## 27.2 Kinship terms by generations

tu-ti-nu, tcʰeme pwh-ku-ŋu ny “a-łak” tu-ti-nu

IPFV-say-PL girl PST.IPFV-GENR-be ADD 1SG.POSS-MZ IPFV-say-PL

kw-ra ŋu. teeri, nykinu, twzo kw tce tce zara

INF:STAT-be.needed LNK FILLER GENR ERG LNK LNK 3PL 3PL.POSS-DAT

nw-cki li a-ftsa tu-ku-ti kw-ra ŋu.

again 1SG.POSS-ZCh IPFV-GENR-say INF:STAT-be.needed be:FACT

‘One’s paternal aunt’s children call one *a-rpu* ‘my maternal uncle’; if one
is a man they say ‘my maternal uncle’, if one is a woman they say *a-łak*
‘my maternal aunt’, but one calls them *a-ftsa* ‘my sister’s son’.’ (140425
kWmdza03) {0003787}

While parallel cross-cousins are given an equal status to siblings in terms of generation, cross-cousins are associated to either the lower generation (paternal cross-cousins) or the higher generation (maternal cross-cousins). This generational skewing rule is characteristic of Omaha kinship systems, and is discussed in more detail in §27.1 (see Figure 27.5).

### 27.2.4 Descending generations

#### 27.2.4.1 EGO's children

The term for EGO's children *ty-tɛu* ‘son’ and *tu-me* ‘daughter’ cannot be used for nephews and children of cousins, but can also designate one’s children’s spouses. The noun *ty-tɛu* is also alienabilized (§5.1.2.9) in the sense of ‘boy, man, member of the male gender’ (as opposed to *tɛheme* ‘girl’).

#### 27.2.4.2 EGO's sibling's children

Sister's children are called *ty-ftsa*, regardless of whether ego is a man or a woman (9). This term is also applied to one's paternal cross-cousins (§27.2.3.2), and reflects an Omaha-type generational skewing rule (§27.5).

(9) *ty-rpu* nw kwny “a-ftsa” tu-ti, *ty-łak* nw
INDEF.POSS-MB DEM also 1SG.POSS-ZCH IPFV-say INDEF.POSS-MZ DEM
kwny “a-ftsa” tu-ti
also 1SG.POSS-ZCH IPFV-say

‘Both the maternal uncle and the maternal aunt call [their sister’s children] *a-ftsa*.’ (140425 kWmdza04) {0003788}
The brothers' children are called differently depending on whether EGO is male or female. If EGO is female (10), one calls one's cross-nephews with the term *ta-ki* used for younger siblings (§27.2.2.2) and male parallel cousins (§27.2.3.1), though in this case they do not reply back with *tx-pi* 'elder sibling' as could have been expected, but with the dedicated term *tx-ji* 'father's sister' (§27.2.1), infringing the reciprocity rule between *ta-ki* and *tx-pi* (§27.2.2.2).

(10) azo tcʰeme pw-ŋu-a tce a-sqʰaj yu w-rjit
1SG girl SENS-be-1SG LNK 1SG.POSS-sister GEN 3SG.POSS-offspring
nw-cki tce "a-ftsa" tu-ti-a ŋu. ...
3PL.POSS-DAT LOC 1SG.POSS-FZCh IPFV-say-1SG be:FACT
a-wymu yu w-rjit ra nw-cki tce
1SG.POSS-brother GEN 3SG.POSS-offspring PL 3PL.POSS-DAT LOC
"a-ki" tu-ti-a kw-ra ŋu. zara
1SG.POSS-younger.sibling IPFV-say-1SG INF:STAT-be-needed be:FACT 3PL
kw a-cki "a-ji" tu-ti-nu tce, azo kw
ERG 1SG.POSS-DAT 1SG.POSS-FZ IPFV-say-PL LNK 1SG ERG
"a-ki" tu-ti-a ŋu.
1SG.POSS-younger.sibling IPFV-say-1SG be:FACT
'I am a woman, and so I call my sisters' children a-ftsa 'my nephew', (...)
and my brother's children_i a-ki 'my younger sibling'. They_i call me a-ji
'my father's sister' and I call them a-ki 'my younger sibling' (140425
kWmdza02) {0003786}

If EGO is male (11), one's parallel nephews and nieces (brother's children) are called by the dedicated term *tx-mdu* BCh♂. This term cannot be used by women (12).

(11) azo ty-tcu a-pw-ŋu-a qʰe tce, a-xtyy yu
1SG INDEF.POSS-SON IRR-IPFV-be-1SG LNK LNK 1SG.POSS-brother GEN
w-rjit nwnra nw-cki a-mdu ŋu.
3SG.POSS-offspring DEM:PL 3PL.POSS-DAT 1SG.POSS-BCh be:FACT
'If I were a man, I would call my brother's children a-mdu 'my parallel
nephew'.' (140425 kWmdza01) {0003785}

(12) tcʰeme tce tce tw-mdw me.
girl LNK LNK GENR.POSS-BCh not.exist:FACT
'Women do not have [any relative that can be called with the term]
tx-mdw 'parallel nephew'. (140425 kWmdza02) {0003786}

The reciprocal term of *tx-mdw* is *tx-βyo* 'father's brother' (§27.2.1).
27.2.4.3 EGO’s parallel cousins’s children

In the same way as paternal parallel cousins (FBCh) are terminologically identi-
fied with siblings (§27.2.3.1), their children (FBChCh) are identified with siblings’
children: the children of one’s male paternal cross-cousins (FBSCh) are called *tx-mdu*
(§27.2.4.2), and those of female paternal cross-cousins (FBDCh) are *tx-ftsa*
(13).

(13) *nwnwtcu tce tce li “a-mduu” tu-tw-ti, woja, tcʰeme*
DEM:LOC LOC LNK again 1SG.POSS-BCh IPFV-2-say INTERJ girl
*u-rjit nwn “a-ftsa” tu-tw-ti, tw-mu*
3SG.POSS-child DEM 1SG.POSS-ZCh IPFV-2-say GENR.POSS-mother
*tw-mu kwn-naχtcuɣ cʰo kwn-naχtcuɣ ŋu.*
GENR.POSS-father SBJ:PCP-be.the.same COMIT SBJ:PCP-be.the.same be:FACT
‘(Question: How do ♂I address a-wa *u-xtɣy* u-ɣe *u-čki* my father’s
brother’s grandchildren? Response:) ‘In that case, ♂you say *a-mduu* ‘♂my
brother’s son’; in the case of a girl’s child (FBDCh) you say *a-ftsa* ‘my
sister’s son’, like [siblings sharing] the same parents.’ (elicitation,
2019-11-30)

The maternal parallel cousin are said by Tshendzin (14) to be referred to using
the same term as their parents *tx-m* (§27.2.3.1).

(14) azo a-rjit ra ku (...) azo a-sqʰaj yu
1SG 1SG.POSS-offspring PL ERG (...) 1SG 1SG.POSS-sister GEN
u-rjit ra nwn-cki tce “a-mvtsa” tu-ti-nw,
3SG.POSS-offspring PL 3PL.POSS-DAT LOC 1SG.POSS-MFZ IPFV-say-PL
numura, yu nwn-rjit ra nwn-cki qʰe li,
DEM:PL GEN 3PL.POSS-offspring PL 3PL.POSS-DAT LNK again
“a-mvtsa” tu-nw-ti-nw
1SG.POSS-MZCh IPFV-AUTO-say-PL
‘My children (...) call my sister’s children_i_ a-mvtsa, and also called their_i
children a-mvtsa.’ (140425 kWmdza01) {0003785}

There is some evidence that this rule was applied to all descending generations
(§27.5) in traditional society. However, Tshendzin also indicates that children of
MZCh can be alternatively called *tx-ftsa* like sister’s children (§27.2.4.2), and re-
ciprocate (to their MMZCh or FMZCh) using the term for MB (§27.2.1.2). More
data are necessary to confirm or disprove this possibility.
### 27.2.4.4 EGO's cross-cousins's children

The children of EGO's maternal cross-cousins (EGO's mother's brother's grandchildren, MBChCh) are referred to by the same terms as their father and grandfather, *tš-rpu* if male (15) and *tš-ak* if female: they are uplifted by two generations.

(15) *tš-rpu* *yw* *w-rjit* *w-cki* *tce* "a-rpu"
GENR.POSS-MB GEN 3SG.POSS-offspring 3SG.POSS-DAT LOC 1SG.POSS-MB
*tu-kw-ti*, *w-ye* *w-cki* *tce* "a-rpu"
IPFV-GENR-say 3SG.POSS-grandchild 3SG.POSS-DAT LOC 1SG.POSS-MB
*tu-kw-ti* *kw-ŋgrzl* *pwo-ŋu*, *izora* *kwrw* *kw*
IPFV-GENR-say INF:STAT-be.usually.the.case SENS-be 1PL Tibetan ERG
*tce*.
LNK

‘One calls one’s maternal uncle’s children and his grandchildren *a-rpu*
‘my maternal uncle’, among us Tibetans.’ (140425 kWmdza07) {0003791}

The children of EGO's paternal cross-cousins (EGO's father's sister's grandchildren, FZChCh) and their descent are referred to with the term *tš-ftsa* 'sister's child', like their parents (16).

(16) *nš-ji* *w-rjit* *yw* *w-rjit* *nw*
2SG.POSS-FZ 3SG.POSS-offspring GEN 3SG.POSS-offspring DEM
*w-cki* *tce* *tce* "a-ftsa" *tu-tw-ti* *kw-ra*.
3SG.POSS-DAT LNK LNK 1SG.POSS-FZ IPFV-2-say INF:STAT-be.needed
‘You have to say *a-ftsa* ‘my sister’s child’ to the child of the child of your
paternal cross-aunt.’ (elicitation, 2019-11-30)

### 27.2.4.5 G⁻²

For the generation of EGO's grandchildren, the term *tš-ye* 'grandchild' is used for EGO's own grandchildren as well as of the grandchildren of EGO's siblings (17) and paternal parallel cousins.

(17) *nw* *w-pa* *pw-ari* *tce* *tce*, *a-wymw*
DEM 3SG.POSS-down AOR:DOWN-go[II] LNK LNK 1SG.POSS-brother
*w-ye* *pw-nw-ŋu*, *a-sqʰaj* *yw*
3SG.POSS-grandchild PST.IPFV-AUTO-be 1SG.POSS-sister GEN
u̯-ye

pu̯-nw̯-ŋu

tce az̥o tvrcurca

3SG.POSS-grandchild PST.IPFV-AUTO-be LNK 1SG together

“a-ye”

tu-ti-a

cti.

1SG.POSS-grandchild IPFV-say-1SG be.AFF:FACT

‘To the [generation] below (that of one’s nephews, see §15.1.4.1), I say a-ye
‘my grandchild’ [to all grandnephews], whether they are my brother’s
grandchildren or my sister’s granchildren.’ (140425 kWmdza02) {0003786}

In the case of the maternal cross-cousins however, the Omaha skewing rule
still applies (§27.5), and the term *tšr-rpw* ‘mother’s brother’ is used to refer to
their grandchildren, who conversely call *ego tšr-ftsa* ‘sister’s child’ (§27.2.1.3).

27.2.5 Spouses and affines

The terminology for affines in Japhug is poor. The only dedicated terms are *tšr-rzaβ* ‘wife’ and *tšr-nmaš* ‘husband’; for all other affines, terms that also refer to consanguines are used.

Both EGO's spouse's parents and parent's sibling and spouses of EGO's parent's
sibling are called using the terms for parallel aunts and uncles (§27.2.1).

Affines of EGO's generation, including those of EGO's siblings, are called using
the age-based sibling terms *ta-ki* ‘younger sibling’ or *tšr-pi* ‘elder sibling’ (§27.2.2.2).
In the case of EGO’s spouse’s siblings, both the age-based and the gender-based
(§27.2.2.1) sibling terms can be used (18).

(18) numu̯ra tce tuwo syz a-pwu-wxti-nwu qʰe “a-pi”

DEM:PL LNK GENR COMP IRR-IPFV-be.big-PL LNK 1SG.POSS-elder.sibling

tu-kwu-ti,

twwo syz

a-pwu-xtci-nwu

qʰe

IPFV-GENR-say GENR COMP IRR-IPFV-be.small-PL LNK

“a-ki”

tu-kwu-nwu-ti

cti.

1SG.POSS-younger.sibling IPFV-GENR-AUTO-say be.AFF:FACT

“a-xtyy”

ra tu-o<nwu>mw-ti-nwu

cti.

1SG.POSS-brother PL IPFV-<AUTO>RECIP-say-PL be.AFF:FACT

‘Those (ego’s husband’s or wife’s siblings), if they are elder than oneself,
one calls them *a-pi* ‘my elder sibling’; if they are younger one calls them
*a-ki* ‘my younger sibling’. They also call each other *a-xtyy*‘my brother’
and the like.’ (140425 kWmdza05) {0003789}
27.3 Marriage rules

Marriage is prohibited between siblings and across generations between EGO and EGO's parents siblings (whether parallel or cross-uncles and aunts).

Marriage is allowed between maternal parallel cousins (19), who call each other *tx-mvtsa* (§27.2.3.1).

(19) *kxndzi-mvtsa numi tce ci ku-pa-ndzi ku-kʰu*
*COLL-MZCh DEM:DU LNK one IPFV-make-DU INF:STAT-be.possible*
*pnu-ŋu, ku-ŋgrɛl pnu-ŋu, mɔ-ku-bdway*
*SENS-be INF:STAT-be.usually.the.case SENS-be NEG-INF:STAT-be.harmful*
*pu-ŋu.*
*SENS-be*

‘For two maternal parallel cousins, it is possible to get married, it is the custom, it is not wrong.’ (140427 kWmdza stWnmW) {0003844#S3}

Cross-cousin marriage is tolerated (20), despite the fact they use cross-generational terms to refer to each other (§27.2.3.2, §27.5). There is here a contradiction between the terminology and the marriage rules.

(20) *kxndzi-wxmu-snom u-rjit nu pwpwuny, (...) wnumi*
*COLL-brother-sister 3SG.POSS-offspring DEM TOP DEM:DU*
*li ci ku-pa-ndzi ku-kʰu pnu-ŋu. tceri numu*
*again one IPFV-make-DU INF:STAT-be.possible SENS-be LNK DEM*
*pu-rkun.*
*SENS-be.rare*

‘Cross-cousins (the children of siblings of different gender) can also get married, but it is rare.’ (140427 kWmdza stWnmW) {0003844#S4}

Marriage is prohibited between paternal parallel cousins (20), who refer to each other with the age-based sibling terms (§27.2.3.1).

(21) *kxndzi-xtyy u-rjit nu ty-ŋu tce tce, ci kú-wy-pa*
*COLL-brother 3SG.POSS-children DEM AOR-be LNK LNK one IPFV-INV-make*
*maka mɔ-kw-kʰu*

*pu-ŋu.*
at.all NEG-INF:STAT-be.possible SENS-be

‘As for brothers’ children, it is completely impossible for them to marry each other.’ (140427 kWmdza stWnmW) {0003844#S10}
## 27.4 Lineages

Most speakers of Gyalrong languages lack a patrilineal family name in the Chinese fashion, unless they are of partial Chinese ancestry.

Family relatedness across generation can nevertheless be expressed by the term *rjitpa* ‘lineage’, borrowed from ṁg̃ud.pa ‘lineage’, which parents transfer to their children (22).

(22) azo nʷ praqʷu rjitpa ŋu-a tce, a-rjit ni praqʷu
1SG DEM TOPO lineage be:FACT-1SG LNK 1SG.POSS-offspring DU TOPO
rjitpa kumy kʷ-y-rtsi ŋu-ndzi,
lineage also SBJ:PCP-PASS-count be:FACT-DU
‘I am (Tshendzin) from the lineage of Praqwu, and [therefore] my two
children also count as being from the lineage of Praqwu.’ (140426 rJitpa)
{0003820#S4}

Lineage is transmitted by both father and mother (23), so that a given person can belong to several lineages.

(23) tʷ-mu pcoŋ nʷ tý-wy-rtswz tce, tʷ-mu
GENR.POSS-mother side DEM AOR:UP-INV-COUNT LNK GENR.POSS-mother
pcoŋ rjitpa tu-kʷ-rtsi ŋu, tʷ-wa pcoŋ
side lineage IPFV:UP-GENR:S/O-count be:FACT GENR.POSS-father side
pa-rtswz-nʷ tce, li tʷ-wa pcoŋ rjitpa
DEM AOR:DOWN-COUNT-PL LNK GENR.POSS-mother side lineage
nʷ pjʷ-rtsi-nʷ cti
DEM IPFV:DOWN-COUNT-PL be:AFF:FACT

‘When one counts from one’s mother’s side, one is counted as being from the lineage on one’s mother’s side, when people count from one’s father’s side (downwards), they count as being from one’s father lineage.’ (140426 rJitpa) {0003820#S2}

Lineage is preserved across many generations; even relatives who have moved to other places and become members of another household are still considered to belong to the same lineage (24). There are no rules against marriage between two persons from the same lineage, if no other rule applies (§27.3).

(24) tce tʷrme nʷ-kʷ-ympʰumpʰri nɣ
LNK people AOR-SBJ:PCP-across.generations ADD
nʷ-kʷ-ympʰumpʰri nʷ rjitpa tu-kʷ-ti ŋu.
AOR-SBJ:PCP-across.generations DEM lineage IPFV-GENR-say be:FACT
a-pu̱-ŋu tce, taq̲rdo ra yu̱ nu̱-rjit nu̱nu̱, (...)

IRR-IPFV-be LNK TOPO PL GEN 3PL.POSS-offspring DEM

ty-tcw pw-nu-ŋu, tcʰeme pw-nu-ŋu, turme

INDEF.POSS-son PST.IPFV-AUTO-be girl PST.IPFV-AUTO-be people

u̱-kʰa z-jy-ku̱-mytcu̱, jy-ku̱-myrzaβ,

3SG.POSS-house TRAL-AOR-SBJ:PCP-adopted.as son AOR-SBJ:PCP-marry

nu̱ra yu̱ nu̱-rjit nu̱-rjit nu̱-rjit

DEM:PL GEN 3PL.POSS-offspring 3PL.POSS-offspring 3PL.POSS-offspring

ku̱-fse nu̱-ku̱-γmpʰu̱mpʰri nu̱nu̱ra tce (taqrdo)

SBJ:PCP-be like AOR-SBJ:PCP-across.generations DEM:PL LNK TOPO

rjitpa tu-ku̱-ti pw-ŋu.

lineage IPFV-GENR-say SENS-be

'People [related to each other] generation after generations are called a lineage. For instance, the children from Taqrdo, (...) male or female, whether they have left and been adopted as sons in someone else's household or have married away, their children's children's children, generation after generation, are called the lineage [of Taqrdo].' (140425 kWmdza08) {0003792}

## 27.5 Omaha skewing

### 27.5.1 Skewing rules and merging rules

A prominent specificity of the Japhug kinship system is the fact that the maternal cross-cousins (MBCh) and their children (MBSCh) are referred to by the same term as their parents (MB, MBW) as explained in (25), and conversely that the maternal cross-cousins (FZCh) are identified with the sisters's children (ZCh) (26).

(25) twzo tcʰeme yu̱ tur-rjit nu̱nu̱ ku̱ tce tce

GENR girl GEN GENR.POSS-offspring DEM ERG LNK LNK

tw-wymu ra nu̱-rjit nu̱-cki tce li

GENR.POSS-brother PL 3PL.POSS-offspring 3PL.POSS-DAT LNK again

“a-rpw a-łak” tu-ti-nu̱ ku̱-ra.

1SG.POSS-MB 1SG.POSS-MZ IPFV-say-PL INF:STAT-be-needed

'One's children (EGO being a woman) call one's brother's children a-rpw 'my mother's brother' or a-łak 'my mother's sister'. (140425 kWmdza01) {0003785}
(26) a-wymu yu u-rjit nwnu ku azo a-rjit
1SG.POSS-brother GEN 3SG.POSS-child DEM ERG 1SG 1SG.POSS-child
u-cki tce “a-ftsa” tu-ti pu-ny. tce azo
3SG.POSS-DAT 1SG.POSS-ZCh IPFV-say SENS-be LNK 1SG 1SG.POSS-child
a-rjit nu ku a-wymu u-rjit nu tce
DEM ERG 1SG.POSS-brother 3SG.POSS-child DEM LNK 1SG.POSS-MB
“a-rpu” nuthauy “a-lak” tu-ti ku-ra.
otherwise 1SG.POSS-MZ IPFV-say INF:STAT-be.needed
‘My (woman speaking) brother’s child calls my child a-ftsa ‘my sister’s
child’, and my child calls my brother’s child either a-rpu ‘my mother’s
brother’ or a-lak ‘my mother’s sister’.’ (140425 kWmdza04) {0003788}

These two rules, also detailed in §27.2.3.1 and §27.2.4.2 above with a different
but semantically equivalent wording, are summarized in Figure 27.1. This chart
represents the terms used to call siblings, cross-uncles and aunts, cross-cousins
and their offspring for a male EGO. The system is similar for a female EGO, except
for siblings (§27.2.2.1) and brother’s children (§27.2.4.2).

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /><figcaption>Figure 27.1: The Omaha Skewing system in Japhug (male EGO)</figcaption></figure>

These skewing rules<fnref n="2" /> are reciprocal of each other. They can be formally written
as (27a) and (27b) in Lounsbury’s (1964) fashion. <fnref n="3" />

<footnote n="2">²Lounsbury (1964: 357) defines this term as a ‘formal equivalence, in specific contexts, between kinds of different generations’.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³The rules (27a) and (27b) are close to Lounsbury’s (1964: 359) ‘Omaha type I’, but slightly less general.</footnote>
27 Kinship

(27) a. Skewing rule 1: FZCh → ZCh

b. Corollaries: MBS → MB; MBD → MZ

Moreover, the fact that the children of one paternal aunt's children are also identified with the sister's children (§27.2.4.4) implies the rule in (29a) and its reciprocal (29b), explicitly stated by Tshendzin in (28).

(28) *ny-πi* *yw u-γe* *kw tce tce, nyj ny-cki*

2SG.POSS-FZ GEN 3SG.POSS-grandchild ERG LNK LNK 2SG 2SG.POSS-DAT

“a-rpʷ” *tu-ti* *kw-ra* *cti.*

1SG.POSS-MB IPFV-say INF:STAT-be.needed be.AFF:FACT

‘Your father’s sister’s grandchildren have to call you ‘my mother’s brother’.’ (elicitation 2019-11-30)

(29) a. Skewing rule 2: FZChCh → FZCh → ZCh

b. Corollaries: (F|M)MBS → MB; (F|M)MBD → MZ

The rules (27a), (27b), (29a), (29b) are described by Tshendzin as being recursive, implying the theoretical equivalences in (30). Although a considerable amount of genealogies would be needed to confirm whether the system indeed works in the way predicted in (30), an anecdote discussed in §27.5.2 confirms the reality of the equivalence MMMBSSSS = MB.

(30) a. ZCh = (F)*ZCh(Ch)*

b. MB = (F|M)*MB(S)*S

c. MZ = (F|M)*MB(S)*D

Another skewing rule is observed in the case of female EGO: ♂BS are called with the relative age sibling terms (§27.2.4.2), though this skewing is only partial, since they respond using the dedicated term *ty-πi* for FZ (§27.2.1.2).

Finally, another skewing rule (31a) appears with maternal parallel cousins (§27.2.4.3).

(31) a. Skewing rule 3: MZChCh → MZCh

b. Corollary: (F|M)MZCh → MZCh

If the rules (31a) and (31b) are also recursive, the formal equivalence (32) is implied. Data is lacking to ascertain whether this theoretical possibility is verified,
but §27.5.3 discusses a case in these lines. In this system, unlike in that described
by Lounsbury (1964: 361), the MMZCh are not equated with the MB and MZ (due
to absence of the merging rules MZS → B and MZD → Z), but rather with the
MZCh.

$$
(32) \quad \text{MZCh} = (F|M)^* \text{MZCh}(Ch)^*
$$

However, it appears to be possible to alternatively use the term *tx-ftsa* ‘ZS’ for
MZChCh. The implication of this rule for the whole system are not considered
here until further data are available.

The terminological identification of paternal parallel cousins with siblings
(§27.2.3.1) defines the following merging rule (33).

$$
(33) \textbf{Merging rules:} \quad \mathrm{FBS} \rightarrow \mathrm{B} ; \mathrm{FBD} \rightarrow \mathrm{Z}
$$

Unlike the Omaha systems described in Lounsbury (1964: 360), the merging
rule (33) does not concern maternal parallel cousins (§27.2.3.1). It implies the
equivalences MFBS = MB, MFBD = MZ, FFBS = FB and FFBD = FZ, and more
generally (34), in combination with the skewing rules in (30) above.

$$
(34) \quad \text{a. } MB = (F|M)^*MFB(S)^*S
$$

b. MZ = (F|M)*MFB(S)*D

c. $FB = (F)^n FB(S)_{n \ge 1}^n$

d. $FZ = (F)^n FB(S)^{n-1} D_{n \ge 1}$

Some uncertainty remains in parts of the system. In particular, the status of the MBDCh (and its reciprocal MFZCh) is unclear. In theory, given the MBD → MZ rule (29b), one would expect that MBDCh = MZCh (*tx-*mrtsa), and likewise that the MFZCh = MZCh (due to the reciprocal rule 30a). However, at the moment of writing I could not confirm whether this is true or not.

The Japhug system shows prototypical Omaha characteristics, in particular
the basic skewing rules (27a) and (27b), and the identification of paternal par-
allel cousins with siblings (33). It differs from prototypical Omaha systems de-
scribed in the literature in lacking an Iroquois pattern identifying parallel uncles
and aunts with parents (FB → F, MZ → M, Trautmann 2012: 34), maternal par-
allel cousins with siblings (MZS → B, MZD → Z), and the fact that preferred
marriage is with maternal parallel cousins (§27.3) rather than with cross-cousins
(Trautmann 2012: 41).
27.5.2 Cross-cousin lineages

A logical consequence of the recursivity of the skewing rule (30, §27.5.1), as they are described by Tshendzin (§27.2.4.4) is that a considerable divergence between biological age and age rank will occur in some cases. While a full investigation of genealogies is necessary to verify this implication (an endeavour that goes beyond the scope of this grammar), an anecdote reported by two witnesses suggests that this indeed used to be the case in the traditional society.

In (35), a man born in the 1950s reports his experience with the skewing rule: one of his great-grandmother (either MMM or MMMM, I could not ascertain) came from the village of Tshapa (with irregular orientation WESTWARDS, opposite of the geographical reality, §15.1.5.3), where most inhabitants are from the lineage of her brother.

(35) iz̥o ji-wi nwnu tsʰapa nwh-ku-γe
1PL 1PL.POSS-grandmother DEM TOPO AOR:WEST-SBJ:PCP-come[II]
pjγ-ŋu. (...) azo tγ-nwkoŋtso-a w-qʰu tce, tsʰapa ju-ce-a
IFR.IPFV-be 1SG AOR-work-1SG 3SG.POSS-after LNK TOPO IPFV-go-1SG
tce, tsʰapa nwh ji-kwmdza ŋfa pwh-ŋu tce, (...) tce
LNK TOPO DEM 1PL.POSS-relative completely SENS-be LNK LNK
a-rpw a-łak ntsw tu-ku-ti pwh-ra ma
1SG.POSS-MB 1SG.POSS-MZ always IPFV-GENR-say SENS-be.needed LNK
nwh-<beifen> pwh-mbro, (...) tγ-pytso
3PL.POSS-age-rank SENS-be.high INDEF.POSS-child
kw-xtew-xtei ra kw nwh a-pʰe “a-ftsa
SBJ:PCP-EMPH-be.small PL ERG DEM 1SG.POSS-DAT 1SG.POSS-ZCh
a-ftsa” tu-ti-nw, “a-rpw a-łak” kγ-ti
1SG.POSS-ZCh IPFV-say-PL 1SG.POSS-MB 1SG.POSS-MZ INF-say
pwh-ra, tcendre tu-ti-a kw-zgyt pwh-cti
SENS-be.needed LNK IPFV-say-1SG INF:STAT-be.needed SENS-be.AFF
ri nwnw azo m'u-j-nyx-tṣaŋ-a
LNK DEM 1SG NEG:SENS-TROP-be.fair-1SG

'[One of] our grandmothers was from Tshapa (...) After I started working, when I went to Tshapa, everybody there is a relative of ours, (...) I had to call all of them 'my mother's brother, my mother's sister', because they are of higher 辈分 <bèifen> 'age rank', (...) [even] small children called me 'my sister's son', and I had to call them 'my mother's brother, my mother's sister'. Although this was what I had to say, I found it unfair.'
(2010-06)
He thus had to call all the inhabitants of the village using the MB and MZ terms *tx-rpu* and *tx-łak*, even young children. This report suggests that the recursivity of the rules as described in (30) above is a reality: descendants of MMMB or MMMMB, even one or two generations below oneself, are still called MB and MZ. It also suggests that not only MBS*, but also MBDCh and their descendants might keep the privileged status (and thus not be equated with maternal parallel cousins MZCh as predicted in §27.5.1), though this has to be tested with additional data.

Tshendzin reports the same anecdote (36), and also indicates that the recursivity of the skewing rule is felt clumsy by younger speakers, who prefer to use terms for parallel uncles, aunts or siblings. This aspect of the Japhug languages is thus highly endangered.

<table><tr><td>(36)</td><td>u̱-wi</td><td>y̱u u̱-wi</td><td>n̪u̱u tsẖapa n̪utcu</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>3SG.POSS-grandmother</td><td>GEN 3SG.POSS-grandmother</td><td>DEM TOPO DEM:LOC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>n̪u-k̪u-ye</td><td>p̪y̱-ŋu</td><td>tce tce n̪u y̱u</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>AOR:WEST-SBJ:PCP-come[III]</td><td>IFR.IPFV-be</td><td>LNK LNK DEM GEN</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>u̱-wi</td><td>y̱u u̱-wγm̪u</td><td>n̪u̱u y̱u</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>3SG.POSS-grandmother</td><td>GEN 3SG.POSS-brother</td><td>DEM GEN</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>u̱-r̪j̪it</td><td>y̱u u̱-r̪j̪it</td><td>y̱u u̱-r̪j̪it</td><td>y̱u</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>3SG.POSS-offspring</td><td>GEN 3SG.POSS-offspring</td><td>GEN 3SG.POSS-offspring</td><td>GEN</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>u̱-r̪j̪it</td><td>k̪u-fse</td><td>n̪u̱u̪ra n̪u-cki</td><td>tce tce</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>3SG.POSS-offspring</td><td>SBJ:PCP-be lik</td><td>DEM:PL 3PL.POSS-DAT LOC LNK</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>“a̱-rp̪u</td><td>nγ a̱-łak</td><td>ntsw tu-ti p̪y̱-ra.</td><td>(...)</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>1SG.POSS-MB</td><td>ADD 1SG.POSS-MZ</td><td>always IPFV-say IPFV.IFR-be needed</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>tʰam tce n̪u̪ra</td><td>stʰuːci u̱-k̪u-ti</td><td>maŋe, tce</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>now LNK DEM:LOC</td><td>so.much 3SG.POSS-SBJ:PCP-say</td><td>notiation: SENS LNK</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>k̪u-xtci</td><td>n̪u̪ra k̪uŋy “a̱-ftsa”</td><td>kγ-ti γ̱u-nγzraːk-n̪u</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>SBJ:PCP-be</td><td>small DEM:PL also 1SG.POSS-ZCh</td><td>INF-say SENS-be.ashamed-PL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>qʰe “a̱-βγo”</td><td>ra tu-n̪u-ti-n̪u</td><td>“a̱-pɪ” ra</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>LNK 1SG.POSS-FB PL IPFV-AUTO-say-PL 1SG.POSS-elder.sibling</td><td>PL tu-n̪u-ti-n̪u.</td><td>tce tʰam tu-otɔːkɔːv cti. k̪u-c̪uŋŋu</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>IPFV-AUTO-say-PL</td><td>LNK now IPFV-be.mixed</td><td>be.AFF:FACT in/former.days</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>a̱-p̪u-ŋu</td><td>tce n̪u tu-k̪u-ti</td><td>k̪u-ra p̪y̱-cti nγ.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>IRR-IPFV-be</td><td>LNK DEM IPFV-GENR-say</td><td>INF:STAT-be needed IFR.IPFV-be SFP</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>‘His grandmother’s grandmother had come from Tshapa, and he had to</td><td></td><td>call all of his grandmother’s brother’s children’s children’s children’s</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>children (etc) ‘my mother’s brother, my mother’s sister’ (including small</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>
children)'. (...) Now no one says this any more, the young ones are ashamed of calling [elders] 'my sister's child' and instead say 'my father's brother' or 'my elder sibling'. Now it is all mixed up, but in former times, one had to speak like that.' (140425 kWmdza07) {0003791}

### 27.5.3 Maternal parallel cousin lineages

The reliability of the skewing rule (31a) concerning maternal parallel cousins is confirmed by one particular case, in which a lady addressed her mother-in-law by the term *tx-mrtsa* ‘MZCh’ (who answered using the same term, §27.2.3.1). When I asked her whether they were actual maternal parallel cousins (children of two sisters, MZCh), she answered that she used this term because her father himself called her mother-in-law (and her mother-in-law’s mother) *tx-mrtsa*, though they were not themselves true first cousins, the eventual consanguine relationship going back several generations. She also specified that she called her husband *tx-mrtsa* before marrying him (§27.3).

This case suggests that the reciprocal *tx-mrtsa* ‘maternal parallel cousin’ relationship remains regardless of the number of generations in each lineages (as formalized in 32 above).

### 27.5.4 Application

As an illustration of the rules established in the previous sections, Table 27.6 summarizes the theoretical possibilities for first and second cousins *once removed*, including the main points of uncertainty in grey shading. The equivalences are given below each term in brackets, referring to the equivalent focal kin (Table 27.5); for instance (=ZCh) should be read ‘called like the ZCh’ (*tx-ftsa*, §27.2.4.2).

The reciprocal terms can be rechecked using the inversion table 27.2 above.

It is difficult to be fully certain of the reliability of these extrapolations without an in-depth study of genealogies. This Table provides a framework for future research on kinship systems in Japhug and Gyalrong-speaking areas.
<table><caption>Table 27.5: Focal kin terms</caption><thead><tr><th>Kin</th><th>term</th><th>Reciprocal</th><th>term</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>M</td><td>ty-mu</td><td>♀S/♂D</td><td>ty-tchw/tuw-me</td></tr><tr><td>F</td><td>ty-wa</td><td>♂S/♂D</td><td>ty-tchw/tuw-me</td></tr><tr><td>MB</td><td>ty-rpu</td><td>♂ZCh</td><td>ty-ftsa</td></tr><tr><td>MZ</td><td>ty-ka</td><td>♀ZCh</td><td>ty-ftsa</td></tr><tr><td>FB</td><td>ty-βyo</td><td>♂BCh</td><td>ty-mdw</td></tr><tr><td>FZ</td><td>ty-πi</td><td>♂BCh=yB|Z</td><td>ta-ky</td></tr><tr><td>MZCh</td><td>ty-mtsa</td><td>=</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>eB|Z</td><td>ty-pi</td><td>yB|Z</td><td>ta-ky</td></tr><tr><td>♂Z</td><td>ty-snom</td><td>♀B ty-wymu</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>♂B</td><td>ty-xtγ</td><td>=</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>♀Z</td><td>ty-sq<sup>h</sup>aj</td><td>=</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 27.6: First and second cousins once removed (hypothetical)</caption><thead><tr><th>First cousin</th><th>Reciprocal</th><th>Second cousin</th><th>Reciprocal</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>FFBS<br>(=FB)</td><td>♂FBSCh<br>(=♂BCh)</td><td>FFBSCh<br>(= FBCh=B|Z)</td><td>FFBSCh<br>(=B|Z)</td></tr><tr><td>FFBD<br>(=FZ)</td><td>♀FBSCh<br>(=♀BS=yB|Z)</td><td>FFBDCh<br>(= FZCh=ZCh)</td><td>MFBSCh<br>(=MBCh=MB|Z)</td></tr><tr><td>FFZCh<br>(=ZCh)</td><td>MBSS<br>(=MB)</td><td>FFZChCh<br>(=ZCh)</td><td>(F|M)MBSS<br>(=MB)</td></tr><tr><td>FMBS<br>(=MB)</td><td>♂FZSCh<br>(=ZCh)</td><td>FMBSCh<br>(=MB)</td><td>FFZSCh<br>(=ZCh)</td></tr><tr><td>FMBD<br>(=MZ)</td><td>♀FZSCh<br>(=ZCh)</td><td>FMBDCh<br>(=FMZCh=MZCh?)</td><td>MFZSCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td></tr><tr><td>FMZCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>MZDS<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>FMZChCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>(F|M)MZDS<br>(=MZCh?)</td></tr><tr><td>MFBS<br>(=MB)</td><td>♂FBDCh<br>(=FZCh=ZCh)</td><td>MFBSCh<br>(=MB|Z)</td><td>FFBDCh<br>(=FFZCh=ZCh)</td></tr><tr><td>MFBD<br>(=MZ)</td><td>♀FBDCh<br>(=FZCh=ZCh)</td><td>MFBDCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>MFBDCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td></tr><tr><td>MFZCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>MBDCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>MFZChCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>(F|M)MBDCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td></tr><tr><td>MMBS<br>(=MB)</td><td>♂FZDCh<br>(=ZCh)</td><td>MMBSCh<br>(=MB|Z)</td><td>FFZDCh<br>(=ZCh)</td></tr><tr><td>MMBD<br>(=MMZ=MZ)</td><td>♀FZDCh<br>(=ZCh)</td><td>MMBDCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>MFZDCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td></tr><tr><td>MMZCh<br>(=MZCh)</td><td>MZDCh<br>(=MZCh)</td><td>MMZChCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td><td>(F|M)MZDCh<br>(=MZCh?)</td></tr></tbody></table>
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<figure><img src="image_33.png" /></figure>
Name index

Adams, James N., 980

Aikhenvald, Alexandra, 10, 68, 454,
1108, 1323, 1387

Aissen, Judith, 568

Alan, 413, 420

Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés, 685

Angelo, Denise, 1419

Anicotte, Rémi, 291

Antonov, Anton, 41, 42, 372, 544, 561,
616

Arkadiev, Peter, 41

Arkhipov, Alexandre, 1024

Banjade, Goma, 483

Basilico, David, 390

Bateman, Leah, 1087

Bauman, James John, 45

Baxter, William H., 45, 46, 814, 918,
998, 1060, 1065

Benveniste, Emile, 17, 562, 1070, 1072

Bickel, Balthasar, 42, 476, 483, 600,
601

Bisang, Walter, 257

Blevins, Juliette, 41, 103

Blogros, Bstan'dzin, 58, 157, 180, 234,
457, 533, 799, 806, 829, 913,
919, 923, 1004, 1178, 1209, 1213,
1314, 1424

Boas, Franz, 439

Bradley, David, 257

Braune, Wilhelm, 608

Buchholz, Oda, 1446

Chao, Yuanren, 8, 10

Chen, Zhen, 2, 54, 617, 1065

Cinque, Guglielmo, 425

Comrie, Bernard, 1299

Conrady, August, 1065, 1066

Coupe, Alec R., 135

Creissels, Denis, 147, 298, 392, 1063,
1299, 1407

Cristofaro, Sonia, 563

Cuoq, Jean André, 549

Dai, Qingxia, 814, 919, 1066

Dai, Qìngxia, 918

Daudey, Henriëtte, 237, 615

DeLancey, Scott, 18, 41, 45, 550, 562,
564, 613, 617, 619, 1108

Deloria, Ella, 439

Diffloth, Gérard, 427, 439

Dingemanse, Mark, 427, 435, 439, 445,
452

Dixon, R. M. W., 68, 1311, 1333

Dong, Shuyin, 5

Doornenbal, Marius, 42, 484, 487, 488,
615, 617

Dpalcan, 3, 144, 145, 359, 402, 420, 1144,
1365

Driem, George van, 45, 526, 552, 553

Ebihara, Shiho, 465

Fan, Jingming, 5, 1464

Fellner, Hannes A., 46

François, Alexandre, 248
Gaenszle, Martin, 42, 601

Garrett, Andrew, 1072

Garrett, Edward, 1087

Gates, Jesse, 147, 433, 509, 920, 1065

Gawne, Lauren, 24, 1115

Gerner, Matthias, 257, 439, 918

Gong, Xun, 16, 41, 46, 58, 68, 81, 87,
96, 113, 187, 234, 476, 477, 482,
493-496, 498, 529, 555, 564,
575, 612, 614-616, 641, 676,
683, 828, 902, 919, 967, 1000,
1001, 1164, 1165

Guillaume, Antoine, 28, 682, 698

Güldemann, Tom, 445

Gutman, Ariel, 116, 147

Hagège, Claude, 1326

Haller, Felix, 313

Handel, Zev, 45, 918, 1065

Haspelmath, Martin, 209, 214, 215, 217,
1081, 1446

Haude, Katharina, 111, 568

Haugen, Jason D., 1079

Heath, Jeffrey, 550, 616

Heine, Bernd, 44

Hetzron, Robert, 617

Hill, Kenneth C., 1013, 1079

Hill, Nathan W., 3, 24, 41, 46, 51, 84,
96, 172, 611, 797, 919, 1053,
1108, 1114

Honkasalo, Sami, 1199

Hoshi, Izumi, 1180

Huang, Liangrong, 96, 98, 234

Idiatov, Dmitry, 200

Jacques, Guillaume, 1, 2, 8, 18, 20, 28,
33, 41, 42, 44-47, 53, 54, 56,
62, 71-73, 81, 85, 88, 92, 96,

98, 101, 111, 115, 119, 127, 135,
143, 147, 158, 167, 168, 172, 184,
204, 237, 257, 275, 296, 298,
304, 311, 332, 370, 405, 427,
433, 439, 441, 459, 471, 477,
487, 489, 495-497, 504, 526,
529, 544, 550, 551, 553, 561,
577, 600, 611, 613-619, 631,
683-685, 700, 705, 706, 731,
743, 759, 768, 793, 796, 797,
811, 813-816, 868, 887, 902,
918-920, 953, 967, 975, 986,
997, 998, 1001, 1011, 1018, 1023,
1030, 1037, 1053, 1055, 1060,
1065-1067, 1070, 1072, 1085,
1093, 1100, 1232, 1257, 1281,
1311, 1319, 1323, 1326, 1329,
1383, 1392, 1397, 1443, 1450,
1460, 1462

Joüon, Paul, 614

Keenan, Edward L., 1299

Kemmer, Suzanne, 903

Khalilova, Zaira, 946

Kim, Won Ho, 147

Koch, Harold, 28, 682

Koga, Hiroaki, 41

Konnerth, Linda, 41, 45, 811, 1065

Kroeber, Alfred, 1457

Kunbzang Mtsho, 3, 176, 206, 345, 1142

Kurabe, Keita, 1066

Kuteva, Tania, 44

Lai, Yunfan, 41, 42, 46, 72, 104, 119,
135, 142, 147, 172, 173, 180,
190, 234, 235, 321, 352, 390,
456, 493, 526, 564, 616, 631,
759, 819, 860, 902, 986, 992,
1014, 1059, 1060, 1065, 1075,
1172, 1180, 1243, 1259, 1261
LaPolla, Randy, 45, 128, 613, 1087, 1105,
1106

Larcher, Pierre, 868

Launey, Michel, 107

Lehmann, Christian, 390

Li, Fang-Kuei, 84, 981

Lin, Xiangrong, 2, 11, 108, 115, 172, 187,
190, 324, 330, 529, 612, 614,
616, 641, 657, 1450

Lin, Youjing, 2, 23, 25, 68, 107, 126,
476, 494, 495, 612, 619, 623,
628, 629, 641, 645, 649, 683,
713, 724, 737, 812, 998, 1084,
1152, 1213, 1257

Lockwood, Hunter T., 562, 563

Lødrup, Helge, 1319

Lopes, Ana Cristina Macário, 1418

Lounsbury, Floyd G., 1473, 1475

Luoerwu, 2, 107, 494, 495, 612, 628,
629

Macaire, Cécile, 3

Macauley, Monica, 562, 563

Malchukov, Andrej, 579

Mang, Kee Shein, 1065

Margetts, Anna, 635

Maslova, Elena, 902

Mauri, Caterina, 371

Mazaudon, Martine, 233

Mei, Tsulin, 46, 1065

Michailovsky, Boyd, 3, 45, 47, 282, 552,
617, 998

Michaud, Alexis, 1, 3, 46, 47, 59, 128,
256, 257

Miestamo, Matti, 513

Mithun, Marianne, 1072

Muraoka, Takamitsu, 614

Nagano, Yasuhiko, 142

Nichols, Johanna, 476, 483

Nikitina, Tatiana, 1326

Norde, Muriel, 129, 615

Ohala, John J., 103

Ohori, Toshio, 41

Parker, Steve, 103

Patz, Elizabeth, 1024

Pellard, Thomas, 613

Poa, Dory, 128

Post, Mark W., 484

Pott, August Friedrich, 608

Prins, Marielle, 108, 115, 142, 190, 683

Pullum, Geoffrey K., 427

Rai, Novel Kishore, 433

Rice, Keren, 42

Rix, Helmut, 675

Rose, Françoise, 698

Rubin, Aaron D., 112

Sagart, Laurent, 1, 42, 45, 46, 814, 918,
998, 1060, 1065

San Roque, Lila, 1087

Sansò, Andrea, 113, 371, 1063

Schackow, Diana, 487

Schiering, René, 69, 484

Schultze-Berndt, Eva, 1419

Shefts-Chang, Betty, 918

Shidanluo, 41, 113, 427, 428, 555, 562,
564, 616, 1057, 1164

Silverstein, Michael, 562, 563

So-Hartmann, Helga, 1065

Stassen, Leon, 1024

Stein, Rolf Alfred, 128

Stolz, Thomas, 1024

Stoynova, Natalia M., 707

Suchard, Benjamin, 614

Sun, Hongkai, 56, 96, 98, 234, 1180
Sun, Jackson T.-S., 1, 16, 25, 34, 41, 51,
56, 58, 68, 104, 113, 125, 135,
142, 157, 176, 180, 184, 190,
234, 303, 427, 428, 457, 476,
482, 493–495, 533, 554, 555,
562, 564, 576, 612, 614–616,
618, 619, 626, 641, 683, 713,
724, 725, 737, 762, 763, 799,
806, 812, 819, 829, 851, 856,
860, 866, 868, 902, 913, 919,
923, 928, 929, 933, 943, 961,
966, 1004, 1021, 1042, 1057,
1060, 1065, 1087, 1118–1120,
1127, 1164, 1165, 1178, 1184, 1209,
1213, 1257, 1314, 1317, 1329,
1344, 1387, 1409, 1424, 1459

Sutton, Peter, 1024

Suzuki, Hiroyuki, 44, 241

Thompson, Chad, 117, 137

Tournadre, Nicolas, 24, 44, 241, 1087,
1105, 1106, 1323

Trautmann, Thomas R., 1475

Tshendzin, 3, 61, 63–66, 94, 115, 144,
177, 241, 345, 428, 432, 439,
481, 503, 528, 537, 540, 575,
603, 604, 634, 652, 660, 665,
674, 693, 714, 753, 821, 857¹³,
889, 891, 924, 941, 945, 964,
981, 1003, 1019, 1069, 1116, 1117,
1127⁷, 1135⁹, 1149, 1150, 1157,
1181¹⁵, 1216, 1273, 1289, 1312,
1327, 1352¹², 1379¹⁹, 1381, 1434¹,
1452, 1459, 1467, 1471, 1474,
1476, 1477

Tshering Skyid, 3

Uray, Géza, 172

Valentine, J. Randolph, 9, 568

Vasile, Aurelia, 3

Vennemann, Theo, 103

Vernhes, Jean-Victor, 1335

Viti, Carlotta, 42, 608

von der Gabelentz, Georg, 8

Vries, Lourens de, 1388

Vuillermet, Marine, 698

Werner, Heinrich, 42

Wilkins, David P., 682, 698

Wolfart, H. Christoph, 568

Wolfenden, Stuart, 135

Xu, Xijian, 814, 919, 1066

Ylikovski, Jussi, 1453

Zhang, Shuya, 5, 16, 41, 73, 127, 128,
172, 173, 493, 494, 564, 619,
641, 683, 760, 828, 967, 998,
1213, 1464

Zhang, Sihong, 256, 1388

Zhou, Maocao (vBrugmo vtsho), 44

Zúñiga, Fernando, 41, 111, 544, 563,
568

Zwicky, Arnold M., 427
Index of Japhug forms

-sti 'alone', 149

X-maъ 'size of shoes', 204

NEG + spa = NEG + rka = tu/me 'be guilty/
innocent', 489

NEG + suftsʰi 'force', 518

NEG + tɛʰŋz 'be contrary to religion',
517

NEG + z̥u 'not just be', 516, 517, 1444

NEG-xsi 'it is not known', 517

aboъвок 'cluster around', 1058

aci 'be wet', 127, 1014

acʰyła 'be capable', 1006

acʰyt 'be X years apart', 385⁷, 532, 536,
1005, 1016

acʰuɛʰa 'be capable', 1006

afskyr 'be surrounded', 883

afsuja 'be of the same size', 845, 1014³,
1448, 1451

ajaъmba 'have uneven thickness', 1015

ajpomxtsʰum 'have uneven thickness',
1015

ajtsʰi 'be given to drink', 849, 884, 888

ajtu 'accumulate', 80, 821

ajɛ'u 'be bent', 98, 99, 1074

ajχoъ 'be flat', 80

aki 'down', 158

akymtcoь 'be pointy-headed', 1074, 1075

akwuchɔyle 'east wind', 169, 578

aku 'eastwards', 340

akʰu 'call', 535, 860, 866, 867, 907, 948

akʰyzŋga 'call', 75, 860, 862, 866

alo 'upstream', 340, 633, 640

alxaj 'not properly put', 50

alulju 'be cylindrical', 1059

alulyt 'fight', 536, 537, 908, 909

amar 'be smeared with', 312

ambi 'be given', 617, 884, 888

ambumbi 'give to each other', 904

amdzu 'sit', 499, 801, 860, 867, 1084,
1088, 1126

ampʰur 'be wrapped', 876

amqaj 'fight', 1015

amtcoь 'be pointy', 870, 1005, 1074

amγykʰo 'give and take', 915, 916

amγbu 'have rickets', 1074, 1075

amufse 'know each other', 910, 913

amumi 'be on good terms', 331, 536,
910

amumto 'see each other', 910, 912, 914

amuumsʰym 'hear each other', 910, 912,
914

amurmbat 'be close to each other', 910,
913, 914

amurpu 'bump against each other', 910,
912

amurqʰi 'be far from each other', 910,
913

amustʰaβ 'be one against the other',
910, 911, 914

amuswz 'be well-known', 950

amuti 'say to each other', 910, 911, 1305¹⁴

amutso 'be clear (of speech)', 950
amutso 'understand each other', 910
amutuy 'meet each other', 910
amuzyut 'be evenly distributed', 874, 952, 1409
amnaχtsʰum 'be petty', 151, 1074
amrym 'be homogeneous', 579, 821
anamana 'identical', 412, 1208
anbaɛ 'hide', 86, 830, 839
andi 'westwards', 340
andu 'be exchanged for', 981
andzut 'bark', 860, 862
andzirya 'be neighbours', 178, 1024
andzymstu 'well-ironed', 1068
andzuβri 'protect each other', 62, 915
antsyndu 'get exchanged (by mistake)', 979, 981
antçʰu 'be many', 253
antʰγar 'bounce', 98
anntsʰuntsʰi 'love each other', 907¹⁴
anypupe 'like each other', 907
anumqaj 'fight', 536
anwryruru 'look at each other's face', 909, 1075
anusukʰukʰo 'extort each other', 907
anuybuybuy 'miss each other', 907
anuyro 'play', 626
apa 'become', 532, 533, 876–878, 885, 899, 1232, 1347
apryt 'have been broken', 881
arymbat 'be easy to do', 961, 1067–1069
apyryi 'be greyish', 997
aqarŋurŋe 'be yellowish', 997
araɛ 'liquor', 109
argyle 'be extremely happy', 1068
arju 'speak', 72, 677, 802, 805, 1015
arku 'be in', 735, 876, 877, 879, 880, 1244
arlut 'be many', 1068

armbat 'be near', 78, 633, 639, 898, 910, 913
aro 'own', 14, 499, 532, 533, 715, 1016, 1245, 1282
arqʰi 'be far', 634, 639, 898, 910, 913
artaɛ 'be forked', 150¹⁸, 150, 1014
artsi 'be counted as', 532, 533, 845, 876, 886
artum 'be round', 1016
arŋi 'be green', 166, 762, 846
arço 'be finished', 280, 1409
arγkʰumkʰyl 'be clustered in patches', 1018
arγrqʰurqʰioɛ 'be grooved', 1018
arγryy 'happen at the predicted time', 1018
arγŋŋioɛ 'be grooved', 90
arγtsʰi 'be cooked like rice gruel', 828, 1018, 1019
arγtɛʰa 'be determined from', 828
arγzduzda 'call each other', 1019
arγcwcryz 'be striped', 1018
arufsapaɛ 'be like an animal', 1017
arukʰutsa 'be like a bowl', 1017
arulaba 'be shaped like a horn', 1017
aruldzajku 'be green', 141, 1016, 1017
arumuntoɛ 'be like a flower', 1017
aruwromkemdoɛ 'be purple', 1017
arusujno 'be like grass', 1017
arutaqaβ 'be like a needle', 1017
arutŋjpa 'be like snow', 1017
arutvtɛu 'be boyish', 1017
arwɔɔvɔɔ 'be like paper', 1017
arnclum 'be caved in', 77, 92, 920, 1006
arwurwu 'be wrinkled', 1402
asqʰlu 'be concave', 92
asti 'be blocked', 161, 164, 876, 886
astu 'be straight', 609, 1068
asymumtsʰumtsʰym ‘inform each other’,
474, 908, 914

asusu ‘copulate’, 910

asuyŋuyŋaɛ ‘blacken each other’, 907,
908

asuŋqʰuŋqʰi ‘make each other dirty’,
906

ata ‘be on’, 876, 879, 880, 1233, 1244

atsa ‘prick’, 355

atsu ‘have the time to’, 709

atsutsu ‘have time’, 500

atsʰoɛ ‘be attached’, 876, 881, 1065

atsɛr ‘fall’, 476, 500, 968

atuta ‘release each other’, 908

atuy ‘meet’, 480, 910, 912, 966, 979

atʰi ‘downstream’, 340, 640

awuwum ‘gather together’, 904, 908

axtɛuxte ‘be of uneven size’, 1067, 1068

axtɛuxte ‘have uneven size’, 1015

azgur ‘bow, bend down’, 444

aɛkala ‘be lame’, 1014

aɛprum ‘be badly sewed’, 95

aɛquwa ‘be blind’, 1014

aɛqʰe ‘cough’, 791, 792, 802, 821, 1016

aɛya ‘be the same age’, 536, 1014

aɛryyi ‘be quick’, 72

ayro ‘play’, 784, 860, 864, 1015

ayryryrum ‘be whitish’, 997

ayɛrlurlaɛ ‘destroy each other’, 906

ayuuduχun ‘be fragrant’, 1020, 1038

ayujwaɛ ‘have a lot of leaves’, 1020

ayujujaɛ ‘have a lot of arms’, 1020,
1021

ayulu ‘producing a lot of milk’, 33

ayumar ‘produce a lot of butter’, 1020,
1046

ayumat ‘produce a lot of fruits’, 1020

ayumdoɛ ‘be the same colour’, 1020,
1021

ayumdzu ‘have a lot of thorns’, 1020,
1038

ayumumi ‘have a lot of legs’, 1020,
1021

ayumŋaɛ ‘have eyes’, 1020

ayundzuy ‘be resinous’, 1020

ayuntɔβ ‘be sparkling’, 1020

ayurme ‘have a lot of hair’, 1020

ayurpaɛ ‘go along well’, 1020, 1022

ayurŋul ‘have much money’, 1020

ayurjit ‘have many children’, 1020

ayururu ‘that can be done at the same
time as’, 828

ayuruɛz ‘inherit from’, 1022

ayusmyɛn ‘have a medical effect’, 1020

aɛdɛrt ‘slip’, 954

aɛja ‘be bald, be bare’, 410

aɛndundɛrt ‘everywhere’, 218, 325, 372,
989, 1204, 1205

aʒo ‘1SG’, 11, 305, 1207

aʒywu ‘be lame’, 1014

aʒuy ‘1SG:GEN’, 320, 972

aʒuwu ‘wrestle’, 860, 861, 865, 868, 910

aβdoɛβdi ‘be in good health’, 884

aβraɛ ‘be attached to’, 876
Index of Japhug forms

aβzdokβzdu 'be in good order', 884

aβzu 'become, grow', 432, 876-879, 885, 899, 1145, 1347

aβzurχsum 'have a triangular shape', 1016

aχa 'lacking a piece', 160, 161, 240

bjubjuy 'hanging in great number', 89

boβboβ 'in group, in order', 275

bruβruβ 'having pimples', 93

buwa 'carry on the back', 1370

buγy 'miss home', 860, 864, 903, 907

caŋ 'dammed wall', 59

ci w-mpʰru ci 'one after the other', 362

cimbyrom 'blister', 1235

cinγ ' (not) even one', 262, 401, 404, 407, 408, 523, 1181

cirndzi 'sand', 78

ciscʰiz 'somewhere', 209, 214, 325

cit 'move', 632

ci 'a', 186

ci 'one', 10¹, 49, 60, 65, 209, 210, 212, 214, 219-221, 233, 244, 257, 258, 266, 289, 387, 408, 412, 419, 425, 426

ci 'pour completely', 127

ciχciz 'stony earth', 62

claŋclag 'round and smooth', 91

co 'valley', 50, 89, 273

coŋ 'damage, loss', 59

cruycruγ 'in a mess', 93

cupʰut 'taking stones', 1071, 1079

curmbu 'stone heap', 62

cu 'hibernate', 662, 663

cu 'open', 758, 917, 1068, 1236, 1238

cu 'stone', 60, 62, 65, 1071

cungluγ 'pestle', 91

cʰa 'alcohol', 154, 156, 164, 760, 794, 796, 1071, 1076

cʰa 'can', 520, 532, 533, 708, 733, 766, 836, 837⁵, 954, 957, 1006, 1095, 1137, 1151-1153, 1262, 1296, 1313, 1319, 1320, 1333, 1356, 1357, 1432

cʰispu 'rabies', 62

cʰi 'be sweet', 62, 63, 160, 728, 857, 869

cʰondv̥e 'with', 238

cʰo 'and, with', 238, 291, 331, 332, 1425, 1437

cʰγvβcʰγvβ 'messy and dirty', 93

cʰγlγnnγ 'maybe', 1210

cʰγmtʰum 'food and drinks', 156

cʰγtsʰi 'alcohol drinking', 164, 794, 796, 1071

cʰγt 'differ by', 1005

cʰγβ 'flatten, crush', 918

cʰumu 'female dog', 62

cʰurdom 'roaming dog', 62

cʰuβ 'ideophone of an object breaking', 61

dal 'early', 284

diokdioβ 'evenly mixed', 89

do 'be old (of plants)', 121, 792

droŋdroŋ 'big and dirty', 93

dwaŋdwaŋ 'out of his head', 88

dzov 'kneeling suddenly and respectfully', 929

dyγrdγγr 'dumb', 97

dγn 'be many', 672, 850, 1137

dγrβu 'fern', 268

du dut 'turtle dove', 457

du 'poor ...', 610

duγ 'have enough of', 532, 873, 954, 957

fka 'be full', 74, 823, 896

fkaβ 'cover', 680, 681, 791, 792, 823, 824, 844
fkro 'put in order', 497
fkruw 'be greedy', 95
fkur 'carry on the back', 274
frtw 'be trustworthy', 74
fsapau 'animal', 388, 1017
fsaqhe 'next year', 283, 284
fsan 'fumigation', 59, 74, 1028, 1030, 1234
fse = ran 'happen so many things', 488, 489
fse 'be like', 185, 200, 211, 389, 511, 532, 533, 728, 760, 810, 910, 913, 991, 1018, 1055, 1125, 1182, 1369, 1407, 1408, 1417, 1448, 1451, 1452, 1455
fse 'whet', 930
fskwr 'turn around', 74, 181, 265, 883
fsomur 'tomorrow evening', 285
fsosoz 'tomorrow morning', 284
fso 'tomorrow', 282, 284, 286
fsoi 'earn', 929, 930, 948, 1070, 1071
fsrajma 'protecting deity', 59
fsraj 'protect', 60, 95, 1370
fstvt 'praise', 933, 934
fstun 'take care of', 74, 889
fsvndimur 'in two days in the evening', 285
fsvndisoz 'in two days in the morning', 284
fsvndi 'the day after tomorrow', 282
fsvndyra 'in two years', 283
fsusqi 'thirty', 235, 246
fsuy 'repay (gratitude)', 595
ftsoi 'female hybrid yak', 74, 175, 177, 455
ftsʰi 'feel better', 74, 518, 773, 830
ftcaka 'method', 768, 1028, 1030, 1032, 1037, 1272, 1372–1374
ftcar 'summer', 74, 94, 152, 1218

ftcru 'path in the middle of the fields', 94, 152
ftcuz 'castrate', 930, 943
ftchur 'put vertically', 74
ftşi 'melt', 74, 916¹⁸, 917, 919, 920, 928
fçafçvt 'words', 179
fçau 'repent', 74
fci 'forge', 162, 587
fçvl 'have diarrhea', 788
fçvt 'tell', 179, 345, 579, 677, 755, 891, 930, 935, 936³⁰, 936, 1306, 1322, 1345, 1376
gi 'come', 348
glxygryy 'pressed', 91
grußgruwß 'matsutake', 93
hwyrhwyr 'wide-mouthed', 88
icqʰa 'just now', 395, 396, 458, 1203
icqʰa 'the aforementioned', 394
izo 'we (plural)', 190
jaftcun 'stirrup', 61
jamar 'about', 201, 202, 244, 1256, 1444, 1450
japa dal ri 'a few years ago', 284
japandzi 'two years ago', 282, 283
japa 'last year', 283, 284
jaŋntsyrpa 'one-handed axe', 148
jašlu 'missing a hand', 170
jašmba 'thickness', 158, 780, 1015
jaš 'be thick', 158, 669, 780
jima 'maize', 1253
jinde 'these days', 282
jisni 'today', 282
ji 'plant', 54, 748, 783
jkrut 'congeal', 95
jla 'male hybrid yak', 16, 91, 92, 153, 175, 177, 455, 1072
jlvndzi 'hybrid yak hide', 153
jlvßndzu 'weft stick', 101
jmrlu 'without tail', 170
Index of Japhug forms

jmrtaš ‘weevil’, 150
jmrtsi ‘species of mushroom’, 149
jmyni ‘russula’, 126, 152
jmut ‘forget’, 80, 81, 675, 806, 963, 965, 966, 975

jndẓyz ‘be thick’, 80

jnom ‘be flexible’, 80

jom ‘be broad’, 850

jor ‘raise’, 157, 547, 1068

jorßzur ‘tidying up’, 157, 1068

jpumxtshum ‘thickness’, 103, 157, 158, 1015

jpum ‘be thick’, 80, 103, 157, 158, 668, 669, 718, 1015

jpyom ‘freeze’, 98, 1054

jqu ‘be able to lift’, 80, 81, 986, 1006

jtsraß ‘delay departure’, 95

jtsʰi ‘give to drink’, 30, 77, 80, 81, 583, 823, 826, 827, 849, 884, 885, 887⁷, 887, 888, 936, 938, 949, 1069

jwajwa ‘very thin’, 88

jyrt ‘turn around’, 97, 632

jvxtshi ‘this time’, 282

jvznr ‘when’, 343

jvz ‘when’, 340, 343, 1404

jry ‘be allowed’, 538, 540, 559¹⁶, 837, 1094, 1103, 1124, 1129, 1176, 1354, 1355, 1428

jry ‘finish’, 774, 820, 837, 1314, 1316, 1354, 1364, 1428

jryrt ‘terrace’, 1032, 1033, 1217

jufcumur ‘yesterday evening’, 285

jufcundzimur ‘the evening of two days ago’, 285

jufcundzisoz ‘the morning of two days ago’, 284

jufcundzi ‘two days ago’, 282

jufcur ‘yesterday’, 282, 284

jufcusoż ‘yesterday morning’, 284

jufcuseŕ ‘yesterday night’, 285

jum ‘be nice (of weather)’, 61

juxeo ‘this morning’, 282, 284

juyi ‘writing’, 63

juymur ‘this evening’, 282, 285

kio ‘cause to glide’, 50, 89, 917, 960

ki ‘this’, 49, 223, 342

klukhuy ‘stiff’, 91

kowa ‘manner’, 768, 1373, 1374

koxtcun ‘brocade’, 75

ko ‘prevail over’, 50, 1088

koŋla ‘really’, 59, 418

kóvmuz ‘only after’, 58, 68, 337, 340, 342, 412, 1392, 1402

kra ‘cause to fall’, 917, 918, 926

kro ‘share’, 979, 980

kryy ‘shear, mow’, 58, 93, 964

kumpyamu ‘hen’, 174

kumpyapʰu ‘rooster’, 174

kumpya ‘fowl’, 173, 174, 455, 723

kumpyrtcu ‘sparrow’, 173

kundi ‘east and west’, 158, 1015

kupastaχpu ‘soja’, 153

kupa ‘Chinese’, 137, 153

kupaŋga ‘Chinese-style clothes’, 153

kwitsut ‘cupboard’, 87, 88

kcilu ‘year of the dog’, 85

kx-ku-nyndza ‘leper’, 729

kx-ntsye ‘sell’, 706

kx-nykarphyß ‘strike with one’s wings’, 765

kulu ‘headless’, 154, 170

kymoŕ ‘dry tsampa’, 743

kymypu ‘person from Kamnyu’, 174

kymyu ‘Kamnyu’, 137, 138

kyndziftsa ‘nephew with his maternal uncles and aunts’, 177
kyndziftsoš 'female hybrid yak and its
owners', 175, 177

kyndziftsuftsoš 'female hybrid yak and
its owners', 176

kyndzijla 'male hybrid yak and its own-
ers', 177

kyndzikumdza 'relatives', 176

kyndzimbro 'horseman and his horse',
175, 177

kyndzime 'parents and daughter', 177

kyndzimytsa 'mother's sister's children',
176

kyndzipaš 'pig and its owners', 177

kyndzipyrdmu 'paternal uncle and his
nephews', 175, 177

kyndziqazo 'sheep and its owners', 177

kyndzirpuftsa 'maternal uncle and his
nephews', 176, 177

kyndzirpu 'maternal uncle and his nephews',
177

kyndzirya 'neighbours', 176, 178

kyndzislama 'master and disciple', 177

kyndzislamaχti 'classmates', 176

kyndzisqʰaj 'sisters', 176, 1462

kyndzitsʰyt 'goat and its owners', 177

kyndzitcʰemryχti 'friends (between fe-
male)', 176

kyndzitrcuχti 'friends (between males)',
176

kyndziwrmusnom 'brother and sisters',
177, 1462

kyndziwrlaš 'maternal aunt and her
nephews', 175³², 177

kyndzixtyy 'brothers', 176, 1462

kyndzizda 'companions', 176

kyndzicaxpu 'friends', 176

kyndziye 'grandparents and grandchil-
dren', 175, 177

kyndziyuwsu 'friends', 176

kyndziŋi 'paternal aunt and her nephews',
175, 177

kyndziwi 'siblings', 177

kyndzißanṣa 'friends', 176

kyndziχti 'companions', 176

kyntcʰu-tupu 'many households', 271

kyntṣdi 'take care', 454, 459, 609

kyrrijmryy 'type of mushroom', 166

kyrr-sla 'several months', 281

kyrr-xpa 'several years', 281

kysufṣe 'all', 217, 380, 381, 1204

kṛtṣa 'parents and children', 177

kṛtṣu 'headbutt', 165, 794, 1071

kṛtum 'ball of thread', 394

kṛtupu 'tell', 473, 515¹, 576, 577, 631,
744, 811, 1074, 1075, 1101, 1352

kṛy 'bend', 893, 917

kṛlulu 'with its milk', 184

kṛymuwnmaš 'with eyes', 165

kṛtylulu 'with milk', 184

ku-lyy 'shepherd', 727, 759

ku-maš 'the one that is not', 728, 1033

ku-murku 'thief', 727

ku-so 'empty', 121

ku-sr-suxcɛrt 'teacher', 727

ku-ŋu 'the one that is', 728, 1033

ku-rrni 'green one', 166

kućh'i 'candy', 726, 728

kujka 'pyrrhocorax', 168

kuju 'oath', 729

kuki 'this', 224, 1214

kuwaš 'bad thing', 728, 870, 1033

kuwaš 'other', 137, 212, 220, 221, 388,
412, 413, 426, 728

kumdza 'relative', 176

kumtcʰoχsum 'triratna', 234

kumtcʰu 'toy', 730, 865

kumu 'Tetraogallus tibetanus', 168

kum 'door', 876, 1232
Index of Japhug forms

kumŋu ‘five’, 245, 246, 248
kumŋym ‘ailment’, 728
kumŋyṣqi ‘fifty’, 246
kumγlxxso ‘useless’, 180, 181
kundzarmu ‘type of rain’, 127, 731, 852⁹
kungusqi ‘nine or ten’, 245
kungusqi ‘ninety’, 235, 246
kunguttṛrqʰŋgaɣ ‘Lonicera sp.’, 156,
160

kunguttṛrtsyy ‘Leonurus’, 156
kungut ‘nine’, 156, 161, 234, 245
kuni ‘these two’, 223
kunγ ‘also, even’, 65, 304, 401, 404,
405, 408, 987, 1330, 1393, 1445

kupγz ‘type of bug’, 168

kuqurzŋgri ‘evening star’, 730

kurcat ‘eight’, 234, 245, 252, 289¹⁶

kurcγsqi ‘eighty’, 246

kure ‘here’, 325, 331

kurnu ‘mite’, 168

kurtṣyy ‘snow leopard’, 168

kuruji ‘beast’, 168

kuruŋkwyndzur ‘harvestman’, 156, 730

kuruγrt ‘writer’, 727

kuruγtṣuβ ‘tailor’, 727

kuruw sγtçʰa ‘Tibetan areas’, 138

kuruw-rmi ‘Tibetan name’, 138

kuruw ‘Tibetan’, 15, 137, 138, 153

kuruwɛγmuuydu ‘traditional gun’, 138

kuspoɔk ‘hole’, 728, 1260

kustʰamtçγt ‘this much’, 1434

kustʰuci ‘this much’, 187, 1434

kusγγru ‘mirror’, 730

kutṣγsqi ‘sixty’, 246

kutṣγy ‘six’, 94, 236, 237, 244, 245

kuxtcγuxtci ‘a little’, 772

kuzya ‘a long time’, 158, 796, 1343

kuzyγ-çar ‘searching for a long time’,
158

kw ‘east’, 158, 327, 352

kw ‘ergative’, 303

kuŋu ‘right thing’, 728, 1033

kuɛcnom ‘ears’, 1032

kuɛŋr-yṣqi ‘seventy’, 248

kuɛŋr-yṣqi ‘seventy’, 246

kuɛnu-sŋi ‘seven days’, 248

kuɛnuẓ ‘seven’, 234, 245

kuɛpaz ‘marmot’, 168

kuɛte ‘other’, 220

kuɛwŋgw ‘in former times’, 342

kuβde ‘four’, 245, 248

kuβdγsqi ‘forty’, 246

kuβka ‘noble’, 728

kʰatoɔk ‘variegated’, 140, 1425

kʰa ‘house’, 12, 58, 120, 133, 173, 1032,
1077

kʰaŋfkot ‘architect’, 57

kʰe ‘be stupid’, 121, 786, 792, 856, 859,
871, 898, 948

kʰicʰo ‘rumour, hearsay’, 464

kʰon ‘steamer’, 1234

kʰo ‘give’, 131, 297, 298, 316, 346, 363,
496, 497, 579, 679, 829, 842,
891, 907, 915, 949, 982, 1041,
1280

kʰramba ‘lie’, 33, 794¹⁶, 796, 1032, 1033,
1343

kʰrambaχtwiχtγm ‘lies’, 179

kʰro ‘much’, 71, 93, 386, 1433

kʰruw = jγβ ‘be extremely dry’, 489

kʰruutsu ‘ten thousands’, 237, 238

kʰγcγl ‘discussion’, 381, 1032, 1375

kʰγdaɔk ‘khatag’, 1030

kʰγjmu ‘dining room’, 1077

kʰγpʰruw ‘spraying water with the mouth’,
93

kʰγrt ‘do repeatedly’, 312, 313, 1342, 1364

kʰγtṣu ‘little house’, 173
kʰəŋqra 'ruin', 120, 173
kʰudo 'old dog', 150, 173
kʰukʰju 'oval', 89
kʰulu 'Euphorbia helioscopia', 150, 155
kʰunajme 'Setaria viridis', 151
kʰuna 'dog', 150, 151, 155, 172, 173, 455, 808, 1071, 1260, 1339
kʰundzǐ 'dog skin', 150
kʰurtsʰɔz 'Polygonum sp.', 150
kʰurtʰaŋ 'administrative position', 59
kʰurwum 'mold', 554
kʰutsa 'bowl', 172, 273, 1017, 1273
kʰutsʰoɔ 'hunting with dogs', 150, 1071
kʰuzypu 'puppy', 172
kʰu 'be possible', 520, 773, 850, 854, 1094, 1232, 1295, 1347, 1353, 1355, 1356
kʰuŋŋu 'window', 1232
la 'soak', 897
laŋma 'apart from the fact that', 1428
laŋwu-ŋka 'a few words', 266
laŋnuz 'a few', 245, 251
laŋnuχsum 'two or three', 245
laβzyi 'steamed turnip', 96
laχtɛʰa 'thing', 133
lbjułbjuy 'hanging', 90
lcuylcuy 'drenching', 76
lcʰγaɛlcfγaɛ 'nice to wear', 98
lduyi 'bharal', 76
ldʒaŋldʒaŋ 'hanging', 76
ldʒaŋku 'green', 76, 140, 443, 1016, 1017
li 'be spoiled', 996
lni 'wither', 76
lonba 'all', 381, 1204
lotʰi 'upstream and downstream', 158, 1015
lo 'upstream', 158, 327, 352, 1044
loŋbutɛʰi 'elephant', 70
lqɔŋlqɔt 'toddling', 76

ltsʰyltsʰɔt 'small and weak', 76
ltɛʰyltɛʰɔt 'hanging', 76
ltγβ 'fold', 76
ltʰiɛrlthɔrt 'well-ironed (clothes)', 90
ltʰumumi 'coming slowly (sleep)', 76
luskɔrχtɛuŋnɪz 'twelve year cycle', 240
lu 'year', 281
lwoɔ 'spill', 88
lwyz 'become sick again', 88
lχβlxγβ 'thick', 76
lxuwi 'thick and cumbersome', 50
lɣylnγt 'hanging', 76
lya 'dig', 96, 97, 1088
lyndzitrytsʰaɛ 'Delphinium sp.', 151
lyndzǐ 'ghost', 151
lyt 'release', 165, 265, 292, 295, 357, 359, 536, 577, 580, 636, 649, 673, 690, 741, 776, 777, 789, 791, 794, 795, 876, 909, 948, 1005, 1013, 1029, 1031, 1033, 1035, 1068, 1210, 1224, 1226, 1227, 1233, 1237, 1341, 1344
lyŋu 'about five', 244–246, 251
lyŋrsqi 'about fifty', 246
lyŋrɛtɔrsqi 'fifty or sixty', 246
lyŋrɛtɔry 'five or six', 244–246, 251
lyγ 'graze', 589, 727, 746, 1072
lyβdelŋu 'four or five', 245, 251
lulu 'cat', 38, 174, 406, 455, 573, 1339
lulymu 'female cat', 174
luski 'of course', 398
luy 'get loose', 823–825
lɔa 'gunny bag', 99, 173
lɔŋtɔu 'little gunny bag', 173
maqʰu 'be after', 75, 239, 1044
mar 'smear', 820, 882, 1053, 1054
masɔrurju 'quietly, in secret', 72, 802, 805
matci 'because', 468, 1412
Index of Japhug forms

ma 'apart from', 262, 336, 337, 409,
1180, 1299, 1428, 1442
maŋe 'not exist', 473, 515, 519, 529, 631,
775, 811, 880, 969, 1105
maŋku 'be on the east side', 651
maŋku 'the one on the east side', 171
maŋlo 'be upstream', 651, 892, 1044
maŋlo 'the one upstream', 171
maŋndi 'be on the west side', 651
maŋndi 'the one on the west side', 171
maŋpa 'be on the lower side', 651
maŋpa 'the one on the lower side', 171
maŋtak 'be on the upper side', 651
maŋtak 'the one on the upper side',
171
maŋtʰi 'be downstream', 651
maŋtʰi 'the one downstream', 171
maŋ 'be many', 121, 791, 792
maŋ 'not be', 393, 413, 424, 462, 515,
518, 532, 533, 728, 850, 869,
870, 1090, 1112, 1181, 1238, 1242,
1299, 1422, 1430
mbala 'bull', 175, 455
mbarkʰom 'Mbarkham', 137
mbat 'be easy', 781, 869, 961, 1068, 1069,
1371
mba 'be thin', 158, 669, 780
mbaŋ 'split, break', 918
mbe 'be old', 121, 166, 792
mbi 'give', 37, 298, 535, 538⁶, 581, 582,
617, 679, 822, 884, 887⁷, 887,
888, 891, 904, 930, 931, 936,
938, 1069, 1191, 1282
mbjom 'be fast', 89
mblut 'be destroyed', 91, 917
mbri 'be torn', 917
mbri 'cry, sing', 84, 162, 823, 825, 844,
1068, 1293
mbri 'make a sound', 677

mbro 'be high', 84, 669, 670, 1127, 1450
mbro 'horse', 84, 115, 147, 177, 247, 299,
455
mbrɔ́sno 'horse saddle', 147
mbrɔ́stsʰi 'rice gruel', 102, 149
mbrɔ́t 'break', 93, 881, 917, 927, 1073,
1075
mbrɔ́z 'rice', 102, 149
mbrutɛu 'knife', 173, 1005
mbuz 'overflow', 822
mbyak 'turn over', 97, 917, 921, 924,
926, 927, 994
mbyom 'be in a hurry', 17, 71, 823, 860,
897, 1068
mbyurloɛ 'thunderstorm', 102, 1224
mbɛr 'be low', 669
mbɛr 'be wiped off', 918
mbumχtɛr 'hundred thousands', 237,
238
mciruβruwβ 'person whose saliva drips
continuously', 158, 437
mda 'be the time', 86, 653, 709, 710,
805, 962, 1364, 1423
mdaɛzuy 'bow', 1227
mdi 'be complete', 511
mdzadi 'flea', 86
mdzar 'drip dry', 852
mdut 'be resolved to, be determined
to', 998, 999
mdu 'live up to', 653, 999, 1000
mdzueuy 'bedbug', 86
me 'not exist', 181, 315, 489, 510, 515,
516, 518, 519, 529, 623, 625,
632, 672, 674, 675, 745, 746,
768, 772, 775, 811, 850, 855,
870, 880, 1085, 1105, 1112, 1180,
1243, 1248, 1293, 1294
mgrun 'treat', 96
mkʰroŋ 'be reincarnated', 96, 672
mkʰɛ́rmɑŋ ‘people’, 59
mkʰɔ́z ‘be expert’, 86, 533, 1371
mna ‘be better’, 86, 717, 850, 1007, 1120, 1441³, 1455
mnu ‘be smooth’, 1069
mnɛ́rm ‘smell’, 166, 678, 823, 869, 871
moɛ́ ‘eat (powdery food)’, 666, 743
mpja ‘be warm’, 30, 90
mpɛ́rɛ́ ‘be beautiful’, 30, 84, 85², 85, 728, 869, 893, 901, 996, 1003, 1064, 1108, 1150, 1455
mpu ‘be soft’, 84, 1069
mpʰrɪmu ‘divination’, 96
mpʰγaɪmpʰγaɪ ‘very tight’, 98
mpʰul ‘reproduce’, 84
mpʰuɪr ‘wrap’, 681, 876, 995
mqlaɪ ‘swallow’, 92
mto ‘see’, 22, 56, 294, 495, 497, 543, 545–550, 553, 589, 631, 673, 678, 711, 742, 812, 910, 912, 954, 958, 965, 1098, 1150, 1285, 1304, 1317⁴, 1319, 1334, 1362
mtsaɪ ‘jump’, 165, 632, 895, 989, 1078
mtswr ‘be hungry’, 27, 785, 954, 955, 1069
mtswu ‘bite’, 934, 1064, 1366
mtṣʰalu ‘nettle’, 159, 1047, 1049, 1149
mtṣʰalɣγrɪm ‘white nettle’, 159
mtṣʰalɣγaɪ ‘black nettle’, 159
mtṣʰi ‘lead’, 636, 943, 945, 1071
mtṣʰm ‘hear’, 86, 474, 742, 910, 912, 914, 954, 958, 1150, 1285, 1304, 1309, 1362
mtṣʰri ‘how strange’, 453, 1107, 1215
mtṣʰt ‘be full’, 312, 882, 1084
mtṣɔ́k ‘be sharp’, 50, 86, 870, 1005
mtṣuɪr ‘turn’, 60, 61, 265, 994, 1222
mtṣʰɛ́tkʰo ‘house shrine’, 57, 102
mtṣvɪkʰoz ‘bib’, 86

mtʰuɪxtɛ́r ‘belt’, 784
mtʰu ‘spell’, 86
mu = cuy ‘be terrified’, 489
mu ‘be afraid’, 801, 823, 824, 860, 864, 901, 953, 954, 1064, 1065
mu ‘fear’, 784, 815
mu ‘female’, 149, 174
mŋrɪm ‘feel pain’, 86, 320, 728, 785¹⁴, 785, 823, 846, 1107, 1238, 1239
mya ‘take’, 637, 673, 915, 982, 1001, 1236
mɔ́-xsi ‘one does not know’, 467, 516, 576, 631, 811, 1101, 1134
mɔ́ku ‘be first’, 238, 353, 820, 835, 1044
mɔ́kuftṣʰi ‘forcibly’, 518, 772, 830, 839
mɔ́lɪm ‘be big in size’, 1045
mɔ́mbuɪr ‘protruding’, 1045
mɔ́mu ‘be the most important’, 523², 1045
mɔ́paχcɛ́l ‘be in the middle’, 160
mɔ́pɛ́i ‘be outside’, 353, 1044
mɔ́pɛ́o-cʰu ‘towards the opposite side’, 329
mɔ́pγrthγβ ‘be in the middle’, 892, 1044
mɔ́traɪ ‘carry on the shoulder’, 115, 1045
mɔ́rtsaβ ‘be spicy’, 846
mɔ́rẓaβ ‘marry’, 727, 1045
mɔ́svmdɛ́l ‘in advance’, 805
mɔ́tɛ́u ‘be adopted as a son’, 1045, 1050
mɔ́ŋgw ‘be inside’, 1044
mɔ́tṣa ‘until’, 327⁶, 337, 339, 342, 409, 1400
mɔ́zu ‘even more’, 516, 1431, 1445
mɔ́γrɔ́z ‘instead’, 1423, 1428
mɔ́χcɔ́l ‘be in the center’, 1044, 1048
muwtswu ‘drink with a straw’, 96
muwtzamuχtɛ́uy ‘all kinds’, 242, 387
muwtm ‘move’, 820, 997
muwtɔ́k ‘flower’, 1016, 1017, 1032
Index of Japhug forms

murkurku 'every evening', 284, 287

murku 'steal', 587, 589³⁰, 691, 692, 694, 727

murbuz 'scratch', 1224

musti 'be alone', 1045

mutç'imuruz 'all kinds', 387, 1204

muxte 'be the majority', 157, 1045

mұақтсақ 'grasshoper', 165

mұо 'prepare', 85, 305, 797, 798, 852, 930

mұът 'species of tree', 86

mұұрұри 'everybody, each person', 218

naχtçuy 'be the same', 241, 294, 331, 332, 412, 537, 1208, 1292, 1437, 1446, 1448, 1449

naχthуу 'seize the opportunity', 83, 1406

nbraқ 'loosen the earth', 96, 589

ndi 'west', 158, 327, 352

ndi 'westwards', 630

ndiyndiyt 'gracious', 89

ndom 'lie horizontally', 916¹⁸, 918, 920

ndo 'take', 244, 553, 577, 905, 989, 1033, 1048, 1088, 1162, 1230, 1231

ndzar 'drip dry', 731, 852¹⁰, 852, 917, 918

ndza 'eat', 22, 23, 27, 36, 133, 162, 166, 265, 404, 540–542, 559, 577, 666, 696, 732, 743, 822, 932, 933, 943, 965, 984, 1068, 1086, 1088, 1089, 1126, 1157, 1159, 1161, 1327, 1328, 1426, 1432

ndziaқ 'be tight', 49, 89

ndzom 'bridge', 1054

ndzom 'form a layer of ice', 1054

ndzoktya 'length between the thumb and the forefinger', 276

ndzok 'be attached', 357, 444, 746, 881, 882, 918, 922, 925²⁵, 925, 929, 1218¹³, 1218, 1235, 1245

ndzri 'wring', 93

ndzur 'stand', 822

ndzypri 'brown bear', 166

ndzytsʰi 'eat and drink', 743

ndzytsʰi 'meal', 1032, 1048

ndzyt 'grow', 672

ndzu 'educate', 127

ndyyndyyt 'shaking', 97

ndun 'read aloud', 930

ndw 'be spread', 639, 918

ndzaβ 'fall/roll', 894, 917, 924, 927, 994

ndzi 'melt', 916¹⁸, 917, 919, 920, 924, 928

ndzaқ 'swim', 50, 89, 634, 994

ndzu 'stick', 101, 268

ndzyaқ 'be squeezed out', 97, 917, 924

ndzyт 'be warm', 1068

ndzyβ 'be burned', 89, 799, 917

ndzunu 'Angelica', 62, 65

ndzurput 'be numb', 62

ndzurwuz 'Sonchus sp', 62

ndzu 'accuse', 60, 579, 581, 1240¹⁷

ndzuy 'be destroyed', 675

ngo 'be ill', 85, 546, 548, 793, 823, 846, 1049

ngruwβ 'accomplish', 96

ngu 'feed', 1069

ngxjtsʰi 'feed', 1069

ngut 'be strong', 86

nmu 'shake (of earthquakes)', 295, 963, 997

nor 'make a mistake', 57

no 'drive', 636, 820, 822, 983, 1236

nóymuz 'only then', 342

ntaβ 'be stable', 84, 823

ntsye 'sell', 98, 157, 691, 784, 930, 932, 1052, 1061, 1068, 1069

ntsw 'always', 84, 385, 1182, 1202, 1214
ntsʰi 'have better', 601, 871¹⁹, 871, 1094,
1095, 1124, 1319, 1354
ntsʰɛr 'neigh', 84
ntsʰɛβ = rłu 'be in a hurry', 489
ntcʰa 'kill, butcher', 676, 930, 943, 945
ntcʰoz 'use', 51, 84, 965
ntcʰyaк 'splash', 98
ntcʰɛr 'appear', 890, 1041
ntʃu 'weed with a hoe', 84, 589
ntʰɔβ 'be caught between', 84
núndz̥a 'for this reason', 113, 1411
nʒo 'lose', 86, 157, 823
nrbobɔbɔ 'cluster around', 1059
nrcupa 'open and close', 1068
nrja 'be a shame', 75, 844
nrjkuz 'conceal from', 1051
nrjlγβsqa 'stew', 1078
nrjmbyom 'have vertigo', 98
nrjmɣy 'search for mushrooms', 1047
nrjo 'wait', 517, 1158
nrykro 'be okay', 845
nrykrtcʰu 'give a headbutt', 165
nrykʰe 'bully', 871, 934, 948
nrykʰu 'invite', 860, 866, 948, 1315, 1359
nrykʰrzŋa 'shout at', 860, 867, 907
nrykʰuukʰruut 'drag along', 992
nrykʰu 'be smoked', 1031, 1042, 1047
nrla 'agree', 1394⁴, 1394
nrlu 'milk', 1051
nrymar 'be oily', 1046, 1047
nryma 'do', 317, 728, 820, 948, 992⁹, 1034⁸,
1036
nrymbru 'get angry with', 590, 1025,
1027, 1051, 1052
nrymbyaklaк 'turn over here and there',
925, 994
nrymdzu 'look after', 860, 867
nryme 'be adopted as a daughter', 1050,
1051

nrmnɔm 'smell', 678, 869, 871
nmpɛɔr 'find beautiful', 869, 901, 949,
1064
nrmqe 'scold', 786
nrmtsioк 'peck', 934
nmtsumtsaк 'jump around', 989
nmtsʰɔr 'find strange', 1025
nmtcɔurlu 'turn in all directions', 994
nmtcɔurlur 'turn in all directions', 60,
994
nrmuma 'stroke', 992⁹, 992, 993
nrmum 'find tasty', 733, 1349
nrmynole 'watch the scenery', 994, 995
nrmno 'watch', 587, 994
nrdza 'have leprosy', 729
nrdzuut 'bark at', 860
nrdzy 'be poisoned', 1025
nrdundo 'carry around', 989
nrdut 'dispute', 786
nrdzαblaп 'roll again and again', 994
nrdzo 'feel cold', 1042, 1043
nrdzaklaк 'swim around', 994
nrdzyi 'have (snot)', 162
nntsʰi 'love', 871¹⁹, 907¹⁴
nntsʰγγz 'bump into', 98
nntsɔblaп 'cause to roll in all direc-
tions', 994
npe 'consider to be good, like', 869,
907
npra 'be dispatched', 1040, 1042, 1043
npyaklaк 'turn over here and there',
994
nprɔi 'have dinner', 1047, 1220
nphʰupʰu 'beg', 993
nphʰuxtsu 'break clods of earth', 1076,
1078
nrqa 'uproot', 1051, 1229
nrqiu 'pass half of', 291
nrqʰaru 'look back', 1077, 1079
Index of Japhug forms

nъqъъŋga 'put on', 1076

nъre 'laugh at', 1051

nъre 'laugh', 509, 589–591, 794, 801,
933, 934, 1025, 1053, 1064, 1230

nъrme 'remove the hair', 1050, 1051

nъграъ 'carry on the shoulder', 1045,
1051

nъграъ 'go along well with', 1022

nъrqъu 'peel', 1051

nъртаъ 'find sufficient', 869

nъrte 'wear (head cover)', 801

nъrtoχpът 'observe', 1068

nъртъмътъм 'cherish', 1073, 1076, 1239¹⁶

nъръцъръцъу 'run around', 988, 989

nъръцъма 'pray for rain', 759

nърцъра 'look around', 603, 992

nъртваъ 'hunt for', 1042

nърscът 'be startled', 786

nъstu 'believe', 533, 860, 889, 902

nъstustu 'cause trouble to', 993

nършът 'gnaw', 1051

nърscit 'find pleasant', 872, 960

nърscъduy 'find unpleasant', 873, 960

nъrscъ 'be jealous of', 934

nъtar 'hit with a stick', 1050, 1051

nъtsumyut 'take away and bring back',
102, 1069

nъtsu 'hide', 1238

nъtuti 'tell around', 494, 988–990

nъtuy 'happen to be', 979

nъtъutъu 'ask around', 989, 990

nъwu 'cry for', 1042, 1043

nъwxti 'find big', 869

nъxcъi 'find sweet', 160, 869

nъxtsu 'bring in passing', 82

nъxcъt 'do with force', 1409

nъzraъ 'feel shame, be embarrassed',
786

nъzri 'find long', 869

nъz 'dare', 520, 822, 954, 955, 957, 1313,
1359

nъŋaβ 'consider to be unpleasant', 1026,
1052, 1053

nъŋgw 'borrow', 579, 679, 842

nъŋkwŋke 'walk around', 989

nъγarlar 'search around', 994

nъγqa 'endure', 984, 1053

nъγtъučtъwz 'turn in all directions', 989

nъγu 'cool off', 1042

nъγušar 'search around', 989

nъγuše 'go around', 64, 494, 495, 635,
988, 989

nъγuši 'drag along', 992

nъγmaъ 'consider wrong', 869, 870

nъγmbat 'finish easily', 869

nъγro 'play with', 860, 865

nъγi 'use as a walking stick', 1050, 1051

nъvaъ 'have a good time', 510, 590,
995, 1047

nъvndwšndu 'hit repeatedly', 989

nъvombi 'lose hope', 924, 1073

nъvamтваъ 'play around', 510

nъzilov 'have nausea', 1073

nъzo '2SG', 192

nъzri 'get wet from the dew', 1047

nъzvu 'wrestle with', 860, 861, 868

nъβju 'use as a mattress', 115, 1051

nъβjuβji 'chase around', 989

nъχcrl 'go to the center', 1047, 1048

nu kómvuz nъ 'only then', 342, 412

nu tъamtçrt 'that many', 270

nu cimuma 'immediately', 342

nu w-qъu 'after that', 362

nu-tъngut 'common possession', 416

nuci 'drink from the ground', 667

nucъγmda 'drink with a straw', 560,
668, 1408

nucъγrga 'like to drink alcohol', 1076
nucʰura ‘keep guard’, 62

nudruβ ‘gore again and again’, 1407

nufse ‘just like that’, 810

nufse ‘know’, 913

nuftɛaka ‘prepare’, 1036, 1037, 1364, 1373, 1375

nugrɛl ‘be in a row’, 1219

nujlɣlɣy ‘herd hybrid yaks’, 1072

nujmŋo ‘appear in dream’, 1042

nujndyo ‘echo’, 98

nukowa ‘prepare’, 1375

nukro ‘share among themselves’, 979, 980

nukrɣz ‘discuss’, 1036, 1037, 1052

nukułu ‘be lost’, 1238

nukumaks ‘make a mistake’, 728

nukumpɛŋr ‘wear (on important occasions)’, 728

nukuɔnom ‘collect ears’, 1036

nukʰramba ‘cheat’, 33

nukʰa ‘talk back, oppose’, 589

nukʰɣxwi ‘meet about’, 1036, 1037, 1067

nukʰŋrŋgu ‘lie down to rest’, 1077

nukʰuy ‘gulp’, 667

numaksŋr ‘otherwise’, 424, 1430

numbrɛpu ‘ride’, 587

numbrumtsaks ‘skip rope’, 1078

numbyom ‘look forward to’, 860

numdar ‘jump’, 1342

numdoχ ‘look like’, 1046, 1047, 1183

numga ‘want from’, 1416

numtsʰalu ‘search for nettle’, 1047, 1049

numtçi ‘rise early’, 1047

numglα ‘step over’, 635, 1051, 1055

nuna ‘rest’, 277, 820, 828

nundzulŋuz ‘doze off’, 76

nuno ‘drive back’, 983

nupodudi ‘tickle’, 70

nupoχ ‘kiss’, 903

nuproɔmba ‘imitate’, 589

nupʰγo ‘flee back’, 983

nuqaju ‘look for worms’, 1036

nuqambumbjom ‘fly’, 509, 634, 988, 1409

nuqarma ‘search for crossoptilon’, 1047

nuqajy ‘fish’, 1230

nuqro ‘search for ants’, 1047

nurdos ‘collect piece by piece’, 1051

nurdul ‘be dusty’, 1042, 1047

nure ‘there’, 325, 331

nurga ‘like’, 296², 533, 860, 861, 863, 901, 907, 949, 1000

nurkorlut ‘be obstinate’, 1068

nurmu ‘sleep late’, 1047

nurtɛa ‘tease’, 78, 934, 944

nurɛt ‘slightly touch in passing’, 357

nurɣjom ‘be outraged’, 1025

nurɣyo ‘sing’, 677, 1047, 1048, 1226, 1332

nurutṣa ‘envy’, 903¹³, 903, 934

nuru ‘eat grass’, 667

nusaχsu ‘have lunch’, 1047, 1048

nuskʰru ‘be pregnant with’, 1051, 1052, 1221

nusmyn ‘treat’, 1051

nusmulym ‘wish’, 1185

nusnwurzu ‘comfort’, 1237

nusnwirak ‘harm’, 1070

nusrokmbrɛt ‘be in agony’, 1073, 1075

nustʰamtɛt ‘that much’, 380, 1434

nustʰoχ ‘have sex’, 979, 980

nustʰuci ‘that much’, 187, 1434

nusjom ‘envy’, 860

nusya ‘get rust’, 1047, 1219

nusukʰo ‘rob, extort’, 829, 842, 849, 907, 939, 949, 982

nusumkpniz ‘hesitate’, 1344

nusuzke ‘transport wood’, 1074, 1075

nuta ‘wear, take’, 979, 980
nutsum 'take back', 983

nutçu 'there', 323

nutç̣hais 'eat fodder (of horses)', 666

nutç̣itç̣unpaχ̣i 'collect pears', 154, 1014

nutç̣omba 'catch a cold', 1120, 1415

nutypytso 'treat as a child', 1051

nutufc̣y'l 'have diarrhea', 554, 788

nututç̣hu 'stab', 789

nutç̣hγyndzyr 'eat a tsampa meal', 666

nutlhaj 'carry', 637, 1067

nuxur 'turn around', 1057

nuzduxpa 'have pity for', 611

nuzduy 'worry about', 860, 865, 868, 933, 954, 958–960, 1065

nuzgrutç̣hu 'give a nudge', 1070, 1072, 1077

nuzrwyru 'pick lice off', 1076

nuzju 'suffer losses', 75

nuzyut 'arrive back', 983

nuzve 'transport', 1074, 1075

nu 'that', 113, 223, 267, 296, 308, 337, 342, 380

nupa-do 'old cow', 173

nupa 'cow', 13, 87, 150, 152, 175, 296, 455, 601

nupke 'look for', 860, 867

nuçe 'go back', 494, 632, 983

nuekat 'carry loads', 1042, 1043

nuemurga 'be talkative', 1076

nuepuz 'pretend', 726, 1307

nuemuydu 'shoot at', 1051, 1227

nuybuy 'miss', 860, 903, 907

nuyi 'come back', 494, 495, 983

nuymu 'be afraid of', 824, 860, 864, 901, 1065, 1170

nuyur 'suffer from frost', 1046, 1047

nuyγa 'talk back, oppose', 589

nuyujmut 'be easy to forget', 965, 966

nuyujpa 'be convenient', 964, 965

nuyumto 'be easy to see', 964, 965

nuyundza 'be easy/nice to eat', 965

nuyuntç̣hoz 'be easy to use', 965, 966

nuyuti 'be easy to say', 965

nuyutso 'easy to understand', 965

nuyut 'bring back', 983

nuyunga 'be nice to wear', 965

nuyungke 'be easy to walk (on)', 965

nuyuwuftaъ 'be easy to remember', 965

nuyrmkhe 'be skinny', 1072, 1073, 1078

nuyrmsu 'be plump', 1073

nunqhu 'go along, follow', 635, 644⁹, 1051, 1052

nurgyt 'part ways', 154, 916, 917, 925, 928, 982

nubgra 'treat as an enemy', 1050, 1051, 1350¹¹

nubjußtsʰγt 'guess, estimate', 1344

nublywur 'do suddenly', 1034, 1049

nublumbuy 'guess, estimate', 1344

nubtavmi 'become a soldier', 1047

nubtwuru 'hit with horns', 796

nubzuγ 'be pleasing to the eye', 1047

nußde 'lose', 979, 980

nußlu 'cheat', 891

nußlymtç̣γt 'ask to perform a task', 1336

nuxpwnbu 'become the master', 1047

pakuku 'every year', 257, 287

paskγy 'pig to be fattened', 102

pa 'close', 1068

pa 'do', 445, 533, 592, 593, 744, 745, 760, 845, 876, 878, 890, 896, 961, 965, 986, 1067–1069, 1074, 1075, 1221, 1232, 1237, 1347, 1349, 1352, 1358

pa 'down', 149, 352
pa 'pass X years', 244, 257, 275, 592,
800

paқtsa 'piglet', 172, 1227

paқ 'pig', 102, 148, 149, 172, 174, 177,
455

paқса 'pork', 258

paқju 'boar', 174

paχçi 'apple', 154, 531, 1014

pe 'be good', 299, 317, 356, 511³, 765,
828, 835, 846, 869, 871, 907,
995, 996, 1301, 1372

pjalu 'year of the cock', 89

pjzl 'go around, cross, avoid', 57, 635,
899

pjzyrgyt 'vulture', 900

pjuuru 'coral', 63

plašnýplaš 'flickering', 1056

plut 'destroy', 91, 675, 917

praškhaŋ 'cave', 59

praš 'cliff', 883

pri 'bear', 93, 166

pri 'tear', 917

pršt 'break', 761, 881, 917, 921, 927

pu 'cook', 789

pcintçrt 'since', 340, 342, 1403

pya 'bird', 38, 96, 97, 126, 159, 162, 167,
398, 419

pyaқ 'turn over', 58, 635, 790, 917, 921,
924, 930, 934, 994, 1062

pyi 'be grey', 997

pyo 'spin', 56

pyzmbri 'bird song', 162

pyzmuŋ 'feather', 126

pyztnok 'a species of fungus', 395

pyzțu 'bird', 301, 1339

pyznaқ 'Pucrasia macrolopha', 159

pzyka 'squash', 67, 153

pzkju 'still', 1182, 1200

pzk'ije 'wait', 453, 1201

pzyqa 'stuffed pig feet', 149

pntsndi 'in six days', 282

pntsndrypa 'in six years', 283

pʰantsut 'plate', 295

pʰa 'whole', 139, 382

pʰaқ 'split', 918

pʰot 'dare', 1359

pʰon 'bottle', 59, 273

pʰu 'male', 174

pʰγo 'flee', 97, 632, 823, 824, 839, 983

pʰŋn 'be efficient', 533, 746

pʰul 'offer', 579, 680

pʰusγti 'belows', 761

pʰut 'take out, cut', 33, 133, 300, 517,
986, 1049, 1050, 1071

qacʰγa 'fox', 97, 168, 392

qajdo 'crow', 168, 832

qajo 'earthen pot', 169

qajtʃeʰa 'Aegyptius monachus', 80, 168

qaj 'wheat', 102

qajuuqaja 'all kinds of worms', 180

qajusmynba 'leech', 156

qaju 'worm', 156, 167, 168, 180, 1013,
1032, 1036

qajzmbraқ 'ear of wheat', 102

qala 'rnaftṣwxa 'the rabbit with ten
holes in his ears', 240

qala 'rabbit', 168, 415

qalekutsʰi 'species of kite', 154, 730

qale 'wind', 116, 147¹⁶, 154, 169, 730,
1224, 1241

qaliaқ 'eagle', 89, 168, 420, 1296

qalpça 'open', 76, 77

qambahula 'butterfly', 168

qambru 'male yak', 168, 175

qambyo 'earwax', 116, 169

qambut 'sand', 169

qame 'mole', 116

qampʰon 'oak leaves', 169
Index of Japhug forms

qamtɛur 'shrew', 168
qandzi 'type of fir', 169
qandze 'earthworm', 163, 168, 415
qandzi 'anadromous fish', 168
qandzi 'tin', 169
qandzyi 'falcon', 168
qanu 'be dark', 539, 821
qapar 'dhole', 168, 388
qapi 'white stone', 67, 169
qaprimdzu 'Cicerbita roborowskii', 155
qapripu 'little serpent', 172
qapri 'snake', 148, 155, 167, 168, 268
qapryftsa 'centipede', 148
qapymtamtu 'hoopoe', 167, 168
qapu 'be fallow', 821
qarma 'crossoptilon', 168, 1047
qarndum 'be murky', 821
qartsyβ 'harvest', 169, 1032
qartsu 'winter', 159, 169, 1218
qartsuwaak 'cold winter', 159
qartsʰaz 'deer', 149, 168
qartsʰi 'cricket', 168
qartsʰndzi 'deer hide', 149
qarje 'be yellow', 997
qarɛt 'rake', 169
qase 'leather rope', 169
qawuz 'edelweiss', 169
qaçpa 'frog', 56, 153, 168
qaçpyrnoɛ 'wild strawberry', 153
qaçti 'peach', 169
qaçyi 'big fly', 168
qaɣy 'fish', 168, 268, 1229
qaɣγi 'oat', 169
qani 'mole', 168
qaɛ 'peel', 161, 820, 829, 917
qazmbri 'vine', 169
qazo 'sheep', 168, 177, 455
qia 'tear down', 917
qiaβ 'be bitter', 89, 166

qioɛk 'vomit', 50, 784
qlut 'break', 91, 917, 922
qra 'female yak', 175
qraak 'ploughshare', 58
qraak 'tear', 917
qrornbu 'anthill', 70
qrorni 'red ant', 57, 152
qro 'ant', 70, 152, 1047
qro 'pigeon', 93
qru 'greet, welcome, receive', 154, 760
qrɛz 'shave', 917
qru 'break', 917, 962
qur 'help', 730
qusput 'cuckoo', 456
qɛr 'choose', 1068
qɛt 'separate', 154²⁴, 657, 917, 925, 928
qwumdroŋ 'crane', 94, 438⁴, 1253
qwumdroŋ 'wild goose', 59
qʰaqʰu 'behind the house', 58, 539
qʰarɛ 'look back', 794, 1071, 1079, 1080
qʰe 'then', 330
qʰiuvqʰiuv 'blunt (colour)', 89
qʰlwo 'naga', 91
qʰoɛqʰoɛ 'ingot', 102
qʰrut 'completely scratch', 918
qʰuj 'this afternoon', 285, 330
qʰyndimur 'in three days in the evening', 285
qʰyndisoz 'in three days in the morning', 284
qʰyndi 'in three days', 282
qʰyndypa 'in three years', 283
raz 'cloth', 268
ra 'be needed', 112, 212, 294, 316, 370, 462, 540, 601, 767, 850, 854, 1094, 1095, 1103, 1124, 1129, 1132, 1295, 1313, 1317, 1319, 1320, 1342, 1347, 1353, 1356, 1392, 1428
ra 'plural', 179
raŋri 'each', 60, 260, 287, 384
raŋ 'oneself', 197, 888
ra 'be polite', 169
račruž 'sweep', 930
raχtçi 'wash', 946, 1004
raχtuutsye 'do business', 157, 1068
raχtu 'do shopping', 66, 932
rdardul 'dust, dirt', 57, 179
rdzardza 'insolent', 78
rdyštak 'stone', 78, 264
rdul 'dust', 179, 1038, 1039, 1043, 1046, 1047
rga=le 'be extremely happy', 489
rga=χi 'be extremely happy', 489
rgali 'young cow', 173
rgargun 'old person', 179
rga 'be happy', 823, 1068, 1110
rga 'like', 35, 36, 78, 296², 296, 511, 532, 533, 860, 861, 863, 901, 907, 953, 954, 957, 1000, 1076, 1153, 1282, 1313, 1319, 1327, 1328
rgytpu 'old man', 102
rgyž 'be old', 962
ri 'remain', 592, 593, 851, 915, 1239
rkaj 'be strong', 59, 518
rko 'be hard', 59, 78, 797, 799, 1068
rku 'put in', 295, 299, 358, 580, 797, 798, 876, 879, 889, 1234
rkýž 'carve', 930, 1224
rkun 'be few', 674
rlač 'disappear', 91, 906
rma 'stay the night, live', 608, 762
rmbu 'heap up', 70, 274, 429, 951
rmi 'be called', 297, 532, 586, 793, 828, 1031, 1066, 1192
rmvβja 'peacock', 78, 153
rmurmi 'all, all kinds of', 387

rnaštewχa 'having ears with ten holes', 240
rnač 'be deep', 78, 1238
rnde 'find', 78
rnde 'get into trouble', 1009, 1010
rndu 'obtain', 954, 958, 1009, 1010¹⁴, 1010
rndzykyŋe 'shade of the mountain', 78
rnyštewχa 'whose ear has ten holes', 160, 161, 415
rom 'be dry', 799, 1152
ro 'be in surplus', 791, 792
roč 'carve', 930
rpju 'turn sour', 90, 539
rpu 'bump into', 357, 535, 593, 795, 910, 912, 1156, 1224, 1344
rpyo 'up on the mountain', 98
rpʰyβrpʰyβ 'flapping wings', 78
rqoč 'hug', 32, 50, 78, 903, 986
rsuwβrsuwβ 'hairy', 78
rtalu 'horse year', 78
rtač 'be enough', 869, 1409, 1436, 1440
rtoč 'look', 706, 711, 1068, 1097, 1099, 1344, 1363
rtsiač 'be steep', 90
rtsi 'count', 533, 797¹⁸, 875, 876, 886
rtsot 'vengeance', 78
rtsuwčanlaŋmtcɛrt 'all the plants', 181
rtsuwčan 'plant', 182
rtsuy 'pile up', 274
rtsʰom 'have a crack', 78
rtcʰuwju 'caterpillar', 62, 78, 167
rtvltčač 'horse whip', 76
rtvβ 'attach', 302
ru 'fetch, bring', 636, 694, 701, 704, 1076¹⁸
ru 'look at', 180, 294, 302, 329, 346, 534, 638, 678, 699, 701, 704, 711, 730, 794, 820, 909, 992, 1008, 1071, 1075, 1076¹⁸, 1077,
Index of Japhug forms

1079, 1080, 1099, 1286, 1344,
1362, 1363
rwa 'yak felt tent', 88
rwt 'dig', 88
rŋama 'completion', 1229
rŋgym 'hard piece', 78
rŋgyb 'attach', 149, 152
rŋgw 'lie down', 760, 801, 823, 1068,
1077
rŋo 'borrow', 346, 579, 583, 585, 679,
823, 824, 842
rŋu 'parch', 156, 589, 730
rŋu~rŋul 'things in silver', 178
rŋuwfei 'silversmith', 162
rŋul 'silver', 162, 178, 300, 417, 425,
1019, 1020, 1253
rɛwβrɛwβ 'rough', 78
rjama 'scales', 279¹²
rjak 'dance', 27, 78, 784
rjitpa 'lineage', 1471
rjum 'be broad', 668, 669
rjɛlpu-do 'old king', 173
rjɛlpu 'king', 1231, 1267
rjɛpɛrt 'half pound', 278
rjɛskʰi 'pan', 75
rjufsok 'earning money', 1071
rjwrgom 'coveting other people's for-
tune', 63
rjuy 'run', 61, 611, 634, 637⁶, 806, 845,
965, 989
rɛcβ 'grow pods', 1032
rɛfcɛr 'do pottery', 1032
rɛfsok 'earn money', 948
rɛftɛr 'castrate', 943
rɛfɛrt 'report', 930, 931, 935, 936³⁰
rɛjokbzu 'tidy up', 157, 1068
rɛjroks 'leaving traces', 1032
rɛjtsʰi 'give to someone to drink', 849,
887⁷, 936, 937

rɛjwaak 'grow leaves', 1031, 1032
rɛkrɛz 'have a discussion', 331, 1032,
1033, 1036, 1037, 1052, 1061,
1288⁸
rɛkʰa 'build a house', 1032, 1033
rɛloks 'make a nest', 932, 1032, 1033
rɛmat 'grow fruits', 1031, 1032
rɛma 'work', 948, 1032, 1036, 1061, 1088,
1153
rɛmbi 'give to someone', 534, 542¹⁰,
582, 887⁷, 930, 931, 936–938
rɛmpɛr 'make up', 893, 1003
rɛmuhtʰu 'ask around', 1002
rɛntɛʰa 'butcher', 931, 943
rɛŋŋa 'have a debt', 930, 932, 1061
rɛpyak 'reclaim land', 790, 930, 935,
1062, 1228
rɛpu 'have young', 673, 1032
rɛpʰu 'give a price for', 1034, 1035
rɛrka 'have twins', 1032
rɛru 'get up', 962
rɛrzuy 'cut into sections', 1034, 1035
rɛrjit 'have a child', 673, 1031, 1032
rɛrɛt 'write/draw things', 820, 949
rɛspra 'take a handful of', 1034
rɛspu 'fester', 1013, 1032
rɛstu 'be truthful', 1032
rɛtsye 'do business', 930, 932, 1061, 1069
rɛtsʰɛt 'try', 1002, 1003
rɛt 'write, draw', 26³, 727, 930, 945,
949
rɛtcaak 'tread on', 511
rɛtɛrβ 'burn land', 930, 935
rɛtçuwtɛcaak 'trample', 511
rɛtya 'measure by handspan', 275, 1034,
1035
rɛtʃuβ 'sew things', 949
rɛtʰutʰe 'inquire', 939
ršt'u 'ask questions', 930, 936, 939,
942, 944, 1002

rwum 'tidy up', 1002

rzda 'call before departure', 1019

rzga 'make honey', 1032

rznde 'make a wall', 932

rъngat 'be about to', 1364, 1367, 1368

rъngum 'lay eggs', 673

rънъom 'outrage', 1025, 1438

rъcar 'search things', 944

rъc 'pull', 499, 670, 992

rъcom 'form (of milk skin)', 1032

rъсъt 'patch clothes', 947, 1063

rъcтъw 'entrust someone with', 930,
936, 937

rъom 'measure by fathom', 1034

rъydrt 'cut into sections', 1034

rъy 'song', 677, 1047, 1226, 1332

rъyrwy 'cherish', 874, 1004

rъNqra 'do in an incomplete way', 1034,
1035

rъz 'stay', 302, 499, 746, 965, 1083,
1086, 1088, 1120, 1153, 1325

rъбъzjoz 'learn things', 931, 941

rъbъa 'roar', 98

rъбъwбъzr 'cut into many pieces', 992

rъxpun 'become a monk', 1032, 1033,
1049

ruftcaka 'do preparation', 1032, 1036,
1037

rujyryt 'go to the toilet', 1032, 1033

rukuwa 'do bad things', 728, 1034

rukuju 'do the right thing', 728, 1034

rukuwnom 'shoot out into ears', 1032,
1036

rukhramba 'tell lies', 33, 1032, 1033

rukhycy 'chat', 1032

rukhъxwi 'have a meeting', 1036, 1037,
1067

ruwtcъt 'offering to the mountain',
104

rumuntox 'bloom', 1032

rundzytsъi 'have a meal', 265, 666, 932,
1032, 1048

ruqaju 'get worms', 1013, 1032, 1036

ruqartsъb 'do harvesting', 1032

ruri 'each', 287, 384

ruru 'guard', 162, 509, 1008, 1009

rurujfsox 'accumulate a fortune', 1072

ruskъrwa 'do circumambulations', 1032,
1033

rustunmu 'marry', 1033

rususo 'think', 590, 930, 932, 1062, 1224

rutsъmu 'become a nun', 1049

rutusqa 'eat wheat gruel', 788, 1012,
1032, 1034

rutṣa 'envy', 903¹³

rwemi 'speak', 265, 345, 535, 677, 905,
932, 1032

rwcōbzu 'do woodwork', 1032

rujuli 'play the flute', 1032, 1033, 1227

ruy 'be precious', 874, 1004

ruklwywur 'happen suddenly', 1034, 1049

rpaŋ 'be ancient', 59, 78

rpo 'experience', 766, 774, 778, 1296,
1313–1315, 1329, 1331, 1364–
1367

rpaaklo 'bolt', 78

rpyi 'be long', 149, 158, 669, 670

rpul 'wither', 61

rkom 'be rough', 98, 99

rъaъ 'spend a night', 793

salaboŋoŋ 'puffball', 158

sar 'filter out', 852¹⁰, 917, 918

sat 'kill', 18, 19, 34, 676, 889, 899

saldy 'be slippery', 954

saindu 'hit people', 934
Index of Japhug forms

saχaъ ‘be extremely’, 781, 782, 1435,
1436
saχpaъ ‘respect’, 958
saχsu ‘lunch’, 341, 1047, 1048, 1220
scapa ‘sword’, 909
scit ‘be happy’, 767, 872, 873, 953, 954,
1117
sci ‘be born’, 672, 1013
sclaysclaŋ ‘bald’, 92
sco ‘see off’, 636, 797, 1068
scoь ‘scoop’, 75
scrabscrab ‘very small’, 95
scvт ‘move’, 930
scvъвъу ‘appearance’, 62
schът ‘recede’, 75
si ‘die’, 675, 676, 711, 784
si ‘tree’, 154, 269, 270, 724
si ‘wood’, 33, 417, 1071, 1074, 1075
sjaynysvaj ‘shaking one’s head’, 89
skraskra ‘impolite’, 95
skym ‘ox’, 75
skyrma ‘minute, date’, 756
skyrwa ‘circumambulation’, 1032, 1033,
1217

skvр ‘weigh’, 279¹², 930

skvγ ‘fatten’, 102

skurma ‘present’, 132

sku ‘bury’, 691

slama ‘student’, 137, 177

slamaxti ‘classmate’, 176

sloь ‘dig’, 91, 92

slvβkʰaŋ ‘school’, 57, 101

smar ‘river’, 75, 1270, 1292

smi ‘be cooked’, 850

smi ‘fire’, 147, 587, 588

smъnba ‘doctor’, 156, 899

smъnruy ‘medicinal plants’, 102

smъn ‘medicine’, 1019, 1020, 1051

smulъm ‘prayer’, 459, 1119, 1182, 1184,
1216

smuyot ‘light of the fire’, 147

snarndipu ‘person from Snarndi’, 174

sna ‘be good, be worthy’, 75, 1007, 1254,
1348, 1441³

snuŋaъ ‘harming people’, 162, 1071,
1072

soskusku ‘every morning’, 287

soz ‘morning’, 57, 284, 287

so ‘be empty’, 121, 799

spa ‘be able’, 511, 516, 565, 954, 958,
959, 986, 1095, 1296, 1313, 1318,
1358

spjaŋku ‘wolf’, 90

spoz ‘incense’, 57, 75

spoь ‘have a hole’, 30, 728, 847, 1002

sprušku ‘reincarnated’, 95

spyi ‘storehouse’, 98

spʰjar ‘spread out to dry’, 90

spʰut ‘can cut’, 517, 986

sqafsum ‘thirteen’, 236

sqamnuz ‘twelve’, 75, 236

sqanu ‘put in darkness’, 821

sqapryy ‘sixteen’, 94, 236

sqaptuy ‘eleven’, 101, 236, 257, 1245

sqapu ‘leave fallow’, 821

sqaŕndum ‘make murky’, 821

sqa ‘cook’, 750, 788, 789, 1012, 1078

sqačnuz ‘seventeen’, 235

sqi ‘ten’, 66, 233, 235, 238, 245, 246

sqlum ‘collapse’, 92, 920, 1006

squ-pa ‘ten years’, 255, 257

squ-xpa ‘ten years’, 255, 257

sqʰiar ‘stretches’, 90

sqʰi ‘tripod’, 66, 67, 75

srunloкpu ‘little ring’, 375

srunloь ‘ring’, 102, 103

srunmu ‘râkshasi’, 174
srun 'cotton', 93
sta 'wake up', 293
starlu 'year of the tiger', 415
star 'compared with', 187
staxpiu 'pea', 75, 120, 148, 153, 172
stianynstian 'jumping', 90
sti 'block', 132, 164, 876, 886, 1236
stotatsu-xpa 'a thousand years', 252
stotatsu 'thousand', 237, 238, 252
stobldzyym 'straw from broad beans',
98
stottsa 'name of plant', 172
stot 'broad bean', 76, 120, 148, 172
stu=mbat 'try hard', 357, 487, 489
stu 'believe', 532, 533, 806, 860, 863,
866
stu 'do like', 40, 200, 224, 445, 447,
559, 582, 744, 834, 896, 993,
1056, 1125, 1141¹⁰, 1308, 1312,
1334, 1369, 1376, 1386, 1397⁵,
1407, 1417, 1451
stu 'most', 238, 652, 1266, 1431, 1453
styrnrystyxr 'jumping', 98
stymku 'grassland', 410
styrjuy 'running', 806
stunmu 'marriage', 1033
stusti 'alone', 1045, 1207
sthamtcvt 'so much', 187, 380, 1433
sthaf 'put against', 75, 910, 911
sthok 'push', 76, 654, 979
sthruf 'dangling (of snot)', 95
sthuci 'so much', 187, 1432, 1433, 1443,
1450
sthut 'finish', 774, 837, 1314, 1320, 1333,
1364, 1366, 1381
stnac 'curse', 75
stnicxr 'night and day', 156
stnom 'envy', 860, 864
sya 'rust', 97, 1047, 1219

srycu 'key', 758, 876, 1005, 1227
sryca 'be such that people can', 954,
957, 1232
syfstvt 'praise people', 934
syftcaka 'prepare', 1028, 1030, 1031, 1037
syja 'give back', 595
syjndvt 'be cute', 80
syjts hi 'ask for something to drink',
847, 887
syjtu 'accumulate', 821
syk hi 'smoke', 1028
sylandphn-pu 'little basin', 120
symbi 'ask for', 346, 535, 887⁷, 887, 936
symbru 'get angry', 827, 962, 1012, 1025,
1027, 1073
symbnungu 'be detestable', 1027, 1073
symcar 'take with tongs', 1028
symto 'be visible', 954, 958
symtsur 'be a famine', 954, 955
symtsuy 'bite people', 934, 947
symts hi 'lead the way', 943
symts hsm 'be audible', 954, 958
symts hsr 'be strange', 1025
symumto 'cause to see each other',
914
symuzyut 'do evenly', 952
symnym 'do homogeneously', 821
synda 'hide', 830, 839
syndu 'exchange', 311, 979, 981
syndvr 'thimble', 1214
syndry 'be poisonous', 1021, 1025
syntsndu 'exchange by mistake', 982
synxhe 'bully people', 782, 934, 948
synxku 'invite people', 948
synxmtsioh 'peck people', 934
synxre 'laugh at people', 590, 933, 934,
1053
synxsry 'be jealous of people', 934
Index of Japhug forms

sɪŋɪŋz 'be such that people dare to',
954, 955, 957

sɪŋwurtɛa 'tease people', 934, 944

sɪŋwurutṣa 'envy people', 934

sɪŋnusukʰo 'rob people', 849, 939, 949

sɪŋnuzduŋ 'causing people to worry',
954, 959, 960, 1065

sɪŋpa 'transform', 886, 899

sɪŋpe 'do well', 828, 836

sɪŋpʰɪŋt 'wipe off', 918

sɪŋqriycʰa 'alcohol offered to one's guests',
154, 760

sɪŋre 'be ridiculous', 794, 1025, 1064,
1436

sɪŋrga 'be adorable', 954

sɪŋrma 'good night', 42, 454, 459, 608–
610, 762

sɪŋrmi 'give a name', 586, 828, 1028,
1029, 1031, 1066, 1192

sɪŋrndu 'be easy to find', 954, 958

sɪŋrtsi 'count as', 300, 845, 886

sɪŋrtʃʰɪyɑk 'quibble about', 1237

sɪŋrŋgwŋga 'bed cover', 760

sɪŋrŋɒm 'outrage', 1025

sɪŋrŋyele 'extend (limbs)', 65

sɪŋscit 'be pleasant', 872, 873, 954, 960

sɪŋspa 'be known', 954

sɪŋsqra 'limit', 95

sɪŋsɪŋo 'listen to advice', 595, 933, 934

sɪŋswuxcɛrt 'teach people', 934, 938

sɪŋswuz 'be known', 954

sɪŋtsa 'prick, pierce', 355, 1236

sɪŋtso 'be understandable', 954

sɪŋtɔutsi 'continue', 1364

sɪŋtʃʰa 'earth', 129

sɪŋtʃʰu 'gore people', 934

sɪŋtuta 'separate', 908

sɪŋtʃu 'illuminate with a lamp', 1028

sɪŋtʰu 'ask in marriage', 934, 936, 1002

sɪŋwuwum 'gather', 908

sɪŋxurxur 'cause to turn', 1058

sɪŋzdu:pa 'be pitiful', 611

sɪŋzbru 'anger', 95, 827, 1012, 1027

sɪŋz 'compared with', 334, 1423

sɪŋzyŋmu 'praise people', 933

sɪŋŋaβdi 'unpleasant smell', 166, 1026

sɪŋŋaβ 'be unpleasant', 166, 1026, 1053

sɪŋŋgio 'be slippery', 927, 954, 960

sɪŋŋo 'listen', 297, 532, 590³², 594, 664,
678, 933, 934, 1097, 1099, 1344,
1363

sɪŋcar 'search someone', 934, 944

sɪŋcɛke 'be burning', 892, 954

sɪŋcraк 'be a lack of drink', 955

sɪŋcqa 'be bearable', 1053

sɪŋcqʰe 'cause to cough', 821

sɪŋctɔuy 'strap', 77, 79, 759

sɪŋctɔt 'comb', 889, 1028

sɪŋyduŋy 'be unpleasant', 873, 954, 955,
960

sɪŋymu 'be frightening', 824, 953–955,
1064, 1108

sɪŋyur 'enclose', 1028

sɪŋyɒnt 'be exhausting', 954, 955, 1064

sɪŋkombi 'be discouraging', 924, 1073

sɪŋ 'begin', 774, 777, 1314, 1364

sɪŋzilɔk 'be disgusting', 1073

sɪŋβzdoκβzdu 'put in order', 884

sɪŋβzi 'be very intoxicating', 954

sɪŋβzu 'transform', 886, 899

su-kʰɪŋt 'cause to do repeatedly', 312

su-βzu 'cause to make; use X to make',
754

sufsaŋ 'fumigate', 1028, 1030

suftsʰi 'force', 839

sujaβndzu 'point', 1028

sujno 'grass', 1017

sukʰo 'cause to give', 829, 982
swulardvβ 'kick (kick with forelegs)', 589
sumar 'make/let smear', 820
sumbi 'make/let give', 822
sumuzduy 'worry', 103
sundza 'be able to eat', 984
sundza 'make/let eat', 822, 984
sundzupe 'sit without crossing legs', 1027, 1028, 1224
suno 'make/let drive', 820, 822
supa 'cause to do', 777, 778, 787, 1349, 1350
supa 'consider', 845
suphut 'firewood cutting', 33, 1071
swqartsu 'kick', 589, 791, 1028, 1029, 1227
swqav 'make peel', 820
swrjuy 'run away with', 637⁶
susci 'give birth to', 1013
suso 'think', 192, 589, 590³³, 590, 591, 664, 791, 929, 930, 932, 1062, 1088, 1123, 1139, 1171, 1180, 1317, 1322, 1325, 1352, 1359
suspok 'pierce', 806
susu 'live', 910
suti 'cause to say', 494
sutsum 'send with', 822
suxch'a 'can', 1357
suxtso 'make understand', 822
suxts'ak 'sieve', 1028
suxts'wi 'dye', 1028
suxtch'ak 'make diminish', 290
suxce 'send', 494, 636, 822, 827, 1035
suxce 'send, let go', 494
suxcrt 'teach', 582, 727, 934, 938, 945, 1282, 1283, 1361
suzgrutc'uw 'give a nudge', 165, 1072
suz 'know', 516, 576, 811, 950, 954, 958, 959, 1455, 1456

suzke 'firewood transportation', 1074, 1075
swngi 'lion', 890
swngupryka 'type wild squash', 153
swngurmyβja 'lophophorus', 153
swngu 'forest', 153, 154²², 534
sućtši 'cause to sweat', 1028, 1029
sućum 'make/let brood', 822
suyle 'invite', 495, 636, 820, 828
suýjry 'finish', 820, 837, 1364
swymbuz 'let overflow', 822
swyndzur 'make/let stand up', 822
swyndzi 'melt', 928
swynz 'cause to dare', 822
swyru 'make/let look at', 820
swyrut 'send, cause to bring', 585
swyrpat 'exhaust', 1065
swyrpaš 'blacken', 907
swyrpo 'prepare', 820
swykaš 'cause to hatch', 102, 821
swunqhi 'make dirty', 907
swnejlu 'be left-handed', 1027, 1028
swßzu 'cause to make', 761
swχsyl 'recognize', 1360, 1361
snajne 'fasting', 75
snikuku 'every day', 287
snpu 'be mad', 991
ta-mar 'butter', 66, 115, 1020, 1046, 1047, 1053, 1054
ta-ma 'work', 14, 33, 53, 66, 115, 759, 948, 1032, 1061
ta-ka 'free time', 66, 1216, 1219, 1378
ta-ki 'younger sibling', 66, 115, 177, 1462, 1463, 1469
ta-kiujβ 'shadow', 66
ta-ki 'dirt', 66
ta-krzt 'charcoal', 66
ta-krum 'light, shadow', 66
Index of Japhug forms

ta-ъгъи 'horn', 66, 115, 149, 151, 170, 268,
795

ta-ъгъаз 'soot', 66

ta-χri 'shape, model', 66

tamcom 'clamp', 86

taqaβ 'needle', 30, 66, 268, 1017, 1227

ta 'put', 102, 220, 289, 295, 577, 681,
760, 789, 876, 879, 908, 947,
979, 1030, 1219, 1233, 1234,
1237

taъki 'up and down', 102, 158, 1015

taъ 'up', 158, 352

taъ 'weave', 355¹⁰, 588, 589, 780¹¹, 784,
1153

taъгъаз 'soot', 882

taχρ'he 'slap', 83

thi 'downstream', 352

ti 'say', 212, 217, 223, 265, 345, 433,
445, 446, 451, 464, 494, 495,
565, 575, 576, 579, 624, 631³,
677, 714, 722, 744, 761, 773,
791, 910, 911, 932, 964, 965,
976, 988-990, 1104, 1105, 1111,
1131, 1143-1145, 1158, 1160, 1169,
1195, 1280, 1289, 1309, 1322,
1325, 1376, 1437, 1439

tɔъde 'a moment', 1203

tsa 'a little', 1214, 1269, 1401, 1443

tsaъ 'just, only', 1429

tsiaŋŋrtsiaŋ 'very tall, moving', 89

tsluγtsluγ 'completely wrapped up',
91

tso 'know, understand', 297, 307, 531,
532, 542, 822, 910, 912, 950,
954, 957, 965, 1236, 1304, 1360,
1455

tsri 'be salty', 93, 846

tsuku 'some', 213, 217, 218, 383, 384

tsu 'pass (of time)', 279, 532, 653

tsyi 'rot', 97

tsum 'take away', 102, 302, 580, 596,
636-638, 694, 822, 983, 1068,
1212, 1337

tsuъкъот 'pheasant', 456

ts'ha 'salt', 1227

ts'haъ 'sieve', 151, 1028, 1030

ts'hitsuku 'whatever', 199, 209, 213, 214,
946

ts'h'i 'block', 154, 730

ts'h'i 'drink', 30, 164, 199, 583, 666¹², 667,
668, 743, 789, 794, 796, 823,
826, 849, 853, 884, 932, 949,
1018, 1071, 1076, 1145, 1426

ts'h'i 'strangle', 889

ts'h'i 'what', 213

ts'h'oz 'be complete', 274, 850

ts'h'оъ 'attach', 150, 443, 444, 577, 791,
792, 837, 876, 881, 918, 922,
1065, 1071, 1235, 1236

ts'hutshe 'be very fat', 511

ts'huxtoъ 'loyalty', 1248

ts'u 'be fat', 511

ts'wi 'dye', 1028, 1030

ts'hъnnu 'ewe', 149, 175

ts'hът 'goat', 149, 177, 455

ts'hът 'try', 991, 1002, 1003

ts'hъгъри 'goat horn', 149

ts'hurjun 'often', 67

tu 'exist', 69⁶, 131, 315, 349, 359, 381,
489, 508, 515, 529, 632, 672,
760, 766, 767, 772, 801, 811,
870, 880, 1013, 1014, 1048, 1105,
1112, 1243, 1302, 1304

tçetu 'up there', 691

tçet'a 'later', 65, 1418

tce 'then', 65

tçi 'also', 48

tçizo 'we (dual)', 190
tɛrwyŋrɛtcrwy ‘crunching’, 93
tɛr ‘be sour’, 846, 857
tɛyak ‘squeeze out’, 97, 917
tɛyomte ‘cultivated xanthoxylum’, 173
tɛyom ‘xanthoxylum’, 173
tɛrmu ‘nun’, 1049
tɛr ‘be narrow’, 669
tɛr ‘take out’, 197, 289, 577, 637, 761,
789, 794, 948, 1004, 1029, 1049,
1050, 1062, 1071, 1218, 1228,
1229, 1237, 1348
tɛrβ ‘burn’, 917, 930, 935
tɛbuznytɛbuz ‘crunchy’, 99
tɛh’ak ‘diminish’, 290
tɛh’eme ‘girl’, 65, 147, 163, 172, 177, 392,
414, 415, 556, 588, 606, 1215¹¹,
1463, 1465
tɛh’emeβra’k ‘little burdock’, 163
tɛh’emyl ‘little girl’, 173
tɛh’emypu ‘little girl’, 147, 172, 173
tɛh’emχti ‘friend (between female)’, 176
tɛh’imaŋr ‘at least’, 1429
tɛh’indza ‘why’, 199, 201
tɛh’ira ‘water jar’, 62
tɛh’itcun paχci ‘pear’, 154, 1014
tɛh’itcun ‘Chuchen’, 154, 1014
tɛh’it’yn ‘mudslide’, 643
tɛh’i ‘tree-trunk stairs’, 199
tɛh’i ‘what’, 198–203, 213, 216, 773, 878,
1232, 1261, 1302, 1369, 1430
tɛh’ibja ‘duck’, 89
tɛh’om ‘be too much’, 853, 1409, 1436,
1440
tɛh’orzi ‘jar’, 67
tɛh’yaktɛh’yak ‘completely’, 97
tɛh’yrpu ‘rain shelter’, 101
tɛh’umuyu ‘water hole’, 62
tɛh’ute ‘big river’, 173
tɛh’uwur ‘blister’, 1235

tɛh’uzu ‘type of weaving tool’, 62
tɛh’u ‘gore, stab’, 62, 165, 265, 274, 789,
794, 795, 934, 1071, 1077, 1224,
1344, 1407
tɛh’uβro’k ‘type of tsampa’, 62
tɛh’uχpri ‘salamander’, 62, 95, 167
tɛh’uuznytɛh’uuz ‘crunchy’, 99
tɔ-c’u ‘wedge’, 62, 63
tɔ-di ‘smell’, 166, 871, 1038, 1039, 1379
tɔ-fkaβ ‘lid’, 792
tɔ-fkum ‘bag’, 1041
tɔ-fsjit ‘whistle’, 90
tɔ-ftsa ‘sister’s child’, 148, 177, 415, 1461,
1463, 1468, 1469
tɔ-jkuz ‘secret’, 80
tɔ-jlyβ ‘steam’, 1078
tɔ-jme ‘tail’, 81, 116, 150, 151, 170, 181
tɔ-jro’k ‘trace’, 72, 93, 187
tɔ-jtsi ‘pillar’, 80, 81
tɔ-jwa’k ‘leaf’, 88, 116, 268, 1020, 1031,
1032
tɔ-jŋo’k ‘hook’, 80, 103
tɔ-k’rme ‘head hair’, 116, 147, 268
tɔ-k’u ‘smoke’, 1012, 1027–1029, 1039,
1047
tɔ-lo’k ‘nest’, 932, 1032
tɔ-lu ‘milk’, 13, 33, 116, 123, 124, 151,
155, 160, 184, 539, 1051, 1229
tɔ-ma ‘mother’, 53, 66, 115, 422, 1459
tɔ-mbe ‘old thing’, 120, 121, 173, 792
tɔ-mbru + ŋgw ‘get angry’, 803, 823
tɔ-mbru + ɔŋgw ‘anger’, 823
tɔ-mbru ‘anger’, 538, 590, 1025, 1027,
1051, 1052, 1073, 1239
tɔ-mdzu ‘thorn’, 183, 301, 1019, 1020,
1038, 1039
tɔ-mdu ‘brother’s child’, 177
tɔ-mkum ‘pillow’, 1053, 1054
tɔ-mqe ‘verbal fight’, 308
Index of Japhug forms

tɔ-mtsioɛk 'beak', 50, 90
tɔ-mtsur 'hunger', 785
tɔ-mtsu 'button', 86, 1227
tɔ-mtɛh'o 'wedge', 86
tɔ-mtu 'knot', 86, 159, 405, 1227
tɔ-mtʰum 'meat', 156
tɔ-muj 'feather', 123, 125, 126, 268
tɔ-mu 'mother', 118, 422, 1045, 1459, 1463
tɔ-mɛtsa 'mother's sister's child', 176, 1457
tɔ-nd 'poison', 1025
tɔ-ndut 'dispute', 308
tɔ-ndzuy 'resin', 1020
tɔ-nmaɛ 'husband', 86, 390, 1469
tɔ-ntɔβ 'bubble', 1020
tɔ-pa 'father', 422, 1459
tɔ-pi 'elder sibling', 114, 247, 1462, 1463, 1466, 1469
tɔ-pri 'dinner', 1047, 1220
tɔ-pɛro 'present', 130, 1266
tɔ-pɛtso 'child', 724, 1051, 1307
tɔ-pu 'offspring, young', 15, 120, 172, 173, 1032, 1218, 1231
tɔ-pʰu 'clod (of earth)', 1071
tɔ-pʰu 'clod', 1076
tɔ-qa 'paw, root', 149, 151, 182, 352, 1051, 1229
tɔ-rcɔɛ 'mud', 78
tɔ-re 'laugh (n)', 423, 590, 761, 793, 794, 1025, 1051, 1052, 1064, 1218, 1229
tɔ-ri 'thread', 1040, 1041
tɔ-rkoz 'specially', 797, 799
tɔ-rkuz 'parting present', 131, 797, 798
tɔ-rkʰom 'feather rachis', 78, 116
tɔ-rmbja 'flash of lightning', 90
tɔ-rmbyo 'drum', 98

tɔ-rme 'hair', 15, 116, 147, 1020, 1050, 1051, 1229
tɔ-rmi 'name', 56, 138, 139, 143, 727, 793, 828, 959, 1028, 1031, 1066, 1218, 1229
tɔ-ro 'surplus, leftover', 533, 791, 792, 1016, 1041
tɔ-rpu 'mother's brother', 133, 177, 1461, 1462, 1469
tɔ-rqʰioɛ 'groove', 90, 1018
tɔ-rqʰu 'hull, skin', 78, 161, 1051, 1234
tɔ-rtaɛ 'branch', 150¹⁸, 1014, 1023
tɔ-rte 'hat', 16, 127, 136, 184, 1234
tɔ-rtsɣy 'stairs', 156
tɔ-rtsuɛ 'number', 797¹⁸
tɔ-rjit 'child', 63, 133, 1013, 1020, 1023, 1031, 1032, 1218
tɔ-rya 'neighbour', 176, 178, 1024
tɔ-r 'one night', 250, 253, 254, 279
tɔ-rкак 'time', 205, 253, 793, 963, 1216
tɔ-rкаβ 'wife', 78, 177, 832, 1045, 1469
tɔ-scoz 'letter, writing', 797
tɔ-se 'blood', 14, 116, 882, 1229
tɔ-snom 'sister', 16, 177, 1457
tɔ-sno 'saddle', 147
tɔ-spu 'pus', 116, 1013, 1032
tɔ-sqʰaj 'sister', 175, 176
tɔ-ste 'bladder', 117, 272
tɔ-sŋut 'bite', 1051
tɔ-tsru 'sprout', 116
tɔ-tsur 'crack', 1039, 1040
tɔ-tsʰoɛ 'nail', 791, 792
tɔ-tɛu 'son', 118, 173, 415, 1017, 1045, 1050, 1463, 1465
tɔ-tɛu 'son, boy', 163, 177, 711
tɔ-tɛuy 'tree shoot', 1039
tɔ-wa 'father', 118, 422, 1459
tɔ-wi 'grandmother', 118, 1461
tɔ-wmu 'brother', 16, 177
tw-wu 'grandfather', 118, 1461
tw-xtyy 'brother', 16, 176
tw-zgra 'sound', 1375
tw-zrym 'root', 116, 268
tw-ngyr 'fat', 1020
tw-ngku 'pig skin', 116
tw-cpht 'patch (n)', 102, 164, 792, 947, 1063, 1234
tw-cqhe 'cough', 792, 1016
tw-ye 'grandchild', 177, 1468
tw-yur 'fence', 1028
tw-la 'mother's sister', 117, 177, 1461, 1462
tw-ji 'father's sister', 177, 1460, 1466
tw-kar 'wing', 66, 272, 276
tw-ka 'free time', 187
tw-ka 'good time', 590, 1047
tw-βju 'mattress', 115, 1051
tw-βyo 'father's brother', 144, 177, 1466
tw-jkuz 'secret', 1051
tw-jmryy 'mushroom', 126, 149, 152, 166, 1047
tw-jpa 'snow', 56, 268, 1017, 1227
tw-jpyom 'ice', 96, 1053, 1054
tw-jtsi 'pillar', 1041
tw-kryzbyak 'headache', 98, 729
tw-khe 'idiot, fool', 121, 786
tw-lmu 'straw covering the balcony', 76
tw-ltsak 'milk filter', 151
tw-lyxc'i 'fresh milk', 82, 160
tw-mbextsa 'type of shoes', 166
tw-mbyo 'deaf person', 1038, 1039
tw-mbrt 'mountain', 182
tw-mcar 'tongs', 86, 1028
tw-mpcyr 'beauty', 1064
tw-mqe 'scolding', 786
tw-mtsryz 'hyperostosis', 1232
twmtukunw 'specially, on purpose', 405

twmtupak 'deadlock', 159
twndyyri 'illegitimate child', 1229
twndut 'quarrel, dispute (n)', 786
twndzo 'cold', 786, 1039
twpra 'messenger', 1012, 1040, 1041
twpru 'rain shelter', 101
twphu 'breaking clods of earth', 1071
twqiaβjmyy 'Lactarius sp.', 166
twrcok 'mud', 1038, 1039
twresytewyt 'joke', 761
twrrka 'twins', 1032
twrmbja 'lightning', 1224
twrtsa 'wave', 1224
twrjusti 'only child', 63
twrka 'game', 1012, 1039
twrscoz 'letter', 875
twscyr 'being startled', 786
twtar 'stick', 1050, 1051
twtom 'uphill', 1212
twtso 'Potentilla anserina', 50
twtshok 'nail', 148, 1236
twtewbra 'burdock', 162, 163
twtewxti 'friend (between males)', 176
twtu 'lamp', 1028
twu 'cry', 1039, 1057
twzmbur 'silt', 75
twzra 'shame', 786
twŋaβ 'unpleasant thing, wrong', 1052
twje 'sun', 1224
twjkht 'fist', 909, 1227
twrym 'pain', 308, 785¹⁴, 785
twcime 'lady', 1312
twi 'barley', 159
twcra 'thirst', 1438
twc 'coolness', 1039
twcyr 'comb', 1027, 1028, 1030
twcyyrum 'white barley', 159
twcynak 'black barley', 159
Index of Japhug forms

txya 'visible', 1026

txyro 'game', 784, 1015⁴, 1015

txy 'one', 233, 236

txynat 'tiredness', 784, 1064, 1065

txyi 'walking stick', 268, 1050, 1051

txzri 'dew', 1047

txzun 'downhill', 1212

txβ 'thresh', 589

tw-bov 'one group', 266, 269, 275

tw-cirquw 'cold water', 120

tw-ci 'water', 62, 117, 123, 124, 127, 406, 565, 566, 643, 1014

tw-fcaw 'dorsal mat', 74

tw-fkur 'one load', 274

tw-jaawmu 'thumb', 158, 161

tw-jaawtxa 'space between thumb and index', 161

tw-jaabndzumtxaxcγl 'middle finger', 160

tw-jaabndzu 'finger', 148, 160, 1028

tw-jak 'hand, arm', 115, 148, 149, 170, 181, 316, 346, 363, 364, 415, 1020, 1022, 1230

tw-jaχpa 'palm', 149

tw-ji 'field', 173, 783¹³

tw-jlzβ 'weft', 101

tw-jmjo 'dream', 80, 81, 84, 99, 890, 1041

tw-jrov 'trace', 1032

tw-ku 'head', 12, 14–16, 147, 154, 165, 170, 181, 182, 352⁹, 352, 794, 889, 905, 1044, 1071, 1074, 1229, 1234, 1235

tw-kvlmya 'facial features', 181

tw-kvrno 'brain', 1222

tw-kur 'mouth', 272

tw-kha 'one foot', 277

tw-kʰi + ŋgw 'be lucky', 123

tw-kʰi 'lucky X', 122, 123

tw-kʰyl 'one place', 1018

tw-kʰutsa 'one bowl', 273

tw-lcʰuy 'one section', 76

tw-ldza 'one long object', 260, 264, 267⁹, 268–270

tw-lpyy 'one piece', 76

tw-lzn 'answer', 1041

tw-lum 'size', 1045

tw-mci 'saliva', 158, 1227

tw-mcʰi 'gall', 86

tw-mdzu 'tongue', 86, 155

tw-me 'daughter', 117, 1050, 1051, 1465

tw-mga 'advantage', 86

tw-mi 'foot, leg', 148, 181, 268, 1020, 1074, 1234

tw-mke 'neck', 86, 169, 1227

tw-mpcər 'one leaf', 268, 269

tw-mqaj 'scolding', 1015

tw-mtsʰi 'liver', 56, 84

tw-mtɛʰirme 'moustaches', 62

tw-mtɛʰi 'mouth', 62, 134, 1231, 1239

tw-mtʰγrNGγβ 'waistline of the trousers', 149, 152

tw-mtʰγy 'waist', 149, 152

tw-mja 'jaw', 86

tw-mglə 'one step', 92, 1051, 1055

tw-myxja 'limbs', 180³³, 181

tw-mympa 'astragalus', 148

tw-muw-cʰu 'towards the sky', 329

tw-mu 'sky, weather', 127, 128, 148, 539, 540, 579, 731, 1227

tw-mŋa 'arrow', 84

tw-mŋa 'eye', 148, 151, 165, 181, 589, 858, 1020, 1074

tw-mŋutsi 'one lifetime', 279

tw-ndzyi 'fang', 97, 98

tw-ndzki 'collar bone', 98, 99

tw-ndzi 'skin', 149, 150, 153

tw-ntsi 'one of a pair', 260

tw-ntɛʰur 'fragment', 179
tuu-nŋa 'debt', 85, 132, 793, 1061, 1236

tuu-nu 'teat', 150

tuu-phoŋbu 'body', 59

tuu-phu 'one tree', 269

tuu-po 'one dou', 278¹¹, 278

tuu-pɔrme 'one year of life', 126, 155

tuu-pʰoŋbu 'body', 1232

tuu-pʰoŋ 'one bottle', 273

tuu-pʰu 'one tree', 256, 268, 270

tuu-qe 'shit, dung', 150

tuu-qiu 'one half', 272, 291

tuu-qom 'tear', 1229

tuu-qʰoχρα 'organs, state of mind', 58, 116

tuu-rcu 'jacket', 173

tuu-rcɔmbe 'old jacket', 173

tuu-rdoɔ 'one piece', 11, 111, 222, 233, 255, 258, 264, 268, 269, 288, 289, 384, 388, 600, 1051, 1052, 1207

tuu-ri 'one hundred', 237, 252

tuu-rju 'word', 89, 1015

tuu-rmbi 'urine', 1077

tuu-rna 'ear', 161, 240

tuu-rnoɔ 'brain', 153, 1236

tuu-ro 'chest', 1222, 1229

tuu-rpa 'axe', 78, 148

tuu-rpaɔ 'shoulder', 115, 1020, 1022, 1045, 1051

tuu-rtsγγ 'one storey', 254

tuu-rtsʰγz 'lung', 150

tuu-rzuy 'one section', 78, 279, 1034, 1225

tuu-rŋa 'face', 78, 909, 1075

tuu-rju 'fortune', 63, 1071

tuu-ryi 'seed', 97, 759

tuu-rʒaɔ 'one night', 253

tuu-scawa 'poor X', 122

tuu-scur 'a double handful', 1041

tuu-skɔrma 'one minute', 279, 288

tuu-skʰru 'body', 95, 518, 1051, 1052, 1222

tuu-sla 'one month', 253, 279, 281, 287

tuu-sni 'heart', 147, 162, 865, 1071, 1237

tuu-spra 'one handful', 260, 1034, 1035

tuu-srag 'one ounce', 278

tuu-sroɔ 'life', 592, 851, 1073, 1075, 1229, 1239

tuu-sŋaɔ 'sorcery', 929

tuu-sŋi 'one day', 11, 156, 259, 279, 281, 286, 287, 334

tuu-sum + ɛe 'want', 803

tuu-sum + βdi 'be relieved', 1241

tuu-sumpa 'mind', 1219

tuu-sum 'mind', 437, 802, 865, 1222, 1241, 1377

tuu-suso 'thought', 791, 1062, 1224

tuu-tsʰoz 'one complete set', 274

tuu-tɛa 'mistake', 1039, 1239

tuu-tɔuλyβ 'one unit of tobacco', 288

tuu-tɛʰa 'information, news', 131, 1041, 1272, 1375, 1376, 1380

tuu-tɛʰa 'one pair', 266

tuu-tya 'one span', 96, 97, 254, 275–277, 1034

tuu-tɔ-ste 'one bladder of', 272

tuu-tɔfskɔr 'one turn', 265

tuu-tɔrmbu 'one heap', 274

tuu-tɔrtsuy 'one pile', 274

tuu-tɔrzuuy 'one section', 1034

tuu-tɔsum 'one part', 291

tuu-tɔtɛʰu 'hitting with the hoe one time', 264, 274

tuu-tɔxur 'one turn', 265, 276

tuu-tɔymbaj 'one side', 269

tuu-tu-kur 'one mouthful', 272

tuu-tu-xpa 'some years', 256

tuu-tucur 'one part', 291

tuu-tukro 'one part', 291
tw-tununa 'one mile', 277
tw-tupcurtcʰaъ 'one generation', 279
tw-tupu 'one household', 259, 266, 597
tw-tupʰu 'one hive', 266
tw-tupʰu 'one type', 270
tw-turpa 'one pound', 279¹², 279
tw-xpa 'one year', 81, 82, 126, 155, 181, 253, 255–257, 275, 279, 281, 287, 334, 800, 1221
tw-xtsa 'shoe', 150, 166
tw-xtsʰi 'one time', 282
tw-xtu 'belly', 351, 785¹⁴
tw-zda 'companion', 176, 1019
tw-zgru 'elbow', 165, 1071, 1077
tw-zloъ 'one time', 91, 255, 290
tw-ŋga 'clothes', 15, 16, 760, 1204, 1271
tw-ŋgo 'disease', 85, 793, 1050
tw-ça 'flesh', 1020
tw-čkat 'one load', 1041
tw-čkrut 'bile', 169
tw-čmi 'word', 1032, 1076
tw-čna 'nose', 161, 164, 886
tw-čnaβ 'snot', 162
tw-čpyo 'ten bushels', 278
tw-čryz 'one stripe', 1018
tw-čtçi 'sweat', 116, 1028, 1229
tw-čya 'tooth', 87, 96, 97, 161, 1014
tw-jom 'one fathom', 277, 1034
tw-jom 'the length of two outstretched arms', 276
tw-juy 'one pack', 269, 275
tw-ydɔt 'one section', 1034, 1225
tw-yjɔŋ 'one time', 89, 255, 257, 264, 1201⁵
tw-yli 'dung', 299, 794, 1020, 1071
tw-yli 'excrement, dung', 152
tw-ymaz 'wound', 82
tw-ymba 'cheek', 82
tw-ymur 'one evening', 284, 287

tw-yna 'thirty bushels', 278
tw-yŋi 'friend, ally', 800
tw-łum 'one period of sleep', 276
tw-ŋyɔk 'helper', 791
tw-kaъ 'the length of one arm', 272, 276, 277
tw-къiz + yì 'wish', 539, 803
tw-kaъ 'forearm', 91
tw-şwaŋ 'a pair', 1019, 1020, 1022
tw-zi 'nausea', 1073
tw-βra 'share', 906
tw-χpyi 'thigh', 58, 98
tw-χpum 'knee', 443, 837, 838
tw-χti 'companion', 176
tw-χtsiu 'one bushel', 278
tuciste 'amniotic sac', 117
tudi 'arrow', 909, 1224
tufcɔt 'pottery', 1032
tufswsqi 'about thirty', 246
tufcɛy'l 'diarrhea', 788
tujite 'big field', 173
tuji 'planting and sowing', 783
tuka 'each', 220, 384, 385, 522
tukryz 'discussion', 57, 1032, 1033, 1061
tukumŋyṣqi 'about fifty', 246
tukungusqi 'about ninety', 246
tukurcyṣqi 'about eighty', 246
tukutṣyṣqi 'about sixty', 246
tukuṣṇyṣqi 'about seventy', 246
tukuβdṣqi 'about forty', 246
tulɔt 'second sibling', 117, 141¹⁴, 141, 240
tumbri 'rope', 1078
tumtçi 'morning', 1047
tumu 'fear', 784, 1064, 1065
tumupaъ 'slug', 148
tumŋa 'arrow', 268
tupu 'moxibustion', 789, 1233, 1234
tupçi 'flax', 85
tupyak ‘land clearing’, 789, 1062, 1228

tuqartsu ‘kicking’, 791, 1029⁶, 1029

turma ‘household’, 790, 1231

turme-kʰa ‘other people’s house’, 302

turme ‘person’, 126, 134, 155, 192, 194, 195, 207, 209, 222, 258, 299, 604, 864, 946, 990, 1189, 1303, 1312, 1449

turmu ‘dusk’, 56, 285, 1047

turpa ‘axe’, 279

tursa ‘grave’, 126

turtcʰi ‘type of vegetable (酸酸菜)’, 167

turjak ‘dance (n)’, 784

tusi ‘death’, 784

tusqa ‘wheat gruel’, 788, 789, 1012, 1032

tusjaa ‘enchantment’, 741

tutaak mʰuxtcɛyr ‘weaving belt’, 784

tutaak ‘weaving’, 784

tutso ‘experience’, 1236

tutsyɛ ‘commerce’, 784, 1052, 1061, 1069

tutsʰi ‘rice gruel’, 102, 149, 789, 1018

tutsʰot ‘time, hour, clock’, 287, 288

tuturca ‘together’, 598

tutṣaŋ ‘justice’, 784

tuxpalɛskɛr ‘the whole year’, 181, 319

tuxtɛŋrɔm ‘dysentery’, 785¹⁴

tuynɛsqi ‘about twenty’, 246

tuyur ‘frost’, 1046, 1047

tuy ‘poison’, 1019–1021, 1025

tuyjaβ ‘action of churning’, 783

tuyɔrt ‘landslide’, 643

tuzo ‘one’, 134, 135, 192, 195, 606, 888

tuzɛra ‘one’, 192, 602

tṣaŋka ‘(gold, silver) coin’, 60

tṣaŋ ‘be fair’, 784

tṣaβ ‘cause to fall/roll’, 893, 917, 924, 994

tso ‘pay’, 132

tsoɛ ‘add water’, 50

tsu ‘road’, 94, 152, 154, 161, 164, 187, 417, 753, 761, 1071, 1231, 1236

tšyntsʰi ‘leading the way’, 1071

tšyṣyŋcyt ‘crossroad’, 154, 760

tšyɛpʰɔrt ‘plantain’, 164

tšyχa ‘chuckhole’, 160, 161

tšuitsu ‘along the road’, 187

tšuβ ‘sew’, 727, 930, 945, 949

tšʰa ‘tea, breakfast’, 1220, 1234

tʰamtɛyt ‘all’, 182, 187, 380, 382, 1302

tʰa ‘later’, 65, 1419

tʰaak + tɛʰot ‘take a decision’, 1240

tʰi ‘downstream’, 158, 327, 630

tʰo + tʰuy ‘match up’, 1240

tʰoŋjaak ‘alcohol in bucket’, 1349

tʰoɛ ‘stamp on’, 128

tʰoɛ ‘thunder’, 128

tʰu ‘ask’, 318, 345, 579, 580, 716, 891, 930, 934, 936, 939, 942³², 942, 944, 989, 990, 1002

tʰye ‘acorn’, 97

tʰyjɛtu ‘when’, 199, 204–206, 1261

tʰylwa ‘earth’, 163

tʰylwɛctɛtat ‘sparing earth’, 163, 415

tʰystrɔzaak ‘how many nights’, 253

tʰystuy ‘how many’, 199, 201, 204, 206, 253, 288

tʰuci ‘something’, 187, 199, 210, 212–214, 388, 946

tʰurzi + zu ‘ask for mercy’, 1240

tʰurzi ‘mercy’, 1240

tʰutʰci ‘something’, 209

tʰu ‘built’, 638, 918

waŋu ‘earthquake’, 997

wołak ‘(bad) stepmother’, 117

wuma ‘real, really’, 54, 416, 1431

wum ‘gather’, 54, 301³, 301, 317, 657, 904, 908, 1002
Index of Japhug forms

wxti ‘be big’, 73, 74, 158, 173, 669, 772,
850, 856, 869, 961, 1045, 1068,
1084, 1450

wyrum 'be white', 95, 149, 159, 846,
997

xcat 'be many', 82

xsar 'goral', 82

xtsrrku 'sides of the shoe', 150

xtsryna 'tip of the shoe', 82, 150

xtsu 'pound', 1071, 1076

xtshum 'be thin', 82, 103, 151, 157, 158,
669, 1074

xtci 'be small', 82, 158, 240, 602, 669,
772, 805, 1068

xtchwxe 'size', 157, 158, 1015, 1045

xtchut 'can contain', 82

xtrtsb't 'restraint of one's appetite',
351

xtwryji 'length', 149, 158

xtut 'be short', 149, 158, 669

xtut 'wild cat', 82, 168

xtbom 'put horizontally', 82, 893, 916<sup>18</sup>,
918, 920

xwyrnyxwr 'rotating quickly', 88

xcaj 'grass', 82

xciri 'weasel', 168

xurnxxur 'turning around', 276

xurxur 'round', 276

xshxsv't 'long and thin', 82

zbaq 'be dry', 29, 75

zbraq 'attach together', 493, 827

zbrilu 'year of the snake', 95

zdum 'cloud', 75

zduy = spyl 'suffer extremely', 489

zduy 'suffer', 860, 865, 960

zga 'sauce', 75

zgo 'mountain', 269, 410

zgrawa 'leather sack', 95

zgrutc'u 'nudge', 165, 1070, 1071

zgvt 'have to', 1354

zjanzjan 'big', 89

zlawa 'month', 241

zmaqbu 'cause to be late', 75

zmaku 'make/do first', 820

zmryb 'eat (mixing with)', 666

zmunmu 'cause to move', 820

znde 'make a wall', 932

znde 'stone wall', 75, 932

znyja 'find X a shame', 75, 844

znyjpwjpe 'be full of oneself', 995, 996

znykro 'find okay', 845

znlwli 'play the coquette', 996

znyma 'make/let do', 820

znympewmpexr 'think of oneself as beau-
tiful', 996

znyngw 'lend', 842

znyngun 'be arrogant', 996

znyqa 'be able to endure/resist', 984

znyxruxpa 'be arrogant', 995, 996

znyxewxcu 'think of oneself as strong',
996

znukro 'share X with', 980

znuna 'stop', 820

znuta 'let X wear', 980

znwce 'let go back', 984

znuNGyt 'separate', 928

zo 'land', 324, 746, 1218<sup>13</sup>

zraß 'buck', 175

zri 'be long', 24, 56, 669, 869

zrytsbi 'cook like rice gruel', 828, 1019

zrytca 'determine from', 828

zru>xpu 'little louse', 149

zru 'sunny side of the mountain', 93

zruyndza 'praying mantis', 162

zruy 'louse', 149, 162, 1020, 1076, 1445

zwyr 'burn', 88, 951

zwyr 'mugwort', 88, 149

zwryrum 'Artemisia sp.', 149
ẓraŋẓraŋ 'soft and bloated', 95
zỵtса 'consider to be wrong', 845, 892
zỵŋgi 'consider to be right', 845
zỵvre 'respect', 94
zyuurni 'redden', 820
zyuuruwu 'do at the same time as', 828
zyut 'arrive', 97, 205, 288, 363, 530, 632, 633, 898, 952, 983
zyuungungwu 'put on a lot of layers', 828, 1022
zumi 'almost', 1165
zumju 'barrel handle', 102
zum 'bucket', 103
zŋya 'plant sp.', 75
zvγriu 'sling', 99
ŋa 'buy on credit, owe', 54, 793, 930, 932, 1061
nga 'wear', 823, 825, 839, 965, 1076
ŋgio 'slip', 49, 89, 917, 927, 953, 954, 960
ŋgra 'fall', 917, 918
ŋgryl 'be usually the case', 93, 1095, 1364, 1368
ŋgru 'succeed', 317, 1355
ŋgumdzuuy 'leader', 1350
ŋgute 'person with a big head', 173
ŋgrr 'be narrow', 669, 1222
ŋgry 'be bent', 917
ŋgu 'be poor', 538⁶
ŋke 'walk', 84, 634, 635, 690, 860, 867, 965, 989, 1328, 1409
ŋkʰor 'arrive', 84
ŋkʰruli 'screw', 96
ŋoj 'where', 199, 331
ŋotɛu 'where', 147, 199, 206, 208, 217, 331, 702, 773, 1205, 1261
ŋotɛunondɔ́t 'everywhere', 1205
ŋu 'be', 23, 54, 264, 386, 504, 515, 532, 533, 719, 728, 729, 750, 870,

996, 1081, 1090, 1101, 1104, 1112, 1139, 1182, 1242, 1299
ŋyjɛtса 'foreman', 79
ŋylitɛaъmbum 'dung beetle', 150, 152
ŋy'n 'be evil', 356, 1238
ŋywu 'udder', 150
ŋyqe 'cow dung', 150
ŋytcukɔti + kʰ'u 'be obedient', 147, 217, 773
ŋytcukɔti + sukʰ'u 'cause to be obedient', 773⁹
ɛar 'search', 158, 221, 796, 930, 934, 944, 989, 994
ɛa 'meat', 36
ɛaŋdi 'west from', 340
ɛaŋku 'east from', 340
ɛaŋlo 'seating place', 340
ɛaŋlo 'upstream from', 340, 659¹¹
ɛaŋpa 'down from', 338–340
ɛaŋpçi 'since', 340, 342, 1403
ɛaŋtaк 'up from', 59, 338–340, 1445, 1456
ɛaŋtʰi 'downstream from', 340
ɛaβ 'catch up', 561
ɛaχpu 'friend', 176
ɛe 'go', 64, 302, 357, 494, 525, 526, 534, 535, 632–636, 638, 658, 690, 696, 698, 705, 710, 714, 725, 746, 751, 762, 770, 801, 822, 827, 963, 968, 970, 983, 988, 989, 1033, 1040, 1086, 1126, 1143, 1169, 1171, 1188¹, 1194, 1212, 1216, 1217, 1335, 1377
ɛimuma 'immediately after', 340, 342, 560, 810, 1402
ɛirngo 'Anisodus tanguticus', 78, 296
ɛi 'polar interrogative', 63, 64
ɛiŋarura 'each better than the other', 386
Index of Japhug forms

ckala 'lame person', 1014
cke 'get burned', 892, 953, 954, 959
ckličkli 'round and stiff', 92
ckom 'muntjac', 79, 1379
ckrɔz 'oak', 95, 417
cku 'Allium', 1269
ckut 'eat/drink completely', 666, 668
ckʰo 'spread', 79, 784
clu 'plough', 91, 92, 587, 589
cluy 'drop', 547, 823–825, 975
cmi 'mix', 79
cnat 'heddle', 79
cnaþndzyi 'snotty-nosed kid', 162, 236
cnɔkat 'seven or eight', 245, 246, 251
cnɔcɔ-pa 'seven or eight years', 255
cnɔcɔsqi 'seventy or eighty', 246
cnɔsti 'person with a stuffy nose', 161, 164, 886

com 'iron', 103, 148
com 'milk skin', 1032
coŋtɛa 'timber', 59, 1039
coŋβzu 'woodwork', 1032
coь 'buckwheat', 149
coьcoь 'paper', 1016, 1017
cpaь 'be thirsty', 79, 955, 1069
cploьcploь 'round and smooth', 92
cpyo 'ten bushels', 98, 278
cpʰyɔ 'flee with', 98, 823, 824, 839
cpʰyrt 'patch', 79, 164, 792, 930, 940, 947, 1063

cpʰɔβcpʰɔβ 'laying flat', 893
çqluþnɔçqluβ 'walking in the water', 92

çqraь 'be intelligent', 95
çquwa 'blind person', 1014
çqyjɔr 'cross-eyed', 79
çqʰaloь 'latch', 79
çqʰlyt 'disappear', 92, 632, 648, 674
çri 'leak', 93

çte 'contaminate', 79
çti 'be', 393, 515, 870, 1103, 1242, 1299, 1344

çtrajçtraj 'long and soft', 95
çtṣat 'spare', 163, 930
çtṣaŋlaj 'hanging and swinging', 79
çtṣaŋnɔcçtṣaŋ 'balancing', 1057
çtṣo 'measure by scooping', 278
çtṣu 'entrust with', 581, 930, 936
çtʰuz 'turn towards', 79, 180, 638, 657, 765, 896, 989, 990

çŋaьçŋaь 'bright yellow', 79
cγγz 'give back', 595
cγγχa 'person lacking a tooth', 160, 161

çγltsaь 'leather coat', 76
çγmɪŋoь 'iron hook', 103
çγmtsʰoь 'iron nail', 148
çγmwγdu 'gun', 138, 909, 1051, 1227

çγrkʰa 'dawn', 1222

çγrpɔoь 'east', 648

çγr 'night', 149, 156, 539

çγriu 'bone', 128

çγyrum 'type of buckwheat', 149

çγy 'juniper', 1029

çγχcγl 'middle of the night', 149

çu-ky-mtɛʰot 'go and make offerings', 709

çuſka 'cause to be full', 823

çuſkaβ 'cover with', 823, 824, 844

çuſtaь 'remember', 963, 965, 966

çumbyom 'cause to be in a hurry', 823

çumnɔm 'cause to have a smell', 823

çumtʰuspɔь 'child who likes to ask a lot of question', 1002

çumtʰu 'ask a lot of questions', 1002

çuım 'brood', 822

çuimŋɔm 'cause pain', 320, 823
çumrçu 'whoever, anybody', 204, 209,
214

çungo 'make sick', 823

çuntaβ 'leave', 823

çunŋo 'win', 823

çurga 'please', 823

çurŋgu 'make/let lie down', 823

çurŋo 'lend', 583, 585, 823, 824, 842

çu 'who', 63, 64, 199, 200, 203, 204,
216, 386, 600, 1261, 1262

çunjarura 'each better than the other',
204

çungu 'before', 39, 280, 340–342, 362,
1093, 1381, 1399

çwymu 'frighten', 823, 824

çwŋqoβ 'hang', 823, 826, 847

jiga 'tortuous path', 63

jispjrt 'person making bamboo bas-
kets', 63

jruyjryy 'gurgling', 93

juli 'flute', 70, 1032, 1033, 1227

ju 'bamboo', 63

jumcom 'bamboo tweezers', 63

juyuyuy 'in great number (of long ob-
jects)', 275

ydso 'species of grub', 82

yi 'come', 22, 157, 302, 364, 479, 494,
495, 534, 535, 539, 632–634,
636, 658, 690, 698, 705, 714,
725, 752, 820, 828, 983, 999,
1194, 1216, 1218, 1335, 1377

yle 'knead, rub', 91, 92

ylutcrt 'removing dung out of the sta-
ble', 794, 796

ylutcrt 'removing dung out of the sta-
bles', 1071

ynda 'ram', 82

yndzyβ 'disastrous fire', 82, 799

yndzur 'grind', 156, 589, 730, 836

yni 'flying squirrel', 168

ynsqi 'twenty', 82, 235, 246

yot 'warm light', 57, 147

yro 'suffocate', 93

yurza kurcat 'one hundred and eight',
238, 252

yurza-xpa 'a hundred years', 252

yurza 'hundred', 237, 238, 252

yzu 'monkey', 82, 168

yjaβ 'churn', 82, 784

yyu 'watchtower', 268

yy-la 'immerse, dip in', 897

yycuqhluf 'making noise (of water
when agitated)', 62

yydi 'have a smell', 1038, 1039

yydzn 'increase', 850

yyjlu 'be uncooked', 1039

yyjmŋo 'dream of', 99, 1041, 1042

yyjmut 'be forgetful', 963, 966

yyjom 'broaden', 850

yyju 'add', 289, 786, 1041, 1427

yykhe 'depreciate, demean', 856, 859,
898

yykhu 'be smoky', 1012, 1031, 1039, 1042

yykhu 'make it possible to', 850, 853,
854, 1349, 1356

yylyt 'lock', 1005

yymau 'cause not to be', 850

yymbyaβ 'turning over easily', 926

yymbyo 'be deaf', 1014, 1038, 1039

yymdzu 'have thorns', 1038, 1039

yyme 'destroy', 315, 769, 850

yymna 'heal', 850

yymto 'cause to recover eyesight', 589,
858

yymut 'blow', 655, 678

yymu 'praise', 934

yyndzo 'be cold', 786, 1038, 1039, 1042,
1043
Index of Japhug forms

γγτα 'cause to have to', 850, 853, 854,
1349, 1356

γγτροκ 'be muddy', 1038, 1039

γγρδul 'be dusty', 1039, 1042

γγτργζ 'age quickly', 962

γγτλακ 'destroy', 906

γγτο 'add', 1041

γγττζ'γακ 'quibble', 1237

γγτγρυ 'getting up early', 962

γγτωβρωμ 'drip continuously', 158, 437

γγτκακ 'hunt', 1012, 1039, 1040, 1042

γγτσι 'cook', 850

γγςγμβρω 'get angry easily', 962

γγτστι 'make salty', 846

γγτσωρ 'have cracks', 1039, 1040

γγτςh'oz 'make complete', 850

γγτω 'cause to have', 315, 855, 1246

γγττζα 'be wrong', 845, 892, 1039, 1040

γγττζωρ 'make sour', 846

γγττζγτ 'select from', 1004

γγττζωγ 'grow shoots', 1039

γγττζh'om 'cause to be too much', 853,
1437

γγωρω 'cry', 801, 1039, 1040, 1042, 1043,
1057, 1307

γγωρωτι 'become big easily', 850, 961

γγωρωτι 'make bigger', 850, 853, 856,
1346

γγωρξρα 'dispatch', 95, 1012, 1040–1043

γγηγι 'be right', 845, 892

γγττζσηλαη 'balance', 1057

γγτζω 'be cool', 1039, 1042

γγτζωφτακ 'to have a good memory',
963

γγηηglut 'breaking easily', 926

γγηηgru 'break easily', 926

γγηθε 'be respected', 1039

γγζω 'exist', 473, 515, 529, 631, 811, 880,
969, 1105

γγβdi 'repair', 850

γγβdοκβdi 'tidy up, put in order', 884

γγβζι 'become drunk easily', 874

γγχςωρω 'be handsome', 95

γω-μ-τα-ρτοκ 'I came and saw you',
706

γω <piaozi> fsoκ 'earn money', 948

γωμκωρh'ut 'take out stones', 1079

γωμh'γτςh'i 'drink alcohol', 796, 1076

γωφκωμ 'put in a bag', 1041

γωφσωρ 'friend', 113, 176, 1233

γωμρα 'this year', 282, 283

γωμτσι 'support', 349, 1041

γωμηγη 'answer', 1041, 1224

γωρι 'thread', 1040–1042

γωρην 'be red', 152, 820, 846, 1084

γωρημφσοκ 'accumulate a fortune', 1072

γωμφσωρ 'hold with both hands', 1041

γωμφσωρh'ut 'cut firewood', 33

γωμτςh'γδωγ 'hot', 539

γωτ 'bring', 102, 130, 131, 302, 479, 580,
585, 596, 636, 691, 706, 838,
983, 998, 999, 1068, 1237, 1337,
1376

γωττζh'a 'answer', 1041

γωτ 'genitive', 303

γωμκατ 'load', 1041–1043

γωμσητζα 'chop timber', 1039, 1040

γωμηλωττζτ 'remove dung out of sta-
ble', 796

γωμχςγι 'realize', 1005

γζω 'bee', 82

φοκ 'come out', 22, 132, 302, 358, 633,
648, 725, 746, 1218, 1228, 1237,
1306, 1335, 1353¹³

φοκ 'have to', 1353

φωρδζι 'ghost', 50

φωτ 'become old', 50

φωμφλωμ 'have a nice sleep', 276
u-ci ‘its juice/water’, 124

u-cɛβ ‘pod’, 1032

u-do ‘old one’, 120, 121, 173, 792

u-duχun ‘fragrance’, 1020, 1038

u-fsosi ‘the next day’, 286

u-fso ‘the next day’, 286

u-fsu ‘of the same size’, 113, 114, 1014, 1055, 1449, 1451

u-ftaɛ ‘sign’, 74

u-ftɛvkrɛt ‘idea’, 1229

u-fɛv ‘story’, 463, 1375, 1376

u-grɛl ‘order, rule’, 1219, 1436

u-jlu ‘something uncooked’, 121

u-jlu ‘uncooked’, 120, 1038, 1039

u-juja ‘along with’, 1201, 1385, 1405

u-ju ‘its handle’, 103

u-ku ‘top of’, 352, 1044

u-kuɛwku ‘the highest place’, 182

u-kɛcu ‘east of’, 352, 632

u-kɛlzyjme ‘head upside down’, 180³³, 180, 181, 765

u-kɛrnoɛ + mtɛw ‘feel dizzy’, 318

u-kuw-tsʰi ‘blocking (it)’, 154

u-kʰe ‘something nasty’, 120, 121, 786, 792

u-kʰrɛt ‘set, determined’, 1230, 1231

u-kʰuukʰa ‘while’, 1094, 1405

u-lu ‘her milk’, 124

u-lɔcu ‘upstream of’, 352

u-mat ‘fruit’, 1020, 1031, 1032

u-maŋ ‘in big groups’, 121, 792

u-mdoɛ ‘colour’, 115, 119, 272, 464, 485, 1019–1021, 1046, 1047, 1182, 1183, 1216, 1231

u-me ‘daughter’, 177

u-mpʰru ‘after, following’, 362, 1236, 1401

u-mtu ‘crest’, 167

u-mŋu ‘opening, edge, border’, 351, 352

u-mu ‘his sky’, 128

u-mŋoz ‘preparation’, 797, 798

u-mŋo ‘preparation’, 798

u-ndo ‘edge, border’, 351, 352, 1229

u-ndzu ‘instruction, advice’, 127

u-ndɔcu ‘west of’, 352, 640

u-ndzɔ ‘cause’, 113, 201, 309, 364, 1139, 1378, 1412, 1413, 1418

u-ntsi ‘one of a pair’, 148

u-ntɛʰantɛʰuwr ‘fragments’, 179

u-pa ‘below, under’, 340, 351, 352, 359, 1217, 1235

u-pɛi ‘outside’, 182, 351, 352, 1043, 1044

u-pɔrtʰɔβ ‘between’, 78, 352, 1043¹⁰, 1044

u-pɔrtʰɔβ ‘the middle of’, 362

u-pwu ‘little one’, 15, 120, 121, 147–149, 172

u-pʰu~pʰu ‘some trees’, 256

u-pʰuρʰu ‘alms’, 132, 993

u-pʰu ‘price’, 1034, 1035

u-qataŋru ‘hoof’, 151

u-qa ‘bottom of’, 351–354

u-qaɔwqa ‘the deepest place’, 182

u-qiu ‘half’, 272, 290, 291

u-qʰu ‘after, behind’, 58, 182, 280, 284, 327, 330, 341, 342, 351, 352, 362, 794, 1044, 1051, 1052, 1071, 1076, 1077, 1079, 1080, 1223, 1401

u-raŋ ‘during, the time when’, 326, 361

u-rca ‘following’, 348, 466

u-rcʰarclɔβ ‘interstice’, 78

u-rkarku ‘sides’, 179

u-rkoz ‘something special’, 121, 752, 799
u-rku 'side', 179, 182, 352

u-rkuçurku 'the furthest place on the side', 182

u-rpʰγγt 'upper door frame', 98

u-rqu 'cold thing', 121

u-rtsawa 'importance', 1231

u-rtsot 'vengeance', 1223

u-rtsuz 'number', 1231

u-ru 'its stalk', 268

u-rjit 'her children', 243

u-rγγŋgo 'its radiating pain', 321

u-rγγ 'predicted time', 1018

u-ruz 'species', 1022

u-skγt 'language', 1373, 1375, 1376

u-skγt 'language, noise', 119

u-skγt 'speech, sound', 364

u-spa 'material', 119, 201, 300, 759, 760, 1260, 1271, 1287, 1338, 1417

u-sta 'place', 760, 1260, 1285

u-stojtsu 'several thousands', 246

u-stu 'place', 725, 760, 1260, 1271, 1285

u-stu 'straight ahead', 327, 355

u-stu 'truth, truly', 129, 1032

u-sγγmdzu 'sitting place', 759

u-sγ-NGγt 'place where X part ways', 154, 760, 916

u-sγγjγγ 'its end', 280

u-sum 'mind', 1216, 1374

u-taɔ 'on, above', 128, 187, 289, 324, 340, 351, 352, 355, 359, 360, 535, 593, 741, 780¹¹, 795, 796, 878³, 909, 911, 1059, 1070, 1188, 1226, 1234

u-ti 'way of saying', 791, 1375, 1376

u-tsʰγt 'instead of', 350

u-tsʰγt 'proper measure', 350

u-tsʰuyα 'shape, manner', 775, 783

u-tçʰaɔ 'handicap', 1229

u-tɔ-lu 'his/its milk', 124

u-tɔ-muj 'his feather', 125

u-tɔju 'addition', 786, 1041, 1427

u-tu-ci 'its water', 124

u-tṣunlɔŋ 'favour', 1326

u-tʰoɔ zu 'on the ground', 129

u-tʰoɔ 'ground', 115, 127–129

u-tʰγcu 'downstream of', 352

u-tʰγβ 'between', 352

u-tʰuŋzi 'mercy', 365, 1414

u-xso 'empty, normal', 121, 181, 799

u-xçγt 'strength', 365, 1414, 1439

u-zarzuɔ 'sides', 179

u-zuɔ 'side', 179, 182

u-zuɔzuɔzuɔ 'the furthest place on the side', 182

u-ŋgu + tʰon 'be well-off', 1240

u-ŋgu 'beginning', 343

u-ŋguμγpçi 'the inside and the outside', 182

u-ŋguz 'inside, among', 325, 360, 1453

u-ŋgu 'inside', 154, 182, 290, 327, 341, 351, 352, 358, 360, 580, 1020, 1022, 1044

u-yrom 'dried thing', 799

u-yurẓa 'several hundreds', 246

u-yraɔ 'disaster', 82, 799

u-yŋŋu 'orifice', 799

u-ŋrɔm 'flesh', 1073

u-nqra 'broken one', 96, 120, 121, 173, 1034, 1035

u-ɔjiz 'wish', 119, 797, 1216, 1377

u-ɔle 'reputation', 116, 169, 1241

u-ɔo + mbi 'be discouraged', 918, 923, 963, 1073, 1240

u-ɔo + pʰi 'be disappointed by', 918, 923, 1240

u-ɔo + γymbi 'be easily discouraged', 963

u-ɔre 'authority', 1039
u-кzuy ‘appearance’, 1047

u-юо ‘diluted drink’, 180

u-юове ‘all kinds of diluted drinks’, 180

u-къти ‘before, in front of’, 282¹⁴, 351, 352

u-βlu ‘trick’, 1229

u-βra ‘his share’, 1178

u-βra ‘it is X’s turn to…’, 129, 1178

u-βzur ‘its side’, 1292

u-χcyi ‘center’, 149, 160, 352, 1043, 1044, 1047, 1048

u-χsjuβ ‘slough’, 90

u-χsγr ‘number’, 1231

u-zo ‘he’, 224, 902, 1207, 1325

u-zyy ‘3SG:GEN’, 318

pat ‘be tired’, 640, 785, 954, 1064, 1065

пакtyi ‘length between the thumb and the middle finger’, 276

пак ‘be black’, 159, 162, 799, 846, 907, 1071

пcyyncyγt ‘many people, very noisy’, 98

ncyγ ‘press’, 84

ncuyncri ‘thin, diluted’, 96

ncъов ‘shrink’, 84

ncъγak ‘birchbark’, 98

po ‘be prepared’, 85, 798, 820, 852

nyo ‘have damages’, 49

nyoK ‘glue, paste’, 791, 876, 878, 882

nyγyrynyγγγr ‘plump and huge’, 97

nyyβ ‘be crushed, flattened’, 918

nyu ‘open’, 799, 917

nyndi ‘in four days’, 282

nyndγpa ‘in four years’, 283

nqa ‘be difficult’, 84, 1371

nqiazwγr ‘Artemisia sp.’, 149

nqiaβ ‘dark side of the mountain’, 90, 149

nqoK ‘hang’, 356, 823, 824, 826, 925²⁵, 929

Nqʰi ‘be dirty’, 84, 907

NGarmu ‘female one quarter yak hybrid’, 174

NGarpa ‘male one quarter yak hybrid’, 174

NGAK ‘peel, shed skin’, 161, 917

NGia ‘come loose’, 89, 917

Nglut ‘break’, 91, 917, 922, 926

NGocna ‘spider’, 70

NGRAK ‘be torn’, 93, 917, 1221, 1222

NGRYZ ‘break’, 917

NGRut ‘be completely scratched’, 918

NGRU ‘break’, 917, 921, 924, 926, 962

NGYT ‘part ways, part company’, 761

Baz ‘while ... still’, 187, 325, 1406

Bak ‘hatch’, 102, 821

bbybbyβ ‘thick and big’, 83

bduy ‘umbrella’, 83

bejlu ‘left-handed’, 171, 1028

be ‘left’, 156, 171, 415

Bgra ‘enemy’, 58, 95, 1050, 1051, 1350¹¹

Bja ‘verdigris’, 1234

Bjit ‘think of’, 89, 797, 798

BjoK ‘servant’, 591, 1049, 1050

Blywur ‘suddenly’, 1034, 1049, 1055, 1098, 1203

Btakmi ‘soldier’, 1047

Btak ‘army’, 83

Bmbronj ‘wild yak’, 59, 167

Bmbyi ‘sun’, 98

Bmyrsmuy ‘dark red’, 140, 1017

Bmuy ‘intend to, decide’, 900

Bпaпna ‘both’, 83, 233, 235, 368, 1187

Bndzyγ ‘cut’, 83

Bndyr ‘be scattered’, 46, 83, 917, 919, 920

Bndw ‘hit’, 20, 34, 934, 989
Index of Japhug forms

ъпъ-хра 'two years', 255
ъпъ-злок 'two times', 255
ъпъц 'two', 9, 233-235, 245, 298, 368, 369, 597, 1327
ъпъ 'suspect', 1344
ърulu 'hornless', 93, 170
ърurpu 'hitting with horns', 795, 796
ъзи 'be necessary', 316
ъзраъвъра 'dishevelled', 95
ъзъмъ 'husband and wife', 177, 369
ъзън 'monastic robe', 795
ъзъб 'be careful', 83, 774, 1372
ъя 'completely', 83, 410, 417, 770, 1206
ъю 'rinse', 180
ъйшъгър 'fat and soft', 95
ъйъикъгъл 'enormous', 83
ъйълиъгъли 'big and tall', 92
ъйътра 'steward (monastery)', 83
ъйъ-злок 'two times', 255
ъъитъи 'young man', 83
ҫуҫуҫуу 'transparent and round', 97
ҫроовъсъю 'long and thin', 78
ҫхуҫҫхъ 'with big nostrils', 78
ҫакастaka 'each his own', 219, 385
ҫaka 'each his own', 219, 385, 522, 972
за 'begin', 27, 640, 774, 777, 1314, 1320, 1328, 1331, 1332, 1364, 1366
здраъздраъ 'long and soft', 95
здууҙдуу 'strong, tough', 79
ҙгаҡ 'exactly', 79
ҙgruy 'certainly', 95, 1210
ҙмкъһъм 'much', 386, 1433
ҙъкъһъм 'country, realm', 1433
ҙмраҡ 'ear', 102
ҙмъри 'play', 295, 823, 825, 844
ҙмъри 'willow', 95, 154
ҙмbrukъrlu 'willow that does not grow high', 154
ҙмbru 'boat', 760

ҙмър 'ulcer', 79
ҙру 'be strong', 93
ҙnga 'help wearing', 823, 825, 839
ҙngri 'star', 95, 727, 730
ҙngu 'cross river', 79
ҙууҫстун 'take care of oneself', 889
ҙууҫҫуу 'tell about oneself', 891
ҙууҡһо 'give oneself up', 891
ҙуумаңло 'put oneself upstream', 892, 1044
ҙуумърръртһъб 'put oneself in between', 892, 1044
ҙуумъло 'prepare oneself', 852
ҙууъмърҫҫуу 'find oneself beautiful', 901
ҙууъмъсту 'believe in oneself', 889, 902
ҙууъмъмърръpu 'let oneself be mounted', 891
ҙууъмъблю 'be fooled', 891
ҙуура 'pretend', 531-533, 890, 896, 1232, 1307
ҙуурku 'put oneself in', 889
ҙууррърһи 'act according to one's ability', 1036
ҙуурҙуу 'having some (pieces) coming out (out of a bundle)', 902
ҙууsat 'commit suicide', 889
ҙууҫыра 'transform oneself into', 900
ҙууҫърмъат 'move closer', 633, 639, 898
ҙууҫрррһ'и 'move further away', 634, 639, 898
ҙууҫҙууҫт 'manage to reach', 633
ҙууҫҫке 'burn oneself', 892
ҙууҫunsuntсъһър 'cause oneself to appear', 890
ҙууҫтһ'и 'hang oneself', 889
ҙууҫтсаб 'cause oneself to fall/roll', 895, 924
ҙууҫрпһъб 'lay flat', 893
zyyct'huz 'reveal one's true nature', 896
zyryykhe 'depreciate, demean', 898
zyryytca 'recognize one's mistake', 892,
1040
zyryytcrt 'volunteer', 1005
zyryyngi 'consider oneself to be right',
892
zyryyzo 'make oneself light', 896, 900
zyrytmuy 'decide for oneself', 900
zyybri 'protect oneself', 851
zyrytci 'wash oneself', 889, 893, 946
zyni '3DU', 972
zryu 'lame person', 1014
zuruwzri 'progressively', 1084, 1182,
1201
zngob 'hang', 823, 929
zngro 'Jew's harp', 95, 1227
znguloq 'walnut', 79
bde 'throw', 580, 673, 979
bdi 'be well', 518, 610, 774, 780, 850,
854, 884, 1052, 1222, 1241
bdut 'demon', 74
bgoz 'prepare', 74
blu 'burn', 91, 587, 790, 1088
braq 'attach to', 93, 163, 827, 876
bri 'protect', 592, 851, 915
brijq 'stretch tight', 74, 443
bzansa 'friend', 74, 176, 1233
bzdu 'collect', 74, 884
bze 'grow', 498, 1009
bzgyr 'delay', 74
bzi 'get drunk', 844, 874, 953, 954
bzjoz 'learn', 90, 929–931, 940, 941, 945,
1361
bzu 'make', 33, 295, 349, 350, 497, 498,
577, 578, 671, 757, 761, 768,
776, 777, 784, 787, 788, 794,
796, 798, 876, 878, 879, 905,
906, 948, 1009, 1012, 1013, 1028,

1031, 1033, 1035, 1048, 1067,
1068, 1222–1224, 1232, 1237,
1340–1344, 1346, 1347, 1373,
1374, 1376
βz Jur 'change, correct', 74, 611
βzur 'move', 157, 1068
βji 'chase', 74, 635, 989
βjrt 'obtain', 532, 673, 1000, 1001, 1194,
1282
βya 'mill', 97, 147, 162, 761, 1009
βyru 'miller', 162, 1009
βyysni 'mill axle', 147
βyyssryrt 'watermill valve', 761
βyyza 'fly', 168, 172<sup>29</sup>, 172
βyut 'be burned off', 847
βyuz 'badger', 168
βka 'prevail, win', 98, 99, 157, 728
βyyŋŋo 'winning and losing', 157
βzar 'buzzard', 74
βzar 'cut', 992
βzindi 'in five days', 282
βzindrpa 'in five years', 283
χawo 'if only', 452
χconkroŋ 'cross-legged (sitting)', 83
χcuχcri 'thin, diluted', 95
χcʰa 'right', 83, 156, 415
χcʰoqe 'right and left', 105, 156
χpa 'be proud', 995, 996
χpaχtsʰrt 'yojana', 277
χpi 'story', 83
χpjrt 'observe', 90, 1068
χploqχploq 'round like a ball', 92
χpunbu 'master', 1046, 1047
χpun 'monk', 15, 1032, 1033, 1049, 1231
χsu 'raise', 1338
χsr-rtsyy 'three storeys', 254
χsr-tya 'three spans', 254
χsrsl 'be clear', 1005
χsrsl 'eat (honorific)', 666
Index of Japhug forms

χsyr 'gold', 83, 136, 178, 378, 417, 418
χsw-ri-xpa 'three hundred years', 252
χsw-xpa 'three years', 255
χsw-yjyn 'three times', 255
χsw~χsyr 'things in gold', 178
χsum 'three', 222, 234, 245, 247, 266
χtsiu 'bushel', 90, 278
χtso 'it is clean', 83
χtsʰyχtsʰyt 'small and active', 83
χtçi 'wash', 40, 889, 893, 930, 946, 1077
χtcoŋ 'rheumatism', 83
χtvrma 'offerings', 83
χtyr 'scatter', 46, 57, 917, 919, 920
χtyt 'lean on', 1239
χtw 'buy', 66, 157, 346, 693, 842, 930, 1068
χtswydẓa 'butter tea', 83
χwyr 'Hor', 88
χcak 'pass away', 675
χcuy=rnaq 'thank a lot', 489
χcu 'be strong', 83, 996
χcylmwɣ 'glasses', 184, 1234
χcylzgoŋ 'mirror', 730
χcyl 'glass', 184³⁵
χcunrzi 'Yama', 103
χŋŋχŋŋr 'without energy', 83
χsγχsγt 'light (clothes)', 83
Subject index

φιλομέτοχοι, 713

abilitative, 984, 1006

origin, 986

absolutive, 36, 293–298, 302

additive, 333

adjective, 8

complement-taking, 1371

property noun, 119

adjunct

relativization, 1289

adverb

degree, 1431

orientation, 1210

postverbal, 1213

tense, 1200

adversative, 1420

afterthought, 1197

alienabilization, 13

alignment

ergative-absolutive, 36, 37, 108,
591, 1232

neutral, 34

nominative-accusative, 34, 590

allomorphy

applicative, 866

causative, 819

inverse, 558

negative prefixes, 513

Progressive, 1158

proprietive, 955

tropative, 870

alternation

consonant, 151

prenasalization, 916, 929

vowel, 147, 1055

alternative concessive conditional, 1393

ambiguity

complement clause, 1304

finite complement clauses, 1319

infinitive, 735, 762, 764

orientation preverb, 764, 1083

participle, 721, 735, 762

relative clause, 397, 1272, 1304,
1306

analogy, 609

numerals, 234

stem alternation, 495, 496

anticausative, 916, 920

collocation, 923

compatibility, 926

antipassive, 31, 929

ditransitive verb, 936

indefinite object, 941

origin, 1060, 1064

Past Imperfective, 940

reduplicated, 939

reflexive, 946

rhotic, 929

sigmatic, 933

suffix, 1000

Aorist, 540, 1134

complement clause, 1142
relative clause, 1141
Temporal clauses, 1137

applicative, 859, 901

allomorphy, 866

causative, 845

compatibility, 868

origin, 1065

suffix, 998

Apprehensive, 1168

argument

core, 34, 1193

oblique, 534, 535, 1194

overt, 1193

arithmetic, 289

assimilation

compound, 148

external sandhi, 104

uvular, 58

vowel, 52

associated motion, 28, 682, 717, 733, 763

argument of motion, 688

causative, 834

complement clause, 708

concessive clause, 706

echo, 698

goal, 696

motion verbs, 690

orientation, 691

purposive, 705

relative clause, 711

volitionality, 710

attribute

participial relative, 418

penominal, 417

postnominal, 415

augmentative, 173

autive, 32, 900, 967

autobenefactive, 970

permansive, 977

reduplication, 508

spontaneous, 973

transitivity, 967

verbal template, 968

auto-evaluative, 995

autobenefactive, 32, 970

backformation, 496, 1053

beneficiary, 316, 364

body part, 116, 169

bound state, 147

calling sound, 454

causative, 29, 896, 898

adjutative, 839

allomorphy, 819, 822, 851

applicative, 845

associated motion, 834

coercive, 839

collocation, 837, 855

compatibility, 848, 858

complement clause, 835, 1346

indirect, 840

instrumental, 843

intransitive verb, 830

inversive, 842

missive, 838

origin, 1065

periphrastic, 757

permissive, 840

reciprocal, 914

recursion, 847

rogative, 839

semi-reflexive, 832

serial verb construction, 834

sigmatic, 583, 586, 819, 830, 831, 856

transitive verb, 831
tropative, 844, 856, 874
velar, 849, 856
word order, 1191
cause, 308, 364, 1378, 1412
causee, 309, 583, 586
causer, 583, 586
chasing sound, 454
Chinese
  verb, 1066
circumfix
  peg, 68, 479
citation form, 764
classification, 268
classifier, 247
co-participation, 915
collective, 174
  denominal, 1024
collocation
  causative, 837, 855
  noun-verb, 1216
colour, 140
comitative, 331
  relativization, 1288
comitative adverb, 45, 68, 71, 88, 91, 96, 103, 125, 178, 183–186, 348, 416, 1023, 1024
command
  particle, 458
comparative, 1007, 1441, 1444, 1445
comparee, 310
complement clause, 38
  Aorist, 1142
  associated motion, 708
  bare infinitive, 774, 1314
  case marking, 1327
  causative, 835
  causative verbs, 1346
  coreference restriction, 1318
  dental infinitive, 777, 1314

determiner, 1329
finite, 1316
Irrealis, 1122
modal verbs, 1352
perception verbs, 1362
phasal verbs, 1364
similative verbs, 1369
speech error, 1381
velar infinitive, 766, 1312
word order, 1327
complementation strategy, 1333
coordination, 1344
degree nominal, 782
compound
  action nominal, 794, 1343
  adverb-verb, 158
  coordinative, 156
  determinative, 153
  noun-ideophone, 158
  noun-noun, 153
  noun-verb, 159, 1070
  possessive, 155
  verb-noun, 166
  verb-verb, 156, 1067
compounding, 15
concessive clause, 1392, 1420
associated motion, 706
conditional clause, 1390
Irrealis, 1124
consonant, 7, 47
  alternation, 151, 493, 916, 929
  alveolo-palatal, 77
  cluster, 41, 71–74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 84, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 96, 98, 101
  coda, 50
  labial, 73, 87
  lateral, 76, 87, 91
  medial, 87
nasal, 84
palatal, 80, 88
preinitial, 72
rhotic, 77, 87, 92
semi-vowel, 87
sibilant, 74
stop, 85
uvular, 58, 81, 98
velar, 58, 81, 96
contracting verb, 499, 875, 1014
converb, 26
immediate perfective, 808, 815
manner, 1410
purposive, 806, 814
velar infinitive, 769
coordination
  noun phrase, 420
copula, 1242
corpus, 2
correlative addition, 1426
counted noun, 247
  collective, 269
distributive, 259
measure, 276
partitive, 258
restrictive, 262
temporal, 279
counterfactual, 1124, 1397
cousin
  cross, 1464
  parallel, 1463
dative, 345, 347
  relativization, 1289
definite, 9, 111, 267, 389
degree, 782, 1409, 1431
deideophonic derivation, 1055, 1407
deixis
  motion, 637

demonstrative, 399
anaphoric, 223
cataphoric, 226
determiner, 374
locative, 228
medial, 226
pronoun, 223
denominal derivation, 33, 1011, 1012
collective, 1024
incorporation, 1070
instrumental, 1027
pairing, 1036, 1042, 1052
proprietive, 1018, 1019, 1025
similative, 1016
stative, 1014
voice, 1059
vowel alternation, 1055
zero-derivation, 1053
deputative, 349
derivation
  ideophone to verb, 1055
  noun to verb, 1011
  verbalizing deadverbial, 651
derogatory, 173
determiner
  complement clauses, 1329
diminutive, 171
direct-inverse, 41, 561
disjunction, 1430
dispersal, 454
dissimilation
  rhotic, 57
distributed action, 987
distributed property, 950
distributive, 219
  counted noun, 259
  ergative, 311
  quantifier, 384
ditransitive verb, 579, 583, 1190, 1192
antipassive, 936

indirective, 579

passive, 884

reflexive, 891

secundative, 581

dual, 9, 367

Dubitative, 1133

dummy subject, 295, 777

egophoric, 1113

Egophoric Present, 1112, 1117

egressive, 338, 1445

Endopathic, 1106

equative, 1446, 1449, 1450

ergative, 304, 307–312

long distance, 306

essive, 298, 1189

exceptive, 336, 1428, 1440

exclamative, 122, 610

facilitative, 961

object-oriented, 964

subject-oriented, 961

Factual Non-Past, 1100, 1117

filler, 457

focalization, 1196, 1250

relativization, 1299

focus

additive, 1330

restrictive, 1330

focus marker

additive, 401

correlative additive, 405

scalar, 401, 408

fraction, 290

gender, 9, 174

kinship, 1462

generic, 14, 135, 192, 553, 955

noun, 194

genitive, 11, 313, 316, 1245, 1265

pronoun, 195

relative clause, 1259

gentilic, 173

gerund, 27, 800, 804, 806, 814, 1406, 1411

goal, 302, 966

incorporation, 1076

relativization, 1284

grammaticalization

abilitative, 986

Apprehensive, 1171

dative, 347

modality, 1182

reflexive, 902

Gyalrong languages, 1

hearsay, 463

hierarchy

person, 561

sonority sequencing principle, 103

identity

adverb, 1208

identity modifier, 412

ideophone, 8, 427

genesis, 442

irregularity, 436

phonology, 438

semantic, 435

stem, 427

syntax, 445

verb, 1055

Imperative, 1126

autive, 1128

delayed, 1121

Imperfective, 1087

hortative, 1095
inchoative, 1096
periphrastic, 1089
inalienabilization, 116, 123
incorporation, 1075–1077
noun, 1069
incremental
reduplication, 505
incremental addition, 1427
indefinite
antipassive, 941
determiner, 387, 388
generic, 946
pronoun, 946
indexation, 17, 21, 612
antiquity, 45
bipartite, 487
generic, 553, 601, 604
mismatch, 596
non-finite, 608
number, 555
optional, 597
partitive, 600
plural, 599, 604
portmanteau, 550, 616
semi-reflexive, 552
speech error, 603
indirect speech
hybrid, 43, 1322
Inferential, 1143
infinitive, 26
bare, 541, 774, 1314
dental, 776, 777, 815, 1314
velar, 762–764, 766, 768, 769, 811, 1312
infix, 529
inflectionalization, 42, 608
instrument
incorporation, 1077
relativization, 1287

instrumental, 844
causative, 843
denominal, 1027
interjection, 451
Interrogative, 1179
inverse, 41, 553, 558, 561, 564, 565, 570, 615
pseudo-passive, 574
saliency, 570
Irrealis, 1118
complement clauses, 1122
conditional clauses, 1124
prephrastic, 1125
irregularity, 1157
associated motion, 701
ideophone, 436
reduplication, 994
iterative coincidence, 1398
protasis, 504
justification clause, 1418
kinship, 117
abbreviation, 1457
affines, 1469
lability, 35, 586, 590, 591, 594
light verb, 1012, 1078, 1216
lineage, 1471
locative, 11, 302, 323, 966
approximate, 326
relativization, 1284
manner, 308, 1406
marriage, 1470
Mirative, 1107
modality
epistemic, 464
morphology
allomorphy, 513, 558, 819, 822, 851,
866, 870, 955
defective verb, 811
frozen, 126
ideophone, 427
irregular, 46, 529, 575
layered, 483
templatic, 483
Trans-Himalayan comparison, 45,
135, 611, 811, 918
transitivity, 540
motion verb
purposive clause, 725

negation, 1253, 1455
adverb, 522
double, 519
lexicalized, 517
noun, 521
periphrastic, 518
prefix, 513
prnoun, 521
suppletion, 515
negative, 1444, 1445
nephew, 1465
neutralization
possessive prefix, 1266
nominalization
abstract, 183
abstract noun, 784
action, 783, 787, 815, 1340
action nominal compound, 794
bare action nominal, 791
complementation strategy, 1340
compound, 1070
degree, 778, 780–782, 815, 1436,
1446
suffix, 797
velar prefix, 799

noun, 8, 9
abstract, 784
action nominal, 157
biactantial, 130
class, 167
complement-taking, 1372
compound, 153
counted, 247, 268
dimension, 157
dyad, 422
enumeration, 421
expressive, 456
inalienably possessed, 114, 1449
manner, 1374
modality, 1182
modifier, 135
negation, 183
perception, 1375
place name, 137, 142
predicative, 781, 1214
property, 119
relator, 344
tense, 183
time, 1378
unpossessible, 137

number, 9
dual, 367
honorific, 599
plural, 370

numeral, 233, 243
approximate, 244
Chinese, 242
ordinal, 238
prefix, 248
Tibetan, 240

object, 35, 294
facilitative, 964
incorporation, 1076
relativization, 1278
obviative, 9, 111, 568
Omaha skewing rule, 1464, 1472, 1476
opportunity, 1406
optional case marking, 293, 332, 531, 1251
orientation
  adverb, 629, 1210
  associated motion, 691
  centripetal, 657
  concord, 640
  egressive, 338
  illative, 653
  incomptability, 631
  noun, 629
  orienting verb, 638
  preverb, 21, 621, 629, 717, 733, 750, 763, 1082
  raising, 1330
  relator noun, 351
  riverine dimension, 643
  solar dimension, 647
  superlative, 1455
  time, 652
  tridimensional system, 641
  vertical dimension, 641
orphan noun, 1237

participle, 25
  object, 297, 732, 733, 736
  oblique, 745, 748, 750, 751, 754, 755, 757, 814
  origin, 811, 814
  subject, 34, 714, 715, 717, 723–725, 742, 1454
  transitive, 541
partitive, 218
  counted noun, 258
  ergative, 312

indexation, 600
parts of speech, 8
passive, 617, 875
  compatibility, 885
  ditransitive verb, 884
  origin, 1065
  reduplicated, 884
  rogative, 887
  TAME, 877
Past Imperfective, 1152
  tropative, 870
past tense
  suffix, 541
perlative, 187
permansive, 977, 978
person
  evidentiality, 1087
  first, 526, 550, 561, 601, 1113
  hierarchy, 561
  local configuration, 550, 616
  mixed configuration, 546
  non-local configuration, 548, 564
  second, 529
  third, 529
phatic, 608
plural, 370
  honorific, 191, 374, 599
possession, 313
  prefix, 12, 107, 109, 112, 135, 189, 612
possessive construction, 1245
possessive prefixes
  loss, 150, 151
possessor, 109, 135, 568, 1245, 1247, 1291
  relativization, 1290
possessum, 1245, 1247
postverbal position, 1213
precautioning clause, 1419
predicate
non-verbal, 1214
predicative possession, 14
prefix
  associated motion, 682
  autive, 968
  chain, 471
  class, 167
  inner, 474
  negation, 513
  orientation, 621
  outer, 471
  phonotactic constraints, 476
  possessive, 12, 107, 109, 112, 135, 189, 612, 715, 732, 748, 1245, 1266
  prefixing preference, 42
  stress, 476
  vowel contrasts, 63, 64
prenasalization, 1006
privative, 170
Probabilitative, 1172
Progressive, 541, 1158
  allomorphy, 1158
Prohibitive, 1130
promotion to object function, 861, 862
pronoun, 189, 612
  demonstrative, 223
  distributive, 219
  emphatic use, 197
  generic, 192
  genitive, 195
  identity, 220
  indefinite, 208
  interrogative, 198, 1261
  partitive, 218
  possession, 192
  resumptive, 1263
proprietive, 953, 957
  allomorphy, 955

compatibility, 960
denominal, 1018, 1019, 1025
origin, 1064
protasis
  iterative coincidenc, 504
  reduplication, 503
proximate, 9
Proximative, 1165
  origin, 1171
  periphrastic, 1167
pseudo-cleft, 1299
purposive clause, 725, 742, 1335
quantification
  relativization, 1302
quantifier
  distributive, 384
  mid-scalar, 383
  universal, 380
question
  particle, 460
reanalysis, 33, 187, 397, 444, 617, 813, 952, 986, 1024, 1063, 1066
recipient, 316
reciprocal, 32, 910
  causative, 914
  collocation, 905
  compatibility, 906
  reduplicated, 903
recursion
  causative, 847
reduplication, 178, 184, 187
  antipassive, 939
  attenuative, 996
  derivation, 1008
  distributed action, 987
  emphatic, 508, 510
  incremental, 505
irregular, 994
partial, 71
Past Imperfective, 940
proprietive, 1021
protasis, 503
reciprocal, 903
secondary exponence, 508
totalitative, 506, 1264
verb, 502
vowel contrasts, 63
reflexive, 31, 888, 896, 898, 900, 901
  antipassive, 946
  auto-evaluative, 995
ditransitive verb, 891
intransitive verb, 892
origin, 902
relative clause, 38
  adjuncts, 1289
Aorist, 1141
  associated motion, 711
  attribute, 418
  comitative, 1288
comparee, 1276
complementation strategy, 1333
constraints, 1298
correlative, 1261
dative, 1289
determiner, 1267
finite, 297, 1258
focalization, 1299
genitive, 1259
goal, 1284
head-internal, 1271
headless, 1271
instrument, 1287
instrumental, 754
intransitive subject, 1275
locative, 751, 1284
object, 297, 736, 1278

participle, 1257
possessor, 724, 1290, 1291
postnominal, 1274
postverbal position, 1269
prenominal, 1271
quantification, 1302
relator noun, 1260
resumptive pronoun, 1263
semi-object, 1282
subject, 723
theme, 1280
totalitative reduplication, 506, 1264
transitive subject, 1277
relator noun, 344, 364
  locative, 351
  relativization, 1260
  temporal, 361
reported speech, 1322
restrictive
  adverb, 1206, 1207
  counted noun, 262
Rhetorical interrogative, 1175
rhyme, 54
  historical phonology, 55
  right dislocation, 1197
  rogative, 887
sandhi
  external, 104
  internal, 148
scalar concessive conditional, 1393
script, 105
secundative, 1190
secutive, 348
semi-object, 296, 297
  relativization, 1282
semi-reflexive
  causative, 832
Sensory, 1104, 1117
serial verb construction, 1406, 1440,
1448

causative, 834

sibling, 1462

similative, 1451

denominal, 1016

verb, 1369, 1407

simultaneity, 787, 1342, 1404, 1409

speaker attitude, 468

speech error

complement clause, 1381

consonant, 66

indexation, 603

spontaneous, 32, 973

standard, 334

stem alternation, 493, 1085

stress, 68, 476

subject, 688, 1196, 1242

dummy, 577

facilitative, 961

incorporation, 1075

intransitive, 34, 535, 1291

non-singular, 535

relativization, 1275, 1277

transitive, 34

subject:intransitive, 306, 307

subject:intrantive, 293

subject:transitive, 294, 304

suffix

chain, 477

indexation, 68

nominalization, 797

vowel contrasts, 64

summon, 454

superlative, 44, 182, 1453

syllable

closed, 50, 60

heterosyllabic cluster, 101

sonority sequencing principle, 103

structure, 47, 54, 71

tail-head linkage, 1388

temporal clause, 1398

concurrence, 1403

precedence, 1398

subsequence, 1401

temporal postposition, 340

Tense

Past, 1134

tense

adverb, 1200

nominal, 183

non-past, 1100

present, 1112

reference point, 1403

terminative, 337

theme, 297, 938

Tibetan, 105, 143

numeral, 240

verb, 1066

time ordinal, 281

tone, 68

topic, 399

adversative, 397

aforementioned, 394

deliminative, 392

totalitative

reduplication, 506, 1264

traditional houses, 659

transitivity

autive, 967

morphology, 540

tropative, 30, 868, 901

Past Imperfective, 870

allomorphy, 870

auto-evaluative, 995

causative, 844, 856, 874

compatibility, 872
universal concessive conditional, 1395

universal quantifier, 217, 1204

determinier, 380

verb, 8

bare stem, 775

bipartite, 487

caused accompanied motion, 635

complement-taking, 1345

deadverbial, 651

defective, 575, 631, 811

dynamic, 24

existential, 1243

finite, 24

indirective, 579, 1192

intransitive, 17, 525, 534, 535, 538, 1187, 1216

invariable, 538

labile, 586, 589

light, 1012

loanwords, 1066

manipulation, 635

modal, 1352

motion, 632, 898, 1335

orientable, 632, 639

orienting, 638

perception, 1097, 1362

phasal, 1364

repetition, 1255

secundative, 581, 1190

semi-transitive, 530, 586

stative, 24

suppletion, 515

transitive, 18, 540, 577, 583, 1189, 1222

vertitive, 982

vocative, 142

volitionality, 32, 896

anticausative, 924

associated motion, 710

derivation, 997

vowel, 7, 52

alternation, 147, 493, 1009, 1055, 1085

assimilation, 52

contraction, 499, 624, 875, 1014

free variation, 59

neutralization, 59, 60

synizesis, 53

weaving loom, 660

word, 104

bipartite verbs, 487

clitic, 303

enclitic, 485

wordhood, 484

word order, 37, 425, 1187

complement clauses, 1327

Xtokavian, 107, 495, 628

zero-derivation

denominal, 1053
<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>
A grammar of Japhug

Japhug is a vulnerable Gyalrongic language, which belongs to the Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan) family. It is spoken by several thousand speakers in Mbarkham county, Ngaba district, Sichuan province, China. This grammar is the result of nearly 20 years of fieldwork on one variety of Japhug, based on a corpus of narratives and conversations, a large part of which is available from the Pangloss Collection. It covers the whole grammar of the language, and the text examples provide a unique insight into Gyalrong culture. It was written with a general linguistics audience in mind, and should prove useful not only to specialists of Trans-Himalayan historical linguistics and typologists, but also to anthropologists doing research in Gyalrong areas. It is also hoped that some readers will use it to learn Japhug and pursue research on this fascinating language in the future.

ISBN 978-3-96110-305-8

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /></figure>

9 783961 103058