(C2) 'biogenic carbonate' (±OM) + $^{15}$N-enriched clay ($\delta^{13}$C = -30‰; $\delta^{15}$N = 16‰); (C3) no carbonate or OM but $^{15}$N-depleted clay ($\delta^{15}$N < -12‰).

Howell et al. (2020) performed a large in situ study of the carbon isotope composition of diamond through time. They analyzed 88 peridotitic and 56 eclogitic diamond fragments, with formation ages ranging from the Paleozoic (maximum age: 3.5 Ga) to the Mesoproterozoic (minimum age: 1.0 Ga; Fig. 10b). This global diamond record revealed no systematic variation with time in the mantle carbon isotope record over 3 billion years, with the modal $\delta^{13}$C of peridotitic diamonds at -5 ± 2‰ since the earliest diamond growth at 3.5 Ga. This study also revealed a tail toward $^{13}$C-depleted carbon in eclogitic diamonds, with its first occurrence in the record from 3.0 Ga onwards, showing no signs of systematic variation through time (Fig. 10b). As reported by the authors, if the low $\delta^{13}$C carbon signature is related to a biogenic carbon contribution in altered oceanic crust (Li et al., 2019), this would indicate that this contribution has been consistent from at least 3.0 Ga.

Walter et al. (2011) investigated a suite of super-deep diamonds from Juina (Brazil) with $\delta^{13}$C sometimes variable between about -20‰ and -25‰. These authors clearly state that the carbon from which these diamonds formed "may have been deposited originally within oceanic crust at the seafloor" and that the low values of their $\delta^{13}$C would indicate a recycled organic source of carbon (Cartigny, 2005). In detail, based on the mineral inclusions found within these diamonds, Walter et al. (2011) indicate that they must have been formed within the lower mantle and suggest that "the carbon was transported as carbonate, some of which would have been isotopically light, having originated as organic carbon".

Walter et al. (2011) is one of the first studies showing that super-deep diamonds could have a $^{12}$C-enriched carbon source. The same applies for some worldwide blue diamonds studied by Smith et al. (2018) containing boron and $^{12}$C-enriched carbon, which track a surficial and possibly organic carbon source. Doucet et al. (2021) reported similar diamonds related to subduction processes and characterized by carbon organic sources. However, a typical problem when super-deep diamonds are investigated is the determination of their age. At the moment, only a few studies reported the age of super-deep diamonds showing $^{12}$C-enriched carbon. Walter et al. (2011) report possible ages for their subduction-related super-deep diamonds close to 100 Ma (Bulanova et al., 2010) and in general it would appear that super-deep diamonds are younger than lithospheric diamonds (Smit et al., 2022). This still remains to be fully understood and a definitive answer will be provided once more super-deep diamond ages will be available.

## Secular variation of surficial versus deep carbon reservoirs or steady state?

There has been significant discussion on whether the shallow Earth deep carbon cycle is balanced, i.e., if total subduction fluxes are accounted for by total volcanic degassing (Kelemen and Manning, 2015; Plank and Manning, 2019; Wong et al., 2019; Müller et al., 2022). An analysis of carbon flux balance for inputs to and output from the mantle suggest a steady state regime for the modern era, albeit with large uncertainties. Plank and Manning (2019) concluded that the highly variable speciation and quantity of subducted carbon, the diversity of pressure-temperature paths along slabs, and the possible crustal contamination by various sediments render the assessment of carbon inputs to versus outputs from the mantle highly dependent of the global geodynamic configurations. Connections between the Wilson cycles and global mantle carbon inputs/outputs are thus expected, with some links with the surficial and deep carbon reservoirs formed across the history of planet Earth. As briefly discussed in Section "Origins of deep carbon" Gaillard et al. (2022a) concluded that the mass of surface carbon formed in the early Hadean, once the magma ocean solidified, was identical, within uncertainties, to the present-day mass of surface carbon. This may rather indicate a steady state regime for the inputs to and output from the mantle back to 4.5 Ga. Nevertheless, secular variations in the distribution and amounts of different forms of carbon, such as organic and inorganic carbon, are well documented. To list only a few notable examples, the Great Oxidation Event has imparted substantial redox changes in both surface and deep environments, affecting the stability of different carbon forms; the Cambrian explosion led to a remarkable increase in the productivity of organic carbon (Husson and Peters, 2017); lastly, the Marine Mesozoic Revolution may have marked an unprecedented change in the deposition and accumulation of inorganic carbon in marine carbonates (e.g., Müller et al., 2022; Ridgwell, 2005). Although these secular variations may have not impacted the global fluxes of carbon inputs and outputs, and may have been promoted by deep-Earth processes (Eguchi et al., 2020), their chemical fingerprints can be traced through geological time in the rock record (e.g., Kump et al., 2011; Giuliani et al., 2022).

Modern Earth carbon ingassing and outgassing of the mantle is summarized in Fig. 11. Following Plank and Manning (2019), we select recent published carbon flux values for subducted slab lithological components. In addition, we review recent estimates of carbon outgassing fluxes at tectonic settings. To obtain a total carbon in/outgassing flux, we perform Monte Carlo simulations to obtain a median estimate and uncertainty interval. We randomly select an individual carbon flux estimate from each flux subcategory shown in Fig. 11 (e.g., selecting one of the three subducting oceanic crust carbon estimates), and subsequently randomly sample a carbon flux value from the error range of that estimate (i.e., the range denoted by the error bars in Fig. 11), assuming that the uncertainty is uniformly distributed within that range. An individual estimate for total in/outgassing is thereby obtained from the sum of each individual sampled flux value contributing to carbon in/outgassing. The in/outgassing fluxes presented in Fig. 11 are median values ±2 standard deviations (n = 100,000).

On a first order we note that our values for in/outgassing are broadly in concordance with Plank and Manning (2019), in that there is rough parity within 2 standard deviations between ingassing and outgassing. However, the ingassing flux we present (107 ± 26 Mt. C yr⁻¹) is slightly larger than the outgassing flux (70 ± 36 Mt. C yr⁻¹). We attribute this to several reasons. Firstly, there is significant uncertainty in all fluxes presented in Fig. 11, thereby complicating an appropriate comparison. We also note that
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 11** Figure illustrating the carbon flux balance into (left) and out of (right) the mantle, following Plank and Manning (2019). All values shown are in Mt. C yr⁻¹, and represent the selected value as illustrated by the solid bars. The error bars show uncertainty in the estimate. The total input and output fluxes (±2 standard deviations) are determined by Monte Carlo error propagation assuming uniform uncertainties in individual values and by randomly selecting an estimate within each contribution (see Section “Secular variation of surficial versus deep carbon reservoirs or steady state?” for further details). References, in order of first appearance from left to right: A+13: Alt et al. (2013); M+22: Müller et al. (2022); KM15: Kelemen and Manning (2015); L+19: Li et al. (2019); C17: Clift (2017); [B+17, Wo+19]: the two models of Brune et al. (2017) combined with present-day average rift degassing flux of Wong et al. (2019); H+19: Hauri et al. (2019); T+18: Tucker et al. (2018); LV+19: Le Voyer et al. (2019); We+19: Werner et al. (2019); B+21: Bekaert et al. (2021); H+19: Hauri et al. (2019).</figcaption></figure>

several fluxes are introduced or are revised relative to Plank and Manning (2019), such as the role of peridotite, which is now divided into three categories based on the circumstances of peridotite carbonation. In particular we highlight the introduction of sub-oceanic lithospheric mantle as a reservoir for oceanic carbon, which has only recently been quantified (Keller et al., 2017; Müller et al., 2022). We also consider the large, uncertain rift fluxes of Wong et al. (2019), which are substituted for the intraplate diffuse fluxes of Plank and Manning, but do not account for the degassing of individual rift-related volcanoes in these settings. We also note that estimates of fluxes of solid carbon exhumed in metamorphic rocks is essentially unquantified (Plank and Manning, 2019). Finally, we note that there are several processes during subduction that are not considered here, such as sequestration of carbon into the forearc slab, mantle and crust as carbonate and/or reduced carbon (Barry et al., 2019; Debret et al., 2022; Fullerton et al., 2021; Hu et al., 2021; Piccoli et al., 2019; Vitale Brovarone et al., 2017), which will affect the carbon that is outgassed during volcanism. It therefore remains an open question as to whether the balance between subduction and outgassing remains at parity at the present day (e.g., Kelemen and Manning, 2015), and how this balance may be sustained (if at all) through geological time (e.g., Müller et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2019).

## Concluding remarks

Efforts from a broad range of scientific disciplines have provided a substantial contribution to the understanding of carbon reservoirs and movements in the deep Earth. However, despite deep carbon being the largest carbon reservoir on Earth, it remains the least understood. This can be depicted by the large uncertainties in deep carbon reservoirs and fluxes (see Fig. 4), which stems from a partial understanding of the range and distribution of deep forms of carbon and related processes. Considering the two most striking peculiarities of our planet, life and subduction, fundamental questions remain on how, to what extent, and since when life has influenced deep carbon. What is the response time of deep carbon to major surface biogeochemical changes? Can carbon isotope signatures classically interpreted as biotic (or contaminated by biotic carbon materials) be explained by purely abiotic processes? How much and how diverse are the abiotic organics potentially formed in the interior of planet Earth, thereby potentially rejuvenating Gold's theory (Gold, 1992)? Would the answer challenge our models on when the first biogenic carbon reached the convective mantle? To what degree does the lack of a sound quantification of diffuse carbon degassing at the Earth's surface affect
our models of deep carbon inputs and outputs? The current diversification of geobiological approaches to deep carbon studies still suffers from a jungle of semantic obstacles regarding the types of carbon and its origins. Simple terms such as organic/inorganic carbon, abiotic, biotic, or biogenic carbon are used in multiple ways and with very diverse meanings among emerging communities. In turn, this growing diversification of geo-biological disciplines represents a fundamental milestone in the understanding of deep carbon, and how it has been shaping the coevolution of Earth and life since at least 3.8 Ga. It also offers an opportunity to question processes on other planetary bodies, as the James Webb Space Telescope continues to reveal new, detailed observations of exoplanets and their intrinsic processes.

## Acknowledgments

This chapter builds on the significant increase in knowledge gained under the auspices of the Deep Carbon Observatory decadal program. The authors thank J. Ague, D. Sverjensky, S. Tumiati I. Martinez, and G. Siron, for stimulating discussions, and A. Turchyn for editorial handling. T. Tsujimori and S. Bernstein are thanked for providing samples. This work is part of the project that has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program to AVB (Grant Agreement No. 864045, acronym DeepSeep), DG (Grant No. 948972-COEVOLVE-ERC-2020-STG), FN (Gtant Agreement No. 307322), and MGP (Grant Agreement No. 101041620 INHERIT). A MUR FARE (acronym DRYNK) grant to AVB and grant and MUR PRIN2022 (Grant Agreement. 20224YR3AZ; acronym HYDECARB) to AVB and DG are also acknowledged. FG acknowledges the GASTON project (ANR-18-CE31-0021). This work has received partial support by funding from the European Union's Horizon Europe research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 101154017 project SUBCARB to BDP.

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