and a score below 30 corresponds to low self-esteem (cf. Chabrol et al., 2004; Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002). The RSE is the most often used measure in studies of self-esteem and in studies of mental and physical health in adolescents (Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002). Its reliability and validity in adolescents are satisfactory (cf. Chabrol et al., 2004).

**Motivation for solitude.** We assessed the participants' motivation for solitude using the Motivation for Solitude Scale-Short Form (MSS-SF; Thomas & Azmitia, 2019, French version: authors, in revision), a 14-item self-assessment scale based on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = *Not at all important* to 4 = *Very important*. The MSS-SF assesses an individual's self-determined solitude (SDS, associated with self-selected behaviors and individual autonomy) and not-self-determined solitude (NSDS, associated with suffered isolation). The higher the score on a dimension, the greater this dimension is at stake.

**Anxiety and depression.** We assessed the participants' symptoms of anxiety and depressive disorders using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale (HAD; Zigmond & Snaith, 1983; see also Bjelland, Dahl, Haug & Neckelmann, 2002), a scale that consists of 14 items scored from 0 = *never/not at all* to 3 = *yes/very often*, some of which are reverse scored. Seven items score for the anxiety dimension and seven for the depression dimension. The score is the sum of the responses for each of the two dimensions. The higher the score on the anxiety and/or depression

items, the greater the level of anxiety and/or depression. For each dimension, a score of 11 or more represents a clinical score. A score between 8 and 10 is a borderline score.

**Hopelessness.** We assessed the participants' feelings of hopelessness using the Beck Hopelessness scale (Beck, Weissman, Lester & Trexler, 1974; French version: Bouvard, Charles, Guérin, Aimard & Cottraux, 1992), a scale that includes 20 items scored from 0 (not pessimistic answers) to 1 (pessimistic answers) and that measures attitudes and perceptions about the future, particularly negative feelings about the future, loss of motivation, and pessimistic expectations. The score is the sum of the answers, and the higher the score, the more the participants are experiencing hopelessness. The psychometric qualities of this scale are satisfactory: Cronbach's alpha is 0.88 for non-psychiatric patients (Steed, 2001). The clinical cutoff is set at 9 out of 20 and is correlated with suicidal risk and suicide attempts (Beck, Steer, Kovacs & Garrison, 1985; McMillan, Gilbody, Beresford & Neilly, 2007).

**Feeling of loneliness.** We used two additional items to explore the frequency with which the participants experience feelings of loneliness ("In the past week, have you felt lonely?" and "Do you often feel lonely?"). The choices of answers to these two items ranged from 0 = *Never* to 3 = *Very often*. The score is the sum of the answers; the higher the score, the more the participants are reporting loneliness.

**Social connection.** We assessed the participants' level of social connection through two dimensions – Family (e.g., "in my family...," "the climate in my family is relaxed" or "I like to talk with my father or mother") and Peers (e.g., "with young people my age...," "I often feel rejected" or "I can give my opinion, like the others") – of the *Echelle d'Affiliation Contextuelle pour Adolescents* (EACA; Contextual Connection Scale for Adolescents, Cartierre, Demerval & Coulon, 2009). These dimensions each consist of six items associated with four-point scales ranging from 0 = *no* to 3 = *yes*. The score per dimension is the sum of the responses to the corresponding items. The higher the score, the better the quality of transactions with the target context.

### Analyses

Statistical analyses were conducted using Jamovi 2.2.5. The criterion for statistical significance was set at *p* ≤ 0.05. After reviewing the data, we followed a specific data analysis plan including, first, a descriptive analysis of the variables (M and SD) and an analysis of the correlations (Pearson's *r*) between the observed scores; second, a series of simple linear regressions to examine the separate effects of NSDS and self-esteem on the health outcomes considered (i.e., anxiety, depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and connection to family and peers); and third, a moderation analysis to test the hypothesized moderating effect of self-esteem on the links between NSDS and the outcomes.

## RESULTS

### Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

The observed scores for the factors considered are 27.5 (SD = 6.4) for self-esteem, a score that is slightly below the average self-esteem score (Chabrol et al., 2004; Vallières & Vallerand, 1990), and 11.4 (SD = 4.4) for NSDS.

The scores and means of the health and social outcomes are presented in Table 1, along with the correlations between them. Table 1 shows that the level of the participants' anxiety is a clinical score (Bjelland, Dahl, Haug & Neckelmann, 2002) and that the health outcomes correlate, except for, on the one hand, connection to the family and, on the other hand, anxiety, hopelessness, and connection to peers.
relevant for the development of both good relationships and a positive identity (Cutrona, 1982; Galanaki, 2013; Gazelle & Druhen, 2009; Goswick & Jones, 1982; La Greca & Moore, 2005; Vanhalst, Luyckx, Scholte, Engels & Goossens, 2013).

We therefore hypothesize that (1) not-self-determined solitude increases levels of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and hopelessness and decreases connections to family and peers, (2) self-esteem decreases levels of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and hopelessness and increases connections to family and peers, and (3) the level of self-esteem reduces the deleterious effects hypothesized for not-self-determined solitude.

## METHOD

### Participants

We recruited the participants in collaboration with student investigators who approached them first. We thus invited high school students in Grades 10 and 11 to participate in the study. After distribution of consent forms and agreement of the participants and their parents, we first gave them oral information about the study and then asked them to complete the consent form before receiving, a few days later, a booklet of questionnaires. They were not paid or compensated for their participation. The high school students answered the questionnaires in their classrooms in the (distant) presence of the person in charge of administering it. Once the questionnaires were completed, we asked the students to express their feelings or ask any questions about the study. Finally, we asked them not to hesitate to contact us if they wished to discuss something in private. Eighty participants agreed to take part in the study and submitted fully usable questionnaires. Among the participants, girls ranged in age from 15 to 17 years (N = 47, M = 15.6, SD = 0.71) and boys from 15 to 18 years (N = 33, M = 15.8, SD = 0.75).

### Materials

**Self-esteem.** We assessed the participants' global self-esteem using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965, French version: Vallières & Vallerand, 1990), a 10-item measure to be completed by indicating one's degree of agreement using a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = *Strongly disagree* to 4 = *Strongly agree*. The higher the score, the better the self-esteem, and a score below 30 corresponds to low self-esteem (cf. Chabrol et al., 2004; Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002). The RSE is the most often used measure in studies of self-esteem and in studies of mental and physical health in adolescents (Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002). Its reliability and validity in adolescents are satisfactory (cf. Chabrol et al., 2004).

**Motivation for solitude.** We assessed the participants' motivation for solitude using the Motivation for Solitude Scale-Short Form (MSS-SF; Thomas & Azmitia, 2019, French version: authors, in revision), a 14-item self-assessment scale based on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = *Not at all important* to 4 = *Very important*. The MSS-SF assesses an individual's self-determined solitude (SDS, associated with self-selected behaviors and individual autonomy) and not-self-determined solitude (NSDS, associated with suffered isolation). The higher the score on a dimension, the greater this dimension is at stake.

**Anxiety and depression.** We assessed the participants' symptoms of anxiety and depressive disorders using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale (HAD; Zigmond & Snaith, 1983; see also Bjelland, Dahl, Haug & Neckelmann, 2002), a scale that consists of 14 items scored from 0 = *never/not at all* to 3 = *yes/very often*, some of which are reverse scored. Seven items score for the anxiety dimension and seven for the depression dimension. The score is the sum of the responses for each of the two dimensions. The higher the score on the anxiety and/or depression

items, the greater the level of anxiety and/or depression. For each dimension, a score of 11 or more represents a clinical score. A score between 8 and 10 is a borderline score.

**Hopelessness.** We assessed the participants' feelings of hopelessness using the Beck Hopelessness scale (Beck, Weissman, Lester & Trexler, 1974; French version: Bouvard, Charles, Guérin, Aimard & Cottraux, 1992), a scale that includes 20 items scored from 0 (not pessimistic answers) to 1 (pessimistic answers) and that measures attitudes and perceptions about the future, particularly negative feelings about the future, loss of motivation, and pessimistic expectations. The score is the sum of the answers, and the higher the score, the more the participants are experiencing hopelessness. The psychometric qualities of this scale are satisfactory: Cronbach's alpha is 0.88 for non-psychiatric patients (Steed, 2001). The clinical cutoff is set at 9 out of 20 and is correlated with suicidal risk and suicide attempts (Beck, Steer, Kovacs & Garrison, 1985; McMillan, Gilbody, Beresford & Neilly, 2007).

**Feeling of loneliness.** We used two additional items to explore the frequency with which the participants experience feelings of loneliness ("In the past week, have you felt lonely?" and "Do you often feel lonely?"). The choices of answers to these two items ranged from 0 = *Never* to 3 = *Very often*. The score is the sum of the answers; the higher the score, the more the participants are reporting loneliness.

**Social connection.** We assessed the participants' level of social connection through two dimensions – Family (e.g., "in my family..." "the climate in my family is relaxed" or "I like to talk with my father or mother") and Peers (e.g., "with young people my age..." "I often feel rejected" or "I can give my opinion, like the others") – of the *Echelle d'Affiliation Contextuelle pour Adolescents* (EACA; Contextual Connection Scale for Adolescents, Cartierre, Demerval & Coulon, 2009). These dimensions each consist of six items associated with four-point scales ranging from 0 = *no* to 3 = *yes*. The score per dimension is the sum of the responses to the corresponding items. The higher the score, the better the quality of transactions with the target context.

### Analyses

Statistical analyses were conducted using Jamovi 2.2.5. The criterion for statistical significance was set at *p* ≤ 0.05. After reviewing the data, we followed a specific data analysis plan including, first, a descriptive analysis of the variables (*M* and *SD*) and an analysis of the correlations (Pearson's *r*) between the observed scores; second, a series of simple linear regressions to examine the separate effects of NSDS and self-esteem on the health outcomes considered (i.e., anxiety, depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and connection to family and peers); and third, a moderation analysis to test the hypothesized moderating effect of self-esteem on the links between NSDS and the outcomes.

## RESULTS

### Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

The observed scores for the factors considered are 27.5 (*SD* = 6.4) for self-esteem, a score that is slightly below the average self-esteem score (Chabrol et al., 2004; Vallières & Vallerand, 1990), and 11.4 (*SD* = 4.4) for NSDS.

The scores and means of the health and social outcomes are presented in Table 1, along with the correlations between them. Table 1 shows that the level of the participants' anxiety is a clinical score (Bjelland, Dahl, Haug & Neckelmann, 2002) and that the health outcomes correlate, except for, on the one hand, connection to the family and, on the other hand, anxiety, hopelessness, and connection to peers.
<table><caption>Table 1. Scores (M, SD) and correlations (Pearson's r and significance) between the adolescents' health and social outcomes</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">M (SD)</th><th colspan="6">Correlations (significance)</th></tr><tr><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>6</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. Anxiety</td><td>10.9 (4.1)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>-0.173 (0.125)</td><td>-0.417 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>2. Depression</td><td>5.8 (3.2)</td><td>0.36 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>0.355 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>0.579 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>-0.316 (0.004)</td><td>-0.403 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>3. Hopelessness</td><td>5.8 (4.2)</td><td></td><td>0.533 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>0.498 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>-0.181 (0.108)</td><td>-0.367 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>4. Feeling of loneliness</td><td>2.2 (1.8)</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.516 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>-0.260 (0.02)</td><td>-0.596 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>5. Connection to family</td><td>13.2 (4.0)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>0.132 (0.244)</td></tr><tr><td>6. Connection to peers</td><td>12.2 (3.7)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

## Analyses of the effects of NSDS and self-esteem on the measures

We tested the effects of NSDS and self-esteem on health and social issues (Table 2). All effects of NSDS are significant: The higher the scores on NSDS, the higher the scores for anxiety, depression, hopelessness, and feelings of solitude, and the lower the scores for social connection (both to the family and to peers). All effects of self-esteem on health and social issues reach significance too but, as expected, in the opposite direction to the effects of NSDS.

## Analysis of the moderating role of self-esteem

We tested the moderating influence of self-esteem on the effects of NSDS on the health outcomes considered. Even though the level of self-esteem positively influences the level of anxiety, it does not moderate the relation between NSDS and that anxiety; the interaction does not reach significance, *z* = 0.683, *p* = 0.494. The same result is true for the score for feelings of solitude (*z* = -0.239, *p* = 0.811) and the score for connection to the family (*z* = -1.231, *p* = 0.218).

On the other hand, self-esteem moderates the relation between NSDS and depression, *z* = -1.984, *p* = 0.047. More precisely, when one considers the level of self-esteem, NSDS still only increases the level of depression of the participants with low self-esteem (i.e., scores below the mean score minus one standard

deviation); when self-esteem is average or high (i.e., scores below the mean score plus one standard deviation), this effect is no longer significant (Table 3).

Self-esteem has the same moderating effect on the relationship between NSDS and hopelessness, *z* = -2.691, *p* = 0.007. Again, except when low, the level of self-esteem moderates this relationship whether it is average or high (Table 4). Finally, self-esteem tends to moderate the relation between NSDS and connection to peers, *z* = 192, *p* = 0.055 (Table 5).

## DISCUSSION

We postulated that the level of self-esteem would moderate the effect of not-self-determined solitude on mental and social health issues. This hypothesis is partially confirmed. It is the case for depression and hopelessness and it tends also to be true for connection to peers. Our results thus suggest that for an adolescent with average or high self-esteem, the loneliness generated by the perceived regard of others or the fear of others (i.e., not-self-determined solitude) no longer has as much of an effect on her or his experience of depressive symptoms and the quality of her or his transactions with the context of peers (tendency). These findings emphasize the importance of testing the adolescents' level of self-esteem and helping them to develop good self-esteem.

At this point, a more precise extension of the present work should be envisaged. Indeed, a potential limitation of the present study is that we have considered global self-esteem as measured by Rosenberg (1979), yet self-esteem can develop differently depending on the domain: school, sports, etc. (e.g., Harter, 2006; Harter & Monsour, 1992). Even though, according to Orth and Robins (2014), the vulnerability effect of low self-esteem is

<table><caption>Table 2. Effects of not-self-determined solitude and self-esteem on adolescents' anxiety, depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and connection to family and to peers</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="3">Not-self-determined<br>solitude</th><th colspan="3">Self-esteem</th></tr><tr><th>R<sup>2</sup></th><th>t</th><th>p</th><th>R<sup>2</sup></th><th>t</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Anxiety</td><td>0.135</td><td>3.49</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.266</td><td>-5.32</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Depression</td><td>0.201</td><td>4.43</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.400</td><td>-7.22</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Hopelessness</td><td>0.231</td><td>4.59</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.452</td><td>-8.02</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Feeling of loneliness</td><td>0.395</td><td>7.13</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.444</td><td>-7.89</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Connection to the<br>family</td><td>0.049</td><td>-2.02</td><td>0.047</td><td>0.157</td><td>3.81</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Connection to peers</td><td>0.526</td><td>-9.3</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.213</td><td>4.6</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 3. Effect of not-self-determined solitude on adolescents' depression at low, average, and high levels of self-esteem</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Estimate</th><th>SE</th><th>z</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Low self-esteem (-1 SD)</td><td>0.1743</td><td>0.0695</td><td>2.507</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>Average self-esteem</td><td>0.0640</td><td>0.0674</td><td>0.950</td><td>0.342</td></tr><tr><td>High self-esteem (+1 SD)</td><td>-0.0463</td><td>0.1029</td><td>-0.450</td><td>0.653</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 1. Scores (M, SD) and correlations (Pearson's r and significance) between the adolescents' health and social outcomes</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">M (SD)</th><th colspan="6">Correlations (significance)</th></tr><tr><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>6</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. Anxiety</td><td>10.9 (4.1)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>-0.173 (0.125)</td><td>-0.417 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>2. Depression</td><td>5.8 (3.2)</td><td>0.36 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>0.355 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>0.579 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>-0.316 (0.004)</td><td>-0.403 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>3. Hopelessness</td><td>5.8 (4.2)</td><td></td><td>0.533 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>0.498 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>-0.181 (0.108)</td><td>-0.367 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>4. Feeling of loneliness</td><td>2.2 (1.8)</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.516 (&lt;0.001)</td><td>-0.260 (0.02)</td><td>-0.596 (&lt;0.001)</td></tr><tr><td>5. Connection to family</td><td>13.2 (4.0)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>0.132 (0.244)</td></tr><tr><td>6. Connection to peers</td><td>12.2 (3.7)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

## Analyses of the effects of NSDS and self-esteem on the measures

We tested the effects of NSDS and self-esteem on health and social issues (Table 2). All effects of NSDS are significant: The higher the scores on NSDS, the higher the scores for anxiety, depression, hopelessness, and feelings of solitude, and the lower the scores for social connection (both to the family and to peers). All effects of self-esteem on health and social issues reach significance too but, as expected, in the opposite direction to the effects of NSDS.

## Analysis of the moderating role of self-esteem

We tested the moderating influence of self-esteem on the effects of NSDS on the health outcomes considered. Even though the level of self-esteem positively influences the level of anxiety, it does not moderate the relation between NSDS and that anxiety; the interaction does not reach significance, *z* = 0.683, *p* = 0.494. The same result is true for the score for feelings of solitude (*z* = -0.239, *p* = 0.811) and the score for connection to the family (*z* = -1.231, *p* = 0.218).

On the other hand, self-esteem moderates the relation between NSDS and depression, *z* = -1.984, *p* = 0.047. More precisely, when one considers the level of self-esteem, NSDS still only increases the level of depression of the participants with low self-esteem (i.e., scores below the mean score minus one standard

deviation); when self-esteem is average or high (i.e., scores below the mean score plus one standard deviation), this effect is no longer significant (Table 3).

Self-esteem has the same moderating effect on the relationship between NSDS and hopelessness, *z* = -2.691, *p* = 0.007. Again, except when low, the level of self-esteem moderates this relationship whether it is average or high (Table 4). Finally, self-esteem tends to moderate the relation between NSDS and connection to peers, *z* = 192, *p* = 0.055 (Table 5).

## DISCUSSION

We postulated that the level of self-esteem would moderate the effect of not-self-determined solitude on mental and social health issues. This hypothesis is partially confirmed. It is the case for depression and hopelessness and it tends also to be true for connection to peers. Our results thus suggest that for an adolescent with average or high self-esteem, the loneliness generated by the perceived regard of others or the fear of others (i.e., not-self-determined solitude) no longer has as much of an effect on her or his experience of depressive symptoms and the quality of her or his transactions with the context of peers (tendency). These findings emphasize the importance of testing the adolescents' level of self-esteem and helping them to develop good self-esteem.

At this point, a more precise extension of the present work should be envisaged. Indeed, a potential limitation of the present study is that we have considered global self-esteem as measured by Rosenberg (1979), yet self-esteem can develop differently depending on the domain: school, sports, etc. (e.g., Harter, 2006; Harter & Monsour, 1992). Even though, according to Orth and Robins (2014), the vulnerability effect of low self-esteem is

<table><caption>Table 2. Effects of not-self-determined solitude and self-esteem on adolescents' anxiety, depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and connection to family and to peers</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="3">Not-self-determined<br>solitude</th><th colspan="3">Self-esteem</th></tr><tr><th>R<sup>2</sup></th><th>t</th><th>p</th><th>R<sup>2</sup></th><th>t</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Anxiety</td><td>0.135</td><td>3.49</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.266</td><td>-5.32</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Depression</td><td>0.201</td><td>4.43</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.400</td><td>-7.22</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Hopelessness</td><td>0.231</td><td>4.59</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.452</td><td>-8.02</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Feeling of loneliness</td><td>0.395</td><td>7.13</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.444</td><td>-7.89</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Connection to the<br>family</td><td>0.049</td><td>-2.02</td><td>0.047</td><td>0.157</td><td>3.81</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Connection to peers</td><td>0.526</td><td>-9.3</td><td>&lt;0.001</td><td>0.213</td><td>4.6</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 3. Effect of not-self-determined solitude on adolescents' depression at low, average, and high levels of self-esteem</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Estimate</th><th>SE</th><th>z</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Low self-esteem (-1 SD)</td><td>0.1743</td><td>0.0695</td><td>2.507</td><td>0.012</td></tr><tr><td>Average self-esteem</td><td>0.0640</td><td>0.0674</td><td>0.950</td><td>0.342</td></tr><tr><td>High self-esteem (+1 SD)</td><td>-0.0463</td><td>0.1029</td><td>-0.450</td><td>0.653</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 4. Effect of not-self-determined solitude on adolescents' hopelessness at low, average, and high levels of self-esteem</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Estimate</th><th>SE</th><th>z</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Low self-esteem (-1 SD)</td><td>0.2390</td><td>0.0869</td><td>2.751</td><td>0.006</td></tr><tr><td>Average self-esteem</td><td>0.0556</td><td>0.0838</td><td>0.664</td><td>0.507</td></tr><tr><td>High self-esteem (+1 SD)</td><td>-0.1278</td><td>0.1272</td><td>-1.004</td><td>0.315</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 5. Effect of not-self-determined solitude on adolescents' connection to their peers at low, average, and high levels of self-esteem</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Estimate</th><th>SE</th><th>z</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Low self-esteem (-1 SD)</td><td>-0.623</td><td>0.0716</td><td>-8.70</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Average self-esteem</td><td>-0.513</td><td>0.0699</td><td>-7.33</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>High self-esteem (+1 SD)</td><td>-0.402</td><td>0.1069</td><td>-3.76</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr></tbody></table>

driven, for the most part, by general evaluations of worth (that is, global self-esteem) rather than by domain-specific self-esteem, we suggest, for an adolescent population, examining the effect of school-based self-esteem versus out-of-school activity-based self-esteem on the impact of NSDS on health measures as well as social and academic performance. This could perhaps make it possible to get closer to the adolescents' experiences, feelings, and behaviors.

Another line of inquiry could be to test jointly self-esteem and self-control, the feeling of being in control in situations we face. The present study did not consider this self-control and, indeed, self-control may matter. People with high self-esteem would have higher aspirations (Baumgardner, 1990; Campbell, 1990) and would persist more in dealing with failure (Shrauger & Sorman, 1977), and they might experience more clarity, self-connection, and self-efficacy (Klussman, Curtin, Langer & Nichols, 2022; Schlegel & Hicks, 2011; Sheldon, 2014). Because self-control increases with a favorable self-view, it may be that what is at stake in our results is specifically due to this self-control: Self-control may lessen the risk of being engaged in problematic social interactions through increased awareness of how to act, what to say, etc., and could help one not to feel negatively judged by others (e.g., Stavrova, Ren & Pronk, 2022). We thus suggest exploring the links between, on the one hand, adolescents' self-esteem, self-control, self-efficacy, and self-connection and, on the other hand, health and social outcomes to complete the portrait that we initiate here.

Another issue that emerges is the lack of a moderating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between NSDS and anxiety level. This hypothesis is indeed not validated. An explanation may be that the measure of anxiety used here is general, and the mean score is surprisingly high. Disentangling general anxiety and social anxiety (and anxiety related to a performance versus to social interactions) might be of interest, for example by using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (Liebowitz, 1987) or a version adapted to adolescents (La Greca, 1999) in a future study.

Furthermore, different mediating mechanisms could be involved for anxiety and depression (e.g., Wenze, Gunthert &

German, 2012). Depression is more related to intrapersonal aspects of the self, whereas anxiety may be more closely related to interpersonal aspects of the self, even if one considers general anxiety (Mor & Winquist, 2002; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Indeed, Mlawer, Hubbard, Bookhout, and Moore (2021) observe the same results as ours and discuss them in terms of different focuses for anxiety and depression: anxiety resulting from prospective rumination of future events and depression resulting from retrospective rumination of past experiences. These different mechanisms involved in the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety versus depression could thus be a potential avenue for future research too, perhaps in addition to a measure of rumination tendency and forms and an assessment of the type of emotion regulation.

In any case, self-view is a particularly salient factor in models of cognitive vulnerability (e.g., van Tuijl, de Jong, Sportel, de Hullu & Nauta, 2014), and its contribution in the relationship between NSDS and, at least, depression in adolescents appears to be a very relevant element to identify. Indeed, researchers often show a negative relationship between the level of self-esteem and the level of depression or stress (Andrews, Lewinsohn, Hops & Roberts, 1993; Brage, Campbell-Grossman & Dunkel, 1995; Chabrol et al., 2004; Dervishi, Peposhi & Ibrahimi, 2020; Mlawer, Hubbard, Bookhout & Moore, 2021; Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002), and the level of self-esteem may have an even more important role in minimizing the deleterious effects of risk factors on health.

Depending on their level of self-esteem, adolescents seem to differently value others' judgments. Those with high self-esteem appear thus to place less importance on the judgment of others – and in this case, negative judgments and rejection – as well as they seem to be more comfortable projecting themselves into the future and sharing good quality interactions with their peers. Self-esteem could therefore help reduce some of the judgment and evaluation biases (e.g., Swann, Chang-Schneider & Larsen McClarty, 2007; Van Duüren & Di Giacomo, 1997; vanDellen, Campbell, Hoyle & Bradfield, 2010).

Indeed, in the motivation for solitude scale, the items assessing NSDS refer, in particular, to individuals' feelings of being rejected by others or their uneasiness related to interacting with others. This alienation corresponds to the subjective point of view of the adolescent and thus refers to her or his interpretation of the behaviors of others toward her or him. One can imagine that self-esteem of good quality reduces a cognitive bias of negativity that would lead to attributing significant weight to the negative aspects perceived in the environment and to the evaluation of others' points of view as being necessarily negative, which would have as a consequence for the individual concerned the generation of ruminations and health disorders, including depressive symptoms (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer & Vohs, 2001; Laval, Dardier, Laval & Laura, 2016). Based on these data, it would be interesting to conduct future studies to clarify the role of self-esteem in the relationship between negativity bias, intention inferences to others, perspective taking, social modeling, experience of loneliness, ostracism, communication skills, and their effects on psychological well-being.

To go beyond the limitations of this study, we propose a larger research design that would consider several points. The small
<table><caption>Table 4. Effect of not-self-determined solitude on adolescents' hopelessness at low, average, and high levels of self-esteem</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Estimate</th><th>SE</th><th>z</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Low self-esteem (-1 SD)</td><td>0.2390</td><td>0.0869</td><td>2.751</td><td>0.006</td></tr><tr><td>Average self-esteem</td><td>0.0556</td><td>0.0838</td><td>0.664</td><td>0.507</td></tr><tr><td>High self-esteem (+1 SD)</td><td>-0.1278</td><td>0.1272</td><td>-1.004</td><td>0.315</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 5. Effect of not-self-determined solitude on adolescents' connection to their peers at low, average, and high levels of self-esteem</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Estimate</th><th>SE</th><th>z</th><th>p</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Low self-esteem (-1 SD)</td><td>-0.623</td><td>0.0716</td><td>-8.70</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>Average self-esteem</td><td>-0.513</td><td>0.0699</td><td>-7.33</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr><tr><td>High self-esteem (+1 SD)</td><td>-0.402</td><td>0.1069</td><td>-3.76</td><td>&lt;0.001</td></tr></tbody></table>

driven, for the most part, by general evaluations of worth (that is, global self-esteem) rather than by domain-specific self-esteem, we suggest, for an adolescent population, examining the effect of school-based self-esteem versus out-of-school activity-based self-esteem on the impact of NSDS on health measures as well as social and academic performance. This could perhaps make it possible to get closer to the adolescents' experiences, feelings, and behaviors.

Another line of inquiry could be to test jointly self-esteem and self-control, the feeling of being in control in situations we face. The present study did not consider this self-control and, indeed, self-control may matter. People with high self-esteem would have higher aspirations (Baumgardner, 1990; Campbell, 1990) and would persist more in dealing with failure (Shrauger & Sorman, 1977), and they might experience more clarity, self-connection, and self-efficacy (Klussman, Curtin, Langer & Nichols, 2022; Schlegel & Hicks, 2011; Sheldon, 2014). Because self-control increases with a favorable self-view, it may be that what is at stake in our results is specifically due to this self-control: Self-control may lessen the risk of being engaged in problematic social interactions through increased awareness of how to act, what to say, etc., and could help one not to feel negatively judged by others (e.g., Stavrova, Ren & Pronk, 2022). We thus suggest exploring the links between, on the one hand, adolescents' self-esteem, self-control, self-efficacy, and self-connection and, on the other hand, health and social outcomes to complete the portrait that we initiate here.

Another issue that emerges is the lack of a moderating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between NSDS and anxiety level. This hypothesis is indeed not validated. An explanation may be that the measure of anxiety used here is general, and the mean score is surprisingly high. Disentangling general anxiety and social anxiety (and anxiety related to a performance versus to social interactions) might be of interest, for example by using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (Liebowitz, 1987) or a version adapted to adolescents (La Greca, 1999) in a future study.

Furthermore, different mediating mechanisms could be involved for anxiety and depression (e.g., Wenze, Gunthert &

German, 2012). Depression is more related to intrapersonal aspects of the self, whereas anxiety may be more closely related to interpersonal aspects of the self, even if one considers general anxiety (Mor & Winquist, 2002; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Indeed, Mlawer, Hubbard, Bookhout, and Moore (2021) observe the same results as ours and discuss them in terms of different focuses for anxiety and depression: anxiety resulting from prospective rumination of future events and depression resulting from retrospective rumination of past experiences. These different mechanisms involved in the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety versus depression could thus be a potential avenue for future research too, perhaps in addition to a measure of rumination tendency and forms and an assessment of the type of emotion regulation.

In any case, self-view is a particularly salient factor in models of cognitive vulnerability (e.g., van Tuijl, de Jong, Sportel, de Hullu & Nauta, 2014), and its contribution in the relationship between NSDS and, at least, depression in adolescents appears to be a very relevant element to identify. Indeed, researchers often show a negative relationship between the level of self-esteem and the level of depression or stress (Andrews, Lewinsohn, Hops & Roberts, 1993; Brage, Campbell-Grossman & Dunkel, 1995; Chabrol et al., 2004; Dervishi, Peposhi & Ibrahimi, 2020; Mlawer, Hubbard, Bookhout & Moore, 2021; Winters, Myers & Proud, 2002), and the level of self-esteem may have an even more important role in minimizing the deleterious effects of risk factors on health.

Depending on their level of self-esteem, adolescents seem to differently value others' judgments. Those with high self-esteem appear thus to place less importance on the judgment of others – and in this case, negative judgments and rejection – as well as they seem to be more comfortable projecting themselves into the future and sharing good quality interactions with their peers. Self-esteem could therefore help reduce some of the judgment and evaluation biases (e.g., Swann, Chang-Schneider & Larsen McClarty, 2007; Van Duüren & Di Giacomo, 1997; vanDellen, Campbell, Hoyle & Bradfield, 2010).

Indeed, in the motivation for solitude scale, the items assessing NSDS refer, in particular, to individuals' feelings of being rejected by others or their uneasiness related to interacting with others. This alienation corresponds to the subjective point of view of the adolescent and thus refers to her or his interpretation of the behaviors of others toward her or him. One can imagine that self-esteem of good quality reduces a cognitive bias of negativity that would lead to attributing significant weight to the negative aspects perceived in the environment and to the evaluation of others' points of view as being necessarily negative, which would have as a consequence for the individual concerned the generation of ruminations and health disorders, including depressive symptoms (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer & Vohs, 2001; Laval, Dardier, Laval & Laura, 2016). Based on these data, it would be interesting to conduct future studies to clarify the role of self-esteem in the relationship between negativity bias, intention inferences to others, perspective taking, social modeling, experience of loneliness, ostracism, communication skills, and their effects on psychological well-being.

To go beyond the limitations of this study, we propose a larger research design that would consider several points. The small
number of participants is the first limitation, and it would be
appropriate to replicate such a study by increasing the number of
(male and female) adolescents. In particular, this would make it
possible to test for gender differences in these effects of self-
esteen on health and social outcomes (e.g., Kling, Hyde, Showers
& Buswell, 1999; Reid, 2004). We also mentioned the potential
interest in examining the effects of domain-specific self-esteem
instead of general self-esteem to capture at best what is at stake in
the adolescents' health outcomes relative to a specific context of
life. Furthermore, an additional limitation has been the use of a
two-item measure of loneliness. A future study could include a
measure such as the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for
Adults (SELSA; DiTommaso, Brannen & Best, 2004;
DiTommaso & Spinner, 1993) to highlight the solitude better and
to disentangle emotional and social solitude. Finally, we think that
identifying the role of adolescents' emotional competences or
difficulties in emotion regulation could be of interest.

From an applied point of view, we also encourage promoting
measures of self-esteem in adolescents as well as, because self-
esteen is variable in nature (Youngs, Rathge, Mullis &
Mullis, 1990), workshops, games, role playing or positive
stimulation and feedbacks, or other activities to develop and
strengthen it. As such, self-esteem has a positive effect on
psychological and social health outcomes; it also has, as our
results show, this positive effect even when other factors such as
unchosen solitude are not favorable to adolescents. Strengthening
self-esteem might therefore be particularly helpful in avoiding the
development of depressive symptoms (Dervishi, Peposhi &
Ibrahimi, 2020), possibly because perceiving oneself positively
might reduce the propensity to ruminate on past experiences
(Mlawer, Hubbard, Bookhout & Moore, 2021) through a sense of
being a "capable self" and having the strength and abilities to
handle current potentially harmful episodes (Heimpel, Elliot &
Wood, 2006; Jessor, Van Den Bos, Vanderryn Costa &
Turbin, 1995). In the same way, developing adolescents' self-
esteen could help them pay less attention to others' judgments
(mainly peers' judgments) and subjective norms (e.g., Sanderson,
Darley & Messinger, 2002) and better regulate their emotions
(Fernandes, Newton & Essau, 2022; Gomez, Quiñones-Camacho
& Davis, 2018) as well as increase their social, physical, and
academic performance (e.g., Chen, Sun & Wang, 2018;
Coudevylle, Ginis & Famose, 2008).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The author declares no conflict of interest.

ETHICAL APPROVAL

The procedure used in this study complies with the research
ethics standards. Information letters and consent forms were
collected.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available from
the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

REFERENCES

Andersson, L. (1998). Loneliness research and interventions: A review of the literature. *Aging and Mental Health, **2***, 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607869856506.

Andrews, J.A., Lewinsohn, P.M., Hops, H. & Roberts, R.E. (1993). Psychometric properties of scales for the measurement of psychosocial variables associated with depression in adolescence. *Psychological Reports*, **73**, 1019–1046. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.73.3.1019.

Aseltine, R.H., Gore, S. & Colten, M.E. (1994). Depression and the social developmental context of adolescence. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, **67***, 252–263. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.252.

Asher, S.R. & Paquette, J.A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. *Current Directions in Psychological Science, **12***, 75–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01233.

Baumeister, R.F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C. & Vohs, K.D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. *Review of General Psychology, **5***, 323–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323.

Baumeister, R.F., Campbell, J.D., Krueger, J.I. & Vohs, K.D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? *Psychological Science in the Public Interest, **4***, 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431.

Baumgardner, A.H. (1990). To know oneself is to like oneself: Self-certainty and self-affect. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, **58***, 1062–1072. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1062.

Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., Kovacs, M. & Garrison, B. (1985). Hopelessness and eventual suicide: A 10-year prospective study of patients hospitalized with suicidal ideation. *American Journal of Psychiatry, **142***, 559–563. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.142.5.559.

Beck, A.T., Weissman, A., Lester, D. & Trexler, L. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The hopelessness scale. *Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, **42***, 861–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037562.

Berndt, T. (1979). Developmental changes in conformity to peers and parents. *Developmental Psychology, **25***, 608–616. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.15.6.608.

Bjelland, I., Dahl, A.A., Haug, T.T. & Neckelmann, D. (2002). The validity of the hospital anxiety and depression scale. An updated literature review. *Journal of Psychosomatic Research, **52***, 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3999(01)00296-3.

Bolognini, M. & Prêteur, Y. (1998). *Estime de soi. Perspectives développementales [Self-esteem. Developmental perspectives]*. Genève: Delachaux et Niestlé.

Bossi, F., Gallucci, M. & Ricciardelli, P. (2018). How social exclusion modulates social information processing: A behavioural dissociation between facial expressions and gaze direction. *PLoS One, **13*, e0195100. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195100.

Bouvard, M., Charles, S., Guérin, J., Aimard, G. & Cottraux, J. (1992). Étude de l'échelle de désespoir de Beck. Validation et analyse factorielle [study of the hopelessness scale: Validation and factorial analysis]. *L'Encéphale, **18***, 237–240.

Brage, D., Campbell-Grossman, C. & Dunkel, J. (1995). Psychological correlates of adolescent depression. *Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, **8***, 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.1995.tb00547.x.

Campbell, J.D. (1990). Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, **59***, 538–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.3.538.

Cartierre, N., Demerval, R. & Coulon, N. (2009). Développement et validation préliminaire de l'échelle d'affiliation contextuelle pour adolescents (EACA) [Development and preliminary validation of the adolescent contextual connection scale]. *Revue Québécoise de Psychologie, **30***, 163–176.

Chabrol, H., Carlin, E., Michaud, C., Rey, A., Cassan, D., Juillot, M. et al. (2004). Étude de l'échelle d'estime de soi de Rosenberg dans un échantillon de lycéens [A study of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale in a sample of high-school students]. *Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de*
number of participants is the first limitation, and it would be
appropriate to replicate such a study by increasing the number of
(male and female) adolescents. In particular, this would make it
possible to test for gender differences in these effects of self-
esteen on health and social outcomes (e.g., Kling, Hyde, Showers
& Buswell, 1999; Reid, 2004). We also mentioned the potential
interest in examining the effects of domain-specific self-esteem
instead of general self-esteem to capture at best what is at stake in
the adolescents' health outcomes relative to a specific context of
life. Furthermore, an additional limitation has been the use of a
two-item measure of loneliness. A future study could include a
measure such as the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for
Adults (SELSA; DiTommaso, Brannen & Best, 2004;
DiTommaso & Spinner, 1993) to highlight the solitude better and
to disentangle emotional and social solitude. Finally, we think that
identifying the role of adolescents' emotional competences or
difficulties in emotion regulation could be of interest.

From an applied point of view, we also encourage promoting
measures of self-esteem in adolescents as well as, because self-
esteen is variable in nature (Youngs, Rathge, Mullis &
Mullis, 1990), workshops, games, role playing or positive
stimulation and feedbacks, or other activities to develop and
strengthen it. As such, self-esteem has a positive effect on
psychological and social health outcomes; it also has, as our
results show, this positive effect even when other factors such as
unchosen solitude are not favorable to adolescents. Strengthening
self-esteem might therefore be particularly helpful in avoiding the
development of depressive symptoms (Dervishi, Peposhi &
Ibrahimi, 2020), possibly because perceiving oneself positively
might reduce the propensity to ruminate on past experiences
(Mlawer, Hubbard, Bookhout & Moore, 2021) through a sense of
being a "capable self" and having the strength and abilities to
handle current potentially harmful episodes (Heimpel, Elliot &
Wood, 2006; Jessor, Van Den Bos, Vanderryn Costa &
Turbin, 1995). In the same way, developing adolescents' self-
esteen could help them pay less attention to others' judgments
(mainly peers' judgments) and subjective norms (e.g., Sanderson,
Darley & Messinger, 2002) and better regulate their emotions
(Fernandes, Newton & Essau, 2022; Gomez, Quiñones-Camacho
& Davis, 2018) as well as increase their social, physical, and
academic performance (e.g., Chen, Sun & Wang, 2018;
Coudevylle, Ginis & Famose, 2008).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The author declares no conflict of interest.

ETHICAL APPROVAL

The procedure used in this study complies with the research
ethics standards. Information letters and consent forms were
collected.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available from
the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

REFERENCES

Andersson, L. (1998). Loneliness research and interventions: A review of the literature. *Aging and Mental Health, **2***, 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607869856506.

Andrews, J.A., Lewinsohn, P.M., Hops, H. & Roberts, R.E. (1993). Psychometric properties of scales for the measurement of psychosocial variables associated with depression in adolescence. *Psychological Reports, **73***, 1019–1046. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.73.3.1019.

Aseltine, R.H., Gore, S. & Colten, M.E. (1994). Depression and the social developmental context of adolescence. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, **67***, 252–263. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.252.

Asher, S.R. & Paquette, J.A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. *Current Directions in Psychological Science, **12***, 75–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01233.

Baumeister, R.F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C. & Vohs, K.D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. *Review of General Psychology, **5***, 323–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323.

Baumeister, R.F., Campbell, J.D., Krueger, J.I. & Vohs, K.D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? *Psychological Science in the Public Interest, **4***, 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431.

Baumgardner, A.H. (1990). To know oneself is to like oneself: Self-certainty and self-affect. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, **58***, 1062–1072. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1062.

Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., Kovacs, M. & Garrison, B. (1985). Hopelessness and eventual suicide: A 10-year prospective study of patients hospitalized with suicidal ideation. *American Journal of Psychiatry, **142***, 559–563. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.142.5.559.

Beck, A.T., Weissman, A., Lester, D. & Trexler, L. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The hopelessness scale. *Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, **42***, 861–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037562.

Berndt, T. (1979). Developmental changes in conformity to peers and parents. *Developmental Psychology, **25***, 608–616. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.15.6.608.

Bjelland, I., Dahl, A.A., Haug, T.T. & Neckelmann, D. (2002). The validity of the hospital anxiety and depression scale. An updated literature review. *Journal of Psychosomatic Research, **52***, 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3999(01)00296-3.

Bolognini, M. & Prêteur, Y. (1998). *Estime de soi. Perspectives développementales [Self-esteem. Developmental perspectives]*. Genève: Delachaux et Niestlé.

Bossi, F., Gallucci, M. & Ricciardelli, P. (2018). How social exclusion modulates social information processing: A behavioural dissociation between facial expressions and gaze direction. *PLoS One, **13*, e0195100. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195100.

Bouvard, M., Charles, S., Guérin, J., Aimard, G. & Cottraux, J. (1992). Étude de l'échelle de désespoir de Beck. Validation et analyse factorielle [study of the hopelessness scale: Validation and factorial analysis]. *L'Encéphale, **18***, 237–240.

Brage, D., Campbell-Grossman, C. & Dunkel, J. (1995). Psychological correlates of adolescent depression. *Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, **8***, 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.1995.tb00547.x.

Campbell, J.D. (1990). Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, **59***, 538–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.3.538.

Cartierre, N., Demerval, R. & Coulon, N. (2009). Développement et validation préliminaire de l'échelle d'affiliation contextuelle pour adolescents (EACA) [Development and preliminary validation of the adolescent contextual connection scale]. *Revue Québécoise de Psychologie, **30***, 163–176.

Chabrol, H., Carlin, E., Michaud, C., Rey, A., Cassan, D., Juillot, M. et al. (2004). Étude de l'échelle d'estime de soi de Rosenberg dans un échantillon de lycéens [A study of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale in a sample of high-school students]. *Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de*
l'Adolescence, 52, 533-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2004.09.007.

Chen, Z., Sun, K. & Wang, K. (2018). Self-esteem, achievement goals, and self-handicapping in college physical education. *Psychological Reports, 121*, 690-704. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294117735333.

Cooper, K., Hards, E., Moltrecht, B., Reynolds, S., Shum, A., McElroy, E. et al. (2021). Loneliness, social relationships, and mental health in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. *Journal of Affective Disorders, 289*, 98-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.04.016.

Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. *Behavioral Science, 15*, 188-191. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830150212.

Coplan, R.J. & Bowker, J.C. (2014). All alone: Multiple perspectives on the study of solitude. In R.J. Coplan & J.C. Bowker (Eds.), *The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone* (pp. 3-13). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Coplan, R.J., Hipson, W.E. & Bowker, J.C. (2021). Social withdrawal and loneliness in adolescence: Examining the implications of too much and not enough solitude. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50*, 1219-1233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01365-0.

Coudevylle, G.R., Ginis, K.A.M. & Famose, J.-P. (2008). Determinants of self-handicapping strategies in sport and their effects on athletic performance. *Social Behavior and Personality, 36*, 391-398. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2008.36.3.391.

Cutrona, C.E. (1982). Transition to college: Loneliness and the process of social adjustment. In L.A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), *Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy* (pp. 291-309). New York: Wiley.

de Moor, E.L., Hutteman, R., Korrelboom, K. & Laceulle, O.M. (2019). Linking stressful experiences and psychological problems: The role of self-esteem. *Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10*, 914-923. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618795167.

Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). *Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior*. New York: Plenum Press.

Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. *Psychological Inquiry, 11*, 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01.

Dervishi, E., Peposhi, F. & Ibrahimi, S. (2020). Self-esteem in adolescents and its connection with stressful experiences. *Journal of Psychiatry and Psychology Research, 3*, 144-151.

Dishion, T.J., McCord, J. & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. *American Psychologist, 54*, 755-764. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.9.755.

DiTommaso, E., Brannen, C. & Best, L.A.L. (2004). The SELSA-S: Measurement and validity characteristics of the short version of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults. *Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64*, 99-119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403258450.

DiTommaso, E. & Spinner, B. (1993). The development and initial validation of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults (SELSA). *Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 14*, 127-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90182-3.

Dumont, M. & Provost, M.A. (1999). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28*, 343-363.

Ernst, J.M. & Cacioppo, J.T. (1999). Lonely hearts: Psychological perspectives on loneliness. *Applied and Preventive Psychology, 8*, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-1849(99)80008-0.

Fernandes, B., Newton, J. & Essau, C.A. (2022). The mediating effects of self-esteem on anxiety and emotion regulation. *Psychological Reports, 125*, 787-803. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294121996991.

Galanaki, E.P. (2013). Solitude in children and adolescents: A review of the literature. *Psychology and education. Special Issue: Loneliness and Solitude in Children and Adolescents, 50*, 79-88.

Gardner, M. & Steinberg, L. (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. *Developmental Psychology, 41*, 625-635. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625.

Gazelle, H. & Druhen, M.J. (2009). Anxious solitude and peer exclusion predict social helplessness, upset affect, and vagal regulation in response to behavioral rejection by a friend. *Developmental Psychology, 45*, 1077-1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016165.

Gomez, T., Quiñones-Camacho, L. & Davis, E. (2018). Building a sense of self: The link between emotion regulation and self-esteem in young adults. *UC Riverside Undergraduate Research Journal, 12*, 37-49. https://doi.org/10.5070/RJ5121039160.

Goossens, L. (2006). Emotion, affect, and loneliness in adolescence. In S. Jackson & L. Goossens (Eds.), *Handbook of adolescent development* (pp. 51-70). London: Psychology Press.

Goswick, R.A. & Jones, W.H. (1981). Loneliness, self-concept, and adjustment. *The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 107*, 237-240. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1981.9915228.

Goswick, R.A. & Jones, W.H. (1982). Components of loneliness during adolescence. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11*(5), 373-383. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01540375.

Hakulinen, C., Pulkki-Räback, L., Virtanen, M., Jokela, M., Kivimäki, M. & Elovainio, M. (2018). Social isolation and loneliness as risk factors for myocardial infarction, stroke and mortality: UK Biobank cohort study of 479054 men and women. *Heart, 104*, 1536-1542. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2017-312663.

Hall-Lande, J.A., Eisenberg, M.E., Christenson, S.L. & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2007). Social isolation, psychological health, and protective factors in adolescence. *Adolescence, 42*, 265-286.

Harter, S. (2006). Developmental and individual difference perspectives on self-esteem. In D.K. Mroczek & T.D. Little (Eds.), *Handbook of personality development* (pp. 311-334). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Harter, S. & Monsour, A. (1992). Development analysis of conflict caused by opposing attributes in the adolescent self-portrait. *Developmental Psychology, 28*, 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.251.

Heimpel, S.A., Elliot, A.J. & Wood, J.V. (2006). Basic personality dispositions, self-esteem, and personal goals: An approach-avoidance analysis. *Journal of Personality, 74*, 1293-1320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00410.x.

Heinrich, L.M. & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. *Clinical Psychology Review, 26*, 695-718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002.

Helfert, S. & Warschburger, P. (2011). A prospective study on the impact of peer and parental pressure on body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls and boys. *Body Image, 8*, 101-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.01.004.

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T., Baker, M., Harris, T. & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality. *Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10*, 227-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352.

Jafflin, K., Pfeiffer, C. & Bergman, M.M. (2019). Effects of self-esteem and stress on self-assessed health: A Swiss study from adolescence to early adulthood. *Quality of Life Research, 28*, 915-924. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-018-2059-1.

Jessor, R., Van Den Bos, J., Vanderryn, J., Costa, F.M. & Turbin, M.S. (1995). Protective factors in adolescent problem behavior: Moderator effects and developmental change. *Developmental Psychology, 31*, 923-933. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.6.923.

Jetten, J., Reicher, S.D., Haslam, S.A. & Cruwys, T. (2020). *Together apart: The psychology of COVID-19*. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kling, K.C., Hyde, J.S., Showers, C.J. & Buswell, B.N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis. *Psychological Bulletin, 125*, 470-500. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1999-05876-006.

Klussman, K., Curtin, N., Langer, J. & Nichols, A.L. (2022). The importance of awareness, acceptance, and alignment with the self: A framework for understanding self-connection. *Europe's Journal of Psychology, 18*, 120-131. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.3707.

La Greca, A.M. (1999). The social anxiety scales for children and adolescents. *The Behavior Therapist, 22*, 133-136.

La Greca, A.M. & Moore, H.H. (2005). Adolescent peer relations, friendships, and romantic relationships: Do they predict social anxiety
l'Adolescence, 52, 533-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2004.09.007.

Chen, Z., Sun, K. & Wang, K. (2018). Self-esteem, achievement goals, and self-handicapping in college physical education. *Psychological Reports, 121*, 690-704. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294117735333.

Cooper, K., Hards, E., Moltrecht, B., Reynolds, S., Shum, A., McElroy, E. et al. (2021). Loneliness, social relationships, and mental health in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. *Journal of Affective Disorders, 289*, 98-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.04.016.

Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. *Behavioral Science, 15*, 188-191. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830150212.

Coplan, R.J. & Bowker, J.C. (2014). All alone: Multiple perspectives on the study of solitude. In R.J. Coplan & J.C. Bowker (Eds.), *The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone* (pp. 3-13). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Coplan, R.J., Hipson, W.E. & Bowker, J.C. (2021). Social withdrawal and loneliness in adolescence: Examining the implications of too much and not enough solitude. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50*, 1219-1233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01365-0.

Coudevylle, G.R., Ginis, K.A.M. & Famose, J.-P. (2008). Determinants of self-handicapping strategies in sport and their effects on athletic performance. *Social Behavior and Personality, 36*, 391-398. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2008.36.3.391.

Cutrona, C.E. (1982). Transition to college: Loneliness and the process of social adjustment. In L.A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), *Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy* (pp. 291-309). New York: Wiley.

de Moor, E.L., Hutteman, R., Korrelboom, K. & Laceulle, O.M. (2019). Linking stressful experiences and psychological problems: The role of self-esteem. *Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10*, 914-923. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618795167.

Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). *Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior*. New York: Plenum Press.

Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. *Psychological Inquiry, 11*, 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01.

Dervishi, E., Peposhi, F. & Ibrahimi, S. (2020). Self-esteem in adolescents and its connection with stressful experiences. *Journal of Psychiatry and Psychology Research, 3*, 144-151.

Dishion, T.J., McCord, J. & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. *American Psychologist, 54*, 755-764. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.9.755.

DiTommaso, E., Brannen, C. & Best, L.A.L. (2004). The SELSA-S: Measurement and validity characteristics of the short version of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults. *Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64*, 99-119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403258450.

DiTommaso, E. & Spinner, B. (1993). The development and initial validation of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults (SELSA). *Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 14*, 127-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90182-3.

Dumont, M. & Provost, M.A. (1999). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28*, 343-363.

Ernst, J.M. & Cacioppo, J.T. (1999). Lonely hearts: Psychological perspectives on loneliness. *Applied and Preventive Psychology, 8*, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-1849(99)80008-0.

Fernandes, B., Newton, J. & Essau, C.A. (2022). The mediating effects of self-esteem on anxiety and emotion regulation. *Psychological Reports, 125*, 787-803. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294121996991.

Galanaki, E.P. (2013). Solitude in children and adolescents: A review of the literature. *Psychology and education. Special Issue: Loneliness and Solitude in Children and Adolescents, 50*, 79-88.

Gardner, M. & Steinberg, L. (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. *Developmental Psychology, 41*, 625-635. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625.

Gazelle, H. & Druhen, M.J. (2009). Anxious solitude and peer exclusion predict social helplessness, upset affect, and vagal regulation in response to behavioral rejection by a friend. *Developmental Psychology, 45*, 1077-1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016165.

Gomez, T., Quiñones-Camacho, L. & Davis, E. (2018). Building a sense of self: The link between emotion regulation and self-esteem in young adults. *UC Riverside Undergraduate Research Journal, 12*, 37-49. https://doi.org/10.5070/RJ5121039160.

Goossens, L. (2006). Emotion, affect, and loneliness in adolescence. In S. Jackson & L. Goossens (Eds.), *Handbook of adolescent development* (pp. 51-70). London: Psychology Press.

Goswick, R.A. & Jones, W.H. (1981). Loneliness, self-concept, and adjustment. *The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 107*, 237-240. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1981.9915228.

Goswick, R.A. & Jones, W.H. (1982). Components of loneliness during adolescence. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11*(5), 373-383. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01540375.

Hakulinen, C., Pulkki-Räback, L., Virtanen, M., Jokela, M., Kivimäki, M. & Elovainio, M. (2018). Social isolation and loneliness as risk factors for myocardial infarction, stroke and mortality: UK Biobank cohort study of 479054 men and women. *Heart, 104*, 1536-1542. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2017-312663.

Hall-Lande, J.A., Eisenberg, M.E., Christenson, S.L. & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2007). Social isolation, psychological health, and protective factors in adolescence. *Adolescence, 42*, 265-286.

Harter, S. (2006). Developmental and individual difference perspectives on self-esteem. In D.K. Mroczek & T.D. Little (Eds.), *Handbook of personality development* (pp. 311-334). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Harter, S. & Monsour, A. (1992). Development analysis of conflict caused by opposing attributes in the adolescent self-portrait. *Developmental Psychology, 28*, 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.251.

Heimpel, S.A., Elliot, A.J. & Wood, J.V. (2006). Basic personality dispositions, self-esteem, and personal goals: An approach-avoidance analysis. *Journal of Personality, 74*, 1293-1320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00410.x.

Heinrich, L.M. & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. *Clinical Psychology Review, 26*, 695-718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002.

Helfert, S. & Warschburger, P. (2011). A prospective study on the impact of peer and parental pressure on body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls and boys. *Body Image, 8*, 101-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.01.004.

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T., Baker, M., Harris, T. & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality. *Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10*, 227-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352.

Jafflin, K., Pfeiffer, C. & Bergman, M.M. (2019). Effects of self-esteem and stress on self-assessed health: A Swiss study from adolescence to early adulthood. *Quality of Life Research, 28*, 915-924. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-018-2059-1.

Jessor, R., Van Den Bos, J., Vanderryn, J., Costa, F.M. & Turbin, M.S. (1995). Protective factors in adolescent problem behavior: Moderator effects and developmental change. *Developmental Psychology, 31*, 923-933. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.6.923.

Jetten, J., Reicher, S.D., Haslam, S.A. & Cruwys, T. (2020). *Together apart: The psychology of COVID-19*. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kling, K.C., Hyde, J.S., Showers, C.J. & Buswell, B.N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis. *Psychological Bulletin, 125*, 470-500. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1999-05876-006.

Klussman, K., Curtin, N., Langer, J. & Nichols, A.L. (2022). The importance of awareness, acceptance, and alignment with the self: A framework for understanding self-connection. *Europe's Journal of Psychology, 18*, 120-131. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.3707.

La Greca, A.M. (1999). The social anxiety scales for children and adolescents. *The Behavior Therapist, 22*, 133-136.

La Greca, A.M. & Moore, H.H. (2005). Adolescent peer relations, friendships, and romantic relationships: Do they predict social anxiety
and depression? *Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology*, **34**, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3401.5.

Larson, R. & Lee, M. (1996). The capacity to be alone as a stress buffer. *Journal of Social Psychology*, **136**, 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1996.9923024.

Lasgaard, M., Goossens, L. & Elklit, A. (2011). Loneliness, depressive symptomatology, and suicide ideation in adolescence: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. *Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology*, **39**, 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9442-x.

Laval, V., Dardier, V., Laval, C. & Laura, M. (2016). La compréhension de l'intention d'autrui Est-elle sous l'influence d'un biais négatif ? [Does understanding of the other's intention fall under the influence of a negative bias?]. *Bulletin de Psychologie*, **69**, 117–126. https://doi.org/10.3917/bupsy.542.0117.

Lay, J.C., Pauly, T., Graf, P., Mahmood, A. & Hoppmann, C.A. (2020). Choosing solitude: Age differences in situational and affective correlates of solitude-seeking in midlife and older adulthood. *The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences*, **75**, 483–493. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gby044.

Leary, M.R., Herbst, K.C. & McCrary, F. (2003). Finding pleasure in solitary activities: Desire for aloneness or disinterest in social contact? *Personality and Individual Differences*, **35**, 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00141-1.

Leary, M.R., Tambor, E.S., Terdal, S.K. & Downs, D.L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **68**, 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.518.

Liebowitz, M.R. (1987). Social phobia. *Modern Trends in Pharmacopsychiatry*, **22**, 141–173. https://doi.org/10.1159/000414022.

Loades, M.E., Chatburn, E., Higson-Sweeney, N., Reynolds, S., Shafran, R., Brigden, A. et al. (2020). Rapid systematic review: The impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19. *Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry*, **59**, 1218–1239.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009.

Long, C.R. & Averill, J.R. (2003). Solitude: An exploration of benefits of being alone. *Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour*, **33**, 21–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5914.00204.

Long, C.R., Seburn, M., Averill, J.R. & More, T.A. (2003). Solitude experiences: Varieties, settings, and individual differences. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, **29**, 578–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616720329005003.

McFarlane, A.H., Bellissimo, A. & Norman, G.R. (1995). The role of family and peers in social self-efficacy: Links to depression in adolescence. *American Journal of Orthopsychiatry*, **65**, 402–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079655.

McKay, M.T., Konowalczyk, S., Andretta, J.R. & Cole, J.C. (2017). The direct and indirect effect of loneliness on the development of adolescent alcohol use in the United Kingdom. *Addictive Behaviors Reports*, **6**, 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.07.003.

McMillan, D., Gilbody, S., Beresford, E. & Neilly, L.I.Z. (2007). Can we predict suicide and non-fatal self-harm with the Beck Hopelessness Scale? A meta-analysis. *Psychological Medicine*, **37**, 769–778. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706009664.

Menec, V.H., Newall, N.E., Mackenzie, C.S., Shooshtari, S. & Nowicki, S. (2020). Examining social isolation and loneliness in combination in relation to social support and psychological distress using Canadian Longitudinal Study Of Aging (CLSA) data. *PLoS One*, **15**, e0230673. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230673.

Mirabel-Sarron, C., Vera, L. & Samuel-Lajeunesse, B. (2001). Estime de soi et dépression [Self-esteem and depression]. *Annales Médico-Psychologiques*, **159**, 144–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-4487(01)00021-x.

Mlawer, F., Hubbard, J.A., Bookhout, M.K. & Moore, C.C. (2021). Levels and instability of daily self-esteem in adolescents: Relations to depressive and anxious symptoms. *Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology*, **49**, 1083–1095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00802-3.

Moeller, R.W. & Seehuus, M. (2019). Loneliness as a mediator for college students' social skills and experiences of depression and anxiety. *Journal of Adolescence*, **73**, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.03.006.

Moksnes, U.K. & Espnes, G.A. (2013). Self-esteem and life satisfaction in adolescents-gender and age as potential moderators. *Quality of Life Research*, **22**, 2921–2928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-013-0427-4.

Mor, N. & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. *Psychological Bulletin*, **128**, 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638.

Mund, M., Finn, C., Hagemeyer, B., Zimmermann, J. & Neyer, F.J. (2015). The dynamics of self-esteem in partner relationships. *European Journal of Personality*, **29**, 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1984.

Murray, S.L., Holmes, J.G. & Griffin, D.W. (2000). Self-esteem and the quest for felt security: How perceived regard regulates attachment processes. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **78**, 478–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.478.

Murray, S.L., Holmes, J.G., MacDonald, G. & Ellsworth, P.C. (1998). Through the looking glass darkly? When self-doubts turn into relationship insecurities. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **75**, 1459–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1459.

Nguyen, T.T., Ryan, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (2018). Solitude as an approach to affective self-regulation. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, **44**, 92–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217733073.

Nicol, C.C. (2006). Self-determined motivation for solitude and relationship: Scale development and validation Doctoral dissertation retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International (Accession No. 2006-99010-059).

Office of the Surgeon General. (2021, December). *Protecting Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory*. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf.

Oliveira, W.A., Silva, J., Andrade, A., Micheli, D., Carlos, D.M. & Silva, M. (2020). Adolescents' health in times of COVID-19: A scoping review. A saúde do adolescente em tempos da COVID-19: Scoping review. *Cadernos De Saúde Publica*, **36**, e00150020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311x00150020.

Orth, U. & Robins, R.W. (2014). The development of self-esteem. *Current Directions in Psychological Science*, **23**, 381–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547414.

Orth, U., Robins, R.W. & Widaman, K.F. (2012). Life-span development of self-esteem and its effects on important life outcomes. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **102**, 1271–1288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025558.

Ost Mor, S., Palgi, Y. & Segel-Karpas, D. (2020). The definition and categories of positive solitude: Older and younger adults' perspectives on spending time by themselves. *The International Journal of Aging and Human Development*, **93**, 943–962. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415020957379.

Parker, J.G. & Asher, S.R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low- accepted children at risk? *Psychological Bulletin*, **102**, 357–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.357.

Pelham, B.W. & Swann, W.B. (1989). From self-conceptions to self-worth: On the sources and structure of global self-esteem. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **57**, 672–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.672.

Reid, A. (2004). Gender and sources of subjective well-being. *Sex Roles*, **51**, 617–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-004-0714-1.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). *Society and the adolescent self-image*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Rosenberg, M. (1979). *Components of Rosenberg's self-esteem scale*. *Conceiving the self*. New York: Basic Books.

Samter, W. (2003). Friendship interaction skills across the lifespan. In J.O. Greene & B.R. Burleson (Eds.), *Handbook of communication and social interaction skills* (pp. 637–684). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Sanderson, C.A., Darley, J.M. & Messinger, C.S. (2002). "I'm not as thin as you think I am": The development and consequences of feeling
and depression? *Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology*, **34**, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3401.5.

Larson, R. & Lee, M. (1996). The capacity to be alone as a stress buffer. *Journal of Social Psychology*, **136**, 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1996.9923024.

Lasgaard, M., Goossens, L. & Elklit, A. (2011). Loneliness, depressive symptomatology, and suicide ideation in adolescence: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. *Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology*, **39**, 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9442-x.

Laval, V., Dardier, V., Laval, C. & Laura, M. (2016). La compréhension de l'intention d'autrui Est-elle sous l'influence d'un biais négatif ? [Does understanding of the other's intention fall under the influence of a negative bias?]. *Bulletin de Psychologie*, **69**, 117–126. https://doi.org/10.3917/bupsy.542.0117.

Lay, J.C., Pauly, T., Graf, P., Mahmood, A. & Hoppmann, C.A. (2020). Choosing solitude: Age differences in situational and affective correlates of solitude-seeking in midlife and older adulthood. *The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences*, **75**, 483–493. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gby044.

Leary, M.R., Herbst, K.C. & McCrary, F. (2003). Finding pleasure in solitary activities: Desire for aloneness or disinterest in social contact? *Personality and Individual Differences*, **35**, 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00141-1.

Leary, M.R., Tambor, E.S., Terdal, S.K. & Downs, D.L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **68**, 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.518.

Liebowitz, M.R. (1987). Social phobia. *Modern Trends in Pharmacopsychiatry*, **22**, 141–173. https://doi.org/10.1159/000414022.

Loades, M.E., Chatburn, E., Higson-Sweeney, N., Reynolds, S., Shafran, R., Brigden, A. et al. (2020). Rapid systematic review: The impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19. *Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry*, **59**, 1218–1239.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009.

Long, C.R. & Averill, J.R. (2003). Solitude: An exploration of benefits of being alone. *Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour*, **33**, 21–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5914.00204.

Long, C.R., Seburn, M., Averill, J.R. & More, T.A. (2003). Solitude experiences: Varieties, settings, and individual differences. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, **29**, 578–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616720329005003.

McFarlane, A.H., Bellissimo, A. & Norman, G.R. (1995). The role of family and peers in social self-efficacy: Links to depression in adolescence. *American Journal of Orthopsychiatry*, **65**, 402–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079655.

McKay, M.T., Konowalczyk, S., Andretta, J.R. & Cole, J.C. (2017). The direct and indirect effect of loneliness on the development of adolescent alcohol use in the United Kingdom. *Addictive Behaviors Reports*, **6**, 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.07.003.

McMillan, D., Gilbody, S., Beresford, E. & Neilly, L.I.Z. (2007). Can we predict suicide and non-fatal self-harm with the Beck Hopelessness Scale? A meta-analysis. *Psychological Medicine*, **37**, 769–778. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706009664.

Menec, V.H., Newall, N.E., Mackenzie, C.S., Shooshtari, S. & Nowicki, S. (2020). Examining social isolation and loneliness in combination in relation to social support and psychological distress using Canadian Longitudinal Study Of Aging (CLSA) data. *PLoS One*, **15**, e0230673. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230673.

Mirabel-Sarron, C., Vera, L. & Samuel-Lajeunesse, B. (2001). Estime de soi et dépression [Self-esteem and depression]. *Annales Médico-Psychologiques*, **159**, 144–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-4487(01)00021-x.

Mlawer, F., Hubbard, J.A., Bookhout, M.K. & Moore, C.C. (2021). Levels and instability of daily self-esteem in adolescents: Relations to depressive and anxious symptoms. *Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology*, **49**, 1083–1095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00802-3.

Moeller, R.W. & Seehuus, M. (2019). Loneliness as a mediator for college students' social skills and experiences of depression and anxiety. *Journal of Adolescence*, **73**, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.03.006.

Moksnes, U.K. & Espnes, G.A. (2013). Self-esteem and life satisfaction in adolescents-gender and age as potential moderators. *Quality of Life Research*, **22**, 2921–2928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-013-0427-4.

Mor, N. & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. *Psychological Bulletin*, **128**, 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638.

Mund, M., Finn, C., Hagemeyer, B., Zimmermann, J. & Neyer, F.J. (2015). The dynamics of self-esteem in partner relationships. *European Journal of Personality*, **29**, 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1984.

Murray, S.L., Holmes, J.G. & Griffin, D.W. (2000). Self-esteem and the quest for felt security: How perceived regard regulates attachment processes. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **78**, 478–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.478.

Murray, S.L., Holmes, J.G., MacDonald, G. & Ellsworth, P.C. (1998). Through the looking glass darkly? When self-doubts turn into relationship insecurities. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **75**, 1459–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1459.

Nguyen, T.T., Ryan, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (2018). Solitude as an approach to affective self-regulation. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, **44**, 92–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217733073.

Nicol, C.C. (2006). Self-determined motivation for solitude and relationship: Scale development and validation Doctoral dissertation retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International (Accession No. 2006-99010-059).

Office of the Surgeon General. (2021, December). *Protecting Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory*. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf.

Oliveira, W.A., Silva, J., Andrade, A., Micheli, D., Carlos, D.M. & Silva, M. (2020). Adolescents' health in times of COVID-19: A scoping review. A saúde do adolescente em tempos da COVID-19: Scoping review. *Cadernos De Saúde Publica*, **36**, e00150020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311x00150020.

Orth, U. & Robins, R.W. (2014). The development of self-esteem. *Current Directions in Psychological Science*, **23**, 381–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547414.

Orth, U., Robins, R.W. & Widaman, K.F. (2012). Life-span development of self-esteem and its effects on important life outcomes. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **102**, 1271–1288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025558.

Ost Mor, S., Palgi, Y. & Segel-Karpas, D. (2020). The definition and categories of positive solitude: Older and younger adults' perspectives on spending time by themselves. *The International Journal of Aging and Human Development*, **93**, 943–962. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415020957379.

Parker, J.G. & Asher, S.R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low- accepted children at risk? *Psychological Bulletin*, **102**, 357–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.357.

Pelham, B.W. & Swann, W.B. (1989). From self-conceptions to self-worth: On the sources and structure of global self-esteem. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, **57**, 672–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.672.

Reid, A. (2004). Gender and sources of subjective well-being. *Sex Roles*, **51**, 617–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-004-0714-1.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). *Society and the adolescent self-image*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Rosenberg, M. (1979). *Components of Rosenberg's self-esteem scale*. *Conceiving the self*. New York: Basic Books.

Samter, W. (2003). Friendship interaction skills across the lifespan. In J.O. Greene & B.R. Burleson (Eds.), *Handbook of communication and social interaction skills* (pp. 637–684). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Sanderson, C.A., Darley, J.M. & Messinger, C.S. (2002). "I'm not as thin as you think I am": The development and consequences of feeling
discrepant from the thinness norm. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, **28**, 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202282004.

Schlegel, R.J. & Hicks, J.A. (2011). The true self and psychological health: Emerging evidence and future directions. *Social and Personality Psychology Compass*, **5**, 989–1003. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00401.x.

Shankar, A., Mcmunn, A., Banks, J. & Steptoe, A. (2011). Loneliness, social isolation, and behavioral and biological health indicators in older adults. *Health Psychology*, **30**, 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022826.

Sheldon, K.M. (2014). Becoming oneself: The central role of self-concordant goal selection. *Personality and Social Psychology Review*, **18**, 349–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314538549.

Short, J.L., Sandler, I.N. & Roosa, M.W. (1996). Adolescents' perceptions of social support: The role of esteem enhancing and esteem threatening relationships. *Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology*, **15**, 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1996.15.4.397.

Shrauger, J.S. & Sorman, P.B. (1977). Self-evaluations, initial success and failure, and improvement as determinants of persistence. *Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology*, **45**, 784–795. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.45.5.784.

Sowislo, J.F. & Orth, U. (2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. *Psychological Bulletin*, **139**, 213–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028931.

Stavrova, O., Ren, D. & Pronk, T. (2022). Low self-control: A hidden cause of loneliness? *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, **48**, 347–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211007228.

Steed, L. (2001). Further validity and reliability evidence for Beck Hopelessness Scale scores in a nonclinical sample. *Educational and Psychological Measurement*, **61**, 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131640121971121.

Steinberg, L. & Scott, E.S. (2003). Less guilty by reason of adolescence. *American Psychologist*, **58**, 1009–1018. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.12.1009windl.

Swann, W.B., Chang-Schneider, C. & Larsen McClarty, K. (2007). Do people's self-views matter? Self-concept and self-esteem in everyday life. *American Psychologist*, **62**, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.62.2.84.

Thomas, V. & Azmitia, M. (2019). Motivation matters: Development and validation of the Motivation For Solitude Scale – Short Form (MSS-SF). *Journal of Adolescence*, **70**, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.11.004.

Trzesniewski, K.H., Donnellan, M.B., Moffitt, T.E., Robins, R.W., Poulton, R. & Caspi, A. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. *Developmental Psychology*, **42**, 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381.

Twenge, J.M., Haidt, J., Blake, A.B., McAllister, C., Lemon, H. & Le Roy, A. (2021). Worldwide increases in adolescent loneliness. *Journal of Adolescence*, **93**, 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.06.006.

Vallières, E.F. & Vallerand, R.J. (1990). Traduction et validation Canadienne-Française de l'échelle de l'estime de soi de Rosenberg [French-Canadian translation and validation of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale]. *International Journal of Psychology*, **25**, 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207599008247865.

Van Duuren, F. & Di Giacomo, J.-P. (1997). Degrading situations, affiliation and social dependency. *European Journal of Social Psychology*, **27**, 495–510.

van Tuijl, L.A., de Jong, P.J., Sportel, B.E., de Hullu, E. & Nauta, M.H. (2014). Implicit and explicit self-esteem and their reciprocal relationship with symptoms of depression and social anxiety: A longitudinal study in adolescents. *Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry*, **45**, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.09.007.

van Dellen, M.R., Campbell, W.K., Hoyle, R.H. & Bradfield, E.K. (2010). Compensating, resisting, and breaking: A meta-analytic examination of reactions to self-esteem threat. *Personality and Social Psychology Review*, **15**, 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310372950.

Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., Scholte, R.H.J., Engels, R.C.M.E. & Goossens, L. (2013). Low self-esteem as a risk factor for loneliness in adolescence: Perceived – but not actual – social acceptance as an underlying mechanism. *Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology*, **41**, 1067–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9751-y.

Weiss, R.S. (1973). *Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wentzel, K.R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. *Journal of Educational Psychology*, **90**, 202–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.202.

Wenze, S.J., Gunthert, K.C. & German, R.E. (2012). Biases in affective forecasting and recall in individuals with depression and anxiety symptoms. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, **38**, 895–906. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461.67212.44724.2.

Winters, N.C., Myers, K. & Proud, L. (2002). Ten-year review of rating scales. III: Scales assessing suicidality, cognitive style, and self-esteem. *Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry*, **41**, 1150–1181. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200210000-00006.

Youngs, G.A., Rathge, R., Mullis, R.L. & Mullis, A.K. (1990). Adolescent stress and self-esteem. *Adolescence*, **25**, 333–341.

Zigmond, A.S. & Snaith, R.P. (1983). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. *Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica*, **67**, 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x.

Received 7 January 2023, Revised 6 April 2023, accepted 2 May 2023
discrepant from the thinness norm. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, 28, 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202282004.

Schlegel, R.J. & Hicks, J.A. (2011). The true self and psychological health: Emerging evidence and future directions. *Social and Personality Psychology Compass*, 5, 989–1003. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00401.x.

Shankar, A., Mcmunn, A., Banks, J. & Steptoe, A. (2011). Loneliness, social isolation, and behavioral and biological health indicators in older adults. *Health Psychology*, 30, 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022826.

Sheldon, K.M. (2014). Becoming oneself: The central role of self-concordant goal selection. *Personality and Social Psychology Review*, 18, 349–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314538549.

Short, J.L., Sandler, I.N. & Roosa, M.W. (1996). Adolescents' perceptions of social support: The role of esteem enhancing and esteem threatening relationships. *Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology*, 15, 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1996.15.4.397.

Shrauger, J.S. & Sorman, P.B. (1977). Self-evaluations, initial success and failure, and improvement as determinants of persistence. *Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology*, 45, 784–795. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.45.5.784.

Sowislo, J.F. & Orth, U. (2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. *Psychological Bulletin*, 139, 213–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028931.

Stavrova, O., Ren, D. & Pronk, T. (2022). Low self-control: A hidden cause of loneliness? *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, 48, 347–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211007228.

Steed, L. (2001). Further validity and reliability evidence for Beck Hopelessness Scale scores in a nonclinical sample. *Educational and Psychological Measurement*, 61, 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131640121971121.

Steinberg, L. & Scott, E.S. (2003). Less guilty by reason of adolescence. *American Psychologist*, 58, 1009–1018. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.12.1009windl.

Swann, W.B., Chang-Schneider, C. & Larsen McClarty, K. (2007). Do people's self-views matter? Self-concept and self-esteem in everyday life. *American Psychologist*, 62, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.62.2.84.

Thomas, V. & Azmitia, M. (2019). Motivation matters: Development and validation of the Motivation For Solitude Scale – Short Form (MSS-SF). *Journal of Adolescence*, 70, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.11.004.

Trzesniewski, K.H., Donnellan, M.B., Moffitt, T.E., Robins, R.W., Poulton, R. & Caspi, A. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. *Developmental Psychology*, 42, 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381.

Twenge, J.M., Haidt, J., Blake, A.B., McAllister, C., Lemon, H. & Le Roy, A. (2021). Worldwide increases in adolescent loneliness. *Journal of Adolescence*, 93, 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.06.006.

Vallières, E.F. & Vallerand, R.J. (1990). Traduction et validation Canadienne-Française de l'échelle de l'estime de soi de Rosenberg [French-Canadian translation and validation of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale]. *International Journal of Psychology*, 25, 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207599008247865.

Van Duuren, F. & Di Giacomo, J.-P. (1997). Degrading situations, affiliation and social dependency. *European Journal of Social Psychology*, 27, 495–510.

van Tuijl, L.A., de Jong, P.J., Sportel, B.E., de Hullu, E. & Nauta, M.H. (2014). Implicit and explicit self-esteem and their reciprocal relationship with symptoms of depression and social anxiety: A longitudinal study in adolescents. *Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry*, 45, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.09.007.

van Dellen, M.R., Campbell, W.K., Hoyle, R.H. & Bradfield, E.K. (2010). Compensating, resisting, and breaking: A meta-analytic examination of reactions to self-esteem threat. *Personality and Social Psychology Review*, 15, 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310372950.

Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., Scholte, R.H.J., Engels, R.C.M.E. & Goossens, L. (2013). Low self-esteem as a risk factor for loneliness in adolescence: Perceived – but not actual – social acceptance as an underlying mechanism. *Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology*, 41, 1067–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9751-y.

Weiss, R.S. (1973). *Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wentzel, K.R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. *Journal of Educational Psychology*, 90, 202–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.202.

Wenze, S.J., Gunthert, K.C. & German, R.E. (2012). Biases in affective forecasting and recall in individuals with depression and anxiety symptoms. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, 38, 895–906. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461.67212.44724.2.

Winters, N.C., Myers, K. & Proud, L. (2002). Ten-year review of rating scales. III: Scales assessing suicidality, cognitive style, and self-esteem. *Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry*, 41, 1150–1181. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200210000-00006.

Youngs, G.A., Rathge, R., Mullis, R.L. & Mullis, A.K. (1990). Adolescent stress and self-esteem. *Adolescence*, 25, 333–341.

Zigmond, A.S. & Snaith, R.P. (1983). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. *Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica*, 67, 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x.

Received 7 January 2023, Revised 6 April 2023, accepted 2 May 2023