# Guidelines and metadata model for a repository of volcanic samples

Rosa Anna Corsaro, Claudia d'Oriano, Andréa Di Muro, Adelina Geyer, Lucia Gurioli, Lucia Pappalardo, Maddalena Pennisi, Massimo Pompilio, Claudia Principe, Giuseppe Re

► To cite this version:

Rosa Anna Corsaro, Claudia d'Oriano, Andréa Di Muro, Adelina Geyer, Lucia Gurioli, et al. Guidelines and metadata model for a repository of volcanic samples. Bulletin of Volcanology, 2025, 87, 10.1007/s00445-025-01816-1. insu-05099839

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# Guidelines and metadata model for a repository of volcanic samples

Rosa Anna Corsaro<fnref n="1" /> Ⓒ · Claudia D'Oriano<fnref n="2" /> · Andrea Di Muro<fnref n="3" /> · Adelina Geyer<fnref n="4" /> · Lucia Gurioli<fnref n="5" /> · Lucia Pappalardo<fnref n="6" /> · Maddalena Pennisi<fnref n="7" /> · Massimo Pompilio<fnref n="2" /> · Claudia Principe<fnref n="6" />,<fnref n="7" /> · Giuseppe Re<fnref n="2" />

Received: 23 May 2024 / Accepted: 21 March 2025 / Published online: 9 April 2025
© The Author(s) 2025

## Abstract

The volcanological community manages heterogeneous types of data acquired during research projects and monitoring activities of volcanoes. These data consist of both continuous and discrete measurements and observations, which are carried out by ground-based networks and remote sensing instruments, or during field surveys and laboratory analyses. Many types of volcanological research are largely based on the accurate sampling of rocks erupted during past and ongoing volcanic activity. Each sample represents a “physical object” which should be identified and archived before part of it is removed for analytical purposes. In this context, we recommend assigning the collected samples unique and persistent identifiers, such as the International Generic Sample Number (IGSN). However, although the IGSN allows recording the most essential information of the collected samples (e.g. geographic location, sampling method, and collector), the predefined metadata fields are not exhaustive for volcanic samples, which require additional information such as type and timing of the eruptive event, sample temperature, and texture. Here we design the guidelines necessary to facilitate communication between and search of multiple sample repositories and databases run by disparate institutions. To this aim, we build a metadata model, which integrate the IGSN metadata with supplementary information necessary for the monitoring and research activities carried out by the volcanological community. The long-term curation of collected materials is an important investment for the future. Indeed, these collections are a resource for the production of volcanological data, they reduce the need for repeated sampling, they preserve samples that can no longer be collected, and they allow repeat analyses to be made. The primary aim of this work, based on discussion within the EUROVOLC project, is to provide the basic information for populating a relational database structure in the future for the description of different volcanic samples, physically located in different physical repositories and institutions, in order to facilitate future sharing between different groups of scientists and more complete volcanological studies, by means of the proposed metadata structure.

**Keywords** Rock repository · Volcanic samples · Metadata model · International database · Open science

## Introduction

Rock and sediment sampling for physical, chemical, and mineralogical analysis is a fundamental aspect of volcanological research. Depending on the specific context, sampling is carried out with different methods and instruments

Editorial responsibility: B. J. Andrews

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Rosa Anna Corsaro
rosanna.corsaro@ingv.it

<footnote n="1">¹ Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Osservatorio Etneo, Catania, Italy</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ CNRS, UMR 5276, LGL-TPE, Université Lyon 1, OSUL, Villeurbanne, France</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Geociències Barcelona (GEO3BCN), CSIC, Lluís Solé i Sabarís s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, IRD, OPGC, Clermont-Ferrand, France</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Napoli, Osservatorio Vesuviano, Naples, Italy</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Pisa, Italy</footnote>
(Gurioli et al. 2015). Still active or solidified lava flows require a core bar or a hammer (Harris et al. 2017), while pyroclastic material of ongoing eruptions or stratigraphic sequences can be sampled by hand picking and/or by using a set of dedicated tools (e.g. plastic sheets, buck-ets, core drilling, shovel, trowel, filters, and disdrometers; Re et al. 2021, 2022). Volcanic samples from dredges are generally wrenched with the winch (Barker et al. 2012; Berthod et al. 2022), while core samples from boreholes are collected with different techniques (e.g. diamond, air core, percussion, and continuous or destruction drilling; Nakagawa et al. 2012; Di Roberto et al. 2021; Macrì et al. 2023). Regardless of their origin, volcanic samples usu-ally represent the unique “mementos” of past eruptions, since lava flows and pyroclastic deposits are progressively eroded by atmospheric agents, covered by subsequent eruptions, or reduced/remobilized due to anthropogenic actions. Furthermore, the advancement of new analytical techniques has greatly increased the amount and the vari-ety of samples, as well as the data produced in laborato-ries, whose management requires a proper structure for an effective sharing and utilisation by a wide audience, adhering to the principles of FAIR (Findability, Acces-sibility, Interoperability, and Reuse). In response to this need, numerous multi-level databases, providing interac-tive exploration by users, have been developed. Most of them are focused on archiving data resource, such as geo-chemical rock analyses in GEOROC (http://georoc.mpch-mainz.gwdg.de/georoc/) or in PetDB of EarthChem (http://www.earthchem.org/); others are physical sample reposi-tories or collections such PWD (Petrology and Workspace Database, https://petro.wovodat.org/#/home) and, specif-ically for volcanic rocks, DYNVOLC (OPGC centre de données-DYNVOLC), AntTephra (https://www.tephrochro-nology.org/AntT/about.html), Tephrabase (https://www. tephrabase.org/background.html), RESET (https://c14. arch.ox.ac.uk/reset/), Polar Rock Repository (https://prr. osu.edu/), MNA (https://mna.it/collezioni/catalogo-rocce-sede-di-siena), and VolcAsh DB (https://volcashdb.ipgp. fr/; Benet et al. 2024).

In recent decades, the establishment of European Research Infrastructures, such as the European Plate Observing System (EPOS, https://www.epos-eu.org), has played a crucial role in providing Data, Data products, Software and Services (DDSS) designed for the European scientific community. Preceding and synchronously with EPOS, other European projects, such as FUTUREVOLC (2012–2016) and MEDSUV (2013–2016) focused on volcanology and implemented the e-infrastructures for European Volcano Supersites. Subsequently, EUROVOLC (2018–2021), promoted integration within the European volcanological community. Notably, access to national and regional research infrastructures has been promoted by Trans-National Access

(TNA), which funded calls for European researchers, in pro-jects like EUROVOLC (https://project.eurovolc.eu/) and Geo-Inquire (https://www.geo-inquire.eu/).

Within this framework, the conception of an interna-tional open-access and widely accepted database for vol-canic rock samples emerges as a critical necessity. This database requires a structure for documenting where samples are located along with their associated metadata and data, thereby enhancing the value and facilitating future use of the samples. Moreover, it is imperative for the database to be interconnected across various institutions, streamlining the process of archiving, accessing, and sharing samples. This is not merely a matter of convenience, rather it constitutes an essential step towards facilitating the exchange of samples among rock repositories of different institutions and permit-ting collaborative research.

The metadata structure of each repository must be con-
ceived in order to facilitate the workflow: planning, sam-
pling, storage and preservation of samples, processing analy-
sis, and data sharing in order to facilitate interoperability
with other disciplines (e.g. seismology, geophysics, fluid
geochemistry; Andrews et al. 2022). To this end, we present
the work conducted by several European research institu-
tions of Italy, France, and Spain as part of the EUROVOLC
Project. Specifically, our work focuses on structuring the
guidelines for metadata associated with the collections of
volcanic rock samples and takes steps towards implementing
access to collections of magmatic rocks, according to the
principles inspiring “open science”.

Our efforts fit closely into a broader context where the
definition and organisation of metadata in well-structured
and shared databases represent an immediate challenge that
the volcanological community must face. Specifically, we
aim to shape and expand the data associated with samples of
rock repositories to satisfy the needs of the entire volcano-
logical community, encompassing samples acquired during
ongoing eruptive crises as well as in other geological con-
texts such as historical eruptions, paleoclimatic (ice, marine,
lacustrine, caves) records, oceanographic campaigns, geo-
archeological excavations etc. In this study, we refer as
“repository” to the data storage system, and we use “physical
repository” for the place where physical samples are stored.

The sample's label: the choice of IGSN identifier

Scientific papers and databases generally handle data derived
from samples, which are usually named or labelled based
on non-standardised criteria. It is therefore not uncommon
that names of sample cause some misunderstanding; they
often follow a structure based on toponyms or location acro-
nyms, resulting in different studies of different samples using

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identical sample numbers or names. In addition, another recurrent issue is that samples are sometimes renamed during the course of a study, leading to multiple labels identifying the same object. For this reason, the implementation and utilisation of an international identification system for samples have become increasingly essential.

The International Generic Sample Number (IGSN), provided by SESAR (System for Earth Sample Registration), more recently by SESAR2 (https://www.geosamples.org/) and other allocating agents, is a progressive alphanumeric code that uniquely and globally identifies samples taken from natural environments, together with related sampling features (https://ev.igsn.org/). In Europe, the adoption of IGSN is steadily increasing among institutions managing collections of physical samples. Following this trend, in countries such as France the use of IGSN to identify samples from offshore campaigns is already mandatory. It is evident that the geoscience community derives significant benefits from the use of IGSN. Firstly, a unique identifier for a sample allows the integration of data produced in different labs or published in different articles or databases. Additionally, it improves the interoperability of distinct databases, facilitating the sharing and integration of multidisciplinary data. Moreover, it enhances the efficiency of sample utilisation by making them accessible to scientists through the Global Sample Catalog, where IGSN metadata are available.

While IGSN metadata satisfies the requirements for sample identification and geolocation (Andrews et al. 2022), for a collection of volcanic rocks, it lacks the comprehensive details to fully describe the diverse context of sampling of volcanic rocks, which encompass samples collected during an ongoing (syn-eruptive) eruption to those of historical activity retrieved from outcrops, stratigraphic sections, dredges, or boreholes. Hence, when designing the present guidelines to metadata structure for a repository of volcanic rock samples, we incorporate most of the metadata requested by SESAR while integrating additional information tailored to the specific requirements of the volcanological community.

## Structure of volcanic rocks metadata

The present state of most rock physical repositories, especially those housing older sample collections, typically involves one or more rooms of various sizes, furnished with shelves of boxes containing samples. Each box is labelled, as well as the samples contained within boxes and/or shelves. Generally, there is a list associated with each box, either digitised or, in some cases, still on paper, detailing its content. The information on the samples can be more or less accurate, but, especially for older samples, it rarely goes beyond an acronym, collection year, name of the sampler, and a

brief description of the sampling location; complementary information often only lies in the hands of the sampler. To overcome this rather imprecise condition, first of all, the volcanic community needs a detailed and shared outline of the information that must accompany a sample to make it usable and shareable. This set of information composes the metadata to be organised in a Relational Database structure in the near future. The main concepts behind a relational database, well known in literature, are presented in Appendix Fig. 2.

Here we present the guidelines for a metadata structure organised as illustrated in Fig. 1, comprising two types of descriptors. Categories and related vocabularies must be machine-readable, consistent and interoperable with those of the largest geochemical (EarthChem/PetDB, DIGIS/Georoc, EarthRef/GERM, Astromat,) and mineralogical (MinDat) databases.

The “General” metadata (boxes 1 to 4 in Fig. 1) include the basic information of a sample, while the “Specific” metadata (box 5 in Fig. 1) provide additional details essential to define the volcanic context related to sampling strategies (boxes 5.1 to 5.4 in Fig. 1).

## “General” metadata

This section includes all the information which are essential to characterise a generic sample. In particular:

1. General information: this comprises basic information aimed at identifying the sample and providing an initial characterisation, including classification, description of the sample texture and physical characteristics visible to the naked-eye or with low magnification lenses, as well as geological unit, age, and eruption. It is also desirable to include the reference (preferably using DOIs, if available) of the scientific papers or research works (e.g. PhD Theses) that investigate the sample in order to enlarge background knowledge. The terminology of the field “Sample description” follows the hierarchical classification of the BGS (Gillespie and Styles 1999) partly based on the IUGS recommendations (Le Maitre et al. 2002), for igneous rock types (https://www.bgs.ac.uk/technologies/bgs-rock-classification-scheme). This choice must facilitate user accessibility by allowing easy integration in reference catalogues (e.g. SESAR) or data models (e.g. ODM2, https://www.odm2.org/).

2. Geolocation: this reports information concerning the location (latitude, longitude, and elevation) of the sample and of the physiographic feature (e.g. a volcano or a volcanic area) from which the sample comes from.

3. Collection: this comprises information illustrating the sample’s collection in terms of institution/project that funds the activity, information on cruise/dredge, person-
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1** Metadata structure proposed for a repository of volcanic samples</figcaption></figure>

nel that perform the sampling, date, timing, and methods of sampling, as well as weight, alteration, photo of the collected material.

4) Archiving: this collects the basic information concerning the Institution and scientist in charge of the rock physical repository, as well as the details of sample's position (box, shelf) and comprises, if present, any type of ready-to-use preparation, including daughter samples.

## "Specific" metadata

This section encompasses all the volcanological facets associated with various sources/conditions of sampling and methodology, offering a deeper understanding of the volcanic context. Gathering such information significantly enhances the value of the sample, providing vital details for subsequent study and interpretations.

## Syn-eruptive sampling

Samples collected during an eruption, or soon thereafter, primarily consist of lava flow fragments and pyroclasts. Their study is crucial particularly for volcano observatories and Institutions in charge of the volcanological/petrological monitoring (Re et al. 2021). Indeed, syn-eruptive samples provide information for evaluating the temporal evolution of

the magmatic feeding system, as well as the dynamics and the intensity of the eruption (Watanabe et al. 1999; Cashman and Hoblitt 2004; Corsaro et al. 2009; Di Muro et al. 2014; Gurioli et al. 2018; Vlastélic et al. 2018; Benet et al. 2021; Thivet et al. 2021; Corsaro and Miraglia 2022; D'Oriano et al. 2022; Andronico et al. 2024), allowing derivation of eruption parameters, such as magma volume, total grain size distribution, or column height (Biass and Bonadonna 2011 and references therein).

Samples should be associated with information about: (1) the description of the activity (e.g. effusive, spattering, Strombolian explosions, paroxysm, and ash emission); (2) the start and end dates of the eruption; (3) the description of the eruption site (e.g. name of the crater, altitude of a sector of the eruptive fissure, coordinates, other); (4) the geographical coordinates and elevation of the eruption site, above or below for underwater sample sets.

For samples collected during or soon after an eruption, specific information includes: (1) the eruptive temperature (in case of lava flows); (2) the conditions of transport medium advancement; and (3) the position of the sample within a lava flow (at vent, front, etc.). For pyroclasts (ash, lapilli, and bombs/blocks), additional essential information includes (1) the extent of the sampled area; (2) the thickness of the deposit or lava flow unit; and (3) the weight of the collected pyroclastic sample by unit area.

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## Stratigraphic section

A stratigraphic section is a vertical sequence formed by the accumulation of volcanic products, including both lava flows and pyroclastic rocks. It provides the temporal succession of eruptive events, occurring at a specific distance from the volcanic source and within a particular environment (subaerial, lacustrine, submarine, englacial sequence, etc.). An old lava flow, which is not a syn-eruptive product, can be considered as a unique layer of a stratigraphic section.

A comprehensive description of a stratigraphic section includes both the general information of the section and the details on the sampled layers (Thivet et al. 2020; Di Muro et al. 2021; Prival et al. 2022; Lacombe et al. 2024; Re et al. 2025; Shajahan et al. 2024). The former includes information about the name of the section, its orientation, and thickness. Additionally, a measured stratigraphic log should always be associated, or a graphical representation of the section, either as a photo or as a schematic, highlighting the position of the sample collected within the section. Other information pertains to the layers to which the sample belongs to (1) the geometry (thickness, width, length, slope, orientation); (2) the type of contact between the sampled layer and the top and bottom layers (e.g. conformity, disconformity, angular unconformity, non-conformity, intrusive, fault/tectonic, and presence of palaeosols); (3) the type of lateral continuity (e.g. pinch-out, intertonguing, lateral gradation, continuous); and (4) the description of internal primary structure. For pyroclasts, it is important to indicate the grain size and componentry of the deposits, the degree of grading, sorting, and the sedimentary structures (lenses, plane, or cross stratifications). For lava samples, it is relevant to add information about the lithology (composition and texture), the structures (beddings, shearings, breccia, columns, substructures), and the movement patterns (ramps, deformations, stretching, scritching, cooling/quenching).

The details of the sampled layers aim to recover information on (1) freshness (colour), (2) genesis (e.g. lava flow, pyroclastic rocks, spattering), (3) mechanisms of deposition (e.g. fallout or tractional), and (4) the degree of the magma fragmentation (grain size distribution) and lava flow type.

Eventually, the identification of underlying soils, or any other marker layers, associated with the eruption deposit, can aid in the spatial and temporal correlation of the layers sampled at different locations.

## Dredge

Despite the development of Remotely Operated Vehicle and human-operated submersibles (e.g. Nautile, Hekinian et al. 2000; Jason, Murch et al. 2019), dredging operations remain fundamental and are the more practical way for sampling and characterising submarine volcanic structures and related

products. This sampling method allows collecting a large quantity of material (up to 1 t) statistically representative of the studied area.

In recent decades, more accurate navigation systems and improved geophysical survey methods have allowed researchers to monitor the dredge operation (in time and space) and to ensure that the dredge sampling is representative of the investigated geological terrains. The most recent protocol used for dredging during the on-going volcano-tectonic crises of Mayotte is reported in Berthod et al. (2022). The description of dredge samples includes: (1) general information about the cruise and the ship and specific details about (2) the topographic profile along which the dredge is deployed, (3) the release of the winch, (4) a preliminary lithological and textural description of the collected material, and (5) photos of the bulk products (both within the dredge and with the rocks on the deck).

## Core

Boreholes are drilled into the Earth's crust, penetrating the sedimentary cover to extract core samples, allowing the investigation of layers up to hundreds of meters below the surface. In recent years, cored samples have emerged as indispensable tools for tephrochronology, as well as the study of distal tephra layers within continental and marine sedimentary and glacial sequences (Dunbar and Kurbatov 2011; Narcisi et al. 2005, 2012; Lowe et al. 2015; Giaccio et al. 2017; Smith et al. 2019; Di Roberto et al. 2023). This discipline extends beyond volcanology, finding applications in diverse fields such as tectonics, paleoenvironment, paleoclimatology, and glaciology (Del Carlo et al. 2009; Paulsen et al. 2012; Wilson et al. 2012, Di Roberto et al. 2021).

The description of core samples encompasses a set of information, such as the (1) borehole name and location, (2) the diameter and total thickness, and (3) the starting and ending depth. Successively, it includes information about the core, such as (4) the quality of the recovery and (5) the position of the sample along the borehole. Finally, information about the stratum to which the sample belongs is also provided, such as (6) the position along the borehole, the thickness, and the lithological and textural features. The schematic borehole log and photographs can complete the documentation.

## Description of volcanic rocks metadata

The full description of data and metadata suggested is provided in Table 1. The different columns indicate the NAME (the name of the field), DESCRIPTION (the content of the field), OPTIONALITY (if the information is mandatory or
<table><caption>**Table 1** Description of data and metadata of volcanic samples of a rock repository. In the column "Name", the fields that overlap with the IGSN archive are written in bold; in the column "Vocabulary", the capital letters refer to the URL reported in the footnote</caption><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Optionality</th><th>Example</th><th>Vocabulary*</th><th>Format</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="6"><strong>1. GENERAL INFORMATION</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Sample name</td><td>Name of the sample</td><td>M</td><td>RN1-XB</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>IGSN</td><td>International Generic Sample Number (IGSN) that uniquely identifies the sample. It is assigned by SESAR (System for Earth Sample Registration) or any other allocating agent</td><td>O</td><td>10.58052/IEGVF21RN1XB</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Release date</td><td>Date when the IGSN is released</td><td>O</td><td>2023-02-18</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Material</td><td>Type of material</td><td>M</td><td>Rock, Sediment, Tephra, Other</td><td>A</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Sample type</td><td>Type of sample and related sampling features collected from the natural environment</td><td>M</td><td>Individual sample, core, cuttings, dredge, other</td><td>B</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Classification (rock)</td><td>Formal rock categorization of sample</td><td>M</td><td>Igneous > volcanic, sedimentary, xenolithic, unknown, other</td><td>C</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Sample description</td><td>Terminology that identifies the physical characteristics of the sample visible in the field to naked-eye or with low magnification lenses</td><td>M</td><td>Lava flow, pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic fall etc</td><td>D</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Texture</td><td>Description of the texture of the sample</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. massive, vesicular, laminar, scoriaceous, pumiceous, and obsidian-like)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Volcano name</td><td>Name of the volcano according to the GVP (Global Volcanism Program), Smithsonian Institution</td><td>M</td><td>Stromboli</td><td>E</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Volcano ID</td><td>The volcano number that uniquely identifies it according to the GVP (Global Volcanism Program), Smithsonian Institution</td><td>M</td><td>211,040</td><td>E</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Eruption ID</td><td>The eruption number that uniquely identifies it according to the GVP (Global Volcanism Program), Smithsonian Institution</td><td>O</td><td>2024 CE</td><td>E</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Geological unit</td><td>Lithostratigraphic unit to which the sample belongs, according to scientific literature data. Lithostratigraphic unit is a body of rock that is defined on the basis of its lithologic properties and stratigraphic relations. It is the basic units of geologic mapping (from IUGS-ICS: International Commission on Stratigraphy)</td><td>O</td><td>Serra delle Concaze</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Reference(s)</td><td>Epoch of the sample according to IUGS-ICS: International Commission on Stratigraphy)<br/>Reference(s) of scientific paper(s) that provides details/results achieved on the studied sample<br/>A free text for any information to add to general information</td><td>M</td><td>Holocene</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Notes</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6"><strong>2. GEOLOCATION</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Sample latitude</td><td>Latitude of the sample</td><td>M</td><td>42.142167</td><td></td><td>Number DD.DDDDDDD<br/>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Lat. are –90 to 90 (0 = equator, – numbers are South, + numbers North)<br/>Number DDD.DDDDDDD<br/>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Long. are –180 to 180 (0 = Greenwich), – numbers are West, + numbers are East)</td></tr><tr><td>Sample longitude</td><td>Longitude of the sample</td><td>M</td><td>–2.554555</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>
<table><caption>Table 1 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Optionality</th><th>Example</th><th>Vocabulary*</th><th>Format</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sample elevation</td><td>Elevation of the sample</td><td>O</td><td>1850 m asl</td><td></td><td>Number NNNN.N<br>m asl (above sea level) or bsl (below sea level)</td></tr><tr><td>Navigation type</td><td>Navigation type used to determine latitude and longitude</td><td>O</td><td>GPS</td><td>F</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Primary physiographic feature</td><td>A description of the landscape and landforms</td><td>M</td><td>Volcano</td><td>G</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Name of physiographic feature</td><td>Physiographic feature according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>M</td><td>Stromboli</td><td>H</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Country</td><td>Country where the physiographic feature is located according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>M</td><td>Italy</td><td>H</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>State/province</td><td>State/region/province where the physiographic feature is located according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>M</td><td>Sicily</td><td>H</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Locality description</td><td>Locality where the physiographic feature is located according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>O</td><td>n/a</td><td>H</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Latitude</td><td>Latitude of the physiographic feature (in case of an area it is the starting latitude)</td><td>M</td><td>42.142167</td><td></td><td>Number DD.DDDDDDD<br>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Lat. are –90 to 90 (0 = equator; – numbers are South, + numbers North)</td></tr><tr><td>Latitude (end)</td><td>In case of an area, it is the ending latitude of the physiographic feature</td><td>O</td><td>42.142290</td><td></td><td>Number DD.DDDDDDD<br>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Lat. are –90 to 90 (0 = equator; – numbers are South, + numbers North)</td></tr><tr><td>Longitude</td><td>Longitude of the physiographic feature (in case of an area it is the starting longitude)</td><td>M</td><td>-2.554555</td><td></td><td>Number DDD.DDDDDDD<br>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Long. are –180 to 180 (0 = Greenwich, – numbers are West, + numbers are East)</td></tr><tr><td>Longitude (end)</td><td>In case of an area, it is the ending longitude of the physiographic feature</td><td>O</td><td>-2.544350</td><td></td><td>Number DDD.DDDDDDD<br>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Long. are –180 to 180 (0 = Greenwich, – numbers are West, + numbers are East)</td></tr><tr><td>Notes</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe the geolocation</td><td>O</td><td></td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6"><b>3. COLLECTION</b></td></tr><tr><td>Field program/cruise</td><td>Name of the program, cruise, or project funding the activity of sampling</td><td>M</td><td>CRU-1</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Institution</td><td>Name of Institution leading the activity of sampling</td><td>M</td><td>University of Barcelona</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Company contractor</td><td>Contractor company name</td><td>O</td><td>Best Company spa</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Cruise locality</td><td>Locality where the cruise takes place according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>O</td><td>Mediterranean Sea</td><td>H</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Ship name</td><td>Name of the ship</td><td>M</td><td>Big Vessel</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Leg name</td><td>Name of the LEG, which is a distinct part of the overall cruise</td><td>M</td><td>LEG-1</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Scientist LEG</td><td>Last and first name of scientist in charge of the LEG</td><td>M</td><td>Newton John</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Cruise departure locality</td><td>Locality where the cruise starts according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>M</td><td>Genova, Italy</td><td>H</td><td>Text</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>
<table><caption>Table 1 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Optionality</th><th>Example</th><th>Vocabulary*</th><th>Format</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Cruise departure date</td><td>Cruise starting date</td><td>M</td><td>2023-03-10</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Cruise arrival locality</td><td>Locality where the cruise ends according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>M</td><td>Genova</td><td>H</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Cruise arrival date</td><td>Cruise ending date</td><td>M</td><td>2023-03-25</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Collector/chief scientist</td><td>Last and first name of the sample's collector</td><td>M</td><td>Rossi Francesco Giuseppe</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Collector/chief scientist Address</td><td>Email of the sample's collector</td><td>M</td><td>Rossi@gmail.rst.com</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Collection date</td><td>Date of sample collection (in case of a time frame, it is the starting date of sample collection)</td><td>O</td><td>2020-09-18</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Collection date (end)</td><td>In case of a time frame, it is the ending date of sample collection</td><td>O</td><td>2020-09-19</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Collection date precision</td><td>Valuation of the precision of the sample's collection date</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. exact, unknown, presumed)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Collection time</td><td>Time of sample collection (in case of a time frame, it is the starting time of sample collection)</td><td>O</td><td>10:05:00</td><td></td><td>Time hh:mm:ss<br/>[hh] refers to an hour between 00 and 24;<br/>[mm] refers to a minute between 00 and 59.[ss] refers to a second between 00 and 60</td></tr><tr><td>Collection time (end)</td><td>In case of a time frame, it is the ending time of sample collection</td><td>O</td><td>10:07:00</td><td></td><td>Time hh:mm:ss<br/>[hh] refers to an hour between 00 and 24;<br/>[mm] refers to a minute between 00 and 59.[ss] refers to a second between 00 and 60</td></tr><tr><td>Collection method</td><td>Method by which a sample has been collected</td><td>M</td><td>Manual > Hammer</td><td>I</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Collection method description</td><td>Description of the sampling method</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. total mass, hand picking, water quenching)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Weight</td><td>Weight of the sample</td><td>O</td><td>1450.00 g</td><td></td><td>Number NNNNN.NN g (gram)</td></tr><tr><td>Alteration</td><td>Description of the state of alteration of the sample</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. changes in colour, presence of secondary minerals.)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Photo</td><td>Photo of the collected sample</td><td>O</td><td></td><td></td><td>Image (.jpg;.tiff)</td></tr><tr><td>Photo description</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe photo of the collected sample</td><td>O</td><td></td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Notes</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe the collection</td><td>O</td><td></td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6"><b>4. ARCHIVING</b></td></tr><tr><td>Current archive</td><td>Locality of the rock repository according to the names of the GNS (Geographic Names Server)</td><td>M</td><td>Pisa</td><td>H</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Current archive contact</td><td>Last and first name of the contact person of the rock repository</td><td>M</td><td>Smith Jane</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Preparation</td><td>Sample preparation before storage</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. drying, sieving, cutting)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Racking</td><td>Identifier of the raking where the sample is archived in the rock repository</td><td>O</td><td>A</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Shelf</td><td>Identifier of the shelf where the sample is archived in the rock repository</td><td>O</td><td>A10</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Box</td><td>Number of the box containing the sample</td><td>O</td><td>24</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>
<table><caption>**Table 1 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Optionality</th><th>Example</th><th>Vocabulary*</th><th>Format</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Notes</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe the archiving</td><td>O</td><td></td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td><strong>5.1 SYN-ERUPTIVE</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sample eruption date</td><td>Date when the sample was erupted</td><td>O</td><td>2020–12–13</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Eruption date precision</td><td>Valuation of the precision of the sample's eruption date</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. exact, unknown, presumed)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Sample eruption time</td><td>Time when the sample was erupted (GMT)</td><td>O</td><td>10:07:00</td><td></td><td>Time hh:mm:ss<br/>[hh] refers to an hour between 00 and 24;<br/>[mm] refers to a minute between 00 and 59.[ss] refers to a second between 00 and 60</td></tr><tr><td>Eruption start</td><td>Start date of eruption</td><td>O</td><td>2020–12–01</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Eruption end</td><td>End date of eruption</td><td>O</td><td>2021–01–24</td><td></td><td>Date YYYY-MM-DD</td></tr><tr><td>Type of activity</td><td>Description of the type of activity of the eruption</td><td>M</td><td>(e.g. effusive, spattering, paroxysm, Strombolian explosions, ash emission)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Eruption site</td><td>Description of the eruption location useful to identify the eruptive vent/fissure producing the sample</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. name of the crater, altitude of a sector of eruptive fissure)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Latitude</td><td>Latitude of the eruption site (vent/eruptive fissure)</td><td>M</td><td>42.142167</td><td></td><td>Number DD.DDDDDDD<br/>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Lat. are –90 to 90 (0=equator; – numbers are South, + numbers North)</td></tr><tr><td>Latitude (end)</td><td>In case of an area/fissure, it is the ending latitude of the eruption site</td><td>O</td><td>42.142169</td><td></td><td>Number DD.DDDDDDD<br/>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Lat. are –90 to 90 (0=equator; – numbers are South, + numbers North)</td></tr><tr><td>Longitude</td><td>Longitude of the eruption site (vent/eruptive fissure)</td><td>M</td><td>–2.554555</td><td></td><td>Number DDD.DDDDDDD<br/>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Long. are –180 to 180 (0=Greenwich; – numbers are West, + numbers are East)</td></tr><tr><td>Longitude (end)</td><td>In case of an area/fissure, it is the ending longitude of the eruption site</td><td>O</td><td>–2.554558</td><td></td><td>Number DD.DDDDDDD<br/>WGS 84, decimal degrees. Lat. are –90 to 90 (0=equator; – numbers are South, + numbers North)</td></tr><tr><td>Elevation</td><td>Elevation of the main eruption site (vent/eruptive fissure)</td><td>M</td><td>1200 m asl</td><td></td><td>Number NNNN.N<br/>m asl (meter above sea level) or bsl (below sea level)</td></tr><tr><td>Temperature</td><td>The measured temperature of a lava flow or deposit</td><td>O</td><td>1050.0 °C</td><td></td><td>Number NNNN.N °C</td></tr><tr><td>Temperature method</td><td>The method used for temperature estimation</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. thermocouple, IR camera)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Location</td><td>General statement describing where the sample is located</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. vent/eruptive fissure, ephemeral vent, lava channel, lava front, levees, distal area, proximal area, intermediate area)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Position</td><td>The portion of the lava flow and or the pyroclastic deposit which has been sampled</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. surface, intermediate, base, inside lava tunnel)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Advancement</td><td>Conditions of lava flow advancement during the sampling</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. ongoing, stopped)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Width area</td><td>Width of the sampled area</td><td>O</td><td>25.0 cm</td><td></td><td>Number NNN.N cm (centimeter)</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>
<table><caption>**Table 1 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Optionality</th><th>Example</th><th>Vocabulary*</th><th>Format</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Length area</td><td>Length of the sampled area</td><td>O</td><td>20.0 cm</td><td></td><td>Number NN.N cm (centimeter)</td></tr><tr><td>Thickness area</td><td>Thickness of the sampled area</td><td>O</td><td>2.0 cm</td><td></td><td>Number NN.N cm (centimeter)</td></tr><tr><td>Weight/area</td><td>Ratio between the weight of a sample and the area of its deposition</td><td>O</td><td>2.9 g/cm<sup>2</sup></td><td></td><td>Number NN.N g/cm<sup>2</sup> (gram/centimeter<sup>2</sup>)</td></tr><tr><td>Notes</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe the syneruptive sample</td><td>O</td><td></td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6"><b>5.2 STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION</b></td></tr><tr><td>Section name</td><td>Name of the log (section)</td><td>O</td><td>Log 127</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Section orientation</td><td>Orientation of the face of the section</td><td>O</td><td>NNE-SSW</td><td></td><td>Text (max 50 character)</td></tr><tr><td>Section thickness</td><td>Thickness of the whole outcrop/log</td><td>M</td><td>4 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN.NN m (meter)</td></tr><tr><td>Layer strike</td><td>Strike of the sampled layer: intersection of an inclined plane with a horizontal plane expressed as azimuth in the horizontal plane (a horizontal angle measured clockwise from true north, from 000 to 360°)</td><td>O</td><td>225°</td><td></td><td>Angle 000°</td></tr><tr><td>Layer inclination</td><td>Inclination of the sampled layer: the vertical angle, measured downward, between the horizontal and the line of greatest slope in an inclined plane. The dip direction is always 90° clockwise from the strike direction</td><td>O</td><td>64°</td><td></td><td>Angle 00°</td></tr><tr><td>Layer position</td><td>Position of the sampled layer along the section. It is expressed as the distance from the top of the layer to the top of the section</td><td>M</td><td>5 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN.NN m (meter)</td></tr><tr><td>Layer thickness</td><td>Thickness of the sampled layer</td><td>O</td><td>0.70 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN.NN m (meter)</td></tr><tr><td>Sample vertical position</td><td>Position of sample along the section. It is expressed as the distance from the sample to the top of the layer to which it belongs</td><td>M</td><td>0.65 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN.NN m (meter)</td></tr><tr><td>Layer contact_top</td><td>Type of contact of the sampled layer with the top</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>(e.g. conformity, disconformity, angular unconformity, non-conformity, intrusive, fault/tectonic)</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Layer contact_bottom</td><td>Type of contact of the sampled layer with the bottom</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>(e.g. conformity, disconformity, angular unconformity, non-conformity, intrusive, fault/tectonic)</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Layer continuity</td><td>Type of lateral continuity of the sampled layer</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>(e.g. pinch-out, intertonguing, lateral gradation, continuous at section scale)</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Layer primary structure</td><td>Description of the internal primary structure of the sampled layer</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>(e.g. for pyroclastic layer: plane-parallel-bedding, cross-bedding, lamination, massive, vitrophyro)</td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(e.g. for lava layer: beddings, shearings, breccia, columns, fractures, ramps, deformations, stretching, scrtching, cooling/quenching, folds, foliation)</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>
<table><caption>**Table 1 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Optionality</th><th>Example</th><th>Vocabulary*</th><th>Format</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Layer primary texture (lava)</td><td>Description of the internal constituents for lava</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. vesicles: size, distribution, number/ percentage, shape and orientation)<br>(e.g. crystals (size, distribution, number/ percentage, shape and orientation)<br>(e.g. voids (size, distribution, number/ percentage, shape and orientation)<br>(e.g. enclaves (size, distribution, number/percentage, shape and orientation)<br>(e.g. Fiamme (size, distribution, number/percentage, shape, orientation, gradient)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Layer primary texture (pyroclastic deposit)</td><td>Description of the internal constituents for pyroclastic deposit</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. grain arrangement: clast-supported, matrix-supported)<br>(e.g. grain size: coarse, medium, fine)<br>(e.g. sorting: well-sorted, poorly sorted)<br>(e.g. grading: normal, reverse, non-graded)<br>(e.g. componentry: e.g. monodispersal vs polydispersal and juvenile vs non-juvenile)<br>(e.g. morphology: e.g. sphericity, roundness, flatness)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Markers</td><td>Description of stratigraphic markers</td><td>O</td><td>(e.g. soils underlying the sampled layer, marker layer, dikes, large ballistic bombs scattered in the layer, tree moulds)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Log/schematic/photo</td><td>Log/schematic/photo of the stratigraphic section</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>Image (.jpg,.tiff)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Notes</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe the stratigraphic section</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>Text</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6"><b>5.3 DREDGE</b></td></tr><tr><td>Dredge name</td><td>Name of the dredge</td><td>M</td><td>DR25-A</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Dredge starting water</td><td>Starting water depth of the dredge</td><td>M</td><td>850 m bsl</td><td></td><td>Number NNNN,N m bsl (below sea level)</td></tr><tr><td>Dredge ending water</td><td>Ending water depth of the dredge</td><td>M</td><td>450 m bsl</td><td></td><td>Number NNNN,N m bsl (below sea level)</td></tr><tr><td>Dredge starting winch</td><td>Starting winch release</td><td>O</td><td>n/a</td><td></td><td>Number NNN,N kN (kiloNewton)</td></tr><tr><td>Dredge ending winch</td><td>Ending winch release</td><td>O</td><td>n/a</td><td></td><td>Number NNNN,N kN (kiloNewton)</td></tr><tr><td>Material description</td><td>Lithological and textural description of the collected material</td><td>M</td><td>(e.g. heterolithologic material of angular volcanic, and sedimentary fragments)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Photo</td><td>Photo of bulk material</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>Image (.jpg,.tiff)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Notes</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe the dredge</td><td>O</td><td></td><td>Text</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6"><b>5.4 BOREHOLE</b></td></tr><tr><td>Borehole name</td><td>Name of the borehole</td><td>M</td><td>DR25-UR</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Borehole location</td><td>Detailed information on the location of the borehole</td><td>O</td><td>Contrada Acquachiara, Maletto</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Borehole starting depth</td><td>Elevation of the borehole head</td><td>M</td><td>1350 m asl</td><td></td><td>Number NNNN,N m asl (meter above sea level) or bsl (below sea level)</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>
<table><caption>**Table 1 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Optionality</th><th>Example</th><th>Vocabulary*</th><th>Format</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Borehole ending depth</td><td>Elevation of the borehole bottom</td><td>M</td><td>1250 m asl</td><td></td><td>Number NNN,NN m asl (meter above sea level) or bsl (below sea level)</td></tr><tr><td>Borehole total thickness</td><td>Total thickness of the drilled sequence</td><td>O</td><td>100 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN,NN m</td></tr><tr><td>Borehole diameter</td><td>Diameter of the borehole</td><td>O</td><td>10 cm</td><td></td><td>Number NN,NN cm</td></tr><tr><td>Core recovery</td><td>The length of core recovered against the length drilled in a borehole</td><td>M</td><td>60%</td><td></td><td>Number NN %</td></tr><tr><td>Sample vertical position</td><td>Position of sample along the borehole. It is expressed as the distance from the sample to the borehole head</td><td>M</td><td>25 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN,NN m (meter)</td></tr><tr><td>Stratum position</td><td>Position of the sampled stratum along the borehole. It is expressed as the distance from the top of the stratum to the borehole head</td><td>M</td><td>20 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN,NN m (meter)</td></tr><tr><td>Stratum thickness</td><td>Thickness of the stratum to which the sample belongs</td><td></td><td>10 m</td><td></td><td>Number NNN,NN m (meter)</td></tr><tr><td>Stratum description</td><td>Lithological and textural description of the stratum to which the sample belongs</td><td>M</td><td>(e.g. dark-grey massive unaltered lava)</td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr><tr><td>Borehole drilling log</td><td>Vertical log of the drilling operation</td><td>M</td><td></td><td></td><td>Image (.jpg;.tiff)</td></tr><tr><td>Borehole lithol log</td><td>Vertical log of the drilled lithological sequence</td><td>M</td><td></td><td></td><td>Image (.jpg;.tiff)</td></tr><tr><td>Borehole sampling log</td><td>Vertical log of the sampling points</td><td>M</td><td></td><td></td><td>Image (.jpg;.tiff)</td></tr><tr><td>Notes</td><td>A free text for any information useful to describe the borehole</td><td>O</td><td></td><td></td><td>Text</td></tr></tbody></table>

*Terms which are not present in the list of vocabularies (URL) should be avoided, or eventually inserted under the voice “Other”

A) https://www.geosamples.org/vocabularies/material

B) https://www.geosamples.org/vocabularies/sample-type-object

C) https://www.geosamples.org/vocabularies/classification-rock

D) https://www.bgs.ac.uk/technologies/bgs-rock-classification-scheme/

E) https://volcano.si.edu/search_volcano.cfm

F) https://www.geosamples.org/vocabularies/navigation-type

G) https://www.geosamples.org/vocabularies/physiographic-feature

H) https://geonames.nga.mil/geonames/GNSHome/welcome.html

I) https://www.geosamples.org/vocabularies/collection-method

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>
optional), EXAMPLE (an example to clarify the “descrip-
tion”), and FORMAT (the format of data), VOCABULARY
(terms to use, taken from a glossary, see the footnote of
Table 1). The fields that overlap with the IGSN archive are
written in bold in the column “Name” (Table 1). This table
is not exhaustive, but it represents a starting point to gather
the volcanology community around the need to find a com-
mon language and standardisation to organise the different
sample collections.

Challenges for the future

The management of volcanic samples and their data poses numerous challenges for the volcanological community. Technological advancements continuously evolve metadata structures to accommodate emerging data types and measurement techniques. Furthermore, ensuring seamless integration and interoperability across diverse databases and platforms is crucial for international collaborations involving various institutions and technologies. To this end, standardising metadata across institutions and nations with different collection objectives, methods, equipment, and local practices, is a key goal.

The long-term curation of collected samples is an ongo-
ing effort and requires sustained funding, allocation of
human resources to preserve samples for future studies, and
the availability of physical space for storing and curating
samples. Managing historical collections, comprising sam-
ples dating back centuries preserved at Research Institutions
or Museums (e.g. the collections of meteorites and the col-
lections of samples carried out on exploration trips in the
nineteenth century), poses an even greater challenge due to
the lack of comprehensive information. Moreover, ethical
considerations regarding sample collection from sensitive or
culturally significant sites, necessitate a thoughtful approach
to a conscientious sample usage.

Looking towards the future of the European volcanological
community, our work represents the starting point for imple-
menting criteria for the characterisation and classification of
volcanic rock samples stored in physical repositories. The
need to define and categorise samples at a European level
goes beyond standardisation, as it is a strategic move towards
harmonised volcanological practices useful for research and
monitoring purposes. Furthermore, various disciplines study-
ing volcanic products would benefit from a well-organised

structure of volcanic rock repositories. As an example, acces-
sibility to fresh volcanic samples from a rock physical reposi-
tory could enhance future researches on the critical zone (i.e.
the fragile skin of the Earth where rock meets life; Brantley
et al. 2007), as soils and vegetation developed on volcanic
rocks and pyroclastic products, with distinct timing and phys-
ico-chemical characteristics. In health studies, the character-
istics of volcanic ash samples, such as clasts morphology and
PM concentration, are fundamental to investigate toxicologi-
cal properties (e.g. Horwell and Baxter 2006; Damby et al.
2017; Eychenne et al. 2022). Any global comparative study on
acute and chronic exposures to volcanic emissions may need
access to samples stored in a physical repository of volcanic
solid products.

In the future, we envision the ability to query all rock
repositories within EPOS. A prospective implementation of
the data model discussed in this paper, foresees the develop-
ment of a relational database structure permanently hosted
by the Institutions participating in the EUROVOLC pro-
ject, which can commit the necessary staff time and other
resources to launch and maintain the database. The database
structure will enable querying of all rock repositories via
specific services, using a unified vocabulary and consistent
criteria, in accordance with EPOS platform architectures.
This collaborative approach is essential for ensuring the
long-term sustainability of the infrastructure within EPOS.

This forward-looking initiative aims to streamline acces-
sibility and research capabilities, fostering a harmonised sys-
tem that will enhance collaboration within the volcanologi-
cal community and implement services already provided by
several European Institutions, such as the offer of volcanic
samples stored in rock physical repositories for scientific
study. In particular, within the EUROVOLC project, the rock
repositories of Etna and Vesuvius Observatories of INGV,
as well as the IGG-CNR Pisa Branch, actively participated
in Trans-National Virtual Access Activities (TA/VA). These
physical repositories provide access to carefully selected
volcanic rock samples (e.g. https://doi.org/10.13127/ETNA/
BKROCKCATALOG_1995_2012), following the initiation
of calls for access and subsequent evaluation of submitted
projects by a technical committee. The overarching goal of
this project is to create opportunities for various stakehold-
ers in volcanology, including research institutions, academ-
ics, students, and industries, to utilise facilities, data, and
services, fostering cutting-edge research and implementing
technological innovations.
# Appendix A

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2** Schema of a relational database</figcaption></figure>

**Acknowledgements** We would like to thank Giuseppe Puglisi who, as coordinator of the EPOS Volcano Observations Thematic Core Service, encouraged us to publish this work, which gathers the results of a long-lasting activity started during the EPOS implementation phase. Our thanks also go to Freysteinn Sigmundsson who, as leader of Work Package WP6 of the project EUROVOLC (European Network of Observatories and Research Infrastructures for Volcanology) promoted the harmonisation and networking of the DDSS-026 “Collection of magmatic rocks” among different European partners of the project. Many thanks to the IT colleagues D. Reitano and L. Cacciola for their help in illustrating the future development of rock repositories in the framework of EPOS. We are also grateful to the Editor B.J. Andrews and an anonymous reviewer who, with their targeted suggestions, contributed to improving the manuscript quality. This activity is part of the Geo-INQUIRE activities, funded by the European Commission under project number 101058518 within the HORIZON-INFRA-2021-SERV-01 call.

**Funding** Open access funding provided by Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Volcanologia within the CRUI-CARE Agreement. The work has been supported by the H2020 EUROVOLC project (Grant Agreement ID 731070). The work is funded by the EPOS-SpN RED2022-134516-E grant (MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033), the Intramural CSIC EUROPEAN PLATE OBSERVING SYSTEM - NODO ESPAÑOL DE EPOS (EPOS-ES) (Ref. 202530E050) and the European Plate Observation System-Spanish Node EPOS-SpN / Nodo Español de EPOS (INFRA20005) grant funded by the Programa CSIC en Grandes

Infraestructuras de Investigación Europea. This is Contribution 687 of the ClerVolc Program of Excellence of the International Research Centre of Disaster Science and Sustainable Development.

**Data availability** Metadata of the proposed model are not currently stored. If requested, Table 1 could be provided as an Excel file of Supplementary information.

**Code availability** Not applicable.

## Declarations

**Conflict of interest** The authors declare no competing interests.

**Open Access** This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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