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Résumé étendu et continu en français

L'extraction minière peut être la source et la cible de risques positifs (i.e. opportunités) et négatifs (i.e. pertes) de différentes natures, qui généralement dépassent le périmètre des sites miniers eux-mêmes et affectent le système socio-écologique dans lequel les projets miniers sont installés. De plus, les dégradations socio-environnementales possiblement liées au secteur minier (e.g. pollution des eaux et des sols, érosion, déforestation, impacts sanitaires) peuvent entrainer des tensions sociales et des mouvements d'oppositions ; elles représentent donc un risque entrepreneurial pour les compagnies minières (e.g. sanctions, retards, suspension ou révocation des titres miniers).

Le secteur minier doit ainsi répondre à une demande croissante en matières premières, tout en faisant face à des défis environnementaux et sociaux considérables. Puisque le développement socio-économique ne doit pas compromettre l’intégrité socio-environnementale, le concept de « durabilité » a été intégré au fur et à mesure au secteur minier à travers l’adoption de pratiques et de performances visant à maximiser les effets positifs de l’activité extractive, tout en réduisant ses effets négatifs. Cette évolution est rendue possible par l’intégration de nouvelles performances socio-environnementales ou de « développement durable », qui viennent s’ajouter aux performances traditionnelles des opérateurs miniers (e.g. faisabilité technico-opérationnelle, viabilité financière). Ces nouvelles performances sont consacrées par de nombreuses initiatives nationales et internationales, telles que le Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), les Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), les Principes de l’Equateur ou encore le Responsible Mining Index (RMI).

La dimension territoriale du(es) projet(s) minier(s) et des risques qui y sont associés implique donc qu’un ou plusieurs projets miniers soient évalués en fonction de leur contribution positive ou négative au système socio-écologique dans lequel ils sont installés : ainsi, un projet minier doit être considéré comme un enjeu d’aménagement territorial plutôt que comme un simple objet industriel isolé (Figure 1). Ce changement de paradigme implique non seulement l’appréhension de la dimension technico-opérationnelle du ou des projets miniers (e.g. taille du projet, nombre et types d’infrastructures minières, nombre d’employés, techniques minières utilisées) mais également la description précise du système socio-écologique (i.e. le territoire) dans lequel ces activités sont réalisées, tant dans ses caractéristiques que dans ses fonctions. L’intégration territoriale des projets miniers soulève ainsi des enjeux d’ordre foncier, concernant les modalités d’aménagement et d’occupation du sol dans un territoire donné, et également d’ordre (géo)politique, relatif aux dynamiques de gouvernance et de marché global des ressources minières. En effet, le fait de développer ou ne pas développer un ou plusieurs projets miniers dans un territoire implique aussi des choix politiques.
Cette thèse esquisse une autre façon d'aborder cette problématique, en proposant une approche pluridisciplinaire pour comparer, sur la base de leur niveau de risque, différents scénarios de développement minier et aider ainsi la prise de décision en matière d'aménagement territorial. Pour rendre cette approche opérationnelle, nous construisons ici un cadre méthodologique permettant l'analyse des risques miniers à l'échelle territoriale.

Les risques des projets miniers sont aujourd'hui évalués par différentes méthodes d'étude d'impact ou d'analyse de risques, qui sont souvent basées uniquement sur les objectifs des projets miniers, sans considérer dans le détail la vulnérabilité socio-écologique du territoire où ces projets sont installés. De plus, elles sont souvent appliquées sur un projet à la fois, en négligeant la dimension cumulative des risques liés à plusieurs projets - de différents types et natures - coexistant sur le même territoire. Il existe néanmoins des approches « multi-projets », mais celles-ci sont basées uniquement sur les objectifs intrinsèques aux projets. Enfin, à notre connaissance, ces différentes méthodes sont développées pour le secteur industriel *lato sensu* et ne prennent donc pas bien en compte les spécificités de l'activité minière. Enfin, dans d'autres cas, comme par exemple dans les analyses de cycle de vie, les projets miniers sont considérés comme des « boites noires » dont on néglige la variabilité technique.

Pour ces raisons, le cadre méthodologique développé dans cette thèse vise à intégrer à la fois la coexistence de plusieurs projets miniers de différentes tailles et natures, la vulnérabilité socio-écologique du territoire d'installation, la variabilité de la nature des risques, mais également la perspective des parties prenantes dans une optique d'aide à la prise de décision.
<figure><img src="image_77.png" /></figure>

Figure 1 Les projets miniers comme enjeu d'aménagement territorial et éléments d'un système socio-écologique plus large.
La faisabilité de l'approche proposée dans cette thèse et du cadre méthodologique qui l'accompagne est testée sur le cas de l'exploitation aurifère en Guyane. Ce territoire français d'outre-mer, situé en région amazonienne entre le Surinam et le Brésil, permet de prendre en considération la coexistence de différents projets miniers légaux et illégaux de différents types, tailles et utilisant différentes techniques dans un contexte socio-écologique particulièrement vulnérable, avec un couvert forestier occupant plus de 90% de sa surface.

La méthode proposée se distingue par cinq étapes principales (Figure 2), de la création de scénarios miniers territoriaux (SMT) à l'évaluation de ceux-ci sur la base de leur niveau de risque global.

<figure><img src="image_78.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2 Cadre méthodologique simplifié de l'approche proposée dans cette thèse.</figcaption></figure>

Notre premier objectif est de comparer entre eux ce que nous appelons des **scénarios miniers territoriaux (SMT)**, c'est-à-dire différentes stratégies de développement et d'aménagement territorial basés aussi sur les ressources minérales du sous-sol (Figure 3). Les SMT se composent de deux éléments qui sont appréhendés de façon détaillée pour que l'analyse des risques soit pertinente :

- Un système territorial ou socio-écologique, c'est-à-dire l'unité spatiale (e.g. commune, région, bassin versant) dans laquelle le système minier est localisé,

- Un système minier, représentant une combinaison de projets miniers, en différent nombre et types, installés dans le système territorial choisi.

La définition du système territorial – nous avons choisi le bassin versant du fleuve Mana à titre d'exemple dans cette thèse – est réalisée à partir d'une vaste collecte de données et de plusieurs visites sur le terrain. Quant à lui, le système minier est défini sur la base d'une classification multicritères (Scammacca et al., 2021), qui distingue et détaille quatre grandes catégories de projets miniers « types » existant ou potentiels en Guyane : mines illégales primaires ou secondaires, mines légales artisanales secondaires, mines légales de taille moyenne, mines légales de grande taill). Ces « mines-types » sont distinguées sur la base de différents critères : réglementation, type de gisement géologique exploité, techniques d'exploitation et de traitement, surface du site minier, etc.
La création des SMT nécessite la définition préalable d'objectifs territoriaux que les SMT visent à satisfaire, par exemple : un niveau donné d'emploi lié au secteur minier, de production annuelle de matières premières, de surfaces préservées par l'activité minière, etc. Pour chaque SMT répondant à ces objectifs, un certain nombre de projets miniers de différents types est implanté dans le système territorial choisi à partir de différents critères (localisation des gisements géologiques, zones autorisées à l'activité extractive, distance aux centres urbains, etc.). Dans notre cas, un objectif de production de 5 000 kilos d'or par au total a été choisi à titre d'exemple et cinq SMT, représentant cinq manières d'atteindre l'objectif fixé, ont été comparés (Figure 3).

<figure><img src="image_79.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3 Représentation cartographique des cinq SMT retenus. L'objectif territorial fixé est la production aurifère de 5000 kg d'or au total.</figcaption></figure>

Pour chaque SMT, les risques relatifs à l'exploitation minière ont été identifiés à partir de nombreuses sources (recherche documentaire et bibliographique, visites de sites miniers, entretiens avec les différentes parties prenantes, débats publics). Les informations récoltées ont été structurées dans deux bases de données à partir desquelles deux scénarios de risque ont été construits. Leur évaluation permet in fine de comparer entre eux les différents SMT à travers leur niveau de risque :

1. Un scénario de risques accidentels (SRa) correspondant aux conditions anormales de fonctionnement du projet minier, pour lequel la défaillance de digue minière par débordement a été choisie comme évènement central. Ce choix se justifie par le fait
qu'il s'agit d'un évènement aux conséquences potentiellement catastrophiques et d'un exemple intéressant pour tester la dimension spatiale de l'approche proposée dans cette thèse, notamment à l'aide d'outils SIG ;

2. Un scénario de risques ordinaires (SRo) correspondant aux conditions normales de fonctionnement du projet minier, qui a été intégré, bien que de manière plus rudimentaire, pour permettre l'application complète de l'approche proposée.

L'évaluation de ces deux scénarios de risque se fait en suivant différentes étapes qui visent à: i) évaluer la zone impactée par le ou les projets miniers associés à chaque SMT ; ii) estimer la vulnérabilité socio-écologique du système territorial ; iii) identifier la probabilité d'occurrence de l'évènement central ; iv) coupler tous ces éléments pour obtenir des cartes de risques et des notes finales pour chaque scénario de risque associé à chaque SMT. Avant de combiner les notes finales du SRa et du SRO, les risques sont pondérés en fonction des différents acteurs concernés par le secteur minier (société civile, administration publique, opérateurs miniers).

Les résultats obtenus dans cette thèse montrent donc la faisabilité de l'approche originale proposée, même s'ils doivent être considérés avec une certaine prudence. L'objectif principal de la thèse est en effet de démontrer ce qui peut être accompli en intégrant, dans une même approche territoriale et multidisciplinaire, des aspects généralement traités séparément. A ce stade, les résultats obtenus ne sont pas suffisamment précis pour pouvoir être directement appliqués à la définition de stratégies d'aménagement territorial. De nombreuses pistes devront être explorées et approfondies à l'avenir : l'optimisation des méthodes d'agrégation de toutes les données à chaque étape de l'évaluation des risques, une meilleure définition des « objectifs territoriaux » sur la base desquels les SMT ont été construits, l'amélioration de l'évaluation spatialisée des risques à la fois en conditions « accidentelles » (par exemple, en utilisant d'autres risques que la défaillance de digue) et « ordinaires ».

La classification multicritère des projets miniers proposée dans cette thèse a permis de montrer la pertinence de la définition de « mines-types » pour des démarches d'analyse et de comparaison de stratégies d'aménagement territorial, dans une optique prospective et sur des larges étendues spatiales. Cependant, cette classification pourrait, elle aussi, être améliorée pour tenir compte de deux aspects fondamentaux : tout d'abord, une meilleure connaissance technique des projets miniers illégaux, qui représentent plutôt un phénomène social pour lequel la notion de « site » est extrêmement vague ; en second lieu, l'intégration des mesures de sécurité disponibles pour chaque projet-type, visant à réduire la probabilité d'occurrence d'un évènement ou de ses conséquences.

Enfin, des futures pistes de recherche devraient se consacrer également à la dimension temporelle de l'activité minière et du territoire où cette activité est réalisée. Cela implique,
Appendices

Appendix 1 – Active mining project and plants in the world according to the 2003 and 2010 databases of the U.S. Geological Survey

<figure><img src="image_80.png" /></figure>

Appendix 2 – World-wide distribution of conflicts related to extractive activities (ejatlas.org, consulted the 10.04.2020)

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /></figure>
<table><caption>Appendix 3 – Bibliographic review of 40 scientific papers, including review articles and case studies. This table presents the nature of the consequences represented by the indicators in each study and the main methods used to assess of those indicators. The last two columns indicate papers that refer to the mining sector or integrate the concept of sustainability</caption><thead><tr><th>Reference</th><th>Type of paper</th><th>Nature of the assessed consequence(s)</th><th>Assessment method</th><th>Mining sector</th><th>Sustainability</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hammond et al., 1995</td><td>Review</td><td>Environmental</td><td>-</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Azapagic, 2004</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>-</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Haberl et al 2004</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>-</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Bohringer et al 2007</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Monetization, empirical equations</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Robu et al., 2007</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Bell and Morse, 2008</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>-</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>McLellan et al., 2009</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic, technical</td><td>-</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Schößer et al., 2010</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>-</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Ingwesen, 2011</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental, economic</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Van Erk, 2011</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Remote sensing</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WHO, 2011</td><td>Review</td><td>Health, social, environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Caudeville et al., 2012</td><td>Case study</td><td>Health, social, environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Larondelle and Haase, 2012</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Haldar, 2013</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>-</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Banos-Gonzalez et al., 2014</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Estoque and Murayama, 2014</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Observed data</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Legg et al., 2015</td><td>Case study</td><td>Health, social, environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Matamin et al., 2015</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Remote sensing</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Akinbiola et al., 2016</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling)</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Banos-Gonzalez et al., 2016</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Observed data</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Gemechu et al., 2016</td><td>Case study</td><td>Geopolitical</td><td>Empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>He et al., 2016</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), remote sensing</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Schreck et al., 2016;</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling)</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Albuquerque et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Amadi et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling)</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bui et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Observed data</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Clifford, 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Health, social, environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling)</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Guan et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Health, social, environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Mariet et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Murray et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Remote sensing</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nguyen et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, economic</td><td>Observed data, existing databases</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ramos et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Observed data, existing databases</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Yakovleva et al., 2017</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Observed data, existing databases</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Bansah et al., 2018</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Betancur-Corredor et al., 2018</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Observed data, existing databases</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Boggia et al., 2018</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Observed data, existing databases</td><td></td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Dialga, 2018</td><td>Case study</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations, observed data, existing databases</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Gallay et al., 2018</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), remote sensing</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Liu et al., 2018</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements (e.g. field survey, sampling), empirical equations</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mancini and Sala, 2018</td><td>Review</td><td>Social, environmental, economic</td><td>-</td><td>X</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>Goix et al., 2019</td><td>Case study</td><td>Environmental</td><td>Direct measurements, physico-chemical analysis (Hg isotopes)</td><td>X</td><td></td></tr></table>
<figure><img src="image_82.png" /><figcaption>Figure 75 Simplified Geological Map of French Guiana (Cassard et al., 2008)</figcaption></figure>

<caption>Figure 76 Simplified soil map of FG (Blancaneaux, 2001)</caption>
<figure><img src="image_83.png" /><figcaption>Figure 77 Main natural protected areas in French Guiana</figcaption></figure>

Figure 78 Gold mining permits and authorizations in FG at the date of 31/12/2017 (PTMG-CTG, confidential data collecting)

Figure 79 Cartography of the Departmental Mining Plan (SDOM) currently applied in French Guiana
<table><caption>Appendix 5 –Table with the main gathered data, their format and type and their sources</caption><thead><tr><th>External Environment Type</th><th>Asset</th><th>Available Data</th><th>Format type</th><th>nom</th><th>Description</th><th>Source</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Human</td><td rowspan="3">Population</td><td>Number of people per commune</td><td>text</td><td rowspan="3">COMM_Mana_s impl_edit_POPULATION</td><td rowspan="3">population totale. Nous avons repris les données insee 2015 et écrites dans la table attributaire des communes sur la mana "COMM_Mana_simpl_edit"</td><td>Insee, 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Number of people per commune</td><td>shape</td><td>Adapted from INSEE, (2015) on SIG</td></tr><tr><td>Ethnical distribution per commune ?</td><td>n/a</td><td>Adapted from INSEE, (2015) on SIG</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Construction features</td><td rowspan="3">text</td><td>97306_PLU_MA NA (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) de Mana avec documents annexes</td><td>PLU Mana (AUDeG, 2018)</td></tr><tr><td>Zonage_slm_mai rie (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) sans documents annexes</td><td>PLU SLM Données de 2013, fournies en privé par QUEGUINER J. - Mairie de SLM</td></tr><tr><td>97352_CC_SAU L (dossier)</td><td>Carte Communale (CC) de Saul de 2014, approuvée par arrêté préfectoral en 2016 avec documents annexes</td><td>CC Saul (AUDeG, 2016)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Buildings</td><td>Number of buildings</td><td>shape</td><td rowspan="2">1gen departeme nt-973 (dossier)</td><td rowspan="2">Description of buildings in the area with their function (according to this dictionary "Key_dictionn")</td><td rowspan="2">https://www.data.gouv.fr/fr/datasets/ r/7f4559b9-08c8-4f71-97b3- 625ae1a8ee11 consulted the 11/04/2019</td></tr><tr><td>Types of buildings and use</td><td>shape</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Strategic infrastructures</td><td></td><td>shape</td><td>Strategic_assets.s hp</td><td>Points d'interet: Hopitaux, écoles et enseignement, musées, archeologie prevnetive, conservatoire de jardins, monuments nationaux, police et gendarmerie, service pompiers 18, campings, points info tourisme, établissements thermaux, maisons de retraite, colleges et lycees, écoles maternelles, enseignement superieurs, école smaternemes</td><td>georef à partir de GEOGUYANE, plan de la ville de man et vecteur "buildings" du dossier 'departement' ("points" dans 1gen departement- 973 (dossier))</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Number of buildings per commune</th><th>shape</th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Roads</td><td rowspan="3">Roads</td><td>shape</td><td>1gen departement-973 (dossier)</td><td>Description of roads: path, primary, residential, service, tertiary, track, unclassified https://www.data.gouv.fr/fr/datasets/r/7f4559b9-08c8-4f71-97b3-625ae1a8ee11</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>97306_PLU_MA NA (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) de Mana avec documents annexes PLU Mana (AUDeG, 2018)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>Zonage_slm_maire (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) sans documents annexes PLU SLM Données de 2013, fournies en privé par QUEGUINER J. - Mairie de SLM</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Urbanized areas</td><td rowspan="2">Urbanized surfaces</td><td>shape</td><td>97352_CC_SAU L (dossier)</td><td>Carte Communale (CC) de Saul de 2014, approuvée par arrêté préfectoral en 2016 avec documents annexes CC Saul (AUDeG, 2016)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>OC_SOL_mod_ MANA</td><td>Niveaux d'occupation du sol sur la bande littorale. Nomenclature: Voir Vigné, 2008 Occupation du sol, 2015 (ONF, 2017)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Spontaneous urbanized surfaces</td><td rowspan="3"></td><td>shape</td><td>urb_spontane_MA NA</td><td>Urbanisation spontanée l_urbaspontaneeterrain2018_s_973.s hp (Audeg, 2018)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>97306_PLU_MA NA (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) de Mana avec documents annexes PLU Mana (AUDeG, 2018)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>Zonage_slm_maire (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) sans documents annexes PLU SLM Données de 2013, fournies en privé par QUEGUINER J. - Mairie de SLM</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Industrial areas</td><td rowspan="3">Industrialized surfaces</td><td>shape</td><td>97352_CC_SAU L (dossier)</td><td>Carte Communale (CC) de Saul de 2014, approuvée par arrêté préfectoral en 2016 avec documents annexes CC Saul (AUDeG, 2016)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>OC_SOL_mod_ MANA</td><td>Niveaux d'occupation du sol sur la bande littorale. Nomenclature: Voir Vigné, 2008 Occupation du sol, 2015 (ONF, 2017)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>urb_spontane_MA NA</td><td>Urbanisation spontanée</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5">Agricultural areas</td><td rowspan="5">Agricultural surfaces</td><td>shape</td><td>97306_PLU_MA NA (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) de Mana avec documents annexes</td><td>PLU Mana (AUDeG, 2018)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>Zonage_slm_mai rie (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) sans documents annexes</td><td>PLU SLM Données de 2013, fournies en privé par QUEGUINER J. - Mairie de SLM</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>97352_CC_SAU L (dossier)</td><td>Carte Communale (CC) de Saul de 2014, approuvée par arrêté préfectoral en 2016 avec documents annexes</td><td>CC Saul (AUDeG, 2016)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>OC_SOL_mod_ MANA</td><td>Niveaux d'occupation du sol sur la bande littorale. Nomenclature: Voir Vigné, 2008</td><td>Occupation du sol, 2015 (ONF, 2017)</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>urb_spontane_M ANA</td><td>Urbanisation spontanée</td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Wood production</td><td rowspan="2">Forest zoning per utility</td><td>text</td><td>ONF, 2015 catalogue habitat foret adapté</td><td>Adaptation du catalogue des habitats forestiers de l'ONF donnant des info sur chaque habitat forestier et son importance (3 classes) en terme de présence de biodiversité, production de bois, production de biomasse. D'autres informations concernent le type de sol et les pressions présentes</td><td>ONF, 2015 adapté</td></tr><tr><td>shape</td><td>zones_forest_M ANA.shp</td><td>Zones forestieres définies en fonction IE, PPGM et production</td><td>WWF, 2014</td></tr><tr><td>Wastewater treatment points</td><td>Wastewater treatment points</td><td>shape</td><td>Assainissem_M ANA.shp</td><td>Nom ville nombre habitants en 2006 capacité de l'assainissement collectif estimation qualité eaux cotières pourcentage population couverte par assainissement collectif pourcentage population non couverte indice pour représentation cartographie de la population par ville</td><td>assainissement_des_villes14_prelevement_aep_BASSINGUYANE (WWF - PTMG, 2010)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Water supply points</td><td>Water supply points</td><td>shape</td><td>Captage_eau_Manana.shp</td><td>Points de captage d'eau</td><td>WWF, 2013;</td></tr><tr><td>Electrical supply points</td><td>Electrical supply points</td><td>shape</td><td>l_reseau_elec_p_973</td><td>Localisation des postes de distribution électrique publique sur lesquelles la DAAF est intervenue pour assistance technique</td><td>Morel C., - DAAF/EDF, 2015</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Fishing areas</td><td>Professional fishing surfaces</td><td>shape</td><td>zones_de-peches_de_professionnelles.shp</td><td>Zones de peche professionnelle</td><td>WWF, 2011</td></tr><tr><td>Leisure fishing surfaces</td><td>shape</td><td>zones_de-peches_de_loisirs.shp</td><td>Zones de peche de loisir</td><td>WWF, 2011</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Quarries</td><td>Number of quarries and extracted materials</td><td>shape</td><td>Carrieres_Manashp</td><td>Carte de localisation des carrières en 2010 dans le Schéma départementale des carrières (SDC)</td><td>Georeferencé à partir de Nontanovanh and Marteau, 2010 - BRGM (Capture d'écran 2019-04-01 à 14.35.03) (shapefile "Carrieres_BRGM")</td></tr><tr><td>Surfaces impacted from illegal mining</td><td>shape</td><td>Defor_orpaill2015_Manashp</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Illegal mining</td><td>Communes per impacted surfaces by illegal mining in 2015</td><td>shape</td><td>Defor_orpaill2015_par_comm.shp</td><td></td><td>Adapted from WWF, 2015</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Simplification (deux grandes catégories de sols) à partir de: Numéro de carte Sphaera : 760 GUYANE FRANÇAISE - PÉDOLOGIE. 1:1000000. 1979<br>Pédologie : la Guyane : planche 10. (IN) Atlas des départements français d'Outre-Mer : 4. La Guyane / Philippe Blancaneaux ; G. Lasserre (éd. scientifique), Gilles Sautter (éd. scientifique), M. Boyé (éd. scientifique), Gérard Brasseur (éd. scientifique), G. Réaud (coord.), G. Cabaussel (coord.), J. Menault (coord.). - Bordeaux-Talence (FRA) : CEGET, Centre d'études de géographie tropicale du CNRS ; Paris (FRA) : ORSTOM, Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre mer, 1979. - 1:1000000. - 3 p. : planche en coul., 9 réf. bibliogr. ; 48 x 58 cm</td><td>Adapted and created from Turenne1972a and georeferencing IRD, 1979</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Natural Soil</td><td>Simplified soil map</td><td>shape</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hydro ecoregions</td><td>shape</td><td>hydro_ecoregions_guyane_2005</td><td>Donnée du relief issue du SRTM à 90m<br>DEAL, CEMAGREF/IRSTEA, 2005</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Soil per habitat type</td><td>text</td><td>catal_hab_forest_ONF<br>(dossier)</td><td>Catalogue avec habitats forêstiers et propriétés de chacun (sol, biodiversité, bois, biomasse etc.). Données qualitatives ont été adaptées pour notre tableau de susceptibilité (biodiversité)<br>http://www1.onf.fr/lire_voir_ecouter/++oid++4cc4/@display_media.html</td><td>Guitet et al., 2015 - ONF; fournis en privée avec données supplémentaires spatialisées par Brunaux Olivier - ONF</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Etat global des milieux aquatiques de surface (chimique et écologique)</td><td>text</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surface water</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reseau hydrographique</td><td>shape</td><td>Drainage_MNT_Guy</td><td>Vecteur ligne de tous les cours d'eau et les criques en Guyane française avec le nombre d'ordre de Strahler (1-8)</td></tr><tr><td>Decoupage hydrographique</td><td>shape</td><td>"hydro_servicesa ndre_eau2012 (dossier)"</td><td>Découpage par nœuds hydrographiques, points d'eau isolés, région, secteur, sous-secteur, traits de côte, troncons, zones hydrographiques</td></tr><tr><td>Etat global de chaque zone hydrographique de surface</td><td>shape</td><td>etat_zone_hydro _MANA.shp</td><td>Adapted and created from text documents in C41</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Etat global des milieux aquatiques souterrains</td><td>text</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Masse d'eau souterraine</td><td>shape</td><td>97306_PLU_MA NA (dossier)</td><td>Division selon formations du socle ou sedimentaires Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) de Mana avec documents annexes</td></tr><tr><td>Natural surfaces</td><td>shape</td><td>Zonage_slm_mai rie (dossier)</td><td>Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU) sans documents annexes</td></tr><tr><td>Biodiversity (flora and fauna)</td><td>shape</td><td>97352_CC_SAU L (dossier)</td><td>Carte Communale (CC) de Saul de 2014, approuvée par arrêté préfectoral en 2016 avec documents annexes</td></tr><tr><td>ZNIEFF surfaces</td><td>shape</td><td>"znieff1_2001_1 386686225_5399 znieff1_2014_csr pn_copy1_14526 04722_5108 znieff2_2001_13 86687071_6630 znieff2_2014_csr pn_1452604840_ 8886 "</td><td></td></tr></table>

"04_rnabe_eaux_souterrainesBASSI NGUYANE

Document-d-accompagnement- 7_vdef

KALITEO

Environnement/HYDRECO, 2013 rapport

RNAOE methodology, 2013 GUYANE

SDAGE, 2014 Asconit, 2013 report "

SANDRE, Eau Franc-e - BRGM

PLU Mana (AUDeG, 2018)

PLU SLM Données de 2013, fournies en privé par QUEGUINER J. - Mairie de SLM

CC Saul (AUDeG, 2016)

WWF
<table><tr><td>Zones de reproduction des tortues</td><td>shape</td><td>zcb_plages_awala_et_pontes_tortues</td><td>WWF</td></tr><tr><td>Zones d'interet écologique pour oiseaux, tortues, crevettes etc.</td><td>shape</td><td>zones_de_nurseries</td><td>WWF</td></tr><tr><td>Ramsar proctetion surface of Amana (Basse Mana)</td><td>shape</td><td>RAMSAR_limite 500_090630</td><td>Zonage RAMSAR (Marais de Kaw, Basse Mana et estuaire du Sinnamary)</td></tr><tr><td>Portal biosphere reserve surface</td><td>shape</td><td>reservoirs_biologiques</td><td>WWF - PTMG, 2010</td></tr><tr><td>Biodiversity potential per area (3classes)</td><td>text</td><td>catal_hab_forest_ONF (dossier)</td><td>Catalogue avec habitats forêstiers et propriétés de chacun (sol, biodiversité, bois, biomasse etc.). Données qualitatives ont été adaptées pour notre tableau de susceptibilité (biodiversité) http://www1.onf.fr/lire_voir_ecouter/++oid++4cc4/@display_media.html</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>Digital Elevation Model (DEM)</td><td>Raster (.tif)</td><td>N03W054<br>N04W053<br>N04W053<br>N04W054<br>N04W055<br>N05W054<br>N05W055</td></tr></table>

Guitet *et al.*, 2015 - ONF; fournis en privée avec données supplémentaires spatialisées par Brunaux Olivier - ONF

Available by NASA's SRTM
<figure><img src="image_84.png" /><figcaption>Appendix 6 – Gold production in 2018 per-country. The graph shows mainly the countries that produced more than 100 tons of gold in 2018. (www.gold.org/goldhub/data/historical-mine-production)</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>Appendix 7 – Database concerning all the technical and operational data gathered per gold mine type in French Guiana. An extract is cited in the text in Table 9 and 11. Data have been gathered based on different sources (Scammacca et al., 2020).</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="2">Classification criteria</th><th colspan="2">Illegal Artisanal and Small-Scale</th><th>Legal Artisanal and Small-Scale</th><th colspan="2">Medium-Scale</th><th>Large-Scale</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Code</th><th colspan="2">i-ASM</th><th>ASM</th><th colspan="2">MSM</th><th>LSM</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">French name</td><td colspan="2">Artisanal illégal</td><td>Artisanal légal</td><td colspan="2">Semi-industriel</td><td>Industriel</td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td>Predominantly exploited gold deposit</td><td>Primary (type 1-2-3)</td><td>Secondary (type 4-5)</td><td>Secondary (type 4-5)</td><td colspan="2">Primary (type 2-3)</td><td>Primary (type 1-2-3)</td></tr><tr><td>II</td><td>Mining permit or authorization</td><td>no</td><td>no</td><td>yes</td><td colspan="2">yes</td><td>yes</td></tr><tr><td>II</td><td>Soil footprint of the mine site (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt;100</td><td colspan="2">&gt;100</td><td>&gt; 500</td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td>Main exploitation technique</td><td>Underground</td><td>Barranque (mining pond)</td><td>Barranque (mining pond)</td><td colspan="2">Pit</td><td>Pit</td></tr><tr><td>V</td><td>Gold recovery methods</td><td>Hg</td><td>Hg</td><td>Gravimetry</td><td>Gravimetry (MSMg)</td><td>Cyanidation (MSMc)</td><td>Cyanidation (+gravimetry)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #4A86E8; color: white; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding: 5px;">General characteristics of the deposit</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Gold resources (t)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>&gt; 50</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Gold rate (g/t)</td><td>1 - 2</td><td>1 - 2</td><td>1</td><td>0.7 - 2.10</td><td>0.4 - 2.10</td><td>0.7 - 2.5</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Depth (thickness of the materials to clean)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>0 - 8</td><td>&gt; 20</td><td>~ 20 (depending on the deposit)</td><td>~ 20 (depending on the deposit)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #4A86E8; color: white; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding: 5px;">Regulatory and socio-environmental constraints</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Mining permit/authorization for the predominant exploitation</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>AEX</td><td>PEX, Concession</td><td>PEX, Concession</td><td>PEX, Concession</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Other regulatory constraints</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td></td><td>AOTM, AE free</td><td>AOTM, AE free</td><td>AOTM, AE free</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Mine surface allowed (km2)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>1</td><td>5-50</td><td>5-50</td><td>5-50</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Regulatory duration of the project (years)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>4</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Duration of the regulatory proceedings before the beginning of the exploitation (years)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>3 - 8</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 8</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #4A86E8; color: white; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding: 5px;">Company informations</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Juridical status</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>SAS, SARL</td><td>SARL, SAS, SA à CA</td><td>SARL, SAS, SA à CA</td><td>SARL, SAS, SA à CA</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Subsidiary of another company</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>yes/no</td><td>yes/no</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Listed on the stock exchange market</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>no</td><td>no</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Social Capital (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>5 - 500</td><td>&lt; 1 000</td><td>1 000 - 8 000</td><td>&gt; 20 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Revenues (R) (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 1 000</td><td>&gt; 1 000</td><td>&gt; 5 000</td><td>&gt; 500 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Origin</td><td>local, French, international</td><td>local, French, international</td><td>local, French</td><td>local, French</td><td>local, French, international</td><td>French, International</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Fiscal residence</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>local</td><td>local, French</td><td>local, French, international</td><td>local, international</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Direction team origin</td><td>French, foreign, local</td><td>French, foreign, local</td><td>local, French, foreign</td><td>local, French, foreign</td><td>local, French</td><td>French</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #4A86E8; color: white; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding: 5px;">Mine related infrastructures</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #4A86E8; color: white; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding: 5px;">Excavation and exploitation</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Extracted ore (mineral + waste rocks) (kt/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>5 - 35</td><td>&gt;150</td><td>&gt;150</td><td>5 000 - 25 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Extraction pit</td><td>excavation pit (square 1.5 m)</td><td>no</td><td>no</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Number of pits/barranques</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Variable</td><td>Variable</td><td>Variable</td><td>Variable</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Volume of the pit/barranque (m3)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(1500 - 3000)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 100 000</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Pit/barranque soil footprint (ha)</td><td>(0,0001)</td><td>NA</td><td>~0,2 (50m x 40m)</td><td>(10-20)</td><td>(&gt; 20)</td><td>&gt; 100</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Pit/barranque depth (m)</td><td>10 - 40</td><td>NA</td><td>2 - 8</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 100</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Use of explosives (y/n)</td><td>yes</td><td>NA</td><td>no</td><td>no</td><td>yes/no</td><td>yes</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Type of explosive</td><td>TNT/HT, HEXAL</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Explosive charge (kg)</td><td>25 - 50</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #4A86E8; color: white; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding: 5px;">Mineral processing</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Plant type</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Gravimetry plant</td><td>Gravimetry plant</td><td>Gravimetry and cyanidation plant</td><td>Cyanidation plant (with gravimetry unit inside)</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Cyanide plant surface (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>&lt; 1</td><td>&gt; 10</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Total processed materials (t/day)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 200</td><td>&gt; 300</td><td>&gt; 5 000</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Processed materials by cyanidation only (t/day)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>100</td><td>&gt; 5 000</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Recoverable gold by processing (kg/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>100 - 300</td><td>&gt; 400</td><td>&gt; 5 000</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Gold recovery rate according to the processing method used(%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>20 - 30</td><td>20 - 40</td><td>&gt; 90</td><td>&gt; 90</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Settlement and disposal system (process water + tailings)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Barranques</td><td>Gravitary tailings pond Exfiltration water pond</td><td>Gravitary tailings pond Decyanated tailings pond Exfiltration water pond</td><td>Decyanated tailings pond (No intermediary storage for gravimetry residues)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #4A86E8; color: white; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding: 5px;">Management of waste rocks and tailings</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Total surface of waste-rock dumps (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 100</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td>3</td><td>Volume of waste-rock for the mining life-cycle (m3)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 100 000 000</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Tons of waste-rock for the mining life-cycle (kt)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 40 000 000</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Volume of gravitary residues to process (m3/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 60 000</td><td>> 60 000</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Total volume of gravitary residues entering the cyanidation plant (m3/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>> 60 000</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Gold rate of gravitary residues (ppm Au)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>1,5 - 4</td><td>1,5 - 4</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Moisture rate of gravitary residues (%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>15</td><td>15</td><td>&lt; 15</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Texture of gravitary residues to re-process</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Fine to coarse</td><td>Fine to coarse</td><td>Fine to coarse (&lt; 2,5 mm)</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Solid rate of the gravitary residues (%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 80</td><td>> 80</td><td>> 80</td></tr><tr><td>0</td><td>Solid rate of the slurry to process (%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>40</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Solid rate of decyanated slurry after thickening (%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Potential concentration in total cyanides in the residues (ppm)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>1, 67</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Potential concentration in free cyanides in the residues (ppm)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>0, 35</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Potential concentration in weak acid dissociable cyanides (WAD) in the residues (ppm)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>0,3</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Volume of the ultimate residues (m3/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>40 000</td><td>60 000 - 250 000</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Total surface of the tailings storage facility for gravitary residues (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~0,2 (50m x 40m)</td><td>(10 - 20)</td><td>(&gt; 20)</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Total capacity of the tailings storage facility for gravitary residues (m3)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 500, 000</td><td>500 000 - 3 000 000</td><td>500 000 - 3 000 000</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Total surface of the tailings storage facility for decyanated residues (TSF) (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>5 - 15</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Annual storage of the tailings storage facility for decyanated residues (TSF) (m3/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>60 000 - 400 000</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total capacity of the tailings storage facility for decyanated residues (TSF) (m3)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>500 000 - 3 000 000</td><td>500 000 - 3 000 000</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Moisture rate of the decyanated residues (% solid)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~ 50</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">Waste and process water management</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total storage capacity of exfiltration water ponds at the exit of the TSF (m3)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>10 000 - 25 000</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total surface of exfiltration water ponds at the exit of the TSF (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total storage capacity of secondary settlement water ponds (m3)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(4 000 - 10 000)</td><td>(4 000 - 10 000)</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total surface of secondary settlement water ponds (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total surface of the emergency water pond (clean water) (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>3 - 5</td><td>5 - 10</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total capacity of the emergency water pond (clean water) (m3)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>20 000 - 250 000</td><td>20 000 - 250 000</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">Features of holding and embankment structures</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Priority dam for monitoring (TSF dam, upstream, downstream, external)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>External</td><td>External/TSF(do wnstream)</td><td>External/TSF(downstream)</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Maximal height of the TSF dam (m)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>2 - 5</td><td>15 - 20</td><td>15 - 20</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Height of the emergency water pond dam (clean water) (m)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>2 - 5</td><td>6 - 12</td><td>6 - 12</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Position of the downstream draining device (m)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>15</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Position of the upstream impermeability device (m)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>19</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Final crest width (m)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(2,5)</td><td>3 - 6</td><td>3 - 6</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Final base width (m)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>30 - 40 (50)</td><td>48</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Total Freeboard height (difference between the water level and the dam's crest) (m)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(&lt; 2)</td><td>1 - 1,5</td><td>1 - 2</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Downstream security factor of the embankment</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>1,31</td><td>1,31</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Upstream security factor of the embankment</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>1,44</td><td>1,44</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Nature of the materials of the embankment</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Saprolites</td><td>Saprolites</td><td>Saprolites</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Texture of the materials of the embankment</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>clay-sandy to clay</td><td>clay-sandy to clay</td><td>clay-sandy to clay</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Tailings settlement method (dry/wet)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>TSF dam raising method</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>Upstream</td><td>Upstream</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Emergency pond dam raising method</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Upstream</td><td>Upstream</td><td>Upstream</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Prevention measures in case of dam failure</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>revegetation, overflow device, diversion channels, bottom drains, spillway channels, observational monitoring, (geotextiles)</td><td>revegetation, overflow device, diversion channels, bottom drains, spillway channels, geotextiles, piezometric studies, pit stability, risk flood analysis etc.</td><td>revegetation, overflow device, diversion channels, downchutes, bottom drains, spillway channels, monitoring, geotextiles, piezometric studies, pit stability, risk flood analysis etc.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td>7</td><td>Mitigation measures in case of dam failure</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Downstream emergency pond</td><td>studies, pit stability Downstream emergency pond</td><td>Downstream emergency pond</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td colspan="7">Additional infrastructures</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Life-camp surface(ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 1</td><td>~ 1</td><td>&gt; 2</td><td>&gt; 10</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Transport infrastructures</td><td>quad, 4x4, canoe</td><td>quad, 4x4, canoe</td><td>quad, 4x4</td><td>quad, 4x4, canoe</td><td>quad, 4x4, canoe, helicopter</td><td>quad, 4x4, helicopter</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Mechanization</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td><td>yes</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Total equipment units for the exploitation (shovel, monitor water guns)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 10</td><td>10 - 50</td><td>&gt; 50</td><td>&gt; 100</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Electric supply system</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>on site + solar panels</td><td>on site</td><td>on site</td><td>on site + 80% solar panel</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Number of electrical transformers and power generating units</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>1 - 2</td><td>&gt; 2</td><td>(&gt; 5)</td><td>&gt; 2</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Total electric power (kW)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~ 40 KVA</td><td>&gt; 250 KVA</td><td>1178.4</td><td>~ 20 000</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Water supply system</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Pit water</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Total surface of mining routes (ha)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~ 1,5</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Fuel storing capacity (l)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>5 000 - 10 000</td><td>15 000 - 30 000</td><td>15 000 - 30 000</td><td>&gt; 100 000</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td colspan="7">Total production</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Annual extracted gold/mine soil footprint ratio (kg/ha)*</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~ 1,5</td><td>~ 1,5</td><td>~ 3</td><td>5 - 10</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Annual average revenues (k€/years)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 1 000</td><td>&gt; 1 000</td><td>&gt; 1 000</td><td>&gt; 200 000</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Maximum annual gold production (kg/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(&lt; 150)</td><td>150 - 300</td><td>&gt; 400</td><td>&gt; 5 000</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Annual duration of activity suspension (months/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Average project life-cycle (year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 2</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 10</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td colspan="7">Employment during exploitation and processing</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Number of direct jobs</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>10-15</td><td>&gt; 50</td><td>50 - 350</td><td>&gt; 350</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Number of indirect jobs (sub-contracting chain)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 2 000</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Local population among mining workers (%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>90 (goal)</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>French population (out of French Guiana) among mining workers(%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>10 (goal)</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Foreign population among mining workers (%)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 80 (Surinam, Brazil)</td><td>&gt; 80 (Surinam, Brazil)</td><td>&gt; 80 (Surinam, Brazil)</td><td>10 (goal)</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Function performed by local workers</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>workforce, technician (driller, drivers, ...)</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Function performed by French workers (out of FG)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Qualified workers</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Function and main task performed by foreign workers</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>workforce, technician</td><td>workforce, technician</td><td>workforce, technician</td><td>Management (directors, engineers, geologists) ...</td></tr><tr><td>0</td><td colspan="7">Total CAPEX (k€)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Feasibility and engineering studies (k€)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>&lt; 10</td><td>&gt; 50 - 300</td><td>&gt; 50 - 300</td><td>&gt; 2 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Environmental/Social Impact assessment studies (k€)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>&lt; 10</td><td>&gt; 50 - 300</td><td>&gt; 50 - 300</td><td>&gt; 1 000</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Duration of the EIES (year)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>2</td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>(&sim; 6)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Preparatory works for mine site development (pre-production) (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(&sim; 50 000)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Exploitation equipment cost (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>400</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>0</td><td>Total CAPEX in pre-production (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 150 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Processing plant cost (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 300 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Infrastructures for tailings/waste management (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 150 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Total CAPEX for exploitation and mineral processing (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 600 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Total CAPEX for waste, tailings and water management(k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 15 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Revegetalization and reclamation system</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>Directly or sub-contracting</td><td>Directly or sub-contracting</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Total CAPEX for mine closing(k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&gt; 50 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>TOTAL CAPEX (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~ 800 000</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td colspan="7">Total OPEX(k€)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td>0</td><td>Total private investments during exploitation (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 500 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>General administrative costs (G&A) (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 200 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Environmental and social management (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 2 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Workforce cost during excavation (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>1 800 - 3 000 per month</td><td>1 800 - 3 000 per month</td><td>1 800 - 3 000 per month</td><td>> 250 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Fuel cost (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 100 000</td><td>> 1 000 000</td><td>> 1 000 000</td><td>> 200 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Fuel consumption (l/h)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>&lt; 10</td><td>16 - 25</td><td>16 - 25</td><td>> 40</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Explosive cost (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>~ 100 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Other equipment for excavation (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~150 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Total OPEX during excavation (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 500 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Workforce cost during processing (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 50 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Cost of the consumed products and inputs for processing (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 250 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Consumption of input products (NaCN) for one processed ton (kg/t)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>0,1</td><td>> 0,4</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Electric supply cost (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(> 250 000)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Energy requirements (kWh/year)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(15 000 - 30 000)</td><td>(15 000 - 40 000)</td><td>(> 100 000 000)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Total OPEX for tailings, waste and process water management (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(> 5 000)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Water requirements (m3/j)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 300</td><td>> 5 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Residues and waste rocks management infrastructures cost (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>NA</td><td>> 500</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Tailings and wastewater management infrastructures cost (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 5 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Maintainance costs (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(~50 000)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Financing costs (except if self-financed) (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>company funds</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>TOTAL OPEX (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 100</td><td>> 1 000</td><td>> 3 000</td><td>> 1 000 000</td></tr><tr><td colspan="8" style="background-color: #333333; color: white; text-align: left; font-weight: bold;">Taxation (€)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Total economic outcomes during mining life-cycle (k€)</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 1 000 000</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Royalties (€/kg) to Department</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 25</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Royalties (€/kg) to French Guiana (Region)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>> 500 (not always)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Special consumer tax (TSC)</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>(~ 90 000)</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Tax on company profits</td><td>none</td><td>none</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>~ 150 000)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure><img src="image_85.png" /><figcaption>Appendix 8 – Structure of the database listing the worldwide historical accidents in the mining sector. The database is currently under development and it has been improved by two students of the Ecole des Mines of Nancy (France).</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>Appendix 9 – Extract of the risk database developed for the identification of risk events in French Guiana during the three years of PhD.</caption><thead><tr><th>Code</th><th>Risk event</th><th>Scale</th><th>Type</th><th>Source</th><th>Actor</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>EV_336</td><td>Development of new vectors for diseases</td><td>S3</td><td>CT</td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_337</td><td>Diseases vector clusters</td><td>S3</td><td>CT</td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_338</td><td>Malaria</td><td>S3</td><td></td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_339</td><td>Water physical deviation</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_340</td><td>Degraded miner life-style</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_341</td><td>Regulatory system failure</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_342</td><td>Chagas disease</td><td>S3</td><td>CT</td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_343</td><td>Hantavirus disease</td><td>S3</td><td>CT</td><td>INT14</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_344</td><td>Political instabilities</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT2</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_345</td><td>Local employment</td><td>S1</td><td></td><td>INT3, A30</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_346</td><td>Industrial risks</td><td>S1</td><td></td><td>INT3</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_347</td><td>Energy supply</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT3</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_348</td><td>Illegal miners hijacking</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT3</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_349</td><td>Associative life participation</td><td>S3</td><td>other</td><td>INT3<br>INT4, A30,<br>A32</td><td>MINOP<br>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_350</td><td>Lack of local suppliers for materials</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_351</td><td>Security costs at mining sites</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_352</td><td>Accidents against illegal miners</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_353</td><td>Project localization (far)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_354</td><td>Communication constraints</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP<br>ADMI</td></tr><tr><td>EV_355</td><td>Demographic changes</td><td>S3</td><td></td><td>INT5, A32</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_356</td><td>Regulatory sanctions</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT6, J31<br>INT6, A25,<br>A26</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_357</td><td>Soil erosion</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT9, A26<br>A6_37,<br>INT00, A32</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_358</td><td>Natural erosion of soil</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT2,<br>A6_38,<br>A30</td><td>ADMI<br>N</td></tr><tr><td>EV_359</td><td>Dust particle diffusion</td><td>S3</td><td></td><td>INT2,<br>A6_38,<br>A30</td><td>MINOP<br>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_360</td><td>Lack of communication</td><td>S1</td><td>FM</td><td>INT2, A30</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_361</td><td>Proximity to sensitive zone (natural, social)</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT2, A30</td><td>MINOP</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>EV_362</td><td>History and social conflicts of the territory<br/>Lack of local knowledge in mining (and mining culture)</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT2, A30</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_363</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>INT2, A30<br/>INT3,<br/>A6_38</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_364</td><td>Lack of information</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT3, A28,<br/>J31</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_365</td><td>Extreme weather conditions in tropic climates</td><td>S3</td><td>CM</td><td></td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_366</td><td>Proximity to populated areas</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT3<br/>INT3,<br/>A6_38</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_367</td><td>Transport of products for mining activity</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT3,<br/>A6_39,<br/>A30</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_368</td><td>Proximity to water streams</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_369</td><td>Lack of transparency from the company</td><td>S1</td><td>FM</td><td>INT3</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_370</td><td>Lack of vulgarization</td><td>S1</td><td>FM</td><td>INT3, A30</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_371</td><td>Strikes of fuel workers</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_372</td><td>Presence of illegal placer miners on the site</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_373</td><td>Interruption of communication</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_374</td><td>Lack of skills for responsible mining</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4, A30</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_375</td><td>Lack of institutional support</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_376</td><td>Inadequate mine reclamation and revegetalization</td><td>S1</td><td>FM</td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr><tr><td>EV_377</td><td>Lack of competent mining staff</td><td></td><td></td><td>INT4</td><td>MINOP</td></tr></table>
## I. What are mining dams?

Mining dams are retaining and protection embankment that are used for mine sites and/or metallurgical plants (Bourbon and Mathon, 2012). They have two main functions:

- to create sedimentation impoundments for the storage and settlement of fine waste materials coming from mining operations or mineral processing (called “tailings”). In this latter case, they are referred to as tailings store facility (TSF) (Lottermoser, 2010; Kossoff et al., 2014; Ponce-Zambrano et al., 2014).

- to create decantation ponds to hold and clarify water that may be returned for the mine to operate in a closed-circuit, after settlement in dam via penstocks and piping (Babbitt and Graham, 1996).

Despite several common features (e.g. water storing function, hydraulic parameters, geotechnical monitoring), tailings dams differ significantly from conventional water retention dams (UNEP, 1996; Rico et al., 2008b; Martin and Davies, 2000; Schoenberger, 2016). TSF retain potential hazardous materials and not only water. Moreover, they represent a necessary cost for the owner – even after mine closure – and not an asset for common use (UNEP, 2017). Indeed, TSF are designed to “secure storage of tailings in perpetuity” (UNEP, 2017), requiring high costs and surveillance even after mine closure. They are constructed in stages, simultaneously with their operation, hence, their conditions and safety parameters are continually changing. Furthermore, TSF are often earth-fill dam types (Smith and Connell, 1979; Ozer and Bromwell, 2012), built of mine wastes (rather than boulders or concrete) or of locally collected materials (soils, coarse waste, overburden from mining etc.).

In order to fulfill the mentioned functions of storage and decantation of mine tailings and operation waters, three main performances are defined for a TSF (Bourbon and Mathon, 2012; Li et al., 2018; USSD, 2018):

iv) Physical stability, which is the capacity to support the applied stress for a long time without suffering any significant deformation or movement;

v) Impermeability, which is the capacity of the mining dam not to allow the transfer of fluids under specific pressure conditions, except when needed;

vi) Sufficient storage capacity which represents the aptitude of the embankment to contain the required volume of materials and fluids, without reducing stability and impermeability.

These performances – among which it is important to include the legal constraints and requirements for environmental, occupational, health, safety and geotechnical performances – rely on a great range of structural and functional components, which depend on the type of the mining project. Three major components are here considered (Fig. 48): i) the embankment, main structural element of the dam; ii) the foundation soil where the embankment is built on; iii) the effluent contained within the embankment and composed by the supernatant (tailings
liquid or tailings water) and, beneath it, the mine tailings (the solid fraction remaining after the
extraction of the valuable ore minerals) (Zandarin et al., 2009; Lottermoser, 2010; Kossoff et
al., 2014). Along with these components, a great range of specificities influences the
functioning of a mining dam and the application of specific safety measures, such as the respect
of the freeboard, the presence of spillway channels, bottom draining and overflow devices, to
ensure water collecting and balancing, especially during emergencies (Bourbon and Mathon,
2012). A geomembrane or other geosynthetics may be used to protect the dam walls to reduce
erosion, scouring and spills (Zornberg and Christopher, 2007). Sometimes a system of diversion
channels dug in the natural terrain can be used to assure a closed-circuit functioning. Finally,
sequential structures over the dam through particular elevation methods of the dam can
increase the storing capacity of the embankment: the elevation can be done upstream towards
the tailings (more than 50% of TSF today), downstream away from the tailings or in centerline
(Lottermoser, 2010; INERIS, 2014) (Fig. 48).

## II. Overview of dams used in gold mining sector in French Guiana

Several technical reports give an insight about the specificities and the utilization of TSF in FG gold mining sector (Laperche *et al.*, 2008; Barras, 2010; Bourbon and Mathon, 2012; Cottard and Leperche, 2012; INERIS, 2014; SRK, 2017; GéoplusEnvironnement, 2017; Aesteergts, 2018; Urien, 2018). These TSF differ considerably depending on whether the exploitation concerns primary or secondary deposits. In both cases, they are usually built from local soils and materials, because of the difficulties of access and transport of heavy materials.

However, building materials might be too much heterogeneous and permeable. Every
block with a size bigger than 20 cm is considered not suitable (Barras, 2010). Forbidden
materials for the construction of tailing dams are plastic clays, sandy and coarse materials and
every oil organic matter-enriched material. The banks of the dam are built up by a series of thin
compacted layers, after the selection, preparation and compacting of the foundation soil. The
organization of external and internal drainage systems aims to reduce pore pressures, ensure
a sufficient permeability to control water balance and reduce erosion risks. At the moment, no
chemical additives are used for gold processing in FG primary and secondary legal exploitations
and, thus, tailing's dams only retain water and geomaterials (Barras, 2010).

In **primary gold exploitations**, the arrangement of mining dams consists in one or several
ponds designed to stock mine tailings in a slurry (10 to 30% of solid fractions), having a sandy
to clayey texture (Bourbon and Mathon, 2012) (Fig. 49-50). These ponds are embanked by two
or more dams, usually built with the anciently or recently excavated materials available on site
(Cottard and Laperche, 2012). In FG, the most common elevation technique is the upstream
method because it is easier to preform and economically more viable. Nevertheless, this
method implies that the raised-up dams partly rely on non-compacted materials. Moreover,
the increasing height enhances the risk of landslide and reduces the security factor, leaving the
saturation level and runoff flows less monitored (Bourbon and Mathon, 2012). In FG, the initial
dam is usually not permeable, to reduce the water level because of closed-circuit functioning requirements and because of logistical and energetic needs (Fig. 49-50). Hence, waste desaturation takes much more time. Other ponds are used to decant and settle wastewater; they are located disparately on the site according to the topography, logistical needs or risk mitigation measures. They usually concern one or several secondary settling ponds. The longer the water is stored, the better colloids are deposited at the bottom, improving water clarification. More precisely, the downstream pond usually stocks the largest part of clarified water to be recycled for the closed-circuit functioning of the mine (Bourbon and Mathon, 2012). Finally, emergency ponds are located within the mine site, downstream the tailings pond, in order to receive the potential release of water and tailings in case of overflows (Fig 49-50).

We visited the dam system of a potential MSM-c that would stock de-cyanated tailings. The system used consists in the adaptation of the old dam system, through a sequence of ponds with particular draining systems and overflow devices. Each pond receives the potential overflow of the upstream-ones and finally is pumped back to assure the closed-circuit operation. No information has been found related to i-ASMp dams.

**In secondary gold exploitations, the arrangement of mining dams consists in a sequence of ponds used both for tailings storage and water settlement as long as the exploitation progresses (Fig. 51).** As it was explained in Chapter 4, these structures embank the *barranques* and, as the exploitation progresses along the riverbed, the previous extracting ponds are used to stock turbid water and the tailings of the “active” upstream *barranque* (Barras, 2010; Bourbon and Mathon, 2012). Once extracted, the minerals are processed by grain-size, a first time through gravimetry directly in the current exploitation pond, and then sent into the downstream ponds to settle (Fig. 51). No chemical additives are used. Secondary gold mining dam systems are found as well in primary gold mining projects that exploit secondary gold as complementary activity.

Around the *barranques*, waste soils are embanked for a height of 3-4 meters in order to separate each nearby pond and to protect them against flood and overtopping for the preservation of natural surface waters. These structures can be assimilated to dykes rather than actual dams. The life cycle of each *barranque* is quite short (one to several weeks) but they have an evolving nature. (Bourbon and Mathon, 2012). Indeed, exploited areas move constantly and *barranques* are continuously built up and then wiped out. According to the report by Bourbon and Mathon (2012), it is important to distinguish between internal dams – that create the *barranques* or water supply channels and have an evolving short-term life cycle. – and external dams – which are used to protect the surrounding environment from wastewater and potential emergencies. The same authors underline the priority of monitoring the stability of external dams for environmental protection. External dams are built at the beginning of the exploitation works and they are kept during the whole lifecycle of the
exploitation. The same system is set for i-ASMs, using dykes protected by wooden devices, but
few information has been found.

Therefore, the main differences between the dams in primary and secondary gold mining are:

5) A greater storage capacity and height of primary gold mining dams, due to the difference of surface exploited, the financial and technical equipment available and the production rate.

6) The systematic distinction, for primary gold mining projects, between tailings dams and water settling ponds.

7) The localization of the ponds which depends on a progressive downstream-to-upstream sequencing for secondary gold mining and are essentially topography-driven for primary gold exploitations.

8) The potential storage of decyanated tailings outcoming from processing plants and the utilization of dry storage for some primary gold exploitations.

### III. Mining dam failures: mechanisms, causes, consequences

In 1556 Agricola wrote that when the ores are washed the water used poisons the brooks and streams, destroys the fish or drives them away. Almost five hundred years later, approximately 23 000 tons of oil products spilled into the environment in a nickel mine in Russia in May 2020 due to the possible collapse of a fuel reservoir (Kim, 2020 for NPR News). In March 2020, in Heilongjiang Province (China), more than 2.5 million cubic meters of tailings contaminated the environment, threatening drinking water provisioning of almost 70 000 people. In 2019, more than 12 million cubic meters were released after the collapse of a tailings dam in an iron mine near Brumadinho (Brazil), killing more than 250 people. These were only the major among the 21 big tailings dam failures that have been reported by WISE, 2020 after the 2015 Samarco failure. Indeed, the greatest challenge for mining is the treatment and storage of mine waste, estimated to 5 – 14 000 Mt/year (Kossoff et al., 2014; Schoenberger, 2016). Tailings ponds represent the most significant environmental liability associated with mining operations (Martin and Davies, 2000), being more vulnerable than conventional dams (Rico et al., 2008a).

Several definitions of failures are given by Smith and Connell (1979); FEMA (2004); Caldwell et al., (2015), but none applies to all the contexts. In this study, a **mining dam failure** is referred to as the effect of the potential occurrence of single or multiple events which reduce one or more performances of a mining dam (e.g. stability, impermeability, storage capacity), leading to the alteration of its functions (i.e. tailings and water storage and settling).

Despite large dam failures low probability (Fu et al., 2018), consequences may be catastrophic. Hence, mining operators are under constant scrutiny by governments (Martin and Davies, 2000). Moreover, if some authors emphasize that the interest in this type of event has been,
at occasions, the "result of a series of well-publicized failures subjected to largely biased, sometimes disproportionate, and sensationalized reporting in the media" (Vick, 1996; Martin and Davies, 2000), the high number of failures occurred in the last 150 years is undeniable. Besides Table 15, other authors report several tailings dam failures (Castro-Larragoitia et al., 1997; Martin and Davies, 2000; Rico et al., 2008a; Lottermoser, 2010; Franks et al., 2011; Kossoff et al., 2014; Caldwell et al., 2015; Concha Larrauri and Lall, 2018; Glotov et al., 2018; Venancio Aires et al., 2018). In the Guiana Shield region, the main recent event concerns the Omai gold mine dam failure in 1995, detailed by Vick (1996).

According to authors, the rate of major tailings dam failures – thus, excluding “minor” accidents – is of 2 to 5 accidents per year (ICOLD, 2001; Davies, 2002), which means an annual probability between 1 in 700 to 1 in 1750, while it is only 1 in 10,000 for conventional dams (Davies, 2002). And this rate is estimated to increase each third of a century (Robertson, 2011), especially for earth-dams (Shahraki et al., 2012; Fu et al., 2018).

Multiple failure mechanisms are described by authors (Kossoff et al., 2014; INERIS, 2014; Ponce-Zambrano et al., 2014; Strachan and Goodwin, 2015). According to UNEP, (2017) eight main failure mechanisms are considered: mine subsidence, slope instability, foundation failure, structural failure, seismic instability due to earthquakes, overtopping, seepage or internal erosion and finally external erosion (Fig. 51).

Currently, overtopping is estimated to be the leading mechanism of mining dam failures (Strachan and Goodwin, 2015; Bowker and Chambers, 2017; UNEP, 2017) (Fig. 51). Moreover, it seems that overtopping events are increasing, which may show deficiencies in design and water management (Concha Larrauri, 2017). For this reason, overtopping was choosen as failure mechanism for the development of the RSa presented hereafter.

**Overtopping** is defined as the event during which water flows over the top of the dam, sometimes causing the erosion of the embankment (UNEP, 2017). The probability of occurrence of such events is influenced by a very wide range of interacting causes related both to the internal management of the mining project and its infrastructures, and the external environment of the mining project it-self. **Internal causes** can be related to:

a) Deficiencies in controlling water balance (e.g. inadequate spillway channels, and improper maintenance, technical failures) (Strachan and Goodwin 2015; Lynas, 2018) and inadequate geotechnical studies (e.g. errors concerning the mechanical behavior of the materials, in-situ water loads, capillary water and pore pressures, landslide occurrence) (Smith and Connell, 1979; Zandarin et al., 2009; Caldwell et al., 2015);

b) Inadequate construction methods (Le Poudre, 2015; Zhang et al., 2016) and upstream elevation methods affecting dam stability (Rico et al., 2008a; Kossoff et al., 2014; Caldwell et al., 2015). More than 66% of the worldwide reported dam
failures concern embankments constructed using the upstream method (do Carmo
et al., (2017).

c) Other factors related to: dam height (do Carmo et al., 2017), inadequate dam's location (Rico et al., 2008b), age (Smith and Connell, 1979; Caldwell et al., 2015), design, monitoring and peer reviews, limited engineer involvement and overconfidence of the mining operator (Caldwell et al., 2015) but also its activity or inactivity (Rico et al., 2008a; Kossoff et al., 2014; Strachan and Goodwin, 2015).

The first **external cause** responsible for overtopping is represented by the meteorological conditions at mine site (Rico et al., 2008a; Bourbon and Mathon, 2012; Ozer and Bromwell 2012; Kossoff et al., 2014; Ozer and Bromwell, 2012), especially in areas prone to heavy rains, where physical stability of mining ponds and the control of water level on the long term can be a challenge (Franks et al., 2011). Other causes are very variable and depend on the geological conditions, the topography of the site and the nature of the terrain (Stead, 1990; Emiroglu, 2008; Forzieri et al., 2008; Schoenberger, 2016), the occurrence of earthquakes (Kossoff et al., 2014). Climate change must be accounted for, because of a significant influence on water management at mine site (Odell et al., 2018), particularly in FG (Lecomte et al., 2011).

Finally, external causes can be also socio-political, related to the existence and application of preventive regulatory frameworks and of how exigent and comprehensive they are enforced (Schoenberger, 2016). In other cases, they might be economic, related to market dynamics the increasing of metal prices correlate with high rates of tailings dam failures (Kossoff et al., 2014).

The **consequences** of the overtopping of a mining dam are extremely diverse and, if the probability of occurrence of this event is relatively low, its consequences can be catastrophic. The immediate consequence of an overtopping is for the water to overflow the embankment, eroding and damaging the structure of the mining dam it-self. Therefore, a first series of events concern the consequences directly at the scale of the mining project. Overtopping might cause physical impacts on the workforce at mine site and destruction of mining infrastructures and, hence, the halt of mining activity and a considerable cost for the mining operator which may be increased by additional judicial proceedings, compensation costs etc. However, in case of insufficient reactive safety measures, the overtopping might create a vast flood area which exceed the mine perimeter and affect the surrounding socio-ecological system. Because of their catastrophic nature, these territorial consequences are the most reported by media and scientific literature.

Once outside the mine site, the flood generated by the overtopping may trigger direct and indirect consequences on livelihoods, health, well-being of human populations extending to a much wider area of the basin, reducing the offer of ecosystem services and jeopardizing well-being of local population (, et al., 2016). Direct environmental and societal consequences are multiple and very heterogeneous. Indeed, these triggered floods may affect local population and their safety and destroy public and private infrastructures (Fernandes et al.,
2016; Venancio Aires et al., 2018), enhance silting and erosion, the release of total suspended solids, toxic and acid wastes or heavy metals contaminating soils, groundwater and surface water resources, destroying natural habitats, biodiversity and ecosystems (Castro-Larragoitia et al., 1996; Kossoff et al., 2014; Neves et al., 2016; Glotov et al., 2018; Venancio Aires et al., 2018). These direct consequences may affect the surrounding human activities as well (e.g. arable crops, tourism) or drinking water catchment points, threatening human health and generating great socio-economic losses (e.g. loss of jobs and revenues, reduction of freshwater supply, social struggle due to the loss of revenues directly from the mine site).

These disastrous consequences for nearby communities and the environment have always a negative effect that rebounds on mining companies, who may consequently face high financial and reputational costs (Franks et al., 2011; Concha-Larrauri and Lall, 2018). Moreover, they may generate a widespread controversy and projects' opposition (Caldwell et al., 2015), leading to clean-up, compensation and litigation costs, the non-willingness of governments and communities to support new mining operations and, thus, lost future opportunities for mining operators (Franks et al., 2011).

<figure><img src="image_86.png" /><figcaption>A mining dam system in a ASM project type. The pond currently exploited and the sluice-boxe used for gravitary exploitation</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_87.png" /></figure>

In some cases, primary gold mines exploit as well secondary gold as complementary activity. In this case, both the mining dam systems are present within the same mine site

<figure><img src="image_88.png" /></figure>

A mining dam system in a ASM project type. The ponds (barranques) are separated from the diversion channels by lateral dykes of few meters

<figure><img src="image_89.png" /></figure>

A mining dam system in a ASM project type. Each barranque is connected with the others through spillway channels that allow the progressive settlement of sediments and the clarification of water
<figure><img src="image_90.png" /></figure>

Mining dam system in a primary gold exploitation in FG (MSMg-type) showing a closed-circuit functioning. D2 is the most downstream dam (Barras, 2010)

<figure><img src="image_91.png" /></figure>

Distribution of mining dam failures according to the height of the dam (adapted from Do Carmo et al., 2017). It can be discussed that furthermore that worldwide small dams are accounted more than large dams worldwide. The level of consequences of large dams is often much higher than in the case of small dams failures. However, small dams have, in theory, less technical and financial resources to assess and monitor the characteristics of the dams to reduce the probability of occurrence of the failure.
<table><caption>Appendix 11 – Synthetic review of the main numerical models commonly used for the estimation of the flooded areas</caption><thead><tr><td>Model</td><td>Description</td><td>References</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ANSYS FLUENT</td><td>Fluid dynamics and rheological analysis</td><td>Liu, 2018</td></tr><tr><td>NWS BREACH</td><td>Physically based mathematical model for predicting the outflow hydrograph from breaching of an embankment dam.</td><td>Mohamed et al., 2001<br>Wahl, 1998</td></tr><tr><td>CASTOR</td><td>Tool to simulate dam breaches and estimate the hydraulic parameters for the assessment of public safety risks. The tool considers the riverbed between the dams with specific dam-related parameters (storage, breach geometry), the influence of water flow on the breach, the type of failure, the downstream nearby areas through simplified 2D flow models, the propagation of the breach wave, including the influence of the dam.</td><td>Aureli et al., 2013<br>Renzoni et al., 2005<br>GeoPlus Environnement, 2014</td></tr><tr><td>Columbia Water Center - Tailings dams empirical equations</td><td>Tool to estimate the volume of tailings released in the event of a tailings dam failure and the corresponding distance traveled by the tailings (run-out distance). The analysis is based on the empirical relationships developed by Rico et al., 2008b using historical tailings dam failures. The original data was reviewed and expanded to include recent failures using data from Chambers and Bowker.<br>These equations have great uncertainty around the mean estimation from the regression so the conditional distribution is displayed for risk analysis purposes., https://columbiawater.shinyapps.io/ShinyappRicoRedo/</td><td>Concha Larrauri and Lall 2018<br>Concha Larrauri, 2017</td></tr><tr><td>DMBRK</td><td>The model consists of two conceptual parts, namely: (1) description of the dam failure mode, i.e., the temporal and geometrical description of the breach; and (2) a hydraulic computational algorithm for determining the time history (hydrograph) of the outflow through the breach as affected by the breach description, reservoir inflow, reservoir storage characteristics, spillway outflows, and downstream tailwater elevations; and for routing of the outflow hydrograph through the downstream valley in order to account for the changes in the hydrograph due to valley storage, frictional resistance, downstream bridges or dams. The model also determines the resulting water surface elevations (stages) and flood-wave travel times.</td><td>Zhou, 2005<br>Bozcus and Kasop, 1998<br>Wahl, 1998</td></tr><tr><td>FLDWAV</td><td>Model used for unsteady flow analysis using the full equations of motion. It is a combination of two popular NWS programs: the Dynamic Wave Operation Network Model (DWOPER) and the Dam-Break Forecasting Model (DAMBRK) (break parameters, width, formation time, length, geometry, slope factor)</td><td>Zhou, 2005<br>Wahl, 1998</td></tr><tr><td>FLO-2D</td><td>Physical process model that routes flood hydrographs over unconfined flow surfaces or in channels. It is a simple volume conservation model and has a number of components to simulate street flow, buildings and obstructions, sediment transport, spatially variable rainfall and infiltration, floodways and many other flooding details. The unsteady flow equations in two dimensions also solved by the FLO-2D model can be expressed as follows</td><td>Lynker, 2019<br>Haltas et al., 2016<br>Pilotti et al., 2014</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table>
  <tr>
    <td>FloodGIS</td>
    <td>Cost-effective GIS tool that is able to provide: the evaluation of the instantaneous breach outflow discharge for masonry dams, the analysis of downstream flood propagation, and the creation of downstream flood-prone area maps, for dam-break analysis. The tool consists of a model for evaluating the dam-break outflow hydrograph, downstream flood propagation, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM)-based method for the delineation of dam-break hazard-prone areas. The GIS tool is capable of simulating one-dimensional unsteady flow using the St. Venant equations with the kinematic wave approximation, combined with wave front propagation as a monoclinical rising wave in a channel. As a final result, the tool provides the peak discharge, the peak elevation, and the peak time at different distances below the dam. The use of this tool is based on commonly available information concerning dam geometry (i.e., reservoir capacity, dam height and crest length), and a freely available online DEM. based on the commonly available data for masonry dams, i.e., dam geometry (e.g., reservoir capacity, dam height, and crest length), and a Digital Elevation Model. The model allows for rapid and cost-effective dam-break hazard mapping by evaluating three components: (i) the dam-failure discharge hydrograph, (ii) the propagation of the flood, and (iii) the delineation of flood-prone areas.</td>
    <td>Albano et al., 2014<br>Albano et al., 2019</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>FloodRisk</td>
    <td>Prototype software tool able to calculate and view the number of people affected and direct damages to properties caused by any flood scenario in any chosen area. The tool performs a simple risk assessment in which it considers fixed event scenarios where the probability of each scenario is estimated separately and it calculates the consequences deterministically. The key data required concern: hazard (maximum depth values, maximum velocity values, warning time), receptors (the polygon boundary of the study area, census map of population, buildings and/or land use map, infrastructures lines maps (e.g. roads, railways etc.)) and vulnerability ("fatality rate" as the percentage of population at risk who die based on flood severity, warning time, and warning quality). Fatality rate assessment is based on empirical methodologies of literature calibrated on historical cases.</td>
    <td>Mancusi et al., 2015</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>Flow Path Length GIS module</td>
    <td>GIS module used to calculate the maximum upstream or downstream distance or weighted distance along the flow path for each cell based on 'Deterministic 8 (D8)' (O'Callaghan and Mark 1984) flow directions.</td>
    <td>Lindsay and Seibert, 2013<br>Lindsay, 2014<br>Lindsay, 2016<br>Lindsay, 2019<br>Samela, 2017</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>Geomorphic Flood Area Tool</td>
    <td>Open-source QGIS plug-in to realize a fast and cost-effective delineation of the floodplains in the contexts where the available data is scarce to carry out hydrological/hydraulic analyses. It is based on two main sets of inputs: a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) to calculate the Geomorphic Flood Index (GFI); and a detailed flood hazard map usually derived from hydraulic models, representing the reference standard data used to train the linear binary classifier based on the GFI (e.g. maps provided by river basin authorities or emergency management agencies). This calibration map, in the form of a raster grid, is necessary for limited portions of the basin of interest.</td>
    <td>Samela, 2018</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>HEC-RAS, HEC-GeoRAS</td>
    <td>One-dimensional river hydraulics model used for steady flow and unsteady-flow water surface profile computations though a network of open channels In dam break study HEC-RAS is used to route the inflow hydrograph throughout the reservoir and the outflow hydrograph of the breach throughout the downstream of the river. HEC-RAS can be used to route an inflowing flood</td>
    <td>Duressa and Jubir, 2018<br>Khalfallah and Saidi, 2018</td>
  </tr>
</table>
hydrograph through the reservoir with any of the following three methods based on Saint Venant equations. HEC-RAS can be used to model the reservoir using fully dynamic wave routing. If it is not possible, or reasonable to perform full dynamic wave routing through the reservoir, or if the presumed difference between level pool routing and dynamic routing is small, then level pool routing can be performed with HEC-RAC. HEC-GeoRAS is a geographic river analysis system developed using ArcGIS Desktop and ArcGIS Spatial Analyst and 3D Analyst extensions

Zhou, 2005

Haltas et al., 2016

Xiong, 2011

Demir and Kisi, 2016

Leoul, 2015

**ISIS Flood**

Hydrodynamic simulator for modeling flows and levels in open channels. It is able to model complex looped and branched networks, and is designed for simulating flood plain flows. It incorporates both unsteady and steady flow solvers, with options that include simple backwaters, flow routing and full unsteady simulation.

Almassri, 2011

**MIKE Flood**

Commercially available integrated tool for detailed floodplain studies. It is an integration of two numerical hydrodynamic models MIKE 11 (1-D) and MIKE 21 (2-D) with a unified user interface and gives you the best of both steady and unsteady flow computations, but the disadvantage is that the detailed spatial modeling where needed, plus the speed of 1-D calculations where appropriate. MIKE FLOOD is ideal for many types of analyses such as flooding, storm surge, dam break, embankment failure, and more.

Dat et al., 2018

Kumar et al., 2013

Shah et al., 2017

Yu et al., 2016

**r.damflood module (GRASS GIS)**

The new r.damflood command developed within the Free and Open Source GRASS GIS software is integrated within the RiskBox project and provides the users with new capabilities of dam break risk assessment: in fact starting from commonly available base maps (DTM, land use map, etc), it is possible to derive intensity maps that can be directly used within the GIS for exposure assessment and damage estimation. Moreover, the simulated temporal evolution of the flooding can be used to define protection and evacuation measures. It is based on elevation raster map (accounting for reservoir's bathymetry and dam elevation), lake water depth raster map (easily obtained with r.lake GRASS GIS module), dam breach width raster map (decreased dam height due to failure), Manning's roughness coefficient raster map, simulation time duration.

Cannata and Marzocchi, 2012;

Marzocchi et al., 2013

**SCS TR-55 Model**

Method which uses the CN method to estimate direct runoff from storm rainfall. This method determines CN values based on watershed's soil and cover conditions which represent the hydrological soil group, cover type, land-use treatment strategies and hydrological condition, and the direct runoff is determined based on the CN values (USDA 1986). Technique Release 55 (TR-55) is a commonly used hydrological model. This model uses runoff depth data obtained from SCS-CN as an input to determine the peak discharge of watersheds and enables the model to simulate runoff and peak discharge to identify flood phenomenon in urban areas.

Dang and Kumar, 2017

**SMPDBK**

Simplified prediction model of flood caused by dam breaks provides the required data to determine areas exposed to the flood. Applying the mentioned model reduces the amount of required time, data, computer facilities and experts in comparison with application of other complicated unsteady flow routing models. It is to say that, the user of the SMPDBK model is able to predict the maximum out flow of dam break, maximum elevation and maximum transfer time in specified points of downstream with the

Gee and Brunner, 2005

Motevalli and Zadbar, 2012

Shahraki et al., 2012
minimum facilities, i.e. a microcomputer in a very short time. The input required for a SMPDBK model are a stream centerline, cross sections, and information regarding the storage and failure of the dam being modeled.

Day, 2016

Bozcus and Kasop,
1998

Soil and Water Assessment Tool, developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), is a quasi-distributed model used for simulating runoff at the watershed scale. It is a continuous simulation model that, besides its variegate functions, can also be used to predict the stream flow time series, both with and without dams, then analyzed to produce flood frequency curves.

Lee *et al.*, 2017

SWAT
## Appendix 12 – Simplified flowsheets of the methodologies developed for the assessment of socio-ecological vulnerability at the Mana river basin scale, based on the available data.

<figure><img src="image_92.png" /><figcaption>Flowsheet of the methodology developed for the assessment of population vulnerability based on land-use and demographic data.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /><figcaption>Flowsheet of the methodology developed for the assessment of building vulnerability based on buildings-related data concerning their concentration per polygon and their destination of use (e.g. residential, monuments, public offices).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_94.png" /></figure>

<table><caption>Flowsheet of the methodology developed for the assessment of soil ecosystem services vulnerability based on semantic and spatialized data. The association between these two types of data is given in the Table below.</caption><thead><tr><td>Indicator</td><td>Ecosystem Service</td><td>Reference</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Soil permeability</td><td>Runoff control</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Crop production</td><td>Soil agronomic potential</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
Association table for the expert-based estimation of the soil permeability and soil agronomic potential indicators. For each given to each soil spatial unit in Blancaneaux, (2001) a specific dominant soil has been associated and their characteristics have been described and associated.

Association sols Blancaneux 2001 - Turenne 1973

<table><thead><tr><th>Code Blancaneux, 2001</th><th>Code Turenne, 1973</th><th>Code Marius, 1966</th><th>Critères associatifs</th><th>Perméabilité</th><th>Potentiel agricole</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>PJ1</td><td>I.2</td><td></td><td>sols minéraux bruts, d'apports, matériaux alluvionnaire marin recent</td><td>Very low</td><td>Very low</td></tr><tr><td>PJ2</td><td>II.1, II.2</td><td></td><td>sol peu évolués d'apport, salés, pyrtes, hydromorphie, sur matériaux alluvionnaires marins argileux</td><td>Moderately low</td><td>Moderately low</td></tr><tr><td>PJ3</td><td>II.3, V.3.1, V.3.2, V.4</td><td></td><td>hydromorphie, humus et matière organiques, gley, anmoor acide, salés, pyrites sur matériaux alluvionnaire</td><td>Moderately low</td><td>Moderately low</td></tr><tr><td>PA1</td><td>III.4.1, III.4.2</td><td></td><td>podzolisation, alios, matériaux alluvionnaires marins et fluvio-marins, ferrallitisols avec lessivages, appauvrissements, cuirasse, sols hydromorphes sur anciennes alluvions marines et fluvio-marines</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Very low</td></tr><tr><td>PA2</td><td>III (sauf III.4.1, III.4.2), IV.1.1, IV.3.3</td><td></td><td>ferrallitisols avec lessivage et appauvris avec podzols sur matériaux sableux, argileux continentaux</td><td>Very high</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><td>S1</td><td>cuirasse lateritique, sol inexistant</td><td></td><td>pas de sol</td><td>Very low</td><td>Very low</td></tr><tr><td>S2</td><td>IV.2.1, IV.3.4, IV.4.1</td><td></td><td>ferrallitisols avec rajeunissement, appauvrissement et cuirasse sur schistes de Bonidoro</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderately low</td></tr><tr><td>S3</td><td>IV.1.3, IV.1.4</td><td>MO 19, MO 12, MO 1, MO 17</td><td>ferrallitisols avec remaniement, rajeunissement, appauvrissement sur schistes argileux d'Orapu</td><td>Very high</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><td>S4</td><td>IV.3.1, IV.1.4</td><td></td><td>ferrallitisols avec remaniement, rajeunissement, appauvrissement sur granites Guyanais</td><td>Moderately high</td><td>Very low</td></tr><tr><td>S5</td><td>IV.1.2, IV.1.4, IV.4.5</td><td></td><td>ferrallitisols avec remaniement, rajeunissement, appauvrissement et lessivage sur matériaux granitiques Caraibe/Galibi</td><td>Moderately high</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><td>S6</td><td>IV.1.2, IV.2.2</td><td></td><td>ferralitisols remaniés et rajeunis, sur complexe volcano-sédimentaire Paramaca</td><td>Moderately high</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><td>S7</td><td>IV.1.2, IV.2.2</td><td></td><td>ferralitisols remaniés et rajeunis, sur complexe volcano-sédimentaire Paramaca</td><td>Moderately high</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><td>S8</td><td>IV. 4.2, V.5.1, V.6</td><td></td><td>minéraux, sur matériaux sablo-argileux</td><td>Moderately low</td><td>Moderately low</td></tr><tr><td>S9</td><td>IV. 4.4., V.4.3, V.5.1</td><td></td><td>depots fluviatiles, hydromorphes, fonds de vallée</td><td>Moderately low</td><td>Moderately low</td></tr></tbody></table>
Appendix 13 – Data used for the assessment of the vulnerability related to soil resources. The database has been published by the ONF (ONF, 2015) in French Guiana and it the spatialized data has been provided to us by local ONF experts.

<figure><img src="image_95.png" /></figure>

Example of data used for the assessment of socio-ecological vulnerability indicators. In this case, the catalog of forest habitats developed by ONF, (2015) was used, interpreted and adapted to assess the consequences related to biodiversity, wood production and landscape degradation

<table><thead><tr><th>grid_code</th><th>Description</th><th>POURC FRE</th><th>SOIL</th><th>BIODIV</th><th>WOOD</th><th>BIOMAS</th><th>tMS ha</th><th>PAYSAG</th><th>PB</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>0</td><td>Hors forêt</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>41110</td><td>Forêt ripicole, bas fonds, talwegs humides</td><td>9</td><td>Gleysol</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Riverbank erosion</td></tr><tr><td>41111</td><td>Forêt de transition (ecotone - facies humide)</td><td>9</td><td>Gleysol</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Riverbank erosion</td></tr><tr><td>41120</td><td>Mangrove</td><td>0,6</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td>450</td><td>High</td><td>Coastal erosion</td></tr><tr><td>41210</td><td>Forêt cotière terres basses</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>Very high</td><td>Low</td><td>Low</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Tourism</td></tr><tr><td>41211</td><td>Forêt sur cordon sableux</td><td>&lt; 0,1</td><td>Arenosols</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Low</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Tourism</td></tr><tr><td>41220</td><td>Forêt cotière terres hautes</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Tourism</td></tr><tr><td>41221</td><td>Forêt littorale sur rochers</td><td>&lt; 0,1</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Low</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Tourism</td></tr><tr><td>41230</td><td>Forêt sur sable blanc</td><td>0,1</td><td>Podzol</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Tourism</td></tr><tr><td>41310</td><td>Forêt de la peneplaine interieure</td><td>8</td><td>Arenosols</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>Moderate</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>41311</td><td>Forêt sur djougoung pété</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Low</td><td></td><td>Moderate</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>41410</td><td>Forêt des basses vallees</td><td>4</td><td>Acrisols</td><td>High</td><td>Moderate</td><td>High</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Soil erosion</td></tr><tr><td>41420</td><td>Forêt de colline irreguliere</td><td>5</td><td>Acrisols</td><td>High</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Soil erosion</td></tr><tr><td>41430</td><td>Forêt de colline reguliere</td><td>7</td><td>Acrisols</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>Moderate to low</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>41440</td><td>Forêt de colline peu elevee</td><td>6</td><td>Acrisols</td><td>Moderate to low</td><td>High</td><td>High</td><td></td><td>Moderate to low</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>41510</td><td>Forêt de plateau regulier</td><td>12</td><td>Ferralsols</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Very high</td><td>High</td><td></td><td>Low</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>41511</td><td>Forêt sur inselberg (inventaire 2001)</td><td>&lt; 0,5</td><td>Leptosols</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Low</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Tourism</td></tr><tr><td>41520</td><td>Forêt de plateau irregulier</td><td>6</td><td>Ferralsols</td><td>Moderate to low</td><td>High</td><td>High</td><td></td><td>Low</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>41530</td><td>Forêt de plateau eleve</td><td>9</td><td>Ferralsols</td><td>Low</td><td>High</td><td>High</td><td></td><td>Low</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>41610</td><td>Forêt de moyenne montagne</td><td>14</td><td>Plinthosols</td><td>Very high</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Slope erosion</td></tr><tr><td>41611</td><td>Forêt sub-montagnarde</td><td>0,3</td><td>Histosols</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td></td><td>High</td><td>Slope erosion</td></tr></tbody></table>

Example of information extrapolated by the ONF catalog (ONF, 2015)
# Development of a method to assess the susceptibility of tailings dams' failure due to overtopping

**Sauer Lorenzo**

University of Lorraine, Ecole des Mines de Nancy, France. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brasil, CAPES/CNPQ.

Email: lorenzo.nardin-sauer4@etu.univ-lorraine.fr

**Robert Louis-Guilhem**

University of Lorraine, Ecole des Mines de Nancy, France. Email: louis-guilhem.robert2@etu.univ-lorraine.fr

**Scammacca Ottone**

GeoRessources Laboratory, University of Lorraine, Nancy, France. Email: ottone.scammacca@univ-lorraine.fr

**Mehdizadeh Rasool**

GeoRessources Laboratory, University of Lorraine, Nancy, France. Email: rasool.mehdizadeh@univ-lorraine.fr

**Gunzburger Yann**

GeoRessources Laboratory, University of Lorraine, Nancy, France. Email: yann.gunzburger@univ-lorraine.fr

**ABSTRACT.** In the last 20 years, more than 40 major tailing dam accidents occurred posing major economic, social and environmental threats like for instance, the dam failures of Baia Mare in Romania (2000), Mariana in Brazil (2015) and again in Brazil with the recent Brumadinho dam failure (2019). There are several existing methods to monitor the safety and efficiency of tailing dams, such as field measures, numerical and physical models, monitoring and expert judgment from referred professionals. However, these methods are very time, labour and money consuming. The purpose of this article is to propose a method to assess the susceptibility of failure of a tailings dam due to overtopping which: i) depends on qualitative and quantitative input variables ii) is adapted to the available amount of information and iii) gives a relevant confidence level. This methodology will be practical for preliminary evaluation of the state of a tailings dam and to point out the necessity of future study for the structure's safety.

Key Words: Tailings dam failure; Probability; Susceptibility; Overtopping; Mining; Vulnerability; Bow-tie Diagram