# Collisional orogen dynamics controls the type, timing and location of critical metal deposits

Patrick Carr, Christophe Ballouard, Christian Marignac, Michel Cathelineau,
Fernando Noronha, Julie A.-s. Michaud, Teresa Llorens González, Susana
Timón Sánchez, Julien Mercadier

► To cite this version:

Patrick Carr, Christophe Ballouard, Christian Marignac, Michel Cathelineau, Fernando Noronha, et al.. Collisional orogen dynamics controls the type, timing and location of critical metal deposits. Terra Nova, 2025, pp.ter.70010. 10.1111/ter.70010. hal-05242008

HAL Id: hal-05242008

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Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1 Collisional orogen dynamics controls the type, timing and location of
2 critical metal deposits

3
4 Patrick A. Carr¹, Christophe Ballouard¹, Christian Marignac¹, Michel Cathelineau¹, Fernando
5 Noronha², Julie A.-S. Michaud³, Teresa Llorens González⁴, Susana M. Timón Sánchez⁴, Julien
6 Mercadier¹

7
8
¹Université de Lorraine, CNRS, CREGU, GeoRessources, Nancy, France

9
2 ICT-Porto Pole – Faculdade de Ciências, University of Porto, Portugal

10
³Institut für Mineralogie, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany

11
⁴IGME-CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.

12 ABSTRACT

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The relationship between critical metal mineralizations such as W, Sn, Nb, Ta or Li, and collisional
orogeny dynamics remain poorly understood. We combine U-Pb geochronology of metal-carrying
minerals and geochemical modelling to constrain metal mobility in the Variscan Iberian collisional
orogen. Two overlapping periods of mineralization are identified: magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and
W deposits from <i>ca</i> 340 to 285 Ma and rare-metal granite (RMG) and pegmatite (RMP) Li-Sn-
Nb-Ta deposits from <i>ca</i> 315 to 295 Ma. We show that W-rich fluids can be produced from
metapelite-derived anatectic melts without further differentiation, leading to their dominance over
Sn (+Li-Nb-Ta) early in orogenesis. In contrast, RMG/RMP generation is favored by transcurrent
structures and melting of felsic meta-igneous protoliths. Both features become increasingly
abundant towards the end of this collisional orogen. The progression from W- to Sn-dominant
magmatic-hydrothermal mineralisation, followed by RMG/ RMP, is a consequence of collisional
orogen dynamics.
## INTRODUCTION

Collisional orogens are key zones for the global supply of critical metals (e.g., Pirajno, 2016).

Collisional orogens show commonalities worldwide of post-convergence orogenic collapse and late tectonic lateral reconfiguration that can persist over 20 Myr (Weller et al. 2021); these late-orogenic settings are considered favorable for many metal deposits. Pressure-temperature controls on metal distribution here remain poorly constrained, limiting our understanding of ore-forming mechanisms.

Tin, W, Nb, Ta, and Li are commonly paired metals in these settings within and around fractionated peraluminous granites and pegmatites (e.g. Lehmann 2021). Despite this strong spatial association, these metals likely behave differently during crustal melting, magmatic differentiation and fluid separation and circulation (Wood and Samson, 2000; Wolf et al., 2018; Schmidt et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2022; Gao et al. 2024) which questions the reasoning behind the close association. A key example is the distinction between magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and W deposits found in skarns, greisen, quartz-veins and breccia pipes, vs. magmatic rare metal granites (RMG) and pegmatites (RMP) types dominated by Sn-Li-Nb-Ta.

A significant uncertainty in the relative behavior of critical metals during collisional orogenesis results from a lack of absolute age constraints. Recent advancements in U-Pb geochronology of the metal carrying minerals such as wolframite, cassiterite and columbite-group minerals (CGM) (Carr et al., 2021; 2022; Melleton et al., 2022; see the Supplementary Material for a description of methods) can provide direct constraints on the absolute age and duration of W, Sn and Nb-Ta mineralization events respectively, and overcome the difficulties associated with traditional geochronology in these systems (e.g., metamict zircon, multiple generations/resetting of
49 radiogenic isotopes of micas). We present new ages for W and Sn (± Nb-Ta-Li) deposits from the
50 Iberian Massif, a major metallogenic province in the Variscan collisional orogen (Fig. 1).
51 Combined with existing geochronological data from the literature and geochemical modelling of
52 protolith melting, these results offer new insights into the relationship between crustal melting
53 evolution and mineralizing events in a mountain belt.

54 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

55 The Variscan orogen is composed of outcropping massifs (e.g. Bohemian, Armorican and Iberian
56 massifs and the French Massif Central) in central and western Europe. These massifs represent the
57 remnant of Devonian to Carboniferous oceanic subduction complexes and continental terranes
58 accreted during the collision between the Gondwana and Laurussia continents (Schulmann et al.,
59 2022).

60
61 Most of the critical metal endowment of the Iberian Massif occurs within the Galicia-Trás-os-
62 Montes Zone (GTMZ) and Central Iberian Zone (CIZ), where crustal thickness and granitic
63 magmatism was maximized (Fig. 1; Martínez Catalán et al. 2014, 2021). The GTMZ represents a
64 nappe stack of metamorphic rocks, including Cambro-Ordovician to Early Devonian oceanic units,
65 recording locally high-pressure metamorphism, over paraautochthonous Early Carboniferous
66 synorogenic sediments (Martínez Catalán et al. 2021). The autochthonous CIZ consists of
67 Neoproterozoic to Devonian pre-orogenic metasedimentary rocks and Cambro-Ordovician
68 metaigneous series, including the volcanic and sub-volcanic Ollo de Sapo formation and granitic
69 orthogneisses (Martínez Catalán et al. 2021). The relevant tectonic-metamorphic history includes
70 1) collision-related thrusting and folding associated with Barrovian metamorphism from ca. 360
71 to 337 Ma (Martínez Catalán et al. 2021), followed by 2) the collapse of the newly formed orogen
72 through gravitational extension largely accommodated by extensional structures from ca. 337 to
316 Ma, and resulting in the formation of anatectic dome complexes in high temperature, low-pressure conditions (Martínez Catalán et al., 2014), 3) transcurrent-dominated with local extension tectonic reconfiguration from ca. 315 to 305 Ma (Díez Fernández and Pereira, 2016; Gutiérrez Alonso et al., 2015). Syn-kinematic granitoids include granodiorites derived from lower crust melting with minor mantle component from 345 to 320 Ma, and crust-derived peraluminous two-mica granites from 322 to 305 Ma (Martínez Catalán et al. 2021). Post-kinematic magmatism includes mafic and granitoids units emplaced from 310 to 285 Ma (Gutiérrez Alonso et al., 2011) with an increasingly important mantle contribution (e.g., Villaseca et al., 2022).

The Iberian Massif is most notably endowed in W, Sn, Li, Nb and Ta mineralization (Fig. 1) with two broad styles identified including 1) magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and W, and 2) Li-Nb-Ta-Sn (±W) RMG/RMP (Roda-Robles et al., 2018; Melleton et al., 2022; López Moro et al., 2024). Magmatic-hydrothermal deposits are characterized by greisen, quartz-vein (either stockwork or subparallel networks), skarn and breccia styles, which are primarily associated with S-type granites, although I-type parental granites have been suggested for some hydrothermal W deposits (Losantos et al., 2025). These magmatic-hydrothermal deposits contain primarily Sn in cassiterite and W in wolframite or scheelite. The relative proportion of Sn and W in these deposits is variable; though W-dominant deposits are more abundant. Iberian RMG/RMP formed from highly peraluminous, fluxing-element-rich (F, P, Li) magmas (Roda-Robles et al., 2018). RMP are the most abundant at the scale of the Massif; they host disseminated magmatic cassiterite and CGM along with Li-aluminosilicates and Li-phosphates (e.g. Roda Robles et al. 2023). RMG, hosting a similar style of disseminated rare-metal mineralization, are less common (e.g. Argemela and
Penouta) and are often associated to hydrothermal greisen and veins with minor wolframite and/or cassiterite (Losantos et al., 2025).

## NEW AGES FOR TIN AND TUNGSTEN IN THE IBERIAN MASSIF

Samples from a variety of mineralization styles, either sampled by the authors or originating from historical collections, were studied. When feasible, wolframite and cassiterite were dated within the same thin section (see Supplementary Material for sample details and images). Magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and W samples include wolframite and/or cassiterite from intra- and exo-granitic quartz veins, except for the Santa-Comba deposit for which we dated wolframite from a layered aplite-pegmatite pocket crosscut by a major quartz-wolframite vein (Gouanvic and Gagny, 1983) (Fig. 2a, b). Among vein-type mineralization, the Bejanca (intra-granitic stockwork) and Argozelo (exo-granitic quartz veins) samples provide textural evidence that wolframite predates cassiterite (Fig. 2e, f, g). However, the textural relationships between cassiterite and wolframite from an exo-granitic quartz vein at Regoufe do not allow the mineralizing sequence to be determined. At Morille, we dated late-stage quartz-cassiterite vein mineralization that crosscuts the dominant stratabound scheelite mineralization. At Paredes, cassiterite and wolframite are described as occurring together in endogranitic quartz veins (Adam 1987). However, the two ore minerals were not found in the same sample and were thus dated separately. The Murçós deposit is primarily composed of deformed quartz-scheelite veins and minor quartz-cassiterite within granodiorite and schists (Derré and Roger, 1984). Dated cassiterite originates from a deformed quartz vein intruding granodiorite. At Panasqueira, we analyzed four wolframite and six cassiterite samples, following the paragenesis outlined by Cathelineau et al., (2020). Wolframite originates from the first and dominant W mineralization episode (Stages I–II), associated with quartz veining (Fig. 2c). In contrast, cassiterite appears later (Stages IV–V), forming replacement textures within veins and as vug infill (Fig. 2d).
RMG samples were obtained from the Argemela and Penouta deposits (Fig. 1). For Argemela, we dated magmatic cassiterite, which consists of euhedral crystals hosting Li phosphate and white mica inclusions (Cst I and II of Michaud et al. 2020) (Fig. 2h, i). Additionally, we analyzed wolframite from quartz-bearing veins that crosscut both the Argemela granite (Fig. 2j) and host schist. The dated centimetric cassiterite crystal from the Penouta deposit was collected from a greisen alteration-related quartz vein with a muscovite selvage.

Sixteen new cassiterite and wolframite ages are presented here (see Supplementary Material for isotope ratio data and age diagrams) in combination with published cassiterite and CGM U-Pb ages (Figs. 1 and 3). The emplacement ages of these deposits are also compared with an estimate of the total precipitated Sn and W metal content during this period (Fig. 3b) and a compilation of zircon U-Pb granitoid ages (Fig. 3c; see Supplementary Material for data sources) of the massif.

All mineralization ages range from *ca* 340 Ma to *ca* 285 Ma and two overlapping periods are identified including 1) magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and W from *ca* 340 Ma to *ca* 285 Ma and 2) RMGP Li-Sn-Nb-Ta deposits from *ca* 315 to *ca* 295 Ma.

Magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and W deposits were emplaced near-continuously throughout the orogeny; from extensional to transcurrent and post-tectonic settings. RMP and RMG deposits were emplaced within a relatively restricted period from *ca* 315 to 295 during dominantly transcurrent deformation to post tectonics (Fig. 1; Díez Fernández and Pereira, 2016; Gutiérrez Alonso et al., 2015; Melleton et al. 2022; Roda-Robles et al., 2023; Ballouard et al. 2024). Tungsten is the predominant metal until *ca* 315 Ma. Then, Sn becomes dominant with the onset of RMGP mineralization (Fig. 3b). Within Panasqueira and Regoufe deposits, wolframite and cassiterite
yield distinct ages separated by a minimum 6 Myr indicative of separate and superimposed W
followed by Sn mineralization events (Figs. 1 and 3a).

## GEOCHEMICAL MODELLING OF PROTOLITH MELTING

In Fig. 4, we calculate the Sn and W concentrations in melts and fluids equilibrated with residual biotite from late-Carboniferous migmatitic metapelites and peraluminous orthogneiss from the Variscan orogen, like those found in the Iberian Massif (Martínez Catalán et al., 2021). No such data currently exists for the Iberian Massif, but the Velay dome underwent similar melting conditions to the currently exposed rocks (<5kbar; Ballouard et al., 2023), while the Ivrea zone could serve as an analogue for deeper melting conditions in the Iberian Massif (>5 kbar; Kunz et al., 2022). This modeling provides a first-order estimate of the Sn-W compositions in primitive crustal melts before any enrichment by fractional crystallization, as well as the theoretical fluid composition in equilibrium with such weakly evolved melts if they reach fluid saturation.

Tin concentrations in melts from both protoliths remain well below the threshold for magmatic cassiterite saturation (ca 500 ppm, Bhalla et al., 2005), and their fluid concentrations are significantly lower than those in fluid inclusions from magmatic-hydrothermal deposits (Fig. 4a). Therefore, additional enrichment through fractional crystallization and/or hydrothermal processes is required to form a deposit. Melting of peraluminous orthogneiss yield melts nearly five times more enriched in Sn than metapelite-derived melts (Fig. 4a), enhancing their potential to reach cassiterite saturation after differentiation, as observed in RMG/RMP.

Magmatic wolframite is rare, with saturation expected only in highly flux-rich, low-temperature peraluminous granitic melts containing several hundred ppm of W (Che et al., 2013); far higher
than the W concentrations calculated for anatectic melts. However, at $T \le 800^{\circ}$C, W concentrations in fluids derived from both protoliths match or exceed those recorded in fluid inclusions from W deposits (~50 ppm; Fig. 4b). This suggests that weakly evolved crustal melts, similar in composition to anatectic melts, can generate fluids with W concentrations within the range of mineralized systems, without requiring further magmatic differentiation.

## DISCUSSION

The space-time distribution of mineralization style in the Iberian Massif is explained by a 4D model shown in Fig. 5.

### Melt and fluid fertility – the role of protolith, melting and hydrothermal conditions

Protoliths and partial melting conditions exert primary control over the formation of mineral deposits (Wolf et al., 2018; Kunz et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2022; Ballouard et al., 2023). Magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and W deposits are typically associated with dehydration melting of micas in metapelites, such as those from Iberian Neoproterozoic units. Note that deposits found within the GTMZ likely result from protolith melting in the underlying autochthon comparable to the CIZ (Fig. 1b). The first magmatic activity following convergent tectonics (i.e., from ca 337 Ma) is observed in the GTMZ (Capdevila and Floor, 1970) where the crustal pile is thickest, and continues to ca 285 Ma (Fig. 3c). As W generally shows a strong affinity for a fluid over melt (Schmidt et al., 2020), fluids derived from unevolved melts can be fertile and result in mineralization at multiple depths in the crustal column (Fig. 5a). Conversely, Sn favors the melt and requires further enrichment by fractional crystallization to increase Sn concentration and metal ligands such as F and Cl (Audôtat et al., 2000) that promote strong partitioning of Sn into an exsolving fluid. Tin mineralization is therefore restricted to evolved silicic melts emplaced at shallow crustal depths (Fig. 5a,b). This differential mobility can explain the dominance of W during the early stages of crustal melting from 340 to 315 Ma (Fig. 3b) and the temporal decoupling between W and Sn
mineralizing events in some deposits such as at Panasqueira, Regoufe (this study) and Martinamor (Bemejo et al., 2025) where hydrothermal W precedes Sn.

Conversely, the protoliths for RMG/RMP melts remain enigmatic, as partial melting of metapelites cannot recreate the geochemistry of these melts (Michaud et al., 2021; Ballouard et al., 2023; Koopmans et al., 2024) nor sufficient Sn melt contents (Fig. 4a). Anatexis of dominantly metafelsic protolith, such as pre-Variscan orthogneisses or early Variscan (meta)granites emplaced at depth before 315 Ma (Fig. 5b), followed by magmatic differentiation, could produce the unique geochemistry of RMG/RMP, including enriched Sn (-Li) concentrations (Fig. 4a; Ballouard et al., 2023; Koopmans et al., 2024). Peraluminous orthogneisses generally have a lower volume of micas such that their complete breakdown can occur in a narrow temperature range to generate small amounts of melts enriched in mica-hosted elements (such as Li-Nb-Ta-Sn metals and F). Evidence for increasing metafelsic component in the lower Iberian crust includes inherited zircon ages at ca. 340 Ma in 320 Ma in some peraluminous granites (López Moro et al., 2018) and lower crustal felsic xenoliths with zircon U-Pb ages of 314 ± 3 Ma and 308 ± 2.5 Ma (Orejana et al., 2023). We do not exclude the potential role of (mantle-derived) CO₂-rich fluids infiltrating the lower crust and inducing RMGP parental melts (Pichavant et al., 2024).

**Tectonic fertility – Structural pathways to rare metal mineralization**

Magmatic-hydrothermal Sn and W mineralization occurs throughout changing tectonic regimes. It continues during waning tectonic forces (Fig. 3c), suggesting limited tectonic control for this style of mineralization, and emphasizing the dominant role of magmatic and hydrothermal processes. However, tectonic forces provide the crustal pathways for emplacement of these deposits that are subsequently proximal to the dominant regional features such as low-dipping detachments near the base of the GTMZ (Martínez Catalán et al. 2014; Bemejo et al., 2025) (e.g.
214 Santa Comba, Martinamor; Fig. 1, Fig. 5a) or vertical transcurrent shear zones, as well as related
215 folds within the CIZ (e.g., Panasqueira; Jacques et al., 2018, Fig. 5a).

216
217 Conversely, extension is not a favorable setting for RMG/RMP mineralization. Instead,
218 transcrustal strike-slip shear zone systems like those active between 315-305 Ma in the Iberian
219 Massif (Díez Fernández and Pereira, 2016; Gutiérrez Alonso et al., 2015) are considered
220 imperative as they permit: (1) higher permeability of the lower crust for incursion of hot
221 lithospheric mantle and favorable melting conditions (e.g Pichavant et al. 2024), (2) rapid
222 extraction and channelisation of anatectic melts, (3) extended magmatic column capable of
223 protracted magmatic differentiation, and (4) crustal vertical permeability through drains such as
224 tension gashes and Ridel fault zones (e.g., Silva et al., 2023; Ballouard et al., 2024). These
225 structures, which remain active zones of heat and fluid transfer even post tectonics, can act as
226 focusing conduits within the crust and permit the superposition of multiple mineralizing episodes
227 in one location over several million years (e.g., Panasqueira and Regoufe; Fig. 3a, Fig. 5b).

228
229 The fertility of the different mineralization styles in a collisional orogeny will therefore be directly
230 related to the metafelsic igneous component available to melt, and the degree to which melts can
231 undergo fractional crystallization (Fig. 5c).

232 CONCLUSIONS

233 Two overlapping periods of mineralization styles are identified in the Iberian Massif: (1)
234 magmatic-hydrothermal W and Sn deposits from *ca* 340 to 285 Ma, and (2) RMG/RMP Li-Sn-
235 Nb-Ta deposits from *ca* 315 Ma to 295 Ma. We attribute the changing style of mineralization to
236 the 4D evolution of this collisional orogen as follows:
237 1) Magmatic-hydrothermal W and Sn deposits result from the dehydration melting of
238 metapelites regardless of the tectonic setting. Tungsten's stronger affinity to fluids
239 results in its early and volumetric emplacement relative to Sn during the evolution of
240 the orogen. Tin, preferring the melt, requires further enrichment (e.g., by fractional
241 crystallization) resulting in more restricted distribution.

242 2) RMG/RMP Li-Sn-Nb-Ta mineralization is favoured by the anatexis of peraluminous
243 (meta)igneous protoliths capable of producing metal-enriched melts, as well as by
244 vertical transcurrent systems that facilitate melt extraction, transport and protracted
245 differentiation. In the Iberian Massif, Ordovician orthogneisses and early to mid-
246 Variscan granitic rocks, with the latter emplaced sub-continuously during the orogeny,
247 likely became the dominant protoliths for RMG/RMP, driven by the upward migration
248 of anatectic fronts.

249 We suggest that this progression of mineralisation style is a natural consequence of collisional
250 orogen dynamics and should be tested in other orogens of different ages and types.

251
## 252 SUPPLIMENTARY MATERIALS

253 ¹Supplementary Material. Supplementary Material contains 1) analytical methods for U-Pb
254 geochronology by LA-ICP-MS of wolframite and cassiterite 2) images (optical and chemical) of
255 the analyzed samples and geochemical images and 3) age diagrams. Supplementary tables S1–4
256 contain the following S1: Sample details including GPS location, deposit style, description and
257 obtained age in this study, S2: U-Pb data for samples and reference materials. S4: W and Sn
258 tonnage data for Fig. 3b. and S5: Data used in Fig. 4.

259

## 260 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

261 This work was financed by ANR-10-LABX-21-RESSOURCES21 funding to PC and CB, the
262 ERAMIN projects NewOres and MOSTMEG to MC and CM, OSU OTELO and a CNRS-INSU-
263 CESSUR grant to JM, the DFG grant MI3189/1-1 (SPP2238 DOME) to JASM, H2020 FRAME
264 and the Spanish MINCE projects to TL and SMT. The manuscript was improved by 6 anonymous
265 reviewers, J. Martinez Catalan and editorial assistance from U. Schaltegger (GEOLOGY), M.
266 Keith and K. Mezger.

267
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

270

271 Figure 1: (A) Simplified geological map showing the main zones, tectonic units and Variscan

272 igneous rocks of the Iberian Massif and the location and U-Pb ages of W, Sn and Nb-Ta

273 mineralization (New data presented in bold. See Supplementary Material for references). [1] Santa

274 Comba, [2] Auxiliadora, [3] Forcarei-Avion, [4] Penouta, [5] Montesinho, [6] Murços, [7] Serra
275 de Arga, [8] Argozelo, [9] Ervedosa, [10] Paredes, [11] Barroso-Alvão, [12] Borralha, [13]
276 Vieiros-Ouitero, [14] Freneda-Amendra, [15] Regoufe, [16] Morille-Martinamor, [17] Queiriga,
277 [18] Bejanca, [19] Gonçalo, [20] Panasqueira, [21] Argemela, [22] Logrosán. Granite typology is
278 based on Martínez Catalan et al., (2021). CZ, Cantabrian Zone; CIZ, Central Iberian Zone; GTMZ,
279 Galicia-Trás-os-Montes Zone; OMZ, Ossa-Morena Zone; SPZ, South Portuguese Zone; WALZ,
280 West Asturian–Leonese Zone. (B) Synthetic geological cross-section, modified from Díez
281 Fernández and Pereira (2016), showing the location of different mineralization styles at the
282 present-day surface (red line).

283
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: Geological features of magmatic-hydrothermal Sn-W (A-G) and RMG deposits (H-J). (A-B) Santa Comba layered aplite with wolframite crystals orientated perpendicular to layering</figcaption></figure>
occurring in quartz-rich levels. (C-D) Panasqueira deposit – (C) dominant W as quartz (Qz1)-
287

wolframite (Wlf1) veining and (D) dominant Sn as late-stage cassiterite (CstIV) on muscovite
288

(MsIV) in tourmaline micaschist (see Cathelineau et al., 2020 for petrogenesis). (E-F) quartz-
289

wolframite-cassiterite veins at Bejanca showing intimate association of Sn and W. (G) quartz-
290

wolframite-muscovite veins crosscut by cassiterite-muscovite-arsenopyrite assemblage at
291

Argozelo. (H-I) Argemela RMG – (I) magmatic euhedral cassiterite hosting inclusions of Li-Al
292

phosphates and (J) wolframite vein crosscutting the granite.
293
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3: Summary of geochronological data for W, Sn and Nb-Ta mineralization and granites within the Variscan Iberian Massif. (A) U-Pb ages of ore minerals. Numbers refer to deposits listed in Figure 1. Large symbols/bold text = this study, small symbols = published data. *Latitude of Logrosán = 39°20'. (B) Histogram of total W and Sn (measured and indicated resources) in tonnes of metal emplaced during periods of 10 myrs. Sn/W is indicated by the black line. (C) Violin plots of U-Pb zircon ages for granitoids and migmatites in the studied area. Data sources in Supplementary Material.</figcaption></figure>
Figure 4: calculated mean concentrations of Sn (A), W (B) of fluids and melts in equilibrium with biotite from migmatitic metapelites and orthogneiss in the Ivrea Zone and the Velay Dome of the French Massif Central as a function of mean peak temperature estimations (data from Kunz et al., 2022 and Ballouard et al., 2023). See Supplementary Material for details on the modeling and Kd data references. Fluid inclusion data from Liu et al. (2020, 2023) and cassiterite solubility from Bhalla et al. (2005) for melts between 700 and 850°C.

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

Figure 5: Conceptual model for the evolution of the Iberian massif from (A) extension from 337–316 that is dominated by magmatic-hydrothermal W and Sn and (B) extension and transcurrent tectonic settings that marks the onset of RMG and RMP. We attribute this transition to changing protolith melting and vertical pathways for melts and fluids. See text for full description. (C) The relationship between fractional crystallisation and metafelsic rock melting in the genesis of W-

309
315 dominant vs. Sn-dominant hydrothermal mineralization, and RMG and RMP mineralization. This

316 relationship is conceptual and unquantified.

317

318

319
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