The charged energetic particles in planetary magnetospheres can be related to space weather, in either a direct or an indirect way.

*Directly:* Charge-exchange between energetic ions and cold neutrals in planetary (or lunar) atmospheres or neutral tori results in the generation of fast ENAs which are no longer trapped in the planet's magnetic field. These ENAs leave the interaction region in ballistic orbits in the direction of the incident ion velocity at the time of the impact. Imaging their distribution allows us to investigate the structure of planetary magnetospheres (Brandt et al. 2001) and, therefore, to map the actual space weather process in action. The magnetospheres emit copious quantities of ENAs at energies between tens of eVs and hundreds of keVs, which carry significant amounts of energy and mass as found by Mauk et al. (2003). These authors analysed 50-80 keV ENA images of Jupiter's magnetosphere and identified two dominating emission regions: the upper atmosphere of Jupiter itself and a torus of emission residing just outside the orbit of Jupiter's satellite Europa. Scattering of the energetic particles by waves can direct them into the upper atmospheres of planets where they can excite auroral emission (Cheng et al. 1987).

*Indirectly:* The impact of energetic ions on an icy satellite surface is followed by the release of surface material to the body's exosphere through direct sputtering and/or radiolysis (for an example of how these release mechanisms work see: Johnson et al. 2004; Cassidy et al. 2010; Teolis et al. 2010; Plainaki et al. 2012). The generated exospheres are furthermore subject to loss processes either due to gravity escape and particle sticking to the surface or due to photon or plasma-induced ionization/dissociation of their constituents. The variability of both the energetic ions and plasma populations and possibly the body's illumination by the Sun (Plainaki et al. 2013) are responsible for the dynamic generation and loss of the moon exospheres. Space weather effects in these environments, consequently, are effectively seen in the spatial and energy distributions of the neutral particle densities at these moons. The variability of these distributions, therefore, can be an index for the effectiveness of space weather interactions within the whole system.

### 3.1.4. The aurorae and the energy balance problem

As evidenced in previous sections, airglow is a manifestation of planetary space weather. Auroral emissions, occurring when charged particles in a planetary object's magnetosphere collide with atoms in its upper atmosphere, causing them to glow, are an important demonstration of planetary space weather.

A comparison between the measured exospheric temperatures of the giant planets with those calculated from solar EUV inputs alone (see Table 4) showed that considerable additional energy sources are required to produce the temperatures observed in the giant planets (Miller et al. 2005). Several mechanisms strongly related to the variability of the environment of the charged populations at the giant planets have been proposed as possible energy sources resulting in the exospheric temperature increase (see Waite et al. 1983; Young et al. 1997; Grodent et al. 2001). Particle precipitation in Jupiter's auroral/polar regions is estimated to provide an additional 10–100 TW (Clarke et al. 1987). However, a considerable part of this energy input may be deposited below the homopause, from where much of the UV auroral radiation emanates. Below the homopause, hydrocarbons radiate away the energy very efficiently (Drossart et al. 1993), meaning that

the actual direct energy input into the upper atmosphere is probably less than 10 TW globally (Miller et al. 2005). Thermally driven winds could distribute the large amounts of energy deposited in the auroral regions (Waite et al. 1983) however an “energy gap” is expected due to the rapid planet rotation. Müller-Wodarg et al. (2012) have shown that a global energy input to the lower thermosphere of Saturn can increase the exospheric temperature from the ≈180 K predicted from solar heating alone to ≈410 K, in close agreement with the measurements of Smith et al. (1983). Clarke et al. (2009) showed that there is a correlation of the Jovian auroral brightness with the solar wind pressure and Nichols et al. (2009a) concluded that enhancements of the main auroral emissions and partially the polar emissions are associated with solar wind compression regions. Moreover, Gurnett et al. (2002) discovered that there is solar wind modulation of Jupiter's radio emission. In addition, recent auroral observations of an Earth-like transpolar arc at Saturn (Fig. 7) (Radioti et al. 2014) may be related to solar wind driven tail reconnection similarly to the terrestrial case (Milan et al. 2005). Based on these findings it becomes clear that the role of space weather in driving energy deposition in the giant planets upper atmospheres could be important.

Before hitting the atmosphere, charged particles also emit radio waves into space. In a recent study, Nichols et al. (2012) suggested that auroras do occur also on bodies outside our Solar System and the auroral radio emissions are powerful enough to be detectable across interstellar distances. Such a result indeed indicates that planetary space weather could be far more intense in environments other than our Solar System hence understanding its features and processes could also be of help when investigating the characteristics of other Solar Systems as well as the exoplanet physics. Recently, Hallinan et al. (2015) reported simultaneous radio and optical spectroscopic observations (obtained with the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) radio telescope and the Double Spectrograph (DBSP) on the 5.1-m Hale telescope, respectively) of auroral emissions of an object at the end of the stellar main sequence (i.e. at the boundary between stars and brown dwarfs). Hallinan et al. (2015) argued that these aurorae are powered by processes originating much further out in the magnetosphere of the dwarf star (with respect to the heliosphere). Although the nature of the electromagnetic engine powering brown-dwarf aurorae is still to be determined, the scenario of the subcorotation of magnetospheric plasma on closed field lines, powering in turn magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling currents, has been suggested as a plausible model for this case (Schrijver 2009; Nichols et al. 2012). The mass loading required in this model can be achieved through interaction with the interstellar medium (ISM), the sputtering of the dwarf atmosphere by auroral currents, a volcanically active orbiting planet or magnetic reconnection in the photosphere. Moreover, Hallinan et al. (2015) showed that since the observed auroral emissions depended mainly on magnetic dipole moment and rotation (and may have been weakly coupled to other physical characteristics), aurora may be present at detectable levels even in the faintest T and Y dwarfs and bodies as well as from exoplanets.

### 3.1.5. The role of galactic cosmic rays and transient events

The modulation of the GCR by the disturbed solar wind (e.g. CMEs) in the near-Earth space has been studied for several solar cycles both in theoretical basis and through observations
<table><caption>**Table 4.** Comparison of predicted and measured exospheric temperatures, Texo, of the giant planets. From Miller et al. (2005).</caption><thead><tr><th>Solar system giant planet</th><th>Heliocentric distance (AU)</th><th>Absorbed solar flux (W m<sup>-2</sup>)</th><th>T<sub>exo</sub> observed (K)</th><th>T<sub>exo</sub> calculated (K)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Neptune</td><td>30.07</td><td>1.1 &times; 10<sup>-6</sup></td><td>600</td><td>132</td></tr><tr><td>Uranus</td><td>19.19</td><td>2.7 &times; 10<sup>-6</sup></td><td>800</td><td>138</td></tr><tr><td>Saturn</td><td>9.57</td><td>1.1 &times; 10<sup>-5</sup></td><td>420</td><td>177</td></tr><tr><td>Jupiter</td><td>5.20</td><td>3.7 &times; 10<sup>-5</sup></td><td>940</td><td>203</td></tr></tbody></table>

(Dorman 2009). The interaction of GCR with the terrestrial atmosphere results in the formation of atmospheric cascades and the generation of secondary species with both the spatial and energy distributions determined by the incident GCR spectrum and the atmosphere itself. In a similar way, the GCRs entering the Venusian atmosphere have been shown to generate a series of secondary neutral and ionized species being the major ionization source in the Venusian middle and lower atmosphere (below ~100 km) and related possibly with the cloud formation process in this planet (Nordheim et al. 2015). Recently, UV and VIS observations of Titan's emissions during its 2009 eclipse by Saturn revealed a weak airglow around the moon, as well as a brighter emission from its disk (West et al. 2012). In the absence of solar XUV stimulus, the role of the precipitating cosmic rays in producing Titan's airglow and chemistry could be estimated. Although cosmic ray ionization and chemiluminescence were the proposed candidates for these emissions (West et al. 2012), Lavvas et al. (2014) showed that the observed limb emissions were consistent with magnetospheric plasma energy input, while emissions instigated by cosmic ray excitation were too weak to explain the observed disk emissions. These authors concluded that in order to explain the observed disk emissions, the scattered stellar light from Titan's disk is the most likely scenario. It is worth mentioning, however, that according to Gronoff et al. (2011), the ionization by each Z-group of cosmic rays in the atmosphere of Titan results in the formation of an ionization layer peaking at 65 km altitude, independently of the solar activity, in consistency with the Huygens measurements (Hamelin et al. 2007; López-Moreno et al. 2008). The observed correlation between cosmic ray ionization altitudes and aerosol layers urges for further investigations in this direction in the future.

Transient events such as micrometeoroid dust particle impacts can be considered as potential external suppliers of water into all other outer planet stratospheres, modifying locally and temporarily the space weather conditions at these environments. The similar H₂O fluxes per unit area found in the four giant planets and Titan (Feuchtgruber et al. 1997; Coustenis et al. 1998; Moses et al. 2000), combined with the rather constant dust flux (~3 × 10⁻¹⁸ g cm⁻² s⁻¹) measured in interplanetary space beyond 5 AU (Landgraf et al. 2002), have been regarded as evidence that micrometeoroids – interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) or interstellar – are the dominant source (Moses et al. 2000). Hartogh et al. (2011) showed that Enceladus is a quantitatively viable source of Saturn's water, evidencing the role of local or sporadic sources in the dynamic interactions between planetary atmospheres and particles.

### 3.1.6. Space weather and interstellar medium

Planetary space weather is also affected by the interstellar medium, which starts to affect the solar wind well before the Termination Shock (TS), the region of the heliosphere where

the solar wind slows down to subsonic speed. The neutrals in the Local Interstellar Medium (LISM) can enter the heliosphere reaching unchanged the various planetary environments of the Solar System. The helium reaches Earth essentially unchanged from the LISM except for the acceleration by the Sun's gravity, whereas the LISM H is coupled to the protons in the heliosheath via charge exchange and thus is slowed, heated and diverted in the flow direction compared to the He (Richardson 2010). These LISM neutrals are ionized, the He inside 1 AU and the H outside 5 AU. The generated pick-up ions are accelerated up to the solar wind speed and have an initial temperature equal to the solar wind energy, i.e. ~1 keV. They are the dominant heliospheric components outside ~10 AU and by the TS almost the 20% of the total ion population consists of pick-up ions (Richardson 2010). Since the latter are hot, they influence the dynamics and composition of the solar wind hence its interactions with planetary environments, especially beyond the distance of ~10 AU from the Sun. Therefore, the pick-up ions are an important component of space weather at these locations. In this context, knowledge of the overall structure of the heliosphere is necessary. ENA images obtained by the Ion and Neutral Camera (INCA) on-board Cassini (Krimigis et al. 2009) revealed a broad belt of energetic protons with non-thermal pressure comparable to that of the local interstellar magnetic field. Such a picture for the shape of the heliosphere was not consistent with the previously believed cometary-type interaction of the possible bow shock and/or heliopause, heliosheath and TS (Fichtner et al. 2006). Energetic neutral atom cameras on board the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission of NASA mapped the heliospheric boundary at lower (~6 keV) energies (Funsten et al. 2009; McComas et al. 2009). Both IBEX and INCA identified in the energetic neutral atom images dominant topological features (ribbon or belt) that can be explained on the basis of a model that considers an energetic neutral atom-inferred non-thermal proton pressure filling the heliosheath from the termination shock to the heliopause (Krimigis et al. 2009). Such results should be considered in future models devoted to planetary space weather purposes, especially when it concerns the outer Solar System science.

### 3.2. Space weather and upcoming Solar System missions: current necessities and future science investigations

Global radiation modelling including parameterization of space weather conditions in theoretical or empirical plasma-interactions models would be a very useful tool to support future in-situ observations during space missions. Exosphere and atmosphere modelling linked to the space weather variability around planetary bodies, determined either by the Sun or by strong parent planet magnetospheres, is absolutely necessary for the planning of related space observations and synergies between different mission-payload instruments and for the interpretation of space weather related effects, already
registered by past missions (e.g. the atmospheric escape at
Mars due to solar wind effects, or the aurora variability at
Jupiter, related to the solar wind activity).

Numerous missions up to the orbit of Mars have provided a relatively comprehensive view of space weather conditions in the inner Solar System (except perhaps for Mercury's environment, for which the BEPI COLOMBO mission is expected to provide important add-ons to the current MESSENGER results). In addition, the ongoing MAVEN mission is continuously providing new important material related to space weather at the red planet. On the other hand, there are many uncertainties about physical processes revealed in the space surrounding the outer planets and their moons. In view of future missions to the outer Solar System, an accurate identification of the space weather conditions around a planet can contribute significantly in the estimation of the water abundances in the planetary atmospheres and their long- and short-term variability. Such an issue can play a significant role in identifying possible conditions for habitability, one of the main targets of the upcoming ESA JUICE mission. Recently, in the context of the study of habitability conditions in our Solar System, the payload for a future NASA mission to Europa has been selected. The determination of the vertical profile of water in the atmospheres of the outer planets and Titan is a diagnostic of its origin (e.g. cometary impact vs. permanent dust deposition), but also of the rate at which water is transported within and removed from the atmosphere (Hartogh et al. 2009). On the basis of this rate, it will be possible to estimate accurately the key input fluxes for discriminating between possible sources. In this context, studies performed for different space weather conditions are really important. Timescales for relevant observations should be determined on the basis of the variability timescales for the critical parameters, such as the vertical and horizontal mixing times of water in the planetary atmospheres. The NASA JUNO mission, arriving at Jupiter in August 2016, is dedicated to the study of Jupiter's atmosphere, ionosphere and high-latitude magnetosphere thus providing important data for the characterization of the space weather around the giant planet. In particular, with JUNO it will be possible to characterize plasma sources and losses through a series of in-situ measurements by different instruments on-board spacecraft (Bagenal et al. 2014).

In view of future missions to Solar System bodies, under-
standing the particle environments and their interactions with
space radiation becomes crucial. For example, the presence
of high fluxes of charged energetic particles in the radiation
belts of a planet can affect electronic systems on-board
spacecraft, endangering their normal operation. Planetary
space weather forecasting is essential in order to design risk
mitigation architectures that will ensure the undamaged
operation of electronic systems aboard a spacecraft under
different environment conditions and, eventually, guarantee
the safety of astronauts during manned missions. Such
architectures are expected to include radiation monitoring,
effective spacecraft shelter and reliable communication
systems. Eventual real-time monitoring of the space environ-
ment can contribute substantially in this direction.

The role of atmospheric drag in satellite aero-entry/
aerobraking (Duvall et al. 2005; Forbes et al. 2006) is strongly
dependent on planetary space weather conditions. Specification
of the neutral atmosphere density, its scale height and its
variability, as driven by the solar spectral irradiance in the
UV, by Joule heating by ionospheric currents and/or by an

intense radiation environment (e.g. in case of bodies embedded
in giant magnetospheres) all depend on planetary space
weather conditions. Engineering issues related to the drag
effect in Titan's atmosphere are not yet fully understood.
Continuous monitoring of the EUV flux is required to mitigate
disruptions in satellite communication, and in remote sensing.

In an overall effort to consider planetary space weather effects during future mission planning, solar monitoring is essential. Especially current and future missions in the inner Solar System (e.g. BEPI COLOMBO), having operations that are highly affected by space weather, could be supported by a series of solar observations. The lack of continuous observations could be compensated by the outputs of global MHD models. In summary, the main directions of the ongoing efforts in the planetary space weather discipline are:

1. Radiation modelling including integration of the supporting measurements at different planetary environments such as Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn;

2. Observations of solar wind and interplanetary medium conditions in a wide range of heliospheric distances, and development of tools to model CME, CIR and SEP propagation through the Solar System (e.g. the CDPP propagation tool: http://propagationtool.cdpp.eu/);

3. Modelling of planetary and satellite atmospheres and exospheres; modelling of the coupling processes between these environments and the parent planets' magnetospheres;

4. Investigation of ionospheric effects on radio signals;

5. Solar (UV, X-rays) monitoring.

We note that the absence of continuous solar spectral
irradiance measurements has favoured the use of different solar
proxies, such as the solar radio flux at 10.7 cm (F10.7 index),
the sunspot number and the MgII core-to-wing index
(Lilensten et al. 2014). However, according to Dudok de Wit
et al. (2009) a single proxy cannot reproduce the variability
in a spectral band at all timescales and, moreover, significant
discrepancies in solar EUV-proxy correlations on solar cycle
and solar rotation timescales can appear.

Whereas knowledge of space weather conditions at differ-
ent planetary systems is a requisite for future mission planning,
the scientific data to be obtained by these missions are going to
provide in turn an important feedback for interdisciplinary
science in the field of planetary space weather. Below we
report two indicative examples, related to the future ESA
JUICE and ESA/JAXA BEPI COLOMBO missions, in the
outer and inner Solar System, respectively.

3.2.1. *Outer Solar System: space weather science with JUICE*

One of the highest priorities for future space missions is the
Jupiter system and, specifically, its moons Europa and
Ganymede. The ESA JUICE L1 mission will mainly character-
ize Ganymede and its magnetosphere, the Jovian magneto-
sphere and its dynamics, and it will provide information on
the environments of Europa and Callisto (Krupp 2015). A deep
knowledge of the radiation environment at Jupiter is of high
importance particularly for determining critical parameters
for the various JUICE payload instruments during different
observational phases of the mission. All payload instruments
of the JUICE mission have to be tested to survive damage from
the radiation belts once they are located in the vicinity of the
giant planet. In this context, identification of the planetary
space weather conditions in the Jupiter system, through mod-
elling and past data analysis, becomes of crucial importance.

In the Jupiter system, the identification of the chemical and
physical characteristics of the subsurface ocean of the large
moons is one of the essential objectives of the JUICE mission.
A possible detection of the liquid water oceans in the moons'
interior could be achieved thanks to the detection of induced
magnetic fields originating from the interaction of the magne-
tospheric ions with these oceans (Khurana et al. 2009). Plasma
currents above the moon surfaces create a major background
signal during the detection of intrinsic oceanic signals (Sittler
et al. 2013) hence the identification of their variability, as
determined by in-situ plasma current measurements and
associated models, is significant for setting the limits on the
ocean source of the induced magnetic field. In addition, the
measurement of the composition of the ejected – through
sputtering and radiolysis – material provides the necessary
feedback for distinguishing the abundances in the magneto-
spheric ion composition originating from the surface, from
those originating from the ocean (Sittler et al. 2013). In this
context, monitoring of the space weather conditions around
the icy moons offers a unique possibility to complement the
subsurface ocean measurements and to possibly assess their
variability. Of particular importance for the monitoring of
space weather conditions at Jupiter's icy moons is the
determination of the currents due to ionospheric and pick-up
ions, e.g. O₂⁺ in the case of Europa.

Detection of high-energy neutral atoms (HENA) and low-energy neutral atoms (LENA) at the Jovian system, with the Jovian Energetic Neutrals and Ions (JENI) and the Jovian Neutral Atoms (JNA) sensors, respectively, on-board JUICE/PEP, in the energy range 0.01–300 keV, will provide information regarding the characteristics of the Io plasma torus and the radiation environment, as well as the related acceleration mechanisms (Futaana et al. 2015). The simultaneous imaging of the Io plasma torus at different mission phases will therefore permit the investigation of variations in plasma energy and spatial density, providing space weather monitoring in a short timeframe within the JUICE mission. Moreover, investigation of the trans-Europa gas torus (Mauk et al. 2003) through LENA measurements could provide complementary information on the interactions between Jupiter's magnetospheric plasma and the moon's exosphere. Using both energy spectra and their periodic features, together with the dispersion signatures and the mass spectra, it will be possible to distinguish between the Io and Europa tori and hence to determine the actual space weather conditions at the point of the measurement. We note that the energy spectrum of LENAs from Io should have a peak around ~74 km/s, whereas the LENAs from Europa should have a peak around ~150 km/s, corresponding to their respective corotation velocities (Futaana et al. 2015). Additionally, through the UV, plasma and LENA measurements with JUICE, it will be possible to search for spatial and temporal variations in the neutral and plasma densities at the satellites' near-surface regions.

3.2.2. Inner Solar System: space weather science with BEPI
COLOMBO

The exploration of Mercury is expected to provide a major
feedback for interdisciplinary science in the context of
planetary space weather. After the first in-situ measurements
provided by three flybys of Mariner 10 (Vilas et al. 1988) in
1974–1975, as described in Section 2.2.2, our knowledge of

the Mercury environment has been greatly improved by the
recent NASA MESSENGER mission. Based on the scientific
return of this mission, it has been possible to address many
issues related to the environment of Mercury, nevertheless,
new questions have arisen. For example, it is still not known
if the planet's magnetic field is shifted northwards. No clear
evidence of hemisphere asymmetries was found in the Na
exosphere distributions, which, on the other hand, seem to be
related to the ion precipitation through the cusps. Whereas
the precipitation of solar wind protons and upwelling surface
ions has been observed in-situ by MESSENGER, the cause-
effect relationship between these populations and the quickly
accelerated ions of planetary origin has not been identified
yet. Moreover, the electron and ion acceleration mechanisms
are not yet completely understood. The role of planetary ions
in the magnetosphere dynamics and in releasing new material
after impacting the surface is still an open question. We also
note that although the global exospheric intensity measured
in-situ seems to be reproduced seasonally, the Na ground-based
observations reveal distributions varying in hour timescales.
Additionally, the exact mechanisms of the species-dependent
generation process, their variability and the related spatial
distributions have not yet been explained adequately.
For example Na is released mainly on the dayside, while the
Ca and/or Mg distributions seem to be unrelated to the planet's
illumination. In fact, we would expect a major PSD effect on
the dayside for volatile materials and a release of both volatiles
and refractories, due to ion precipitation and micrometeoroid
impact vaporization. If the current system closes onto the
surface, given the absence of an ionosphere, what is the surface
conductivity? Which is the role of induction effects, as a
response to Sun's activity? In fact, the complex Hermean
system requires in-depth investigations to explain the major
in-situ and ground-based observational evidences and to draw
a coherent global picture of the system's functioning.

The tools for the investigations related to space weather at
Mercury are on one hand the development of more accurate
magnetospheric and plasma circulation theoretical models
(including induction effects, high reconnection rates, fast
variability and effects of the surface and exosphere interaction)
and on the other hand, the development of exosphere multi-
processes generation models including the effects of the
environment's interaction with the Sun's radiation. The
modelling efforts should be paired up with further ground-
based observations and, later, with the observations of the
Mercury-dedicated ESA/JAXA mission, BEPI COLOMBO
(Benkhoff et al. 2010). The BEPI COLOMBO mission
consists of two spacecraft orbiting at Mercury: the Mercury
Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO), with its spinning eccentric
orbit, is fully dedicated to magnetosphere and Hermean
environment topics while the Mercury Planetary Orbiter
(MPO), with its low altitude orbit, is mainly dedicated to the
planet's observation and to the monitoring of its response to
external agents. It will be the first time that coordinated
multi-point observations could be obtained in a planet different
from the Earth (Milillo et al. 2010). Joint observations from the
two spacecraft are of key importance because many
phenomena in Mercury's environment are temporarily and
spatially varying.

A deep analysis of the environment phenomena at Mercury
could be of great importance during the BEPI COLOMBO
science operation planning. In fact, some gaps in the
MESSENGER results are due to the limitation in spatial
coverage, due to the highly eccentric orbit with periherm close
to the Northern hemisphere and/or to limitation in observations
coverage. For example, the Na observations were limited to
equatorial regions (Cassidy et al. 2015), therefore, a possible
interpretation of mismatch with the ground-based observations
results could have been obtained. BEPI COLOMBO, with the
MPO/SERENA particle package (Orsini et al. 2010), will
observe in the dayside simultaneously the precipitating ions
(by SERENA/MIPA) and the backscattered ENA from the
surface (by SERENA ELENA) as well as the bulk exosphere
composition (by SERENA/STROFIO). The MPO/MAG
magnetometer will complement the in-situ measurement, while
the MMO could be in the favourable condition to monitor the
upstream solar wind and IMF. This full monitoring will permit
to have a comprehensive picture of the cause-effect link and to
finally reveal the still unsolved problem of the surface release
mechanisms (Milillo et al. 2010). This is just an example of the
deep investigation of Sun-Mercury interaction that will be
obtained with this outstanding mission.

The comprehensive payload of the BEPI COLOMBO
mission includes, besides the fields and particles sensors, also
a radiation monitor (BERM), and a Sun X-Rays and SEP
monitor (SIXS), which will both allow to have a monitoring
service of the space weather conditions, possibly critical at
Mercury's orbit. Since the Hermean magnetosphere occupies
a unique position in the space plasma physics scenarios, the
study of Mercury's magnetospheric processes will not only
provide a clear picture of the planetary magnetosphere itself
but it will also broaden our field of view of space plasma
physics, in general.

4. Planetary space weather as a tool to understand
the circum-terrestrial space weather

The lessons learned from the study of the interactions of
planetary bodies with plasma and solar photon radiation can
be an important feedback for further and more in-depth
understanding of the circum-terrestrial space weather phenom-
ena. Actually, there are several open questions related to this
field; a comparative investigation among the results obtained
through observations and/or modelling of different environ-
ments in the Solar System could provide important feedback
for the interpretation of space weather phenomena at the Earth.
We will briefly show how this can indeed take place, by focus-
ing on some specific open issues in space weather science.

The terrestrial magnetopause standoff distance is known to
be determined from the balance between the outer solar wind
dynamic pressure and the inner magnetosphere pressure, which
is generated by both the terrestrial dipole field and the fields
generated by the magnetospheric current systems. For a fixed
solar wind dynamic pressure the subsolar magnetopause is dis-
placed toward the Earth when the IMF turns southward
(Pudovkin et al. 1998), an effect that has been associated with
the erosion caused by the magnetic reconnection (see also Sect.
3.1) at the dayside magnetopause (Samsonov et al. 2012).
The opposite effect, namely, displacement of the subsolar
magnetopause away from the Earth for a radial IMF orientation
has also been observed (Merka et al. 2007) and studied in
detail (e.g. Dušík et al. 2010). Despite the numerous studies
on the position of the outer boundary of the terrestrial
magnetosphere, in a recent paper Samsonov et al. (2012)
showed that the total pressure on the magnetopause differs
from the solar wind dynamic pressure in the majority of the
examined cases. Such a result is also consistent with the

expansion of the magnetosphere observed experimentally for
an IMF radial direction, when no magnetic barrier is formed.
In the isotropic MHD approximation, Samsonov et al. (2012)
showed that the difference between the total pressure on the
subsolar magnetopause during northern and radial IMFs does
not exceed 10%–12%, whereas in the anisotropic approxima-
tion this difference increases up to 15%–20%. Nevertheless,
as these authors also state, some cases of more substantial
magnetopause displacements have been reported in the past
(several radii of the Earth). Transition processes, such as
oscillations of the magnetopause (e.g. Laakso et al. 1998) or
kinetic effects, could be responsible for the magnetopause
oscillation. Consequently their inclusion in the MHD models
could lead to better approximations of the evolutionary
changes of the terrestrial magnetosphere. From the above it
is clear that an improvement of the current models for the
circum-terrestrial space weather and an in-depth comparison
with the available data are necessary in the future. In such a
context, MHD simulations destined for the solar wind interac-
tions with the magnetospheres of planetary bodies other than
the Earth could be of great help since they provide an extended
range of variability for the various factors determining space
weather in the near-body environment. In particular, consider-
ing the evolution of the solar wind from 0 to 5 AU (see study
by Hanlon et al. 2004), a more complete set of solar wind
parameter values can be obtained and further used for
constraining the MHD models applied for the Earth case.

In the context of the circum-terrestrial space weather, a
phenomenon of particular interest is the magnetospheric
substorm, also referred to as auroral substorm or, simply,
substorm. A magnetospheric substorm is a transient process
initiated on the nightside of the Earth in which a significant
amount of energy derived from the solar wind-magnetosphere
interaction is deposited in the auroral ionosphere and in the
magnetosphere (Rostoker et al. 1980). The process consists
of the extraction of energy from the solar wind, the storage
of this energy in the magnetotail leading to an increase of
the lobe magnetic flux, the formation of a thin current sheet
within the tail plasma sheet, the disruption of the tail current
and the release of a plasmoid (Baker et al. 1999). From the
observational point of view, a substorm, contrary to a geomag-
netic storm, is seen primarily at the polar regions as a sudden
brightening and increased movement of the auroral arcs, taking
place over a period of a few hours. Although, the progress in
studying auroral substorms at Earth (consisting of the growth
phase, the expansion phase and the recovery phase) has been
substantial in the last 50 years, there are still several details
in the related physical mechanisms that have not been identi-
fied. In particular, according to Akasofu (2015), it is still not
understood how could the unloaded energy produce a
secondary dynamo, which powers the expansion phase of the
magnetospheric substorm. Some information that may be of
help for answering such open questions in a coherent frame
can be obtained also through the study of equivalent phenom-
ena in other planetary systems (where existent). For example,
Mercury has a high reconnection rate in the dayside with a
strong coupling between the solar wind and the magnetosphere
and there is evidence of nightside reconnection (Raines et al.
2014). Moreover, there is increasing evidence that internally
driven nightside (or tail) reconnection processes occur also in
the Jovian magnetosphere (Nishida 1983; Louarn et al. 1998;
Woch et al. 1998, 1999; Russell et al. 2000). To describe these
processes, Kronberg et al. (2005) have used the term
"substorm-like", whereas in other works the phenomenon is
also referred to as “Vasyliunas tail reconnection” process. Although the overall morphology of an internally driven nightside reconnection process in the Jovian magnetosphere appears at first sight very much similar to the terrestrial one (Kronberg et al. 2005), the observed disturbances at Jupiter seem to re-occur with a much longer characteristic time constant of 2–4 days (Louarn et al. 1998; Woch et al. 1998; Radioti et al. 2008b). This intrinsic periodicity has led to the suggestion that nightside reconnection processes in the Jovian system are not driven by solar wind-magnetosphere interactions but represent an internally-driven process (Kronberg et al. 2005). More specifically, at Jupiter, it is believed to be the centrifugal force on rapidly rotating, mass-loaded flux tubes leading to a thinning of the plasma sheet, which enables spontaneous reconnection (Vasyliunas 1983). Russell et al. (2000) analysed Galileo data of the Jovian current sheet and found that on the nightside of the magnetodisk beyond $50 R_J$ the strength of the perturbation in the normal component increases so that periodically (but approximately once every 4 h) the normal component rises above 2 nT, either northward or southward, and once a day, above 5 nT. These enhancements were attributed to episodic reconnection of confined patches of the near-Jovian magnetotail and clearly indicated that fast rotation of the Jovian magnetosphere produces important differences between Earth's magnetotail and Jupiter's magnetodisk. Nevertheless, the phenomenon is not yet completely understood as Vogt et al. (2010) showed that the origin of the nightside reconnection at Jupiter might not be only internal; there is also evidence of solar wind driven tail reconnection. On the basis of these findings and the results of other studies referring either to the Jovian system (e.g. Southwood & Kivelson 2001; Woch et al. 2002) or to the Saturnian one (e.g. Cowley et al. 2005; Jackman et al. 2009), it is clear that investigation on tail reconnection physics at magnetospheric systems other than the Earth's can provide important feedback for a better understanding of the substorm physical mechanisms at our own planet.

The study of planetary atmospheres other than the Earth's, and in particular the study of the role of plasma-neutral interactions in their evolution, could contribute to our understanding of the long-term space weather (referred to also as space climate) effects and finally the origins of life itself (Yamauchi & Wahlund 2007). Titan is particularly interesting in this respect, as its atmosphere is thought to resemble the prebiotic Earth (Molina-Cuberos et al. 2001).

In the outer Solar System the interactions between solar wind and planetary environment can be significantly influenced by the interstellar pick-up ions hence a detailed evaluation of the role of the latter at large distances from the Sun could be of help in understanding better such processes in the near-Earth space. In particular, the measurements of the interplanetary magnetic field fluctuations together with those of plasma and pick-up ion density variations, at different distances from the Sun, can provide information on the origin of turbulence in the solar wind and its evolution from its source to the heliopause. Comparative planetology in the context of planetary space weather will therefore allow to set constraints on the processes of energy transfer in different regions of the Solar System and hence to understand the mechanisms of the energy dissipation also in the circum-terrestrial space.

As an example of how results obtained through studies in planetary magnetosphere physics are essential for our understanding of terrestrial phenomena related to space weather, we point to the study of the ring current at Saturn by Krimigis

et al. (2007). These authors analysed images of the ring current at Saturn based on measurements from the magnetospheric imaging instrument (MIMI) on-board Cassini and found that the ring current can be highly variable with strong longitudinal asymmetries that corotate nearly rigidly with the planet. This result by Krimigis et al. (2007) contrasts with the Earth's ring current, where there is no rotational modulation and initial asymmetries are organized by local time effects. A comparative view, therefore, of the same phenomenon at two different environments within the Solar System can be essential for our in-depth understanding of the physical mechanisms which govern it.

## 5. Summary and concluding remarks

In this article, we attempted to present the current state of planetary space weather and to analyse future necessities. We first discussed the definition of planetary space weather and showed its in-depth relation to the interactions between environments and fields. We then examined its special characteristics at different regions of the Solar System, analysing the effects of solar wind, solar energetic particles, UV flux, cosmic rays, and magnetospheric populations, on planetary and lunar atmospheres.

Starting with the outer Solar System, we discussed the effect of a strongly tilted non-axial magnetic field in the case of Uranus and Neptune, leading to a series of open questions, including the one on the nature of the interaction of the magnetospheres with the moons. In the case of the Saturn system, our understanding on planetary space weather has been essentially improved thanks to extended observations of the Cassini mission. However, the interactions of Saturn's giant magnetosphere (and the associated currents) with the moons have not been yet fully investigated. Titan constitutes of course a major goal as its $N_2/CH_4$ atmosphere is dense hence subject to a series of short- and long-term interactions with the magnetospheric plasma and the UV environment. Moreover, Enceladus, a major source of water-ions and ionized water-products for the Saturn system, is expected to be a body of major interest in the context of planetary space weather. Approaching the Sun, Jupiter introduces a new step in the complexity, as it adds the interaction between the planet's magnetosphere and a magnetized body (Ganymede) within the same planetary system. Ganymede, the only known satellite possessing an intrinsic magnetic field, is strongly subject to space weather since variations in the plasma environment in its vicinity result in different morphologies of its sputter-induced exosphere. The radiolytically produced $O_2$ exosphere, as at Europa, is expected to depend not only on the plasma impacting the surface but also on the moon's illumination by the Sun (Plainaki et al. 2013, 2015). Therefore, the overall result of variable plasma conditions at the vicinity of these moons will be the effect of both space weather and the body's orbital motion. As a consequence, the Galilean moons along their orbit around Jupiter are expected to have exospheres with different morphologies which in any case get dynamically configured by the plasma source and loss processes (see for example Plainaki et al. 2013; Sittler et al. 2013). Some of the most intriguing open questions related to space weather in the outer Solar System are the following:

- How does the solar wind determine the strength and morphology of auroral features in the giant planets?
- What is the dependence of the atmospheric energy balance at giant planets on solar wind-magnetosphere coupling?

- What is the major plasma source at Neptune and which are the factors determining its variability? Are magnetospheric plasma motions at the distance of ~30 AU dominated by solar wind or planetary rotation?

- What are the global configurations of the magnetospheres of Uranus and Neptune and how do they determine plasma dynamics during different seasons and periods of solar activity?

- How do the plasma-neutral interactions at Titan compare with those at the Galilean satellites?

- How is space weather related to plasma-surface interactions at Ganymede?

- What is the role of internal exosphere sources (e.g. ice sputtering, gas plumes) in determining the actual space weather conditions around Europa?

The inner Solar System looks somehow more familiar. The atmospheric escape (existent also in the outer Solar System as well) is a major feature in need of a thorough exploration. Moreover, the inner Solar System provides a set of configurations (e.g. with or without a magnetic field, with or without an atmosphere), which are easier to observe from the Earth or from space. Mercury, the terrestrial planet that up to now has been investigated to a lesser extent, offers an excellent future possibility to study space weather in a region very close to the body's parent-star. Extreme conditions of solar wind, UV flux and surface temperature, in combination with patterns of plasma precipitation to the surface guided by Mercury's magnetic field, result in a dynamic exosphere configuration. Solar events such as CMEs and/or SEP events activate macroscopic planetary space weather phenomena; in fact, they have a direct and strong impact on Mercury's environment inducing planet reaction generating surface currents, induction effects, reconnection and flux transfer events, with variability timescales much shorter than the ones at the Earth's case. In this context, the future BepiColombo mission with two spacecraft and with its comprehensive payload, and in particular with the SERENA experiment on board the MPO spacecraft, will provide important feedback for characterizing space weather in Mercury's vicinity. Moreover, the study of the relation between the environments of Mercury and Venus with the Sun could be useful also for the interpretation of the observations of exoplanets, which are often located at close distances to their parent-star, hence in conditions similar to the ones at these two terrestrial planets. Some outstanding open questions related to space weather in the inner Solar System are the following:

- What is the cause-effect relationship between solar wind, surface-released particles and ions of planetary origin quickly accelerated at Mercury?

- If the current system in Mercury's magnetosphere closes onto the surface, given the absence of an ionosphere, which is the surface conductivity? Which is the role of induction as a response to solar activity?

- What is the role of GCR and SEPs in Venus' atmospheric chemistry and cloud formation during different conditions of solar activity?

In the current paper, we also discussed how feedback for answering several open questions related to planetary space weather can be obtained from the future ESA JUICE and

ESA/JAXA BEPI COLOMBO missions. As a conclusion, we would like to list some of the possible scientific objectives of hypothetical future missions related to space weather:

*In the outer Solar System*

- to determine the role of solar wind in auroral features in planetary and lunar atmospheres;

- to determine the role of solar wind in configuring the planetary magnetospheres, especially at large distances from the Sun and to understand the atmospheric energy balance and magnetosphere coupling at the giant planets;

- to understand plasma dynamics at different planetary systems during different seasons and periods of solar activity and to determine plasma sources and losses and their variability at short and long term;

- to understand the role of internal exosphere sources (e.g. ice sputtering, gas plumes) in determining the actual space weather conditions at the giant planet satellites.

*In the inner Solar System*

- to determine the cause-effect relationship between solar wind, GCRs, SEPs and surface-released (or atmosphere escaping) particles at the terrestrial planets;

- to understand the role of GCR and SEPs in atmospheric chemistry and possibly in cloud formation;

- to understand the role of space weather in the evolution history of terrestrial planets.

The first goal related to the achievement of such objectives could be the parameterization of both a series of physical quantities (and of their variations) determining the range and the intensity of space weather conditions and a series of quantities describing the actual resulting space weather phenomena at the vicinity of the Solar System body. Physical quantities belonging to the first category could be related to solar activity (SEP, CMEs, solar wind) and of course to the physical characteristics of bodies and planetary systems (e.g. dimension, dipole magnetic field, distance from the Sun etc.). Instead, physical quantities of the second category could be the body's magnetosphere morphology, the plasma density, composition and energy spectrum at the body's vicinity, the efficiency of surface-released material (in case of bodies with an exosphere), and the efficiency of the escape (in case of bodies with an atmosphere). The parameterized quantities of both categories would help to provide a first-order grouping of the related phenomena and to obtain feedback for determining the cause-effect relationship in space weather.

A strategy for investigating space weather in the entire Solar System is to select a series of instruments to send to different planets and to different zones in the heliosphere, in particular out of the ecliptic plane, in order to measure the solar wind, IMF or electric field at different solar latitudes. Due to the diversity of the planetary environments (e.g. in terms of energy and intensity ranges for the expected ion and electron populations), the best-suited instrument performances should be considered during each mission. Moreover, the payload instruments of a space mission devoted to space weather investigations (e.g. ion sensors, spectrometers etc.) should be selected in the best-suited configuration. Due to possible budget constraints, the number of instruments on board a spacecraft dedicated to planetary space weather
investigations need to be carefully considered. An indicative payload could include the following instruments:

* ion and neutral mass spectrometer;

* ENA imager;

* energetic particle detector;

* plasma wave instrument;

* magnetometer and electric field detector;

* simple diodes to analyse some features of the solar radiation and of the planetary emissions or, alternatively, a UV spectrometer.

What is of crucial importance is to have the instruments both calibrated and cross-calibrated. Moreover, it would be useful to have these instruments operating at periods where other missions are ongoing, in order to increase science output and perform multi-spacecraft studies.

The most critical aspects for the success of a hypothetical space weather mission in the outer Solar System are the availability of radioisotope-powered energy sources and the achievement of a decent data transfer rate. Solar panels for energy generation have been proposed in the past but they may not be feasible or practical at long distances from the Sun (Turrini et al. 2014). Americium-based thermoelectric generators are already under study in Europe (Ambrosi 2013). On-board data compression, installation of more stations on the ground and calibration of the data volume to be collected during different mission phases with an acceptable downlink rate could provide solutions to the problem of efficient data transfer rates.

*Acknowledgements.* The authors would like to thank the referee for valuable comments that helped to improve the quality of the paper. This paper is financially supported by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) under contract "SERENA", No. I/090/06/0. The idea for writing this article came out after a series of discussions in the context of the 11th European Space Weather Week (2014). JL's contribution is under the European contract EUROPLANET Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No. 654208, Task 4, package 7: VA1-PSWD (Planetary Space Weather and Diary) and under grant by the French Programme National de Planétologie. AR is supported by the PRODEX Programme managed by the European Space Agency in collaboration with the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office. Discussions in this paper have been partially performed in the context of the activities of the 2014 ISSI International Team #322, Towards a global unified model of Europa's exosphere in view of the JUICE mission, http://www.issibern.ch/teams/exospherejuice/. Simulation results based on the WSA-ENLIL+Cone model have been provided by the Community Coordinated Modeling Center at Goddard Space Flight Center through their public Runs on Request system (http://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov; run number: AlexeyIsavnin_011316_SH_1). The WSA model was developed by N. Arge at AFRL and the ENLIL Model was developed by D. Odstrcil at GMU. The authors thank G. Gronoff (LARC - NASA) and David Pawlowski (East Michigan University) for their help in getting the data for the Mars upper atmosphere, Mathieu Barthelemy (Grenoble University Space Center, France) for helpful discussions concerning space weather applications, Sergio Fabiani (INFN, Italy) and Alda Rubini (INAF-IAPS, Italy) for discussions on technological issues regarding future space missions, and Leila Mays (NASA) for providing material based on the WSA-ENLIL+Cone simulations. The authors also thank Chris Arridge (Lancaster University, UK) and Fran Bagenal (University of Colorado, USA) for useful feedback considering the magnetosphere of Uranus, Alessandro Mura (INAF-IAPS, Italy) and Helen Mavromichalaki

(National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece) for fruitful discussions on interplanetary physics and circum-terrestrial space weather, and Panayiotis Lavvas (CNRS, France) for providing feedback related to Titan atmospheric science. The editor thanks an anonymous referee for the assistance in evaluating this paper.

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