# Functional Dehydrated Foods for Health Preservation

R. Morais, A. Morais, I. Dammak, J. Bonilla, A. Sobral, Jean-Claude

Laguerre, J. Afonso, E. Ramalhosa

► To cite this version:

R. Morais, A. Morais, I. Dammak, J. Bonilla, A. Sobral, et al.. Functional Dehydrated Foods for Health Preservation. Journal of Food Quality, 2018, 2018, pp.1-29, 1739636. 10.1155/2018/1739636. hal-02167216

HAL Id: hal-02167216

https://normandie-univ.hal.science/hal-02167216

Submitted on 13 Jul 2021

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
## Review Article

# Functional Dehydrated Foods for Health Preservation

R. M. S. C. Morais<sup>1</sup>, A. M. M. B. Morais<sup>1</sup>, I. Dammak<sup>2</sup>, J. Bonilla,<sup>2</sup>

P. J. A. Sobral,<sup>2</sup> J.-C. Laguerre<sup>1</sup>, M. J. Afonso<sup>1</sup>, and E. C. D. Ramalhosa<sup>1,5</sup>

Correspondence should be addressed to A. M. M. B. Morais; abmorais@porto.ucp.pt

Received 30 August 2017; Revised 5 December 2017; Accepted 25 December 2017; Published 7 February 2018

Academic Editor: Antimo Di Maro

Copyright © 2018 R. M. S. C. Morais et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The market of functional foods has experienced a huge growth in the last decades due to the increased consumers' awareness in a healthy lifestyle. Dried fruits constitute good snacks, in alternative to salty or sweet ones, and food ingredients due to their taste and nutritional/health benefits. Bioactive molecules are interesting sources to develop functional foods, as they play a major role in improving the health status and minimizing disease risks. The bioactive compounds most widely discussed in literature are presented in this review, for example, polyphenols, phytosterols, and prebiotics. Different technologies to dry bioproducts for producing functional foods or ingredients are presented. New drying techniques for the preservation of bioactive compounds are proposed, focusing more specifically on dielectric drying. A discussion on the techniques that can be used to optimize drying processes is performed. An overview on dehydrated plant based foods with probiotics is provided. The microorganisms used, impregnation procedures, drying methods, and evaluated parameters are presented and discussed. The principal bioactive compounds responsible for nutritional and health benefits of plant derived dried food products—fruits and vegetables, fruits and vegetables by-products, grains, nuts, and algae—are presented. Phytochemical losses occurring during pretreatments and/or drying processes are also discussed.

## 1. Introduction

In the last decades, views on the role of foods in human health have changed markedly. Even though a balanced diet remains a key objective to prevent deficiencies and respective associated diseases, an excellent nutrition will aim at establishing the optimum intake of as many food components as possible in order to promote health or reduce the risk of diseases. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the major challenge of the science of nutrition is, thus, to progress from improving life expectancy to improving life quality. On the road to an excellent nutrition, functional

food is an interesting and stimulating concept, as much as it is supported by sound and consensual scientific data generated by the recently developed functional food science. This aims at improving dietary guidelines by integrating new knowledge on the interactions between food components and body functions and/or pathological processes.

The emergence of bioactive compounds with health benefits offers an excellent opportunity for food scientists to depict their role in health. Despite the mechanisms of bioactive substances in physiological functions not being yet fully depicted, their addition in food products is recognized as holding high potential to decrease disease risk [1, 2]. The

<footnote n="1"><sup>1</sup>Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina (CBQF), Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital, No. 172, 4000-374 Porto, Portugal</footnote>

<footnote n="2"><sup>2</sup>Department of Food Engineering, FZEA, University of São Paulo, 225 Duque de Caxias Norte Avenue, 13635-900 Pirassununga, SP, Brazil</footnote>

<footnote n="3"><sup>3</sup>UP Transformation & Agro-Ressources, Institut Polytechnique UniLaSalle, 19 rue Pierre Waguet, 60026 Beauvais Cedex, France</footnote>

<footnote n="4"><sup>4</sup>ESTIG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal</footnote>

<footnote n="5"><sup>5</sup>Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), ESA, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal</footnote>
incorporation of bioactive compounds, such as vitamins, pre-
biotics, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and phytosterols,
in food systems provides a way to develop novel functional
foods that may present health benefits or reduce the risk of
disease [3].

Functional foods could be (i) usual foods with naturally occurring bioactive substances (i.e., dietary fibre), (ii) foods supplemented with bioactive substances or microorganisms (i.e., antioxidants, probiotics), and (iii) derived food ingredients introduced to conventional foods (i.e., prebiotics). It may also be referred that functional foods are not medicines, such as pills or capsules, but are consumed as part of a normal daily diet.

The effectiveness of functional foods in preventing diseases depends on preserving the stability, bioactivity, and bioavailability of the active compounds [4]. This represents a great challenge because only a small proportion of molecules remains available after oral administration, usually due to insufficient gastric residence time, low permeability, and/or solubility in the gut, as well as instability under conditions encountered in food processing or in the gastrointestinal tract [5]. Dehydration of functional foods is an alternative to make food products with longer shelf life, and easier transportation and manipulation. However, the process of drying food materials is extremely complex, involving coupled transient mechanisms of heat and mass transports accompanied by physical, chemical, structural, and phase change transformation [6]. Therefore, the production of dehydrated functional food will require food formulations and production techniques to provide protective mechanisms that maintain the active molecular form until the time of consumption and its release in the physiological target within the organism [7, 8].

The objectives of this manuscript are to present different
technologies to dry bioproducts for producing functional
foods or food ingredients rich in bioactive compounds, to
describe new drying technologies for the preservation of
bioactive compounds, focusing more specifically on dielectric
drying, and to discuss the techniques that can be used to
optimize drying processes. Moreover, this review presents an
overview on dehydrated plant based foods with probiotics.

## 2. Functional Foods

According to the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI), a food might be considered functional when consumed as part of a normal food pattern and that exerts one or more target functions in the human body, thereby improving health status or minimizing disease risk [9]. Several organizations admit that functional foods are “foods or ingredients of foods that provide an additional physiological benefit beyond their basic nutrition” [10]. It is important to distinguish functional food from nutraceutical.

Due to their importance, scientific research has exten-
sively been developed during the last decade, producing
many advances for functional foods (Figure 1).

The market of functional foods has experienced an
amazing growth of around 100% from 2010 to 2017 due
to the increased consumers' awareness and the interest

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 1: Number of published articles, from 2000 to 2016, related to the concepts of “Functional food,” “Probiotics,” “Prebiotics,” and “Dehydrated functional food” (Web of Science, 2017) [11].</figcaption></figure>

in promoting healthy diets and lifestyle. As examples of
already marketed functional foods, we cite the whole grains
and fibre breads (natural products), calcium-fortified milk,
vitamin D-fortified milk and vitamin C-fortified fruit juices,
margarine with phytosterols, prebiotics (chicory roots and
garlic), probiotics (yogurt and kefir), and eggs with increased
omega-3 produced by altering chicken feed (enhanced com-
modities) [12]. According to Fito et al. [13], the most frequent
ways of producing functional foods are (a) improvement
of conventional natural products, that is, plants and animal
production (i.e., eggs with a lower cholesterol content); (b)
genetically modified products (i.e., rice with enhanced β-
carotene content); (c) addition of functional ingredients to
the foods (i.e., breakfast cereals and bread); and (d) matrix
engineering (i.e., vacuum impregnation).

The development of functional foods turns out to be increasingly challenging, as it has to fulfil the consumer's expectancy for products that are simultaneously relish and healthy. Functional ingredients, such as purified bioactive compounds or concentrated extracts from natural sources, can be incorporated into conventional foods, providing novel functional product categories and new commercial opportunities. However, the challenge of ensuring that functional ingredients remain stable and active and bioavailable after food processing and storage endures. Therefore, food industry developers have to take into consideration many variables to develop functional products, such as sensory acceptance, stability, price, functional properties, and convenience.

2.1. *Bioactive Compounds in Functional Foods.* Recent trends have demonstrated that bioactive molecules are interesting sources to develop many functional foods, as they play a major role in the improving health status and minimizing disease risks. Nutritionists and biomedical and food scientists are working together to discover new bioactive molecules that
have increased potency and therapeutic benefits [14]. These bioactive compounds include vitamins, prebiotics, bioactive peptides, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, phytoestrogens, glucosinolates, phytosterols, fatty acids, and structured lipids, which are already naturally present in foods, or can be added to conventional foods to produce new functional foods. These bioactive molecules can be obtained either by extraction from natural sources or by chemical and biotechnological synthesis. In the following the most widely discussed bioactive compounds in literature are summarized, for example, phenolic compounds, phytosterols, and prebiotics. Probiotics are discussed as well while bioactive ingredients for functional foods.

**2.1.1. Phenolic Compounds.** Phenolic compounds are plant secondary metabolites commonly found in plants and derived products [15]. These compounds have diverse biological activity, being mainly acknowledged for their preventing action against the damage caused by oxidative stress. Due to their several physiological roles, phenolic compounds are essential for the human diet and health [16]. For example, phenolic acids may be about one-third of the phenolic compounds in human diet, where these substances have a high antioxidant activity [17].

Flavonoids are the most common and widely distributed group of plant phenolic compounds. They comprise a large class of plant secondary metabolites with relevant action on the plant defense system, having been reported as important constituents of the human diet [18]. These compounds have attracted interest due to the discovery of their pharmacological activities and health regulation function. Regarding their biological activity, they were previously reported to have antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antiviral effects, besides inhibiting lipid peroxidation [19]. When added to food products, flavonoids are responsible for preventing fat oxidation and protecting vitamins and enzymes, while also contributing to food sensorial properties. Tannins are polymeric flavonoids that form the anthocyanidins pigments [20]. Although the antioxidant activity of tannins has been less reported than the activity of flavonoids, recent research studies have shown that the degree of polymerization is related to the antioxidant activity: in condensed and hydrolysed tannins of high molecular weight, this activity can be up to 15–30 times superior to that attributed to simple phenols [21]. As it would be easily anticipated, considering the diverse biological activity of phenolic compounds, their incorporation into food products has been largely studied. Some of the most relevant examples include meat and fish products, pasta [22, 23], ice cream, cheese, yogurt, and other dairy products [24, 25].

**2.1.2. Phytosterols.** Phytosterols, which include plant sterols and stanols [26], are currently among the most successful phytochemicals for the development of functional foods with unique health claims [27]. When incorporated as a functional food ingredient, plant sterols and stanols are frequently esterified with a fatty acid ester to increase the solubility in the food matrix [28]. Furthermore, dietary phytosterols

were reported as inhibiting the uptake of both dietary and endogenously produced cholesterol on the intestinal cells and several studies suggest a protective role of phytosterols against colon, prostate, and breast cancer [29]. Phytosterols have been included in several food matrices with different degrees of effectiveness [30]. While their incorporation in chocolate, orange juice, cheese, nonfat beverages, meats, croissants and muffins, oil in bread, and cereal bars was not much efficient in cholesterol lowering, the results were more satisfactory when added to fat spreads, mayonnaise, salad dressings, milk, and yogurt [31].

**2.1.3. Prebiotics.** The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) defined a prebiotic as a "selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon host wellbeing and health" [32]. This definition expands the concept of prebiotics to possibly include noncarbohydrate substances, applications to body sites other than the gastrointestinal tract, and diverse categories other than food. Actually, health effects of prebiotics are evolving but, currently, they include benefits to the gastrointestinal tract (i.e., inhibition of pathogens, immune stimulation), cardiometabolism (i.e., reduction in blood lipid levels, effects upon insulin resistance), mental health (i.e., metabolites that influence brain function, energy, and cognition), and bone (i.e., mineral bioavailability). Currently established prebiotics are carbohydrate-based, but other substances, such as polyphenols and polyunsaturated fatty acids converted to the respective conjugated fatty acids, might fit the updated definition, assuming convincing weight of evidence in the target host. To be an efficient prebiotic, a molecule should possess some qualities such as it should not be hydrolysed or absorbed in the upper part of the gut, gut microflora should consume it, and beneficial bacteria of colon should be stimulated by it [33].

Most prebiotic candidates identified today in the world belong to saccharides group and can be classified according to its number of monosaccharide's units forming the molecules (Table 1). The major prebiotics established in the market are inulin, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), and galactooligosaccharides (GOS) (Table 2). Inulin and FOS, GOS, and lactulose are three major marketed prebiotics.

Industrially, inulin is most often extracted from chicory. The structural relatives of inulin and FOS have been the best-documented oligosaccharides for their effect on intestinal bifidobacteria and are considered important prebiotic substrates. They are produced in large quantities in several countries and are added to various products such as biscuits, drinks, yogurts, breakfast cereals, and sweeteners. Inulin occurs naturally in Western foods such as onion, asparagus, leek, garlic, wheat, and artichoke, although to a lesser extent than in the commercial source chicory (*Cichorium endivia*).

Inulin and oligo-fructose proved to be the most widely examined prebiotic compounds with the most important prebiotic efficacy [36]. Now, inulin is gradually being used in functional foods, particularly in a complete variety of dairy products to enhance the intensification of the beneficial intestinal bacteria [37]. Drabińska et al. [37] studied
<table><caption>TABLE 1: Classification of potential prebiotics [34].</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Origin</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Disaccharides</td><td>Synthetic: enzymatically from lactose</td></tr><tr><td>Lactulose</td><td>Enzymatic hydrolysis of inulin</td></tr><tr><td>Oligosaccharides</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)</td><td>Naturally in human breast milk</td></tr><tr><td>Galactooligosaccharides (GOS)</td><td>Enzymatic conversion of lactose (GOS-LA) or lactulose (GOS-LU)</td></tr><tr><td>Xylooligosaccharides (XOS)</td><td>Naturally in bamboo shoots, fruits, vegetables, milk, and honey</td></tr><tr><td>Isomaltooligosaccharides (IMOS)</td><td>Enzymatic hydrolysis of xylan containing lignocellulosic materials</td></tr><tr><td>Arabinoxylan oligosaccharides (AXOS)</td><td>Naturally in sake, soy sauce, honey, sugarcane juice and derived products</td></tr><tr><td>Polysaccharides</td><td>Enzymatic hydrolysis of arabinoxylan (part of fibre fraction of cereal grain)</td></tr><tr><td>Inulin</td><td>Chicory root, wheat, barley, onion and garlic</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>TABLE 2: Example of marketed prebiotics [35].</caption><thead><tr><th>Food product</th><th>Company</th><th>Prebiotics</th><th>Dosage form</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Nutren Fibre®</td><td>Nestle</td><td>Inulin</td><td>Powder</td></tr><tr><td>Miracle Fibre</td><td>The Vitmin Shoppe, North Bergen, NJ</td><td>Inulin</td><td>Powder</td></tr><tr><td>Kal NutraFlora FOS</td><td>Nutraceutical Corp, Park City, UT</td><td>Short-chain fructooligosaccharides</td><td>Powder</td></tr><tr><td>Solaray NutraFlora FOS</td><td>Nutraceutical Corp</td><td>Short-chain fructooligosaccharides</td><td>Capsules</td></tr><tr><td>Fiber Choice</td><td>GlaxoSmithKline, Philadelphia, PA</td><td>Inulin</td><td>Chewable tablet/drops</td></tr><tr><td>Smart Fiber Stixx</td><td>Intelligent Nutrition LLC, New Orleans, LA</td><td>Oligofructose and inulin</td><td>Powder</td></tr><tr><td>Balance, Prebiotic Fibre</td><td>pHion</td><td>Inulin fibre; psyllium seed husk (Plantago ovata)</td><td>Powder</td></tr><tr><td>Organic, Inulin</td><td>Now Foods</td><td>Organic inulin (FOS)</td><td>Powder</td></tr><tr><td>Frutafit® HD</td><td>Sensus</td><td>Inulin FOS</td><td>Powder</td></tr><tr><td>Frutalose® L85</td><td>Sensus</td><td>Oligofructose</td><td>Syrup</td></tr><tr><td>Vivinal GOS</td><td>Friesland</td><td>Galactooligosaccharides</td><td>Syrup</td></tr></tbody></table>

the addition of inulin to gluten-free products. The authors showed that the new enriched flour has the potential to improve the technological properties and sensory perception of the obtained products. Palatnik et al. [38] developed a novel reduced-fat cheese from partially skimmed bovine milk with the addition of Agave fructans. The new product with fructans showed an appropriate moisture and protein retention. The sensorial aspects, including colour, did not show significant difference in comparison with the control samples, indicating that the fructans did not affect these parameters. Even though it would be difficult to mimic

completely a full-fat cheese after fat has been removed, the presence of fructans in reduced-fat formulations suggests an acceptable likeness in comparison with the structure and general characteristics of the full-fat control cheese.

Various prebiotic dairy desserts having low fat content have been prepared using inulin as a prebiotic, in which inulin supplementation not only presented a prebiotic effect but also reduced the fat content and sugar content (12% reduction) without affecting its acceptability to consumers [39]. As inulin is metabolized in different parts of the large intestine (short-chain inulin in the proximal colon portion
and long-chain inulin in the more distal colonic portion), the use of a blend of short and long-chain inulin to increase fermentative and prebiotic effects is suggested in several nutritional studies [40, 41]. Although lactulose was used originally as a laxative [42], it has also received attention as a potential prebiotic. Lactulose increased lactobacilli and bifidobacteria and significantly decreased *Bacteroides* in mixed continuous fecal culture [43], although total bacterial numbers decreased. Lactulose has been consistently found to have prebiotic potential in human trials. Although lactulose looks to be a very promising prebiotic, it is not yet widely distributed as such. It has an established market as a medical product and would seem to have much value in the food sector.

## 2.2. Probiotics as Bioactive Ingredient for Functional Foods.
Probiotics are viable microorganisms, such as lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, that benefit the host by improving the intestinal bacterial balance [44]. Multiple reports have described their health benefits in gastrointestinal infections, antimicrobial activity, improvement in lactose metabolism, reduction in serum cholesterol, immune system stimulation, antimutagenic properties, anticarcinogenic properties, antidiarrheal properties, improvement in inflammatory bowel disease, and suppression of *Helicobacter pylori* infection, by addition of selected strains to food products [45]. Because of their perceived health benefits, probiotic bacteria have been increasingly incorporated into a range of functional foods including yogurts, cheeses, ice cream, milk powders, and frozen dairy desserts [46].

For industrial applications, probiotic strains have to respond to several criteria. Barbosa and Teixeira [47] provided valuable criteria.

Probiotic status assessment requires demonstration through human studies, and a scientific and technical guidance in presenting applications for health claims on food has been provided by the EFSA (Reg. EC 1924/2006). The EFSA has rejected all health claim applications on probiotics since 2008, which reflects the need for more scientific evidence and well-designed human intervention studies. Contrary to the European standard, Canada has a positive list of species that can be marketed as probiotics. This list represents a core group of well-studied species likely to contribute to a healthy gut microbiota [48].

Each microorganism present in probiotic products must be identified at species and strain level, according to the International Code of Nomenclature, and its microbial genome must be completely sequenced. This allows the identification of every single gene involved in bacterial metabolism and its function. Consequently, the safety of food products and, above all, of commercial probiotic strains should be evaluated before their launch on the market. Generally, the guidelines require (i) a minimum concentration of $10^9$ cfu of live microorganisms/daily dose on labels (even less if the usefulness of this lower dose has been clearly shown and supported at scientific experimental level); (ii) the identification of each probiotic strain by integrating phenotypic and genotypic characterization; (iii) the absence of pathogenic factors [49].

Currently, most of industrial functional foods containing probiotics are mainly found in dairy products with limited shelf life and are not suitable for consumers dealing with lactose intolerance [50]. The microorganisms most used in commercialized probiotic foods belong to genera *Lactobacillus* (*Lactobacillus plantarum*, *Lactobacillus acidophilus*, and *Lactobacillus rhamnosus*) [51, 52] and *Bifidobacterium* (*Bifidobacterium bifidum*, *Bifidobacterium longum*) [53, 54], which belong to the group of lactic acid bacteria. Infrequently, other bacteria (*Enterococcus faecium*, *Lactococcus lactis*) [55, 56] and yeasts (*Saccharomyces boulardii*) [57] may also be used as probiotic strains (Table 3).

Leone et al. [59] studied four different conditions for the incorporation of *Lactobacillus casei* in dried yacon (*Smallanthus sonchifolius*), which was crushed in the form of flakes. The temperature of 25°C was the most appropriate for the incorporation of probiotics in dried yacon at the end of the 56 days. Granado-Lorencio and Hernández-Alvarez [60] stated that adding probiotics to fruit-based and cereal-based matrices was more complex than formulating dairy products, because the bacteria need protection from the acidic conditions in these media. To solve this problem, microencapsulation technologies have been developed and successfully applied using various matrices to protect the bacterial cells from the damage caused by the external environment [61]. Puupponen-Pimiä et al. [62] proposed the encapsulation of probiotics to enhance their viability and stability in food matrices and controlled release during human digestion. A recent industrial application, the American company Kraft® launched in 2008, produced the first mass-distributed shelf stable probiotic nutrition bar, by using the bacteria *L. plantarum* 299v [63].

Borges et al. [64] studied the effect of processing stages to develop fruit powders (apple, banana, and strawberry) enriched with a probiotic strain (*L. plantarum* 299v). The authors found that hot air drying of the fruit followed by addition of spray-dried probiotic culture was better than hot air drying of the fruit incorporated with the probiotic culture. The viability of *L. plantarum* 299v was considerably higher during spray drying, and fruit powders with a microbial content suitable for a probiotic food ($10^8-10^9$ cfu g$^{-1}$) were obtained.

In all the above cases, the rate of recovery of the probiotics to the viable state is significantly influenced by the rehydration conditions (temperature, volume of rehydrating media, and rehydration time), physical properties of the material to be rehydrated, and properties like osmolarity, pH, and nutritional energy of the rehydration solution. The rehydration temperature is a critical factor influencing cell recovery of freeze-dried and spray-dried probiotics. Various studies have indicated that there is not an “ideal” single point rehydration temperature for the optimum growth of cultures. For thermophilic cultures, temperature between 30 and 37°C was found best for posthydration viabilities, while the optimum range for mesophilic bacteria is 22–30°C. The rehydration temperature should not be higher than 40°C in any case [58].
<table><caption>TABLE 3: List of probiotic strains used in commercial applications [58].</caption><thead><tr><td>Company name</td><td>Source/product</td><td>Strain</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Chr. Hansen</td><td>Produces natural ingredients (food cultures, probiotics, enzymes and colors) for the food, beverage, dietary supplements and agricultural industry</td><td>L. acidophilus LA1/LA5; L. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus; Lb12; Lactobacillus paracasei CRL431; Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis Bb12</td></tr><tr><td>Danisco</td><td>Activities in food production, enzymes, other bioproducts and pharmaceutical industries</td><td>L. acidophilus NCFMs; L. acidophilus La<br>L. paracasei Lpc; Bifidobacterium lactis HOWARUTM/BI</td></tr><tr><td>DSM Food Specialties</td><td>Manufacturer of food enzymes, cultures, savory ingredients and other specialties for the food and beverage industries</td><td>L. acidophilus LAFTIs L10; B. lactis LAFTIs B94; L. paracasei LAFTIs L26</td></tr><tr><td>Nestle</td><td>Manufacturer of baby food, medical food, bottled water, breakfast cereals, coffee and tea, confectionery, dairy products, ice cream, frozen food, pet foods, and snacks</td><td>Lactobacillus johnsonii La1</td></tr><tr><td>Snow Brand Milk</td><td>Dairy products</td><td>L. acidophilus SBT-20621; Products Co. Ltd.<br>B. longum SBT-29281</td></tr><tr><td>Yakult</td><td>Probiotic drinks</td><td>L. casei Shirota; Bifidobacterium breve strain Yaku</td></tr><tr><td>Fonterra</td><td>Dairy products</td><td>B. lactis HN019 (DR10); L. rhamnosus HN001 (DR20)</td></tr><tr><td>Danone</td><td>Business lines: fresh dairy products, waters, early life nutrition and medical nutrition</td><td>L. casei Immunitas; B. animalis DN173010</td></tr><tr><td>Essum AB</td><td>Manufacturer of probiotic bacteria that are distributed to companies that produce pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements and food</td><td>L. rhamnosus LB21; Lactococcus lactis L1A</td></tr><tr><td>Institute Rosell</td><td>Probiotics, dairy cultures, lactic bacteria, acidophilus &amp; lactic starters</td><td>L. rhamnosus R0011; L. acidophilus R0052</td></tr><tr><td>Probi AB</td><td>Probiotics research and development</td><td>L. plantarum 299V; L. rhamnosus 271</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3. Advances in Dehydration Technologies towards Healthy Products

3.1. *Drying and Its Consequences on the Product Quality and Energy Consumption.* Drying is probably the most important unit operation for most industrial processes, especially because of its impact on the quality of the end product and on energy consumption [65]. Thus, according to Chua et al. [66], this process would be the most energy-intensive, among all industries, with consumption of dried foods about 10–25% of total consumption. In most cases, drying involves the application of different temperature conditions, which may cause irreversible damage. In the case of freeze drying, the temperature applied can be –30°C or –80°C, and in the case of other methods such as air drying or spray drying, the temperatures can be 45–80°C or 125–140°C, respectively. Changes may occur in cellular structures (cell membranes)

constituting probiotics cells, and in key properties responsible for the product functionality (cell membrane permeability, mechanical strength of the cell membrane assembly, etc.) [58, 67, 68]. Moreover, drying might cause changes in the chemical structures responsible for the biological value of various bioactive components (protein, fat) [67]. Besides, drying with hot air can induce reactions, mainly of oxidation, which decrease the functional value of nutritive compounds (vitamin, antioxidant). This must be put into perspective facing the high reactivity of phytochemicals leading to various degrees of degradation during processing [69].

Since the drying process always comprises a second phase, which is generally long to very long, depending on the hygroscopicity of the product, it is mainly responsible for the numerous adverse effects that are linked to drying. Most organic products are, in fact, deeply modified by drying (colour, taste, texture, nutritional characteristics, functional
properties, etc.) [70]. The bioactive compounds are, thus, particularly altered during this drying phase. Therefore, obviously this phase and/or its consequences on the quality of the dried products are sought to be reduced by new drying techniques and optimization of drying processes.

### 3.2. Conventional Techniques Used for Drying Foods or Functional Ingredients.
The most commonly used techniques to produce fruit or vegetable powder are freeze drying, foam drying, drum drying, and spray drying [71]. Freeze drying is the technique that allows the best preservation of phytochemicals and their bioactivity in fruit and vegetable powders [71]. It is the most widely used technique for drying probiotics, but in view of its high operating costs and low productivity [71], spray drying seems to be a good alternative for production of probiotics powder at industrial scale [72].

In spray drying, it is often necessary to use a carrier agent for the product to be atomized [73]. Shishir and Chen [71] reported about thirty studies in the literature on the spray drying of various fruit or vegetable juices, showing that different phytochemicals (anthocyanins, total flavonoids, total polyphenol, gingerol, etc.) were more or less preserved depending on the type and concentration of the carrier agent used (maltodextrin, Arabic gum, inulin, mixture of carrier agents, etc.).

Spray drying is also used for the drying of probiotics. The carrier agents allow the preservation of molecules of interest or probiotics by their encapsulation effect [74]. Concerning probiotics, the main question is the viability of the cells after drying. Spray drying to produce probiotic fruit powders will be discussed in Section 4.

### 3.3. Drying Kinetics versus Kinetic Degradation of Indicators of Interest.
Alteration of product quality during drying is linked to the time-temperature couple. Low temperatures tend to have a positive effect on the quality of the final product, which is generally found in low temperature processes such as freeze drying or vacuum drying. Similarly, short drying times allow better preservation of bioactive compounds [69]. This situation is found for fast drying processes such as spray or drum drying. In general, degradation of most phytochemicals and probiotics follows first-order or a pseudo first-order kinetics [69]. Hence, good fits with first-order kinetic models applied to thermal degradation of different phytochemicals were obtained by several authors. This is the case for the degradation of anthocyanins [75-78] as well as polyphenols [75, 78, 79]. However, simple first-order models are not suitable when the residual concentration of the bioactive compound is different from 0 for a very long heating time. The kinetics of degradation of the bioactive compound is then described by an equation called first-order fractional conversion kinetic model [80].

Whatever the order of the thermal degradation reaction, the rate constant of the kinetic depends on the temperature according to the Arrhenius equation [75-77, 79] and normally the rate of degradation of biocompounds or probiotics is higher at high temperatures. However, during convective drying, it is possible to obtain a lower degradation of some bioactive compounds, such as polyphenol (total polyphenol

content, TPC) and flavonoids, at higher temperatures [81]. The same trend was observed for TPC loss in convective drying of carrot peels [82] and blueberries [83]. Hence, the residual content of bioactive compounds after drying depends at least on three parameters: its initial content, the temperature, and the duration of the drying [78-80]. Therefore, to minimize the degradation of bioactive compounds or probiotics, drying processes at low temperature (freeze drying, vacuum drying) may be used. However, under these conditions the drying time will necessarily be long. Therefore, the alternative is to use short drying methods, such as spray drying, drum drying, dielectric drying, microwave drying, and infrared (IR) drying. In these cases, the drying temperature will necessarily be high, but the duration will be short, which makes it possible to limit the degradation of biocompounds and probiotics. Clearly, the kinetics of drying must be sufficiently rapid with respect to the kinetics of degradation of the compounds of interest. It is approximately one of the targeted goals with advanced drying techniques.

### 3.4. Advanced Drying Techniques.
Even though freeze drying, vacuum drying, or spray drying techniques limit the degradation of bioactive compounds, they are either unsuitable for the drying of certain products or have too low productivity and excessively high operating cost to be implemented at industrial scale. Conversely, the other techniques of conventional drying by hot air (cabinet, tunnel, etc.) have a strong negative effect on the retention of bioactive compounds. For this reason, advanced drying techniques have been proposed for many years. The majority of these techniques have one thing in common, the type of energy used which is always of electromagnetic (EM) nature: radio frequency (RF), microwave (MW), IR, and ultraviolet (UV). These new techniques can be used alone or in combination with one another or with conventional techniques.

#### 3.4.1. Dielectric and Microwave Drying.
Actually, from a physical point of view, the notion of dielectric heating can be applied to all frequencies from high frequencies to IR. However, from a practical point of view, the term dielectric heating is reserved for frequencies between 1 and 100 MHz, while the MW heating is between 300 MHz and 300 GHz [84].

Throughout MW drying of high moisture content product, the high energy density absorbed results in a rapid increase in temperature and an instantaneous vaporization inside the product [65]. The internal pressure increases and expulsion of liquid water towards the surface occurs [84]. This phenomenon has been observed by many authors in the case of different products (cotton, wood, slices of oranges, apple, carrot, etc.). This outflow of water limits the phenomenon of crusting and browning of the surface contrary to what is observed in conventional drying. This also results in high drying rates leading to considerable reduction in the drying time. Even if the drying speed is always faster than that of hot air drying, the drying efficiency is limited due to the rapid saturation of the air, whose temperature is relatively low, at the surface of the product. For this reason, microwaves are
generally associated with hot air to improve water transfer at the product surface.

At this stage, two fundamental points radically differ-
entiating dielectric drying from hot air drying should be
mentioned: (1) during convective drying by hot air, the
surface temperature of the product evolves until reaching the
air temperature at the end of drying and it is worth noting
that it can in no case exceed this temperature. This explains
why it is sufficient to dry thermosensitive products at low
air temperature to prevent their alteration. Regarding MW
drying, there is no real limit to the temperature rise of the
product except temperatures leading to its carbonization and
its destruction. (2) Given that drying involves removing water
from a product, this action will have a decisive effect on how
the product will behave vis-a-vis the EM wave during drying.
Since water is the main molecule of the product concerned
by the absorption of EM energy, the dielectric properties (ε'
and ε") of the product will tend to evolve during drying. For
most products, the values of these properties will drop during
the two phases of the drying process [84]. ε" falls very quickly
throughout the drying of the free water (1st phase), and, then,
ε"" decreases with a lower slope after the critical moisture
content, corresponding to the beginning of drying of the
bound water. The critical moisture content is between 10 and
40% (dry basis) for highly hygroscopic products and about 1%
for nonhygroscopic products [84]. From what has just been
said and from point (1), it could be concluded that this is
rather positive for controlling the temperature of the product
and therefore its quality at the end of drying. Things are not
so simple because several other elements must be taken into
consideration. Firstly, if the applied power is kept constant
during drying (as is the case in most studies in the literature),
the energy density delivered to the product, which can be
evaluated by the specific power applied (i.e., the ratio between
the applied MW power and the mass product) increases
during drying. Koné et al. [85] showed that this evolution
was exponential with drying time in the case of drying of
tomatoes by microwaves/hot air. In other words, more and
more energy is being supplied to the product when less and
less is needed. The consequence of this is the phenomena
of thermal runaway reported in many studies on microwave
drying. In addition, another aspect must be considered,
namely, the change of the thermal properties of the product
during drying. Indeed, the thermal properties of foods also
depend on their moisture content. Thus, the specific heat
and the thermal diffusivity of the product decrease during
drying. Hence, it takes less and less energy to heat the product
and similarly, an area of the product that has undergone
overheating will find it increasingly difficult to evacuate its
overflow of heat by diffusion. All these elements make it
possible to understand that even if the dielectric properties of
the product decrease during drying, phenomena of thermal
runaway during microwave drying may arise [86]. The only
solution to control the quality of the product during a
microwave drying is therefore to control the energy supply
by adapting the specific power as a function of the moisture
content by acting on the power applied. By applying such
a strategy, Koné et al. [85] succeed in drying of tomato by
microwave/hot air with an improvement in the colour of the

dried product and in the residual content of lycopene. We
may conclude by saying that the management of the energy
supplied to the product during drying and the optimization
techniques may be useful for the control of microwave drying
in terms of organoleptic and nutritional qualities and energy
consumption.

3.4.2. *Hybrid Drying Techniques*. More and more studies have suggested the synergistic effects of the combination of different drying techniques on the quality of the dried product and on the performance of the drying process (drying time and energy consumption). Some hybrid drying (HD) techniques are presented below.

(i) *Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying (MWHAD)*. The simplest combination imaginable for microwave drying is its combination with hot air drying. It is also the one that is by far the most used according to the literature. Schiffmann [84] retains three possible modes from a perspective of application at industrial scale. (1) *Preheating*. The microwaves are used to preheat the product and, subsequently, the drying continues with hot air only. The instantaneous generation of steam inside the product due to the absorption of the MW energy forces the flow of water towards the surface, thus allowing conventional hot air drying to operate under conditions of maximum efficiency. (2) *Booster Drying*. Drying starts with hot air only and the MW energy is fed when the drying rate begins to fall. The surface of the product being dry at this point, by the effect of pumping on the internal water of the product, the MW energy leads to the rewetting of the surface, which makes it possible to maintain a high drying rate. (3) *Finish Drying*. The falling phase of the drying rate is responsible for the greatest degradation of the product quality due to its length (more than two-thirds of the total drying time). By introducing microwaves at the beginning of this phase, internal energy generation allows the bound water to be pushed towards the product surface, which increases the drying rate and thus reduces the drying time.

This combination of microwaves and hot air results in an
improvement of the quality of the dried product, as well as
a reduction of the drying time and energy consumption [65,
84].

(ii) *Microwave-Assisted Freeze Drying (MWFD)*. Freeze dry-
ing provides a good quality of the dried product by preventing
the degradation of the thermosensitive compounds due to
the low temperature used for the sublimation of water. The
major drawback of this technique is the very long drying
time required. Hence, it entails a low productivity and a large
consumption of energy [87]. The combination of microwaves
with freeze drying makes it possible to shorten the drying
time (e.g., 40% in the case of the drying of protein of duck egg
white) without modification of the nutritional quality [87].

(iii) *Microwave-Assisted Vacuum Drying (MWVD)*. Like freeze drying, vacuum drying preserves the characteristics of the dried product, but it also has the same drawbacks, namely, a long drying time and a strong energy consumption. Thus, the combination of microwaves with vacuum drying allows a
better anthocyanin retention and a better antioxidant activity in the case of MWVD of blueberries [87]. In general, MWVD makes it possible to obtain dried products of a quality as good as those obtained by freeze drying with a colour closer to the fresh product in the case of tomato, carrot, and banana [88].

(iv) Microwave-Assisted IR Drying (MWIRD). IR radiation is characterized by a shallow depth of penetration inside the product. Therefore, once the EM energy is absorbed at the surface it is transmitted to the interior of the product by conduction, which brings IR drying closer to conventional hot air drying. The combination of IR with microwaves allows a faster and more homogeneous heating of the product and a quicker drying of the product with an improved quality. Thus, in the case of MWIRD of raspberries, a 2.4 times higher crustiness, a 25.63% higher rehydration, a 17.55% additional retention of anthocyanins, and a 21.21% higher antioxidant activity were obtained in relation to IR drying [88].

(v) Ultrasound-Assisted Drying (UAD). Ultrasonication is one of several techniques used in the concept of hybrid processes. It has already been applied to drying, among other processes [89]. The mechanical energy provided by ultrasound contributes to the reduction of internal and external resistances to mass transfer and, particularly, to water transfer, thanks to expansion and compression cycles (sponge effect) [81]. In addition, microstreaming is produced at the interfaces because of high-intensity airborne ultrasound, which reduces the diffusion boundary layer. This leads to diffusion enhancement and, hence, to mass transfer increase [81, 90]. Musielak et al. [91] indicate that the first studies on the use of ultrasound in drying were carried out in the 1950s. However, even if there is a renewed interest on this technology in recent years, it remains, for the moment, limited to laboratory scale [90].

Numerous studies show the interest of combining ultrasound with a convective drying process to reduce energy consumption and drying time as well as to improve the quality of the dried product. Szadzinska et al. [92] compared a convective drying (CVD) to different hybrid drying processes—convective-ultrasonic drying (CVUD), convective-microwave-ultrasonic drying (CVMWUD), and convective-microwave drying (CVMWD)—in drying of strawberry. In all cases, the hybrid processes made it possible to obtain lower energy consumption and shorter drying time than the convective drying. The energy consumption gain was only 6.4% in CVUD, while it reached about 82% in CVMWUD, and even 89% in CVMWD. Likewise, the drying time was reduced by 52% and 93% in CVUD and CVMWD, respectively.

### 3.5. Drying Optimization.
The combination of several drying techniques makes it possible to obtain synergistic effects both on the preservation of the bioactive compounds and on the energy consumption. However, it is necessary to optimize these processes since many factors of the process can have a decisive impact on the quality of the dried product. In the past years, the food processes optimization was performed by observing the effect of variation of a single variable at

a time on an experimental response, keeping constant all others. This technique has the disadvantage of requiring numerous tests and it does not take into account the effect of interactions between variables on the assessed responses [93]. These difficulties can be circumvented using the Response Surface Methodology (RSM). This method consists in linking each studied response of the process to the different inputs (the factors) by means of a quadratic model [93]. This method is regularly used for the optimization of drying processes as reported by different authors. The goal pursued in these different studies was to optimize drying conditions for preserving certain bioactive compounds such as beta-carotene and lycopene, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity [94], vitamin C, flavonoids, and anthocyanins [95].

In fact, RSM is a relatively efficient method for the optimization of drying processes or others. Nonetheless, it has some limitations: (1) it uses a priori models. Indeed, whatever the response studied, a quadratic model is postulated, which is not always adequate. (2) The number of tests to be carried out increases very quickly with the number of factors. Thus, a three-factor Box Behnken Design (BBD) requires 13 experiments whereas it is necessary to carry out 29 experiments for a four-factor BBD; (3) the factors must be fully independent; (4) the uncontrolled factors of the plan cannot be taken into account.

These difficulties can be overcome using a method proposed by Lesty [96] based on a new approach: the CORICO method (ICOnographic CORelation). CORICO is a multidimensional data analysis method that also allows experimental design analysis. Its peculiarity with conventional optimization software based on the RSM methodology is that it does not use a priori models for the responses. Indeed, it proposes a model only after the data analysis of the experimental design (ED). Hence, the shape of the models will be different from one response to another. CORICO proposes regression models, whose regressors are logical interactions (AND, exclusive OR, IF, etc.) between the factors. Unlike conventional EDs, CORICO accepts that factors are linked and, moreover, it may take into account noncontrolled factors. Furthermore, it requires very few tests to establish the models of the ED. Thus, a CORICO design with five factors requires only 13 assays against a minimum of 31 assays for a five-factor Doehlert design.

The CORICO method has recently been used successfully in the agrofood sector for the optimization of microalgae drying process [97].

## 4. Dehydrated Foods with Probiotics

Due to the low stability of probiotic strains, the food industry is facing a challenge to develop new functional food with probiotics, especially dehydrated food products. Drying probiotic foods is a challenge as it causes severe loss in viability of probiotics.

Generally, food products are dried in order to increase their shelf life at ambient temperature and to reduce the cost of frozen storage [58]. Hot air drying, freeze drying, spray, and vacuum drying are the common technologies used for drying food products. Spray drying is the most common
and economical method for drying liquid foods. However, this process leads to a loss of viability of probiotic cells due to the high temperature, mechanical shearing, dehydration, and osmotic pressure [98]. On the other hand, freeze drying maintains the viability of the probiotic cells, but the cost of the process is one of the limitation for industrial application [99]. Saarela et al. [100] studied the stability and functionality of freeze-dried probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis E-2010 (Bb-12) cells during storage in juice and milk, using sucrose as cryoprotectant and low-pH to improve stability. Recently, fluidized bed drying and radiant energy under vacuum drying techniques have successfully been applied for improving the stability of dehydrated probiotics [50, 101]. Noorbakhsh et al. [50] studied the radiant energy under vacuum technology for producing probiotic enriched apple snacks. They concluded that this technology, a form of vacuum microwave dehydration, is a rapid drying method resulting in products with unique characteristics while retaining biological functions and properties. The retention of biological activity is enhanced by the low drying temperature and short drying time. In the case of fruits and vegetables, the gas and liquid in the intercellular spaces (20–25% of the total volume) can be removed by means of vacuum and replaced by diffusion with compounds of interest such as microorganisms (bacteria L. rhamnosus, for example), minerals, or other bioactive and nonbioactive compounds [10]. This would lead to the development probiotic enriched dried fruits by vacuum impregnation. The apple pieces were air-dried at 40°C to a water content of 0.37 kg water kg DM⁻¹ and stored at room temperature for two months [50]. The content of L. casei viable cells in the dried apple was greater than 10⁶ cfu g⁻¹, which is similar to that in commercial dairy products. In an attempt to introduce probiotic properties to breakfast cereals and similar food products, Patel et al. [102] confirmed that oat bran contained balanced nutrients to support a 25-fold L. plantarum propagation within a range of moisture content from 50% to 58%, after 36 h of cultivation. They applied the technique of solid-state fermentation. This technique presents not only the potential of simple downstream processing but also a more natural growth environment for the target bacterium. Consequences of increased microbial growth with low water content include slowdown of the growth of spoilage microorganisms and the generation of microbial metabolites, which in turn provide a range of health benefits (Figure 2). On the other hand, the adequacy of raw materials with regard to probiotics technology (including finding solutions for the stability and viability problems of probiotics in food matrices, such as fruits, cereals, and other vegetables) is certainly the key in the research and development area for functional food markets [50].

Some nondairy products with probiotics have been developed, in order to surpass the two main drawbacks of the consumption of dairy products, namely, lactose intolerance and the cholesterol content [104]. In Table 4 are described some of the dehydrated functional plant foods that have been developed. Apple is still the preferred base, although other plant products may be used. Nevertheless, the fruit matrix is an important parameter to take into account because those

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 2: Health benefits of dehydrated functional foods [103].</figcaption></figure>

more porous fruits seem to facilitate the incorporation of probiotics in their tissues during immersion [105] and/or during vacuum impregnation [13]. The probiotics tested include several bacteria, Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. being among the strains most commonly used. Besides being generally considered to be safe for consumers, some Lactobacillus spp. show interesting health effects. For example, Betoret et al. [106] verified that Lactobacillus salivarius incorporated in a low moisture apple snack showed a potential effect against H. pylori infection.

All studies performed until now tried to create a dry fruit matrix with a high number of viable probiotic cells (>1 × 10⁷ cfu g⁻¹) as suggested by Betoret et al. [106] and Rêgo et al. [107]. To achieve this value, it is important to (i) have a high cell concentration (approx. 10¹⁰ cfu ml⁻¹) in the initial suspension in which the product will be immersed; (ii) guarantee a high adherence of the probiotics to the fruit matrix; and (iii) assure that, after drying, the adhered cells still have high viability [107]. Furthermore, it is also important that the impregnation liquid must present certain physicochemical characteristics, namely: (i) the pH of the impregnation liquid and the fruit must be suitable for microorganisms' growth; (ii) the viscosity of the impregnation liquid should also allow flux inside the pores or intercellular spaces; and (iii) the natural characteristics of the impregnated fruit should not be affected [106]. Another important point to consider is the method used to promote cells adherence because it might influence their viability. By observing Table 4, vacuum impregnation is the most used method for probiotics impregnation into fruit matrices. Nevertheless, Rêgo et al. [107] verified that apple cubes that had been subjected to immersion under vacuum presented lower viable numbers of probiotic bacteria than those cubes subjected to immersion at normal pressure and, so, no advantage, such as the increase of the number of adhered cells or the stability during drying, was observed by using vacuum. Furthermore, the vacuum immersed samples had worse visual aspect (with more damage) after drying than immersed samples at atmospheric pressure [107]. When preparing cylindrically shaped apple samples with probiotics, Betoret et al. [104] also observed that vacuum impregnation seemed to decrease the microbial content by one logarithmic
<table><caption>TABLE 4: Dehydrated plant products with probiotics.</caption><thead><tr><th>Dehydrated food</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Impregnation procedure</th><th>Drying method</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Apple (cv. Granny Smith)</td><td><i>L. salivarius</i> spp. salivarius CECT 4063<br><i>L. acidophilus</i> CECT 903<br>Two commercial fruit juices (mandarin Don Simon and pineapple/grape Don Simon) were selected as impregnation liquid<br>Mandarin juice inoculated with <i>L. salivarius</i> spp. salivarius, pH 6 and 24 h → selected as impregnation liquid</td><td>Vacuum impregnation (50 mbar, 10 min) + atmospheric pressure (10 min)</td><td>Pilot scale air dryer (30°C, 4 m s<sup>-1</sup>, 24 h)</td><td>Total soluble solids, pH, density of the juices, water activity, water content and microbial content<br>An <i>in vivo</i> study was undertaken involving 5 children chronically infected with <i>H. pylori</i></td><td>[106]</td></tr><tr><td>Apple (cv. Granny Smith)</td><td><i>S. cerevisiae</i> CECT 1347 + transferred to a commercial apple juice<br><i>L. casei</i> (spp. <i>rhamnosus</i>) CECT 245 + transferred to whole milk or apple juice</td><td>Vacuum impregnation (50 mbar, 10 min) + atmospheric pressure (10 min)</td><td>Pilot scale air dryer (40°C, 4 m s<sup>-1</sup>, 48 h)<br>Rehydration using milk or apple juice (25°C, 24 h)</td><td>Volumetric impregnation parameter, volumetric deformation of the sample and effective porosity<br>Microscopic observations<br>Moisture content, water activity and pH of the dried products</td><td>[104]</td></tr><tr><td>Apple (cv. Golden Delicious)</td><td><i>L. plantarum</i><br><i>Lactobacillus kefir</i></td><td>Two methods:<br>(i) Immersion (1 h, gentle agitation);<br>(ii) Vacuum impregnation (50 mbar, 1.2 s)</td><td>Tray dryer:<br>(i) At room temperature (ca. 20°C, 0.5 m s<sup>-1</sup>, one week);<br>(ii) At 40°C, 1.5 m s<sup>-1</sup>, approx. 27 to 30 h + Storage (Vacuum conditions and in sterile Schott flasks under normal atmosphere conditions) at room temperature (ca. 20°C) and 4°C.</td><td>Bacterial enumeration</td><td>[107]</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 4: Continued.</caption><thead><tr><th>Dehydrated food</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Impregnation procedure</th><th>Drying method</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Apple (cv. Fuji)</td><td>L. rhamnosus (ATCC 7469) in apple juice-water</td><td>Vacuum impregnation (200 mbar, 15 min) + atmospheric pressure (15 min)</td><td>(i) Pilot scale air dryer at 40°C, air circulation of 1.8 m/min (28 h);<br/>(ii) Freeze drier (–86°C, 72 h);<br/>(iii) Cabinet air drier (40°C, 3 h) + radiant energy under vacuum (REV) dehydrator¹ (9 min at 1200 W and 3 min at 600 W, absolute pressure at 98.4 kPa)<br/>Storage (in LDPE²) at room temperature (ca. 20°C) and 4°C</td><td>Enumeration of bacteria, cryoscanning electron microscopy, total titratable acidity, pH, moisture content, water activity, acid tolerance of free and incorporated bacteria<br/>Sensory evaluation</td><td>[50]</td></tr><tr><td>Cherry Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme)</td><td>L. acidophilus TISTR 1338 (added to a mixture of a formulated tomato extract (FTE) and sucrose syrup (20, 40 and 60° Brix))</td><td>Osmotic dehydration (OD) (soaking halved tomatoes in FTE) (atmospheric pressure, 6 and 12 h)<br/>Pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration (PVOD) (soaking halved tomatoes in FTE) (50 mbar, 10 min); afterwards, the tomatoes were restored in atmospheric pressure for 6 and 12 h</td><td></td><td>Water loss, solid gain, lycopene, ascorbic acid, texture, color, enumeration of L. acidophilus</td><td>[108]</td></tr><tr><td>Guava and papaya</td><td>L. casei 01</td><td>Vacuum impregnation natural fruit extract (4° Brix) and 15 and 30° Brix fruit juices (50 mbar, 5, 10 and 15 min) + atmospheric pressure (10 min)</td><td>Impregnated guavas and papayas (15° Brix extracted fruit juices) + cabinet dryer (40°C, 36 h)<br/>Storage in plastic bags (4°C, 4 weeks)</td><td>Structural and physicochemical analysis of raw materials (total soluble solids, pH, acidity, ripeness index, moisture content, apparent density, real density and fruit porosity)<br/>Scanning electron microscopy Bacteria counting Moisture content</td><td>[109]</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 4: Continued.</caption><thead><tr><th>Dehydrated food</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Impregnation procedure</th><th>Drying method</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Kiwi (variety "Hayward")</td><td></td><td></td><td>Pilot-scale tray dryer (40°C, 1.5 m s<sup>-1</sup>, 24 h)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mango (variety "Tommy")</td><td></td><td></td><td>Storage (sterile Schott flasks under normal atmosphere conditions) at room temperature (ca. 20°C) and 4°C</td><td>LAB enumeration<br>Water activity</td><td>[105]</td></tr><tr><td>Strawberry (variety "Camarosa")</td><td>L. plantarum MGLP</td><td>Immersion technique (1 h, gentle agitation)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pineapple (variety "Gold")</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Banana (variety "Cavendish")</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pumpkin waste (Cucurbita moschata)</td><td>L. casei ATCC-393</td><td>Pumpkin powder (vacuum dried, 24 h) + water + cheese whey + L. casei (orbital shaking 24-72 h, 37°C)</td><td>Pellets subjected to vacuum drying (25°C, 0.045 mbar, 24 h); this powder was added to chocolate milk and to a soy milk and apple juice based beverage</td><td>Bacteria counting and environmental scanning electron microscopy<br>pH, water activity, moisture content<br>Simulated gastrointestinal conditions<br>Sensory evaluation</td><td>[110]</td></tr><tr><td>Duchesne ex poiret)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cellular viability on days 1, 14, 28, 42 and 56 of storage<br>Simulated gastrointestinal conditions<br>Scanning electronic microscopy pH values</td><td>[111]</td></tr><tr><td>Yacon root (Smallanthus sonchifolius)</td><td>L. casei LC-01</td><td>Dried yacon<sup>3</sup> and LC-01 (25 or 37°C, 1 h)<br>Dried yacon<sup>3</sup>, Trehalose and LC-01 (25 or 37°C, 1 h)</td><td>Air-drying at 40°C, 2 m s<sup>-1</sup></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote n="1">¹Radiant energy under vacuum (REV); it is a form of vacuum microwave dehydration; ²LDPE: low density polyethylene. ³Forced air circulation oven (70°C, 2 m s⁻¹).</footnote>
cycle. Additionally, some works have used osmotic dehydration and pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration as impregnation methods [108] and it was observed that vacuum's application promotes the mass transfer in short-time period processes [108]. However, the effect of vacuum on probiotic cell entrapment was variable and depended on the solute concentration and time.

In order to protect the probiotic cells, fruit juice, milk, or trehalose may be used [107, 111], making the cells more resistant to drying and in the human gastrointestinal tract. Nevertheless, Betoret et al. [104] verified that yeast growth (namely, *Saccharomyces cerevisiae*) was not influenced by the culture media, while the growth of *Lactobacillus* strain decreased when milk or commercial apple juice were used. Furthermore, Leone et al. [111] verified that trehalose did not have a protective effect on *L. casei* (LC-01) when incorporated in dried yacon flakes.

In order to dehydrate foods with probiotics, the most commonly used equipment are pilot scale air dryers or tray dryers. In several situations, air drying of the impregnated samples resulted in a reduction of the microbial content, although the level of cells was enough to be considered as probiotic, as stated by Betoret et al. [106] and Ribeiro [105]. When Noorbakhsh et al. [50] applied air drying, freeze drying, and air drying + radiant energy under vacuum (REV) to apple slices impregnated with *L. rhamnosus*, they verified that freeze drying protected bacteria better than the other two methods.

Concerning storage, temperature and time are important factors to be considered. For example, the best way to preserve probiotic cell viability in dried apple cubes or slices was at 4°C [46, 107]. Nevertheless, Betoret et al. [104] also observed that cylindrically shaped dried apple samples with probiotics stored at 20°C for 15 days kept an adequate microbial load to achieve the desired probiotic effect. Storage time may also play an important role because it may be prejudicial for the survival of probiotics in proportion to its length, as reported by Leone et al. [111]. The drying method may also affect probiotics survival during storage. Noorbakhsh et al. [50] observed a higher survival of *L. rhamnosus* in apple slices subjected to air drying + radiant energy vacuum drying when stored at 25°C than air drying and freeze drying. They explained this result based on the different structures that may be obtained, as well as possible changes in the glassy state of the dried apple slices. In fact, an amorphous glassy state is important for the stability of bacteria during storage of dried cells [112].

Probiotic fruit powders have also been developed, as presented in Table 5. These powders have longer shelf life and lower transportation cost and may produce an easy-handling form that reconstitutes rapidly to a product resembling the original juice [113]. These powders have been obtained by spray drying, freeze drying, and spouted bed drying of fruit juices. Fruit juices atomization is not an easy process because the powders obtained have tendency to form agglomerates and become sticky [114], leading to lower product yield and severe operating maintenance problems. Thus, it is important to adjust the drying temperature, outlet air temperature, feed flow rate, air drying speed, atomization pressure, and

the use of drying agents to ensure the physicochemical quality of the powder product [115]. Barbosa and Teixeira [47] discuss the current knowledge on the different spray drying parameters to obtain high-quality powders. Spray drying is commonly used as microencapsulation method; however, the high temperatures applied might cause injuries to microbial cells. Good results have been obtained with freeze drying, as stated by Vikram Simha et al. [113] and Barbosa et al. [116], when producing probiotic pomegranate and orange powders, respectively. Spouted bed drying has also been used in some works because lower temperatures are applied [117] when compared to spray drying. Alves et al. [117] observed that spouted bed orange juice dried samples presented higher viable microbial cell counts than the spray-dried ones; however, the last ones showed lower values of moisture content and water activity. Both samples, spray-dried and spouted bed dried, presented acceptable glass transition temperatures (Tg), which can assure powder quality when stored at temperatures below 30°C [117]. The encapsulating material is also very important. The common strategy to spray-dry sticky products is to use wall materials with high molecular weight [118] such as maltodextrin, Arabic gum, starch, and gum acacia. Anekella and Orsat [119] verified that increasing the microencapsulating material concentration increased the survival rate of probiotics. Furthermore, using suitable wall materials such as maltodextrin can reduce the stickiness to the walls of the spray dryer and increase the free-flowing nature of the powder [119]. Nevertheless, Chaikham et al. [120] when preparing dehydrated maoluang juices with probiotics verified that the treatments with maltodextrin alone showed higher cell loss than the mixtures of maltodextrin with *Tiliacora triandra* gum and/or with inulin, showing these protective effects. Kingwatee et al. [121] and Pereira et al. [122] also stated that the addition of inulin with other carriers and gum Arabic combined with maltodextrin would enhance cells survival, respectively. Furthermore, powders produced with gum Arabic presented a higher rehydration time (approx. 9 times) than those obtained with maltodextrin, probably due to its higher solubility in water [122]. This is an important property because the powders with higher rehydration capacity will be easily reconstituted by the consumers [117]. Another important point to raise is that Anekella and Orsat [119] also refer that exposing the probiotics to a sublethal thermal shock before spray drying might increase the subsequent tolerance to near lethal thermal stresses. These authors stated that spray-dried raspberry juices with probiotic cells subjected to a heat shock treatment had higher viability than nonheat shock treated cells.

Concerning storage, temperature and powder's characteristics are important factors. Barbosa et al. [118] and Pereira et al. [122] when producing orange and cashew apple juice powders, respectively, with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) verified that the powders stored at 4°C presented higher survival rates than at room temperature. Furthermore, the highest level of probiotic bacteria was observed for the orange juice powders produced at the lowest feed flow rate (0.2 L h⁻¹), probably due to their low water contents [117]. However, these results were different to Mestry et al. [126], who when preparing
<table><caption>TABLE 5: Fruit powders with probiotics.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetable</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Drying conditions</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="6">Cashew apple juice</td><td rowspan="6">L. casei NRRL B-442</td><td>Cashew apple juice Bacterial cells (30°C, ~15 h) + maltodextrin or mixture of maltodextrin plus gum Arabic</td><td rowspan="6">Viable cell counts<br>A<sub>w</sub><br>pH<br>Color<br>Powder rehydration time<br>Powder yield<br>Viable cell count determination</td><td rowspan="6">[122]</td></tr><tr><td>Spray dryer:<br>Feeding rate = 0.3 L h<sup>-1</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Hot air flow = 3.0 m<sup>3</sup> min<sup>-1</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Pressurized air flow = 30 L min<sup>-1</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Inlet air temperature = 120°C</td></tr><tr><td>Outlet air temperature = 75°C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Cereal extracts, soya bean extract and Job's-tears extract, fortified with sesame and glucose</td><td rowspan="6">L. plantarum TISTR 2075</td><td>The powders were sealed in polyethylene bags and stored in the dark at 25 and 4°C at 68% relative humidity</td><td rowspan="6">Simulated gastrointestinal tract tolerance<br>Inhibitory activity against <i>Escherichia coli</i> O157:H7 DMST 12743 and <i>Salmonella typhimurium</i> ATCC 13311<br>Enumeration of viable cells<br>Determination of soluble calcium<br>Scanning Electron Microscopy</td><td rowspan="6">[123]</td></tr><tr><td>Fermented cereal extracts (37°C, 24 h) + Maltodextrin Spray dryer:<br>Inlet temperature = 130°C<br>Outlet temperature = 70°C</td></tr><tr><td>L. rhamnosus were resuspended in a chestnut extract Spray dryer:<br>Inlet/outlet temperatures: 140/60°C, 140/65°C, 140/70°C, 130/65°C</td></tr><tr><td>L. rhamnosus RBM 526<br>L. rhamnosus GG</td></tr><tr><td>Chestnut mousse (anhydrous basis)</td><td>L. rhamnosus<br>GG</td><td>Moisture content of dried samples<br>Enumeration of lactobacilli after spray drying<br>Sensitivity test<br>Production of chestnut mousse (pilot-scale anhydrous formulation) and sensory analysis</td><td>[124]</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 5: Continued.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetable</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Drying conditions</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Fruit powders (apple, banana, strawberry)</td><td rowspan="2">L. plantarum 299v</td><td>Two different procedures were followed:<br/>(i) Immersion of the fresh fruit pieces in the probiotic culture (1 h), drying (pilot-scale tray dryer, at 40°C, air flow of 1.5 m s<sup>-1</sup>, 24-48 h) and grinding<br/>(ii) Drying the fresh fruits in a pilot-scale tray dryer at 40°C and air flow of 1.5 m s<sup>-1</sup>, followed by grinding.<br/>Simultaneously, drying of probiotic culture by spray drying in skim milk with outlet temperature = 75°C and inlet temperature = 200°C and atomizing air pressure 4 bar Addition of dried probiotic to fruit powders (15 and 30%, w w<sup>-1</sup> of dry weight)</td><td>Water activity of the fruit powders<br/>Enumeration of viable cells<br/>Storage (at room temperature or at 4°C)</td><td>[64]</td></tr><tr><td>Lychee juice + bacterial cells + maltodextrin, mixtures of maltodextrin plus inulin, gum Arabic plus inulin, or gum Arabic<br/>Spray dryer:<br/>Feeding temperature = 25°C<br/>Feeding rate = 0.6-1 L h<sup>-1</sup><br/>Atomizing pressure = 15 psi<br/>Inlet air temperatures = 150-170°C<br/>Outlet air temperature = 60-90°C</td><td>Quantification of the encapsulated cells<br/>Microstructure-scanning electron microscopy<br/>Glass-transition temperature<br/>Bulk density<br/>Solubility<br/>Hygroscopicity<br/>Water activity<br/>Moisture content<br/>Total phenolic compounds<br/>Ascorbic acid<br/>Total anthocyanins<br/>Survival of encapsulated probiotic cells in gastric or bile fluids</td><td>[121]</td></tr><tr><td>Lychee juice</td><td>L. casei 01</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 5: Continued.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetable</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Drying conditions</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Maoluang juice</td><td rowspan="10">L. casei 01<br>L. acidophilus LA5</td><td>Inoculated Maoluang juices + Maltodextrin +<br>Tiliacora triandra gum and/or inulin</td><td rowspan="10">Viable cells after spray drying<br>Microstructure analysis of spray dried probiotic-maoluang juice powders (SEM)<br>In vitro stomach and small intestine experiments<br>In vitro colon experiment</td><td rowspan="10">[120]</td></tr><tr><td>Spray dryer:<br>Feeding temperature = 25°C<br>Inlet temperature = 160°C<br>Outlet temperature = 80°C<br>Feeding rate = 0.6–1 L h<sup>-1</sup><br>Atomizing pressure = 15 psi<br>The powders were vacuum sealed in laminated bags (polyethylene terephthalate/ polypropylene/aluminum) and kept in a refrigerator</td></tr><tr><td>Orange juice + 10 DE maltodextrin + lactic acid bacteria</td></tr><tr><td>Spray dryer:<br>Feed flow rate = 25 mL min<sup>-1</sup><br>Inlet air temperature = 150°C<br>Outlet air temperature = 70°C</td></tr><tr><td>Orange juice + 10 DE maltodextrin (with and without) + lactic acid bacteria<br>Freeze-dryer: vacuum (6.7 × 10<sup>-2</sup> mbar), 7 days, condenser at -55°C</td></tr><tr><td>Orange pieces + Lactic acid bacteria (1 h)<br>Pilot-scale tray drier: 40°C, 48 h, 1.5 m s<sup>-1</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Grinding</td></tr><tr><td>L. plantarum 299v<br>Pediococcus acidilactici HA-611-2</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Orange juice</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 5: Continued.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetable</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Drying conditions</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Orange juice</td><td rowspan="10">L. casei<br/>NRRL B-442</td><td>Fermented orange juice + maltodextrin or gum Arabic (both at 15% (w w<sup>-1</sup>)), 25°C, 30 min</td><td>Microbial viability<br/>Moisture content</td><td rowspan="10">[117]</td></tr><tr><td>Spray dryer:<br/>Inlet air temperature = 140°C</td><td>Water activity</td></tr><tr><td>Nozzle air flow rate = 30 L min<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Glass transition temperature (DSC)</td></tr><tr><td>Hot drying air flow rate = 3.5 m<sup>3</sup> min<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Particle size</td></tr><tr><td>Feed flow rates = 0.2, 0.5 and 0.7 L h<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Scanning electron microscopy<br/>Rehydration time</td></tr><tr><td>Spouted bed dryer:<br/>Inlet air temperature = 60°C</td><td>Rheological characterization</td></tr><tr><td>Fluidizing air flow rate = 1.7 m<sup>3</sup>/min</td><td>Storage conditions (sample with the best viability, moisture and Tg results): 3 weeks in hermetically sealed</td></tr><tr><td>Nozzle air flow rate = 30 L min<sup>-1</sup></td><td>polypropylene packages at 25°C</td></tr><tr><td>Feed flow rates = 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 L h<sup>-1</sup></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Orange juice</td><td rowspan="6">L. plantarum<br/>299v<br/>P. acidilactici<br/>HA-611-2</td><td>Orange juice + 10 DE maltodextrin or gum Arabic + lactic acid bacteria</td><td></td><td rowspan="6">[118]</td></tr><tr><td>Spray dryer:<br/>Feed temperature = 40°C</td><td>Drying yield</td></tr><tr><td>Feed flow rate = 5 mL min<sup>-1</sup></td><td>A<sub>w</sub> of the dried products</td></tr><tr><td>86% of drying air flow rate</td><td>Data adjustment: Logistic model</td></tr><tr><td>Compressed air flow rate = 550 L/h</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Inlet air temperature = 120°C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>Outlet air temperature = 65°C</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 5: Continued.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetable</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Drying conditions</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Pomegranate juice</td><td>L. acidophilus MTCC-447</td><td>Pomegranate juice + bacterial cells (37°C, 48 h) + gum Arabic and maltodextrin Spray dryer:<br>Inlet air temperatures = 130, 140 and 150°C<br>Feed flow rate = 3 mL min<sup>-1</sup><br>Outlet air temperature = 70°C<br>Freeze-dryer: -40°C, 48 h</td><td>Moisture content<br>Bulk density<br>Solubility<br>Water activity<br>Color<br>pH<br>Acidity<br>Bacterial enumeration<br>Total anthocyanin content<br>Reconstitution of probiotic pomegranate juice powder<br>Shelf-life studies (aluminum laminated foil, room temperature, 4 weeks)</td><td>[113]</td></tr><tr><td>Pomegranate juice</td><td>L. rhamnosus MTCC-1408</td><td>Pomegranate juice + bacterial cells (37°C, 24 h) + maltodextrin and gum Arabic Spray dryer:<br>Inlet air temperatures = 110-150°C<br>Outlet air temperature = 80°C<br>Freeze-dryer: -40°C</td><td>Survivability testing<br>Acid tolerance testing<br>Antibiotic sensitivity testing<br>Moisture content<br>A<sub>W</sub><br>Colour<br>Bulk density and tap density<br>Total anthocyanin content</td><td>[125]</td></tr><tr><td>Raspberry juice</td><td>L. rhamnosus L. acidophilus</td><td>Raspberry juice + maltodextrin + mixture of lactobacilli (subjected to sublethal treatment)<br>Spray-dryer:<br>Cyclone air flow rate = 30 m<sup>3</sup> h<sup>-1</sup><br>Temperatures used = 100, 115 and 130°C<br>Feed rates = 10, 15 and 20 cm<sup>3</sup> /min<br>Total solids: maltodextrin ratios = 1:1, 1:1.5 and 1:2</td><td>Growth curve and dry biomass estimation<br>Sub-lethal temperature (T<sub>sl</sub>) treatment (45, 50, 52 and 55°C)<br>Color</td><td>[119]</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 5: Continued.</caption><thead><tr><th>Vegetable</th><th>Organisms</th><th>Drying conditions</th><th>Evaluated parameters</th><th>Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Watermelon and carrot juices</td><td rowspan="2">L. acidophilus</td><td rowspan="2">Watermelon and carrot juices + Lactobacillus cell suspension (37 °C, over a period of 44 h) + maltodextrin Spray dryer:<br/>Inlet air temperature = 120-160 °C<br/>Feed flow rate = 2.0-5.0 mL min<sup>-1</sup><br/>Atomization pressure = 1.0-3.0 kg cm<sup>-2</sup></td><td>Determination of viability</td><td rowspan="2">[126]</td></tr><tr><td>Determination of lycopene content<br/>β-carotene assay<br/>Vitamin C assay<br/>Measurement of moisture content<br/>Calculation of bulk and tap density<br/>Measurement of particle density, porosity, Carr index (flowability), Hausner ratio (cohesiveness) and water solubility index<br/>Colour<br/>Wettability time<br/>Sensory Evaluation<br/>Scanning Electron Micrographs<br/>Differential Scanning Calorimetry</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>TABLE 6: Main bioactive compounds responsible for nutritional and health benefits of plant derived dried food products (fruits and vegetables, fruits and vegetable by-products, grains, nuts, and algae).</caption><thead><tr><td>Bioactive compounds</td><td>Nutritional benefits</td><td>Health benefits</td><td>Dried product</td><td>References</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Polyphenols, carotenoids, melanoidins</td><td>Antioxidant activity</td><td>Chronic disease Protection (CVD, cancer, macular degeneration)</td><td>Stone fruits, apple, figs, pear, pineapple, kiwi, berries, carrots</td><td>[131–137]</td></tr><tr><td>Phenols, indols, glucosinolates</td><td>Detoxification</td><td>Chronic disease protection</td><td>Stone fruits, apple, pear, pineapple, kiwi, berries, carrots, cruciferous vegetables</td><td>[137–139]</td></tr><tr><td>FOS, GOS, inulin, glucan, etc.</td><td>Resistant starch, Prebiotic content</td><td>Immunity boost, colonic and systemic health benefits</td><td>Chicory, Jerusalem artichoke, garlic, onion, asparagus, banana, broccoli, dandelion</td><td>[140]</td></tr><tr><td>Beneficial microorganisms (Probiotics)</td><td>Regulation of gut microbiota</td><td>Immunity boost, colonic and systemic health benefits</td><td>Anhydrobiotics</td><td>[141]</td></tr></tbody></table>

carrot and watermelon juices powders, observed that higher feed rates resulted in higher retention of viability due to the formation of larger droplets, resulting in less exposure to higher air temperatures.

## 5. Health Benefits of Functional Dehydrated Foods

From the point of view of consumers' health, dried foods are a good source of nutrients, minerals (i.e., magnesium, potassium, calcium, and/or phosphorus) and vitamins (i.e., vitamin E, niacin, choline, and/or folic acid), and, especially, bioactive compounds. In addition, plant derived foods contain fibre, phytochemicals (phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and/or phytosterols) [127] (Table 6). In general, phytochemicals from this type of food are well absorbed and their bioavailability is high. For example, polyphenols and tocopherols from nuts and dried fruits have proved to be rapidly accessible in the stomach, thus maximizing the possibility of absorption in the upper small intestine [128, 129]. Antioxidants from dried fig can increase the plasma antioxidant capacity and protect lipoproteins from subsequent oxidation, therefore, demonstrating the bioavailability of antioxidants in dried fruits [130].

Dried fruits constitute a healthy snack, as an alternative to salty or sweet ones, and food ingredients to other foods due to their taste and nutritional/health benefits [142]. In fact, they provide concentrated compounds, such as the ones mentioned above, since a considerably large quantity of water is removed from the fresh commodity, through several different drying technologies. They also combine this healthy issue with a unique taste and aroma, very attractive to consumers. In fact, the natural sugars in fruits (glucose, fructose) are concentrated as well, the dried fruit becoming sweeter than the fresh equivalent. This type of food product is in the current dietary recommendations of various countries. Scientific evidence (epidemiological and *in vitro* and *in vivo* studies) suggests that individuals who regularly

consume great amounts of dried fruits suffer lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, various types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, inflammation, brain dysfunction, and other chronic diseases [143–150].

Most chronic diseases involve inflammatory processes. Additionally, free radicals induce oxidative stress, which leads to DNA damage and other genetic alterations that may cause cancer if left unrepaired [151, 152]. As disease prevention is the key to mitigating the damage caused by these disorders, the consumption of phytochemicals from fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and algae, in foods, may decrease the risk of CVD and stroke [153–158].

Selected dried fruits, rich in specific compounds, such as amla fruits or Indian gooseberries, avocados, berries, mangoes, mangosteens, persimmons, prunes, raisins, and kiwi fruits, may also present cancer chemopreventive effects [159].

Processing to produce dried fruits significantly decreases the content (on a dry weight basis) of bioactive compounds, such as vitamins and phenolic compounds. Pretreatments before drying may also influence the loss of these compounds during drying. For example, depending on the product, some vegetables that are adequately blanched before drying may present less than 5% decrease in the carotenoids content, while if they are processed without enzyme inactivation, this reduction is increased to 80% [160]. Dipping in sulphite and other solutions has also shown to reduce the loss of vitamins during drying. Lin et al. [161] reported that losses of vitamin C and carotene were higher during air drying than with vacuum freeze drying. This may be explained by the fact that the main losses in vitamins and other substances occur due to water solubility, heat sensitivity, and enzymatic oxidation during processing [162], which are absent during vacuum freeze drying. Most vitamins such as A, C, and thiamine are heat sensitive; some (A and C) are also sensitive to oxidative degradation. Sulphuring can destroy thiamine, and riboflavin is light sensitive. Consequently, the losses of bioactive compounds also depend on the drying operations
<table><caption>TABLE 7: Phytochemical losses during the pretreatment and/or drying process [166].</caption><thead><tr><th>Phytochemicals/vitamins</th><th>Product</th><th>Pretreatment</th><th>Drying method</th><th>Phytochemicals/vitamins Losses</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">Carotenoids</td><td>Carrot</td><td>With blanching treatment</td><td>Fluidized bed dryer</td><td>15.7% carotenoids</td><td>[167]</td></tr><tr><td>Carrots, broccoli and spinach</td><td></td><td>Microwave drying</td><td>63% carotenoids</td><td>[168]</td></tr><tr><td>Paprika</td><td>Without treatment (without enzyme inactivation)</td><td>Flow dryer</td><td>80% carotene</td><td>[160]</td></tr><tr><td>Paprika</td><td>With blanching treatment</td><td>Flow dryer</td><td>5% (depends on the product)</td><td>[160]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Lycopene</td><td>Tomato</td><td></td><td>Osmotic-vacuum drying</td><td>Better than vacuum drying and air drying<br>8.1 to 20.9%</td><td>[169]</td></tr><tr><td>Tomato pulp</td><td></td><td></td><td>Depends upon the conditions</td><td>[170]</td></tr><tr><td>Carrots</td><td></td><td>Inert gas drying</td><td>No effect</td><td>[171]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Vitamin C</td><td>Carrot</td><td>Blanching treatment</td><td>Vacuum, microwave, air and freeze-drying</td><td>37% before drying</td><td>[161]</td></tr><tr><td>Apple and strawberry</td><td>60% Sucrose solution</td><td>Microwave vacuum</td><td>40%</td><td>[172]</td></tr><tr><td>Vitamin C and carotenoids</td><td>Carrot</td><td>Blanching with sulphite and L-Cysteine-HCl</td><td>Fluidized bed dryer</td><td>L-Cysteine-HCl retained highest content of vit. C<br>Na metabisulphite able to reduce oxidation of carotenoids</td><td>[173]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Carotene and vitamin C</td><td>Carrots, paprika, potatoes</td><td></td><td>Inert gas drying</td><td>15% carotene; 13% vit.C</td><td>[162]</td></tr><tr><td>Strawberry and carrot</td><td></td><td></td><td>Refractance window similar to freeze-drying</td><td>[174]</td></tr><tr><td>Vitamin C and PUFA's</td><td>Seaweed</td><td></td><td>Sun-drying, oven-drying, and freeze-drying</td><td>Much lower in freeze-drying than oven and sun-drying</td><td>[175]</td></tr><tr><td>Tocopherol, carotenoids and vitamin C</td><td>Paprika</td><td>Blanching by steaming or hot air</td><td>Flow dryer</td><td>Better retention</td><td>[160]</td></tr><tr><td>Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity</td><td>Apple</td><td></td><td>Microwave drying</td><td>39% (TPC) and 30% (AA)</td><td>[176]</td></tr><tr><td>D3 (milk powder)</td><td>Milk</td><td></td><td>Spray-drying</td><td>Negligible losses</td><td>[177]</td></tr><tr><td>Folic acid</td><td>CMC model system</td><td></td><td>Spray-drying</td><td>Increase folate retention</td><td>[178]</td></tr><tr><td>Thiamine, riboflavin and niacin</td><td>Spaghetti</td><td></td><td>Convection air</td><td>Loss of vit. Drying 16-28%</td><td>[179]</td></tr><tr><td>Vitamin E</td><td>Whole meal wheat flour</td><td></td><td>Drum dryer</td><td>More loss of vit. E during scalding (75%) than during drum drying (15%)</td><td>[180]</td></tr></tbody></table>

(time, temperature, atmosphere composition, and others). Experimental studies have been conducted to reduce such losses by using pretreatments, selection of adequate drying methods, use of novel methods of drying, and optimization of drying conditions. In the literature, the methods reported for drying of food materials vary from solar techniques to recently developed microwave and heat pump drying [163-165]. An overview of phytochemical losses prior to or during drying is provided in Table 7. From this table, it becomes apparent that inert gas drying, spray drying, and freeze

drying produce negligible/low losses of phytochemicals and vitamins, namely, carotene and vitamin C, while microwave drying results in high losses of carotenoids.

However, the drying process may lead to an elevated antioxidant activity (AA). Vitamin C, Vitamin E, carotenoids, polyphenols, melanoids, and indoles are some bioactive compounds that present AA [181]. In fact, during drying, phenolic compounds may be generated as Maillard reactions products [131]. The net antioxidant activity reflects the cumulative effects of the total phenolics losses and Maillard reaction
production. Antioxidants in dried cranberries, grapes, and plums showed to be twice as potent as those in the fresh fruits [130].

Storage of dried food products may bring more severe losses of nutrients and bioactive compounds than during the drying process itself [163, 182–184]. For example, Kaminski et al. [185] observed a rapid degradation of carotenoids in freeze-dried carrots during storage.

## 6. Conclusions

Due to the importance of functional foods for a healthy lifestyle, scientific research has extensively been developed in this domain during the last decade, namely, focusing on prebiotics, probiotics, and bioactive compounds, in general. The number of published research on this type of foods has duplicated in the last 5 years, reaching almost 4,000.

Drying is a unit operation of stabilization and conservation of the bioproducts much used. However, it entails many modifications and alterations of the dried product. The drying processes having the least adverse effects on the quality of the product and the bioactive compounds are those operating at low temperature (freeze drying, vacuum drying) or with very short durations (spray drying, drum drying). Freeze drying is the technique of drying allowing the greatest preservation of the antioxidant properties of the phytochemicals and the viability of the probiotics. However, it presents high operating cost and low productivity. Spray drying is a good alternative for industrial development. New drying techniques based mostly on electromagnetic energy (dielectric drying, MW, IR, UV, etc.) show encouraging results in terms of preservation of bioactive compounds. Nevertheless, all these processes need to be optimized. The RSM is an increasingly used optimization method but new approaches such as the CORICO method bring new possibilities.

This review also reports the most recent findings on dehydrated plant products with probiotics and the studies that have been made, highlighting the microorganisms used, the impregnation procedures, drying methods, and evaluated parameters. Apple is still the preferred matrix; however, the use of other plant products may be noticed. Furthermore, the production processes of fruit powders with probiotics were discussed, focusing the drying processes and carriers used.

Dried fruits and vegetables, fruits and vegetable by-products, grains, nuts, and algae are rich in bioactive compounds, whose properties are responsible for a lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, various types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, inflammation, brain dysfunction, and other chronic diseases. This review presents these health benefits.

The losses of bioactive compounds, such as phytochemicals and vitamins, during drying depend on the drying method and drying conditions, but also on the pretreatment eventually used. These losses may be considerable, but the drying process may lead to an increase in the antioxidant activity. Storage may bring higher losses in important bioactive compounds than the drying process itself.

## Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

## Acknowledgments

A. M. M. B. Morais and R. M. S. C. Morais acknowledge the support of the National Funds from FCT, Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, through Project UID/Multi/50016/2013. P. J. A. Sobral (13/07914-8), I. Dammak (15/02879-5), and J. Bonilla (14/03288-8) acknowledge the financial support and postdoctoral fellowships from the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) and the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) for the Research fellowship of P. J. A. Sobral. E. Ramalhosa is grateful to FCT and FEDER under Programme PT2020 for financial support to CIMO (UID/AGR/00690/2013).

## References

[1] L. Rubió, M.-J. Motilva, and M.-P. Romero, "Recent advances in biologically active compounds in herbs and spices: a review of the most effective antioxidant and anti-inflammatory active principles," *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, vol. 53, no. 9, pp. 943-953, 2013.

[2] C. I. Abuajah, A. C. Ogbonna, and C. M. Osuji, "Functional components and medicinal properties of food: a review," *Journal of Food Science and Technology*, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 2522-2529, 2015.

[3] I. Siró, E. Kápolna, B. Kápolna, and A. Lugasi, "Functional food. Product development, marketing and consumer acceptance—a review," *Appetite*, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 456-467, 2008.

[4] E. Betoret, L. Calabuig-Jiménez, C. Barrera, and M. Dalla Rosa, *Sustainable Drying Technologies for the Development of Functional Foods and Preservation of Bioactive Compounds*, in *Sustainable Drying Technologies*, InTech, 2016.

[5] K. M. J. van Laere, R. Hartemink, M. Bosveld, H. A. Schols, and A. G. J. Voragen, "Fermentation of plant cell wall derived polysaccharides and their corresponding oligosaccharides by intestinal bacteria," *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 1644-1652, 2000.

[6] H. T. Sabarez, "Mathematical modeling of the coupled transport phenomena and color development: finish drying of trellised dried sultanas," *Drying Technology*, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 578-589, 2014.

[7] Z. Fang and B. Bhandari, "Encapsulation of polyphenols-a review," *Trends in Food Science Technology*, vol. 21, no. 10, pp. 510-523, 2010.

[8] E. Betoret, N. Betoret, D. Vidal, and P. Fito, "Functional foods development: trends and technologies," *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 22, no. 9, pp. 498-508, 2011.

[9] N. Binns and J. Howlett, "Functional foods in Europe: international developments in science and health claims," *European Journal of Nutrition*, vol. 48, S3, no. 1, p. S13, 2009.

[10] R. C. G. Corrêa, C. W. I. Haminiuk, G. T. S. Sora, R. Bergamasco, and A. M. S. Vieira, "Antioxidant and rheological properties of guava jam with added concentrated grape juice," *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture*, vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 146-152, 2014.

[11] Web of Science. Basic research, https://apps.webofknowledge.com/WOS_GeneralSearch_input.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&SID=7A2rTDiZiDboSW9f63k&preferencesSaved=, 2017.
[12] N. Kaur and D. P. Singh, "Deciphering the consumer behaviour facets of functional foods: a literature review," *Appetite*, vol. 112, pp. 167–187, 2017.

[13] P. Fito, A. Chiralt, N. Betoret et al., "Vacuum impregnation and osmotic dehydration in matrix engineering: application in functional fresh food development," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 49, no. 2-3, pp. 175–183, 2001.

[14] K. Gul, A. K. Singh, and R. Jabeen, "Nutraceuticals and functional foods: the foods for the future world," *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, vol. 56, no. 16, pp. 2617–2627, 2016.

[15] B. V. da Silva, J. C. Barreira, and M. B. P. Oliveira, "Natural phytochemicals and probiotics as bioactive ingredients for functional foods: extraction, biochemistry and protected-delivery technologies," *Trends in Food Science Technology*, vol. 50, pp. 144–158, 2016.

[16] I. Dammak, M. Nakajima, S. Sayadi, and H. Isoda, "Integrated membrane process for the recovery of polyphenols from olive mill water," *Journal of Arid Land Studies*, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 85–88, 2015.

[17] J.-S. Kim, O.-J. Kang, and O.-C. Gweon, "Comparison of phenolic acids and flavonoids in black garlic at different thermal processing steps," *Journal of Functional Foods*, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 80–86, 2013.

[18] M. Giada, "Food phenolic compounds: main classes, sources and their antioxidant power," in *in Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases—A Role for Antioxidants*, pp. 87–112, InTech, 2013.

[19] A. Gurib-Fakim, "Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow," *Molecular Aspects of Medicine*, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 1–93, 2006.

[20] V. Cheynier, M. Dueñas-Paton, E. Salas et al., "Structure and properties of wine pigments and tannins," *American Journal of Enology and Viticulture*, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 298–305, 2006.

[21] M. C. Figueroa-Espinoza, A. Zafimahova, P. G. M. Alvarado, E. Dubreucq, and C. Poncet-Legrand, "Grape seed and apple tannins: emulsifying and antioxidant properties," *Food Chemistry*, vol. 178, pp. 38–44, 2015.

[22] S. Patel, "Plant essential oils and allied volatile fractions as multifunctional additives in meat and fish-based food products: a review," *Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A*, vol. 32, no. 7, pp. 1049–1064, 2015.

[23] M. Boroski, A. C. de Aguiar, J. S. Boeing et al., "Enhancement of pasta antioxidant activity with oregano and carrot leaf," *Food Chemistry*, vol. 125, no. 2, pp. 696–700, 2011.

[24] A. Rashidinejad, E. J. Birch, D. Sun-Waterhouse, and D. W. Everett, "Total phenolic content and antioxidant properties of hard low-fat cheese fortified with catechin as affected by in vitro gastrointestinal digestion," *LWT- Food Science and Technology*, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 393–399, 2015.

[25] V. Chouchouli, N. Kalogeropoulos, S. J. Konteles, E. Karvela, D. P. Makris, and V. T. Karathanos, "Fortification of yoghurts with grape (Vitis vinifera) seed extracts," *LWT- Food Science and Technology*, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 522–529, 2013.

[26] I. Rudkowska, "Plant sterols and stanols for healthy ageing," *Maturitas*, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 158–162, 2010.

[27] R. A. Moreau, "Composition of plant sterols and stanols in supplemented food products," *Journal of AOAC International*, vol. 98, no. 3, pp. 685–690, 2015.

[28] E. D. Smet, R. P. Mensink, and J. Plat, "Effects of plant sterols and stanols on intestinal cholesterol metabolism: suggested mechanisms from past to present," *Molecular Nutrition Food Research*, vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 1058–1072, 2012.

[29] N. Shahzad, W. Khan, M. Shadab et al., "Phytosterols as a natural anticancer agent: current status and future perspective," *Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy*, vol. 88, pp. 786–794, 2017.

[30] K. Weiner, "The subject of functional foods: accounts of using foods containing phytosterols," *Sociological Research Online*, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 7, 2011.

[31] P. J. Jones and S. S. AbuMweis, "Phytosterols as functional food ingredients: linkages to cardiovascular disease and cancer," *Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic*, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 147–151, 2009.

[32] G. R. Gibson, K. P. Scott, R. A. Rastall et al., "Dietary prebiotics: current status and new definition," *Food Science & Technology Bulletin: Functional Foods*, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1–19, 2010.

[33] J. A. Van Loo, "Prebiotics promote good health: the basis, the potential, and the emerging evidence," *Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology*, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. S70–S75, 2004.

[34] W. F. Broekaert, C. M. Courtin, K. Verbeke, T. van de Wiele, W. Verstraete, and J. A. Delcour, "Prebiotic and other health-related effects of cereal-derived arabinoxylans, arabinoxylan-oligosaccharides, and xylooligosaccharides," *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 178–194, 2011.

[35] K. Venema and A. P. do Carmo, "Probiotics and Prebiotics: Current Research and Future Trends," Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, UK, 2015.

[36] G. R. Gibson, H. M. Probert, J. Van Loo, R. A. Rastall, and M. B. Roberfroid, "Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: updating the concept of prebiotics," *Nutrition Research Reviews*, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 259–275, 2004.

[37] N. Drabińska, H. Zieliński, and U. Krupa-Kozak, "Technological benefits of inulin-type fructans application in gluten-free products—A review," *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 56, pp. 149–157, 2016.

[38] D. R. Palatnik, P. A. Herrera, A. N. Rinaldoni, R. I. Ortiz Basurto, and M. E. Campderrós, "Development of reduced-fat cheeses with the addition of Agave fructans," *International Journal of Dairy Technology*, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 212–219, 2017.

[39] P. L. Arcia, E. Costell, and A. Tárrega, "Inulin blend as prebiotic and fat replacer in dairy desserts: optimization by response surface methodology," *Journal of Dairy Science*, vol. 94, no. 5, pp. 2192–2200, 2011.

[40] J. Slavin, "Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits," *Nutrients*, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1417–1435, 2013.

[41] P. A. Scholtens, D. A. M. Goossens, and A. Staiano, "Stool characteristics of infants receiving short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides: a review," *World Journal of Gastroenterology*, vol. 20, no. 37, pp. 13446–13452, 2014.

[42] D. R. Saunders and H. S. Wiggins, "Conservation of mannitol, lactulose, and raffinose by the human colon," *American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology*, vol. 241, no. 5, pp. G397–G402, 1981.

[43] K. Fadden and R. Owen, "Faecal steroids and colorectal cancer: The effect of lactulose on faecal bacterial metabolism in a continuous culture model of the large intestine," *European Journal of Cancer Prevention*, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 113–128, 1992.

[44] T. R. Klaenhammer, "Probiotic bacteria: today and tomorrow," *The Journal of Nutrition*, vol. 130, no. 2, pp. 415S–416S, 2000.

[45] Y. Rivera-Espinoza and Y. Gallardo-Navarro, "Non-dairy probiotic products," *Food Microbiology*, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 1–11, 2010.

[46] C. Desmond, B. M. Corcoran, M. Coakley, G. F. Fitzgerald, P. P. Ross, and C. Stanton, "Development of dairy-based functional
foods containing probiotics and prebiotics,” *Australian Journal of Dairy Technology*, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 121–126, 2005.

[47] J. Barbosa and P. Teixeira, “Development of probiotic fruit juice powders by spray-drying: a review,” *Food Reviews International*, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 335–358, 2017.

[48] G. Vinderola, M. Gueimonde, C. Gomez-Gallego, L. Delfederico, and S. Salminen, “Correlation between in vitro and in vivo assays in selection of probiotics from traditional species of bacteria,” *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 68, pp. 83–90, 2017.

[49] M. Toscano, R. De Grandi, L. Pastorelli, M. Vecchi, and L. Drago, “A consumer’s guide for probiotics: 10 golden rules for a correct use,” *Digestive and Liver Disease*, vol. 49, no. 11, pp. 1177–1184, 2017.

[50] R. Noorbakhsh, P. Yaghmaee, and T. Durance, “Radiant energy under vacuum (REV) technology: a novel approach for producing probiotic enriched apple snacks,” *Journal of Functional Foods*, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 1049–1056, 2013.

[51] K. Emser, J. Barbosa, P. Teixeira, and A. M. M. Bernardo de Morais, “*Lactobacillus plantarum* survival during the osmotic dehydration and storage of probiotic cut apple,” *Journal of Functional Foods*, vol. 38, pp. 519–528, 2017.

[52] S.-H. Son, H.-L. Jeon, E. B. Jeon et al., “Potential probiotic *Lactobacillus plantarum* Ln4 from kimchi: evaluation of β-galactosidase and antioxidant activities,” *LWT-Food Science and Technology*, vol. 85, pp. 181–186, 2017.

[53] H. L. Wilson and C. W. Ong, “*Bifidobacterium longum* vertebrodiscitis in a patient with cirrhosis and prostate cancer,” *Anaerobe*, vol. 47, pp. 47–50, 2017.

[54] M.-J. Kwak, S.-K. Kwon, J.-K. Yoon et al., “Evolutionary architecture of the infant-adapted group of *Bifidobacterium* species associated with the probiotic function,” *Systematic and Applied Microbiology*, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 429–439, 2016.

[55] J. J. P. Witzler, R. A. Pinto, G. Font de Valdez, A. D. de Castro, and D. C. U. Cavallini, “Development of a potential probiotic lozenge containing *Enterococcus faecium* CRL 183,” *LWT-Food Science and Technology*, vol. 77, pp. 193–199, 2017.

[56] J. B. E. Divya and K. M. A. Nampoothiri, “Encapsulated *Lactococcus lactis* with enhanced gastrointestinal survival for the development of folate enriched functional foods,” *Biosource Technology*, vol. 188, pp. 226–230, 2015.

[57] I. W. Martin, R. Tonner, J. Trivedi et al., “*Saccharomyces boulardii* probiotic-associated fungemia: questioning the safety of this preventive probiotic’s use,” *Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease*, vol. 87, no. 3, pp. 286–288, 2017.

[58] M. K. Tripathi and S. K. Giri, “Probiotic functional foods: survival of probiotics during processing and storage,” *Journal of Functional Foods*, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 225–241, 2014.

[59] R. D. S. Leone, E. F. de Andrade, L. N. Ellendersen et al., “Evaluation of dried yacon (*Smallanthus sonchifolius*) as an efficient probiotic carrier of *Lactobacillus casei* LC-01,” *LWT-Food Science and Technology*, vol. 75, pp. 220–226, 2017.

[60] F. Granado-Lorencio and E. Hernández-Alvarez, “Functional foods and health effects: a nutritional biochemistry perspective,” *Current Medicinal Chemistry*, vol. 23, no. 26, pp. 2929–2957, 2016.

[61] A. K. Anal and H. Singh, “Recent advances in microencapsulation of probiotics for industrial applications and targeted delivery,” *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 240–251, 2007.

[62] R. Puupponen-Pimiä, A.-M. Aura, K.-M. Oksman-Caldentey et al., “Development of functional ingredients for gut health,” *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 3–11, 2002.

[63] D. Granato, G. F. Branco, F. Nazzaro, A. G. Cruz, and J. A. F. Faria, “Functional foods and nondairy probiotic food development: trends, concepts, and products,” *Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety*, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 292–302, 2010.

[64] S. Borges, J. Barbosa, J. Silva et al., “A feasibility study of *Lactobacillus plantarum* in fruit powders after processing and storage,” *International Journal of Food Science & Technology*, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 381–388, 2016.

[65] D. Onwude, N. Hashim, and G. Chen, “Recent advances of novel thermal combined hot air drying of agricultural crops,” *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 57, pp. 132–145, 2016.

[66] K. J. Chua, A. S. Mujumdar, S. K. Chou, M. N. A. Hawlader, and J. C. Ho, “Convective drying of banana, guava and potato pieces: effect of cyclical variations of air temperature on drying kinetics and color change,” *Drying Technology*, vol. 18, no. 4-5, pp. 907–936, 2000.

[67] G. Broeckx, D. Vandenheuvel, I. J. J. Claes, S. Lebeer, and F. Kiekens, “Drying techniques of probiotic bacteria as an important step towards the development of novel pharmabiotics,” *International Journal of Pharmaceutics*, vol. 505, no. 1-2, pp. 303–318, 2016.

[68] K. B. Guergoletto, K. Sivieri, A. Y. Tsuruda et al., “Dried probiotics for use in functional food applications,” *in Food Industrial Processes—Methods and Equipment*, 2012.

[69] G. S. V. Raghavan and V. Orsat, “Recent advances in drying of biomaterials for superior quality bioproducts,” *Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering*, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 20–29, 2007.

[70] C. Bonazzi and J.-J. Bimbenet, “Séchage des produits alimentaires—Appareils et applications,” *Technique de l'ingénieur*, 2008.

[71] M. Shishir and W. Chen, “Trends of spray drying: A critical review on drying of fruit and vegetable juices,” *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 65, pp. 49–67, 2017.

[72] S. Huang, S. Méjean, H. Rabah et al., “Double use of concentrated sweet whey for growth and spray drying of probiotics: Towards maximal viability in pilot scale spray dryer,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 196, pp. 11–17, 2017.

[73] S. Y. Quek, N. K. Chok, and P. Swedlund, “The physicochemical properties of spray-dried watermelon powders,” *Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification*, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 386–392, 2007.

[74] S. Ray, U. Raychaudhuri, and R. Chakraborty, “An overview of encapsulation of active compounds used in food products by drying technology,” *Food Bioscience*, vol. 13, pp. 76–83, 2016.

[75] C. Bolea, M. Turturică, N. Stănciuc, and C. Vizireanu, “Thermal degradation kinetics of bioactive compounds from black rice flour (*Oryza sativa* L.) extracts,” *Journal of Cereal Science*, vol. 71, pp. 160–166, 2016.

[76] W.-D. Wang and S.-Y. Xu, “Degradation kinetics of anthocyanins in blackberry juice and concentrate,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 271–275, 2007.

[77] S.-Q. Cao, L. Liu, and S.-Y. Pan, “Thermal degradation kinetics of anthocyanins and visual color of blood orange juice,” *Agricultural Sciences in China*, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 1992–1997, 2011.

[78] L. Méndez-Lagunas, J. Rodríguez-Ramírez, M. Cruz-Gracida, S. Sandoval-Torres, and G. Barriada-Bernal, “Convective drying
kinetics of strawberry (*Fragaria ananassa*): effects on antioxidant activity, anthocyanins and total phenolic content,” *Food Chemistry*, vol. 230, pp. 174–181, 2017.

[79] C. Henríquez, A. Córdova, S. Almonacid, and J. Saavedra, “Kinetic modeling of phenolic compound degradation during drum-drying of apple peel by-products,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 143, pp. 146–153, 2014.

[80] F.-M. Ursache, I. O. Ghinea, M. Turturică, I. Aprodu, G. Râpeanu, and N. Stănciuc, “Phytochemicals content and antioxidant properties of sea buckthorn (*Hippophae rhamnoides* L.) as affected by heat treatment—Quantitative spectroscopic and kinetic approaches,” *Food Chemistry*, vol. 233, pp. 442–449, 2017.

[81] Ó. Rodríguez, J. V. Santacatalina, S. Simal, J. V. Garcia-Perez, A. Femenia, and C. Rosselló, “Influence of power ultrasound application on drying kinetics of apple and its antioxidant and microstructural properties,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 129, pp. 21–29, 2014.

[82] P. Chantaro, S. Devahastin, and N. Chiewchan, “Production of antioxidant high dietary fiber powder from carrot peels,” *LWT-Food Science and Technology*, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 1987–1994, 2008.

[83] J. López, E. Uribe, A. Vega-Gálvez et al., “Effect of air temperature on drying kinetics, vitamin C, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, non-enzymatic browning and firmness of blueberries variety O’neil,” *Food and Bioprocess Technology*, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 772–777, 2010.

[84] R. F. Schiffmann, “Microwave and dielectric drying,” in *Handbook of Industrial Drying*, pp. 345–372, 2006.

[85] K. Y. Koné, C. Druon, E. Z. Gnimpieba, M. Delmotte, A. Duquennoy, and J.-C. Laguerre, “Power density control in microwave assisted air drying to improve quality of food,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 119, no. 4, pp. 750–757, 2013.

[86] J.-C. Laguerre, K. Y. Koné, C. Druon, M. Delmotte, and A. Duquennoy, “Control of thermal runaway during microwave convective air drying of tomatoes,” in *Proceedings of the 16th IUFOST World Congress of Food Science and Technology - IUFOST Foz do Iguaçu*, Brazil, 2012.

[87] F.-G. C. Ekezie, D.-W. Sun, Z. Han, and J.-H. Cheng, “Microwave-assisted food processing technologies for enhancing product quality and process efficiency: a review of recent developments,” *Trends in Food Science Technology*, vol. 67, pp. 58–69, 2017.

[88] R. L. Monteiro, B. A. M. Carciofi, A. Marsaioli, and J. B. Laurindo, “How to make a microwave vacuum dryer with turntable,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 166, pp. 276–284, 2015.

[89] Y. Tao and D.-W. Sun, “Enhancement of food processes by ultrasound: a review,” *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 570–594, 2015.

[90] S. M. Beck, H. Sabarez, V. Gaukel, and K. Knoerzer, “Enhancement of convective drying by application of airborne ultrasound—a response surface approach,” *Ultrasonics Sonochemistry*, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 2144–2150, 2014.

[91] G. Musielak, D. Mierzwa, and J. Kroehnke, “Food drying enhancement by ultrasound—a review,” *Trends in Food Science Technology*, vol. 56, pp. 126–141, 2016.

[92] J. Szadzinska, S. J. Kowalski, and M. Stasiak, “Microwave and ultrasound enhancement of convective drying of strawberries: experimental and modeling efficiency,” *International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer*, vol. 103, pp. 1065–1074, 2016.

[93] D. Baş and I. H. Boyaci, “Modeling and optimization I: usability of response surface methodology,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 836–845, 2007.

[94] J. Saavedra, A. Córdova, R. Navarro et al., “Industrial avocado waste: functional compounds preservation by convective drying process,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 198, pp. 81–90, 2017.

[95] Z. Šumić, A. Vakula, A. Tepić, J. Čakarević, J. Vitas, and B. Pavlić, “Modeling and optimization of red currants vacuum drying process by response surface methodology (RSM),” *Food Chemistry*, vol. 203, pp. 465–475, 2016.

[96] M. Lesty, “Une nouvelle approche dans le choix des régresseurs de la régression multiple en présence d’interactions et de colinéarités,” in *La Revue de Modulad*, pp. 41–77, 1999.

[97] J.-C. Laguerre, L. P. Ratoandromalala, A. Humeau, J.-P. Gadonna, and L. Lakhal, “Iconographic correlation method and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) for the optimization of a combined microwave hot air drying of the microalgae *Isochrysis sp*,” in *Proceedings of the 17th World Congress of Food Science and Technology—IUFOST*, Montreal, Canada, 2014.

[98] M. A. Golowczyc, J. Silva, A. G. Abraham, G. L. de Antoni, and P. Teixeira, “Preservation of probiotic strains isolated from kefir by spray drying,” *Letters in Applied Microbiology*, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 7–12, 2010.

[99] T. Heidebach, P. Först, and U. Kulozik, “Influence of casein-based microencapsulation on freeze-drying and storage of probiotic cells,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 98, no. 3, pp. 309–316, 2010.

[100] M. Saarela, I. Virkajärvi, H.-L. Alakomi, P. Sigvart-Mattila, and J. Mättö, “Stability and functionality of freeze-dried probiotic *Bifidobacterium* cells during storage in juice and milk,” *International Dairy Journal*, vol. 16, no. 12, pp. 1477–1482, 2006.

[101] A. Nag and S. Das, “Improving ambient temperature stability of probiotics with stress adaptation and fluidized bed drying,” *Journal of Functional Foods*, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 170–177, 2013.

[102] H. M. Patel, R. Wang, O. Chandrashekar, S. S. Pandiella, and C. Webb, “Proliferation of *Lactobacillus plantarum* in Solid-State Fermentation of Oats,” *Biotechnology Progress*, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 110–116, 2004.

[103] K. Venema and A. P. do Carmo, “Probiotics and prebiotics: current status and future trends,” in *Probiotics and Prebiotics: Current Research and Future Trends*, Caister Academic Press, 2015.

[104] N. Betoret, L. Puente, M. J. Diaz et al., “Development of probiotic-enriched dried fruits by vacuum impregnation,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 56, no. 2-3, pp. 273–277, 2003.

[105] C. Ribeiro, R. Freixo, J. Silva, P. Gibbs, A. M. M. B. Morais, and P. Teixeira, “Dried Fruit Matrices Incorporated with a Probiotic Strain of *Lactobacillus plantarum*,” *International Journal of Food Studies*, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 69–73, 2014.

[106] E. Betoret, N. Betoret, A. Arilla et al., “No invasive methodology to produce a probiotic low humid apple snack with potential effect against *Helicobacter pylori*,” *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 110, no. 2, pp. 289–293, 2012.

[107] A. Rêgo, R. Freixo, J. Silva, P. Gibbs, A. M. M. B. Morais, and P. Teixeira, “A functional dried fruit matrix incorporated with probiotic strains: *Lactobacillus plantarum* and *Lactobacillus kefir*,” *Focusing on Modern Food Industry (FMFI)*, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 138–143, 2013.

[108] P. Chottanom, T. Pranin, K. Shopka, N. Nasinsorn, and P. Itsaranuwat, “Pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration of cherry tomatoes: impact on physicochemical properties and probiotics entrapment,” *Walailak Journal of Science and Technology*, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 193–204, 2016.
[109] W. Krasaekoopt and B. Suthanwong, "Vacuum impregnation of probiotics in fruit pieces and their survival during refrigerated storage," *Kasetsart Journal—Natural Science*, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 723-731, 2008.

[110] C. Genevois, S. Flores, and M. de Escalada Pla, "Byproduct from pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne ex poiret) as a substrate and vegetable matrix to contain *Lactobacillus casei*," *Journal of Functional Foods*, vol. 23, pp. 210-219, 2016.

[111] R. de S. Leone, E. F. de Andrade, L. N. Ellendersen et al., "Evaluation of dried yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) as an efficient probiotic carrier of *Lactobacillus casei* LC-01," *LWT—Food Science and Technology*, vol. 75, pp. 220-226, 2017.

[112] P. Foerst, U. Kulozik, M. Schmitt, S. Bauer, and C. Santivarangkna, "Storage stability of vacuum-dried probiotic bacterium *Lactobacillus paracasei* F19," *Food and Bioproducts Processing*, vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 295-300, 2012.

[113] H. V. Vikram Simha, H. Sharanakumar, N. Udaykumar, C. T. Ramachandra, K. Tamil Vendan, and K. V. Prakash, "Comparative studies on spray-drying and freeze-drying of pomegranate (*Punica granatum* L.) juice fermented with *L. acidophilus*," *International Journal of Food and Nutritional Sciences*, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 118-127, 2012.

[114] M. Cano-Chauca, P. C. Stringheta, A. M. Ramos, and J. CalVidal, "Effect of the carriers on the microstructure of mango powder obtained by spray drying and its functional characterization," *Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies*, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 420-428, 2005.

[115] G. R. Chegini, J. Khazaei, B. Ghobadian, and A. M. Goudarzi, "Prediction of process and product parameters in an orange juice spray dryer using artificial neural networks," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 84, no. 4, pp. 534-543, 2008.

[116] J. Barbosa, S. Borges, M. Amorim et al., "Comparison of spray drying, freeze drying and convective hot air drying for the production of a probiotic orange powder," *Journal of Functional Foods*, vol. 17, pp. 340-351, 2015.

[117] N. N. Alves, G. B. Messaoud, S. Desobry, J. M. C. Costa, and S. Rodrigues, "Effect of drying technique and feed flow rate on bacterial survival and physicochemical properties of a non-dairy fermented probiotic juice powder," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 189, pp. 45-54, 2016.

[118] J. Barbosa, T. R. S. Brandão, and P. Teixeira, "Spray drying conditions for orange juice incorporated with lactic acid bacteria," *International Journal of Food Science & Technology*, vol. 52, no. 9, pp. 1951-1958, 2017.

[119] K. Anekella and V. Orsat, "Optimization of microencapsulation of probiotics in raspberry juice by spray drying," *LWT—Food Science and Technology*, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 17-24, 2013.

[120] P. Chaikham, V. Kemsawasd, and P. Seesuriyachan, "Spray drying probiotics along with maoluang juice plus *Tiliacora triandra* gum for exposure to the in vitro gastrointestinal environments," *LWT—Food Science and Technology*, vol. 78, pp. 31-40, 2017.

[121] N. Kingwatee, A. Apichartsrangkoon, P. Chaikham, S. Worametrachanon, J. Techarung, and T. Pankasemsuk, "Spray drying *Lactobacillus casei* 01 in lychee juice varied carrier materials," *LWT—Food Science and Technology*, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 847-853, 2015.

[122] A. L. F. Pereira, F. D. L. Almeida, M. A. Lima, J. M. C. da Costa, and S. Rodrigues, "Spray-drying of probiotic cashew apple juice," *Food and Bioprocess Technology*, vol. 7, no. 9, pp. 2492-2499, 2014.

[123] W. Savedboworn and P. Wanchaitanawong, "Viability and probiotic properties of *Lactobacillus plantarum* TISTR 2075 in spray-dried fermented cereal extracts," *Maejo International Journal of Science and Technology*, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 382-393, 2015.

[124] A. Romano, G. Blaiotta, A. Di Cerbo, R. Coppola, P. Masi, and M. Aponte, "Spray-dried chestnut extract containing *Lactobacillus rhamnosus* cells as novel ingredient for a probiotic chestnut mousse," *Journal of Applied Microbiology*, vol. 116, no. 6, pp. 1632-1641, 2014.

[125] A. Mishra and K. A. Athmaselvi, "Stress tolerance and physicochemical properties of encapsulation processes for *Lactobacillus rhamnosus* in pomegranate (*Punica granatum* L.) fruit juice," *Food Science and Biotechnology*, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 125-129, 2016.

[126] A. P. Mestry, A. S. Mujumdar, and B. N. Thorat, "Optimization of spray drying of an innovative functional food: fermented mixed juice of carrot and watermelon," *Drying Technology*, vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 1121-1131, 2011.

[127] US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Journal of Agricultural & Food Information, 2015, http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl.

[128] C. Alasalvar and F. Shahidi, "Composition, phytochemicals, and beneficial health effects of dried fruits: an overview," in *Dried Fruits: Phytochemicals and Health Effects*, pp. 1-18, 2013.

[129] G. Mandalari, C. Bisignano, A. Filocamo et al., "Bioaccessibility of pistachio polyphenols, xanthophylls, and tocopherols during simulated human digestion," *Nutrition*, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 338-344, 2013.

[130] J. A. Vinson, L. Zubik, P. Bose, N. Samman, and J. Proch, "Dried fruits: excellent in vitro and in vivo antioxidants," *Journal of the American College of Nutrition*, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 44-50, 2005.

[131] Y. Yilmaz and R. Toledo, "Antioxidant activity of water-soluble Maillard reaction products," *Food Chemistry*, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 273-278, 2005.

[132] P. Mirmiran, N. Noori, M. B. Zavareh, and F. Azizi, "Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk factors for cardiovascular disease," *Metabolism—Clinical and Experimental*, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 460-468, 2009.

[133] M. Gómez and M. M. Martinez, "Fruit and vegetable by-products as novel ingredients to improve the nutritional quality of baked goods," *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, pp. 1-17, 2017.

[134] M. Meydani and A. Azzi, "Dietary antioxidants and bioflavonoids in atherosclerosis and angiogenesis," in *Nutrigenomics and Proteomics in Health and Disease: Towards a systems-level understanding of gene-diet interactions*, pp. 125-142, Wiley, Chichester, UK, 2017.

[135] J. M. Gaziano, J. E. Manson, L. G. Branch, G. A. Colditz, W. C. Willett, and J. E. Buring, "A prospective study of consumption of carotenoids in fruits and vegetables and decreased cardiovascular mortality in the elderly," *Annals of Epidemiology*, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 255-260, 1995.

[136] O. Oyebode, V. Gordon-Dseagu, A. Walker, and J. S. Mindell, "Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause, cancer and CVD mortality: analysis of health survey for England data," *Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health*, vol. 68, no. 9, pp. 856-862, 2014.

[137] G. Zhao, R. Zhang, L. Liu et al., "Different thermal drying methods affect the phenolic profiles, their bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity in *Rhodymyrtus tomentosa* (Ait.) Hassk berries," *LWT—Food Science and Technology*, vol. 79, pp. 260-266, 2017.
[138] E. Riboli and T. Norat, "Epidemiologic evidence of the protective effect of fruit and vegetables on cancer risk," *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*, vol. 78, no. 3, 2003.

[139] S. J. Duthie, G. G. Duthie, W. R. Russell et al., "Effect of increasing fruit and vegetable intake by dietary intervention on nutritional biomarkers and attitudes to dietary change: a randomised trial," *European Journal of Nutrition*, pp. 1–18, 2017.

[140] R. Jovanovic-Malinovska, S. Kuzmanova, and E. Winkelhausen, "Oligosaccharide profile in fruits and vegetables as sources of prebiotics and functional foods," *International Journal of Food Properties*, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 949–965, 2014.

[141] S. Huang, M. L. Vignolles, X. D. Chen et al., "Spray drying of probiotics and other food-grade bacteria: a review," *Trends in Food Science & Technology*, vol. 63, pp. 1–17, 2017.

[142] M. Jeszka-Skowron, A. Zgoła-Grześkowiak, E. Stanisz, and A. Waśkiewicz, "Potential health benefits and quality of dried fruits: goji fruits, cranberries and raisins," *Food Chemistry*, vol. 221, pp. 228–236, 2017.

[143] Y. Y. Lim, T. T. Lim, and J. J. Tee, "Antioxidant properties of several tropical fruits: a comparative study," *Food Chemistry*, vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 1003–1008, 2007.

[144] J. W. Anderson and A. R. Waters, "Raisin consumption by humans: effects on glycemia and insulinemia and cardiovascular risk factors," *Journal of Food Science*, vol. 78, no. 1, pp. A11–A17, 2013.

[145] J. A. Anderson, H. A. Huth, M. M. Larson et al., "Glycemic and insulin response to raisins, grapes and bananas in college aged students," *FASEB Journal*, vol. 25, 2011.

[146] K. Ishiwata, T. Yamaguchi, H. Takamura, and T. Matoba, "DPPH radical-scavenging activity and polyphenol content in dried fruits," *Food Science and Technology Research*, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 152–156, 2004.

[147] M. J. Kim, H. N. Jung, K. N. Kim, and H. Kwak, "Effects of cranberry powder on serum lipid profiles and biomarkers of oxidative stress in rats fed an atherogenic diet," *Nutrition Research and Practice*, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 158–164, 2008.

[148] F. Karadeniz, R. W. Durst, and R. E. Wrolstad, "Polyphenolic composition of raisins," *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*, vol. 48, no. 11, pp. 5343–5350, 2000.

[149] G. Williamson and A. Carughi, "Polyphenol content and health benefits of raisins," *Nutrition Research*, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 511–519, 2010.

[150] P. Hernández-Alonso, L. Camacho-Barcia, M. Bulló, and J. Salas-Salvadó, "Nuts and dried fruits: an update of their beneficial effects on type 2 diabetes," *Nutrients*, vol. 9, no. 7, article no. 673, 2017.

[151] R. H. Liu, "Health benefits of fruit and vegetables are from additive and synergistic combinations of phytochemicals," *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 517S–520S, 2003.

[152] D. P. Jones, "Radical-free biology of oxidative stress," *American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology*, vol. 295, no. 4, pp. C849–C868, 2008.

[153] M. Apostolopoulou, K. Michalakis, A. Miras, A. Hatzitolios, and C. Savopoulos, "Nutrition in the primary and secondary prevention of stroke," *Maturitas*, vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 29–34, 2012.

[154] S. Devaraj, I. Jialal, and S. Vega-Lopez, "Plant Sterol-Fortified Orange Juice Effectively Lowers Cholesterol Levels in Mildly Hypercholesterolemic Healthy Individuals," *Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology*, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. e25–e28, 2004.

[155] C. S. Ku, Y. Yang, Y. Park, and J. Lee, "Health benefits of blue-green algae: Prevention of cardiovascular disease and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease," *Journal of Medicinal Food*, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 103–111, 2013.

[156] M. de Lorgeril, P. Salen, J. L. Martin, I. Monjaud, J. Delaye, and N. Mamelle, "Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon diet heart study," *Circulation*, vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 779–785, 1999.

[157] K. J. Murphy, A. K. Chronopoulos, I. Singh et al., "Dietary flavanols and procyanidin oligomers from cocoa (*Theobroma cacao*) inhibit platelet function," *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*, vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 1466–1473, 2003.

[158] M. F. D. J. Raposo and A. M. M. B. de Morais, "Microalgae for the prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke," *Life Sciences*, vol. 125, pp. 32–41, 2015.

[159] A. O. Osmolola, A. I. Jideani, and P. F. Kapila, "Quality properties of fruits as affected by drying operation," *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 95–108, 2017.

[160] M. N. Ramesh, W. Wolf, D. Tevini, and G. Jung, "Influence of processing parameters on the drying of spice paprika," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 63–72, 2001.

[161] T. M. Lin, T. D. Durance, and C. H. Scaman, "Characterization of vacuum microwave, air and freeze dried carrot slices," *Food Research International*, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 111–117, 1998.

[162] M. N. Ramesh, W. Wolf, D. Tevini, and G. Jung, "Studies on inert gas processing of vegetables," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 199–205, 1999.

[163] B. R. Shakya, K. H. Moledina, and J. M. Flink, "Dehydration of potato: 4. influence of process parameters on ascorbic acid retention for natural convection solar drying conditions," *Journal of Food Processing and Preservation*, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 145–159, 1986.

[164] T. C. Mosha, R. D. Pace, S. Adeyeye, K. Mtebe, and H. Laswai, "Proximate composition and mineral content of selected Tanzanian vegetables and the effect of traditional processing on the retention of ascorbic acid, riboflavin and thiamine," *Plant Foods for Human Nutrition*, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 235–245, 1995.

[165] J. C. Ho, S. K. Chou, K. J. Chua, A. S. Mujumdar, and M. N. A. Hawlader, "Analytical study of cyclic temperature drying: effect on drying kinetics and product quality," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 65–75, 2002.

[166] S. S. Sablani, "Drying of fruits and vegetables: retention of nutritional/functional quality," *Drying Technology*, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 123–135, 2006.

[167] G. S. Mudahar, R. T. Toledo, J. D. Floros, and J. J. Jen, "Optimization of carrot dehydration process using response surface methodology," *Journal of Food Science*, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 714–719, 1989.

[168] Y. W. Park, "Effect of freezing, thawing, drying, and cooking on carotene retention in carrots, broccoli and spinach," *Journal of Food Science*, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 1022–1025, 1987.

[169] J. Shi, M. L. Maguer, Y. Kakuda, A. Liptay, and F. Niekamp, "Lycopene degradation and isomerization in tomato dehydration," *Food Research International*, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 15–21, 1999.

[170] A. M. Goula and K. G. Adamopoulos, "Stability of lycopene during spray drying of tomato pulp," *LWT-Food Science and Technology*, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 479–487, 2005.
[171] M. Regier, E. Mayer-Miebach, D. Behsnilian, E. Neff, and H. P. Schuchmann, "Influences of drying and storage of lycopene-rich carrots on the carotenoid content," *Drying Technology*, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 989-998, 2005.

[172] U. Erle and H. Schubert, "Combined osmotic and microwave-vacuum dehydration of apples and strawberries," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 49, no. 2-3, pp. 193-199, 2001.

[173] S. Mohamed and R. Hussein, "Effect of low temperature blanching, cysteine-HCl, N-acetyl-L-cysteine, Na metabisulphite and drying temperatures on the firmness and nutrient content of dried carrots," *Journal of Food Processing and Preservation*, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 343-348, 1994.

[174] B. I. Abonyi, H. Feng, J. Tang et al., "Quality retention in strawberry and carrot purees dried with Refractance Window system," *Journal of Food Science*, vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 1051-1056, 2002.

[175] J. C.-C. Chan, P. C.-K. Cheung, and P. O. Ang Jr., "Comparative studies on the effect of three drying methods on the nutritional composition of seaweed *Sargassum hemiphyllum* (Turn.) C. Ag," *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*, vol. 45, no. 8, pp. 3056-3059, 1997.

[176] F. R. Assis, R. M. S. C. Morais, and A. M. M. B. Morais, "Microwave drying of apple cubes — effect of the osmotic pretreatment and comparison with hot air drying," *Advances in Food Science and Engineering*, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 112-122, 2017.

[177] H. Indyk, V. Littlejohn, and D. C. Woollard, "Stability of vitamin D3 during spray drying of milk," *Food Chemistry*, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 283-286, 1996.

[178] J. G. Hawkes and R. Villota, "Prediction of folic acid retention during spray dehydration," *Journal of Food Engineering*, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 287-317, 1989.

[179] E. Watanabe and C. F. Ciacco, "Influence of processing and cooking on the retention of thiamine, riboflavin and niacin in spaghetti," *Food Chemistry*, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 223-231, 1990.

[180] B. Wennermark, H. Ahlmén, and M. Jägerstad, "Improved vitamin E retention by using freshly milled whole-meal wheat flour during drum-drying," *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 1348-1351, 1994.

[181] C. Manach, A. Scalbert, C. Morand, C. Rémésy, and L. Jiménez, "Polyphenols: food sources and bioavailability," *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*, vol. 79, no. 5, pp. 727-747, 2004.

[182] T. Desrosiers, T. Smyrl, and G. Paquette, "Retention of ascorbic acid in home dehydrated green peppers and peaches," *Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal*, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 58-62, 1985.

[183] T. P. Labuza, "Nutrient losses during drying and storage of dehydrated foods," *CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY*, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 217-240, 1972.

[184] S. A. Desobry, F. M. Netto, and T. P. Labuza, "Preservation of β-carotene from carrots," *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 381-396, 1998.

[185] E. Kaminski, E. Wasowicz, R. Zawirska, and M. Wower, "The effect of drying and storage of dried carrots on sensory characteristics and volatile constituents," *Nahrung-Food*, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 819-828, 1986.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

Hindawi
Submit your manuscripts at
www.hindawi.com