# New Kinematic Model of the Early Opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Realm

Thomas Lesourd-Laux, Walter Roest, Frauke Klingelhoefer, Sabin Zahirovic, Nicky M. Wright, David Graindorge, Martin Patriat, Lies Loncke, François Sapin, Christophe Basile

► To cite this version:

Thomas Lesourd-Laux, Walter Roest, Frauke Klingelhoefer, Sabin Zahirovic, Nicky M. Wright, et al.  
New Kinematic Model of the Early Opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Realm. Tectonics, 2025, 44  
(5), e2024TC008713 (20p.). 10.1029/2024TC008713. hal-05105665

HAL Id: hal-05105665

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Submitted on 11 Jun 2025

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Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
**Key Points:**

* New reconstruction of the early stages of oceanic spreading of the Equatorial Atlantic

* Identification of two distinct kinematic domains within the Equatorial Atlantic

* Tectonic implications and evolution of the Equatorial Atlantic, Central Atlantic, and Proto-Caribbean triple junction in the Cretaceous

**Supporting Information:**

Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article.

**Correspondence to:**

T. Lesourd—Laux,
tlesourd@ifremer.fr

**Citation:**

Lesourd—Laux, T., Basile, C., Roest, W., Klingelhoefer, F., Zahirovic, S., Wright, N. M., et al. (2025). New kinematic model of the early opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Realm. *Tectonics*, *44*, e2024TC008713. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024TC008713

Received 7 NOV 2024
Accepted 8 APR 2025

**Author Contributions:**

**Conceptualization:** Thomas Lesourd—Laux, Christophe Basile, Walter Roest

**Data curation:** Thomas Lesourd—Laux

**Formal analysis:** Thomas Lesourd—Laux, Christophe Basile, Walter Roest, Frauke Klingelhoefer, Sabin Zahirovic, Nicky M. Wright, David Graindorge, Martin Patriat, François Sapin

**Funding acquisition:** Walter Roest, Frauke Klingelhoefer

**Investigation:** Thomas Lesourd—Laux, Christophe Basile, Walter Roest, Frauke Klingelhoefer

**Methodology:** Thomas Lesourd—Laux, Christophe Basile, Frauke Klingelhoefer

**Project administration:** Walter Roest

**Supervision:** Christophe Basile, Walter Roest, Frauke Klingelhoefer, Sabin Zahirovic, Nicky M. Wright, David Graindorge, Martin Patriat

© 2025. The Author(s).
This is an open access article under the
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits use,
distribution and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

# New Kinematic Model of the Early Opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Realm

Thomas Lesourd—Laux¹ ID, Christophe Basile², Walter Roest¹ ID, Frauke Klingelhoefer¹ ID, Sabin Zahirovic³ ID, Nicky M. Wright³ ID, David Graindorge¹, Martin Patriat¹ ID, Lies Loncke⁴, and François Sapin⁵

¹Geo-Ocean, University Brest, CNRS, Ifremer, UMR6538, Plouzané, France, ²University Grenoble Alpes, University Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, IFSTTAR, ISTerre, Grenoble, France, ³EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, ⁴Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, CEFREM, Perpignan, France, ⁵Total SA, Centre Scientifique et Technique Jean Feger (CSTJF), Pau, France

**Abstract** The opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean constitutes the final stage of Gondwana's breakup, leading to the separation of the African and South American continents. The early spreading has been debated due to the absence of magnetic anomalies related to the Early Cretaceous opening at low latitude, and an incomplete fracture zone record, hidden by volcanic overprint and/or partially subducted. This study proposes a novel kinematic reconstruction dedicated to the Equatorial Atlantic rifting refined from an existing model. Our approach integrates seismic and gravimetry data from the margin of the Equatorial Atlantic. We propose a new segmentation of the Equatorial Atlantic, with the St Paul Fracture Zone delineating the northern and southern Equatorial Atlantic domains. Based on the continental margin obliquity of the northern Equatorial Atlantic, and the Cretaceous Jurassic Line dividing the Equatorial Ocean from the Central Atlantic Oceans, we propose an early opening history of the northern Equatorial Atlantic in two phases. A primary Early Cretaceous phase involves strike-slip movement between West Africa and the Guyana block. This rifting phase is accommodated by introducing intraplate deformation in the Amazon basins. In the Albian, a kinematic reorganization associated with the northward propagation of the South Atlantic leads to a secondary and final opening phase of the entire Equatorial Atlantic. This new model enhances the understanding of the regional tectonics and kinematics history, with potential implications on the Lesser Antilles Arc subduction geohazards, and on the evolution of the triple junction between the Equatorial Atlantic, Central Atlantic, and proto-Caribbean oceans.

## 1. Introduction

The initial phase of the Pangea breakup between the African and South American plates is one of the most emblematic examples of continental breakup, inspiring Wegener's theory of continental drift, early work on plate tectonics (Le Pichon, 1968), as well as the definition of transform plate boundaries (Wilson, 1965).

At the Early Cretaceous separation between African and South America commenced with the South Atlantic oceanic spreading propagated toward the Ascension Fracture Zone (FZ), constituting its northern boundary (Figure 1). The Equatorial Atlantic, spanning from the Ascension to the Guinea FZs, constituted at that time the last land bridge between the Central and South Atlantic. At the end of the Early Cretaceous, the Equatorial Atlantic started to rift, marking the definitive separation of the African and American continents (Campan, 1995; Heine et al., 2013; Moulin et al., 2010). Despite its critical location, the only study specifically dedicated to the Equatorial Atlantic opening is the unpublished doctoral thesis of Campan (1995). The lack of dedicated kinematic reconstructions can be attributed to significant challenges inherent to the Equatorial Atlantic, including the poor resolution of magnetic measurements along the Equator, the absence of magnetic anomalies during the Cretaceous Normal Superchron (CNS), and the complex geometry of FZs in the northern Equatorial Atlantic oceanic crust. To address these challenges, most existing kinematic models rely on extrapolations from magnetic anomalies and structural data of the South Atlantic (Heine et al., 2013; Moulin et al., 2010; Torsvik et al., 2009). These models take into account the direction of the Romanche, Chain, and Ascension FZs, but are inadequate to explain the early rifting structures of the northern Equatorial Atlantic, north of the St Paul FZ (Figure 2). This misfit includes the link between the segmentation of the northern Equatorial Atlantic margins and Early to Mid-Cretaceous extension (e.g., Marajo or Foz do Amazonas basins: Costa et al., 2002; Hurtado et al., 2018; Soares Júnior et al., 2011). The misfit also concerns a conjugate oceanic fracture zone located in the proximity to the Guinea and Demerara plateaus: the Cretaceous Jurassic Line (CJL) (Figure 1).
**Validation:** Thomas Lesourd—Laux,
Christophe Basile

**Visualization:** Thomas Lesourd—Laux

**Writing—original draft:**

Thomas Lesourd—Laux,
Christophe Basile

**Writing—review & editing:**

Thomas Lesourd—Laux,
Christophe Basile, Walter Roest,
Frauke Klingelhoefer, Sabin Zahirovic,
Nicky M. Wright, David Graindorge,
Martin Patriat, Lies Loncke,
François Sapin

In this study, we first identify and reclassify the tectonic and geological settings, including the nature of the continental margins and the CJL. We then develop a new kinematic model specifically dedicated to the rifting of the Equatorial Atlantic. The numerous implications of our model on the Equatorial Atlantic region and its connection with the Central Atlantic and Caribbean domains are subsequently detailed.

## 2. Geological and Tectonic Settings

The breakup of Pangea began after the Triassic—Jurassic transition (≈201 Ma) (e.g., Jolivet et al., 1984; Klitgord & Schouten, 1986; Sahabi et al., 2004) following the intense activity of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) (e.g., Marzoli et al., 1999, 2018). The spreading of the Central Atlantic Ocean seafloor started during the late Sinemurian (Labails et al., 2010). The rifting then propagated southwestward between the Caribbean Plate, Blake Plateau, and Florida to the west and the future Transform Marginal Plateaus (TMPs) of Demerara and Guinea to the east (Figure 1) (Boschman et al., 2014; Loncke et al., 2020; Mercier De Lépinay, 2016).

During the Early Cretaceous, a second phase of Pangea breakup was initiated by the rifting of Patagonia from southern Africa, marking the inception of the South Atlantic rifting (Moulin et al., 2010; Tarling, 1973). During the Barremian-Aptian, the rift propagated northward, up to the Equatorial Atlantic, between the Ascension and Guinea FZs (e.g., Heine et al., 2013; Moulin et al., 2010).

Despite the impossibility of precisely dating it, the onset of seafloor spreading has been estimated to be older than Early Albian (Blarez, 1986; Gouyet, 1988; Oliveira Marinho, 1985), probably Late Aptian (Basile et al., 2005). Additional proxies, such as marine neodymium isotope data, indicate that the first shallow water connection between the Central and South Atlantic occurred in the Albian, with a deep marine connection (>2,000 m) established by the Early Cenomanian (Dummann et al., 2023; Martin et al., 2012). These results are consistent with gross depositional environment reconstructions (e.g., Casson et al., 2021), the timing of contourite deposits, and foraminiferal assemblage evolution (Friedrich & Erbacher, 2006; Mourlot et al., 2018).

## 3. Previous Kinematic Models

Most existing kinematic models, including the two widely used models of Moulin et al. (2010) and Heine et al. (2013), are primarily derived from South Atlantic constraints that are extended to the Equatorial Atlantic. The model of Heine et al. (2013) has since been integrated and slightly modified in the global plate reconstruction of Müller et al. (2019).

Despite being based on different reconstructions and including varying intracontinental blocks and chro-
nostratigraphic scales (Gee & Kent, 2007; Gradstein et al., 2004), both models agree on similar plate motion for
the spreading of the Equatorial Atlantic seafloor (see Supplementary Data 1) (Figure S1). They both rely on the
Chron 34 magnetic anomaly (≈83 Ma) and the FZ positions from the Santonian onwards. The minor discrep-
ancies between the two models for the Equatorial Atlantic opening can be attributed to the different global plate
models adopted (Campan's model (1995) for Moulin et al. (2010), and Nürnberg and Müller (1991) for Heine
et al. (2013)).

However, these models diverge significantly concerning the early rifting phases and their initial fit. Heine et al. (2013) propose that rifting began with a slow extension from 145 to 125 Ma (Supplementary Data 1) (Figure S1). Then, a compressional phase would have affected the Equatorial Atlantic between 125 and 120.6 Ma, involving up to 20 km of compression on the Demerara and Guinea plateaus. This compressional phase would have been associated with a clockwise rotation of the South American block linked to the northward propagation of the South Atlantic opening. From 120.6 Ma, a second extensional phase would have started, resulting in the Equatorial Atlantic's final break-up at approximately 116 Ma, during the Cretaceous Normal Superchron (CNS). Moulin et al. (2010) propose an initial fit of the Equatorial portion (Guyana block) at 112 Ma, that is approximately 60 km looser than Heine et al. (2013) (Supplementary Data 1) (Figure S1). Their rifting initiation starts 33 Ma later and includes a single main continuous extensional phase, with a final breakup at around 106 Ma.

In the southern Equatorial Atlantic, both models describe rifting directions in accordance with the continental margin geometry: divergent margins are sub-orthogonal to the stretching direction, and transform segments are aligned accordingly. However, in the Northern Equatorial Atlantic, their direction of rifting is oblique to both the
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Global geological context of the studied area. The gravity anomaly from Sandwell et al. (2014) is plotted on the oceanic domain. Early Cretaceous Chrons are from the global compilation of Seton et al. (2020). FDA for Foz Do Amazonas Basin G. & D. for Guinea and Demerara conjugate plateaus, Transbrasiliano L. for Transbrasiliano Lineament, Khandi L for Khandi Lineament, CJL for Cretaceous Jurassic Line, FZ for Fracture Zone.</figcaption></figure>

continental margin direction and the CJL (see below). Although both models identify the CJL as a conjugate structure and fit it, with slightly better fit for Moulin et al. (2010), they lack any explanation for its geometry.

4. Methods and Data

We used the GPlates and PyGPlates software for our refinement of the kinematic movements of the Equatorial Atlantic (Mather et al., 2024; Müller et al., 2018). We based our work on the intracontinental block boundaries and rotations for the South Atlantic reconstruction as defined by Moulin et al. (2010), who proposed simpler rotations and a slightly better fit of the CJL than Heine et al. (2013). We modified the continental block boundaries and rotations in the northern part of the South American plate to account for the early rifting discrepancies between the northern and southern structures of the Equatorial Atlantic. We have also updated the timing of the rotations in Moulin et al. (2010) model in accordance with the latest magnetic age of Ogg (2020) (see Table 1). Other than age modification, our reconstruction does not alter the rotation poles of the continental blocks proposed by Moulin et al. for the South Atlantic region between the Ascension and Agulhas–Falkland FZs (Figure 1).

To build our reconstruction, we cross-used different sets of data.

- To identify the major tectonic structures of the Equatorial Atlantic domain, such as FZs and the surrounding continental margins, we used gravity data from Sandwell et al. (2014) and GEBCO bathymetry data (http://www.gebco.net) (GEBCO Compilation Group, 2024). We combined published (e.g., Casson et al., 2021; Loparev et al., 2021; Olyphant et al., 2017; Reuber et al., 2016; Sapin et al., 2016) and unpublished Multi-Channel Seismic (MCS) and structural data to characterize the continental margin type and deformation, as well as to adapt the Continent-Ocean Boundary (COB) and terrane definition of Müller et al. (2019). Modifications of the COB for the Demerara Plateau have been made according to recent wide-angle seismic studies (Museur et al., 2020; Padron et al., 2022) and to the MCS interpretation of Lesourd--Laux (2020) for the Guinea Plateau (Figure 1).
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2.</figcaption></figure>
- Inland, to identify first-order intra-continental plate boundaries, we used gravity-derived Moho depth from Uieda and Barbosa (2017) and global sedimentary thickness maps CRUST1.0 (Laske et al., 2013), together with published seismic or structural data (e.g., Caputo, 2014; Rossetti et al., 2021) and the global geology compilation map (Cordani et al., 2016; Thiéblemont et al., 2017).

The identified FZs allowed us to reconstruct the opening direction of the Equatorial Atlantic. We utilized the Chain and the St. Paul FZs in the southern Equatorial Atlantic between the Chron 34 anomaly and our initial fit. In the north, we primarily used the CJL and post-Albian FZs, particularly the Arkhangelskiy FZ, which is the only one spanning the entire northern Equatorial Atlantic (Figure 2). Then, after oceanic domain closure, the COBs position enabled us to constrain the initial fit by qualitatively assessing the gaps and overlaps induced by the model.

# 5. Kinematic Model

## 5.1. Kinematic Constraints

### 5.1.1. Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margins

The orientations of the continental margins and their relationship with Equatorial oceanic FZs reveal distinct characteristics for the southern and northern Equatorial Atlantic, south and north of the St Paul FZ, respectively. They both consist of alternating segments of either transform or rifted divergent margins (Basile, 2015). Each segment along the South American side has a conjugate segment of the same nature along the African side. This section requires only minor adjustments to the previously identified South American continental architecture (De Castro et al., 2022; Loparev et al., 2021) and extends Basile et al.'s (2005) identification of conjugate segments to the entire Equatorial African margin (Figure 2). This identification is based on the orientations of the COBs as determined from gravity anomalies (Figure 2), and on local and regional tectonic and structural studies (e.g., Costa et al., 2002; Hurtado et al., 2018; Olyphant et al., 2017). Because of post-rift sedimentation, especially at the mouth of the Amazon and Niger rivers, the margin orientation may be either directly observed or inferred from the conjugate margins.

Starting from the north on the South American side, the northern Equatorial Atlantic consists successively of the northeastern edge of the Demerara Plateau transform margin (TM) relayed eastward by a divergent margin (DM) identified by Basile et al. (2023) as a pull-apart basin (Figure 2). To the east, this pull-apart basin is neighboring a transform segment north of the Demerara Plateau connected with the eastern Demerara DM (Basile et al., 2013; Museur et al., 2020; Sapin et al., 2016). Southward, the margin consists of the Guiana TM, followed by the Caciporé and Foz do Amazonas basins (DM) (Costa et al., 2002). In the southern Equatorial Atlantic, the St. Paul TM joins the Pama DM. Southeast, the Barreirinhas TM is relayed by the Cearà DM. Finally, linking the Ascension FZ, the Potiguar TM and the Pernambuco DM constitute the southern limit of the Equatorial Atlantic (De Castro et al., 2022).

On the African side, we similarly identified transform and divergent segments that correlate with their South American counterparts (Figure 2). The Guinea Plateau is segmented like its South American conjugate, a divergent pull-apart segment is relayed by the Guinea TM connected to the DM of Guinea (Olyphant et al., 2017). Southeast, the Liberia TM is bordered by the Liberia DM. These margin segments correspond to the Guiana TM and the Foz do Amazonas DM conjugates. South of the St Paul FZ, the Liberia-Côte d'Ivoire TM joins the Ivorian divergent segment. They are the conjugate structures to the St Paul TM and the Pama DM. To the east, the Côte d'Ivoire-Ghana TM and the Nigeria DM, conjugates to the Barreirinhas and Cearà margins, are the southernmost identifiable transform segments of the African margin. Further east, the Niger Delta entirely covers the continental margin, with the coastline extending beyond the COB (e.g., Müller et al., 2016), obscuring the conjugate margins of the Potiguar TM and Pernambuco DM.

**Figure 2.** Divergent and transform conjugate margins of the Equatorial Atlantic. The Cretaceous Jurassic Line has also been underlined. Pa. Stands for Pull-apart basin, FZ for Fracture Zone, CJL for Cretaceous Jurassic Line, LAA for Lesser Antilles Arc. 1: Conjugate Demerara & Guinea transform margins, 2: Conjugate Demerara & Guinea divergent margins, 3: Conjugate Guiana & Liberia transform margins, 4: corresponds to the southern extent of the Caciporé Basin, 4: Conjugate Foz do Amazonas & Liberia divergent margins, 5: Conjugate St Paul & Côte d'Ivoire transform margins, 6: Conjugate Pama & Côte d'Ivoire divergent margins, 7: Conjugate Barreirinhas & Ghana transform margins, 8: Cearà divergent margin, 9: Potiguar transform margin, 10: Pernambuco divergent margin.
<table><caption>**Table 1**
The Main Chrons of the Early to Mid-Cretaceous Used in Moulin et al. (2010) Model and Revised in Our Reconstruction Based on Ogg (2020)</caption><thead><tr><th>Chron</th><th>Moulin et al. (2010)</th><th>Ogg (2020)</th><th>Implemented</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>M0</td><td>125</td><td>121.4</td><td>121.4</td></tr><tr><td>M2</td><td>127.5</td><td>125</td><td>125</td></tr><tr><td>M4</td><td>130</td><td>127.59</td><td>127.6</td></tr><tr><td>M7</td><td>132</td><td>129</td><td>129</td></tr><tr><td>LMA (M11-M9)</td><td>133</td><td>(133,32–129,926)</td><td>131.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

The alternation between transform and divergent relays found throughout the Equatorial Atlantic has different characteristics between the northern and southern parts, with the St. Paul FZ acting as a fundamental divide. In the southern Equatorial Atlantic, the continental margins are aligned and appear directly connected to the oceanic domain, that is, St Paul FZ and St Paul TM, the Romanche FZ, Barreirinhas and Côte d'Ivoire TMs, and the Chain FZ and Potiguar TM (Figure 2). Conversely, in the northern Equatorial Atlantic, there is a 30° angle between the transform continental margins and the adjacent oceanic FZs, that is, Bogdanov and Demerara TM or Strakhov and Guinea TM.

### 5.1.2. The Cretaceous Jurassic Line

Northeast of Demerara and west of the Guinea plateaus, the FZs end against the Guyana Basin and Central Atlantic Jurassic oceanic crust (Benkhelil et al., 1995; Campan, 1995; Mercier De Lépinay, 2016). The extremities of the Cretaceous FZs define the CJLs on both sides of the Atlantic (Figure 2).

On the Guinea side, the CJL has a total length of 900 km and comprises two sub-linear joint segments underlined by a gravity low (Figure 2). Westwards, the linear gravity marker is well defined and constitutes a 420 km long segment striking N 295°. Eastwards, close to the continent, a 480 km section, striking N 280°, is intensively overlain by Paleocene volcanoes of the Grimaldi seamounts (e.g., Bertrand et al., 1993; Skolotnev et al., 2012). This segment is less precisely mapped because of the discontinuity of the gravity marker. On the Demerara side, the western part of the CJL has been subducted at the Caribbean subduction zone. The remaining segment extends approximately 400 km in length and is striking N 300°. Unlike its African counterpart, on the South American side, the CJL is clearly expressed along its entire length by a continuous and linear gravity trough, bordered on each side by less continuous gravity highs.

On both sides of the Atlantic, the late Cretaceous FZs, such as the Arkhangelskiy FZ (Figure 2), diverge from the orientation of the CJLs by approximately 20° near the continents (Demerara, eastern Guinea), and about 40° for the western Guinea segment. The western Guinea CJL is parallel or sub-parallel to the Jurassic FZ related to the Central Atlantic domain. On the contrary, the eastern Guinea and Demerara CJLs are oblique to the Central Atlantic or Proto-Caribbean FZs (Figure 2) (Nemčok et al., 2016; Trude et al., 2023).

The truncation of FZs against the CJL indicates that a new oceanic lithosphere was accreted along the CJL within a preexisting, older oceanic domain. This geometry may be related to a Mid-Cretaceous oceanic rift axis propagation; however, no “V-shape” is visible in gravity data, and all FZs ending against the CJL have the same length, implying that the Cretaceous oceanic accretion started simultaneously along the entire CJL.

On seismic lines, the South American CJL has a remarkably uniform structure, consisting in a section of a triangular graben over 15 km wide and around 2 s travel time deep, occasionally bordered by a lateral ridge on one side (Figure 3). The sedimentary infill of the CJL trench comprises two main units. The deepest one, down to 9 s and 0.75 to 1 s-thick, presents thick, chaotic, fan-shaped sediments slightly tilted toward the southern Jurassic domain of the Guyana basin (Figure 3). We interpret this sedimentary layer as being coeval with intra-oceanic rifting extensional deformation. This unit is overlain by post-deformation sediments, 1.5 to 2 s-thick, with very low amplitude folding, correlated with the underlying sedimentary thickness that we therefore attribute to differential compaction. From these seismic lines, we interpret the CJL as an intra-oceanic structure reactivated by oblique rifting at the time of the deposition of the fan-shaped unit.

The CJL has a continuous and linear shape, is sub-parallel to the transform continental margins, and branches from the transform segments bordering the conjugate Demerara and Guinea plateaus (Figure 2, Basile et al., 2023). Consequently, we propose that the CJL have been an intra-oceanic transform fault established in the Early Cretaceous within the Jurassic oceanic crust. In a second stage, a kinematic reorganization reactivated this transform fault as an intra-oceanic rift zone.

### 5.2. Proposed Model

Building on the Moulin et al. (2010) South Atlantic model, the main goal of our kinematic model is to be compatible with both the Equatorial Atlantic margins orientations and the CJLs interpreted as a transform fault.
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** On the left: a sketch of the 2 rifting phases at the level of the Cretaceous Jurassic Line. On the right: a fence diagram constructed from six seismic lines crossing the Cretaceous Jurassic Line. LAA stands for Lesser Antilles Arc subduction zone, D. for Demerara Plateau. Seismic data courtesy of TGS.</figcaption></figure>

However, plate displacement parallel to the CJL in the northern Equatorial Atlantic is incompatible with plate displacement parallel with the FZs of the southern Equatorial Atlantic, such as the Romanche FZ. The only way to make the CJL and the Romanche transform faults compatible is to introduce a plate boundary between them.
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4.** Comparison of continental block boundaries between our model and Moulin et al. (2010). The removal of the Transbrasiliano Lineament boundary in our model results in the elimination of 3 of the 9 continental blocks defined by Moulin et al. (2010) in South America. We extended the Santos block and its associated kinematics to include Northeast Brazil. The introduction of a new intra-Amazonian plate boundary in our model accommodates the relative motion between the Guyana and Santos blocks. T. stand for the Tucano block of Moulin et al. (2010), D. & G. for the Demerara and Guinea Plateaus, TBL for Transbrasiliano Lineament.</figcaption></figure>

### 5.2.1. The Amazon as a Former Intra-Continental Plate Boundary

The Foz do Amazonas and Marajó basins are located on the continental margin in vicinity with the St. Paul FZ, which constitutes the boundary between the northern and southern Equatorial Atlantic. These basins are pro- longated into the South American continent by the Amazon basins, which represent a major intra-continental boundary, underlain by deep Paleozoic basins, covering at least 2 million km². The Amazon basins include the Amazonas, Solimoes, Acre, Ucayali-Maron, Huallaga, and, to the west, the significantly reworked Sub- Andean basins (Figure 1) (Mora et al., 2009). In the area, the continental crust is thinned, with a gravity- derived Moho depth of 30–33 km beneath the Solimoes Basin, reaching as shallow as 28.5 km in the central trough of the Amazon Basin (Uieda & Barbosa, 2017). In contrast, according to the same authors, the crustal thickness of the surrounding craton are estimated to be around 38–41 km.

Furthermore, between the Late Jurassic and the Mid-Cretaceous, the basins located between the Amazon and the eastern Cordillera experienced a major inversion with a sedimentary hiatus (Figure 1) (Bezerra et al., 2023; Caputo, 1991, 2014; Hurtado et al., 2018; Rossetti et al., 2022). The deformation is more significant in the western part of this area, with the Solimoes and Acre basins' inversion marked by asymmetrical folds, faults, and uplifted blocks (Figure 1) (Caputo, 1991, 2014). In contrast, only minor deformation affected the Amazonian Basin. Conversely, the Marajó Basin underwent a phase of extension in the Early Cretaceous (Costa et al., 2002; Hurtado et al., 2018). Considering their inversion and the thinner continental crust, we propose the Amazon basins as a diffuse plate boundary accommodating the relative motion between the Guyana and Santos blocks during the Early Cretaceous (Figure 4).

### 5.2.2. Other Intra-Continental Plate Boundaries

Moulin et al. (2010) included a large number of intra-continental blocks during the rifting stage of their plate kinematic reconstruction of the South Atlantic. They divided the South American continent into nine blocks: Guyana, NE Brazil, Tucano, São Francisco, Santos, Rio de la Plata, Argentina, Salado, and Patagonia. In line with most kinematic reconstructions, they split the African continent into three main blocks: the West African block, the Nubian block, and the Austral block, to which was added the Benue Trough microplate (Figure 4).
On the South American plate, the Transbresiliano Lineament (TBL) is one of their model's major intra-continental block limits. The TBL accommodates up to 125 km of compression and 30 km of dextral movement at the Bolivian Orocline (Figure 4). However, this interpretation of the TBL as a Cretaceous plate boundary has been disputed, as no sign of deformation correlating with this amount of shortening has been reported from geological fieldwork (Torsvik et al., 2010). Moreover, it has been recently suggested that the TBL extends toward southern Argentina instead of toward the Pacific across Bolivia (Cordani et al., 2016) (Figure 1).

Therefore, we chose to remove the TBL boundary, which also implies the suppression of the Tucano, NE-Brazil, and São Francisco blocks proposed by Moulin et al. (2010) (Figure 4). The boundary between São Francisco and Santos, which is not associated with known geological structures (Moulin et al., 2010), was also removed in the process. By eliminating these blocks and the TBL, we use the kinematic history of the Santos block from Moulin et al. (2010) up to the Amazon plate boundary (Figure 4). Therefore, our contribution is focused on the kinematics of the Equatorial Atlantic, by introducing the Amazon plate boundary and re-evaluating the displacement of the Guyana block.

### 5.2.3. A Two-Phase Rifting

As proposed by Campan (1995), the obliquity between the CJL and younger oceanic FZs suggests the occurrence of two rift phases between Guyana and West Africa.

During the first phase of rifting, the plate motion was aligned with the CJL and the transform segments of the continental margins of the northern Equatorial Atlantic. As indicated by the Cretaceous FZs, the plate motion was oblique to these structures during the second phase.

We fitted the first rifting phase by transform faulting along the CJL and along the conjugate transform continental margins of the northern Equatorial Atlantic, starting from the Hauterivian. This first stage is specific to the northern Equatorial Atlantic. Consequently, plate displacement induced a slow dextral shift of the Guyana block relative to west Africa (Figures 5a and 6). In the absence of magnetic data, this first rifting phase is supported and constrained in time by the Early Cretaceous extension of divergent continental margin segments of the north Equatorial Atlantic, such as the Marajó and Foz do Amazonas basins (Figueiredo et al., 2007; Soares Júnior et al., 2011). Although these authors proposed that the extension of these basins started as early as the Berriasian, the temporal constraints imposed by Moulin et al. (2010) for the South Atlantic opening prevented us from placing the first rifting phase earlier than the Hauterivian.

The second rifting phase occurred during the Albian, when the kinematics of the South Atlantic prevailed throughout the whole Equatorial Atlantic, leading to a kinematic reorganization of the northern Equatorial Atlantic (Soares Junior et al., 2011). This kinematic change can be related to the northward propagation of the South Atlantic that surpassed the São Luís craton kinematic barrier, reaching the present-day Amazon River mouth and the already stretched basins of the northern Equatorial Atlantic (Soares Júnior et al., 2011) (Figure 5b). This reorganization is responsible for the cessation of transform movement on the CJL in the Albian (Gouyet, 1988; Oliveira Marinho, 1985) and the onset of oblique rifting in the northern Equatorial Atlantic. This second phase of rifting is marked by an increase in the spreading velocity until it reaches the final break-up of the Equatorial Atlantic gateway (Figures 5 and 6).

### 5.2.4. The Plate Kinematic Reconstruction

Due to the absence of magnetic anomalies during the CNS, we built our kinematic model starting from Chron 34 (≈83 Ma), which is a chronological reference point in most kinematic models. From Chron 34 backward, we used the FZs and transform continental margins as guides for plate displacements. However, in this approach, plate velocities are only constrained by the speculative Albian and Hauterivian boundaries for the two kinematic stages, and by the timing of South Atlantic rotations described by Moulin et al. (2010) (Figure 6).

From 83.5 to 112 Ma, we used the Arkhangelskiy, Chain, and St. Paul FZs to build the reconstruction of the oceanic domain (Table 2). During this phase, our model resembles that of Moulin et al. (2010) as we follow well-identified FZs. Once the Equatorial domain is closed, the two conjugate CJLs are superimposed, which is close to the initial fit of Moulin et al. (2010) (Figures 5c and 5d).
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5.** Resulting kinematics from our reconstructions, red arrows represent the motion of the continental blocks. -A: Initial fit and inception of the Equatorial Atlantic rifting with a transform movement of the Guyana's block on the CJL and slow extension accompanied by a clockwise rotation of the Santos block. Note the intra-continental deformation at the level of the Amazon basins involved in the relative motion between those two blocks -B: Propagation of the South Atlantic Kinematic to the entire Equatorial Atlantic and beginning of the second phase of rifting for the Guyana block. End of the relative motion between the Guyana and Santos blocks. -C drifting -D Chron 34 fit using the same rotation poles as Campan (1995) and Moulin et al. (2010).</figcaption></figure>

Between 112 and 131.5 Ma, the kinematics of the northern and southern Equatorial Atlantic differ. The opening of the southern Equatorial Atlantic is associated with the rotations of the Santos block described by Moulin et al. (2010). It represents a 130 km dextral displacement and an anti-clockwise rotation of South America relative to Africa. The south Equatorial Atlantic initial fit is set at 131.5 Ma, according to Moulin et al. (2010) (Figure 5b) and the Chron update of Ogg (2020).

Based on our model, during the same 112 to 131.5 Ma interval, the northern Equatorial Atlantic experiences an 80 km transform displacement between the Guyana Block and West Africa along the CJL (Figure 5b and Table 2). The kinematic differences between the south and north Equatorial Atlantic result in intra-continental deformation between the Guyana and Santos blocks, along the Amazon plate boundary. According to our model, the shortening increases progressively from the Amazonas Basin, where it was nearly negligible, to up to 120 km near the Andes. Conversely, the Marajó Basin undergoes around 30 km of extension in the eastern Amazon. Our initial fit, achieved at 131.5 Ma, relies on the fit of the Demerara and Guinea plateaus and the Caciporé region as primary constraints. It is 80 km tighter than the initial fit proposed by Moulin et al. (2010) and is comparable to the configuration described by Heine et al. (2013).
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6.** Velocity magnitude (cm/year) of the spreading modeled for the Equatorial Atlantic between 131.5 and 83 Ma according to our model, and for the Central and proto-Caribbean regions from the Müller et al. (2019) global model. Barr. Stands for Barremian, Tur. for Turonian, Conia. for Coniacian, Sant. for Santonian, Maast. for Maastrichtian, CNS for Cretaceous Normal Superchron.</figcaption></figure>

# 6. Discussion

## 6.1. Intra-Oceanic Rifting Along a Transform Fault: Analogues of the CJL

Plate motion changes can either lead to compression or extension along FZs (McCarthy et al., 1996; Tucholke & Schouten, 1988). For large-offset FZs (>500 km) older than 20 Ma, the extension can create an intra-transform rift system (Lodolo et al., 2013; McCarthy et al., 1996), that is, a new oceanic accretionary axis initiated inside a former FZ, and resulting in a set of closely spaced (~50 km) parallel FZs, ending on both extremities against the former FZ.

As shown in the geological and tectonic settings, the CJL meets both of these criteria. The offset is at least 500 km long, as the CJL measures approximately 500 km for the non-subducted Demerara segments, and more than 900 km on the Guinean side (Figure 7a). Moreover, the rifting phase occurred along the CJL during the Albian,

<table><caption>**Table 2**

Guyana's and Santos's Block Finite Rotations Utilized in This Study, With Respect to the Fixed West African Block</caption><thead><tr><th>Block</th><th>Age (Ma)</th><th>Chron</th><th>Latitude, deg</th><th>Longitude, deg</th><th>Angle, deg</th><th>Source</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Guyana</td><td>84</td><td>C34</td><td>61.88</td><td>-34.5</td><td>33.55</td><td>Campan (1995)</td></tr><tr><td>112</td><td>-</td><td>54.27</td><td>-34.86</td><td>50.44</td><td>Moulin et al. (2010)</td></tr><tr><td>131.5</td><td>-</td><td>54.70</td><td>-34.42</td><td>51.42</td><td>This study</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Santos</td><td>84</td><td>C34</td><td>61.88</td><td>-34.5</td><td>33.55</td><td>Moulin et al. (2010)</td></tr><tr><td>112</td><td>-</td><td>54.27</td><td>-34.98</td><td>50.43</td><td>Moulin et al. (2010)</td></tr><tr><td>125</td><td>-</td><td>52.85</td><td>-34.51</td><td>52.02</td><td>Moulin et al. (2010)</td></tr><tr><td>131.5</td><td>-</td><td>52.11</td><td>-34.64</td><td>52.99</td><td>Moulin et al. (2010)</td></tr></tbody></table>

*Note.* The block limits and timing of rotation of Moulin et al. (2010) have been modified for this study (see Figure 4 and Table 1).
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7.** Comparison of the CJL with other intra-transform propagating ridges. (a) CJL, (b) Mendocino fracture zone, (c): Emerald fracture zone. CJL stands for Cretaceous Jurassic Line, FZ for Fracture Zone.</figcaption></figure>

within the Central Atlantic-Proto-Caribbean oceanic crust set up in the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Eventually, the northern Equatorial Atlantic FZ extending between the two CJLs and the subduction of the Lesser Antilles consists of a network of closely spaced (~50 km) parallel FZs. Therefore, we propose that the CJL is an intra-transform rift-system that pulled apart the initial single CJL into the two-conjugate parts located on either side of the Atlantic Ocean. The network of intervening closely spaced FZs persists up to the present in the northern Equatorial Atlantic region. Although no other examples have lasted for a comparable duration, the current configuration of the CJL, resulting from a major plate reorganization, can be observed for at least two FZs in the Pacific Basin: the Mendocino FZ and the Emerald FZ (Figures 7b and 7c).

The Mendocino FZ is the largest known continuous geological structure, stretching over 6,000 km from the coast of California to the Jurassic oceanic crust of the Pacific (e.g., Rea & Dixon, 1983). At Chron 33 (Santonian), a kinematic reorganization associated with rift propagation (Caress et al., 1988) resulted in a counter-clockwise rotation of the Farallon plate. This shift positioned the Mendocino FZ within a transtensional setting, facilitating a rifting zone emergence within its margins. A network of five new FZ strands was generated over a width of 300 km, with an orientation pseudo-perpendicular to the new accretionary axis (Figure 7b). By Chron 22, a new kinematic reorganization affected the Farallon plate, halting the expansion of this rift zone (McCarthy et al., 1996).

The Emerald FZ, a ~1,250 km long FZ located approximately 2,000 km south of New Zealand, followed a similar kinematic evolution. At the beginning of the Miocene (≈6 Ma), a kinematic reorganization of the Antarctic and Pacific plate boundary induced extension in the Emerald FZ, leading to the development of an intra-transform rift (Lodolo et al., 2013) (Figure 7a).

## 6.2. Triple Junction Between North America, South America, and Africa

Before the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic, the Central Atlantic accretionary axis was connected to the proto-Caribbean domain by a transform, defining a plate boundary between North America and the still connected South American and African plates (e.g., Braszus et al., 2021). The subsequent opening of the Equatorial Atlantic established a new plate boundary between Africa and South America, forming a triple junction with the existing Central Atlantic-proto-Caribbean system (Figure 8).
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8.** Triple junction reconstruction between the North American, South American and African plates. (a) At the inception of the CJL transform movement (b) After the second rifting phase (c) Curvature of the gravimetry anomaly of the Guinea and CJL region. The orange star represents the initial triple junction (Ridge-Transform-Transform) between the equatorial Atlantic, the Central Atlantic and the Proto-Caribbean plates. The yellow one marks the end of the triple connection on the CJL. RTT stands for Ridge-Tranform-Transform triple junction, CJL for Cretaceous Jurassic Line, SA South America, NA North America, AF Africa, G. Guinea Plateau, FZ Fracture Zone.</figcaption></figure>
Assuming a non-colinear divergence direction in the Central and Equatorial Atlantic, the relative motion between South and North America is the vectorial sum of the motion between South America and Africa, plus the motion between Africa and North America (Figure 8). The South-North America vector is neither parallel to the North America-Africa plate transform, nor aligned with the Equatorial Atlantic (South America-Africa) transform faults (Figure 8a). Consequently, we interpret the bend of the CJL as marking the initial triple junction, with the eastern CJL acting as a transform fault between South America and Africa (Equatorial Atlantic) while the western CJL was a transform fault between North and South America.

This ongoing plate divergence led to a northward shift of the Central Atlantic's oceanic axis along the western CJL (Figure 8b). Consequently, the active transform fault previously separating North and South America (CJL (SA/NA) in Figure 8a) became a FZ separating South America from Africa.

The displacement between South America and Africa produced transtension along this FZ. The lack of geophysical data (magnetic anomalies, seismic lines) prevented us from addressing in detail how this transtension was accommodated. It may be by propagating small accretionary axess and FZs perpendicular and parallel to the relative displacement, respectively (Figure 8b), like in other examples of intra-transform rifting (cf. § 6.1).

Subsequently, with the second rifting phase of the Equatorial Atlantic (112 Ma), both segments of the CJL became inactive, and the Equatorial Atlantic accretionary axis linked with the Central Atlantic one (Figure 8c). We consequently propose that the two parts of the African CJL can be interpreted as the FZs (former transform faults) between Africa and South America for the eastern part, and between North and South America for the western part. Due to the subduction along the Lesser Antilles, only the eastern part (i.e., fracture zone between Africa and South America) is preserved on the South American side.

## 6.3. CJL and Model Implications on the Lesser Antilles Arc

One of the distinctive features of the Lesser Antilles subduction zone is that it incorporates oceanic crust from three distinct ocean basins (Central & Equatorial Atlantic and protoCaribbean) over a span of 1,200 km (Figure 9). Based on our interpretation of the CJL, we propose a revision of these oceanic boundaries and discuss their implications. Most studies on the Caribbean or Lesser Antilles subduction zone consider the boundary between South America (Equatorial Atlantic) and North America (Central Atlantic) to be the Fifteen-Twenty FZ (Bird, 2003; Braszus et al., 2021; Cooper et al., 2020). The boundary between the Guyana Basin (Proto-Caribbean) and the Equatorial Atlantic is often designated by the gravimetry anomaly corresponding to the CJL (e.g., Braszus et al., 2021; Cooper et al., 2020).

According to our new delineation, we retain the CJL as the boundary between the Equatorial Atlantic and the proto-Caribbean. However, we propose that the boundary between the Central and Equatorial Atlantic is located at the Guinea FZ (Figure 9). Besides modifying these major oceanic boundaries, we have also reconstructed the portion of the CJL subducted under the Antilles from the trace of its African conjugate using GPlates. We corrected the position of the subducted CJL based on the subduction angles by Bie et al. (2019). As a result, the position of the subducted CJL passes under Barbados, along Martinique and Dominica, beneath Guadeloupe, and extends to the island of Nevis. This new delineation and the extension of the CJL suggest that the subduction of the Equatorial Atlantic oceanic crust began at approximately 3 Ma, 7 million years later than previously modeled (Braszus et al., 2021).

This new delineation should be evaluated alongside the heterogeneity of the subduction parameters of the Lesser Antilles (Bie et al., 2019; Wadge & Shepherd, 1984). The seismicity is unevenly distributed across the Antilles, with more earthquakes occurring in the northern part of the arc (latitude 14–18) in both small and historical events (Bie et al., 2019; Foix et al., 2024; Hayes et al., 2018; McCann & Sykes, 1984). This zone north of the 14°N is also characterized by more significant and hydrated magmatism derived from fluids with a strong serpentinization signature (Cooper et al., 2020; Wadge & Shepherd, 1984).

Several factors related to the variability of the subducted plates under the Antilles may explain this heterogeneity.

* The sedimentation is unevenly distributed, with a more significant accretionary prism south of 15°N. This likely influences the amount of fluid introduced into the subduction zone (Heuret et al., 2012).

* During the initial rifting phase, the subduction of the CJL formed an intra-oceanic transform zone for 18 Ma. Oceanic transform zones facilitate the hydration of oceanic lithosphere by enhancing water circulation and
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 9.** CJL's reconstructed position via flowlines based on its Guyana conjugate and corrected with the slab dip angle of Bie et al. (2019). The orange star represents the initial triple junction (Ridge-Transform-Transform) between the equatorial Atlantic, the Central Atlantic and the Proto-Caribbean plates. The yellow one marks the end of the triple connection on the CJL. RTT stands for Ridge-Transform-Transform triple junction, CJL for Cretaceous Jurassic Line, FZ for Fracture Zone.</figcaption></figure>

serpentinization of peridotites (Escartín et al., 2008; Manea et al., 2014; Paulatto et al., 2017). Additionally, during the second phase of Equatorial Atlantic rifting, the CJL experienced another intra-oceanic rifting event, further enhancing the potential for hydration.

* The subducted part of the CJL under the Antilles represents the former triple junction between the Proto-Caribbean plate and the Central Atlantic. According to our model, the Central Atlantic accretion axis shifted along the CJL (NA-SA) (Figures 5 and 7). This likely impacted the Lesser Antilles subduction, with possibly heavily fractured lithosphere having different tectonic orientations. There is also a potential for highly hydrothermally altered crust, and the possible presence of magmatism associated with the Central Atlantic ridge.

Between Martinique and Guadeloupe, a peak in intraslab seismicity at depths between 140 and 165 km coincides with a low Vp/Vs anomaly associated with an abundant fluid area (Bie et al., 2019; Ezenwaka et al., 2022; Paulatto et al., 2017). The mechanism of this seismically active intraslab area is characterized by normal faulting, with both nodal planes striking perpendicular to the arc. Bie et al. (2019) associate these reactivation perpendicular nodal planes with the possible reactivation of the Marathon and Mercurius FZs. More recently, Lindner et al. (2024) identified two distinct focal mechanisms in the region: strike-slip and dip-slip motions. They associated these mechanisms with the potential reactivation of the former Proto-Caribbean oceanic spreading ridge, that would now be subducted between Martinique and Dominica.
This zone also coincides with the subducted CJL. We propose that intermediate intra-slab earthquakes with normal faulting mechanisms are linked to the reactivation of the CJL. This reactivation was likely facilitated by significant dehydration, leading to the embrittlement of the plunging oceanic lithosphere (Ezenwaka et al., 2022). This could also explain why the rest of the Lesser Antilles subduction arc presents less intermediate depth intraslab seismicity, despite the incorporation of numerous other FZs.

## 6.4. Demerara and Guinea Cretaceous Deformation and Kinematic Models

The Demerara and Guinea plateaus present sedimentary archives that document the tectonic activity in the northern Equatorial Atlantic since the Jurassic. Several recent studies (e.g., Aduomahor et al., 2024; Loncke et al., 2022; Casson et al., 2021; Graindorge et al., 2022; Museur et al., 2020; Reuber et al., 2016) investigated the sedimentation and stratigraphic structures of these conjugate plateaus. During the Mid-Cretaceous, the plateaus recorded tectonic stresses associated with the Equatorial Atlantic's rifting, characterized by both extensional and compressional features. On the Guinea Plateau, the rifting deformation is evidenced by a significant Albian unconformity associated with a general uplift of the marginal part of the plateau, which resulted in the erosion of up to 500 m of pre-rift sediments (Aduomahor et al., 2024). This deformation also correlates with the location of NW-SE strike-slip faults (Aduomahor et al., 2024; Graindorge et al., 2022; Loncke et al., 2022).

On the Demerara Plateau, a significant Albian uplift led locally to the erosion of approximately one km of sediments (Casson et al., 2021). Additionally, Early Aptian-Albian pre-unconformity folds, occasionally accompanied by faulting, indicate transpressional shortening (Casson et al., 2021; Mercier De Lépinay, 2016). In the northeastern part of the plateau, the shortening has been estimated at 8.3 km over a section of 117.4 km in length (Casson et al., 2021). Some authors even interpreted crustal-scale thrusting of the western marginal part of the plateau based on seismic data (Gómez-Romeu et al., 2023).

Although most kinematic models can explain the extensional features and the regional Albian unconformity with the inherent thinning of the crust and transtension associated with oblique rifting, only a few models account for the compression observed on both plateaus (Figure S1). For example, the model proposed by Moulin et al. (2010), which includes a single oblique rifting phase, fails to explain the transpressional shortening observed on Demerara. The model proposed by Heine et al. (2013), which involves up to 20 km of compression in the Equatorial Atlantic during the Barremian (~125.8–121.4 Ma), attributes these folds to a purely compressional phase. However, even with a 20 km shortening, their model is unlikely to trigger crustal thrusts. Our reconstruction, which includes an initial 80 km of transform movement along the transform margins of the plateaus, followed by an oblique rifting phase, can lead to the formation of transpressional folds, but is still insufficient to produce a crustal thrust as proposed by Gómez-Romeu et al. (2023).

Beyond the Demerara and Guinea plateaus, our kinematic refinement of the rifting also involves a new direction and earlier extension of the entire northern Equatorial Atlantic. This revised geometry might influence models of the Mid-Cretaceous sedimentary deposits in the region and the onset of the deep-water connection between the South and Central Atlantic. For instance, according to our reconstruction, the conjugate divergent segments identified in Figure 2 underwent an 18 Ma extension starting in the Hauterivian (131.5 Ma). This prolonged extension likely led to the formation of lacustrine, lagoonal, or evaporitic deposit environments. These extensional zones may also have functioned as sediment drainage areas, as suggested by Girault et al. (2023). Conversely, the transform segments probably caused transpressional deformation, which might have generated relief, delaying the establishment of a water connection in the Equatorial Atlantic Gateway.

The timing of our kinematic model is poorly constrained for Lower Cretaceous times, but the geological records indicate that the marine connection between the northern and southern Equatorial Atlantic may not have occurred before the Albian for shallow waters. It suggests that at this time the second opening stage was old enough to connect all the single basins, with still some structural highs, probably at ridge-transform intersections, that preclude the connection of deep waters. The last barrier to the deep water circulation (and correlated last continental bridge between Africa and South America) may have disappear during the Early Cenomanian when the oceanic basins were wide enough not to be separated by intra-continental transform faults (Figure 5c; Basile, 2015).
## 6.5. Impact of the Inherited Pan African Structures on the Equatorial Atlantic Segmentation

The geological structures of the American and African continents, shaped by the Neoproterozoic and/or Brasilliano-Pan-African orogeneses, influenced the rifting locations of the Central and South Atlantic oceans (Moulin et al., 2010). Identifying these cratonic regions and suture zones is crucial for characterizing the kinematics of a region, as they will have different impacts on continental dislocation, with cratons presenting thick homogeneous lithospheric pieces less deformable than suture zones, basins, and old rifted areas acting as pre-existing zones of weakness.

The Equatorial Atlantic also mostly follows suture zones inherited from the pan-African orogeny (Campan, 1995; Girault et al., 2023; Gouyet, 1988; Moulin et al., 2010). The only exception is the area south of the St Paul FZ, where the rifting of the Equatorial Atlantic sets up across the southern end of the West African Craton, disrupting and isolating the São Luís Craton (Klein & Moura, 2008). The São Luís Craton thus constitutes the boundary between the north Equatorial Atlantic, which has undergone two phases of rifting, and the south Equatorial Atlantic. We propose that this zone acts as a "kinematic lock," preventing the propagation of the South Atlantic toward the north Equatorial Atlantic.

In a similar manner, the São Luis Craton area possibly delayed the northward propagation of the South Atlantic into the northern Equatorial Atlantic. This delay may have promoted Cretaceous deformation in the Benue Trough and the West African Rift System (Heine et al., 2013, and references therein) until the breaking of the São Luis kinematic barrier. This event led to the discontinuation of the West African rift zone (Heine & Brune, 2014) at around 110 Ma, and coincides with the second rifting phase of the northern Equatorial Atlantic (112 Ma according to the model presented in this study) and the complete continental breakup of the Equatorial Atlantic rift zone.

## 7. Conclusions

This study introduces a new kinematic model, integrated into the South Atlantic model of Moulin et al. (2010), that refines the tectonic evolution of the Equatorial Atlantic. It incorporates local geological and tectonic constraints, including the orientation of continental margins and the CJL. Observations of these structures led to the construction of a polyphased rifting model for the northern Equatorial Atlantic, with a first phase beginning in the Hauterivian (possibly Berriasian), followed by a second phase affecting the entire region during the Albian. Our kinematic reconstruction and the distinct geometries of the northern and southern Equatorial Atlantic suggest the existence of a former diffuse plate boundary along the Amazon.

We also substantiate our interpretation of the CJL and of the intra-oceanic rifting with notable analogs of intra-oceanic rifting along pre-existing transform faults. Additionally, we discuss the implications of our model and CJL interpretation on the evolution of the triple junction between the Equatorial Atlantic, Central Atlantic, and Proto-Caribbean. We also discussed that the reconstructed position of the CJL, extending to the volcanic subduction arc of the Antilles, could have significant implications for seismic and volcanic risk assessments. We also demonstrate that our kinematic model is consistent with the observed deformations on the Demerara and Guinea plateaus. This research further underscores the influence of inherited Pan-African and cratonic structures on the kinematics observed in the Equatorial Atlantic, with the São Luís Craton acting as a kinematic barrier between the northern and southern domains.

Overall, the insights from this research contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the evolution of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean and its integration with the kinematics and geology of the South and Central Atlantic, as well as the Caribbean region.

## Data Availability Statement

The Gplates and PyGplates software have been used for this study (https://www.earthbyte.org/gplates-2-3-software-and-data-sets/). The open source Qgis software (https://www.qgis.org/fr/site/forusers/download.html) was used for drafting of several figures as well as python packages. No new data were used in producing this manuscript. All data for this paper are properly cited and referred to in the reference list.
Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Ifremer for funding of the TLL's Ph. D. scholarship (LENTILS project) and partly funding his stay at the University of Sydney. We also thank the IsBlue graduate school for co-financing this stay. Thank you also to the Earthbyte team for the technical assistance provided with GPlates and PyGPlates software. We would like to sincerely thank Kim Welford and Wolf Dumman for their and constructive comments and insightful suggestions, which have significantly contributed to improving the quality of this manuscript.

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