become the protagonist in the story, playing out individual and
informative roles. Their reactions become the true products of this
form of design research.

This blending of truth and reality was used in my first
speculative design project with Jimmy Loizeau, Audio Tooth Implant
(Auger-Loizeau, 2001). Our original project brief was to examine the
implications of implantable technology for human enhancement, by
proposing possible applications and access points for technology to
enter the body. The resultant product was an implantable telephone:

The concept of implantable technology for enhancement
purposes immediately conjures images from science fiction,<fnref n="71" /> so it
was important from the outset that we steered the proposal away from
these more profound notions towards a more plausible suggestion. This
was achieved by playing to the public audience's perception of three
factors. First, the lifestyle benefit of having a tooth implant. By building
on the cultural phenomenon of the mobile telephone, which at the time
(2001) was revolutionising human communication, we aimed to deliver a
concept that would play to contemporary aspirations.

Second, the psychological issues related to an alien object
entering the body (managing the uncanny). We consciously chose the
tooth as an entry point for the implant as this is the least invasive
surgery available, creating a tangible balance between cost and
benefit.<fnref n="72" />

<footnote n="71">71. See for example, Bruce Sterling's *Schismatrix Plus* and William Gibson's *Neuromancer*.</footnote>

<footnote n="72">72. Around the same period Kevin Warwick of Reading University was generating publicity for his Cyborg 1.0 project. Exploring similar issues, Warwick had an RFID tag implanted in his arm, enabling him to automatically unlock his office door and turn on lights. The question we ask is, would one be willing to experience invasive surgery on a body part for such basic added functionality? See http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.02/warwick_pr.html</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_52.png" /><figcaption>Fig.46: *Wired* Online (21 June, 2002).

*Wired* initially featured the concept in an article by Lakshmi Sandhana. They followed up several years later (March 2006) with an article entitled: 'Lying through their teeth.' By Rachel Metz (Wired 2006).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_53.png" /><figcaption>Fig.45: *The Sun* newspaper (June 29, 2002).

Average daily readership 7,733,000 people. In the UK the Tooth Implant was also featured in *The Mirror*, *The Express* and *The Daily Star*.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_54.png" /><figcaption>Fig.47: *Sky News*.

The Audio Tooth Implant at the launch of the talking points exhibition at the Science Museum in London.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_55.png" /><figcaption>Fig.48: CNN.com

CNN ran a poll asking the audience is they would want a telephone implanted in their tooth. Over 54 thousand votes were cast in a 48-hour period.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_56.png" /><figcaption>Fig.49: The Audio Tooth Implant was listed on *Time Magazine's* list of the coolest inventions of 2002, and was used as their cover image for this feature. The only dialogue we had with the magazine was their request to use the tooth image; there were no questions about the state or nature of the project.</figcaption></figure>
And third, for technological believability, the Audio Tooth Implant relies on a general public awareness of hard and well-publicised facts, such as the miniaturisation of digital technology and urban myths such as dental fillings acting as radio antenna and picking up audio signals. These combine to give the concept a familiarity. It was also necessary to provide a convincing description, in layman's terms, of the technology involved. With the tooth implant we were assisted in this by approaching research scientists at a large telecommunications company, who offered the following:

"The moisture in the cheeks effectively make the inside of the mouth a faraday cage: a radio free space. Therefore the chip would have to receive low-frequency radio in the order of 150kHz. This signal would energize the dormant chip implanted in the tooth through near field magnetic effects. A transducer transforms this sound information into micro vibrations which through the process of bone transduction are transmitted along the jawbone and directly into the cochlea where they are experienced by the wearer as normal sound."

This description helped in convincing those with a good understanding of electronic technology. To communicate the concept we created a clear epoxy resin model tooth with embedded computer chip (fig.44.). This model was photographed in a studio and used to accompany a text description of the concept.

With this material we presented the project at the Science Museum in London in an exhibition called 'Future Products'. From here it quickly entered the public domain through both the popular press and specialist media. Our initial goal was to disseminate the project as
broadly as possible, from the contemporary technology magazine,
*Wired* to *The Sun* newspaper, with its average daily readership of
7,733,000 people.<fnref n="73" />

By consciously avoiding the formal academic language
normally associated with technological research and critique, and
adopting a familiar product design language, we aimed to appeal
to a more general audience. Using the press allowed the concept to
disseminate globally, working particularly well with new media such as
internet news sites and blogs. A possible problem with this approach is
that it allows for little control once a project is in the public domain, and
concepts quickly mutate and facts become embellished. With projects
like the Audio Tooth Implant this is not problematic, as the core proposal
is simple enough for the key message to not get lost in translation.
We assumed that due to the extremely large numbers of individuals
reached,<fnref n="74" /> a percentage would be induced into contemplating a subject
they had not consciously considered before.

<footnote n="73">73. http://www.nmauk.co.uk/nma/do/live/factsAndFigures?newspaperID=17</footnote>

<footnote n="74">74. It is impossible to state exactly how many individuals have been exposed to the concept, but it has been featured in news reports and magazines in Australia, Canada and Brazil. We have been interviewed on radio shows in the US, the UK and New Zealand and have received emails and letters from global locations. Slashdot, the technology-related news website, featured the concept and at last viewing there were 437 comments. http://slashdot.org/index2.pl?fhfilter=tooth+implant, accessed 16 November 2011.</footnote>
Dear Mr's Auger and Loizeau,

As a physician I believe the technology you describe in your press release, has
the potential for producing immense social harm. This social harm would include
psychological trauma, and angry behaviour in both the workplace and the home.

XXXXXXX X. XXXXXX, MD

Associate Professor of Medicine,
/Cardiology)

Stanford Medical School.<fnref n="75" />

<footnote n="75">75. The whole correspondence ran to two pages of writing, offering a detailed description of exactly how and why the Tooth Implant would cause immense social harm.</footnote>
Subject: Cellular chip in the teeth

Date: Monday 1 July 2002 14:17

From: XXXXXXXXXXXXXX

To: <info@augerment.com>

Congratulations !!

A hole world of new possibilites was opened up by this
achivemnt.

I hope this path can inspire this brilliant group to develop another chip, this
one to be into the eye bringing light to the blind man in the Earth.

In my dream the cams could be instaled in the eyebrown and the chip in the eye
linked and stimulating the nervous system. This stimulation could when well
dominated avoy glasses even in people with more than one hundred years.

Maybe all this sound a litte crazy, too much optimist or too much faith in
science future, but why not dream with the day in near future when everyone
can see the sun, the clouds, the sea, a child's smile to her mother, a bird
singing, a colorfull fish in the beautifull sea and so on, this list is endless.

Congratulation once more,

XXXXXX XXXX
Subject: Re: implant retained crown test

Date: Sunday 16 February 2003 23:46

From: XXXXXXX

To: James Auger <jamesa@mle.media.mit.edu>

Mr Auger,

Thank you for your prompt reply. Since I am a dentist and my husband's crown is
implant retained not on tooth structure, we would be happy to be included in the
test phase. I could make sure the crown was placed in a temporary mode and it
could easily be removed for further modification.

Please let me know if you are interested in this test.

Sincerely,

XXXX XXXXX
From: XXXXXXXX

Date: 17 October 2002 14:57:54 BST

To: "'info@augerment.com'" <info@augerment.com>

Subject: Audio Tooth Implant

Hello, James Auger

We are very interested in "Audio Tooth Implant" researches. Our company (http://www.mediinternational.com) is known as a leader of dental innovations in Russia. We offer you to choose ours dental clinics as range for your researches. MEDI Medical Association was established in 1991 in St. Petersburg, Russia as a dental clinic. Since then, it has grown into the largest private medical/dental business in Russia. To-date, there are 11 Dental Clinics at St.-Petersburg and Moscow where 105 dentists worked. MEDI also owns three dental laboratories, an X-ray Diagnostics Center and Russia's first private "Institute of Dentistry" for post graduate specialization. In the long term we could organize "Audio Tooth Implant Course" in our Institute for the dentists from whole CIS. Also we can help you to certificate your invention in Russian Federation.

Best regards,

XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX

President of MEDI Medical Association.

<caption>Fig.50: Selected correspondence relating to the Audio Tooth Implant.</caption>
One of the key advantages of speculative design is that there
is no intention to bring the product to market. This means that critical
responses are of equal value to positive ones. The negative aspect
of this approach is that the designer is liable to receive accusations
of fraudster and the project being labelled a hoax. This issue was
discussed in a *Wired* follow-up article entitled 'Lying Through Their
Teeth'. As we discussed with the journalist, the key difference is the
motivation behind the creation of the fiction:

> "Auger and Loizeau measure success by reactions to their idea, not the venture capital money (which Auger said they turned down) that stemmed from the swell of media coverage. What gratifies them are the hundreds of e-mails they received from people (including several dentists) interested in learning more, and a Slashdot mention that garnered 437 comments."
>
> (Metz, 2006)

It is the nature of these responses that justify the approach,
being genuine reactions to a new product rather than contemplations on
a hypothetical concept - it is a means to a worthwhile end.

Observational comedy: *Rooting the speculation in the familiar*

Presenting design proposals based on little-understood (by
the popular audience) emerging technologies is a complex challenge.
Too much technical information can alienate or simply bore the viewer,
but too little can leave the concept intangible or whimsical. The
problem lies in the amount or complexity of knowledge that needs to
be communicated before a project can be understood. In their analysis
of the evolutionary reasons for humour and laughter, Hurley et al
describe the comedian's solution to a similar issue, suggesting that
"shared stories are excellent data-compression devices ... The more
of a story you can tell with a few words, the more efficient your joke
or witticism will be." (2011, p.164). Watching a recent performance by
Sean Lock on the television comedy programme 'Live at the Apollo', I
began contemplating the similarities between observational comedy
and the tactics of speculative design. During the set he described the
filthy state of the back seat of his car, boxes of organic raisins and the
raising of small children. Here there are several relevant points. First,
observations are of mundane but familiar aspects of daily life. This type
of comedy is popular because the audience can personally relate to the
situations described.

Second, observations are often specific to a particular time,
place and person. Lock's analysis wouldn't have worked ten years
ago, as these particular boxes of raisins didn't exist then. Also, to fully
understand the observations and therefore the humour, the audience
needed to be a parent of children between the ages of two and eight
from a certain social class and culture.

Third, the importance of attention to detail. Lock meticulously
describes how his children open the box of raisins and then shake the
box in a very particular way, scattering them all over the car, and down
the small cracks between the seats. As he describes this, a picture
forms in my mind of my own children doing the exact same thing. This
is a very familiar scene, but one I hadn't previously given conscious
thought to.

Fourth, once the familiar short story has been told, the
foundations are laid for wilder, more extreme anecdotes; these
demonstrate the humour in the situation. In Lock's set he concludes by
<figure><img src="image_57.png" /><figcaption>Fig.51: Sensual Interfaces video still (Chris Woebken, 2007).</figcaption></figure>

Using seeds to simulate smart dust, this video visualises new interactions such as breaking, sharing, throwing away and mining data. These new interactions not only generate new behaviours but will also define new relationships with products.

<figure><img src="image_58.png" /><figcaption>Fig.52: The Minutine Space (Mikael Metthey, 2006).</figcaption></figure>

People can visit a space where they get infected by engineered organisms designed to provoke the physical and psychological reactions associated with sickness. The space is designed to emphasise the social aspect of sickness. It is composed of a viral area where the viruses can be chosen, facilities to rest and suffer relatively comfortably, and a 'central sick pit' where people can vomit. The visitor, once they have had enough, can leave through the 'minutine' zone where all harming organisms are removed by the nano-antidotes.
describing seagulls following his car as he drove past landfill sites and foxes retching as they walked past the open car door.

By utilising mundane, familiar and small, unnoticed details, the designer can provide spectacular, even preposterous, proposals with a tangible link to our contemporary sensibilities and understanding. It roots them in known contexts, limiting the need for complex explanations. The spectacular narratives that stem from the comedian's initial observations effectively represent the designer's technological future, made palatable through familiar elements.

In his project Sensual Interfaces, Chris Woebken uses hypothetical advances in nanotechnology to explore new ways of interacting with a computer. His video scenario depicts a familiar office scene: an anglepoise lamp, a desk, a nondescript computer screen, a suited man and a mug. The unusual element is the form of interaction - the keyboard is no longer present, but in its place is a large pile of seeds. The businessman sits at the table and, through a series of choreographed and considered movements, sifts, moves and sorts the seeds. This sounds bizarre and nonsensical when described in words, but, partially through the familiar elements and partially the choreography, it works in portraying a tangible and engaging new mode of interaction. Its power lies in the familiarity of the scene, making the film both compelling and thought provoking.

Another technique based on observation is to take advantage of stereotypical or commonly held assumptions about a specific subject to bypass the complex underlying technological aspect. For example, if an observational comedian chose to focus on the topic of nanotechnology, he or she could start the set with the grey goo
scenario,<fnref n="76" /> move on to cryonics and Michael Jackson<fnref n="77" /> and finish with
golf balls.<fnref n="78" /> In his nanotech project The Minutine Space, Mikael Metthey
follows the familiar promise of nanotechnology to potentially eradicate
disease. In Metthey's fictional future, humans no longer suffer illness.
In this utopian world of wellness, the extreme experience of being
profoundly unwell becomes recreational:

Metthey's project, like Woebken's, requires a basic familiarity
with the subject matter for the extrapolation to work. To those with an
interest in emerging technology, the familiar promise of a zero disease
society, made possible through developments in nanotechnology, is
blended with the contemporary popularity of extreme sports to create a
proposal that, whilst extremely odd, makes sense.

By observing and taking advantage of mundane, subtle, quirky
but ultimately familiar behaviours or perceptions, the speculative
designer can take the viewer on a journey to a technological future or
alternative present that, whilst potentially alien, makes perceptual
sense.

<footnote n="76">76. See Prince Charles' article in the *Independent on Sunday* newspaper, 10 July 2004, describing the history of the 'grey goo' myth.</footnote>

<footnote n="77">77. Cryonics is the process of deep-freezing the human body after death in the hope that future technological developments will enable the repair of damaged cells and revival of the deceased. The technology usually prescribed for this future use is nanotechnology. Michael Jackson allegedly subscribed to cryogenics, but missed the deadline due to the need for an autopsy.</footnote>

<footnote n="78">78. Contrary to all of the spectacular future speculations for nanotechnology, one of the most common contemporary applications is in the manufacture of golf balls.</footnote>
Demo or die: *Overcoming oddness through aesthetic experience*

The methods outlined above relate predominantly to 'speculative futures', each technique in some way reflecting or projecting elements of contemporary everyday life into future proposals to make them more plausible, familiar and believable. This section describes an inverse problem. Returning to the concept of the habitat, by conflicting with, rather than embracing engrained systems and established modes of behaviour, 'alternative presents' *always* display an inherent oddness that can be difficult to present.

As 'alternative presents' aim to question and critique contemporary use of technology, some conflict is both unavoidable and helpful in highlighting the issue. However, for the proposal to not completely alienate the audience, they must see beyond its conceptual oddness to understand the logic behind it. 'Alternative presents' are basically reconfigurations of existing technology. It is therefore often possible to manufacture convincing demonstrations through the use of experiential prototypes. The power of a more immersive aesthetic experience can help build a convincing argument for the reconfigured object or function.

An example of this approach was the Iso-Phone (Auger-Loizeau, 2003) developed at Media Lab Europe (the European partner of the MIT Media Lab), to challenge the telecommunication industry's progression towards efficiency and ubiquity through the growth of the mobile telephone sector. The question we asked was, what if, rather than directing development towards notions of availability and mobility, the industry prioritised a qualitative approach to create an optimised environment for making a telephone call?

We achieved this through employing sensory deprivation
<figure><img src="image_59.png" /><figcaption>Fig.53: Iso-phone (Auger-Loizeau, 2003).</figcaption></figure>

The caller floats in a pool, wearing a helmet that blocks all peripheral sensory input whilst keeping the head above the surface of the water. The water is heated to body temperature, blurring the boundary of the user's body. In combination, a space is created to provide a pure, distraction-free environment for making the perfect telephone call. The only sensory stimulus presented is a two-way voice connection to another person using the same apparatus in another location.
<figure><img src="image_60.png" /><figcaption>Fig.54: Iso-phone at Ars Electronica in 2004.</figcaption></figure>
techniques to minimise distractions, facilitating a total focus on the conversation. The Iso-phone described a specific aesthetic experience through the development of a working prototype. This comprised the design and construction of two 1.5m-diameter by 2.4m-tall steel tanks with incorporated three-phase water heating element and two Iso-phone helmets:

The strength of a demonstration is that it can appeal to a broad audience. The live demonstration of the Iso-phone was a common feature at Media Lab Europe (MLE) open houses. These events were attended by scientists, engineers, designers and managers from the large telecommunications companies, enabling us to talk directly with the people responsible for putting mobile phones on the marketplace - and highlighting through the presentation alternative ways of thinking about telecommunication technology.

In 2003 the Iso-phone was presented at the Ars Electronica festival in Linz, Austria. The installation was situated in the city's main square and being in this public space meant not only the attendees of Ars Electronica used the device but also the people of Linz who happened to be passing through:

User #1: I talk very straight, not influenced by other things around me.

User #2: Gives you the feeling of being isolated, actually thinking back on it now you concentrate on the phone call much more than you did before.

User #3: Absolutely concentrate on the conversation.
User #2: To improve communication.

User #4: It's like my friend is very near and I hear every characteristic of his voice.

<caption>Fig.55: Excerpt from post Iso-phone demo interviews filmed at Ars Electronica, 2004.</caption>

The Iso-phone created an extremely immersive and embryonic physical experience that images and words fail to describe. This highlights the power of the live demo in communicating to an audience complex experiential propositions that challenge their normative perceptions on a subject. Clearly this approach has its limitations - moving beyond the audio/visual senses rules out the more extrovert forms of media such as the internet and publications to disseminate the purest version of the project. It does however give some credence to the MIT Media Lab motto: 'demo or die.'<fnref n="79" />

Alternative presents: *Counterfactual and alternative histories*

"It's America in 1962. Slavery is legal once again. The few Jews who still survive hide under assumed names. In San Francisco the I Ching is as common as the Yellow Pages. All because some 20 years earlier the United States lost a war and is now occupied jointly by Nazi Germany and Japan." (Dick, 2009)

<footnote n="79">79. This was a reworking by the lab of the academic slogan, 'Publish or perish;'</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_61.png" /></figure>

Fig.56: Sascha Pohflepp, The Golden Institute Model (1:19) of a Nevada desert Lightning Harvester based on a Chevrolet El Camino.

<figure><img src="image_62.png" /></figure>

Fig.57: Sascha Pohflepp, The Golden Institute Model (1:500) of an induction loop-equipped Chuck's Cafe, Interstate 5 near Bakersfield, CA.
Philip K Dick's *The Man in the High Castle* describes the consequences of one of the popular starting points for counterfactual histories, Germany winning World War Two. From the writer's perspective this theme offers a rich source of potential for re-imagining how the world might have evolved under these alternative circumstances. The speculative designer can borrow directly from the historiographical method by choosing specific events that shaped the course of today's technological products, and, by reimagining them, it is possible to create a very thought-provoking alternative present. One example of this approach is Sascha Pohflepp's project, The Golden Institute, based on an imagined, different outcome to the 1980 US general election, which would have enabled the perpetuation of energy-friendly initiatives undertaken during the term of Jimmy Carter. As Pohflepp points out, "Positioned at the right spot in the past, such counterfactual histories might offer an understanding of the forces at work as well as a fresh perspective on our present challenges."

The strength of such a project comes from choosing a poignant historical moment to initiate the fiction. By choosing a topical and well-understood issue or theme in contemporary everyday life, and finding a relevant or connected historical moment that *could* have a perceptible connection, the designer can develop a series of imaginary outcomes that instigate reflection on our current situation. In Pohflepp's case, the potential peak oil crisis and related energy issues that we face today make the 1980s election and its consequential closing down of energy-friendly initiatives a particularly provocative choice.

Taking a more aesthetic approach to an alternate present is James Chambers' project, Attenborough Design Group (ADG). Here he postulates the existence of a research group within the electronics company Texas Instruments led by the famous natural historian, cultural
<figure><img src="image_63.png" /><figcaption>Fig.58: ADG - The Gesundheit Radio (James Chambers, 2010).
An internal mechanism triggers a sporadic anthropomorphised sneezing behaviour, developed to protect early fragile microprocessors from dust.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_64.png" /><figcaption>Fig.59: ADG - Floppy Legs (James Chambers, 2010)
The portable floppy disk drive which stands up if it detects liquid nearby, and the Anti-Touch Lamp, which sways away if you get too close to it's halogen bulb.</figcaption></figure>
icon and filmmaker, David Attenborough. The objects developed by the group, whilst based on orthodox and existing products, were given new behavioural rules exhibiting an underlying survival instinct inspired by complex evolved techniques in the animal kingdom. These new product behaviours act to enhance the chances of both physical survival through the inbuilt defence mechanisms, and emotive survival through eliciting a deeper relationship with the owner. This latter element was achieved through iterative behavioural prototyping, specifically based on anthropomorphising the various movements to elicit either sympathy (the Gesundheit Radio and Floppy Legs) or wariness (Anti-Touch Lamp).

Chambers' project shifts the subject of the alternate history from socio/political events to a subject more relevant to the design industry, examining notions of object obsolescence, value and meaning.

This specific technique offers the designer a rich narrative potential for reimagining and critiquing technological developments and contemporary products. As the two examples above show, the themes of the fiction can be extremely broad, from large-scale political events to the existence of a small imaginative research studio. As with all the methods described above, the success of the project in engaging an audience lies in the small details. James Chambers' choice of David Attenborough as head of his research studio, for example, not only captures the attention of several generations of UK television watchers due to his unique social standing, but also presents a captivating logic to the behaviour of the prototypes - in turn justifying the benefits of the fictitious studio's approach. Sascha Pohflepp's project takes as its starting point a subject close to the heart of any relatively political individual living in a democratic society: an election and the potential consequences of a poor decision.
Domesticating technology: *Literally*

In chapter three, I touched on Michael Pollan's book, *The Botany of Desire*. In his investigation Pollan describes the power of the tulip in 17th century Holland - in his words the tulip "unleashed a brief, collective madness that shook a whole nation and nearly brought its economy to ruin". (Pollan, p.69). He describes Dutch growers borrowing techniques from alchemists, sprinkling pigeon droppings, plaster dust and paint powders onto flowerbeds in the hope of growing the perfect specimen. Later, the invention of the microscope unlocked secrets and growers learnt that the 'perfect specimen' was in fact the result of a virus, and as a consequence tulip development took a new direction. Today, advances in genetic engineering are promising to deliver flowers that do not wilt and frost-resistant geraniums.<fnref n="80" />

In the development and shaping of civilisation, domestication has been a constant driving force for change, and it subjects the early recipients of technological innovation.

In his speculative future project, Acoustic Botany, David Benqué builds on this ongoing human endeavour, specifically the fascination with the flower, to take us on a voyage to a garden of the future.

To extend methods of domestication beyond current means, he applies the emerging science of synthetic biology to propose a genetically engineered sound garden - effectively a combination of two art forms that have captivated human minds for centuries. The simple logic behind this method means that the complex language and

<footnote n="80">80. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/1999/feb/28/antonybarnett.theobserver2.</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_65.png" /><figcaption>Fig.60: Acoustic Botany: Genetically Engineered Sound Garden (David Benqué, 2010).</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_66.png" /><figcaption>Fig.61: Acoustic Botany - Singing flower (David Benqué, 2010).
Because the parasite diverts the plant's energy for its own purposes, only small flowers manage to grow.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_67.png" /><figcaption>Fig.62: Acoustic Botany (David Benqué, 2010).
String-Nut and bugs engineered to chew in rhythm.</figcaption></figure>
scientific details of synthetic biology are translated into the results of
its hypothetical practice: spectacular gardens, plants and creatures that
combine to offer delightful new aesthetic experiences.

The method of directly applying theories of domestication
is limited to the sciences capable of manipulating the genetic
development of natural organisms, but by blending new possibilities
facilitated by science with the complex desires of humans, it can
provide insightful speculations on both who we are and where we might
be heading.

This chapter described some techniques and strategies
for practising speculative design. The diversity of possible subjects,
contexts, technologies, perspectives and audiences - and the expansion
and growing sophistication of methods - make a definitive 'how to'
guide impossible. This chapter rather describes ways of grounding the
speculation to ensure that it connects with an identified audience's
perceptions of the temporal world around them. These perceptual
'bridges' can then be stretched in precise ways: this might be a technical
perception such as extrapolating how they *think* a technology is likely
to develop; a psychological perception such as not breaking taste or
behaviour taboos; or a cultural perception such as exploiting nostalgia
or familiarity with a particular subject. In this way the speculations
appear convincing, plausible or personal, whilst at the same time new
or alternative.
<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_70.png" /></figure>
# A speculative design approach to robots: *Three projects*

This chapter describes robot-themed speculative design projects undertaken during this research.

The robots described here were developed alongside the theoretical part of the thesis, allowing for interplay between theory and practice. Two of the projects are concluded and have been presented at conferences, in exhibitions and through the media. It was therefore possible to gauge the successes and limitations of this approach to questioning robots in relation to the specific audiences they reached, and feed this knowledge back into both the later projects and the theory. The third is a student project at the RCA's Design Interactions department. I include this as a way of describing how a speculative design approach can be transformed into a workshop that facilitates a rapid examination of technology (in this case the robot), based on the criteria and methods described in chapters three and four.
Carnivorous Domestic Entertainment Robots: A
*robotic alternative present*

This first project was responsible for establishing many of the core ideas that run through the thesis. It was part of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) funded research project Material Beliefs,<fnref n="81" /> and developed together with designer Jimmy Loizeau and engineer Alex Zivanovic. The starting point for Material Beliefs was collaboration between designers and scientists for public engagement with technology. We chose to work with Bristol Robotics Laboratory (BRL), whose research aims to understand the science, engineering and social role of robotics and embedded intelligence.<fnref n="82" />

The technology

BRL develop various robot research projects primarily examining the mechanisms required for the creation of intelligent,

<footnote n="81">81. Rather than focusing on the outcomes of science and technology, Material Beliefs approaches research as an unfinished and ongoing set of practices, happening in laboratories and separate from public spaces. The lab becomes a site for collaboration between scientists and engineers, designers, social scientists and members of the public. Alongside existing research activity such as collecting experimental data, writing academic papers and funding proposals, the collaborations lead to a parallel set of outcomes including interviews, brainstorming, drawing, photography, filming and discussion. The collaborations lead to the design of prototypes, which embed these parallel outcomes into something tangible. These prototypes are exhibited, transforming emerging laboratory research into a platform that encourages a debate about the relationship between science and society (http://www/materialbeliefs.com/).</footnote>

<footnote n="82">82. http://www.brl.ac.uk/</footnote>
autonomous robot systems. We became specifically interested in their
robots examining notions of energy autonomy:

> "A major barrier to the widespread deployment of autonomous robots in remote areas (away from power utilities) is the availability of energy. The present work represents a first step towards addressing this fundamental issue. Industrial applications include those requiring 'release and forget' robots; where robots are required to accomplish a mission usually in dangerous or undesirable for people areas (such as perimeter/ pollution/predator monitoring) with minimum maintenance." (http://www.brl.ac.uk/projects/ecobot/main.html)

In generating their own energy, BRL's robots - such as the
EcoBot series and SlugBot - utilised a technology that we had explored
in an earlier project, the microbial fuel cell (MFC) for Afterlife (see p.151),
and focused predominantly on its development and optimisation.

> "Microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology is employed to extract electrical energy from refined foods such as sugar and unrefined foods such as insects and fruit. This is achieved by extracting electrons from the microbial metabolic processes. To be truly autonomous, robots will be required to incorporate in their behavioural repertoire actions that involve searching, collecting and digesting food. The robot will be designed to remain inactive until sufficient energy has been generated to complete its next task.

(http://www.brl.ac.uk/projects/ecobot/index.html)
<figure><img src="image_71.png" /><figcaption>Fig 63: Slugbot (Bristol Robotics Lab, 2001)</figcaption></figure>

The SlugBot Project represents the first stage of a study in energy autonomy; a proof-of-concept vehicle capable of detecting and collecting slugs.

(http://www.ias.uwe.ac.uk/Robots/slugbot.htm)

<figure><img src="image_72.png" /><figcaption>Fig 64: The fly consuming Ecobot I (Bristol Robotics Lab, 2002)</figcaption></figure>

Ecobot I is a proof-of-concept study in our work. It is a 960g robot, powered by microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and performs a photo-tactic (light seeking) behaviour. This robot does not use any other form of power source such as batteries or solar panels.

(http://www.brl.ac.uk/projects/ecobot/ecobot%)20I/index.html)
BRL described their MFC-powered robots as “proof-of-concept studies”, and any proposals for application were merely suggestive.

EcoBot and SlugBot fill a niche as definitive laboratory robots like those described in chapter two, meaning that modes of interaction, aesthetics and behaviour were informed by the requirements of that habitat. The project provided an opportunity to experiment with how to migrate BRL's technology into the home using a speculative design approach. The outcome of the project was a series of five robots, each feeding off living organisms for electrical energy and built as semi-operational prototypes. I will briefly describe each robot before beginning a more thorough examination of the finer details of their form and behaviour.

<figure><img src="image_73.png" /></figure>

### Flypaper Robotic Clock

A rubber belt revolves slowly around two rollers on a vertical plane. This belt is covered in honey, which attracts and captures various flying insects. At the base of the roller mechanism a blade is positioned, this removes any insects that have stuck to the belt and they fall into the MFC positioned below. This generates the electricity to power both the motor rotating the belt and a small LCD clock.

There is some basic sensing built into this robot related to seasonal change and its effect on the quantity of available insects. This means that the robot can partially hibernate during the winter months continuing to tell the time through energy harvested during the summer months, but not wasting energy through rotating the belt.

<caption>Fig.65: Carnivorous Domestic Entertainment Robots, concept sketches.</caption>
<figure><img src="image_74.png" /></figure>

## Lampshade Robot

During the evening period this robot operates as a normal lampshade using household mains power supply. Flies and moths are naturally attracted to the light emitted by the lamp. The lampshade has holes based on the form of the pitcher plant; these allow the insect access to the interior of the lamp but no means of escape. Eventually they expire and fall into the microbial fuel cell housed underneath. This eventually generates sufficient electricity to power a series of U.V. LEDs located inside the shade. These are activated when the mains lights are turned off and in turn attract more insects. This robot lampshade has the potential to be energy autonomous.

<figure><img src="image_75.png" /></figure>

## Fly Stealing Robot

This robot encourages spiders to build a web within its armature.

A camera mounted on a boom in front of the robot captures live images of the web. A vision system seeks out and extracts the position of dark patches on the web and monitors them. Through machine learning the robot learns to differentiate between flies trapped in the web and the spider patrolling it, should it conclude that a dark patch is a fly, a robotic arm, actuated by stepper motors moves over its location and a small grabber picks it up. The fly is then transported to the microbial fuel cell housed at the top of the robot. The arm then powers down and robot reverts to monitoring the spider web.

The fuel-cell in unlikely to generate enough energy to power the robotic arm (it is an energy intensive task) so this robot relies on the U.V. Flykiller Parasite robot to supplement its energy needs.
<figure><img src="image_76.png" /></figure>

### U.V. Flykiller Parasite Robot.

A microbial fuel cell is housed underneath an off-the-shelf U.V. fly killer powered by the domestic electricity supply. The U.V. light attracts insects from up to 40 metres away; these are electrocuted and fall into the fuel cell generating electricity that is stored in the capacitor bank. Having no personal need for this electrical energy the U.V. Flykiller robot makes it available to the Fly Stealing Robot.

<figure><img src="image_77.png" /></figure>

### The Mousetrap Coffee Table Robot

A mechanised iris is built into the top of a coffee table. This is attached to an infrared motion sensor. Crumbs and food debris left on the table attract mice that gain access to the tabletop via a hole built into one over size leg. Their motion activates the iris and the mouse falls into the microbial fuel cell housed under the table. This generates the energy to power the iris motor, sensor and a LED graphic display on the front of the table-top.
Designing the speculation

In previous chapters I broke down the requirements of a
domestic product into three factors: form, function and interaction. Here
I will describe how the same issues were addressed in the design of the
Carnivorous Domestic Entertainment Robots (CDER).

Form adaptation: *Form follows familiarity*

For a robot to comfortably migrate into our homes, appearance
is critical. Here we applied the methods of adaptation described in
chapter four to move beyond the functional forms employed at BRL,
and the stereotypical fictional forms described in chapter two. In effect
we created a clean slate for designing robot form, then looked to the
contemporary domestic landscape and the related areas of fashion and
cultural trends for inspiration. The result is that on the surface the CDER
series more resemble items of contemporary furniture than traditional
robots. This is intended to allow for a seamless transition into the home
through aesthetic adaptation. There are, however, subtle anomalies or
alien features that are intended to draw the viewer in and encourage
further investigation into the object:
<figure><img src="image_78.png" /><figcaption>Fig.70: Mousetrap Coffee Table Robot reference material.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_79.png" /><figcaption>Fig.71: Mousetrap Coffee Table Robot.</figcaption></figure>

This robot is based in a coffee table. The table is designed to comply with the mainstream modern style that could be seen at major retail outlets such as Habitat. Here it is photographed in a suitable domestic context.
<figure><img src="image_80.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /><figcaption>Figs.72 & 73: Mousetrap Coffee Table Robot: close up of leg and graphic display.
The table has unusual features. One leg is oversize with a hole leading to the tabletop. An electronic graphic display
showing energy bars is situated in the front of the table.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_82.png" /><figcaption>Figs.74 & 75: Lampshade Robot.</figcaption></figure>

An intricate shade gives off an appealing light pattern, but under the shade is the exposed microbial fuel cell. This suggests some complex technical operation, encouraging the viewer to investigate its function.
<figure><img src="image_83.png" /><figcaption>Fig.76: Fly Stealing Robot.</figcaption></figure>

Of the series only the Fly Stealing Robot meets the standard expectations on how a robot should look with its mechanical arm and fly tracking camera. We felt that for the series to be taken seriously as a new proposition, it would help to exhibit, alongside the alternative concepts, a more normative robot. This proves that we understand both the meaning and definitions of robots and have related technical skills. The contrast between this robot and the others in the series highlight their lack of conformity to expectation.
As with Dunne & Raby's robots described in chapter four, by
creating desirable objects in their own right and then assigning them
the status of robots we presented a new approach to robot form, based
on the logic of adaptation and familiar domestic objects.

Functional adaptation: *The killing application*

In the home there are several established categories of
objects, each in their own way justifying the product's presence
through the benefit or comfort it brings to the occupant. These include
utility, ornament, companionship, entertainment and combinations of
the above - for example, pets can be entertaining and chairs can be
ornamental. The simplest route for robots to enter the home would be
to follow one of these existing routes but offering something above
and beyond (the sublime – see p.38) the products currently occupying
those roles.

The utilisation of the microbial fuel cell meant that the
utilitarian functions commonly associated with robots would be
severely limited by the amount of energy available,<fnref n="83" /> ruling out complex
mechanical movements or power-hungry electronic components. As
described previously (p.65), one of the major themes of contemporary
robotic research is the development of artificial companions. We
began to consider and develop a new form of interaction and emotional
relationship with an object, coming back to the Frankenstein myth
and the notion of artificial life. By exploiting the narrative potential
of the fuel cell - specifically its use of living organisms for energy, the

<footnote n="83">83. Ecobot 1 recorded an open circuit measurement of 5.4v with a short circuit current of 15mA, and the operating range was between 1.93– 2.83 V. (http://www.brl.ac.uk/projects/ecobot/ecobot%20I/index.html)</footnote>
consequential possibility of energy autonomy and the resultant *living*
thing - we suggested a new category of object existing somewhere
between a pet or houseplant, and a normal domestic product.

In setting up the dynamic relationship between the owner
and the robot, we borrowed from well-established techniques in film
genres such as horror and thriller to provide a spectacle. Susan Sontag
describes in her essay on science fiction how the "freakish, the ugly and
the predatory all converge – and provide a fantasy target for righteous
bellicosity to discharge itself, and for the aesthetic enjoyment of
suffering and disaster." (Sontag: essay in Mast and Cohen, 1985, p.456).
In our attempt to manufacture a similar experience on the part of the
viewer, we embellished the predatory nature of the robots to create a
suspenseful and dramatic aesthetic operation.

The use of a living organism as a food source also has the
advantage of introducing a random aspect to the robot's behaviour that
overcomes the robot paradox #1 (see p.73); predictability is diminished
by the unpredictability of the living prey.
<figure><img src="image_84.png" /><figcaption>Fig.77: Scene from 'Goldfinger' (Hamilton, 1964).</figcaption></figure>

The audience is kept in suspense as the laser beam creeps slowly but surely towards the crotch of the restrained James Bond.

<figure><img src="image_85.png" /><figcaption>Fig.78: 'Micky Mouse and the Mad Doctor' (Disney, 1933).</figcaption></figure>

A similar method of suspense is seen here in Walt Disney's animation.

This is a classic and often reproduced scene presented in various guises: the laser beam above, rotating saws, conveyer belts leading to heavy presses, boats heading towards waterfalls and so on.

The basic premise is a very visible and obvious element of danger and movement of this dangerous element towards the actor or vice versa setting up the anticipation of the coming unpleasant event in the viewers mind.
<figure><img src="image_86.png" /><figcaption>Fig.79: Flypaper Robotic Clock.</figcaption></figure>

A fly is buzzing around the room. With a Flypaper Robotic Clock this fly is no longer a simple nuisance but a participant in a live performance: will it fly towards the clock? If so will it land on the belt? Will it stick to the honey? Watch as it is slowly delivered to the blade - will it escape before it gets there...?

<figure><img src="image_87.png" /><figcaption>Fig.80: Mousetrap Coffee table Robot.</figcaption></figure>

The mechanised aperture centred on the tabletop is activated by the breaking of an infrared beam referencing familiar scenes in spy thrillers such as 'Mission Impossible' and 'James Bond'. In this case a mouse becomes the protagonist in the story.

No flies or other creatures were harmed during these experiments or photo-shoots.⁸⁴
Interactive adaptation: *People/insect/robot interaction*

BRL's Ecobot had no capacity for identifying and capturing insects - these were manually placed in the microbial fuel cell by the scientist. In domesticating the robot it was necessary to apply a more sanitised method of supplying food to it. To enhance the psychological impact of the robot we considered it necessary to reduce *physical* interaction to a minimum, as the robot's autonomy would be diminished should it depend on a human hand to feed it. By referencing predatory techniques of carnivorous plants and applying them to the robots, it was possible to create logical and low-energy techniques for the attraction and capture of prey. Interactions, then, are mostly psychological and emotional. Besides those described above, we used the qualities of nurture we might experience from caring for pets and houseplants, and the inevitable relationship and fear of death that comes through being responsible for living things.

Like Frankenstein's monster, the CDERs require human
assistance to bring them to life, using either mains power or a standard
battery to initially power their predatory mechanisms. Once switched
on they begin to capture and accumulate the biomass necessary for the
fuel cells to generate electricity. To show their energy status some of the
robots have graphic displays, which might remain unlit for many months
or even years, but they *could* turn on at any moment, keeping the owner
engaged - just as a fisherman might watch a static float for hours on end
in the anticipation that eventually it will dip into the water.

Technical verisimilitude: Suspending disbelief

In the last chapter I described why, in terms of plausibility,
Alternative Presents can be problematic due to conflict with established
and expected forms and behaviour. It was imperative that we found
ways of overcoming this oddness for the project to be a success in
achieving the levels of dissemination we aimed for. In the first place we
had to address the fundamental issue of definition – crucially, for the
technical community, it was essential for the objects to be classifiable
as robots. To achieve this we went beyond the basic definition laid out
in the introduction and aimed to satisfy the more prescriptive criteria
recognised by roboticists (these are highlighted below):

The CDERs are energy autonomous as a consequence of using
the microbial fuel cell as energy source.

Their capability, via programming, to capture biomass gives
them agency.

They move or have <u>mechanical</u> moving parts.

They can <u>sense</u> their environment.

Each performs a limited utilitarian function.

As described above, the Fly Stealing Robot (fig.75) more closely
conforms to expectation, highlighting the disparity between itself and
the other robots in the series - making their oddness appear considered
rather that accidental.

The second factor came again from considering the home,
specifically the rules of the domestic environment and what kinds of
creatures are warmly accepted and which ones are vehemently rejected.
It was important that the robots pose no danger to a family cat or dog,
rather capturing and digesting only those creatures that we would
normally describe as pests. Using pests also circumvents the cruelty
issue as these creatures are already routinely and comfortably disposed
of through various chemical or mechanical means. We simply expanded
on this activity to generate energy from the process.

The final factor responsible for the series presenting a
convincing presentation was the finish of the objects. The prototypes
were built to a very high standard using various methods of construction and detailing. As with James Chambers' objects for the ADG (see p.175), it was necessary to carefully prototype the behaviour and movement of the robots. Here we collaborated with robotics engineer Alex Zivanovic, an expert on the cybernetic sculptor Edward Ihnatowicz,<fnref n="85" /> to give the robots a captivating animated movement and behaviour through design and programming.

In reality microbial fuel cells are relatively basic, belying their complex function. We embellished the design of the cells, with the intention of making them look more 'functional'.

This comprised exposing some of the circuitry behind the cell's activity, and, in some of the robots, lighting the cell to emphasise its presence.

With the Lampshade Robot we worked with designer and three-dimensional modelling expert Tommaso Lanza to develop the high-precision technical detailing of the shade. This was made from 20 rapid-prototyped elements and professionally painted alongside the other objects.

## Dissemination

As with many speculative design projects, the output can exist across various media: a 30-minute presentation at a design or robot

<footnote n="85">85. His ground-breaking sculptures explored the interaction between his robotic works and the audience, and reached their height with ‘The Senster’, a large (15-feet long), hydraulic robot commissioned by the electronics giant Philips for their permanent showplace, the Evoluon, in Eindhoven in 1970. The sculpture used sound and movement sensors to react to the behaviour of the visitors. It was one of the first computer-controlled interactive robotic works of art (see Zivanovic, n.d.).</footnote>
conference; objects and supporting material in a gallery or exhibition; an
article in a journal, popular magazine or design book; an internet forum
or website. Dissemination methods and the descriptive language differ
between destinations and audiences, but in all forms the first objective
is to engage the audience - only then may the viewer have the inclination
to investigate the deeper subject or question. In the current cultural
climate, just adding the word *robot* to the title of an object can help in
capturing public interest. This naming, together with the unexpected
forms and the carnivorous nature of the artefacts, combined to present
a group of robots that have been extremely successful in achieving
dissemination on a global level across a spectrum of contexts and
audiences. I will briefly list the key outputs before offering a more in-
depth analysis of the project's value in questioning domestic robots.

Through the Material Beliefs programme, the CDER series
immediately had an output in exhibitions at the Royal Institution in
London and Laboral in northern Spain. Since their completion in 2008,
the robots have been in exhibitions almost constantly. We developed
a demonstration mode for the robots, programming their motors to
go through a series of choreographed motions and rotations of belts
to simulate their primed state. Elements of the audience in Laboral
engaged with the predatory element of the robots to such an extent that
captured live insects were left by the robot in our absence. See Appendix
A. for an exhibition list.

Early in the project we also presented at conferences at
the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and Lift 09 in Geneva. The
duration of conference presentations allows for a crafted argument to
be made, critiquing the familiar representation of domestic robots and
spelling out the complex raison d'être behind the existence of these
robots. The project has been included in presentations to a variety of
<figure><img src="image_88.png" /><figcaption>Fig.81: Exhibition and presentation at Techfest, ITT, Mumbai, India. January 2011</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_89.png" /><figcaption>Fig.82: Shortlisted and Exhibition at Transmediale, Berlin, Germany. 2nd - 7th February 2010</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_90.png" /><figcaption>Fig.83: Still from 'Wallace and Gromit's World of Invention' – 'Nature Knows Best.' BBC1 television. Aired 3 November 2010.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_91.png" /><figcaption>Fig.84: Presentation to the Swiss Design Network: Negotiating Futures – Design Fiction (Keynote) Basel, Switzerland. 29th – 30th October 2010</figcaption></figure>
audiences such as academic researchers, the robot community and at
design events. See Appendix A for a conference list.

The project has been very successful at capturing the
imagination of a popular audience. It has been featured on the BBC's
prime-time television programme 'Wallace and Gromit's World of
Invention',<fnref n="86" /> several interviews on live radio such as 'The Jay Thomas
radio show'<fnref n="87" /> in the US, and in the *Metro* newspaper and website in the
UK<fnref n="88" /> (with a daily readership of 3.1million for the paper and 255,394
unique browsers per day for the website).

Learning and observations

One of the key aims of this research method is the
dissemination of design concepts with the aim of raising questions
related to the existence of the speculative artefact in everyday life.
Whilst the project has been extremely successful in achieving broad
dissemination, it has been less effective at raising helpful questions
about the domestication of robots.

Mismanaging the uncanny

One of the big challenges, and in retrospect one I'd suggest was
not expertly handled, was the management of the sensational element
raised through the use of living creatures as a source of energy. This
behaviour, whilst helpful in creating intrigue and interest, tipped the
balance towards the sensational or outright unpleasant rather than the

<footnote n="86">86. http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcone/wallaceandgromit/</footnote>

<footnote n="87">87. http://www.jaythomas.com/index.php</footnote>

<footnote n="88">88. http://www.metro.co.uk/weird/855415-designers-create-furniture-that-eats-mice-for-energy</footnote>
desired uncanny. This hindered the project's ability to draw an audience into deeper discussions beyond initial reactions. This is less of an issue in a conference presentation or exhibition - due to the audience's interest in the subject and the possibility of a more thorough delivery of information - but on a blog or in a newspaper a sensational headline can rapidly lead to a cessation of genuine engagement, leading to facile comments or first-response negativity.

Another issue was the use of the word 'entertainment' in the title of the project. With hindsight it is safe to say this was a step too far. Whilst many viewers were relatively comfortable with the notion of machines using living organisms for power, our claim that this process would be entertaining was too provocative. In live presentations we have used the video-sharing website YouTube to highlight human interest in the observation of death - for example, a clip featuring a Burmese python snake eating a rabbit had at last count been viewed 2,261,876 times.<fnref n="89" /> The inclusion of the Coffee Table Mousetrap robot in the series inflamed the issue. We argued that the only creatures consumed by the robots were those already considered as domestic pests and were already being eliminated by a number of mechanical, electronic and chemical means. This helped in live presentations as a response to negative audience questions, but not on websites and internet forums where it would have been impossible to track and respond to every comment. Mice were a step too far, too close aesthetically to small cats and dogs, suggesting a logical progression that would ultimately see the table consuming its owner's pets.

With the luxury of hindsight I would remove the word

<footnote n="89">89. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6gZE0MdaVY, accessed 1 July 2011.</footnote>
'entertainment' from the title and drop the Mousetrap Coffee Table from
the series.

Cultural and historical baggage

After analysing the comments on blogs and websites it became
apparent that the CDERs were suffering from the negative filmic
depictions of robots described in chapter two (see p.75). In this case
the similarities between the premise behind 'The Matrix' series of films,
where humanity is captured by a race of machines that live off their
body heat, and the carnivorous nature of the robots led to inevitable
comparisons:

This is nuts.....

DanteAltem 2 months ago

DEAR GOD!! You've Given them a taste for flesh

Billythewookie 2 months ago

This is the start of the matrix

StuartM62 2 months ago

@dorkylump ITS A CLOCK. NOT AN EVIL ROBOT WITH LAZER CANNONS AND MISSLES. JUST A CLOCK... UNLESS ITS A TRANSFORMER. OH MY GOD WE ARE ALL GOING TO DIE! Nah, seriously now that's like what 25-30 yrs from now.

First step in THE MATRIX?
BRIANTOWN33 2 months ago

People are heading the wrong way. When a machine starts consuming organic substances for its own benefit, you're introducing a new spectrum to a possible artificial intelligence. When they can think for themselves, hello Matrix.

dorkylump 3 months ago

11 ppl are flies

xixRASBERRYxix 3 months ago

Bacteria and food? why not just take a shit on the battery?

splendidmate 3 months ago

I can't wait until I can throw my neighbors dog into the trunk of my prius to get to work.

jssreid2 3 months ago

<caption>Fig.85: Responses to ‘Wallace and Gromit’s World of Invention’ excerpt on Flypaper Robotic Clock. (YouTube, 2011).</caption>
Again, this factor was particularly prevalent on websites,
steering the debate away from realistic questions relating to domestic
robots towards either issues of animal cruelty and ethics or extreme
scenarios of robots taking over the world. The utilisation of the microbial
fuel cell completely overwhelmed all other aspects of the robot's design.

Too many fronts

A more complex problem emerged when we presented the
project to the robotic research community, either through academic
papers or at conferences. The project challenged robot preconceptions
on too many fronts, attempting at the same time to explore alternative
ideas of form, methods of engagement and entertainment, modes
of interaction and energy autonomy. This diluted the impact of
the individual elements and made for a complex and problematic
presentation.

From the consumer's perspective, the resultant objects were
also extremely hard to categorise: being furniture-like but not quite
furniture; labelled as robots but not complying with robot expectation;
inanimate but at the same time animate. This is problematic for the
reasons outlined in chapter three, 'how technology *does* become a
product' - specifically the conservative nature of how new products
enter the home. Of the five product proposals, only the Flypaper Robotic
Clock was taken seriously as a potential product.

From a personal perspective, the investigative and
developmental potential of the project opened up many relevant themes
that helped to build a strong foundation for the thesis. As a speculative
design project, whilst it was very successful at achieving high levels
of dissemination, it failed to open up the more specific discussion we
had hoped for. This failure facilitated a more focused analysis of the
methodology, feeding directly into the next project, which resulted in a
more simple and direct approach to the subject.
Happylife: *A robotic speculative future*

The foundations of this project were similar to Material Beliefs.
Happylife was commissioned as part of the ‘Impact!’ exhibition, a
joint project between the RCA, EPSRC and Nesta, bringing together
16 EPSRC-funded research teams with designers from the Design
Interactions department at the RCA:

"This is a unique collaboration between science and design that explores the importance of engineering and physical sciences in all aspects of our lives.

To communicate the impact of the research we fund, the
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)
coordinated a mixed media exhibition of original design
proposals that explore the relationship between science and
society." (From the project website: http://impact-art.ning.com/)

I collaborated with the Aberystwyth University Computer
Science department (AUCS), whose research project, in partnership
with the Home Office and HM Revenue and Customs, develops new
technologies to assist in the policing of borders:

"This project will develop an operationally and technically viable approach to cargo threat investigation. The main aim of the project is to provide a real-time dynamic passive profiling technique to assist Border Control Agencies and has the potential to improve hit rates; i.e. to improve targeting the
people that carry contraband and hence ensure less is entering
the UK. (http://gow.epsrc.ac.uk/ViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/
G004137/1)

As with the CDERs, the speculative design aim of the project
was to imagine how this technology could be developed and deployed
for use in the home, and what the consequences of a device mediating
and displaying human emotion might be.

The technology

Aberystwyth University's ongoing research utilises real-time
dynamic passive profiling techniques to detect malicious intent through
understood physiological processes. In practice, the thermal image of an
individual passing through a border control point is captured on entry to
secure a datum setting. A computer programme then analyses changes
to the live image during a period of questioning, looking for particular
patterns of thermal flow that suggest an individual may be smuggling
contraband or illegally entering the country. The thermal camera
operates from up to four metres distance, is completely non-invasive
and is capable of detecting minute changes in thermal flow.

The technology is currently operational and going through a
testing and validation process through controlled user testing studies.

Historically, many domestic technologies have their genesis in
the field of military and national security research, Happylife pre-empts
this transition by speculating on how AUCS's research could be applied
in the home. The technology lent itself to a more oblique enquiry into
robot futures, focusing less on practical functions and physical objects
to examine how passive profiling techniques could display and mediate
the most private and emotive aspects of home life.
<figure><img src="image_92.png" /><figcaption>Fig.86: Thermal image camera.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /><figcaption>Fig.87: Output from the thermal image camera.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_94.png" /><figcaption>Fig.88: Happylife technical description.</figcaption></figure>
Designing the speculation

I will break down the criteria of adaptation as with the Carnivorous Domestic Entertainment Robots, but with the Happylife concept, function and interaction combine. These factors will therefore be described together.

Form adaptation: *Domesticating the technical*

Giving form to a device that presents human mood or
emotion presented a complex challenge. After several incarnations
and experiments with three-dimensional bar charts, inflating balloons
and kinetic light displays, I came across an aneroid barometer
similar to the one pictured below. This gave the impression of being
a highly calibrated machine; a technical piece of equipment offering
indisputable information relating to atmospheric pressure. Barometers
frequently translate pressure change into weather predictions, offering
suggestions such as 'rain' or 'fair.' The model I had seen simply converted
this information into a line drawn on a heavily calibrated rotary barrel.
I observed the movement of the device for a number of weeks and
became captivated by the relationship between the actual weather,
the direction the line was taking and my perception of the combined
experience. This appeared to be a suitable parallel for the Happylife
device, an emotional barometer.

Stylistically it was necessary to adapt the display element to
the modern home. The final version (fig.90) was CNC-machined from
Corian,⁹⁰ for its translucent and material qualities, and lit from behind by
<figure><img src="image_95.png" /><figcaption>Fig.89: An aneroid barograph makes a continuous record of pressure changes.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_96.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 90: Happylife display, 1000mm x 400mm x 100mm (Auger/ACSD, 2010)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_97.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 91: HAL 9000, '2001: A Space Odyssey'.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_98.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 92: Embedded Happylife thermal image camera.</figcaption></figure>
an adjustable superbright LED panel. The display features four heavily calibrated output dials, one for each family member.

Each personal dial has two pointers, one showing the current state taken from the most recent thermal image capture and one showing the predicted state where the system would expect the dial to be based on the processing of accumulated statistical data. The device was built as a functioning prototype.

The thermal image camera is embedded in the wall, referencing the artificially intelligent computer HAL 9000 in ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’.

**Functional and interactive adaptation: *Emotional automation***

Whilst the behaviour of such a device introduces a new role for technology in the home, its function can be understood as an extrapolation of contemporary products that connect mood with product behaviour, such as light adjustment or automated music selection.<fnref n="91" /> Happylife suggests a more direct link to affective state, displaying hard information rather than ambient adjustment.

When dealing with the subject of human mood, an obvious output, like the less technical barometers described above, would have been pointers towards states such as *happy* or *sad*; whilst this would have made the project more accessible and sensational, it would have been factually incorrect, alienating the scientific community and in particular my collaborators in the computer science department. We decided on a heavily graduated rotary dial with no literal pointers. This would allow for the user to calibrate the dial over time, generating a

<footnote n="91">91. For example, see Philips Living Ambience range of products: http://www.philips.co.uk/c/livingambiance/180548/cat/</footnote>
more complete and personal understanding of its output.

To fully exploit the narrative potential of the technology, it
was necessary for the device to be in a home for some time - allowing
for the accumulation of data and its subsequent mining and analysis,
and checking for the emergence of patterns or long-term shifts in
status, both of which might go unnoticed by the occupants. This plays
to the strengths of computer technology and facilitates new forms of
interaction with technology.

To examine the consequences of Happylife, we speculated
on the emotional impact of its deployment in the home of a traditional
nuclear family over a 15-year period.

Cultural verisimilitude: *Building on political and cultural angst*

A glance at the cultural and political landscape into which
Aberystwyth University's research will be applied reveals the increasing
use of advanced surveillance technology for national security. The
terrorist attacks in New York, London and elsewhere in the last
decade heightened fears around the globe, with the consequence of
accelerating the development of security-related technology. In addition
to this, the global SARS epidemic in 2003 added a different dimension
to the culture of fear, introducing the use of thermal image cameras to
check the health of incoming passengers at many Asian airports.<fnref n="92" />

Running parallel to the implementation of technological
devices for policing and monitoring is the increasingly popular migration
of similar devices into the world of entertainment. One example of

<footnote n="92">92. For an in-depth analysis of this 'fear'-based culture, and the role of the media and information bias in strengthening popular perception, see Dan Gardner's *Risk: The Science and Politics of Fear* (2009), particularly chapter one.</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_99.png" /><figcaption>Fig.93: Incheon International Airport: thermal imaging system screening passengers for H1N1 flu.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_100.png" /><figcaption>Fig.94: Japanese Rail firm introduces computerized system to check that their rail staff are smiling enough.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_101.png" /><figcaption>Fig.95: Millimetre wave technology, Generation 2 scanner. Being employed globally for Airport security and leading to many debates on the invasiveness of technologically aided security.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_102.png" /><figcaption>Fig.96: Still from 'The Jeremy Kyle Show', broadcast on ITV in the UK. The show regularly relies on both lie detector and DNA tests to solve family disputes.</figcaption></figure>
this shift is the (pseudo) science of polygraphy. With a history going
back over a century, lie detection devices were originally tools used
by experts on potential criminals, spies and paedophiles. Although
the credibility of lie detection devices has long been in question, their
progression into popular culture is almost complete. Lie detectors (often
partnered with DNA test results) are a regular feature on daytime reality
television programmes, where they are used to mediate family disputes
and solve fidelity issues. In the context of popular culture, technology is
becoming an infallible judge of human character.

Like Orson Welles' radio broadcast, the project took advantage
of contemporary cultural and political events to build a foundation for
the design speculation, giving the project familiarity and a poignant
logic. The challenge then was to shift the emphasis away from the
predominantly negative contexts or usages outlined above to describe a
more positive function in the home.

Avoiding stereotypes

Another challenge was for the proposal not to be confused
with existing 'smart' home concepts such as those described in chapter
two. These follow the utopian tradition of technological futures and
are commonly based on home automation, labour-saving devices and
technologically implemented notions of comfort. These proposals,
however, commonly neglect more complex human factors, ignoring the
emotional interactions that take place between family members and
friends in the home. More inspirational were the short stories in classic
fiction such as the 'Happylife Home' in Ray Bradbury's *The Veld* and J G
Ballard's 'Psychotropic House' in *The Thousand Dreams of Stellavista*:

"Maybe I don't have enough to do. Maybe I have time to think
<figure><img src="image_103.png" /></figure>

We installed Happylife.

Not much happened at first: an occasional rotation, a barely appreciable change in the intensity of light. But we felt it watching us, and knew that some kind of probing analysis had begun. After only a few months, we found ourselves anticipating the position of the dials. The individual displays rarely contradicted our expectations, but when they did it encouraged us to look inwardly at ourselves.

<caption>Fig.97: Happylife scenario #1. Introduction.</caption>
<figure><img src="image_104.png" /></figure>

I arrived home from the meeting, pushed off my shoes and glanced up at the Happylife display. Sandra's dial had rotated 2 clicks further than I'd ever seen it. The orb was pulsing wildly. She'd seemed fine when I left.

<caption>Fig.98: Happylife scenario #2. Guilt.</caption>
<figure><img src="image_105.png" /></figure>

It was that time of the year. All of the Happylife prediction dials had spun anti-clockwise, like barometers reacting to an incoming storm. We lost David 4 years ago and the system was anticipating our coming sadness. We found this strangely comforting.

<caption>Fig.99: Happylife scenario #3: Mourning.</caption>
<figure><img src="image_106.png" /></figure>

The morning Paul had to go, Sandra's dial was barely registering. I'd seen it that pale only once; then, for obvious reasons, it stayed that way for weeks. I tried to comfort her, saying it wasn't as if he'd be away for ever. She turned to me with her face blank and puffy and then ran out of the room.

<caption>Fig.100: Happylife scenario #4. Leaving.</caption>
<figure><img src="image_107.png" /></figure>

We were all sitting in the lounge, like any evening. Sandra and I were watching some nondescript documentary and the kids were playing with their lego. The moment stole up on us. Paul was first to notice the unusual glow coming from Happylife. It continued to brighten – a gradual, barely conspicuous build up of intensity until we had to look away.

<caption>Fig.101: Happylife scenario #5. Glow.</caption>
too much. Why don't we shut the whole house off for a few days
and take a vacation?'

'You mean you want to fry my eggs for me?'

'Yes.' she nodded.

'And darn my socks?'

'Yes.' A frantic watery-eyed nodding.

'And sweep the house?'

'Yes, yes - oh yes!'" (Bradbury, 2008, p.13)

"It's always interesting to watch a psychotropic house try to adjust itself to strangers, particularly those at all guarded or suspicious. The responses vary, a blend of past reactions to negative emotions, the hostility of the previous tenants ... "
(Ballard, 2006, p.415)

Whilst both stories follow the common dystopian science
fiction route, they embrace the dynamic complexity of the home
environment, introducing technology to mediate and manipulate human
emotional experience. The Happylife proposal was designed to sit
somewhere between the dystopian worlds of Ballard and Bradbury and
the utopian corporate smart home, acknowledging the complexity of
domestic human interactions whilst employing near-future informatics
technology.

Designing the audience experience: Storytelling

Whilst the Carnivorous Domestic Entertainment Robots lent
themselves to a more immediate and direct presentation, Happylife
required a more complex method of communication - due to the
timeframe over which it operates and the complex human behaviour the
system is capable of monitoring. The sensitivity of the system means
that it would be capable of detecting tears rolling down a person's face.
Human fat tissue acts as an insulator, so if the camera captured the
thermal image of the same face over a long duration it could detect
weight gain or loss. During experiments on live test subjects the
scientists observed differences in thermal reaction between induced
stressful situations and being read poetry. The camera can see a
person blushing.

To communicate some of the more complex emotive
possibilities of the concept, five fictional narratives were presented as
vignettes, written in collaboration with poet Dr Richard Marggraf Turley.
The aim of these was to highlight emotional real-life family scenarios
that would somehow be modified or augmented by the Happylife
technology. We were careful that these were not wholly dystopian in
nature, but showed genuine and even poetic benefits of employing the
technology in this context.

The vignettes reflect many aspects of emotional life, such as
the mourning of a loved one - and how Happylife would become capable
of predicting the onset of such emotions through analysing patterns
of previous ones created by recurring events such as birthdays and
anniversaries. It was important to not only focus on obvious moments
but more subtle and unique situations - for example, scenario five
depicts the moment when the last four captures of the camera show the
entire family to be in exactly the same state. This extremely rare event is
recognised by the display glowing brighter than it ever has before. This
kind of 'magic' moment would only be possible through the application
of technology.
Learning and observations

Collaboration: *Moving design upstream*

One of the most fruitful outcomes of the project was the collaborative element, verifying that speculative design can successfully shift design research upstream to not only engage the scientific community, but to also become involved in their research. As the practice is relatively new, many scientists are unaware of the benefits of collaboration, or worse, make entirely the wrong assumptions about design. To overcome these problems it is necessary for complete transparency, and to present a very clear role of what the designer aims to achieve. This understanding was reached through a presentation of previous projects and their outcomes at the outset of the collaboration and discussion on the following points. First, the role of speculative design is not to simply *communicate* to the public the technology being researched, but to make informed speculations on the products, systems or services an emerging technology may become. Second, the designer's intentions are about exploring implications as well as applications. It is necessary to be clear about this as negative portrayals of a technology, however relevant, can upset and therefore threaten the collaboration. Third, showing a reasonable level of understanding of the subject/technology being researched by the scientists, and having some idea of what the design element will add, is extremely helpful in making the presentation convincing. Fourth, it is important to be clear that the speculative design approach to research facilitates an emphasis on how
things could be through the prototyping of ideas rather than things.<fnref n="93" />
And fifth, one must understand the nature and limits of collaboration.
It might be that the designer simply needs advice or more specific
information relating to a particular technology. This is not collaboration.

**Technological critique: Shifting context**

In the context of national security, criminal activity and
human safety, technological application is usually seen as a means
to an end. However dark or invasive the application, its presence is
accepted because the worst-case scenario would be infinitely worse.
The AUCS department's original research existed in this context, but by
shifting the operation of the technology into the domestic setting, the
political justifications behind its development were removed - allowing
for a more critical examination of its role in managing and mediating
human interaction. The project exists as a tangible examination of
the automation of everyday life described in chapter two, 'Playing to
strengths: *Implications of a robotic future*', building on the strengths of
robot technologies and subtly applying them in the home.

**Public disengagement: Spoon-feeding the technology**

The project does not fully exploit the narrative and
engagement potential of the thermal imaging technology, which limits
its disseminative potential. Deciding on the appropriate strategy for
presentation was a hard fought battle. As described earlier we decided

<footnote n="93">93. Idea prototyping is not about optimizing technological functionality or aesthetic design but imagining the future products a disruptive technological innovation could become. It is not about how a technology functions rather what it could do in the context of everyday life.</footnote>
against the superficial or frivolous approach of written feedback,
opting for a more contemplative self-calibration solution. This decision
had the effect of shifting where the discussion took place, moving
it away from the popular audience that the Carnivorous Domestic
Entertainment Robots and Audio Tooth Implant had reached so
successfully to a more vested and learned audience. Happylife has
recently been shown at the ‘Talk to Me’ exhibition at the Museum of
Modern Art in New York and was featured on several websites, blogs
and magazines. The nature of comments left on these pages has so far
been of a more mature, eloquent and thoughtful nature than those made
about the Carnivorous Robots, suggesting that the audience has been
more engaged by the project.

"I like how James has left their meaning ambiguous. They're not labelled. To some extent that speaks to the tension between the confidence we seem to have in technology by default, that it CAN do this sort of prediction accurately, and the reality that in the end we're assigning deeply meaningful personal traits to the random changes in digits." (Richard Banks, http://www.richardbanks.com/?paged=5, accessed 2 January 2012)

"This project questions how imperceptible body parameters could reveal emotions such as guilt. What is highly intriguing (and smart according to me) is that the dashboard does not have any label... leaving its interpretation to the people who will live with it. How would this change social interactions in the family home? Would this electronic device enable family members to infer new things about their relatives? Would the device detect patterns invisible to people?" (Nicolas Nova,
http://liftlab.com/think/nova/2010/03/20/impact-exhibition-at-the-rca/, accessed 2 January 2012)

"If the family unit crowded around the Happylife device are on the ball they wont wait to react to the machine's analysis – they will engage it in an interactive manner, exploring with their own experiences the relation of machine and human. And I think this is a good thing. We want to talk to our machines, and for them to talk back. It's for our own benefit. I can't wait to see where this all leads to." (Thomas W Campbell, http://twcampbell.wordpress.com/2011/11/26/observation-on-the-evolution-of-storytellin/, accessed 5 January 2012)

Happylife is one of those rare projects that with hindsight there is little I would change. As a critique of robots and more specifically the automated home, it does offer a plausible route through which sensing technologies could begin to invade everyday life and intimate human relationships. I was extremely conscious of the sensitive and in many ways sacred nature of human interaction. Whilst it is completely acceptable for smart phones to increasingly mediate day-to-day interactions between people and environments, these interactions are still initiated and controlled by conscious human activity. It would represent a major perceptual shift for invasive and automated technology to enter everyday life, and therefore a clumsy or insensitive concept would have been very easily dismissed as perverse. Happylife avoided this route through a carefully managed presentation of form, interaction and narrative.

The project did, however, leave room for further developments. Rather than simply turning dials relating to human affective states, it
would be possible to utilise this information to control and manipulate
devices and products. This is an exciting opportunity for further work.

RCA Design Interactions robot project:

*Living with robots*

The following describes a student project run over four weeks
in the Design Interactions department at the RCA. Sixteen first year
students on the MA programme participated and the project was funded
by Intel research laboratories.

We launched the project with two speakers: David Crowley
from the Critical Writing department at the RCA, who talked about the
history of technology in domestic spaces, and Noel Sharkey, a roboticist
and ethicist from the University of Sheffield, who presented a brief
historical introduction to robots and some of the current ethical issues
surrounding their application.

The brief was intended to represent a distilled version of the
observations made during the research phase of this PhD, directing the
students towards the specific problems and opportunities raised by a
design approach to domestic robots - specifically form, interaction and
contextual considerations.

The brief: Living with robots (abridged, see Appendix B)

In a recent essay for *Scientific American* (2007), Bill Gates drew
an analogy between the emergent computer industry in the mid-1970s
and the state of the robotics industry today, coming to the conclusion
that there will soon be a robot in every home. This is a prediction,
though, that has been echoing around for over 70 years.

The question remains, what will these robots do in the home?
Many proposed robots focus on complex engineering problems and
choreographed stage demonstrations, ignoring the complex rules of the
domestic landscape.

The goal here is to design a domestic robot, and to rethink
the robot based on: complex human needs and desires; the rules of
the domestic space; and the strengths of robot technologies. Don't get
distracted by stereotypes as they often ignore these points.

James Auger, October 2010

Selected projects

I have chosen one student project to represent each of the
specific questions asked in the brief. The choices are based on either
original approaches or significant outputs.

Project/question 1: Relating to robot function

Neo-naturalists by Neil Usher

This project presented a delicate blend of the technical with
the poetic. The proposal used the traits of robots normally associated
with production lines such as tirelessness, pattern recognition and
repetition, but applied in original and thought-provoking natural
contexts. Usher's technique bears similarities to the observational
comedic approach described in chapter four (see p.164), taking
advantage of familiar and in many cases forgotten childhood games
such as spotting faces in cloud formations and searching fields for four-
leaved clover. These give the robots new functions that whilst based on
their strengths touch human sensibilities.

The direct introduction of natural phenomena into the robot's function also circumvents the robot paradox #1 (see p.73) through facilitating complete unpredictability. In the next iteration of his project, Usher developed the possibility to personalise the search element of the Cloud Robot - for example, the face of Elvis Presley or the classic image of Che Guevara. This feature has the consequence of greatly increasing the rarity of the special cloud, and therefore making more magical the quest and the sublimity of the successful robot.

Whilst this project is playful, it is helpful in presenting robots in a different light, moving their operation beyond the contexts of service, military and production to suggest a more romantic and aesthetic role in everyday life.

<figure><img src="image_108.png" /><figcaption>Fig.107: Insect Extermination - Anti-Ant.
Locates and burns ants using focused sunlight.
E-ink surface automatically chalks up verified fatalities.
Scores are uploaded to a local 'hall of fame' as well as a global leader board.
Powered by integrated PV panel.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_109.png" /></figure>

Fig.102: Sonic Identifier - Avian
Locates and Identifies bird calls.
Real-time chronological display details identified
calls over 24 hours.

Audio Playback.
Uploads recordings to research databases for broader analysis.
Independent power from integrated PV panel.

<figure><img src="image_110.png" /></figure>

Fig.103: Insect habitat - Rake
Autonomously collects rotting vegetation on the lawn to provide insect habitation.

Provides Live-streaming video to 'under-pot' projection display with
zoom control.

Lawn mapping and obstacle avoidance behaviours. Independent power
from integrated PV panel.

Can be synchronised with most modern lawn mowers.
Uploads recordings to research databases for broader analysis.

<figure><img src="image_111.png" /></figure>

Fig.104: Flora Identifier - Neo-romancer.
Lawn flora identification with petal and leaf count.
Autonomous navigation and obstacle avoidance.

Four leaf clover alarm.
Optional dandelion mode with wish pre-recording facility.
Powered by rechargeable Lithium ion battery.

<figure><img src="image_112.png" /></figure>

Fig.105: Mammal Surveillance - Attenborough.
Autonomously locates and films mammals for use in research, education
and home entertainment.

Thermal and motion tracking behaviour with zoom and infrared mode.
Vacuum sealed housing with vibration dampers for absolutely silent
operation.

Ratchet straps and self-orientating 3-axis gimbal
allows multiple mounting options.

Powered by independently mountable PV panel.
Optional remote location rental plan with dedicated on-site maintenance
technicians or 'shepherds'.
<figure><img src="image_113.png" /><figcaption>Fig.106: Face Recognition - Nimbus</figcaption></figure>

Surveys the sky and attempts to locate cloud formations that resemble human faces.
Images are collected and stored by a remote display device.
Specific faces can be set as search criteria Powered
by integrated PV panel.
Project/question 2: Adapting the home to accommodate robot needs

With Robots by Diego Trujillo

Diego Trujillo's project presents an interesting depiction of the robotic home not as the classic shiny white seamless vision of the future, but a version not too dissimilar to our own. Look closely at the images and slight anomalies begin to appear, subtle compromises that make a normal home more hospitable for robots. The favourite justification for the humanoid robot is no longer relevant in this space and robots can develop in ways that would be more appropriate to technological limitations and mechanical design. The choice of media and the content of the images encourages the viewer to draw their own conclusions as to why things are slightly uncanny: the dinner plate rotated 90° out of position; the cupboard with drawers clumsily removed and cups with odd handles; the aestheticised optical tags on the sheet; the perfectly sliced slab of meat. These suggest the presence of something robotic in the house and although we never see it, we are drawn into the fiction in subtle and intelligent ways, encouraging our imagination to take over and fill in the gaps.

As with H G Wells' Martian, the project is an example of careful handling of habitat. Here Trujillo operates more in the second stage of the domestication process described in chapter three: domestication of the *product*, specifically the objectification stage, exploring how the robot could become situated in the aesthetic environment. He describes realistically how the domestic landscape would inevitably undergo subtle changes during the incorporation of the robot. The aesthetic treatment of the project and its original approach to domestic robots has led to With Robots being featured on several popular websites and blogs such as *Wired* (2011), *BLDGBLOG* (2011) and *Dezeen* (2011).
<figure><img src="image_114.png" /><figcaption>Fig.108: Diego Trujillo, With Robots: Cooking</figcaption></figure>

Cooking robots have been promised for more than 60 years, ranging from Falks robotic toaster to the Jetsons' Rosie maid-bot. How desirable is robot precision in the kitchen? The situation presented shows how meat has been precisely cut into cubes without leaving any cut marks on the chopping board. The board its self has notches to facilitate robot interaction.
<figure><img src="image_115.png" /><figcaption>Fig.109: Diego Trujillo, With Robots: Folding

Robot friendly bed sheets were designed in order to assist with a computationally demanding task. For the humans it means having a foreign symbol printed onto their bed sheet. In the background we see a small clock reading 4:19 suggesting the robot has been folding laundry for a very long time, even with the help of the tags.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_116.png" /><figcaption>Fig.110: Diego Trujillo, With Robots: Handling

Concentrating a bit more on how robots manipulate objects, a cup with a robot friendly handle was made. This object reveals a lot about the relationship between humans and robots, it creates a tension between the robotic and the human handle. The handle could become a design feature or it could be badly received, considered ugly and uncomfortable. The cupboard in which these cups rest has also been altered in order to accommodate the robot; not only are there tags marking the position of objects but the doors have been removed.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_117.png" /><figcaption>Fig.111: Diego Trujillo, With Robots: Learning

Every living space is different, not only in the architectural layout but also in the tasks that the tenants require the robots to do. For this reason robots ship only partially programmed so that through a learning algorithm they might adapt to the home they operate in. To accelerate the learning process special learning tools have been designed to help the robot integrate to a 3D environment. The picture on this page shows a living room after a robot self-training session. We can see it has now mastered the physics of equilibrium. It is also evident that it has mistaken one of the house's dinner plates that it has broken with robotic precision to complete its piece. This scene intends to show what it would feel like to have objects that are useful only to robots in our house.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_118.png" /><figcaption>Fig.112: Diego Trujillo, With Robots: Serving

Setting the table is another task robots might be doing, having everything ready for when the owner comes home. The plate does not require a "plate tag" printed on it, the tag has been replaced by a notch on the edge indicating that this object is a plate. The notch also doubles as a holding point; it makes us wonder on the shape of the tool the robot uses to manipulate this object. The edges of the table are marked telling the machine where the limits are. In the scene presented, the robot has made a mistake and placed the cutlery rotated by 90°.</figcaption></figure>
**Project/question 3: How could robots adapt to the home?**

‘Experiments in Robot Sound’ by Mark McKeague

I chose this project for the simplicity of the original problem:
how to alleviate the trauma of a (real-life) robo-phobic girlfriend faced
with the possibility of living with robots. On further questioning it turned
out that it was not simply robot forms and movement that the girlfriend
in question was afraid of, but in particular mechanical noises and
the creepy silence that would prevail when the robot was motionless,
waiting for a command to move. The project explores the fundamental
issues surrounding robot paradox #2 (see p.83), specifically the uncanny
nature of automata conflicting with the comfort of the home.

It is unfortunate that there is no possibility to play video in a
written document, as it is impossible to do justice to the simple effect
of modifying the *expected* sounds made by a robot. By removing the
original soundtrack from Honda's promotional video for Asimo and
replacing it with a selection of experimental alternatives, McKeague
facilitates a focus on alternative acoustic experiences. The different
effects vary from being simply humorous, such as 'The Cat' (the
robot sounds like a cat) and 'Involuntary Actions' (the robot makes
inappropriate human sounds), to a more subtle approach such as
'Slippers' (the robot makes its presence known discreetly). The project
encourages us to look beyond the obvious when it comes to pre-empting
the problematic issues that may arise from robot co-habitation. The
ultimate output of this direction would be an extensive aesthetic
database of possible interactions, exploring in a very efficient and
accessible way the realities of living with robots.
<figure><img src="image_119.png" /><figcaption>Fig.113: Mark McKeague, Experiments in Robot Sound, digital video, version 1: Buzzing.</figcaption></figure>
## Project/question 4: The implications of domestic robots

### 'When the Home Stops' by Joseph Popper

Here in the familiar setting of the home the protagonist has surrendered even the most sensitive and delicate tasks to a machine. Joseph Popper's automated home is the antithesis of Ray Bradbury's post-apocalyptic house featured in the short story 'There Will Come Soft Rains', (Bradbury, 2008). Here, rather than continuing to operate long after the departure of its human inhabitants, the automated system is failing and the human, now completely reliant on his machines, is left helpless and distraught. As Popper describes, the project explores what can happen if our trust and dependence on the domestic robot goes too far. When the Home Stops echoes the genuine pre-millennium fear we experienced in 1999 as countless reports described the potential catastrophic consequences of the breakdown of global computer systems. Here the breakdown is transferred into the traditional safe-haven of the home, creating a thought-provoking parody of automation and the dream of the smart home.
<figure><img src="image_120.png" /><figcaption>Fig.114: Joseph Popper, When the Home Stops, digital video, 1:50 min loop.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_121.png" /><figcaption>Fig.115: Joseph Popper, When the Home Stops, digital video, 1:50 min loop.</figcaption></figure>
Learning and observations

This project took place in the latter stages of the thesis,
and as such I was able to distill the key design issues related to the
domestication of robots into the brief. This allowed for the students to
immediately begin exploring quite specific areas or issues. Prior to the
project I had the opportunity to visit Intel's robotic research laboratory
in Pittsburgh, US, and to meet with the scientists responsible for
the development of the robots. The visit revealed quite an orthodox
approach to the subject, such as projects exploring physical interactions
between humans and robots combined with extremely complex and
impressive functioning devices - the classic research habitat of the
robot. Whilst the Design Interactions department could not compete
with the technological knowledge and skills of Intel's research
laboratories, the RCA project introduced to their team a speculative
design approach, facilitating an accessible and imaginative examination
into hopes, fears and possibilities for robot co-habitation.

<figure><img src="image_122.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_123.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_124.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_125.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_126.png" /></figure>
# Conclusions

The basic enquiry running throughout this thesis has been into the possible journeys a technology may take, between its genesis and an existence in domestic life. Using the robot as a vehicle for the study, I described three variants of this journey: how technology *does*, *does not* and *could* become a product. I will break the conclusion down into two-parts: first, a summary of the current state of domestic robots, the likelihood of their entering our homes sometime soon and the potential implications of this. And second, a more general overview and critique of how technology is currently domesticated, why this is problematic and how speculative design can intervene is this process to offer a more considered approach to the technological future.

## On robots: A suggestion for further research

The robot turned out to be a deserving subject due to its unique place in both popular and research culture. Why, after so many years of unrealised promises, does the latest version still succeed in generating large media attention and captivating such a broad audience? To conclude, it would seem that whilst the robot has a clear *raison d'être*
in the habitats of research laboratories, marketing and science fiction,
its purpose in the home, both today and in the future, remains unclear.
The issue is two-fold: first, for reasons described in chapter two,
existence is problematic when directly placing the ‘spectacular’ robot
into the home due to its maladaptation for that habitat; and second,
when the emphasis shifts away from stereotypes towards more logical
or plausible routes for robots, such as those described in Happylife,
function potentially becomes dark and invasive or at least questionable.
A glance at contemporary everyday life reveals the extent to which
such forms of automation are becoming commonplace.<fnref n="94" /> This cultural
acceptance, combined with ongoing technological developments such
as advances in the science of informatics,<fnref n="95" /> ubiquitous computing<fnref n="96" />

<footnote n="94">94. As noted in chapter two, half a century ago Gilbert Simondon critiqued the starter motor for adding unnecessary complexity to the mechanical function of the car engine. Today, advances in the field have led to the most average and everyday cars such as the Ford Focus boasting amongst other things: a driver alert that monitors driving behaviour, senses fatigue and then displays a warning icon suggesting the driver take a break; a lane departure warning applying gentle steering input should the driver stray; an active park assist, which checks first if there is enough space for the car then automatically steers it into the gap; and a low-speed safety system, automatically braking if the car in front unexpectedly stops. The family car represents the vanguard of automation in daily life. This progression can be seen in other products, from algorithms that influence the online browsing experience to smartphone automation apps such as Microsoft's on[X] or Android's Tasker.</footnote>

<footnote n="95">95. For example, complex sensing technologies such as thermal imaging and gait analysis, algorithms, data mining and analysis, and artificial intelligence.</footnote>

<footnote n="96">96. The term ubiquitous computing was first coined by Mark Weiser, a chief scientist at Xerox Parc, in 1988. It suggests that computers will recede into the background of everyday life: "It is invisible, everywhere computing that does not live on a personal device of any sort, but is in the woodwork everywhere." (Weiser, 1988).</footnote>
and cloud computing,<fnref n="97" /> leads to the likelihood that robotic technologies will become increasingly pervasive - robots will enter the home, but through the side-door as many existing products and environments are given agency and intelligence. The implications of this on domestic life, emotional interactions and human communication are profound. Happylife presented one example of this 'speculative future' but I suggest a pressing need for further and more expansive research into this subject.

## On speculative design: The considered future

In this thesis the robot is primarily a vehicle for the enquiry into speculative design and the domestication of technology. The more important conclusion therefore focuses on how this form of design can be used to examine both the impact of contemporary technology on our lives today, and how contemporary scientific research could impact on our future lives. In *The Whale and the Reactor*, the philosopher of technology Langdon Winner asks: “Why has a culture so firmly based upon countless sophisticated instruments, techniques, and systems remained so steadfast in its reluctance to examine its own foundations?” (Winner, 1986, p.5). In *Autonomous Technology* he goes further to suggest that as the “speed and extent of technological

<footnote n="97">97. The networking of products and services - for example, see Ericsson research project, 'Connections: you, me and 50 billion devices'.</footnote>
innovation increase, societies face the distinct possibility of going adrift
in a vast sea of unintended consequences.” (Winner, 1977, p.89).

As many thinkers on the subject have noted, the heart of the
problem lies with the notion of ‘progress’ briefly explored in chapter
two (see p.59), and defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as:
“Forward or onward movement towards a destination.” Or “Development
towards an improved or more advanced condition” (2005). This raises
two fundamental questions: what is the *destination*?, and ‘what is
an *improved* condition? The main conclusion to this thesis is that we
need to begin by first dismantling this misused notion of progress
and its influence over how technology is domesticated, and then find
more considered and democratic ways of deciding upon desirable
destinations and conditions. I have described some of the practical
methods and techniques<fnref n="98" /> that have been developed for presenting
plausible and engaging imaginaries of future destinations; these enable
and encourage an audience to contemplate whether this specific future
is *improved* or not.

A significant factor that emerged and evolved through the
practical element of this thesis is collaboration between design and
science. The early speculative design projects described here were
based on simple interactions between these disciplines, such as

<footnote n="98">98. Every speculative design project though is unique and the diversity of possible subjects, contexts, technologies, perspectives and audiences make a definitive 'how to' guide impossible. Complicating the situation further is the fact that new techniques are continually being developed and as the practice matures, old methods are becoming more sophisticated. The examples described here are therefore intended to present a more general attitude or approach towards the subject of speculation.</footnote>
simply checking facts or gathering the basic scientific information on
which to base a project. But as the methods and relationships have
matured, the potential of a more refined collaboration has become
apparent. Beginning with the Happylife project, the ‘Impact!’ exhibition
and ongoing research proposals, a speculative design approach has
demonstrated the benefits of shifting the design process upstream from
where it normally operates. In this way its role expands beyond public
engagement to engage and influence science itself, in turn influencing
technological development at the beginning of the ‘domestication’
process. Here design has the potential to identify research directions
that are ‘orthogonal’ to the original research aims and more closely
related to everyday life. It invites, through dialogue, a reflection on the
relationship between *possible* and *preferable* futures, and examines
not only new applications for a technology but also its potential
implications. Speculative design effectively introduces scientific
research to the complexities and whims of human character, usually
only found at the end stages of a successful technological journey, and
providing a much more considered destination than the one we currently
find ourselves heading towards.
Appendix A

Selected exhibitions

**New Energy in Art and Design:** Van Boijmans Museum, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 15 October 2011 – 26 February 2012

**What If:** National Museum of China, Beijing, 28 September – 17 October 2011

**Transnatural:** Amsterdam, Netherlands, 4 March – 1 April 2011

**Tech Fest:** Mumbai, India, 7 – 9 January 2011

**Freak Show:** Berlin, Germany, 13 November 2010 – 8 January 2011

**AND Festival:** Manchester, England, 1 – 31 October 2010

**Lift10:** Geneva, Switzerland, May 2010

**What Happens If...?:** Lancaster, England, 30 January – 3 April 2010

**Transmedial:** Berlin, Germany, 2 – 7 February 2010

**What If:** Trinity Science Gallery, Dublin, Ireland, 8 October – 13 December 2009

**Touch Me Festival 2008:** Zagreb, Croatia, 19 – 23 December 2008

**Nowhere/Now/Here:** Laboral, Gijon, Spain, 9 October 2008 – 20 April 2009

**Crossing Over:** Royal Institution, London, England, 2 – 21 October 2008
Selected conference presentations

**Human Design or Evolution:** Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland,
30 January 2012

**Robots that care:** Kolding, Denmark (keynote), 14 September 2011

**Making Future Design:** Derby, England (keynote), 10 June 2011

**Robolift:** Lyon, France, 23 – 25 March 2011

**Transnatural:** Amsterdam, Netherlands, 12 March 2011

Five-city presentation tour of India (sponsored by the British Council),
6 January: National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad; 8 January:
ITT Mumbai ; 10 January: ITT Kharagpur ; 12 January: ITT Madras ;
13 January: British Council event, Pune

**Swiss Design Network:** Negotiating Futures: Basel, Switzerland
(keynote) 29 – 30 October 2010

**DAP 2010:** Devices that alter perception: Seoul, Korea (keynote), 13
October 2010

**EASST Conference:** Practicing Science and Technology: Trento, Italy,
3rd September 2010

**Critical Minds: critical spaces:** University College London, England,
8 May 2010

**The Objects Of Design And Social Science:** Goldsmiths College, London,
England, 18 November 2009

**What If:** Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland, October 2009

**Experimenta 09:** Panel Discussion: State of Design: Lisbon, Portugal,
10 September 2009

**Lift 09 conference:** Where did the future go?: Geneva, Switzerland,
February 2009

**Smart Space:** Aarhus, Denmark, December 2008
**London Calling:** Designtransfer: Universität der Künste, Berlin,
November 2008

**V&A Thinktank:** The Future Object. Victoria and Albert Museum, London,
England, September 2008
# Appendix B: Briefs and workshops

## Full brief of RCA student project

In a recent essay for *Scientific American* (2007), Bill Gates drew an analogy between the emergent computer industry in mid-1970s and the state of the robotics industry today, coming to the conclusion that there will soon be a robot in every home. This is a prediction, though, that has been echoing around for over 70 years.

The question remains, what will these robots do in the home? Many proposed robots focus on complex engineering problems and choreographed stage demonstrations, ignoring the complex rules of the domestic landscape.

By making a taxonomic shift to view the robot as a product rather than a technology, it becomes exposed to a whole different set of rules and expectations than those that currently inform and direct robot development. This contextual shift - from the screen and laboratory to the domestic and the everyday introduces new ways of thinking about robots, our relationships and interactions with them and their meaning not as visions, props or demos but as real things in our homes:
1. What would robots do in the home? Robotics engineers rarely answer this fundamental question with tangible propositions. Bear in mind the strengths of robots but also their weaknesses.

2. How could we/the home adapt to robot needs? We shape elements of the home to the special needs of pets, but how might a home designed for people *and* robots look?

3. How could robots adapt to the home?

Social roboticists explore human/machine interaction but rarely address where that interaction takes place. Methods of interaction are then mostly based on the robot adopting human techniques.

The purpose of an interaction defines its nature. What would be a more appropriate method of communicating with domestic robots?

4. How can we begin to understand the ethical implications of bringing robots into the home? Ethical issues are being hotly debated in the field of military robots, but in the home robot ethics have been neglected. What would it mean, for example, to delegate care-giving tasks to a machine?

Defining the word 'robot' is a challenge. For the purposes of this project we will use the broadest meaning possible:

1. It can sense its environment.

2. It can compute decisions based on this sensory information.

3. It can act on these decisions (for example, through mechanical or electronic means).

Note: the form of the robot is completely open to interpretation.

## To Design:

Begin by choosing one subject from above.
The goal here is to design a domestic robot, to rethink the robot based on: complex human needs and desires; the rules of the domestic space; and the strengths of robot technologies. Don't get distracted by stereotypes as they often ignore these points.

Musashino Art University (MAU), Tokyo, Japan

In May 2012 I was invited to be visiting professor at MAU. I ran a one-week workshop based on the robot paradox #1: *Sublimity and temporality* (see p.73).

Defining the word ‘robot’ is a challenge. For the purposes of this project we will use the broadest meaning possible:

1. It can sense its environment.

2. It can compute decisions based on this sensory information.

3. It can act on these decisions (for example, through mechanical or electronic means).

This technical definition, however, fails to address the spectacular element culturally and historically associated with robots. To the above definition, then, we add the following:

4. The complexity or sublimity of either the sensing, computing or mechanics should elevate the status of robotic object above that normally ascribed to machines or products.
This leads to the paradox: a spectacular robot can only ever
exist for a short time, the reason being that the sublime, in terms of
robotic behaviour, cannot endure.

This *normalising* of technology has been experienced by some
people who bought Sony's robotic dog, AIBO, as the BBC's technology
journalist Jon Wurtzel reports after living with the robot for a short time.

"What became increasingly clear is the power and importance
of the emotional relationship with this robot dog. When I tried to develop
a relationship with him, I felt let down. I stopped referring to him solely
as a he, and started referring to him as the robot. This deflation felt
even more acute because he had so successfully generated emotional
cues and responses with me. He had seemingly promised me a canine
relationship, and then failed to deliver. As art, AIBO is a tremendous
success. He makes a great interactive sculpture, and is fun and
impressive to watch. But, as a pet dog, AIBO fell down." (2001)

This problem arises when roboticists attempt to directly
replicate the behaviour of pets: the robots ultimately fall victim to
the limits of their own programming. The same traits that make them
perfectly adapted to production lines render them ephemeral in a
cultural or emotive role. Automation reduces randomness, in turn
increasing predictability: repetition leads to familiarity, which in turn
leads to apathy. The robot ceases to be a robot and is demoted to mere
product.
## To Design:

A companion or entertainment robot.

Consider the factors that make real animals so successful in these roles.

Find new ways to introduce randomness [*or*] unpredictability [*or*] entertainment [*or*] reliance.

Think about relationships between living things and products where interaction enhances or creates a spectacle.

Present your robot as either:

A prototype. This doesn't need to be fully functioning. Just communicate the concept.

A video. Showing or describing how it would work.

An animation, storyboard or illustrations.

Or other ways you wish to tell a story – be creative.

## Timetable:

Day 1: Launch brief, presentation by James Auger describing project. Begin brainstorming in groups.

Day 2: Ongoing research leading towards possible design directions. Sketching ideas.

Day 3: Split into groups for interim crit and discussions.

Day 4: Design development and presentation preparation.

Day 5: Final crit and party.
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