# The Age-at-death Profile of Burial Sites in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Funerary Perspective

Baptiste Pradier, Frédérique Valentin, T.O. Pryce

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Baptiste Pradier, Frédérique Valentin, T.O. Pryce. The Age-at-death Profile of Burial Sites in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Funerary Perspective. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris, 2025, 37 (1), pp.15954. 10.4000/1431q. hal-05111726

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# The Age-at-death Profile of Burial Sites in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Funerary Perspective

*Les profils d'âges au décès en provenance sites funéraires en Asie du Sud-Est continentale : une perspective funéraire*

Baptiste Pradier, Frédérique Valentin et T.O. Pryce

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OpenEdition
Journals

## Édition électronique

URL : https://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/15954

DOI : 10.4000/1431q

ISSN : 1777-5469

## Éditeur

Société d'Anthropologie de Paris

## Référence électronique

Baptiste Pradier, Frédérique Valentin et T.O. Pryce, « The Age-at-death Profile of Burial Sites in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Funerary Perspective », *Bulletins et mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris* [En ligne], 37 (1) | 2025, mis en ligne le 05 juin 2025, consulté le 12 juin 2025. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/15954 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/1431q

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BMSAP

Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris

VOLUME 37 # 1

AVRIL 2025

ISSN 0037-8984

Publication fondée en 1859

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Shanidar 1960

Ralph Solecki

T. Dale Stewart

Jacques Bordaz

Revue soutenue par le CNRS Sciences Humaines & Sociales
# The Age-at-death Profile of Burial Sites in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Funerary Perspective

## *Les profils d'âges au décès en provenance sites funéraires en Asie du Sud-Est continentale : une perspective funéraire*

Baptiste Pradier ID 1*, Frédérique Valentin ID 1, T. O. Pryce ID 2

1 UMR 8068 TEMPS, MSH Mondes, Nanterre, France

2 UMR 7065 IRAMAT, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

* baptiste.pradier@gmail.com

Reçu : 02 octobre 2024 ; accepté : 24 avril 2025
Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris

**Abstract** – Age-at-death profiles of individuals from cemeteries are commonly used to indirectly study health and demographic fluctuations in bioarchaeological studies. In this paper, we consider a large dataset, comprising 18 well-dated sites from Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar, spanning the Neolithic to the Iron Age, to investigate age-biased patterns. We challenge the assumption that such patterns are solely due to underlying demography, incomplete excavation or selective preservation of certain skeletons. We argue that age-related anomalies are linked at least in part to the funerary and social dimensions of these sites. By using age-at-death profiles, we demonstrate that age-based selection takes part in the overall funerary behaviour of a given culture, although other influences, such as demographic fluctuations and diseases, may play a determining role at given locales and at different time periods.

**Keywords** – Mainland Southeast Asia, Late Prehistory, Funerary practices, Age-at-death selection

**Résumé** – Les profils d'âge au décès des individus dans les cimetières sont couramment utilisés pour étudier indirec-tement la santé et les fluctuations démographiques dans les études bioarchéologiques. Dans cet article, nous examinons un vaste ensemble de données comprenant 18 sites bien datés de Thaïlande, du Viêt Nam, du Cambodge et du Myanmar, allant du Néolithique à l'âge du Fer, afin d'étudier les ten-dances liées à l'âge. Nous remettons en question l'hypothèse selon laquelle ces schémas sont uniquement dus à la démo-graphie sous-jacente, à des fouilles incomplètes ou à la pré-servation sélective de certains squelettes. Nous soutenons que les anomalies liées à l'âge sont liées, au moins en partie, aux dimensions funéraires et sociales de ces sites. En utilisant des profils d'âge au décès, nous démontrons que la sélec-tion basée sur l'âge participe au comportement funéraire global d'une culture donnée, bien que d'autres influences, telles que les fluctuations démographiques et les maladies,

puissent jouer un rôle déterminant dans des lieux donnés et à des périodes différentes.

**Mots clés** – Asie du Sud-Est continental, Protohistoire, Pratiques funéraires, Recrutement funéraire

## Introduction

The age-at-death is generally used to reconstruct health, fertility and overall demographic dynamics of past popula-tions. However, the representativeness of the age-at-death composition of an osteoarchaeological series is subject to many distortions. Regardless of taphonomic factors and non-exhaustive skeletal series recovery, individuals buried in a given place are a function of a number of criteria related to circumstances, cultural traditions, and social rules (Masset, 1987; Carr, 1995). Representation of individuals within a funerary complex is therefore not random but largely influ-enced by cultural factors.

Cases of culturally-related selection of individuals have been reported for several archaeological contexts. For example, in the French Neolithic, integration of children within collective burials followed distinct patterns of inclusion or exclusion related to their age and their social status (Le Roy et al., 2018; Le Roy, 2023). Burial representation can also be influenced by mortality crises such as epidemics, famine or war, which can severely affect both the sex and age-class composition (Margerison and Knüsel, 2002; Castex, 2019; de Lépinau et al., 2021). For C. Masset (1987:115), who coined the term “funeral recruitment”, to describe this particular phenomenon of selection: “*Il ne faudra donc jamais perdre de vue que nos échantillons sont tous biaisés, et qu'ils le sont dans un sens qui nous échappe*”<fnref n="1" />.

<footnote n="1">1 "We must never lose sight of the fact that our samples are all biased, and that they are biased in a way that we do not understand."</footnote>
The analysis of these biases must therefore be a priority to
better understand the composition and the representative-
ness of a given skeletal series.

In late prehistoric Mainland Southeast Asia (hereafter
MSEA), where the bulk of our data comes from cemeteries,
a direct link is often made between the dead and the living
without much discussion of the appropriateness of this
connection. Indeed, numerous studies have used the age-
at-death structure of these burial sites to reconstruct demo-
graphic profiles and extrapolate health patterns of the past
populations (Pietrusewsky, 1975; Douglas, 1996; Domett,
2001; Halcrow et al., 2008; Oxenham et al., 2008; Domett
and Oxenham, 2011; McFadden et al., 2018). Paleodemo-
graphic and bioarchaeological research has shown that the
onset of the Neolithic period was marked by an increase in
fertility at several early sites. Interestingly, this increase did
not persist into the middle to late Neolithic period and the
Bronze Age while a subsequent rise in fertility is observed
during the Iron Age. In the past decades, authors recon-
structed mortality tables, calculated male/female and sub-
adult/adult proportions, and estimated life expectancy at
birth (e°0), for the sites of Non Nok Tha and Ban Kao (Pic-
trusewsky, 1975). Later on, mortality profiles of Non Nok
Tha and Ban Chiang sites were compared to standard pro-
files established for modern populations (United Nations
World and South Asia Life Tables) (Douglas, 1996). How-
ever, more recently some studies acknowledge that this
link is problematic and suggest that cultural factors and
excavation biases have a strong impact on the individual
representation in burials sites (e.g., Halcrow et al., 2008;
Ross, 2018; Oxenham et al., 2021).

The inaccuracy of these reconstructions, as well as limi-
tations related to the imprecision of age-at-death assessment
for adults, have been highlighted for decades (i.e. Weiss,
1973; Bocquet-Appel and Masset, 1982). To overcome these
issues, scholars started to develop new demographic indi-
cators relying on the subadults whose age determinations
are more reliable, and by avoiding the youngest individu-
als (between 0 and 4.9 years old) notoriously under-repre-
sented in skeletal series (Bocquet-Appel and Masset, 1982;
Buikstra et al., 1986; Bocquet-Appel, 2002; Jackes, 2011).
Some of these indicators, such as the Juvenile Adult ratio (JA)
and Mean Juvenile Mortality (MJM) as defined by Jackes
(1992), were used in a MSEA context (Douglas, 1996;
Oxenham et al., 2008), as well as the 15P5 ratio defined by
Bocquet-Appel (2002; see e.g. Bellwood and Oxenham,
2008; Willis, 2015). More recently, other estimates of growth
rates (NRPI) and fertility rates (TFR, calculated on the
basis of mortality observed in current populations using
the UN database) were proposed in an attempt to refine
demographic histories, especially in the MSEA region
(McFadden and Oxenham, 2018; McFadden et al., 2018).
These estimators, including individuals aged under 4.9 year
old, have been shown to offer resilience against the under-
counting of infants (individuals under the age of one year old)
and elderly (over 45 year old), even with up to 75% missing
data for these age groups (McFadden and Oxenham, 2019).

However, despite appearing statistically robust, these esti-
mators may introduce interpretation biases, if the archaeo-
logical knowledge of the burials' representation and spatial
organisation of the cemeteries is not considered.

In this paper, we employ age-at-death profiles from
multiple osteological series from MSEA to highlight how
factors other than mortality influence a given series' age
structure. We apply a distinctive methodology developed
50 years ago (Biraben, 1970; Masset, 1973) and regularly
used in the French literature since then (Bocquentin, 2003;
Kacki, 2016; Le Roy et al., 2018), which compares the stud-
ied series age-at-death profile with an attritional mortality
model to assess age-specific anomalies across the subadult
spectrum. Indeed, anomalous over- or under-representation
within certain age categories does prompts inquiry to their
underlying causes at a particular site. Our goal is twofold,
to: 1) distinguish cemetery age representational anomalies,
and 2) demonstrate that such distortions may hold intrinsic
significance of various origins. By integrating a compre-
hensive regional dataset of 18 burial sites from Thailand,
Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar, spanning a broad chro-
nology from late 3rd millennium BC Neolithic to early
1st millennium AD Iron Age periods, we aim to determine
the nature and chronological trends of age-at-death rep-
resentation distortions, and to relate them to variations in
funerary practices and other factors.

Material

Age distributions used in this study were obtained from
two sources: the excavations and analyses conducted by
the *Mission Archéologique Française au Myanmar* (MAFM)
at five sites in north-central Myanmar (Pradier, 2022)
(table 1), and published comparanda from thirteen sites
in northeast Thailand, Cambodia and northern Vietnam
(figure 1 and table 1). Altogether this study considers a total
of 1940 individuals. Neighbouring regions, in particular
Yunnan, Northeast India, and Laos, are not included due to
the limited availability of data and/or small sample sizes.

Dates for the included sites range from 2240 BC to
AD 550, according to their excavators, and to which we
adhere albeit with a sceptical eye in light of recent regional
chronometric improvements (Higham and Higham, 2009;
Higham et al., 2015; Higham et al., 2020; Pryce et al., 2024).
The cultural attributions follow the Three Age system divi-
sion for late prehistory i.e. Neolithic, Bronze Age and
Iron Age, applied stricto sensu in the MSEA context as
representing the presence of agriculture, copper-base and
ferrous metals, respectively (Higham, 2014). Fine grain
observations of intra period variations in such a large chro-
nology is beyond the reach of this paper due to the lack of
resolution for it at the regional level.

Four of the selected sites are attributed to the Neolithic
(table 1). The MSEA Neolithic is defined by the appear-
ance of a commodity production economy (including rice
and millet agriculture), coeval with a demic diffusion from
southern China from the early 3rd millennium BC (Piper

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Geographical location of the sites studied / Localisation géographique des sites étudiés</figcaption></figure>

et al., 2022; Pryce et al., 2024). In population terms, we observe an increase in the number of subadults in the mor- tuary record, which is interpreted as a rapid rise of natality known as the Neolithic Demographic Transition (NDT) (Bellwood and Oxenham, 2008; Willis and Oxenham, 2013). Neolithic funerary practices show a strong regional homogeneity, with deceased buried in a supine position, and placement of a range of grave goods including ceramics and ornaments, with a clear change in practice compared to the Preneolithic period (Oxenham et al., 2018; 2022).

Ten sites are associated with the subsequent Bronze Age period (table 1). The MSEA Bronze Age transition occurred in the late 2nd millennium BC across much of lowland MSEA but, unlike the Neolithic, is not considered to have involved a large population movement. Neverthe- less, the appearance of copper-base metallurgy in MSEA is thought to be associated by imports of copper-base artefacts from southern China, as well as the movement of persons familiar with secondary production techniques, which rapidly led to innovation in MSEA primary produc- tion (Pryce et al., 2010; 2011; 2023). Metallurgy appears to have had a limited impact on MSEA society (Domett,

2001; Clark et al., 2014) but some examples of metal-asso- ciated increased social complexity are reflected in individ- ual-based differential burial practices (e.g. Ban Non Wat, Ban Prasat; see Higham, 2011; 2023).

A total of four sites are attributed to the Iron Age, from the mid-1st millennium BC. This period is characterised by the integration of MSEA within a long-distance maritime exchange system involving India and China, which included the transmission of iron metallurgy and the movement of exotic goods and sometimes artisans specialising in agate, bronze, carnelian, glass and nephrite ornaments as well as distinctive pottery types (Biggs et al., 2013; Favereau and Bellina, 2016; Hung and Chao, 2016; Bellina, 2017; Pryce and Bellina, 2018; Carter et al., 2021). Research indicates that this period witnessed a notable increase in rice production, possibly attributed to the adoption of irrigated cultivation methods (Castillo et al., 2018; Higham and Thosarat, 2020). This surge in agricultural output and the specific environ- ment associated with it—characterised by the promiscuity of water (paddy, ponds and moats) and domestic animals — is believed to have significantly influenced the popula- tion's demographics (King et al., 2017).
<table><thead><tr><th>P</th><th>C</th><th>Sites</th><th>Dates (cal)</th><th>[0]</th><th>[1-4]</th><th>[5-9]</th><th>[10-14]</th><th>[15-19]</th><th>adults</th><th>n total</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="8">Neolithic</td><td rowspan="2">Vietnam</td><td rowspan="2">Man Bac</td><td rowspan="2">2066-1523BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>14</td><td>19</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>26</td><td rowspan="2">70</td><td rowspan="2">Vlok et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td>179</td><td>297</td><td>89</td><td><span style="color:red;">73</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">105</span></td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Thailand</td><td rowspan="2">Khok Phanom Di</td><td rowspan="2">2240-1500BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>63</td><td>11</td><td>7</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>60</td><td rowspan="2">154</td><td rowspan="2">Domett, 2001</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td>409</td><td>121</td><td>88</td><td>68</td><td><span style="color:red;">118</span></td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Ban Non Wat</td><td rowspan="2">1650-1050BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>18</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>51</td><td rowspan="2">83</td><td rowspan="2">Tayles et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td>217</td><td>123</td><td>53</td><td>37</td><td>19</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Myanmar</td><td rowspan="2">Oakalei 1</td><td rowspan="2">c.</td><td>Individuals</td><td>7</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>35</td><td rowspan="2">53</td><td rowspan="2">this study</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">130</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">106</span></td><td>48</td><td>25</td><td>77</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Total</td><td><strong>102</strong></td><td><strong>43</strong></td><td><strong>16</strong></td><td><strong>11</strong></td><td><strong>16</strong></td><td><strong>172</strong></td><td><strong>360</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"></td><td><strong>283</strong></td><td><strong>167</strong></td><td><strong>74</strong></td><td><strong>55</strong></td><td><strong>85</strong></td><td><strong>1000</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Bronze Age</td><td rowspan="2">Non Nok Tha</td><td rowspan="2">1110-525BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>5</td><td>9</td><td>7</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>103</td><td rowspan="2">129</td><td rowspan="2">Douglas, 1996</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">39</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">73</span></td><td>61</td><td>19</td><td>28</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Ban Chiang</td><td rowspan="2">1130-455BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td>4</td><td>57</td><td rowspan="2">79</td><td rowspan="2">Pietrusewsky and Douglas, 2001</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">76</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">96</span></td><td>61</td><td><span style="color:red;">16</span></td><td>66</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Nong Nor</td><td rowspan="2">1100-700BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>17</td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>2</td><td>120</td><td rowspan="2">155</td><td rowspan="2">Domett, 2001</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">110</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">43</span></td><td>30</td><td>47</td><td><span style="color:red;">16</span></td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Ban Na Di</td><td rowspan="2">800-500BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>47</td><td rowspan="2">70</td><td rowspan="2">Domett, 2001</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">128</span></td><td>118</td><td>33</td><td>52</td><td><span style="color:red;">0</span></td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Thailand</td><td rowspan="2">Ban Lum Khao</td><td rowspan="2">1330-710BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>21</td><td>14</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>54</td><td rowspan="2">110</td><td rowspan="2">Domett, 2004</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td>191</td><td>157</td><td><span style="color:red;">147</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">78</span></td><td>85</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Ban Non Wat</td><td rowspan="2">1050-420BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>33</td><td>45</td><td>17</td><td>11</td><td>18</td><td>193</td><td rowspan="2">317</td><td rowspan="2">Tayles et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">104</span></td><td>158</td><td>71</td><td>50</td><td>85</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Myanmar</td><td rowspan="2">HL29 and Nyaung'an cemeteries</td><td rowspan="2">1000-500BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>0</td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>0</td><td>77</td><td rowspan="2">89</td><td rowspan="2">this study</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">0</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">67</span></td><td>48</td><td>25</td><td><span style="color:red;">0</span></td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">OAI2-3 and HL30 habitation sites</td><td rowspan="2">1000-500BC</td><td>Individuals</td><td>16</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td rowspan="2">16</td><td rowspan="2">this study</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td>1000</td><td><span style="color:red;">0</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">0</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">0</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">0</span></td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Total</td><td><strong>108</strong></td><td><strong>95</strong></td><td><strong>49</strong></td><td><strong>30</strong></td><td><strong>32</strong></td><td><strong>651</strong></td><td><strong>965</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"></td><td><strong>112</strong></td><td><strong>111</strong></td><td><strong>64</strong></td><td><strong>42</strong></td><td><strong>47</strong></td><td><strong>1000</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="8">Iron Age</td><td rowspan="2">Noen U-Loke</td><td rowspan="2">400BC-500AD</td><td>Individuals</td><td>37</td><td>9</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>63</td><td rowspan="2">119</td><td rowspan="2">Domett and Tayles, 2006</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td>311</td><td><span style="color:red;">110</span></td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>60</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Thailand</td><td rowspan="2">Ban Non Wat</td><td rowspan="2">420BC-500AD</td><td>Individuals</td><td>36</td><td>12</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>149</td><td rowspan="2">224</td><td rowspan="2">Tayles et al., 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td>161</td><td><span style="color:red;">64</span></td><td>45</td><td>48</td><td>69</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Non Ban Jak</td><td rowspan="2">300AD-800AD</td><td>Individuals</td><td>86</td><td>11</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>12</td><td>47</td><td rowspan="2">161</td><td rowspan="2">Ward et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">534</span></td><td>147</td><td>47</td><td>33</td><td><span style="color:red;">203</span></td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cambodia</td><td rowspan="2">Vat Komnou</td><td rowspan="2">200BC-200AD</td><td>Individuals</td><td>3</td><td>9</td><td>12</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>73</td><td rowspan="2">111</td><td rowspan="2">Ikehara-Quebral et al., 2017</td></tr><tr><td>Quotient</td><td><span style="color:red;">27</span></td><td><span style="color:red;">83</span></td><td>121</td><td><span style="color:red;">80</span></td><td>88</td><td>1000</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Total</td><td><strong>162</strong></td><td><strong>41</strong></td><td><strong>26</strong></td><td><strong>20</strong></td><td><strong>34</strong></td><td><strong>332</strong></td><td><strong>615</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"></td><td><strong>263</strong></td><td><strong>91</strong></td><td><strong>63</strong></td><td><strong>52</strong></td><td><strong>93</strong></td><td><strong>1000</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">Theoretical data</td><td><strong>e°0 = 25, q+</strong></td><td><strong>460</strong></td><td><strong>608</strong></td><td><strong>124</strong></td><td><strong>68</strong></td><td><strong>97</strong></td><td><strong>1000</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"></td><td><strong>e°0 = 35, q-</strong></td><td><strong>156</strong></td><td><strong>117</strong></td><td><strong>30</strong></td><td><strong>18</strong></td><td><strong>25</strong></td><td><strong>1000</strong></td><td>(Ledermann, 1969)</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

P: Periods; C: Countries

<caption>**Table 1.** List of the sites included in the study and number of individuals per age groups and the associated quotients (in red difference at 2σ), cultural attribution for Non Nok Tha and Ban Chiang burials according to Higham et al. 2015 / *Liste des sites inclus dans l'étude et le nombre d'individus par groupes d'âge et les quotients associés (en rouge, différence à 2σ), l'attribution culturelle des sépultures en provenance des sites de Non Nok Tha et Ban Chiang provient de Higham et al. 2015*</caption>

Method

The 18 sites selected have individual counts exceeding 50, which is hoped to mitigate biases that can arise from small sample sizes, although stochastic variation can significantly impact representativeness (Galeta and Pankowská, 2023). Aiming at identifying representational anomalies and comparing skeletal series in a standardised way, we classified individuals from each site into the six demographic age groups: [0] year, [1-4] years, [5-9] years, [10-14] years, [15-19] years and D20+ (for the adults) (Masset, 1987; Sellier, 1996). Adult age profiles were not considered because

of the uncertainty of adult age determinations on skeletons (Bruzek et al., 2005). We calculate quotients by dividing the number of individuals in each age group by the total number of individuals of equal or greater age (comprising subadults and adults; for more details, see Henry and Blum, 1988). This enables us to compare series between each other and with a theoretical model representing attritional mortality of a pre-vaccination population (Lederman, 1969), and, in turn, to highlight over- or under-representation in each age group. Although not entirely satisfactory, the Lederman data provide the possibility of testing the significance of the difference between the curve for the cemetery studied
and the theoretical curve, which is assessed using the 95% confidence interval bracketed around the value of the quotient obtained for each age class. For our purpose, two theoretical mortality curves were calculated with the estimators available in Ledermann (1969) which are based on 154 tables covering a period between 1834 and 1950. The upper limit curve is based on a life expectancy at birth of 25 years (with +2σ) and the lower limit curve is based on a life expectancy at birth of 35 years (with -2σ) (Network 100, Table 100 MF p:52) (Sellier, 1996).

## Results

Results are presented by sites divided by chronological periods. Our rationale here is to capture the specificity of funerary behaviours at each site and period.

### Neolithic

Four Neolithic sites (Oakaie 1, Man Bac, Khok Phanom Di and Ban Non Wat) offer data for which the calculation of mortality quotients is feasible. Combined, these sites have 360 individuals, dividing in 188 subadults and 172 adults, resulting in a subadult proportion of 52%. All quotients align closely with standard mortality tables (within the 95% confidence interval range) and exhibit no significant anomalies (figure 2). However, these observations obscure variations between sites (figure 2).

The Man Bac site in Vietnam exhibits a pattern akin to pre-vaccination mortality, displaying no discernible differential age representation (figure 2). Similarly, the profile at Ban Non Wat in Thailand does not show an age-related representation anomaly, despite unusually low mortality quotients (figure 2 and table 1). Khok Phanom Di, on the Bangkok embayment, reveals intriguing features (figure 2). The [0] year old category displays a notably high mortality quotient, but still in our calculated range, followed by the [1-4] year old category approaching the lower quotient limit, and then an upswing in the [15-19] year old category (figure 2). Finally, age-at-death profile at Oakaie 1 in north-central Myanmar reveal a distinct pattern; an under-representation of the first two younger age classes is observed, affecting primarily the [0]-year class and the subsequent [1-4]-year class.

### Bronze Age

A total of ten Bronze Age sites provided sufficient data for this study, with six sites located in Thailand: Ban Non Wat (Tayles et al., 2015), Ban Lum Khao (Domett, 2004), Nong Nor (Domett, 2001), Ban Na Di (Domett, 2001), Ban Chiang (Pietrusewsky and Douglas, 2001) and Non Nok Tha (Douglas, 1996); and four in Myanmar: Halin HL29 and Nyaung'gan cemeteries and Oakaie 2-3 and Halin HL30 habitation sites.

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** Mortality profiles of the subadults from four MSEA Neolithic cemeteries compared to the theoretical mortality curve based on Ledermann's life tables / *Profils de mortalité des individus immatures en provenance de quatre sites néolithiques d'Asie du Sud-Est continentale comparés à un profil de mortalité théorique basé sur les tables de Ledermann*</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** Mortality profiles of the subadults from six MSEA Bronze Age burial sites and the four Myanmar Bronze Age cemeteries and settlements sites compared to the theoretical mortality curve based on Ledermann's life tables / *Profils de mortalité des individus immatures en provenance de six sites funéraires de l'âge du Bronze d'Asie du Sud-Est continentale et du profil combiné de quatre sites du Myanmar comparés à un profil de mortalité théorique basé sur les tables de Ledermann*</figcaption></figure>

Collectively, the Bronze Age population comprises 965 individuals, including 314 subadults and 651 adults (table 1). Subadult representation, with a proportion of 33%, is lower compared to the Neolithic period (52%). This disparity is particularly pronounced for those under one year of age, accounting for only 11% of the total population, as opposed to 28% in the Neolithic.

Ban Lum Khao, in lower northeast Thailand, is distinguished by displaying well-represented age groups within the excavation area: the [5-9] age group and the [10-14] age group exceed reference mortality table quotients, though it is not statistically significant.

Conversely, all the other sites display a deficiency of subadults, particularly in the youngest groups, the [0] and [1-4] (figure 3 and table 1), that is significant for both age groups at Nong Nor and Non Nok Tha. Surprisingly, Ban Non Wat, in lower northeast Thailand, with the largest subadult corpus (n=124), and the most extensive late pre-historic excavation in MSEA, similarly showcases an under-representation of the youngest segment of the population (figure 3), with the [0] year-olds significantly underrepresented. An observation which is mirrored at Ban Chiang in upper northeast Thailand (quotient of 76). Nearby Ban Na Di, on the other hand, displays a nonsignificant under-representation of the [0] age group but a significant lack of [15-19] year olds (figure 3 and table 1).

Similarly, in Myanmar, burial sites show a low proportion of subadults compared to adults, with 14% at HL29 and 16%

at Nyaung'gan, respectively. Only one burial site (HL29³) contained an individual under the age of one. Conversely, settlement sites (OAI2-3 and HL30 revealed a total of 16 infants, i.e. individuals below one year of age, with a total of 16 individuals (table 1).

To comprehensively characterise the funerary practices of this period, we aggregated all individuals from the Myanmar sites. This approach allows us to assess overall selection, covering both cemeteries and settlements within a radius of 80km. The proportion of subadults compared with adults increased to 38%. However, the overall age-at-death profile highlights a general under-representation of subadult individuals (figure 3). Significant findings are the under-representation of the [1-4] age group (n=6) and the lack of representation of the [15-19] age group. These groups were absent at the HL29 burial site (MAFM excavation of 2017-18) and they were classified as adults in a previous Nyaung'gan study (Tayles et al., 2001). However, we note that the addition of only two individuals in this age group would be sufficient to align the obtained profile with an attritional mortality profile.

<footnote n="2">2 This jar unearthed at the HL29 burial site could potentially indicate an infant burial, its attribution is uncertain due to the limited preservation of bones (only one fragment recovered) and its elevated stratigraphic position. Nevertheless, the associated material culture aligns with a Bronze Age context.</footnote>
## Iron Age

Four MSEA Iron Age burial sites have yielded data suitable for funerary selection analysis: Noen U-Loke (Domett and Tayles, 2006), Non Ban Jak (Ward et al., 2020) and Ban Non Wat (Tayles et al., 2015) all of which are in lower northeast Thailand, and Vat Komnou which is in Cambodia (Ikehara-Quebral et al., 2017).

Collectively, the Iron Age population comprises 615 individuals: 283 subadults and 332 adults (table 1). Subadult proportions exhibit some variation between sites, ranging from 33% (at Ban Non Wat) to 71% (at Non Ban Jak), with a cumulative average of 46%. This percentage significantly contrasts with both the Neolithic 55% and the Bronze Age 41% ($\chi^2$ (2)=54,69; p<0.001). The overall mortality profile within the Iron Age assemblages aligns with pre-vaccination expectations (figure 4, dashed curve) except for the quotient for the [1-4] age group which falls below the standard quotient (91 versus our lower limit of 117) and is statistically significant.

At Vat Komnou (Cambodia) there is a slight over-representation of individuals within the [10-14] age class (quotient of 80 versus 68) and a marked under-representation of the youngest individuals, reflected in a quotient of 27 (compared to an expected 156) (table 1 and figure 4). The following age category also exhibits a significantly low representation. An under-representation of the [1-4] age group is statistically significant in Ban Non Wat and is also detected at Noen U-Loke (while not significant).

By contrast, at Non Ban Jak the mortality profile differs markedly from the expected one (figure 4). There is an over-representation of the [0] year and [15-19] years old age classes. Looking at the mortality among the [0] year class, 23% of them (n=21) died during their first month of life which is lower than the expected mortality for this very vulnerable period of the life (cf. Dupâquier, 1979).

## Discussion

Our approach, comparing the age-at-death profile to a attritional mortality model contrasts with the use of the subadult threshold of 30% (Weiss, 1973) generally applied by bioarchaeologists working in MSEA to differentiate between poor and adequate representation of young individuals in a skeletal series. Our approach permits finer grain assessment of age-related representation variations, allowing us to show that age-related anomalies are frequent in MSEA sites providing burials. All but one (Neolithic Ban Non Wat) of our eighteen case studies are concerned by at least one anomaly, which are statistically significant for nine of them. These distortions concerned not only infants but all age classes, although the [0] and [1-4] age classes appear to be most affected (nine cases respectively). Our results allow us to relate age-based selection to different life periods, which are themselves influenced by distinctive biological and cultural factors, and to propose several hypotheses for interpreting the observed patterns.

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4.** Mortality profiles of the subadults from four MSEA Iron Age burial sites compared to the theoretical mortality curve based on Ledermann's life tables / *Profils de mortalité des individus immatures en provenance de quatre sites de l'âge du Fer d'Asie du Sud-Est continentale comparés à un profil de mortalité théorique basé sur les tables de Ledermann*</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>
## Taphonomy and Recovery issue

Young individuals are recognised to be particularly subject to poor representation because of differential preservation (Acsádi and Nemeskéri, 1970; Guy et al., 1997; Bello et al., 2006) and differential recovery related to their misidentification in the field (Lewis, 2006). It is worth emphasising that this last explanation might apply more to earlier investigations. In contrast, the archaeological studies discussed here are based mostly on recent excavations (after 1984), where trained specialists have conducted associated anthropological research, leaving little doubt about the thorough and comprehensive identification of human remains.

The differential preservation cause has been advanced for the subadult under-representation at Bronze Age Nong Nor, in regard to the overall poor preservation of the bones at the site. This was likely caused by agricultural activities and looting, but also includes the absence of bones in nine jars – possibly containing very young children (Tayles et al., 1998). Such a condition may account for the low representation of subadult individuals at this particular site. It is potentially also the case for the Neolithic Oakaie 1 site, where the burials of some younger individuals are in shallower pits, making them more vulnerable to post-depositional disturbance, including agriculture but also from new burial pits being dug. However, this explanation falls short in two situations. Firstly, when such an under-representation is also observed in older age classes, such as at Bronze Age Ban Chiang, Nong Nor, OAI2-3 and HL30 sites. Secondly, when there is a clear temporal difference in representation independent of any change in preservation, such as Neolithic to Bronze Age Ban Non Wat (Tayles et al., 2015).

On the other hand, most late prehistoric excavations in MSEA are small-scale excavations, therefore sampling errors must be considered when looking at these profiles. However, age-at-death anomalies have also been observed when large-scale excavations are considered, as at Ban Non Wat, a site explored across 892m² (Higham et al., 2009). In such cases, it can be confidently suggested that numeric anomalies are beyond sampling issues.

## The Impact of Disease

The mortality of late prehistoric populations in (MSEA) could have been influenced by various diseases and associated morbidity; notably, malaria, potentially present since the Preneolithic era (Vlok et al., 2021). Detection of malaria, a pathology that lacks direct osteological traces, relies on secondary evidence, such as the detection of lesion-leaving associated diseases like anaemia or thalassaemia (Tayles, 1996; Vlok et al., 2021). As well as potentially highlighting the presence of malaria, the analysis of age-at-death profiles is a valuable means for detecting and understanding the historical prevalence and impact of malaria on affected populations (Kendall, 2014). Malaria significantly impacts both fertility and mortality, and therefore morbidity in

affected populations (Carter and Mendis, 2002). Given its endemic nature, the effects of malaria can be visible in long-term mortality patterns. Children and women of childbearing age are especially vulnerable to it (Giglioli, 1972), leading to low natality, increased risks of miscarriage, stillbirth and neonatal mortality (Steketee et al., 2001; Desai et al., 2007). Consequently, we can expect higher mortality in the first five years of life and an increased mortality rate among women of childbearing age (Bauserman et al., 2019), resulting in an over-representation of the [0] and [1-4] together with the [15-9] age classes.

The pattern at Man Bac, a site where evidence for thalassaemia syndrome has been demonstrated (Vlok et al., 2021), is particularly intriguing. We observed that the mortality quotient for infants [0] is lower than for children aged [1-4] years (figure 2 and table 1), which could indicate a low birth rate and a high child mortality, but we do not observe the higher mortality rate expected in women. In fact, there is only one site, Ban Lum Khao, where an over-representation is observed for females of childbearing age (with 28 females aged between 15 and 39 years, against 18 males, and with a peak of 18 females aged between 20 and 29 years (Domett, 2001). We suggest that such a pattern could indicate a malaria burdened community.

Two other sites are notable for having similar and distinctive mortality profiles for the region: the Neolithic site of Khok Phanom Di and the Iron Age site of Non Ban Jak (figures 2 and 4). In both sites, the profiles exhibit a high proportion of deaths in the [0] age group and a significant increase in mortality within the [15-19] age group, a pattern that has been related to an increase in fertility rate (McFadden et al., 2022). These two sites represent two distinct periods – the Neolithic and the late Iron Age. In the case of the Neolithic site, the growth may be attributed to the advent of agriculture, while in the Iron Age site, it may be linked to its intensification. Following these hypotheses, one should expect that the observed [15-19] age group over-representation (at Khok Phanom Di and Non Ban Jak) is due to parturition. But in these sites the sex ratio is almost equal (three females, four males and five indeterminate for Non Ban Jak and three females and four males for Khok Phanom Di). We alternatively suggest that nursing mothers working in the paddies might have prematurely weaned their children or introduced early supplementation. Such a possibility has been shown by (Jackson et al., 1992) in the 1990s northern Thailand, potentially leading to heightened seasonal mortality (Levine, 1988). This situation could have been combined with the impact of malaria, at least at Khok Phanom Di where evidence for thalassaemia syndrome has been identified (Tayles, 1996).

While other diseases could certainly have impacted MSEA populations (Vlok and Buckley, 2021), the prolonged use of a cemetery typically contributes mitigating demographic fluctuations, including mortality crises (Masset, 1973; Bocquet and Masset, 1977). None of the sites examined in this study exhibited signs of a sudden mortality crisis, as characterised by the rapid deposition of many
deceased individuals and mass burials. Such crises are often associated with epidemic outbreaks like plague or catastrophic events such as famine (Margerison and Knüsel, 2002).

## Continuity and Change Over Time

Several chronological changes in age-at-death representation are evident from the analysed MSEA data. During the Neolithic, the overall data show no anomalies, i.e. the representation of subadults is comparable to Ledermann's data. But, at a site scale, anomalies were observed at three of the four sites studied, but none of them were statistically significant.

In the Bronze Age, an age-based selection becomes apparent (table 1). Notably, the youngest individuals, those in the [0] year, consistently exhibit under-representation in most of the Thai sites (with a quotient of 112 against a minimum of 156 for the comparative material, see table 1). These youngest members, the [0] year old, are not represented in Myanmar cemeteries (Pradier, 2022). During this period in Myanmar and in Thailand, under-representation is not limited to the youngest members; other age classes also show a reduction in their presence, suggesting complex selection patterns related to age. This selection against the youngest individuals during the Bronze Age, a shared characteristic between north-central Myanmar and north-eastern Thailand, could suggest cultural ties between the two regions, for which the evidence is currently limited to material culture (Pryce et al., 2023). This could shed light on the likely important role played by the mobility of highland communities in intervening territories, in facilitating the transmission of cultural practices and establishing interconnections between lowland population centers.

The Iron Age marks a distinct departure from the Bronze Age, in that infants are generally better represented in cemeteries. Although the overall data underscore the use of similar burial practices by various societies during the period, site-level examinations reveal significant divergences in infants' representation (figure 4), highlighting the diversity of responses to death within the region. Conversely, similar indices indicate a low presence of [1-4] year olds in the cemeteries, suggesting a different practice towards this age class (figure 4).

Interestingly, this temporal trend, observed based on the combination of several locations, is confirmed at Ban Non Wat, the only site where the chronology studied in this paper extends from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. During the Neolithic, the site exhibits good representation of all age classes, consistent with a pre-vaccination mortality, then an under-representation of the [0] age class in the Bronze Age, and an improved age representation during the Iron Age.

## Differential funerary practices: the use of jar containers and reserved areas for infants

Reserved areas within or outside of burial sites could potentially account for some of the observed anomalies.

This explanation has been proposed to address the age representation anomalies observed for the site of Khok Phanom Di, in Thailand (Halcrow et al., 2008). The practice of grouping individuals by age has also been noted in northeast Thailand at Ban Lum Khao, Ban Non Wat, Noen U-Loke, Non Ban Jak and Ban Na Di. The presence of areas designated for the burial of very young children (within the [0] year class) in these cemeteries may suggest the possibility of reserved areas for the next age class ([1-4] years) which is notably underrepresented at Iron Age Noen U-Loke and Ban Non Wat. In the latter site, given the large extent of the excavation, these burials possibly occurred outside the main cemetery. In north-central Myanmar, there is an apparent exclusion of individuals within the [0] age group from the main cemetery, who are displaced to sub-floor jar burials at nearby settlement sites (figure 5). This practice has been observed at two sites: OAI2-3 and HL30. We attribute this phenomenon to a specific funerary practice that involved burying these young individuals within inhabited spaces (Pradier, 2022).

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5.** An example of an infant jar burial discovered in HL30 Bronze Age settlement layer (photo: B. Pradier) / *Un exemple de sépulture d'un nourrisson en jarre découvert dans le niveau d'habitat de l'âge du Bronze de HL30* (photo : B. Pradier)</figcaption></figure>

Comprehensive comparative data regarding settlement sites in the wider region are still lacking. Some of the sites examined here exhibit a mixed character, being used as both cemeteries and settlements. Pietrusewsky and Douglas (2001) proposed this for Ban Chiang, while White and Eyre (2010) offered the term 'residential burials' for Ban Lum Khao, Non Nok Tha, and Ban Non Wat. Despite the alternating
layers of habitation and burial observed at these northeast-
ern Thai sites, the definition of their stratigraphy remains
unclear (Higham, 2015). It is only during the late Iron Age
at Non Ban Jak and Noen U-loke that the deposit of burials
inside the settlements is well attested (Higham, 2024). The
lack of stratigraphic clarity may have led to confusion and
erroneous inclusion of burials originally situated within
or below living spaces into the larger group of individuals
interred in designated cemeteries, complicating the analysis
of age distribution of the individuals. An example of such
a confusion is highlighted by Coupey (2008:73) for the site
of Ban Na Di, where a group of infant burials found with
habitation evidence was associated with the rest of the
cemetery (Domett, 2001), while they could well represent
infants domestic burials mirroring findings in Bronze Age
north-central Myanmar.

If the practice of domestic burial of infants is a shared
tradition between north-central Myanmar and northeast
Thailand during the Bronze Age, the lack of excavations of
late prehistoric settlement structures in northeastern Thai-
land could explain the under-representation of infants in the
mortuary record for this period. The hypothesis of domestic
burials for infants does not hold for Bronze Age Ban Lum
Khao, where infants are well represented, and no contem-
porary evidence of habitation has been observed (Higham,
2015). However, most of the infant jar burials are found
together at the same level (Higham et al., 2004:302).

Finally, while the use of jar containers for infants in both
habitation sites and cemeteries has been a common practice
in MSEA since the Neolithic period, it is important to note
that not all infants were placed in these non-perishable
containers. The absence of jar containers for some infants in
this age class and their infrequent use for the [1-4] age group
may have resulted in an under-representation of these age
categories in the cemeteries, because using jar containers
may have protected their skeletons, ultimately facilitating
the detection of their remains during excavation.

Additionally, the presence of large, unexcavated jars at
the Nyaung'gan site, which was initially hypothesised to
indicate infant burials (Tayles et al., 2001; Coupey, 2008),
may indicate other behaviours. The MAFM's 2016 exca-
vation and examination of jar preserved in the site museum
indicated their use for funerary offerings and containers
for adult secondary burials (Moore, 2003; Pradier, 2022).

Conclusion

The anomalies of representation observed in prehistoric
MSEA cemeteries appear to extend beyond simple sampling
issues, given their widespread occurrence at sites with suf-
ficient mortuary data. The differential representation of age
classes strongly suggests that some form of selection was
influenced by the burial process. Our results highlight dis-
tinct selection patterns that offer important insights into the
mechanisms driving the inclusion or exclusion of individuals
within a burial context. These patterns exhibit clear chrono-
logical variations observable across different geographical

areas of late prehistoric MSEA, though we stress that such
trends may not apply uniformly across the region. While
cultural selection plays a significant role in shaping funerary
assemblages, factors such as migration, stochastic variation,
taphonomy, disease, and underlying demographic processes
have also variably impacted the archaeological record.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for the two anonymous reviewers for
their insights which greatly enhanced this manuscript.

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