# Live-streaming Phenomena on Twitch

Alba Marín, María-Victoria Carrillo-Durán, Javier Sevilla-San-Miguel

► To cite this version:

Alba Marín, María-Victoria Carrillo-Durán, Javier Sevilla-San-Miguel. Live-streaming Phenomena on Twitch. Icono 14: Comunicación y tecnologías emergentes, 2025, 23 (2), 10.7195/ri14.v23i1.2195. hal-05198924

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# Live-streaming Phenomena on Twitch:
A Systematic Literature Review of
International Scholarly Research

El fenómeno del live-streaming en Twitch. Una revisión sistemática de la literatura sobre la investigación científica internacional

O fenómeno da transmissão em direto no Twitch.
Revisão sistematizada da literatura da investigação
científica internacional

Alba Marín ID

Assistant Professor at the University of Extremadura, Spain.
albamarin@unex.es

Javier Sevilla San Miguel ID

Graduate in Audiovisual Communication from the University of Extremadura, Spain.
jasevilla@alumnos.unex.es

María Victoria Carrillo Durán ID

Full Professor at the University of Extremadura, Spain.
vicduran@unex.es

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>
**Received:** 02/07/2024; **Revised:** 10/07/2024; **Accepted:** 15/02/2025;

**Published:** 01/08/2025

**Translation to English:** Martin Boyd

**To cite this article:** Marín, Alba; San-Miguel, Javier & Carrillo Durán, María Victoria (2025). Live-streaming Phenomena on Twitch: A Systematic Literature Review of International Scholarly Research. **ICONO 14. Scientific Journal of Communication and Emerging Technologies**, 23(1): e2195. https://doi.org/10.7195/ri14.v23i1.2195

## Abstract

Emerging online communication landscapes are reshaping the media panorama through the introduction of models based on hyper-personalization and gamification. Live-streaming phenomena, with platforms like Twitch at the forefront, integrates information, entertainment, and social interaction, asserting its importance as a modern sociocultural phenomenon. This research aims to investigate the current scope of international scientific studies on Twitch and live-streaming. To achieve this, the study employed a systematic literature review according to the PRISMA 2020 protocol, consulting the Scopus and WOS databases from 2008 to 2023, with a total sample of 73 articles. Findings reveal a marked increase in scientific publications from 2019 onwards, indicating a rising interest in this phenomenon. The research predominantly focuses on the critical role of social interaction, its impacts—both positive and negative—the streamer's influence, and the platform's role. The study concludes by pointing out several areas that future research should further explore to fully understand the evolving communicative model and its wider implications beyond the gaming.

## Keywords

Live-Streaming; Twitch; New Media; Streamer; Influencer; Communication.
## Resumen

Los escenarios comunicativos online están reconfigurando el panorama mediático, introduciendo modelos comunicativos basados en la hiperpersonalización y la gamificación. El fenómeno del *live-streaming*, en plataformas líderes como Twitch, fusiona la información, el entretenimiento y la interacción social, posicionándose como un fenómeno sociocultural relevante en nuestros días. El objetivo de esta investigación es examinar el estado actual de la investigación científica internacional sobre Twitch y el fenómeno del *live-streaming*. A tal efecto, se ha llevado a cabo una revisión sistematizada de la literatura siguiendo el protocolo PRISMA 2020, en las bases de datos Scopus y WOS desde 2008 hasta 2023, con una muestra total de 73 artículos. Los resultados señalan un incremento de la producción científica especialmente a partir de 2019, reflejando el creciente interés que despierta este fenómeno. Los estudios se han centrado principalmente en la importancia de la interacción social y sus consecuencias tanto positivas como negativas, así como en la figura del *streamer* y en la influencia de la plataforma. El estudio concluye con la identificación de diversas áreas que merecen una mayor atención en futuras investigaciones para comprender la evolución del modelo comunicativo y su influencia extendida más allá del mundo de los videojuegos.

## Palabras clave

Live-Streaming; Twitch; Nuevos medios; Streamer; Influencer; Comunicación.

## Resumo

Os cenários comunicativos online estão reconfigurando o panorama midiático, introduzindo modelos comunicativos baseados na hiperpersonalização e na gamificação. O fenômeno do live-streaming, em plataformas líderes como Twitch, funde informação, entretenimento e interação social, posicionando-se como um fenômeno sociocultural relevante nos dias de hoje. O objetivo desta pesquisa é examinar o estado atual da pesquisa científica internacional sobre o Twitch e o fenômeno do live-streaming. Para tal, foi realizada uma revisão sistematizada da literatura
seguindo o protocolo PRISMA 2020, nas bases de dados Scopus e WOS desde 2008 até 2023, com uma amostra total de 73 artigos. Os resultados indicam um aumento da produção científica especialmente a partir de 2019, refletindo o crescente interesse que esse fenômeno desperta. Os estudos têm se concentrado principalmente na importância da interação social e suas consequências tanto positivas quanto negativas, bem como na figura do streamer e na influência da plataforma. O estudo conclui com a identificação de diversas áreas que merecem maior atenção em futuras pesquisas para compreender a evolução do modelo comunicativo e sua influência além do mundo dos videogames.

## Palavras-chave

Live-Streaming; Twitch; New Media; Streamer; Influencer; Comunicação.

# 1. Introduction

Both media consumption and content production have changed dramatically in recent years, especially since the global COVID-19 pandemic (Gutiérrez Lozano & Cuartero Naranjo, 2020). The new media context is characterised by the huge social impact of individuals as content creators, who are now competing with the productions of traditional media networks (Sjöblom et al., 2019), resulting in a massive increase in both the activity and the content offered on social media platforms such as YouTube (McKay, 2018) and Facebook (Joinson, 2008). The Twitch platform is the world's biggest video game streaming service and one of the most-visited websites on the internet, especially by younger users (Pellicone & Ahn, 2017; García Rivero et al., 2022). This platform now offers a wide variety of channels with retro games, talk shows, artistic activities and even social eating (Cullen & Ruberg, 2019; Gutiérrez Lozano & Cuartero Naranjo, 2020).

Live-streaming platforms are a hybrid of conventional media and social media that attract hundreds of millions of viewers a day and provide their users with a live space for decentralised cultural interaction (Cabeza-Ramírez et al., 2022). Their content is not limited to live-streamed videos (Faas et al., 2018), as the system allows content creators to establish their own streaming practices and develop their own social structures (Sjöblom et al., 2019). Twitch is thus recognised as one
of the most important platforms in Europe and the Americas (Satatista and Dixon, 2022), hosting both amateur and professional content creators. It was acquired by Amazon in 2014, and by 2023 it was offering an average of 7 million active channels per month (TwitchTracker, 2024).

The general objective of this paper is to offer an exhaustive review of the scholarly literature on the phenomenon of live-streaming on the Twitch platform, with the aim of describing the current state of research and identify the most important contributions to the field. To this end, this study only considers findings that offer new perspectives or significant advances in academic knowledge of the phenomenon, backed up by a large number of articles and solid empirical evidence. In order to achieve this general objective, the following specific objectives were proposed:

S01. Identify contributions, research methods adopted and theoretical perspectives on live-streaming on Twitch in order to understand how they have contributed to the state of the art in this field of study.

S02. Detect opportunities for future study by comparing the most important contributions of both empirical and theoretical research.

S03. Assess the analysis of live-streaming video platforms, streamers and social media influencers as an integrated social phenomenon in the context of audiovisual communication, highlighting the importance of such analysis to the current state of scholarly knowledge.

To guide this review, the following research questions were proposed:

- What trends can be identified in research on live-streaming on Twitch from 2008 to 2023?

- What scholarly interest in this sociocultural phenomenon does the research reflect?

- What topics related to live-streaming on Twitch need further research to explain its development in the context of the current media model, and what are the implications of these topics for the field of audiovisual communication studies?

- What issues related to the Twitch phenomenon have been of particular interest to scholars and what conclusions do they reach in their research?
## 1.1 Live-streaming as a sociocultural phenomenon

User-generated content laid the foundations for the development of content creation online. Its origins can be traced back to the concept of the “prosumer” (Toffler, 1980), referring to individuals who work simultaneously as content consumers and producers, taking part in the production of meaning and playing an active role in the mediatisation of society (Herrero-Diz et al., 2016). This concept was consolidated with the advent of social media and the creation of virtual communities (Islas, 2008; Fernández-Castrillo, 2014). Today, content creators attract consumers and consolidate the social capital sought by brands (Fairchild, 2004). The expansion on social media of digital marketing and messaging by major corporations has boosted this business (Abidin, 2018; Kim, 2010; Ruiz-Gómez, 2019; Sjöblom et al., 2019) with the help of digital influencers.

The concept of user-generated content has been explored by scholars working in a diverse range of disciplines, describing it as content created outside a professional context (Santos, 2022) by ordinary individuals who act voluntarily (Krumm et al., 2008) in the dual role of producers and consumers (Susarla et al., 2012). However, this model has evolved into what is now known as “professional user-generated content”, designed to meet the highest standards of quality and to ensure the biggest impact. The reasons for this shift lie in the increased creation and dissemination of digital video content thanks mainly to YouTube. This platform has given rise to hybrid workers who turn their leisure activity into a professional career through the use of digital services and tools (Sjöblom et al., 2019). It is in this context that live-streaming has become a sociocultural phenomenon associated with the production of social video content or social media content. The components of this content are described in various studies (Raman et al., 2018; Sjöblom et al., 2019; Östman, 2012; Burroughs & Rama, 2015; Tassi, 2018; Gutiérrez Lozano & Cuartero Naranjo, 2020; Matsui et al., 2020; Wohn & Freeman, 2020; Jang et al., 2021; Martínez-Sánchez et al., 2021; Lu, 2021).

The notion of live-streaming has now gone beyond simple streaming (i.e., transmitting video and sound data over the internet) to refer to a sociocultural phenomenon distinguished by live broadcasting (Sjöblom et al., 2019). This practice has resulted in the emergence of a new hyper-personal profession, whereby a
single individual is responsible for the creation and distribution of content via different social media platforms (Törhönen et al., 2020). According to Hu et al. (2017), a typical online live-streaming session involves a streamer, broadcaster and/or influencer sharing a variety of content ranging from video games to aspects of their daily lives, while interacting with their audience via text-based chat. Originally geared towards the world of e-sports (Freeman & Wohn, 2019; Jang et al., 2021; Marin-Sanchiz, 2022), live-streaming became hugely popular with the rise of competitive multi-player games such as Street Fighter, Tekken, World of Warcraft, League of Legends, Dota 2, Counter-Strike, Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, Hearthstone and Overwatch (Burroughs & Rama, 2015; Matsui et al., 2020). The phenomenon is now changing as influencers migrate from other platforms with the aim of monetising their audiences, reducing the thematic predominance of gaming in the process (Gutiérrez Lozano & Cuartero Naranjo, 2020; Xu et al., 2022). The streamer is conceptually related to the social media influencer as both are considered a sub-group of the influencer category (Gutiérrez Lozano & Cuartero Naranjo, 2020; Ruiz-Gómez, 2019), although the streamer's way of communicating with their audience is a unique feature of social live-streaming platforms (Küper & Krämer, 2021).

The involvement of the entertainment industry and the professionalisation of content creation have resulted in the combination of amateur and professional forms that characterises the “hybrid media system” (Chadwick, 2017). Streamers have blurred the boundaries between leisure activities (playing video games, chatting with friends, discussing current affairs) and clearly professional activities, while at the same time creating and maintaining vast networks of social capital within the digital economy in a practice that has been described using concepts such as playbour (Kücklich, 2005; Sotamaa, 2010) or “digital labour” (Bermejo, 2009; Scholz, 2012; Terranova, 2000).

## 2. Methodology

To achieve the objectives outlined above, a systematic review of the literature was conducted in three phases: search and selection; analysis; and synthesis, all in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guideline (Yeses-Nuñez et al., 2021). Given that
this method is being applied in this case to a field other than health, the term
"systematic review" is used here to describe it (Codina, 2018).

## 2.1 Systematic searches

Exploratory searches were carried out to identify the most suitable search terms and conduct a preliminary review of the literature. Studies by Cabeza-Ramírez et al. (2021), Harpstead et al. (2019), Li et al. (2020), Chen & Chúa (2020) and Gutiérrez Lozano & Cuartero Naranjo (2020) served to establish a basis for the review and to define the search terms: "Twitch", "Justin.tv", "live streaming", "live-streaming", "video live streaming", "game streaming", "internet broadcast", "network broadcast", "webcast", "streamer", "streamers", "influence", "influencers", "content creator", "content created", "broadcaster" and "broadcasters".

The systematic review process involved the exclusion of any records that did not meet strict inclusion criteria to ensure the reliability and validity of the studies selected (Yeses-Núñez et al., 2021). The geographical scope of the scholarly publications selected for study is international because the research identified in the initial exploratory searches on social media influencers and content creators was almost entirely in English.

Systematic searches were conducted in Scopus and Web of Science, two of the biggest international scientific databases that cover a wide range of types of publications, institutional affiliations and author indexes. These two databases were chosen due to the disciplinary diversity they offer, which is advantageous for this systematic review given the multidisciplinary nature of communication research. Although their use imposes a limitation in terms of publication coverage, these databases provide an adequate volume of information, high academic quality and clean data (Cabeza-Ramírez et al., 2021; Harzing & Alakangas, 2016).

To delimit the time-frame, it was decided to restrict the review to articles, reports and conference proceedings published within the period from 2008 to 2023. This period begins two years before the launch of Twitch.tv and one year after the creation of Justin.tv, a precursor to Twitch that could potentially have given rise to some preliminary research.
The following combinations with Boolean operators were developed to begin the searches, using the Social Sciences filter in the search engines:

- For Scopus: (Twitch OR Justin.tv) AND (live-streaming OR video-live-streaming OR game-streaming OR internet-broadcast OR network-broadcast OR webcast) AND (streamer OR streamers OR influencer OR influencers OR content-creator OR content-creators OR broadcaster OR broadcasters).

- For WoS: (Twitch OR Justin.tv) AND (live streaming OR live-streaming OR video live streaming OR video-live-streaming OR game streaming OR game-streaming OR internet broadcast OR internet-broadcast OR network broadcast OR network-broadcast OR webcast) AND (streamer OR streamers OR influencer OR influencers OR content creator OR content creators OR broadcaster OR broadcasters).

The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were established for the review:

**Inclusion criteria:**

1. Either empirical or theoretical studies. As the object of study is an emerging social phenomenon, both types of research were considered relevant.

2. Publications in English, Spanish or Portuguese, in view of the importance of research on this topic in Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries.

**Exclusion criteria:**

1. Studies that are not available in open access or are not accessible via the different institutions with which the authors are affiliated.

2. Research for which Communication Studies is not the main discipline.

3. Any records other than published articles, book chapters, technical reports or conference proceedings.

4. Publications that do not deal with the streaming phenomenon, or with streamers and/or influencers as the main object of study.

5. Publications lacking a well-defined research design, with replicable procedures and a solid theoretical framework that supports their objective and their findings, as these elements are considered essential to ensure the quality of the contributions to the field of study.
## 2.2 Performance of searches

After obtaining the results, a two-step manual selection process was undertaken, with the application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria (complete diagram in Figure 1). The total number of records extracted from the two databases was n=247, with n=123 from Scopus and n=124 from WoS. The first phase involved reading the abstract of each article to determine whether it met the inclusion criteria. This process reduced the sample to n=85. The records excluded were articles in other languages (n=2), publications that were not one of the selected types (n=14) or did not deal with the phenomenon as the main object of study (n=28), and articles outside the field of communication studies (n=46) or not openly accessible (n=1). Duplicates (n=55) were also eliminated. The second phase involved reading the full text of each publication, applying the fifth exclusion criterion (n=6), i.e., studies that lacked a rigorous methodology or theoretical basis. This resulted in a final sample of n=73: n=38 from Scopus and n=35 from WoS.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Flow diagram for the searches and the selection of publications</figcaption></figure>

Source: created by the authors.
## 2.3 Analysis

A data sheet was developed to present the information related to the research methods, author affiliations and other aspects of the publications, complemented by a content analysis using analytical inference, for the specific purpose of developing the review outlined in section 3.5.

The research design adopted to analyse the object of study employed the categories proposed by Cabeza-Ramírez et al. (2021) in their systematic review, which adapts the main elements of Shannon's mathematical theory of communication (1948). Combining the methodological proposals of these authors with those of Harpstead et al. (2019) and Li et al. (2020), it was determined whether each record focused on the transmitter, receiver, channel or transmission process. Equivalences were established between these categories and the elements of live-streaming, the transmitter being the streamer or social media influencer, the receivers being the audience or viewers, the channel being the Twitch platform, and the transmission being the codes and message. This framework made it possible to categorise the results obtained (Table 1).

<table><caption>**Table 1. Analytical model**</caption><tr><td rowspan="4">Reference data</td><td>Full reference of the article</td></tr><tr><td>Journal and database</td></tr><tr><td>Affiliated University/ies of the author/s</td></tr><tr><td>Discipline</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Research design</td><td>Research problem</td></tr><tr><td>Study object</td></tr><tr><td>Objective/s and research questions</td></tr><tr><td>Methodology<br/>- Approach<br/>- Sample collection<br/>- Methods</td><td>Quantitative /Qualitative / Mixed</td></tr><tr><td>Theoretical framework or approach</td><td>Established or reference theories</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Results</td><td>Results</td></tr><tr><td>Conclusions</td></tr><tr><td>Summary of the main contributions</td></tr></table>

**Source: created by the authors.**
# 3. Results

## 3.1 Evolution of scholarly output

The analysis of the 73 records that make up the sample of this study reveals a growth in scholarly output over the period that can be divided into two stages. Although the searches covered the period from 2008 to 2023, the first publication found was in 2012: a study of video game live-streaming (Kaytoue et al., 2012). Between 2012 and 2017, there were no publications that met the search and selection criteria; however, since 2017 there has been a trend of constant growth, apart from a drop observed in 2021.

As Figure 2 shows, two years stand out over the rest. The number of studies doubled in 2019, the year when the live-streaming format became popular in the gaming community (TwitchTracker, 2024). Scholarly output peaked in 2022, when a total of 18 papers were published (24.66%), more than double the number in the previous year. As shown in Figure 3, the country that is home to the largest number of affiliated authors is the United States (28 records), the same country where the Twitch platform was created. In second place is Spain, followed by Germany and the United Kingdom.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** *Scholarly output data per year (2012-2023)*</figcaption></figure>

Source: *created by the authors.*
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** *Affiliation of authors by country*</figcaption></figure>

*Source: created by the authors.*

**3.2 Methodologies used**

Qualitative research methods are used in more than half of the studies analysed (53.42%). The rest use quantitative (38.36%) or mixed methods (8.22%).

As shown in Figure 4, the most commonly used qualitative data collection methods are interviews (15 records), digital ethnography techniques (13) and content analysis (12). In the case of quantitative studies, only two methods are used: surveys, in 16 studies representing 57.14% of the total; and data clustering, in 12 records (16.44%). Mixed methods are used in six papers: [ID03] use a methodological triangulation approach that combines the monitoring of data on a streaming channel on Twitch with interviews and participant observation; [ID05] combine the development of multi-tier architecture to relate data quantitatively with a qualitative content analysis; [ID14] combine an online survey with direct non-participant observation; [ID36] complement a case study in their research with a survey; [ID61] use both in-person surveys and semi-struc-
tured interviews; and [ID72] combine data mining in a data cluster with video content analysis.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4.** *Comparison of qualitative and quantitative methods*</figcaption></figure>

Source: *created by the authors.*

**3.3 Objects of study and associated disciplines**

The records selected take a variety of approaches to their objects of study (Figure 5). Applying the categories proposed Cabeza-Ramírez et al. (2021), more than half of the studies (54%) focus on Twitch (19%), streamers (21%) or viewers (13%). There is only one study focusing on the message [ID125] while the rest (46%) explore a combination of objects of study and approaches.

Given that communication studies is the academic discipline that concerns this review, it is not surprising that the majority of the publications are in this area (40 records, 54.8%). A notable disciplinary sub-category is human-computer interaction (HCI), with 21 records (28.77%), while computer science and psychology each represent much smaller proportions of the sample (5.4% and 4.1%, respectively).
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5.** *Objects of study*</figcaption></figure>

*Source: created by the authors.*

**3.4 Theoretical frameworks of articles in the sample**

A distinction was identified between articles adopting a specific theoretical framework and those that included literature reviews, the latter being the predominant approach (64.38%). A total of 15% of the publications combine a review of the literature with the analysis and application of social theories, while only 2.7% (2 articles) are based exclusively on social theories. Table 2 presents a summary of the theories used in the sample.

<table><caption>**Table 2.** *Summary of theories used*</caption><thead><tr><td>Theory</td><td>Reference</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Uses and gratifications theory</td><td>[ID15]<br/>[ID52]</td></tr><tr><td>Cognitive valuation theory</td><td>[ID27]</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Social capital theory and theories and perspective on parasocial interaction means-end chain theory</td><td>[ID30]</td></tr><tr><td>Means-end chain theory</td><td>[ID49]</td></tr><tr><td>Affordances theory</td><td>[ID53]</td></tr><tr><td>Self-determination theory</td><td>[ID56]<br>[ID73]</td></tr><tr><td>Foucauldian theory and perspective</td><td>[ID70]</td></tr></table>

Source: created by the authors.

## 3.5 Relevant results of the studies analysed

This systematic review has made it possible to identify key contributions, potential contradictions and opportunities for further research, while also determining the consensus on the object of study and explaining the scholarly interest it has aroused. Table 3 presents a summary of the main points addressed in the articles that make up the sample, which are discussed below. The data package available includes the complete list of the articles, ordered according to the numbering system used in the table.

### 3.5.1 Importance and consequences of social interaction

Social interaction is key to understanding the live-streaming phenomenon, as it effectively underpins its activity [ID52] and is recognised as a source of its success [ID69]. Both socialisation and the emotional connections established in the community are crucial for attracting and retaining audiences [ID49], [ID15], [ID27]. Live-streaming elicits a high level of audience engagement through its combination of audiovisual content with paratextual dialogue [ID69], creating a sense of belonging, affective networks, socialisation and entertainment, all of which has a positive psychological impact on viewers. There are various factors that influence socialisation on Twitch, including gender [ID40], age [ID14], the influencer's personality [ID12]; [ID27]: [ID53], the viewer's role [ID61] and the platform's community guidelines [ID08]. The combination of these factors may have either negative or positive social and economic effects.
<table><caption>**Table 3.** *Summary of results*</caption><thead><tr><td>Results by categories</td><td>Articles</td><td>Main contributions</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Social interaction</td><td>[ID01], [ID05], [ID08], [ID10], [ID12], [ID14], [ID21], [ID22], [ID25], [ID26], [ID27], [ID30], [ID32], [ID33], [ID34], [38], [ID40], [ID44], [ID49], [ID52], [ID53], [ID61], [ID62], [ID68], [ID70]</td><td>The activity of the <i>live-streaming</i> phenomenon is primarily based on social interaction between users, with potential consequences both negative and positive for the user's health and well-being.</td></tr><tr><td>Gender factor</td><td>[ID06], [ID07], [ID08], [19], [ID28], [ID32] [ID34], [ID39], [ID40], [ID41], [ID43], [ID47], [ID54], [ID55], [ID57], [ID59], [ID64]</td><td>The gender with which viewers identify, and the gender of content creators is key to researching the phenomenon. The live-streaming experience varies depending on the gender perceived by viewers, sometimes leading to extreme harassment and harmful behaviours directed at the individual.</td></tr><tr><td>The figure of streamer</td><td>[ID02], [ID14], [ID17], [ID23], [ID44], [ID47], [ID48], [ID49] [ID53], [ID61], [ID62], [ID63], [ID68], [ID69], [ID71], [ID72]</td><td>The professional profile of the streamer is diverse and supports an entire business structure. They all carry out their activities with the goal of engaging viewers to build a community and encourage financial investment in their channel.</td></tr><tr><td>Twitch: the platform and its influence</td><td>[ID06], [ID16], [ID18], [ID22], [ID23], [ID24], [ID27], [ID31], [ID35], [ID36], [ID37], [ID45], [ID51], [ID63], [ID72], [ID73]</td><td>Twitch.tv plays a key role as a platform linked to the video game industry and marketing. Currently, it is no longer possible to solely associate the platform and its most popular content with the world of video games. There are issues and a lack of regulation regarding the labour relations between influencers and the platform.</td></tr><tr><td>The role of moderators</td><td>[ID30], [ID58], [ID60], [ID62]</td><td>It is the user profile that arises from online communities, playing a crucial role in enforcing rules and regulations during a live-streaming session.</td></tr><tr><td>Education and scientific dissemination</td><td>[ID03], [ID04], [ID29], [ID42]</td><td>Live-streaming emerges as a real possibility for an alternative and participatory form of education. Gamification is a central element in educational experiences, and empirical sciences are predominant in the disseminated content.</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: *created by the authors.*
## Positive effects

There is evidence that socialisation in this context is not inherently negative. Consuming limited amounts of different content results in a better entertainment experience and the communities created can offer emotional support and positively influence their members (Table 3). Attending online events, participating regularly in chats and sharing personal information in an environment regulated by moderators can help build a healthy, engaged community [ID30]; [ID49].

From the Foucauldian perspective adopted by [ID70], receiving gratifications, establishing relationships and taking part in shared experiences in the same space are ways that users exercise their freedom. In this context, subscriptions and donations to the channels are founded on users' decision-making capacity. Consequently, the revenues that streamers generate from live-streaming are higher and more consistent than revenues from other sources.

## Negative effects

According to [ID05] positive social effects play a crucial role in the clinical evaluation of pathological video game use, which can be extrapolated to the platform. This condition is associated with three factors: playing video games or watching live-streams as a way of escaping reality, experiencing intense negative feelings when unable to do so; and spending a gradually increasing amount of time gaming or viewing content.

Social interaction supported by gamification techniques [ID22] serves as a strategy for live-streamers to increase engagement and thus to monetise their activity. The more time users spend viewing live-streams, the more likely they are to spend money on donations or subscriptions, which are the channels' main sources of revenue [ID15]. Subscriptions, donations and cheers on Twitch are driven by a social motivation associated with gaining prestige within the community, although their economic basis can distort the perception of their emotional worth, resulting in conflicts when economic value and social value are confused.

The motivations for belonging to competitive gaming communities on live-streaming platforms are associated with an increased likelihood of offensive comments. Protection against these behaviours is limited due to the vagueness of
the platform's community guidelines, which can result in negative social interactions depending on the user's personality [ID05]; [ID08].

### 3.5.2 Inequality, the gender factor and harassment

Women continue to have their legitimacy as participants undermined on Twitch's gaming spaces [ID08] and a clear gender bias is evident on the platform, with women tending to focus more on social interaction and to address humorous topics [ID49]. Only 16.9% of Twitch users are women [ID15]; [ID53].

The findings of this review reveal a sexist, heteronormative dynamic, as evidenced in research by [ID29]. On the one hand, it has been found that male viewers are more likely to watch female streamers who wear provocative clothing, and to make donations to streamers of the opposite sex [ID07]. On the other hand, users are more likely to engage in parasocial relationships and make donations to streamers of the same gender, and content creators who actively promote gender homophily generally attract a bigger audience [ID54].

[ID39] identified a greater tendency toward objectification of streamers in chats on female channels than on male channels. [ID40] describes this systemic sexual discrimination in live chats as subtle, he also acknowledges that there are also occasional blatant cases of aggression, such as devaluing the work of female influencers on Twitch [ID55]; [ID57], employing humour to express harmful attitudes [ID19] and using explicit terms such as “titty streamer” [ID47].

Another significant problem on the platform is harassment, which can be broken down into five categories: sexual harassment; expressions of hate (racism, sexism, homophobia and transphobia); offline harassment; physical attacks; and “backseating” [ID58].

### 3.5.3 The streamer

Streamers themselves are often an object of study. Audience management, leadership and the challenges associated with public exposure are the main topics explored. However, although leadership and personification are characteristic features of this form of communication [ID02]; [ID17]; [ID53], content creators rely on a whole social structure that supports and sustains them [ID44]. The community created around streamers feeds off the activity and participation of their audience [ID14].
The main factor determining the decision to subscribe to a channel is the visual design of both the channel and the website, as it reflects the personality and style of the streamer [ID53]. Other qualities such as the streamer's gender, skills and communication style also have a significant influence on this decision [ID61].

### 3.5.4 Influence and evolution of Twitch

Twitch has emerged as an essential platform in the gaming and marketing industries [ID22]; [ID23]; [ID27]; [ID72]; [ID73]. Perhaps surprisingly, the platform has begun making use of traditional media formats such as radio and television ([ID36]; [ID45]; [ID51]. This move towards other media formats, which is especially notable in the Spanish-speaking community, reached a watershed moment in 2020 in the context of the confinement and isolation resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns [ID51]. Despite the content and format changes, key aspects of live-streaming remain the same, such as the chat function, which facilitates collective, participatory media consumption [ID16].

### 3.5.5 The moderator

As characteristic features of online communities [ID61], moderators have attracted considerable scholarly attention. The moderator's role is of vital importance to social interactions in live-streaming communities as they not only monitor compliance with the community guidelines but also enhance the dynamic quality of the streaming experience. As mentioned above, their importance to the community makes moderators role models for other users [ID30] and they promote positivity through active conversations. Other important roles played by moderators include assisting the streamer with technical issues and combating harassment in order to maintain a safe space for all users.

### 3.5.6 Potential of live-streaming for education

Live-streaming offers possibilities for collaborative work. The use of the platform for educational purposes in the field of computer science constitutes an example of the potential for its development as an alternative form of education [ID29]. Gamification has become the key feature of the educational experiences offered on the platform, with the design of work rooms that facilitate the simultaneous participation of all users in real time. Different interactive modes such as the chat
function and the integration of images are combined to enrich the user experience through a higher level of interaction than what is offered on other virtual platforms [ID03]. [ID69] highlight the multi-screen experience that allows users to view different kinds of live content and interact at the same time.

## 4. Discussion

This discussion focuses on the findings of the systematic review of the literature on live-streaming on Twitch, stressing its significance as a constantly evolving sociocultural phenomenon. As Twitch becomes consolidated as a space for social interaction, complex dynamics are emerging that affect both content creators and their audiences. The possibility of interacting in real time with streamers and other users creates affective bonds and reinforces the feeling of community among viewers. This potential for facilitating engagement explains much of the platform's appeal and its continued popularity. However, some of the studies reviewed warn of the risks associated with prolonged use, which may lead to pathological behaviours such as social isolation or emotional dependence, exacerbated by the use of gamification techniques aimed at monetising online activity.

The research also highlights persistent gender inequality and harassment on the platform, which call for critical attention. In particular, women face higher levels of harassment, as confirmed by numerous studies documenting cases of objectification and verbal aggression towards them in chats. This harassment not only affects the perception of safety on the platform but also limits the development of an equitable participatory experience. Although measures have been implemented to moderate user behaviour on the platform, current policies appear to be insufficient to effectively address the sexist dynamic present in the community.

Moreover, the transformation of the streamer into a character with a hybrid role as both an entertainer and a marketer raises questions about the sustainability of this model in the future. This development reflects Twitch's transformation into a space where streamers not only create content but also manage communities and establish intense parasocial relationships with their audiences. This model allows them to professionalise their activity and earn revenue through donations, subscriptions and sponsorships. The studies reviewed confirm that streamers benefit
from their capacity to engage their audience emotionally, thereby consolidating their position in the digital economy.

Twitch has ceased to be a platform focused exclusively on gaming to become a diversified media outlet offering services ranging from education to cultural entertainment. Its evolution towards formats more characteristic of traditional media, such as television and radio, reflects its ability to adapt and grow beyond the gaming world. This transformation reinforces Twitch's role as a key player in the reconfiguration of the digital media ecosystem, offering new opportunities for content creators and advertisers alike.

## 5. Conclusions

The live-streaming phenomenon is an object of study that is gaining increasing scholarly interest. The articles selected for this review date back only as far as 2017, indicating that this is a particularly recent body of academic literature. Despite the nascent quality of this field of study, a few main lines of research can be identified: (1) social interaction, which is the biggest focus of the scholarly output, with special attention to the factors shaping the relationship between users and streamers; (2) the notion of the streamer as a social media influencer; and (3) the live-streaming platform as a new media format with a huge influence on the gaming industry.

The Twitch platform reflects the shift towards thematic diversification being taken by these technology companies, which are embracing traditional media formats such as radio and television. Live-streaming is rapidly expanding, as is scholarly output on this phenomenon. This highlights the need to establish consistent, systematic terminology related to conventional media, social media, online platforms and content creators.

The new media environment and the emergence of new media formats are changing our understanding of what defines and delimits a media outlet and its main agents. This systematic review confirms that Twitch is one of the most innovative platforms in the world of digital audiovisual communication. Further research into the live-streaming phenomenon is needed to understand the future
of audiovisual communication and to clarify where this media trend, fashion or
revolution is headed.

A number of opportunities for future research on live-streaming and Twitch
have been identified in this review. In particular, two lines of research could great-
ly enrich the work done so far in this area. The first involves theoretical approach-
es exploring asymmetrical relationships and user behaviour on Twitch. These could
include studies based on the uses and gratifications theory, the self-determination
theory or the self-expansion model, given that these do not take into account the
unique media features of online live-streaming. The second would be studies of
the profile of the compulsive consumer and the pathological use of the platform
associated with gaming. For example, an analysis of users' gaming skills and the
progress they make while playing has rarely been included in studies of disrup-
tive behaviours and how they can influence communication and social interaction
processes.

This review has identified a number of gaps in the research that offer future
opportunities for study in this field. These include:

1. Identification of the key elements that distinguish live-streaming platforms from other social media platforms. Twitch is a hybrid of a media outlet and a virtual community (based on the idea of a video game "clan" or "guild") with live social interaction and different levels of exclusivity for users (Yoganathan et al., 2021).

2. Analysis of the potential of streamers beyond their popularity or the size of their audience, from the perspective of micro-communities and digital ethnography. Little is known about the social effects of platform mechanisms such as the "host" and "raid" functions, which content creators use to interact with other communities and to increase the visibility of other streamers. Researchers could examine what motivates streamers to use these mechanisms, how streamers on other channels are selected or how cooperation is perceived on the platform itself.

3. Studies of the relationship between player skills and time invested on the live-streaming channel, and how this affects social interactions and the pursuit of the objectives of the communication processes on the platform, such as monetising streamer activity or to improving the interaction.
4. In-depth research into gender differences in Twitch's most obvious elements (streamers, viewers, and the social interactions between them), in view of the rapid evolution of these platforms and the entry of users of different backgrounds into the live-streaming community.

5. Studies of digital marketing used in live-streaming, from the perspective of advertisers. The reasons for its use and the anticipated benefits and profits that prompt advertisers to choose one content creator over another may be of vital importance for understanding the success or failure of activities on the platform [ID22].

6. Analysis of new trends and user profiles, taking into account the current thematic diversity of channels on Twitch, which include art, talk shows, education, travel, nature and sports.

In general terms, there is a clear need to study the widespread influence of the platforms that have given rise to this social phenomenon outside the platforms themselves. This influence can be seen not only in specific economic sectors such as video game development and design, but also in their expansion and transfer to many other online environments. The analysis of the potential of these phenomena in these different economic sectors will allow researchers to predict how this platform may be used as a new format in the future, how to include it in media strategies, and how to exploit its potential in order to create new networks and promote new business initiatives.

## Authors' contributions

**Alba Marín**: conceptualization, supervision, methodology, resources, writing-original draft, writing-review & editing. **Javier Sevilla San Miguel**: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, visualization, writing-original draft.

**María Victoria Carrillo Durán**: funding acquisition, validation, and writing-review & editing. All authors have read and agree with the published version of the manuscript.
# Conflicts of interest

All authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

# Funding

This work is part of the I+D+i project Innovation ecosystems in the communication industries: Actors, technologies and configurations for the generation of innovation in content and communication (INNOVACOM), with reference PID2020-114007RB-I00, funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation AEI/10.13039/501100011033. The activity in AR-CO research group has been co-financed by the European Union, European Regional Development Fund, and by the Regional Government of Extremadura. Managing Authority: Ministry of Finance. Grant file number: GR24014.

# Data availability

The dataset supporting the results of this study, along with the final sample list used and its corresponding numbering, has been published on Zenodo and is accessible at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14975677. Sevilla-San-Miguel, J., Marín, A., & Carrillo-Durán, M. V. (2025). Live-Streaming Phenomena on Twitch: Systematic Literature Review of International Scientific Research Results_Final Phase of the PRISMA Statement [Data set]. Zenodo.

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