### 6.5.2 Further Recommendations

If a granular certification and standardisation, as recommended by the SCM, bring endeavours and extra efforts to AVENUE partners, we recommend to at least enforce the cybersecurity and data privacy culture through the following key actions:

* Accelerate the compliance process to the UNECE R155 (UNECE R155, 2020) and R156 (UNECE R156, 2020), the new mandatory regulations

* Deploy officially the intended mitigation strategies

* Plan cybersecurity assessments on the organisational and project levels

* Determine clear responsibilities and roles within the AVENUE partners and stakeholders by asserting who are data processors, sub-processors, data controllers, and joint controllers as defined by the GDPR (Regulation (EU) 2016/679, 2016)

* Unify the attack rating approaches among the partners, like threat analysis and risk assessment (TARA) and CVSS approaches

* Maintain permanent and up-to-date risk monitoring through risk matrices for the overall environment not only limited to the vehicle itself

* Conduct data privacy (such as DPIA) and event assessments

* Invest further resources on operators training on cyberattacks to deploy accurate countermeasures on real time while supervising the minibuses

* Identify clear procedures and plans in case of a data leakage

### 6.5.3 Assessment Limitations

With the CAVs' market evolution and rivalry, the automated minibuses are still foreseen as a black box for partners who are not OEMs or hardware providers. It is true that with less knowledge about the embedded technologies and the monitoring tools, the CAV can benefit from higher protection from cyberattacks. However, as security practices dictate, security by obscurity is not a viable solution in the long term. Furthermore, such shelter can represent a blocking wall for a granular cybersecurity and data privacy assessment.

Standards from various standardisation bodies at any stage, published or work in progress, change very often which requires a recurrent update of the SCM. As a matter of fact, the SCM should be updated frequently to cope with the evolving regulation and standardisation bodies publications.

## 6.6 Conclusion

As the public transport sector is dipping their toes into utilising the latest CAV technologies with the vision of offering on-demand, door-to-door, automated fleet of minibuses, this chapter brought forth the concerns regarding the cybersecurity and
data privacy. As these vehicles are highly digitised and connected, they are not only
prone to the same threats as traditional Internet connected devices but also affected
by additional vulnerabilities due to their non-static behaviour and physical outdoor
exposure. This was illustrated through two main attack vectors, namely, in-vehicle
and external communications, and further briefly overviewed the related standards
and regulations applicable in the domain.

As a use case the perceptiveness of the public transport operators, OEMs, and
service providers (involved with or affiliated to the EU AVENUE project) was ana-
lysed through a questionnaire, with the outset to investigate if cybersecurity is taken
thoroughly into account and integrated at an early stage. As per general observa-
tions, a great focus lies on getting the CAVs running and integrating the right ser-
vices in place, where cybersecurity and privacy may easily become an afterthought.
The outcome shows that cybersecurity and privacy are considered and several strat-
egies are in place by the respective parties. However, instead of being pushed by
regulations, more emphasis needs to be in place to naturally woven into the develop-
ment process and life cycle of any related soft- and hardware development. For
example, the OEM adheres the most for its implementation, but as the manufacturer
of a CAV, they are under close observation of all the safety and security standards
regulations, whereas any service developer and/or fleet managers who are providing
higher level (software) functionalities are not.

From the assessment, a further set of recommendations is rationalised, and a
standards coverage map is presented that organises known standards and legal poli-
cies into several layers (categories). It aims to provide a roadmap to ease the integra-
tion of cybersecurity and data privacy aspects. Finally, some limitations of the
current work are pointed out attributed to the fast changing landscape of standards
and regulations, as well as limited transparency due to highly competitive market
and therefore reluctance of providing insights in ongoing/active developed products.

**Acknowledgements** This project has received funding by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 769033.

References

Ali, I., & Li, F. (2020). An efficient conditional privacy-preserving authentication scheme for Vehicle-To-Infrastructure communication in VANETs. *Vehicular Communications*, 22, 100228.

Auto-ISAC. (n.d.). Best Practices. https://automotiveisac.com/best-practices/

Benyahya, M., Collen, A., Kechagia, S., & Nijdam, N. A. (2022). Automated city shuttles: Mapping the key challenges in cybersecurity, privacy and standards to future developments. *Computers & Security*, 122, 102904.

Benyahya, M., Kechagia, S., Collen, A., & Nijdam, N. A. (2022). The interface of privacy and data security in automated city shuttles: The GDPR analysis. *Applied Sciences*, 12(9), 4413.

Bhusal, N., Gautam, M., & Benidris, M. (2020). Cybersecurity of electric vehicle smart charging management systems. arXiv.

BMW. (2020). *GAIA-X: The European project kicks off the next phase. Technical report*. Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMW). www.bmwi.de
Data for Road Safety. (2021, July). *Privacy statement-data for road safety. Technical report.* Data for Road Safety. https://www.dataforroadsafety.eu/

DATEX-II. (n.d.). Datex II specifications. https://datex2.eu/datex2/ specifications

Dibaei, M., Zheng, X., Jiang, K., Abbas, R., Liu, S., Zhang, Y., Xiang, Y., & Yu, S. (2020). Attacks and defences on intelligent connected vehicles: A survey. *Digital Communications and Networks*, 6(4), 399–421.

Directive (EU) 2016/1148. (2016, July). *Measures for a high common level of security of network and information systems. Technical report.* The European Parliament and of the Council.

Elliott, D., Keen, W., & Miao, L. (2019). Recent advances in connected and automated vehicles. *Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition)*, 6(2), 109–131.

El-Rewini, Z., Sadatsharan, K., Selvaraj, D. F., Plathottam, S. J., & Ranganathan, P. (2020). Cybersecurity challenges in vehicular communications. *Vehicular Communications*, 23, 100214.

European Automotive Manufacturers Association (ACEA). (2019). *Roadmap for the deployment of automated driving in the European Union. Technical report.* ACEA.

European Union Agency for Cybersecurity. (2022, January). *Data protection engineering. Technical report*. ENISA. www.enisa.europa.eu

Ferrara, P., Mandal, A. K., Cortesi, A., & Spoto, F. (2021). Static analysis for discovering IoT vulnerabilities. *International Journal on Software Tools for Technology Transfer*, 23(1), 71–88.

Guidelines 1/2020 on processing personal data in the context of connected vehicles and mobility related applications. Technical report. The European Data Protection Board (2020, January).

Guidelines 1/2020 on processing personal data in the context of connected vehicles and mobility related applications. Technical report. The European data Protection Board (2021, March).

ISO/PAS 5112. (2021). *Road vehicles - Guidelines for auditing cybersecurity engineering. Technical report*. ISO.

ISO/SAE 21434. (2021). *Road vehicles - Cybersecurity engineering. Technical report*. ISO.

ITU-T. (2020). X. 1371 Security threats to connected vehicles. Technical report. ITU-T.

Kim, S., & Shrestha, R. (2020). *Automotive cyber security*. Springer.

Maple, C., Bradbury, M., Le, A. T., & Ghirardello, K. (2019). A connected and autonomous vehicle reference architecture for attack surface analysis. *Applied Sciences (Switzerland)*, 9(23), 5101.

Moabi. (n.d.). Connected vehicles. https://moabi.com/en/home/

NIST. (n.d.). NVD - CVSS v3 calculator. https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln-metrics/cvss/v3-calculator

Noh, J., Jeon, S., & Cho, S. (2020). Distributed blockchain-based message authentication scheme for connected vehicles. *Electronics (Switzerland)*, 9(1), 74.

Parkinson, S., Ward, P., Wilson, K., & Miller, J. (2017). Cyber threats facing autonomous and connected vehicles: Future challenges. *IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems*, 18(11), 2898–2915.

Proposal of Directive (EU) 2016/1148. (2020, December). *Measures for a high common level of cybersecurity across the Union, repealing Directive (EU) 2016/1148. Technical report.* European Commission.

Regulation (EU) 2016/679. (2016, April). *On the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation). Technical report.* The European Parliament and of the Council.

Regulation (EU) 2019/2144. (2019, November). *Type-approval requirements for motor vehicles and their trailers, and systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles, as regards their general safety and the protection of vehicle occupants and vulnerable road users. Technical report.* The European Parliament and of the Council.

Regulation (EU) 2022/1426. (2022, August). *Uniform procedures and technical specifications for the type-approval of the automated driving system (ADS) of fully automated vehicles. Technical report.* The European Parliament and of the Council.

SAE. (2021, July). *Surface vehicle information report. Technical report*. SAE.

Schoitsch, E., & Schmittner, C. (2020). Ongoing cybersecurity and safety standardization activities related to highly automated/autonomous vehicles. In *AMAA 2020: Intelligent system solutions for auto mobility and beyond* (pp. 72–86). Springer.
Suh, S.-B. (2020). Understanding the UNECE WP.29 Cybersecurity regulation — PERSEUS. https://cyberperseus.com/understanding-the-unece-wp-29-cybersecurity-regulation/

Synopsys. (n.d.). What is SAST and how does static code analysis work? https://www.synopsys.com/glossary/what-is-sast.html

Tenable. (n.d.). Nessus vulnerability assessment. https://www.tenable.com/products/nessus

UNECE: R155. (2020). Technical report. UNECE.

UNECE: R156. (2020, April). Technical report. UNECE.

Veitas, V.K., & Delaere, S. (2018, May). In-vehicle data recording, storage and access management in autonomous vehicles. arXiv.

Wu, W., Li, R., Xie, G., An, J., Bai, Y., Zhou, J., & Li, K. (2020). A survey of intrusion detection for in-vehicle networks. *IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems*, 21(3), 919-933.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
<figure><img src="image_96.png" /></figure>

Chapter 7

# Technical Cybersecurity Implementation on Automated Minibuses with Security Information and Event Management (SIEM)

Athanasios Papadakis, Antonios Lalas, Sofia Petridou, Konstantinos Votis, and Dimitrios Tzovaras

**Abstract** This chapter examines the integration of security information and event management (SIEM) systems into the cybersecurity infrastructure of automated minibuses to emphasize their critical importance in today’s urban mobility ecosystems. As automated minibuses become an integral part of smart city initiatives, ensuring their cybersecurity is critical in the context of increasingly sophisticated cyber threats. SIEM systems are becoming indispensable tools for detecting, responding to, and mitigating such threats through real-time monitoring, data collection, and analysis from multiple sources. This chapter examines various open-source SIEM solutions, their operational benefits, and the challenges associated with implementing these cybersecurity measures in automated mobility. It addresses the critical need for advanced security protocols, customization to meet specific operational requirements, and the balance between comprehensive cybersecurity coverage and resource constraints. Through an analysis of common SIEM platforms and their application to protect automated minibuses from cyber threats, the chapter highlights the critical role of SIEM in strengthening the cybersecurity defences of automated mobility ecosystems, ensuring passenger safety, and maintaining the integrity of smart urban transport networks.

<footnote>A. Papadakis
Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Information Technologies Institute,
Thessaloniki, Greece</footnote>

<footnote>Department of Applied Informatics, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece</footnote>

<footnote>A. Lalas (✉) · K. Votis · D. Tzovaras
Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Information Technologies Institute,
Thessaloniki, Greece</footnote>

<footnote>e-mail: lalas@iti.gr</footnote>

<footnote>S. Petridou
Department of Applied Informatics, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece</footnote>
## 7.1 Introduction

In a time marked by continuous technological advancement, the introduction of automated minibuses has revolutionized urban transportation. These vehicles rely on a sophisticated interplay of systems, sensors, and data streams to navigate and assist passengers. However, this technological breakthrough also brings forth a pressing concern: cybersecurity. The safety and security of both passengers and the broader transportation environment demand our utmost attention. Within this chapter, a security analysis is presented regarding the pivotal role that security information and event management (SIEM) solution plays in fortifying the defences of automated minibuses. SIEM solutions are suitable for real-time monitoring and response, gathering and analysing data from a multitude of sources within the vehicles' network. They provide a robust shield against threats such as data breaches, hacking attempts, and system vulnerabilities. Within the upcoming sections, an attempt is made to describe the indispensable necessity for SIEM in safeguarding an automated ecosystem which includes, among other, automated minibuses, enhancing their safety, and upholding the integrity of a continually evolving transportation domain.

## 7.2 Basics of a SIEM Software Solution

SIEM is a combination of two different security software: SIM and SEM. In 2005, Armit Williams described the SIEM term and presented the information gathered from network and security devices, the identity, and access management applications, from tools considering the vulnerability and policy of the monitored system, the operating system, the database, application logs, and, lastly, the external threat data (Williams & Nicolett, 2005). The mixture of the above assists the security administrators to utilize every possible source of information to detect and repel cyberattacks to their system. The importance of IT security grows exponentially every year, while the attacks and attackers are getting more sophisticated and less detectable. For this reason, security administrators should gather and analyse every possible source of information from each component of their system, as illustrated in Fig. 7.1.

<figure><img src="image_97.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7.1 Main activities and resources for SIEM</figcaption></figure>
## 7.3 Most Popular SIEM Open-Source Software

Open-source SIEM are software which have made available to the public their cybersecurity infrastructure and the architecture of their components. This allows the IT experts to adjust the available software to their needs and remove or lessen any limitations. This list takes into consideration the most popular implementations and by no means has a promoting or advertising nature. The candidates can be different depending on search criteria and occasionally are subject to the subjective point of view of each researcher. An overview of the most popular SIEM is presented in Table 7.1 and described next.

Snort is a popular network intrusion detection system (NIDS), which scans all traffic to mainly sniff, log, and perform real-time analysis on the network flows. There is a visualization of the real-time stream of packets and dump packets with the option to perform analysis (Roesch, 2011).

MozDef is an open-source SIEM created by Mozilla with the main objective to automate the security incident handling process and facilitate the real-time activities of incident handlers. It uses Elasticsearch (Gormley & Tong, 2015) for storing data and runs as a cluster, making it scalable and redundant.

Wazuh is a platform used for all three main objectives in cybersecurity, threat prevention, detection, and response. It includes endpoint security agents, deployed to the monitored systems and data visualization of the gathered information (Wazuh, 2023a).

ELK Stack fulfils the need for log management and analytics. Mainly the ELK stack is a combination of three different open-source products: Elasticsearch (Gormley & Tong, 2015), Logstash (Logstash, 2023), and Kibana (Kibana, 2023). These different components are most used for monitoring, troubleshooting, and securing IT environments (Elastic, 2023).

AlienVault OSSIM is also an open-source software which combines log storing functions and correlation capabilities. A basic attribute of OSSIM is the utilization of different other open-source projects to create a holistic SIEM solution (AlienVault, 2017).

OSSEC is a scalable, multi-platform, open-source host-based intrusion detection system (IDS) (OSSEC Project Team, 2019). It is commonly used for log analysis,

<table><caption>**Table 7.1** Different popular open source SIEM software solutions</caption><thead><tr><td>Name</td><td>Written In</td><td>Latest release</td><td>Works on</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Snort</td><td>C++</td><td>3.0</td><td>Cross platform</td></tr><tr><td>MozDef</td><td>JavaScript, Python</td><td>3.1.2</td><td>Cross platform</td></tr><tr><td>Wazuh</td><td>JavaScript, Python, C</td><td>4.0.4</td><td>Linux</td></tr><tr><td>ELK Stack</td><td>Shell, Go, Docker</td><td>7.10</td><td>Cross platform</td></tr><tr><td>OSSIM</td><td>Java, Python, C, PHP, Perl</td><td>5.7.5</td><td>Linux</td></tr><tr><td>OSSEC</td><td>C</td><td>3.6.0</td><td>Cross platform</td></tr><tr><td>Security Onion</td><td>Python</td><td>2.3.21</td><td>Linux</td></tr><tr><td>MISP</td><td>PHP/Python3</td><td>2.4.1.07</td><td>Linux</td></tr></tbody></table>
monitoring, and analysing firewalls, intrusion detection systems, web, servers, and authentication logs.

*Security Onion* uses a spectrum of open-source software with the main objective to ensure the proper intrusion detection, monitoring, and log management of the targeted system. The areas that Security Onion excels in are packet capture (PCAP) forensics, analyst virtual machine (VM), and as an external SIEM (S.O. Solutions, 2023).

*Malware Information Sharing Program (MISP)* collects, stores, and distributes security indicators and discovered threats. MISP is commonly used for fraud detection, information gathering, or threat hunting. Target users for this tool are security professionals (MISP, 2023).

## 7.4 SIEM Benefits for CAV Infrastructure

Not all the SIEM are created with the same design. As a result, there is not one that fits all needs. The main benefits of an average SIEM system can be sum up to log data management, compliance reporting, and threat intelligence.

Log collection not only enables real-time tracking of changes within the ecosystem but also allows for detailed monitoring of individual machines that may be compromised by attackers. This capability provides crucial insights into both the events that occurred and the subsequent analysis necessary to uncover vital evidence, such as the root cause of the exploitation. Normalization is an equally important tool for a security administrator which identifies and gathers complete information of the ecosystems' security status. The extraction of the essential data from the noise of the system is a major attribute of the SIEM. These data can be cross checked with known databases for malicious signatures, potential malware, and machine learning algorithms to identify patterns and propagation trends and map unknown categories. Notification and alerts are an inseparable part of the security concept, since without it the resource cost of the permanent SIEM supervision would outweigh its benefits.

The efficiency in incident response lies within the proper configuration and maintenance of the SIEM software. If this challenge is accurately addressed, then the incident handling activities will result in numerous benefits to the security administrators, such as saving resources and time. All the required information is going through one single interface making it easier to be examined and further analysed. In addition, some SIEM software also has the ability to manually include user and entity behavioural analytic, to potentially detect threats from both people and software before they cause any disturbance. Moreover, the intelligence produced from the analysis can be distributed to other platforms, which is a very useful characteristic considering CAV infrastructure. This can be easier to appreciate with the use of an example. Let's say that a CAV fleet has been targeted in a country from a group of attackers, with a zero-day attack. Regardless of the result from this kind of malicious action, all the gathered information and mechanisms will be distributed to
the other cities which are also hosting CAVs' fleet. Automatically, the possibility of
causing the same crisis with some similar kind of attack is close to zero.

Security incident detection is just the tip of the security iceberg. It generally identifies activities such as unauthorized access and use of the system, changes to system's firmware, and any other malicious actions. Threat response flow, which can be set and defined by the security administrators, is the key to properly deflect and minimize the hazard caused by an attack. A common observation is that companies, Internet of Things ecosystems, or even infrastructures like CAVs are better equipped with SIEM software than without it. Incident handling with the use of that kind of software is exponentially faster and with less human resources than having to examine all the logs to find the attacker's footsteps. The SIEM identifies and correlates those events, from a bird's eye view, while ensuring the efficiency of malicious tracking actions.

## 7.5 Limitations of SIEM

SIEM is a software solution that aggregates and analyses the activity of many different resources across the infrastructure under investigation. The automation of those activities conceals some complexities. One of them is the extensive configuration which must be done to the software to be tailored to the system's needs. Misconfiguration can cause several problems, depending how major is the accident. Nevertheless, this applies to a lot of software, and it is easily answered by having experienced staff executing such tasks. The above limitation leads to another disadvantage of the SIEM software. The perfect setting up of this kind of software is costly and time-consuming, something which will be reversed in the long run. However, when the first installation takes place, and for a short period after it, the need for time and modifications will be immense. A key part of the SIEM software is the definition and creation of rules, whereas the lack of accurate configuration is possible to lead to false positives. For that reason, constant monitoring and examining of those rules are needed from the security administrators to have an excellent result. The combination of the above reveals the need to have trained and around-the-clock staff for a smooth cybersecurity operation. The information which will be stored through the log management is usually enormous, and since it is about ecosystems such as CAVs, it will need sufficient staff who will not get distracted by the noise captured from the software.

## 7.6 Characteristics of the SIEM Platform

SIEM aggregates and analyses the activity of many different resources across our infrastructure (Kotenko & Chechulin, 2012). Security data are collected, and the software stores, normalizes, aggregates, and apply analytics to that data to
<figure><img src="image_98.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.2** A typical SIEM architecture. The SIEM system accepts input from various security devices and sensors</figcaption></figure>

discover trends, detect threats, and investigate alerts as it is shown in Fig. 7.2. This system could perform the analysis on the platform but also on the CAN bus. For instance, MISP is a sharing platform which stores and distributes security indicators and discovered threats (Wagner et al., 2016). This platform is useful for those involved with security incidents and malware research. The users benefit from having a well-tested platform to structure the vast number of data points available when it comes to security threats. The tooling allows interaction with other software, like IDS. MISP is commonly used for fraud detection, information gathering, or threat hunting. In MISP, a user can describe an event with multiple attributes while providing as much information as possible, or one can only put a minimum of information for an event. The pull mechanism allows a MISP instance to discover available events on a connected instance and download any new or modified events. It automatically goes through each of the event IDs that are eligible, converting them to MISP’s JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) format and “POST request” them to the event creation API of the remote end. If the event already exists, it can be edited, while the remote side will match the event by universally unique identifier to a local event and return the URL that could be used to update the event. It shows an index, description, events, attributes, correlations found, proposals, active users, organizations, discussion threads, discussion posts, and number of instances to ease the usage of MISP. The Computer Incident Response Centre Luxembourg (CIRCL) provides a feed of events that can be easily shared, such as open-source intelligence (OSINT) events and attributes that are classified as unclassified information that can be distributed without any restriction.
## 7.7 Investigation on Diverse Implementations within AVENUE

Considering the advantages of the SIEM along with the necessity of advanced security mechanisms, it is highly recommended to have it embedded within the CAV ecosystem. The SIEM can be deployed in several positions within the CAV environment. It can be installed in the cloud, or it can be installed inside the CAV. Both placements have their use in the overall architecture of the system. Since the speed and the robustness of the security system are critical in any automated minibus, the proposed position is considered as an isolated computer unit inside the vehicle with the objective of monitoring the whole network of the CAV. It provides an additional layer of security in case the vehicle gets compromised since it will allow the software to be part of detection, prevention, and response mechanisms. As is commonly found, many of the components inside the vehicle are defined by a characteristic network behaviour, in addition to their unique log files performance when they are operating under normal circumstances. The in-vehicle network system is comprised of vehicle electronic control units (ECUs) interconnecting with each other to create an Internet of Things ecosystem. The security administrators that will monitor the SIEM software will be able to recognize and detect in time possible attacks. This solution will provide real-time analysis of security alerts generated by the applications and network hardware which are implemented inside the vehicle. In this context, two different SIEM solutions are presented. The first one is the Security Onion and the second the Wazuh.

**Security Onion** The installation of SecOnion for the simulated environment required approximately 15 GB of disk space, 2 GB of RAM, and 2 dedicated CPU cores of a 4.2-GHz processor. Each one of these is used for:

* Central processing unit (CPU): Used to parse incoming events, index incoming events, search metadata, capture PCAP, analyse packets, and run the front-end components. As data and event consumption increases, a greater amount of CPU will be required.

* Random-access memory (RAM): Used for Logstash, Elasticsearch, and disk cache for Lucene, Snort/Suricata, Zeek, Sguil, etc. The amount of available CPU will directly impact search speed and reliability, as well as ability to process and capture traffic.

* Disk: Used for storage of indexed metadata. A larger amount of storage allows for a longer retention period.

In this set-up, and as presented in Fig. 7.3, the Security Onion was able to run properly and without any operational restrictions. The system under monitoring was another VM from where the captured data were analysed and visualized in Squert (Visscher, 2014). Additionally, Sguil was used as an intuitive GUI that provided access to real-time events, session data, and raw packet captures (Visscher, 2014). Finally, the Security Onion is a suitable tool to facilitate the practice of network
<figure><img src="image_99.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.3** Security Onion VM specifications</figcaption></figure>

security monitoring and event-driven analysis. The information shown in Sguil window, as presented in Fig. 7.4, includes the alert’s identification, date, and time the event took place, source and destination IP address, and the corresponding ports.

**Wazuh** An additional installation was performed to examine how user-friendly is the software, in addition to Security Onion where it was essential to have some experience in security domain. Wazuh provides a security solution capable of monitoring the infrastructure, detecting threats, intrusion attempts, system anomalies, poorly configured applications, and unauthorized user actions. It also provides a framework for incident response and regulatory compliance, as shown in Fig. 7.5.

In Fig. 7.6, the specifications for the Wazuh server are presented. In these settings Wazuh was able to run properly without any delays and restrictions. Wazuh server runs the manager and the API, where it collects and analyses data from the monitored agents. Additionally, there was an installation of two additional agents to
<figure><img src="image_100.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.4** Sguil's window shows there are multiple events making available timestamps, destina-
tion and source, and event message information for analysis by the security administrators</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_101.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.5** Wazuh server for monitoring, incident response, and regulatory compliance</figcaption></figure>

examine the proper function of the SIEM software. In this case, the agents were two
individual OS: Ubuntu 18.04, and Ubuntu 20.04. Wazuh agent runs on the moni-
tored host, collecting system log and configuration data, allowing the detection of
intrusions and anomalies. Communication with the server is mandatory, which for-
wards the collected data for further analysis. The compatibility between agent and
manager/server is guaranteed when the manager version is greater or equal to the
agent's version. Additional information for the installation and the requirements can
be found at Wazuh's official site.

To test the Wazuh implementation in real scenario, the installation of Kali Linux
was required. Kali can be installed using 128–512 MB of RAM and 2 GB of disk
space. If 128 MB is available, it will be able to run only a basic SSH server with no
desktop, and if it has 512 MB of RAM, it will run the default GNOME desktop with
<figure><img src="image_102.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7.6** Wazuh server VM specifications</figcaption></figure>

the full meta package. The recommended specifications are 2048 MB of RAM and 20 GB of disk space and at least one CPU supported by at least one of the amd64, i386, armel, armhf, or arm64 architectures.

The finalized test bench was implemented with four RAMs, two agents, one manager, and the attacker, as illustrated in Fig. 7.7. The attacker performed a brute force attack on the agents, which are the victims in this case, and the response of the system will be further analysed in the following figures.

The Wazuh databases store information related to agent keys and file integrity monitoring (FIM)/Root check event data. This information is highly optimized to be handled by the core. To provide well-structured data that can be accessed by the user or the Wazuh API, new SQLite-based databases have been introduced in the Wazuh manager (Wazuh, 2023b). The database synchronization module is a user-transparent component that collects the following information from the core:
<figure><img src="image_103.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7.7 Testbench for Wazuh implementation</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_104.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7.8 Wazuh user interface modules</figcaption></figure>

* Agent information: name, address, encryption key, last connection time, operating system, version, and shared configuration hash

* FIM data: creation, modification, and deletion of regular files and Windows registry entries

* Root check-detected defects: issue message, first detection date, and last alert time

* Static core settings: maximum permitted agents or SSL being enabled for Authd

The above description is provided by the official Wazuh documentation as precise description of the dashboard, which is shown in Fig. 7.8.
<figure><img src="image_105.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7.9 Security event dashboard</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_106.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7.10 MITRE attack database analysis dashboard</figcaption></figure>

Figure 7.9 presents a screenshot from the security event module. The information visualized here includes the count of the alert levels, the corresponding time-stamps, and a pie chart with the most attacked agents, among other important information for the security administrator. Additionally, there is a second tab, called “Events,” where a more detailed explanation is available.

MITRE attack (The MITRE Corporation, 2020) is a knowledge base of adversary tactics and techniques based on real-world cases of cybersecurity threats. It is globally accessible and documents the procedure of the attacks. Essentially is a database which answers to the question of “How” an adversary achieves a tactical objective by performing an attack. This feature allows the user to additionally
customize and enhance the database, as there is an option to include specific information related to cyberattack techniques, as presented in Fig. 7.10.

## 7.8 Conclusion

In the advancing landscape of smart city infrastructure, the appearance of automated minibuses has revolutionized urban transportation, offering innovation and efficiency. However, since automated minibuses must be continuously connected to their surroundings, a critical matter has to be highlighted: cybersecurity. The discussed solution, SIEM, stands as a cornerstone of real-time monitoring and response, collecting and analysing data from a plethora of sources within the vehicles' system. Examining some of the most popular open-source SIEM platforms has revealed their diverse features and benefits. While SIEM offers numerous advantages, it is crucial to recognize its limitations, such as the need for extensive configuration, potential misconfigurations, and the resource-intensive nature of initial set-up. Considering the possible implementations makes it clear that SIEM should be a core part of the automated minibuses' infrastructure. An isolated deployment within each vehicle is suggested, as deployed in Copenhagen and Geneva pilot sites of the AVENUE project, since this solution allows comprehensive network monitoring while providing an additional layer of security and real-time analysis to detect and respond to potential malicious actions. In conclusion, the incorporation of SIEM as a defence mechanism is not just a necessity but a vital step towards ensuring the safety and security of passengers and the long-term sustainability of transportation systems.

**Acknowledgements** This project has received funding by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 769033.

## References

*   **AlienVault.** (2017). OSSIM: The Open Source SIEM | AlienVault.

*   **Elastic.** (2023). Recherche open source: les créateurs d'Elasticsearch, de la Suite ELK et de Kibana | Elastic.

*   **Gormley, C., & Tong, Z.** (2015). *Elasticsearch: The definitive guide: A distributed real-time search and analytics engine*. O'Reilly Media, Inc.

*   **Kibana.** (2023) Kibana: Exploration, visualisation et découverte des données | Elastic.

*   **Kotenko, I., & Chechulin, A.** (2012). Common framework for attack modeling and security evaluation in SIEM systems. In *Proceedings - 2012 IEEE Int. Conf. on Green Computing and Communications, GreenCom 2012, Conf. on Internet of Things, iThings 2012 and Conf. on Cyber, Physical and Social Computing, CPSCom 2012* (pp. 94–101).

*   **Logstash.** (2023). Logstash: collecte, transformation et analyse de logs | Elastic.

*   **MISP.** (2023). Open Source Threat Intelligence Platform & Open Standards For Threat Information Sharing (formerly known as Malware Information Sharing Platform).
OSSEC Project Team. (2019). OSSEC - World's most widely used host intrusion detection system - HIDS.

Roesch, M. (2011). Snort-network intrusion detection & prevention system.

S. O. Solutions. (2023). Security onion solutions.

The MITRE Corporation. (2020). Mitre Att&CK.

Visscher, B. (2014). Sguil - Open source network security monitoring.

Wagner, C., Dulaunoy, A., Wagener, G., & Iklody, A. (2016). MISP: The design and implementation of a collaborative threat intelligence sharing platform. In *Workshop on information sharing and collaborative security (WISCS)* (pp. 49–56).

Wazuh. (2023a) Wazuh-modules - Daemons Wazuh 3.7 documentation.

Wazuh. (2023b) Wazuh: The Open Source Security Platform. Wazuh documentation overview, https://documentation.wazuh.com/current/

Williams, A., & Nicolett, M. (2005). Improve it security with vulnerability management. Gartner ID (G00127481).

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
<figure><img src="image_107.png" /></figure>

# Chapter 8
## Persons with Reduced Mobility (PRM)
### Specific Requirements for Passenger Transportation Services

Linda Mathé, Markus Dubielzig, and Matthias Lindemann

**Abstract** The use of fully automated vehicles (AVs) in public transport has the potential to revolutionise the complete landscape of public transport (PT). Fully automated vehicles can provide the necessary frequency even in places with a low passenger volume. In addition, these vehicles can stop even in places which are not yet integrated into the public transport network, thus better meeting the needs of passengers as public transport becomes more and more individual. The absence of a driver, however, also implies that these vehicles must provide more services than conventional ones. This chapter presents the findings on passenger services for fully automated minibuses after 2 years of studies with passengers. These findings were gathered based on observations, workshops, questionnaires, and interviews with (disabled) passengers, safety drivers, bus drivers, PTOs, and associations of disabled persons.

## 8.1 Introduction

To enable all passengers, including those with special requirements, to benefit from the new public transportation services introduced by H2020 AVENUE, we need to fully understand their requirements and expectations, their needs, the issues and the problems, and also the personal tricks and strategies they have developed for themselves. Will they accept a driverless bus? What if there is no real person on board? What does the absence of a driver or conductor imply for older persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility (PRM) (European Commission, 2014)? What are passengers' expectations in their interaction with the vehicle?

<footnote>L. Mathé (✉)
Siemens Technology, User Experience Design, Munich, Germany
e-mail: linda.mathe@siemens.com</footnote>

<footnote>M. Dubielzig · M. Lindemann
Siemens Technology, Accessibility Competence Center, Paderborn, Germany</footnote>
## 8.2 Requirements of Passengers (Interview Results)

To gain a real understanding of the user, the AVENUE project used a variety of methods to acquire the needed information. Since people with disabilities have special requirements, they play an important role in gathering user requirements.

Disability is part of the human condition. Almost everyone will be temporarily or permanently impaired at some point in life, and those who survive to old age will experience increasing difficulties in functioning. (World Health Organization, 2011)

Considering that every human will have some type of disability in his/her life or can be situationally induced disabled (e.g. wearing a headset), the requirements derived from people with disabilities will be useful for all (Fig. 8.1).

In a first step in 2018, interviews with public transport users were conducted in five European states. This survey had its major focus on public transport in general, as at this point in time hardly anyone has had real experiences with AVs.

In 2019 and 2020, when AVs had been in operation at several sites for a while, we were able to gather real passenger experiences with the AVs in six European cities. We conducted interviews with passengers as well as with safety operators in the busses, and we observed passengers in the busses and at the stops. Another information source were workshops with mobility experts (with and without special requirements) and public transport operators.

<table><caption>**Fig. 8.1** Deterioration of abilities in the process of ageing based on Saup (1993) (Translation by the author)</caption><thead><tr><th>Age</th><th>20</th><th>30</th><th>40</th><th>50</th><th>60</th><th>70</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Vision</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Increased need of light</td><td></td><td>35 →</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Decreased accommodation range</td><td></td><td></td><td>40 →</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Increased sensitivity to glare</td><td></td><td></td><td>40 →</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reduced visual acuity</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>50 →</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reduced adaption to darkness</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>55 →</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Limitation of the visual field</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>55 →</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Increased time for clear perception of objects</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>55 →</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><strong>Hearing</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reduced hearing ability (men)</td><td></td><td>32 →</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reduced hearing ability (women)</td><td></td><td></td><td>37 →</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Susceptibility to background noise</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>45 →</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><strong>Touch</strong></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reduction of tactile corpuscles</td><td></td><td>20 →</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody><tfoot><tr><td colspan="7">2023-11-23</td></tr></tfoot></table>
## 8.2.1 Phase 1 (July–September 2018)

In phase 1 (July–September 2018), together with the local AVENUE partners, we conducted interviews with public transport users in five countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, and Luxembourg.

In this phase, we had our focus on public transport in general. Our goal was to fully understand the needs, the issues, and the problems of public transport users and the personal tricks and strategies they have developed for themselves.

The interview was divided into three parts:

* Requirements for public transport due to the well-known use of “classic” public transport.

* The aim of this part was to identify the status-quo and current issues.

* Evaluation of experience with fully automated vehicles (if existent), especially in comparison to conventional public transport.

* Wishes and expectations for future fully automated vehicles.

* In this part, all passengers were asked to imagine how future fully automated buses could change and improve public transport.

A total of 58 persons participated in the interviews, and 33 of them had some kind of disability, most of whom were visually impaired.

## 8.2.2 Public Transport in General

Most of the results of the surveys on public transport in general are as expected:

Passengers dislike delays, low frequency of service (and thus long waits), crowded vehicles/no seats, dirty and littered vehicles, lack of information, and unfriendly staff. They want on-time public transportation, affordable tickets, increased frequency and destinations, clean vehicles, and available and comfortable seating, including guaranteed seating for people with special needs. Accurate and accessible information, e.g. audibly understandable announcements, accurate (not delayed) announcements of next stops, estimated time of arrival, and current location of the bus are always requested.

It would be nice if the stops were more flexible: For some participants, it would be a real advantage to be picked up from home and dropped off at their actual destination, rather than at a nearby (or not so nearby) bus stop. This way, they would no longer have to walk all the way to a bus stop and could live a more mobile and independent life.
### 8.2.3 Attitude Towards Fully Automated Public Transport
(Unexperienced Pax)

Most interviewees in 2018 have never used or even seen an AV. An evaluation of their experience with AVs was thus not possible. Nevertheless, the interviewees were asked about their attitude towards fully automated vehicles. Many interview partners are quite sceptical and are not convinced that the technology is already mature enough to be trusted. They consider traffic situations too complex to be handled by technology.

Some even say that they would never use a fully automated bus (7 persons out of 58).

A majority needs to gain more trust in this technology before they are ready to get in. Only four interviewees are ready to hop on a fully automated bus at the day of the interview.

But it turns out that fully automated public transport is accepted more easily with increasing distance to the next stop (Fig. 8.2) and with decreasing frequency of public transport.

Unexpectedly age seems to play no role (Fig. 8.3).

Safety is an important topic for the interviewees. Most of them have heard of accidents by fully automated vehicles, and they stress that this technology needs extensive testing before it can be put into operation. They would use fully automated vehicles only if they are convinced that they are safe.

While they think that technology like sensors, etc. provides advantages, many users nevertheless fear accidents. Some believe that other drivers will crash into the bus as they will not be able to anticipate its behaviour. Others believe that the technology is not fail-safe and/or advanced enough to handle complex traffic situations, and the fully automated bus will have accidents without a driver. Only a minority of interviewees is of the opinion that safety will be increased.

Many interview partners are afraid that the use of fully automated buses in the field will lead to more delays and failures due to unstable technology and because traffic situations are too complex to be handled by technology in general.

<figure><img src="image_108.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 8.2 “Would you take a driverless bus?” in relation to the distance to the next bus stop</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_109.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 8.3 “Would you take a driverless bus?” in relation to age group</figcaption></figure>

Some are even worried about cyberattacks against a fully automated vehicle: if there is no driver to interfere, hackers could make the bus go faster or drive off a bridge or into oncoming traffic.

The overall attitude/scepticism towards fully automated vehicles makes clear to us that trust has to be gained first, and even little incidents or accidents are likely to destroy that trust.

There is a great empathy for drivers who might lose their jobs. Most respondents cannot imagine fully automated vehicles without having this in mind. This is especially reflected in the fact that when talking about positive experiences in public transport, respondents include other people, especially the bus driver (receiving help, amusing passengers, a funny bus driver, etc.) and in the fact that 60% of participants mention talking to the driver (half of them for a conversation).

For most interviewees, a “safety operator” who can interfere or take over and acts as an authority figure is essential. Passengers also want someone in the bus who can answer questions, provide information, and help them getting on or off the bus when necessary. They are afraid that vandalism or even robberies or assaults could be a problem if there is no supervisor in the bus.

Besides all the scepticism, the interview partners also have some expectations that reflect the above-mentioned wishes for public transport: They assume that there will be connections where there are none today, because they are not profitable. Many also expect a smoother ride by the machine than by a real driver and cheaper tickets and that busses will not have to be cancelled due to lack of available drivers.

### 8.2.4 Phase 2 (June 2019–February 2020)

While our focus in 2018 was public transport in general and anticipated experiences with AVs (due to lack of real experiences), 1 year later our aim was to go beyond anticipated experiences and to figure out the issues, the problems, and the missing
services in fully automated vehicles. Therefore, all participants in this second series of studies have already gathered some experiences with AVs. To get a wide range of information, we decided to follow several different approaches to gather information: interviews with safety operators, interviews with (disabled) passengers, and observation studies.

### 8.2.5 Interviews with Safety Operators

Currently, every fully automated vehicle in the AVENUE test sites (and the visited non-AVENUE sites) has a safety operator on board. These operators are responsible for the safety onboard and can control the bus manually if necessary. Furthermore, they are contact persons for the passengers. The safety operators are a valuable source of information as they have direct contact to passengers and experience their reactions, open questions, requirements, and problems every day. There is probably no other person who has had more user contact and knows the questions and problems of the users better.

In order to obtain the most information from this valuable source, we have decided to give questionnaires to the safety operators of all participating PT providers and additionally conducted some interviews with safety operators in non-AVENUE sites like Berlin, Bad Birnbach, and Vienna.

A total of 27 safety operators (5 from non-AVENUE sides) have been interviewed and asked about their impression and experiences made with passengers onboard of the vehicle. All of them mention a positive acceptance of the vehicles by nearly all passengers. Most users (especially the anxious ones) talk with the safety operators about the technology. It is often the first topic of conversation. Questions like how the bus knows where it is and how it works are dominating here. The better understanding of the technology helps them to relax and enjoy the ride. One operator mentions that even those passengers with a negative view change their mind while driving with the vehicle.

Nearly all passengers like the vehicle, and also the arrangement of the seats is welcomed because it encourages communication. However, all are complaining about the hard and unforeseeable braking. So smoother braking is one of the most wanted features, besides more speed.

Typical situations in which the drivers help the passengers are getting in and out (including opening and closing the doors) and buckling up. The high boarding height of the minibus is a real disadvantage and frequently requires the support of the safety operator. Some drivers report that they have to calm passengers after one of the above-mentioned hard brakes.

The question about the operators' needs and wishes results in interesting answers and ideas, and the most popular answers and suggestions are:

* Colour coding of the seat belts (which are currently not marked clearly)

* A smoother braking behaviour (has been solved already)

* A stand or a seat with seatbelt for the safety operator (back pain is already an issue)
### 8.2.6 Interviews with Experienced Passengers: Attitude Towards Fully Automated Public Transport

In our interviews in 2019, we only asked persons that have already gathered some experiences with AVs, i.e. they have made the decision to use an AV. So it is not surprising that the answers are much more positive and less sceptical.

We interviewed 18 passengers in Berlin and Vienna, 7 of them with reduced mobility.

The interviewed passengers are very interested in the shuttle and its technology. They want to know things like What can the shuttle “see”? Why and when does the operator drive?

Many passengers complain about the low speed and that the vehicle comes to a stop too often. In order to be a useful means of transport, it needs to go faster. Everybody wants a smoother braking behaviour—as mentioned above, this issue seems to be solved by now.

A huge topic is information. Our interview partners miss a real passenger information system (PIS). The monitor in the shuttle is too small, its position not ideal (cannot be seen from every seat), and combined with the used font size and contrast, it is not considered usable.

Some passengers complain about the missing announcement of the next stop.

As there have been many complaints about missing information, we asked users more precisely what kind of information they would expect. They clearly state that they want at least the classical information one gets in standard PT as well as some information specifically required in this new type of transport:

* Announcement and display of stops (next stop/current stop)

* Transfer options in combination with time to transfer

* Information on how to request a stop

* A warning that the vehicle is about to brake

* Info on shuttle's battery: battery status and required charging time

The request for information on the vehicle's battery might seem unexpected at first. One reason for this could be that some passengers have experienced that the service had to be stopped due to an empty battery caused by the heavy usage of the air condition. Another reason could be that e-mobility is becoming more common, and people are therefore simply curious about such details.

Our interview partners also ask for information at the bus stop or from outside the bus:

* Information (at the bus stop) when next shuttle will arrive

* Number of free seats in the bus

The request for this information might be due to the fact that the vehicles are rather small and therefore the number of seats are limited.

The passengers appreciate the presence of a safety operator on board the AV. They think it is good to have someone in the shuttle who can intervene in an emergency and who can help to get on the bus with a stroller, etc.
Overall, passengers enjoy the experience, they trust the technology, and they would use the shuttle again at any time and recommend it to friends.

Most interviewed passengers say that they would use the shuttle.

The PRMs are even more willing to do so as they rely on public transport and are willing to take advantage of everything that makes life easier. All passengers agree that they would consider using the fully automated shuttle on a regular basis if

* The shuttle went faster

* The routes were longer

* There was a regular service with frequent departure times

* The shuttle could deal with everyday traffic situations

* There was an on-demand service with flexible routes (including bus stop in the immediate vicinity of the place of residence)

* Information was available at bus stop when next shuttle will arrive

* Infrastructure was improved: coordination with other means of transport like subway

* There was more space for strollers, etc. (currently only space for one stroller, buggy, etc.)

Many users like the idea of a shuttle service that does not depend on fixed bus stops. However, they raise the topic that the shuttle may stop only at secure places. It is not clear how the passenger could communicate these places to the shuttle and how the shuttle could confirm this. Other interviewees are concerned that the bus could not keep to the schedule without fixed stops. Some people could make the bus stop all the time just for fun.

Of the 18 interview partners, 11 instantly say they would use the fully automated shuttle even if there was not a safety operator on board. They would like to have a hotline available in the shuttle so that passengers can call if they feel the need to do so.

Some interviewees hesitate and would drive with the shuttle without safety operator only if the shuttle was more reliable and did not constantly stop whenever there is an unexpected situation like an illegally parked car.

Four interviewees are firmly convinced that the shuttle without an operator is not possible at the present time as this was too dangerous in road traffic. Some think that a human attendant will always be required in the shuttle. What if the bus suddenly stops and does not drive on? What if someone gets stuck in the door? What if there is an accident?

## 8.3 A Blind Users' Perspective on Automated Vehicles

To illustrate the challenges for PRMs, we accompany our persona Klaus-Dieter on his first trip alone with an automated e-minibus.

Klaus-Dieter, a 59-year-old male person, has good experiences in terms of mobility. In his hometown, a medium-sized city in Germany, he daily uses public transport completely on his own, from home to work and vice versa.
### 8.3.1 Bus Stops on the Course

The automated bus, which is tested by Klaus-Dieter, runs in a kind of circular course and provides ten different bus stops where the vehicle automatically stops to allow the passengers to get in or out.

Regarding Klaus-Dieter, the test environment is completely unknown for him, and therefore he is not able to find his first bus stop on his own without an assistance, even though the address of the corresponding bus stop was given to him in the lead-up to his test.

All bus stops are represented by normal traffic signs with additionally installed timetables, directly mounted at eye level on the pillars of the traffic signs. The bus stops are neither equipped with audio signals (e.g. attention signals on traffic lights) nor with tactile markers on the walkway, which could help blind users to find and quickly locate specific places on their own.

The next difficulty occurs while Klaus-Dieter tries to get the arrival and departure times from the timetable. The table is not provided in braille, and an audio-based passenger info system, e.g. a standard loud speaker, is not available. Nevertheless, online-provided timetables as well as the usage of personal mobile phones together with appropriate OCR apps can solve these kinds of problems in the future.

The automated bus is not equipped with AVAS; therefore the arrival of the bus is difficult to detect for Klaus-Dieter, who is not able to perceive road noise from the bus due to environmental sounds.

### 8.3.2 Boarding Process

The bus directly stops at the bus stop sign but without any attention signal. The door does not open automatically, and Klaus-Dieter has to locate the corresponding sensor button that is mounted on one site of the door of the bus but without any kind of tactile markers. Moreover, there are two different sensor buttons available, the second one is for wheelchair users who can request a special ramp for boarding.

First challenge, which of the buttons is the right one? There is neither braille nor tactile markers available to answer this question in an accessible way. Audio signals which could help blind users to quickly locate the door as well as to find the appropriate sensor button are also absent, and Klaus-Dieter has to cope with this issue for himself by trial and error.

There is no audio-based passenger information system installed at the bus stop which could enable Klaus-Dieter to identify the arriving bus as his correct line.
### 8.3.3 Interior Situation and Bus Ride

All passengers of the bus are assigned to take their seats during the bus ride to reduce any potential transport risks. Standing passengers are not allowed. Klaus-Dieter assesses the number of grips, handles, and handrails to be too low to ensure a safe movement or orientation within the interior of the bus. He also has problems to quickly find his seat without assistance. He was disappointed, as there is no additional storage space for hand luggage, shopping bags, or guide dogs. The riding process is comfortable, there are no abrupt braking actions at all, and all speed-up or slow-down actions lead Klaus-Dieter to a good driving experience in terms of security requirements.

The automated bus is configured to operate in metro mode; this means that the bus automatically stops at all available bus stops at the circular course. There is no audio-based passenger information system installed which could tell blind users the next bus stop in an accessible manner. Therefore, Klaus-Dieter has to know the stops at the circular course and moreover to count the already visited bus stops to get out at the right one.

The security driver explains Klaus-Dieter that there are no complex traffic situations within the bus course, e.g. complex set of traffic lights or difficult crossings. Potential stops of the automated bus are only caused by two situations: the vehicle reaches the bus stop or the vehicle detects obstacles on the course. In both cases the bus indicates the stop by a clear and good perceivable audio signal but without any audio information of the corresponding reason. Arrival points are not announced by speech. Moreover, it is the same signal for both situations, and Klaus-Dieter is not able to differentiate between the above-mentioned triggering events. As a result, he tries several times to get out of the bus on the course but without success.

### 8.3.4 Getting Out of the Bus

In metro mode, the bus stops at every stop, but the doors have to be opened manually, in terms of accessibility blind users are faced with several challenges.

Despite the already mentioned missing acoustical information, the blind user needs to figure out how to open the door. Klaus-Dieter remarks that the placement of the different sensor buttons, each one equipped with a specific function, will lead blind persons to operating errors. These difficulties are caused by the sensitivity of the sensor buttons that instantaneously trigger in case of any finger contact, but finger contact is required for this user group to read braille as well as to identify other tactile markings.

Due to these problems, Klaus-Dieter is unable to distinguish between the three halt functions, provided by the different sensor buttons: SOS, halt request for
wheelchair users (which automatically activates a ramp), and the default exit button that opens the door. In particular, the exit button raises additional problems because the door must be released by the automated bus security system before passengers are able to successfully trigger the exit button to leave the bus. And exactly this release feedback is not perceivable by Klaus-Dieter who is only able to get out of the bus after pressing several times the different buttons to open the door.

### 8.3.5 Klaus-Dieter's Summary

Some of the above-mentioned accessibility issues can be resolved by using the capabilities of a modern mobile phone, e.g. GPS localisation, and online timetables could help users to successfully deal with these specific problems. But regarding the described topics, there are a lot of additional improvements required at the buses to answer the needs of this user group and to ensure a comfortable public transport with automated vehicles.

## 8.4 Situation-Based Impairments of Different Passenger Groups

Additional mobile and audio information is required for the following user groups on the go, at the bus stop as well as in the bus:

* International tourists or other passengers who are not familiar with the local language.

* People with dyslexia.

* Persons with misted-up glasses, particularly in winter times or with an FFP2 mask.

* Younger children who better cope with audio than with visible feedback; audio feedback grants a higher real-time information awareness for this specific passenger group.

* All persons who use their mobile phones to read articles (or use the Internet) during the bus ride; appropriate audio info raise their attention to get the next bus stop just in time.

* Smaller groups of passengers who intensively discuss with each other often get lost within their conversations and therefore miss the exit at their final destinations; appropriate audio feedback can avoid such situations.

* Persons with hearing impairments need an appropriate kind of suitable feedback in all above-mentioned situations, e.g. vibration or other haptic feedback, to raise their awareness in corresponding situations.
**8.5 Proposed Implementation of User Requirements**

The project co-created a mock-up for an accessible app with disabled users for fully automated public transport. Furthermore, a proposal for an in-vehicle information display to meet the user requirements in a fully automated vehicle was created.

**8.5.1 Mock-Up for an Accessible App for Fully Automated Public Transport**

Based on the challenges Klaus-Dieter has experienced, the project co-created with disabled users a mock-up for an accessible app that supports all users to use fully automated public transport (Fig. 8.4).

The app covers the complete passenger workflow:

* The way to the bus stop

* Waiting at the bus stop

* Identifying the correct bus

* Entering the bus

* Riding on the bus

* Leaving the bus at the desired destination

<figure><img src="image_110.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8.4** Mock-up for an accessible app</figcaption></figure>
### 8.5.2 Information Display in the Vehicle

As most interviewed passengers ask for a passenger information system (PIS) that goes beyond the classical information we know from public transport today, we developed a concept for displays in the fully automated e-minibus (Fig. 8.5).

It consists of three major components:

1. Classical PIS

2. Sensor view

3. Map view

The passenger information system provides a list of upcoming stops including information on actual (not planned) arrival times and delays. If there are any incidents or restrictions on the route, this is also displayed here. The number and destination of the bus are shown as well.

The sensor view allows the passenger to “see through the eyes of the system”. Stewards report that many passengers ask questions about the capabilities of the vehicle, especially regarding the sensors, so by indicating the sensor range and detected objects, we can satisfy their curiosity and at the same time build trust in the technology.

The map view takes up the most monitor space. It answers the questions “Where am I right now?”, “Where am I going?”, and “What is nearby?”. This especially benefits passengers who are not that familiar with the area. For them, the name of the bus stop is often not meaningful. The map with marked landmarks can support their orientation in the area and help them find the best way to their destination and the stop where they should leave the bus.

In addition, sights, restaurants, and stores along the route can also be displayed on the map so passengers can see what they can reach from the bus (Fig. 8.6).

<figure><img src="image_111.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8.5** Wireframe of information display</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_112.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8.6** A suggested information display in the vehicle</figcaption></figure>

**8.6 Conclusions**

The user acceptance increases to the same extent as the fully automated vehicles are optimised and adapted to fit the different user requirements.

Passengers with and without disabilities differ in their needs, but both user groups expect a significant added value in the use of automated minibuses for public transport, especially in areas with poor public transport coverage.

While the problems of people with (temporary) physical or sensory impairments are more related to the practical use of the technology, e.g. finding the right bus, finding and activating the door used, and missing PIS, other passengers tend to see difficulties in buying their tickets and in connecting to other public transport systems.

In order to make automated public transport a solution for *all*, all the services provided by the driver must be provided in some other way according to the dual-channel principle.

This also includes the perceived safety and security.

In addition, low-level access is essential, especially for passengers with walkers or buggies.

However, the prerequisite for use of automated vehicles is a general trust in the technology.
**Acknowledgements** This project has received funding by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 769033.

# Appendix: Mobile Apps for Blind and Low-Vision Public Transport Travellers

Matthias Lindemann

matthias.lindemann@siemens.com

The following list represents an exemplary set of public transport iOS apps for common tasks, e.g. localisation of bus stops, obstacle detection, orientation, and others. All apps can be found in the Apple App Store, and functionally similar apps are available in the Google Play Store.

Important Note: None of the apps can substitute required assistive Aids like, e.g. Guide Dogs or White Canes. All apps should only be used as additional tools to ease travel activities.

## List of Mobile Applications

### GoodMaps Outdoors

<figure><img src="image_113.png" /></figure>

GoodMaps Outdoors is a turn-by-turn GPS navigation app with a special focus on visually impaired travellers. The app provides audio instructions (directional or clockwise) as well as haptic feedback for directional guidance. The app supports an easy, collaborative points of interest (POI) handling, e.g. users are able to share safe or critical waypoints like accessible crossings and bus stops or interceptions with their friends and family. GoodMaps Outdoor is mostly used to overcome the distance between start/destination points and their corresponding bus stops.

### BlindSquare

<figure><img src="image_114.png" /></figure>

BlindSquare The BlindSquare app allows visually impaired users to get important surrounding information for a preselected distance range, e.g. 200 m. These information includes streets, interceptions, restaurants, physicians, groceries, pharmacies, and a lot of other points of interest. For all POIs, the cardinal directions (compass style or clockwise infos) and their air distances are provided to allow a kind of spatial perception as well as a map-like orientation for this target group. All available
POIs can be used within their preferred GPS navigation apps. BlindSquare automatically detects whether one is travelling as a pedestrian or by vehicle and adjusts the spoken audio cues accordingly. With BlindSquare, visually impaired passengers are able to follow the route as if they were looking out of the window on the bus.

## myfinder

<figure><img src="image_115.png" /></figure>

myfinder uses the camera of the mobile phone and acts as an obstacle detection tool. Using special AI algorithms, the app scans the environment, categorises all objects found, and offers either a generic scene description or informs on surrounding objects. Continuously calculating directional and distance infos, myfinder supports a quick navigation to nearby objects. Audio instructions and haptic guidance directly lead the user to an object or allow alleged obstacles to be avoided.

## Seeing AI

<figure><img src="image_116.png" /></figure>

Seeing AI offers a set of different tools, e.g. the currency recognition feature, when dealing with ticket vending machines. A more important function presents the short text recognition function that enables users to scan important travel information, e.g. door signs, arrival and departure timetables, or the content of passenger information system displays. Achieving good results requires sufficient lightning conditions and a direct view of the objects to be scanned. The short text recognition starts automatically and is very responsive to what eases the comfortable handling of the app while boarding.

Note: The above download URLs refer only to the Apple App Store in Germany, but all apps are also available in other App Stores.

Despite their versatility, the use of the above apps does neither guarantee comfortable nor trouble-free public transport. To ensure this, the vehicles must be equipped with additional assistive technologies. Some examples: providing an easy localisation of entries for safe boarding and a reliable identification of destination stops to prevent the change over into a wrong line.

Regarding the deployment of fully automated vehicle fleets, only the provision of sophisticated assistance systems will ensure reliable public transport for all potential target groups.
## References

- GoodMaps Outdoors. App Icon & Download URL: https://apps.apple.com/de/app/goodmaps-outdoors/id945756779

- BlindSquare. App Icon & Download URL: https://apps.apple.com/de/app/blind-square/id500557255

- myfinder. App Icon & Download URL: https://apps.apple.com/de/app/myfinder/id1457760748

- Seeing AI. App Icon & Download URL: https://apps.apple.com/de/app/myfinder/id1457760748

- Apple AppStore Germany URL: https://www.apple.com/de/app-store/

## References

- European Commission. (2014). COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 1300/2014 on the technical specifications for interoperability relating to accessibility of the Union's rail system for persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility L 356/110. Available online at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2014/1300/oj

- Saup, W. (1993). *Alter und Umwelt. Eine Einführung in die ökologische Gerontologie*. W. Kohlhammer.

- World Health Organization. (2011). *World report on disability*. WHO; The World Bank. Available online at https://www.who.int/teams/noncommunicable-diseases/sensory-functions-disability-and-rehabilitation/world-report-on-disability. Accessed 12 Jan 2021

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

<figure><img src="image_117.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_118.png" /></figure>

Chapter 9
# Stakeholder Analysis and AVENUE Strategies

Dorien Duffner-Korbee, Eliane Horschutz Nemoto, Ines Jaroudi,
Nicole van den Boom, Tobias Viere, Gabriele Naderer, and Guy Fournier

**Abstract** This chapter contains the final stakeholder analysis. It showcases the key actors involved in testing and deploying automated minibuses for public transport in European cities. This assessment helps construct a strategic overview of the expectations, needs, and impacts of the stakeholders and the connections between them. This stakeholder analysis relied on qualitative methods and involved four steps. As a first step, an initial stakeholder scan was conducted. Through a literature review, including both academic and grey literature, and stakeholder mapping techniques, the main stakeholder groups were defined. The second step involved semi-structured interviews to gain a thorough understanding of the objections, perceptions, and information-seeking behaviour of these stakeholder groups. In the third step, a content analysis of the interviews was conducted, which led to the depiction of six key themes. The initial three steps are centred on conducting an analysis at the EU level.

D. Duffner-Korbee (✉)
Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, Germany
Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany
e-mail: dorien.duffner-korbee@isi.fraunhofer.de

E. H. Nemoto
Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany
CentraleSupélec, LGI, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
ICLEI Europe, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany

I. Jaroudi
Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, Germany

Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany
CentraleSupélec, LGI, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

N. van den Boom · G. Fournier
Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany

CentraleSupélec, LGI, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

T. Viere · G. Naderer
Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany
The fourth step took a project-level perspective. A literature review and expert inter-
views were conducted to determine the main relations and themes for the AVENUE
ecosystem, based on which the AVENUE stakeholder and mobility services map
was developed. The analysis delivers valuable findings:

* The AVENUE-centred map shows that automated minibuses are expected to be integrated into a multi- and intermodal mobility system and offered as Mobility as a Service (MaaS). There is a need for collective action to settle one legal framework and specific guidelines for automated vehicles (AV) within the EU. Finally, the integration of AV into the mobility system must be promoted in synergy with the goals of Sustainable Urban Mobility Planning (SUMP).

* The stakeholder map at EU level demonstrates that not all actors possess equal influence on the advancement of automated minibuses in urban public transportation systems. Primary actors comprise city governments, public transport operators (PTO), manufacturers, software developers, the European Union, and citizens/end-users. The relationship between the city government and the PTO is central.

* The strategy presents key recommendations for stakeholders, such as:

- More emphasis should be given to the crucial role of the government and the legal framework in the deployment of automated minibuses.

- PTOs need more support from the local government, and they should reach out to other key stakeholders such as NGOs and policymakers.

- A MaaS platform should be operated in collaboration with private and public partners.

- There should be active involvement from citizens and civil society; this is done through strategic tools for citizens' participation and inclusion in the debate about AV in general.

- For AVENUE and similar projects, it is important to involve stakeholders such as civil society organizations, e.g. as driver unions and environmental NGOs. Also, they need to cooperate more with city governments and focus on user-centric services and not only technological achievements.

## 9.1 Introduction

9.1.1 Research Aim

Deploying and integrating automated minibuses in public transport following the vision of AVENUE require a social-technical transition. Technically, the automated minibuses and the digital infrastructure should operate flawlessly. Socially, a multi- tude of organizations, networks, and institutions must accept the use of automated minibuses and adapt their current system. To support this transition, this study aimed to identify the stakeholder environment in which the automated minibuses services
will operate. A stakeholder analysis is a tool to gain insights into a multi-actor issue. It is important for the identification of public interests and concerns and becomes even more important due to the increasing interconnectedness of today's world (Bryson, 2004). A stakeholder can be defined as 'any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization's objectives' (Bryson, 2004; Freeman, 1984). There is no fixed strategy for conducting a stakeholder analysis; the applied method depends on the goal of the analysis.

## 9.1.2 Research Approach

The research methodology for this stakeholder analysis relies on two key components: an empirical approach (the EU-level stakeholder map) and a conceptual approach (the AVENUE stakeholder and mobility services map) as shown in Fig. 9.1. Based on the outcomes of these two approaches, a thorough analysis of stakeholder synergies and comparisons was conducted, thereby enabling the identification of stakeholder synergies.

The stakeholder map at the EU level was developed using an empirical approach, consisting of three consecutive steps: an initial stakeholder scan, semi-structured interviews, and content analysis. The initial stakeholder scan identified all potential stakeholders, through a brainstorming session and literature review. Hereafter, a focused literature review was conducted to gain information on the identified stakeholder groups, and afterwards, stakeholder mapping techniques were applied (e.g.

<figure><img src="image_119.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9.1 Methodological approach</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>**Table 9.1** Sample structure empirical stakeholder survey</caption><thead><tr><td>Stakeholder group</td><td>Number of interviewees</td><td>Associated IDs</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Public transport operators</td><td>4</td><td>ID 20; ID21; ID22; ID23</td></tr><tr><td>Manufacturers (OEM)</td><td>4</td><td>ID1; ID2; ID3; ID14;</td></tr><tr><td>Software developers</td><td>2</td><td>ID4; ID5;</td></tr><tr><td>Driver unions</td><td>3</td><td>ID6; ID7; ID11</td></tr><tr><td>Environmental NGOs</td><td>3</td><td>ID8; ID9; ID10</td></tr><tr><td>Policymakers/city government</td><td>3</td><td>ID12; ID15; ID19</td></tr><tr><td>Consumer/citizen organization</td><td>4</td><td>ID13; ID16; ID17; ID18</td></tr><tr><td>Safety operators on the automated minibuses</td><td>7</td><td>ID24, ID25, ID26, ID27, ID28, ID29, ID30</td></tr><tr><td>Total interviews</td><td>30</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

power-interest grid). Through these analyses, the primary stakeholder groups that were to be examined through semi-structured interviews were identified.

In the subsequent step, the interviews were conducted with representatives of the eight groups identified as primary stakeholders in the initial stakeholder scan. Where appropriate, AVENUE partners were included as interviewees. The interviews were semi-structured and guided by a topic list consisting of five central themes (Appendix A: Topic list). A total of 30 interviews were conducted; see Table 9.1. As anonymity was promised during the interviews, each of the interviewees was given an ID to identify the quotes in the remainder of this deliverable. The interviews were recorded, and transcripts were made.

The transcripts of the interviews were analysed using qualitative content analysis. First, an analysis was made for each of the identified stakeholder groups. Therefore, the transcripts were grouped to gain insight in the role and responsibilities for each of the studied stakeholder groups. The results of this first analysis step were maps that depict a bottom-up self-reflection from the perspective of the stakeholder groups. Hereafter, a cross-sectional analysis was conducted. The data from the interviews was compressed and compared using bottom-up coding. This analysis aimed to gain insights into the overall stakeholder setting. As a result of this analysis, seven main topics were defined. Based on these insights, an integrated stakeholder map was developed.

As visualized in Fig. 9.1, the empirical approach to the stakeholder analysis was complemented by a conceptual AVENUE stakeholder and mobility services analysis. This analysis takes on a general perspective on automated minibuses. It does not directly provide insights into the structure of the AVENUE ecosystem or the stakeholder environment in which the automated minibuses will operate. Therefore, a second study was conducted, focusing on the AVENUE stakeholder and services. The associated map is presented in Sect. 3 of this chapter.
## 9.2 Empirical Stakeholder Analysis

This chapter presents the results of the EU-level stakeholder analysis. Section 2.1 presents the results of the initial stakeholder scan and thereby main stakeholder groups that were part of this analysis. Hereafter, the outcomes of the qualitative interviews with the main stakeholder groups are presented. Section 2.2 presents the insights and self-perception per stakeholder groups, and Sect. 2.3 presents the results of the cross-sectional analysis.

### 9.2.1 Results of the Initial Stakeholder Scan

The following stakeholder groups were identified and included in the analysis:

* Manufacturers of automated minibuses

* Original equipment manufacturers (OEM)

* Software providers who offer platforms that enable the intelligent operation and optimization of automated mobility services, managing fixed-route and on-demand services

* Public transport operators who are responsible for the public transport system function

* The European Union (European Commission) as they can set regulations that can hamper or support the implementation of the technology

* National governments that develop regulations, incentives, and rules

* Local-level governments that set local mobility policies and are responsible for road infrastructure, etc.

* Citizen associations that represent the needs and demands of (potential) users

* Insurance companies that will financially cover costs in case of an accident

* Electricity charging infrastructure providers that will provide the charging infrastructure for the electric minibuses

* Energy providers that can influence the energy mix for the electric minibuses

* Environmental non-governmental organizations (ENGO) that can influence acceptance and use of the automated minibuses and promote the sustainability aspect

* Industry lobbies (such as the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE))

An important stakeholder group that is not included in the analysis is the potential users of the system (Kyriakidis et al., 2015; Litman, 2019; Nordhoff et al., 2018; Wicki & Bernauer, 2018). Potential users are not included in this analysis, as they were the prime target group for the social impact assessment of the AVENUE project (see Chap. 14); (Korbee et al., 2019; Korbee et al., 2024).
### 9.2.1.1 Power-Interest and Impact-Attribute Grid

In a power-interest grid, the power and interests of stakeholders are used to classify different actors (Hermans & Cunningham, 2018). It is dividing the stakeholders into four quadrants. Actors in the quadrant in the upper right are key players and should be taken along in the analysis. Actors in the quadrant in the bottom right are so-called context-setters and can—depending on the boundaries of the analysis—be taken along. The actors on the left side of the grid can be left out (Hermans & Cunningham, 2018).

The analysis indicates that key players who are supportive of AV include governmental actors, both at the national and EU levels, as well as public transport operators, software developers, and manufacturers (OEM). Municipalities show an equally high interest but are less powerful to influence the AV development compared to states, the EU, and OEM. Furthermore, new competitors, as well as legislators and assessment agencies, possess high power, but they do not have a high interest in the development of AV (see Fig. 9.2).

The impact-attitude grid on the other hand places the actors according to their opposing, neutral, or supportive attitudes towards a project and the high or low impact of the integration of AVs on mobility. This analysis shows that the majority of the included stakeholder groups are supportive of AV. The driver unions and the environmental NGOs are two stakeholder groups that are opposing further AV development (Fig. 9.3).

The national governments and the EU have the high institutional power to influence and set policies, regulations, and incentives to support the implementation of automated minibuses. Software providers and manufacturers are strategic for technical feasibility and daily improvements. The PTOs are key operational actors and the bridge between the new mobility technology and society. New competitors are proposing new services and products for mobility. Legislators are responsible for setting the laws and specific conditions for the implementation of automated

<figure><img src="image_120.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9.2 Power-interest grid towards the implementation of AVs in the public transport system</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_121.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 9.3** Impact-attitude grid regarding the implementation of AVs in public transport systems</figcaption></figure>

vehicles. Municipalities see AVs as a source of innovation, attractiveness, sustainability, and improvements for the transport system. Driver unions and environmental NGOs as the only actors presenting an opposing attitude must be taken on board in discussions and decision-making to mitigate potential negative impacts on society and the environment. No stakeholder with a high impact and opposing attitude was identified; therefore no one is threatening the project's success.

### 9.2.1.2 Onion Diagram

The onion diagram in Fig. 9.4 shows different stakeholder levels. At the centre, the primary level shows stakeholders with significant influence on the project and strong control over essential resources regarding AVs and public transport (Bodnar et al., 2015; Czischke, 2018). At the secondary level, stakeholders with relevant importance and medium control over resources are placed. The wider environment is represented at the tertiary level, including stakeholders with weak control over resources that affect the project on a low scale (Bodnar et al., 2015; Czischke, 2018).

Stakeholders at the primary level are market actors and government actors. Environmental NGOs can be classified in the second level, as they are active in the dialogue with multi-stakeholders, in social awareness, and in influencing policy-makers. The tertiary-level actors do not have a direct impact or a strong influence on AV decision-making and implementation. Some of these actors, such as the insurance companies, are still awaiting more results before setting their strategies.
<figure><img src="image_122.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 9.4** Onion diagram concerning the implementation of AVs in the public transport system</figcaption></figure>

### 9.2.1.3 Selection of Stakeholder Groups

Based on the three analyses, key stakeholder groups can be defined. They are introduced in the following paragraphs:

* *Manufacturers* of automated minibuses are important stakeholders. The primary goal of NAVYA, the manufacturer of the minibuses in the AVENUE project, is to offer new mobility solutions, the establishment of a good market position, and consumer confidence/acceptance. To do so, they focus on implementing their products in public systems as soon as possible. Well-drafted standards can increase the rate of development and reduce overall system cost per vehicle.

* *Software providers* offer platforms that enable the intelligent operation and optimization of automated mobility services, managing fixed-route, and on-demand services. They are crucial stakeholders, as an automated system cannot function without a proper software platform.

* The prime objective for *public transport operators (PTOs)* is to seek a high market share and good market positioning. To stay competitive, they must innovate and reduce costs. In their perspective, automated minibuses could be a solution to pursue both goals. However, public transport operators are also holding back,
as recent studies show that the development of automated vehicles could result in public transport losing its attractiveness due to innovative services, such as on-demand taxi services and private car-pooling. They are important stakeholders but could be overtaken by new competitors that share similar objectives. All involved competitors are focusing on developing the most innovative, secure, and trustworthy vehicle for the market (Boersma et al., 2018).

* A current barrier to the establishment of fully functional automated minibus systems is regulations that require stewards on board (Ainsalu et al., 2018). The *European Union (EU)* is an important stakeholder in this respect. Promoting automated driving will challenge the EU to create incentives and regulations and remove possible barriers that can stop the development of this technology. The EU can develop general guidelines and policies, but it is up to the *government* of the member states (from now on referred to as countries) to implement them. There is great differentiation in the level of application between different *countries and cities*. On a city level, local incentive structures—mobility policy, willingness to adapt road infrastructure, etc.—are crucial for a successful system of automated minibuses.

* A strong opposing position is taken by *unions of transport operators*, as bus drivers fear losing their jobs with automated minibuses. The unions would favour an automatic unemployment assurance, provide education and retraining for the transport operators to find comparable or even better jobs, and expand support for displaced workers to start and sustain their own businesses.

* Other stakeholders were identified but will not be further detailed in this part, as their influence is, not yet, crucial for the project's success.

## 9.2.2 Self-Assessment Stakeholder Groups

Following a series of 30 interviews with representatives of the primary stakeholder groups, self-assessments were conducted for these groups. In these self-assessments, the main roles and strategic objectives of these groups are distilled. The resulting maps portray the stakeholder environment from the perspective of the central stakeholder group. Therefore, the stakeholder maps differ for each stakeholder group. The purpose of these maps is not to create one overall map but to gain insights into how each of the stakeholder groups is perceiving its relation to other stakeholders.

### 9.2.2.1 Public Transport Operators

The PTOs are responsible for providing public transport services in cities. Interviewees stressed the strong need to be competitive in the future. They expect automated public transportation to contribute to societal benefits such as better quality of life and improved health and environmental conditions due to reduced
pollution. PTOs perceive automated vehicles as a 'key topic for the future' and as a decisive element of competition (Fig. 9.5).

### 9.2.2.2 Manufacturers

Manufacturers of automated minibuses define the following goals: (1) offering new mobility solutions, (2) establishing a good market position, and (3) creating consumer confidence and acceptance. To accomplish these goals, they focus on implementing their products in public systems as soon as possible. Well-drafted standards can increase the rate of development and reduce overall system cost per vehicle. The manufacturers all have similar ideas of what future mobility should look like and pursue a similar strategy.

The automated minibuses are currently implemented in pilot projects all over the world to learn more about the requirements of the environment and their use in various practical scenarios. There is still a need to further develop and optimize the products and to extend them to other areas of application. The manufacturers are convinced that with their vision of automated driving in public transport and on short distances, they have developed a concept for the future that will transform traffic in cities in the future with the properties of automated, shared, connected, and electrically driven vehicles.

With their vehicles, manufacturers want to meet the needs of their partners, improve transportation services, play an active role in shaping the future of mobility, and drive this new technology. Figure 9.6 presents how the manufacturers see their interaction with other stakeholders within the mobility ecosystem.

### 9.2.2.3 Software Providers

Software providers offer platforms that enable intelligent operation and optimization of automated mobility services, managing fixed-route and on-demand services. The platforms should function as the interface between vehicles, travellers, and mobility providers. Software developers aim to offer their services to the greatest number of vehicles possible. Therefore, partnerships with governments or big fleet managers are crucial. Another common strategic objective of software developers is to change the mindset about mobility systems. The time that is now spent on transportation can be used for activities that add value to personal life.

The main objectives and responsibilities of software providers are clear: assure safety, efficiency, and punctuality for end-users. Like the previous parts, the map presented in Fig. 9.7 presents the software developers' perspective on their relation to other key stakeholders.
<figure><img src="image_123.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9.5 Stakeholder map from transport operators’ perspective</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_124.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9.6 Stakeholder map from the manufacturers’ perspective</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_125.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 9.7** Stakeholder map from the software developers’ perspective</figcaption></figure>

### 9.2.2.4 Driver Unions

Driver unions address topics like the drivers’ re-education and formation for work, better road conditions, safety assurance, and agreements with employers’ organizations and governments. The interviewed driver unions are well-consolidated organizations with many years of experience, a significant number of members, and local, national, and international networks. One of their primary actions is to be part of the dialogues in the transport sector and to negotiate collective agreements for their members. Priority actions address improving the drivers’ working conditions. The interviewed driver unions highlighted the strategic importance and their focus on professional education, informing and training.

### 9.2.2.5 Policymakers

The interviews with the policymakers are those conducted with the government representatives of two European cities and a national road directory. Policymakers have a centric role, as they have interactions with most key stakeholders (PTOs, users, manufacturers, NGOs). The policymakers are primarily concerned with urban planning, regulating automated vehicles, and the effects of mobility on future cities. They recognized that they should have a more active role in shaping the city of the
future rather than only reacting to the consequences of deploying automated vehi-
cles (ID12). The minibuses have the potential to affect and change the design of
urban infrastructure by reducing needed parking spots and urban roads (ID12; ID15;
ID19). The change leads to more urban spaces being dedicated to green and blue
infrastructure (ID15; ID19). But it will also require incorporating specific structures
for AVs such as fibreglass cables or information signs for crossings (ID12).
Moreover, the interviewees explained the difficulty of drafting regulations for AVs
due to concerns about liability, safety, and the ability to react to complex mixed traf-
fic situations (ID15).

Policymakers are aware of the disruptive nature of transport innovations such as automated minibuses and their potential role in shaping cities' and users' perceptions. Thus, they rely on insights from pilot projects and other stakeholders (ID15).

9.2.2.6 Civil Society Organizations/Citizen Organizations

The citizen organizations interviewed are working at city, national, and EU levels. They address issues concerning transport and citizens and represent end-users. They interact mostly with other transport associations, policymakers and government representatives, transport companies, and citizens. The civil society focuses on promoting public transportation. In the interviews, they expressed the urgency of developing and innovating public transport (ID17; ID16).

They want to reduce individual and public transport and especially active modes
of transportation to become the first choice (ID16; ID17). The organizations are
working on improving services for the users with customized public transport ser-
vices such as MaaS and first-and-last-mile solutions. As the automated minibuses
are the focus of the interviewed organizations, they also displayed concerns about
how these minibuses will be deployed. Mostly, there is a fear that they will be used
as an individual mode of transport and compete with active mobility and public
transport (ID 16; ID 17). In general, there was a consensus on using automated driv-
ing as an opportunity to make the transport ecosystem more robust and sustainable
and to focus on the users’ needs (ID13; D16; ID17; ID18). Finally, infrastructure
was also an important topic in the interviews; the organizations see that cities should
focus less on long-term megaprojects and focus on solution-targeted mobility.

9.2.3 Results from the Cross-Sectional Analysis

In this section, the results of the cross-sectional analysis are presented. These results
are based on compressed data using bottom-up coding. As a result of this analysis,
five main topics were defined.
### 9.2.3.1 The Crucial Role of City Government

The introduction of new mobility innovations into the transportation network show-cases the importance of the government's role in dealing with transportation chal-lenges. The cities are responsible for regulating the usage of automated minibuses in the built environment, setting requirements for the public transport system, and issuing concessions for public transport operators. Therefore, based on the inter-views, the importance of the government's position in deploying future mobility and the relationship between the PTOs and local government were important issues.

The city governments are responsible for the public transport system within their city. They define the requirements of public transport based on their transport vision, financial resources, and requirements from the national government. Based on these requirements, concessions to operate public transport within a city are issued (ID21). This includes the percentage of electric vehicles that should be deployed, the frequency of operation, as well as price (ID21; ID22). Different contracts between the government and PTOs lead to more opportunities for testing and achieving robust results concerning the deployment of different forms of automated mobility.

Testing new mobility innovations requires the financial support of the govern-ment. The PTOs cannot afford to procure the needed equipment for such operations. It does not offer substantial revenue because the service is free and requires dedi-cated resources to manage the pilot site. The PTOs are dependent on governmental funds. Thus, cities should seek to diversify mobility innovation testing in collabora-tion with the PTO (Nuttall et al., 2018).

The collaboration between the city and the PTOs hinges on the city's understand-ing of the importance of rolling out innovations within the transportation ecosystem. Mobility trends can provide solutions to urban planning challenges. However, governments are reluctant to approve the testing due to safety and regulation con-cerns. Whereas AVENUE aims to deploy the automated minibuses as an on-demand, door-to-door service, this is not accepted by all governments, as this service would be classified as taxis and not public transport (ID22). There is a need for participa-tory actions to involve all stakeholders to reach a common understanding of the best practices for deploying automated driving (ID11).

The city is also responsible for the infrastructure and urban planning needed for deploying these forms of transportation (ID5). Urban planners are focused on reduc-ing urban space dedicated to private cars. This presents the motivation for cities to work with the PTOs to reimagine future cities. The use of automated minibuses could reduce parking and road space. The shift in urban planning is happening from long-term, big-budget infrastructure projects to short-term plans that account for the potential disruption of mobility trends.

Currently, the trials of deploying automated minibuses require adaptation of the infrastructure to accommodate the needs of automated vehicles, such as road sen-sors and special signalling devices, additional digital infrastructure, and charging posts (ID13; ID20; ID22; ID 11; ID10; ID12). The lack of infrastructure and the
focus on developing infrastructure that does not account for future mobility trends present obstacles to the deployment of automated minibuses.

### 9.2.3.2 Technology Development and Legal Regulations

Rolling out new mobility technologies is intertwined with legal regulations. The legal system should ensure that these innovations are not harmful and unruly. However, the regulatory framework could act as an obstacle to innovations in the public sphere. Interviewees state that, because of the innovativeness of the technology of automated minibuses, regulators do not have the experience nor the knowledge of the technical specifications. Hence, it is difficult to explain the important technological considerations to lawmakers and to fit them within existing regulations. Issues related to reliability, insurance, and interoperability for the connected systems are still not clearly defined. Moreover, the effects on other road users also pose a struggle for lawmakers. It gets more complicated to consider the technical regulations within the overall transportation system regulations such as the no-car zones and road pricing. Hence, legal regulations are seen as a barrier by most of our interviewees.

The government's primary concern remains the safety of the passengers and the citizens in the circulation areas. The need for a safety operator on board is mandatory in all the AVENUE trials, especially for vehicles operating in mixed traffic. Thus, policymakers and operators should work together to prioritize safety while not restricting the advancement of the technology of automated minibuses (ID15, ID18, ID1).

Our interviewees stress that the technology of automated minibuses should be considered a solution and not a barrier (ID10, ID15). In the testing phase of the technology, it is advisable to bring the technology into the public sphere, to better understand the opportunities and barriers of the technology (ID4). The regulatory framework should anticipate the consequences of the deployment of automated minibuses rather than just react to them.

The regulations also vary between countries. This has an impact on the advancement, testing, and deployment of automated minibuses. The strategy for automated minibuses depends on the national goals and trends for mobility. The deployment of AVs in the EU is managed on a national level. Some countries have appointed councils and committees on these subjects; others are just trying to fit the technology within the existing regulation for transportation (ID4). A unified EU legal framework could facilitate the development of the technology and reduce confusion for the manufacturers of the vehicles and software developers. It could also improve the competitiveness of European countries in the automotive sector (ID10, ID6).

The lack of standards and regulations is also a bottleneck commonly quoted (ID12; ID15). In addition to the fact that it is difficult to regulate the use of new mobility modes, specifically AVs, more research and results are required. This includes not only regulations for AVs but should also take on a holistic approach to mobility as a whole (ID10).
### 9.2.3.3 Restructuring the Mobility Industry

Traditionally, innovation in the mobility industry was the realm of the vehicle manufacturers (referred to as OEMs). The processes of digitalization and automation are changing the industry. Companies specialized in software development set requirements for innovation and production of vehicles. Our interviewees state that most OEMs still focus on being vehicle suppliers but are starting to develop their own software as well. Vehicle manufacturers are dependent on the software providers, but the software providers are less dependent on the OEMs as they do not have a specific vehicle. Nevertheless, they can't build the vehicles entirely by themselves and require input from OEMs. The renewal of the mobility industry has not yet settled; new types of cooperation, competition, and the rise of innovative companies require constant renewal. The development of automated vehicles is pushing for this restructuring of the mobility industry and more cooperation. However, Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is pushing this development a step further. The key innovation and requirement for this system is a functioning software that allows end-users to mix several public and private mobility systems.

### 9.2.3.4 Social Acceptance and Environmental Aspects

This section is based on the opinions of the interviewed stakeholders and not the (potential) users.

Automated minibuses are an innovation that most of the end-users have no experience with, other than hearing about it in the news. To enhance social acceptance, users must gain familiarity with the technology. This could be with as many pilot projects in public spaces as possible for the development of the technology and to address technical barriers (ID14). Furthermore, it is claimed to be important how the minibus is communicated; 'self-driving vehicle' and 'automated assisted system' seem more promising than other terms (ID1). Other interviewees stated that the technology presented to end-users should be incident- and accident-free (ID2). Users expect a normal bus without drivers (ID21) but find that the service is not as advanced as expected which leads to disappointment (ID21). Based on past and current pilot projects, it is not expected that social acceptance will be problematic (ID16). Most users (97%) of a pilot in France reported being happy and confident. Other pilots show that although users are content, a problem lies in convincing the potential users in the service area of the use and advantages of the service (ID21). In addition, the respondents addressed diverse current societal issues that reflect the concerns associated with automated driving, with data protection and data privacy being the most cited (ID8; ID10; ID7). Other concerns relate to cybersecurity and hacking risks (ID14; ID6) and ethical questions that are still open and need to be addressed (ID5; ID8).

Automated minibuses could be used as a conventional bus, but there are more possible applications. They could provide an on-demand, door-to-door service and could service additional lines. Our interviewees state that, for the end-users of the automated minibuses, the service provided is important, and not so much whether
the service is automated or conventional (ID18). These insights are confirmed by the outcomes of the social impact studies, conducted for WP8. These studies show that (potential) users expect a higher level of flexibility from automated minibuses. This flexibility is defining the willingness to use them, not the fact that these buses are driverless (Naderer & Korbee, 2021). Public transport is on a decline in Europe, although not consistent in all countries. Hence, there is a quest for improving the quality of public transport (ID18). This could be done via the integration of automated minibuses (ID18). Automated minibus services could resolve mobility gaps by linking unserved areas, therefore adding lines instead of replacing them (ID10, ID21). They could enforce the development of MaaS systems and seamless traffic flow. Nevertheless, it seems to be unclear what the need and acceptance of such a system are and how to overcome technical barriers (ID16). Part of the respondents also claim the need for more citizen involvement to understand if citizens agree with and would want the use of those new technologies (ID12; ID16; ID8; ID10).

Respondents believe that the deployment of automated vehicles will occur in the long term, which would give time for drivers to be re-educated and learn new skills (ID11). Three respondents explained that automated driving would create new and better jobs (ID11; ID16; ID7). Those higher qualifications entail higher wages. Therefore, personnel costs could increase due to increasing qualification needs and the number of automated vehicles. In addition, one respondent highlighted that it is important for driver unions to be part of the discussions before disruptive changes take place in the sector (ID11). Some respondents point to the fact that the experience that a bus driver gets over the years is very difficult to compensate for with automated driving (ID6). A respondent drew attention to the fact that the elderly and people with reduced mobility (PRM) may rely on the safety drivers' help onboard the minibus, which cannot be replaced by technology (ID7). A solution could be to book rides with safety drivers through the app (ID20). Due to this kind of consideration, interviewees report that the role of bus drivers will become (even) more important (ID11).

Electric automated vehicles are often promoted as a sustainable solution to urban transportation problems, such as congestion and pollution. Our interviewees have different opinions on that. Some interviewees stated that additional research is necessary (ID8) and others that this innovation does indeed entail possibilities to alleviate environmental pressure from the urban transportation system when fulfilling certain requirements. Automated minibuses should, for instance, replace the use of cars, rather than substituting walking or cycling. A potential disadvantage could be that automated vehicles will not be operated in a shared manner but will replace individual cars and be privately owned although this will not result in elevating environmental pressures.
### 9.2.3.5 Future Scenarios

The vision and perspective of many respondents converge on a transition of mobility services towards a more connected, electric, automated, and shared mobility (ID1; ID4; ID10). AVs can be seen as an opportunity to reduce emissions, to make mobility more flexible, attractive, and shared, and as an opportunity to design our cities as we want them (ID10). AVs can also redefine the traffic flow in cities through shared mobility (ID3). In addition, AVs are expected to transform urban mobility, providing more reliable and scalable services, which meet individual needs (ID5). However, one of the respondents stated that AVs are perceived to come in a very far future. They also pointed out that the vehicles operate at a very low speed and are not made for changing road traffic, therefore, requiring even more street space (ID16). The respondent highlights that public transport must be the first choice and that investments in the public transport sector cannot be neglected (ID16). Most of the stakeholders agree that shared AVs are the best solution, more beneficial and affordable, in contrast to individual AVs (ID1; ID3; ID4; ID5; ID8; ID14). In this regard, one respondent commented that OEMs predict automated driving to be the future, but at the same time, they want individual mobility to be part of a future mobility system (ID14). When asked about the role that they foresee regarding the automated minibuses, the respondents presented two different perspectives:

* Deployment of the automated minibuses on a local and small scale would aim to fill the mobility gaps, with a focus on first and last miles (ID1; ID12; ID15; ID16).

* Deployment of automated minibuses to increase driven distances and drive on more complex roads (ID2, ID3).

## 9.2.4 Stakeholder Map

In the previous sections of this chapter, the results of the stakeholder analysis on the field of automated minibuses in European urban public transport systems were presented. Based on the presented analysis, a 'stakeholder map' was defined that shows how the field is *currently* seen by the main EU stakeholders (see Fig. 9.8).

### 9.2.4.1 Structure of the Stakeholder Map

Through the analysis, it became clear that not all actors have an equal influence on the development of automated minibuses in urban public transportation systems. Therefore, three types of actors were defined: primary, secondary, and tertiary actors:

* Primary actors can influence this development and deployment directly and have a large stake in the direction of the development. These include the city governments, public transport operators, manufacturers, software developers, the European Union, and citizens/end-users. There are strong relations between
<figure><img src="image_126.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9.8 EU-level stakeholder map</figcaption></figure>
these primary actors, with the city government and the PTO as a central axe. The testing and future deployment of the automated minibuses hinge on the cooperation between these stakeholders, specifically the PTO and the government.

* The secondary actors influence the development but, more indirectly, through influencing the primary actors. They are civil society organizations (driver unions, environmental NGOs, citizen associations, research institutes, and the media). This actor group is well connected but primarily to the groups of primary actors via the PTOs, the city government, and the citizens/end-users. They play an important role in supporting or opposing the key players.
* The tertiary actors are important for the technical development of the system (suppliers), as well as for the operation of the system (safety drivers and insurance companies). They provide constraining and enabling conditions but are not actively involved in shaping the system.

The division of strengths in ties between the actors results from the type of connection between them. Furthermore, the number of times that the connection was mentioned by the stakeholders and the weight attached to it by them was considered.

### 9.2.4.2 Insights from the Stakeholder Map

The stakeholder map presents insights into the relations between the involved stakeholders in the field of automated minibus deployment. A group of six stakeholders are key to the development of a public transportation system, in which automated minibuses are integrated as on-demand services.

The group of *manufacturers and software developers* strive to develop the necessary technologies and push for their implementation. To do so, they are dependent on the other four stakeholder groups. Close collaboration with the PTOs is necessary. These organizations will have to operate the services, so their commitment to this new service and the transition to a new system are necessary. The *PTOs* provide transportation services on behalf of the (city) government. They define the requirements of public transportation, for allowing automated minibuses on public roads, but also more practical issues such as the service hours of public transport. The *city governments* and public transport authorities are dependent on the decisions of the *European Commission* and *national governments* to define the room to manoeuvre for them to enhance and stimulate the development of a revolutionized public transport setting. The final group of stakeholders are the *end-users* of the system. A technical innovation, such as automated driving, can only be successfully implemented once accepted by the (potential) users. Based on the result of this study and confirmed by the AVENUE social impact assessment, there is a high level of goodwill towards automated minibuses. To assure that end-users will also change their mobility behaviour, the system should provide a high level of flexibility with innovative software solutions and driverless automated shuttles. These interdependencies show that a renewal of the public transportation system towards a flexible system that focuses on providing tailor-made mobility solutions requires
cooperation between and commitment of the main stakeholder groups. Another requirement is the creation of a common discourse, a common wording and an understanding of the desired system. This means that the development of innovative techniques, the software and data-sharing platforms, the required regulatory alterations, and the social and behavioural changes should be aligned. It should be accepted that the deployment of automated minibuses is not only an extension of the existing public transport system but is intended to revolutionize the system. This new system is not structured by fixed routes from the supply side but is guided by the travel request from the demand site. Only through the acceptance of this common frame necessary changes can be made.

The distinction between primary, secondary, and tertiary stakeholders does not mean that some groups are not of importance. Each of the stakeholder groups can alter and change the perception and position of the primary stakeholders. Pilot projects, such as the AVENUE operations, are not only important to develop and test technical innovations but also to create goodwill and science-based facts that civil society organizations use to inform citizens. The stakeholder map shows that the implementation of automated minibuses in the public transport sector is only partly dependent on the technical system. This technical system is embedded in a larger system that includes not only governmental actors, end-users, and civil society organizations but also competitors that envision another restructuring of the (public) transport system. To gain better insight into these two systems and how the interactions between the two systems influence the work and vision of the AVENUE project, Sect. 3 focuses on an AVENUE stakeholder and mobility services map.

## 9.3 Conceptual AVENUE Stakeholder and Mobility Services Analysis

The AVENUE stakeholder and mobility services map were developed to gain insights into the consequences of deploying automated minibuses in the public transport sector. It aims to show the complex ecosystem that this deployment will become part of. It aims to identify main mobility trends, strategic actors, and their interactions in the process of implementation and integration of automated vehicles in the transport systems of European cities. The map is based on a comprehensive literature review, which is validated by experts and AVENUE project partners.
<figure><img src="image_127.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9.9 AVENUE stakeholder and mobility services map</figcaption></figure>

### 9.3.1 AVENUE Stakeholders and Mobility Services

The starting point of this map is the vision of AVENUE that automated minibuses could be integrated into a multi- and intermodal mobility system and be offered as Mobility as a Service (MaaS). AVs and MaaS could be game changers in mobility as AVs combined with other means of transport could individualize public transport. This approach follows the people-centric vision of mobility of the EU (EU and EFTA Ministers of Transport, 2020; UITP, 2020) and the SUMP approach.

At the centre of the map presented in Fig. 9.9 are three means of transport (in light orange): automated vehicles for public transport, vehicles for mass transport and individual mobility services, and privately owned automated vehicles. The automated vehicles for public transport are connected to four subsystems: infrastructure (left side), civil society (top left), government (top right), and the transport sector (bottom). These subsystems each have their own stakeholders and goals and present obstacles and limitations to the integration of automated minibuses in public transport:

* Stakeholders in the infrastructure subsystem include digital infrastructure providers that set the requirements and comprehend telecommunications, data centres, cybersecurity systems, vehicle intersections (V2V, V2I, V2X), and energy infrastructure providers that set requirements for infrastructure for EVs and
charging stations. Hence, the research and development for those innovations entail more partnerships between the automotive industry and technology providers.

* The civil society subsystem includes stakeholders such as trade unions and industry lobbies.

* The governmental subsystem consists of multilevel governmental institutions, city governments, country governments, and the European Union. This governmental subsystem is crucial for the deployment of automated vehicles, as they can constitute legal obstacles, must adapt infrastructure, and authorize automated driving on public streets.

* The mobility subsystem includes operators of the public transport system as well as those privately owned. A crucial role in the development of a MaaS system is foreseen in the mobility aggregator, a service provider that creates and supports an intermodal and/or multimodal on-demand platform. Thus, taking into account a scenario with multimodal mobility and connected vehicles (Attias, 2017; Fielden et al., 2017), the mobility aggregators play an important role by providing the Integrated Mobility Platforms (IMPs) as a key solution to simplify the journey planning and payment and providing highly customer-tailored solutions (Baron et al., 2018). The current main players are Google Maps, Citymapper, Omio, Qixxit, and Moovel, among others. Connecting these means of transport also means connecting both the traditional transport operators and new competitors. The end-users are an integral part of this subsystem, as it is developed to be a ‘customer-centric approach to mobility services’ (Fournier, 2017). In establishing this system, the end-users have several options regarding the means of transport for short and long journeys in European cities.

Banks and insurance companies are stakeholders included in the map that do not directly relate to one of the subsystems. The insurance companies consider that initially, automated vehicles will increase insurance rates because they will become more complex and more expensive to fix (Noble, 2018). Later on, it is expected that the insurance prices for automated vehicles decrease, considering that the frequency of claims might reduce and the percentage of automated vehicles on the roads might increase (Noble, 2018). In addition, when addressing automated vehicle technology, potential new insurance market fields emerge, such as cyber risk, software and hardware, and infrastructure (Karp et al., 2017).

From the banks’ perspective, automated vehicle technology can trigger significant changes in financial services. Therefore, banks should embrace those changes and emerging new technologies (e.g. artificial intelligence, blockchain, distributed ledger technology) and re-think financial services according to them (e.g. IoT, sensors, connected cars) (Pinto, 2018). Important transformations mentioned by Pinto (2018) include the sharing economy and how banks model their financial services, considering the shift from ownership to sharing-based models, open banking, and how users will do their payments, loans, credits, risks, security concerning privacy and hacking cars, and customer trust. Banks will also play a key role when AVs are combined with other means of transport within a MaaS system for ticketing.
### 9.3.2 MaaS Strategies

In AVENUE, the deployment of automated minibuses is part of a technical ecosystem, aiming to demonstrate that automated minibuses can operate as an integral part of the public transport system. The stakeholders in this ecosystem should cooperate and work towards achieving this goal. However, there is also a bigger ecosystem, that of the entire urban mobility, including private and shared mobility as well.

The AVENUE stakeholder and mobility map, therefore, defined three means of transport:

* Automated vehicles for public transport

* Vehicles for mass transport and individual mobility services

* Privately owned automated vehicles

As is shown in Fig. 9.9, the development of privately owned automated vehicles is excluded from the AVENUE scenario, as these automated vehicles will only replace conventional vehicles. An important aspect is whether the means of transport are part of a public or private transportation system. A taxi, for instance, is not part of the public transport system but is shared between users, whereas a bus is both shared between users and part of the public transport system. The same division can be made for automated vehicles. Defining two systems (a private and a public transport system) in which automated vehicles can be deployed on-demand and door-to-door in an intermodal mobility concept invites for a discussion on how these possibilities relate to each other and to the goals and vision of the AVENUE project. The central question therefore is what are the possibilities and consequences for the technical innovations of automated vehicles to revolutionize transportation?

We see three main considerations that are important for future scenarios. First, private automated vehicles could be introduced and developed. This scenario is not part of our AVENUE focus and is not very likely as the price is expected to be rather high in the next 10 years (Fournier et al., 2020). Cities would furthermore like to avoid additional traffic and continue to have a policy that tries to keep individual vehicles out of cities (Buehler et al., 2017; Marsden, 2006).

Secondly, private, unimodal robotaxis (such as Waymo/Google, ATG/Uber, Zoox/Amazon) could provide individual mobility services. These services could later integrate preferred private partners and public means of transport through open data (Directive 2019/1024 of the European Parliament and of the Council of June 2019) and offer customer-centric mobility services. These companies could then create a private MaaS system. This can be called a ‘laissez-faire’ scenario where authorities do not try or are not fast enough to anticipate the digital and automation transformation in mobility. This scenario would allow few private companies to become dominant (through the so-called ‘winner-takes-it-all’ effect), capture the created values, and displace public transport (see, e.g. Clewlow & Mishra, 2017). Huge rebound effects could be the result of more traffic and fewer benefits for the environment and the citizens. These scenarios have been further developed in WP8 and should be deepened in future research.
In a third scenario, the linkage between the private and public platforms is estab-
lished to create a system where on-demand door-to-door automated minibuses are
combined with other means of transport through MaaS. In this scenario, public
transport is made individual and is providing a real alternative to privately owned
vehicles. For that purpose, different combinations of complementary means of
transport of all public transport are bundled into one trip and thus most effective and
sustainable for stakeholders:

* Citizens could have more choices and a better on-demand and door-to-door service (customer-centric approach).

* PTO could use the existing network capacities better (open seats in private and public vehicles, on-demand service delivery) and offer their passengers more information.

* The city could provide a more efficient transport system through:

- Better understanding of the behaviour of passengers

- More complementarity between means of transport

- More competition and innovation

- Cost savings with better use of transport resources (rolling stock, roads, etc.) and lowering of negative externalities if certain conditions are satisfied

These scenarios are presented in Chap. 14 of this book. The representative survey as presented in Chap. 15 provides insights into the expectations of citizens. A consequence of the third scenario, the division between public and private transport systems could be blurred. The consequences, hereof, should be deepened in future research.

Admitting the wider ecosystem of urban transport in which the automated mini-
buses will be deployed influences the role, position, and support of involved stake-
holders. Automated minibuses can be deployed to strengthen public transport, but
the same technology can be used by private companies to optimize their own eco-
system, which will result in additional competition for the public transport system.
To gain support for the deployment and development of automated vehicles, it is
therefore crucial to invest in creating intermodal transport systems that rely on open
data and open API (application programming interfaces).

9.3.3 Open Data and Open API for Mobility

A crucial topic in the integration of automated minibuses into multi- and intermodal mobility that requires new connections between different stakeholders is open data and open API. API brings data to the potential users to inform them about the location of an automated minibus and when it could arrive. When the user books a mobility demand, an API transforms this demand into a mission for the automated minibus to pick up the passenger. Data availability is a key issue for users to easily plan and pay for their journey using one single platform. In the past, end-users had
to juggle among different mobility platforms to plan multimodal journeys (Steinmann, 2019), but now, mobility aggregators have developed Integrated Mobility Platforms (IMPs) aiming to win customers by fulfilling this gap and simplifying route planning and the travelling experience (Baron et al., 2018). However, the encouragement of the emergence of platforms that would centralize all mobility services offered in one region involves strategic decisions and regulations regarding mobility open data (Steinmann, 2019).

From the state and local mobility authorities' perspective, enlarging the mobility open data would contribute to a better overview of transport flows especially private mobility flows in cities, allowing them to adapt public provision according to the customer needs (Hassani, 2018). Nevertheless, the discussions around the mandatory opening of mobility data present discontents and uncertainties for both sides: mobility companies and public transport operators. Mobility companies agree to cooperate with information for local authorities to improve their transport supply, but they also express the concern that opening access to anyone poses a competitive problem (Hassani, 2018). Additionally, open data legislation can also be critical for public transport operators once they fear that it would facilitate the hegemony of non-European digital giants (e.g. Google, Uber, Apple). Operators consider the risk of being deprived of contact with the customer, including ticket selling, in favour of the 'integrators' and their Integrated Mobility Platforms (Julien, 2019). Hence, the mobility open-data regulation is a current strategic topic for private and public stakeholders to plan their next steps.

## 9.4 Stakeholder Strategies

In this section, strategies and recommendations for the main AVENUE stakeholder groups are defined. The strategies are based on the two stakeholder maps developed in this deliverable: the EU-level stakeholder map (Fig. 9.8) and the AVENUE stakeholder and mobility services map (Fig. 9.9). Due to different goals and starting points, the maps differ, in the level of detail, in scope, and in how they can be used. Nevertheless, the maps complement each other.

### 9.4.1 City Governments

The current pilots of AVENUE provided important insights into how to proceed in the future to support the testing and the deployment of automated vehicles for public transport. As experienced in Copenhagen, the cities could work in collaboration with key stakeholders to update the homologation guidelines for automated vehicle technology. The guidelines must be adapted to the novelty of innovation while keeping the citizens' safety in mind. Moreover, running the automated minibuses in public areas must go beyond the testing phase to the actual roll-out to serve the city
in the long run (Eden et al., 2017) and fill real social mobility needs. The long-term planning ensures constant investment and development of the technology and the services that could provide funding support for the PTOs. To achieve that, the city government should commit to involving key stakeholders and especially the citizens.

Furthermore, future deployment and their impacts must be present in the mobil-
ity master plan and future transportation agenda. The SUMP guidelines could pro-
vide reliable support on how to manage automated vehicles to benefit all stakeholders.
The emphasis should also be put on promoting sustainable active modes of transport
such as walking and biking. Moreover, the responsibility lies in the hands of city
planners to ensure that the infrastructure is adequate for the circulation of the auto-
mated minibuses but that it remains in line with sustainable urban planning (Sime,
1986; Vleugel & Bal, 2017).

Finally, collaboration with other cities lays the foundation for a network of sup-
port. Membership in cooperative networks could accelerate adaptation planning for
AV roll-out. The benefits of networking between cities were explained in research
on climate change adaptation for networks (Heikkinen et al., 2020). A similar con-
sortium to AVENUE could be beneficial. An alternative could be to integrate
AVENUE projects into the focus of C40 cities to support their sustainable mobility
policies.

9.4.2 Transport Operators

The PTOs in AVENUE prepared for the pilots by researching the existing public
transport offer in the area, the city’s agendas and goals, and AV’s potential techno-
logical trends. All of that built a solid foundation for the testing of the automated
minibus. However, a more detailed assessment of the regulatory framework could
have further reinforced the project. This showcases the importance of cooperating
with key stakeholders such as the local policymakers and government. The regula-
tions’ analysis could have provided further insights into the city’s mobility strategy,
infrastructure restrictions, and transportation demand management, e.g. if there are
pull and push policies: no car zones and road pricing (TUMI, 2011).

Furthermore, the PTOs should work more with the citizens. The use of surveys or workshops could help them understand more the needs of the users before defining a test area or in the testing areas. Thus, they will provide the service to meet demand rather than only test the services of the automated minibus.

Such collaborations with other stakeholders provide a holistic vision of needed
services. It also promotes private-public partnerships. The automated minibuses
should support public transport but not compete with active modes of transport. The
NGO's recommendations could support smooth deployment operations, increase
the acceptability of the automated minibuses, and promote the services. Even more,
the PTOs could focus on the integration of automated minibuses within the trans-
portation ecosystem. In the future, they could collaborate more with software and
MaaS operators to better implement one platform where passengers could select the
on-demand automated minibuses for public transport and book the entire trip with one ticket.

### 9.4.3 MaaS Stakeholders

The MaaS provider role could be occupied by private, public, or both transport operators. The recommendation for them is to focus on providing integrated customer-centric data to the passengers. Public and private transport operators should work together as one integrator for MaaS services to define the standards for sharing data between all key stakeholders. The access of the PTOs to transport regulations and transport authorities makes it easier to offer a range of public transport services on a MaaS platform quicker, yet the business competitiveness and profit-driven model of private operators could help the MaaS market to grow faster (Kamargianni & Matyas, 2017). Thus, the collaboration between both sides could help develop the MaaS services.

To better incorporate the automated minibuses in the transportation ecosystem, data sharing should be open and fair and API a prerequisite to enable interoperability. The results of the AVENUE social impact assessment show that the acceptance to use data is high among (potential) users and fears regarding data misuse are low (Korbee et al., 2021). Further, the information, ticketing, and billing to ride the automated minibus must be integrated into the public transport system of cities and MaaS platforms. Consequently, the services' quality will be improved, and the impacts of automated minibuses for public transport will be beneficial to all (Pickford & Chung, 2019). The collaboration between private and public transport operators under the care of public authorities leads to a unified platform for MaaS.

### 9.4.4 Citizens and Civil Society

The deployment of automated minibuses in public transport entails a promise to revolutionize our mobility and enable people-centric mobility. Not only does it aim to enhance access to mobility, but it also intends to redefine how we use different mobility systems. As this socio-technological transition has a lot of implications for citizens, they must be actively involved in it. Equally important is the creation of spaces for dialogue, public discussion, and living labs for interactions of citizens and technologies and innovations. This active involvement is not only required for citizens; an important role is reserved for civil society organizations. Environmental NGOs have currently not taken a clear position in this debate but stress the need for better studies to be able to assess the environmental implications.
## 9.5 Conclusions

The AVENUE project aimed to demonstrate the use of automated minibuses in public transport. The stakeholder analysis presented in this chapter aimed to provide insight into the social setting in which the automated minibuses will operate. The social-environmental assessment consists of a multitude of organizations, networks, and institutions. Each of these stakeholders has its own set of expectations and its own specific role. Based on the conducted stakeholder analysis, a conclusion can be drawn on three levels. The first set of conclusions can be drawn concerning the main actors and the level playing field of the deployment of automated minibuses. The second set of conclusions can be drawn on how stakeholders currently assess the development of deploying automated minibuses in public transport systems. The third set of conclusions focuses on how AVENUE partners can increase the success of the deployment of automated minibuses in public transport through a specific stakeholder approach.

### 9.5.1 Automated Minibuses in Public Transport

Deploying automated minibuses in the public transport system takes place in a complex stakeholder environment. The stakeholder maps show that a plurality of stakeholders involved do not share similar goals and expectations. Furthermore, developing a system in which the automated minibuses provide an on-demand, door-to-door service creates an entanglement with the mobility system in general, as it is a service that competes with private taxi services and personal use of cars. This also results in an altered level playing field; the division between public and private transport is diluting.

### 9.5.2 Stakeholder Positions

The interviewed stakeholders picture the outlook for automated vehicles in very different ways, meaning that each stakeholder is focusing on different issues to be addressed with the implementation of automated vehicles. In addition to different topics that stakeholders have in mind, they also have different attitudes towards the same topic. A good illustration of that is the future role of bus drivers in a system where automated vehicles will be applied. While the bus drivers themselves picture their current responsibilities as job enrichment (they expect to take over more ambiguous tasks), others perceive the job of bus drivers as not required for the operation of automated minibuses.

The development of fully automated vehicles has also resulted in a renewal of the mobility industry, which is still ongoing. Stakeholders like manufacturers
have always played a leading role in market competition, and as they would not like to give up this position easily, they try to steer in one direction. Classical OEMs used to be market leaders in the automotive industry, but with the increasing extent of automation, new competitors dropped into this market. Another point to consider here is the investment linked with fully automated driving. To support investments, it is desirable that policies and regulations in support of this new technology are in place. That would give manufacturers security in their investment. Introducing a legal framework supporting this innovative technology does present a dilemma for governments as they should keep the needs and wishes of society and citizens in mind. In addition, there is a discrepancy in place between technology development (fast and dynamic) and legal framework development (slow and long term).

Before scaling up the deployment of fully automated vehicles, some barriers need to be solved. These barriers are not only of a technological nature but do especially address legal and social issues. Finding solutions for barriers is not in the response of manufacturers and software developers alone, as they will not possess sufficient resources. Especially, social acceptance can become a great threat to putting automated minibuses in place. Another fact to be considered when analysing stakeholders is to look at the resource equipment each stakeholder group has. Each stakeholder group is rich in similar resources, differing in quantity. Additionally, many interviewees raised the missing legislation and regulations for implementing automated driving and claimed that governments partly fail to put appropriate regulations in place.

### 9.5.3 AVENUE Stakeholder Strategies

To stimulate a successful integration of automated minibuses in the public transport system, partners of the AVENUE project should include new stakeholders in their network. Stakeholders that are currently under-represented are civil society organizations, such as driver unions, environmental NGOs, and citizen associations. These actors are crucial in a user-centred urban mobility system. Another group that is not represented in the AVENUE consortium are the city governments. These governmental bodies are crucial stakeholders in public transportation, as they define the requirements of the public transport network in their cities. An example that shows the importance of the city government is the refusal of the city of Luxembourg to allow an on-demand, door-to-door service to be offered as a public transport service. The third group of actors that are recommended to be included in the AVENUE consortium are the partners deploying existing modes of transport that the automated minibuses will be connected to. Therefore, the AVENUE consortium should focus on:

* Creating stronger cooperation between city government, PTOs, and software developers to develop common strategies to deploy automated minibuses that
serve a general interest. The deployment should become an integral part of the
city's goals for mobility, as well as for the concession process for public trans-
port services. Cooperation and non-synchrony are key factors to success.

* Developing tools for citizens’ participation and inclusion in the debate beyond a user vision.

* Stimulating more interaction and exchange between scientific research institutes, policymakers, and decision-makers.

Finally, a user-centric system (as is envisioned in the AVENUE vision) requires a user-centric approach, more than technology development. This means, for instance, that the selection of services that will be deployed depends on real social mobility needs rather than technological possibilities. Bottom-up strategies, such as living labs and citizen forums, enable more participatory approaches, debates, and dynamic interaction between society and innovations. Moreover, automated vehicles combined with a MaaS open new opportunities to fulfil the best mobility needs and help to develop people-centric transport policies that serve the general interest. This could raise the acceptance of citizens for innovation.

**Acknowledgements** This project has received funding by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 769033.

References

Ainsalu, J., Arffman, V., Bellone, M., Ellner, M., Haapamäki, T., Haavisto, N., Josefson, E., Ismailogullari, A., Pilli-Sihvola, E., Madland, O., Madzulaitis, R., Muur, J., Mäkinen, S., Nousiainen, V., Rutanen, E., Sahala, S., Schønfeldt, B., Smolnicki, P., Soe, R.-M., Sääski, J., Szymańska, M., Vaskinn, I., & Åman, M. (2018). State of the art of automated buses. *Sustainability, 10*(9), 3118. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints201807.0218.v2

Attias, D. (2017). *The automobile world in a state of change: From the automobile to the concept of auto-mobility*. Springer International Publishing.

Baron, R., Zintel, M., Schemken, N., & Uferer, C. (2018). Integrated mobility platforms: How to win the customer in tomorrow's world of smart mobility. https://www.adlittle.de/en/insights/viewpoints/integrated-mobility-platforms. Accessed 16 Mar 2021.

Bodnar, P., Brown, J., & Nakhooda, S. (2015). *What counts: Tools to help define and understand progress towards the $100 billion climate finance commitment*. WRI, CPI, ODI. https://www.wri.org/publication/what-counts-tools-help-define-and-understand-progress-towards-100-billion-climate. Accessed 24 Aug 2020

Boersma, R., van Arem, B., & Rieck, F. (2018). Application of driverless electric automated shuttles for public transport in villages: The case of Appelscha. *World Electric Vehicle Journal, 9*, 15.

Bryson, J. M. (2004). What to do when stakeholders matter. *Public Management Review, 6*, 21–53.

Buehler, R., Pucher, J., Gerike, R., & Götschi, T. (2017). Reducing car dependence in the heart of Europe: Lessons from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. *Transport Reviews, 37*, 4–28.

Clewlow, R. R., & Mishra, G. S. (2017). *Disruptive transportation: The adoption, utilization, and impacts of ride-hailing in the United States*. Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California. Research Report UCD-ITS-RR-17-07. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/82w2z91j
Czischke, D. (2018). Collaborative housing and housing providers: Towards an analytical framework of multi-stakeholder collaboration in housing co-production. *International Journal of Housing Policy, 18*, 55–81.

Eden, G., Nanchen, B., Ramseyer, R., Évéquoz, F. (Eds.), 2017. On the road with an autonomous passenger shuttle.

EU and EFTA Ministers of Transport. (2020). Smart deal for mobility: Shaping the mobility of the future with digitalisation—sustainable, safe, secure and efficient. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjk59zIsoDvAhXIHqQKHeQEApwQFjAAegQIAxD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bmvi.de%2FsharedDocs%2FEN%2FDocuments%2FK%2Fpassau-declaration.pdf%3F_blob%3DpublicationFile&usg=AOvVaw1KVKs33ex7GsPniCUCLi52

Fielden, P., Davidson, F., & Arcadis. (2017). Sustainable cities mobility index 2017 (28 pp.). https://www.arcadis.com/en/global/our-perspectives/sustainable-cities-mobility-index-2017/. Accessed 4 Apr 2019.

Fournier, G. (2017). *The new mobility paradigm. Transformation of value chain and value proposition through innovations*. Springer.

Fournier, G., Boos, A., Wörner, R., Jaroudi, I., Morozova, I., & Nemoto, E. H. (2020). Substituting individual mobility by mobility on demand using autonomous vehicles: A sustainable assessment simulation of Berlin and Stuttgart. *International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management, 20*, 369–407.

Freeman, R. E. (1984). *Strategic management: A stakeholder approach*. Pitman.

Hassani, J. E. (2018). Les entreprises de mobilités bientôt dépossédées de leurs données ? *Journal du Net*. https://www.journaldunet.com/economie/transport/1417359-loi-mobilites-ouverture-donnees-transport-open-data/

Heikkinen, M., Karimo, A., Klein, J., Juhola, S., & Ylä-Anttila, T. (2020). Transnational municipal networks and climate change adaptation: A study of 377 cities. *Journal of Cleaner Production, 257*, 120474.

Hermans, L. M., & Cunningham, S. W. (2018). *Actor and strategy models: Practical applications and step-wise approaches*. John Wiley & Sons.

Julien, B. (2019). La LOM calme les appétits des GAFAM. Autoactu. http://www.autoactu.com/la-lom-calme-les-appétits-des-gafam.shtml.

Kamargianni, M., & Matyas, M. (Eds.). (2017). *The business ecosystem of mobility as a service*. Transportation Research Board.

Karp, L., Kim, R., & Liu, C. (2017). *Insuring autonomous vehicles. An 81$ billion opportunity between now and 2025*. Accenture, Stevens Institute of Technology. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwijkNKTw7TvAhWJsBQKHfL7ASwQFjAAegQIBBAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accenture.com%2F_acnmedia%2Fpdf-60%2FAccenture-insurance-autonomous-vehicles-pov.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2LtBhi0wpDJ5zmUU8WOQn6

Korbee, D., Naderer, G., Nemoto, E.H., 2019. Deliverable 8.8 first report on social impact assessment.

Korbee, D., Naderer, G., Nemoto, E.H., Frank, L., Fournier, G., (2024). Who will accept travelling with automated shuttle buses? Defining target groups for potential users. (submitted).

Kyriakidis, M., Happee, R., & Winter, J. d. (2015). Public opinion on automated driving: Results of an international questionnaire among 5000 respondents. *Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 32*, 127–140.

Litman, T. (2019). *Autonomous vehicle implementation predictions implications for transport planning*. Victoria Transport Policy Institute.

Marsden, G. (2006). The evidence base for parking policies—A review. *Transport Policy, 13*, 447–457.

Naderer, G., & Korbee, D. (2021). Deliverable 8.7 Second iteration social impact assessment. AVENUE.. https://h2020-avenue.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/D8.7-Second-iteration-social-impact.pdf
Noble, B. (2018). *Self-driving cars expected to shake up insurance industry*. The Detroit News. https://eu.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/2018/10/29/self-driving-cars-insurance-industry/1617277002/. Accessed 16 Mar 2021

Nordhoff, S., Winter, J. d., Madigan, R., Merat, N., van Arem, B., & Happee, R. (2018). User acceptance of automated shuttles in Berlin-Schöneberg: A questionnaire study. *Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 58*, 843–854.

Nuttall, K., Arbuckle, T., & Haworth, L. (2018). *Harnessing the future of mobility: How governments can enable a better transportation experience for all citizens*. Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/focus/future-of-mobility/government-and-the-future-of-mobility.html

Pickford, A., & Chung, E. (2019). The shape of MaaS: The potential for MaaS lite. *IATSS Research, 43*, 219–225.

Pinto, H. (2018). How autonomous vehicles will change the banking industry.

Sime, J. D. (1986). Creating places or designing spaces? *Journal of Environmental Psychology, 6*, 49–63.

Steinmann, L. (2019). Le projet du gouvernement qui inquiète le monde du transport. https://www.lesechos.fr/industrie-services/tourisme-transport/le-projet-du-gouvernement-qui-inquiete-le-monde-du-transport-1023525#xtor=CS1-3046

TUMI. (2011). *Transport demand management*. TUMI. https://www.transformative-mobility.org/assets/publications/Transport-Demand-Management-Push-and-Pull.pdf

UITP. (2020). Sustainable and smart mobility: UITP input to the European strategy. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rect=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwih8vLhtYDvAhVKP-wKHSGtARsQFjAAegQIBRAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.uitp.org%2Fwp%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F09%2F20200924_UITP_contribution_EUSSMS_final.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3jAz2pZfPLwxIytH7_EV9S

Vleugel, J. M., & Bal, F. (2017). More space and improved living conditions in cities with autonomous vehicles. *International Journal of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics, 12*, 505–515.

Wicki, M., Bernauer, T., 2018. Public opinion on route 12 interim report on the first survey on the pilot experiment of an automated bus service in Neuhausen am Rheinfall.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

<figure><img src="image_128.png" /></figure>
Part II

# Impact Assessment of AVENUE
<figure><img src="image_129.png" /></figure>

**Chapter 10**
# Research Approach: Introduction to SUMP and AVENUE Methodology

Eliane Horschutz Nemoto, Nicole van den Boom, Michael Thalhofer, and Guy Fournier

**Abstract** This chapter introduces the AVENUE sustainability assessment methodology, which is rooted in the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) framework to formulate a comprehensive approach to an urban mobility assessment. The chapter explores how the AVENUE project is adapting to SUMP by improving public transport and incorporating innovative mobility solutions like automated vehicles (AVs) and Mobility as a Service (MaaS). Through an interdisciplinary lens, this chapter details how the different work packages of the AVENUE project contribute to an integrated and sustainable urban mobility ecosystem assessment. It emphasises the crucial role of stakeholder engagement in shaping mobility solutions that are not only technologically advanced, but also environmentally sustainable, economically viable and socially inclusive. The chapter demonstrates the practical application of SUMP principles in different urban environments, providing valuable insights for policymakers, urban planners and the mobility sector in general. This research underlines the importance of a holistic assessment framework that includes environmental, economic and social impact assessments and also technical and governance issues. It provides a possible interdisciplinary methodology to assess all the facets of future sustainable urban mobility developments.

E. H. Nemoto (✉)
CentraleSupélec, LGI, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany

ICLEI Europe, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
e-mail: eliane.nemoto@iclei.org

N. van den Boom · G. Fournier
CentraleSupélec, LGI, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany

M. Thalhofer
Software-driven Ecosystems and Market Places, Siemens Technology, Munich, Germany
# 10.1 Introduction

This chapter sets forth an explication of the AVENUE sustainability assessment methodology, starting with an examination of the theoretical underpinnings of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) concepts and the methodological framework applied for rigorous assessment.

Subsequently, Sect. 2 presents a scholarly synthesis highlighting the principal outcomes emerging from the endeavours within Work Package 8. These results encapsulate the insights from the environmental impact assessment, the economic impact assessment and the social impact assessment, thus contributing to the scholarly discourse on sustainable urban mobility. This approach has been completed by technical and governance issues as they have indeed economic, environmental and social impact which should not be neglected. In contrast to conventional assessments, this evaluation adopts thus a comprehensive, holistic but also challenging approach, thereby striving to contribute a novel methodology that blends diverse facets of sustainability into a unified framework.

# 10.2 SUMP as a Framework

The concept of the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) aims at a 'new planning paradigm' in mobility, which comprehends a shift from planning for motorised roads and infrastructure to planning for people (Arsenio et al. 2016). SUMP's approach has been widely recognised, targeting sustainable and integrative planning processes to deal with the complexity and dynamicity of urban mobility (Eltis 2021). Hence, it embraces new modes of transport, e.g. micromobility, automated and connected vehicles and new concepts such as Mobility as a Service (MaaS), shared mobility and so on.

The concept of SUMP comprehends the integration of all modes of transport, public and private, motorised and nonmotorised and a long-term planning vision. It targets to improve mobility accessibility, sustainability and citizens' well-being (European Commission 2013).

Furthermore, SUMP provides general guidelines for planning and implementation. It is composed of four main phases:

1. Preparation and context analysis.

2. Strategy development.

3. Measure planning.

4. Implementation and monitoring.

SUMP has been implemented in a number of cities and countries and in diverse settings. For instance, in the city of Koprivnica, Croatia, the municipality carried out a status analysis of its mobility situation; for this, an extensive consultation process engaged a range of stakeholders and a public survey (Mobility Plans, n.d.). In Cambridgeshire, UK, the Local Transport Plan (LTP) 2011–2026 defined indicators
and targets to monitor progress towards the plan's objectives, which were aligned with the long-term strategy for transport (ibid).

Russo and Rindone (2023) explore how European cities are becoming smarter by focusing on urban mobility, energy and Information and Communication Technologies. It highlights the importance of SUMPs in achieving this goal. By implementing MaaS plans, cities aim to better understand mobility patterns and their energy implications. The paper offers insights for researchers, planners, and decision-makers into European efforts towards sustainable urban development and improved mobility systems.

Mück et al. (2019) describe the living labs as an innovative approach to foster sustainable mobility planning in Munich. Such living labs aim to demonstrate innovative solutions on mobility, to provide user experiences and to reduce potential gaps between long-term urban planning and the current development of mobility in the city (ibid).

Sampaio et al. (2020) carried out an economic and environmental analysis of measures from a SUMP in a small-sized city. The study compared the transport emissions and external costs of the baseline scenario with the status after the SUMP measures were implemented. The measures consisted of (M1) promoting cycling, (M2) modernisation of the local fleet and (M3) trucks logistic optimisation. According to the study, all measures presented a potential to reduce emissions, in particular the modernisation of the local fleet, with a potential reduction of CO2 emissions by 9% and the reduction of external costs by 11%. The study from Arsenio et al. (2016) reviewed a sample of 40 case studies of SUMPs in Portugal, focusing on climate change goals and equity issues on accessibility. The main findings point that SUMP guidelines remain very broad and general, and there is an absence of specific guidance. For instance, there are gaps of guidance on methods to account for GHG emissions and monitoring indicators to measure the progress in different issues.

Such examples illustrate the SUMPS adoption and implementation in different phases: decision and planning, developing vision and strategies with stakeholders, setting targets and indicators and assessing the impacts of measures.

After this detailed explanation of SUMP, the next chapter shows how it was adapted and applied in AVENUE.

## 10.3 SUMP Concept and the AVENUE Project

The AVENUE project aims at deploying automated minibuses as an innovative and safe mobility solution to strengthen the public transport system of European cities. The automated minibus is electric and shared, and it is expected to improve accessibility, attractiveness and environmental performance of public transport (flexible on-demand, door-to-door services) to fill gaps in mobility and foster intermodal seamless individual mobility. The scope of the project also aims to critically assess the impacts of the introduction of these new technologies in the urban mobility system. The assessments investigate technical obstacles, potential environmental and climate emissions impacts, social acceptance of users and potential users,
business models and economic impacts, safety and security issues and the develop-
ment of regulations, standards and policies for AVs.

AVENUE project and the SUMP concept are aligned by embracing new and alternative modes of transport and new concepts such as Mobility as a Service (MaaS), integrated and shared mobility and intermodal mobility. Such innovations could support the future shift from private car and individual trips to on-demand public transport and shared rides. It could thus address the mobility gaps and needs existing today which makes it necessary to use privately owned cars.

Furthermore, the AVENUE social, environmental and economic impact assess-
ments will provide key findings to guide the integration and implementation of AV
in the urban mobility system while endorsing the sustainable planning, strategies
and goals of cities. The assessment studies are important to support a long-term
vision, design and planning of mobility. Although the pilot projects are deployed on
a small scale and with a technological focus, aspects of being strengthened are the
citizens’ participation (e.g. citizen forums and discussions), as well as the active
participation and partnership with the local municipality.

Moreover, the integration of automated minibuses in public transport has to be
done accordingly to the specificities of each territory and the different mobility
needs, aiming to cover real gaps in mobility (in particular in rural and suburban
areas) to a real contribution to better accessibility, affordability and environment-
friendly mobility.

Finally, by aiming for a transition towards greener and sustainable transport, it is
crucial that AVs deployment be consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), namely, SDG 9 targeting to build resilient infrastructure and foster innova-
tion, SDG 11 on sustainable cities and communities and SDG 13 Climate Change
(United Nations, 2015).

10.4 AVENUE Impact Assessment Framework

The AVENUE impact assessment offers a thorough review of the AVENUE trials,
encompassing evaluations in technical, environmental, economic, societal and gov-
ernance dimensions. Utilising an interdisciplinary methodology, it delves into mul-
tiple analyses to understand the complexities of introducing novel urban mobility
and its integration within the transportation framework. For example, the economic
and societal evaluations yield insights crucial for forecasting scenarios related to
automated vehicles and assessing both direct and indirect costs. The Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) provides environmental metrics essential for calculating envi-
ronmental externalities. Moreover, findings from the environmental, societal and
economic evaluations are integrated into sustainability assessment metrics. To bet-
ter understand the relationships between these components, the AVENUE assess-
ment framework is illustrated in Fig. 10.1.

The framework outlines three principal axes: firstly, the comprehensive spectrum encompassing data input, methodologies and analyses; secondly, the multifaceted
<figure><img src="image_130.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 10.1 Framework of the AVENUE impact assessments</figcaption></figure>
assessments covering social, economic, environmental and sustainability dimensions; and thirdly, the complex interconnections with tasks across other work packages.

The array of arrows signifies the intricate interrelationships and mutual depen-
dencies among various segments of this assessment. The economic analysis (Chap.
14), particularly focusing on externalities, is intricately influenced by diverse previ-
ously formulated scenarios, including Business as Usual (BAU) and an AV 2030
Vision scenario derived from a survey. Moreover, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
of automated minibuses (Chap. 13) underpinned this analysis by supporting the
calculation of various external cost categories such as those related to climate
change, air pollution and habitat degradation, among others. The outcome of this
analysis fed into sustainability Indicator 16, a framework articulated during
AVENUE and developed by Nemoto et al. (2021), aimed at assessing the impacts of
shared automated electric vehicles on urban mobility (see Chap. 17).

Additionally, qualitative discussions on rebound effects were integrated into the analysis of economic externalities. These rebound effects were gathered from the social impact analysis (Chap. 15), notably a survey on mobility attitudes and possible changes in behaviour in cities that shed light on modal shares in the local areas of the pilots and potential modal shifts. These surveys encompassed representative surveys at the city and pilot levels, user surveys, a longitudinal survey of pilot areas and an ad hoc survey of passengers and operators on site across all four pilot sites. Representative surveys are in particular relevant to understand the acceptance and possible changes in behaviour for user but also for non-user as car drivers, children, persons with reduced mobility, etc. The results were then utilised to calculate the modal shift and further the environmental and economic impact like externalities or possible rebound effects depending on the used scenarios.

Having addressed the environmental and social dimensions, a business opera-
tional Total Cost of Mobility (TCM) approach, grounded in the same pre-established
scenarios as the externality analysis, was introduced (Chap. 12). The TCM approach
is necessary to address the seamless journey. It has to be seen as complementary to
the traditional Total Cost of Ownership approach which focuses on the ownership of
vehicles and not on seamless service-based journeys. This assessment also contrib-
uted to the sustainability assessment framework as Indicator 15. The TCM analysis
subsequently translated into a business case for the AVENUE demonstrators and
pilots, explaining the costs for Public Transport Operators (PTOs), their revenues
and, significantly, the profitability of deploying automated shuttles. Furthermore,
the direct user costs of transport were factored into this analysis.

Conversely, the economic externalities analysis informed the environmental impact assessment at both city and local area levels (pilot level). Similarly, the social impact analysis provided insights for both the social impact assessment at city and local area levels. Together, these three assessments at varying scales constitute the AVENUE impact assessment framework, aiming to illustrate the repercussions of automated shuttle deployment on diverse stakeholders.

Among the stakeholders identified in the stakeholder analysis of Chap. 9, cities
emerge as crucial actors, with factors such as adoption speed and citizen acceptance
of the new service playing pivotal roles in social impacts (see colour yellow in the
sustainability assessment box of Fig. 10.1). Noteworthy potential cost savings include space optimisation, accident reduction and emissions reduction. Economic impacts on cities entail identified cost savings in municipal budgets, alongside implications for Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMP), urban mobility and planning.

Public Transport Operators (PTOs) represent another significant stakeholder poised to benefit from the business models developed in the economic assessment. The MaaS ecosystem, with its intricate network of stakeholders, constitutes yet another vital stakeholder in this sustainability assessment, thriving on a profitable business model and the demonstrated viability of the AV public transport ecosystem. Lastly, the user/non-user category stands out, with potential benefits including cost and time savings and improved accessibility, while their acceptance and mobility behaviour significantly influence the impact of automated mobility. The holistic analysis together with the stakeholder analysis allows then for the formulation of policy recommendations for the city and the public transportation operators and authorities (Chaps. 18 and 19). These recommendations additionally include regulatory and technical obstacles and facilitator analysis of Work Package 2 (Chaps. 11 and 16) which have been conducted based on input from Chaps. 5, 6 and 7.

This comprehensive overview serves as a guide for delving into the nuances encapsulated within Fig. 10.1 of the framework.

## 10.5 Conclusion

In conclusion, this chapter has provided a detailed explication of the AVENUE sustainability assessment methodology, rooted in the theoretical foundations of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) and a rigorous methodological framework. By synthesising scholarly insights from environmental, economic and social impact assessments, this chapter contributes significantly to the discourse on sustainable urban mobility. The innovative approach of AVENUE's evaluation, which integrates diverse facets of sustainability into a unified framework, marks a step forward in assessing the impacts of urban mobility solutions on a holistic way.

The discussion elucidates the concept of SUMPs as a framework for sustainable and integrative planning in urban mobility, emphasising the importance of embracing new modes of transport and innovative concepts like MaaS and shared mobility. Case studies presented underscore the diverse implementations of SUMPs across different cities and settings, highlighting the necessity for more specific guidance and methods in future iterations.

Furthermore, the alignment of the AVENUE project with the SUMP concept is evident in its aim to deploy automated minibuses as a sustainable mobility solution, while critically assessing their impacts on the environment, society and economy. The integration of AVENUE's impact assessment framework, encompassing environmental, economic and societal dimensions but also technical ad governance issues. It offers crucial insights for guiding the integration and implementation of automated vehicles in urban mobility systems.
Through a comprehensive analysis, the chapter delineates the complex interrelationships among various components of the AVENUE assessment framework, elucidating the implications for diverse stakeholders such as cities, Public Transport Operators and users. Ultimately, this chapter lays the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the multifaceted impacts of automated mobility solutions and underscores the importance of aligning urban transport innovations with the goals of sustainable development. The result will be integrated in the FAME initiative<fnref n="1" /> which consolidates and shares in the European Union all the methodologies used for evaluation of implementing automated vehicles in large-scale demonstration sites.

**Acknowledgements** This project has received funding by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 769033.

## References

Arsenio, E., Martens, K., & Di Ciommo, F. (2016). Sustainable urban mobility plans: Bridging climate change and equity targets? *Research in Transportation Economics*, 55, 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2016.04.008

Connected Automated Driving. (2022). FAME - Connected automated driving. Available online at https://www connectedautomateddriving eu/about/fame/. Updated on 4/28/2023, checked on 2/26/2024.

Eltis. (2021). The SUMP concept. Available online at https://www.eltis.org/mobility-plans/sump-concept

European Commission. (2013). Annex 1: A concept for sustainable urban mobility plans. Available online at https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban-mobility/urban-mobility-package_en

Mobility Plans. (n.d.). Sustainable urban mobility plans—Planning for people. Available online at https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwim8sX85_rsAhVi8uAKHdkcDkEQFjACegQIAxAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rupprecht-consult.eu%2Fuploads%2Ftx_rupprecht%2FSUMP_Brochure_final.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0_usuHRNAt4WzXZqG5xebM

Mück, M., Helf, C., & Lindenau, M. (Eds.). (2019). *Urban living labs fostering sustainable mobility planning in Munich* (Vol. 41).

Nemoto, E. H., Issaoui, R., Korbee, D., Jaroudi, I., & Fournier, G. (2021). How to measure the impacts of shared automated electric vehicles on urban mobility. *Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment*, 93, 102766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102766

Russo, F., & Rindone, C. (2023). Smart city for sustainable development: Applied processes from SUMP to MaaS at European level. *Applied Sciences-Basel*, 13(3), 1773. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031773

Sampaio, C., Macedo, E., Coelho, M. C., & Bandeira, J. M. (Eds.). (2020). *Economic and environmental analysis of measures from a sustainability urban mobility plan—Application to a small sized city* (Vol. 48).

United Nations. (2015). *The 17 sustainable development goals*. United Nations. Available online at https://sdgs.un.org/goals

<footnote n="1">¹See Connected Automated Driving (2022).</footnote>
**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

<figure><img src="image_131.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_132.png" /></figure>

**Chapter 11**

**Technical Impact Assessment: Obstacles**
**and Developments of Automated Minibuses**
**for Public Transport**

Charly Beye, Christian Zinckernagel, and Guy Fournier

**Abstract** In recent years, automated minibuses have emerged as an innovative addition to public transport systems worldwide, generating interest through various pilot projects. While these initiatives have shown promising technical advances, the full-scale implementation of such vehicles faces significant technical hurdles. This study builds upon prior research by delving into the technical developments and challenges encountered within the AVENUE project, drawing insights from discussions with manufacturers, operators, and mobility platform providers operating automated minibuses in European metropolitan areas. Specifically, the examination highlights the complexities associated with vehicle sensors, data transmission for trajectory management, and external environmental factors that can influence vehicle operation. The progress within the AVENUE project has shown that a critical evaluation underscores the ongoing need for comprehensive solutions to overcome technical obstacles and ensure the seamless integration of automated minibuses into public transportation networks. Furthermore, the findings highlight the necessity of continually enhancing the safety, efficiency, and reliability of automated minibuses.

**11.1 Introduction**

There are several technologies applied for automated vehicles. Within the scope of automated driving, different scenarios and trends are currently considered within this technological framework (Wang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2018). Areas such as the localization and positioning of vehicles in certain traffic environments are

<footnote>C. Beye (✉) · G. Fournier
Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany</footnote>

<footnote>CentraleSupélec, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
e-mail: charly.beye@hs-pforzheim.de</footnote>

<footnote>C. Zinckernagel
Holo A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark</footnote>
associated with GPS, GNSS and RTK,<fnref n="1" /> fusion of sensor technologies, and transmission of data required to ensure the implementation of automated driving (Englund et al., 2018). With the transmission of measurement data from sensors, estimates of the vehicle's relative position can be calculated. Although this approach has a certain error sensitivity, the precision of the localization can be incrementally improved by integrating additional sensor types (Toledo et al., 2018). For increasing the localization accuracy from the meter range in lower centimetre ranges (Englund et al., 2018), several approaches are available. Above all, the use of artificial intelligence and Internet of Things (IoT) holds a high significance, with which ideally complex systems are to be dynamically controlled in public transport (Kappel et al., 2019; Kuo et al., 2023). There is likewise the potential to improve the ability of an automated vehicle to perceive objects in its environment (Gupta et al., 2021; Netter, 2017).

Despite the application of different technologies, there are still technical limitations impacting the trajectory and the operation of automated vehicles (Benmimoun, 2017; Muzahid et al., 2023; Tengilimoglu et al., 2023). Obstacles can among others be identified in automated shuttle capabilities, environment, and human involvement. Achieving level 4 autonomy to eliminate the need for an on-board driver carries, e.g. significant implications for AV service costs and is closely connected to regulatory requirements regarding safety demonstrations of AV operation.

The research question guiding this study is as follows: What technical obstacles impact the implementation of automated minibuses for public transport, and what ongoing advancements aim to address these challenges in the field of automated driving? In order to examine the technical obstacles and their relevance within the AVENUE project, several experts from the respective consortium were interviewed. Furthermore, the technical developments in the project were investigated. Based on the project progress, several evaluation criteria were identified to frame this study.

## 11.2 Assessment Taxonomy

The taxonomy for the technical assessment comprises three major areas of consideration. The first one is “automated shuttle capabilities”, which underlines the technical capabilities of the applied automated vehicle. The second area is “automated shuttle environment”. This aspect includes diverse criteria concerning the external limits that influence the operation and trajectory of the vehicle. The superordinated criteria “human involvement” refers to the need of an on-board supervisor. Besides these three groups of criteria, additional technical findings were identified, which are addressed in Subchapter 4.2. “Remaining Technical Obstacles”. The applied assessment taxonomy based on (Bürkle, 2019) is shown in Table 11.1.

<footnote n="1">¹RTK (real-time kinematic) positioning is a method using data from an RTK base station that is transmitted over the Internet in particular through 3G, 4G, or 5G (Kim & Kim, 2022). RTK was used in Geneva to assure a more precise positioning in an environment with high buildings.</footnote>
<table><caption>**Table 11.1** Taxonomy for assessing automated minibuses</caption><thead><tr><th>Criteria group</th><th>Included subordinated criteria</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Automated shuttle capabilities</td><td>General aspects<br>Hardware-related limits<br>Software-related limits</td></tr><tr><td>Automated shuttle environment</td><td>General aspects<br>Weather-related limits<br>City infrastructural limits<br>Digital infrastructural limits</td></tr><tr><td>Human involvement</td><td>Necessity of on-board attendant</td></tr><tr><td>Additional technical findings</td><td>Processing power<br>Speed of the shuttle<br>Cybersecurity<br>5G networks<br>Number of shuttles on the same route<br>Safety demonstration<br>Disabled access</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 11.3 Methodology

### 11.3.1 Assessment of Technical Obstacles

The initial situation is based on previously examined technical obstacles to the implementation and use of automated shuttles from various pilot projects (Bürkle, 2019). For re-evaluation purposes, a summary of the technical obstacles that refer to the first examination and reporting was distributed to selected experts from the public transport operators within the AVENUE consortium. The aim was to receive feedback on the current technical obstacles. Existing changes and newly identified obstacles are listed and described in a summary. With the provided summary, the experts were asked to assess the relevance of the described technical obstacles for the implementation of AVENUE. The applied rating scale is equal to the previous report conducted to identify and describe potential changes coherently. By asking the experts to rate the relevance of the technical barriers in addition to their description, two steps of the method were covered. The experts were asked to rate the technical obstacles (existing and new ones) from 1 (not relevant) to 5 (very relevant). The average ratings were calculated based on the experts' contributions. The assessment results formed the basis for further expert interviews (Table 11.2).

### 11.3.2 Expert Interviews

As mentioned in the previous section, the results from the first step of the method formed the basis for expert interviews. The subsequent phase encompasses interviews conducted with diverse experts from the AVENUE consortium, in which more specific attention is devoted to the obstacles and technical advancements
<table><caption>**Table 11.2** Rating scale for the evaluation of technical obstacles</caption><thead><tr><td>Rating scale</td><td>Description</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1: Not relevant (not)</td><td>The obstacle is solved or has no influence on the implementation and operation of the automated minibuses</td></tr><tr><td>2: Less relevant (less)</td><td>The obstacle exists but does not really influence the implementation and operation of the automated minibuses</td></tr><tr><td>3: Medium relevant (medium)</td><td>The obstacle exists and influences the implementation and operation of the minibuses from time to time</td></tr><tr><td>4: Very relevant (very)</td><td>The obstacle influences the implementation and operation of the minibuses. Once in a while, the operation of the minibuses must be stopped due to the obstacle</td></tr><tr><td>5: Most relevant (most)</td><td>The obstacle influences the implementation and operation of the minibuses significantly. Due to the obstacle, the operation cannot be guaranteed</td></tr></tbody></table>

achieved through the AVENUE project. With the gathered results, the questions for the expert interviews were prepared accordingly. Additionally, as the subject of technical obstacles and advancements constitutes a considerable complexity, the semi-structured interview approach was applied (Galletta, 2012). This approach was chosen in order to have a reliable basis to address this complexity and to benefit from the experts' knowledge for the interpretation of the results (Galletta, 2012). The expert interviews were conducted in two separate parts. The first part relates to obtaining new information on technical obstacles as well as on the technical developments within AVENUE. Regarding the implementation of an on-demand service, the second part includes the challenges and obstacles that occur with the deployment of the application programming interface. Based on this separation, the public transport operators (PTOs) were considered in the first part of the interviews. In the second part, representatives of the vehicle manufacturer and provider of the fleet orchestration platform were interviewed. For preparation reasons, a guideline including questions and consent was provided to each expert. Two guidelines with different questions were created due to the separation of the interviews.

### 11.3.3 Expert Selection

For the first part of the interviews, public transport operators were taken into consideration as they had in-depth knowledge of the progress of the AVENUE project. This aspect justified the selection of the experts in the sense that they were also interviewed in the first examination or later started participating in AVENUE. Hence, they can show technical advancements as well as existing and potential new obstacles for the deployment of automated minibuses in public transport. The experts
were from Keolis Lyon, Transport Public Genevois (TPG), Sales-Lentz, and Autonomous Mobility (AM) respectively Holo and Bestmile.

### 11.3.4 Data Analysis

The consolidation and analysis of the data were based on expert evaluations and interviews (Part One) and expert interviews regarding API-specific barriers (Part Two).

**Analysis of Part One: Obstacles Related to Vehicle Operation** As mentioned in, providing a summary of the technical barriers from the last examination provided a basis for obtaining an update on technical obstacles. With the PTO's evaluation of already known and new technical obstacles, a profile emerged regarding their relevance. Through subsequent expert interviews, this topic was dealt with in more detail. The results of the expert interviews included technical obstacles and technical advances achieved at each demonstration site.

**Analysis of Part Two: Obstacles Related to API** With regard to API-specific obstacles, the results from the associated expert interviews in part two are outlined. The elaborations of the experts were linked in such a manner that the current obstacles to enabling an overall on-demand driving system are concisely described. Overall, the analysis comprised two parts, each addressing the results of the expert interviews. For better understanding, the methodology is presented in Fig. 11.1.

<figure><img src="image_133.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 11.1 Methodological procedure</figcaption></figure>
# 11.4 Technical Assessment of Automated Vehicles in AVENUE

The first subchapter (4.1) describes the initial capabilities of automated vehicles in AVENUE, which were derived from an earlier project phase. In order to present the latest findings of the examination, the remaining technical obstacles (4.2) and the remaining specific obstacles and developments related to the API (4.3) are then described.

## 11.4.1 Initial Capabilities of Automated Vehicles in AVENUE

The initial capabilities of the applied automated vehicles are based on a previous examination from an earlier project phase (Bürkle, 2019). Several technical circumstances influenced the operation of automated minibuses during the initial stages of the AVENUE project. In particular, manoeuvres involving left turns and driving in difficult and blind intersections could only be performed using predefined stops implemented in virtual maps of the minibuses. Furthermore, an investigation of technical obstacles revealed that the vehicles had no capability to overtake low-velocity or static objects. Referring to the perception abilities of the automated vehicles, it was identified that the distinction between diverse participants on the road constituted a great limitation and challenge to overcome, as the minibuses were not able to differentiate between multiple road participants. Evident from the earlier investigation was that the automated vehicle did not possess the ability to drive under certain weather conditions. In the case of wind, rain, or snowfall, vehicles stopped driving. This problem was justified by the fact that the LiDAR sensors—at the time of investigation—were not equipped with filtering systems enabling the differentiation between real objects and condensation. Although GPS and GNSS signals were transmitted via audio waves without latency, it was identified that the determination of the vehicle position was considerably inaccurate as deviations of 2–3 m meters occurred. The inaccuracy of the position determination is justified by the existence of different layers in the atmosphere. In addition, the number of available satellites was stated as a crucial factor in the localization process. The first report showed that the transmission and reception of GPS correction data poses a significant obstacle. Occasionally, virtual reference points had to be used in order to improve the localization of the automated minibus. The driving strategy of the vehicle was also strongly dependent on how the sensors were interplayed, and the disseminated data were processed. Despite enhancements in the braking, acceleration, and driving performance of the vehicle, harsh braking still occurred under certain circumstances. Another decisive issue was human involvement in vehicle operation. In an earlier project phase, the vehicles could not perform all driving tasks. Thus, their operations had to be completed by an attendant on board. In particular, the observance of blind spots was conducted by an on-board attendant, as there were