# Mid-to late Holocene palaeogeographic evolution of the Kalamas river delta, Epirus (Thesprotia), Greece

Antoine Chabrol, Pierre Stéphan, Georges Apostolopoulos, Kosmas Pavlopoulos, Adrien Gonnet, Eric Fouache

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Antoine Chabrol, Pierre Stéphan, Georges Apostolopoulos, Kosmas Pavlopoulos, Adrien Gonnet, et al.. Mid-to late Holocene palaeogeographic evolution of the Kalamas river delta, Epirus (Thesprotia), Greece. Quaternary Science Advances, 2024, 17, pp.100264. 10.1016/j.qsa.2024.100264. hal-04862024

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# Mid-to late Holocene palaeogeographic evolution of the Kalamas river delta, Epirus (Thesprotia), Greece

Antoine Chabrol<sup>a,*</sup>, Pierre Stephan<sup>b</sup>, Georges Apostolopoulos<sup>c</sup>, Kosmas Pavlopoulos<sup>a,d</sup>, Adrien Gonnet<sup>e</sup>, Eric Fouache<sup>a</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

### Keywords:

Delta

Geoarcheology

Geomorphology

ERT

Foraminifera

Epirus

## ABSTRACT

This paper examines the mid-to-late Holocene palaeogeographical evolution of the Kalamas river delta, the second largest delta in Epirus, Greece, which had previously lacked comprehensive palaeoenvironmental investigation despite its archaeological significance. Through an interdisciplinary approach, the research integrates geomorphological field surveys, Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) profiles, core drilling, sedimentological and microfaunal analyses, associated with radiocarbon dating. The findings reveal four significant phases in the delta's evolution. Initially, freshwater wetlands existed in the southeastern part of the delta until at least 7429-7280 cal. BP. Subsequently, around 6627-6402 cal. BP, a peak in marine transgression established predominantly shallow marine environments. By approximately 5590-5191 cal. BP, accelerated delta progradation led to the development of open and restricted lagoons, likely formed by extensive littoral barriers or sandy spits. From 1874 to 1719 cal. BP, during the Antiquity and particularly during the Roman period, terrestrial alluvial sedimentation became prevalent, with continued delta progradation in subsequent centuries.

These results provide crucial insights into the geomorphological processes that have shaped the Kalamas delta and emphasize the taphonomic biases induced by environmental changes and progradation processes, which may account for the apparent lack of surface archaeological remains—many sites may have been destroyed or buried under sediment.

## 1. Introduction

Over the past decades, numerous studies have provided a good understanding of the Holocene palaeogeographic evolution of the coastal plains in Greece, particularly in Peloponnese (e.g. Zangger, 1994, 1991; Fouache and Dalongeville, 1998; Engel et al., 2009), in Aetolia-Acarnania (e.g. Vött et al., 2006, 2007; Fouache et al., 2005), in Macedonia (e.g. Koukousioura et al., 2012, 2019; Ghilardi et al., 2008a; 2012), in Thrace (e.g. Mayoral et al., 2024; Koukousioura et al., 2012, 2020), in Crete (e.g. Ghilardi et al., 2019) and in Epirus (e.g. Besonen et al., 2003; Kapsimalis et al., 2005). These studies provided important data and information of the interplay between natural environment and human occupation, adaptation and sometimes resilience (Salomon et al., 2024). Across the Mediterranean, the archaeological significance of

these coastal plains is therefore well established. Combining various essential resources, such as freshwater and easily accessible low-lying coastlines, they may have served as refuge areas for human groups at different times and were gradually more permanently settled, and in some cases modified, beginning in the Neolithic and especially during the Bronze Age and Antiquity (Fontana et al., 2017). Due to the combined effects of sea-level rise, marine dynamics, progradation processes and erosive crises in upstream catchment areas, the morphology of these low-lying coastal areas has evolved to the extent that archaeological sites have sometimes been destroyed or buried, occasionally under several meters of sediment, thereby introducing significant biases in the representativeness of archaeological sites and surface surveys.

The Kalamas delta (also locally known as *Thyamis*), located in northwestern Greece eastward of the island of Corfu, is the last delta in

<footnote><sup>a</sup> Sorbonne University, dept. of Geography, UR « Médiations, Sciences des lieux, sciences des liens », Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> CNRS, Univ. Brest, Nantes Université, Université de Rennes, LETG, UMR 6554, Plouzané, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> National Technical University of Athens, Section of Mining Engineering, Zographou Campus, 15780, Athens, Greece</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi, Geography and Planning dpt. SAFIR, United Arab Emirates</footnote>

<footnote><sup>e</sup> Institut National de Recherches Archéologiques Préventives, INRAP Grand Est, UMR CNRS 6266 IDEES, France</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author.</footnote>

<footnote>E-mail address: chabrol.antoine@yahoo.com (A. Chabrol).</footnote>
Epirus whose main stages of Holocene evolution have never been studied. Yet, the archaeological implications are significant: remains dating back at least to the Bronze Age have been discovered on the hill of Pyrgos Ragiou, and important ancient cities, such as Gitana and Lygia were occupied from the Archaic to the Roman period. Since these sites are located either on hills within the delta or along its margins, much of the true history of regional landscapes associated with these settlements remains unknown (Christophilopoulou, 2002). Understanding the main geomorphological processes that shaped the plain and the successive stages of the Kalamas delta's evolution could help for better comprehending the distribution of regional archaeological remains. This study, based on an interdisciplinary approach combining geomorphological field surveys, ERT geophysical profiles, core drillings, sedimentological and micropaleontological analyses and radiocarbon dating, is the first attempt to reconstruct the Mid-to Late Holocene palaeogeographic evolution of the Kalamas delta and represents a significant step in the archaeological research in Epirus.

## 2. Physical setting and human occupation

### 2.1. Regional setting

The Kalamas Delta is located in Thesprotia (Epirus), to the east of the Straits of Corfu, directly across from the island of the same name

(Fig. 1A). The straits is a narrow marine environment characterized by smooth and regular seafloor, with a maximum depth of approximately 90 m (Papathanassiou and Zenetos, 2005). At the delta, the straits reaches a width of about 20 km.

This delta is the northernmost on the Epirus coast. Covering an area of approximately 85 km², it is the second-largest delta in Epirus, following the delta formed by the coalescence of the Arachtos and Louros rivers in the Gulf of Ambracia (±350 km²) (Kapsimalis et al., 2005; Poulos et al., 2005), and the Acheron River delta (±20 km²) (Besonen, 1997; 2003).

The area is part of the complex Ionian geotectonic unit. Its margins are characterized in the north and east by Triassic evaporites and breccias beneath Jurassic and Cretaceous carbonates, with Eocene flysch overlying them (Pe-Piper et al., 2021; Ntokos, 2017, Ntokos, 2018a; Waters, 1994; Aubouin, 1959).

The Kalamas River delta is an atypical example, classified as an "arcuate" delta. Its coastal front is characterized by marshy lagoons and sandy beaches and spits, shaped by a low tidal range (~30 cm) and coastal dynamics dominated by fluvial processes. However, recent developments, particularly the construction of an upstream dam in 1962, have significantly altered its structure (Chabrol et al., 2022). The current human-modified river mouth now resembles a "bird's foot" delta, likely due to the redistribution of deltaic sediments.

The formation of the Kalamas delta shares common factors with

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1.** Location map of the study area. A/The Kalamas and the extent of its watershed. B/Simplified lithology in the catchment area of the river. C/Satellite image of the delta (Google Earth, 2024) showing the location of the boreholes and the known and excavated archaeological sites.</figcaption></figure>
other Greek deltas: a favorable regional climate with substantial rainfall, a watershed with highly erodible lithology (Fig. 1B) and steep topography that enhances erosion. Uniquely, the delta developed within the sheltered Corfu Straits, away from strong Ionian Sea currents, allowing long-term sediment accumulation and delta progradation (Perissoratis and Conispoliatis, 2003). Several limestone massifs of varying sizes and altitudes are now embedded within the delta's sediments, including Mount Mavronoros (±500 m), Mastiltsa Hill (±140 m), the Pyrgos Ragiou promontory (±75 m), as well as other smaller massifs (Fig. 1B and C).

The Kalamas river's catchment area covers roughly 1750 km² and is largely composed of sedimentary rocks, including limestone, flysch, gypsum, and detrital deposits such as conglomerates, breccia, and finer alluvial sediments, all within the Ionian zone (IGRS-IFP, 1966) (Fig. 1B). In its watershed, the river cuts through numerous gorges and steep valleys, with ridges often exceeding 1000 m in height (Aubouin, 1959). The delta's limited size relative to its catchment area is influenced by tectonic activity; the Kalamas crosses several valleys and grabens, notably the Neraida and Vrisella basins (Ntokos, 2018b), which acted as sediment traps during the Quaternary period (Bousquet, 1976; Ntokos, 2017). As a result, much of the river's coarse sediment is deposited upstream, while the suspended sediment load fluctuates seasonally, with heightened erosion during dry-season rainfall (Mimikou, 1982).

## 2.2. Human occupation and archaeology (Fig. 1C)

The human occupation of the Kalamas delta dates back at least to the Bronze Age, with its significance growing during Antiquity (Dakaris, 1972; Vassiliadis, 2008). Three major archaeological sites have been identified within the area: the fortress of Pyrgos Ragiou, perched atop a rocky hill, which saw continuous habitation from the Bronze Age (3rd to 1st millennium BCE) (with some late neolithics artifacts) through to the Ottoman period (Palli, 2019; Kanta-Kitsou, 2009); Mastiltsa hill, where the remains of an archaic temple have been uncovered at its summit (Kanta-Kitsou, 2008); and the fortified city of the Lygia peninsula (identified as “Toroni”, the ancient colony of Corfu by Thucydides), occupied during the Classical and Hellenistic periods (Spanodimos, 2019) and likely hosting an ancient harbor (Nakas, 2024). A notable feature of these settlements is their elevated positions on hills, which safeguarded them from the sedimentary processes of the delta. The constantly shifting river and coastline during the Holocene present a significant challenge for archaeological research, as numerous sites may have either been destroyed or buried deep beneath the river's alluvial deposits (Chabrol et al., 2023; Fontana et al., 2017; Ghilardi et al., 2012). Consequently, it is probable that much of the history of human occupation in the Kalamas delta remains unknown to archaeologists today (Christophilopoulou, 2002; Hammond, 1967). The Roman era remains, such as cemeteries and settlements, are substantial but are all situated on the edges of the delta (Antoniadis, 2016; Vassiliadis, 2008). In more recent times, the coastal region became a hub for salt production, particularly in Sagiada, and this activity persisted for several centuries. The 20th century saw extensive drainage and irrigation projects, including the construction of the Rago dam in 1962, aimed at expanding agricultural land and reducing flooding (Krina et al., 2020). Currently, this area is primarily used for fruit production.

## 3. Materials and methods

In order to characterize the subsurface stratigraphy and spatial distribution of sedimentary layers, seven ERT profiles were conducted. The locations of ten boreholes were strategically selected based on a combination of geomorphological mapping and ERT data. To achieve a comprehensive lithostratigraphic analysis and to develop palaeogeographic reconstructions of the coastal plain, sedimentological and macro-and microfaunal analyses of the cores were then performed along with radiocarbon dating.

### 3.1. Cartographic data and geomorphological mapping

Based on the work of Chabrol et al. (2022), a detailed geomorphological map was developed through a combination of remote sensing, cartographic analysis, and field surveys. Fundamental topographic information was sourced from 1:50,000 and 1:5000 scale maps provided by the Hellenic Military Geographical Service. Historical aerial photographs, obtained from a series of photographic surveys conducted by both the Hellenic Military Geographical Service and the Royal Air Force between 1945 and 1995, were also used. Remote sensing data, including Quickbird, Landsat, and Spot images, were employed to generate moisture and vegetation indices, facilitating the mapping of ancient channels and wetlands. A robust regional geological framework was established using geological and hydrogeological maps from IGME (Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration) and the IFP (French Institute of Petroleum). All these datasets, along with a 1.5 m/pixel DEM obtained from the Hellenic Ministry of Environment, were integrated into QGIS, forming the foundation for subsequent field surveys.

A series of field surveys were conducted to accurately identify and map geomorphological features. These on-site investigations were crucial for validating and refining the observations derived from satellite and aerial imagery (Pavlopoulos et al., 2009). The Kalamas river and the intermittent streams along its margins were meticulously surveyed on foot with a DGPS, with any changes in their hydrodynamics or sediment deposition precisely georeferenced. The analysis of land parcel orientation enabled the clear delineation of alluvial fan boundaries. In regions where coastal access was impeded by extensive swamps and the absence of pathways, high-resolution images captured by low-altitude drone flights allowed for a detailed examination of coastal morphology. Additionally, valuable information was gathered from local farmers, particularly regarding water resources and the spatial organization of agricultural plots according to soil types.

### 3.2. Electric resistivity tomography lines (ERT)

Electrical resistivity surveying has proven its efficacy as a method for characterising subsurface structure mainly identifying sediments of different grain size, clayey content, compaction and sea water intrusion in coastal areas in diverse environmental and archaeological research domains (Desruelles et al., 2023; Trebsche et al., 2022; Niebieszczański et al., 2019; Siart et al., 2012; Gaffney, 2008). Seven 180-m-long ERT sections (Table 1) were measured using an ABEM Terrameter SAS 1000, with an electrode spacing of 2.5 m. The ERT sections 1, 3, 4, and 2 are aligned along a West/East axis in the northern part of the delta, near Mastiltsa hill. Sections ERT 5 and 6 are located upstream of the delta, while section ERT 7 is situated to the northwest of the rocky promontory of Pyrgos Ragiou (Fig. 3). The collected ERT data were processed and interpreted with RES2DINV software (Loke and Barker, 1996) producing the 2D resistivity sections of the subsurface.

### 3.3. Coring and facies interpretation

Ten percussion cores, each with a diameter of 6 cm (CT1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,

<table><caption>Table 1
GPS coordinates in UTM WGS84 of the ERT sections.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">ERT line ID</th><th colspan="2">starting point</th><th colspan="2">end point</th></tr><tr><th>X</th><th>Y</th><th>X</th><th>Y</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ERT1</td><td>N39.59375</td><td>E20.21434</td><td>N39.59259</td><td>E20.21577</td></tr><tr><td>ERT2</td><td>N39.59206</td><td>E20.22708</td><td>N39.59201</td><td>E20.22940</td></tr><tr><td>ERT3</td><td>N39.59103</td><td>E20.21655</td><td>N39.59124</td><td>E20.21885</td></tr><tr><td>ERT4</td><td>N39.59167</td><td>E20.22280</td><td>N39.59195</td><td>E20.22517</td></tr><tr><td>ERT5</td><td>N39.58167</td><td>E20.24262</td><td>N39.57993</td><td>E20.24325</td></tr><tr><td>ERT6</td><td>N39.58388</td><td>E20.24140</td><td>N39.58247</td><td>E20.24283</td></tr><tr><td>ERT7</td><td>N39.53845</td><td>E20.20283</td><td>N39.53698</td><td>E20.20390</td></tr></tbody></table>
8, 9, and L2 & L3) (Figs. 1 and 3), were extracted from the delta and their elevation was measured using a DGPS (Table 2). The coring locations were selected based on local geomorphological contexts. Three cores (L2, L3, and CT9) were taken along ERT sections to enable the correlation of geophysical profiles with sediment types. The investigation focused on three main areas (transects) (Fig. 3): the northern zone (transect A-A'), extending from the delta's entrance to the west of Asprokkliisi village; transect B-B', located in the southern part of the delta near Pyrgos Ragiou; and transect C-C', positioned in the eastern part of the delta, distant from the current Kalamas river course. In the field, all cores were photographed, and an initial classification of the stratigraphic units was made based on sediment texture and color (using the Munsell code). Gaps created by compaction were recorded on the logs and corrected afterward. Sedimentary facies description based on local geomorphological interpretations provide essential palaeoenvironmental information (Mayoral et al., 2024; Rick et al., 2022; Devillers et al., 2019). Several sedimentary facies associated with distinct depositional environments and processes were found in the cores (Fig. 2). However, this first approach was also completed by sedimentological analyses. Indeed, basing the entire palaeoenvironmental interpretation solely on the identification of sedimentary facies can be misleading without grain size analysis, it is, for example, difficult to distinguish coarse alluvial sand deposits from coarse barrier beach sand deposits by visual inspection alone.

## 3.4. Sedimentological analyses

### 3.4.1. Laser grain size analyses and magnetic susceptibility

The sediment fraction larger than 2 mm was manually sieved using a range of sieve sizes, while the fraction smaller than 2 mm was analyzed using a Coulter LS 230 laser granulometer. Grain size measurements were conducted at specific intervals: every 10 cm for the alluvial facies and every 5 cm in some cases for lagoonal and marine deposits. Each sample was weighed and dried for 24 h at 40 °C, with organic matter removed through a 4-h $H_2O_2$ treatment. The particles were then dispersed using 0.1% sodium hexametaphosphate and left in a deionized solution for 4 h. Before measurement, each sample was subjected to 4 min of ultrasonic treatment. Given the predominantly fine to very fine grain sizes, measurements were taken at an obscuration level of 5%–10% and a PIDS (Polarization Intensity Differential Scattering) range of 45%–55%. The statistical analyses were conducted using GRADISTAT v 8.0 (Blott and Pye, 2001).

Magnetic susceptibility is employed to detect mineralogical variations within visually homogeneous stratigraphic units. Variations in sediment magnetism can reveal mechanical or chemical alterations during grain deposition or sedimentation processes (Ghilardi et al., 2008b). The measurements were conducted using a Bartington MS2/MS2K dual frequency sensor (at low and high frequencies) every 2 cm, directly on both the cores and the core-catchers.

<table><caption>**Table 2**
Location and depth of the cores.</caption><thead><tr><th>Core ID</th><th>X</th><th>Y</th><th>Surface elevation (cm)</th><th>Core max. depth (cm)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>CT1</td><td>39°36'36.20"N</td><td>20°12'47.60"E</td><td>311</td><td>1050</td></tr><tr><td>CT2</td><td>39°36'2.28"N</td><td>20°13'30.30"E</td><td>512</td><td>1250</td></tr><tr><td>CT3</td><td>39°32'8.94"N</td><td>20°13'20.76"E</td><td>31</td><td>1150</td></tr><tr><td>CT4</td><td>39°31'44.72"N</td><td>20°13'53.71"E</td><td>30</td><td>850</td></tr><tr><td>CT6</td><td>39°32'18.48"N</td><td>20°12'23.46"E</td><td>122</td><td>1050</td></tr><tr><td>CT7</td><td>39°32'24.70"N</td><td>20°11'44.20"E</td><td>169</td><td>1050</td></tr><tr><td>CT8</td><td>39°33'25.26"N</td><td>20°14'12.96"E</td><td>81</td><td>1050</td></tr><tr><td>CT9</td><td>39°34'51.30"N</td><td>20°14'33.10"E</td><td>818</td><td>700</td></tr><tr><td>L2</td><td>39°35'33.49"N</td><td>20°12'46.19"E</td><td>483</td><td>650</td></tr><tr><td>L3</td><td>39°35'29.74"N</td><td>20°13'18.51"E</td><td>605</td><td>1000</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 3.5. Microfaunal/mollusc analyses

The study of benthic foraminifera was conducted on 100 samples, each 3–4 cm thick, collected from cores CT2, CT3, and CT7 (Fig. 1). The sediments were wet-sieved at 63 µm, oven-dried at 40 °C, and treated with trichloroethylene to concentrate foraminifera, ensuring 300 individuals per sample for counting whenever it was possible. Species identification followed the classification of Loeblich and Tappan (1987) and was informed by previous studies on the current distribution of benthic foraminifera in Mediterranean coastal environments (Cimerman and Langer, 1991; Abu-Zied et al., 2008; Albani et al., 1998; Bergamin et al., 2009; Serandrei Barbero et al., 2004; Sgarella and Moncharmont Zei, 1993) and in Greece specifically (Avramidis et al., 2013; Debenay et al., 2005; Koukousioura et al., 2011, 2012, 2019, 2020; Nixon et al., 2009; Triantaphyllou et al., 2005, 2021, 2022; Emmanuelidis et al., 2020; Kontopoulos and Koutsios, 2010; Dimiza et al., 2016, 2019; Desruelles et al., 2023; Weinmann et al., 2023; Drinia et al., 2010). Planktonic foraminifera were also counted to determine their proportion (%) using formula $[P/(P + B)]$ (Zwaan et al., 1990), where P is the number of planktonic individuals and B is the number of benthic specimens. Fractional abundance of each benthic foraminifera species was calculated for all samples. Qualitative analysis was performed on all samples, but quantitative analysis was limited to 64 samples. About 15 samples were entirely barren of foraminifera, while in around 20 samples, planktonic foraminifera dominated, and the number of benthic individuals was insufficient (<50 individuals) for quantitative analysis. Additionally, the tests in these samples showed signs of mechanical fragmentation, likely due to transport or reworking of the sediment post-deposition. Although the presence and density of broken or reworked benthic foraminiferal species represent a useful paleoenvironmental proxy for reconstructing hydrodynamic conditions (e.g. Pavlopoulos et al., 2018), these specimens were excluded from the statistical analysis.

A Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis was performed using PAST software (version 4.13, Hammer and Harper, 2001) to define distinct groups with specific environmental significance. To simplify the matrix, only the 18 species present in a proportion greater than 5% in at least one sample were retained, as recommended by Patterson and Fishbein (1989), Di Bella et al. (2008). The method chosen for hierarchical classification uses the squared Euclidean distance as a measure of similarity and Ward's method as the rule for data grouping. This approach has the advantage of constructing a dendrogram that distinctly isolates homogeneous groups (clusters) and sub-groups (sub-clusters) in terms of assemblages and is commonly used in studies focusing on foraminifera (Albani et al., 1998; Bergamin et al., 2009; Carboni et al., 2010; Debenay et al., 2005; Di Bella et al., 2008; Koukousioura et al., 2011, 2012; Nixon et al., 2009; Emmanuelidis et al., 2020).

Biodiversity indices, commonly used for characterizing past and present environments, were also calculated using PAST software. Biodiversity reflects the health of an ecological system or the degree of environmental stress it experiences in terms of temperature variations, salinity, among other factors. A biodiversity index quantifies the observed diversity with a single figure, providing additional insights into the environments associated with the studied biological communities. Several indices can be derived from the same set of observations. In this study, two indices were utilized.

The Simpson index (Dominance Index or D) ranges from 0 (all species are present in equal proportions) to 1 (a single species dominates the community). The D index is calculated as: $D = \frac{sum(ni/n)^2}{ni}$, where ni is the number of individuals of species i, and n is the total number of individuals. It thus measures community evenness from 0 to 1.

The Shannon index (Shannon index or H) is based on the number of individuals and the number of taxa present within a sample. It starts at 0, where communities consist of only one taxon, and can reach higher values when communities have many taxa but with few individuals. It is calculated as: $H = sum[(ni/n) \ln(ni/n)]$.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2.** Selected examples of the main sedimentary facies (SF) identified in the cores of this study. A/Freshwater wetlands/pond: bedded clay and plant remains. B/Shallow marine: grey silty clay with marine malacofauna. C/Lagoonal with marine influences: dark clay with marine shells. D/Closed lagoonal: massive grey clay without malacofauna. E/Lagoonal: grey silty clay with lagoonal shells. F/Beach barrier complex: coarse grey sands with silts. G/Marsh, transitional between lagoonal and terrestrial environments: grey clay with oxidation marks. H/Peat. I/Fine alluvial deposits: mainly silts and fine beige sands. J/Alluvial fan deposits: coarse sand.</figcaption></figure>

The identification of the main ostracod species found in the samples was conducted without a significant counting process and only in Core CT3. These results were incorporated into the qualitative analysis. The same approach was applied to mollusks: species were simply identified and described.

### 3.6. AMS dating

A total of 10 AMS radiocarbon datings (on drills CT2, 3, 4, 7, 8) were performed with the Beta Analytics Carbon Dating service. Dated material include three marine shells, six terrestrial plant remains and peat and one dating of carbonates contents. The results were calibrated at 2σ using the intCal20 atmospheric curve for the plant remains samples and the MarineCal20 curve for 3 marine shell samples (DeltaR = 158 ± 60) (Heaton et al., 2020; Reimer et al., 2020), using the OxCal v.4.4 program.

## 4. Results

### 4.1. Geomorphology (Fig. 3)

The deltaic plain mainly consists of fine-grained sediments. Very coarse alluvial materials, such as gravels and boulders, are naturally

deposited in two large depressions just upstream. Before the construction of the Ragio dam in 1962, the Kalamas river formed an extensive alluvial fan in its eastern part, characterized by a gently sloping topography with elevations ranging from 12 to 6 m. This alluvial fan is clearly visible in aerial photographs and today landscape (Fig. 1.3). Additionally, two smaller alluvial fans are situated near the villages of Asproklisi and Sagiada to the north. Similar to other mediterranean deltaic plains, the river's course has undergone significant alterations over time (Vött et al., 2006; Fouache et al., 2005; Gaki-Papanastassiou et al., 2011). Before 1962, the river's mouth was located southwest, between the Mavron-Oros hill and the Lygia peninsula. Frequent floods caused the river to meander, making the surrounding plain partly unsuitable for agriculture. Remnants of these old meanders, such as accretion point bar ridges, are still visible on the ground. Aerial photographs from 1945 show that the delta was prone to flooding, particularly in its south-eastern regions, creating extensive swamp areas. Infrared SPOT images also indicate the presence of small palaeo-channels near Pyrgos Ragiou hill and the former river mouth. The 1962 dam construction redirected the river into a straight channel between the Mavron-Oros and Mastilitsa hills, where it is now confined by large embankments. The former meanders have dried up and are gradually being converted into agricultural land (Chabrol et al., 2022).

The geometry of the coastline is influenced by three main factors: the
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 3.** Simplified geomorphological map of the Kalamas delta and location of the core transects and ERT profiles. Geological data are extracted from IGME and IFP 1/50000 maps.</figcaption></figure>

migration of the river mouth (alluvial dynamics), the redistribution of sediments by waves and sea currents (longshore drift), and, more recently, anthropogenic activities. The delta features four distinct coastal landforms: marshes, lagoons, rocky coasts, and sandy beaches.

In the northern part, between Mastilitsa and Sagiada, the coastline consists of shallow marshes composed primarily of clay and mud. This area is somewhat isolated from the historical river mouth due to the north-south longshore drift, leading to low sediment transport and the formation of vegetated beds that vary in size with sea currents. Additionally, salt marshes can be found near the port of Sagiada. The rocky coasts are found near the Mavron-Oros hill and the Lygia peninsula, where limestone massifs plunge directly into the sea, interrupted only by pocket beaches. The historic river mouth features broad sandy spits that are continually reshaped by wave action. In the southern part of the delta, lagoons are separated from the Gulf of Igoumenitsa by the Drepano sandspit.

Analysis of aerial photographs from 1945 to 2018 reveals that much of the coastline is now experiencing erosion and soil salinization, like many mediterranean deltas (Anthony et al., 2014, 2015). It should also be noted that, despite significant regional tectonic activity (Pirazzoli et al., 1994; Mastronuzzi et al., 2014; Finkler et al., 2018a), no geomorphological features, such as uplifted or submerged notches, have been observed in the area.

## 4.2. $^{14}$C AMS dating

The ten radiocarbon dates obtained range from 16471 to 16045 CalBP for the oldest to 1738–1590 CalBP for the most recent. With the exception of the oldest date, all fall within the chronological range of the Middle to Late Holocene. The results are presented in Table 3.

Among the six samples of plant remains, two were obtained from peat (sample CT8SCC in core CT8 and sample CT3D25 in core CT3). Sample CT3W40 in Core CT3 was obtained from plant remains in a lacustrine environment. The samples CT3R (in core CT3) and CT7Q10 (in core CT7) were obtained from plant remains in lagoonal and shallow marine environments.

The dated lagoonal shells are considered living at (or very close to) the water–sediment interface.

The issue of the validity of the dates is crucial, particularly in deltaic environments where marine and alluvial dynamics can be significant and sedimentary reworking is frequent (Mayoral et al., 2024; Novak A., 2024; Fischer et al., 2016; Anthony, 2015). The samples obtained from peat, lacustrine plant remains, and lagoonal shells are considered reliable as they are *in situ*. It is more challenging to determine the *in situ* nature of the dated plant remains in lagoonal and shallow marine environments. For this reason, we consider the provided ages to constitute a *terminus post quem* (TPQ) for the upper layers.

Regarding the chronocultural attribution of the dates (Fig. 4), six samples range from the Middle Neolithic to the end of the Final
<table><caption>**Table 3**
AMS<sup>14</sup>C radiocarbon dates calibrated using OxCal (v4.4.4) with the IntCal20 and MarineCal20 calibration curves.</caption><thead><tr><th>Core</th><th>Sample code</th><th>Sample name</th><th>Depth in core (cm)</th><th>Depth amsl/ bmsl (cm)</th><th>Material</th><th>Conventional 14C Age BP</th><th>Delta_R</th><th>Δ13C</th><th>2σ Cal. BP</th><th>2σ Max and Min Cal. Age</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>CT2</td><td>BETA-322108</td><td>CT2T35</td><td>950</td><td>-438</td><td>shell</td><td>5290 ± 30</td><td>158 ± 60</td><td>-3.6</td><td>5590-5191 CalBP</td><td>3700 BCE 3314 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>CT2</td><td>BETA-323204</td><td>CT2K37</td><td>238</td><td>274</td><td>Shell</td><td>2300 ± 30</td><td>158 ± 60</td><td>1.6</td><td>1946-1529 CalBP</td><td>5 CE 423 CE</td></tr><tr><td>CT3</td><td>BETA-322109</td><td>CT3J40</td><td>570</td><td>-539</td><td>shell</td><td>5180 ± 30</td><td>158 ± 40</td><td>0.2</td><td>5548-5159 CalBP</td><td>3599 BCE 3210 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>CT3</td><td>BETA-322111</td><td>CT3W40</td><td>1140</td><td>-1109</td><td>plant material</td><td>6640 ± 40</td><td>/</td><td>-23</td><td>7578-7431 CalBP</td><td>5629 BCE 5488 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>CT3</td><td>BETA-323201</td><td>CT3D25</td><td>215</td><td>-184</td><td>peat</td><td>1890 ± 30</td><td>/</td><td>-24.2</td><td>1874-1719 CalBP</td><td>76 CE 231 CE</td></tr><tr><td>CT3</td><td>BETA-291689</td><td>CT3R</td><td>825</td><td>-794</td><td>plant material</td><td>5710 ± 40</td><td>/</td><td>-25.2</td><td>6627-6402 CalBP</td><td>4678 BCE 4453 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>CT4</td><td>BETA-323203</td><td>CT4T36</td><td>840</td><td>-810</td><td>carbonate sed.</td><td>13490 ± 60</td><td>/</td><td>-3.5</td><td>16471-16045 CalBP</td><td>14522 BCE 14096 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>CT7</td><td>BETA-323202</td><td>CT7J33</td><td>290</td><td>-121</td><td>plant material</td><td>1780 ± 30</td><td>/</td><td>-27.6</td><td>1738-1590 CalBP</td><td>213 CE 361 CE</td></tr><tr><td>CT7</td><td>BETA-291688</td><td>CT7Q10</td><td>750</td><td>-581</td><td>plant material</td><td>4920 ± 40</td><td>/</td><td>-25.8</td><td>5730-5587 CalBP</td><td>3781 BCE 3638 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>CT8</td><td>BETA-291690</td><td>CT8SCC</td><td>985</td><td>-904</td><td>peat</td><td>6460 ± 40</td><td>/</td><td>-26</td><td>7429-7280 CalBP</td><td>5480 BCE 5331 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 4.** Chronocultural attribution of the ten radiocarbon dates, according to Cavanagh et al. (2016) for the archaeological chronology. Blue-coloured samples (shells) were calibrated with Marine20.</figcaption></figure>

Neolithic, and three correspond to the Roman and Byzantine periods. The absence of the Bronze Age and early Antiquity in the dated samples likely reflects a lack of sampling rather than an environmental reality; the development of lagoons during the Bronze Age is well documented in Greece and the Mediterranean area (Chabrol et al., 2023; Fontana et al., 2017; Emmanouilidis et al., 2018, 2022)

### 4.3. Geophysical survey

Three main zones were surveyed (1, 2, and 3) (Fig. 3). In three cases, a core was associated with the ERT line (Core L2 with ERT1, Core L3 with ERT4 and Core CT9 with ERT5) (Fig. 5). The comparison between sedimentary facies and variations in resistivity values provided a better understanding of the nature of the subsurface deposits and greatly assisted in their geomorphological interpretation.

#### 4.3.1. Zone 1: ERT1, 3, 4, 2 profiles (Fig. 5)

In ERT 1, 3, 4, and 2, resistivity values ranging from 15 to 25 Ωm are

primarily located near the surface. The thickness of these deposits is ranged from approximately 5 m in ERT1 to 30 m in the eastern part of ERT2. The sediments corresponding to these values in cores L2 and L3 consist of beige silts, which are typical of fine deltaic alluvial deposits (Mayoral et al., 2024). The thickness of these deposits decreases from east to west. Resistivity values between 30 and 50 Ωm in core L2 are associated with coarse sands and small gravels. These values appear at depths starting from 5 m in ERT1 and at around 10 m in two zones west of ERT3. The highest resistivity values (between 50 and 200 Ωm) are predominantly found in ERT1, forming a relatively homogeneous layer situated between 10 and 20 m deep. No core samples are available to determine the exact composition of this layer. However, the very high resistivity values suggest the presence of coarse sediments (such as sand and/or gravels). Given that the ERT1 profile is located downstream of the Kalamas River, these resistivity values (also found in the ERT 2 profile) can be associated with coarse alluvial deposits corresponding to a former course of the Kalamas river. These deposits could be the remains of the Late-Glacial or Early Holocene river. It is also worth noting
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 5. ERT profiles and associated cores CT9, L2 and L3.</figcaption></figure>
that the agricultural field where the ERT1 measurements were taken contains numerous (undated) ceramic fragments on the surface, suggesting the possibility of a buried archaeological structure that does not appear on the profile. Conversely, the lowest resistivity values (ranging from 5 to 15 Ωm) in the final meter of core L3 correspond to massive grey clay sediments containing some marine shell fragments. These homogeneous shallow marine/lagoonal deposits, saturated with seawater, are found at the base of ERT3 and especially in ERT4 and ERT2, starting at approximately 10 m depth.

### 4.3.2. Zone 2: ERT6 and ERT5 profiles (Fig. 5)

ERT6 and ERT5 are located on the Kalamas alluvial fan, upstream of the delta. Their resistivity values are generally high. The lowest values (ranging from 12.5 to 20 Ωm) are found at the surface of ERT6. These shallow deposits, less than 4 m thick, are situated near the current course of the Kalamas and correspond to alluvial silty sediments. Apart from these surface deposits, ERT6 and ERT5 primarily exhibit high resistivity values, ranging from 30 to 250 Ωm, indicating coarse sedimentation over a thickness of nearly 30 m. This type of sedimentation is also observed in the last 4 m of Core CT9: the granulometric values and the unimodal and well-sorted grain size distribution of the samples (Folk & Ward method, *Folk and Ward, 1957*) clearly indicate coarse alluvial deposits (Fig. 10). In ERT5, the highest resistivity values may correspond to the solid load (cobbles and boulders) of palaeochannels, possibly corresponding to the Late Glacial or Early Holocene alluvial fan.

### 4.3.3. Zone 3: ERT 7 (Fig. 5)

ERT7 shows mainly low resistivity values, ranging between 5 and 15 Ωm. These values likely correspond to fine, homogeneous clayey sediments, similar to those observed in ERT4 and Core L3. The profile's location, much further downstream in the delta, suggests that these deposits are of a lagoonal or shallow marine nature. In the southeastern part of the profile, a few shallow and well-defined zones (between 3 and 6 m deep) display slightly higher resistivity values (15–20 Ωm), which may correspond to minor fine alluvial deposits (palaeochannels?). It is also important to note the presence of significantly higher resistivity values in the northwestern part of the profile, between 20 and 30 m deep, ranging from 40 to 50 Ωm.

## 4.4. Benthic foraminiferal analysis

From samples analyzed in sediment vibracores, we found a relatively high diversity in benthic foraminifera with 47 species in total assemblages. The number is lower than in other studies on the modern distribution of foraminiferal assemblages in adjacent coastal waters. For example, Weinmann et al. (2023) reported 200 species from various shallow seabed around the island of Corfu. Dimiza et al. (2016) identified 78 species from very shallow sites in three gulfs of the western Aegean Sea, and Dimiza et al. (2019) found 78 species in front of the port docks of Drapetsona-Keratsini (Saronikos Gulf). In general, the foraminiferal fauna is dominated by calcareous, hyaline-wall species, common in the Mediterranean shallow marine waters (Jorissen, 1987; Murray, 2006; Carboni et al., 2010; Koukousioura et al., 2012, 2019; Dimiza et al., 2016, 2019; Weinmann et al., 2023). *A. tepida*, *A. beccarii*, *A. parkinsoniana*, *Aubignyna perlcida*, and *H. germanica* dominate the assemblages. *Globigerinoides* spp. is the only planktonic foraminifera found in a few samples in significant proportions (69% in sample CT3-E19). The dendrograms obtained from Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis displays two major clusters (clusters A and B) subdivided into sub-clusters (A1, A2, B1, B2, B3, B4) grouping samples with similarities in foraminiferal species composition (Fig. 6).

### 4.4.1. Cluster A (near-shore assemblages)

The **cluster A** groups samples with a large proportion of miliolids, in association with numerous other open-marine species. In details, **sub-**

cluster A1 exhibits assemblages dominated by miliolids (9–56%) and *A. tepida* (11–28%). Mean values of diversity indices are relatively high (α-Fisher = 5.6; Simpson D = 0.21; Shannon H' = 2), associated with the presence of numerous species typical of shallow waters (*Elphidium* spp., *E. crispum*, *E. pulvereum*, *Rosalina* spp., *Rosalina bradyi*, *Nubecularia lucifuga*, *Asterigerinata mamilla*, *Planorbulina mediterranensis*, *Neconorbina* spp., *Florilus boueanum*, *Glandulina* spp.) and the circalittoral zone (*Cibicides pseudoungerianus*, *Planulina ariminensis*, *Textularia* spp., *Lenticulina* spp., *Uvigerina* spp., *Lagena* spp.). Epiphytic and photophilic taxa (i.e. *Cibides lobatulus*, *Planorbulina mediterranensis*, and *Neconorbina terquemi*) are typically found in close proximity to a well-developed vegetative or algal mat (Murray, 2006). Currently, miliolids are distributed preferentially on sandy substrates within or at the periphery of extended seagrass beds of the Corfu island (Weinmann et al., 2023) where high amounts of eroded and drained carbonates together with relatively quiet environments favour the proliferation of porcelanous foraminifera. Associated with sandy-silty to silty sediment in the cores, the assemblages of sub-cluster A1 are indicative of shallow near-shore environments with low hydrodynamic energy.

The **sub-cluster A2** also exhibits assemblages dominated by miliolids (7–27%) in association with *A. tepida* (14–41%) and *H. germanica* (5–22%). Diversity indices are relatively high (Fisher-α = 6.2; D = 0.15; H = 2.2). *Textularia* spp. is also present in high proportion (27%) in some samples (i.e. CT3-E3 and CT3-E4). This species is generally found in open marine seafloor environments (Culver and Buzas, 1980) and reflects a stronger marine influence. Epiphytic species such as *Rosalina bradyi*, *Nubecularia lucifuga*, *Asterigerinata mamilla*, *Planorbulina mediterranensis*, and *Cibides lobatulus* are also present. In association with miliolids, these species may indicate the proximity of seagrass beds. Sub-cluster A2 is interpreted as representing a well-oxygenated, vegetated nearshore environment with low to moderate hydrodynamic conditions.

### 4.4.2. Cluster B (lagoon assemblages)

The **cluster B** include samples with assemblages dominated by the *Ammonia* spp. and *H. germanica*, which are indicative of more challenging ecological conditions associated with open to more restricted lagoon environments (Fig. 6).

The **sub-cluster B1** displays open-lagoon assemblages dominated by *A. tepida* (15–51%), *A. beccarii* (12–42%), and *H. germanica* (11–51%). They are characterized by very low diversity indexes (α-Fisher = 1.3; D = 0.31; H = 1.3). *A. perlcida*, found in well-oxygenated open-lagoon waters (Jorissen, 1987; Koukousioura et al., 2012) is also present in smaller proportions (5–26%).

The **sub-cluster B2** includes assemblages dominated by *A. tepida* (32–55%) and *A. parkinsoniana* (6–20%). The association of these two dominant species is typical of shallow transitional waters in back-barrier and deltaic environments (Amorosi et al., 2005, 2008). Diversity indices are relatively high (α-Fisher = 6.1; D = 0.24; H = 1.9), as the assemblages also include secondary contributions from miliolids (0–14%) and *Nonion* spp. (0–12%). Miliolids indicate shallow, sandy substrates under low-to moderate hydrodynamic conditions, while *Nonion* spp. is typically found in eutrophic, organic-rich, and low-oxygen coastal waters (Murray, 2006; Avramidis et al., 2013). These ecological conditions are generally found in open lagoon environments, where organic matter accumulates locally (Murray, 2006).

The **sub-cluster B3** comprises assemblages predominantly dominated by the species *A. tepida* (52–74%) and *H. germanica* (8–21%). *A. tepida* is an opportunistic taxon tolerant to a wide range of salinity and temperature conditions, typically found in lagoonal and near-shore environments (Almogi-Labin et al., 1995; Frontalini et al., 2010; Jorissen, 1987; Koukousioura et al., 2012; Melis and Violanti, 2006; Koukousioura et al., 2012, 2019, 2020). Conversely, *H. germanica* is a euryhaline species predominantly found in lagoonal environments (e.g., Jorissen, 1987; Murray, 2006; Koukousioura et al., 2019, 2020). These two species consistently account for an average of 75% of the assemblages.
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 6.** Dendrogram of Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis (Ward's method) on the basis of the relative frequencies of the main foraminifera species.</figcaption></figure>
However, diversity indices are relatively high (α-Fisher = 4.9; D = 0.41; H = 1.4), related to the presence of numerous other secondary taxa such as *Elphidium* spp., *Glandulina* spp., *Textularia* spp., *Bulimina* spp., and *Uvigerina* spp. These taxa are indicative of shallow environments rich in organic matter. *E. excavatum* is also an euryhaline species typically found on muddy to sandy shallow lagoonal substrates. *E. williamsoni* is abundant where food resources are abundant in shallow muddy tidal flats and low saltmarshes along the Atlantic coast (Horton and Edwards, 2006). The genus *Bulimina* spp. is found across a wide range of coastal environments, from inner lagoons to sandy bottoms of some open bays (Albani et al., 1998). Bolivinids and uvigerinids are considered opportunistic taxa, often dominating assemblages in eutrophic environments (Abu-Zied et al., 2008). Thus, sub-cluster B3 represents assemblages reflecting shallow, nutrient-enriched environments with abundant organic matter, likely corresponding to lagoonal settings characterized by low hydrodynamic conditions and limited marine influence.

The **sub-cluster B4** consists almost exclusively of assemblages dominated by *A. tepida* (54–79%) and *A. beccarii* (13–27%). Diversity indices are notably low (α-Fisher = 1.1; D = 0.44; H = 1.09). A few samples also exhibit a significant proportion of *H. germanica* (8–13%). These assemblages, composed of euryhaline species, are characteristic of inner restricted lagoons and deltaic shallow waters subjected to high environmental stress, particularly regarding salinity and temperature fluctuations (Koukousioura et al., 2012, 2019). Proximity to salt marsh environments is evidenced by the occasional presence of agglutinated specimens such as *Trochammina inflata* and *Jadammina macrescens* in some samples.

## 4.5. General stratigraphy of the deltaic plain

The sediment sequence in the Kalamas delta along the three transects of cores is composed of seven main stratigraphic units (SU) (Fig. 10). From the base to the top, the following units have been identified: (1) SU1 is a shelly grey clay with abundant and bedded plant remains and peat; (2) SU2 is a grey silty-clay with shell remains; (3) SU3 corresponds to grey sandy silts with shell remains; (4) SU4 is a medium to coarse and homogeneous grey sand; (5) SU5 is composed of grey and beige fine silts and clay; (6) SU6 is peat; (7) SU7 is formed with beige and brown silts, sands or small gravels.

### 4.5.1. Core CT2

Core CT2 consists of a succession of 11 sedimentary facies (SF, Fig. 7), associated with four main stratigraphic units (SU, Fig. 10). From 7.38 to 4.9 m b.s., the base of the core (SF1) is composed of fine grey clayey silts (Fig. 7). The foraminiferal assemblages (samples CT2-28 to CT2-41) are primarily dominated by *A. tepida* (15–51%), *A. beccarii* (12–42%), and *H. germanica* (11–51%) and are found within sub-cluster B1 (Fig. 6) reflecting an open-lagoon environment.

From 4.9 to 2.6 m b.s., the sediment facies SF2 and SF3 (Fig. 7) are composed of silts with a higher sand fraction. SF2 (from 4.9 to 4.6 m b.s.) is rich in malacological remains, such as *Bittium reticulatum*, *Nassarius reticulatus* and *Cerithium vulgatum*. The top of SF2 is dated to 5590-5191 cal. BP. The foraminiferal assemblages in SF2 (samples 20 to 27) are composed almost exclusively of *A. tepida* (54–79%), *A. beccarii* (13–27%) *H. germanica* (8–13%) corresponding to sub-cluster B4 (inner restricted lagoon) (Fig. 6). The proximity to salt marshes is suggested by the presence of *Trochammina inflata* and *Jadammina macrescens* in samples CT2-E28 and CT2-E30.

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.** CT2 core and results of sedimentological, macro- and microfaunal analyses.</figcaption></figure>
From 2.6 to 0.7 m b.s., SF4, SF5 and SF6 are mainly composed of grey to beige silty deposits (Fig. 7). The foraminiferal abundance is very low, and diversity indexes show a high variability. Strong variations in magnetic susceptibility values were also recorded, that indicate a progressive sedimentary infill of a lagoon, possibly associated with marshes development that were periodically flooded and then filled by alluvial sediments from the Kalamas river.

The upper part of the core (SF7 to SF11) is composed of beige sandy silts. These facies correspond to the fine alluvial sediments of the Kalamas River associated with the progradation of the delta. Fairly regular magnetic susceptibility values reflect low hydrodynamic depositional conditions. The increase of the fine sand fraction in some layers in SF8 (~2 m b.s.) is interpreted as the sedimentological signature of minor flood events in this part of the delta. SF9 contained a few undetermined ceramic fragments (around 2.9 m b.s.) and is dated to 1946-1529 cal. BP (Fig. 7).

### 4.5.2. Core CT3

Core CT3 consists of a succession of 16 sedimentary facies (Fig. 8), associated with five main stratigraphic units (Fig. 10). From 11.19 to 9.70 m b.s. (SF1, Fig. 8), the base of the core is composed of grey silty clay, alternating with numerous plants remains and bedded peat deposits. No foraminifera were found. However, some specimens of *Succinea putris*, *Valvata* sp. as well as fragments of *Helicidae* sp. were encountered. These two gastropod species are associated with freshwater wetland environments. The base of SF1 is dated to 7578-7431 cal. BP. This facies is also found at the base of Cores CT8 and CT4 in the same transect. In CT8, it is dated to 7429-7280 cal. BP (Fig. 10).

From 9.70 to 6.20 m b.s., SF2 to SF7 present some disparities. SF2 and SF3 (9.7–7.8 m b.s.) are primarily composed of fine silty sands. The

malacofauna is mainly represented by the species *Bittium reticulatum* and *Nassarius reticulatus*, both of which are typical of open marine environments (Ghilardi et al., 2008a). The foraminiferal assemblages are dominated by *A. tepida* and miliolids, indicative of near-shore environment (sub-cluster A2) (Fig. 6). The top of SF3 is dated to 6627-6402 cal. BP. SF4 (7.9–7.85 m b.s.) corresponds to a thin sandy layer with high values of magnetic susceptibility and an absence of foraminifera (Fig. 8). This facies is also found at similar elevations in cores CT3 and CT8 (Fig. 10) and may indicate an episodic and localized alluvial sediment influx in the southeastern part of the delta. SF5 to SF7 facies (7.85–6.2 m b.s.) correspond to finer, mainly silty deposits. The malacofauna *Bittium reticulatum* and *Cerithium vulgatum* are still present, and the foraminiferal assemblages are characterized by the dominance of miliolids and *A. tepida* species, along with high diversity indices, indicative of shallow, low-energy marine environments.

From 6.20 to 2.45 m b.s., SF8 to SF10 mainly consist of homogeneous sandy-silty deposits containing numerous plant remains and shells. The SF8-SF9 transition is dated to 5548-5149 cal. BP. The low variability of magnetic susceptibility values recorded on these deposits suggest calm environmental conditions. The malacofauna mainly consists of lagoonal species such as *Cerastoderma glaucum* and *Cerithium vulgatum*. The foraminiferal assemblages primarily correspond to cluster A1 (Fig. 6) and are dominated by miliolids (9–56%) and *A. tepida* (11–28%). Diversity indices are high, due to the presence of numerous species associated with shallow environments. These assemblages are characteristic of near-shore to open-lagoon environments with silty substrates, significant vegetation cover, and variable sedimentation rates.

From 2.45 to 1.10 m b.s., SF11 is composed of peat, which is associated to the closure of the lagoon and its transformation into a freshwater wetland environment, as reflected by the malacofauna (*Helicidae*

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8.** CT3 core and results of sedimentological, macro- and microfaunal analyses.</figcaption></figure>
sp.). This deposit is dated to 1874-1719 cal. BP and is also found in cores CT4 and CT8 (Fig. 10).

From 1.10 m b.s. to the surface, the upper part of the core (SF12 to SF16) is composed of beige sandy silts with high density of plant remains. These deposits correspond to SU7 and are associated with the aggradation of the delta plain (Fig. 10).

### 4.5.3. Core CT7

Core CT7 consists of a succession of 7 sedimentary facies (Fig. 9), associated with three main stratigraphic units (Fig. 10). From 8.80 to 7.2 m b.s., SF1 is composed of homogeneous grey silty clay containing some specimens of *Cerastoderma edule*. The associated foraminiferal assemblages correspond to the sub-cluster B2 (open lagoon assemblages), in which *A. tepida* (32–55%) and *A. parkinsoniana* (6–20%) are dominant (Fig. 6). SF2 (7.2–6.2 m b.s.) consists of coarser sandy sediments, indicating a brief period of higher-energy sedimentary input. The associated foraminiferal assemblages also correspond to sub-cluster B2, although diversity indices are significantly lower than the averages observed in this unit. SF3 and SF4 (6.2–3.6 m b.s.) are composed of silty sands. SF3 is dated to 5730-5587 cal. BP. The foraminiferal assemblages correspond to sub-cluster B3 (Fig. 6) associated to open-lagoon environment. This stratigraphic unit SU2 is composed of homogeneous coarse sands similar to SU4 in core CT6 (5.4–9.3 m b.s.) (Fig. 10). This deposit may correspond to flood delta sediment associated to a tidal inlet.

SU5 (3.6–1.1 m b.s.) is composed of two facies (SF5 and SF6) consisting of fine beige silty deposits with alternating grey clay layers. No foraminifera or malacofauna were found within this unit. The magnetic susceptibility values are low and regular. These deposits are similar to the facies of SF4 to SF6 in core CT2 and are associated to the lagoon sediment infill by alluvial supplies related to the development of the

Kalamas delta plain. The transition between SF6 and SF7 is dated to 1738-1590 cal. BP. Finally, SU7 (from 1.1 m b.s. to the surface) consists of beige silty terrestrial deposits (SF7, Fig. 10) corresponding to the progradation of the delta during historical period.

### 4.5.4. SU4: beach barrier deposits: supplementary sedimentological data

Stratigraphic unit SU4 was found only in core CT6, from the bottom to 5.5 m b.s. It is composed of medium to coarse grey sands (Fig. 2, sediment facies F). Based on facies interpretation, the hypothesis of an alluvial deposit from a former course of the Kalamas river could be considered. However, the granulometric values (D50 around 125 µm and first mode around 223 µm) and the multimodal and poorly-sorted grain size distribution (Folk & Ward method) of the samples clearly indicate wave reworked sediments, typical of beach-barrier deposits (Fig. 10, core CT6).

## 5. DISCUSSION

### 5.1. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Kalamas delta

#### 5.1.1. 7578-7431 cal. BP and before: a marine environment with freshwater wetlands in the south-eastern part of the delta (Fig. 11A)

The chronostratigraphic starting point for our palaeogeographic reconstructions is provided by the dating of plant remains at the base of the CT3 core. The sedimentological characteristics of this unit (SU1), along with the associated malacofauna, indicate freshwater wetlands deposits. These facies were also found at equivalent depths in cores CT4 and CT8. The dates obtained in CT3 (7578–7431 cal. BP) and from a peat sample in CT8 (7429–7280 cal. BP) do not correspond to the formation of these wetlands, as the base of the unit was not reached. In CT4, the dating of the contact between the freshwater wetlands sediments and

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9. CT7 core and results of sedimentological, macro- and microfaunal analyses.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 10.** Stratigraphic cross-section of transects A-A', B-B' and C-C'.</figcaption></figure>

the geological basement at the bottom of the core is much older: 16471–16045 cal. BP (Fig. 8). However, it is impossible to consider this as the formation date of these wetlands as well, as the dating was performed on carbonates from the sample rather than on organic material. At these dates, the Holocene marine transgression is at its peak and all the limestone hills (such as Mastilitsa or Mavron Oros) are then islands. The presence of more or less deep freshwater ponds is not uncommon in deltaic environments, as shown by the Loudias palaeolake in the Thessaloniki plain (Ghilardi et al., 2008; 2012) or the Acherousian palaeolake in the Acheron delta (Besonen et al., 2003). In the case of the Kalamas, these deposits are located in an area protected by the surrounding hills. The southward redistribution of river sediments by the long shore drift may have also favored the development of these wetlands by keeping them isolated from marine environments. Due to the granulometry of the deposits (mainly clay and fine silts), it is unlikely that the Kalamas river directly discharged into these wetlands. They were likely fed by runoff and local karstic springs located nearby (Nikolaou et al., 2011)

### 5.1.2. 6627-6402 cal. BP: near-shore and open lagoon environment associated with the beginning of deltaic progradation (Fig. 11B)

Sedimentary deposits typical of near-shore and open lagoon environments are present in transects A-A' and C-C'. Two dates provide chronological constraints for this type of environment: 6627-6402 cal. BP in core CT3 (SF3) and 5590-5191 cal. BP as a *terminus post quem* in CT2 (Fig. 10). In transect A-A', the study of foraminifera indicates a lagoon environment that is open to the sea and well-oxygenated. In transect C-C', near-shore sediments, associated with marine malacofauna are present in cores CT3 and CT4. However, the marine transgression did not reach CT8. The freshwater wetlands were eventually submerged, possibly through breaches in coastal barriers. Nonetheless, the foraminiferal study indicates low-energy marine environments (dominated by *A. tepida* and miliolids) somewhat distinct from the northern part of the delta. Shortly after 6627-6402 cal. BP, a thin sandy

deposit entirely covers the area in cores CT3, CT4, and CT8 (Fig. 10). This sudden sedimentary event, devoid of marine malacofauna, may have resulted from a flood of the Kalamas river, indicating that the delta progradation processes were well underway. The limestone hills, such as Mastilitsa, Mavron Oros, and Pyrgos Ragiou, however, are still islands.

### 5.1.3. 5590-5191 cal. BP: a lagoon environment during most of the Bronze Age (Fig. 11C)

Sediment deposits associated to open-lagoonal environments are uncovered in all transects and varies slightly depending on its location within the delta. The formation of a lagoonal environment requires partial isolation from marine dynamics. Typically, a coastal barrier or sand spit, formed by the redistribution of alluvial sediments by littoral drift, is sufficient to create a lagoon in a deltaic context (Anthony, 2015). Given that coastal barriers are inherently mobile and linked to delta progradation, accurately reconstructing the palaeogeography of these environments is challenging. However, in transect B-B', a layer of homogeneous coarse sands (Fig. 2 F) was identified between 5.4 and 9.30 m b.s. in core CT6 (Fig. 10). This unit likely corresponds to a coastal barrier. Numerous other sandy barriers likely existed elsewhere in the delta, particularly at the river's mouth, as is still the case today (Chabrol et al., 2022). Some of these barriers may have been submerged or eroded due to storms and marine currents. The open-lagoon deposits in CT7, dated to at least 5730-5587 Cal. BP, may be associated with the coastal barrier at CT6, which at some point ceased to function and was submerged. In transect C-C', the near-shore deposits (dated to 5548-5149 Cal. BP in CT3) are present in all three cores. This date constitutes a *terminus post quem*, allowing the consideration of similar environments for the Bronze Age. However, the succession of clayey deposits and peat layers, sometimes nearly a meter thick in CT8, indicates that this area was regularly infilled or dried up in this part of the delta. In the northern section (transect A-A'), the restricted lagoonal deposits (dated to 5590-5191 Cal. BP in CT2) are characteristic of a shallow, protected environment, likely shielded by sandy barriers that have since been
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 11.** Palaeogeographic reconstructions of the Kalamas delta since 7578-7431 cal. BP.</figcaption></figure>
eroded. These restricted lagoonal environments persisted from the Late Neolithic to the end of the Bronze Age, during which the islands of Mastilitsa and Pyrgos Ragiou were likely accessible on foot.

### 5.1.4. *Around 1874-1719 cal. BP: the clogging of the lagoons and the progradation of the delta (Fig. 11D)*

The infilling of the lagoons occurred gradually during the Bronze Age. In all cores, SU5 corresponds to a transitional period between the lagoonal and the terrestrial alluvial deposits of the Kalamas river. In CT2, the progressive decrease in the number of foraminifera (Fig. 7) likely indicates the presence of intermittent marshes, at times influenced by lagoonal conditions, and at other times infilled by deltaic progradation. The development of a terrestrial environment did not proceed at the same rate across all areas. In CT7, sedimentation becomes definitively alluvial around 1738-1590 Cal. BP. (Figs. 9 and 10). In contrast, the facies dated to SF9 in CT2 is older (1946-1529 Cal. BP): the position of this date in SU7 is relatively high topographically, and nearly 3 m of alluvial sediment had already been deposited in this part of the delta (Fig. 7). Terrestrial environments, therefore, first developed in the northern part of the delta. The alluvial sedimentation in the delta is mainly composed of silts and fine sands, with coarser deposits found in the alluvial cone (CT9) at the river's entrance into the plain (Fig. 10). It is challenging to precisely define the river's course within the deltaic plain during these periods, as lateral meandering likely occurred frequently during floods. The hills of Mastilitsa, Mavron Oros, and Pyrgos Ragiou are now connected to the mainland and are thus largely accessible on foot. However, the southeastern part of the delta remained relatively isolated from alluvial dynamics; here, the near-shore environment was replaced by thick peat deposits starting from 1874 to 1719 Cal. BP (Fig. 10). The near absence of alluvial sedimentary deposits above the peat suggests that this area constituted an extensive marsh.

### 5.2. *About the presence of planktonic foraminifera in CT2 and CT3*

The presence of planktonic foraminifera (Globigerinoides spp) in the lagoonal deposits of CT2 (SF3) (Fig. 7), as well as those found in the shallow marine deposits of CT3 (SF2) (Fig. 8), raises questions, as these species are typically found farther offshore at relatively significant depths (Murray, 1976). In a deltaic environment, such occurrences may be related to local tectonic events, accompanied by a temporary increase in sediment supply or brief detrital phases (Avramidis et al., 2013). They may also be associated with tsunamis (Vött et al., 2009; 2011). Regionally, recent studies have demonstrated that the eastern coast of the island of Corfu, opposite the Kalamas, was impacted by palaeotsunamis during the Holocene (Fischer et al., 2016; Finkler et al., 2018b, 2018a; Georg et al., 2024). In our case, it seems that the presence of planktonic foraminifera in some samples of CT2 and CT3 is not tsunami-related: the tests of benthic and planktonic foraminifera show no signs of transport or reworking in these samples. However, the existence of palaeotsunami traces in the Kalamas delta cannot be ruled out from this study and should be the subject of dedicated research.

### 5.3. *The palaeogeographic evolution of the Kalamas delta: a significant bias for the archaeological research*

The archaeological significance of Greek coastal plains is well established. These interface zones have been intensively occupied since the Palaeolithic era. Combining various essential resources for survival, such as freshwater and easily accessible low-lying coastlines, they may have served as refuge areas for human groups at different times and were gradually more permanently occupied, and in some cases modified, beginning in the Neolithic and especially during the Bronze Age. However, in the case of the Kalamas delta, the evidence of this ancient habitation presents a paradox: where are the archaeological sites? No surface remains have been discovered in the deltaic plain. Their detection is complicated by the delta's progradation processes and related

environmental changes, which may have led to the destruction or the burial of many sites (Chabrol and Fouache, 2022). It is then crucial to consider these taphonomic biases in field research. The chronostratigraphy of the plain allows for the formulation of hypotheses regarding the preservation of archaeological remains and their depth of burial.

- Potential Neolithic sites

The operational dates of the freshwater wetlands within the C-C' transect (Fig. 10) correspond to the Middle Neolithic period (±5800-5300 BCE). Although no Neolithic pottery fragments were found in the cores, the existence of a Neolithic settlement in this part of the delta is plausible. Neolithic lacustrine habitats are well documented in the Korçë Basin in Albania (Touchais et al., 2024). The remains, if they exist, might be located at approximately 11 to 8 m b.s. in this section of the delta and could have been preserved by fine sedimentation.

- Potential Bronze Age (Helladic) sites (±3200-±1050 BCE)

Although no direct dating in this study specifically refers to the Helladic period (±3200-1050 BCE), the earliest and latest dates available, as well as their positions within the core samples, suggest that lagoonal environments mainly predominated during this period. Early Helladic settlements within lagoons have already been documented in mainland Greece (Chabrol et al., 2023). In the delta, such settlements could potentially be found between 3 and 8 m below the surface along transect A-A' and between 3 and 5 m b.s. around CT3 (Fig. 10).

- Potential ancient sites (from archaic times to roman Greece (±6th century BCE-±3rd century CE))

Ancient remains (from the Archaic to the Roman period) are not absent in the region, particularly on the hills of Mastilitsa, Pyrgos Ragiou, and the Lygia peninsula. In the plain, ancient remains could potentially be found between 2 and 5 m below the surface along transect A-A'. In the southern part of the delta, near CT7, such remains are unlikely, as this area was still a transitional lagoonal/terrestrial zone during Late Antiquity.

## 6. Conclusion

This article provides new insights into the palaeogeographical evolution of the Kalamas delta during the mid-late Holocene. This delta, the second largest in Epirus, had never been the subject of palaeoenvironmental studies. At first, the geomorphological field documentation combined with ERT geophysical profiles, revealed different types of sedimentary deposits, classified according to their resistivity, offering an initial understanding of the internal structure of a portion of the delta. Laboratory analysis of cores (sedimentological and foraminiferal analyses), along with ¹⁴C dating, allow us to propose four major phases of delta evolution. Freshwater wetlands existed in the southeastern part at least until 7429-7280 cal. BP (until Middle to Late neolithic). Around 6627-6402 cal. BP, marine transgression reached its maximum, and the environments were predominantly marine. By approximately 5590-5191 cal. BP, and throughout the entire Bronze Age, delta progradation accelerated, leading to the development of relatively open and restricted lagoons, likely formed by extensive littoral barriers or sandy spits. From 1874 to 1719 cal. BP (Roman times) (and even earlier depending on the river's course within the delta), the terrestrial alluvial sedimentation becomes permanent, and the delta continued to prograde in the following centuries. From an archaeological perspective, this study also highlights taphonomic biases induced by environmental changes and progradation processes, thus explaining the apparent absence of surface archaeological remains—many sites may have been destroyed or buried.
CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Antoine Chabrol:** Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. **Pierre Stephan:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. **Georges Apostolopoulos:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation. **Kosmas Pavlopoulos:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation. **Adrien Gonnet:** Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, Investigation. **Eric Fouache:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Antoine Chabrol reports financial support and article publishing charges were provided by Sorbonne University. Kosmas Pavlopoulos reports a relationship with Sorbonne University that includes: employment. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the French School of Archaeology at Athens, the MEDEE program (French Ministry of Foreign Affairs) led by Eric Fouache for funding the ¹⁴C dates and Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi for their financial support (Project 3644). The sedimentological (grain size and magnetic susceptibility) analyses were carried out with the support of UMR CNRS 8591 (Laboratoire de Géographie Physique) and the study of foraminifera was made possible with the support of UMR CNRS 6554 LTEG. We would also like to thank the IGME for providing us a drilling permit in the delta along with the 32nd Thesprotia Ephorate of Antiquities that was really supportive since the beginning of this project, along with Prof. G. Philippakis from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. We are also really grateful to S. Brousse, T. Beuzen, B. Chabrol, A. Creuzieux, A.- M. Desiderio, J.-B. Léger, R. Perrier, B. Taviot and Dr. Konstantinos Leontarakis and Mr. George Amolochitis (members of the NTUA Applied Geophysics Lab) for their help on the field and during the drilling missions and A. Anagnostopoulou for the support. We finally express our thank to Prof. Neil Glasser and the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful suggestions that helped to significantly improve this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qsa.2024.100264.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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