# History of Women in Ethiopia

Margaux Herman

► To cite this version:

Margaux Herman (Dir.). History of Women in Ethiopia. Margaux Herman. Centre français des études éthiopiennes, 2024, Ad'É Books, Contemporary Horn of Africa, Jean-Nicolas Bach, 978-2-11-172325-2. 10.4000/13255 hal-04881708

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HISTORY OF WOMEN
IN ETHIOPIA

EDITED BY MARGEAUX HERMAN

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Ad'É BOOKS

አዴመጻሕፍት

CONTEMPORARY

የአፍሪካ ቀንድ

HORN OF AFRICA

የአሁን ጊዜ ታሪክ

Centre français des études éthiopiennes
# History of Women in Ethiopia

Under the direction of Margaux Herman

DOI: 10.4000/13255

Publisher: Centre français des études éthiopiennes

Place of publication: Addis Ababa

Year of publication: 2024

Publication date: 10 janvier 2025

Series: Ad'É Books, Contemporary Horn of Africa

Digital ISBN: 978-2-11-172324-5

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

OpenEdition
Books

https://books.openedition.org

Print edition

ISBN (Print version): 978-2-11-172325-2

Number of pages: 311

## DIGITAL REFERENCE

Herman, Margaux, editor. *History of Women in Ethiopia*. Centre français des études éthiopiennes, 2024. https://doi.org/10.4000/13255.

This text was automatically generated on 13 janvier 2025.

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The PDF format is issued under the Creative Commons - Attribution - Partage dans les Mêmes Conditions 4.0 International - CC BY-SA 4.0 license unless otherwise stated.

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

The ePub format is issued under the Creative Commons - Attribution - Partage dans les Mêmes Conditions 4.0 International - CC BY-SA 4.0 license unless otherwise stated.

## ABSTRACT

This volume on Ethiopian women's history is a pioneering project in Ethiopian educational documentation, bringing together the research that has been developed on Ethiopian women's
history up to the 2010s. It examines a wide range of topics related to women's issues using critical, methodological and chronological approaches. Nineteen researchers worked on the project in all its political, religious and social dimensions, exploring women's issues related to religion, work, education, political and economic participation, health, sports, etc. Each theme has its own dedicated section, made up of successive chapters that either attempt to cover the period from antiquity to the present day, or analyse sub-themes from different perspectives.
The volume brings together historians and social scientists from Ethiopia and abroad who share a common interest in developing the field of women's history and gender in Ethiopia. They have worked together to address different methodological issues and topics in a single volume, with the aim of being used as a reference material in an academic context. It is the first attempt of its kind to provide a scholarly and academic overview of Ethiopian women's history. It presents the various studies that have been carried out in this field of knowledge, with chapters that synthesise previous research, present the state of the art of thematic studies, or propose original research in still unexplored areas of study.

## EDITOR'S NOTE

This book is published with the support of the “Open Science for African Studies” programme, selected and funded by FNSO2 (Fonds national pour la science ouverte, call for projects no. 2). https://www.ouvrirlascience.fr/soea-2/.
The first proofreading have been done thanks to the financial support of the Institut des Mondes Africains (IMAF - UMR 8171 - Campus Condorcet, 5 cours des Humanités, 93322 Aubervilliers Cedex - http://www.imaf.cnrs.fr/).

## MARGAUX HERMAN (ED.)

Dr Margaux Herman initiated, coordinated and edited the volume. Dr Herman is a historian who began her career in Paris at La Sorbonne University and then as Assistant Professor at Debre Berhan University. She is currently Assistant Professor at the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (Inalco) in Paris, France. She has brought together senior and junior Ethiopian and international scholars to produce a unique volume aimed at supporting the development of education and quality teaching at university level.
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History of Women in Ethiopia
Ad'É Books, Contemporary Horn of Africa

አዴ መጻሕፍት የአፍሪካ ቀንድ የአሁን ጊዜ ታሪክ

Series Editors:

Pierre Guidi & Jean-Nicolas Bach

© Centre français des études éthiopiennes, 2024

https://books.openedition.org/cfee/

ISBN: 978-2-11-172325-2

ISSN en cours
History of Women in Ethiopia

Edited by Margaux Herman

Centre français des études éthiopiennes
Herman, Margaux, ed. 2024. *History of Women In Ethiopia*. Ad'É Books, Contemporary Horn of Africa. Addis Ababa: Centre français des études éthiopiennes. https://books.openedition.org/cfee/3356.

All texts in this book are published under the Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA 3.0: "Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported."

See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

“You are free to:

- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format

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Under the following terms:

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No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits."

*Archiving of web pages:* The mention “[archive]” in notes and bibliographies indicates an archived version of the web document in the Wayback Machine (https://web.archive.org).

ISBN (printed version): 978-2-11-172325-2

ISBN (digital version): 978-2-11-172324-5

Open Access HTML version to be read online at: http://books.openedition.org/cfee

Published with the support of the "Open Science for African Studies" programme, selected and funded by FNSO2 (Fonds national pour la science ouverte, call for projects no. 2). https://www.ouvrirlascience.fr/soea-2/.

The first proofreading have been done thanks to the financial support of the *Institut des Mondes Africains* (IMAF - UMR 8171 - Campus Condorcet, 5 cours des Humanités, 93322 Aubervilliers Cedex - http://www.imaf.cnrs.fr/).

Publishing Director: Constance Perrin-Joly

Series Editors: Pierre Guidi & Jean-Nicolas Bach

English proofreading: Moya Jones & Rosebelle Otieno

Formatting: Bastien Miraucourt

Cover design & Page Layout: Laurent Leclair (TypoTEX)

© 2024, Edited by Margaux Herman.

The *Centre français des études éthiopiennes* (French Centre for Ethiopian Studies) is a French, publicly-funded research institute, located in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

CFEE

Ambassade de France en Éthiopie

P.O. Box 5554 – Addis-Abeba, Ethiopia

https://cfee.cnrs.fr/
# Contents

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 13

List of Sources .................................................................................................................. 17

List of Contributors ........................................................................................................ 21

Foreword .......................................................................................................................... 27

Preface .......................................................................................................................... 33

1. Background of the project........................................................................ 33

2. Reading guidelines: description and objectives ........................................ 34

3. Editor's note on references, footnotes, and style: a pedagogical choice.................................................................................................................. 35

4. Brief description .................................................................................................... 36

5. Objectives for lecturers .................................................................................... 36

6. Objectives for students.................................................................................... 37

Glossary .......................................................................................................................... 39

Transliteration table for Ge'ez script .................................................................... 43

PART 1. HISTORIOGRAPHY AND METHODOLOGY ........................................ 45

Chapter 1. Who Wrote Ethiopian Women's History and how to Write it?

Margaux Herman ........................................................................................................ 47

1. Historiography of the research conducted on women's history in Ethiopia.................................................................................................................. 48

2. Using Ethiopian primary sources for reconstructing Ethiopian women's history .................................................................................................................. 50

PART 2. WOMEN AND MYTHS OF FOUNDATION ........................................ 57

Chapter 2. Women and Myths of Foundation

Margaux Herman ........................................................................................................ 59

1. "The first Ethiopian is a woman": Lucy................................................................ 59

2. Queen Makədda, the mother of Christian Ethiopians .................................... 60

3. The political decline of Aksum in the 10th century surrounded by legends all linked to an unknown historical queen ........................................ 64

4. Akko Manoyye, the last ancestral Queen of the Guji Oromo .................... 66
<table><tr><td>PART 3. WOMEN AND RELIGION</td><td>69</td></tr></table>

Chapter 3. Women and Christianity

<table><tr><td>Verena Böll</td><td>71</td></tr><tr><td>1. The impact of women on the Ethiopian Church</td><td>71</td></tr><tr><td>2. Further contributions of orthodox women</td><td>76</td></tr></table>

Chapter 4. Islam and Gender in Ethiopia

<table><tr><td>Meron Zeleke & Silvia Bruzzi</td><td>81</td></tr><tr><td>1. Women and Islam in Ethiopia</td><td>81</td></tr><tr><td>2. Muslim women beyond orthodoxy and heresy</td><td>84</td></tr></table>

Chapter 5. Women and “Traditional” Beliefs

<table><tr><td>Thomas Osmond</td><td>89</td></tr><tr><td>1. Classical historical discourses on women and “traditional” religions</td><td>89</td></tr><tr><td>2. Women’s current trajectories across Oromo religious tradition(s)</td><td>93</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>PART 4. WOMEN, POLITICS, AND SOCIAL PARTICIPATION</td><td>99</td></tr></table>

Chapter 6. Ethiopian Christian Queens from Medieval Times to the End of the 19th Century

<table><tr><td>Margaux Herman</td><td>101</td></tr><tr><td>1. Queens and the evolution of the monarchy during the 16th century</td><td>101</td></tr><tr><td>2. The political role of queens in Ethiopian history</td><td>103</td></tr></table>

Chapter 7. The Woman Question in the Ethiopian Student Movement

<table><tr><td>Bahru Zewde</td><td>111</td></tr><tr><td>1. The settings of women's participation in the student movement</td><td>111</td></tr><tr><td>2. Women's participation in the student movements</td><td>112</td></tr></table>

Chapter 8. Women’s Political Participation from 1974 to 1993

<table><tr><td>Gennet Zewide</td><td>117</td></tr><tr><td>1. Ethiopian Women's Coordinating Committee (EWCC) and other women's associations</td><td>117</td></tr><tr><td>2. Women's struggle against the Därg Regime</td><td>121</td></tr><tr><td>3. Women in arms</td><td>124</td></tr></table>

Chapter 9. A Review of Constitutional and Legal Changes Relating to the Political Participation of Women (1993–2018)

<table><tr><td>Gennet Zewide & Margaux Herman</td><td>129</td></tr><tr><td>1. Towards women's leadership: the theory</td><td>130</td></tr><tr><td>2. A change towards women's leadership: the statistics</td><td>133</td></tr></table>
PART 5. PART FIVE. WOMEN AT WAR .................................................. 141

Chapter 10. Women and War

<table><tr><td><i>Margaux Herman</i></td><td>143</td></tr><tr><td>1. Can women participate in wars?</td><td>143</td></tr><tr><td>2. The roles of women in war</td><td>146</td></tr><tr><td>3. Famous women leading soldiers on the battlefields</td><td>150</td></tr></table>

PART 6. WOMEN AT WORK .................................................................... 159

Chapter 11. Ethiopian Women in Traditional Craftsmanship: Specific Notes on the Wise-Women of the Šāwa Kingdom

(17th–19th centuries)

<table><tr><td><i>Derese Ayenachew</i></td><td>161</td></tr><tr><td>1. The beginning and the expansion of handcraftsmanship in Šāwa</td><td>162</td></tr><tr><td>2. Handicraft centres and King Šahlä Šəllase (1813–1840)</td><td>163</td></tr></table>

Chapter 12. Working Class Women

<table><tr><td><i>Samuel Andreas Admasie</i></td><td>171</td></tr><tr><td>1. Wage-working women</td><td>171</td></tr><tr><td>2. Rights, conditions and pay</td><td>173</td></tr><tr><td>3. Women in the labour movement</td><td>175</td></tr></table>

Chapter 13. Women and Entrepreneurship

<table><tr><td><i>Constance Perrin-Joly</i></td><td>179</td></tr><tr><td>1. Potential sources allowing the history of women's entrepreneurship to be traced</td><td>179</td></tr><tr><td>2. Female entrepreneurship: poverty reduction or empowerment?</td><td>181</td></tr><tr><td>3. Stepping out of the traditional role to run a business</td><td>184</td></tr></table>

Chapter 14. Women, Work and Migration

<table><tr><td><i>Shimeles Bonsa Gulema &amp; Marina de Regt.</i></td><td>189</td></tr><tr><td>1. Women on the move: the imperial period</td><td>189</td></tr><tr><td>2. Migration in a time of revolution: Socialist Ethiopia</td><td>191</td></tr><tr><td>3. Migration under the EPRDF</td><td>193</td></tr></table>

PART 7. WOMEN, FAMILY, AND LAW .................................................... 197

Chapter 15. Women, Property and Inheritance in Ethiopia (mid-18th to early 20th centuries)

<table><tr><td><i>Habtamu M. Tegegne</i></td><td>199</td></tr><tr><td>1. Methodological approach</td><td>199</td></tr><tr><td>2. Women, wills and property</td><td>201</td></tr><tr><td>3. Women and bequests</td><td>204</td></tr></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td>4. Women, church land and the land market</td><td>208</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Chapter 16. Women and Education in Ethiopia since the End of the 19th century</strong></td></tr><tr><td><em>Pierre Guidi</em></td><td>213</td></tr><tr><td>1. A short history of the education of girls and women in Ethiopia since the end of the 19th century</td><td>213</td></tr><tr><td>2. Forms of gender socialisation in schools</td><td>216</td></tr><tr><td>3. School education, women's work, and women's activism</td><td>217</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>PART 8. WOMEN AND SPORTS</strong></td></tr><tr><td>221</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Chapter 17. The Long Road to Ethiopian Women's Participation in Athletics</strong></td></tr><tr><td><em>Benoit Gaudin</em></td><td>223</td></tr><tr><td>1. International contextualisation of the study</td><td>223</td></tr><tr><td>2. The Ethiopian context</td><td>226</td></tr><tr><td>3. From physical education to the first professional female runners in Ethiopia</td><td>227</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Chapter 18. Three Notable Ethiopian Female Athletes</strong></td></tr><tr><td><em>Tamirat Gebremariam</em></td><td>231</td></tr><tr><td>1. Tsigie Gebre Mesih</td><td>231</td></tr><tr><td>2. Derartu Tulu</td><td>236</td></tr><tr><td>3. Merima Denboba</td><td>238</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>PART 9. WOMEN, SEXUALITY AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH</strong></td></tr><tr><td>243</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Chapter 19. Women and Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting</strong></td></tr><tr><td><em>Marie-Laure Derat & Rahwa M. Woldemichael</em></td><td>245</td></tr><tr><td>1. The historical background of excision and debates in medieval Ethiopia in relation to circumcision</td><td>246</td></tr><tr><td>2. The practices of FGM/C in modern times (17th–19th centuries)</td><td>249</td></tr><tr><td>3. The practices of FMG/C in 21st century Ethiopia</td><td>250</td></tr><tr><td>4. The current discourse for the perpetuation of the practice</td><td>251</td></tr><tr><td>5. The tools to fight FGM/C and move towards changes</td><td>253</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Chapter 20. Women and Reproductive Health in Contemporary Ethiopia</strong></td></tr><tr><td><em>Rahwa Mussie Woldemichael</em></td><td>259</td></tr><tr><td>1. The evolution of national health policies and strategies</td><td>259</td></tr><tr><td>2. The burden on women in reproductive health</td><td>261</td></tr><tr><td>3. The issues of child marriage and family planning</td><td>265</td></tr></tbody></table>
Chapter 21. Women and Prostitution

Bethlehem Tekola .................................................................................. 275

1. Prostitution in Ethiopia: a historical sketch .................................... 275

2. The history of prostitution at the beginning of the 20th century ...... 278

3. Sociological and anthropological works on prostitution in Ethiopia
in the postliberation period ................................................................ 283

General bibliography .................................................................................... 287
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>
Fig. 11. Margaux Herman, *Qwəsqʷam Palace in Gondär*. Photograph. Personal collection, May 2008. 107

Fig. 12. Marta Mebratu. Photograph. *Tanash Ityopyawit, Yakatit 1965 E.C* (February 1973). Reproduced from Bahru Zewde (2014, 167). 115

Fig. 13. Pro Därg Official, International Women's Day rally, 1978. Photograph, Personal collection of Hubert Tabutiaux, 1978. https://huberttabutiaux.wordpress.com/2011/06/17/episode-part-22/[archive]. 119

Fig. 14. Cover of a booklet used by the Därg and the Revolutionary Ethiopian Women's Association, 1984. Photograph. Ish Personal Propaganda war collection. http://abyotawi.blogspot.com/2016/04/propaganda-war.html [archive]. 121

Fig. 15. EPRP Ethiopian Women demonstration in 1976 (Goh Magazine). Reproduced from *Abyot. The Lost Revolution* (online blog): https://web.archive.org/web/20230216192021/http://abyotawi.blogspot.com/. 123

Fig. 16. The transitional government of Ethiopia. Source: "National Policy on Ethiopian Women" (1993, 23). 131

Fig. 17. Kebedech Seyoum, a female patriot, c. 1935. Reproduced from Aregawi Berhe, "Revisiting Resistance in Italian-occupied Ethiopia: The Patriots' Movement (1936–1941) and the Redefinition of Post-war Ethiopia," in Abbink et al. (2003, 99). 155

Fig. 18. Derese Ayenachew, Decorated pottery from a Tumulus in Mänz. Photograph. Personal collection, 1999. 162

Fig. 19. Spinning in a modern painting. 166

Fig. 20. King Śahlä Śəllase wearing a homemade gabi. Author: Émile Lassale, in Pétridès (1963). Public domain. See: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Negus_Sahle_Selassie.jpg. 166

Fig. 21. Handicraft Centers during the 19th century in Šäwa. Reproduced from Chalachew Yegne (2013, 36). 167

Fig. 22. Gender Wage Differential at the Bahr Dar Textile Factory. Source: Admasie (2018, 219). 174

Fig. 23. Constance Perrin-Joly, *Family Photo in Addis Ababa*. Photograph. Personal collection, 2017. 185

Fig. 24. Habtamu M. Tegegne, *A folio from the Mota register (Yärest Mäzgäb, #4089)*. Photograph. Personal collection. 201

Fig. 25. Les Missions Catholiques, *The Franciscan Sisters of Lafto and their students*. Photograph. File M/D 8, Bibliothèque des Capucins, Paris, 1907. 214

Fig. 26. Ministry of Information, *تەمۇسۇقى تەرەۋىئىڭ (Education in Ethiopia)*. Photograph. Ministry of Information, Addis-Ababa, 1968. 219
Fig. 27. Hitomi Kinue (left) and Lina Radke (right) run the 800 m at the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam. Photograph. Unknown author, August 2, 1928. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HitomiKinue_at_Ams.jpg. 225

Fig. 28. When Tsigie received awards from Ato Yednäqachäw Tasämma. 232

Fig. 29. When Tsigie received awards from Emperor Haylä Śollase, 1960s. 233

Fig. 30. Diploma from Institute of Deutsche Hochschulefür Korpekultur. Photograph. Tsigie G/Mesih Personal Collection. 235

Fig. 31. Tsigie G/Mesih, Diploma of “Women and Sport achievement” from IOC 2002. Photograph. Tsigie G/Mesih Personal Collection. 235

Fig. 32. L. Naretti, *Sifilicomio di Asmara*. Albumina, cm 28×20,5. 1887-1900. 279

Fig. 33. “Ufficio Postale.” Popular Postcard in Italia 1930s. Enrico de Seta. serie *Africa Orientale*. 281

Fig. 34. “Al Mercato.” Popular Postcard in Italia 1930s. Enrico de Seta. serie *Africa Orientale*. 281
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>
List of Sources

<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 1. Ethiopia, the cradle of mankind</td>
      <td>59</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 2. Queen of Sheba, mother of the Ethiopian Christian Monarchy</td>
      <td>60</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 3. Makədda, the oath of the nobles and the evolution of the dynastic rule</td>
      <td>61</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 4. King Solomon, the Zagwe Kings and the “Falashas”</td>
      <td>62</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 5. Regional genealogies of the 19th century and the links to the Solomon-Saba cycle</td>
      <td>63</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 6. Different versions of the myth of foundation of the Betä Isra’el communities</td>
      <td>64</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 7. The Zagwe Kings as usurpers in the colophon of the Kəbrä Nagašt</td>
      <td>66</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 8. The history of Queen Judith according to James Bruce</td>
      <td>66</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 9. The history of Queen Akko Manoyye and the dynastic rule of succession</td>
      <td>67</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 10. Prophecy made to the parents of Wälättä Pětros</td>
      <td>74</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 11. Diplomatic gifts send by queen Āleni to John, King of Portugal</td>
      <td>76</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 12. Teachings of Ammahoy Gālanäš Haddis</td>
      <td>77</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 13. The history of the construction of the church Narga Šellase by Ātege Məntəwwab</td>
      <td>78</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 14. BatīDel Wämbära on military campaign</td>
      <td>82</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 15. Women and Islam</td>
      <td>85</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 16. Definitions of “traditional religions”</td>
      <td>90</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 17. Interactions between Christian, Muslims and Oromo religious ideas</td>
      <td>91</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 18. Ambiguous and floating portrait of the (Oromo) “traditional” religions</td>
      <td>92</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 19. Definition of Irreecca (or Irrecha)</td>
      <td>93</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 20. The uses of the sinqee</td>
      <td>94</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 21. Ateete, a feminine divinity</td>
      <td>94</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 22. Collective prayer to Demamiti</td>
      <td>96</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 23. Testimonies of believers</td>
      <td>96</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 24. Definition of the title of Etege</td>
      <td>103</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 25. The qualities of Queen Āleni</td>
      <td>103</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 26. Queen Taytu and the imperial authority</td>
      <td>105</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 27. Queen Æleni, the father and mother of all</td>
      <td>105</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 28. The richness of the church of Märtulä Maryam</td>
      <td>106</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 29. Poem of an anonymous female student</td>
      <td>113</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 30. Interview of Gennet Zewide</td>
      <td>118</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 31. REWA and its lacks of role towards women rights</td>
      <td>120</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 32. Only one woman member in the WPE</td>
      <td>122</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 33. Saba Kidane Mariam</td>
      <td>123</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 34. Netsanet Asefaw</td>
      <td>124</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 35. Netsanet Aberra speaks about Serkalem</td>
      <td>125</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 36. Berhane Abera</td>
      <td>126</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 37. Guidelines of the national women's policy</td>
      <td>130</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 38. Participation of women in the government in 2006</td>
      <td>132</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 39. Eighth periodic report submitted by Ethiopia to the CEDAW in 2017</td>
      <td>136</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 40. The failure of women to participate in warfare in Guji-Oromo tales</td>
      <td>144</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 41. Cowards should be considered as women</td>
      <td>144</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 42. Iyasu's proclamation on women</td>
      <td>144</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 43. The prohibition of women to enlist in military expeditions (1931)</td>
      <td>145</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 44. The women shall learn the use of military arms (1935)</td>
      <td>145</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 45. The composition of the army at the battle of Adwa (1896)</td>
      <td>146</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 46. Queen Taytu motivating the soldiers on battefield</td>
      <td>147</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 47. Taytu and her women supplying the soldiers</td>
      <td>147</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 48. Examples of patriotic women's actions</td>
      <td>148</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 49. Radio appeal of Etege Mänän in 1935</td>
      <td>149</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 50. Queen Taytu refused the Protectorate status for Ethiopia</td>
      <td>151</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 51. A description of Queen Taytu by grazmach Yosef</td>
      <td>152</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 52. Queen Taytu's advice to Emperor Menelik</td>
      <td>152</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 53. The migration of the craftsmen from Gondär to Säwa</td>
      <td>163</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 54. Observations of Charles Johnston on the cotton spinners (1844)</td>
      <td>164</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 55. The royal spinning women (1843)</td>
      <td>165</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 56. Monasteries, agriculture and handicraft production in Sawa</td>
      <td>165</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 57. Debates on maternity leave in 1975</td>
      <td>175</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 58. The low participation of women in workers' organization (1985)</td>
      <td>175</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 59. Women and labour disputes in the 1970s</td>
      <td>176</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 60. Entrepreneur, entrepreneurship</td>
      <td>180</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 61. Micro and Small Enterprises</td>
      <td>182</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 62. Women and micro enterprises from 1996 to 2001</td>
      <td>182</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 63. The lack of business-related training for women (2008)</td>
      <td>183</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 64. Testimony of an ethiopian woman entrepreneur</td>
      <td>184</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 65. Useful indicator: SIGI</td>
      <td>186</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 66. Concepts</td>
      <td>186</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 67. From place to place: Interview of Bortukan</td>
      <td>194</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 68. Dâğğač* Haylu Əšäte</td>
      <td>202</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 69. Wayzaro Sehen's will</td>
      <td>203</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 70. The Testament of Yäwärq Wuha Wäldä Her and the organization of commemorative feasts</td>
      <td>207</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 71. The teachings given at Menen school</td>
      <td>215</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 72. A Text book for Home Economics for Grade 9 (1971)</td>
      <td>218</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 73. Statement of Pierre de Coubertin on women's participation to Olympiad (1912)</td>
      <td>224</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 74. School physical activities during the years 1930-1935</td>
      <td>227</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 75. Physical activities and Fascism</td>
      <td>228</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 76. An amharic newspaper's article on Tsigie G/Mesih</td>
      <td>232</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 77. Interview of Tsigie G/Mesih</td>
      <td>233</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 78. Preventing women from wearing miniskirts (1963)</td>
      <td>234</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 79. Interview of Derartu Tulu in 2009</td>
      <td>237</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 80. Interview of Derartu Tulu in 1989 EC (1997)</td>
      <td>237</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 81. Interview of Merima Denboba in 2013 (extract 1)</td>
      <td>239</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 82. Interview of Merima Denboba in 2013 (extract 2)</td>
      <td>239</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 83. Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)</td>
      <td>246</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 84. The proclamation of King Zar'a Ya'eqob on Christian female genital circumcision (15th century)</td>
      <td>247</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 85. Remarks of Francisco Alvares on male and female circumcision during the 16th century</td>
      <td>248</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 86. King Gälawdewos' (1540-1563) proclamation on circumcision</td>
      <td>248</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 87. The origin of circumcision in Ethiopia according to James Bruce</td>
      <td>249</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 88. Interview of an old woman in Təğre towards circumsicion</td>
      <td>252</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 89. Reproductive health</td>
      <td>261</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 90. Maternal death</td>
      <td>262</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 91. Safe and unsafe abortion</td>
      <td>263</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 92. Example of Proclamations on Child marriages</td>
      <td>266</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 93. Education for ending child marriage</td>
      <td>267</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 94. Family planning</td>
      <td>268</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 95. Prostitution in royal camps during the 16th century</td>
      <td>276</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 96. Mention of a house of a prostitute in 1699</td>
      <td>277</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 97. The "madams"</td>
      <td>280</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Source. 98. Facceta Nera</td>
      <td>280</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
Source. 99. Colonial domination of female bodies.................................................. 280

Source. 100. Italian occupation of Addis Ababa and the growth of brothels .................................................................................................................. 282
List of Contributors

Bahru Zewde (PhD), Emeritus Professor of History at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. Former Executive Director of the Forum for Social Studies, Vice-President of the Association of African Historians; Ethiopian Academy of Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Prof. Bahru Zewde is Emeritus Professor of History at Addis Ababa University and founding Fellow and Vice President of the Ethiopian Academy of Sciences. He has authored many books and articles, notably *A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1974* (Oxford: James Currey, 1991), *Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The Reformist Intellectuals of the Early Twentieth Century* (Oxford: James Currey, 2002) and *The Quest for Socialist Utopia: The Ethiopian Student Movement c. 1960–1974* (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2014), a book finalist for the Bethwell A. Ogot Book Prize in 2015.

Benoit Gaudin (PhD), Assistant Professor of Social Sciences, University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en Yvelines (UVSQ), France.

Dr. Benoit Gaudin is Assistant Professor at the Université de Versailles Saint Quentin (UVSQ). His research focuses on the social and cultural determinants of East African athletics. Among his recent publications, he is the author of the book *Coureurs de fonds est-africains : Comment expliquer leurs performances sportives ?* (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2022).

Bethlehem Tekola (PhD), Research Associate at King's College London, Great Britain.

Dr. Bethlehem Tekola is a transdisciplinary researcher with a keen interest in qualitative research and in working with marginalized and vulnerable groups. She is the author of *Poverty and the Social Context of Sex Work in Addis Ababa: An Anthropological Perspective* (Addis Ababa: Forum for Social Studies, 2005) and *Narratives of Three Prostitutes in Addis Ababa* (Addis Ababa: Center for Research Training and Information for Women in Development, Addis Ababa University, 2002).

Constance Perrin-Joly (PhD), Director of the Institute for Social Research in Africa (IFSRA), Burkina Faso and Researcher, Interdisciplinary Institute of Social Issues (IRIS) Paris (France). Associate Researcher at the *Centre français des études éthiopiennes* (French Centre for Ethiopian Studies) / Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Specialist of work, lifecourse analysis and visual studies, Dr. Constance Perrin-Joly is Director of the Institute for Social Research in Africa (IFSRA, Burkina Faso). Among her latest publications, the article written with Laure de Verdalle compares the cases of Germany, France and Ethiopia and is titled "Entrepreneurship: Moral Categorizations Across Three Countries," in *Shift-ing Categories of Work*, edited by Lisa Herman and Benedicte Zimmermann (New York, Oxford: Routledge, 2022).

**Derese Ayenachew (PhD), Assistant Professor, Research Fellow, I Tatti – The Harvard University Center for Italian Renaissance Studies, Florence (Italy).**

Former Assistant Professor at Debre Berhan University, the research of Dr. Derese Ayenachew explores the interactions and integrations of medieval and early modern Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. His recent book is *Selomonawyan: A History of the political administration of Ethiopia* (1270-1529) (JAJAW Publishers, Addis Ababa, 2021, 376 p.).

**Gennet Zewide (PhD), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.**

Dr. Gennet Zewide is an academic and a politician. She was a member of the Ethiopian student movement and then of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (1960s-70s) and imprisoned from 1979 to 1986. A member of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), she became Minister of Education of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1991–2006) and Ethiopian Ambassador to India (2006–2014). She is the author of *Resistance, Freedom and Empowerment: The Ethiopian Women's Struggle* (Dehli: Concept Publishing Company, 2014).

**Habtamu Mengistie Tegegne (PhD), Assistant Professor of African History, Federated Department of History, Rutgers University-Newark, New Jersey, USA.**

Dr. Habtamu Mengistie Tegegne is Assistant Professor of African History at Rutgers University, Newark. His research focuses on a critical understanding of the social and economic history of Ethiopia. He is the author of *Barara-Addis Ababa's Predecessor: Development, Destruction, and Refoundation: The Untold History of Ethiopia* [Amharic Edition], edited by Bezza Tesfaw (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 2020).

**Margaux Herman (PhD), Assistant Professor in Ethiopian and East African History, Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales (INALCO), Paris, France. Associate Researcher at the Centre français des études éthioppiennes (French Centre for Ethiopian Studies) / Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.**
Dr. Margaux Herman is Assistant Professor in Ethiopian and East African History at the *Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales (INALCO)*, Paris, France. Her research focuses on the history of Ethiopian women in a long-term perspective. Her earlier research focused on Ethiopian female elites from the Middle Ages to the 19th century. Her more recent research will explore the history of women at work, 1850-1974. Among her publications, she is the scientific editor of this volume and the author of “Towards a History of Women in Medieval Ethiopia,” in *Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea*, edited by Samantha Kelly, 365–94 (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2020).

**Marie-Laure Derat (PhD), Senior Researcher, Director of Research at CNRS, Paris, France; Director of the Archaeological Mission Lalibela (since 2019).**

Dr. Marie-Laure Derat is a historian, specialist in Ethiopia in the medieval period. After working on the Solomonic dynasty, which exercised power over the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia from 1270 onwards, she focused her research on the dynasty of the Zagwe holy kings (11th-13th century). She has authored many books and articles. Her most recent books are *L'énigme d'une dynastie sainte et usurpatrice dans le royaume chrétien d'Éthiopie, Xf-XIIf siècle* (Turnhout: Brepols, 2018) and *Lalibela, site rupestre chrétien d'Éthiopie* (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Midi, 2019) that she coauthored with Claire Bosc-Tiessé.

**Marina de Regt (PhD), Assistant Professor, Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands.**

Dr. Marina de Regt is Associate Professor at the Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology of *Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam*. Her research focuses mainly on gender, labour and migration in Yemen and Ethiopia. She co-edited with Bina Fernandez the book *Migrant Domestic Workers in the Middle East* (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014) and is one of the coauthors of *Adolescent Girls' Migration in the Global South: Transitions into Adulthood* (written together with Katarzyna Grabska and Nicoletta Del Franco) (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).

**Meron Zeleke Eresso (PhD), Assistant Professor, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.**

Dr. Meron Zeleke Eresso is Associate Professor at Addis Ababa University and Editor-in-Chief of Ethiopian Journal of Human Rights (EJHR). Her research areas are gender, migration, industrial jobs and conflict in the Horn of Africa. Her most recent publications are “Women in Ethiopia” in *The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Women's History*, edited by Dorothy Hudgsons (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021) and with Lahra Smith, *African Perspectives & Experiences of South-South Migration* (London: Routledge, 2023).
**Pierre Guidi (PhD), Full Researcher, CEPED (Center Population & Development), Institut de recherche pour le développement / Marseille, France.**

Dr. Pierre Guidi is a historian specialising in contemporary Ethiopia. His research focuses on the role of education in the construction of the Ethiopian nation. He also works on the history of women's education and women's activism in contemporary Ethiopia. He is the author of the book *Éduquer la nation en Éthiopie. École, État et identités dans le Wolaita (1941-1991)* (Montpellier: IRD Éditions; Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2020).

**Rahwa M. Weldemichael (PhD), Associate Director of Health Financing and Health Systems Strengthening at PAI, Washington DC, USA.**

Dr. Rahwa M. Weldemichael is Associate Director of Health Financing and Health Systems Strengthening at PAI, Washington DC, USA. Her research focuses on sexual and reproductive health and gender. Among her recent publications is an article titled "Gender Differences in Experiences with and Adjustments to Infertility: The Case of Health Attendants of Family Guidance Association Ethiopia" (*Ethiopian Journal of Development Research* 39, no. 1, 2019) and a blog titled "Leveraging Social Accountability to Include Family Planning in Country-Level Universal Health Coverage: Four Lessons Learned from PAI's UHC Engage Project" published in April 2023 on PAI website (https://pai.org).

**Samuel Andreas Admasie, (PhD), International Institute of Social History (IISH), the Netherlands, and Labour Movement's Archives and Library (Sweden).**

Dr. Samuel Andreas Admasie is a regional specialist for Africa at the International Institute of Social History and an affiliate researcher at the Labour Movement's Archives and Library. He is the author of the book *The Ethiopian Labour Movement: Trade Unions, Collective Action and Contestation, 1960-2020* (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024), an associate editor of the Journal of Labour and Society, and member of the editorial board of Labour History.

**Shimeles Bonsa Gulema (PhD), Assistant Professor of History and Africana Studies at Stony Brook University (SUNY), New York, USA.**

Dr. Shimelis Bonsa Gulema is Associate Professor of modern African history and politics at Stony Brook University, New York. His research interest includes modern and contemporary African history and politics with a focus on Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. He is the author of monographs, book chapters, and articles including the book he recently coedited *The Horn of Africa and Italy: Colonial, Postcolonial and Transnational Cultural Encounters* (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2018).
**Silvia Bruzzi (PhD), Assistant Professor, University of Turin.**

Dr. Silvia Bruzzi is Assistant Professor in African History at the University of Turin. Her research focuses on the social history of Modern Northeast Africa. She is the author of the book *Islam and Gender in Colonial Northeast Africa* (Leiden: Brill, 2018).

**Tamirat Gebremariam, (PhD candidate), senior lecturer in Ethiopian and African History, Debre Berhan University, Ethiopia.**

Currently a PhD student in the Department of History, Addis Ababa University, Tamirat G/Mariam is a senior lecturer in Ethiopian and African history. His research interests include leisure, modern sports history and women's history. In 2019, he published "Sports and Physical Education in Ethiopia during the Italian Occupation, 1936-1941." in *Sports in African History, Politics, and Identity Formation*, edited by Michael J. Gennaro and Saheed Aderinto (Oxford, New York: Routledge, 2019).

**Thomas Osmond (PhD), Anthropologist, Associate Researcher at CFEE, Ethiopia.**

Dr. Thomas Osmond is a Social Anthropologist. For more than ten years, he was Assistant Professor at various universities in the Horn of Africa. He is a consultant for French and British organizations and an Administrative Manager for the French Academic Network for African Studies (CNRS, GIS Études africaines en France, Paris/Aubervilliers). His research mostly focuses in the Oromiya Region on identity dynamics, ethnic nationalism, religious reformism, cultural policies and regional migrations. Amongst his publications, he is the author of "The Awash River in Oromo Historical Narratives" in *Movements in Ethiopia, Ethiopia in Movement, Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, edited by Mohamed Hassen and Eloi Ficquet, 333-48 (Los Angeles: Institute of Ethiopian Studies; Addis Ababa: French Centre of Ethiopian Studies, Tsehai Publishers, 2016).

**Verena Böll, (PhD), Cataloguer of Ethiopian Manuscripts at Monumenta Vitruvii and Qalamos, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Germany.**

Dr. Verena Böll's research focuses on EOTC literature and all fields of religious life in Ethiopia. She is the author of *Unsere Herrin Maria. Die traditionelle äthiopische Exegese der Marienanaphora des Cyriacus von Behnesa [Our Lady Mary. The Ethiopian traditional exegesis of the Qeddase Maryam of Cyriacus of Behnesa]* (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, Äthiopistische Forschungen 48, 1998) and of "Rastafarian Perceptions of the Christian Burial of Emperor Haylä Śollase I. (2000)" in *Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity in a Global Context. Entanglements and Disconnections*, edited by Stanislaw Paulau, and Martin Tamcke.
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>
Foreword

"You will share my joy at re-entering my capital.
Your unceasing efforts and support in the just cause
of Ethiopia will never be forgotten by myself or my
people."

Cable from Haile Selassie to Sylvia Pankhurst,
17 May 1941.

This volume introducing studies on Ethiopian women is a timely and
important contribution bringing together scholarship on the multiple roles
of women in Ethiopian society. By bringing to light the neglected field of
women's studies in Ethiopia, it attempts to redress the historical, cultural,
social, economic and political biases. Ethiopian history had tended to be
presented largely as the preserve of male leaders seen through the eyes of
mainly male and often foreign authors. Writings about women have largely
concentrated on queens and elite women, whereas issues concerning working
women and their roles in politics, war, labour, education, health and sports,
and the challenges they face in the context of patriarchal society norms and
their endurance and achievements have often been neglected. This collective
work begins to fill these lacunae, and sets out agendas for further research. It
will therefore be a useful resource for academics, teachers and students and
can serve as an important catalyst to stimulate graduate studies on Ethiopian
women and encourage Ethiopian women themselves to write about their
history.

Organised into nine parts, the volume covers a broad and comprehensive
range of topics including religion, politics, war, work, family, education, health
and sport. The book's editor, Margaux Herman, sets the scene in Part One by
addressing the challenges of the historiography of women's studies and gender
relations in Ethiopia.

In Part Two, the author highlights the limitations due to the fact that most
sources are written by men and even when women's and gender issues are
raised these are seen primarily from male perspectives. This chapter provides
an overview and interpretation of women in mythology starting with our
common ancestor Dənqənäš, known globally as Lucy, Makədda, known as
the Queen of Sheba, the legendary Queen Yodit/Gudit, and Akko Manoyye,
the last ancestral queen of the Guji Oromo.
Following on from the overview on mythology, the third part comprises three chapters by addressing women and religion in the three main religious traditions, opening the door for a rich field of research which has hardly been explored. The first chapter by Verena Böll on Christianity reveals the role of women from biblical times as worshippers, benefactors, and church builders, but also as saints and martyrs, and as theologians, scholars and authors in their own right. The second by Meron Zeleke and Sylvia Bruzzi on Islam highlights the role of women from the mid-19th century as holy women and scholars particularly in the Sufi traditions with a focus on Harar. The third, by Thomas Osmond, on traditional beliefs explores the relationship of “traditional” religions with Christianity and Islam and focuses on the role of women in Oromo rituals as cult leaders and saints and in promoting peace and social unity.

Part Four addresses women in politics from historical times to the present through four chapters. The first by Margaux Herman discusses Ethiopian queens from the medieval period onwards, illustrating the role of powerful queens such as Æleni, Säblä Wängel, Møntøwwab and Taytu, and reveals their key roles often behind the scenes as advisors to kings, notably in diplomacy and theological affairs. The other three contributions focus on more recent times. Bahru Zewde's chapter on women in the student movements focuses on the challenges women faced from the 1960s and their struggles for participation and representation notably in study groups, and in the definition of the “woman question” within socialism. The author documents the establishment of a separate women's organisation led by Marta Mebratu, which was unable to gain full autonomy and the Därg's co-opting the “woman question,” by establishing the Revolutionary Ethiopian Women's Association. The third chapter by Gennet Zewide on women's political participation in the revolutionary period, outlines the history of women's associations, the role of women in the zämäch'a, Development through Cooperation Campaign and the struggles and endurance of women within and against the Därg regime in the face of male-dominated institutions. The last chapter, by Gennet Zewide and Margaux Herman, reviews constitutional and legal changes since the EPRDF took power, with the 1995 Constitution, the inclusion of gender in development policies and strategies, and women's involvement in parliaments, leadership positions, elections and political participation including in civil society organisations.

The fifth part follows on by focusing on women and war, with a chapter by Margaux Herman in which she shows that women played key roles from medieval times and especially during the battle of Adwa and in resistance to the Italian Fascist occupation. Women played key roles motivating warriors, supporting campaigns through provisions and food, as nurses but also as strategists and fighters in the battlefield.
Part Six, which is on women at work comprises four chapters. The first is by Derese Ayenachew on women in craftsmanship and outlines women's roles as artisans in pottery and especially spinning, starting with archaeological evidence through medieval times. The author focuses on describing the important role of women in spinning for imperial courts in the 19th century. Samuel Andreas Admasie's chapter on working class women addresses the crucial role of women in the workforce especially during the 20th century. The author reviews the diverse areas in which women have worked, from the services sector to farms and industries, from businesswomen to household workers. This contribution highlights the gender gaps, discrimination and poor working conditions women face and their involvement in the Ethiopian labour movement's struggles. Constance Perrin-Joly's chapter on women and entrepreneurship reviews archival, quantitative and qualitative sources about women as entrepreneurs, pointing out the constraints on women's success in business and the challenges to their involvement in microcredit and in forming associations. The author calls for further research and case studies of successful businesswomen. The last chapter by Marina de Regt and Shimeles Bonsa Gulema reviews women's internal and international migration in the imperial, revolutionary, and EPRDF periods, revealing increasing trends and the internationalisation of women's migration. The authors call for a differentiated approach to understanding varied experiences and the consequences of women's migration and its impact on how they view themselves, their place in society and their relations with the state.

The seventh part consists of two chapters on women, family and education. The first one by Habtamu M. Tegegne on women, property and inheritance focuses on the mid-18th century to early 20th century. The author demonstrates that despite patriarchal societal norms, women had greater autonomy than is commonly assumed in owning and passing on property and especially land through inheritance, marriage, bequests, adoption and choosing heirs. The second chapter, by Pierre Guidi, reviews girls' and women's education from the end of the 19th century, through missionary and government schools, and the *Därg* mass education and literacy programmes. This contribution shows how schools can be vehicles for both reinforcing societal gender norms and increasingly questioning them to promote greater participation of women in the economy and society.

Part Eight addresses women and sports through two contributions. Benoit Gaudin's review of the rise of women athletes from the mid-20th century, points out the challenges and long struggles Ethiopian women athletes faced in the context of patriarchal gender norms to reach the Olympics and gain international and national recognition. The second contribution, by Tamirat Gebremariam follows on with three detailed biographies of women athletes:
Tsigie Gebre Mesih, Derartu Tulu and Merima Denboba, revealing the struggles and endurance through which they achieved success.

The final part consists of three chapters dealing with women, sexual-
ity and reproductive health. The first, by Marie-Laure Derat and Rahwa
M. Weldemichael, deals with female genital mutilation/cutting, outlining the
historical background from medieval times to the 21st century, the current
discourses and the medical and psychological impact. The authors conclude
by reviewing changes in the practice and interventions by government and
other actors. They suggest that the participation of girls and other relevant
community stakeholders is necessary to end the practice. The second chapter,
by Rahwa M. Weldemichael, addresses reproductive health, starting with an
outline of the evolution of national reproductive health policies and strate-
gies, and the challenges relating to maternal mortality, abortion, syphilis and
HIV/AIDS, and especially child marriage and family planning. The author
concludes by suggesting that integrated and decentralised primary health
care has played a key role in addressing the challenge of prevailing gender
norms and unequal gender relations, which still require further promotion
of women's empowerment over reproductive health decision-making and
more equitable gender relations. The last chapter, by Bethlehem Tekola,
addresses women in prostitution, outlining the historical context from the
19th century and in urban centres in the 20th century, especially under the
Italian occupation. She reviews more recent sociological and anthropological
studies and argues for the perspectives based on the women's views.

* * *

I am most honoured and humbled to have been invited to write this
foreword, especially given my family's involvement in feminism and studies
of women in Ethiopia. My great grandmother Emeline was at the forefront
of establishing the women's movement in the United Kingdom, with her
daughters, at the beginning of the 20th century. My grandmother Sylvia
became involved in supporting working women's struggles for emancipation
in London. She went on to devote the rest of her life to joining the struggle
against the Italian occupation of Ethiopia through her newspaper *New Times
and Ethiopia News*, which was published for twenty years from 1936 and
publicised the patriots' resistance. Having moved to Ethiopia in the last four
years of her life, she published *Ethiopia Observer*, including 15 articles on
women and a special issue on women in 1957 (vol. 1, no. 3). This included
contributions by prominent Ethiopian women such as Sənəddu Gäbru (1972-2012),
Mary Tadesse and Sophia Desta, as well as by Sylvia herself on
three Ethiopian queens, the Ethiopian Women's Welfare Association and the
Women's Vocational School.
My father, Richard Pankhurst, wrote about “women’s employment” in the same issue of *Ethiopia Observer*, and on “Women’s Life and Work” in a subsequent issue (vol. 1, no. 2). He compiled an *Anthology of Ethiopian Women in Former Times* (1976), and wrote an article on “The role of women in Ethiopian economic, social and cultural life” for the first National Conference of Ethiopian Studies (1990). While his *Economic History* (1968) does not have specific sections on women, the index has more than thirty entries on women. His *Social History* (1990) has sections on women in the medieval and Gondär periods and a section on women and gender relations in the 19th century. My mother, Rita Pankhurst, wrote about “Senedu Gabru: a Role Model For Ethiopian Women” in the book edited by Tsehai Berhane-Selassie entitled *Gender Issues in Ethiopia* (1990). She also wrote about “Taytu’s Foremothers: Queens Æleni, Säblä Wängel and Bati Døl Wämbära” for the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (2009). My sister Helen, carried out her PhD research on women in Northern Şäwa and wrote a book titled *Gender Development and Identity: an Ethiopian Study* (1992).

In conclusion, this compilation is a major achievement and a credit to the editor and contributors who deserve to be congratulated for this timely and useful work. It can be hoped that this will stimulate further work by the authors and others to expand on the topics raised and fill gaps in a wide range of subjects that have not been addressed, as the writers themselves point out. There is a need for further work by researchers to broaden the range of subject matters, historical periods and geographical areas covered. Finally, this work, which includes many male and foreign authors, will hopefully encourage more Ethiopian women to write about and reclaim their history.

**The legacy of the Pankhurst Family on the history of Ethiopian women:
a selected bibliography**

Pankhurst, Helen. 1992. *Gender, Development and Identity: An Ethiopian Study*. London: Zed Books.

Pankhurst, Richard. 1968. *Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935*. Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press.

Pankhurst, Richard. 1976. *The Ethiopian Woman in Former Times: An Anthology Prepared for the International Women's Year Anniversary Exhibition at Revolution Square*. Addis Ababa: Pankhurst.

Pankhurst, Richard. 1990a. "The Role of Women in Ethiopian Economic, Social and Cultural Life from the Middle Ages to the Time of Tewodros." In *Proceedings of the First National Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, April 11–12, 1990, edited by Tadesse Beyene, Richard Pankhurst, and Ahmed Zekaria, 345–65. Addis Ababa: Institute of Ethiopian Studies.

Pankhurst, Richard. 1990b. *A Social History of Ethiopia: The Northern and Central Highlands from Early Medieval Times to the Rise of Emperor Tewodros II. Kings.*
Ripton: ELM Publications, and Addis Ababa: Institute of Ethiopian Studies.
(especially 67–72, 114–18, 248–70).

Pankhurst, Rita, ed. *New Times and Ethiopia News, 1936–1956*.

Pankhurst, Rita, ed. *Ethiopia Observer*. 1957–1961.

Pankhurst, Rita. 1991. "Senedu Gabru: A Role Model for Ethiopian Women?" In *Gender Issues in Ethiopia: Proceedings of the First University Seminar on Gender Issues in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, December 24–26, 1989*, edited by Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, 71–87. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University, Institute of Ethiopian Studies, 1991.

Pankhurst, Rita. 1996. "Women of Power in Ethiopian History and Legend." *Salamta* 13, no. 1: 25–30.

Pankhurst, Rita. 2001. "Forgotten Women in Ethiopian History." *Informs* 6, no. 2: 13–16.

Pankhurst, Rita. 2009. "Taytu's Foremothers, Queen Eleni, Queen Sabla Wangel and Bati Del Wambara." In *Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, edited by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, 51–63. Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Technology
# Preface

## 1. Background of the project

Over the past decade (2010s, Gregorian Calendar, or 2002-2012 EC), the Ethiopian authorities have demonstrated their commitment to the development of higher education by supporting the establishment of a large number of universities across the country. The aim of this project is to accompany this movement by providing tools and materials to ensure capacity building in higher education in the fields of history and gender studies.

This volume dedicated to the history of Ethiopian women is a pioneering project in Ethiopian educational documentation compiling the research that has been developed on the history of Ethiopian women up to the 2010s. D^r Margaux Herman initiated, coordinated and edited the volume. She began her career in Paris at La Sorbonne University then at Debre Berhan University as Assistant Professor. She is currently Assistant Professor at the *Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (Inalco)* in Paris, France. She has brought together senior and early career Ethiopian and international scholars to produce a unique volume that aims to support the development of education and quality teaching at university level. It covers a wide range of topics related to women's issues in a historical perspective following critical, methodological and chronological approaches. The quality and expertise of the work produced is guaranteed both by the selection of the authors and by the scientific committee and board, composed of international researchers and professors in the field of Ethiopian Studies. This volume fills the existing gap in teaching materials in Social Sciences and Gender Studies Departments in Ethiopian universities that include a module on Ethiopian Women's History in their BA curriculum. It provides a compulsory tool that does not yet exist for both lecturers and students in Ethiopian universities or abroad.

Renowned scholars and academically recognised authorities in the field of Ethiopian history and women studies are part of the project. Professor Bahru Zewde, a pillar of social and economic history and a figure in Ethiopian studies and academia, has written a chapter, and D^r Alula Pankhurst, a prominent social anthropologist, active consultant in social development and currently Country Director of *Young Lives* has written the foreword. Nineteen researchers worked on the project in all its political, religious and social dimensions, exploring women's issues related to religion, work, education, political and economic participation, health, sports etc. Each theme has its
own dedicated section (called hereafter “Part”), made up successive chapters
that either attempt to cover the period from antiquity to the present day, or to
analyse different sub-themes.

The French Centre for Ethiopian Studies (Centre français des études éthiopien-ences, UAR 3137), the only permanent foreign research centre in Ethiopia, attached to the French Embassy and the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), hosted and sponsored the project as part of its “Women and Gender in the Horn of Africa” programme, in partnership with the Centre for Gender Studies at Addis Ababa University. The African Worlds Institute (IMAF, *Institut des mondes africains* – UMR 8171) based in Paris, a joint interdisciplinary research institute for studying the African continent and its diaspora communities, also sponsored this project.

## 2. Reading guidelines: description and objectives

This volume aims to strengthen the teaching of the history of Ethiopian women and gender studies by providing reference materials. It is most needed because history was first written by men. Furthermore, history has not only been written by men, but it has also been approached from a male perspective, and told with men as the main actors (be they kings, high officers, traders, craftsmen, writers etc.) while women have been kept in the shadows. If this statement is true all over the world, it seems to be particularly true in Ethiopia considering the early stage of development of women's history in Ethiopian academic studies. However, with the exception of famous elite queens such as Ëleni, Säblä Wangel, Məntəwwab and Taytu, Ethiopian women have always been hidden actors in the country's history, and they deserve to be more visible today, and that we teach and remember their achievements, status and role in Ethiopian society in a long-term perspective.

This volume brings together historians and social scientists, both from Ethiopia and abroad, who share a common interest in developing the field of women's history and gender in Ethiopia. They have worked together in order to address various methodological issues and topics in a single scholarly volume. This project aims to help both teachers and students. It provides the necessary scientific basis and methodological tools for understanding the role of women in Ethiopian society.

This book examines the main aspects of historical research on women in the Ethiopian context, from the past to the present, with the aim of being used in an academic context as reference material. Some themes have not been included in the volume either because they are still untouched, because they have not been treated in a historical perspective, or because the authors were not available. For example, the theme of peasantry and agriculture only appears in the margins of this volume, even though James McCann and Dessalegn Rahmato deal with women in their works. Some chapters, especially those
dedicated to contemporary issues could only provide a historical approach by drawing on the chronology of their institutional implementation. The volume includes both the primary sources highlighted in specific headings used by researchers studying Ethiopian women's history and the few available secondary sources, i.e., historical literature, that contain such research or deal with the subject of Ethiopian women's history. Finally, it highlights the challenges faced by historians working on women's history. The main aim of this volume is to encourage students to continue their training and research careers in this still developing field of study, by highlighting the various opportunities available.

### 3. Editor's note on references, footnotes, and style: a pedagogical choice

As this is a volume aimed primarily at students as reference material, the editor asked the authors to select only up to fifteen main references in English or Amharic. They are located in the bibliography of each chapter under a specific heading called “References and further readings.” In fact, the selected references quote sources in other languages for further reading. However, some authors, especially on the contemporary period, had to propose longer lists of references in order to be able to cite all their sources, as their research is based on many official reports that have not yet been compiled in other previous works.

Authors were also asked not to use footnotes, but to include their reference works at the end of each chapter under the heading “References and further readings.” Though unconventional in historical works, the editor’s choice might be controversial as history is based on evidence. In conventional history books, each statement is accompanied by a footnote to give scientific value to the research and to allow readers to check the information provided. The editor’s choice is based on a pedagogical purpose: to motivate students to read the reference works listed under the dedicated headings. Lecturers are invited to organise classroom activities for each chapter, asking students to find out where each piece of information comes from. A second activity could be to use the footnotes of each referenced article to find out which primary source the author based his or her work on. These two activities will help students to learn how to search for information in both primary and secondary sources as well as to understand the difference between these two types of sources. It will encourage students to read academic articles, to search for them in libraries and to understand the different uses of footnotes and citations.

Finally, the editor asked the authors to select different types of primary sources used to conduct research on women that differs depending on the time period, topic and disciplinary approach. These are highlighted in dedicated sections. They are fully referenced but neither included in the general bibliography nor in “References and further readings”. Lecturers are invited
to organise classroom activities on the different types of sources that are
available to historians and social scientists for their research, depending on
the period under study: different types of written documentation, archaeology,
iconography, images, material documentation, oral testimonies etc.

**4. Brief description**

This volume deals with the history of Ethiopian women from the past to the
present. It is the first attempt of its kind to propose a scientific and academic
overview of Ethiopian women’s history. It presents the different studies that
have been carried out in this field of knowledge with chapters that synthesise
previous research, present the state of the art of thematic studies or propose
original research, as it is the case with the chapters written by Habtamu
M. Tegegne, Derese Ayenachew, Marina De Regt, Thomas Osmond, Shimeles
Bonsa Gulema and Samuel Andreas Admasie. However, all the authors have
proposed original approaches and synthesis of their subjects. The book offers
a history of the social, political and material conditions of Ethiopian women
in different situations. It highlights the contribution of women to Ethiopian
history and society in a long-term perspective. Each part (nine in total) has
been designed to cover a specific topic, to follow a chronological order within
or with successive chapters and to integrate as much as possible the diversity
of the Ethiopian population. This volume can be a useful resource not only for
teaching Ethiopian women’s history, but also for other social science programs
dealing with the Ethiopian context, the African continent or for comparative
studies.

**5. Objectives for lecturers**

This volume will help lecturers to:

- Prepare their own course and syllabus according to their needs while having a variety of topics and historical periods on which to base their teaching.

- Have scientifically based material and a general volume that they can present to their students as the main support for their teaching.

- Motivate students to read academic articles and books by organising classroom activities and research essays on a variety of topics.

- Identify and work with primary sources according to the period and subject.

- Prepare their students for graduate programs in Ethiopian women’s history.

- Highlight the possibility of continuing their academic training in Ethiopian women's history and gender studies.
**6. Objectives for students**

This volume will help students to:

- Appreciate the achievements of Ethiopian women in history.

- Identify different women who have influenced Ethiopian history and know their role in the social, political and economic history of the country.

- Categorise sources for the study of Ethiopian women's history.

- Discuss the deep-rooted elements of family structure and traditions that can be linked to the neglect and violence inflicted on girls and women in Ethiopian history.

- Respect human rights in general, value a just society and reject what remains of the dominant male mindset in order to find a state of balance in the whole process of educating girls.

- Recognise the social, economic and political participation of the Ethiopian women, and to pay attention to their present and future role in society.

- Understand the values of interdisciplinary studies
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>
Glossary

**abeto**: prince; title given to the male member of the royal family.

**aläqa**: chief, superior, supervisor of a church.

**aläqənät**: system of inheritance and family leadership or seniority.

**amīr**: commander, governor, prince.

**anchoress (f.), anchorite (m.)**: religious recluse who withdraws from the secular world, living at the same place in a cell, a hole in a tree or similar hiding places.

**andəmta**: interpretations of theological texts. The Ethiopian exegesis analyses the Bible, the writings of the Church Fathers (patristic texts), liturgical books, dogmatical and canonical writings and monastic texts. The *andəmta* is subject of the highest branch of the traditional church school system and is mostly transmitted orally.

**bahtawiyan**: (Gɔ́əz), *solitaries*; nuns or monks, living alone in the nature.

**bidaa**: ‘innovation’ in religious matters.

**Church Fathers**: Christian theologians and authors (living until the 7th century), setting the theological foundation of the Church.

**cenobitic**: monastic tradition of living together, a model established by St. Pachomius (d. 346). In Ethiopia different models of religious life were developed for nuns and monks.

**dağğač/dığışmač**: (Gə‘əz), “commander of the gate,” a politico-military title below *ras**.

**denomination**: Christian confession or movement.

**dikr**: “mentioning”, devotional Muslim prayers.

**Amäytə**: title given to a princess or a female of high importance.

**‘Inzira səbhat**: (Gə‘əz), *the Lyre of Praise*; also called *Arganonä Wəddase*, a hymnological praise for Mary, the Mother of God (“wäladitä amlak”).

**Atege**: (Gɔ́əz), empress, a title designating the coronated spouse of an emperor. Some empresses acted as regents using this title after the death of their husbands.

**Ewostateans**: (Gə‘əz), followers of the doctrine of the monk Ewostatewos (b.ca. 1273, d.ca. 1352). He preached the observance of the Sabbath (Saturday and Sunday) and he disobeyed the Coptic metropolitan.

**faqīh**: Islamic jurist.

**fitawrari**: (Gɔ́əz), commander of the vanguard, a title below *dığışmač*\*.

**gädl**: (Gə‘əz), *spiritual combat*, acts; Life; a hagiography of a saint. The *gädl* was in most cases written shortly after one’s death. It describes the life of
the saint, including spiritual aspects and miracles. The *gädl* usually includes
the *kidan*, a pact between the holy women or men and Jesus, like that of
Mary with her son (*Kidanä Məhrät*, Covenant of Mercy).

**gendering research:** a research concept to examine complex systems like religions about whether they have a certain female or male ideal and/or whether they transmit it. Furthermore, the impact of today's role models on the interpretation of the past is taken into consideration.

**Haymanotä Abäw:** (Gɔ́əz), *Faith of the Fathers*; collection of theological texts, writings of the Church Fathers.

**Hohätä Bərhan:** (Gəʻəz), *Gate of the light*; a Marian hymnological composition. It contains praises addressed to Mary, but also hints at the theological discussions of the 15th century.

**imam:** worship leader of a Muslim community or of a mosque.

**indigenisation:** a term describing the process of making something more native.

**kabīr:** “great”, honorific title referred to a learned and respected person.

**Kəbrä Nägäšt:** (Gəʻəz), *Glory of the Kings*; early 14th century, Ethiopic book about the Solomonic dynasty, the visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon and the Ark of the Covenant brought by Mənilək to Ethiopia.

**koso:** tree, the dried female flowers are a medicine against tapeworm.

**liqämäkʷas:** official serving as the king's double to divert attacks directed against the king.

**maḫbär:** (Gəʻəz), association of believers with devotion to a specific saint. They gather monthly on the commemoration date (*täzkar*; zəkr). Each maḫbär finances itself and uses the money for church feasts and social activities.

**Mälkəʻa Maryam:** (Gəʻəz), *image, portrait, effigy of Mary*; hymnological composition to praise the body of Mary.

**martyr:** believers, who gave their life for the Christian faith.

**Mäshafä Sənkəssar:** (Gəʻəz), *Book of Religious Service*; *Synaxarium*, hagio-graphic collection of short descriptions of the lives of the saints, listed under the death day of the saint in calendric order. The canonisation of saints stopped with the completion of the Synaxarium (17th century). The book is a relevant source, not only concerning the given biographical, geographical and historical information, but also about what is not mentioned. An example may be that in contrast to the *gädl* of the male saints the temptations of the human nature are not reported in the lives of the female saints.
Lit.: Budge, E. A. Wallis, *The Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian Church*, 1928, reprint 1976. Available in the internet http://www.stmichaeleoc.org/The_Ethiopian_Synaxarium.pdf

**mäsqäl** [Cross], 27 September (17 Mäskäräm): (Gəʻəz), a church feast celebrating the exaltation of the True Cross. The EOTC possesses a relic of the
True Cross (Amba Gəšän) and commemorates the arrival on that day, in close connection with the finding of the True Cross by Empress Helena, the mother of Emperor Constantine. Processions come together on a large place and light a bonfire (dämära).

**Mäzgäbä Haymanot:** (Gəʻəz), *Treasure of Faith*; treatise on the faith of the EOTC, mainly discussing the Trinity and the nature of Jesus and Mary.

**Nägärä Maryam:** (Gəʻəz), *story of Mary*; Ethiopian book, reporting on the flight of Mary from Herod. In some manuscripts, it is called *Gädlä Maryam*.

**qāḍī:** Islamic judge.

**Qəbat:** (Gəʻəz), *ointment*; a term for a Christological doctrine, the adherents of this doctrine opposed the *Täwahədo*.

**qəne:** to sing a hymn; a hymn praising God and the saints, occasionally officials or events can be honoured. Characteristically, the hymn is composed spontaneously and used only once.

**ras:** head, the highest traditional title next to negus.

**rim:** lands distributed on behalf of churches by church founders and grantors, appellation for church holdings. (multifaceted term see Bairu Tafla, *Notion of rim*, https://www.academia.edu/6207900/Rim_-_Notion_of)

**shaykh:** noble title.

**sufi:** *Islamic mystic.*

**Täʻammərä Maryam:** (Gəʻəz), *Miracles of Mary*; Ethiopian collections about the miracles of Mary.

**tabot:** (Gəʻəz), a sacred portable altar tablet and altar chest, referring to the Ark of Covenant, containing the Tablets of the Law (Moses). The consecrated *tabot* of each church has an inscription with the name of the saint, to whom the *tabot* is dedicated.

**Täwahədo:** (Gəʻəz), *be one, united with each other*; a theological term to state the union of the divinity with the humanity after the Incarnation. The term is part of the name of the Ethiopian Orthodox Täwahədo Church – *Yäʻityopya Ortodoks Täwahədo Betä Krəstiyan*.

**wäyzäro:** (Gəʻəz), “lady,” title given to a princess of the royal family.
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>
Transliteration table for Ge'ez script

Source: Siegbert Uhlig, et al., eds. *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, vol. 1: A-C* (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), xx-xi.

<table><thead><tr><th>1st order</th><th>2nd order</th><th>3rd order</th><th>4th order</th><th>5th order</th><th>6th order</th><th>7th order</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ህ ha</td><td>ሑ hu</td><td>ሃ hi</td><td>ሄ ha</td><td>ህ he</td><td>ህ hə</td><td>ሆ ho</td></tr><tr><td>ለ lä</td><td>ሉ lu</td><td>ሊ li</td><td>ላ la</td><td>ሌ le</td><td>ል lə</td><td>ሎ lo</td></tr><tr><td>ሐ ḥa</td><td>ሐ ḥu</td><td>ሐ ḥi</td><td>ሓ ḥa</td><td>ሐ ḥe</td><td>ሕ ḥə</td><td>ሓ ḥo</td></tr><tr><td>መ mä</td><td>ሙ mu</td><td>ሚ mi</td><td>ማ ma</td><td>ሜ me</td><td>ም mə</td><td>ሞ mo</td></tr><tr><td>ሠ šä</td><td>ሠš šu</td><td>ሠሊ ši</td><td>ሠላ ša</td><td>ሠሌ še</td><td>ሠሥ šə</td><td>ሠሣ so</td></tr><tr><td>ረ rä</td><td>ሩ ru</td><td>ሪ ri</td><td>ራ ra</td><td>ሬ re</td><td>ር rə</td><td>ሮ ro</td></tr><tr><td>ሰ sä</td><td>ሱ su</td><td>ሲ si</td><td>ሳ sa</td><td>ሴ se</td><td>ስ sə</td><td>ሶ so</td></tr><tr><td>ሸ šä</td><td>ሸš šu</td><td>ሸሊ ši</td><td>ሸላ ša</td><td>ሸሌ še</td><td>ሸሥ šə</td><td>ሸሣ šo</td></tr><tr><td>ቀ qä</td><td>ቁ qu</td><td>ቂ qi</td><td>ቃ qa</td><td>ቄ qe</td><td>ቅ qə</td><td>ቆ qo</td></tr><tr><td>በ qä</td><td>ቡ qu</td><td>ቢ qi</td><td>ባ qa</td><td>ቤ qe</td><td>ብ qə</td><td>ቦ qo</td></tr><tr><td>ቡ bä</td><td>ቡ bu</td><td>ቢ bi</td><td>ባ ba</td><td>ቤ be</td><td>ብ bə</td><td>ሮ bo</td></tr><tr><td>ተ tä</td><td>ቱ tu</td><td>ቲ ti</td><td>ታ ta</td><td>ቱ te</td><td>ት tə</td><td>ቶ to</td></tr><tr><td>ቸ čä</td><td>ቸ ču</td><td>ቺ či</td><td>ቻ ča</td><td>ቹ če</td><td>ች čə</td><td>ች čo</td></tr><tr><td>ኅ ḥa</td><td>ኅ ḥu</td><td>ኆ ḥi</td><td>ኅ ḥa</td><td>ኆ ḥe</td><td>ኅ ḥə</td><td>ኅ ḥo</td></tr><tr><td>ነ nä</td><td>ኑ nu</td><td>ኒ ni</td><td>ና na</td><td>ኔ ne</td><td>ን nə</td><td>ኖ no</td></tr><tr><td>ኘ ñä</td><td>ኘ ñu</td><td>ኘ ንi</td><td>ኘ ንa</td><td>ኘ ንe</td><td>ኘ ñə</td><td>ኘ ንo</td></tr><tr><td>አ 'a</td><td>አ 'u</td><td>አ ንi</td><td>አ 'a</td><td>አ ንe</td><td>አ 'ə</td><td>አ 'o</td></tr><tr><td>ከ kä</td><td>ኩ ku</td><td>ኪ ki</td><td>ካ ka</td><td>ኬ ke</td><td>ክ kə</td><td>ክ ከ</td></tr><tr><td>ኽ ንkä</td><td>ኽ ንku</td><td>ኽ ንki</td><td>ኽ ንka</td><td>ኽ ንke</td><td>ኽ ንkə</td><td>ኽ ንko</td></tr><tr><td>ወ wä</td><td>ዉ wu</td><td>ዊ wi</td><td>ዋ wa</td><td>ዌ we</td><td>ው wə</td><td>ዎ wo</td></tr><tr><td>ዐ 'a</td><td>ዑ 'u</td><td>ዒ ንi</td><td>ዓ 'a</td><td>ዔ 'e</td><td>ዕ 'ə</td><td>ዕ 'o</td></tr><tr><td>ዝ zä</td><td>ዙ zu</td><td>ዝ ንi</td><td>ዝ za</td><td>ዝ ze</td><td>ዝ zə</td><td>ዝ የ</td></tr><tr><td>ዝ ዝä</td><td>ዝ ዝu</td><td>ዝ ንi</td><td>ዝ ንa</td><td>ዝ ንže</td><td>ዝ ዝə</td><td>ዝ ዝo</td></tr><tr><td>የ yä</td><td>ዩ yu</td><td>ዩ ንi</td><td>ዩ ya</td><td>ዩ ye</td><td>ዩ yə</td><td>ዩ yo</td></tr><tr><td>ደ dä</td><td>ዱ du</td><td>ዱ ንi</td><td>ዱ da</td><td>ዱ de</td><td>ዱ də</td><td>ዱ do</td></tr><tr><td>ጀ ዝä</td><td>ጀ ዝu</td><td>ጀ ንi</td><td>ጀ ዝa</td><td>ጀ ዝe</td><td>ጀ ዝə</td><td>ጀ ዝo</td></tr><tr><td>7 gä</td><td>7u gu</td><td>7i gi</td><td>7a ga</td><td>7e ge</td><td>7g gə</td><td>7o go</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><thead><tr><th>1st order</th><th>2nd order</th><th>3rd order</th><th>4th order</th><th>5th order</th><th>6th order</th><th>7th order</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ጠ</td><td>ጡ</td><td>ጢ</td><td>ጣ</td><td>ጤ</td><td>ጤ</td><td>ጤ</td></tr><tr><td>ጨ</td><td>ጨ</td><td>ጨ</td><td>ጨ</td><td>ጨ</td><td>ጨ</td><td>ጨ</td></tr><tr><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td></tr><tr><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td><td>ጽ</td></tr><tr><td>ፀ</td><td>ፀ</td><td>ፀ</td><td>ፀ</td><td>ፀ</td><td>ፀ</td><td>ፀ</td></tr><tr><td>ፉ</td><td>ፉ</td><td>ፉ</td><td>ፉ</td><td>ፉ</td><td>ፉ</td><td>ፉ</td></tr><tr><td>፪</td><td>፪</td><td>፪</td><td>፪</td><td>፪</td><td>፪</td><td>፪</td></tr><tr><td>፫</td><td>፫</td><td>፫</td><td>፫</td><td>፫</td><td>፫</td><td>፫</td></tr><tr><td>፬</td><td>፬</td><td>፬</td><td>፬</td><td>፬</td><td>፬</td><td>፬</td></tr></tbody></table>

Labiovelars*

<table><tr><td>ቂ</td><td>qʷä</td><td>ቂ</td><td>qʷi</td><td>ቂ</td><td>qʷa</td><td>ቂ</td><td>qʷe</td><td>ቂ</td><td>qʷə</td></tr><tr><td>ጎ</td><td>hʷä</td><td>ጎ</td><td>hʷi</td><td>ጎ</td><td>hʷa</td><td>ጎ</td><td>hʷe</td><td>ጎ</td><td>hʷə</td></tr><tr><td>ኽ</td><td>kʷä</td><td>ኽ</td><td>kʷi</td><td>ኳ</td><td>kʷa</td><td>ኳ</td><td>kʷe</td><td>ኽ</td><td>kʷə</td></tr><tr><td>ፏ</td><td>gʷä</td><td>ፏ</td><td>gʷi</td><td>ፓ</td><td>gʷa</td><td>ፓ</td><td>gʷe</td><td>ፏ</td><td>gʷə</td></tr><tr><td>ኽ</td><td>kʷä</td><td>ኽ</td><td>kʷi</td><td>ኳ</td><td>kʷa</td><td>ኳ</td><td>kʷe</td><td>ኽ</td><td>kʷə</td></tr><tr><td>፬</td><td>qʷä</td><td>፬</td><td>qʷi</td><td>፬</td><td>qʷa</td><td>፬</td><td>qʷe</td><td>፬</td><td>qʷə</td></tr></table>

Numerals

<table><tr><td>፫</td><td>1</td><td>፫</td><td>8</td><td>፫</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>፬</td><td>2</td><td>፬</td><td>9</td><td>፬</td><td>70</td></tr><tr><td>፭</td><td>3</td><td>፭</td><td>10</td><td>፭</td><td>80</td></tr><tr><td>፮</td><td>4</td><td>፮</td><td>20</td><td>፮</td><td>90</td></tr><tr><td>፯</td><td>5</td><td>፯</td><td>30</td><td>፯</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>፰</td><td>6</td><td>፮</td><td>40</td><td>፮</td><td>1,000</td></tr><tr><td>፭</td><td>7</td><td>፮</td><td>50</td><td>፮</td><td>10,000</td></tr></table>

<footnote>* Consonant symbols with the additional ሰ underneath (e.g., ሲ, lʷa, ቁ, bʷa, ታ, tʷa etc.) or ሰ above (e.g., ሮ, rʷa, እ, ʾʷa) stand for the respective consonant phonemes followed by -ʷa.</footnote>
# Part 1

## Historiography and Methodology
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>
Chapter 1

Who Wrote Ethiopian Women's
History and how to Write it?

"Nowhere does the Abyssinian literature treat seriously of women. Women must rank very high among the neglected themes of Ethiopian historical and social studies."

Donald Crummey (1981, 444)

The inclusion of women and gender in African historiography has been
flourishing in recent decades. Before the 1970s, only few studies on African
women's history were published; more often found in anthropological and
ethnographic studies. From the 1980s, historians and social anthropologists
have paid better attention to the reconstruction and analysis of the lives of
ordinary people in society. Therefore, women and the issue of how gender
relations have been transformed by various historical processes began to be
studied. A significant number of monographs began to appear in the 1990s.
However, in 2002, Belete Bizuneh noticed that this upheaval in African
historiography does not seem to have affected historical scholarship about
women in Ethiopia, an issue already noticed in 1981 by Donald Crummey.
On reviewing historical and anthropological studies and topics conducted
on women in Ethiopia, he concluded by stating that "in comparison, with
other African countries the gap on women's studies remains significant." Until
today, only the works of Richard Pankhurst, especially *A Social History of
Ethiopia*, mentions the activities of women over an extensive period of time. In
this chapter, we will therefore present the historiography and the methodology
related to the types of primary sources that could be used by scholars interested
in the reconstruction of the history of Ethiopian women. The available sources
fall into two broad categories: Ethiopian and foreign sources. What has to be
underlined in women's studies is that the availability of sources influenced the
type of research that could be done at first.
# 1. Historiography of the research conducted on women's history in Ethiopia

## 1.1. Belete Bizuneh's historiographic work on Ethiopian women's history

As Belete Bizuneh noticed in 2002, bibliographies can be used as one means of illustrating the lack of historical studies dedicated to women. Using a bibliography produced in 1994 in the *Journal of Ethiopian Studies*, he noticed that out of a total of 494 papers published in the *Proceedings of the International Conference of Ethiopian Studies* (vols. 1-9 and 11), only 12 articles appeared in the index under "women"; the majority produced by anthropologists or sociologists and were ahistorical. They dealt with subjects such as women's reproductive health and their roles and participation in crafts, education, and voluntary associations. The same was true of the *Journal of Ethiopian Studies* itself. The author shows that out of 311 entries only three of them concerned women: "one dealt with elite marriage at the Ethiopian court in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the second described the position of Hadiya women in Southern Ethiopia, and the third was a review of a book about Empress Taytu." He concluded by saying that, before the 1980s, only one journal seems to have taken an interest in women's studies, *The Ethiopia Observer*, a newspaper founded by a feminist, promoter of Ethiopian women: Sylvia Pankhurst (1882-1960), that replaced the famous *New Times* and *Ethiopian Times*. However, Belete Bizuneh (2002) noticed that articles "tended to be sketchy, focusing mainly on the activities of elite women or women in urban centres" and that "the methodology used was not sophisticated" for the authors did not indicate their sources. These articles were however pioneers in the genre and unfortunately, the death of Sylvia Pankhurst in 1960, only four years after the establishment of the journal, "seems to have resulted in a decline in interest in women."

Belete Bizuneh also noticed, "the absence of institutions that direct and encourage research by students and scholars" on women and gender issues until the 2000s. The establishment of the Center for Research, Documentation, and Training on Women in Development (CERTWID) in 1990, and a new research grant for gender issues established by the Organization of Social Science Research for Eastern Africa (OSSREA), which is based in Addis Ababa, were promising signs for the future of the field. In his research, he regrets however that although some work on women, often outstanding, has been done as BA and MA theses at Addis Ababa University since the end of the 1990s', unfortunately, most of these works remain unpublished. Many references published before 2002 can be found in the article published in the same year by the author quoted in this chapter.
1.2. *Only few changes since 2002: a critical need to develop women's history in Ethiopia*

If we applied the same methodology as that used by Belete Bizuneh to review the progress of the research conducted in history on Ethiopian women, it is still remarkable that only a few works have been added since 2002 till almost the end of the 2010s. In 2002, T. Fernyhough and A. Fernyhough published a chapter dedicated to “Women, Gender History, and Imperial Ethiopia.” Margaux Herman is one of the few historians of medieval and modern times to have chosen “women” as the core subject of all her studies. She produced in 2020 a state of the art of the researches undertaken on women’s history during the medieval times. Other scholars, like Anaïs Wion, Claire Bosc-Tiesse, or Habtamu M. Tegegne have given new insights into the history of women in the modern times while being interested in the historical approach of art history, diplomatic and properties documentation. Pierre Guidi, another historian, also published in the last decades studies on women and education from the 1950s up to 1991.

In the online catalogue of Addis Ababa University consulted in 2018, only 18 master's theses are specifically dedicated to women according to their titles. However, none of them were defended in the History Department, a fact that suggests that historians still neglect women as a topic worthy of study. In the bibliography drawn up by Jon Abbink, “The Anthropology of Ethiopia 1999–2011,” only eight entries contained the word “women” in their titles. In the annual “Ethiopia Bibliography” or “Bibliography” published in *the International Journal of Ethiopian Studies* from 2005 to 2012, one theme is dedicated to “Women and Children” and had a total of 58 articles including the term “women” in their title while only five were historical works. In 2012, a specific theme on gender was added with four entries (one being placed in anthropological works). Browsing the work of Jon Abbink “Ethiopian-Eritrean Studies, a Bibliography on Society and History: 2010–2015,” studies using the word “women” in their title numbered 67 entries out of more than 700 entries, and among these, ten articles added a historical approach to their studies. In this bibliography, there are no specific themes dedicated to women and in the index only “refugee women” and “artist women” are specified. In “Ethiopian-Eritrean Studies, a Bibliography on Society and History: 2016–2022,” compiled by the same author, there are no specific entries dedicated to women or gender issues, and in the history section only 23 out of 630 articles deal with women or gender. Of these, 6 were written by contributors of this volume (four by M. Herman and two by S. Bruzzi) and 10 others are related to migrant communities. In the other sections, 130 articles focus on women or gender. The gap in historical studies dedicated to women still needs to be filled. Women’s history is dealt with in various types of sources or historical works, but has not yet been the subject of in-depth studies in its own right. Progress
is being made and more articles and essays have been published since 2018,
although few in the field of history.

## 2. Using Ethiopian primary sources for reconstructing Ethiopian women's history

### 2.1. *Ethiopian written sources*

For medieval and post-medieval studies, besides biblical, liturgical and hagiographical texts, royal chronicles are the oldest of the Ethiopic written sources that are at the disposal of scholars engaged in the study of Ethiopian history. By their very nature, the chronicles, which are the works of priests constructed under the control of the kings, tend to be androcentric. Women principally appear only in connection with marriage alliances or in their involvement in court intrigues; they also appear as sponsors of foundations, religious movements or as regents.

It is also important, as Donald Crummey showed, later followed by
Habtamu M. Tegegne, to focus attention on the marginalia of the churches'
manuscripts whose contents include useful information on land properties,
marriages, adoptions, inheritances and donations. It is helpful in drawing
genealogies of the local community where women were and became important
characters. On another level, as noticed by S. Kaplan and more recently
by Mersha Alehegne, hagiographies also give a good insight into women's
position in society. Though few studies have been undertaken into a careful
reading of this type of religious text, they contain some data on the daily life of
women, from the commoners to the elites. Some of the rare pieces of research
undertaken have for instance showed that one of the concerns of medieval
women was the problem of infertility as a major health issue.

For contemporaneous history, newspapers are by far one of the most
important categories of written sources, indispensable in the reconstruction
of women and gender history. Although newspaper production goes back
to the early decades of the 20th century, the most useful would be those
published since 1941. One of these papers, *Addis Zämän* (አቺስ አመስ; “New Era”
in English), for example, has appeared regularly since 1941-42, and, at times,
has contained biographies of prominent women as those who participated in
the patriotic resistance against Italian rule. *Addis Zämän* and other newspapers
carried writings by men and women regarding various issues such as marriage,
women’s liberation, debates over “proper” and “improper” dress, the hardship
of prostitutes, advertisements, etc. These newspapers helped in understanding
the popular perceptions about gender relations, as well as the changes that
occurred over time.

The second type of source, but equally useful, are the private and state
archives. They are difficult to access and use. They are kept in different
places, they are mostly not well catalogued, or organised, and their state of
preservation is usually not good. Hopefully, digitisation will facilitate their access in the near future. For example, the digitisation project “African Worker on file” lead by the International Institute of Social History based in Amsterdam and involving Ethiopian partners will allow scholars to draw promising research on the archives of the Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Unions (CETU). However, research will depend highly on the catalogue that accompanies the archives to render their use more accessible. The study of the legal system and customary laws is also fruitful in approaching the position of women in the society. In that sense, the work of Helen Pankhurst in 1992 is one of the rarest providing an analysis of the impact of the state policies defining state-peasantry relations and their effects on gender relations.

## 2.2. *Ethiopian oral sources*

Women's life histories and the biographical approach with the use of oral testimony help to fill lacunae in published sources; however, one shall notice that this has limitations in researching earlier periods. On the medieval and post-medieval periods, scholars can retrieve genealogies and compare them to written sources, if available. From folktales and stories, researchers can gather information on marriage, kinship, and social expectations regarding women's behaviour, as such issues are discussed in allegorical forms. The researcher would have to be careful, as folktales might appear timeless but in fact they change over time, depending on the people who tell them or to whom the story was told. However, they still reflect the cultural ideas and customs of the time and area in which they are recited.

For the recent past, especially for the study of both elites and ordinary women, oral sources are valuable as showcased by the biographical interview of Zenebework Tadesse in 2013 or in the work of Marta Camilla Wright on nuns. Oral traditions, personal and family histories both at regional and local levels offer priceless information. The works of Anne Cassiers is in that sense fruitful. Nevertheless, conducting interviews or recording oral history should follow a strict methodological approach in order to be used properly and reduce the bias for analysing them. All researchers should be prepared in advance and make a good balance between the good and bad aspects of all challenging questions before, during and after conducting the interview: maintaining the informant's privacy, sharing the researcher's own comparable information, hiring an interpreter from the local area, the problems of language and translation, the choice of interviewee, the balance between asking questions and free-form stories, the payment (or not) of the people interviewed, the issue of gender (of both the researcher and the interviewees), the need to create a space for women to talk freely in case of male intrusion, etc. Moreover, women and men have different stories to tell because their own experiences may differ according to gender: they may not
remember or experience events (e.g. weddings, work, wars) in the same way, whether inside or outside the domestic sphere. As well, the level of education of the women may also have consequences on the amount of data collected.

Proverbs, sayings, poems, and songs that are performed at various occasions such as births, weddings, and funerals are another substantial source of data. For example, Eyayu Lulseged, quoted in Belete Bizuneh's article, has used contemporary Amharic songs from the 1950s to 1970s "to show popular perceptions and views regarding social, economic, and political processes in the country." Considering the majority of the rural population continues to be illiterate, it is of particular importance. Scholars, however, must use a strict methodology when using them, identifying authorship and periodising the tradition. Scholars can also use historical linguistics to examine changing patterns in women's roles.

### 2.3. Archaeology and material culture and techniques

Combining the traditional research method of a close reading of textual documents with the study of the architecture of homes and communities can be fruitful for history. This combined approach has been proven for the study of the history of women in European, American and African contexts as well. Archaeological evidence is also a way to understand the division of labour in early societies, though evidence collected through archaeological research does not prove that women or men did particular work, but only provides a basis for analysis. Nevertheless, archaeologists can help retrieve some of that earlier history. Items such as pots, jewelry, and other material goods can provide evidence about women's activities in earlier historical periods. The study of craftmanship, such as weaving techniques, is also useful in terms of approach: noting for example evolutions in designs and techniques can also reveal interesting data in a long-term perspective. In other African countries, the study of tattoo designs, the evolution in fashion, the location on women's bodies and the physical space they inhabited have been used as historical "documents." Finally, both the production of art and the representation of women in artistic images can also add to our knowledge of women's roles in history, but have been barely studied.

### 2.4. Foreign sources

A variety of foreign sources are available for the historian interested in gender relations and women's studies in Ethiopia. Accounts by travellers, missionaries, and diplomats are accessible from the Middle Ages up to today, especially flourishing from the last quarter of the 19th century. However, a specific methodological approach has to be used as many of the authors resided in the country for only a short period of time, and therefore their accounts tend to lack details and be ethnocentric. Many of them had few
direct interactions with local people due to language barriers, were restricted
only to the court or concentrated on the northern and central parts of the
country. Despite these limitations, foreigners described what they saw and
sometimes customs, events or details that were too common to be mentioned
in local sources. Therefore, if interpretations of what they witnessed must
be used cautiously, their accounts described various issues related to the life
of women in the country. Belete Bizuneh highlighted in his article some
of the travellers' accounts to be used; such as Nathaniel Pearce, Mansfield
Parkyns, and the D'Abbadie brothers; as they stayed in the country for longer
periods and learned to speak the local languages. He especially recommended
to have a look at the work of Augustus Wylde for he had "a keen eye for
gender relations, (...) visited northern Ethiopia a number of times in the 1880s
and 1890s, described women's household and agricultural activity, the dress
and jewellery of various classes of men and women, and the life of children
and childrearing." Belete Bizuneh also pointed out the necessity to search for
information in female travellers' accounts when studying issues relating to
women. In the late 1980s, Yvonne Knibiehler and Régine Goutalier, quoted by
K. Sheldon, recognised that "sources from European women are very different
from male sources." For the Ethiopian case, the work of Rosita Forbes, a
British woman who travelled on a mule from Dire Dawa to northwestern
Ethiopia and thence to Massawa can be mentioned.

According to Belete Bizuneh “in the post-Italian period, the number
of travel accounts with ethnological information seems to have declined.”
However, he recommended to have a look at works written by expatriates
who worked in Ethiopia, providing the example of David Talbot who was
interested in the “changing attitudes toward marriage, beauty, and work in
the capital city.” Foreign sources also include archives (diplomatic mainly)
and newspapers such as *Life Magazine*. Finally, reports of the international
organisations can also be used to define issues concerning women and their
evolution through time since the 1990s.

Conclusion

The various methodologies and sources used for each chapter illustrate the
core ideas developed here. It is now urgent to focus historical studies on women
as this topic affects all the chronological periods from ancient times till today.
This volume is in fact showcasing the advancing of the topic and aims to
motivate the young generation to do more research by showing the variety of
this developing field. The main updated works dedicated to women's history
are referenced (up to the 2010s). Other references, less historically oriented,
but cited in this volume may help to uncover their history and showcase
the methodology to be used. It is also important to emphasize that gendered
histories can help us comprehend not only women's experiences but also
the history of society in general. As development studies and development programs focusing on women expand, they need historical backgrounds in order to adapt their projects to Ethiopia and its women.

## References and further readings

Abbink, Jon. 2011. "The Anthropology of Ethiopia 1999–2011." *Journal of Ethiopian Studies* 44: 103–47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44326701.

Abbink, Jon. 2016. *Ethiopian-Eritrean Studies: A Bibliography on Society and History, 2010–2015*. ASCL Occasional Publication 24. Leiden: African Studies Centre Leiden. https://hdl.handle.net/1887/37415.

Abbink, Jon. 2022. *Ethiopian-Eritrean Studies: A Bibliography on Society and History, 2016–2022*. ASCL Occasional Publication 44. Leiden: African Studies Centre Leiden. https://hdl.handle.net/1887/3444002.

Belete Bizuneh. 2001. "Women in Ethiopian History: A Bibliographic Review." *Northeast African Studies* 8, no. 3: 7–32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41931268.

Cassiers, Anne. 1983. "Mercha: An Ethiopian Woman Speaks of Her Life." *Northeast African Studies* 5, no. 2: 57–81.

Crummey, Donald. 1981. "Women and Landed Property in Gondarine Ethiopia." *The International Journal of African Historical Studies* 14, no. 3: 444–65. https://doi.org/10.2307/217699; https://www.jstor.org/stable/217699.

Crummey, Donald. 1982. "Women, Property, and Litigation among the Bagemder Amhara, 1750s to 1850s." In *African Women and the Law: Historical Perspectives*, edited by Margaret Jean Hay and Marcia Wright, 19–32. Boston: Boston University.

Eyayu Lulseged. 1994. "Social, Economic, and Political Discontent in Ethiopia as Reflected in Contemporary Amharic Songs (Mid-1950's to Mid-1970's)." *Journal of Ethiopian Studies* 27, no. 2: 21–43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41966036.

Forbes, Rosita. 1925. *From Red Sea to Blue Nile: Abyssinian Adventure*. New York: The Macaulay Company.

Geiger, Susan. 1986. "Women's Life Histories: Method and Content." *Signs* 11, no. 2: 334–5. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174056.

Geiger, Susan. 1989. *Interpreting Women's Lives: Feminist Theory and Personal Narratives*. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Habtamu Mengistie Tegegne. 2011. "Land Tenure and Agrarian Social Structure in Ethiopia, 1693–1900." PhD diss. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4834225.pdf [archive].

Herman, Margaux. 2020. "Towards a History of Women in Medieval Ethiopia." In *A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritra*, edited by Samantha Kelly, 365–94. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004419582_014. https://hal.science/hal-03934998/.
Kaplan, Steven. 1997. "Seen but not Heard: Children and Childhood in Medieval Ethiopia." *International Journal of African Historical Studies* 30, no. 3: 539–53. https://doi.org/10.2307/220575.

Mbilinyi, Marjorie. 1989. "'I'd Have Been A Man': Politics and the Labour Process." In *Interpreting Women's Lives*, edited by Personal Narratives Group, 204–27. Indiana: Indiana University Press.

Mersha Alehegne. 2015. "Regularity and Uniformity in the Ethiopian Hagiographical Tradition: A Particular Focus on Narrating the Childhood of Saints." *Aethiopica* 18: 145–62. https://doi.org/10.15460/aethiopica.18.1.928.

Pankhurst, Helen. 1992. *Gender, Development and Identity: An Ethiopian Study*. London: Zed Books.

Pankhurst, Richard. 1976. *The Ethiopian Woman in Former Times: An Anthology Prepared for the International Women's Year Anniversary Exhibition at Revolution Square*. Addis Ababa: Pankhurst.

Pankhurst, Richard. 1990a. "The Role of Women in Ethiopian Economic, Social and Cultural Life from the Middle Ages to the Time of Tewodros." In *Proceedings of the First National Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, April 11–12, 1990, edited by Tadesse Beyene, Richard Pankhurst, and Ahmed Zekaria, 345–65. Addis Ababa: Institute of Ethiopian Studies.

Pankhurst, Richard. 1990b. *A Social History of Ethiopia: The Northern and Central Highlands from Early Medieval Times to the Rise of Emperor Tewodros II*. Kings. Ripton: ELM Publications, and Addis Ababa: Institute of Ethiopian Studies. (especially 67–72, 114–18, 248–70.)

Parkyns, Mansfield. 1853. *Life in Abyssinia: Being Notes Collected during Three Years' Residence and Travels in that Country*. Two Volumes. London: John Murray. https://archive.org/details/lifeinabyssiniab11853park.

Sheldon, Kathleen. 2005. "Writing about Women: Approaches to a Gendered Perspective in African History." In *Writing African History*, edited by Philips John Edward, 465–92. Rochester: University of Rochester Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/writing-african-history/writing-about-women-approaches-to-a-gendered-perspective-in-african-history/E9101E86563BooB957B3555CE05D7449.

Talbot, David. 1952. *Contemporary Ethiopia*. New York: Philosophical Library.

Wright, Marta Camilla. 2002. "At The Limits of Sexuality: The Femininity of Ethiopian Orthodox Nuns." *Journal of Ethiopian Studies* 35, no. 1 (Special Issue on Gender and Christianity): 27–42. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41966129.

Wylde, Augustus Blandy. 1990. *Modern Abyssinia*. London: Methuen & Co. https://archive.org/details/modernabyssiniaooowyld

Zenebework Tadesse. 2013. "Zenebework Tadesse Oral History Content Summary." Bethesda, MD: Women's Learning Partnership.
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>
Part 2

Women and Myths of Foundation
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>
Chapter 2

Women and Myths of Foundation

"Creation myths are not about the origins of the world at all, but about the origins of patriarchy which claimed itself as the world."

Caputi (1987, 9).

This part is focused on the “great” women, mythical or historical figures who shaped the identity of the country. Indeed, myths are part of any nation’s history. Most societies recognise their mythical ancestor to be a woman. Myths are made to be remembered, but they also change and follow the course of history in being adapted to new political or social realities. Studying the relationship between women and myths in Ethiopia reveals many aspects of the society, especially regarding women’s conditions, role, and place in the country.

1. “The first Ethiopian is a woman”: Lucy

The *National Museum* in Addis Ababa exhibits the fragmentary plaster representation of a hominin discovered in the Hadar region in 1974. This is “Lucy,” a three-million-year-old fossil skeleton of an *Australopithecus afarensis* regarded as one of the earliest human ancestors. In Ethiopia, she is known as Dənqənäš (Amharic for “you are amazing” or “you are lovely”). “Lucy” represents a starting point for the Ethiopian cultural narrative alongside the story of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. The idea of having the “first human” strengthens national self-confidence. Lucy is a centralising force, neither claimed as Amhara, Tigrean, Oromo, Harari, etc.: she is resolutely Ethiopian.

Source 1. Ethiopia, the cradle of mankind

"Ethiopia is the cradle of mankind [Lucy], the birthplace of coffee, and the purported resting place of the Ark of the Covenant [Makədda's legend]"

"Five million years in the cradle of mankind," *USA Today Magazine* 136, no. 2757 (June 2008), https://law-journals-books.vlex.com/vid/five-million-years-in-cradle-mankind-55440147 [archive].
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. Cast of “Lucy” at the National Museum of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa-Ethiopia)</figcaption></figure>

## 2. Queen Makədda, the mother of Christian Ethiopians

It is recorded in 1 Kings 10 that the Queen of Sheba visited Solomon of Israel around the 10th century BCE. The Ethiopian version of this tale, written in the *Kəbrä Nägäšt* (*the Glory of the Kings*), recounts the travel of the Queen (Sheba), known only in this text as Makədda, to King Solomon. While some nations treated this story as a minor theme in the corpus of biblical legends, not so for the Ethiopians. Although the *Kəbrä Nägäšt* cannot provide historical proof of the existence of the Queen Makədda, this text and its use down to the present day underline the importance of the queen as a founding figure of the Ethiopian Christianity and statehood.

*Source 2. Queen of Sheba, mother of the Ethiopian Christian Monarchy*

> “The Imperial dignity shall remain perpetually attached to the line of ሆylä
> Śəllase I, whose line descends without interruption from the dynasty of Mənəlik I,
> son of the Queen of Ethiopia, the Queen of Sheba, and King Solomon of Jerusalem.”

> *Ethiopian Constitution, art. 2 (revised 1955), https://chilot.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/1955-revised-constitution-of-ethiopia1.pdf [archive]*
## 2.1. Makədda and the Ethiopian Christian kingdom's identity

Under the reign of ‘Amdä ሆyon (1314–1344), a final version of the Kəbrä Nägäšt was written and translated in Ge‘ez. Reworked and used as a politico-ideological charter, it became the founding myth of the so-called Solomonic royal house and people, described as the new people elected by God. Makədda is therefore considered the “historical” mother of all Christian Ethiopians, through her relations with King Solomon and the birth of Mənəlik I, the first King of Ethiopia. It also implies that, before, the country was “pagan” and ruled by women. This myth however ended the possibility for women to inherit the throne and legitimised a male succession line.

Source 3. Makədda, the oath of the nobles and the evolution of the dynastic rule

> “And the Queen said unto her nobles: ‘Speak ye now, and swear ye by the heavenly Zion that ye will not make women queens or set them upon the throne of the kingdom of Ethiopia, and that no one except the male seed of David, the son of Solomon the King, shall ever reign over Ethiopia, and that ye will never make women queens.’ And all the nobles of the king’s house swore, and the governors, and the councillors, and the administrators.”

Wallis Budge, E.A., *The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelek (Kəbrä Nagašt)* (Ontario: Parentheses Publications, Ethiopian Series Cambridge, 2000 [1928, 1st ed.]), ch. 87.

## 2.2. *The descendants of Makədda’s servant and Solomon*

Some traditions have developed that the servant of Makədda also came back from Jerusalem bearing a son of Solomon. These traditions are sometimes applied to the Zagwê Kings, who ruled the country from the Lasta region in Wällo during the 11th to the 13th century, sometimes to the Betä Æsra’el communities, sometimes to other communities of Ethiopia. However, these versions of the Makədda-Solomon myth could not have been initiated by either of these actors as they enhance a descent from Solomon through a servant, that is to say a minor line.

It should therefore be noted that while the Zagwê considered themselves the legitimate rulers, they were considered “usurpers” from a Solomonic point of view. Consequently, these traditions are most probably a later development put in place by the Solomonic Kings themselves, trying to reconsider the great achievements of some of the Zagwê Kings, such as King Lalibäla, or to include to some extent the Betä Æsra’el in a common history.

## 2.3. *The revival, rewriting and diffusion of the Queen Makədda and Solomon myth at the end of the 19th century*

During the latter part of the 19th century, on the order of Mənəlik II (r. 1889–1913), regional histories were written throughout the country in order
Source 4. King Solomon, the Zagʷe Kings and the “Falashas”

"Besides taking the Queen of Sheba into his bed King Solomon, [he] also worked his will on her servant who bore him a son called Zagʷe. In due course, Zagʷe founded his own dynasty and his half-brother Menelik provided him with members of a bodyguard whom he had brought from Israel and they spread into the provinces of Wollo, Gojjam and Shoa, where they became the ancestors of the 'Falasha.'"

Kessler, David, *The Falashas: The Forgotten Jews of Ethiopia* (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982), 81–82.

*Another version, almost similar had been collected by Arnaud d'Abbadie in the 19th century. In it, the son of the servant is called “Zogo,” a probable deformation of Zagʷe.*

to create a sense of unity in mixed Ethiopian populations for the sake of maintaining state independence. The *Chronicle of Mənəlik II*, whose name has not been chosen by chance, opens with an extended claim to Solomonic dynasty legitimacy, using a retelling of the founding legend, the union of Solomon and Sheba. He is the namesake of their legendary son Mənəlik I. For better dissemination, his chronicle and regional chronicles were written in Amharic. In the first, Mənəlik is called *nəgušä nägäšt* (“King of Kings”) while in the latter, the regional leader assumed the title of *nəguš* (“King”), legitimised by their linkage to King Solomon. For example, the *Chronicle of Goğğam*, written by *aläqa* Täklä Iyasus at the beginning of the 20th century, recounts the history of the first settlers in the region being the offspring of Makədda’s sister, Şəhay Nägädä, who was also a child of King Solomon (called May Zagʷa). From that point on, the rulers of Goğğam were, accepted as descending from this line. The genealogy ends by giving legitimacy to King Täklä Haymanot over both Goğğam and Käfa regions. The genealogy provides the legitimacy to the *nəguš* of the region to rule under the leadership of the *nəgušä nägäšt*. Other traditions, like the late version of the *Kəbrä Nägäšt* found in Zʷay by Mənəlik II, enhance the first regional kings as being those who accompanied Mənəlik I when he came back from Israel and whom he appointed as *nəguš* all over the country (see Source 5). As well, other late Tigrean traditions, collected by Johannes Kolmodin, enhance the roles of the children of Zagua, Mənilək I’s brother born to the servant of Saba. Called Isra’elites (Ruben, Simeon, Minab, Juda, Levi…), they accompanied Mənilək I to Ethiopia and became the first regional kings.

## 2.4. Makədda and the Betä Isra’el communities

Before the 15th century, there is no solid evidence of the existence of the Betä Isra’el communities (so-called “Falaša”). It is also important to note that, since the 20th century and the movements of the “Falaša people” in Israel, the traditions concerning their mythical origin have changed.

Although the Betä Isra’el did not have a single “official” account of their origins in Ethiopia, the story of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba appears
Source 5. Regional genealogies of the 19th century and the links to the Solomon-Saba cycle

"Azaryas [Azariah] stayed with Mənilək. And Elyab [Elyas? Eliab?] went to Tämben, Ḩet to Sənnar, Sadoq to Sayənt, Adel to Lasta, Efrem [Ephraim] to Goğğam, Nasis to Yärär, Yonatan [Jonathan] to Ḩarär, Abdəyo in Gondär (or Gənəğğar); Gedewon [Gideon] to Səre, Abḥel to Käfa. Azaryas was titled liqä kahənat, Ḩet nəguś of Sənnar, Efrem nəguś of Goğğam, Abdəyo nəguś of Gondär. They were at the right of the King. Elyab was untitled nəguś of Tämben, Adel nəguś of Lasta, Yonatan nəguś of Ḩärär, Abḥel nəguś of Käfa. They were at the left of the King Mənilək during the time of his reign. (...) The liqä kahənat is the son of Aron, Ḩet is the son of Amnon, the son of David; Elyab is the son of ‘Āsey [Isaï]; Gedewon is the son of [Bethelya (or Abba’ya), the son of David]; Adel is the son of Yətəhāram, the son of David; Efrem is a descendant of Āsey [Isaï], the son of Āsalama’e (Salām’e); Sadoq is from Betləhem, the son of Midāb (Āminadāb), Abdəyo is a descendant of Yosef, Yonatan is a descendant of Gälä’ad and Berzibe, Nasis is a descendant of Yeḥuda [Juda], Abḥel a descendant of Bənyam [Benjamin].” from the *History of Goğğam*, manuscript found in the Church of Mängəstä Sāmayat in Goğğam.

Margaux Herman, “(Re)writing the history of Goggam in ancient and mediaeval times: the prism of the nineteenth-century regional historiography,” in *Essays in Ethiopian Manuscript Studies Proceedings of the International Conference Manuscripts and Texts, Languages and Contexts: the Transmission of Knowledge in the Horn of Africa. Hamburg, 17–19 July 2014*, edited by Alessandro Bausi, Alessandro Gori and Denis Nosnitsin (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2015), 129.

*Other similar versions, though with variations, are found throughout the country, like the tradition found in Z̥w ay (Casimir Mondhon-Vidhaillet, “Une tradition éthiopienne,” Revue Sémitique 12 (1904): 259–66.)*

to have dominated their traditions before the 20th century. However, the Betä Āsra’el, while embracing the tradition of a Solomonic descent, usually stressed their separation from the other Ethiopian communities. The most common version of their origin claimed that they were the descendants of the twelve eldest sons of the council of Solomon, who came back with Mənilək I to Ethiopia. Thus, by associating themselves with the Solomon-Sheba legend, they claimed to be part of the political-cultural elite. In a similar manner, the fact that they called themselves “Āsra’elites,” rather than Jews (*ayhud*), placed them alongside the Ethiopian royal family, therefore belonging to the *daqiqa* Āsra’el (“The children of Israel”).

A last type of variation of the myth highlights as their ancestors a group of artisans and builders who came back from Israel with Makədda. As already mentioned, these versions could not have been initiated by them as it marks them as inferior for not being from the group of the first born. To conclude, until the 20th century, the Betä Āsra’el desired to be considered, not necessarily as descendants of King Solomon, but like their contemporaries, as originating
Source 6. Different versions of the myth of foundation of the Betä Isra'el communities

The first and most commonly spread version of their myth of foundation was recorded by James Bruce: “Being very industrious, these people multiplied exceedingly, and were very powerful at the time of the conversion to Christianity, or, as they term it, the apostacy under Abreha and Atszbeha. At that time, they declared a prince of the tribe of Judah, and of the race of Solomon and Menilek, their sovereign. The name of this prince was Phineas, who refused to abandon the religion of his forefathers, and from him their sovereigns are lineally descended; so they have still a prince of the house of Judah.”

James Bruce, *Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 & 1773* (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable and Co. and Manners and Miller, London: T. N. Longman and O. Rees, 1804, 2nd ed.): t. 2, b. 2, ch. VI, 407–8.

*Another variant is the one given by the Anglican cleric Samuel Gobat (1834) who heard it from an old Falasha woman:*

"Solomon had a son by the queen of Sheba, named Menilac, (...), in leaving the holy city he took the precaution not to go without some memento of the religion of his fathers, and made choice of the ark of the covenant. (...) He had the hardihood to prosecute his journey on the Sabbath, and coming to a river on that holy day, he, together with a part of his company, passed over, bearing the sacred memorial with them. From that time he became Christian, as well as all who crossed the stream with him. The Falashas are those who remain firm in the faith of Moses, and refused to pass the river on the Sabbath. The ark has since been lodged in the city of Axum, but is inaccessible for Christians; and only a few Falashas are able to approach it. When an uncommonly learned or pious Falasha draws near that part of the wall where the ark rests, it immediately divided itself to the right and left, and thus continues till the devotee has entered in, completed his adorations, and returned."

Samuel Gobat, *Journal of a Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia* (New York: M. W. Dodd, 1850), 331.

from the kingdom of Israel. However, today, Ethiopian Jews in Israel reject any connection to this tradition and deny any relation with King Solomon. They present themselves as descendants of the Jews who followed the Biblical prophet Jeremiah to Egypt, or as the descendants of the lost tribe of Dan. These are new traditions directly inspired by the Bible. They are recounting that they reached Ethiopia independently from Mənəlik. These new developments show an effort to insert their history into the general history of Jews in the world rather than being a part of the collective Ethiopian history.

**3. The political decline of Aksum in the 10th century surrounded by legends all linked to an unknown historical queen**

**3.1. *Historical evidence of a non-Christian queen of the 10th century***

It is said that, in the 10th century, a queen ruined the Aksumite kingdom. From a historical point of view, the revolt is indisputable, as is the role of a
non-Christian, non-Aksumite queen. The Arabic writer, Ibn Hawkal, who lived in the latter half of the 10th century, testifies that a queen had reigned over the vast kingdom of the Habaša and some neighbouring territories for about 30 years. Besides, the *History of the Patriarchs of the Egyptian Church* also states that in the same period, the “Queen of the Bani al-Hamwiya” imprisoned many Ethiopians, burned towns, destroyed churches and destroyed Aksum.

On the other hand, Christian oral traditions, mainly written and relayed during the 18th century in the Short Chronicles, are contradictory and not contemporary with the event. In these versions, the queen is named in a negative way as Yodit/Gudit (deviant), Ḫsatu (fire) or Ga'ewa. She is described, depending on the traditions, with both positive and negative characteristics. In some, she was a beautiful woman of the royal family (Masobä Wärq), much like the Queen of Sheba, while in others she was a prostitute (Gudit, Ḫsatu, Ga'ewa) who killed the Ethiopian king, captured the throne, and acted as a cruel ruler destroying Aksum, persecuting the priests, and closing the churches.

However, in spite of the different names and variations in the story, there can be no doubt that a strong female ruler rose to power in Ethiopia, ended Aksumite rule and made way for the Zagwē dynasty.

### 3.2. *The Christian traditions*

One version developed probably by the Christian communities relates the story of Queen “Gudit” destroying the churches of Aksum, forcing the people to displace the Ark of the Covenant (or *tabot*) to the south, to the monastery of Däbrä Søyon, on an island in Lake Zway. The queen is said to have killed all members of the royal house who were in Däbrä Damo at the time, except for Del Na’ad, the son of the last king, who fled to the Şäwa region.

Another tradition mentioned in the hagiography of Iyasus Mo’a dated from the 17th century, deals with Masobä Warq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king, Del Na’ad. Against her father’s will, she married a high military official, Mära Täklä Haymanot, from Lasta. Together, they took over the throne and founded the so-called Zagwē dynasty, considered, in later tradition, to be “usurpers.” Another version only presented by James Bruce at the end of the 18th century, described a violent “Jewish” queen campaigning against the Christians (see captions below). Described as the antithesis of Makədda, she was not only a virgin (in some stories, she is presented as a prostitute), but she wanted also to destroy the Ark of the Covenant.

### 3.3. *The episode of “Gudit” in the Betä Isra’el tradition*

It is significant that the Betä Isra’el also accepted the “Gudit episode” calling the queen Yodit/Yudit and acknowledging her in recent times as one of their ancestors. A late version from 1973 offers a complete synthesis of all the
Source 7. The Zag'we Kings as usurpers in the colophon of the Kɔbrä Nagašt

*All these traditions are in accordance with one of the sentences of the colophon of the 14th century Kɔbrä Nagašt which states that: "(...) thus the kingdom passed to another people, who were not of the tribe of Israel."*

Wallis Budge, E. A., *The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelek (Kɔbrä Nagašt)* (op. cit).

elements of myth and history known among the Betä Æsra'el. It combines ideas from a variety of sources such as the Kɔbrä Nägäšt or the Bible. It offers a number of possible historical interpretations that cannot be corroborated by any historical evidence. Here, the revolt of an Agäw Queen 'Gudit' (or 'Yudit') is reinterpreted as a Jewish revolt.

Source 8. The history of Queen Judith according to James Bruce

"Gideon and Judith were then king and queen of the Jews, and their daughter Judith (whom, in Amhara, they call Esther, and sometimes Saat, i.e. fire) was a woman of great beauty, and talents for intrigue; she had been married to the governor of a small district called Bugna, in the neighbourhood of Lasta, both of which countries were likewise much infected with Judaism. Judith had made so strong a party that she resolved to attempt the subversion of the Christian religion, and, with it, the succession in the line of Solomon. (...) Accordingly, she surprised the rock Damo, and slew all the princes there, to the number, it is said, of about 400. (...) Judith took possession of the throne, in defiance of the law of the queen of Saba, by this, the first interruption of the succession in the line of Solomon; and, (...), from the violent means she had used to acquire the crown, she not only enjoyed it herself, during a long reign of forty years, but transmitted it also to five of her posterity, all of them barbarous names, originating probably in Lasta. (...) I have followed the histories and traditions which are thought the most authentic in the country, the subject of which they treat, and where I found them; and though they may differ from other accounts given by European authors, this does not influence me."

Bruce, James, *Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 & 1773* (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable and Co. and Manners and Miller, London: T. N. Longman and O. Rees, 1804, 2nd ed.), t. 2, b. 4, 451–54.

## 4. Akko Manoyye, the last ancestral Queen of the Guji Oromo

The Guji people are members of the larger Oromo group in Ethiopia and occupy the southern highland and lowland semi-arid areas. Like other Oromo groups, they have an elaborate system of customary governance based on generation, known as *gadaa*. Guji women play an important role both in the household and in their society. However, their minor status is perpetuated through various myths. A popular story about the legendary queen Akko Manoye, that used to rule the people, is commonly told among different branches of the Oromo, such as the Guji, the Borana group and other settled
agriculturalists. It legitimises the concentration of power in the hands of men, as women are ineffective in ruling.

Source 9. The history of Queen Akko Manoyye and the dynastic rule of succession

"Akko Manoyye was one of the queens that ruled the Guji. During her rule, every task, including caring for children, was performed by husbands, and every decision was made by women. One day she ordered her people to bring a bag full of fleas, an order they were unable to carry out. (...) (The queen) made another difficult directive, which was building a house on the air. (...) (A) poor man (...) told (the men) to dig a deep hole, cover it with animal skin, and stand a seat on it for her. When she sat on the chair, she went down the hole, during which she uttered a message to women: 'sobi sobadhuu buli,' which means 'pretend to respect male authority.' Following her death, according to the story, a man called Durii Dulloo became the first king."

Dejene N. Debsu, "Gender and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: An Ethnographic Analysis of Guji-Oromo Women's Customary Rights," *African Study Monographs* 30, no. 1 (2009): 22–23.

However, Guji women still revere their legendary queens and use them for their empowerment in rituals and prayers. For example, when drought occurs, whereas men pray directly to *Waqa*, the Oromo Supreme God, women gather and chant to Oyoyo Garoyye, Akko Manoyye (their legendary queens) and, through them, ask their *Waqa* for rains. It is also said that they pray under Mokkonnisa, a specific tree under which Akko Manoyye was buried.

In the Sidaama communities, Queen Furra is described in the same narrative schemes. Therefore, these traditions are used in order to avoid women's pretention to political empowerment.

## Conclusion

These traditions are mythical narratives of the groups' identities, and all arose around great women showing that all Ethiopians traced their origins back to an ancestral mother, usually a queen. Therefore, "history" appears to have been generally written by men, who used myths to justify the position of women in the societies and their ineffectiveness in ruling. However, it can also be understood the other way round as all great male dynasties came from a strong woman (like Makədda) who, through her marriage and children, brought forth the rightful king.

## References and further readings

Abbink, Jon. 1990. "The Enigma of Betä Isra'el Ethnogenesis. An Anthro-Historical Study." *Cahiers d'études africaines*, no. 120: 397–449. https://doi.org/10.3406/cea.1990.1592.
Andersen, Knud Tage. 2000. "The Queen of the Habasha in Ethiopian History, Tradition and Chronology." *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies* 63, no. 1: 31–63. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1559587.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. "African Rewritings of the Jewish and Islamic Solomonic Tradition: The Triumph of the Queen of Sheba in the Ethiopian Fourteenth Century Text *Kebrä Nägäst.*" In *Sacred Tropes: Tanakh, New Testament, and Qur'an as Litterary works*, edited by Roberta Sabbath, 441–59. Boston, Leiden: Brill. https://dokumen.pub/sacred-tropes-tanakh-new-testament-and-quran-as-literature-and-culture-9004177523-9789004177529.html.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2010. "From Sheba They Come: Medieval Ethiopian Myth, U.S. Newspapers, and American Narrative." *Callaloo: A Journal of African Diaspora Arts and Letters* 33, no. 1: 239–57. https://doi.org/10.1353/cal.o.0607.

Caputi, Jane. 1987. *The Age of Sex Crime*. Madison: Popular Press.

Dejene Negassa Debsu. 2009. "Gender and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: An Ethno-graphic Analysis of Guji-Oromo Women's Customary Rights." *African Study Monographs* 30, no. 1: 15–36. https://jambo.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_norm al/abstracts/pdf/30-1/DEBSU.pdf [archive].

Finneran, Niall. 2013. "Lucy to Lalibela: Heritage and Identity in Ethiopia in the Twenty-First Century." *International Journal of Heritage Studies* 19, no. 1: 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2011.633540.

Herman, Margaux. 2015. "(Re)writing the History of Goggam in Ancient and Mediaeval Times: The Prism of the Nineteenth-Century Regional Historiography." In *Essays in Ethiopian Manuscript Studies Proceedings of the International Conference Manuscripts and Texts, Languages and Contexts: the Transmission of Knowledge in the Horn of Africa*. Hamburg, 17–19 July 2014, edited by Alessandro Bausi, Alessandro Gori and Denis Nosnitsin, 119–42. Aethiopica. Supplements. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc771h8.14.

Herman, Margaux. 2020. "Towards a History of Women in Medieval Ethiopia." In *A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritra*, edited by Samantha Kelly, 365–94. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004419582_014. https://hal.science/hal-03934998/.

Kaplan, Steven. 2006. "Genealogies and Gene-Ideologies: The Legitimacy of the Betä Əsra'el (Falasha)." *Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture* 12, no. 4: 447–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630600823668.

Kessler, David F. 1982. *The Falashas. The Forgotten Jews of Ethiopia*. London: George Allen & Unwin. https://books.google.com.et/books?id=oiPAdzEZrLYC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Kolmodin, Johannes Axel. 1915. *Traditions de Tsazzega et Hazzega, II: Traduction Française*. Uppsala: Archives d'études Orientales 5, no. 2. (Text in Amharic and Tigriñña translated in French)

Mondon-Vidailhet, Casimir. 1904. "Une tradition éthiopienne." *Revue sémitique d'épigraphie et d'histoire ancienne* 12: 259–68.

Sergew Hable Selassie. 1972. "The Problem of Gudit." *Journal of Ethiopian Studies* 10, no. 1: 113–24.
Part 3

Women and Religion
<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>
# Women and Christianity

"And they pleasantly entertained themselves with
spiritual discourses."

Raineri Osvaldo (1999, 212).

The Ethiopian Orthodox Täwahədo\* Church (EOTC) is the oldest and largest Christian denomination\* in Ethiopia. The research into its history, theology, manuscripts, and art, to mention only some, is immense, but very little has been done on gendering research\* or on women's history in it. This chapter explores the discourse found in the EOTC documentation, not to validate his historical value, but to examine the perception of women within the EOTC tradition and the Ethiopian Christian society.

## 1. The impact of women on the Ethiopian Church

Research on the EOTC needs an exploratory reading of primary sources such as the hagiographic literature. The *Mäshafä Sənkəssar\*** contains few lives of female saints, but unedited manuscripts, pictorial art and other sources like royal chronicles have provided new findings. But not only the written testimonies count; pictorial representations must also be included. The visible female presence in art is crucial for the Ethiopian society's perception of women and two women especially are often displayed, the Queen of Sheba and Mary.

### 1.1. *Biblical women and historical saints*

For the EOTC, some biblical figures are of Ethiopian origin, like the Queen of Sheba (Makədda or nəgəštä Azeb). The Ethiopian discourse recounts that back from her visit to King Solomon of Israel (1 Kings 10:1-13; 2 Chronicles 9:1-12; Matthew 12:42; Luke 11:32), she brought monotheistic belief to Ethiopia, first in the form of Judaism and later, and thus indirectly, Christianity. She bore Mənilək I and became the ancestress of the Solomonic dynasty. The *Kəbrä Nägäšt\*** (The Glory of the Kings) describes in detail her visit and Mənilək's bringing of the Ark of the Covenant to Aksum. The monarchy ended in 1974 with the overthrow of Emperor Haylä Śəllase I, but the Queen of Sheba remains a figure of religious and cultural identification, trumping Mənilək I in
<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2. Michael Gervers, *Mika'el-Gabrə'el Church, Säqota, Wällo*.</figcaption></figure>

the national memorialisation. The Blessed Virgin Mary (Maryam), although not Ethiopian, was a refugee with her family in Ethiopia according to some Ethiopian compositions (*Nägärä Maryam*). In artistic representations Mary is omnipresent, mainly depicted as an Ethiopian woman. She is the most venerated saint in Ethiopia and the literature for her (like *Mälkə'a Maryam*) and about her (like *Tä'ammərä Maryam*) is immense.

## 1.2. Originators of Church feasts

According to the self-conception of the EOTC, women not only brought religion to Ethiopia, like the Queen of Sheba, and the religion of Solomon, they also were the reason for church feasts due to their lives or deeds. The 33 Feasts of Mary (42 at the time of King Zär'a Yaʻaqob during the 15th century) celebrate all the stages of Mary's life, even beyond death, and her miracles. One of the most significant festivals of the EOTC, Mäsqäl*, the Feast of the Cross is attributed to Queen Helena (Æleni) of Constantinople (3rd-4th century). The Church Fathers* like Ambrosius of Milano, chronicle her trip to Jerusalem, where she found the grave of Jesus with the remains of the True Cross. She immediately lit a torch to be seen. She erected the church above the grave in Jerusalem (Church of the Holy Sepulchre, also called Church of the Resurrection).
### 1.3. Historical saints

Saints have been crucial for the development of the EOTC. Female saints with biographical evidence can be roughly divided into two categories: the queens and the nuns. They have fulfilled at least one of the four points to become a saint: 1. Miracles and/or good deeds; 2. Self-sacrifice; 3. Teaching, writing and missionizing; 4. Asceticism.

#### 1.3.1. Queens

Several queens are canonized as Saints by the EOTC, like *Atege* Mäsqäl Købra (late 12th-early 13th century). She was the co-founder of the famous rock-hewn churches in Lalibäla, especially Abba Libanos which was erected according to her specifications. Two miracles are attributed to her. She implemented a certain indigenization* of the Ethiopia church hierarchy through the fall of metropolitan Mikaʻel II and the consecration of her brother Ḥayrun as bishop. This was revolutionary as the Coptic metropolitan was the highest rank of the Ethiopian Church until 1951. In Mädäbay Tabor, Tøgre, there is a *tabot* with her face carved on it.

#### 1.3.2. Nuns and abbey founders

Some women devote their life to God and take the monastic vow. They live alone as anchoresses* or as hermits (*baḥtawiyan*) to follow the ideal of eremitic asceticism. Nuns can also live together in a convent (cenobitic*). Ethiopian sources name Adna, the mother of *abunä* Arägawi (5th-6th century) as the one who established the first nunnery.

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3. Stanilas Chojnacki, *Female saints* by Brancaleon</figcaption></figure>
Zena Maryam (14th century) of Ænfraz lived for 25 years as a hermit in a cave (Wašša Ændrøyas), later in a monastery at Lake Tana. She established a strict female asceticism through minimal nourishment (herbs, *koso*?). She had several disciples, like Säbälä Maryam. She argued about female physicality like menstruation and their consequences for liturgical worship. This discussion about biology was elementary for the development of the Ethiopian (male) perception of female saints. All aspects of the female body should be negated.

Krøstos Śämra (14th/15th century) abandoned her husband and her ten children following a vow and became a nun in Däbrä Libanos of Šäwa. Later she founded a convent on the island of Gwangut on Lake Tana and became the head of the monastery. She continued with her ascetic life and practised self-mortification like praying in a deep hole for days or standing for three years in the lake. She had many visions and preached about peace. Her image as a repenting sinner on the one side and on the other as a saviour of repenting souls from hell is unique in the EOTC. Her tomb became a place of pilgrimage.

Fæqärtä Krøstos (17th century) was a martyr*. She was involved in a theological controversy between the metropolitan *abunä Marqos* and King Fasilädäs. Some traditions said she was part of the anti-Catholic movement. She was tortured and killed.

Source 10. Prophecy made to the parents of Wälättä Pětros

*Prophecy made to the parents of Wälättä Pětros*, “To you will be born a wonderful daughter, who will shine like the sun in all quarters of the world. And she will be a guide for the blind-hearted; earthly kings and metropolitans will confess to her; many people from the four corners of the world will gather by her, and they will constitute a single community of God’s saints.”

*Acta sanctae Wälättä Pětros*, 6.

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4. Walättä Pětros discusses with Emperor Susønyos</figcaption></figure>
Saint Wälättä Pětros (b. 1594, d. 1644) struggled against the installation of Catholicism under emperor Susønyos. She left her husband and started to live with other nuns, like Ēhōtä Krōstos, on Lake Tana. In 1624, she sought asylum in Aksum but due to her rebellion against the Catholic creed, she was brought back to court. There, she discussed with the Jesuits. Pedro Paez reported about her firmness. After the reinstatement of the Orthodoxy under King Fasilädäs, she travelled around to visit famous teachers, taught the right belief to her multiple disciples and founded seven monasteries. As Mother Superior, she defined nunnery rules and became archdeaconess. Her foundations were all fully self-sufficient. Her gädl* was written soon after her death and is said to be the earliest known full biography of an African woman. Women make pilgrimages to her grave in Rema and gather on the 16th of each month on the day of her remembrance at alternating homes. These gatherings in the name of a saint (mahbär*) enabled women to discuss theological issues.

<table><caption>Table 1. Categories for visibility and collective memorialisation of women (selection by V. Böll)</caption><thead><tr><td>Name of Saint</td><td>Reason for Visiblity/ Memorialisation</td><td>Historical evidence</td><td>Proven existence</td><td>Primary sources</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Queen of Sheba</td><td>Ancestress of the Solomonic dynasty; religious significance</td><td>Relations to the holy land</td><td>No</td><td>Bible, Kōbrä Nāgäšt, Jewish sources, Quran</td></tr><tr><td>Ätege Mäsqäl Kəbra</td><td>Church builder, strengthening of the independence of the EOTC</td><td>Abba Libanos in Lalibäla</td><td>Yes</td><td>Gädl [not edited]</td></tr><tr><td>Zena Maryam</td><td>Establishment of female asceticism; theological debates about biology (menstruation)</td><td>Monastery; disciples</td><td>Yes</td><td>Gädl; Gädl of her disciple Sābälä Maryam [not edited].</td></tr><tr><td>Krōstos Śämrä</td><td>Establishment of self-mortification; visionary; repenting sinner and savior</td><td>Monastery, tombs</td><td>Yes</td><td>Gädl, chronicle, records of the Jesuits</td></tr><tr><td>Wälättä Pětros</td><td>Theologian, defender of the orthodoxy, abbey foundress, archdeaconess, female religious leadership</td><td>Seven monasteries, monastic rules, theological debates, grave at Rema</td><td>Yes</td><td>Gädl, chronicle, records of the Jesuits</td></tr></tbody></table>
## 2. Further contributions of orthodox women

### 2.1. *Female theologians and their significance for the EOTC*

Female theologians are accepted in the EOTC. They authored theological writings and religious poetry. Over the centuries women intervened in theological disputes. Two nuns were crucial in the resistance against missionaries; significantly, Wälättä Petros became famous and is honoured as “the defender” of the Orthodox belief. Other theologians can be mentioned here.

Ätege Äleni (b. ca. 1431, d. ca. 1522), her royal name was Admas Mogäsa, wrote several letters to Portugal to establish a Christian Ethiopian-European network against the neighbouring sultanates. Her letter to King Manuel I of Portugal (1494–1525) is the oldest Ethiopian diplomatic document to Europe. Mateus, an Armenian living in Ethiopia, travelled on her behalf with a relic of the cross to prove the Christian belief of Ethiopia (see Source 11). Äleni is the author of two compositions, the *Hoħtä Børhan*\* and the ‘*Anzira sõbhat*\*, beautiful hymns for Mary. She promoted the translation of the Arabic scriptures and the reproduction of the theological manuscripts. Äleni founded the famous monastery Märțulä Maryam in eastern Goğğam and linked it to the Ewostateans\* doctrine. She was buried there.

*Source 11. Diplomatic gifts send by queen Äleni to John, King of Portugal*

> “With our ambassador, Matthew, we are sending you a cross, made from the same wood on which our Lord was sacrificed in Jerusalem and of which a portion was sent to us. We made out of it two crosses, one we retained for ourselves, the other we have sent to you. It is of a black colour and has a silver ring for hanging.”

Sergew Hable-Selassie, “The Ge‘ez letter of Queen Eleni and Libne Dingil to John, King of Portugal,” in *IV Congresso internazionale di studi etiopici, (Roma, 2–4 aprile 1972)*, edited by Thomas Leiper Kane (Roma: Accademia nazionale dei Lincei, 1974), 547–66.

Ätege Säblä Wängel (b. ca. 1500, d. 30 November 1567) accompanied the Portuguese army on their way southwards to fight against the troops of Ahmad b. Ibrāhīm al Gāzī. She ensured the existence of the Christian kingdom. While the Portuguese stayed, she argued with them about the right creed. The Portuguese, impressed by her erudition, report in detail about her mighty influence on the EOTC.

Saint Ätege Wäld Śä‘ala (Śøltan Mogäsa, d. ca. 1661) taught her children the Orthodox faith, against the order of her husband, Emperor Susanyos, who had converted to the Catholic creed due to the Jesuit missionaries. The Jesuit sources repeatedly mention her theological impact. Her theological interest can also be seen in the comprehensive library she built in the Qoma Fasilädäs monastery, founded by her in 1630. Through her collection of theological works, like *Mäzgäbä Haymanot*\*, she secured the rich stock of Ethiopian theological books.
Remarkably interesting is also the life of Ləya (15th century). She lived in a place called Qʷətərəh and was known as a pious woman. Saint Iyasu (gädl) explicitly went to her for learning and serving.

Source 12. Teachings of Emmahoy Gälanäš Haddis

"The entrance of women to the chantry has no shame, if the scholars examine it, because chanting is from the beginning a woman's duty."

Emmahoy Gälanäš Haddis.

Emmahoy Gälanäš Haddis (b. 1896, d. 19 July 1986) was a well-known master of qəne* and a traditional church scholar. She studied theology with her father, qesä gäbäz Haddis Kidan, and became a specialist in andəmta*. She taught qəne to about 1,750 students. Her compositions are often cited by the EOTC. She emphasised the importance of singing, and women participating as female choirs in the liturgy on feasts. Expressing spirituality through singing and moving was introduced by the first religious songstress, Mary (Miryam) the sister of Moses (Exodus 15:20-21).

Atege Taytu Bətul (Bərhan Zä'ityopya, b. ca. 1853, d. 11 February 1918), grew up in Däbrä Mäwi monastery, and studied theology. She could read and write Amharic and gä'ez and composed religious poetry in both languages. She founded Anțoțo Maryam among other churches.

## 2.2. Benefactresses

Women owned their own land and donated it to the EOTC, often founding churches or monasteries. Women appear very often in manuscripts as donors of furnishings, liturgical items like crosses and religious paintings and as financiers of precious illuminated manuscripts.

A good example of the irreplaceable contribution of female donors to the maintenance of the EOTC is Atege Bərhan Mogäsa, christened Wälättä Giyorgis and known as Məntəwwab, (co-reign 1731–69, d. 1773). With her deep theological knowledge, she took part in the discussions about the Trinity. Following the Qəbat* doctrine, she established it as the official dogma of the court. She was a significant patron of cultural goods and she equipped libraries with precious manuscripts, like the 57 books she donated to Narga Šəllase. She ordered the composition of the famous book Haymanotä Abäw*. By her command, not only her palace and church at Qʷəsqʷam were erected, but also churches like Däbrä Sähay and Narga Šəllase. She had the church murals painted and icons manufactured according to her ideas, and even images of her were engraved in the grand processional crosses for liturgy. Interestingly, the lists of the ministers and of the keepers of the sanctuary in Narga Šəllase names several women, like liqtä dənagəl Wälättä Qəddusan, wäyzäro* Šahlä Šəllase or even Atege* Bərhan Mogäsa herself.
Source 13. The history of the construction of the church Narga Śellase by Ētege Məntəwwab

"Then the queen called carpenters and masons and gave them much gold and silver and exquisite food and told them: "Build a church for me, in honour of the Holy Trinity; Father, Son and Holy Ghost!" Then those carpenters and masons told her: "Be it as you said, Oh queen (who sits) on the throne of David, be it as you command, our lady of all women, be it as you wish, beloved by men and angels."

Osvaldo Raineri, "The Story of Narga (Zena Narga)," in *Churches of Ethiopia: the Monastery of Narga Sellase*, edited by M. di Salvo, S. Chojnacki, O. Raineri (Milano: Skira, 1999), 212.

<table><caption>Table 2. Contributions of Christian Women (selection by V. Böll)</caption><thead><tr><td>Name</td><td>Category</td><td>Details</td><td>Impacts</td><td>Relevance</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Ētege Ēleni</td><td>Theologian; founder; diplomat</td><td>Translation of manuscripts (Arabic) and own scriptures; Ewostateans doctrine</td><td>Correspondence with Europe, envoy with relic; Discussion about dogmatism</td><td>Female author and theologian; founder of Märülä Maryam</td></tr><tr><td>İmmahoy Gălanăs Haddis</td><td>Theologian; scholar</td><td>qpne, theology; exegetical works (andāmta)</td><td>Teacher of 1,750 students</td><td>Female traditional church scholar and master of qpne</td></tr><tr><td>Ētege Børhan Mogäsa</td><td>Theologian; Benefactress; founder; architect</td><td>Own architecture and art; Qbat doctrine</td><td>Library, transfer of wisdom, establishment of female offices</td><td>Founder of Narga Śollase and others; manuscripts; pictorial art</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Conclusion

Ethiopian women have been crucial for the EOTC throughout the 1,700 years of its existence. Women appeared as ancestresses, saints, martyrs, nuns, theologians, scholars and authors, abbey founders, church builders and benefactresses. Important manuscripts have been saved through their investments and generosity. International exchange was established, especially with Europe. The national memory of these powerful women already exists but awaits the transfer into historiography. The sources can be re-read with the methods of gender studies or women's history and a new church history can be written.

## References and further readings

Belcher, Wendy, and Michael Kleiner. 2015. *The Life and Struggles of Our Mother Walatta Petros: A Translation of a Seventeenth-Century African Biography of an African Woman*. Princeton: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc77932.
Böll, Verena. 2004. "Holy Women in Ethiopia." In *Saints, Biographies and History in Africa*, edited by Bertrand Hirsch and Manfred Kropp, 31–46. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.

Chernetsov, Sevir B. 2001. "Woman and Authority on Pages of Ethiopian Christian Medieval Literature." *Christjanskij Vostok* 3, no. 9: 354–73.

Gidena Mesfin. 2010. *Makédda and Solomon in the Eye of Ethiopian Traditional Accounts: A Developmental Analysis*. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag.

Herman, Margaux. 2020. "Towards a History of Women in Medieval Ethiopia." In *A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritra*, edited by Samantha Kelly, 365–94. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004419582_014. https://hal.science/hal-03934998/.

Kefyalew Merahi. 1998. *The Spiritual and Social Life of Christian Women*. Addis Ababa: Verf.

Marcus, Cressida. 2001. "The Production of Patriotic Spirituality: Ethiopian Orthodox Women's Experience of War and Social Crisis." *Northeast African Studies* 8, no. 3: 179–208. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41931275.

Mersha Alehegne. 2015. "Regularity and Uniformity in the Ethiopian Hagiographical Tradition: A Particular Focus on Narrating the Childhood of Saints." *Aethiopica* 18: 145–62. https://doi.org/10.15460/aethiopica.18.1.928.

Nosnitsin, Denis, ed. 2015. *Veneration of Saints in Christian Ethiopia, Proceedings of the International Workshop Saints in Christian Ethiopia: Literary Sources and Veneration, Hamburg, April 28–29, 2012*. Aethiopica. Supplements 3. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.

Raineri, Osvaldo. 1999. "The Story of Narga (Zena Narga)." In *Churches of Ethiopia: the Monastery of Narga Šellase*, edited by M. di Salvo, S. Chojnacki, O. Raineri, 211–19. Milano: Skira. https://archive.org/details/churchesofethiopoooodisa.

Selamawit Mecca. 2006. "Hagiographies of Ethiopian Female Saints: With Special Reference to 'Gädlä Krestos Sämra' and 'Gädlä Feqertä Krestos.'" *Journal of African Cultural Studies* 18, no. 2: 153–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/13696810601104692.

Uhlig, Siegbert, Alessandro Bausi, et al. 2003–2014. *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*. 5 vol. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.

Wright, Marta Camilla. 2002. "At The Limits of Sexuality: The Femininity of Ethiopian Orthodox Nuns." *Journal of Ethiopian Studies* 35, no. 1 (Special Issue on Gender and Christianity): 27–42.
<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>
Chapter 4

# Islam and Gender in Ethiopia

"Men (are) Muslims and women pagans."

Trimingham, J. Spencer.
*Islam in Ethiopia*. (Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1952).

Women have for long been neglected in social and historical. Works on Islam and gender in sub-Saharan Africa predominantly build on disempowerment narratives of the insignificant role of women as stipulated in the “peripheral possession” or “protest cults.” According to the recent article published in 2021 by Meron Zeleke, there are a number of Ethiopian women from different historical epochs known for their military prowess; their diplomatic skills, renowned as religious figures and more. Compared to other parts of the African continent, the role and position of women in Islam in Ethiopia is a topic that is understated with the exception of a few works addressing the formation of Muslim regional cults centering on a female figure. The topic of religious revivalism in post-1991 Ethiopia have addressed gender as a variable perspective of inquiry. This chapter gives a brief overview of women and Islam in Ethiopia. By going beyond mere focus on historical narratives, it draws on prior studies conducted by the authors.

**1. Women and Islam in Ethiopia**

**1.1. How to study the history of Sufi women**

Muslim women played particularly significant roles at interreligious shrines and in Sufi* orders, in which, at least from the late 19th century onwards, we find remarkable traces of pious and holy women. Nevertheless, it remains an undeniable fact that if the history of Ethiopian women has often been overlooked, studies on Muslim women are even scarcer. Both colonial and Arabic sources have mostly been written through a predominantly masculine gaze that overshadows the agency of women: for example, even though there is an abundance of Arabic literature on Sufism in sub-Saharan Africa, women only figure in it sporadically. Unlike their male counterparts, the life histories of Sufi women are rarely reported in hagiographies; in fact, it is difficult to even
find their names, because they are not included in the genealogies of Islamic brotherhoods, and even where they do appear, their status as wives, mothers, or daughters of a *shaykh* is often the only form of identification available.

**1.2. Some prominent Muslim women in ancient and medieval history**

Finding Muslim women in the long history of Ethiopia is akin to searching in the dark. Although there may be traces of them crystallized in sites of memory, their stories have mainly been handed down through social memory, and only rarely in written literature. Despite this, a few prominent personalities did attain popularity and visibility in the country. A number of pious women became popular icons in Ethiopia in the earliest days of Islam because they were among the first to become Muslims.

The best-known example of this is a slave, Umm Ayman (Barakah, Rady Allāhu ‘Anhā), the Prophet’s Abyssinian nurse, whom he looked to as his second mother. Umm Ḥabība Bint Abī Sufyān and Umm Salmā Bint Abī Umayya fled with the first Muslims who took part in the migration to Abyssinia, and are considered among the first of the Prophet’s disciples. After the deaths of their husbands, they married the Prophet and returned to Arabia, where they told of the wonders of Aksum. They are viewed among Jabarti communities as role models for Ethiopian women.

Another personality from a few centuries later who is remembered in the history of Ethiopia is Batī Del Wämbära, daughter of the *amī*\* of Zäyla, Maḥfuz and wife of *imām*\* Aḥmad ibn Ibrahīm al-Gāzī. Powerful and ready to die for her faith, she succeeded in negotiating the release of Muslims leaders who had been captured by Christians in Harar. She was a symbol of success in the “holy war.”

Source 14. Batī Del Wämbära on military campaign

> “When the army reached Kub, they said to the Imām: ‘We will not accompany you to Abyssinia unless your wife Dəl Wämbära returns to the country of the Muslims. She shall not come with us to the country of the infidels. Not one of the Imāms ever took his wife with him [on campaign], only you.’ Ignoring the protests of Ahmād’s soldiers, Dəl Wämbära imperiously replied: ‘I will not go back’. So her husband took her as far as Ifat in the land of the infidels.”

Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Qādir ‘Arabfaqīh, *Futūh al-Habaša: The Conquest of Abyssinia, by ‘Arab Faqīh*, translated by Paul Lester Stenhouse, annotation by Richard Pankhurst (Hollywood, CA: Tsehai Publishers, 2009), 60.

**1.3. Holy women and scholars (1850–1930)**

In Harar, where the role of women in teaching and handing down Islamic learning is well-known and recognised, Muna Abubaker I has shed light
on the forgotten figure of a Harari scholar, Ay Amatullāh (1851–1893), the daughter of the *qāḍī* of Harar, ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Muḥammad, and Umma Ḥalima. She was a zāhid, a pious woman, who was not interested in worldly goods, and had been given the title of *kabīr*, which was normally granted to learned men. Ay Amatullāh studied with the same teacher Ibrahim as her brothers, thereby receiving a high level of education, and she became one of the preeminent scholars of her time. She studied Arabic grammar, the Quran, the Hadith Exegesis, and Islamic law, and became a *faqīh*. Her brothers, who were *qāḍī*, would ask her for advice on religious issues, and to all intents and purposes she was a teacher of men and women alike. It was not common at the time for women to be highly educated. Education within the family network represented a privilege for women. It was only in the rare cases in which a member of their family was a *kabīr*, as with Ay Amatullāh, that higher education became available to them.

In Arsi, Sittī Momina (d. 1929) became popular for her spiritual practices and healing powers. Her shrine in Faraqasa became a place of worship for Muslims and Christian visitors from across the region, and was famous for being a place of religious co-existence, where pilgrims would join together to recite *dikr* that Sittī Momina had composed. Participation in these communal prayers is still considered to help solve all kinds of personal problems today.

### 1.4. *The city of Harar, a depository of women's legacy in Islam in the Horn of Africa*

While the women mentioned may be among the most popular Sufi women in Northeast Africa, they should not be viewed as exceptional cases; rather, they represent the best-known examples of a broader phenomenon. Other women acquired comparable status in the area, as proved by the female names given to a number of shrines and mosques in Harar, which is one of the most important centres of Islamic learning in the Horn of Africa. Today, their historical memories are preserved in oral literature, or crystallised at sites of memory such as holy shrines and mosques. Of the 356 shrines in Harar, at least 10% are dedicated to women, but there are also several mosques in the city (10 out of 82) that were built by pious women from the elites.

In the market square, among these material traces we found the Sittī ‘Alawiyya Mosque, or the Italian Mosque, which was built in Sittī ‘Alawiyya’s honour and inaugurated by her in person during her visit in 1937. While colonial archives are particularly reticent regarding her, Sittī ‘Alawiyya was a very important agent of the Islamic renewal of Ethiopia where several mosques where built in her honour during the Italian occupation. If her voice is silenced in the archives, several portraits are nonetheless available in private archives and travel literature.
<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>Figure 5. Silvia Bruzzi, Sitti ‘Alawiyya Mosque in Harar</figcaption></figure>

Sufi shaykh's way of dressing is very meaningful. In some cases, it can be considered as a further expression of the unity of believers, the principle of the tawhid. The use of both Christian and Islamic symbols expresses the interreligious dimension of Sufi practices that are widespread in Ethiopia.

In this image Sittī ‘Alawiyya appears in a very symbolic dress. It is a special ḫiġāb similar to that used by Catholic nuns, it brings to mind both Christian and Islamic symbols and values.

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>Figure 6. Sitti ‘Alawiyya’s portrait (unknown photographer)</figcaption></figure>

## 2. Muslim women beyond orthodoxy and heresy

The latest trend in the study of women and Islam in Ethiopia tilts to the discourse of debating religious orthodoxy, often framed in a gendered manner.

### 2.1. Women are considered guardians of pre-Islamic religious traditions

Classic works on Islam in Africa, such as Trimingham's, tended to replicate the discourse in which a section of the male Muslim community historically
sought to delegitimise the religious authority of women in Islamic societies.
There is a tendency for women to be presented as guardians of pre-Islamic
religious traditions, and they are often associated with certain practices that
are considered "unorthodox."

Source 15. Women and Islam

"Everywhere, men would be "more deeply involved in Islam whereas women's participation is marginal, for Islam provided women little scope for ritual participation."

Trimingham, John Spencer, *The Influence of Islam upon Africa*, (London: Longman, 1980), 46–47.

## 2.2. *Gendered responses of the Sufi shaykh facing criticism*

In the contemporary debates of religious orthodoxy whereby Islamic Sufi shrines often face accusations of being highly syncretised while hosting some unorthodox religious rituals and practices, the counter narratives of the Sufis are often framed in a gendered manner. For example, in Northeast Ethiopia, the zār-ḥadra* ritual was a target of criticism from legalists. A study conducted in Teru Sina shows informants mentioning the overarching gendering nature of spirituality and the dominant local view of the gendered claim of religious orthodoxy with the striking phrase *ya inatihin likak ya abathin atbik* (Leave your mother's way and hold onto to your father's), which emphasises the gendered nature of religious authenticity. Sufi leaders strategically omit some religious practices which are conspicuous in producing evidence for the Salafi accusations of *bidaa** while they redefine others. In their counter narratives, leaders of the shrine narrow the general criticism only as something addressed to the rituals practiced by women even though in the reality the critiques address other habits such as the very practice of the veneration of saints and the existing belief in the intercession of saints.

The gendering strategy of the Sufi *shaykhs* is framed in different ways. Firstly, they tend to refer to the culturally constructed gender norms as a justification for “women’s spiritual weakness” characterized by their accommodation of different unorthodox elements compared to their male counterparts who are described as custodians of the authentic religion. The other line of argument is framed in such a way that the discussions of religious authenticity are believed to be related directly to the degree of competence in religious knowledge, which women are believed to lack.

## Conclusion

The discussion of Islam and women in Ethiopia is a theme that is under-researched and overlooked as a theme of academic inquiry. Apart from the
few sketchy references to gender and Islam in Ethiopia, the latest trend in the academic discourses of Islam and women in the Ethiopian context refers to presenting the role of gender in debates of religious orthodoxy.

## References and further readings

Böll, Verena. 2004. "Holy Women in Ethiopia." In *Saints, Biographies and History in Africa*, edited by Bertrand Hirsch and Manfred Kropp, 31–46. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.

Bruzzi, Silvia and Meron Zeleke. 2015. "Contested Religious Authority: Sufi Women in Ethiopia and Eritrea." *Journal of Religion in Africa* 45, no. 1: 37–67. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700666-12340028

Bruzzi, Silvia. 2018. *Islam and Gender in Colonial Northeast Africa*. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004356160.

Desplat, Patrick and Terje Østebø, eds. 2013. *Muslim Ethiopia*. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US.

Gibb, Camilla C. T. 1999. "Baraka without Borders: Integrating Communities in the City of Saints." *Journal of Religion in Africa* 29, no. 1: 88–108. https://doi.org/10.2307/1581788.

Ishihara, Minako. 2010. "Beyond Authenticity: Diverse Images of Muslim Awliya in Ethiopia." *African Study Monographs* 41: 81–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.14989/108282.

Ishihara, Minako. 2013. "The Formation of Trans-Religious Pilgrimage Centers in Southeast Ethiopia: Sittī Mumina and the Faraqasa Connection." In *Muslims in Ethiopia: The Christian Legacy, Identity Politics, and Islamic Reformism*, edited by Patrick Desplat and Terje Østebø, 91–114. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US.

Ishihara, Minako. 2015. "The Role of Women in Tijāniya: From Three Oromo Religious Centers in Western Ethiopia." *Annales d'Éthiopie*, no. 30: 21–43. https://doi.org/10.3406/ethio.2015.1581.

Lewis, Ioan Myrddin. 1971. *Ecstatic Religion: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism*. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203241080.

Meron Zeleke. 2013. "The Gendering Discourse in the Debates of Religious Orthodoxy." In *Muslims in Ethiopia: The Christian Legacy, Identity Politics, and Islamic Reformism*, edited by Patrick Desplat and Terje Østebø, 115–37. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137322098_6.

Meron Zeleke. 2014. "‘We Are the Same but Different’: Accounts of Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Adherents of Islamic Sufi Saints." *Journal for the Study of Religion* 27, no. 2: 195–213. http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/jsr/v27n2/10.pdf.

Meron Zeleke. 2015. *Faith at the Crossroads: Religious Syncretism and Dispute Settlement in Northern Ethiopia*. Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz Verlag.

Meron Zeleke. 2021. "Women in Ethiopia." In *The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Women's History*, edited by Dorothy Hudgsons. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.541.
Meron Zeleke, and Silvia Bruzzi, eds. 2015. "Women, Gender and Religions in Ethiopia [Special issue]." *Annales d'Éthiopie*, n. 30. https://www.persee.fr/issue/ethio_0066-2127_2015_num_30_1?sectionId=ethio_0066-2127_2015_num_30_1_1580.

Moosa, Ebrahim. 2009. "Sub-Saharan Africa: Early 20th Century to Present." In *Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures*, vol. 1, edited by Suad Joseph et al., 286-93. Leiden: Brill. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1872-5309_ewic_EWICCOM_0040.

Muna Abubeker Ibrahim. 2007. "Gender Issues in the Diwan (Court) and Sijil (Register) of the City of Harar during the 19th Century." MA diss. Addis Ababa University. https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Dr_Muna_Abubeker.pdf [archive].

Muna Abubeker Ibrahim. 2017. "Text Edition and Translation of a 19th Century Court (Diwan) Manuscript of Harar." PhD diss. Addis Ababa University.
<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>
Women and “Traditional” Beliefs

*Kottu ya biftuu tya* [Come, oh my (female) light of dawn,]
*If duraan si qaba* [Let me be the first to catch you]
*Dawitti kyia* [Through my window,]
*Summakan ol qaba* [Let me find the cure for my ills.]

Ali Mohammed Birra, “Imimaam Jalaala, ‘The Tears of Love’,” track 4 on *Ethiopiques 28*, Great Oromo Music, Buda Musique, 2015, compact disc.

For two decades, a growing number of academic works (MA theses, PhD dissertations or articles) on the involvement of women in the so-called “traditional” beliefs or religions in Ethiopia has revealed their active contribution in this historically male-centred research field. However, the representations and roles of women exposed in these studies are generally limited to the ambivalent mother/earth-goddess clichés that still haunt the controversial category of “African traditional religions.” To overcome such academic limitations, one might first provide a critical review of the classical historical discourses on these blurry ‘indigenous religions’ and then explore the current trajectories of women’s involvement in one major Ethiopian case study—here the Oromo national religious tradition(s).

# 1. Classical historical discourses on women and “traditional” religions

## 1.1. *Controversial definitions of African traditional religion(s)*

In his contribution in the *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, Dirk Bustorf rightly argues that “traditional religions” in Ethiopia are today commonly defined as “local” or “ethnic” beliefs, both anterior to and separate from Christianity or Islam, through the following series of distinct features.

Nevertheless, Bustorf underlines that these distinctions present important shortcomings, embedded in the evolutionist prejudices regarding the implicit superiority of Christian and Muslim “monotheistic civilisations,” over the regional “traditional religions” that were historically considered “primitive tribal superstitions.”

Moreover, the classical distinctions between the so-called “universal” and “traditional” religions based on writing/oral transmission and the celebration of natural spirits/holy figures do not fairly reflect the socio-historical practices
<table><caption>Table 3. Commonly assumed distinctions between universal world religions and “traditional” beliefs</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Three monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam)</th><th>African “traditional” religions</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Other formal designations</td><td>Universal world or Abrahamic religions</td><td>Local, ethnic, non-Abrahamic or pre-Christian/Muslim folk-religions</td></tr><tr><td>Revelation and transmission means</td><td>Writing, holy books</td><td>Orality, tales, myths</td></tr><tr><td>Rituals and practices</td><td>Standardised celebrations of prophets and holy/missionary figures</td><td>Syncretistic practices, divination, worshipping natural spirits</td></tr></tbody></table>

By Osmond, based on Bustorf's entry “Religion(s): Traditional Religion” of the *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*.

Source 16. Definitions of “traditional religions”

“The technical term “traditional religions” is (...) unbalanced or limited in (its) conceptual perspective and may cause misunderstandings (...) because Islam and Christianity also follow “traditions” and obviously have local dimensions and forms. (...)

Christians and Muslims frequently despise followers of Ethiopian traditional religions as “unbelievers,” “idolaters” or “pagans” (...) (though) there are practically no features which can be exclusively found in traditional religions nor (...) in those world religions present in Ethiopia (respectively since the 4th and 7th centuries).”

Dirk Bustorf, “Religion(s): Traditional Religion,” in Siegbert Uhlig et al., *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, vol. 4 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz), 361–62.

of both Christianity and Islam. Indeed, the books of the Christian and Islamic revelations were both written and disseminated a long time after the deaths of Jesus and Mohammed (Qur’ān means “recitation” in Arabic, as reciting and memorising it has remained the basis of the Muslim religion, since the 7th century oral revelation by the Archangel Jibril/Gabriel); in addition, the famous Ethiopian Christian Orthodox saint Gäbrä Mänfas Qəddus and the Qur’anic holy figure of al-Khidr (“The Green Man”) are both presented as major saints and servants of God, with holy attributes rooted in the animal and natural world.

Last but not least, it might be scientifically doubtful to speculate about the strict anteriority and separation of ‘traditional religions’ from Christianity and Islam, due to the very ancient history of Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia—respectively from the 4th and 7th centuries. In other words, the commonly assumed non- and pre-Christian/Muslim linear history of these blurry “African traditional religions” might rather depict the plural and still understudied
national trajectories of Christian and Muslim reformations, accompanying the controversial political history of medieval and contemporary Ethiopia.

Source 17. Interactions between Christian, Muslims and Oromo religious ideas

"Striking similarities among the Christian, Muslim and Oromo religious ideas reflect the long interaction among the three communities."

Mohammed Hassen, *The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia 1300–1700* (Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015), 18.

## 1.2. “Traditional” religions in Ethiopian and Western Christian historiography

The classical Ethiopian and European Christian historiography generally associate the regional ‘autochthonous religions’ with the diverse Gamo, Hadiya, etc. and mostly Oromo populations living in the southern margins of the northern Habaša Christian kingdoms.

From the Orthodox monk *abba* Bahrey’s writings of the 16th century, to those of the French Catholic and German or Swedish Protestant missionaries and the Ethiopian (and notably Oromo) elites they trained during the 19th–20th centuries, these historical sources present three different—and sometimes radically opposed—descriptions of these ambivalent “primitive religions” of “foreign invaders” or “indigenous biblical descendants.”

<table><thead><tr><td>Habaša Christian Orthodox officials</td><td>European Catholic and Protestant missionaries</td><td>(Oromo) Evangelical ethno-national actors</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>The 16th century conquests of the “pagan [Oromo] invaders” as the main plague or curse that has ever threatened the Christian Habaša kingdom</td><td>“Primitive monotheism of the native descendants of ancient biblical prophets and the 19th–20th centuries evangelisation of the “(Oromo) Gentiles” nation”</td><td>Current Afrocentrist revivals of the “original monotheistic legacies” of “indigenous nationalities” in the Ethiopian Federation, like the Oromo Waaqefata movement</td></tr></tbody></table>

In 2014, Osmond demonstrated that these three classical Christian interpretations reveal the religious and political reformist dynamics that (re-)shape the divergent definitions of (Oromo) “traditional religions” throughout the medieval political history of Christian Habaša kingdoms and the contemporary emergence of the modern Ethiopian state—from the medieval “barbarian peril” or “national emancipation” incarnated by the 16th century (Oromo) “foreign invasions” or “autochthonous uprisings,” to the contemporary “national liberation movements” challenging the imperial regime, or the current institutional recognition of “ethno-linguistic nationalities” and “indigenous cultural (religious) heritages.”

Apart from their close connections with the history of Ethiopian national politics, these main Christian historical narratives on (Oromo) “traditional
religions” have provided limited knowledge of the involvement of women, often fenced into quite stereotyped representations of “witches” (involved in *Zar* spirit possession cults) or “malefic queens” (like the mythical ambivalent figure of *Yodit*, leading the sacking of the Axumite Kingdom at the end of the first Christian millennium).

### 1.3. “Traditional religions” in regional Muslim historiography

Beyond these contemporary Christian interpretations, the Muslim medieval historiography depicts an ambiguous and floating portrait of the (Oromo) “traditional” religions, across the blurry and rearticulated margins of the non-Arab “indigenous” Islamic Community in the Horn of Africa.

*Source 18. Ambiguous and floating portrait of the (Oromo) “traditional” religions*

> “For Braukämper (2002: 160), the (Hadiya and Oromo) *awâma* appear as the ‘partisans of traditional folk religion.’ The Oromo dictionary of the *Languages Academia of the Peoples of Ethiopia* gives for *awaama*: ‘*nama amantiin isaa Kiristaana yookin Islama* hinta’in (people whose religious belief is not Christianity or Islam)” (Akkaadaamii 1996: 28). (...) This use of the term *awaama* comes close to the standard Arabic-Islamic use of *al-‘awamm* (...) for a common or uneducated person (...) (Illiterate) people who are *al-awamm* are not pagans (...) (but claim) the right to live according to (their) own ‘*ada* (Oromo *aadaa*) (...) deriving from Islamic jurisprudence, under legitimate ‘customary law.’”

Thomas Zitelmann, “Oromo Religions, *Ayyaana* and the Possibility of a Sufi Legacy,” *Journal of Oromo Studies* vol. 12, no. 1–2 (2005): 91–92.

Thomas Zitelmann points out the probable proximity of central terms found in the Oromo religious tradition—like *ayyaanna* (spirit, divine presence/character) or *seera* (law)—with classical Sufi philosophies and Ibn al-‘Arabiy’s theory of knowledge (pointed out by Mohammed Hassen in 2015). His socio-historical linguistic approach suggests a rereading of the Oromo religion in terms of social statuses and official religious representations.

The work of Zitelmann tends to confirm the hypothesis formulated before him by several scholars (like Cerulli, Haberland, Braükamper or Mohammed Hassen) that the Oromo “traditional religion” has never been strictly outside Islam, but rather historically rooted in ancient regional Sufi Islamic legacies and “might have at one time been derived from an Islamic heterodoxy” (Zitelmann 2005, 94) through the Sunni orthodox reformations and changing alliances of agro-pastoral federations and trade centres, throughout the socioeconomic, political and religious history of the Horn of Africa—from *imam Aḥmäd’s jihad*, to the contemporary *Salafi* or *Wahhabi* puritan movements, as demonstrated by Osmond in 2014.
## 2. Women's current trajectories across Oromo religious tradition(s)

### 2.1. Women as “invisible” historical agents of Oromo national reformation

By ensuring state/religion separation, religious freedom and the official recognition of the diverse national cultural heritages, the current Ethiopian federal regime has encouraged the revival of “indigenous” religious traditions. For almost two decades, the institutional “renaissance” of the Oromo *Waaqeeffaata* religion has been largely centred on the annual *Irreeca* (or *Irrecha*) celebration held around the Horra Lake in Däbrä Zäyt/Bishooftuu. However, as in the classical Christian and Muslim historiography, the studies of this major Oromo religious celebration remain largely centred on men’s activities and often provide limited and very general information on women’s representation.

Source 19. Definition of Irreeca (or Irrecha)

> "The *Irrecha* celebration is related to the worship and thanksgiving practice of the ancient Cushitic people, the ancestors of Oromo, to their *Waqa* (God). (...) *Abba* Muda, the religious leader, (and) *Abba* Gada, the political leader (...), carry bunches of lovely grasses in their hands (...) pray to *Waqa*. The participating women dress themselves in (...) cultural dresses and carry *Siqe* (cultural women's stick)."

Robele Tadesse, *Gada System, African Indigenous Democracy and United States of Africa* (Addis Ababa: Robele Tadesse, 2013), 11.

To overcome these long-lasting evolutionist or culturalist male-centred prejudices and critically question the controversial historical interactions with Christianity and Islam, the reexamination of women's participation in Oromo religious tradition(s) should privilege:

- More dynamic methodological approaches

- More detailed and fieldwork-based investigations

- More transversal research objects, like the involvement of women in marriages (or matrimonial alliances), national welfare and the trans-confessional celebrations of regional saints.

### 2.2. Women's ritual involvement in social unity and welfare

Until recently, the active role and responsibility of women in regional religious practices has been closely related to maintaining the peaceful unity and mutual prosperity of the Oromo agro-pastoral federations.

Far from the long-lasting clichés about women's reproductive functions or Afro-traditionalist mother-goddess representations, the *Siiqe/Sinqe, Ateete, Daalalle* or *Mahram* terms rather designate various and often combined ranges of ritual objects, ceremonies, conflict resolution/reconciliation institutions and other social forms or practices of religious and political mobilisations for women's rights recognition.
Source 20. The uses of the sinqee

"The *sinqee* has traditionally been used on a number of different occasions: during religious ceremonies, in particular when women go for *Ateete*—a religious women-only ceremony. Women will march to a nearby riverbank where they will pray to God. (...) *Sinqee* (is) not merely (...) a term for a material symbol, it also refers to an institution, to a women's organization totally excluding men, which has both religious and political functions (...) (like) political mobilizations when women's rights (...) ha(ve) been violated."

Marit T. Østebø, “Wayyyuu—Women’s Respect and Rights among the Arsi-Oromo,” in *Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, edited by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele (Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2009), 1053.

The *Siiqe/Sinqe, Ateete, Daalalle* or *Mahram* corpuses, actors and practices are embedded into a series of rules regulating legal marriage contracts or officially recognised matrimonial alliances, founding, reforming or ensuring the continuity of Oromo federations—by complementing men’s responsibility in the historical implementation of changing socioeconomic partnerships and political pacts or constitutions.

Source 21. Ateete, a feminine divinity

"Under *Wak*, as the Most Supreme Being, stand two subordinate divinities, a masculine, *Oglie*, and a feminine, *Atetie*. They sacrifice cows and sheep to *Oglie* between the months of June and July; to *Atetie* they sacrifice in September. She is the goddess of fecundity, and women are her especial votaries. At these festivities they ask for numerous progeny, good harvests and victory over their enemies; in other respects, giving themselves over entirely to that sensual enjoyment, which is generally inseparable from heathenism. It is evident that the procreative and fructifying power of nature is expressed by the idea of these two divinities, as was the case with the ancient Egyptians who had similar notions.

Johann Ludwig Krapf and Ernsnt Georg Ravenstein, *Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labors During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa* (London: Trübner, 1860), 67–68.

## 2.3. Women's representation in the celebration of trans-local/national saints

In the same perspective, the still commonly assumed docility, passive obedience or even marginality of women in the political and religious spheres of African ‘traditional’ societies is also largely invalidated by the existence of several religious groups, which provide a formal representation of women in order to challenge and moderate the abuses of social male domination—from husband/wife family household, to *Gadaa* or *Qaalluu* political/religious institutions and public celebrations.
In the present Western Šäwa Zone, the *Mo'aata* communities designate the religious groups venerating the female saint *Demamiti*, in the rural vicinity of the towns of Ambo and Tullu Bolo. These communities mainly gather the marginal individuals—like widows, unmarried girls, sick persons or homosexuals—of the local *Kutay* coalition. This political coalition involves different Oromo kinships and territorial federations of farmers, cattle herders and *Gadaa* assemblies, under the final authority of the *Qaalluu* leaders. In this political order, Demamiti is formally recognised as one of the several religious figures, subordinated to the *Qaalluu*. Thus, in spite of their marginal or deviant label, the *Mo'aata* communities enjoy an official existence. They are even closely involved in the celebration of the peaceful relations among the plural actors of the *Kutay* coalition, and between their non-Oromo partners of the southern Säbat Bet Gurage federations, beyond the Awaš River.

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>Figure 7. Laurent Lafuma,
*A Mo'aata woman and Oromo
riders in Qaalluu's shrine*</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>Figure 8. Laurent Lafuma,
Shaalo Magarsa, the female-
male leader of the Mo'aata</figcaption></figure>

Like the Oromo Mo'aata, the Gurage Me'wet communities found from
Šäwa to the Kistane's territories venerate Demwe'wit, the patron saint of
unmarried female teenagers and marginalised handicraft workers, gays or
asocial persons in general. These Mo'aata/Me'wet communities also participate
in the yearly ceremonies held in the main religious shrines of the Kutay
coalitions in Western Šäwa, and those of the Gurage Säbat Bet in the present
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Regional (SNNPR) State, as
demonstrated by Osmond in 2016.
Shaalo Magarsa, the present leader of the Mo'aata communities in the rural vicinity of Ambo town, formulates these trans-local legacies through collective prayers, proclaiming the authority of Demamiti from the sources of the Awaš, to the southern Gurage Zone.

Though scholars often classify the Oromo and Gurage Mo'aata/Me'wet communities in the controversial category of "traditional religions," these networks of local saints still claim their historical proximity with the major Muslim Sufi orders of southeastern Ethiopia, like the shrines of Ayyoo Mommina in Arsi or Sheikh Hussein in Bale.

Source 22. Collective prayer to Demamiti

Ya bahar demamiti [Demamiti of the Sea]
Ya awash demamiti [Demamiti of Awash]
Shewa, Soddo [From Shewa, Soddo,]
Ennamor, Ennacor [Ennamor and Ennacor,]
Hullum tantarafa [She provides us with all we need]
Sebirayu! [Rejoice! (Be patient as she is coming to rescue us!)]

Collected, transcript and translated by T. Osmond.

According to Osmond, in Western Šäwa, Shaalo Magarsa and the main Mo'aata dignitaries often associate Demamiti with the term *arshi*, borrowed from the Arabic 'arsh, designating the “Celestial Throne of Allah” in the Quran. Among the regional hierarchy of the female Muslim saints distributed along the Awaš river's southern banks, Demamiti *arshi* is often presented as the spiritual daughter or heir of Ayyoo Mommina, herself positioned under the authority of “Mother Fatuma,” the daughter of Prophet Mohammed and the wife of Ali.

Source 23. Testimonies of believers

"My religious vocation (ayyaana) is embedded in the path of the Arsi House/Lady (ye arusi emmebet), also known as Shubash Karama, and above her, in the descent of Fatima's Mother-Community (ummeete/ummaata fatuma). Here (in Ambo's rural vicinities), I serve the Protector of the country, Damfa Abba Borricca ('the Boiling Father of the Brown 'Borricca' horse')."

"I am the devoted servant of the Oromo Saints (ayyaana) through my vocation into the Mo'aata family, that is all I do. (Shaalo starts singing) 'Oh Abba Jobbir (nb: a famous Oromo leader opposing the Christian Imperial authorities in the 19th-20th centuries), nobody can prevent you from slaughtering your enemies...'"

Two extracts from *Shaalo, the Voices of Mourning*, directed by Jean-Marc Lamoure and Thomas Osmond (2004; Paris: Chinguitty Films/Abderrhamane Sissako Production, 2004), DV/Super8.
**Conclusion**

The study of women’s involvement across the plural “(African) traditional” religions in Ethiopia is still limited by cultural clichés, inherited from these controversial non- and pre-Christian/Muslim religious categories. Overcoming these plural academic prejudices and common “mother-earth-goddess” representations requires a careful critical review of the classical Christian/Muslim secondary sources, as well as more diversified and dynamic field investigations.

The introductory quotation of Ali Birra might concretely reveal the complexity of this chapter: embedded in the ancient Sufi tradition of cyclical creation/salvation (through night/day transition), the female ‘light of dawn’ worded in this famous popular song also performs the 1960s–1970s Oromo nationalist poetry, reflecting the then “invisible” positions of women across both the “original” and updated reformations of *homelandreligions*, throughout the political and socioeconomic history of medieval and contemporary Ethiopia.

**References and further readings**

Ali Mohammed Birra. 2015. “Imimaam Jalaala, ‘*The Tears of Love*’.” Recorded 1973. Track 4 on *Ethiopiques 28, Great Oromo Music*. Buda Musique, compact disc.

Bustorf, Dirk. 2010. “Religion(s): Traditional Religion.” In *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, vol. 4, edited by Siegbert Uhlig et al. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.

Krapf, Johann Ludwig, and Ernst Georg Ravenstein. 1860. *Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labors During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa*. London: Trübner. https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=1Nk_AAAAYAAJ.

Lamoure, Jean-Marc, and Thomas Osmond, eds. 2004. *Shaalo, the Voices of Mourning*. Paris: Chinguitty Films/Abderrhamane Sissako Production. DV/Super8.

Mohammed Hassen. 2015. *The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia 1300–1700*. Woodbridge and Rochester: James Currey. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt17mvj3v.

Osmond, Thomas. 2014a. “Competing Muslim Legacies along City/Countryside Dichotomies: Another History of Harar Town and its Oromo Rural Neighbours in Eastern Ethiopia.” *The Journal of Modern African Studies* 52, no. 1: 1–19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43302094.

Osmond, Thomas. 2014b. “Knowledge, Identity, and Epistemological Choices: Competing Theoretical Trends in Oromo Studies.” In *Creating and Crossing Boundaries in Ethiopia: Dynamics of Social Categorization and Differentiation*, edited by Susanne Epple, 189–212. Berlin: Lit Verlag.

Osmond, Thomas. 2016. “The Awash River in Oromo Historical Narratives.” In *Movements in Ethiopia, Ethiopia in Movement, Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, edited by Mohamed Hassen and Eloi Ficquet, 333–48. Los Angeles: Institute of Ethiopian Studies; Addis Ababa: French Centre of Ethiopian Studies, Tsehai Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.cfee.1195.
Østebø, Marit Tolo. 2009. "Wayyuu—Women's Respect and Rights among the Arsi-Oromo." In *Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, edited by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, 1049–60. Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/233.

Robele Tadesse. 2013. *Gada System, African Indigenous Democracy and United States of Africa*. Addis Ababa: Robele Tadesse.

Zitelmann, Thomas. 2005. "Oromo Religion, Ayyaana and the Possibility of a Sufi Legacy." *The Journal of Oromo Studies* 12, no. 1 & 2: 80–99.
Part 4

# Women, Politics, and Social Participation
<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>
Chapter 6

Ethiopian Christian Queens
from Medieval Times to the End
of the 19th Century

"I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England"

Elizabeth I, Queen of England, "Elizabeth I's
'Tilbury speech,'" in Harley MS 6798, (London
British Library): f. 87.

Even though the history of every Christian Queen (nøgøštat) has not yet been studied, queens are the feminine characters most concentrated on in historical studies dedicated to women. This chapter focuses on noblewomen who were influential at royal court as diplomats, strategists, and protagonists in religious affairs.

**1. Queens and the evolution of the monarchy during the 16th century**

**1.1. *From multiple wives (polygyny) to a single wife (monogamy)***

According to Herman's articles published in 2016 and 2020, one main difference between the medieval and the post-medieval kings is their matrimonial practices. The first had five wives (bø ʻøsitat), all queens (nøgøšt) with a regnal name and they had concubines (øqubat) as well, while the latter group tried to respect the principle of monogamy.

<table><caption>Table 4. Titles of the three main queens of King Zär'a Ya'øqob (1434–1468) called Qwäsṭänṭinos (by M. Herman)</caption><thead><tr><td>Baptismal Name</td><td>Regnal Name</td><td>Title</td><td>Translation</td><td>Status</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Æleni</td><td>Žan Zela</td><td>ite qäññ bä'altiḥat</td><td>Queen of the right</td><td>1st Queen</td></tr><tr><td>Fre Maryam</td><td>Žan Ḥayla</td><td>ite gɔrra bä'altiḥat</td><td>Queen of the left</td><td>2nd Queen</td></tr><tr><td>Ṣøyon Mogäsa</td><td>Žan Källäla</td><td>ite bä'altä šḥna</td><td>The young queen</td><td>The favourite Queen</td></tr></tbody></table>