<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 18** On counts-per-second energy-time spectrograms and energy-per-charge (E/q) versus mass-per-charge (m/q) during the close Ganymede flyby by Juno on 7 June 2021. Adapted From Allegrini et al. (2022)</figcaption></figure>

exponentially toward the surface and reach $10^{-5}-10^{-3}$ S m$^{-1}$ and can be large enough to support cross-magnetic field currents, while the field-aligned conductivity is around 50 S m$^{-1}$ and can easily support field-aligned currents. What seems to be present is a very dense and cold (a few eV to 10 eV) (Frank et al. 1997; Collinson et al. 2018; Allegrini et al. 2022) “topside like” ionospheric plasma which is dominantly magnetized even close to the surface. Magnetospheric “E cross B” drift convection fields, mapped from the magnetosphere down to the ionosphere, primarily in the auroral zones, would not only be reduced by ion-neutral collisions, but also heat the local ion population. The magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling is therefore in a domain not yet encountered before in the Solar System with a limited but finite conductivity near the surface.

Ion composition is a marker of neutral composition and provides evidence of ion-neutral chemistry. The interpretation of *Galileo/PLS* has demonstrated the presence of light (e.g., H+, $H_2^+$) and heavier (e.g., O+, $O_2^+$) ions (Carnielli et al. 2020a). This finding was confirmed by observations from *Juno/JADE* ion spectrograms (Allegrini et al. 2022; Valek et al. 2022). Though water and atomic oxygen ions could not be distinguished due to the limited mass resolution, the detection of $H_3^+$ by *Juno/JADE* during PJ34 attests of ion-neutral chemistry (see Fig. 18). *JUICE* will be capable of measuring ion composition, distinguishing between H$_2$O+ and H$_3$O+, though for energies below 5 eV (Föhn et al. 2021). This will be complemented by measurements of the 3D ion velocity distribution (1 eV to 50 keV). Detected ENAs will be sensitive to both energetic molecular and atomic neutrals produced through ion-neutral charge-exchange (Carnielli et al. 2020a).

Due to the presence of intense electric fields, newly born ions in Ganymede’s ionosphere can be accelerated up to 10 s of keV (Carnielli et al. 2019). It is hence critical to assess ionospheric dynamics in order to interpret ionospheric densities and temperatures. 3D test-particle simulations of the ionospheric ions, driven by electric and magnetic fields from an MHD model (Jia et al. 2009), have been applied to the *Galileo* G2 flyby. The simulated shape of the ion energy spectra agrees well with that from *Galileo/PLS* measurements, validating the 3D configuration of the fields in which the ions evolve (Carnielli et al. 2020a). However, this comparison can only be extended to a handful of flybys from *Galileo* and one from *Juno*. Little is known on how ionospheric dynamics is affected by Jovian magnetospheric
and Ganymede's orbital conditions. JUICE will quantify ion transport through concurrent measurements of ion distribution, ion bulk velocity, and electric and magnetic fields.

In terms of peak ionospheric densities, Galileo's Plasma Wave Subsystem detected peak electron densities of ~200 cm⁻³ during the G2 flyby, at an altitude of ~260 km, and ~40 cm⁻³ during the G1 flyby, at an altitude of about 790 km (Eviatar et al. 2001a). Only one of Galileo's eight Ganymede radio occultations resulted in a strong detection of an ionosphere (Kliore et al. 2001; McGrath et al. 2004). This was from the G8 flyby (Kliore 1998) which yielded a peak electron density of ~5000 ± 1500 (1-σ) cm⁻³ near the surface. Radio occultation data from the Juno's Ganymede flyby PJ34 resulted in the detection of a peak electron density of 2000 ± 500 (1-σ) cm⁻³ near the surface during ingress, and no statistically significant ionosphere during egress (Buccino et al. 2022). Electron densities from plasma wave measurements gave a peak density on the dayside of 30 cm⁻³ near closest approach around 1000 km (Kurth et al. 2022). The total ion density from the mass spectrometer was found to be ~2.5 times larger at closest approach (Valek et al. 2022). The very limited available dataset highlights inconsistencies in the observed plasma density profiles and peak densities. Furthermore, Galileo multi-instrument analysis has highlighted inconsistencies between exospheric simulations and plasma observations (Carnielli et al. 2020a). JUICE radio occultations and in situ measurements over a range of orbits will make an invaluable contribution in this area. We will also take advantage of occultations of Jupiter's auroral radio emissions by Ganymede's ionosphere (Ceconi et al. 2021).

Galileo detected tenuous dust clouds surrounding Ganymede (Krüger et al. 1999, 2000, 2003). The observed µm sized dust grains are gravitationally captured by the moon within ~5 R<sub>G</sub>. Near Ganymede, grain dynamics is affected by Jupiter's gravity, and the continuous dust ejection from the surface is needed for dust clouds to form, possibly resulting from hypervelocity impacts of interplanetary dust. Such surface impacts could also be a source of plasma. Alternatively, electromagnetic forces can alter the charged grain motion into non-Keplerian. JUICE will investigate the dust environment and origin of the dust cloud, as well as dust impact on the surface, atmosphere, and plasma around Ganymede. This will include assessment of the potential effect of dust on the plasma through the presence of negatively charged ions, as seen at Enceladus (Coates et al. 2010).

As introduced in Sect. 5.3., Ganymede's ionosphere is electrodynamically coupled to the surrounding magnetosphere. We expect electrostatic acceleration structures, Alfvén waves and other plasma waves to both accelerate and heat charged particles along the auroral field lines above the ionosphere. The ions are expected to be transversely heated and be expelled by the magnetic mirror force out toward the magnetosphere (e.g., Winser et al. 1989; Wahlund et al. 1992), leading to plasma cavities in the topside ionosphere that in turn allow for more intense electric field structures that accelerate electrons to higher energies (so called "inverted V's"). Alfvén waves generated in the magnetosphere propagate down the field lines and hit the sharp density gradients within the cavities, becoming dispersive, and through smaller scale broadband plasma waves transfer their energy to field-aligned electron beams and transverse ion acceleration (Louarn et al. 1994; Wahlund et al. 1994, 1998; André et al. 1998; Stasiewicz et al. 2000; Strangeway et al. 2005; Zheng et al. 2005; Chaston et al. 2007). These processes mediate the field-aligned currents that couple to the transverse currents in the ionosphere (part of the auroral electrojet). A similar set of processes occurs in the Alfvén wings connected to Ganymede, where strong gradients also play a role in the generation of Alfvén wave activity on magnetic flux tubes that connect to Jupiter's ionosphere. In this area, limited insight has been provided by Galileo and Juno (Gurnett et al. 1996; Kurth et al. 2022), but complementary plasma, particle, field & UV measurements by JUICE are expected to dramatically change our view.
Transport is driving ionospheric plasma. In a given region, ions can originate from different parts of Ganymede's ionosphere, e.g., produced locally or transported into this region. Hence, they have undergone different levels of acceleration and ion temperature can be large, as high as a few 100 s eV in the equatorial regions for heavy ions (Carnielli et al. 2019). Dynamics is playing a key role in driving ion temperature though the details of it remain to be confirmed. Ion heating is also expected in the auroral zone through, e.g., reconnection and due to waves. Little is known concerning electron temperature, which has never been measured or simulated. It will however be a critical for determining the frequency of electron collisions with neutral particles, a key source of cooling, while heating sources include electron-electron Coulomb collisions, acceleration through the field, and wave-particle interactions. Heat flow from the magnetosphere could also affect the ionospheric energy budget. JUICE will offer the first opportunity to assess the plasma energy budget over a large range of latitudes, longitudes, and magnetospheric conditions.

Ionospheric ions impact Ganymede's surface and contribute as a source of the moon's atmosphere. So far only sublimation of water ice and irradiation of Ganymede's surface by Jovian ions have been considered as a primary source of neutrals in exospheric models of Ganymede (Marconi 2007; Plainaki et al. 2015; Leblanc et al. 2017; Vorburger et al. 2022). While the former generates a localised $H_2O$-dominated exosphere around the subsolar point, the latter leads to the release of $O_2$ and $H_2$ through radiolysis and induces an $O_2$-dominated global exosphere. Irradiation of Ganymede's surface by ionospheric ions particularly affects equatorial regions; its contribution to the neutral release rates was found to dominate by a factor of 5-10 compared to the Jovian ion contribution (Carnielli et al. 2020b). However, large uncertainties in these rates remain due to poorly constrained exospheric densities. There is also an inconsistency between the total release rate assumed in exospheric models and that estimated from kinetic, ion simulations of ionospheric and Jovian ions. Assessment of ionospheric vs Jovian particle contributions as a source of the exosphere will be made by JUICE using particle measurements as a basis (Plainaki et al. 2022). The identification of open and closed field line regions, surface composition, and atmospheric densities will all factor into this important assessment.

# 6 High-Level Operations Strategy

The JUICE mission has a wide range of science investigations, extending well beyond those listed in Table 1 that are relevant for the magnetosphere and plasma science that we have reviewed. Spacecraft operations, both during the cruise and after we arrive at the Jupiter system are carefully planned to ensure that all objectives are met, spanning all four of the mission's science working groups, often requiring non-trivial technical and scheduling problems to be solved (Fletcher et al. 2023; Boutonnet et al. 2024; Tosi et al. 2024; Van Hoolst 2024; Witasse et al. 2025, all in this collection). To guide this critical exercise, recommendations for operations necessary to achieve all magnetosphere and plasma science objectives (see Table 1) have been made. This operational strategy is described at a high level here. Actual spacecraft operations represent the result of a careful assessment of a wider range of recommendations.

The primary issue for magnetosphere and plasma science with JUICE is the importance of continuous operation of *in situ* instruments, namely PEP, J-MAG, and RPWI (see Table 2). This includes during communication windows, short eclipses, etc. As we have seen, all the space plasma environments of interest (and space plasma environments in general) display significant variability in both space and time. Present understanding of these systems
is nowhere near sufficient to allow us to accurately predict dynamics, one of the ultimate goals of research in this broad field. Observing these dynamics, including extreme, transient events that are infrequent, is central to all of JUICE's magnetosphere and science investigations. This leads to the strong recommendation for continuous operation of the instruments that monitor the plasma and electromagnetic fields. The synergy of PEP, J-MAG, and RPWI measurements is required for a comprehensive view of the magnetised plasma around the spacecraft. Note that the cadence of measurements providing continuous operation need not be the highest possible with each instrument, compared to measurements during specific science events when higher cadences are required. Continuous operation of the three in situ instruments at relatively low measurement cadence will underpin a large fraction of JUICE's promised magnetosphere and plasma science. Wherever possible, spacecraft attitude will allow sensors fields-of-view that are needed to observe particle flows, for example.

On top of continuous operation, higher cadence measurements by the three in situ instruments will be needed during specific events that will occur following Jupiter orbit insertion, in order to allow the necessary science. While in Jupiter orbit, this includes during intervals when we pass through the region of corotation breakdown, intervals during the high-latitude orbits that provide favourable viewing for ENA imaging, for example, and surrounding planned moon flybys when in situ instruments need appropriate spacecraft attitude for instrument pointing. While in Ganymede orbit, higher data cadences will be needed when crossing the thin current sheets and the OCFB in Ganymede's magnetosphere. High quality UVS observations of Ganymede's auroral emissions at these crossing points will likewise be needed.

There will be important opportunities for remote sensing that is also central to ensuring science return in this area of magnetosphere and plasma science. Multi-wavelength observations of both Jupiter's auroral emissions (Fletcher et al. 2023) and Ganymede's auroral emissions by the JANUS, MAJIS, RPWI, and UVS instruments will provide important information about the space plasma physics that is responsible, providing a diagnostic of the physics at work on larger scales. As we have seen, radio occultations have proved to be a powerful tool for understanding ionospheres and plasma structures like moon tori in the Jupiter system in the past, and JUICE will enable a significant expansion to the existing volume of such measurements. Instruments such as 3GM, PRIDE, and the instruments mentioned above will make new measurements possible. Numerous UVS stellar occultation measurements of the neutral atmospheric structure will be needed to analyse these ionospheres and plasma structures. A particularly exciting opportunity provided by JUICE will be remote sensing of the global space plasma environment via ENA imaging. This has never been done at Jupiter before, and will address a key challenge when trying to understand these tenuous magnetised plasmas: Our limited ability to image them. In synergy with in situ measurements, JUICE's ENA imaging will reveal dynamic magnetospheres in ways we have not been able to previously. Across all this relevant remote sensing, operations will satisfy pointing requirements and be conducted during identified intervals with favourable geometry.

Solar wind measurements by the *in situ* instruments during approach to Jupiter will be particularly important for JUICE-era understanding of Jupiter's magnetosphere and the environment around each Galilean moon. The state of the solar wind is unpredictable, but large-scale structures show some repeatability with solar rotation over ~27 days. Given that the spacecraft will not sample the solar wind after the opening orbits around Jupiter, this initial characterisation of the solar wind is therefore particularly important to support science return in this area. Upstream measurements spanning multiple solar rotations is desirable, to allow a valuable assessment of the predictability of the large-scale solar wind state.
In parallel with the new observations that will be made by JUICE instruments, theory and numerical models will remain essential for progress in this field. Such models will provide the context needed for new information obtained in situ, and provide a broader, physics-based picture of complex space plasma systems. Models will range from global models of Jupiter's magnetosphere and its interaction with the solar wind, down to local models of the environment immediately surrounding each Galilean moon. Because of this, the JUICE modelling community will employ a range of approaches, from fluid descriptions of the magnetised plasma to solving the equation of motion for individual charged particles.

# 7 Summary & Outlook

At the time of writing the JUICE spacecraft is en route to the Jupiter system. As we have reviewed in this article, JUICE is designed to enable significant advances in the field of magnetosphere and space plasma science. While the science return in this area will be broad, two areas in particular are worthy of special mention. Firstly, JUICE's measurement capabilities mean that throughout Jupiter's equatorial magnetosphere, including within the region of corotation breakdown, the mission will allow a step change in understanding this important region. Highly relevant for this area is ENA imaging, which will be carried out at Jupiter for the first time. Secondly, Ganymede's magnetosphere is a distinct system within a system, barely explored and utterly unlike the surrounding Jovian magnetosphere. JUICE's orbits around Ganymede will lead to a surge forward in the boundary of our understanding of the Solar System's only known moon magnetosphere.

In the coming years leading up to arrival at Jupiter in 2031 a number of critical activities must run, from the magnetospheric science perspective of this paper. A modelling framework comprised of many individual models and which carefully considers the coupling between them must be in place by Jupiter orbit insertion in order to avoid a delay in full magnetospheric science return. While not considered here, the combination of the JUICE and Europa Clipper missions offers unique opportunities for multi-point measurements that will allow unique magnetosphere and plasma science; for example, measurements by both spacecraft inside Jupiter's magnetosphere would provide a powerful tool for separating spatial and temporal effects when studying magnetospheric dynamics. We strongly support interaction between these two projects to take advantage of such opportunities. At the time of writing, JUICE is carrying out its interplanetary cruise to Jupiter. In addition to operations required to calibrate different instruments before arrival, measurements during cruise will provide additional heliospheric science, such as the study of coronal mass ejections from Earth to Jupiter's orbit.

**Acknowledgements** We would like to sincerely thank the entire ESA JUICE project, Airbus partners, and many members of the international scientific community. In particular, we are grateful to both the project and Airbus for designing and building such an electromagnetically clean spacecraft. AMa was supported by a Royal Society University Research Fellowship. MH acknowledges support from the Science Foundation Ireland (Grant: 18/FRL/6199) and the Discovery programme of the European Space Agency (Contract No: 4000137683/22/NL/GLC/my). HH's work at DIAS was supported by a DIAS Research Fellowship in Astrophysics and by Taighde Éireann - Research Ireland award 22/FFP-P/11545. HH gratefully acknowledges financial support from Khalifa University's Space and Planetary Science Center (Abu Dhabi, UAE) under Grant no. KU-SPSC-8474000336. We thank Stephenie Brophy Lee for designing the schematic illustrating Europa's interaction with the surrounding Jovian magnetosphere, (Fig. 11). AC and GJ acknowledge support from UK STFC consolidated grant ST/W001004/1 to UCL-MSSL. AG and PW were supported by the AV Swiss National Science Foundation under grant 200020_207409. DH was supported by the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, DLR) through grant number 50QJ1501. LB, LI, AM, PT, MZ and AMo are grateful to the Italian Space Agency (ASI) for financial support through
ASI-INAF agreements No. 2018-25-HH.0 and 2023-6-HH.0 in the context of ESA's JUICE mission. YK is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grants JP18H03727, JP21H04520, JP23H01229 and JP23H05429. French authors acknowledge support from CNES and CNRS/INSU national programs of planetology (PNP) and helio-physics (PNST, also funded by CEA). JS received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 884711).

## Declarations

**Competing Interests** The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

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## Authors and Affiliations

A. Masters<fnref n="1" /> ID · R. Modolo<fnref n="2" /> · E. Roussos<fnref n="3" /> · N. Krupp<fnref n="3" /> · O. Witasse<fnref n="4" /> · C. Vallat<fnref n="5" /> ·

B. Cecconi<fnref n="6" /> · N.J.T. Edberg<fnref n="7" /> · Y. Futaana⁸ · M. Galand<fnref n="1" /> · D. Heyner⁹ · M. Holmberg¹⁰ ·

H. Huybrighs¹⁰,¹¹,¹² · X. Jia¹³ · K. Khurana¹⁴ · L. Lamy<fnref n="6" />,¹⁵ · L. Roth¹⁶ · A. Sulaiman¹⁷ ·

P. Tortora¹⁸ · S. Barabash⁸ · L. Bruzzone¹⁹ · M.K. Dougherty<fnref n="1" /> · R. Gladstone²⁰,²¹ ·

L.I. Gurvits²²,²³ ID · P. Hartogh<fnref n="3" /> · H. Hussmann²⁴ · L. Iess²⁵ · F. Poulet²⁶ · J.-E. Wahlund<fnref n="7" /> ·

D.J. Andrews<fnref n="7" /> · C.S. Arridge²⁷ · F. Bagenal²⁸ · C. Baskevitch<fnref n="2" />,<fnref n="6" /> · J. Bergman<fnref n="7" /> ·

T.M. Bocanegra²⁹ · P. Brandt³⁰ · E.J. Bunce³¹ · G. Clark³⁰ · A.J. Coates³²,³³ · E. Galanti³⁴ ·

A. Galli³⁵ · D. Grodent³⁶ · G. Jones³²,³³ · Y. Kasaba³⁷ · Y. Kaspi³⁴ · Y. Katoh³⁵ ·

N. Kaweeyanun³⁸ · Y. Khotyaintsev<fnref n="7" /> · T. Kimura³⁹ · P. Kollmann³⁰ · D. Mitchell³⁰ ·

A. Moirano⁴⁰,³⁶ · G. Molera Calvés⁴¹ · M. Morooka<fnref n="7" /> · I.C.F. Müller-Wodarg<fnref n="1" /> · C. Muñoz<fnref n="5" /> ·

A. Mura⁴⁰ · M. Pätzold⁴² · M. Pinto<fnref n="4" /> · C. Plainaki⁴³,⁴⁰ · K.D. Retherford²⁰,²¹ · A. Retinò⁴⁴ ·

H. Rothkaehl⁴⁵ · O. Santolík⁴⁶,⁴⁷ · J. Saur⁴⁸ · G. Stenberg Wieser⁸ · F. Tsuchiya³⁷ ·

M. Volwerk⁴⁹ · A. Vorburger³⁵ · P. Wurz³⁵ · M. Zannoni¹⁸

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>

A. Masters

a.masters@imperial.ac.uk

<footnote n="1">¹ Blackackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London, SW7 2AZ, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² LATMOS/IPSL, UVSQ Université, Paris-Saclay, UPMC University Paris CNRS, Guyancourt, France</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 3, 37077, Göttingen, Germany</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ ESAC, European Space Agency (ESA), Camino Bajo del Castillo s/n, Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada (Madrid), 28692, Spain</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Laboratoire d'Etudes Spatiales et Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire de Paris-PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Cité, 5 Place Jules Janssen, 92190, Meudon, France</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷ Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF), Box 537, 751 21, Uppsala, Sweden</footnote>
8 Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF), Box 812, SE-981 28, Kiruna, Sweden

9 Institut für Geophysik und extraterrestrische Physik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany

10 Astronomy & Astrophysics Section, School of Cosmic Physics, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, DIAS Dunsink Observatory, Dublin, D15 XR2R, Ireland

11 Space and Planetary Science Center, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, UAE

12 Department of Mathematics, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, UAE

13 Department of Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

14 Department of Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA

15 Aix Marseille Univ., CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France

16 Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Space & Plasma Physics, SE-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden

17 School of Physics and Astronomy, Minnesota Institute for Astrophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

18 Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, Via Fontanelle, 40, 47121 Forlì, Italy

19 Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science, University of Trento, Via Sommarive, 5, Povo, 38123, Italy

20 Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA

21 University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA

22 Joint Institute for VLBI ERIC, Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991 PD, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands

23 Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS, Delft, The Netherlands

24 German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany

25 Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica e Aerospaziale, Università La Sapienza, Rome, Italy

26 Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France

27 Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YB, UK

28 Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA

29 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, 91109, CA, USA

30 The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD, USA

31 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, Leicester, LEI 7R, UK

32 Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, RH5 6NT, UK

33 The Centre for Planetary Science at UCL-Birkbeck, London, UK

34 Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 76100, Israel

35 Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Sidlerstrasse 5, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
36 Laboratoire de Physique Atmosphérique et Planétaire, STAR Institute, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium

37 Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aramaki aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan

38 School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Southampton, Highfield Campus, University Road, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK

39 Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1-3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8601, Japan

40 INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00133, Rome, Italy

41 School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 37, Hobart, 7015, Tas, Australia

42 Rheinisches Institut fuer Umweltforschung, Abteilung Planetforschung, Cologne, Germany

43 Agenzia Spaziale Italiana - ASI, Via del Politecnico snc, I-00133, Rome, Italy

44 Laboratoire de Physique des Plasmas, CNRS/Ecole Polytechnique/Sorbonne Université/Université Paris-Saclay/Observatoire de Paris, route de Saclay, 91128, Palaiseau cedex, France

45 Space Research Centre of the Polish Academy of Sciences, 00-716 Bartycka 18A, Warsaw, Poland

46 Department of Space Physics, Institute of Atmospheric Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Bocni II/1401, 14100 Prague, Czechia

47 Department of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University, V Holesovickach 2, 18000, Prague, Czechia

48 Institute of Geophysics and Meteorology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany

49 Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Schmiedlstrasse 6, 8042, Graz, Austria