# Photodegradation of typical Mediterranean plant litters: variations with Quercus species and the leaf-surface exposed

Anne Marie Farnet da Silva, Lisa Foli, Jean-Luc Boudenne, Fabio Ziarelli, C Rebufa

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## ► To cite this version:

Anne Marie Farnet da Silva, Lisa Foli, Jean-Luc Boudenne, Fabio Ziarelli, C Rebufa. Photodegradation of typical Mediterranean plant litters: variations with Quercus species and the leaf-surface exposed. European Journal of Forest Research, 2023, 142, pp.275-286. 10.1007/s10342-022-01521-0. hal-03997730

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Submitted on 20 Feb 2023

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Photodegradation of typical Mediterranean plant litters:
variations with *Quercus* species and the leaf-surface exposed

Anne-Marie Farnet Da Silva¹, Lisa Foli¹, Jean-Luc Boudenne², Fabio Ziarelli³, Catherine Rebufa¹

¹ Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, UMR IMBE 7263, Marseille, France

² Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LCE, Marseille, France

³ Spectropole, Fédération Des Sciences Chimiques de Marseille, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Campus St Jérôme,13397 Marseille, France

Abstract

Photodegradation can play a key role in litter decomposition under the context of climate change which hinders organic matter turnover because of available water scarcity. Here, we aimed at testing the effect of a two-month sunlight exposure with different radiation intensities (either in winter or summer) on the chemical signature of two typical Mediterranean species, i.e., *Quercus ilex* and *Q. pubescens*. We also tested whether the side of the leaf exposed mattered in the chemical modification observed. To do so, two holistic chemical approaches, FTIR-ATR (Fourier transform infrared- attenuated total reflectance) and solid-state NMR of 13C, were used. ANOVA from solid-state NMR of 13C revealed that after exposure in summer, certain markers of lignin (phenol and aromatics) decreased in leaves whatever the Quercus spp. and it depended on the side of the leaf exposed. Lignin transformation thus occurred via dearomatization and/or dephenolization. Moreover, for both species, when leaves were exposed at their topside, their NMR chemical signatures were negatively correlated with alkyl assigned to cutin and waxes, showing that the thin layer of cuticle was attacked by photodegradation. FTIR-ATR spectra and NMR data also highlighted that a weaker irradiation (winter vs summer exposure) strongly limited lignin content decrease. Finally, lignin, cutin and wax oxidation, by enhancing the availability of polysaccharides from lignocellulose, may favor further litter transformation when suitable climate conditions (mainly humidity) are recovered.

1. Introduction

Plant litter decomposition is key in ecosystem functioning since organic matter decomposition sustains
C and N turnover, primary production and also C sequestration in soils. This process is driven by various
factors and their interactions, i.e., microbial communities, the quality and quantity of litter, climate
conditions (mainly temperature and humidity) at various geographical scales (Boukhdoud et al. 2016,
Coûteaux et al., 1995, Kheir et al. 2020a and b). Climate change can impact mineralization directly, by
affecting microbial communities and their activities, and indirectly, by inducing plant responses to such
stresses and thus modification in plant chemistry (Suseela and Tharayil, 2018). Many efforts have been
recently devoted to establishing the effects of climate change on plant chemical properties, i.e.,
elemental compositions of leaves and root (Sardans et al., 2017) or modifications of chemical
components such as cutin and waxes with higher proportions of longer aliphatic compounds (Heredia-
Guerrero et al., 2018). In Medi-terranean forests, higher temperatures and more drastic and prolonged
periods of drought induce an increase in the recalcitrant fraction of plant material, i.e., mainly phenols
and terpens (Suseela and Tharayil, 2018) which is supposed to limit litter biodegradability.
Under this context, photodegradation may play a crucial role by mitigating the drastic effects of summer drought on microbial activity performance in litter decomposition and by enhancing litter decomposition when more favorable climate conditions are recovered (autumn). Photodegradation can indeed control litter mass loss directly, by breaking down molecules and releasing CO2, and indirectly, by favoring substrate availability for microbial activities (Duguay and Klironomos, 2000). Microbial facilitation via photodegradation ("photopriming") has been proved in litters from arid and semiarid ecosystems (Day et al. 2007, 2015) by converting large polymers such as lignin to smaller and easily degradable molecules and reducing the bottleneck imposed by lignin in secondary cell walls. Also, in deserts, a dependence of the effects of UV photodegradation of litter (shrubs, summer, and spring annuals) decomposition on rainfall has been observed: Photodegradation effects were not strongest in the driest region (Huang et al., 2017) and litters decomposed faster under high-frequency than low-frequency precipitations (Huang and Li 2017). However, no rainfall effects were significant on the UV degradation of leaf litter composed with a native shrub and an exotic annual grass (Esch et al. 2019). Lignin is the main target of photodegradation because of its spectroscopic properties. UV-B (280-320 nm) and UV-A (320-400 nm) are the major radiations of the light spectrum involved in photodegradation (Austin and Vivanco 2006; Brandt et al. 2007). Previous studies have underlined the importance of the type of litter on the efficiency of photodegradation (Day et al. 2018; Kirschbaum et al., 2011; Hunt and Seveny, 2002) since the quantity of molecules absorbing UV varies with this factor. The effects of UV photodegradation are greater in litter with low lignin content than in litter with high initial lignin content. Spring annuals, with high relative growth rates, would rarely develop protective/defensive structures and would therefore be more sensitive to UV radiation. In addition, the surface of the leaves and the proportion of lignin should also be factors to consider when studying the effects of UV photodegradation (Huang and Li, 2017). Herbaceous and shrub litter were proved to be more sensitive to photodegradation than tree litter, showing a greater mass loss after irradiation (Wang et al. 2020). However, contrasted results have been revealed concerning the effect of UV exposure on litter chemical modification: Litter loss weight was reported after UV radiation exposure under laboratory experiment depending on the plant species, the wavelength and the exposure time used (Brandt et al., 2007; Day et al., 2007; Pieristé et al., 2020a, b), while Lambie et al. (2014) did not find any modification of litter composition after photodegradation. Thus, more information is still needed to shed light on the impact of photoradiation on Mediterranean litters under the context of climate change. Here, we explore how exposure to sunlight in the field modifies the chemical composition of two typical Mediterranean tree species *Quercus ilex* and *Quercus pubescens*. In the case of *Q. pubescens*, photodegradation may play an important role because of its marcescent foliage, this specific ecophysiological trait leading to longer and direct exposure time in autumn and winter. We indeed focused on the irradiation effect that may occur in the field: leaves freshly fallen were exposed two months during either winter or summer to test the effect of various intensities of radiations without considering further microbial decomposition step. Moreover, for these Mediterranean leafy species, we also tested the effect of the side of the leaf exposed since both species exhibit different chemical composition depending on the surface: a wax-rich cuticleon the topside compared to the back side. We proposed a different approach of that commonly used (based on mass loss of litter, specific leaf decomposition rate, C/N ratio, lignin content...) by following the variations of the leaf chemical composition after light exposure, from their spectral signatures, obtained by two chemical nondestructive holistic approaches, i.e., infrared spectroscopy and solid-state NMR of 13C. Both techniques have been proved to be useful tools to describe organic matter "fingerprint" in litters and soils and discriminate chemical signature depending on plant species and decomposition stage (Farnet-Da Silva et al., 2017; Delcourt et al., 2019; Richardson et al., 2004). The individual response of *Quercus ilex* and *Quercus pubescens* litters is considered an important preliminary step toward a better
understanding of multi-species litter decomposition (site of synergistic and antagonistic interactions), irrespective of the role of heterotrophic soil decomposer microorganisms.

## 2. Material and methods

### 2.1. Site description and litter sampling

Leaves of *Quercus ilex* and *Q. pubescens* from the top layer of litter were collected in June 2018 near Aix en Provence in the Massif de la Trévaresse (43°38′31.54″N; 5°26′1.11″E) in three independent sites (« Château Féline», « le Coucou» and « la Quille») with similar pedologic and topographic characteristics: around 200 m in elevation, northeastern exposure, slope (10 to 15%) and soil type (Calcaric Leptosol according to IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). Fourteen leaves were collected from each site for a total of 6 samples (3 sites × 2 species).

### 2.2. Sunlight exposure

Conversely to some studies assessing how UV radiation, the seasonal canopy phenology, the litter layer thickness or their interaction may affect litter photodegradation (Wang et al., 2020; Mao et al., 2018), the scenario chosen here was to expose leaf litter under the full spectrum of sunlight at two different seasonal periods and by differentiating the exposed leaf face. Each leaf was cut in two pieces, and then, each part was pinned on a polystyrene board with either the top or the back side (later called top and bottom, respectively) exposed to sunlight (Fig. 1). 12 half leaves (7 per exposed side, above and below) for each specie were used in triplicate (3 sites). Thus, 7 half leaves for each species and for each side were exposed for two months in summer (July and August 2018) and winter (late December-mid-February 2018-19) for a total of 168 samples (2 seasons × 3 sites × 2 species × 7 leaves × 2 sides).

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1: *Quercus ilex* and *Quercus pubescens* sampling: 12 half leaves (top and bottom side alternatively) for each species</figcaption></figure>

One sampling was performed after the two-month exposure in either winter or summer. The experiments were set up in the botanical garden of the Faculty of St Jérôme (Marseille, France). Radiation measurement (measure of irradiance in W/m²) was taken at noon once a week during all the experiment using Radiometer HD 90-20 (Oriel, Newport). The dynamic range of the instrument in
the various scales goes from 100 nanowatt/cm² to 200 milliwatt/cm². Different radiometric probes were used: an HD9021 UV-B in the UV-B wavelength of 280–315 nm, an HD9021 UV-A in the UV-B wavelength of 315–400 nm and an HD 9021 RAD/C in the visible wavelength of 400–900 nm. The average of measured values for UV-A, UV-B and visible irradiance was of 11.3, 4.4 and 726.5 W/m² in summer and 2.8, 1.2 and 311 W/m² winter. A compilation of irradiance solar data in Marseille showed that the average annual value of global irradiance is between 189 and 219 (kWh/m² cumulated) for July and August months and decreases to 46–67 from December to February (CalSol software, INES). After exposure, the 168 samples were analyzed according to the exposed face with FTIR-ATR technique. For 13C NMR analyses, litter samples were analyzed as composite samples of 7 half leaves: 24 composite samples (2 seasons × 3 sites × 2 species × 2 sides) were reduced to powder using a steel bullet blender Retsch MM40 (Fisher Scientific, France).

## 2.3. Chemical characterization of litters by FTIR-ATR (Fourier Transformed Infrared-Attenuated Total Reflectance) and by solid-state NMR of 13C

The exposed face (top or bottom) of the entire leaf of either *Q. ilex* or *Q. pubescens* was directly deposited, onto a Specac's Golden Gate™ ATR Accessory of a ThermoNicolet IS10 spectrometer equipped with a Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT) detector, an Ever-Glo source and a KBr/Ge beam splitter. Spectra were acquired between 4000 and 650 cm⁻¹, with a 4 cm⁻¹ nominal resolution. For each spectrum, 100 scans were co-added. A background spectrum in air (under the same acquisition conditions as those used for the samples) was acquired before each acquisition. The ATR crystal was carefully cleaned with ethanol to remove any residual traces of the previous sample. Ten spectra were recorded for each sample in order to examine the whole exposed face. OMNIC 8.1 (Thermo Nicolet) was used to record FTIR-ATR spectra. The Unscrambler version10.3 from computer-aided modeling software (CAMO, Trondheim, Norway) was used to perform data analyses.

The spectral range of the absorption of the carbon dioxide was removed (between 2400 and 1900 cm⁻¹), and then, two preprocessing methods were applied: a multiplicative scatter correction (MSC) to remove from the spectra the slope variation caused by scatter and variation in particle size. CP/MAS 13C NMR spectra of litter powder were obtained on a Bruker DSX 400 MHz spectrometer operating at 100.7 MHz. Samples (600 mg) were spun at 10 kHz at the magic angle. Contact times of 2 ms were applied with a pulse width of 2.8 µs and a recycle delay of 3 s. Chemical shift values were referenced to glycine signal (carbonyl Cat 176.03 ppm). Chemical shift values were referenced to glycine signal (carbonyl C at 176.03 ppm). Seven common chemical shift regions were defined according to Mathers et al. (2007): alkyl C (0–45 ppm), methoxyl C (45–60 ppm), O-alkyl C (60–92 ppm), di-O-alkyl C (92–112 ppm), aromatic C (112–142 ppm), phenolic C (142–160 ppm) and carboxyl C (160–185 ppm). Dmfit 2003 software was used to determine the intensity of each chemical shift region (Massiot et al., 2002). An aromaticity ratio was also calculated to estimate the proportion of aromatic compound in each litter (Baldock et al., 1997).

## 2.4. Statistical analyses

For NMR data, the normality and homogeneity of the variances of the data were determined on the residuals from the regression model with the Shapiro-Wilk and Levene tests, respectively. Data were transformed to common logarithms, log10, when necessary to meet the requirements of normality and homogeneity of variance for ANOVA. Three-way ANOVA was used to determine whether, and to what extent, NMR data depended upon i) litter type, ii) the side of the leaf exposed, iii) the season of exposure and iv) their interactions. When a three-way interaction was found, we separated data for each modality of treatment and type of litter and environmental context using a one-way ANOVA. Statistically significant (P < 0.05) main effects and interactions were further analyzed using the Tuckey
HSD post hoc tests. NMR data were also analyzed via principal component analyses (PCA) using the NMR peaks from each sample of either *Q. ilex* or *Q. pubescens* after a two-month exposure to describe chemical changes of the leaf composition depending on the factors tested (winter vs summer, top or back side of the leaf, *Quercus spp*). PCA was also used to detect variations in the FTIR spectral dataset in correlation with chemical characteristics of the litters, the season and the side of the leaf exposed. Principal components (PC) were extracted with a full cross-validation on centered and reduced data. PCA was used to facilitate the analysis of spectral information by grouping data into smaller sets and eliminating multi-collinearity between variables (wave number). This approach enabled us to explain the variance observed in the initial data set, by extracting a reduced number of principal components (PCs) defined as pure and simple mathematical transformations of the initial variables. PCA results were interpreted through the graphical representation of the sample in the factorial plane of the principal components (score plot) and those of the variables in the same factorial plane (loading plot). The sample grouping in the factorial plane was interpreted through their position (positive or negative) on one of the axes. In parallel, the examination of the PC loadings showed which spectral bands were predominant in the sample grouping, in either the positive or negative part of the PCs (Jolliffe 2002).

**3. Results**

**3.1. Solid-state NMR of 13C characterization of leaves after photodegradation**

The three-way ANOVA revealed an effect of the season of exposure: variations in the NMR signals were observed after exposure in summer only. We thus further considered data obtained from this season of exposure. The two-way ANOVA showed significant effects of the interaction between Quercus species and the side of the leaf exposed on both phenolic (F = 7.542, p < 0.005) and aromatic (F = 9.365, p < 0.001) signals (Fig. 2a and b). Phenolic amounts decreased to a similar extent whatever the side of the leaf exposed for Quercus pubescens, while for Quercus ilex, a higher decrease in phenols was observed when the side below was exposed (Fig. 2a). For aromatic compounds, we found no differences between control and exposed leaves for *Quercus pubescens*, while for *Quercus ilex*, a strong decrease in aromatics was found whatever the side of the leaf exposed (Fig. 2b).

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2: NMR signals of phenol % (a) and aromatic % (b) from Quercus ilex (Qi) and Quercus pubescens**</figcaption></figure>
PCA were performed on NMR data for both *Quercus* species and for the two seasons of irradiation. Results are shown in Figs. 3 and 4 (summer and winter exposure, respectively), and each projection represents the barycenter of three samples (14 leaves per sample).

After a 2-month exposure in summer (Fig. 3), differences between projections were observed depending on the *Quercus* species considered and on the side of the leaf exposed. For Q. ilex leaves (Fig. 3a), PCA revealed that the side of the leaf exposed led to differences in chemical com-position according to PC1 (61.7% of variance) and that control was discriminated from photoxidized leaves according to PC2 (23.7% of variance). Topside-exposed leaf (Qi-A) was discriminated from bottom-side exposed leaf (Qi-B) according to PC1, showing a different impact of photodegradation depending on the surface exposed, probably because of the thin layer of cuticle particularly rich in cutin and waxes.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3: PCA of (a) *Quercus ilex* (Qi) and (b) *Quercus pubescens* (Qp)leaves which surface were exposed to sunlight radiations at the top (a) or bottom (b) side or not exposed (c) during two months in summer (July and August 2018).</figcaption></figure>

Control projection was explained by O-alkyl and methoxy, while projections of top- and bottom-side-exposed leaf (Qi-A and Qi-B) were explained by phenol and aromatics on the one hand and alkyl on the other hand. It has to be noted that Qi-A was negatively correlated with alkyl signal usually assigned to cutin and waxes.

For *Q. pubescens* (Fig. 3b), PCA clearly revealed a similar trend as that observed for Q. ilex: a discrimination between projections linked to the two types of surfaces exposed was observed according to PC1 (38.2% of variance), while control and exposed leaves (whatever the exposed side) were separated according to PC2 (22.7%). However, and conversely to what was found for Q. ilex leaves, NMR signal assigned to lignin (i.e., phenol) was associated with control Qp-C, indicating that lignin transformation, via dephenolization, may occur during photodegradation o fboth sides of the leaves. More precisely, phenol and COOH explained the projection of control, while alkyl and O-alkyl explained the projections of Qp-B and Qp-A, respectively. For *Q. pubescens* too, alkyl, linked to cutin and waxes, was thus negatively correlated with the chemical signature of the topside-exposed leaves essentially characterized by the O-alkyl fraction (polysaccharides).
After a 2-month exposure in winter, different tendencies from those observed after summer exposure were found for *Q. ilex* and *Q. pubescens*. For both *Q. ilex* and *Q.pubescens* (Fig. 4a and b), controls were differentiated from exposed leaves according to PC1 (48% and 47.5% of variance, respectively). For *Q. ilex*, control projection was explained mainly by aromatics and phenols, while exposed leaves were positively correlated with a signal assigned to polysaccharides, i.e., O-alkyl. For *Q. pubescens*, control was explained by methoxy, and O-alkyl and exposed leaves were also mainly associated with a signal assigned to polysaccharides, i.e., di-O-alkyl.

## 3.2. Infrared characterization of leaves after photodegradation

Average and MSC corrected FTIR-ATR profiles (Fig. 5) of *Q. ilex* and *Q. pubescens* leaves were different according to the topside- or bottom side exposed (or not) to sunlight radiations and according to the season (summer or winter). Spectral modifications were visible on characteristic bands of polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicellulose and pectins), waxes (mixtures of alkanes, alcohols, aldehydes, fatty acids and esters) and lignin (a complex heteropolymer based on phenylpropanoid subunits with methoxy groups). The 3000-2700 and 720-700 cm⁻¹ regions (Table 1) assigned to aliphatic material (symmetric and asymmetric CH2 and CH3 stretching and CH bending vibrations, respectively) showed bands with different intensity according to the wax composition of the leaf side, which varied according to litter species and the seasonality exposure. For instance, topside of *Q. ilex* leaves was richer in waxes than the bottom side. Numerous spectral bands between 1500 and 1100 cm⁻¹ and between 900 and 750 cm⁻¹ (Table 1) associated with carbohydrates (CN of amides, C-O of ester, alcohol and pyranose ring) or phenylpropanoid rings showed variations after photodegradation, indicating conformation modifications of litter cell wall.

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5:** FTIR-ATR average and MSC corrected profiles of *Quercus ilex* (a, b) and *Quercus pubescens* (c, d) leaves with the top- (a) or bottom-(b) side surfaces exposed to sunlight radiations or not exposed (c) during summer (S) and winter (W) month.</figcaption></figure>

In order to extract the information due to the variance of spectral modifications, PCAs were performed on infrared spectroscopic data from leaves exposed in summer and in winter and for each species.

For *Q. ilex* and when the topside of the leaf was exposed (Fig. 6a), projections from summer exposure were clearly separated from those from winter exposure according to PC1 (52% of variance). After
winter exposure, projections were explained by signals at 2929, 2858 and 721 cm⁻¹, characteristic of the asymmetrical and symmetrical stretching vibration of CH2 groups and of a C-H rocking vibration at 1724,1228 and 1169, cm⁻¹ from C = O stretching of ester functional groups, C-O from alcohols and a C-O-C asymmetrical stretching vibration band from esters (Fig. 6b, Table 1).

These signals are thus characteristic of long aliphatic chains mainly found in cutin and waxes. Projections after winter exposure were also characterized by signals from aromatic skeletal, i.e., signals at 1516 and 1440 cm⁻¹ from C = C stretching of aromatic rings and from phenols, at 1359 cm⁻¹ and 1228 cm⁻¹ from O-H deformation and C-O stretching of phenolics (Table 1). On the other hand, after summer exposure, leaves were characterized by polysaccharides, i.e., C-O-C signal (ring stretching) from glycosides (1005 cm⁻¹) and pyranose ring (914 cm⁻¹) (Table 1).

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Main functional groups assigned to the different vibrations present in FTIR-ATR spectra and PCA loading of *Quercus ilex* and *Quercus pubescens* leaves which surfaces were exposed to sunlight radiations at the top (Top) or back (Bottom) side during two months in summer or winter</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Assignations</th><th colspan="8">Wave number (cm<sup>-1</sup>)</th></tr><tr><th colspan="4">Quercus ilex</th><th colspan="4">Quercus pubescens</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Top</th><th colspan="2">Bottom</th><th colspan="2">Top</th><th colspan="2">Bottom</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Summer</th><th>Winter</th><th>Summer</th><th>Winter</th><th>Summer</th><th>Winter</th><th>Summer</th><th>Winter</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>O-H stretch, H-bonded</td><td>3610</td><td>3286</td><td></td><td>3310</td><td></td><td>3293</td><td></td><td>3296</td></tr><tr><td>C-H stretch methyl and methylene groups</td><td></td><td>2929</td><td>2916</td><td>2937</td><td></td><td>2916</td><td></td><td>2914</td></tr><tr><td>C-H stretch O-CH<sub>3</sub> group</td><td></td><td>2858</td><td>2850</td><td></td><td></td><td>2848</td><td></td><td>2848</td></tr><tr><td>C=O stretch, unconjugated ketone, carboxyl and ester groups</td><td>1724</td><td></td><td>1699</td><td>1734</td><td>1745, 1710</td><td></td><td>1735</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Amide I band (C=O stretch, C-N or N-H in-plane deformation)</td><td></td><td>1652</td><td></td><td>1643</td><td></td><td>1649</td><td></td><td>1657</td></tr><tr><td>Ring-conjugated C=C</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1643</td><td></td><td>1649</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ring C-C stretch of phenyl (symmetric)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1610</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Amide II band or Ring-conjugated C=C</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1541</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ring C-C stretch of phenyl (asymmetric)</td><td></td><td>1516</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1518</td><td></td><td>1518</td></tr><tr><td>CH<sub>2</sub> bending of the methylene chains</td><td></td><td></td><td>1473</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CH<sub>2</sub> scissoring mode of the acyl chains</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1464</td><td></td><td></td><td>1462</td></tr><tr><td>CH<sub>2</sub> bending mode</td><td></td><td>1440</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>O-CH<sub>3</sub>, C-H or N-H deformation symmetric</td><td></td><td>1359</td><td></td><td>1373</td><td></td><td>1361</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Amide III band, CH<sub>2</sub> stretch</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1315</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C-O stretch, Amide III band</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1252</td></tr><tr><td>C-C, C-O and C=O stretches</td><td></td><td>1228</td><td></td><td>1230</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CO-O-C, C-O, C-OH stretches</td><td></td><td>1169</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1172</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C-O, C-C ring stretches</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1124</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C-O deformation</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1076</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1078</td></tr><tr><td>C-O, C-C ring stretches, C-OH bonds of polysaccharides, -CH=CH out-of-plane bending</td><td>1005, 914</td><td>1000, 912</td><td></td><td></td><td>1005, 927</td><td>989, 941</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C-H wagging in methylene group</td><td></td><td>883</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Guanine C3-endo/syn conformation</td><td>796</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>794</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C=C-H deformation of aromatic ring</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>777</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C-H in-plane rocking in methylene group</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>730</td></tr><tr><td>C-H in-plane rocking in methylene group</td><td></td><td>721</td><td>719</td><td></td><td>719</td><td></td><td></td><td>717</td></tr></tbody></table>

When the bottom side of the leaf of Q. ilex was exposed (Fig. 6c), projections were discriminated depending on the season according to PC2 (19% of variance). After winter exposure, projections were explained by similar signals compared to leaves exposed at the topside: 1734 cm⁻¹ from conjugated carbonyl (C = O) stretching of ester functional groups, 1541 cm⁻¹ from C = C of aromatics and signals from alcohols, i.e., 1373, 1230, 1076 cm⁻¹ (Fig. 6d). After summer exposure, leaf chemical signature was characterized by polysaccharides, i.e., C-O-C signal from glycosides(1000 cm⁻¹) and pyranose ring
(912 cm⁻¹) as described top and conversely to leaves exposed at the topside, by signals from alkyl chains from cutin and waxes at 2916, 2850 and 719 cm⁻¹, characteristic of the asymmetrical and symmetrical stretching vibration of CH2 groups and of a C–H rocking vibration of long chains (Fig. 6d). For *Q. pubescens*, when the topside of the leaf was exposed, quite similar results as those found for *Q. ilex* were observed. Discrimination between summer and winter exposures was observed according to PC2 (27% of variance) (Fig. 7a and c). The chemical signature of topside-exposed leaves after winter exposure was explained by signals from long alkyl chains (2916, 2848 and 719 cm⁻¹) and from aromatic skeletal and phenols (i.e., 1518 and 1464 cm⁻¹) from C = C of aromatic rings and phenols, O–H deformation of phenolics at 1361 cm⁻¹) (Fig. 7b). After summer exposure, signals linked to C = O from aliphatic ester and acid (1745 and 1710 cm⁻¹) and those linked to polysaccharides C–O–C signal from glycosides (1005 cm⁻¹) and pyranose ring (927 cm⁻¹) explained leaf chemical signature. When the bottom side was exposed, discrimination between winter and summer exposure was observed according to PC2 (24% of variance) (Fig. 7c). Under these conditions, similar results as described top were found after winter exposure: leaf chemical signature was mainly explained by signals from long alkyl chains (2914, 2848 and 717 cm⁻¹) with hydroxyl groups (C–O stretching at 1078 cm⁻¹) and conjugated C = O (1657, 1462 cm⁻¹) (Fig. 7d). After summer exposure, bottom-side-exposed leaf projections were explained by signals of C = O of aliphatic esters (1736 cm⁻¹), of aromatics (C = C skeletal stretching vibrations at 1610 cm⁻¹ and = C–H out-of-plane bending at 777 cm⁻¹) and pyranose ring at 989 and 941 cm⁻¹.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 6: PCA of FTIR profiles of Quercus ilex (Qi) leaves with the top (a) and bottom (b) surfaces exposed to sunlight radiations or not exposed (c) during summer (S) and winter (W) months. PC1 and PC2 scores (a and c) and loading (b and d) plots**</figcaption></figure>

**4. Discussion**

Photodegradation can play a major role in the predegradation of litter debris under the context of climate change leading to limited resources in water, which hinders biological transformation and organic matter turnover (Huang et al., 2017).

In our study, NMR and FTIR-ATR were used as holistic chemical approaches to characterize leaf chemical modifications after a two-month exposure either in summer or winter. Photodegradation of
the chemical leaf structure was actually found after exposure in summer, which can be explained by
the huge difference in intensity of radiation between winter and summer, especially under the
Mediterranean con-text. NMR results from PCA revealed that for both species, controls were
associated with markers of lignin (phenols and also methoxy functions found in certain aromatic
monomers of lignin, i.e., coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols), while exposed leaves were negatively
correlated with these markers indicating that lignin was less abundant in their chemical structure after
sunlight exposure. These results were confirmed by the ANOVA, showing a significant decrease in lignin
markers (both phenol and aromatic) after the two-month exposure in summer. This goes in line with
previous studies which showed a decrease in lignin chemical markers after photodegradation. Lin et
al. (2015) found that UV exposure reduced the major lignin structural units including aryl ether linkages
(guaiacyl linkages) and the relative abundance of p-hydroxyphenols. Almagro et al. (2015)
demonstrated that UV exposure of leaf litters from *Stipa tenacissima* induced lignin loss and favored
overall litter transformation yields by enhancing the release of soluble compounds from plant cells.
This latter result was also shown by Gallo et al. (2006) for *Pinus edulis* and *Juniperus monosperma*
litters, indicating that photodegradation can have a direct effect on lignocellulose structure and an
indirect effect on litter decomposition by increasing the amount of dissolved organic compound
availability. Results from Austin et al. (2016) showed that solar radiations have reduced lignin
concentrations of different litter species from temperate ecosystems of South America and that blue
and green wavelengths (400-550 nm) have a greater effect than UV light because of the strong light
absorbance of lignin in this spectral region and the high relative proportion of blue and green radiations
with respect to UV quanta in solar spectrum. Wang et al. (2020) confirmed that lignin was subject to
photochemical mineralization after a sunlight exposure and particularly, under blue light because of
its strong absorbance in this spectral region compared to UV-B zone. They quantified that blue light
has contributed 75% of litter decomposition rates after a litter exposure to the full spectrum of
sunlight. In parallel, these authors also showed that polyphenolic compounds played an important role
because leaf litter with higher poly-phenolic content promoted UV-B photodegradation in the
understorey. Together with an increase in cellulose avail-ability and biodegradability, "photopriming"
may thus play an important role in organic matter decomposition under the context of water scarcity
due to climate change (Bornman et al., 2014; Foereid et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2015).

However, the decrease in phenols varied with the side of the leaf exposed for Quercus ilex, with a
weaker decrease when the top of the leaf was exposed. This result can be linked to the thick layer of
cutin and waxes (Farnet Da Silva et al., 2017) that is particularly observable for this Quercus species.
Moreover, PCA shows that when leaves were exposed at their topside, their NMR chemical signatures
were negatively correlated with alkyl compounds and this result was obtained for both Quercus
species. This type of molecules is known to be assigned to long fatty acid and alcohol chains found in
cutin and waxes. This shows that, after sunlight exposure at the topside, the typical signal of cuticle is
less preponderant in the chemical signature of Quercus spp. leaves probably because of
photodegradation. The study of Feng et al. (2011) indeed revealed that aliphatic signals from solid-
state NMR of 13C data of *Pinus taedaneedles* decreased after photodegradation under laboratory
conditions using UV-B irradiance comparable to summer in the midlatitude for 1 to 3 months. This
result is corroborated by the study of Day et al. (2007) who subjected litters of *Larrea tridentata* to
different solar UV-B exposures in the Sono-rian desert (Arizona) and found that concentrations in lipids
declined, underlining the importance of UV-B-driven photodegradation. The fact that cuticle can be
efficiently photooxidized is of particular importance for *Q. pubescens* as a marcescent species. A
preoxidation of the chemical structure of the leaves, while it remains in the canopy in autumn and
later in winter, will thus probably occur prior to active biological decomposition after falling onto litter
(Table 1).
When considering FTIR data, our results revealed that the intensity of the radiation, assessed via either summer or winter exposures, strongly influenced the chemical signature of leaves. Moreover, few differences were observed according to the leaf surface exposed or the Quercus species. Gallo et al. (2006) explained that lignin reduction was species-dependent (in their study, *Pinus edulis* vs *Juniperus monosperma*) and that this was prob-ably due to species-specific litter chemistry, mainly phenol concentrations and linkages between phenylpropane units in the plant structure. The relative proportions of β-Aryl ether (β-O-4), α-Aryl ether (α-O-4) and diphenylether (4-O-5) linkages indeed differ between plant species (softwood and hardwood lignins, grass lignin), explaining the intensity of photodegradation effects. Lanzalunga and Bietti (2000) described the reactivity of lignin to photo-degradation using models including different lignin structural motifs. Here, similar lignin structures in *Quercus* spp. as hardwood lignin species, probably explained the homogeneity of the results found. FTIR analyses showed that aromatics, phenols and alkyl signal assigned to lignin or cutin and waxes, respectively, were clearly less intense after summer exposure. Day et al. (2015), in a study com-paring the effect of sunlight vs irradiance without UV or without UV-B on litter photodegradation of Cynodon dactylon and *Larrea spp.*, underlined the important contribution of UV in litter transformation, though their impact were not proportional to lignin content. Consequently, in our study, less intense UV radiations during winter have probably led to a weaker impact on the chemical signature of leaves, whatever the side exposed.

In this study, modifications in the chemical signature of leaves were found after a 2 month exposure. It has to be noted that many studies on litter photodegradation used litter bags to expose plant debris to natural sunlight (Huang et al., 2017). This methodology thus may include overlapping of plant materials, which reduced the leaf surface exposed. Here, each leaf was pinned on a board to maximize the surface irradiated, which probably explains the photodegradation effect on leaf chemical signature after a 2-month exposure. Moreover, it has to be noted that photodegradation in natura strongly depends on the intensity of UV radiations depending on biomes, on the covering canopy phenology (in deciduous forests), on the relative proportion of gaps vs understorey in the forests and thus on tree density (Wang et al., 2022). In tropical forests, where the cover of the canopy is intense, UV radiation alters the chemistry of lignin and cellulose increasing their degradability and facilitating microbial degradation ("photo-facilitation") (Jiang et al., 2021). In more arid climates, the direct light-induced degradation during the drought season can strongly be involved in litter mineralization. Under the context of climate change, the effects of this process should be considered as an important driver of organic matter turnover in dryland ecosystems (Gliksman et al., 2017).

## 5. Conclusion

Photodegradation of plant debris can play a major role in plant decomposition by counteracting the effect of climate change in arid and semiarid regions. Our study revealed that lignin contents in leaves from two typical Mediterranean species particularly rich in cutin, can be efficiently lowered after sunlight exposure and this is noticeably interesting for marcescent species such as *Quercus pubescens*, whose leaves are longer exposed to UV. Further studies should include the biological component of litter to shed light on the effect of such prephotodegradation on the kinetics of decomposition process.

## Acknowledgements

We would like to thank our Research Unit, the Mediterranean Institute of Biodiversity and Ecology, for the funding of this work via its intern call for proposals. Many thanks to Dr. ArneSaatkamp to facilitate the access to the Botanical Garden of St Jerome which is part of the common service "Experimental Devices" of the Mediterranean Institute of Biodiversity and Ecology. We are also grateful for the recommendations of the reviewers that have improved our manuscript.
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