# The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives

Artemis Skarlatidou, Monika Suskevics, Claudia Göbel, Baiba Prūse, Loreta Tauginiené, Andre Mascarenhas, Marzia Mazzonetto, Alice Sheppard, Judy Barrett, Muki Haklay, et al.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## To cite this version:

Artemis Skarlatidou, Monika Suskevics, Claudia Göbel, Baiba Prūse, Loreta Tauginiené, et al. The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives. [Rapport de recherche] Université de Lille. 2019. hal-04469892

HAL Id: hal-04469892

https://hal.univ-lille.fr/hal-04469892

Submitted on 21 Feb 2024

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<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
# The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives

Artemis Skarlatidou, Monika Suskevics, Claudia Göbel, Baiba Prūse, Loreta Tauginiené, Andre Mascarenhas, Marzia Mazzonetto, Alice Sheppard, Judy Barrett, Muki Haklay, et al.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## To cite this version:

Artemis Skarlatidou, Monika Suskevics, Claudia Göbel, Baiba Prūse, Loreta Tauginiené, et al. The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives. [Rapport de recherche] Université de Lille. 2019. hal-04469892

HAL Id: hal-04469892

https://lilloa.hal.science/hal-04469892v1

Submitted on 21 Feb 2024

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
MEETING REPORT

# The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives

Artemis Skarlatidou*, Monika Suškevičs†, Claudia Göbel‡, Baiba Prūse§,||, Loreta Tauginienė¶, Andre Mascarenhas**, Marzia Mazzonetto††, Alice Sheppard*, Judy Barrett*, Muki Haklay*, Avinoam Baruch††, Elina-Aikaterini Moraitopoulou§§, Kat Austen*, Imane Baïz§§, Aleksandra Berditchevskai|||, Eszter Berényi¶¶, Simon Hoyte*, Lotte Kleijssen***, Gitte Kragh†††, Martine Legris†††, Alicia Mansilla-Sanchez††, Christian Nold*, Michalis Vitos* and Paweł Wyszomirski §§§

This report aims to enhance our understanding of stakeholder mapping for co-created citizen science initiatives. It presents and discusses findings from an international two-day stakeholder mapping workshop with researchers, event organizers, communication experts, and artists realizing citizen science activities. Participants identified examples of co-creation in their work and mapped stakeholders for three co-creation initiatives from the "Doing It Together Science" project. For each case, we provide an overview of the stakeholder groups involved and the lessons derived from identifying actual and potential stakeholders in different phases of each activity and using different ways for mapping them. We demonstrate that not only stakeholder mapping can be diverse, but it may take different angles depending on the characteristics and project timescales, nevertheless adding significant value to any project. We argue that a better understanding of stakeholder involvement may contribute to more effective stakeholder communication, more successful implementation, and a greater impact for citizen science initiatives.

**Keywords: citizen science; co-creation; stakeholder mapping**

## Introduction

Citizen science (CS) encompasses, at its core, a partnership between professional scientists and amateur volunteers in scientific research (Miller-Rushing et al. 2012), although a wider range of stakeholders is frequently involved (Tiago 2016). As CS grows in popularity – but also in diversity of terminology and approaches (Shirk et al. 2012; Hecker et al. 2018) – it becomes critical to understand its inherent complexities. A key to understanding these complexities and improving the way it is practiced requires identification of relevant stakeholders involved in various CS initiatives, the possibilities for their involvement, and their interactions. These issues have been discussed from the perspective of volunteer engagement and retention (Kobori et al. 2016), but have received less attention in

terms of exploring and subsequently reducing barriers to participation, while opening the engagement process to multiple stakeholders.

The aim of this meeting report is to enhance understanding of stakeholder mapping as a method that can be used to identify the individuals, groups, or organisations affected by a project or who affect its outcomes. Our emphasis is on co-created citizen science initiatives, which require good engagement with those involved, so identifying stakeholders and their interests is important. We provide insights from an international two-day workshop where we used three CS initiatives from the "Doing It Together science" (DITOs) project to carry out an in-depth stakeholder mapping investigation. Although stakeholder mapping may take different shapes and forms, we provide

<footnote>* University College London, GB</footnote>

<footnote>† Estonian University of Life Sciences Tartu, EE</footnote>

<footnote>‡ European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) Berlin, DE</footnote>

<footnote>§ Institute for Environmental Solutions, LV</footnote>

<footnote>|| University of Latvia, LV</footnote>

<footnote>¶ Office of the Ombudsperson for Academic Ethics and Procedures of the Republic of Lithuania, LT</footnote>

<footnote>** Museum für Naturkunde, DE</footnote>

<footnote>†† Stickydot, BE</footnote>

<footnote>‡‡ Loughborough University, GB</footnote>

<footnote>§§ Université Paris Descartes, FR</footnote>

<footnote>||| Tekiu Ltd, GB</footnote>

<footnote>¶¶ ELTE University, HU</footnote>

<footnote>*** Waag Society, NL</footnote>

<footnote>††† Earthwatch, GB</footnote>

<footnote>††† Lille University, CERAPS, FR</footnote>

<footnote>§§§ Centrum Szkoleń i Rozwoju Ososbistego MERITUM Katowice, PL</footnote>

<footnote>Corresponding author: Artemis Skarlatidou (a.skarlatidou@ucl.ac.uk)</footnote>
## MEETING REPORT

# The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives

Artemis Skarlatidou*, Monika Suškevičs†, Claudia Göbel‡, Baiba Prūse§,||, Loreta Tauginienė¶, Andre Mascarenhas**, Marzia Mazzonetto††, Alice Sheppard*, Judy Barrett*, Muki Haklay*, Avinoam Baruch††, Elina-Aikaterini Moraitopoulou§§, Kat Austen*, Imane Baïz§§, Aleksandra Berditchevskai|||, Eszter Berényi¶¶, Simon Hoyte*, Lotte Kleijssen***, Gitte Kragh†††, Martine Legris†††, Alicia Mansilla-Sanchez††, Christian Nold*, Michalis Vitos* and Paweł Wyszomirski§§§

This report aims to enhance our understanding of stakeholder mapping for co-created citizen science initiatives. It presents and discusses findings from an international two-day stakeholder mapping workshop with researchers, event organizers, communication experts, and artists realizing citizen science activities. Participants identified examples of co-creation in their work and mapped stakeholders for three co-creation initiatives from the "Doing It Together Science" project. For each case, we provide an overview of the stakeholder groups involved and the lessons derived from identifying actual and potential stakeholders in different phases of each activity and using different ways for mapping them. We demonstrate that not only stakeholder mapping can be diverse, but it may take different angles depending on the characteristics and project timescales, nevertheless adding significant value to any project. We argue that a better understanding of stakeholder involvement may contribute to more effective stakeholder communication, more successful implementation, and a greater impact for citizen science initiatives.

**Keywords:** citizen science; co-creation; stakeholder mapping

## Introduction

Citizen science (CS) encompasses, at its core, a partnership between professional scientists and amateur volunteers in scientific research (Miller-Rushing et al. 2012), although a wider range of stakeholders is frequently involved (Tiago 2016). As CS grows in popularity – but also in diversity of terminology and approaches (Shirk et al. 2012; Hecker et al. 2018) – it becomes critical to understand its inherent complexities. A key to understanding these complexities and improving the way it is practiced requires identification of relevant stakeholders involved in various CS initiatives, the possibilities for their involvement, and their interactions. These issues have been discussed from the perspective of volunteer engagement and retention (Kobori et al. 2016), but have received less attention in

terms of exploring and subsequently reducing barriers to participation, while opening the engagement process to multiple stakeholders.

The aim of this meeting report is to enhance understanding of stakeholder mapping as a method that can be used to identify the individuals, groups, or organisations affected by a project or who affect its outcomes. Our emphasis is on co-created citizen science initiatives, which require good engagement with those involved, so identifying stakeholders and their interests is important. We provide insights from an international two-day workshop where we used three CS initiatives from the "Doing It Together science" (DITOs) project to carry out an in-depth stakeholder mapping investigation. Although stakeholder mapping may take different shapes and forms, we provide

<footnote>* University College London, GB</footnote>

<footnote>† Estonian University of Life Sciences Tartu, EE</footnote>

<footnote>‡ European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) Berlin, DE</footnote>

<footnote>§ Institute for Environmental Solutions, LV</footnote>

<footnote>|| University of Latvia, LV</footnote>

<footnote>¶ Office of the Ombudsperson for Academic Ethics and Procedures of the Republic of Lithuania, LT</footnote>

<footnote>** Museum für Naturkunde, DE</footnote>

<footnote>†† Stickydot, BE</footnote>

<footnote>‡‡ Loughborough University, GB</footnote>

<footnote>§§ Université Paris Descartes, FR</footnote>

<footnote>||| Tekiu Ltd, GB</footnote>

<footnote>¶¶ ELTE University, HU</footnote>

<footnote>*** Waag Society, NL</footnote>

<footnote>††† Earthwatch, GB</footnote>

<footnote>††† Lille University, CERAPS, FR</footnote>

<footnote>§§§ Centrum Szkoleń i Rozwoju Ososbistego MERITUM Katowice, PL</footnote>

<footnote>Corresponding author: Artemis Skarlatidou (a.skarlatidou@ucl.ac.uk)</footnote>
here a tangible example of three different ways of carrying
out this activity. We build on our prior experience in using
stakeholder mapping and we reflect on the observed
methodological issues.

DITOs is a European H2020-funded Coordination and Support Action that ran over three years between 2017 and 2019. It was coordinated by University College London (i.e., Extreme Citizen Science group) and involved 11 partners. In DITOs, more than 500 events and a travelling exhibition were carried out and more than 1.3 million citizens across Europe participated in CS and Do It Yourself (DIY) science in the themes of environmental sustainability and biodesign. Owing to the variety in contexts and types of CS initiatives in DITOs, the workshop that we describe here was carried out to understand stakeholder involvement in DITOs--through the random selection of three cases--and to explore effective ways of stakeholder mapping which would subsequently have the potential to improve the way that CS is currently practiced.

The two-day workshop included 27 participants from nine European countries and took place at University College London on 20 and 21 March 2017. The participants were invited based on their background and expertise in CS and prior experience in stakeholder mapping and co-creation approaches. Most of the participants are working in academic and scientific institutions and are members of the Working Group 4 of the COST Action CA 15212 (COST Action on "Citizen Science to promote creativity, scientific literacy and innovation throughout Europe": https://www.cs-eu.net), although participants from Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) were also present.

## Co-creation and its relevance to CS

Citizen science varies in the degree to which people participate, with Shirk et al. (2012) saying that “co-created projects are designed by scientists and members of the public working together and for which at least some of the public participants are actively involved in most or all aspects of the research process” (p. 4). Participation at these higher levels of engagement incorporates characteristics of co-creation and social innovation (Gebauer et al. 2010). Indeed, it is argued that “... the defining characteristic of citizen science is its location at the point where public participation and knowledge production [...] meet” (Irwin 2015: p. 3).

The concept of co-creation has its origins in management literature as a paradigm shift encapsulating a new relationship between consumers and producers collaborating in a joint process of value creation (Kambil et al. 1999). Service science theory discusses co-creation as the driving force of customer collaboration to realise market offerings and generate new services (Galvagno and Dalli 2014), while co-creation also has roots in literature on participatory democracy and practices. For instance, Sanders and Stappers (2008) explain that co-creation is at the core of participatory design. However, Ind and Coates (2013) call for the need to understand co-creation outside disciplinary boundaries to add to its meaning a more “sustainable and diverse approach” (p. 86). They argue that it is about “the togetherness implicit in creative processes and the needs of the stakeholder” (p. 87) and continue that

“co-creation can be a force for participation and democratisation that does create meaning for all, rather than simply an alternative research technique or a way of creating value through co-opting the skills and creativity of individuals” (p. 92). Co-creation here alludes to meaning and knowledge, mostly associated with open access, collective intelligence, open source and innovation, and a set of principles and values such as trust, social capital, word of mouth, and sense-making (Zwass 2010).

In CS, the meaning of co-creation is relatively loose in comparison with other disciplines. The terms “co-created,” “co-designed,” and “co-constructed” for CS projects are frequently interchanged. The value-adding potential of co-creation in citizen science has received considerable attention (Regalado 2015; Ferran-Ferrer 2015). It can add relevance, increase impacts, contribute to knowledge production and social innovation, and help participants improve their own skills and courage (Zwass 2010), and community science, which mostly relies on “co-created” projects, has the greatest impacts on education, public engagement, and social well-being (Bonney et al. 2015). Nevertheless, little emphasis has been paid so far to the importance of identifying the stakeholders involved in these initiatives and ensuring that their needs are identified and satisfied through project design. In this report we describe stakeholder mapping exercises to addressing these issues, and we discuss how others can follow a similar approach.

## Who participates in CS? The role of stakeholder mapping

Stakeholder mapping has traditionally been used in the fields of management (Freeman 1984; Preston 1990), policy theory (Brugha and Varvasovszky 2000), corporate social responsibility (Duckworth and Moore 2010), human resources (Greening and Turban 2000), and education (Stout and West 2004). It has more recently received attention in other disciplines, such as natural resource management (Geneletti 2010; Reed 2008). Göbel et al. (2017) propose the terminology of stakeholders as analytical lenses to gain a better understanding of parties involved in CS projects beyond professional and “non-professional” researchers. Although stakeholder identification influences the success of CS initiatives as acknowledged in CS literature (Tiago 2016), there are a limited number of stakeholder mapping studies. Those that exist range from descriptive (i.e., a description of how stakeholders behave and their actions); normative (i.e., focus on “the legitimacy of stakeholder involvement and empowerment in decision making processes”), or instrumental (i.e., focus on how CS projects “can identify, explain, and manage the behaviour of stakeholders to achieve desired outcomes”; Reed et al. 2009, p. 1935–1936).

Several benefits of stakeholder mapping in the wider context of CS already have been identified. First, early identification of potential stakeholders can allow for their time involvement. This is particularly important, as there is evidence that including all relevant stakeholders is important for CS initiatives to have a stronger impact (Wiggins and Crowston 2011). Second, sharing data and information in CS requires an in-depth understanding of stakeholders (Göbel et al. 2017; Mazumdar et al. 2017;
here a tangible example of three different ways of carrying
out this activity. We build on our prior experience in using
stakeholder mapping and we reflect on the observed
methodological issues.

DITOs is a European H2020-funded Coordination and
Support Action that ran over three years between 2017
and 2019. It was coordinated by University College London
(i.e., Extreme Citizen Science group) and involved 11 part-
ners. In DITOs, more than 500 events and a travelling exhi-
bition were carried out and more than 1.3 million citizens
across Europe participated in CS and Do It Yourself (DIY)
science in the themes of environmental sustainability and
biodesign. Owing to the variety in contexts and types of CS
initiatives in DITOs, the workshop that we describe here
was carried out to understand stakeholder involvement in
DITOs--through the random selection of three cases--and
to explore effective ways of stakeholder mapping which
would subsequently have the potential to improve the
way that CS is currently practiced.

The two-day workshop included 27 participants from
nine European countries and took place at University
College London on 20 and 21 March 2017. The partici-
pants were invited based on their background and exper-
tise in CS and prior experience in stakeholder mapping
and co-creation approaches. Most of the participants are
working in academic and scientific institutions and are
members of the Working Group 4 of the COST Action
CA 15212 (COST Action on "Citizen Science to promote
creativity, scientific literacy and innovation throughout
Europe": https://www.cs-eu.net), although participants
from Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Small
and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) were also present.

Co-creation and its relevance to CS

Citizen science varies in the degree to which people par-
ticipate, with Shirk et al. (2012) saying that “co-created pro-
jects are designed by scientists and members of the public
working together and for which at least some of the public
participants are actively involved in most or all aspects of
the research process” (p. 4). Participation at these higher
levels of engagement incorporates characteristics of co-cre-
ation and social innovation (Gebauer et al. 2010). Indeed, it
is argued that “ ... the defining characteristic of citizen sci-
ence is its location at the point where public participation
and knowledge production [...] meet” (Irwin 2015: p. 3).

The concept of co-creation has its origins in manage-
ment literature as a paradigm shift encapsulating a new
relationship between consumers and producers collabo-
rating in a joint process of value creation (Kambil et al.
1999). Service science theory discusses co-creation as the
driving force of customer collaboration to realise market
offerings and generate new services (Galvagno and Dalli
2014), while co-creation also has roots in literature on par-
ticipatory democracy and practices. For instance, Sanders
and Stappers (2008) explain that co-creation is at the core
of participatory design. However, Ind and Coates (2013)
call for the need to understand co-creation outside disci-
plinary boundaries to add to its meaning a more “sustain-
able and diverse approach” (p. 86). They argue that it is
about “the togetherness implicit in creative processes and
the needs of the stakeholder” (p. 87) and continue that

"co-creation can be a force for participation and democ-
ratisation that does create meaning for all, rather than
simply an alternative research technique or a way of cre-
ating value through co-opting the skills and creativity of
individuals" (p. 92). Co-creation here alludes to meaning
and knowledge, mostly associated with open access, col-
lective intelligence, open source and innovation, and a set
of principles and values such as trust, social capital, word
of mouth, and sense-making (Zwass 2010).

In CS, the meaning of co-creation is relatively loose in
comparison with other disciplines. The terms “co-created,”
“co-designed,” and “co-constructed” for CS projects are fre-
quently interchanged. The value-adding potential of co-cre-
ation in citizen science has received considerable attention
(Regalado 2015; Ferran-Ferrer 2015). It can add relevance,
increase impacts, contribute to knowledge production and
social innovation, and help participants improve their own
skills and courage (Zwass 2010), and community science,
which mostly relies on “co-created” projects, has the great-
est impacts on education, public engagement, and social
well-being (Bonney et al. 2015). Nevertheless, little empha-
sis has been paid so far to the importance of identifying
the stakeholders involved in these initiatives and ensuring
that their needs are identified and satisfied through pro-
ject design. In this report we describe stakeholder mapping
exercises to addressing these issues, and we discuss how
others can follow a similar approach.

Who participates in CS? The role of stakeholder mapping

Stakeholder mapping has traditionally been used in the
fields of management (Freeman 1984; Preston 1990),
policy theory (Brugha and Varvasovszky 2000), corporate
social responsibility (Duckworth and Moore 2010), human
resources (Greening and Turban 2000), and education
(Stout and West 2004). It has more recently received atten-
tion in other disciplines, such as natural resource man-
agement (Geneletti 2010; Reed 2008). Göbel et al. (2017)
propose the terminology of stakeholders as analytical
lenses to gain a better understanding of parties involved
in CS projects beyond professional and “non-professional”
researchers. Although stakeholder identification influ-
ences the success of CS initiatives as acknowledged in
CS literature (Tiago 2016), there are a limited number of
stakeholder mapping studies. Those that exist range from
descriptive (i.e., a description of how stakeholders behave
and their actions); normative (i.e., focus on “the legitimacy
of stakeholder involvement and empowerment in decision
making processes”), or instrumental (i.e., focus on how CS
projects “can identify, explain, and manage the behaviour
of stakeholders to achieve desired outcomes”; Reed et al.
2009, p. 1935–1936).

Several benefits of stakeholder mapping in the wider
context of CS already have been identified. First, early
identification of potential stakeholders can allow for
their time involvement. This is particularly important, as
there is evidence that including all relevant stakeholders
is important for CS initiatives to have a stronger impact
(Wiggins and Crowston 2011). Second, sharing data and
information in CS requires an in-depth understanding of
stakeholders (Göbel et al. 2017; Mazumdar et al. 2017;
Newman et al. 2012). Third, Roy et al. (2012) highlight the importance of effective communication mechanisms at all stages of a citizen science programme, which can be better designed with a good understanding of who is (or should be) involved and therefore how communication can be supported well. Fourth, stakeholder mapping can provide the first step to engage new audiences (Pandya et al. 2012), including the “harder to reach” stakeholders, such as participants with no prior scientific interaction experience, or scientists without experience of engagement as suggested by Bonney et al. (2015). Finally, projects can benefit hugely from harnessing the complex and comprehensive local (or in other contexts, indigenous) knowledge that these groups possess.

In a stakeholder mapping framework informed by qualitative social science methodology, Göbel et al. (2017) identify six stakeholder groups involved in CS projects across different levels of engagement: (1) civil society organisations, informal groups, and community members; (2) academic and research organisations; (3) government agencies and departments; (4) individual volunteers; (5) formal learning institutions for primary and secondary education; and (6) businesses or industry. Stakeholders from these groups make many contributions to CS initiatives, e.g., time, funding, expertise, and equipment. Their degree of engagement varies: Currently Group 1 is more frequently involved in project design and implementation while Group 6 is least involved and only in a few projects. Another analytical use of stakeholder mapping in the context of CS is to study stakeholders' perceptions of the field. For example, Geoghegan et al. (2016) describe an in-depth investigation of motivations for stakeholders (scientists, policy makers, and practitioners) to engage with CS, while Mazumdar et al. (2017) examine stakeholders' opinions on the future of crowdsourcing in earth observation projects.

## Workshop methodology

The stakeholder mapping exercise was organised following several guiding documents (including Durham et al. 2014) and case studies (in Göbel et al. 2017 and the LandSense project, see **Box 1**). The literature provides examples of participatory workshop methodologies from different contexts; e.g., agriculture (Foster et al. 1995; Norton et al. 1999), health and nutrition (Casapia et al. 2007), marine conservation (Wheeler et al. 2008), and sustainable living (Moug 2011). However, most of these studies emphasise the participatory workshop outcomes, rather than the process of mapping the stakeholders.

The purpose of the first day of our workshop was to discuss what co-creation is, how it manifests in CS and, based on these, select the DITOs project case studies they would like to use for the stakeholder mapping exercises. We used DITOs projects because many of the participants were working on this project (mainly organising and running activities), so they had an in-depth knowledge of stakeholders participating in the various initiatives. Prior to the discussion, the workshop organisers briefly introduced DITOs and stakeholder mapping activities including a review of examples we mention above (i.e., stakeholder mapping in LandSense). Participants selected three DITOs cases, briefly presented in **Boxes 2–4**, below. Each case

**Box 1:** A case of stakeholder mapping practiced by the LandSense project

LandSense (https://landsense.eu/) seeks to build an innovative citizen observatory for Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) monitoring, connecting citizens with satellite imagery to transform environmental decision making. Stakeholder mapping has been applied to outline user requirements and co-design engagement strategies (Mascarenhas et al. 2017). For this purpose, stakeholders for each of the project's demonstration cases on urbanisation, agricultural land use, and habitat monitoring in different countries were identified at the outset of the project. This stakeholder mapping approach allowed a first “snapshot” of the varied actors relevant for the LandSense citizen observatory. From the early stages, co-design was brought about by engaging stakeholders in the definition of the issues relevant at each location. Conversely, identifying relevant issues in each specific context supported further identification and mapping of stakeholders. Such an early-stage stakeholder mapping exercise should take into consideration that the “snapshot” obtained is probably incomplete and can change over time. Stakeholder mapping should thus be considered a project-long iterative exercise, which can benefit from involving the stakeholders themselves.

**Box 2:** Description of the Co-lab Case workshops

Co-lab is a format for co-creation workshops in that the activities that they involve are based on an interdisciplinary overlap of synthetic biology, design, and art, and they require participants to co-create new knowledge and novel solutions (e.g., prototypes) to address specific topics, which are usually inspired by significant environmental and social problems. The workshops were initiated in December 2015, and they are organised by the Open Science School, an association hosted by the Center for Research and Interdisciplinarity in Paris. By the time that our stakeholder mapping workshop took place, nine Co-lab workshops had been organised in Paris, London, Cambridge, Norwich, Lausanne, Shenzhen, and Beijing, involving different partners worldwide. Co-lab focuses on different biology topics (e.g., synthetic biology and biomaterials) making use of methods from both biology and design (e.g., design fiction, design thinking). Each event is unique, driven and co-directed by different participants, and their topics vary. For more information about the Co-lab workshops see the workshops Manifesto (http://open-scienceschool.org/biocolab/).

has its own distinct characteristics, yet co-creation takes place through various forms in all contexts.

Workshop participants determined the rationale of their mapping exercises (i.e., instrumental, normative, or descriptive; Reed et al. 2009) and decided the level of detail, either listing stakeholders or summarising them by interests and influence. Guidance was provided by a
Newman et al. 2012). Third, Roy et al. (2012) highlight the importance of effective communication mechanisms at all stages of a citizen science programme, which can be better designed with a good understanding of who is (or should be) involved and therefore how communication can be supported well. Fourth, stakeholder mapping can provide the first step to engage new audiences (Pandya et al. 2012), including the “harder to reach” stakeholders, such as participants with no prior scientific interaction experience, or scientists without experience of engagement as suggested by Bonney et al. (2015). Finally, projects can benefit hugely from harnessing the complex and comprehensive local (or in other contexts, indigenous) knowledge that these groups possess.

In a stakeholder mapping framework informed by qualitative social science methodology, Göbel et al. (2017) identify six stakeholder groups involved in CS projects across different levels of engagement: (1) civil society organisations, informal groups, and community members; (2) academic and research organisations; (3) government agencies and departments; (4) individual volunteers; (5) formal learning institutions for primary and secondary education; and (6) businesses or industry. Stakeholders from these groups make many contributions to CS initiatives, e.g., time, funding, expertise, and equipment. Their degree of engagement varies: Currently Group 1 is more frequently involved in project design and implementation while Group 6 is least involved and only in a few projects. Another analytical use of stakeholder mapping in the context of CS is to study stakeholders' perceptions of the field. For example, Geoghegan et al. (2016) describe an in-depth investigation of motivations for stakeholders (scientists, policy makers, and practitioners) to engage with CS, while Mazumdar et al. (2017) examine stakeholders' opinions on the future of crowdsourcing in earth observation projects.

## Workshop methodology

The stakeholder mapping exercise was organised following several guiding documents (including Durham et al. 2014) and case studies (in Göbel et al. 2017 and the LandSense project, see **Box 1**). The literature provides examples of participatory workshop methodologies from different contexts; e.g., agriculture (Foster et al. 1995; Norton et al. 1999), health and nutrition (Casapia et al. 2007), marine conservation (Wheeler et al. 2008), and sustainable living (Moug 2011). However, most of these studies emphasise the participatory workshop outcomes, rather than the process of mapping the stakeholders.

The purpose of the first day of our workshop was to discuss what co-creation is, how it manifests in CS and, based on these, select the DITOs project case studies they would like to use for the stakeholder mapping exercises. We used DITOs projects because many of the participants were working on this project (mainly organising and running activities), so they had an in-depth knowledge of stakeholders participating in the various initiatives. Prior to the discussion, the workshop organisers briefly introduced DITOs and stakeholder mapping activities including a review of examples we mention above (i.e., stakeholder mapping in LandSense). Participants selected three DITOs cases, briefly presented in **Boxes 2–4**, below. Each case

**Box 1:** A case of stakeholder mapping practiced by the LandSense project

LandSense (https://landsense.eu/) seeks to build an innovative citizen observatory for Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) monitoring, connecting citizens with satellite imagery to transform environmental decision making. Stakeholder mapping has been applied to outline user requirements and co-design engagement strategies (Mascarenhas et al. 2017). For this purpose, stakeholders for each of the project's demonstration cases on urbanisation, agricultural land use, and habitat monitoring in different countries were identified at the outset of the project. This stakeholder mapping approach allowed a first “snapshot” of the varied actors relevant for the LandSense citizen observatory. From the early stages, co-design was brought about by engaging stakeholders in the definition of the issues relevant at each location. Conversely, identifying relevant issues in each specific context supported further identification and mapping of stakeholders. Such an early-stage stakeholder mapping exercise should take into consideration that the “snapshot” obtained is probably incomplete and can change over time. Stakeholder mapping should thus be considered a project-long iterative exercise, which can benefit from involving the stakeholders themselves.

**Box 2:** Description of the Co-lab Case workshops

Co-lab is a format for co-creation workshops in that the activities that they involve are based on an interdisciplinary overlap of synthetic biology, design, and art, and they require participants to co-create new knowledge and novel solutions (e.g., prototypes) to address specific topics, which are usually inspired by significant environmental and social problems. The workshops were initiated in December 2015, and they are organised by the Open Science School, an association hosted by the Center for Research and Interdisciplinarity in Paris. By the time that our stakeholder mapping workshop took place, nine Co-lab workshops had been organised in Paris, London, Cambridge, Norwich, Lausanne, Shenzhen, and Beijing, involving different partners worldwide. Co-lab focuses on different biology topics (e.g., synthetic biology and biomaterials) making use of methods from both biology and design (e.g., design fiction, design thinking). Each event is unique, driven and co-directed by different participants, and their topics vary. For more information about the Co-lab workshops see the workshops Manifesto (http://open-scienceschool.org/biocolab/).

has its own distinct characteristics, yet co-creation takes place through various forms in all contexts.

Workshop participants determined the rationale of their mapping exercises (i.e., instrumental, normative, or descriptive; Reed et al. 2009) and decided the level of detail, either listing stakeholders or summarising them by interests and influence. Guidance was provided by a
**Box 3: Description of the Into The Night project**

Into the Night (ITN) is a CS project, led by Earthwatch Europe and University College London, with funding from the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and DITOs to increase public engagement in the UK on major environmental issues. Specifically, the project seeks to highlight the effects of excessive artificial light and includes investigating the well-being benefits of dark skies for humans, plants, and animals in the UK. ITN has a robust scientific basis in terms of existing research on the use of CS for dark sky research (Kyba et al. 2013), and aimed to carry out an effort of co-creating locally relevant efforts of recording and addressing light pollution. It involved various co-creation activities (e.g., setting up bottom-up CS activities to collect light and noise pollution data as well as workshops where participants collaboratively build DIY tools such as artificial glow worms to enable collection and analysis of CS data). ITN had completed its three-month pilot phase at the time of our workshop.

**Box 4: Description of the Science Bus travelling exhibition**

The Science Bus is a travelling exhibition, organised by Waag Society, which launched in July 2017. The bus travelled for three months through Germany, Slovenia, the Netherlands, UK, Croatia, Italy, France, Greece, Belgium, Spain, and Switzerland, and delivered several hands-on co-creation DIY activities. During our workshop, the bus was still in its planning phase; its planned topics ranged from health, food, and the environment, with activities described as aiming to pique curiosity and explore science (e.g., collaboratively with participants to create yogurt, pH-meters, DIY phone chargers, soaps, sunscreens, particulate matter meters, or bacteria detectors) as well as to collect and share local wisdom and practices from various places in co-creating a knowledge "diary" base to travel across Europe.

manual with sample questions for stakeholder mapping based on Göbel (2019), supplemented with instructions from Durham et al. (2014). These include the following three rounds with example questions listed below:

- **First Round Questions**

* Who is involved in making the CS activity happen, i.e., initiating the project, organizing day-to-day activities, etc.?

* What do they contribute to the activity?

* How frequently are they involved with the activity?

* Who is not, but should be involved? Why?

* Is the activity (potentially) relevant to any individuals or groups from the following sectors (e.g., local communities; non-governmental organisations, policy makers)? If so, to whom and why?

- **Second Round Questions**

* What interest does the stakeholder have in the project?

* What influence can the stakeholder have on the project?

* Which parties are likely to be the most influential?

* How may the stakeholder be impacted or affected by the project?

* How beneficial would engagement of the stakeholder be to the project and why?

- **Third Round Questions:**

* Which stakeholders is it essential to involve?

* Who is preferable to involve?

* Who needs to be consulted?

* Who needs to be informed?

* At which stage of the CS activity does the stakeholder need to be involved/consulted/informed?

All three groups started with a detailed introduction of their case study, brainstorming of possible stakeholders, and grouping them by level of influence in a process and outcomes. In successive rounds of mapping and discussing stakeholders, each group then adapted the questions to their specific case. For instance, the Science Bus team opted for generating different target groups that should be involved in the co-creation activities, while the ITN team opted to focus on who should be involved at different moments along the duration of the project.

The collected data were analysed using the inductive approach of qualitative content analysis (Hsieh and Shannon 2005; Kondracki et al. 2002). We argue that the knowledge on mapping stakeholders, particularly in CS, is sparse, therefore, our inductive data come from single particular cases, allowing us to analyse them as a general statement (Elo and Kyngäs 2008), as presented below.

**Results**

**Co-lab workshops**

During the stakeholder mapping exercise three main phases of a Co-lab workshop were identified: "blooming and ideation;" "planning;" and "execution." Specific steps for follow-up, e.g., evaluation, were not explicitly discussed as a distinct phase of the Co-lab workshops.

In each phase, participants identified and reported the involvement of different stakeholders, shown in **Table 1**. Participants focused on identifying and reporting groups of stakeholders, rather than individuals or specific organisations, who should be present in each phase. Special emphasis was paid into the process of setting up and delivering a Co-lab workshop, the involvement of the various stakeholder groups in each phase, the activities that they are responsible for carrying out, and the skills required to justify participation. Participation is mainly through invitation to ensure interdisciplinarity in carrying out co-created tasks.

An important topic of discussion in this group concerned funding as a prerequisite of workshop execution. Stakeholder communication (mainly for sharing Co-lab findings) was highlighted as an essential component. Currently this is mostly ignored, but it is necessary to
**Box 3: Description of the Into The Night project**

Into the Night (ITN) is a CS project, led by Earthwatch Europe and University College London, with funding from the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and DITOs to increase public engagement in the UK on major environmental issues. Specifically, the project seeks to highlight the effects of excessive artificial light and includes investigating the well-being benefits of dark skies for humans, plants, and animals in the UK. ITN has a robust scientific basis in terms of existing research on the use of CS for dark sky research (Kyba et al. 2013), and aimed to carry out an effort of co-creating locally relevant efforts of recording and addressing light pollution. It involved various co-creation activities (e.g., setting up bottom-up CS activities to collect light and noise pollution data as well as workshops where participants collaboratively build DIY tools such as artificial glow worms to enable collection and analysis of CS data). ITN had completed its three-month pilot phase at the time of our workshop.

**Box 4: Description of the Science Bus travelling exhibition**

The Science Bus is a travelling exhibition, organised by Waag Society, which launched in July 2017. The bus travelled for three months through Germany, Slovenia, the Netherlands, UK, Croatia, Italy, France, Greece, Belgium, Spain, and Switzerland, and delivered several hands-on co-creation DIY activities. During our workshop, the bus was still in its planning phase; its planned topics ranged from health, food, and the environment, with activities described as aiming to pique curiosity and explore science (e.g., collaboratively with participants to create yogurt, pH-meters, DIY phone chargers, soaps, sunscreens, particulate matter meters, or bacteria detectors) as well as to collect and share local wisdom and practices from various places in co-creating a knowledge "diary" base to travel across Europe.

manual with sample questions for stakeholder mapping based on Göbel (2019), supplemented with instructions from Durham et al. (2014). These include the following three rounds with example questions listed below:

- **First Round Questions**

* Who is involved in making the CS activity happen, i.e., initiating the project, organizing day-to-day activities, etc.?

* What do they contribute to the activity?

* How frequently are they involved with the activity?

* Who is not, but should be involved? Why?

* Is the activity (potentially) relevant to any individuals or groups from the following sectors (e.g., local communities; non-governmental organisations, policy makers)? If so, to whom and why?

- **Second Round Questions**

* What interest does the stakeholder have in the project?

* What influence can the stakeholder have on the project?

* Which parties are likely to be the most influential?

* How may the stakeholder be impacted or affected by the project?

* How beneficial would engagement of the stakeholder be to the project and why?

- **Third Round Questions:**

* Which stakeholders is it essential to involve?

* Who is preferable to involve?

* Who needs to be consulted?

* Who needs to be informed?

* At which stage of the CS activity does the stakeholder need to be involved/consulted/informed?

All three groups started with a detailed introduction of their case study, brainstorming of possible stakeholders, and grouping them by level of influence in a process and outcomes. In successive rounds of mapping and discussing stakeholders, each group then adapted the questions to their specific case. For instance, the Science Bus team opted for generating different target groups that should be involved in the co-creation activities, while the ITN team opted to focus on who should be involved at different moments along the duration of the project.

The collected data were analysed using the inductive approach of qualitative content analysis (Hsieh and Shannon 2005; Kondracki et al. 2002). We argue that the knowledge on mapping stakeholders, particularly in CS, is sparse, therefore, our inductive data come from single particular cases, allowing us to analyse them as a general statement (Elo and Kyngäs 2008), as presented below.

**Results**

**Co-lab workshops**

During the stakeholder mapping exercise three main phases of a Co-lab workshop were identified: "blooming and ideation;" "planning;" and "execution." Specific steps for follow-up, e.g., evaluation, were not explicitly discussed as a distinct phase of the Co-lab workshops.

In each phase, participants identified and reported the involvement of different stakeholders, shown in **Table 1**. Participants focused on identifying and reporting groups of stakeholders, rather than individuals or specific organisations, who should be present in each phase. Special emphasis was paid into the process of setting up and delivering a Co-lab workshop, the involvement of the various stakeholder groups in each phase, the activities that they are responsible for carrying out, and the skills required to justify participation. Participation is mainly through invitation to ensure interdisciplinarity in carrying out co-created tasks.

An important topic of discussion in this group concerned funding as a prerequisite of workshop execution. Stakeholder communication (mainly for sharing Co-lab findings) was highlighted as an essential component. Currently this is mostly ignored, but it is necessary to
<table><caption>**Table 1:** Co-lab workshop phases and stakeholders involved.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Blooming & Ideation</th><th>Planning</th><th>Execution</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Activities</strong></td><td>Agenda setting<br>Securing workshop funding</td><td>Workshop organisation</td><td>Workshop execution<br>Communicating results to (potential) funders</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Role of stakeholders involved</strong></td><td>Agenda setters and funders</td><td>Facilitators</td><td>Participants</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><strong>Most prevalent groups of stakeholders involved in previous Co-lab workshops</strong></td><td>Civil society (NGOs, trade unions, think tanks)</td><td>Civil society (associations)</td><td>Science (biologists)</td></tr><tr><td>Science (scientists, public/private research institutions, other experts)</td><td>Science (scientists, research groups, students, admin staff)</td><td>Designers</td></tr><tr><td>Business (entrepreneurs)</td><td>Artists<br>Designers</td><td>Others with relevant skills</td></tr></tbody></table>

increase visibility and lead into future funding. During the stakeholder mapping exercise, it was therefore realised that the execution stage should be extended to engage stakeholders responsible for communication and dissemination of the Co-lab outputs and outcomes. The exercise further revealed that previous Co-lab workshops had ignored key stakeholder groups, e.g., policy makers, regulators, industries, and most importantly, community members. These groups, it was argued, may have an inherent stake in the workshop topic, and a greater effort should have been made to engage them to improve co-creation and the impact of the activity.

### Into the Night

Into the Night (ITN) has so far engaged CS practitioners, professional scientists leading a UK survey on glow worm distribution, and public and private sector organisations. They were engaged in an iterative process to ensure their needs and goals were accounted for during the development of a larger scale project, which will address light pollution and its impacts. The stakeholder mapping exercise systematically identified, grouped, and prioritised potential stakeholders, who should be included in future workshops and activities. It created a basis for understanding the implications of the communication process for stakeholder engagement, as was also the case with the other two groups. Participants grouped stakeholders into existing contributors, potential contributors, and stakeholders affected by the project. They also considered stakeholders' interest and degree of influence in the project. Compared with the two other groups they looked beyond the scope of the project and considered other contexts (e.g., environmental CS; lighting conditions; off-peak energy consumption). There was extensive discussion around what "influence" means in the ITN context (e.g., influence by running a project, through funding) and how significant these influences are. As shown in **Figure 1**, most of stakeholders who were identified were perceived as having either high (H), medium (M), or low (L) interest and influence in the project. This exercise showed that predicting interest and influence in a project that is still at its early stages is not as simple as initially anticipated by this group's participants. Nevertheless, it led to the conclusion that ITN needs to invest resources to generate

stakeholder interest early in the project rather than at subsequent stages when it is perhaps too late to effectively reach and engage with specific audiences, especially those with a high interest or influence in the project.

### Science Bus

The mapping for this case study focused on identifying relevant stakeholders from the bus's planned itinerary through Europe. Participants mapped stakeholders within specific themes that they initially identified as potential ways of engaging stakeholders (i.e., "Science Bus as a Tool for working with local communities" and/or "Science Bus as a tool for transferring local knowledge") (Figure 2). Participants in this group identified three levels of stakeholder importance. Level 1 includes all stakeholders who are essential to the project (i.e., the project would not exist without their involvement); levels 2 and 3 categorise all other stakeholders in decreasing importance.

This group identified six main groups of stakeholder (Figure 2): (1) local community institutions; (2) local grassroots and frugal innovation groups; (3) facilitators (including bus drivers); (4) local governments; (5) exhibition designers; and (6) DITOs partners, who provide connections to other groups, locations, and help among other contributions. Subsequent mapping considered potential needs, motivations, and expectations of those stakeholder groups. Together with other local issues identified, participants acknowledged concerns about the engagement process and the effects that this might have in local populations (e.g., tension caused due to inviting competing organisations to participate). As with the previous two groups, participants extensively mentioned funders as a specific stakeholder group; they expressed concerns about the continuation of a co-creation initiative when funding is limited and the appropriateness of funders in shaping the structure. Participants suggested that although existing co-creation activities are usually initiated (and frequently planned and organised) by project organisers (with or without funder participation), creating stakeholder networks and channels for the effective communication of information at all levels and stages is particularly important. However, the size of the activity (and therefore the size of these networks) influence these processes. A particular difficulty in mapping
<table><caption>**Table 1:** Co-lab workshop phases and stakeholders involved.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Blooming & Ideation</th><th>Planning</th><th>Execution</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th scope="row">Activities</th><td>Agenda setting<br>Securing workshop funding</td><td>Workshop organisation</td><td>Workshop execution<br>Communicating results to (potential) funders</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Role of stakeholders involved</th><td>Agenda setters and funders</td><td>Facilitators</td><td>Participants</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" rowspan="3">Most prevalent groups of stakeholders involved in previous Co-lab workshops</th><td>Civil society (NGOs, trade unions, think tanks)</td><td>Civil society (associations)</td><td>Science (biologists)</td></tr><tr><td>Science (scientists, public/private research institutions, other experts)</td><td>Science (scientists, research groups, students, admin staff)</td><td>Designers</td></tr><tr><td>Business (entrepreneurs)</td><td>Artists<br>Designers</td><td>Others with relevant skills</td></tr></tbody></table>

increase visibility and lead into future funding. During the stakeholder mapping exercise, it was therefore realised that the execution stage should be extended to engage stakeholders responsible for communication and dissemination of the Co-lab outputs and outcomes. The exercise further revealed that previous Co-lab workshops had ignored key stakeholder groups, e.g., policy makers, regulators, industries, and most importantly, community members. These groups, it was argued, may have an inherent stake in the workshop topic, and a greater effort should have been made to engage them to improve co-creation and the impact of the activity.

### Into the Night

Into the Night (ITN) has so far engaged CS practitioners, professional scientists leading a UK survey on glow worm distribution, and public and private sector organisations. They were engaged in an iterative process to ensure their needs and goals were accounted for during the development of a larger scale project, which will address light pollution and its impacts. The stakeholder mapping exercise systematically identified, grouped, and prioritised potential stakeholders, who should be included in future workshops and activities. It created a basis for understanding the implications of the communication process for stakeholder engagement, as was also the case with the other two groups. Participants grouped stakeholders into existing contributors, potential contributors, and stakeholders affected by the project. They also considered stakeholders' interest and degree of influence in the project. Compared with the two other groups they looked beyond the scope of the project and considered other contexts (e.g., environmental CS; lighting conditions; off-peak energy consumption). There was extensive discussion around what "influence" means in the ITN context (e.g., influence by running a project, through funding) and how significant these influences are. As shown in **Figure 1**, most of stakeholders who were identified were perceived as having either high (H), medium (M), or low (L) interest and influence in the project. This exercise showed that predicting interest and influence in a project that is still at its early stages is not as simple as initially anticipated by this group's participants. Nevertheless, it led to the conclusion that ITN needs to invest resources to generate

stakeholder interest early in the project rather than at subsequent stages when it is perhaps too late to effectively reach and engage with specific audiences, especially those with a high interest or influence in the project.

### Science Bus

The mapping for this case study focused on identifying relevant stakeholders from the bus's planned itinerary through Europe. Participants mapped stakeholders within specific themes that they initially identified as potential ways of engaging stakeholders (i.e., "Science Bus as a Tool for working with local communities" and/or "Science Bus as a tool for transferring local knowledge") (Figure 2). Participants in this group identified three levels of stakeholder importance. Level 1 includes all stakeholders who are essential to the project (i.e., the project would not exist without their involvement); levels 2 and 3 categorise all other stakeholders in decreasing importance.

This group identified six main groups of stakeholder (Figure 2): (1) local community institutions; (2) local grassroots and frugal innovation groups; (3) facilitators (including bus drivers); (4) local governments; (5) exhibition designers; and (6) DITOs partners, who provide connections to other groups, locations, and help among other contributions. Subsequent mapping considered potential needs, motivations, and expectations of those stakeholder groups. Together with other local issues identified, participants acknowledged concerns about the engagement process and the effects that this might have in local populations (e.g., tension caused due to inviting competing organisations to participate). As with the previous two groups, participants extensively mentioned funders as a specific stakeholder group; they expressed concerns about the continuation of a co-creation initiative when funding is limited and the appropriateness of funders in shaping the structure. Participants suggested that although existing co-creation activities are usually initiated (and frequently planned and organised) by project organisers (with or without funder participation), creating stakeholder networks and channels for the effective communication of information at all levels and stages is particularly important. However, the size of the activity (and therefore the size of these networks) influence these processes. A particular difficulty in mapping
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** ITN stakeholder mapping result showing stakeholders grouped by their levels of interest (y axis) and influence (x axis). Participants identified three levels of interest and influence: high (H), medium (M), or low (L). On the right-hand side of the graph, stakeholders include those who already exist and contribute to the ITN project (existing contributors); on the left side they include those who should be involved in the project (potential contributors). For example, “Mental Health Bodies” as potential contributors may have a high influence and interest in the ITN project. “Local authorities” are existing contributors and have a low interest but high influence in the project.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** The Science Bus stakeholder mapping. Three categories of stakeholders include those who are simply engaged in the project (i.e., “Science Bus as a Tool for working with local communities” column), those who develop skills and through their participation contribute to expanding the knowledge of participants (“Science Bus as a tool for transferring local knowledge” column), and those who do both (middle column). Levels 1, 2, and 3 correspond to levels of importance; level 1 stakeholders are essential for the project, level 2 are important, and level 3 are the least important. For example, local grassroot communities can be involved in ways that support the Science Bus activities in order to engage with local communities by advertising its activities to their members. They also may be involved to organise or participate in the organisation of Science Bus activities to better communicate and capture local issues. They are considered to be essential for the successful implementation of the Science Bus activities.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** ITN stakeholder mapping result showing stakeholders grouped by their levels of interest (y axis) and influence (x axis). Participants identified three levels of interest and influence: high (H), medium (M), or low (L). On the right-hand side of the graph, stakeholders include those who already exist and contribute to the ITN project (existing contributors); on the left side they include those who should be involved in the project (potential contributors). For example, “Mental Health Bodies” as potential contributors may have a high influence and interest in the ITN project. “Local authorities” are existing contributors and have a low interest but high influence in the project.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** The Science Bus stakeholder mapping. Three categories of stakeholders include those who are simply engaged in the project (i.e., “Science Bus as a Tool for working with local communities” column), those who develop skills and through their participation contribute to expanding the knowledge of participants (“Science Bus as a tool for transferring local knowledge” column), and those who do both (middle column). Levels 1, 2, and 3 correspond to levels of importance; level 1 stakeholders are essential for the project, level 2 are important, and level 3 are the least important. For example, local grassroot communities can be involved in ways that support the Science Bus activities in order to engage with local communities by advertising its activities to their members. They also may be involved to organise or participate in the organisation of Science Bus activities to better communicate and capture local issues. They are considered to be essential for the successful implementation of the Science Bus activities.</figcaption></figure>
this group was not only that the project was at a very preliminary planning stage, but it further needed to consider relevant stakeholders across various EU countries, and this occasionally included contexts that participants were not familiar with.

## Discussion

### Retrospective and prospective reflections as variants of using stakeholder mapping

Stakeholder mapping is often used with instrumental goals, i.e., as a tool to aid decision-making (Geneletti 2010; Heidrich and Tollin 2009), and where the mapping exercise can be used to inform future decisions (prospective mapping), as was the case with the Science Bus and the ITN mapping exercises. Here stakeholder mapping can significantly speed up the project design process and subsequently its overall effectiveness. Stakeholder mapping can also be retrospective, e.g., understanding past participatory decision-making processes (see for an example Buanes et al. 2005; Sovacool 2010), so stakeholder mapping is a reflection tool to analyse and learn from past experiences. In our workshop, this retrospective approach for Co-lab and ITN provided beneficial reflective analysis. Indeed, this workshop is another potential application for the methodology, because sharing experience and good practice is important for CS communities. Our main observations about the mapping exercises are shown in Table 2.

### What types of stakeholder groups are involved and missing in the selected case studies?

As CS practices vary significantly across the fields, our focus on co-creation and a selection of case studies from the DITOs project provided a common ground for the workshop and its analysis, although the three case studies incorporated different characteristics (Table 2), which influenced the stakeholder mapping exercise. The Co-lab workshop was analysed retrospectively (in terms of drawing knowledge from past experiences and from already completed workshops). It is a structured event format and of short duration, thus the content and extent

of participation in each workshop depends on the topic, so stakeholders will vary. The two main groups involved in all three stages of organising Co-lab workshops are scientists and members of the civil society, although they also involve artists and designers, whose participation connects civil society and science in innovative ways. The Science Bus, which was in the planning stage when the stakeholder mapping workshop was conducted, is a much larger-scale and complex activity comprising a series of pre-defined, fixed-content workshop events at various EU countries. Here, the extent of participation depends highly on the local host. Stakeholder groups include local people, civil society organisations and local authorities, project organisers, and DITOs partners. The bus drivers (who also facilitate and run the Science Bus workshops) are involved as mediating actors (and stakeholders themselves). Finally, ITN combines characteristics of the other two case studies meaning that a pilot study had been completed when the mapping was conducted, while a new planning phase for the next five years of the project had just started. This meant that there was a good understanding of the project's current stakeholders, enabling consideration of potential new stakeholders. The participants included a more diverse range of stakeholders than in the previous cases, including specific organisations with an interest in the project and more generally defined stakeholder groups such as private institutions and think tanks.

Overall, stakeholder groups of CS activities as identified in Göbel et al. (2017) were also found in our three cases. Such groups, e.g., civil society organisations, government agencies, individual volunteers/participants, and businesses, were present in all three cases. Academic and research organisations and formal learning institutions for primary and secondary education were relevant in only two cases. Our workshop identified certain stakeholder groups that tended to be neglected in our three case studies. For instance, funders are of the utmost importance, but they are often missing as a stakeholder group in the studied CS initiatives. Funders need to be identified early, approached regularly, and project results

<table><caption>**Table 2:** Overview of purposes, characteristics of the mapping process, and major insights for three case studies.</caption><thead><tr><td>Cases</td><td>Co-lab workshop</td><td>ITN project</td><td>Science Bus</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Purpose of stakeholder mapping</td><td>Improving activity through reflection & good practice; support replication.</td><td>Reflection on pilot phase and anticipatory perspective for project planning.</td><td>Project planning to increasing impact during activity's design stage.</td></tr><tr><td>Characteristics of mapping</td><td>Retrospective mapping. Initially, stakeholders were actual individuals, who were then grouped in categories (i.e., Civil Society, Researchers, Facilitators, and Participants).</td><td>Mix of retro- and prospective mapping. Knowledge of past enables detailed mapping for desired future activity.</td><td>Prospective mapping. A much more generic categorization of stakeholders (e.g., local grassroots communities) than the previous two cases</td></tr><tr><td>Major insights</td><td>Identification of extra participants to be included in workshops (e.g., policy makers) and methodological perspectives, e.g., improve stakeholder communication of results.</td><td>Influence and interest of stakeholders should inform prioritisation of resources for their engagement. Who should be involved when in the project?</td><td>Reflection on desired impacts (engagement & knowledge creation) for the attainment and exploration of engagement strategies based on stakeholder expectations.</td></tr></tbody></table>
this group was not only that the project was at a very preliminary planning stage, but it further needed to consider relevant stakeholders across various EU countries, and this occasionally included contexts that participants were not familiar with.

## Discussion

### Retrospective and prospective reflections as variants of using stakeholder mapping

Stakeholder mapping is often used with instrumental goals, i.e., as a tool to aid decision-making (Geneletti 2010; Heidrich and Tollin 2009), and where the mapping exercise can be used to inform future decisions (prospective mapping), as was the case with the Science Bus and the ITN mapping exercises. Here stakeholder mapping can significantly speed up the project design process and subsequently its overall effectiveness. Stakeholder mapping can also be retrospective, e.g., understanding past participatory decision-making processes (see for an example Buanes et al. 2005; Sovacool 2010), so stakeholder mapping is a reflection tool to analyse and learn from past experiences. In our workshop, this retrospective approach for Co-lab and ITN provided beneficial reflective analysis. Indeed, this workshop is another potential application for the methodology, because sharing experience and good practice is important for CS communities. Our main observations about the mapping exercises are shown in Table 2.

### What types of stakeholder groups are involved and missing in the selected case studies?

As CS practices vary significantly across the fields, our focus on co-creation and a selection of case studies from the DITOs project provided a common ground for the workshop and its analysis, although the three case studies incorporated different characteristics (Table 2), which influenced the stakeholder mapping exercise. The Co-lab workshop was analysed retrospectively (in terms of drawing knowledge from past experiences and from already completed workshops). It is a structured event format and of short duration, thus the content and extent

of participation in each workshop depends on the topic, so stakeholders will vary. The two main groups involved in all three stages of organising Co-lab workshops are scientists and members of the civil society, although they also involve artists and designers, whose participation connects civil society and science in innovative ways. The Science Bus, which was in the planning stage when the stakeholder mapping workshop was conducted, is a much larger-scale and complex activity comprising a series of pre-defined, fixed-content workshop events at various EU countries. Here, the extent of participation depends highly on the local host. Stakeholder groups include local people, civil society organisations and local authorities, project organisers, and DITOs partners. The bus drivers (who also facilitate and run the Science Bus workshops) are involved as mediating actors (and stakeholders themselves). Finally, ITN combines characteristics of the other two case studies meaning that a pilot study had been completed when the mapping was conducted, while a new planning phase for the next five years of the project had just started. This meant that there was a good understanding of the project's current stakeholders, enabling consideration of potential new stakeholders. The participants included a more diverse range of stakeholders than in the previous cases, including specific organisations with an interest in the project and more generally defined stakeholder groups such as private institutions and think tanks.

Overall, stakeholder groups of CS activities as identified in Göbel et al. (2017) were also found in our three cases. Such groups, e.g., civil society organisations, government agencies, individual volunteers/participants, and businesses, were present in all three cases. Academic and research organisations and formal learning institutions for primary and secondary education were relevant in only two cases. Our workshop identified certain stakeholder groups that tended to be neglected in our three cases studies. For instance, funders are of the utmost importance, but they are often missing as a stakeholder group in the studied CS initiatives. Funders need to be identified early, approached regularly, and project results

<table><caption>**Table 2:** Overview of purposes, characteristics of the mapping process, and major insights for three case studies.</caption><thead><tr><td>Cases</td><td>Co-lab workshop</td><td>ITN project</td><td>Science Bus</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Purpose of stakeholder mapping</td><td>Improving activity through reflection & good practice; support replication.</td><td>Reflection on pilot phase and anticipatory perspective for project planning.</td><td>Project planning to increasing impact during activity's design stage.</td></tr><tr><td>Characteristics of mapping</td><td>Retrospective mapping. Initially, stakeholders were actual individuals, who were then grouped in categories (i.e., Civil Society, Researchers, Facilitators, and Participants).</td><td>Mix of retro- and prospective mapping. Knowledge of past enables detailed mapping for desired future activity.</td><td>Prospective mapping. A much more generic categorization of stakeholders (e.g., local grassroots communities) than the previous two cases</td></tr><tr><td>Major insights</td><td>Identification of extra participants to be included in workshops (e.g., policy makers) and methodological perspectives, e.g., improve stakeholder communication of results.</td><td>Influence and interest of stakeholders should inform prioritisation of resources for their engagement. Who should be involved when in the project?</td><td>Reflection on desired impacts (engagement & knowledge creation) for the attainment and exploration of engagement strategies based on stakeholder expectations.</td></tr></tbody></table>
disseminated to them to increase future funding. Policy-
makers were also found to be often neglected and need
to be more actively engaged: Their support is crucial to
increase the appreciation of the benefits of CS and evi-
dence-based policymaking. An additional stakeholder
group identified through the ITN and Science Bus cases
is media, underlining the centrality of communication.
Furthermore, the Co-lab workshop and Science Bus
highlighted the role of mediating stakeholders – i.e.,
workshop facilitators/bus drivers – acting as interfaces
between various stakeholder groups, supporting the
effective communication amongst them and facilitat-
ing conflict resolution. In all groups the communica-
tion with stakeholders was deemed to be a problematic
element of existing projects, and this was thought to be
significantly improved by using stakeholder mapping
early in the project to identify who should communi-
cate with whom and when (Reed 2008; Reed et al. 2009).
Additional stakeholder groups (e.g., local supporters and
innovators) appear to exist in specific types of co-creation
activities. Our case studies outline similarities and differ-
ences in identified stakeholder groups, thus highlighting
the importance of stakeholder mapping in co-creation CS
initiatives.

Based on our experience, we suggest that criteria for
stakeholder mapping should be based upon the aims of
the specific stakeholder mapping activity. The common
approach to use certain stakeholder attributes (e.g., their
power, interests, or knowledge), which then can be plotted
on a graph, is not always the most convenient and effec-
tive method. For example, when stakeholder mapping is
used in a new type of activity, the levels of interest and
influence might be more difficult to predict. Additional
criteria might also be beneficial for CS stakeholder map-
ping, such as identifying stakeholder roles, as exemplified
by earlier research (Heidrich et al. 2009). In CS, a deep
stakeholder analysis that considers the sources of power,
such as expertise, formal authority, or money (e.g. Bryson,
et al. 2011), or takes the wider context into account, such
as biophysical conditions, institutional context, and com-
munity attributes e.g., Aaltonen and Kujala 2016) might
also be useful.

We found that it was important to ensure ample discus-
sion time in a participatory stakeholder mapping work-
shop and to clarify the aims of the mapping exercise, i.e.,
establishing the concrete question, issue, or activity relat-
ing to which peoples' and organisations' stakes are exam-
ined (Reed et al. 2009). When participants themselves
define the aims, there are better conditions for productive
discussions. Finally, while stakeholder mapping proved to
be a flexible and relatively easy to apply methodology, the
power of the approach lies in reflecting on the activity's
contextual conditions for a mapping exercise to become
productive, e.g., asking what the boundary of the activity
is and what constitutes a legitimate stake.

Acknowledgements

The workshop was partially supported by the European
Union's H2020 research and innovation programme
Doing It Together Science (under Grant Agreement No

709443), the ERC Advanced Grant project European
Citizen Science: Analysis and Visualisation (under Grant
Agreement No 694767), and the European Union's COST
Action CA15212 to promote creativity, scientific literacy,
and innovation throughout Europe.

**Competing Interests**

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

**References**

**Aaltonen, K** and **Kujala, J.** 2016. Towards an improved understanding of project stakeholder landscapes. *IJ of Project Management*, 34(8): 1537–1552. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.08.009

**Bonney, R**, **Phillips, TB**, **Ballard, HL** and **Enck, JW.** 2015. Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science? *Public Understanding of Science*, 25(1): 2–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662515607406

**Brugha, R** and **Varvasovszky, Z.** 2000. Stakeholder analysis: A Review. *Health Policy and Planning*, 15(3): 239–246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/15.3.239

**Bryson, JM**, **Patton, MQ** and **Bowman, RA.** 2011. Working with evaluation stakeholders: A rationale, step-wise approach and toolkit. *Evaluation and Program Planning*, 34(1): 1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2010.07.001

**Buanes, A**, **Jentoft, S**, **Maurstad, A**, **Søreng, SU** and **Karlsen, GR.** 2005. Stakeholder participation in Norwegian coastal zone planning. *Ocean & Coastal Management*, 48(9–10): 658–669. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2005.05.005

**Casapia, M**, **Joseph, SA** and **Gyorkos, TW.** 2007. Multidisciplinary and participatory workshops with stakeholders in a community of extreme poverty in the Peruvian Amazon: Development of priority concerns and potential health, nutrition and education interventions. *IJ for Equity in Health*, 6(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-6-6

**Duckworth, HA** and **Moore, RA.** 2010. Social Responsibility: Failure Mode Effects and Analysis. Boca Raton: CRC Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/EBK1439803721

**Durham, E**, **Baker, H** and **Smith, M.** 2014. The BiodivERSA: Stakeholder Engagement Handbook. Available at http://www.biodiversa.org/702 [Last accessed 2 August 2017].

**Elo, S** and **Kyngäs, H.** 2008. The qualitative content analysis process. *Journal of Advanced Nursing*, 62(1): 107–115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x

**Ferran-Ferrer, N.** 2015. Volunteer Participation in Citizen Science Projects. *El profesional de la información*, 24(6): 827–837. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2015.nov.15

**Foster, J**, **Norton, GA** and **Brough, EJ.** 1995. The role of problem specification workshops in extension: An IPM example. *Journal of Extension*, 33(4).

**Freeman, RE.** 1984. Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman.
disseminated to them to increase future funding. Policy-
makers were also found to be often neglected and need
to be more actively engaged: Their support is crucial to
increase the appreciation of the benefits of CS and evi-
dence-based policymaking. An additional stakeholder
group identified through the ITN and Science Bus cases
is media, underlining the centrality of communication.
Furthermore, the Co-lab workshop and Science Bus
highlighted the role of mediating stakeholders – i.e.,
workshop facilitators/bus drivers – acting as interfaces
between various stakeholder groups, supporting the
effective communication amongst them and facilitat-
ing conflict resolution. In all groups the communica-
tion with stakeholders was deemed to be a problematic
element of existing projects, and this was thought to be
significantly improved by using stakeholder mapping
early in the project to identify who should communi-
cate with whom and when (Reed 2008; Reed et al. 2009).
Additional stakeholder groups (e.g., local supporters and
innovators) appear to exist in specific types of co-creation
activities. Our case studies outline similarities and differ-
ences in identified stakeholder groups, thus highlighting
the importance of stakeholder mapping in co-creation CS
initiatives.

Based on our experience, we suggest that criteria for
stakeholder mapping should be based upon the aims of
the specific stakeholder mapping activity. The common
approach to use certain stakeholder attributes (e.g., their
power, interests, or knowledge), which then can be plotted
on a graph, is not always the most convenient and effec-
tive method. For example, when stakeholder mapping is
used in a new type of activity, the levels of interest and
influence might be more difficult to predict. Additional
criteria might also be beneficial for CS stakeholder map-
ping, such as identifying stakeholder roles, as exemplified
by earlier research (Heidrich et al. 2009). In CS, a deep
stakeholder analysis that considers the sources of power,
such as expertise, formal authority, or money (e.g. Bryson,
et al. 2011), or takes the wider context into account, such
as biophysical conditions, institutional context, and com-
munity attributes e.g., Aaltonen and Kujala 2016) might
also be useful.

We found that it was important to ensure ample discus-
sion time in a participatory stakeholder mapping work-
shop and to clarify the aims of the mapping exercise, i.e.,
establishing the concrete question, issue, or activity relat-
ing to which peoples' and organisations' stakes are exam-
ined (Reed et al. 2009). When participants themselves
define the aims, there are better conditions for productive
discussions. Finally, while stakeholder mapping proved to
be a flexible and relatively easy to apply methodology, the
power of the approach lies in reflecting on the activity's
contextual conditions for a mapping exercise to become
productive, e.g., asking what the boundary of the activity
is and what constitutes a legitimate stake.

Acknowledgements

The workshop was partially supported by the European
Union's H2020 research and innovation programme
Doing It Together Science (under Grant Agreement No

709443), the ERC Advanced Grant project European
Citizen Science: Analysis and Visualisation (under Grant
Agreement No 694767), and the European Union's COST
Action CA15212 to promote creativity, scientific literacy,
and innovation throughout Europe.

Competing Interests

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

References

**Aaltonen, K** and **Kujala, J.** 2016. Towards an improved understanding of project stakeholder landscapes. *IJ of Project Management*, 34(8): 1537–1552. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.08.009

Bonney, R, Phillips, TB, Ballard, HL and Enck, JW. 2015. Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science? *Public Understanding of Science*, 25(1): 2–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662515607406

Brugha, R and Varvasovszky, Z. 2000. Stakeholder analysis: A Review. *Health Policy and Planning*, 15(3): 239–246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/15.3.239

Bryson, JM, Patton, MQ and Bowman, RA. 2011. Work-
ing with evaluation stakeholders: A rationale, step-wise
approach and toolkit. *Evaluation and Program
Planning*, 34(1): 1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
evalprogplan.2010.07.001

Buanes, A, Jentoft, S, Maurstad, A, Søreng, SU and Karlsen, GR. 2005. Stakeholder participation in Norwegian coastal zone planning. *Ocean & Coastal Management*, 48(9–10): 658–669. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2005.05.005

Casapia, M, Joseph, SA and Gyorkos, TW. 2007. Multidisciplinary and participatory workshops with stakeholders in a community of extreme poverty in the Peruvian Amazon: Development of priority concerns and potential health, nutrition and education interventions. *IJ for Equity in Health*, 6(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-6-6

Duckworth, HA and Moore, RA. 2010. Social Responsibility: Failure Mode Effects and Analysis. Boca Raton: CRC Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/EBK1439803721

Durham, E, Baker, H and Smith, M. 2014. The BiodivERSA: Stakeholder Engagement Handbook. Available at http://www.biodiversa.org/702 [Last accessed 2 August 2017].

Elo, S and Kyngäs, H. 2008. The qualitative content analysis process. *Journal of Advanced Nursing*, 62(1): 107–115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x

Ferran-Ferrer, N. 2015. Volunteer Participation in Citizen Science Projects. *El profesional de la información*, 24(6): 827-837. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2015.nov.15

Foster, J, Norton, GA and Brough, EJ. 1995. The role of problem specification workshops in extension: An IPM example. *Journal of Extension*, 33(4).

Freeman, RE. 1984. Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman.
**Galvagno, M** and **Dalli, D.** 2014. Theory of value co-creation: a systematic literature review. *Managing Service Quality, 24*(6): 643–683. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/MSQ-09-2013-0187

**Gebauer, HM**, **Johnson, M** and **Enquist, B.** 2010. Value Co-Creation as a Determinant of Success in Public Transport Services: A Study of the Swiss Federal Railway Operator (SBB). *Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 20*(6): 511–530. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/09604521011092866

**Geneletti, D.** 2010. Combining stakeholder analysis and spatial multicriteria evaluation to select and rank inert landfill sites. *Waste Management, 30*(2): 328–337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.09.039

**Geoghegan, H**, **Dyke, A**, **Pateman, R**, **West, S** and **Everett, G.** 2016. Understanding Motivations for Citizen Science: Final Report on behalf of the UK Environmental Observation Framework, University of Reading, Stockholm Environment Institute (University of York) and University of the West of England. Available at http://www.ukeof.org.uk/resources/citizen-science-resources/MotivationsforCSREPORTFINALMay2016.pdf [Last accessed 4 October 2017].

**Göbel, C.** 2019. Manual for stakeholder mapping workshop. [Last accessed 30 April 2019]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2654991

**Göbel, C**, **Martin, VY** and **Ramirez-Andreotta, M.** 2017. Stakeholder Analysis: International Citizen Science Stakeholder Analysis on Data Interoperability. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholars. Available at https://www.wilson-center.org/publication/international-citizen-science-stakeholder-analysis [Last accessed 20 April 2019].

**Greening, DW** and **Turban, DB.** 2000. Corporate social performance as a competitive advantage in attracting a quality workforce. *Business and Society, 39*(3): 254–280. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00076503000390030202

**Hecker, S**, **Haklay, M**, **Bowser, A**, **Makuch, Z**, **Vogel, J** and **Bonn, A.** 2018. Citizen Science: Innovation in Open Science, Society and Policy. 580. UCL Press: London. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv550cf2

**Heidrich, O**, **Harvey, J** and **Tollin, N.** 2009. Stakeholder analysis for industrial waste management systems. *Waste Management, 29*(2): 965–973. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.04.013

**Hsieh, HF** and **Shannon, SE.** 2005. Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. *Qualitative Health Research, 15*(9): 1277–1288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687

**Ind, N** and **Coates, N.** 2013. The meanings of co-creation. *European Business Review, 25*(1): 86–95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/09555341311287754

**Irwin, A.** 2015. Citizen science and scientific citizenship: Same words, different meanings? In: Schiele, B, Marec, JL and Baranger, P (eds.), *Science Communication Today, 29–38*. Nancy: Presses Universitaires de Nancy.

**Kambil, A**, **Friesen, G** and **Sundaram, A.** 1999. Co-creation: A new source of value. *Outlook, 2*: 38–43.

**Kobori, H**, **Dickinson, JL**, **Washitani, I**, **Sakurai, R**, **Amano, T**, **Komatsu, N**, **Kitamura, W**, **Takagawa, S**, **Koyama, K**, **Ogawara, T** and **Miller-Rushing, AJ.** 2016. Citizen science: a new approach to advance ecology, education, and conservation. *Ecological Research, 31*: 1–19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-015-1314-y

**Kondracki, NL**, **Wellman, NS**, **Fada, RD** and **Amundson, DR.** 2002. Content Analysis: Review of Methods and Their Applications in Nutrition Education. *Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 34*(4): 224–230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1499-4046(06)60097-3

**Kyba, CC**, **Wagner, JM**, **Kuechly, HU**, **Walker, CE**, **Elvidge, CD**, **Falchi, F**, **Ruhtz, T**, **Fischer, J** and **Hölker, F.** 2013. Citizen science provides valuable data for monitoring global night sky luminance. *Scientific reports, 3*: 1835. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01835

**Mascarenhas, A**, **Fritz, S**, **See, L** and **Moorthy, I.** 2017. Assessment of user requirements, barriers and engagement strategies for LandSense Citizen Observatory (Deliverable 2.1). Available at: https://ecsa.citizen-science.net/sites/default/files/d2.1_-_689812_landsense__assessment_of_user_requirements_barriers_and_engagement_strategies_for_landsense_citizen_observatory.pdf [Last accessed 4 October 2017].

**Mazumdar, S**, **Wrigley, S** and **Ciravegna, F.** 2017. Citizen Science and Crowdsourcing for Earth Observations: An Analysis of Stakeholder Opinions on the Present and Future. *Remote Sensing, 9*(1): 87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9010087

**Miller-Rushing, A**, **Primack, R** and **Bonney, R.** 2012. The history of public participation in ecological research. *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10*: 285–290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/110278

**Moug, P.** 2011. Decisions, dilemmas and deliberation: exploring the legitimacy of the organisation and design of a stakeholder workshop in an environmental research project. *Local Environment, 16*(2): 129–145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2011.557354

**Newman, G**, **Wiggins, A**, **Crall, A**, **Graham, E**, **Newman, S** and **Crowston, K.** 2012. The future of citizen science: emerging technologies and shifting paradigms. *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10*(6): 298–304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/110294

**Norton, GA**, **Adamson, D**, **Aitken, LG**, **Bilston, LJ**, **Foster, J**, **Frank, B** and **Harper, JK.** 1999. Facilitating IPM: The role of participatory workshops. *IJ of Pest Management, 45*(2): 85–90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/096708799227860

**Pandya, RE.** 2012. A framework for engaging diverse communities in citizen science in the US. *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10*: 314–317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/120007

**Preston, LE.** 1990. Stakeholder management and corporate performance. *Journal of Behavioral Economics, 19*(4): 361–375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-5720(90)90023-Z
**Galvagno, M** and **Dalli, D.** 2014. Theory of value co-creation: a systematic literature review. *Managing Service Quality*, 24(6): 643–683. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/MSQ-09-2013-0187

**Gebauer, HM**, **Johnson, M** and **Enquist, B.** 2010. Value Co-Creation as a Determinant of Success in Public Transport Services: A Study of the Swiss Federal Railway Operator (SBB). *Journal of Service Theory and Practice*, 20(6): 511–530. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/09604521011092866

**Geneletti, D.** 2010. Combining stakeholder analysis and spatial multicriteria evaluation to select and rank inert landfill sites. *Waste Management*, 30(2): 328–337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.09.039

**Geoghegan, H**, **Dyke, A**, **Pateman, R**, **West, S** and **Everett, G.** 2016. Understanding Motivations for Citizen Science: Final Report on behalf of the UK Environmental Observation Framework, University of Reading, Stockholm Environment Institute (University of York) and University of the West of England. Available at http://www.ukeof.org.uk/resources/citizen-science-resources/MotivationsforCSREPORTFINALMay2016.pdf [Last accessed 4 October 2017].

**Göbel, C.** 2019. Manual for stakeholder mapping workshop. [Last accessed 30 April 2019]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2654991

**Göbel, C**, **Martin, VY** and **Ramirez-Andreotta, M.** 2017. Stakeholder Analysis: International Citizen Science Stakeholder Analysis on Data Interoperability. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholars. Available at https://www.wilson-center.org/publication/international-citizen-science-stakeholder-analysis [Last accessed 20 April 2019].

**Greening, DW** and **Turban, DB.** 2000. Corporate social performance as a competitive advantage in attracting a quality workforce. *Business and Society*, 39(3): 254–280. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00076503000390030202

**Hecker, S**, **Haklay, M**, **Bowser, A**, **Makuch, Z**, **Vogel, J** and **Bonn, A.** 2018. Citizen Science: Innovation in Open Science, Society and Policy. 580. UCL Press: London. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv550cf2

**Heidrich, O**, **Harvey, J** and **Tollin, N.** 2009. Stakeholder analysis for industrial waste management systems. *Waste Management*, 29(2): 965–973. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.04.013

**Hsieh, HF** and **Shannon, SE.** 2005. Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. *Qualitative Health Research*, 15(9): 1277–1288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687

**Ind, N** and **Coates, N.** 2013. The meanings of co-creation. *European Business Review*, 25(1): 86–95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/09555341311287754

**Irwin, A.** 2015. Citizen science and scientific citizenship: Same words, different meanings? In: Schiele, B, Marec, JL and Baranger, P (eds.), *Science Communication Today*, 29–38. Nancy: Presses Universitaires de Nancy.

**Kambil, A**, **Friesen, G** and **Sundaram, A.** 1999. Co-creation: A new source of value. *Outlook*, 2: 38–43.

**Kobori, H**, **Dickinson, JL**, **Washitani, I**, **Sakurai, R**, **Amano, T**, **Komatsu, N**, **Kitamura, W**, **Takagawa, S**, **Koyama, K**, **Ogawara, T** and **Miller-Rushing, AJ.** 2016. Citizen science: a new approach to advance ecology, education, and conservation. *Ecological Research*, 31: 1–19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-015-1314-y

**Kondracki, NL**, **Wellman, NS**, **Fada, RD** and **Amundson, DR.** 2002. Content Analysis: Review of Methods and Their Applications in Nutrition Education. *Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior*, 34(4): 224–230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1499-4046(06)60097-3

**Kyba, CC**, **Wagner, JM**, **Kuechly, HU**, **Walker, CE**, **Elvidge, CD**, **Falchi, F**, **Ruhtz, T**, **Fischer, J** and **Hölker, F.** 2013. Citizen science provides valuable data for monitoring global night sky luminance. *Scientific reports*, 3: 1835. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01835

**Mascarenhas, A**, **Fritz, S**, **See, L** and **Moorthy, I.** 2017. Assessment of user requirements, barriers and engagement strategies for LandSense Citizen Observatory (Deliverable 2.1). Available at: https://ecsa.citizen-science.net/sites/default/files/d2.1_-_689812_landsense__assessment_of_user_requirements_barriers_and_engagement_strategies_for_landsense_citizen_observatory.pdf [Last accessed 4 October 2017].

**Mazumdar, S**, **Wrigley, S** and **Ciravegna, F.** 2017. Citizen Science and Crowdsourcing for Earth Observations: An Analysis of Stakeholder Opinions on the Present and Future. *Remote Sensing*, 9(1): 87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9010087

**Miller-Rushing, A**, **Primack, R** and **Bonney, R.** 2012. The history of public participation in ecological research. *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*, 10: 285–290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/110278

**Moug, P.** 2011. Decisions, dilemmas and deliberation: exploring the legitimacy of the organisation and design of a stakeholder workshop in an environmental research project. *Local Environment*, 16(2): 129–145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2011.557354

**Newman, G**, **Wiggins, A**, **Crall, A**, **Graham, E**, **Newman, S** and **Crowston, K.** 2012. The future of citizen science: emerging technologies and shifting paradigms. *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*, 10(6): 298–304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/110294

**Norton, GA**, **Adamson, D**, **Aitken, LG**, **Bilston, LJ**, **Foster, J**, **Frank, B** and **Harper, JK.** 1999. Facilitating IPM: The role of participatory workshops. *IJ of Pest Management*, 45(2): 85–90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/096708799227860

**Pandya, RE.** 2012. A framework for engaging diverse communities in citizen science in the US. *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*, 10: 314–317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/120007

**Preston, LE.** 1990. Stakeholder management and corporate performance. *Journal of Behavioral Economics*, 19(4): 361–375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-5720(90)90023-Z
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**Reed, MS, Graves, A, Dandy, N, Posthumus, H, Hubacek, K, Morris, J, Prell, C, Quinn, CH and Stringer, LC.** 2009. Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management. *Journal of Environmental Management*, 90(5): 1933-1949. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.001

**Regalado, C.** 2015. Promoting playfulness in publicly initiated scientific research: for and beyond times of crisis. *IJ of Play*, 4(3): 275-284. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21594937.2015.1106049

**Roy, HE, Pocock, MJO, Preston, CD, Roy, DB, Savage, J, Tweddle, JC and Robinson, LD.** 2012. Understanding Citizen Science and Environmental Monitoring: Final report on behalf of UK Environmental Observation Framework. NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology and Natural History Museum. Available at https://www.ceh.ac.uk/sites/default/files/citizensciencereview.pdf [Last accessed 3 October 2017].

**Sanders, E and Stappers, PJ.** 2008. Co-creation and the new landscapes of design. *CoDesign*, 4(1): 5-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15710880701875068

**Shirk, JL, Ballard, HL, Wilderman, CC, Philips, T, Wiggins, A, Jordan, R, McCallie, E, Minarchek, M, Lewenstein, BV, Krasny, ME and Bonney, R.** 2012. Public participation in scientific research: a framework for deliberate design. *Ecology and Society*, 17(2): 29. Available at https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/

vol17/iss2/art29/. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04705-170229

**Sovacool, BK.** 2010. A critical stakeholder analysis of the Trans-ASEAN Gas Pipeline (TAGP) Network. *Land Use Policy*, 27(3): 788-797. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.10.012

**Stout, DE and West, RN.** 2004. Using a stakeholder based process to develop and implement an innovative graduate level course in management accounting. *Journal of Accounting Education*, 22(2): 95-118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccedu.2004.04.003

**Tiago, P.** 2016. Social Context of Citizen Science Projects. In: Ceccaroni, L and Jaume, P (eds.), *Analyzing the Role of Citizen Science in Modern Research*, 168-191. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0962-2.ch008

**Wheeler, M, Chambers, FMJ, Sims-Castley, R, Cowling, RM and Schoeman, DS.** 2008. From beans to breams: how participatory workshops can contribute to marine conservation planning. *African Journal of Marine Science*, 30(3): 475-487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2989/AJMS.2008.30.3.3.637

**Wiggins, A and Crowston, K.** 2011. From Conservation to Crowdsourcing: A Typology of Citizen Science. In: *44th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences*, 1-10. Kauai, USA, 4-7 January 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2011.207

**Zwass, V.** 2010. Co-creation: Toward a Taxonomy and an Integrated Research Perspective. *IJ of electronic commerce*, 15(1): 11-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2753/JEC1086-4415150101

**How to cite this article:** Skarlatidou, A, Suškevičs, M, Göbel, C, Prüse, B, Tauginienė, L, Mascarenhas, A, Mazzonetto, M, Sheppard, A, Barrett, J, Haklay, M, Baruch, A, Moraitopoulou, E-A, Austen, K, Baíz, I, Berditchevskaia, A, Berényi, E, Hoyte, S, Kleijssen, L, Kragh, G, Legris, M, Mansilla-Sanchez, A, Nold, C, Vitos, M and Wyszomirski, P. 2019. The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives. *Citizen Science: Theory and Practice*, 4(1): 24, pp. 1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.226

**Submitted:** 20 December 2018

**Accepted:** 12 July 2019

**Published:** 19 August 2019

**Copyright:** © 2019 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

]u[

*Citizen Science: Theory and Practice* is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by Ubiquity Press.

OPEN ACCESS

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>
**Reed, MS.** 2008. Stakeholder participation for environmental management: A literature review. *Biological Conservation*, 141: 2417-2431. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.07.014

**Reed, MS, Graves, A, Dandy, N, Posthumus, H, Hubacek, K, Morris, J, Prell, C, Quinn, CH and Stringer, LC.** 2009. Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management. *Journal of Environmental Management*, 90(5): 1933-1949. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.001

**Regalado, C.** 2015. Promoting playfulness in publicly initiated scientific research: for and beyond times of crisis. *IJ of Play*, 4(3): 275-284. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21594937.2015.1106049

**Roy, HE, Pocock, MJO, Preston, CD, Roy, DB, Savage, J, Tweddle, JC and Robinson, LD.** 2012. Understanding Citizen Science and Environmental Monitoring: Final report on behalf of UK Environmental Observation Framework. NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology and Natural History Museum. Available at https://www.ceh.ac.uk/sites/default/files/citizensciencereview.pdf [Last accessed 3 October 2017].

**Sanders, E and Stappers, PJ.** 2008. Co-creation and the new landscapes of design. *CoDesign*, 4(1): 5-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15710880701875068

**Shirk, JL, Ballard, HL, Wilderman, CC, Philips, T, Wiggins, A, Jordan, R, McCallie, E, Minarchek, M, Lewenstein, BV, Krasny, ME and Bonney, R.** 2012. Public participation in scientific research: a framework for deliberate design. *Ecology and Society*, 17(2): 29. Available at https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/

vol17/iss2/art29/. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04705-170229

**Sovacool, BK.** 2010. A critical stakeholder analysis of the Trans-ASEAN Gas Pipeline (TAGP) Network. *Land Use Policy*, 27(3): 788-797. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.10.012

**Stout, DE and West, RN.** 2004. Using a stakeholder based process to develop and implement an innovative graduate level course in management accounting. *Journal of Accounting Education*, 22(2): 95-118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccedu.2004.04.003

**Tiago, P.** 2016. Social Context of Citizen Science Projects. In: Ceccaroni, L and Jaume, P (eds.), *Analyzing the Role of Citizen Science in Modern Research*, 168-191. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0962-2.ch008

**Wheeler, M, Chambers, FMJ, Sims-Castley, R, Cowling, RM and Schoeman, DS.** 2008. From beans to breams: how participatory workshops can contribute to marine conservation planning. *African Journal of Marine Science*, 30(3): 475-487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2989/AJMS.2008.30.3.3.637

**Wiggins, A and Crowston, K.** 2011. From Conservation to Crowdsourcing: A Typology of Citizen Science. In: *44th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences*, 1-10. Kauai, USA, 4-7 January 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2011.207

**Zwass, V.** 2010. Co-creation: Toward a Taxonomy and an Integrated Research Perspective. *IJ of electronic commerce*, 15(1): 11-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2753/JEC1086-4415150101

**How to cite this article:** Skarlatidou, A, Suškevičs, M, Göbel, C, Prüse, B, Tauginienė, L, Mascarenhas, A, Mazzonetto, M, Sheppard, A, Barrett, J, Haklay, M, Baruch, A, Moraitopoulou, E-A, Austen, K, Baíz, I, Berditchevskaia, A, Berényi, E, Hoyte, S, Kleijssen, L, Kragh, G, Legris, M, Mansilla-Sanchez, A, Nold, C, Vitos, M and Wyszomirski, P. 2019. The Value of Stakeholder Mapping to Enhance Co-Creation in Citizen Science Initiatives. *Citizen Science: Theory and Practice*, 4(1): 24, pp. 1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.226

**Submitted:** 20 December 2018

**Accepted:** 12 July 2019

**Published:** 19 August 2019

**Copyright:** © 2019 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

]u[

*Citizen Science: Theory and Practice* is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by Ubiquity Press.

OPEN ACCESS

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>