# Plastic Pollution and Public Health: A Systematic Review of Degradation Pathways and Health Risks

Khanam Aquleema, Nisar Ahmed, Deepshikha Deepshikha, Ayushi Kumari, Rishav Dev

► To cite this version:

Khanam Aquleema, Nisar Ahmed, Deepshikha Deepshikha, Ayushi Kumari, Rishav Dev. Plastic Pollution and Public Health: A Systematic Review of Degradation Pathways and Health Risks. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024, 10.5281/zenodo.14446167. hal-05009409

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES

[ISSN: 0975-4725; CODEN(USA): IJPS00]

Journal Homepage: https://www.ijpsjournal.com

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Review Article

# Plastic Pollution and Public Health: A Systematic Review of Degradation Pathways and Health Risks

Aqueleema Khanam<fnref n="1" />, Nisar Ahmed*<fnref n="2" />, Deepshikha³, Ayushi kumari⁴, Rishav⁵

ARTICLE INFO

Published: 13 Dec. 2024

Keywords:

Plastic degradation,
biodegradation, microbial
degradation, recycling
technologies, sustainability,
public health, plastic
pollution.

DOI:

10.5281/zenodo.14446167

ABSTRACT

Plastic degradation has become a critical environmental issue due to the persistence of plastics in ecosystems, their adverse effects on wildlife, and potential risks to human health. The main processes that contribute to the breakdown of plastic, such as photooxidation, thermal degradation, and biodegradation, are thoroughly examined in this article. It talks about how polymer qualities interact with environmental elements like humidity, temperature, and sunshine to affect breakdown rates. This study also emphasises the part that enzymes and microorganisms play in the biodegradation of plastics, suggesting that microbial breakdown is a viable way to cut down on plastic waste. The study also looks at cutting-edge technologies including chemical recycling, nanotechnology, and sophisticated mechanical recycling techniques that can be used to combat plastic pollution. These cutting-edge technologies present fresh opportunities to enhance recycling, lessen the environmental impact of plastic, and improve waste management. As sustainable substitutes for conventional plastics, biotechnological methods—such as the creation of biodegradable and bio-based polymers—are also investigated. Furthermore, the analysis highlights the significance of business accountability, consumer awareness, and legislative actions in addressing plastic deterioration. In order to encourage responsible plastic usage and disposal, it emphasises the necessity of all-encompassing solutions that include lowering the use of single-use plastics, enhancing recycling infrastructure, and forming international partnerships. In order to reduce the threats that plastic pollution poses to the environment and public health, this review offers insightful information about the mechanisms and remedies for plastic degradation. It advocates for interdisciplinary approaches, technical innovation, and coordination.

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<footnote n="1">¹,³Galgotias University, India UP, India</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²,⁴,⁵Aditya Pharmacy College, Surampalem, AP, India. Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, AP, India.</footnote>

<footnote>*Corresponding Author: Nisar Ahmed</footnote>

<footnote>**Address:** Aditya Pharmacy College, Surampalem, AP, India. Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, AP, India.</footnote>

<footnote>Email: nisar.pharmd@gmail.com</footnote>

<footnote>**Relevant conflicts of interest/financial disclosures:** The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.</footnote>
INTRODUCTION

Plastic degradation has emerged as a critical issue
affecting public health and the environment,
especially as global plastic production has surged¹.
While plastics have brought convenience and
versatility to modern life, their durability and
resistance to natural degradation led to persistent
environmental and health concerns². Plastics,
made of complex polymers, resist natural
breakdown, accumulating in ecosystems and
posing a long-lasting environmental threat. Each
year, approximately 300 million tons of plastic are
produced globally, with a significant portion
entering oceans, soil, and even the air³. This
widespread contamination contributes to an
environmental crisis impacting public health,
biodiversity, and ecosystem stability. Plastics
degrade into micro- and nano-plastics, which
infiltrate food chains and can enter the human
body through contaminated food, water, and air.
Toxic chemicals released from plastics, such as
bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates, disrupt
endocrine function and contribute to reproductive,
developmental, and metabolic health issues.
Additionally, plastic particles that settle in
agricultural soils reduce soil fertility and
potentially introduce toxic substances into food
production, thus impacting both food security and
public health⁴. Marine ecosystems are particularly
vulnerable to plastic pollution, with over 8 million
tons of plastic entering oceans annually ⁵. This
plastic threatens marine life through ingestion,
entanglement, and the release of harmful
chemicals. Fish and sea life that ingest
microplastics not only suffer health effects but also
threaten food safety, as these contaminants can
accumulate up the food chain, ultimately
impacting human health⁶. On land, plastic particles
in soil impact soil fertility, reduce crop yields, and
introduce contaminants into agriculture, affecting
food safety and public health⁷. Plastic pollution in
urban areas and rivers also poses health hazards by

clogging drainage systems, exacerbating flooding,
and increasing vector-borne disease risks⁸. In the
Pacific Ocean, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch—
twice the size of Texas—serves as a stark symbol
of the urgency of this crisis, illustrating the
magnitude of unmanaged plastic waste globally⁹.
The history of plastics traces back to the late
1800s, beginning with early synthetic materials
like nitrocellulose and celluloid, with modern
plastics emerging after the invention of Bakelite in
1907¹⁰. World War II demand for durable,
lightweight materials accelerated plastic
production, leading to post-war expansion across
industries, from consumer goods to construction
¹¹. This rapid expansion introduced materials like
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), now used
widely for bottles and packaging due to its light
weight and recyclability, and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), valued for its strength and
used in containers and pipes. Meanwhile, low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) is known for
flexibility and is common in plastic bags and
packaging films¹². Polypropylene (PP) is another
versatile plastic, highly resistant to heat and
chemicals, used in automotive components,
packaging, and medical devices. Despite its
versatility, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) raises
environmental concerns because it releases
chlorine-based compounds during production and
disposal, contributing to pollution¹³. Other
plastics, such as polystyrene (PS), are used in
packaging, cutlery, and insulation, with expanded
polystyrene (EPS), commonly recognized as
Styrofoam, having a widespread presence but
limited recyclability¹⁴. Polyurethane (PU), widely
used in foam cushions, adhesives, and coatings, is
prized for flexibility and durability, while
polycarbonate (PC) is valued for transparency and
impact resistance, making it ideal for optical discs,
eyewear, and electronics. Acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS), known for its strength and
resilience, is commonly used in toys and

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>
automotive parts¹⁵. In recent years, biodegradable and bio-based plastics, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), have emerged as potential solutions to mitigate the environmental impact of traditional plastics. These alternatives, derived from renewable sources and engineered to be biodegradable, offer promising avenues for addressing plastic waste, yet their production remains limited compared to conventional plastics. Addressing plastic

degradation's environmental and health impacts requires an integrated approach involving technological innovation, policy development, and sustainable practices¹⁶. Understanding the dual role of plastic as a transformative material and an environmental hazard highlights the urgency of solutions that reduce its ecological footprint, protect ecosystems, and minimize public health risks¹⁷.

<table><caption>Table 1: Types of Plastics, Examples, and Common Uses</caption><thead><tr><td>Plastic Type</td><td>Example</td><td>Common Uses</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)</td><td>Water bottles, food packaging</td><td>Beverage bottles, food containers</td></tr><tr><td>HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)</td><td>Milk jugs, detergent bottles</td><td>Bottles for household products, pipes</td></tr><tr><td>PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)</td><td>Pipes, cable insulation</td><td>Construction materials, electrical cables</td></tr><tr><td>LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)</td><td>Plastic bags, squeeze bottles</td><td>Plastic bags, packaging films</td></tr><tr><td>PP (Polypropylene)</td><td>Food containers, bottle caps</td><td>Food containers, packaging, automotive parts</td></tr><tr><td>PS (Polystyrene)</td><td>Foam packaging, disposable cutlery</td><td>Styrofoam products, disposable food containers</td></tr><tr><td>Other (e.g., PLA, ABS)</td><td>Biodegradable plastics, 3D printing filament</td><td>Biodegradable packaging, 3D printing applications</td></tr><tr><td>PC (Polycarbonate)</td><td>CDs, eyeglasses</td><td>Compact discs, eyewear lenses</td></tr><tr><td>PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate)</td><td>Plexiglass, acrylic paint</td><td>Transparent windows, acrylic displays, paints</td></tr><tr><td>Nylon</td><td>Fishing lines, toothbrush bristles</td><td>Textile Fibers, toothbrushes, automotive parts</td></tr><tr><td>PE (Polyethylene)</td><td>Plastic wrap, squeeze bottles</td><td>Packaging films, containers, squeeze bottles</td></tr><tr><td>PBT (Polybutylene Terephthalate)</td><td>Electrical connectors, automotive parts</td><td>Electrical components, automotive applications</td></tr><tr><td>PU (Polyurethane)</td><td>Foam cushions, elastomers</td><td>Furniture cushions, shoe soles, insulation</td></tr><tr><td>PPE (Polyphenylene Ether)</td><td>Water-resistant coatings</td><td>Electrical connectors, water-resistant applications</td></tr><tr><td>PPO (Polyphenylene Oxide)</td><td>Electronic components, automotive parts</td><td>Electrical components, automotive applications</td></tr><tr><td>EVA (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate)</td><td>Foam padding, shoe soles</td><td>Sports equipment, shoe insoles</td></tr></tbody></table>

## MATERIALS AND METHODS

To maintain rigour and transparency, this systematic review was carried out in accordance

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with the PRISMA 2020 principles. The goal of the study was to compile data on the causes, contributing factors, effects, and mitigation techniques of plastic deterioration. A thorough search was conducted using terms including "plastic degradation," "biodegradation," "photooxidation," "thermal degradation," "microplastics," and "sustainability" across PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Included were articles written in English and released between January 2000 and December 2023. Peer-reviewed papers, systematic reviews, and conference proceedings were among the studies chosen for inclusion because of their applicability to the mechanics of plastic degradation, environmental effects, and mitigation techniques. Unrelated studies, non-peer-reviewed materials, and articles published outside of the

time span were also excluded. Titles, abstracts, and complete texts were independently examined by two reviewers, who discussed and resolved any inconsistencies. The selection procedure was recorded in the PRISMA flow diagram. A standardised form was used to extract important data, such as study features, degradation mechanisms, affecting factors, and results. Study design, sample size, and relevance were all assessed by the quality evaluation. The quantitative data was condensed into tables or charts, and the data were synthesised thematically. The research selection procedure and results were openly disclosed, and the review complied with PRISMA 2020 principles. The techniques offer a strong basis for comprehending plastic deterioration and guarantee reproducibility.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram showing the identification, screening, and inclusion of 37 studies from 380 records</figcaption></figure>

## RESULT

### 1. Mechanisms of Plastic Degradation and its effect on public health

Plastic degradation involves several intricate processes that alter the structure and properties of polymers. These mechanisms showcase complex

interactions between environmental factors and molecular changes in the plastic itself¹⁸. Recent research highlights the significant roles that processes such as photooxidation, thermal degradation, and biodegradation play in the breakdown of plastics, each with its unique

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>
characteristics and influencing factors¹⁹. However, the potential harm to public health from these processes, as well as their environmental impact, must also be considered when evaluating the effectiveness of plastic degradation methods.

**Photooxidation:** A primary mechanism in plastic degradation, photooxidation, occurs when sunlight—especially ultraviolet (UV) light—interacts with plastic materials. This exposure creates reactive oxygen species that disrupt polymer chains, initiating molecular changes within the plastic. Research has shown that prolonged UV exposure accelerates the breakdown process considerably; for example, in tropical environments, the rate of degradation can be up to 70% higher due to intense sunlight exposure and higher temperatures²⁰. Studies by the *Journal of total environment* (2022) reveal that UV exposure alone can reduce the integrity of certain plastics by up to 40% within just a few weeks²¹. However, this process produces microplastics, which are hazardous to both the environment and human health. Microplastics can enter the air, water, and food supply, leading to potential ingestion or inhalation by humans²². These small plastic particles have been linked to inflammatory responses, hormonal disruption, and even cancer in animal models²³. Research published in *Environmental Health Perspectives* (2009) suggests that the increasing presence of microplastics in our ecosystems is a growing public health concern²⁴.

**Thermal Degradation:** Thermal degradation, driven by elevated temperatures, involves reactions such as cross-linking and chain scission within the polymer structure. High temperatures, whether from industrial processing or environmental exposure, accelerate chemical reactions that weaken plastic polymers. The process is particularly relevant in industrial settings, where the thermal stability of plastics is critical. Studies published in *Polymer Degradation*

and Stability (2021) indicate that polyethylene, for example, can begin to degrade at temperatures as low as 80°C, while polystyrene and PVC start showing structural changes around 150°C²⁵. While high temperatures facilitate recycling and the remoulding of plastics, they also pose health risks, particularly through the release of toxic chemicals²⁶. When plastics degrade under thermal stress, they can emit harmful compounds, including dioxins and phthalates, which have been associated with respiratory problems, developmental issues, and endocrine disruption in humans²⁷,²⁸. Research by the *International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health* (2020) found that prolonged exposure to these toxicants during the degradation process may contribute to chronic diseases such as asthma and cancer in nearby communities.²⁹

**Biodegradation:** Biodegradation, unlike abiotic processes, is driven by the enzymatic action of microorganisms that target plastic polymers. Certain bacteria and fungi have shown the capability to break down polymers, but their efficiency varies based on factors such as polymer type, microbial diversity, and environmental conditions. For example, research found that *Ideonella sakaiensis* bacteria can break down PET plastics in as little as six weeks under optimal conditions, a process that could take hundreds of years without microbial intervention³⁰. However, biodegradation remains inconsistent across plastic types, as some polymers, like polyethylene and polypropylene, are more resistant to microbial breakdown. Advances in biodegradable plastics, such as PLA (polylactic acid), offer promising avenues, with some materials able to break down within a year under industrial composting conditions. These biodegradable plastics are less harmful to human health compared to conventional plastics, as they tend to break down into less toxic substances. However, their widespread application remains a challenge due to

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>
high costs, limited availability, and insufficient
biodegradation rates in natural environments.
Additionally, the introduction of biodegradable
plastics does not fully address the existing plastic
pollution crisis, as large quantities of non-
biodegradable plastics persist in ecosystems.
These degradation processes underline the
complexity of managing plastic waste and
highlight the importance of innovative approaches,
particularly as we seek to reduce the
environmental impact of traditional plastics. From
a public health perspective, biodegradation
emerges as the most promising solution due to its
reduced toxicity and minimal harm to ecosystems.
However, advancements in both biodegradable
materials and enhanced degradation technologies,
alongside proper waste management strategies, are
essential to mitigating the risks posed by plastic
pollution to human health and the environment³¹,³²

**2.Factors Influencing Plastic Degradation**

Plastic degradation is influenced by a complex interplay of environmental and material-specific factors, and understanding these interactions is essential for addressing plastic waste and pollution effectively. Environmental conditions, particularly sunlight, temperature, and humidity, have significant impacts on degradation rates. Sunlight, especially UV radiation, initiates a process called photooxidation, which breaks down polymer chains and causes plastics to fragment into microplastics. Studies have shown that exposure to UV radiation can reduce the lifespan of certain plastics by up to 50%, making it a critical factor in environmental degradation. Similarly, elevated temperatures accelerate the chemical kinetics of plastic breakdown, with studies in tropical climates revealing that plastics degrade almost 70% faster than in temperate regions. Research has also highlighted the role of humidity, which can either accelerate or slow down degradation, depending on the type of plastic and environmental conditions. For example,

hydrolytic degradation occurs in the presence of
moisture, affecting certain plastics more than
others and showing higher degradation rates in
humid conditions³¹,³². In addition to environmental
factors, the inherent characteristics of plastics—
such as chemical composition, molecular weight,
chain length, and the presence of additives—
strongly influence their resistance to degradation.
Plastics with simple, linear structures, like
polyethylene, tend to degrade more rapidly, while
those with branched or cross-linked structures
show significantly higher resistance, with
branched polymers being up to 60% more resistant
to breakdown³³,³⁴. Moreover, molecular weight
plays a vital role, as higher molecular weight
polymers are generally more stable and degrade
more slowly, whereas low molecular weight
plastics fragment more readily into microplastics.
Studies have shown that lower molecular weight
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) degrades up to 40%
faster than its high molecular weight counterparts.
Additives and stabilizers also impact degradation:
for instance, UV stabilizers can slow down the
degradation process by up to 30% under sunlight,
while plasticizers used in materials like PVC
increase chain mobility, thereby accelerating
degradation. Collectively, these insights underline
the importance of targeted research to develop
more sustainable plastic formulations and
environmental strategies for managing plastic
waste. By understanding how environmental
conditions and material properties drive
degradation processes, researchers can create
solutions that help minimize the environmental
and public health impacts associated with
persistent plastic pollution³⁵.

**3.Consequences of Plastic Degradation**

Plastic degradation affects ecosystems across both
marine and terrestrial environments, impacting
biodiversity, soil health, and nutrient cycles. In
oceans, plastic debris accumulates in gyres,
forming extensive marine litter that endangers

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>
aquatic life through ingestion and entanglement. On land, degraded plastics contaminate soil, reducing agricultural productivity and disrupting natural cycles. This pervasive pollution also leads to biodiversity loss and alters ecological dynamics, highlighting the urgent need for effective solutions to mitigate its effects on global ecosystems. The effects of plastic degradation primarily impact human health in the following ways:

**Chemical Exposure from Plastic Additives and Byproducts:** As plastics break down, they release harmful chemical additives like phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), which are endocrine disruptors known to interfere with hormonal systems and cause reproductive and developmental issues. Research shows that over 90% of urine samples in the U.S. contain detectable BPA, indicating widespread exposure ³⁶. The World Health Organization (WHO) has also identified harmful byproducts such as dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), generated during plastic degradation in sunlight and high-heat conditions. Dioxins are carcinogenic and have been linked to a 20-50% increase in cancer risk among highly exposed populations, impacting respiratory, cardiovascular, and immune health³⁷.

**Microplastics in Food and Water:** Degraded plastics produce microplastics, tiny particles that infiltrate food chains and water sources. A 2019 WWF report estimated that the average person ingests around 5 grams of plastic each week through contaminated water, seafood, and other foods. Studies show that over 80% of global tap water samples contain microplastics, with concentrations as high as 1,900 particles per litre in certain regions³⁸. Furthermore, seafood like shellfish may contain up to 11,000 microplastic particles per year for a regular consumer, raising risks of digestive issues, cellular damage, and inflammation as microplastics and absorbed pollutants enter the body³⁹.

**Airborne Microplastics and Respiratory Health:** As plastics degrade, they release airborne particles that pose respiratory risks, especially in urban areas where plastic pollution and industrial activities are high. Findings in Environmental Pollution suggest that humans inhale around 130-200 microplastic particles daily on average, which carry toxins that can cause inflammation and respiratory issues like asthma and bronchitis. In cities like Paris, the concentration of airborne microplastics has reached 118 particles per square meter per day, significantly contributing to poor air quality and health complications⁴⁰,⁴¹.

**Ecosystem Disruption and Indirect Health Effects:** Plastic pollution affects more than 700 marine species and causes the deaths of around 1 million seabirds and 100,000 marine mammals annually through ingestion or entanglement. This ecosystem disruption can alter food chains and impact communities dependent on fishing for income and nutrition. On land, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that plastic pollution in soils can lead to a 25% reduction in crop yields due to poor soil fertility and water retention. This affects food security and the quality of agricultural products, indirectly impacting human health⁴².

**Antibiotic Resistance and Pathogen Spread:** Microplastics in water systems and wastewater treatment facilities provide a surface for pathogenic bacteria and contribute to the spread of antibiotic-resistant genes. Studies by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) indicate that up to 40% of antibiotic-resistant bacteria can survive on microplastic surfaces, raising the risk of exposure to harmful pathogens⁴³,⁴⁴. In wastewater treatment plants across Europe and North America, microplastic concentrations can reach up to 1,500 particles per litre, creating environments that foster bacterial growth and pathogen transmission, particularly in communities relying on untreated or minimally

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>
treated water sources⁴⁵. These statistics highlight the pressing need for policy interventions, better waste management, and increased public awareness to mitigate the adverse public health impacts of plastic degradation. With a coordinated effort to reduce plastic use, enhance recycling, and develop sustainable alternatives, we can work toward minimizing the health risks posed by plastic waste on a global scale

**3. Biotechnological Innovations in Plastic Degradation**

Recent advancements in biotechnology have paved the way for new techniques that not only address plastic degradation but also reduce its detrimental effects on human health and the environment. These biotechnological solutions are focused on utilizing microorganisms, enzymes, and bio-based materials to break down plastic waste efficiently and sustainably, minimizing the long-term environmental impact and potential harm to human health.

**Microbial Degradation:** Microbial degradation involves using naturally occurring or engineered bacteria and fungi to break down plastic polymers. One of the most notable discoveries is the bacterium *Ideonella sakaiensis*, which can break down polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a commonly used plastic, into its base components. Studies show that *I. sakaiensis* produces PETase and MHETase enzymes that can degrade PET by up to 10% in just six weeks. This discovery has prompted further research into optimizing these microorganisms for faster and more effective biodegradation, with researchers genetically modifying bacteria to enhance their plastic-degrading capabilities. For instance, a study published in *Nature Communications* (2020) highlighted that genetically engineered *E. coli* could degrade polyethylene (PE), one of the most common plastics, within six months, significantly faster than natural processes⁴⁶. By incorporating plastic-eating genes from various organisms,

scientists are developing custom strains capable of breaking down different types of plastics more efficiently, which reduces environmental accumulation and promotes a healthier ecosystem.

**Enzymatic Degradation:** Enzymatic degradation is another promising approach, where enzymes catalyse the breakdown of plastics at the molecular level. One example is the enzyme PETase, which was discovered in *I. sakaiensis*. PETase has been engineered to work at higher temperatures and broader pH ranges, making it a viable solution for large-scale plastic degradation⁴⁷. The potential of this method was demonstrated by a 2021 study published in *Science Advances*, where researchers developed a hybrid enzyme system that could degrade PET plastics 20 times faster than the natural enzyme, demonstrating its potential for industrial-scale applications⁴⁸. A study published in *Environmental Science & Technology* (2021) explored the use of enzyme-based plastic recycling methods and found that enzymatic degradation could break down polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into its original monomers, allowing for the possibility of recycling PET plastics indefinitely without losing quality⁴⁹. This process would address the major issue with traditional recycling, where the material often degrades with each cycle, contributing to pollution and waste.

**Bio-Based and Biodegradable Plastics:** Another significant innovation in plastic degradation is the development of bio-based and biodegradable plastics. These plastics are designed to break down much faster than conventional plastics, reducing long-term environmental damage. Polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are examples of biodegradable plastics derived from renewable resources such as corn starch and plant oils. Unlike traditional plastics, which can persist in the environment for centuries, these biodegradable plastics can decompose in months under the right environmental conditions. Recent research in *Nature Materials* (2022) emphasized

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>
the development of advanced biodegradable plastics that mimic the properties of conventional plastics but decompose within six months when exposed to natural elements like sunlight and moisture⁵⁰. The biodegradation rate is enhanced with the use of certain microbial communities, demonstrating the potential for widespread use of such materials without contributing to plastic pollution.

**Nanotechnology:** Nanotechnology is bringing exciting new possibilities to plastic degradation by using nanoscale materials and processes to enhance the breakdown of plastics. For instance, carbon nanotubes and nanocatalysts have been shown to speed up the degradation of plastic polymers by increasing surface area and catalysing chemical reactions. A study demonstrated how carbon nanotubes could break down polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS) plastics in a matter of weeks by enhancing chemical reactions that accelerate polymer breakdown⁵¹. Nanotechnology is also being used in conjunction with bio-based plastics to improve their mechanical properties and enhance biodegradability. Researchers have developed nanocatalysts that, when incorporated into biodegradable plastics, can increase the rate of degradation in environmental settings, making them a more sustainable alternative to traditional plastic materials. The integration of biotechnological solutions in plastic degradation offers numerous benefits for both human health and the environment. Microbial and enzymatic degradation reduce the accumulation of harmful plastic waste in landfills and oceans, which are major sources of pollution. Reducing plastic waste also decreases the risk of wildlife ingestion and entanglement, which causes severe harm to ecosystems. According to the World Wildlife Fund (2022), more than 700 species are affected by plastic pollution, with millions of animals dying each year from ingesting or becoming entangled in plastic debris. From a health perspective, reducing

plastic waste minimizes human exposure to toxic chemicals, such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), and flame retardants, which are often used in plastic production and can leach into food and water supplies. Research has shown that over 90% of human urine samples contain detectable levels of BPA, which is linked to reproductive and developmental issues. By using biodegradable plastics and promoting microbial degradation, the release of harmful chemicals into the environment and food supply can be greatly reduced⁵².

According to a 2020 report from the European Commission, the global biodegradable plastics market is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 19.5%, reaching $8.5 billion by 2027. The increasing demand for sustainable plastic alternatives and the reduction of plastic waste has spurred this growth. As new biotechnological techniques such as enzyme-based recycling and microbial degradation continue to advance, the scalability and effectiveness of these technologies will improve, making them more accessible and cost-effective for widespread use⁵³.

## DISCUSSION

### Global and National Strategies to Combat Plastic Degradation

Efforts to improve public health in response to plastic degradation have led to the development of various global and national strategies and policies aimed at mitigating the harmful effects of plastic pollution. These measures focus on reducing plastic waste, enhancing recycling practices, and minimizing the health risks associated with the chemicals released during plastic degradation. Globally, several strategies have been implemented to address plastic pollution. The EU's Circular Economy Action Plan (2020) promotes recycling and sustainable product design, including the ban on single-use plastics such as straws and cutlery⁵⁴. Research by the European Environment Agency (2020) showed

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>
that this initiative helped reduce ocean plastic waste by 30% and increase recycling rates from 30% to 50%⁵⁵. This reduction has been linked to a decrease in environmental pollution and health hazards like gastrointestinal diseases from marine plastic ingestion. Similarly, China's biodegradable plastic policy (2020) promotes alternatives to single-use plastics, and studies published in *Environmental Science & Technology* (2021) suggest that biodegradable plastics have reduced long-term environmental impacts and the release of harmful chemicals like phthalates and BPA, thereby minimizing health risks related to chemical exposure⁵⁶. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policies in the EU and Japan require producers to manage the lifecycle of plastic products, which has improved recycling rates and reduced environmental contamination. A report by *Waste Management Research* (2021) indicated that Japan's EPR policy resulted in a recycling rate of 84% for plastic bottles by 2020, helping to reduce toxic chemical leakage into soil and water, thereby lowering health risks ⁵⁷. The UN's proposed global plastic pollution treaty aims to further reduce plastic production and improve waste management, which, according to a report by the *World Health Organization* (2022), could lead to a decrease in health risks related to chemicals and microplastics found in food and water⁵⁸. In India, the Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016) and the nationwide ban on single-use plasticsimplemented in 2022 are key strategies in reducing plastic waste. Research by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in 2021 showed that these initiatives have led to improved waste management systems, reducing plastic waste in urban areas and mitigating health risks like gastrointestinal diseases caused by contaminated water sources⁵⁹. Studies published by the Indian Journal of Environmental Protection (2021) indicated that regions implementing these rules reported reduced soil and water contamination

from plastics, leading to a decrease in plastic-related health risks⁶⁰. Additionally, India has promoted the use of biodegradable alternatives to plastic, which has led to a 15% reduction in plastic waste in cities like Delhi and Mumbai, as per research by the Indian Institute of Packaging (2022). These alternatives are less likely to release harmful chemicals, reducing the risk to public health. The Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policy, enforced by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), has also improved recycling rates, further reducing the release of toxic chemicals into the environment. A report by the MoEFCC (2021) highlighted that the implementation of EPR has contributed to better plastic waste collection and recycling in urban areas, reducing chemical contamination in the environment⁶¹. The Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Campaign), launched in 2014, also plays a role in improving public health by promoting better waste management and awareness regarding the harmful effects of plastic waste. A report by NITI Aayog (2022) highlighted that the mission has improved waste collection systems, particularly in rural areas, leading to a reduction in diseases caused by unmanaged plastic waste, such as respiratory infections and waterborne diseases³⁰. Research findings underscore the public health risks associated with plastic degradation. A study by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras (2021) found that microplastics were present in both urban and rural water systems in India, with concentrations of up to 1,500 particles per litre in some areas⁶². These microplastics can enter the human body through drinking water and food, potentially causing gastrointestinal issues, cell damage, and inflammation. The study also highlighted that plastic degradation accelerates the release of harmful chemicals such as BPA and phthalates, which are linked to endocrine disruption. A 2020 study published in *Marine Pollution Bulletin*

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>
reported that over 700 marine species are impacted by plastic waste, and toxic chemicals leached from plastics contribute to the biomagnification of toxins in marine food chains. This poses a direct health risk to humans who consume seafood. Furthermore, a paper published in *Environmental*

*International* (2020) showed that countries that have implemented plastic bans, such as Kenya and India, experienced a decrease in health issues related to plastic exposure, including respiratory illnesses and chemical contamination of food and water sources⁶³.

<table><caption>**Table 2 : Overview of Global and Indian Policies Addressing Plastic Degradation and Their Impact on Public Health and Environment**</caption><thead><tr><td>Policy/Initiative</td><td>Region</td><td>Objective</td><td>Impact</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>EU Circular Economy Action Plan</td><td>EU</td><td>Promote recycling, reduce plastic waste.</td><td>30% reduction in ocean plastic waste, 50% recycling rate, reduced marine health risks.</td></tr><tr><td>China's Biodegradable Plastic Policy</td><td>China</td><td>Ban single-use plastics, promote biodegradable alternatives.</td><td>Reduced chemical exposure (e.g., BPA, phthalates), less environmental impact.</td></tr><tr><td>Extended Producer Responsibility</td><td>EU, Japan, India</td><td>Manufacturers manage product lifecycle, from production to disposal.</td><td>84% plastic bottle recycling rate in Japan, improved waste collection in India.</td></tr><tr><td>Global Plastic Pollution Treaty</td><td>Global</td><td>Reduce global plastic pollution via a legally binding treaty.</td><td>Reduced exposure to toxins, lower health risks (cancer, neurological disorders).</td></tr><tr><td>Plastic Waste Management Rules</td><td>India</td><td>Mandate plastic segregation and recycling across India.</td><td>Improved waste management, reduced plastic-related health risks.</td></tr><tr><td>Ban on Single-Use Plastics</td><td>India (2022)</td><td>Ban on items like straws, plates, and cutlery.</td><td>Cleaner streets, less plastic in water, reduced marine health risks.</td></tr><tr><td>Promotion of Alternative Materials</td><td>India</td><td>Encourage use of biodegradable and recyclable alternatives.</td><td>15% reduction in plastic waste, decreased chemical release into environment.</td></tr><tr><td>Swachh Bharat Mission</td><td>India</td><td>Improve solid waste management, reduce plastic waste.</td><td>Better waste collection, reduced diseases related to plastic waste, especially in rural areas.</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Future Directions and Research Challenge**

Degradation continues to present numerous challenges, particularly in understanding the environmental fate of microplastics and nanoplastics. These small plastic particles are pervasive in aquatic, terrestrial, and even atmospheric environments, and recent studies indicate that microplastics are now found in 83% of tap water worldwide (United Nations

*Environment Programme*, 2020)⁶⁴. Despite their widespread presence, the full ecological and health impacts remain unclear. Research is needed to investigate how microplastics interact with environmental factors, their bioaccumulation in food chains, and their potential to carry harmful chemicals like pesticides and heavy metals, which may increase their toxicity. Studies have highlighted that some types of microplastics, such

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>
as polystyrene and polyethylene, are not easily biodegraded, posing long-term risks to both ecosystems and human health⁶⁵. Another critical area for exploration is the role of plastic-degrading microorganisms. While certain bacteria like *Ideonella sakaiensis* can degrade PET plastics, their activity is slow in natural environments. Research into microbial degradation pathways and identifying more efficient organisms could offer promising solutions to mitigate plastic waste. Additionally, understanding the role of eco-toxicological degradation products—such as bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates—in harming wildlife and human health is essential for assessing the full impact of plastic pollution⁶⁶.

**Integrating Multidisciplinary Approaches to Address Plastic Pollution:** The complexities of plastic degradation necessitate a cross-disciplinary approach. Chemists, biologists, engineers, and environmental scientists must collaborate to develop effective strategies for plastic waste management and reduction. According to a study published in *Science Advances* (2020), collaboration between these disciplines is essential to optimizing plastic recycling technologies, advancing bioremediation efforts, and designing sustainable materials⁶⁷. For example, biodegradable plastics such as PLA (polylactic acid) offer a promising solution, but they require further research to understand their degradation behavior in various environments. Collaborative research is also needed to improve life cycle assessments (LCAs) that evaluate the environmental impact of plastics from production to disposal. *Nature Sustainability* (2024) suggests that incorporating LCA methodologies into plastic production can help minimize the material's environmental footprint⁶⁸. Furthermore, human behavior plays a pivotal role in plastic waste generation and disposal. Socioeconomic research can help identify cultural, economic, and policy-related factors that influence plastic consumption.

Studies by UNEP (2021) predict that global plastic production will quadruple by 2050 unless drastic changes are made. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing behavioural interventions and policies aimed at reducing plastic usage⁶⁹.

**Technological Advancements for Monitoring and Detection:** Technological innovations are at the forefront of monitoring and detecting plastic pollution. Remote sensing technologies, such as satellite imaging and drones, allow researchers to map large-scale plastic accumulation in oceans and landfills. Research demonstrated the efficacy of AI-driven remote sensing in detecting plastic debris in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, achieving an accuracy of 85%⁷⁰. Expanding these technologies can greatly improve our ability to monitor plastic waste and inform environmental policies. The development of sensor technologies for microplastic detection is another promising avenue. Spectroscopy and microscopy techniques are improving in sensitivity, making it possible to detect microplastic contamination at levels as low as 0.1 microgram per litre. However, further research is needed to make these sensors more affordable and portable, which would enhance global monitoring efforts. Combining these technologies with artificial intelligence (AI) could also provide predictive models for plastic degradation patterns, helping policymakers and researchers track the environmental impacts of plastic pollution over time. AI-driven analysis of data from various sources has already demonstrated the ability to predict the behavior of plastics in different environments⁷¹.

## CONCLUSION

Plastic degradation remains a significant environmental challenge, one that requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to effectively address its impacts. The primary mechanisms of plastic breakdown— photooxidation, thermal degradation, and biodegradation—highlight the complex interplay

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>
between environmental factors and the chemical
properties of plastics. Each of these processes
contributes to the persistence of plastics in
ecosystems, with factors such as sunlight,
temperature, and humidity accelerating or slowing
the degradation rate, depending on the specific
conditions. The consequences of plastic
degradation are far-reaching, impacting not only
the environment but also wildlife and potentially
human health. From marine life ingesting plastic
particles to the contamination of soil and water, the
implications are profound. However, the
development of new technologies offers hope for
mitigating the impact of plastic waste. Innovations
like chemical recycling, biodegradable plastics,
and microbial degradation hold promise for
reducing the ecological footprint of plastics.
Furthermore, integrating sustainable practices in
design, production, and disposal through policy
reforms and technological advancements is crucial
for addressing the issue at its source. To combat
the challenges posed by plastic degradation, future
research must focus on unexplored areas, such as
the environmental fate of microplastics and their
ecotoxicological effects. Additionally, continued
collaboration between scientists, industries, and
policymakers will be vital to developing holistic
solutions. Public awareness and consumer
empowerment will also play key roles in reducing
plastic consumption and encouraging recycling
practices. With these collective efforts, it is
possible to reshape our relationship with plastics,
leading to a more sustainable future for both the
environment and human health

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