# Electrification of catalytic processes with induction heating: The possible hidden role of non-thermal magnetic fields

Spyridon Zafeiratos, Gilles Ulrich, Jean-Mario Nhut, Christophe Michon, Cuong Pham-Huu

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Spyridon Zafeiratos, Gilles Ulrich, Jean-Mario Nhut, Christophe Michon, Cuong Pham-Huu. Electrification of catalytic processes with induction heating: The possible hidden role of non-thermal magnetic fields. Materials Today Catalysis, 2025, 12, pp.100134. 10.1016/j.mtcata.2025.100134. hal-05415276

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# Electrification of catalytic processes with induction heating: The possible hidden role of non-thermal magnetic fields

Spyridon Zafeiratos<sup>a,*</sup>, Gilles Ulrich<sup>a</sup>, Jean-Mario Nhut<sup>a</sup>, Christophe Michon<sup>b</sup>, Cuong Pham-Huu<sup>a,*</sup> ID

## ARTICLE INFO

### Keywords:

Catalytic methane decomposition – Plastic-to-Olefins upcycling – Induction heating – Magnetically induced catalysis – Carbon catalyst

## ABSTRACT

The electrification of the chemical industry is a crucial step toward moving away from fossil fuels and achieving a more sustainable energy future. In this context, induction heating has emerged as a promising strategy to enhance catalytic performance in both metal-free carbon catalysts and metal-supported systems. This perspective emphasizes its strong potential, showing that induction heating improves performance not only through localized thermal effects but also through possible non-thermal contributions from alternating current magnetic fields. These fields can influence radical lifetimes, spin states, adsorption-desorption equilibria, and defect reactivity, thereby enabling reaction pathways and selectivities that remain inaccessible under conventional heating. Coupling carbon and supported metal catalysts with induction heating also offers an effective way to mitigate deactivation, as defect sites can act as adsorption centers that, under magnetic field stimulation, promote targeted transformations. Direct evidence for non-thermal contributions to catalytic performance remains scarce, mainly due to the limited availability of operando investigations. Nevertheless, the substantial gains in activity and selectivity observed under induction heating cannot be explained solely by localized thermal effects, suggesting an additional non-thermal influence. These findings point toward new opportunities for designing next-generation catalysts with improved operability and stability. In addition, the combined evidence of localized thermal effects, non-thermal field interactions, and the advantages of carbon-based catalysts shows that the synergy between advanced material design and induction heating provides a powerful pathway for electricity-driven catalysis, with significant implications for decarbonizing the chemical industry and advancing the energy transition.

## 1. Introduction

Heterogeneous catalysis is central to most industrial chemical processes, enabling the large-scale production of essential goods. Catalysts typically consist of an active phase, such as a metal or oxide, dispersed

on a high-surface-area support (e.g., alumina or silica) to enhance reactivity and stability [1]. Conventional catalytic reactors are usually heated indirectly by fossil fuel combustion, most often natural gas, which contributes significantly to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [2, 3]. This approach is energy-inefficient because heat must be transferred

**Abbreviations:** ACMF, Alternating current magnetic fields; BTX, Benzene, Toluene, Xylenes; CB, Carbon black; CF, Carbon felt; CCS, Carbon capture and storage; CH, Conventional convection and conduction heating; CJH, continuous Joule heating; CMD, Catalytic Methane Decomposition; δ, Penetration depth; EJ, Exajoule $10^{18}$J; f, Frequency of the magnetic field; FTIR, Fourier-Transformed Infrared; GP, Graphite platelet; GHG, Greenhouse gas; IH, Induction electromagnetic heating; HDPE, High-density polyethylene; LCOH, Leverized cost of hydrogen; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene; LNG, Liquefied natural gas; NZE, Net zero CO2 emissions; PTO, Plastic-to-Olefins; PP, Polypropylene; PS, Polystyrene; RES, Renewable energy sources; RPH, pulse Joule heating; RPM, Radical-pair mechanism; SAED, Selected area electronic diffraction; SEM, Scanning electron microscopy; SSA, Specific surface area m2. g-1; SSCM, Standard cubic centimeter per minute; TEM, Transmission electron microscopy; TGA, Thermal gravimetric analysis; TRL, Technology Readiness Level; WGSR, Water Gas-Shift Reaction; WHSV, Weight Hourly Space Velocity h-1.

<footnote><sup>a</sup> Institute of Chemistry and Processes for Energy, Environment and Health (ICPEES), ECPM, UMR 7515, CNRS-University of Strasbourg, 25 rue Becquerel, Cedex 02, Strasbourg 67087, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications (LIMA), ECPM, UMR 7042, CNRS-University of Strasbourg, 25 rue Becquerel, Cedex 02, Strasbourg 67087, France</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding authors.</footnote>

<footnote>E-mail addresses: spiros.zafeiratos@unistra.fr (S. Zafeiratos), cuong.pham-huu@unistra.fr (C. Pham-Huu).</footnote>
from the burner to the reactor wall and then across the largely insulating catalyst bed, resulting in significant thermal losses [4–7]. To compensate, combustion temperatures must often be maintained well above the reaction conditions [4,5]. Thermal resistance across reactor components further aggravates these inefficiencies, particularly in endothermic reactions, leading to overall energy efficiencies as low as 46 % [8]. Estimates indicate that in 2015, the chemical industry consumed approximately 43 EJ of energy and emitted around 3.3 Gt CO₂-equivalent [9,10]. These limitations underscore the urgent need for more efficient and sustainable heating technologies.

In response to the urgent need for decarbonization, electrification of chemical processes has garnered increasing interest [11–13]. Electrification, powered by renewable energy sources (RES)—projected to supply 64 % of Europe’s energy by 2050—presents a viable route to reduce the sector’s carbon footprint. Surplus renewable electricity can be stored by direct conversion into chemicals, a highly promising long-term storage strategy [14–16]. Electrified heating techniques such as Joule heating [17–19], microwave heating [20–22] and induction heating (IH) [13,23,24], offer significant advantages over traditional combustion-based methods. Among them, IH is well-established across various industrial sectors, offering efficient and localized heating solutions. In catalysis, IH provides direct heating of the catalyst bed, allowing rapid and precise temperature control while minimizing the heating of the surrounding gas phase, thereby reducing unwanted secondary reactions [25,26]. Catalytic reactors heated by IH can operate without preheating the reactant mixture, and the rapid decrease in exit temperature eliminates the need for an additional cooling system. Additionally, IH is compatible with modular, on-demand, and decentralized production units, making it especially attractive for utilizing excess renewable electricity, and for flexible, sustainable process intensification. Small-scale chemical plants powered by IH can significantly reduce transportation needs, lower GHG emissions, and enhance operational safety [27]. The relevance of such distributed systems is underscored by current hydrogen infrastructure limitations. For instance, in the United States, only about 1600 miles of hydrogen pipelines are in operation, compared to more than 300,000 miles for natural gas [28]. Blending hydrogen into natural gas networks is technically constrained and subject to national regulations, with allowed concentrations varying widely, and even small amounts can embrittle pipeline materials [29]. With its high technology readiness and compatibility with distributed systems [30,31], IH emerges as a promising route for decentralized hydrogen production and other processes constrained by conventional heat transfer. By enabling catalytic transformations unattainable with standard heating [23,26,32–40], IH stands out as a key pathway of next-generation chemical manufacturing.

Magnetic nanoparticles can serve as efficient heatable media for chemical synthesis under electromagnetic fields, providing a simple and scalable alternative for continuous-flow and industrial applications [41]. The potential advantages of IH, particularly the interplay between alternating current magnetic fields (ACMF) and catalytic active sites, have been highlighted in several recent reviews [13,42–44]. These works underline the significant gains in activity and stability achievable under ACMF compared to conventional heating, which remains constrained by heat-transfer and thermal-management limitations. Despite these promising results, further efforts are required to explore and understand ACMF-related effects that could accelerate the electrification of hard-to-electrify chemical processes, especially in the field of heterogeneous catalysis.

Besides magnetic compounds, IH can also efficiently heat conductive materials, such as metals or graphite, through eddy currents [45,46]. Carbon materials in particular, either pure or doped with heteroelements, have been widely studied as metal-free catalysts in diverse reactions over the past decades [47–53]. In parallel, metal-free carbon-based catalysts have emerged as attractive alternatives to noble-metal systems [54–56]. They combine high thermal and electrical conductivity with strong chemical and mechanical robustness,

resistance to poisoning, and a reduced environmental footprint due to simpler synthesis and easier disposal [54–56]. Recent studies from our group [43,57] show that, unlike traditional catalysts [58–60], the catalytic activity of carbon materials is not primarily dictated by surface area, opening new possibilities for catalyst design. Their intrinsic conductivity also makes them well-suited for IH, enabling uniform heat distribution and minimizing hot-spot formation within the catalyst bed. Combining IH with carbon-based catalysts presents a powerful approach to improve both catalytic efficiency and sustainability. The careful selection of carbon susceptor enables fine-tuning of the dielectric loss tangent (tan δ), which governs the efficiency of heating under electromagnetic fields, as detailed in reference [61]. This highlight how the physical properties of the carbon, such as electrical conductivity and connectivity, control the conversion of electromagnetic energy into thermal energy.

As illustrated in Fig. 1, the broader transition to sustainable chemical manufacturing depends on coupling renewable electricity with hydrogen production, CO₂ recycling, and circular carbon flows. Unlike conventional linear processes, where fossil carbon ends as waste or lost emissions, electrified pathways can close the loop through CO₂ capture, utilization, and storage, combined with efficient separation and reutilization of waste streams. Renewable electricity thus plays a dual role: providing direct power for electrified heating technologies such as IH, and enabling the generation of clean hydrogen and carbon-based feedstocks that sustain a net-zero carbon cycle. Embedding catalysis within this electrified, circular framework establishes the foundation for truly decarbonized chemical production.

Hydrogen can be produced from different routes including water electrolysis, Steam Methane Reforming with Carbon Capture, Separation, and Utilization (SMR_CCSU), catalytic methane (biomethane) decomposition (CMD), biomass or waste-plastic pyrolysis [62]. CMD is particularly attractive as a low-carbon pathway because it yields solid carbon directly, avoiding the costly CO₂ capture and storage steps associated with SMR-CCSU. For biomass and non-biomass waste feedstocks, long-distance transportation is neither economically viable nor favorable from a carbon-footprint perspective. This makes electrified small modular reactors, operating on-site and on-demand, an appealing option. Such a shift requires the development of new chemical processes, including the implementation of high-efficiency electrified heating modes, the design of catalysts with low sensitivity to deactivation (replacing sensitive metal-supported systems with more robust metal-free catalysts whenever possible), and the simplification of operational procedures.

Several national and international roadmaps have been established to accelerate the decarbonization policies to meet the Net Zero Emissions (NZE) targets, and to reduce the use of gas burners for operating chemical processes. Notable initiatives include the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA), which promotes the development of technologies for strategic sectors such as renewable energy, digital infrastructure, aerospace and defence [63,64], and the large-scale electrically heated e-steam reformer developed jointly by BASF, SABIC, and Linde [65]. A recent review by Karibe et al. summarizes ongoing efforts to electrify the chemical sector, comparing different electrified heating modes, induction, microwave, and plasma, with conventional gas burners [66]. In parallel, the EU Commission has launched major investment programs to scale up renewable and low-carbon fuel production, aiming to accelerate the deployment of sustainable fuels for aviation and maritime transport [67]. Comprehensive scenarios for decarbonizing difficult-to-electrify industrial sectors have also been detailed in an extensive review by Shaw et al., which outlines pathways to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of U.S. industry [68].

Beyond thermal effects (e.g., hot spots, rapid heating, uniform temperature profiles), IH also generates electromagnetic fields that may influence catalytic mechanisms through non-thermal effects. Emerging studies suggest that ACMF can (i) alter adsorption-desorption dynamics, (ii) affect intermediate lifetimes, radical formation and pairing and spin
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1.** Strategic pathways toward sustainable, electrified chemical manufacturing: Net-zero vision for hard-to-electrify industries through the replacement of fossil feedstocks with renewable energy, clean hydrogen, and circular carbon sources (CO₂, biomass, waste), supported by efficient separations according to that proposed in Ref. [68].</figcaption></figure>

alignment, (iii) enhance catalyst activity and shift product distributions to improve selectivity. These effects open new possibilities in catalysis by enabling reaction pathways that are inaccessible under conventional heating. Although several studies have investigated magnetic susceptors [69–76], metal-free carbon catalysts remain comparatively underexplored, despite their abundance, low cost, structural tunability, and thermal stability.

This perspective focuses on the role of ACMFs during IH to enhance catalytic performance in both metal-free and metal-supported systems. We focus on gas-phase catalytic reactions, where most evidence on ACMF effects exists, though the same principles apply broadly to liquid-phase and solution systems. For carbon catalysts, we highlight two strategically important processes: catalytic methane decomposition (CMD) for turquoise hydrogen, and plastic waste conversion into light olefins and aromatics. CMD offers hydrogen production with minimal CO₂ emissions, while IH enables decentralized, on-demand operation that reduces transport-related emissions. Plastic waste conversion addresses both plastic pollution and the growing demand for primary chemicals such as ethylene and propylene, projected to rise by 40–60% by 2050 [77]. Together, these processes contribute to carbon cycle closure and more sustainable chemical production. For metal-supported catalysts, we examine the possible influence of magnetic fields on benchmark reactions such as CO₂ methanation, ammonia decomposition, CO oxidation, and methane dry reforming under IH.

The objectives are to (i) demonstrate the catalytic advantages of carbon-based catalysts under IH, even with low-surface-area commercial materials, (ii) explore how magnetic fields may influence performance beyond heat generation through field-induced effects on active sites and intermediates, and (iii) suggest that IH can both localize heat and potentially modify reaction mechanisms, opening avenues for innovative catalyst and process design. From a broader perspective, this review calls for deeper investigation of non-thermal and field-driven effects in catalysis, an emerging but still underexplored domain with strong potential for decentralized, energy-efficient, and sustainable chemical manufacturing.

## 2. Magnetic field and catalysis

In recent years, progress in the field of catalysis relies heavily on strategies such as tuning the exposed active sites, doping with foreign elements [78,79] and modifying interactions between the active phase and the support. While these approaches have led to gradual improvements in catalytic performance, they often involve substantial time and cost investments, primarily due to the complex synthesis procedures required for such advanced catalysts. To overcome these limitations, the introduction of new concepts—both in catalyst design and in the use of external stimuli—has emerged as a promising direction to address critical challenges in catalysis. One such approach involves the application of an ACMFs, which can serve as an external energy input. In the presence of an ACMF, electromagnetic energy is transferred into the catalytic system, promoting processes such as radical and charge generation, transformation of reaction intermediates, and defect-mediated reactions. These effects have the potential to significantly enhance overall catalytic efficiency [79–81].

In the context of IH, ACMFs typically operate in the range of 100–800 kHz, with magnetic field strength from a few to several tens of millitesla (mT), depending on reactor geometry and material properties [13,42,43]. The magnetic field frequency (in Hz) and strength (in mT) are inversely related in practical IH systems. For this reason, IH systems are usually designed so that high frequencies use lower strength to keep heating localized at the surface, while low frequencies use higher strengths to allow the magnetic field to penetrate deeper and heat the bulk of the material more uniformly. In practical terms, weak fields (<10 mT) are typically applied at high frequencies (≈500–800 kHz) and are used to probe subtle non-thermal effects such as spin alignment, radical stabilization, or selective activation of surface sites, where heating remains mild and spatially confined. Moderate fields (≈10–50 mT), generally operated at intermediate frequencies (≈200–500 kHz), are the most common in laboratory-scale catalytic IH studies, providing efficient and uniform heating while keeping power input and magnetic losses manageable. Strong fields (>50–100 mT) are usually applied at lower frequencies (≈50–200 kHz) in large-scale or high-power
applications that require rapid bulk heating, deep energy penetration, or fast temperature ramps—such as magnetic nanoparticle hyperthermia or industrial catalytic processes. Even at moderate intensities, ACMFs can influence catalytic performance through various physicochemical mechanisms. Their effects have been widely explored in electrocatalysis [82–84], where both experimental and theoretical studies have revealed distinct pathways by which magnetic fields can modulate reaction behaviour:

**Modification of Radical Intermediates:** ACMFs can affect the generation, lifetime, and recombination of radical intermediates. These changes directly impact their adsorption behavior on the catalyst surface and, consequently, the reaction kinetics [85]. Spin Manipulation: ACMFs can modulate the spin states of free radicals and intermediate species, including those adsorbed on or near the catalyst surface. By switching radical intermediates between singlet and triplet states, the ACMFs can favor certain recombination pathways over others or open alternative ones, thereby altering product distributions and selectivity [86,87]. Influence on Catalyst Structure and Electronic Properties: During catalyst synthesis, ACMFs may influence nucleation, crystal growth, morphology, and particle size [88–90]. These changes often induce anisotropy, which alters both the structural and electronic characteristics of the catalyst and also the products. Modulation of Mass and Energy Transport: ACMFs can alter the transport dynamics of mass and energy within the reaction medium, leading to changes in reaction mechanisms and potentially lowering activation energy barriers [91]. Effect on Charge Carrier Dynamics and Electrode Magnetization: As an external physical stimulus, ACMFs influence the motion of electric charges, affecting charge transport and reaction kinetics. In electro-catalytic systems, this may result in the magnetization of electrodes and an increase in magnetic current [92], thereby enhancing overall

electrochemical performance.

While ACMFs effects have been extensively studied in electro-catalysis and photocatalysis, their role in heterogeneous catalytic systems, particularly under medium- to high-temperature conditions, remains relatively underexplored, despite emerging evidence of promising synergies between IH and tailored catalysts. This gap is likely due to limited mechanistic understanding, underscoring the need for further studies to unlock their broader application.

### 3. ACMFs and graphene-based carbon catalysts

Carbon materials, particularly diamagnetic graphene, develop a weak induced magnetic moment under an external magnetic field, leading to sheet alignment opposite to the field direction (Fig. 2a,b) [93]. This moment originates from the orbital motion of π-electrons opposing the applied field but is extremely weak, on the order of 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁸ Bohr magnetons per carbon atom, so pristine graphene responds only under ultra-high magnetic fields (10–12 T) [94]. Magnetic properties of graphene can be enhanced through functionalization with organic molecules (e.g., nitrophenyl, hydroxyl) [95], as demonstrated by Lin et al., who showed that functionalized graphene becomes para-magnetic and aligns under much lower fields (e.g., 24 mT) [96]. This enables the oriented alignment of carbon nanosheets, with the c-axis perpendicular to the applied field [97].

In addition, magnetic moments in graphene can also be introduced through defect engineering, including vacancies, hydrogen adsorption, or adatom incorporation [98–101]. Such defects can distort the lattice, influence spin states, and enhance photocatalytic activity by modifying adsorption/desorption of intermediates [102]. Zigzag edges in graphene possess localized spins and unpaired electrons, which can generate

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2.** Schematic of graphene nanosheets and orientational configurations under (a) static magnetic fields where the c-axis is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field and (b) ACMFs where the c-axis is perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the applied magnetic field [93]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier. (c, d) SEM micrographs of the graphite-like layered structure with an orientation of c-axis perpendicular with respect to the internal magnetic field in the particle on the spent GP catalyst during the CMD process operated under IH (proprietary data).</figcaption></figure>
intrinsic magnetism [103], while vacancy-hydrogen complexes and related defects further contribute to magnetic properties [104–106]. Recently, spin-polarization of edge states was detected in graphene nanoribbons, where electron correlations are responsible for the spin-splitting of the electronic structure [107].

In catalytic processes such as CMD and Plastic-to-Olefins (PTO) processes, carbon forms from gaseous reactants and subsequently deposited on the pristine carbon catalyst surface. At elevated temperatures, the high conductivity of deposited carbon induces higher eddy currents and surface heating, generating secondary magnetic fields that promote structural alignment. In combination with external field, these effects drive the formation of graphite-like layered carbon oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field, as observed only under IH (Fig. 2c, d). This visual evidence supports the occurrence of magnetic-field-induced structural ordering during the reaction.

The magnetic field penetration depth, δ, depends on the magnetic field frequency (f), the material’s electrical conductivity (σ), and its magnetic permeability (μ) according to:

$$δ = 1/\sqrt{(π f μ σ)} \qquad (1)$$

Increasing the frequency of the alternating magnetic field reduces δ, confining induced currents near the surface and promoting localized surface heating. Conversely, lower frequencies allow deeper field penetration, leading to more uniform, volumetric heating. Since δ also decreases with increasing electrical conductivity, highly conductive materials naturally favor surface-dominated heating. During catalytic processes such as carbon formation, the progressive increase in conductivity shifts the heating mode from volumetric to surface-controlled, directly influencing catalyst efficiency and thermal distribution. Thermal distribution is further affected by catalyst bed morphology (e.g., extrudates, rings, felt), intrinsic conductivity (graphite vs. mesoporous carbon with low graphitization degree), and connectivity (e.g., carbon felt or foam). Materials with a high degree of graphitization and interconnected structures provide superior heat conduction and reduced energy input (Fig. 3a) for operating catalytic process, i.e. catalytic methane decomposition, as evidenced by the lower power requirement for heating up the carbon felt (CF, with high interwoven entanglement degree), compared to the more resistive mesoporous carbons in extrudates or ring shapes (granular structure with loose connectivity), or to a rolled cardboard coated with a thin layer of graphene, acting as

susceptor. In such connected structure the heat is rapidly transferred within the carbon catalyst through the interaction between the catalyst and the magnetic field, providing heating skin effect, which heated up the catalyst through direct conduction according to the simulation process based from experimental data (Fig. 3b and c).

# 4. Magnetic field effects in induction-heated carbon catalysis: beyond thermal enhancement

## 4.1. Non-thermal vs thermal effect

Traditionally, enhanced performance under induction or microwave (MW) heating has been attributed to "hot spot" formation, i.e. localized heating from selective absorption of electromagnetic energy by magnetic catalyst particles [108–111]. These hot spots cause local temperature gradients between solids and gas phases, which can enhance selectivity and conversion [112–115]. However, accurate measurement of hot spot temperatures remains challenging due to experimental limitations as the high coupling between the thermocouple and the ACMFs induces temperature runaway making reliable measurements unaccurate [116–119]. In addition to thermal effects, non-thermal electromagnetic interactions have also been proposed to influence reactivity. For instance, in microwave heating, non-thermal effects can manifest through the generation of electron-hole pairs in semiconductors [120], the enhancement of electron transfer via collective vibrations [121], or the stabilization of reactive species through field-induced polarization.

Similarly, recent findings indicate that IH can enhance catalytic activity beyond what would be expected from thermal effects alone. Across different processes, IH consistently outperforms CH, suggesting that additional contributions from ACMFs that can modify reaction pathways, adsorption dynamics, and intermediate stability [122]. Magnetic fields are also known to influence reaction rates by modifying radical stability, adsorption energetics, and spin dynamics [60,123–126]. For example, Kiatphuangorn et al. observed a 50% increase in CO₂ hydrogenation rate on Fe/MCM-41 under a 30 mT static magnetic field, attributed to changes in physisorption and activation energy [123]. Rodgers and Pan et al. further described a radical pair mechanisms (RPM) in which magnetic-field-induced singlet–triplet transitions affect product selectivity [125,126].

These effects are particularly relevant for carbon-based catalysts,

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3. (a) Methane conversion, power input, and hydrogen productivity during the CMD as a function of the different carbon catalysts with different shape, electrical conductivity and connectivity. Legend: MesoC+ 1 = mesoporous carbon in an extrudate shape with 1 mm in diameter, MesoC-ring = mesoporous carbon in a ring shape with 8 mm in outer diameter and 1 mm thickness, CB = rolled cardboard coated with 5 wt% of graphene (susceptor), CF = carbon felt. (b, c) COMSOL software simulation of the magnetic field and the thermal profile inside a catalyst bed constituted by a rolled CF during the CMD process. Data were collected from different experiments carried at ICPEES and the simulation was performed by EMDPI.</figcaption></figure>
where surface defects, adatoms, and vacancies (Fig. 4a) create unpaired electrons that induce local magnetic moments and modify adsorption under magnetic fields [127–132]. Beyond adsorption, defect sites can also enhance intermediate binding, stabilize radicals, and enable reaction pathways that remain inaccessible under CH [85,133–137]. Electronic redistribution from adsorption on defects, particularly CH₃• and CH₂• radicals, is modulated by surface topology and magnetic influence [134,136]. For example, Stone-Wales (SW) defects increase CH₄ binding and dehydrogenation efficiency (Figs. 4b and 4c) [134], contributing to enchantment of methane reactivity [136,137]. Vacancies and edge sites not only introduce local magnetic moments but also serve as high-energy sites (HES) that can activate molecules (like C-H bonds in CH₄). In the case of disordered carbons, activated carbon (AC) and defective graphene, the number of HES significantly increases in an attempt to fulfil their valency and stabilize energies compared to the ordered carbons [138]. Under a magnetic field, these sites might exhibit modified reactivity (for instance, by stabilizing radical intermediates) as suggested by the results presented in Fig. 4a-c. The possible relationship between defects and ACMF will be discussed in more detail in Section 7.

In the CMD reaction, for instance, a mesoporous carbon catalyst under IH reaches up to 50 % CH₄ conversion at 800 °C (Fig. 5a), whereas under indirect Joule heating (JH, Fig. 5b) it achieves only 16 %, and then only at 1000 °C [47]. SEM analyses further revealed graphene-like carbon deposits under IH, forming conductive bridges between particles that enhance heat distribution and field coupling (Fig. 5c). These structured deposits, absent under JH (Fig. 5d), are attributed to temperature gradients and magnetically influenced growth mechanisms rather than heat alone [52]. Such graphitic-like layered carbon structure can be clearly observed in the high-resolution SEM micrographs in Fig. 5e and f. In fact, the temperature, that is to say the local hot spots, could modify the catalytic activity to the maximum but it does not

contribute to the modification of the structure of the carbon itself. Recent work reported by Adogwa et al. has highlighted the direct influence of an ACMFs on the CO oxidation mechanism and confirms the possible contribution of such non-thermal stimuli in the reaction itself [133]. The authors have also pointed out that such influence has only been observed under an ACMFs. The HACA (hydrogen-abstraction–C₂H₂-addition) mechanism likely governs carbon deposition, with radical stabilization by magnetic fields facilitating layered growth [139,140]. Such processes may explain the formation of graphitized, folded-edge carbon observed under IH, structurally similar to that in high-quality graphite [141–143]. Magnetic field-guided nucleation and growth have also been reported in organic semiconductors [144], NiCo and NiMo alloys [145,146], and biomass-derived carbon [147], highlighting general applicability to microstructural control in materials synthesis.

Importantly, the graphitic-like carbon formed during CMD not only influences thermal efficiency and catalytic reactivity during operation, but can also represent a valuable by-product once the reaction is complete. Depending on its structure (e.g., graphite-like vs. amorphous), solid carbon may be valorized as synthetic graphite, carbon black, or graphene precursors, significantly reducing the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) from methane pyrolysis [62]. For now, most CMD processes operated under microwave, plasma, or conventional heating yield carbon with ill-defined, largely amorphous structure, which severely limits post-production applications and hardly contributes to the economic reduction cost of the process. By contrast, carbon produced from CMD under ACMF displays a more ordered structure making it suitable for downstream uses such as electrodes for batteries or the fabrication of lightweight, high-strength C/C composites. According to the observed results, ACMF has a potential to alter the microstructure of the as-produced carbon during the CMD, which was not possible with

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 4.** (a) Common defects in graphene; adatom (A), vacancy (B), and zigzag edge (C)—which can induce local magnetic moments; dashed line shows the unit cell of a magnetic graphene ribbon with spin angular momentum ½. (c) Electron density maps (e/Å³) for pristine graphene (i) and with CH₃• (ii) or CH₂• (iii) admolecules. (a) Reproduced with permission from ref [127] (b) Free energy profiles for CH₄ dissociation on i) pristine graphene (PG), ii) graphene with SW defects and iii) N-doped graphene (zero energy = global minimum). (b) Reproduced with permission from ref [134].</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5.** CH₄ conversion (XCH₄), H₂ productivity (H₂pτ₀), and supplied power (P) as functions of reaction temperature and time-on-stream (TOS) over the mesoporous carbon-based catalyst (MesO·C⁻¹) under (a) direct induction heating (IH) and (b) indirect Joule heating (JH). SEM micrographs of the spent catalysts after (c) IH operation, showing graphene-like sheets within the deposited layer that act as a solid glue connecting the extrudates (arrow); (d) CH operation, showing nodular carbon deposits with a loose structure on the catalyst surface. Adapted from ref [43]. (e, f) High-resolution SEM micrographs showing the microstructure arrangement of the as-deposited graphitic-like carbon in the form of stacked sheets during CMD operated under IH (proprietary data).</figcaption></figure>

other heating modes. In addition, one should note that such ordered carbon structure could also be modified by either changing the pristine carbon shape and nature, or the reaction conditions, i.e. ACMF frequency, magnetic field strength. Such improved catalytic performance could be attributed to a catalysis-driven by defects on the as-produced carbon surface as will be discussed in details in Section 7 of this perspective. In addition, the as-produced carbon is directly stacked on the pristine catalyst surface which contributes to a better management of the carbon unlikely to the other heating modes where fluffy carbon is produced and necessitate the use of large cyclone to recover it from the exit gas stream. Such graphitic-like carbon also displays high apparent density, which could significantly facilitate it transport and processing for downstream application.

A comparative overview of literature results is presented in Fig. 6, clearly demonstrating the superior catalytic performance of carbon catalysts for CMD operated under IH compared with other carbon-based and supported metal catalysts operated under CH [148–155]. For most

carbon catalysts reported in the literature, a sharp decline in methane conversion is observed after only a few hours of reaction [60,148,149, 151,152], attributed to encapsulation of the pristine active sites by the carbon deposit formed during reaction. In contrast, under ACMF, the deposited carbon layer appears to act as an active phase, leading to enhanced CMD activity. Fig. 6b-c illustrates the complete encapsulation of carbon microfilaments by a dense carbon layer while maintaining high CMD performance, highlighting this unusual behavior. It is also worthy to note that supported metal catalysts also exhibit severe deactivation, often within less than 5 h, even at low space velocities [156–159]. Recently, Shekhar et al. reported CMD over supported Fe–Ni catalysts for carbon nanotube production. Although high initial methane conversion was achieved at 700 °C with a GHSV of 1200 mL g(catalyst)⁻¹ h⁻¹, rapid deactivation occurred within only a few hours of operation [160].

The defect- and field-driven effects discussed above, also extend to carbon-based catalysts in plastic-to-olefin (PTO) processes, which
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 6.** (a) Literature comparison of the different carbon catalysts operated under CH and ACMF modes. Legends: MC: mesoporous carbon, AC: Activated carbon, CG: Carbon granules, CF: Carbon felt, CB: Pyrolyzed cardboard coated with graphene. (b, c) The CMD performance on the carbon felt (CF) catalyst remains high despite the complete coating of the pristine CF microfilament by a thick layer of carbon deposit from the reaction, indicating that the deposited carbon itself acts as an active catalytic phase.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.** (a) Fraction and products (light olefins and aromatics) distribution in the gas phase as a function of cycling tests using industrial waste plastic. The HDPE/CF weight ratio is 150 (total weight of HDPE treated = 90 g (feeding rate of 10 g·h⁻¹)), CF catalyst weight = 0.6 g (b) Low magnification SEM micrograph of the spent CF catalyst after cycling tests using HDPE as model waste plastic showing no significant change on the gross morphology. (c-e) Medium magnification showing the presence of a thin and homogeneous carbon layer covering the pristine CF filament with an average thickness at ca. 250 ± 30 nm.</figcaption></figure>
operate at much lower temperatures than CMD. For instance, IH-enabled pyrolysis of High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) over carbon felt (CF) yielded ~43% light olefins at 450 °C with minimal deactivation (Fig. 7a). SEM analysis revealed uniform carbon coverage of the fibers of the CF, with defect-driven active sites suspected to enhance long-term stability. sites.⁵⁷ Indeed, long-term cycling tests show stable catalytic performance despite complete surface coverage by carbon formed during reaction, underscoring the catalytic role of this in situ generated carbon layer. These findings closely parallel those observed in CMD and further highlight the peculiar catalytic properties of carbon layers formed under IH conditions.

While magnetic field effects have been the subject of considerable attention in photocatalysis and electrocatalysis [84,161,162], their role in thermal catalysis (i.e., heterogeneous catalysis) is still scarcely explored. Yet, as shown above, combining IH with defect-rich 2D carbon structures (e.g., graphene nanoribbons or vacancy-doped sheets shown in Fig. 4a) may unlock new mechanisms of activity and selectivity [163–165]. In parallel, emerging concepts such as vibrational strong coupling (VSC) within optical cavities, as reported by Ebbesen and co-workers [166–170], point toward a broader paradigm in which electromagnetic modes—optical, microwave, or magnetic—reshape chemical landscapes by directing energy distribution at molecular interfaces. In this sense, VSC and IH share a common principle: both rely on coupling molecular or electronic states with external electromagnetic stimulus to redistribute energy pathways, thereby reshaping catalytic pathways beyond conventional thermal control.

## 4.2. Relationship between ACMF heating and carbon structure

For carbon materials used as susceptors under ACMF, heating arises primarily from eddy currents generated at the material surface, with the resulting heat transferred through the matrix by conduction. This phenomenon, known as the skin effect, occurs because an ACMF induces a non-uniform current distribution, with the highest current density localized at the surface. The skin depth depends on the ACMF frequency, the electrical conductivity of the material, and the degree of internal connectivity, which governs the efficiency of energy transfer through the matrix. When carbon-based materials are employed directly as metal-free catalysts under ACMF, several prerequisites must be met to ensure efficient energy capture and effective heating of the catalyst bed:

(i) The carbon catalyst or support must have a minimum macroscopic size (typically mm to cm scale) and moderate to high electrical conductivity to absorb electromagnetic radiation and convert it into heat. Sub-mm carbon particles remain largely transparent to electromagnetic fields and require extremely high power to heat. Thermal insulation significantly reduces radiative heat losses, enabling operation at lower power; for example, heating a mesoporous carbon ring (8 × 6 mm, 1 mm thick) to 850 °C required 600 W without insulation but only 160 W with a 3 mm insulating layer.

(ii) Internal connectivity within the carbon material is another key parameter for efficient heat transfer. Eddy currents are generated at the external surface, and the resulting heat must propagate through the matrix via conduction. This depends on both the thermal conductivity of the carbon and the degree of structural connectivity. Few-layer graphene (FLG), for instance, despite its nanometric thickness and micro-metric lateral dimensions, can act as an efficient susceptor when deposited as a thin, loosely connected film on a 3D conductive substrate, enabling effective harvesting of induction energy [171].

(iii) The effective electrical conductivity of the carbon sample—before and after reaction—plays a critical role in converting induced Joule power into usable heat. In processes such as CMD, the progressive deposition of solid carbon can generate an electrically connected conductive network, enhancing the circulation of induced current loops and leading to increased heating efficiency.

# 5. Induction heating of metal-supported catalysts for various reactions

## 5.1. General magnetic field effects

The effects of applied magnetic field on magnetic metal nanoparticles are summarized in Fig. 8 [172]. First, the magnetothermal effect enhances vibrational activation of reactants. Under an ACMFs, magnetic particles generate localized heat that is transferred to nearby catalytic sites, leading to vibrational excitation of adsorbed reactants (Fig. 8a). Second, the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effect mediates the motion of charged species through Lorentz forces arising from the applied field (Fig. 8b). Finally, the magnetic field can induce electron spin polarization, shifting the distribution between singlet and triplet states and thereby influencing reaction pathways through, for example, the priorisation of certain radical recombination over others and thus changing product distributions and selectivity (Fig. 8c). Previous studies on catalytic CO₂ and O₂ reduction, CO and VOC oxidation, and water splitting with magnetized or doped catalysts have shown that spin polarization can enhance efficiency and alter selectivity by lowering activation barriers through stronger catalyst–reagent interactions [133, 173–178]. Under an ACMFs, high-spin states are favored, which, according to the Goodenough–Kanamori rules, provide extra ligand stabilization energy and facilitate adsorbate–catalyst interactions. These effects are more pronounced at high ACMFs frequencies, where spin relaxation is suppressed. Mandel and co-workers further reported that Co-doped iron oxide nanoparticles pre-magnetized under a static magnetic field exhibit aligned magnetic moments due to Co-induced anisotropy, resulting in markedly higher heat generation when exposed to an ACMFs [179].

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

**Fig. 8.** Schematic illustration of magnetic field effects on catalytic nanoparticles. (a) Magnetothermal effect: magnetic particles (grey spheres) under an ACMFs B(t) generate localized heat, transferred to catalytic sites (yellow particles), leading to vibrational excitation of adsorbed reactants (blue spheres with springs). (b) Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effect: motion of charged species (green spheres, negatively charged) is mediated by the Lorentz force (FL) in the presence of a magnetic flux density B (x denotes the direction of B, perpendicular to the plane and pointing inwards; j is the current density). (c) Spin polarization effect: magnetic field induces electron spin polarization, with gray spheres representing electrons, up arrows the spin-up states (triplet), and down arrows the spin-down states (singlet). Reproduced with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry ref [172].
## 5.2. CO₂ methanation over Ni-based catalysts under IH

External magnetic fields have been shown to significantly affect CO₂ methanation activity over Ni catalysts. Wang et al [180], reported a substantial improvement in Ni/activated carbon (Ni/AC) catalysts under IH, achieving the same conversion approximately 60 °C lower than under CH (Fig. 9a). Ghosh et al [181], observed similar behavior with Ni/TiO₂ catalysts prepared by organometallic precursor decomposition show higher CO₂ conversion under IH (~85 %) than under CH (~78 %), with both remaining stable for 45 h on stream. Truong-Phuoc et al. [182] investigated Ni/SiC catalysts with varying Ni loadings (10, 15, 20 %wt. Ni). At 50 % CO₂ conversion, ΔT values between IH and CH modes were 25 °C (10 % Ni), 80 °C (15 % Ni), and 40 °C (20 % Ni). The drop in the temperature difference when going from 15 % to 20 % Ni loading was attributed to the loss of Ni's magnetic properties above its Curie temperature, which reduces hysteresis heating, and to a decrease in surface defect density with larger Ni particle size. Iron carbide nanoparticles (Fe₂,₂C) with controlled crystallinity have been shown to display exceptional magnetic heating efficiency, far exceeding that of conventional magnetic nanoparticles. When combined with catalytic metals such as Ni or Ru and exposed to magnetic excitation, these particles efficiently catalyzed CO₂ hydrogenation in a continuous-flow reactor [183].

## 5.3. Ammonia cracking for H₂ production

The beneficial effect of IH on H₂ production via ammonia

decomposition has been demonstrated by Ma and co-workers [184] over Co/Al₂O₃, who reported a ~100 °C reduction in the reaction temperature required to achieve the same ammonia conversion compared to CH (Fig. 9b). Similarly, Adogwa et al [185], observed remarkable improvements for Ru-based catalysts: a 50-fold increase in conversion below 300 °C for Ru/Fe₃O₄ and a sevenfold increase for Ru/Al₂O₃ under IH relative to CH. These enhancements were attributed to ACMFs-induced spin alignment and realignment of unpaired electrons, which in turn modified the adsorption-desorption dynamics of reactants and intermediates.

## 5.4. CO oxidation

Adogwa et al [133], investigated CO oxidation over Pt/Fe₃O₄ catalysts under both CH and IH modes, ensuring identical temperature profiles and catalyst structures. Under IH, the reaction exhibited over 25-fold higher activity than under CH (Fig. 9c), attributed to modified Pt-FeOₓ interfacial synergies and the facilitated oxidation of adsorbed carbonyl species by atomic oxygen. For preferential CO oxidation (PROX), the same study reported a striking contrast between the two heating modes: while CH resulted in low activity and negligible CO₂ selectivity, IH significantly enhanced low-temperature activity and markedly improved CO₂ selectivity, despite identical measured temperatures. More recent work from the same group ¹⁸⁶ proposed that these enhancements arise from dynamic interactions between reaction intermediates and the catalyst surface, driven by periodic alignment and misalignment of unpaired electrons as a function of ACMF frequency,

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 9.** (a) CO₂ methanation on Ni/AC catalyst operated under IH and CH showing the net improvement in terms of CO₂ conversion, and methane selectivity [180]. (b) Ammonia conversion as a function of the reaction temperature over Co/Al₂O₃ catalyst operated under IH and CH [184]. (c) CO oxidation light-off performances for Pt/Fe₃O₄, Pt/Al₂O₃ + Fe₃O₄ under IH compared to CH modes [133]. (d) Toluene conversion and CO₂ yield on the Co₃O₄ catalyst operated under CH and IH modes [174].</figcaption></figure>

(a) Adapted from ref. (b) Adapted from ref. (c) Adapted from ref. (d) Adapted from ref.
analogous to the catalytic surface resonance concept. According to this concept introduced by Ardagh et al [187], the catalytic activity is enhanced by dynamically modulating adsorbate binding energies through external stimuli. Such effects can be induced by mechanical strain [188–190] or external fields, as illustrated in dynamic Ru-catalyzed ammonia synthesis via surface strain modulation [191]. In contrast, Sa et al [192], observed that a static magnetic field reduced the catalytic performance of Pt-supported, carbon-coated Co nanowires during CO oxidation. This finding opposes the report by Kiatphuengporn et al [123], who noted increased CO₂ hydrogenation activity for Fe/MCM-41 in the presence of a static magnetic field. These contradictory observations highlight the complexity of magnetic-field effects in catalysis and underscore how much of the underlying landscape remains unexplored.

### 5.5. Hydrocarbon and VOC oxidation

Magnetic fields have also been shown to influence VOC oxidation. Hao et al [174], reported a pronounced effect of ACMFs on Co₃O₄ during toluene oxidation. Under IH, the catalyst exhibited a tenfold increase in the toluene oxidation rate at 209 °C compared to CH (Fig. 9d). Electrochemical analyses further revealed that ACMFs enhanced electron mobility within Co₃O₄, promoting electron transfer and generating Co–O interfaces enriched with unpaired electrons. These active sites preferentially adsorb toluene, thereby lowering the activation energy for adsorption and subsequent oxidation. These findings are particularly important because they directly demonstrate how ACMF can alter the reaction mechanism, enabling a clear distinction between thermal and non-thermal contributions. Notably, the results presented here are fully consistent with recent studies [186] showing significant magnetic-field-induced enhancements in CO oxidation under ACMF conditions.

### 5.6. Methane conversion reactions

Pham et al.¹⁷¹ observed superior Dry Reforming of Methane stability with graphene-coated NiCo/SiC catalysts under IH, where the graphene layer enabled efficient heat transfer and possibly facilitated magnetic field-driven desorption of intermediates. The graphene layer used to harvest induction energy is located on the surface, just above the active phase particles, and therefore only heats the latter and does not induce excessive hot spots inside the bulk catalyst. This rules out the hypothesis that the better catalytic performance is due to local hot spots and strengthen the fact, once again, that non-thermal stimuli, such as the associated ACMFs, could play a role in improving catalytic performance.

### 5.7. Direct propane dehydrogenation

Ko et al. recently reported enhanced direct propane dehydrogenation (PDH) over Pt-based catalysts operated under ACMF using stainless steel beads as susceptors [193]. The Pt/Al₂O₃ catalyst displayed markedly improved PDH performance under ACMF compared with CH, achieving a propane conversion of approximately 7 % versus 3 % after 160 min on stream, along with a notable increase in propylene selectivity. Detailed analysis revealed that a static magnetic field exerted virtually no influence on the catalytic performance. This observation is consistent with earlier findings on Pt/Fe₃O₄ catalysts for CO oxidation, where static magnetic fields similarly showed no measurable effect on catalytic activity. [133]

Taken together, these results show that while local thermal effects (hot spots) significantly enhance catalytic activity under IH, non-thermal magnetic influences may also contribute. A key challenge remains disentangling these thermal and non-thermal contributions, largely due to the lack of precise temperature measurements at catalyst surfaces where hot spots and magnetic interactions coexist. Current research increasingly focuses on operando approaches, such as

induction coil-integrated FTIR, to probe mechanisms under IH and to mitigate hot-spot formation. Future work combining defect engineering with controlled magnetic field exposure may pave the way for rational catalyst design with improved efficiency and a reduced carbon footprint.

To further clarify the interplay between established thermal contributions and possible non-thermal effects discussed above, Table 1 summarizes key phenomena reported under IH. The table contrasts well-documented thermal advantages with emerging hypotheses involving magnetic field-driven effects. While these non-thermal effects remain under investigation and require additional operando validation, this overview underscores that, although IH provides clear thermal benefits, the influence of ACMF on catalytic pathways continues to be an active and evolving area of research.

## 6. Energy efficiency of ACMF versus conventional heating modes

It is well established that ACMF exhibits superior heat transfer efficiency compared to conventional heating technologies. Typically, up to 84 % of the supplied power is effectively transferred to the catalytic bed under ACMF, whereas electric radiant and gas heating systems achieve only about 71 % and 40 %, respectively [194]. Even higher efficiencies, up to 95 %, have been reported in specific systems, such as food pasteurization processes [195], and in large reactors (diameter > 1 m) operated under high-voltage radio frequency fields [196]. However, the overall efficiency strongly depends on the nature of the susceptor and the dominant heating mechanism—whether through magnetic hysteresis losses in magnetic materials or eddy current generation in electrical conductors. For carbon-based materials used in catalytic methane decomposition (CMD), simulations indicate that energy efficiencies between 81 % (lab-scale) and 87 % (pilot-scale) can be achieved, as shown in Fig. 10 [197]. This improvement with scale arises from reduced thermal losses due to a lower surface-to-volume ratio [37]. Additionally, Hao et al [174], reported approximately 95 % energy savings during the heating phase and around 50 % savings during the reaction stage compared to CH. These findings further highlight the strong advantage of ACMF over traditional convective and conductive heating methods in terms of both thermal efficiency and energy economy.

It is also important to note that ACMF offers a promising route toward the decentralization of industrial plants, providing a viable alternative to large, centralized facilities powered by gas burners. This “plug-and-play” approach could significantly reduce costs associated with raw material and product transportation, enabling localized, modular, and on-demand production. A clear example of the potential benefits of decentralization is found in hydrogen production and distribution. According to the H₂@Scale initiative and the U.S. DOE Hydrogen Shot program, large-scale deployment of renewable hydrogen aims to reduce production costs to around US$1 kgH₂⁻¹ [198,199], while the current cost of hydrogen transport remains approximately US $10 kgH₂⁻¹, an order of magnitude higher than the target production cost [200,201]. Therefore, the future hydrogen economy will likely depend on decentralized, small-scale production units for local, on-site, and on-demand use. This strategy avoids the need for expensive long-distance transport infrastructure, which can only be realized over the mid- to long-term, and supports the broader goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2030.

## 7. Catalysis by defects on carbon catalysts under ACMF

Despite the significant progress achieved in recent years in the application of IH, most studies have remained focused on metal-based catalysts, where metals often act as both susceptors and active sites, or as susceptors transferring heat to supported catalytic phases [13,42,43]. In contrast, catalytic systems coupling carbon-based catalysts with ACMF are still extremely scarce, with only a few reports available in the literature, including those discussed in this work and a recent dedicated study [202]. This section discusses the relationship between defective carbon catalysts and ACMF heating, where unexpectedly high catalytic
<table><caption>**Table 1**
Comparison between thermal and proposed non-thermal effects in IH catalysis.</caption><thead><tr><th>Category</th><th>Phenomenon / Effect</th><th>Description / Mechanism</th><th>Experimental Evidence</th><th>Notes</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Thermal effects (well established)</td><td>Rapid and volumetric heating</td><td>Eddy currents and/or hysteresis losses in conductive and/or magnetic materials enable fast, uniform heat generation directly at the catalyst.</td><td>Strong (direct temperature monitoring, repeatable trends)</td><td>Major contributor to enhanced activity under IH.</td></tr><tr><td>Local hot spots</td><td>Localized high-temperature regions at interfaces or defects enhance reaction rates.</td><td>Moderate (temperature mapping, rate dependence)</td><td>Often explains faster kinetics compared to CH.</td></tr><tr><td>Rapid heating-cooling cycles</td><td>Enables dynamic operation and minimizes deactivation; relevant for transient or cyclic reactions.</td><td>Strong (direct temperature monitoring, repeatable trends)</td><td>Thermal inertia minimized under IH.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Proposed non-thermal effects (under investigation)</td><td>Improved temperature uniformity</td><td>Reduced temperature gradients with the reactor walls compared with external heating.</td><td>Strong</td><td>Shown by dual thermometry mapping.</td></tr><tr><td>Spin alignment and radical pair mechanisms</td><td>Magnetic fields may modify spin states of radical intermediates, influencing recombination and selectivity.</td><td>Weak-Moderate (indirect, EPR and DFT support)</td><td>Needs operando EPR confirmation.</td></tr><tr><td>Field-induced polarization of adsorbates</td><td>Oscillating electric/magnetic fields could shift adsorption-desorption equilibria or surface dipole orientation.</td><td>Moderate (frequency-dependent behavior)</td><td>Mechanism still debated.</td></tr><tr><td>Defect activation / magnetic reactivity of carbon</td><td>Magnetic moments at carbon defects (vacancies, Stone-Wales) may enhance CH<sub>4</sub> or CO<sub>2</sub> activation.</td><td>Moderate (DFT + catalytic correlation)</td><td>Stronger under ACMF than static field.</td></tr><tr><td>Magnetic field-induced charge transfer at interfaces</td><td>Possible modulation of metal-support or defect-adsorbate electronic states.</td><td>Weak-Moderate (spectroscopic hints)</td><td>Requires operando XPS/XAS validation.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Dynamic alignment of active sites (resonance effects)</td><td>Periodic ACMF can synchronize adsorbate binding energy oscillations, akin to catalytic resonance.</td><td>Speculative</td><td>No direct proof under IH yet.</td></tr></tbody></table>

performances have been observed, and explores future directions for other catalytic processes using this combination, in which active sites may form dynamically under reaction conditions. As highlighted in the examples presented throughout this perspective, the catalytic behavior of carbon-based materials under ACMF can be interpreted as defect-driven catalysis, where defects with intrinsic magnetic moments act as active centers. This mechanism resembles that observed on defective metal nanoparticles with high surface-to-volume ratios. Therefore, intentionally increasing defect density in the carbon structure may enhance the number of catalytically active sites. The magnetism of carbon has long been investigated to better understand its fundamental properties [104,203]. The magnetic moments associated with carbon defects can be finely tuned by creating or stabilizing these defects ex situ before catalytic testing [204]. For instance, nitrogen doping can serve as a stabilizing strategy, enhancing both the material's magnetic response and catalytic performance. These findings suggest that defect engineering, through controlled pretreatment or dopant introduction, could simultaneously improve inductive heating efficiency and generate localized magnetic moments, thereby amplifying non-thermal catalytic effects.

Another striking observation from ACMF-operated carbon catalysis is the absence of correlation between catalytic activity and specific surface area (SSA), which contrasts with the well-known behavior of conventional metal-supported catalysts. Indeed, the carbon materials discussed here—such as graphite powder (0.5 m²·g⁻¹) and carbon felt (4 m²·g⁻¹)—exhibit negligible internal porosity and very low SSA, yet display unexpectedly high activity. This challenges the classical notion that high SSA and abundant exposed active sites are prerequisites for catalytic performance. The origin of this discrepancy remains unclear but may stem from intrinsic heat generation or non-thermal field effects associated with ACMF. This observation introduces a paradigm shift in heterogeneous catalysis: high SSA and metal-based active sites may no longer be essential for achieving high activity. Such a finding could have major environmental and economic implications, reducing catalyst production costs, simplifying materials management, and lowering the overall environmental footprint. Moreover, carbon catalysts offer superior resistance to impurities such as sulfur and nitrogen compounds commonly found in feedstocks. Consequently, the elimination of costly pretreatment steps, such as hydrodesulfurization (HDS) and hydrodenitrogenation (HDN), becomes conceivable—further decreasing

operational costs and complexity. A precise understanding of the interplay between thermal and non-thermal effects under ACMF will be essential to fully exploit the potential of defective carbon catalysts, paving the way toward their broader industrial implementation as efficient, robust, and sustainable alternatives to traditional metal-based systems.

## 8. Conclusion

The evidence reviewed in this article demonstrates that IH significantly enhances catalytic performance across a wide range of systems, including both metal-free carbon catalysts and metal-supported materials. Literature results consistently show that IH improves activity not only through localized thermal effects, such as rapid heat regulation and the formation of hot spots, but also via non-thermal interactions of ACMFs with catalytic systems. While many explanations attribute the superiority of IH reactions to better temperature management or local hot spots which boost the catalytic performance, these factors alone cannot fully account for the substantial performance gains observed. Our analysis highlights the likely contribution of an ACMFs, acting in parallel with thermal effects, in shaping catalytic behavior operated under IH. ACMFs may subtlety alter radical lifetimes, spin states, adsorption-desorption equilibria, and trigger defect reactivity in both carbon-based and metal-supported catalysts, thereby enabling reaction pathways and selectivities inaccessible under conventional heating. Taken together, these findings strongly suggest that IH provides benefits extending beyond simple heat generation. They underscore the urgent need for systematic studies to disentangle thermal and magnetic contributions, paving the way for the rational design of next-generation electrified catalytic processes. Given many industrially important reactions screened in this perspective, on both carbon and metal supported catalysts, it is expected that IH impact will spread far beyond in the time coming for the improvement of nowadays catalytic processes which are facing limitations under conventional heating mode.

However, given the relatively limited number of studies directly addressing the influence of ACMFs on catalytic performance, it must be emphasized that many of the hypotheses discussed here remain theoretical projections. There is, as yet, no definitive proof that the observed improvements under ACMF compared to conventional heating are directly caused by magnetic field interactions. Existing results, though
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 10.** Comparison between optimized insulated reactor from lab-scale (Ø 45 mm) vs micropilot scale (Ø 100 mm). The insulation layer is increased proportionally with the size of the reactor to prevent heat loss from radiation. (a) Temperature distribution inside the catalyst bed and radial temperature profile in the carbon bed, (b, c) Axial temperature distribution inside the carbon bed, for lab- and up-scale reactors, at stationary state with homogeneous approach at 800 °C. Simulation process using Comsol® Multiphysics provided by EMDPI.</figcaption></figure>

promising, suggest that the effects of ACMF are likely subtle and may depend on several factors, such as frequency, nature of intermediates, or characteristics of adsorption sites. Further research is therefore needed to clarify these influences and to establish a clear roadmap for the purposeful application of ACMFs to improve catalytic performance. Nevertheless, one can state with confidence that ACMF significantly enhances the performance of several catalytic processes compared with conventional convection- or conduction-based heating. This advantage should be further explored and extended to additional systems to support the broader electrification of the chemical sector and to reduce its carbon footprint.

The large-scale development of magnetically powered catalytic processes, alongside other electrified technologies such as plasma and microwave heating, can contribute substantially to lowering greenhouse gas emissions and reducing reliance on carbon capture and storage (CCSU) technologies, which remain energy-intensive and difficult to deploy widely. A recent study [205] has illustrated the potential of such integrated approaches through an advanced looping process that enables: (i) CO₂ capture via direct air capture (DAC); (ii) its conversion into synthetic methane using renewable hydrogen through the Sabatier methanation process; and (iii) subsequent methane decomposition to produce solid carbon and hydrogen.

## 9. Outlook

The combination of IH with carbon-based catalysts presents a particularly promising avenue for advancing electrified catalytic processes. Two of the most relevant applications, catalytic methane decomposition and non-biomass plastic recycling, have already shown substantial performance improvements under IH, highlighting the potential for low-carbon hydrogen production and sustainable feedstock utilization. IH enables rapid and localized heating, minimizing waste heat and improving energy efficiency, while simultaneously enhancing the stability and performance of carbon catalysts compared to conventional heating. Defect engineering within the carbon matrix offers a pathway to tailor catalytic activity under IH, as defect sites may act as adsorption centres whose reactivity is further influenced by ACMFs. Moreover, initial findings indicate that the microstructure of carbon formed or used under IH can strongly impact in a positive way the catalytic behaviour, an aspect that warrants detailed investigation to establish clear correlations with intrinsic activity. Such advances may extend to other reactions where defects play a catalytic role, including hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, hydrocarbon cracking, and potentially fine-chemical transformations.

A major challenge remains the accurate measurement of the catalyst bed temperature under ACMF. Strong magnetic coupling between the
field and the thermocouple can distort readings, making it difficult to separate thermal from non-thermal contributions to the observed catalytic behavior. Moreover, conventional thermocouples inserted into the catalyst bed only measure local temperatures, providing limited insight into possible hot or cold spots—a well-known limitation in both exothermic and endothermic reactions. Under ACMF, the situation becomes even more complex, as inductive coupling can artificially elevate the apparent temperature near the probe.

To address these challenges, several experimental approaches can be considered. One promising strategy involves temperature mapping using an infrared (FLIR) camera coupled with a 2D model catalyst, such as a flat graphite platelet supporting a metal phase. Graphite exhibits strong coupling with ACMF, enabling rapid heating at relatively low power and allowing precise control of the temperature distribution. Its high thermal conductivity also helps dissipate heat, preventing the formation of localized hot spots and enabling a more reliable correlation between temperature and catalytic performance. A parallel setup operated under conventional heating could serve as a reference, with a thermocouple attached to the graphite substrate for direct comparison.

Building on this concept of spatially resolved temperature analysis, innovative thermometry methods based on contactless luminescence thermometry offer an additional way to independently and accurately probe catalyst-specific temperatures under magnetic induction. In a recent study [206], lanthanide-based thermophosphors (Y₂O₃:Tb:Eu and α-Al₂O₃:Cr) were integrated with magnetic susceptors (CoFe₂O₄@SiO₂), allowing simultaneous localized heating and optical temperature measurement within a tandem catalytic reactor. This multifunctional design enabled direct monitoring of temperature gradients between catalysts and sustained independent operation zones differing by about 50 K, providing valuable insight into localized heating effects and their influence on catalytic activity and selectivity. However, this luminescence thermometry is effective only within a moderate range (≈298–473 K), limiting its use to relatively low-temperature catalytic systems.

Complementary to these methods, another promising approach consists of decoupling the heating source from the magnetic field to evaluate the effect of static versus ACMFs on catalytic performance. Since static fields have shown negligible influence on activity, as confirmed in recent studies,¹³³,¹³⁹ controlled experiments could employ external electrical or fluid heating while maintaining the catalyst within the ACMF coil. Among these options, an oil-heating system appears particularly convenient, as it eliminates metallic components within the coil that might otherwise interfere with the field. This configuration can be combined with operando Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, enabling short-time observation of adsorption and desorption dynamics of intermediate species while minimizing temperature fluctuations by briefly activating the ACMF. In addition, operando electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) experiments at high temperature could be used to investigate the formation and evolution of reactive sites with high intrinsic reactivity. Comparing the density and nature of these sites under ACMF and conventional heating would provide valuable insights into the role of non-thermal effects in catalysis.

From a technological perspective, several challenges must be addressed to enable industrial deployment. Scaling up from laboratory to pilot and commercial scale requires careful process design and techno-economic validation. Reactor materials must combine mechanical strength with transparency to electromagnetic fields, while catalyst designs should balance activity with low cost and scalability. Encouraging case studies such as the plastic-to-olefins/aromatics process developed in our laboratory—now demonstrated at a 100 kg/day scale by bobine-chemistry SAS [207] at Michelin's Centre for Sustainable Materials—illustrate how robust IH-based processes can be scaled effectively. Similarly, CMD using carbon-based catalysts could follow a comparable path, given its operational simplicity, high performance, and low cost.

Importantly, the results presented here show that even low-surface-area carbon catalysts exhibit remarkable activity under IH, suggesting

the potential to design low-porosity, low-cost materials that maintain or even enhance catalytic efficiency while simplifying synthesis and reducing environmental impact. On a larger scale, IH offers the practical advantage of straightforward scalability: there are virtually no intrinsic limits to heat transfer up to reactor sizes on the meter scale, as heating can be tuned by adjusting the operating frequency. Heat transfer can be further optimized by using thermally conductive supports (such as carbon or silicon carbide) or by applying conductive coatings to improve heat distribution within the catalyst bed. Finally, the modular nature of IH-based reactors supports decentralized and flexible production units powered by renewable electricity, fully aligned with carbon-neutrality and energy transition objectives.

In summary, the combined use of IH and carbon- or metal-supported catalysts offers a transformative path toward electricity-driven catalysis. With continued advances in mechanistic understanding, reactor engineering, and process development, this approach could play a decisive role in decarbonizing the chemical industry and realizing the next generation of sustainable catalytic technologies.

### CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Gilles Ulrich:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis. **Spyridon Zafeiratos:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. **Cuong Pham-Huu:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. **Christophe Michon:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. **Jean-Mario Nhut:** Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation.

### Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

### Acknowledgements

The present work is financially supported by TotalEnergies and SATT Conectus. The authors would like to thank to T. Romero (ICPEES) for performing SEM experiments. SEM analysis was carried out at the SEM facilities platform of the ICPEES-IPCMS platform. TEM analysis was carried out at the TEM facilities platform of IS2M (UMR 7504) and L. Vidal is gratefully acknowledged for performing the analyses. We would like also to express a depth thanks to Truong-Phuoc L., Duong-Viet C., Essyed A., Ngo V.-H. (ICPEES), M. Dumont (EMDPI), Liegeon A., Knepper N. (SATT-Conectus), and Grishin A., Brazier A. (TotalEnergies OneTech) for their help in the experimental data collection, and constructive discussion during this work.

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