# The next act: Evaluating tools and envisioning the future of VR theatre

Brendan Andolsek Bradley

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## To cite this version:

Brendan Andolsek Bradley. The next act: Evaluating tools and envisioning the future of VR theatre. Journées d'informatique théâtrale, Oct 2024, Avignon, France. hal-05176640

HAL Id: hal-05176640

https://hal.science/hal-05176640v1

Submitted on 22 Jul 2025

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# THE NEXT ACT: EVALUATING TOOLS AND ENVISIONING THE FUTURE OF VR THEATRE

Brendan Andolsek Bradley

The Jigsaw Ensemble

brendanAbradley@gmail.com

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## ABSTRACT

This paper transcribes and expands upon a keynote address delivered by actor and immersive media artist Brendan Andolsek Bradley at Avignon University, detailing four years of applied research and practice in virtual reality theatre. From 2020 to 2024, Bradley supported over fifty live productions across three continents, developing reusable tools and methodologies rooted in classical dramatic arts pedagogy while reimagining performance for hybrid digital-physical environments. This report explores the dramaturgical, technological, and interpersonal challenges of creating live metaverse performances. Special attention is given to the dynamics of co-creation between performers and audiences in shared, persistent virtual spaces, offering a field-tested model for sustainable and participatory theatre-making in the metaverse.

## 1. PROLOGUE

Brendan Andolsek Bradley delivered his keynote address via live video transmission to the AT01 auditorium at Avignon University. Speaking from a green screen soundstage in Los Angeles, he employed a combination of virtual scenography and real-time visual overlays—programmed using Open Broadcaster Software and triggered using the Elgato Stream Deck mobile application. The presentation opened with a visual composition of an empty, darkened proscenium, positioning Bradley between two digitally rendered theatre curtains, effectively blending physical presence with virtual staging to underscore the thematic convergence of space, performance, and technology.

We begin in a dark stage. A pandemic has shut down all trade, business and entertainment... including every theatre. City dwellers are in isolation and the future of industry (and humanity) is uncertain. A young artist in his thirties is forced to vacate his residence due to the illness of his landlady and neighbors, ultimately killing one fifth of the population around him. But this is not
the final act for... William Shakespeare. [Greenblatt] There are many stories still to be told. During this time of loss and uncertainty, live performance evolved to influence and inform the medium as we know it today. The Globe Theatre was erected in 1599 surrounding the players on three sides, inviting rowdy interaction from the Groundlings who wandered freely at the actors' feet; and becoming "the first such theatre to be built specifically for an existing acting company and financed by the company itself" [Gurr]. As audiences returned to the theatre, they were invited into a new era of entertainment and industry. It is thought in this same year, Shakespeare wrote the history play *The Life of King Henry the Fifth*, opening with a greek prologue that set the stage not only for the story...but the actual theatre, itself.

As part of the keynote, Bradley then performed the Prologue from Shakespeare's Henry V (lines 1–34), utilizing a combination of virtual performance techniques to deconstruct and embody each segment of the speech. The delivery was mediated through real-time avatar puppetry, chroma key compositing, and reactive virtual scenography, enabling dynamic shifts in setting and scale to align with the rhetorical progression of the text, highlighting how digital embodiment can enhance audience engagement.

Notably, the Prologue itself serves as one of theatre's earliest documented examples of "onboarding" or priming the spectator for imaginative co-authorship within an immersive framework. By re-contextualizing this speech through contemporary virtual tools, Bradley's performance foregrounded the dramaturgical continuity between early modern meta-theatre and 21st-century participatory media.

## 2. COVID-19

Over four hundred years later, in March of 2020, another artist in his thirties is forced to isolate during a global pandemic. As a professional entertainer and alumnus of New York University, I had established The Brendan Bradley Innovation Lab in 2017, dedicated to integrating interactive technology into the live performing arts curriculum [Toczauer]. That spring and summer, I sheltered in place while completing performance capture work on the video game *Resident Evil: Village*. But this was not my final act... I still had many stories to tell.

Students at my Lab at NYU had received Oculus headsets just one week before the quarantine orders and they continued holding classes and rehearsals in virtual reality [Laharia]. Technologies we previously believed would take three to five years to reach mainstream adoption became the only viable means for live collaboration and business continuity within three to five months.

In response, I began releasing YouTube tutorials exploring accessible, real-time, interactive storytelling tools [Fierberg]; from mobile phones and baby monitors to depth sensors, Snapchat filters, gaming engines, and

eventually my own playhouse in web-based virtual reality.

*The Future Stages* (2020) is believed to have hosted hundreds of live performances, film screenings, conferences, workshops, classes, and art exhibits - as a venue that could be customized, controlled and monetized by unlimited artists, worldwide. [Fierberg].

In June 2020, I was invited to present at Theatre Communications Group's virtual conference, *Re:Emergence*, where I performed the Prologue from *Henry V* over Zoom. The presentation served as a demonstration of open-source, real-time multimedia tools I had refined over the previous decade through my work in streaming and web-based video performance [Bradley, Theatre Communications Group].

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Today, in October of 2024 I am invited to address Avignon University with a re-staging of Shakespeare's Prologue as an evaluation of the key tools and trends from my work across more than fifty live productions using virtual and extended reality technologies, traveling around the world to bring to life digital characters on stage, screens and "something in-between and beyond."

Shakespeare's Prologue begins:

> "OH FOR A MUSE OF FIRE THAT WOULD ASCEND
> THE BRIGHTEST HEAVEN OF INVENTION."
> 
> (Henry V. Pro.1-2)

Shakespeare starts by acknowledging the absurdity (and audacity) of the entire medium of live theatre. One cannot possibly do justice to years of history, battlefields and armies, jumping between France and England on a small, wooden stage with a handful of players in a few hours. Storytelling has always been an act of invention. The "suspension of disbelief" [Chandler]. Shakespeare invites the players (and the spectators) to assume their roles, to play their parts... to make believe.

> "A KINGDOM FOR A STAGE. PRINCES TO ACT.
> AND MONARCHS TO BEHOLD THE SWELLING SCENE."
> 
> (Henry V. Pro.3-4)

A modern translation of the text might read, "If only we were in a real castle, myself a royal knight, and you, the audience, a mighty ruler watching the battle unfold." But, of course, none of that is true – this is all pretend. And we are invited to play along. That's theatre.
Or is it?

### 3. DEFINING LIVENESS AS PRESENCE

When technologies allow us to extend the definition of *Space* and bring virtually anything to life, how do we define the experience of liveness? Peter Brook would say:

> "I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. [Someone] walks across this empty space whilst someone else is watching and this is all that is needed for an act of theatre to be engaged" [Brook].

Despite technological advances in “the ability to communicate in real time with geographically dispersed individuals via computer, tablet, or mobile device” [Archibald et al.] and pre-recorded or generative media; Brook’ definition quantifies theatre as the relationship between a consenting performer and spectator who choose to assign shared theatrical intention onto a shared sense of space – or *Place*.

This framework distinguishes *Live Experiences* from two adjacent formats: *Persistent Experiences* and *Playable Experiences*. *Persistent Experiences* refer to continuously accessible storyworlds (such as VR social platforms or 360° films) that exist autonomously, regardless of the presence or absence of an audience. In contrast, *Playable Experiences* describe environments in which the only live component is the participant themselves. These include formats like video games or virtual concerts, where all performance data has been pre-recorded for asynchronous interaction – examples include Fatboy Slim’s appearance in Engage, Ariana Grande’s in Fortnite, and Megan Thee Stallion’s in AmazeVR.

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In both *Persistent* and *Playable* formats, there is often a claim that “simulated liveness” – achieved through pre-recorded or generative systems – is functionally equivalent to live theatre. As Harris asserts, “I say it’s a play. Therefore, it’s a play” [Harris, 2020]. Similarly, Owen suggests that the distinction between real and virtual is secondary to the affective impact on the participant-audience [Owen]. While I acknowledge the importance of affect as a metric, I contend that the conflation of asynchronous performance with theatrical liveness overlooks a crucial distinction: that asynchronous representations of theatre have existed for over a century under a different name: Cinema.

Other methods attempting a “collage of arts, techniques and media” [Lavender] have drawn criticism from critics like Laura Collins-Hughes of The New York Times:

> "In real live theatre, audiences are bodily immersed in an experience, sharing a single space, so that they

> emerge at the finish of those performances imprinted with sense memories. Technology strips theatre of its original vitality and human interaction, reducing the theatrical experience to a mechanical composition and interaction between audiences and flat screens." [Collins-Hughes]

However extended reality technologies do enable compelling applications of real-time embodiment and interaction between performers and spectators in shared virtual space. My work seeks to interrogate how these mediated gatherings might reasonably constitute acts of *Theatre-making*, particularly when they are designed with intentionality and relational presence at their core.

As Priya Parker notes in *The Art of Gathering*, “the first step in convening people meaningfully is committing to a bold, sharp purpose.” In this context, a shared intention – what Parker calls a *Purpose* – is foundational to the act of meaning-making within a gathering [Parker, 2018].

Kent Bye similarly emphasizes the relational nature of immersive media, stating, “There’s a relational component that [Bradley] is embodying… emphasizing community and support and relational dynamics at the heart of what the medium is trying to teach us… that the ultimate nature of reality is the relationship potential and processes; and these technologies can help us understand the ways we are fundamentally interconnected.” [Bye, 2022]

By framing virtual theatrical encounters around shared presence, mutual intention, and relational design, we can begin to reconsider digital gathering not as a substitute for theatre, but as a continuation of its oldest function: to bring people together with a shared storytelling Purpose.

Returning to 1968, Peter Brook’s foundational assertion in *The Empty Space* presumes that the act of theatre is rooted in shared physical *Presence* – implicitly accompanied by temporal synchronicity and a unified sense of intention. However 21st-century spectators may engage asynchronously or divide their attention across multiple devices, often referred to as *Second-Screen* behavior. In such contexts, *Presence* alone is no longer sufficient to guarantee the mutual understanding of time or purpose. Thus, a contemporary reading of Brook’s Performer-Spectator relationship must include not only the mutual assignment of *Place* – but also *Time* and *Intention*.

Therefore, in seeking to qualify an extended reality performance, we may adapt Brook’s definition: “I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. Someone [with intention] walks across this empty space whilst [synchronously] someone else [with a shared intention] is watching—and this [resulting Presence] is all that is needed for an act of theatre to be engaged.”

Creating virtual realities can allow for the vitality and interaction of live theatre performances, but only if the performers and audience agree to be *Present* with each other in shared *Environment* at a shared *Time* with a shared *Intention*. This is the social contract of live storytelling.
And when a Performer and Audience are Present
with each other:

“THEN SHOULD THE WARLIKE HARRY, LIKE
HIMSELF
ASSUME THE PORT OF MARS; AND AT HIS HEELS,
LEASH'D IN LIKE HOUNDS,
SHOULD FAMINE, SWORD AND FIRE
CROUCH FOR EMPLOYMENT.”
(Henry V. Pro.5-8)

And just like that – crouched, waiting in the wings –
the performers, audience, and storyworld are
engaged…ready to be conjured.

## 4. ONBOARDING

Once we accept this invitation to be Present, to
participate in our agreed role, we begin a process known
as ‘Onboarding’ to guide and instruct us through the
storyworld.

Not only do physical spaces imbue an inherent sense
of synchronicity, but their design also conveys and
reinforces their intended purpose. Theatre-goers arrive
at a structure and commit to the purposeful entry of that
space. There is often a box office or reception area that
provides information to educate or affirm the audience's
understanding of the forthcoming encounter. Thoughtful
spatial design [Grochowski] typically delineates areas
designated for gathering before, during, and after the
performance (including, access to important spaces,
such as restrooms). Additionally, the longstanding
theatrical convention of the fourth wall [Diderot]
functions as a ritual boundary, demarcating the space of
performance from that of spectatorship.

However, none of these social cues or spatial
conventions familiar to physical theatre are inherently
present in virtual simulations. As a result, onboarding
must be intentionally designed for each user and each
unique instantiation of the virtual environment.
Moreover, designers and developers must account for
the fact that participants are simultaneously navigating
two distinct, yet interdependent, environments (often for
the first time).

1. The first is the 3D visual *Scenography*, which constitutes the spatial and aesthetic environment visible to the user. This domain onboards participants into a shared spatial awareness: a sense of *Place*.

2. The second is the *System* or programming environment, referring to the underlying informational architecture that processes both local and networked data. This layer is responsible for synchronizing multiple users into a shared temporal framework (or *Time*) and for assigning roles, permissions, and affordances that establish *Intention*.

Both environments require thoughtful, often
interdisciplinary, design; drawing from the expertise of
scenographers, interaction designers, and computer

programmers alike. Without deliberate coordination
across these layers, the coherence of presence, narrative,
and agency risks collapse, and the potential for
theatrical engagement within extended reality
diminishes accordingly.

## VIRTUAL SCENOGRAPHY

In 2020, *The Future Stages* functioned as a digital
twin [van der Valk et al.], designed in Blender through a
collaboration between myself and Aleena Sohail, with
the goal of mirroring familiar, real-world *Scenography*.
Blender, a free and open-source 3D computer graphics
software suite, supports a range of interoperable file
formats (including GLTF, FBX, and USDZ) making it
well suited for constructing environments in virtual
reality.

The use of 3D modeling software has already been
widely adopted by scenic designers for drafting and pre-
visualization. In this context, virtual scenography can be
understood not as a replacement for traditional methods,
but as a parallel and evolving practice. As Nitsche
observes, "*the design of the game space can be
understood in terms of mise-en-scène*" [Nitsche],
suggesting a meaningful overlap between game design
and theatrical staging that becomes especially salient in
immersive, interactive environments.

On October 4, 2020, my first virtual reality
performance, *Jettison*, enabled three actors (each located
in a different city) to cohabitate a shared virtual
simulation: a boat floating in an open ocean
environment. The production was staged in the round,
allowing audiences to join from personal computers and
mobile devices without the need for specialized
hardware. The performance employed a hybrid format:
the first half of the stageplay was delivered using
composited webcam feeds layered into the virtual space,
while the second half transitioned to full avatar
embodiment.

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I co-authored my findings with collaborators David
Gochfled, Roman Miltich, Alex Coloumbe and Kevin
Laibson proving out this theory that:

"By applying the long-established design conventions of real-world theatre in our virtual space, we simplify onboarding: the audience recognizes that they are in a theatre and intuitively understand their role. We take this further by having a house manager and ushers who help the audience take their seats and can also help resolve any technical issues they may encounter" [Coulombe, et al. 2020].
During this time, I was approached by The Actors Theatre of Louisville to help stage their Professional Training Company's 2020 Showcase in a digital twin of the Victor Jory Theatre, hosted on Mozilla Hubs; and working with socially distanced artists to create live-composited web camera performances.

It is important to note that Scenography in virtual reality need not replicate a recognizable physical environment. However, virtual spaces can – and often do – borrow from the established rituals and spatial logic of familiar, real-world settings to support orientation and engagement. Throughout my work, I have explored a range of immersive environments that depart from naturalism while retaining performative coherence. These include a boat adrift in the ocean (Jettison 2020), an alien planet (Gumball Dreams 2022), and the interior of a character's beating heart (Non-Player Character Musical 2021-2024). Each of these virtual stages invites a distinct dramaturgical relationship between space, narrative, and embodiment, demonstrating how immersive scenography can blend symbolic abstraction with interactive presence.

Notably, *The Future Stages* remains the only virtual reality environment in which I have consistently observed audience members verbally say “excuse me” when their avatars accidentally collide. This unprompted behavior underscores a shared sense of spatial etiquette and embodied presence. This phenomenon offers anecdotal confirmation of Slater’s Theory of Place Illusion, which describes the perceptual and behavioral realism that emerges when users accept a virtual space as if it were physically real. As Slater explains, this illusion helps to account for “why participants tend to respond realistically to situations and events portrayed within an immersive virtual reality system.” [Slater].

These observations also support Nitsche’s argument that the spatial design of game environments operates according to theatrical principles. He notes that, “the space in the game is both contextualized and motivated by the game’s fictional setting, and includes a variety of elements from objects and characters to lighting design.” [Nitsche] Taken together, these frameworks help articulate how immersive virtual Scenography can elicit socially and narratively coherent behavior in both performers and spectators – reinforcing the theatre-like potential of designed digital spaces.

The practice of *Onboarding* in virtual theatre can be further enhanced when performers greet and orient the audience while already embodying their characters. This approach was central to the design of *OnBoardXR* (2021-2024), a seasonal showcase that featured a range of artists presenting short-format performances within a shared, web-based virtual reality environment. For the inaugural edition, audiences boarded a virtual cruise ship and were welcomed by performers improvising as pirate characters. These performers not only served as in-character guides and troubleshooters for technical or navigational issues, but also functioned as emcees and narrative anchors for the cabaret-style event. [Wild]

This technique of diegetic *Onboarding* – blending user orientation with world-building – proved highly effective in establishing early audience trust, lowering access barriers, and embedding the onboarding process within the aesthetic logic of the performance. The success of these interactions led to the continued inclusion of nautical themes and recurring pirate characters across all six seasons of *OnBoardXR*, demonstrating how performative hospitality can be both functional and dramaturgical.

## VIRTUAL SYSTEMS

These socialized responses (such as virtually performed hospitality) help establish a sense of synchronicity in both *Place* and *Time*. The audience is not only co-present in a shared visual environment but also engaging in real-time interaction with a performer, within a software architecture or *System* (often referred to as a ‘Platform’) that enables this encounter. The effectiveness of such liveness is dependent not solely on the visual fidelity of the environment, but on the capacity of the system to support embodied, synchronous, and cross-device participation.

As Coulombe et al. note, “there are a number of existing platforms that enable multi-user social events in virtual reality, reducing the development costs for event producers. Few of them, however, also support visitors without virtual reality head-mounted displays,” thereby limiting accessibility and reach [Coulombe et al., 2022]. Similarly, Morran et al. point to the growing trend among XR theatre practitioners to “piggyback off of existing multiplayer VR platforms that take care of the difficult 3D rendering, player networking, and avatar rigging.” While this approach significantly reduces technical overhead, it introduces constraints: “we do have extra work to accommodate for the platform’s limitations on extensibility and the complexity of its onboarding process for new users” [Morran et al., 2023].

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

The diagram above illustrates the delicate spectrum of Platforms must navigate between supporting 2D and 3D content, as well as balancing pre-downloaded assets with real-time data transmission over the internet. Put differently, each Platform must manage the openness and adaptability of its own framework, negotiating trade-offs between accessibility, performance, and extensibility.
The more closed a system, the more reliable, managed features it can offer for extremely specific uses and devices. This can provide higher fidelity graphics and more features for a limited set of use cases. As a system becomes more open it becomes device and user agnostic, and more customizable; but the experience may be less feature-full, including decreased image fidelity [Morran, et al., 2023].

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

Jettison, OnBoardXR, and Non-Player Character Musical brought customizable theatrical show-control features to the open, web-based platform Mozilla Hubs which offered a smaller set of features to any web-connected device (including any virtual reality headset, computer, tablet or phone) and allowed a stage manager to control the virtual show cues the same way they would in a physical theatre.

"WebXR is an ecosystem of protocols for 3D rendering in the web browser, meaning that experiences built with webXR are accessible to any internet enabled device with a web browser. For theater practitioners whose target audiences often include those who are not digital natives, webXR makes onboarding your audience as easy as sharing a link. There is no need to have access to a VR headset, download an application, or accept a friend request from the stage manager; All you have to do is enter the url and you are in." [Morran, et al.]

Several of my collaborators have gone on to integrate similar show-control concepts into other systems – Gochfeld and Miletitch continue to present work in WebXR; Morran has worked extensively at Mozilla and HTC; Debaig has explored Unity's WebRTC; Coulombe and Macleod have separately developed for Unreal Engine projects; Ferryman Collective and Screaming Color have customized actor menus and triggers inside VR Chat.

However no dedicated programming environment has been built specifically and intentionally for live theatre. These are all features and integrations on top of consumer Platforms where third-party developers script new components that are overriding the features (and the intention) of the original System, which can lead to failure points. "Whether you are working in webXR, a headset-native platform, like VRChat, or building your own multiplayer VR platform, there are very few tools available for show-control in XR. During OnBoardXR, we began originating our own show-control system to

control the progression of animations, objects, settings, and other virtual effects during a live show. Features like these are able to be developed thanks to the extensibility of the platform one is working on." [Morran, et al.]

The only dedicated virtual environment for live performance is *The Under Presents* (2020), developed by Tender Claws and populated with live actors from June to September, 2020. Framed as a multiplayer virtual reality puzzle game, the application blended pre-recorded storylines with a surreal narrative structure. As part of its promotional strategy, the developers constructed a bespoke system to support live, in-world performances. The theatrical troupe, Piehole, was invited to stage short-form cabaret-style acts within the game environment, serving not only as experimental live content but also as a user engagement strategy aimed at increasing both user retention and reactivation.

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

During the COVID-19 pandemic, *The Under Presents* extended its live performance capabilities by employing its ensemble of actors beyond the original scope of the game. The company commissioned Samantha Gorman to adapt Shakespeare's *The Tempest* into a forty-minute, live virtual reality performance, staged independently from the core gameplay experience [McNulty]. Users would log into *The Under Presents* application and navigate to a distinct virtual theatre space, rather than entering the game's central "doorway" to the interactive puzzle world. This adaptation marked a significant evolution in the Platform's theatrical ambitions, offering a fully contained, character-driven performance within an immersive environment specifically designed for presence and liveness.

*The Under Presents* remains a milestone in the history of XR performance—a singular example of a bespoke show-control system integrated within a custom-designed theatrical environment. Its achievement is perhaps best analogized to Cirque du Soleil's practice of engineering multi-million-dollar venues tailored to one individual production, where "*any tangible, competitive landscape was as surreal as the production itself*" [Ghazzawi]. In this sense, *The Under Presents* occupies a unique position in virtual theatre history: not simply as a playable world, but as a purpose-built stage for real-time, live, actor-driven storytelling.
*The Under Presents* was not without its own failure points and system errors and it should be noted that no subsequent productions have been created or performed in the game since 2021.

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

Whether a production is building its own bespoke environment designed for a storyverse or hacking existing systems to add custom features; productions need to establish different roles and permissions for

(a) Audience control

(b) Performer control

(c) Stage management or show-control

In Jettison (2020), each performer was granted individualized access to show-control features through unique extensions of the main show URL. These personalized links enabled performers to trigger specific cues and permissions, such as spawning props, activating avatar animations, or teleporting to designated stage areas. This modular control system supported decentralized performance across geographically distributed participants while maintaining narrative coherence and timing.

In *Gumball Dreams* (2022), a different approach was employed: Performer access was managed through a practice known as *Whitelisting*, wherein the actor's VRChat username was added to a permissions database. Upon entering the environment, the System would reference this Whitelist to determine access privileges, dynamically activating or deactivating certain game objects and features based on the user's verified identity. This method of access control is common in multiplayer game development and proved instrumental in maintaining performance integrity within persistent virtual environments.

The creation of different roles to assign different permissions and functions to different users can minimize the risk of System failure by users who may unintentionally override the intentions of the Platform or the storyverse.

To mitigate the risk of system-wide disruption in extended reality performances, show-controls can be strategically designed as either *Local* or *Networked*. A *Local* control affects only the device or user instance where the interaction occurs, while a *Networked* control propagates its effects across all connected users in real time. For example, an object may be spawned locally (visible and interactive only to the individual user) or configured to be networked, updating its position and state synchronously across all participants' devices.

In Jettison (2020), it was discovered that injecting JavaScript directly into the developer console of a

performer's web browser could override the state logic shared across the system, effectively enabling programmatic control over global elements. This capability allowed specific theatrical cues (such as changes in lighting, scenery, sound, or character attributes) to be triggered through code in real time. These show control features could be activated via a virtual interface designed for performers or stage managers, or assigned to interactive in-world objects accessible only to approved users. This flexible cue system formed the backbone of real-time performance coordination in the production(s).

Tony Vitillo (aka Skarredghost) reports his own process building the platform VROOM, "Doing this is practically very complex now because the technology is not ready. First of all, there are the problems of networking: every avatar should exchange the position about its pose with all the other computers, and this creates a huge data exchange. With many optimizations, on Photon you can arrive at up to 200 people together, which is a good number, but still not the thousands we are hoping for. Even worse, there is also the problem of visual performance: even if you could have 200 people all around you, most probably the Quest 2 wouldn't be able to show all those full-body avatars without having performance issues. That's why we are currently aiming at a safe 20-40 avatars per instance, with the plan of increasing this number over time, by optimizing performances both on the network and the visual side." [Vitillo]

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

In balancing the demands of expressive, multi-user environments with the need for a stable and directed user experience, the design priorities guiding my collaborations have consistently followed a principle of functional dramaturgy over aesthetic polish. Specifically, my approach has prioritized:

**Interactive > Production-Ready**

**Accessible > Visually Impressive**

These guiding principles reflect a commitment to real-time responsiveness, agency, and inclusivity; often favoring flexibility and usability over cinematic realism or tightly controlled production pipelines.

To evaluate how these principles manifest in user Onboarding, we conducted a comparative analysis of
three distinct entry flows, examining how each balances interactivity, accessibility, and narrative cohesion.

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

First, the Onboarding process for the web-based Mozilla Hubs required a user to complete 4 steps:

(1) Read an onboarding email

(2) Type or click the show url provided into the device's web browser

(3) Compete the room entry flow

(4) Enjoy the show!

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

The Onboarding process for accessing a performance experience on the VRChat platform – initially deployed as a pre-packaged Unity project with customized user settings and uploaded to the VRChat server(s) – required users to complete a minimum of 9 discrete steps.

(1) Read an onboarding email

(2) Download VR Chat to the device

(3) Complete VR Chat onboarding and account creation

(4) Request permission to “Add” the production admin or ‘Group”

(5) Wait for the request to be accepted

(6) Request access to the experience

(7) Wait for request to be accepted

(8) Wait for pre-packaged project file to save and load on the device

(9) Enjoy the show!

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

The Onboarding process for accessing an independently built virtual reality experience – distributed via direct device installation, a method commonly referred to as *Side-Loading* – can be significantly more complex than platform-based deployment. In some cases, this method requires users to complete upwards of 35 individual steps. One such example is documented in the earliest onboarding workflow for Heavenue’s 2022 production of *A Christmas Carol*, which utilized the SideQuest platform to install the experience onto user headsets.

(1) Read an onboarding email

(2) Open a developer account for Meta Quest

(3) Create an account

(4) Create an organization

(5) Accept developer agreement

(6) Verify account

(7) Enable developer mode for Meta Quest

(8) Open the Meta Mobile App

(9) Go to Settings

(10) Select your Meta Quest

(11) Select “More Settings”

(12) Toggle Developer Mode

(13) Install ADP Driver (if using Windows)

(14) Download the Meta ADP drivers

(15) Extract to a folder

(16) Right click and install .inf file

(17) Install Sidequest and set up an account

(18) Download Sidequest

(19) Connect your Meta Quest via USB

(20) Allow Meta Quest to access data

(21) Click “Install SideQuest”

(22) Go to Apps and fine SideQuest

(23) Link your device to SideQuest

(24) Go to SideQuest library and find the custom app

(25) Install custom app on your Meta Quest and add .txt file

(26) Check log to make sure install was successful

(27) Go to “manage files”

(28) Drag and drop .txt file

(29) Disconnect Meta Quest headset

(30) Start up the custom app

(31) Open app library in your Meta Quest

(32) Select “Unknown Sources”

(33) Start and load the app on your device

(34) Complete entry process

(35) Enjoy the show!

This process can introduce considerable friction for users. During *OnBoardXR* (2021-2024), even industry experts expressed frustration with a relatively simple four-step onboarding sequence that required either clicking or manually typing a 20-character URL into their web browser. Such responses underscore a critical insight: regardless of the sophistication of a production's scenography or technical infrastructure, its success is ultimately dependent on the reliability and ease of user onboarding. Even Shakespeare
acknowledged the audience's resistance to onboarding as he apologized three times in the Prologue speech, highlighting the inherent frustration of bridging a real and imagined world.

BUT PARDON, AND GENTLES ALL,
THE FLAT UNRAISED SPIRITS THAT HAVE DARED
ON THIS UNWORTHY SCAFFOLD TO BRING FORTH
SO GREAT AN OBJECT:

(Henry V. Pro.8-11)

5. D.E.V.I.S.E.D. STORYTELLING

Shakespeare implores the audience to forgive the limitations of a “flat” and “unworthy scaffold”, referring to the stage floor of The Globe Theatre, a comparable metaphor for the modern criticism of theatre experienced via a flat screen. However, these limitations can be forgiven by an audience in pursuit of “so great an object” as an emotionally-resonate storytelling experience. So how do we work within the limitations of these mediums and platforms? While we cannot assert that Shakespeare was directly influenced by the principles of Devised Theatre-making as understood today, the Henry V Prologue nonetheless acknowledges the performance as a collective act of creation – one in which the process and material limitations of staging are not concealed, but rather actively shape the mechanisms and language of the storytelling itself.

In August 2020, *The 5th Wall Forum* was established as a weekly virtual convening space, designed “to bolster diverse, talented professionals and projects in the live performance XR narrative space to accelerate the marketplace for artists, producers, and audiences” [5thWallForum.com]. The initiative culminated in the launch of the 2021 Connector Program, a podcast series, and a public-facing *Reveal* showcase featuring emerging works. The founding Advisory Board included Brendan Andolsek Bradley, Alex Coulombe, Brandon Powers, Stephanie Riggs, Adaora Udoji, Samantha G. Wolfe, and Kyle Wright.

In December 2020, I led a 5th Wall Forum workshop entitled *Bring Your Production Virtual*, aimed at identifying the actionable production requirements for developing live theatre in virtual environments. During this session, I introduced the acronym D.E.V.I.S.E.D. as a framework for immersive creators to consider key components of virtual performance design:

3. **D** — **Design**: the visual and dramaturgical construction of virtual scenography;

4. **E** — **Environment**: the system architecture that hosts performers and audiences;

5. **V** — **Virtuality**: the purposeful integration of technology into storytelling;

6. **I** — **Iteration**: the development pipeline for rehearsal, onboarding, and sustainability;

7. **S** — **Synchronicity**: the mechanisms by which users experience presence with one another;

8. **E** — **Engagement**: methods to foster positive interaction and moderate disruption;

9. **D** — **Do-ing**: a call to action encouraging creators to begin prototyping.

This framework continues to inform the pedagogy and production practices in my work, emphasizing not only technical fluency but also the relational and theatrical integrity of live digital performance.

Unlike traditional theatre, where technical integration typically occurs late in the rehearsal process during what is colloquially referred to as “Tech Week”, virtual production often necessitates the inclusion of technical development from the earliest stages. As Kadner notes, “by providing more agility and agency to all departments earlier, the overall production can be more efficient and exploratory in its initial efforts, and at a much lower cost than the full production phase” [Kadner, 2021]. This approach reflects a shift in production logic, where technical and creative processes run in parallel rather than sequentially.

My own work has consistently prioritized the identification of technical collaborators who are not only proficient but also eager to expand their skills and reputational capital. These collaborators are granted a higher degree of ownership and authority over their contributions, fostering a culture of co-authorship between technical and artistic domains.

In *Non-Player Character Musical*, the limitations of the virtual platform often informed creative decisions and prompting adjustments in narrative structure, dialogue, or scenography to either mask or theatrically underscore technological constraints. One notable example involved the song “Let’s Get To The Bottom Of This,” which was reimagined as an audience singalong used to troubleshoot real-time errors during the live performance. In this instance, a potentially disruptive technical failure was reframed as an opportunity for audience participation, transforming a negative contingency into a dramaturgically integrated moment of shared liveness.

When designing these live experiences, not every element of the virtual scenographic environment requires the same level of detail and interactivity. Objects the audience will handle or encounter in the foreground may be prioritized over background elements.

To optimize performance and accessibility in virtual theatre environments, creators often draw from techniques commonly used in game design. One such method is the implementation of a *High Dynamic Range Image* (HDRI) – a static, 360-degree panoramic image that envelops the entire virtual scene to simulate an expansive, photorealistic skyline or environment. Though the audience may never directly engage with these background elements, they contribute to a heightened sense of immersion while minimizing computational demands.

Additional optimizations may include the use of low poly assets (simplified geometric shapes or static images that represent distant objects or structures). These visual elements reduce the rendering load while maintaining the illusion of complex, layered environments. Another
frequently employed technique is *Billboarding*, in which a flat object automatically rotates so that a designated face is always oriented toward the viewer, preserving visual consistency with minimal geometry.

Together, these strategies enhance system performance and interoperability, ensuring smoother real-time interaction across a range of devices and user capacities. For productions with limited technical resources or development collaborators, many of these components can be sourced from community-contributed asset libraries and third-party plugins; particularly within widely adopted game engines such as Unity3D and Unreal Engine. However, creators must remain mindful of licensing restrictions and attribution requirements, especially when using such assets in commercial or public-facing projects.

There has also been criticism regarding photo-realism. "WebXR is limited in the graphic fidelity a 3D artist can achieve. The web-browser is not an optimized gaming engine and WebXR experiences should be optimized to run on lower powered hardware, even smart phones. This is why we see many practitioners working with headset-native platforms, like VRChat, or even building their own multiplayer VR platforms" [Morran, et al.]. However even Shakespeare clearly stated a theatrical context is never capable of fully deceiving the audience into believing the narrative is nonfiction; which is echoed in Shaffer's research on game design theory, "The player's acceptance of the game space as a three-dimensional space that can affect the player and be affected by them does not mean that the player is likely to misunderstand the virtual nature of the game space – they remain aware of the game's status as an artifact –, but that the player acknowledges the space as a viable space in which they can imagine themselves to be present" [Shaffer]. Furthermore, a study from the University of Bath found "field of view and visual realism – achieved through cutting-edge graphics – can be relatively unimportant in creating a believable VR experience. Far more important is the way a user is made to feel within the virtual environment" [Jicol et al.].

In theatre, a scarf can represent a character, a black box can represent a park bench, and a dimming light can represent the passage of time. Devised Theatre traditionally begins without a fixed script, allowing the narrative to emerge organically from the conditions, discoveries, and collaborative processes of its creators. In the context of virtual reality theatre, this generative approach necessarily expands to include designers, programmers, and technicians as integral co-authors – since the affordances and constraints of the digital environment directly inform both the development and delivery of the performance. In working for Ferryman Collective, it is not uncommon to receive dozens of new versions of the storyworld and stageplay based on discoveries – and mistakes – made in rehearsal. The company's most popular productions could be considered "'Site-Specific,' designed for the spaces in which they first appeared" [Kolin]; whereby, Ferryman

Collective identifies pre-existing *Worlds* in VR Chat and devises a compelling narrative to guide an audience through a modified version of the established virtual environment.

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

Emphasis is placed on opportunities for audience connection and intimacy [Frank] with the final stage-play often denoting areas where the performance fluctuates between scripted dialogue, adlib, choreography and technical operation. A labeling methodology for virtual reality plays was introduced by Samantha Gorman who released her 'Final draft' of *Tempest* by Tender Claws [Gorman] with the following appendix:

(d) Black text for Information and instructional text, including stage directions

(e) Magenta text for "Most important to get word for word"

(f) Blue text for secondary text, less important to be exact

(g) Green text for areas "very open to individual adlib"

(h) Orange text for "lines that have been cut and abridged for time"

(i) Red, emboldened text for theatrical cue triggers and interactions

Accompanying photographs or diagrams were included to depict what the Performer would see at a particular moment of the performance in order for them to visualize the geography and show controls. Often this document is created using a cloud-based, collaborative tool (such as Google Documents) to provide a *Living Document* whereby realtime updates and contributions can be tracked across all team members and departments in the production.

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

While each audience may encounter the virtual environment differently – often requiring the performer to employ ad-libbed responses (denoted in green text within Gorman’s production framework) –, the use of improvisational techniques in this context is not necessarily intended to produce comedy. Rather, it is designed to reflect and respond to the authentic circumstances of the characters and the unique moment of shared Presence. The objective is not laughter, but awareness: to signal to the audience that they are co-
creating an experience of liveness that is actively
responding to their presence and behavior. Kimberly
Adams describes this phenomenon as *Responsive Content*, emphasizing the dramaturgical value of
adaptability and relational authorship in live immersive
media [Adams, The 5th Wall Forum Podcast].

Importantly, these improvisational moments need not
be entirely spontaneous. The rehearsal process often
reveals patterns in audience behavior (recurring
questions, choices, or disruptions) that can be
anticipated and addressed through the scripting of
secondary text – denoted in blue text in Gorman’s
production framework. These prepared alternatives
allow the performer to deepen the sense of interaction
and agency, offering nuanced responses based on how
the audience chooses to engage.

This layering of live and pre-authored response
mechanisms reaffirms the audience's point of perception
within a simultaneously physical and simulated sense of
Place, Time, and Intention. Crucially, this
responsiveness also extends to acknowledge and address
audience discomfort, confusion, and even criticism.

6. HYBRID TRIPLE-PRESENCE

“CAN THIS COCKPIT HOLD
THE VASTY FIELDS OF FRANCE?
OR MAY WE CRAM WITHIN THIS WOODEN O
THE VERY CASQUES THAT DID
AFFRIGHT THE AIR AT AGINCOURT?”

(Henry V. Pro.11-14)

Shakespeare addresses the boundaries of his own
physical space: the rounded Globe Theatre – a wooden
O – and acknowledges that the storyworld may not fit
within the audience and performer’s physical
limitations.

This expands the concept of Presence to a *Dual Presence* which establishes the awareness of a simultaneous representation of a live performer in physical *and* simulated circumstances. The theatrical context of this Dual Presence informs and influences the relationship between the physical and simulated; resulting in a hybrid, third presence – or ‘*Tri-Presence*.’

An example of *Tri-Presence* is illustrated in
traditional puppetry whereby the performer (the
‘Puppeteer’) and audience both acknowledge (and
accept) the observable, physical operation of an
inanimate object, intentionally staged to showcase a
hybrid storytelling simulation. The audience relates to
this operation as a fundamental component of the
performance.

Shakespeare repeatedly compares the physical and
simulated environments: a “cockpit” against “the vasty
fields of France,” a crammed “Wooden O” against the
“casques that did affright the air at Agincourt.” The
Prologue introduces the concept of a Narrator assuming
the role of an intermediary to bridge the audience’s
physical reality, the story’s simulated reality and the
theatrical relationship and context between the two.

PHYSICAL REALITY

Historically, a live performer's narrative
circumstances and choreography are defined within a
designated physical area, often referred to as the *Stage Area* or *Playing Space*. This space need not be confined
to a traditional or formal performance venue, as
evidenced by practices in Immersive and Site-Specific
Theatre. Regardless of whether the performance takes
place in a physical or virtual setting, all live
performance ultimately originates from – and is
mediated by – the performer's physical presence and
relationship to their immediate, bodily reality.

However, this physical reality is not always
advantageous. Performers must often navigate and adapt
to material challenges or hazards, including spatial
limitations, safety concerns, or suboptimal sight lines.
As Aronson observes, “*the dichotomy of the stage and
auditorium create an inevitable confrontational
relationship between performer and spectator*”
[Aronson], underscoring the inherent tension in staged
environments. In both physical and digital contexts, the
performer’s spatial awareness and ability to negotiate
these tensions are foundational to the integrity of live
performance.

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

In virtual reality, the concept of a Stage Area begins
with what is known as the *Boundary* – a user-defined
perimeter within which movement and interaction are
safely contained. Most head-mounted display systems
(HMDs) offer a default *Boundary* configuration,
typically extending approximately six feet in each
direction from the user’s initial position. Remarkably,
this virtual boundary echoes the proportions of the
Elizabethan “*Wooden O*,” offering an implicit parallel
between historical and contemporary performance
spaces.

As the user approaches the edge of the *Boundary*, a
translucent mesh (often rendered as a blue web) appears
to alert the user of their physical limits within the virtual
environment. If the user crosses this threshold, the
device activates built-in safety protocols: the virtual
simulation is paused or suspended, and passthrough
cameras are triggered to display the user’s physical
surroundings. This mechanism serves not only as a
protective measure, but as a spatial reminder that the
performer remains grounded in physical embodiment
and material constraint.

In many VR systems, the *Boundary* can be
customized beyond its default configuration by using
hand controllers to draw a bespoke Play Area, or to
trace physical *Anchoring Objects* in the user’s
environment (such as furniture or fixed room features). Choreographer and performer Clémence Debaig has employed this functionality in her live dance performances utilizing full-body motion tracking. In her practice, Debaig draws shapes directly into the custom *Boundary* to label conventional stage directions – upstage, downstage, stage right, and stage left – thereby embedding choreographic orientation into the spatial architecture of the virtual environment [Debaig].

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

Her choreography deliberately engages the visual sensitivity of the Boundary system, allowing her to check these spatial markers mid-performance and re-anchor her physical position within the room. This technique echoes the traditional ballet practice of ‘*Spotting*,’ in which a dancer maintains focus on a fixed visual point to sustain balance and orientation during rotational or high-precision movement. In Debaig’s case, the virtual interface becomes not only a safety tool, but an active component of choreographic awareness and spatial dramaturgy.

In my own practice, I disable the *Boundary* entirely, removing the visual perimeter and overriding the associated safety features, in order to move freely through my Physical Reality. This approach leverages a feature known as *Roomscale*, which tracks the user's head position relative to the physical environment, allowing for embodied traversal of the simulated space. Rather than relying on digital cues for orientation, my *Anchor Points* are derived from my surrounding physical environment, which I am constantly *Spotting* through the slight gap between the headset's facial interface and the bridge of my nose.

It is essential to recognize that in multi-user virtual reality experiences, each participant engages with their own distinct physical environment. Consequently, the definition of the Stage Area – and the performer's comfort, movement, and spatial relationships within the simulation – will vary from user to user. This variability introduces a new dimension to performance design in immersive contexts, requiring creators to consider not only shared virtual environments but also the heterogeneous physical realities from which each user engages.

## SIMULATED REALITY

We now turn to the concept of Simulated Reality, or *Storyworld*, acknowledging that the majority of live theatre throughout history has relied upon a shared

imaginative contract between performer and audience – accepting the portrayal of circumstances, environments, and objects that may not be physically present or literally represented physically. As Garre notes, “*through Chekhov’s psychophysical exercises, the actor develops an expanded awareness that allows the emergence of presence, significance and radiation - to recreate a corporeal psychology that is expressed through the body, voice and imagination of the actor.*” [Garre 2017]. While performers have traditionally drawn upon their imagination to manifest these simulated circumstances, the integration of extended reality (XR) technologies now enables such Storyworlds to be rendered in real-time through digitized Scenography. This includes virtual scenery, costuming, props, lighting, sound, and character actions—each visualized by both performer and audience through computer graphics.

The virtual components of an extended reality (XR) performance may or may not correspond directly to the physical dimensions of the Stage Area. For instance, a simulated object (such as a tree) may be narratively positioned at the center of the virtual environment, even if the performer is physically capable of walking through that space. Such an action, while physically possible, would violate the internal logic of the Storyworld. As a result, the performer must relate to the Simulated Reality with the same level of rigor and spatial discipline applied to their Physical Reality, treating virtual markers as fixed points of dramatic significance.

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

Moreover, extended reality (XR) technology affords both performers and audiences the ability to expand the theatrical simulation beyond the fixed parameters of the physical stage and transition seamlessly between multiple virtual Scenographies. In *OnBoardXR*, for example, each participating artist designed their own virtual world – or *Scene*, in the Mozilla Hubs platform – that could be triggered programmatically to change in real time. These transitions occurred without requiring the performer or audience to relocate physically, offering a dynamic, fluid scenic transformation comparable to traditional theatrical mechanisms such as a fly gallery or a winding drum elevator.

While virtual reality systems offer the theoretical possibility of surrounding the performer and audience with an infinite array of simulated components, as Aronson notes, “*new technologies are emphasizing the dematerialization of the stage - as a permeable and*
ephemeral space that more accurately represents our
perception of the experiential world" [Aronson].
Similarly, Karamand and Naguib observe a "growing
tendency to process a version of everything we
experience through the cyberspace" [Karamand &
Naguib]. Despite this conceptual openness, the current
generation of virtual reality systems remain limited by
the volume of real-time, Localized and Networked data
that can be processed across multiple users. This is
particularly relevant in relation to the rendering of
complex computer graphics and environmental
simulations, as discussed in Section 4. These limitations
necessitate design choices that balance visual fidelity,
system performance, and interoperability – often
favoring optimization and strategic abstraction over
photorealism or exhaustive detail.

This raises a critical design question: how much
simulation is necessary to support meaningful
interaction? Jane McGonigal asserts, "*a well-designed
game should be playable immediately, with no
instruction whatsoever,*" suggesting best scenographic
practices should implicitly guide the user through an
"ideal path," minimizing cognitive friction and reducing
the computational load required to render unnecessary
data or objects. In other words, efficient scenographic
design in virtual reality should be legible, purposeful,
and performance-aware.

In 2020, I was cast in a solo adaptation of
Shakespeare’s *Hamlet* reimagined as a noir murder
mystery within the VRChat platform. The production,
titled *Hamlet Noir*, was developed by Susan Feninchell,
Michael Barngrover, and Cindy Kim, with direction by
Rory C. Mitchell. The narrative centered on the
character of Marcellus, reinterpreted as a night security
guard patrolling an abandoned Hollywood studio lot. As
the performer, I guided the audience along my nightly
rounds through a long, dimly lit hallway, gradually
uncovering narrative clues embedded in the
environment, culminating in a dramatic encounter with
the ghost of Hamlet’s father.

The scenography of a virtual hallway enabled the
environment to operate simultaneously as a cinematic
frame – directing the audience’s gaze and narrative
progression – and as a live, navigable theatrical space
that invited spatial exploration and performer-audience
interaction. Visually, the hallway signaled a clear
directional intent within the environment; however, each
user retained agency in how (and how quickly) they
chose to traverse the space and, by extension, the story.
This application of my own ‘*Hallway Design Theory*’
[Kallman] foregrounds the narrative affordances
embedded in spatial progression, inviting users to
discover meaning through movement within a shared,
simulated environment.

The environment need not be a literal hallway to
employ Hallway Design Theory, where there may be
key narrative objects or spatial diversions that invite
user engagement beyond linear progression. For
instance, a painting might serve as an object of symbolic
or plot relevance; an open doorway may offer a side

quest, revealing new information before returning the
user to the main path; or an obstacle may block forward
movement, prompting the user to make a decision that
alters their trajectory. These interactive encounters
transform the scenography into more than a transitional
space – they become dramaturgical components that
shape the user's relationship to story, agency, and
environment.

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

A well-constructed Hallway Design must therefore
balance the creator's authored intentions with the user's
lived experience of exploration and choice. As Markoki
observes, "*it is narrative elements that make the game
space meaningful, while the space itself allows for a
specific arrangement of those elements*" [Markoki,
2022]. In this sense, the hallway functions not only as a
structural or spatial device but as a curated narrative
conduit – organizing user experience while
accommodating variation, interaction, and emergent
storytelling.

## HYBRID REALITY

The defined physical and simulated realities do not
always align seamlessly to produce a cohesive audience
experience. While the performer may be operating
safely and sustainably within their physical environment
(honoring both their embodied presence and the
requirements of the simulated environment) these dual
modes of presence can at times compete or contradict
one another. Such dissonance may disrupt the
audience's perceptual coherence, creating confusion
about where and how to direct their attention. When the
performer's physical embodiment and their virtual
representation are misaligned, it can fracture the shared
illusion of Presence and interfere with the audience's
ability to remain fully engaged with the performer and
the Storyworld.

A common practice in traditional theatre-making is to
tape out the dimensions of the stage on the floor of the
rehearsal space. This allows performers to internalize
the spatial boundaries of the eventual performance
environment and to integrate an awareness of both their
physical and simulated realities into their embodied
practice from the outset. It also provides the creative
team with early insight into sight lines, blocking, and
the audience's perspective in the final staging.

In virtual reality (VR) and extended reality (XR)
contexts, a similar approach must be taken: both the
physical and virtual Stage Areas must be designed and
developed in tandem to ensure spatial coherence and
narrative clarity. This alignment is critical not only for
performer safety (and precision), but also for cultivating
audience engagement. As Muller argues, “the audience
is central to the experience itself and the choices [they
make as a viewer matter” [Muller].

Tri-presence takes into consideration how each audience perceives the performance and acknowledges the physical and simulated elements must be designed to consider each perspective “due to the fact that the player’s participation and their comprehension of the [story] world take place in a navigable, structured virtual space” [Nitsche].

When a seated audience observes a performer operating within a virtual simulation, technical systems such as projection mapping and virtual audio routing are often required to externalize the digital components for the physical venue. Conversely, inputs from the physical space – such as live instruments – may be routed into the virtual environment to enhance the immersive experience for remote users. In performances where both the physical performer and their simulated character are visible to the audience, aligning projections, audio, and physical staging into a cohesive visual composition is essential.

In virtual simulations, there may be multiple spectators present within the environment, each with the agency to move freely and observe the performance from any position. This spatial and perceptual freedom necessitates techniques and pedagogical approaches drawn from Theatre in the Round, Immersive Theatre, and crowd management. To maintain narrative focus and prevent disruption, one widely adopted strategy is to mute the microphones – and, in some cases, remove the visible avatars – of remote participants. This allows audiences to navigate the space autonomously while minimizing the risk of interfering with the performer’s timing, staging, or technical cues.

Live theatre is increasingly being recorded or streamed for exhibition to secondary audiences, as seen in initiatives like the Metropolitan Opera's live simulcasts to cinemas around the world [Elberse]. Over the past decade, the rise of video streaming platforms has further extended access to theatrical content, enabling performers to engage global audiences through both amateur and professional recordings. High-profile examples such as *Hamilton* on Disney+ and Natalie Palamides' *NATE: A One Man Show* on Netflix (a format colloquially referred to as "Pro Shots" or "Slime Tutorials") illustrate how stage productions are being reimagined for digital platforms. This offers near-limitless scalability and reach for the multi-modal performer, underscoring my proposal of redefining Presence to account for Place, Time, and Intention.

Historically, technological innovation has not displaced live theatre but has given rise to new media aligned with shifting audience expectations – such as video-on-demand for asynchronous viewing and cinematic editing techniques – that preserve authorial intent while reducing audience autonomy. As Karamand

and Naguib observe, "*the contemporary technological advances and transformation in the current social and epistemological atmosphere have necessitated the emergence of literary forms coping with the cyberspace which increasingly pervades all aspects of contemporary life and offers viable alternatives for in-person communication*" [Karamand & Naguib]. Yet as these audience formats proliferate, the challenge for live theatre in XR contexts becomes clear: the more viewers we include (across physical, virtual, and hybrid realities) the more difficult it becomes to sustain a consistent and shared experience.

> **"O, PARDON! SINCE A CROOKED FIGURE MAY ATTEST IN LITTLE PLACE A MILLION; AND LET US, CIPHERS TO THIS GREAT ACCOMPT, ON YOUR IMAGINARY FORCES WORK."**
>
> (Henry V. Pro.15-18)

## 7. THE NUMBERS

Shakespeare often used mathematical metaphors – here a “cipher” or slanted figure signifies far more than initially perceived – to suggest that value lies in context. In the same way, early attendance and revenue figures for live virtual reality theatre may seem modest, yet they represent early insight into future potential markets. These early efforts have prioritized audience impact, not scale. With that in mind, we now turn to the data surrounding three XR theatre companies that have sustained ongoing bodies of work across multiple productions and seasons, establishing consistent practices rather than producing isolated one-off experiments.

## CONTEXT

Virtual reality stage performance can be traced as far back as 1994, when Julie Martin staged *Dancing in Cyberspace*, a production in which acrobats and dancers were immersed in virtual objects projected onto the stage [Ivanova]. However, the period between March 2020 and January 2023 – defined by American entertainment unions SAG-AFTRA and Actors’ Equity Association as the ‘*Pandemic Period*’ [Christi] – can be viewed as a critical Technology Trigger within the Gartner Hype Cycle for virtual reality in live performance. Several converging factors accelerated adoption during this time: the increased availability of affordable consumer-grade VR equipment [Ammerman; Heath], the rapid proliferation of multi-user platforms, and the heightened demand for socialized, synchronous experiences during global shelter-in-place mandates.

With most live performance venues (including Broadway) shuttered until late 2021, creators explored virtual alternatives to sustain audience engagement. This period saw a wave of XR innovation across genres and platforms, including pre-recorded 3D concerts (e.g., Ariana Grande in Fortnite, The Weeknd on TikTok, and Megan Thee Stallion on AmazeVR); Tender Claws' VR staging of *The Tempest* within *The Under Presents* [Hayden]; live-hosted VR escape rooms developed by
Hourglass Escapes and Adventure Lab [Adams]; interactive animated experiences from Baobab Studios; and the Royal Shakespeare Company's *Dream* – an audience-interactive performance that, while immersive, was not accessible via VR headsets [Akbar 2021]. Collectively, these works mark a significant inflection point in the timeline of XR theatre and virtual performance, bridging technological innovation with the urgent demands of artistic continuity.

Therefore, my study focuses on three long-running and internationally recognized producers of live theatrical performance in virtual reality: OnBoardXR, MetaMovie, and Ferryman Collective. Each of these companies has developed and sustained multiple productions across several “seasons,” demonstrating a commitment to iterative practice and platform-native storytelling. Notably, all three were named Finalists for the Producers Guild of America’s Innovation Award, in recognition of their pioneering work in developing emotionally resonant, technically viable live performance experiences within multi-user virtual systems.

## Case Study 1: OnBoardXR – A Multi-Season Showcase for Live Performance in Web-Based Virtual Reality

My first analysis centers on *OnBoardXR*, a recurring seasonal showcase for live performance in web-based virtual reality (WebXR), which produced over thirty original works between October 2020 and August 2022 [Rabonwitz, 2020]. The series engaged more than fifty artists and technologists exploring live performance across modalities, including 2D and 360° video streaming, puppetry, 3D avatars, spatial audio, and the first known play scripted by GPT-based language models [Keller, 2021]. Audiences accessed the performances directly through the web browsers of their personal devices – including VR headsets, laptops, tablets, and mobile phones – without requiring additional downloads or platform subscriptions. A custom messaging system enabled real-time deployment of theatrical cues (lighting, sound, scenic transitions, and avatar changes), providing artists with a dynamic show-control system across a multi-user environment [Coulombe et al.; Morran et al.].

Each season averaged eight performances, typically accommodating around twenty active avatar participants per show and attracting an additional fifty viewers via a simultaneous YouTube livestream. *OnBoardXR* employed a Pay What You Want (PWYW) revenue model, offering three tiers of access inspired by traditional theatre seating:

* "On-Stage" for immersive participants,

* "Orchestra" for passive observers within the VR space, and

* "Virtual Balcony" for livestream viewers [Moore et al.].

Notably, three years of audience data revealed no significant correlation between payment and participation level. Examples included livestream viewers paying $100 USD and immersive participants contributing as little as $1 USD. However, 19% of all attendees opted to pay over $20, indicating monetization aligned with patterns of the digital ‘Passion Economy.’ Revenues were distributed equitably among artists, with average payouts of approximately $100 USD per contributor per showcase. [Gochfeld]

To extend the life of these productions, *OnBoardXR* developed persistent "*Living Lobbies*" or interactive virtual museum spaces accessible after the live run. These environments featured looping 3D animations of key performance moments, developmental artifacts, and asynchronous audience exploration. Archival "*Walkthroughs*" and highlight video clips were distributed via social platforms including Instagram, YouTube, Twitter, and as animated GIFs, helping translate the immersive experience for non-VR audiences.

Audience survey data indicated that one-third of all attendees identified *OnBoardXR* as “their first ever experience with virtual reality or live VR performance” [Gochfeld]. Beyond the showcase itself, several artists received follow-on funding, institutional recognition, or career advancement by submitting their work to grants, festivals, and employers.

Select *OnBoardXR* pieces evolved into full-length productions and location-based hybrids. Notably, *Discordance* premiered in-person at Rich Mix London as part of the Open Online Theatre Festival in November 2022. The performance featured two dancers, each on separate physical stages in London and New York, wearing full-body motion capture suits. Their avatars met within a shared virtual environment, which was projected onto a screen for seated spectators. Four audience members joined creator-performer Clémence Debaig onstage in VR headsets, participating directly in the immersive performance [Debaig, 2022].

As Kathryn Yu of No Proscenium observed, "*It's Brendan Bradley and team's punk rock ethos crossed with the freedom of experimentation in a new medium that keeps the mini-festival fresh and exciting... a tiny fringe festival, but available in my headset.*"

## Case Study 2: The MetaMovie Presents: Alien Rescue – Research-Driven Immersive Theatre in VR

The second analysis examines *The MetaMovie Presents: Alien Rescue*, a research-driven, interactive live performance created and directed by Jason Moore. Initially developed on the NEOS VR platform and later migrated to Resonite, *Alien Rescue* functioned as a ticketed, serialized event within a purpose-built virtual environment [Moore et al.]. According to technical requirements listed on the MetaMovie website, participation in VR required a PCVR setup with a minimum Nvidia GTX 1060 or AMD RX 570 graphics card and at least 8GB of RAM. The production was first
presented as a work-in-progress at the 2020 Venice La Biennale, premiered officially at Raindance Immersive in September 2021, and continued public performances intermittently until its final performance on September 20, 2024 – marking it as the longest-running live VR theatrical production to date, with over 250 performances.

*Alien Rescue* supported a hybrid ticketing model that offered three tiers of access and interactivity. Up to four audience members could purchase a “Hero” ticket ($30 USD) per performance, entering the simulation as embodied avatars with agency to make decisions and directly interact with a cast of remote live performers who portrayed companion characters. A “Sidekick” ticket ($15 USD) allowed users to join the experience in the form of a drone-like avatar, or “eyebot,” which could be piloted throughout the virtual world and illuminated, creating subtle forms of non-verbal interaction.

Each performance was also livestreamed on Twitch, freely accessible to viewers, with integrated chat commands that enabled the audience to trigger certain in-game effects in real time [Lyons et al.]. This multi-tiered approach blended participatory theatre, immersive game mechanics, and live streaming trends; offering layered modes of engagement for users with varying access, interest, or hardware capabilities.

The success and longevity of *Alien Rescue* was recognized by the immersive community through multiple honors, including VR Experience of the Year (2022) and Rising VR Company of the Year (2023) at the VR Awards. The production's consistent operation over four years demonstrated the viability of long-form, live XR performance with a sustainable ticketed model, positioning The MetaMovie as a pioneering example of interactive narrative architecture and audience design within the virtual reality theatre landscape.

**Case Study 3: Ferryman Collective – Intimate, Actor-Led Immersive Theatre in VRChat**

The final analysis focuses on Ferryman Collective, a live theatre production company dedicated to cultivating intimacy, human connection, and experiential storytelling within the metaverse through actor-driven, interactive performance [Frank, 2022]. Core company members include Deirdre V. Lyons, Stephen Butchko, Whitton Frank, and Christopher Davies (under the alias of Screaming Color). The company produces hour-long, fully immersive shows exclusively on the VRChat platform, with a focus on emotionally resonant, narrative-forward experiences. Notable titles include *Severance Theory: Welcome to Respite*, *Gumball Dreams*, and *Uncanny Alley: A New Day*.

Ferryman Collective primarily exhibits its work at international film, XR, and technology festivals, scheduling limited appointment-based performances. Each production accommodates up to four participants per session, who attend in VR headsets as embodied avatars and interact directly with remote live actors performing multiple roles. On-site docents assist with

equipment, onboarding, and user navigation. This model has earned the company critical acclaim and multiple awards from SXSW, Raindance Immersive, Kaohsiung Film Festival, and the Venice International Film Festival [Lyons et al.].

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>

Outside of the festival circuit, Ferryman Collective occasionally offers public encore performances. With premium “Participant” tickets priced at $45 USD for immersive, interactive roles; while General Admission tickets, priced at $25 USD, allow up to ten attendees to join as “Alters” (invisible, non-interactive avatars observing the experience). Each production culminates in a Persistent Experience known as a “Credits Room,” a separate VRChat environment where users can explore behind-the-scenes information, view creative credits, and occasionally preview elements of the performance through sample interactions.

Audience data collected at the 2024 Venice International Film Festival by XR Must and Kent Bye's Voices of VR included feedback on the premiere of *Uncanny Alley: A New Day*. Among 82 respondents, the average participant reported having attended 21.9 immersive experiences; 33 of these respondents attended *Uncanny Alley*, while the most-viewed work was Anagram's *Impulse: Playing with Reality*, with 67 attendees [Bye, 2024]. These results are consistent with informal reporting from Ferryman Collective, which estimates an average of approximately 30 attendees per festival run, demonstrating sustained audience interest in their uniquely curated, small-scale immersive model.

**ANALYSIS**

While the requirement of virtual reality hardware typically limits audience throughput to a maximum of twenty embodied avatars per live performance, ticketing and revenue data from XR theatre productions suggest that such models can be self-sustaining – particularly when production costs are minimized and exposure through high-profile festivals is leveraged into secondary revenue streams. These include commissions, grants, institutional investment, and merchandise sales, aligning XR theatre economics with broader patterns in digital-native creator economies and traditional theatrical touring and licensing.

My most ambitious production, *Non-Player Character Musical*, utilizes multiple modalities as four audience members join the live performer "both on-stage and in parallel in a VR game" (Schroter), with the virtual world projected for a seated audience. I am also
joined on-stage by my musical collaborator, Maurice Soque Jr. who plays three instruments live, underscoring both moments of improvised gameplay and the scripted musical theatre songs. “A fusion of immersive theatre and video game, and based on the death of its hero, the story processes the five stages of grief with the help of audiences, who influence the narrative alongside actor and creator Brendan Bradley. Those watching through a livestream can assist the story as well through an app” [Akbar 2024].

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>

We leveraged our appearances at technical and academic conferences as low-cost testbeds for developing musical numbers and gameplay mechanics. These sessions incorporated features such as QR-coded programs that allowed non-VR audiences to interact with the performance via mobile prompts and buttons [Morran, 2023]. *Non-Player Character Musical* presented workshops at FIVARS (2021, virtual), the Mugar Omni IMAX Theater in Boston (2021, in-person), Rich Mix London (2022, in-person), USITT in St. Louis (2023, in-person), and Festival d'Avignon (2023, virtual), culminating in its premiere at the 2024 Edinburgh Fringe Festival with 24 consecutive performances in the 150-capacity Imaginex 360-degree venue, with both in-person and livestream ticket options.

Secondary distribution channels and archival strategies significantly expand a project's reach. Documentary recordings provided durable cultural records of *Jettison* (2020, appearing on Amazon Prime) and Joe Hunting's *We Met in Virtual Reality* (2022, which premiered at Sundance before selling to HBO Max). *Non-Player Character Musical's* filmed performances and official soundtrack garnered hundreds of thousands of views and streams across YouTube and Spotify [Mosely]. Additionally, my live demonstration of *Gumball Dreams* at SIGGRAPH Real-Time Live in 2023 (alongside Whitton Frank of Ferryman Collective) exemplified how VR theatre content can be extended across industry platforms [Frank, 2023].

Nevertheless, a structural challenge remains for VR theatre's growth potential: the fundamental divergence in business logic between the tech sector and live performance. Technology products often pursue exponential scale, whereas live theatre – by design – commodifies exclusivity, offering finite tickets to a limited number of performances. This friction becomes more pronounced when contrasting the sector's top performer, *Gorilla Tag*, a VR multiplayer game with

over 10 million lifetime users and more than $100 million in revenue from micro-transactions [Bezmalinovic, 2024], against Broadway's entire 2023/2024 season, which totaled 12.3 million attendees across 21 new productions [Tubbs, 2024]. These figures underscore the importance of aligning business models in XR theatre with the values of presence, intimacy, and scarcity, rather than scale alone.

> "SUPPOSE WITHIN THE GIRDLE OF THESE WALLS ARE NOW CONFINED TWO MIGHTY MONARCHIES, WHOSE HIGH UPREARED AND ABUTTING FRONTS THE PERILOUS NARROW OCEAN PARTS ASUNDER:"

*(Henry V. Pro.19-22)*

## 8. THE METAVERSE

Henry V is ultimately a story about war and power. Today, a similar battle plays out in the realm of immersive technology: Meta versus Apple, AR versus VR, artificial intelligence versus human authorship. Any conversation about virtual reality must also acknowledge the inflated promises and critical scrutiny surrounding ‘The Metaverse,’ a concept emblematic of the industry’s current status on the Gartner Hype Cycle.

An often-quoted definition of *The Metaverse* is Matthew Ball's, "massively scaled and interoperable network of real-time rendered 3D virtual worlds that can be experienced synchronously and persistently by an effectively unlimited number of users with an individual sense of presence, and with continuity of data, such as identity, history, entitlements, objects, communications, and payments." [Ball] And Go et al. simplifies [Go et al.,] the metaverse as "a 3D-based virtual reality in which daily activities and economic life are conducted through avatars representing the real themselves." [cited in Kye et al.]. Meanwhile Lee et al. describes "a world in which virtual and reality interact and co-evolve, and social, economic, and cultural activities are carried out in it to create value." [Lee et al.]

Notably absent from most definitions of *The Metaverse* are the prioritization of connection and community. Framed primarily as a growth strategy for businesses and platforms, *The Metaverse* has often been portrayed as something to be “dominated” or “won”—a space defined by scalability rather than shared experience. As McSherry warns, “Scalability, but at what COST?” The drive for exponential growth reflects business imperatives, not artistic ones. Intimacy cannot be scaled. There is no return on investment for catharsis. While creative and communal acts can (and do) generate commerce, their foundational value is not economic. In response to this framing, early VR pioneer Toni Parisi offered an alternative in his *Seven Rules for the Metaverse* [Parisi, 2021], reframing the conversation around openness, interoperability, and shared human experience.

### Parisi's Seven Rules for the Metaverse

1. There is Only One Metaverse.

2. The Metaverse is for Everyone.
3. Nobody Controls the Metaverse.

4. The Metaverse is Open.

5. The Metaverse is Hardware-Independent.

6. The Metaverse is a Network.

7. The Metaverse is the Internet.

Parisì's framework offers space for *Presence* – an invitation to Onboard new users while accommodating diverse use cases and intentions. It allows for commercial viability without excluding storytelling, creativity, or individual agency. Businesses can thrive here, but so can artists. As Ed Zitron observed, "*the short life and ignominious death of the Metaverse offers a glaring indictment of the tech industry that birthed it*" [Zitron, 2023]. And yet, virtual reality continues to persist: the PEW Research Center's 2023 Teen Survey reported that one in four U.S. teens play games on a VR headset [Heaney, 2023]. There is still abundant commercial potential, alongside substantial artistic opportunity. In the early stages of an emerging market, it is essential to recognize both, while understanding that they serve different purposes and should not be conflated.

> "PIECE OUT OUR IMPERFECTIONS WITH YOUR THOUGHTS; INTO A THOUSAND PARTS DIVIDE ON MAN, AND MAKE IMAGINARY PUISSANCE;"
> 
> (Henry V. Pro.23-25)

## 9. CASTING & REHEARSAL

Shakespeare implores his audience to imagine that a single actor represents not just one soldier, but an entire army. Historically, actors have portrayed multiple characters within the same production – both as a means of conserving resources and as a demonstration of their technical and expressive range. From a change in posture or vocal quality to a costume adjustment or the addition of a simple accessory (such as a scarf or wig), theatre has long relied on minimal physical cues to signify character transformation.

Viewed through this lens, the ability to scale one performer into multiple roles is not a novel application of extended reality (XR) technology, but rather a continuation of longstanding theatrical convention. This tradition may offer a practical solution to one of the core challenges in live virtual reality performance: how to minimize costs and navigate the limitations of platforms that support only a small number of simultaneous users. In such contexts, the simplest and most theatrically grounded strategy is to cast a small ensemble of performers – each capable of portraying multiple characters within the Storyworld.

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

With costume changes achievable at the click of a button, virtual platforms offer performers the ability to assume multiple roles instantly, opening new possibilities for diversity and representation in casting. *In Severance Theory: Welcome to Respite*, the lead character avatar was created in a range of skin tones and with an intentionally ambiguous gender presentation, allowing participants to select the representation that best reflected their own identity or narrative preference.

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

Because most XR performances occur entirely in virtual environments, talent selection is no longer restricted by geography. Performers from around the world can collaborate in real time, provided they have the necessary equipment, skills, and internet connectivity. This global accessibility invites greater cultural and regional diversity in casting, enriching the artistic process with a multiplicity of perspectives. Moreover, it enables productions to schedule performances across time zones and languages, meeting audiences where they are and further expanding the reach and relevance of virtual theatre.

Ferryman Collective has effectively implemented a scalable performance model by cultivating a global roster of several dozen performers who rehearse and perform together remotely. This approach closely resembles the methods used in medical education for training *Standardized Patients*, in which multiple actors learn to portray the same role consistently across simulations [Koa, 2023]. Ferryman Collective's actors are provided with a script document and access to the VRChat-based Storyworld, often augmented with virtual mirror-objects that allow them to practice embodiment on their own schedule. Rehearsals are typically conducted one-on-one, focusing on a standardized run-of-show that ensures consistency across cast members. Insights and discoveries from individual sessions are shared with the broader ensemble, and performers are encouraged to observe each other's rehearsals and attend
test performances. In some instances, group rehearsals facilitate a collaborative process, allowing the ensemble to crowdsource character interpretations and refine performance strategies. This decentralized yet coordinated rehearsal model enables Ferryman Collective to maintain high-quality performances while maximizing flexibility and global participation.

For *Non-Player Character Musical (2021-2024)*, several early workshops were presented in physical performance venues with limited or no opportunity for in-person rehearsal prior to the audience presentation. To address this constraint, digital twins of the venues were created in advance, enabling the production team to prepare off-site. Detailed 3D simulations of The Mugar Omni Theatre in Boston and the Imaginex venue in Edinburgh allowed collaborators to rehearse key production workflows – including load-in, staging, performance, and load-out – entirely within a virtual environment prior to arriving on site. This use of digital twins not only optimized logistical planning but also allowed performers and technicians to familiarize themselves with venue-specific constraints and opportunities; effectively bridging virtual preparation with physical execution.

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>

A virtual reality actor is often responsible for much more than character embodiment. User permissions can be configured to allow the performer to interact with elements of the virtual environment that remain invisible (or inaccessible) to the audience. In *Gumball Dreams (2022)*, for example, a single performer simultaneously portrayed multiple characters while also executing stage management duties—triggering lighting, sound, and scenic transitions via hidden objects in the environment and an ‘*Actor Menu*’ accessed through their VR controller. This integration of performance and technical control significantly expands the performer’s role, requiring a high level of coordination, precision, and focus.

Such multi-layered performances increase the cognitive and physical demands on the actor, necessitating dedicated rehearsal time not only for character development, but also for technical fluency. This includes choreographing physical movement to conceal in-world cue triggers, memorizing dialogue within the simulation – an embodied process distinct from traditional script recall – and building physical stamina, particularly in the neck and eyes, for extended sessions in the head-mounted display (HMD).

Performers interested in pursuing work in VR theatre are advised to develop interdisciplinary skills such as training in voiceover, physical theatre, immersive performance, improvisation, and clown; which can support expressive range in avatar-based embodiment. Foundational knowledge in computer engineering and technical troubleshooting is also recommended, as performers may need to manage minor hardware or software issues during live performances. Given the small but growing community of VR theatre practitioners, emerging performers are also encouraged to attend virtual events, observe current practices, and build relationships with creators in the field.

So what is it like to perform live theatre in virtual reality?

THINK WHEN WE TALK OF HORSES,
THAT YOU SEE THEM
PRINTING THEIR PROUD HOOFS
I' THE RECEIVING EARTH;
(Henry V. Pro.26-27)

## 10. AVATAR PUPPETS

Traditional performing arts practices – such as puppetry – offer compelling applications for emerging technology products, positioning artists as essential allies and collaborators in the growth of technical industries. While invoking Shakespeare and Peter Brook in the context of virtual reality may appear incongruous, my field work suggests that theatre-making offers a uniquely effective framework for expressing the potential of virtual reality technology. In this view, it is not that extended reality (XR) technology enables a viable expression of live theatre; but rather that the craft and tradition of live theatre enable a compelling expression of virtual reality technology.

Fellow virtual reality performer Jonathan Martin recently reflected on his experiences spanning from the Broadway production of *Life of Pi* to our collaborative work in *Uncanny Alley: A New Day* within VRChat, offering valuable insights into the evolving craft of performance across physical and virtual stages:

> "Most performances in VR are crafted via digital avatars. Sometimes these avatars are brought to life in real time by performers, as in 'Uncanny Alley,' while in most VR experiences they are animated in advance by a performer via a motion capture system or by an animator. In all of these cases, I would make the argument that the end result is, for all intents and purposes, a kind of puppetry. And if we're manipulating puppets in our virtual plays, games, training experiences, and corporate onboarding tutorials, we better know what makes an audience captivated by them." [Martin]

When applying these principles to teaching curriculum, Lyons and Butchko write:

> "Avatars are a virtual representation of oneself in a digital space...controlled by the person wearing the HMD and their movements are operated by hand controllers and tracking from the headset. In 'Gumball Dreams,' our avatars are aliens from another galaxy,
allowing the audience to become other beings, when they look down at four fingered hands and see themselves in a mirror as something entirely different. This affords them the opportunity to experience 'maskenfreiheit,' a German word that describes the freedom one feels when hiding our identities, originally behind a mask but now also behind the skin of an avatar" [Lyons & Butchko].

And according to Lipsinkia “technology is embodied knowledge, meaning that corporeality and embodiment is a very important asset of being in a virtual world in the form of an avatar.” [Lipsinka] In this regard, when seeking an understanding of how embodied performance can meaningfully manipulate an inanimate object, Martin suggests we look to the past, not the future, referencing thousands-years-old pedagogy for making and controlling puppets through the use of Breath, Focus, Body (Mass), Gesture, Stillness, and Imagination [Martin].

There are four components in the creation of digital puppets:

1. A 3D **'Mesh'** model of the faces, edges and vertices that define the object's shape and structure

2. A **'Rig'** or virtual skeleton that allows the mesh model to move, through the assignment of tracking points.

3. One or more **'Texture'** layer(s) that are applied to the 3D mesh model to control how it is rendered, such as color, reflectiveness, transparency, and material.

4. A **'Tracking System'** that captures a user's movement to express them onto the virtual skeleton.

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /></figure>

Like physical puppets, the complexity of digital puppets can vary, depending on the storytelling style and intention. In *Jettison (2020)*, performer Ashley Clements manipulated a static 3D object in virtual reality to bring the character to life. [Coulombe et al.] Debaig's work showcases multiple performers wearing Perception Neuron motion capture suits with 36 points of tracking to embody her choreography – at times expressed onto groups of avatars, with minor offsets randomized in the data to express differently upon each avatar. [Debaig et al] My own adaptation of Shakespeare's *Macbeth* in virtual reality (entitled *A Tale Told By An Idiot, 2018*) simultaneously filmed actors with a cinematic camera and Microsoft Xbox Kinect depth sensor to record the performers as both live-action and 3D virtual reality characters.

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>

The majority of live virtual reality performances today rely on consumer-grade “*un-tethered*” head mounted displays (HMD), such as the Meta Quest or PICO Neo, which offer three-point tracking – capturing the real-time position and orientation of the user’s HMD and two hand controllers. However, these systems do not track the elbows, torso, or lower body, creating significant limitations for full-body representation. In response, some platforms render avatars without rigging for legs or arms, while others simulate “phantom” limbs by approximating body position based on the orientation and position of the headset and controllers.

This has given rise to one of the most debated questions in virtual reality design: *Legs or No Legs?* While some users report a loss of immersion when interacting with disembodied floating heads and hands, others find the presence of inaccurately rigged or misaligned phantom limbs equally distracting – especially when tracking data is lost or distorted mid-performance.

To address these limitations, many creators have adopted visual strategies to obscure or exclude the lower body altogether. A notable example comes from the VTubing community (a form of livestreamed performance in which creators use motion capture to control 2D or 3D digital avatars). VTubers often crop the camera frame to display only the avatar's head and torso, eliminating the need for full-body tracking. This stylized approach, popular on platforms such as YouTube, Twitch, and Bilibili, demonstrates how constraints can be transformed into aesthetic choices. Among the most widely recognized VTubers in the American market are PHIA and CodeMiko, both of whom have demonstrated innovative uses of partial embodiment in performance.

Alternatively, OnBoardXR has supported productions that used narrative and design strategies to intentionally justify the omission of character legs, integrating avatar limitations into the dramaturgy of the performance. In the world premiere of *Mrs. Nemo (2022)*, the titular avatar was presented in a wheelchair, providing both a narrative context and a practical solution for the platform's lack of lower-body tracking. The production featured a creative team including David Gochfeld, Daniel Lock, and Mary Stewart-David, executive produced by Cristobal Catalan, character design by Clara Capaldo, animation by Guy Schofield, musical arrangement by Simon Walters, and with Vivian Belosky as Mrs. Nemo,
Similarly, the world premiere of *Magid* (2022, alternative title *Haroun Desert 2021*) featured an avatar presented as riding a horse, with a looping idle animation controlling the horse's leg movement to convey locomotion and physical presence. This performance was developed by Tyler Graham and Ari Tarr, with character design by Anais Ron and Jordan Elevons. These examples illustrate how thoughtful narrative and design integration can address technical limitations, enhancing audience immersion while expanding the expressive potential of avatar-based performance.

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>

Despite the limitations of three-point tracking systems (typically limited to head and hand controllers) there are a range of puppeteering and programmatic techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of virtual reality avatars. Most multi-user virtual reality platforms implement an *Audio Morph* feature, which maps a user's microphone input (volume and duration) to parts of the avatar's mesh, resulting in visual cues such as a basic mouth-flap or head-wobble. While this technique is an approximation in the absence of real-time facial tracking, it offers a familiar visual rhythm and can be surprisingly effective in conveying speech.

Eye tracking, likewise, can significantly enhance perceived connectivity and attention within a virtual space. Although real-time eye tracking is supported by some advanced systems, approximated methods can produce similarly compelling results. These include idle animations that loop blinking and subtle eye movements, or *Billboarding* – a technique wherein the avatar's head or eyes are programmed to localize toward each individual user, creating the illusion of direct eye contact for every audience member, simultaneously. More nuanced performances may employ Billboarding selectively, using programmed thresholds that allow the avatar's eyes to 'Snap' onto the nearest audience avatar, thereby allowing the performer to modulate moments of direct connection or detachment as an expressive choice.

In *Non-Player Character Musical*, designers Ahmad Maqsood and Jason George extended these principles by reassigning a set of *Shape Keys* and *Vertex Groups* within the avatar's rigging. They mapped unused inputs from the left-hand controller to phantom bones in the forehead, enabling the performer to control a range of expressive brow movements in real time. This allowed me to simulate emotional states such as anger, surprise, or excitement through adjustments to the avatar's brow

and eyes: adding significant nuance to the character's performance despite hardware limitations.

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

In virtual reality, the audience is often embodied within the performance environment, allowing for a more immersive and participatory mode of engagement. As Järvinen and Stockburger observe, “the player's cognitive transportation of themselves into the avatar's body, combined with the game's spatialisation techniques such as sound and the use of off-screen space, allows the player to adopt a Point of Perception rather than a more limited Point of View” [Järvinen and Stockburger]. This distinction is especially significant in performances like *Severance Theory: Welcome to Respite*, in which a single audience member assumes the role of a young child with an undiagnosed Dissociative Condition. Two live actors portray the child's parents, as well as other characters encountered throughout the narrative.

The diminutive stature of the audience avatar reorients the performer-audience dynamic, enabling the actors to stand or kneel in order to modulate status and proximity in ways that mirror the child's perceptual world. Additionally, performers can trigger environment-specific visual and auditory effects that are intentionally ignored by the characters they portray, simulating symptoms experienced only by the audience member.

Furthermore, when virtual reality theatre is staged in front of seated, co-located spectators, part of the audience's experience is derived from observing the performer actively operating the virtual system. As Masura notes, in such cases, “the technology is the show” [Masura]. This dynamic echoes traditions in puppetry and other object-based performance, where the act of manipulation is integral to the theatrical experience. The simultaneous visibility of both Physical and Simulated Realities allows the audience to witness the convergence of embodiment, interface, and illusion – producing a hybrid, narrative space where the performer's physical labor and the virtual scenography coalesce into a singular expressive form.
*Degenerate* illustrates how performances using extended reality technology can simultaneously honor theatrical tradition while exploring emergent interactive forms – balancing audience agency with narrative coherence, and redefining liveness not through scale or spectacle, but through shared presence and purpose.

## TURNING THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF MANY YEARS INTO AN HOUR-GLASS:
(Henry V. Pro.30-31)

### 12. BIOMETRICS

Time is often experienced differently in virtual reality, compressed in a way that resembles a dream state, and allowing users to become deeply immersed and potentially lose track of temporal progression within the Storyworld. A research team at the University of California, Santa Cruz found that participants had significantly more difficulty gauging the passage of time when playing a game in VR compared to playing the same game on a two-dimensional screen [Mullen et al.]. This perceptual shift offers immense narrative and theatrical potential, enhancing immersion and emotional investment, but it also places a responsibility on designers and performers to account for the user's long-term comfort and safety.

As of late 2019, the average session duration for VR users in the United States was 20.4 minutes [Vailshery, 2021]. In contrast, many of the live virtual theatre performances referenced in this study range from 40 to 70 minutes in runtime, with performers typically logging in 30 minutes before showtime to prepare, and often remaining in-world afterward for post-show interactions with audience members (a practice commonly referred to as 'Stage Door-ing'). While most consumer VR headsets currently limit continuous usage to approximately three hours due to battery constraints, additional human factors must be considered. In this regard, guidelines established by the American stage actors' union, Actors' Equity Association, offer a valuable model for incorporating structured rest periods and breaks – standards that virtual theatre productions would benefit from adopting to support performer wellbeing and ensure sustainable practice.

1. There shall be a break of five (5) minutes after fifty-five (55) minutes of rehearsal for both dramatic and musical productions, or a ten (10) minute break after eighty (80) minutes of rehearsal. No Actor or Stage Manager shall rehearse more than five consecutive hours without a meal break of one hour.

2. There shall be a twelve (12)-hour rest period between the end of rehearsal or performance on one day and the beginning of rehearsal or performance on the next day, except for the rest period preceding the day of the first paid public performance when the rest period may be ten (10) hours.

3. There shall be one full day off after every six (6) days of rehearsal and/or performance.

According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, prolonged exposure to virtual reality environments can pose health risks, including eye fatigue, neck strain, and cyber-sickness. Like motion sickness, cyber-sickness results from a mismatch between visual and physical motion cues, with symptoms such as nausea, dizziness, headaches, and eye strain. While these symptoms typically subside shortly after removing the headset, the FDA notes that, in more severe cases, discomfort can persist for hours [FDA, 2023].

Research has shown that susceptibility to cyber-sickness varies across demographic groups. Younger users report lower levels of discomfort, while gender disparities are particularly notable: approximately 22.6% of women experience cyber-sickness frequently, compared to just 7.2% of men [Nguyen & Santiago]. These disparities may be partially attributed to hardware design. In a technical field historically dominated by men, it is not surprising that the default inter-pupillary distance (IPD) settings on most VR headsets exceed the average IPD for the general population [Dodgson]. Given that men tend to have higher IPDs than women [Doty et al., 2018], current hardware configurations are more likely to result in discomfort for women and users with smaller facial geometry.

Regardless of demographic differences, some percentage of users will always be predisposed to cyber-sickness, suggesting inherent physiological variability in tolerance for virtual environments. Additional predispositions relevant to virtual theatre may include spatial awareness, dexterity, multitasking ability, and prior performance experience or training. Biometric uniqueness also plays a role in user interaction. Research at Stanford University has demonstrated that virtual reality tracking data (particularly head and hand movement) can be used to identify individuals with 95% accuracy after observing less than five minutes of activity [Miller]. This suggests that each performer's biometric expression is both individually unique and system-recognizable, raising important questions about identity, embodiment, and accessibility within live VR performance contexts.

In my performance capture work for video games such as *Resident Evil: Village* and Marvel's *Midnight Suns*, I have observed a phenomenon that aligns closely with the Standard study's findings on biometric expression in virtual reality. I was often able to recognize my own expressiveness in digital characters – not through a specific movement I consciously recalled performing, but through a deeper familiarity with my embodied Presence. This recognition extended beyond identifiable gestures to a broader sense of physicality that felt unmistakably my own.

Interestingly, some of my predispositions that may be seen as limitations in traditional gaming contexts have offered advantages in virtual reality. I have never been a
particularly dexterous gamer, and my reluctance to use joysticks (commonly employed for locomotion in virtual reality) led me instead to embrace 'Roomscale' movement. This method, which involves freely walking through a defined physical space while wearing a wireless head mounted display, became my default mode of navigation and ultimately allowed for greater comfort and spatial fluency in stage performance.

My background in live performance, particularly in non-traditional venues and devised theatre settings, has also shaped my approach to VR acting. Experience with dramatic improvisation, standardized patient simulation, and radio hosting has given me a high level of comfort in sustaining in-character conversations while managing overall pacing and structural cues. In fact, a hallmark of my work in virtual theatre is a "meta-awareness" of my role as both performer and participant. I frequently acknowledge the technical hiccups or audience disruptions within the performance, often incorporating these moments comedically as a form of shared liveness. On stage, I frequently lift the headset to my brow mid-performance to speak directly with the seated audience – my own version of breaking the fourth wall – drawing attention to the porous boundary between physical and virtual realities.

These techniques are grounded in established performance practices and point to the necessary incorporation of traditional pedagogy in virtual theatre. I recommend that performers seeking to work in this space pursue continued training in embodiment, vocal performance, improvisation, motion capture, muscular strength, and live hosting. As the field evolves, ongoing study of virtual reality will likely reveal further opportunities (and limitations) yet to be discovered, including potential long-term effects associated with extended or frequent VR use.

FOR THE WHICH SUPPLY,
ADMIT ME CHORUS TO THIS HISTORY;
WHO PROLOGUE-LIKE YOUR
HUMBLE PATIENCE PRAY,
GENTLY TO HEAR, KINDLY TO JUDGE, OUR PLAY
(Henry V. Pro.32-34)

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>

## 13. THE FUTURE

Bradley concluded his keynote presentation by anecdotally observing several future-facing trends and engaging in a dialogue with the audience around the

topic: "Is virtual reality technology a tool for creation or consumption?"

We must remember that while Meta has sold over 20 million headsets – and additional millions have been distributed by companies like PICO, HTC, Sony, Bigscreen, and now Apple – audience behavior tells a more complex story. Over 300 million viewers are forecasted to watch eSports in 2025 [Gough] and Roblox is currently hosting nearly 80 million daily active users [Singh]. This suggests that the majority of users are likely to attend "at-keyboard" – as viewers, not participants –, watching others experience virtual reality rather than entering it themselves. As creators, we need to design with this audience behavior in mind.

The Apple Vision Pro launched to mixed reviews, which I believe is largely due to its misperception as a VR headset. In practice, Apple discourages users from standing or walking while using the device. Its intended application is for anchored, spatial computing experiences; ultimately offering a portable solution for multi-monitor functionality, immersive 3D memory capture, and premium mixed reality content. Apple's partnership with Disney makes it clear that the device is intended to serve as a high-end entertainment platform, not a gaming console or open-world social space.

Meta's recent Orion announcement appears to take everything that worked in the Quest 3 and reposition it for the lower-profile "glasses" market, emphasizing productivity, gaming, and monetized micro-interactions within their virtual ecosystems across Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp. Both Apple and Meta have discussed micro-gestures and haptic devices, which further suggests that audiences may prefer mild or passive modes of interaction. That should inform the way we stage interactivity in live performance – not everyone wants to speak, move, or choose – but they may still want to feel present and seen.

For users who do seek full interactivity, Sony's PlayStation ecosystem commands one of the largest entertainment audiences in the world. I've been intrigued by the early potential of Fortnite's *Islands* product, which allows users to build their own playable spaces. With Sony preparing to release a standalone headset, we may be witnessing a shift from VR as an accessory to a vertically integrated platform, especially if world-building becomes a normalized user behavior.

Meanwhile, companies, like Cosm, are constructing immersive amphitheaters across the United States, as attendance for cinema, concerts, and live theatre continues to lag behind pre-pandemic levels. This signals a potential opportunity for new hybrid or virtual programming. In parallel, artists now have the ability to sell tickets to millions – and then, stream to billions – thanks to secondary platforms like Spotify and YouTube. As climate science and economic shifts continue to discourage travel and reliance on physical commodities, I believe there is a growing opportunity for those of us building virtual experiences and cultural products to offer meaningful alternatives.
Of course, we cannot ignore the rapid rise of artificial intelligence. While some declare it "inevitable," the methods currently in use risk eroding intellectual property, labor rights, and database capacity. We must prepare for a future inundated by generative content: books no one wrote, music no one played, stories no one told – all competing for our most limited resource: our attention.

And that, perhaps, is our most urgent opportunity. As our digital lives grow “noisier,” we may be entering a renaissance toward authentic human presence – a movement when live storytelling, genuine interaction, and embodied experience become not just relevant, but essential. In that future, XR may not be used to escape the real world, but to extend the human connection that defines it.

Today, after our favorite shows, we are invited to listen to the podcast. But in the coming decade, I believe we will be invited to join the Storyworld, itself.

This is not the final act.

There are still stories waiting to be told.

We are waiting for *you* to enter.

Thank you.

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