# Ready to help, no matter what you did: Responsibility attribution does not influence compassion in expert Buddhist practitioners.

Enrico Fucci, Oussama Abdoun, Constanza Baquedano, Antoine Lutz

► To cite this version:

Enrico Fucci, Oussama Abdoun, Constanza Baquedano, Antoine Lutz. Ready to help, no matter what you did: Responsibility attribution does not influence compassion in expert Buddhist practitioners.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2024, 153 (4), pp.1093 - 1111. hal-04957814

HAL Id: hal-04957814

https://hal.science/hal-04957814v1

Submitted on 25 Mar 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

# Ready to help, no matter what you did: responsibility attribution does not influence compassion in expert Buddhist practitioners

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

Enrico Fucci<sup>1,2 *</sup>, Oussama Abdoun<sup>2</sup>, Constanza Baquedano<sup>3 ‡</sup>, Antoine Lutz<sup>2 * ‡</sup>

1. Institute for Globally Distributed Open Research and Education (IGDORE)

2. Eduwell team, Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, DYCOG Team, INSERM U1028 - CNRS UMR5292, Lyon, France

3. Center for Social and Cognitive Neuroscience (CSCN), School of Psychology, Universidad Adolfo Ibañez, Santiago, Chile

*corresponding authors:

Antoine Lutz, PhD

Email: antoine.lutz@inserm.fr

Tel:+33-(0)4-72-13-89-08 (office)

Enrico Fucci, PhD

Email: enrico.fucci@igdore.org

‡ CB and AL are joint senior authors

Authors note:

Data, code and materials associated with the manuscript are publicly available at an OSF repository (doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/h9byg). The current version of the manuscript is available online in the form of preprint at PsyArxiv (https://psyarxiv.com/d6y4w)
31 **Abstract**

32

33 Within western social psychology and neuroscience, compassion is described as being
34 conditioned by cost-benefit appraisals, such as the attribution of responsibility for the
35 causes of suffering. Buddhist traditions maintain the possibility of cultivating and
36 embodying unconditioned and universal forms of compassion. Whereas a growing body
37 of empirical literature suggest that Buddhist-inspired compassion-based programs
38 foster prosociality and well-being in healthy and clinical populations, there is no
39 evidence that such compassionate disposition toward others can become unconditioned
40 from moral judgement. To address this question, we collected and integrated self-report
41 and behavioural data from expert Buddhist practitioners and trained novices using a
42 previously validated within-subject experiment that manipulates contextual
43 information to influence moral judgement towards suffering others and a newly
44 designed approach-avoidance task. We found that context manipulation impacted
45 responsibility and blame attribution in both groups and that experts' reported
46 willingness to help was higher and less influenced by context, compared to novices.

47 Partial correlation networks highlighted a negative relationship between blame
48 attribution and willingness to help in novices, but not in expert practitioners. Self-
49 reported willingness to help was correlated to reaction times when approaching
50 suffering stimuli. Approach behaviour was modulated by context in novice, but not in
51 experts. This study provides initial evidence of a dissociation between moral
52 attributions and prosocial attitude in expert Buddhist practitioners and challenges
53 established evolutionary accounts of compassion in western psychology.

54
55 **Keywords:** Mindfulness; Prosocial motivation; Altruism; Evolutionary; Comparative

56 ethics

57

58 **Public significance statement:**

59 This study provides initial evidence for a dissociation between moral judgement and

60 prosocial attitude in expert Buddhist practitioners. Findings are in line with Buddhist

61 theories on compassion and contemplative training and expand established theories in

62 social psychology.

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77
78

# 1. Introduction

79

331. *O king, through compassion you should Always generate just an attitude of altruism*

80

*Even for all those embodied beings Who have committed awful ill deeds ...*

81

Nagarjuna - Ratnāvalī (Precious garland)

82

83

84

The growing number of environmental issues – including the recent outbreak of COVID-19 – is revealing, with unprecedented clarity, the fundamental interconnectedness of human societies. We are facing dramatic changes on a global scale: from increasing socio-economic disparities to mass migrations and political polarisation. A zeitgeist defined by some as a “precipice”, a crossroad for humanity, that could thrive or succumb in response to a rising existential risk (Ord, 2020). The need for facilitating value-based decision making and for building collective agency and resilience has led to a growing concern to apply insights and practises from contemplative traditions in social, organisational and policy-making contexts (Bristow & Bell, 2020). In parallel, there is an increasing interest in the fields of social, emotional, evolutionary psychology and neuroscience to investigate practices and populations with the aim of expanding our understanding of how individuals deal with others’ suffering and of what factors influence prosocial motivation. For some scholars, this is a necessary step to promote a societal transition towards “global compassion”, or the “concern to alleviate the suffering of anyone, regardless of their nationality, language, culture, or religion” (Ekman and Ekman, 2017). A concept that does not take much space in western psychology, but that constitutes a pillar of many contemplative traditions, being especially developed and theorised in Buddhist psychology (Ricard, 2015). In this

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101
102

context, the challenge for fundamental research is to foster a dialogue, supported by
empirical evidence and sound methods, that can question established theories on social
motivation and guide applicative programs.

103

104

105

1.1 Forms of compassion and the weight of moral judgement

106

Within social psychology, the attribution of responsibility for the causes of suffering and
the associated blameworthiness of the sufferer are considered as playing a major role in
shaping responses to others in need (Goetz et al., 2010). The link between responsibility
attribution, moral judgement and helping behaviour has been widely investigated in the
context of the social psychological theory of attributions (Weiner, 2006). When a person
is perceived as having control over the causes of their suffering, this in turn elicits less
sympathy and more anger in the observer, resulting in less willingness to help
compared to a situation when the person is perceived as a victim of external causes (see
Rudolph et al., 2004 for a meta-analysis of 39 studies on helping intentions). Recently,
we highlighted a negative correlation between willingness to help and blame attribution
in a within-subjects experiment, adding to the idea that moral judgement and
compassion are tightly related (Fucci et al., 2021). This evidence supports the view of
compassion in evolutionary psychology as a conditional process, constrained by cost
and benefit dynamics (Goetz et al., 2010). From this perspective, a compassionate act
would be perceived as more or less beneficial by the helper, depending on the appraisal
of the sufferer's responsibility and blameworthiness.

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

Buddhist traditions, however, sustain the possibility for an individual to pursue and
embody a different attitude towards suffering. One that is based upon the recognition
that all beings are equally conditioned by and suffer from a lack of insight about the
impermanent and illusory nature of phenomena, including our sense of unchanging and
126

independent self (Makransky 2012). Rooted in this pervasive and universal view of
suffering (Pali *dukkha*), Buddhist practitioners cultivate the wish of freeing their mind
from maladaptive patterns of reification, attachment and aversion, and to help others
attain the same.

127

128

129

130

Despite theories and practises in different schools of Buddhism being shaped by
different perspectives on the role of compassion in the spiritual path (Lavelle 2017,
Goodman 2009, Makransky 2012), all practitioners aim to cultivate a compassionate
stance which is unbounded, unconditional and encompassing all living beings (Tenzin
Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, 2001). Thus, compassion is complemented by the
nurturing of equanimity (Pali *upekkha*), intended in this context as an impartial stance
towards the misfortunes of individuals, who are the same in their suffering and in their
wish and potential for freedom from distress (Makransky 2012). This is facilitated by
practices that aim to extend compassion from close ones to neutral people, to strangers,
to persons who have caused harm and, ultimately, to all beings. These practices, albeit
in different forms, are common in all Buddhist traditions and in many secular programs
adapted for clinical and social settings (Lavelle 2017).

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

Furthermore, within Tibetan schools of Buddhism, boundless and impartial compassion
is described as being an essential quality of one's fundamental awareness. As such, it is
present in all individuals, only obscured by dualistic and conditioned mind patterns.

143

144

145

From this perspective, realising and experiencing the natural state of mind (also
described as “open presence”; Lutz et al., 2007) naturally leads a practitioner to embody
a form of compassion defined as “non-referential” (Tibetan wiley: “mig mey nying jey”,
Kalu Rinpoche, 1986). In its non-referential form, compassion transcends subject-object
duality and there is no distinction between helping oneself or others (Ekman & Ekman,
2017). The state of non-referential compassion has been described as an “unconditional

146

147

148

149

150
readiness and availability to help living beings" (Lutz et al., 2004). Practices cultivating
open presence and non-referential compassion are embedded into a broader ethical and
spiritual context, referred to as the Bodhicitta aspiration in Mahayana Buddhism, which
encompasses in particular the aspiration to recognize this non-dual state in order to
help every being to free themselves from suffering and its causes (Patrul Rinpoche,
1993).

In Buddhist traditions, attaining unconditional compassion is not only possible, but it is
a necessary condition that supports a practitioner and infuses the mind when freed
from maladaptive patterns. In this sense, someone who causes harm to oneself and
others is seen as being afflicted by a greater deal of delusion and as generating more
suffering due to the consequences of their actions. For this reason, they equally, if not
more, deserve to receive compassion compared to those who suffer due to inescapable
causes (Goodman, 2009).

The divergent views on compassion between western and Buddhist psychology
constitute a fertile ground for questioning and expanding theories of social cognition
and prosocial motivation. Based on these different accounts, we can ask whether
responsibility and blame attributions play a fundamental role in shaping human helping
behaviour, or whether a different "phenotype" could be observed in individuals who
undergo a contemplative path yearning to engage with suffering unconditionally and
universally. This is not a purely theoretical question, as it can elucidate and influence
the way we deal with suffering and stigmas in today's societies. Blame attribution
determines, for instance, how healthcare professionals engage with patients (Guo et al.,
2021; Philip et al., 2014) and the reaction to victims of cyberbullying (Weber et al.,
2013). Our very systems of justice are built upon views of punishment that depend on
the relation between attribution, morality and help (Goodman, 2009, ch. 8). Despite its
176

theoretical and practical relevance, this question has not yet been the object of
investigation by empirical research.

177

178

179

## 1.2 Empirical research on compassion as a trainable skill

180

A growing body of evidence supports the idea that compassion is a trainable skill.

181

Secular programs inspired by Buddhist teachings and meditation practises have been
shown to modulate individuals' affective responses to the suffering of others, enhancing
positive emotions and empathic concern (e.g., Ashar et al., 2021; Klimecki et al., 2013,
2014; Trautwein et al., 2020; Weng et al., 2017). Compassion-based interventions, when
implemented in clinical settings, affect individual measures of well-being and help
coping with psychopathological conditions such as anxiety and depression (see Kirby et
al., 2017 for a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials). Compassion and
mindfulness training have the potential of reinforcing prosocial behaviours, as
demonstrated in experimental paradigms using charitable donations (e.g., Iwamoto et
al., 2020; Weng et al., 2013), games that prompt social interactions (e.g., Berry et al.,
2018; Leiberg et al., 2011) and in two studies measuring the frequency of helping
responses to individuals in need (Condon et al., 2013, Lim et al., 2015).

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

Based on our knowledge, only one study has investigated changes in blame attribution
and helping behaviour following compassion training. In Ashar et al. (2016), perceived
blameworthiness has been shown to modulate, together with other emotional and
cognitive factors, the amount participants donated to a charity. Blame attribution,
however, did not change between pre- and post-training for those participants who
underwent a short compassion meditation program. This could be due to two factors
that were not considered in Ashar et al. (2016) study. First, compassion training might

194

195

196

197

198

199
not affect attribution processes, but rather the relationship between attributions and
helping intentions. Buddhist ethics recognize responsibility in harmful acts and their
consequences for the individual and the community (Goodman, 2009). Compassion
training might then act on the resistances or "costs" that attribution and moral
judgement generate for acting compassionately (Gilbert, 2019). Secondly, although
secular compassion-based programs include practices that aim to increase compassion
for others, independently of whether they cause harm (Lavelle, 2017), this might not be
achieved in the context of a short intervention. Buddhist practitioners undergo years of
study and practice, which encompass formal meditation, cognitive strategies and
behavioural training (Lutz et al., 2008). In this respect, it is more likely that forms of
compassion which entail a different relationship between attribution and help can be
observed in long-term practitioners rather than novices. To this date, however, research
on long-term practitioners has not addressed this question, rather focusing on
individuals' brain activity and affective responses to suffering stimuli (e.g., Lutz et al.,
2008; Rosenberg et al., 2015) or on the neural correlates of non-referential compassion
as a state induced by advanced practises (Lutz et al., 2004; Schoenberg et al., 2018). In a
behavioural study, McCall et al. (2014) showed greater recompensation of players
treated unfairly and less punishment towards unfair players (but only when the
meditators were the victim) in long-term Buddhist meditators compared to control
participants in a Dictator Game. Although this finding provides evidence of a different
stance towards punishment, it does not elucidate the question at hand: do responsibility
and blame attribution influence willingness to help in long-term Buddhist practitioners?
222

## 1.3 Compassion as social motivation affecting implicit behaviour

223

224

225

226

227

Most empirical research on mindfulness and compassion training, and on long-term practitioners from contemplative traditions, has been focusing on affective reactions to suffering stimuli or measures of prosocial behaviour in economic and cooperation games, with few exceptions implementing behavioural measures in ecological settings (e.g., Berry et al., 2021, Condon et al., 2013, Lim et al., 2015).

228

229

230

231

In western psychology, compassion is defined and operationalized as a combination of a distinct emotional state and a motivational component. A widely implemented definition is the one provided by Goetz and colleagues (2010): "the feeling that arises in witnessing another's suffering and that motivates a subsequent desire to help" (p. 351).

232

233

Such characterization of compassion as a distinct emotional state has played a major role in guiding research on this topic in psychology and neuroscience.

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

Buddhist accounts of compassion, however, differ substantially from this definition, to the point that its emotional aspect is not regarded as a fundamental element, as in Tenzin Gyatso (the 14th Dalai Lama, 2001): "True compassion is not just an emotional response but a firm commitment founded on reason. Because of this firm foundation, a truly compassionate attitude toward others does not change even if they behave negatively". This is also supported by theoretical models that see compassion training as acting on psychological processes that are more cognitive than affective, such as perspective taking and reappraisal (Dahl et al., 2015).

242

243

244

245

246

Combining Buddhist and motivational psychology perspectives, Gilbert & Choden (2013) proposed a definition of compassion that rather emphasises its motivational component: "...a sensitivity to suffering in self and others with a commitment to try to alleviate and prevent it" (p. 94). Such commitment to help is grounded in a motivational system that not only lies at the basis of compassionate behaviour, but also prompts
247 practitioners to actively learn how to be helpful through reasoning (Gilbert, 2019). In
248 this view, emotional reactions to suffering are context-dependent and do not constitute
249 the primary drive of helping behaviour. In line with this definition, recent psychological
250 models have included a motivational component, described as readiness to help
251 (Jazaieri et al., 2013) or a disposition towards approaching suffering (Weng et al., 2017),
252 as a fundamental aspect of compassion. Notably, the concepts of “readiness” and
253 “availability” to help are of primary importance in Buddhist narratives of compassion
254 (Lutz et al., 2004). Besides being more aligned to the traditional accounts found in the
255 Buddhist literature, focusing on the motivational rather than emotional aspect of
256 compassion can facilitate the study of complex factors, such as competing motivational
drives, that condition compassionate responses to suffering and which remain
257 unexplored by this field of research, as in the case of attribution processes (Gilbert,
258 2019). In this respect, implicit behavioural predispositions towards suffering stimuli, in
259 the form of approach and avoidance tendencies, could be a promising marker.
260 Paradigms measuring approach-avoidance behaviours have appeared in experimental
261 psychology research several decades ago (Solarz, 1960) and have since evolved into
262 tasks that rely more or less on sensorimotor contingencies (e.g., lever task, Chen &
263 Bargh, 1999; joystick task, Rinck & Becker, 2007; visual approach-avoidance task
264 [VAAST], Rougier et al., 2018) or conceptual representations of movement (manikin
265 task; De Houwer et al., 2001). Approach-avoidance tasks (AATs) have been used to
266 study response tendencies (in the form of reaction times) to affective stimuli (see Phaf
267 et al., 2014 for a recent meta-analysis), addictive stimuli (e.g., Cousijn et al., 2011;
268 Peeters et al., 2013; Wittekind et al., 2015) and salient cues in individuals suffering of
269 social anxiety (e.g. Heuer et al., 2007; Roelofs et al., 2009), among other topics. More
270 recently, AATs were implemented in studies showing how mindfulness-based
271
272 interventions can affect food craving (Baquedano et al., 2017; Papies et al., 2012) and
273 responses to emotional stimuli in terms of valence-behaviour associations (Juneau et al.,
274 2021). The theoretical explanation of AAT effects is that faster or slower reaction times
275 to approach or avoid a stimulus represent implicit behavioural tendencies towards it,
276 these tendencies being the manifestations of appetitive-aversive motivational processes
277 (Kozlik et al., 2015). Interestingly, approach-avoidance effects have been proposed as a
278 marker of attitudes towards ingroup-outgroup members (Rougier et al., 2020), relying
279 on a classical definition of attitude as "neural state of readiness" (Allport, 1935, p. 810),
280 and there is evidence for an effect of prosocial motivation on approach reaction times
281 (Kaltwasser et al., 2017). Based on these premises, we figure that the "readiness" or
282 motivational aspect of compassion could be operationalized in terms of approach and
283 avoid behavioural responses to suffering stimuli and how they relate to individuals'
284 willingness to help.
285

285

1.4 Introducing the current research

286 In the present study, we aimed to elucidate how compassion is modulated by
287 responsibility and blame attributions in long-term Buddhist practitioners, both in terms
288 of subjective experience and implicit behavioural attitudes towards suffering stimuli.
289 Building on the current models of attribution in prosocial motivation and alternative
290 perspectives on compassion found in Buddhist psychology, we formulated two
291 predictions. First, we hypothesised that the correlation between attribution processes
292 and willingness to help, observed in the general population, would not characterise
293 subjective responses of long-term Buddhist practitioners to suffering stimuli. Secondly,
294 that implicit behavioural (approach-avoidance) responses to suffering stimuli would be
295 modulated by contextual information on blameworthiness and responsibility in the
296 general population, but not in Buddhist practitioners. To elucidate these research
297 questions, we designed a laboratory within-subject experiment consisting in the
298 presentation of video stimuli depicting people in distress preceded by short stories
299 (contexts) apt to manipulate the perceived responsibility of the sufferer (the context-
300 video pairs were previously validated and made available online by Fucci et al., 2021).

301 We investigated subjective responses to the video stimuli using self-report scales
302 addressing participants' attributions and helping intentions and modelling the
303 relationship between self-report measures using within-subject partial correlation
304 networks. Additionally, we collected reaction time (RT) data in the context of a novel
305 version of visual approach-avoidance task (AAT) using short video-clips derived from
306 the same video stimuli. We investigated the relationship between approach and
307 avoidance RTs with subjective measures of willingness to help via within-subject
308 correlation analysis, as well as the effect of different contexts on participants' responses.

309 In the experiment, we compared a group of selected long-term Buddhist practitioners
310 (experts) with a control group of novice meditation practitioners that were introduced
311 to the theories and practice of compassion in the context of a secular program. The task
312 was carried out following short sessions of compassion meditation and of an active
313 control practice designed to increase empathic resonance (in line with Klimecki et al.,
314 2013, see section 2.2 for a detailed description of the practises). This state manipulation
315 was included in the experimental design to assess whether short sessions of
316 compassion practice could influence helping intentions and behaviour independently of
317 the degree of expertise of a practitioner. Based on the available literature on
318 compassion training, we hypothesised that participants' reported willingness to help
319 would be higher following compassion practice and that this effect would be reflected
320 on behavioural measures. We also expected compassion practice to downplay the effect
of context on willingness to help and associated behaviour. We did not formulate hypotheses on a possible interaction between the effect of the compassion session and the one of expertise given the paucity of empirical evidence on this topic, and the novelty of our paradigm. One possibility is that the state modulation specifically influences either the novices or the experts. We also considered an alternative scenario where short compassion practice would not modulate the effect of attributions on willingness to help and behaviour; a short practice not being enough to influence novices and experts' established motivational tendencies. In this sense, the analysis of practice effects was mainly exploratory.

330

# 2. Materials and methods

331

## 2.1 Participants

332

Thirty expert meditation practitioners (52±7.8 years old, 13 females, 17 males, right-handed, all white Caucasians) and thirty-four healthy control participants (51±8 years old, 14 females, 20 males, right-handed, all white Caucasians) participated in the study. Sex, gender, race and ethnicity were not collected directly from the participants as they were not of high relevance to the present study; sex and ethnicity were inferred from our knowledge of the participants for the publication.

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

Control participants (novices) were recruited using flyers and posters in public places, on social media and mailing lists, and through notifications to online subject pools. They underwent a weekend-long introduction to meditation and practised at home before participating in the experiment (see section 2.2 for details). Experts were recruited and selected with the help of a long-term practitioner with extensive contacts within the
344 Nyingma and Kagyü communities of Tibetan Buddhism. The present study was part of a
345 larger research project that included several experimental sessions. A detailed
346 description of the general inclusion and exclusion criteria for expert and novice
347 practitioners is provided in a separate document (Abdoun et al., 2018; accessible online
348 at doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/dbwch). For this specific study, relevant exclusion criteria
349 were: use of psychoactive medication, history of neurological or psychiatric conditions,
350 severe hearing loss, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) above 20. All participants
351 presented proof of affiliation to social security, signed an informed consent before the
352 beginning of the experiment, and were remunerated for their participation. Ethical
353 approval was obtained from the appropriate regional ethics committee on Human
354 Research (CPP Sud-Est IV, 2015-A01472-47).

355 Before the experiment, all control participants and expert practitioners filled a number
356 of psychological questionnaires (see the list at doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/dbwch),
357 including the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR, Hart et al., 2015).

## 2.2 Meditation practises and training

359 Experts and novices differed for their training contexts, amount of daily practice and of
360 practice before the experimental sessions. In the following sections, we provide
361 information relevant for the current study (which was part of a larger project, as
362 mentioned in the previous section). Detailed information on the meditation experience
363 and daily practice of experts, and on the structure of the training weekend and home
364 practice of novices can be found in separate report (Abdoun et al., 2018, accessible
365 online at doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/dbwch; Abdoun et al., 2019)
366 2.2.1 Experts training

367 All expert practitioners had a minimum of 10,000 hours of meditation practice in their lifetime, participated in at least one 3-year meditation retreat under the Nyingma and Kagyü traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, and maintained a daily practice of at least 45 minutes during the year prior to their recruitment.

371 For expert Buddhist practitioners belonging to the Nyingma and Kagyü schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of compassion is tightly linked to objectless meditations apt to cultivate the non-dual state described as open presence (Dunne, 2011; Lutz et al., 2007). It is described, for instance, by Dilgo Khyentse, a teacher and practitioner, as “the simplicity of the natural state, beyond all concepts and intellectual limitations, out of which spontaneous, objectless compassion arises, benefiting all sentient beings.” (Patrul Rinpoche, 1993). This state does not require concentration on particular objects, memories or images. Because “benevolence and compassion pervade the mind as a way of being”, this state is called “pure compassion” or “non-referential compassion” (*dmigs med snying rje* in Tibetan) (Lutz et al., 2008). Being familiar with this quality of mind is supposed to facilitate the embodiment of an “unconditional readiness and availability to help living beings”. Complementing this practice, during their training, practitioners undergo a number of different contemplations focusing on particular persons or groups, based on precise instructions and using mental imagery and memories. A typical practice entails the cultivation of compassion “on an object”, or support, where a practitioner repeats the mental phrasing of wishes to alleviate a person’s distress and aspirations for their well-being and freedom from suffering. The practice gradually extends the object of compassion from oneself to closed ones, to persons with whom the practitioner has difficult relationships and strangers. Ultimately, the aim of the practice is to cultivate compassion for all living beings. Importantly, this practice is not reduced
391 to a repetition of mantras directed to mental images, but is permeated by the cultivation
392 of mindful inquiry of the subjective experience generated from the exercise (Hofmann
393 et al., 2011). This style of practice dates back to early forms of Theravāda Buddhism and
394 has been adapted to modern, secular meditation-based programs (Lavelle, 2017) as well
395 as being adopted in laboratory research settings with novice practitioners (e.g.,
396 Klimecki et al., 2014; Weng et al., 2013).

397 2.2.1 Novices training

398 In the present study, novice meditation practitioners were introduced to object-
399 oriented styles of compassion practice (see above) during a weekend-long training
400 program (the structure of the training weekend is described and discussed in detail in
401 Abdoun et al., 2019). The workshop was based on a secular meditation program derived
402 from the teachings embedded in the Kagyü and Nyingma schools of Tibetan Buddhism
403 (The joy of Living, Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche & Swanson, 2007; https://tergar.org/).

404 During the introductory weekend, and inspired by previous research protocols
405 (Klimecki et al., 2014), novice practitioners were also guided to reflect on the difference
406 between empathic resonance and compassion through experiential exercises. Facing
407 highly emotional pictures of people in physical and psychological distress, they were
408 first asked to connect and resonate with their suffering. Subsequently, they were invited
409 to cultivate compassion towards the characters of the images through the generation of
410 wishes and aspirations as described above. Both exercises were followed by sessions
411 where participants could share their experience with the group and the teacher.
412 Following the exercises, they were formally introduced to a practice that entailed the
413 cultivation of compassion towards different people and groups, from oneself to all living
414 beings.
Novice practitioners were asked to practise at home until the date of the experiment using audio supports (the average time between training weekend and the data collection was 63.1 (31.7) days. Table 1 shows the average total and daily home practice. See Abdoun et al., 2019 for additional analysis on home practice and compliance).

420

421

422

423

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Daily average (min)</th><th>Average total practice time (hrs)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Focused Attention</td><td>6.2 (3.3)</td><td>5.7 (3.2)</td></tr><tr><td>Open Monitoring</td><td>7.3 (3.8)</td><td>7.9 (5.9)</td></tr><tr><td>Compassion</td><td>4.2 (2.6)</td><td>4.3 (3.5)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>18 (7.7)</td><td>18.3 (10.9)</td></tr></tbody></table>

424

Table 1. Average daily and total amount of home practice for novice participants between the training weekend and the experimental sessions. In the training weekend, novices were familiarised with different styles of meditation.

428

2.2.3 Practices during the experiment

On the day of the experiment, both expert and novice practitioners underwent guided practises of compassion and empathic resonance at different stages of the paradigm using audio supports (available online in French version at doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/h9byg). The practice of compassion consisted in the same support used by novice meditators for their home practice. The practice of empathic resonance presented the same structure as the one of compassion, but asked participants to resonate with the suffering with the aid of mental expression such as “I
437

feel your pain", "you suffer, I suffer with you" (in line with the "empathy training"

438

practises implemented in Klimecki et al., 2014).

439

440

## 2.3 Stimuli

441

Participants were confronted with several videos depicting people in emotional and

442

physical distress (emotional videos), as well as videos showing individuals performing

443

everyday life activities (neutral videos). Each emotional video is paired with two

444

versions of a short story (contexts) that, when displayed before the video, aim at

445

manipulating the perceived responsibility of the sufferer for being in their condition.

446

The different context-video pairs were previously validated in terms of their ability to

447

manipulate perceived responsibility (see Fucci et al., 2021 for details). Emotional and

448

neutral videos are derived from a subset of the stimuli used in the Socio-Affective Video

449

Task (SoVT, Klimecki et al., 2013).

450

For the approach-avoidance task (AAT), we created four different short video-clips out

451

of each emotional and neutral video. Video clips last between four and five seconds. For

452

videos shorter than sixteen seconds, a video-clip start can overlap with the previous

453

one. The clips used in the present study are available online at

454

doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/h9byg, together with information on their onset relative to the

455

reference video, their duration and the timing of AAT cues.

456

## 2.4 Paradigm

457

The task ran on a desktop computer using Presentation® software (Version 18.0,

458

Neurobehavioral Systems, Inc., Berkeley, CA, www.neurobs.com).

459

Participants sat on a comfortable chair in a sound-shielded room, wearing a pair of
460 headphones and used a Playstation® controller to perform the approach-avoidance task (AAT). They received verbal instructions and underwent two training trials before starting the experiment.

463 The paradigm counted two equally structured sessions (session order was counterbalanced between subjects). Each session started with a ten minutes-long guided practice (empathic resonance or compassion). The practice was followed by the task (see figure 1 for a schematic representation). After each session, participants underwent 15 to 20 minutes-long interviews (this data will be described elsewhere).

468 Importantly, participants were verbally instructed to approach the experimental task while trying to maintain the same attitude cultivated during the guided practice.

470 Each trial started with the presentation of a video preceded by one of the two possible contexts associated with it. Following the video presentation, participants were asked to answer questions on a 1 to 9 Likert scale. They tapped into different dimensions of the participant's subjective experience of each video: valence, arousal, empathy, perceived responsibility, deservingness judgement, willingness to help (questions and scales are shown in Table 2 and are available online at doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/h9byg).

476

<table><thead><tr><td>Question (English)</td><td>Scale (English)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Évaluez le contenu émotionnel de la vidéo que vous venez de voir</strong><br/><em>Please rate the emotional content of the video you just watched</em></td><td>1 = Très négatif (very negative)<br/>5 = Neutre (neutral)<br/>9 = Très positif (very positive)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Quelle était l'intensité de votre ressenti émotionnel lorsque vous regardiez cette vidéo?</strong><br/><em>How strong was your affective response while watching the video?</em></td><td>1 = Pas du tout forte (not strong at all)<br/>5 = Moyennement forte (mildly strong)<br/>9 = Très forte (very strong)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>À quel point étiez-vous ému(e) par les émotions exprimées par le ou les sujets principaux de la vidéo?</strong><br/><em>To which degree were you moved by the emotions of the main character/s of the video?</em></td><td>1 = Pas du tout ému(e) (not at all)<br/>5 = Modérément ému(e) (moderately)<br/>9 = Très ému(e) (very much)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Selon vous, à quel point le ou les sujets principaux sont responsables de la condition dans laquelle ils se trouvent?<br/>In your opinion, to which degree is the main character/s responsible for his/her/their condition?</td><td>1 = Pas du tout responsable(s) (very not responsible)<br/>5 = Aucun des deux (neither one nor the other)<br/>9 = Très responsable(s) (very responsible)</td></tr><tr><td>Selon vous, à quel point le ou les sujets principaux méritent de se retrouver dans cette condition?<br/>In your opinion, to which degree does the main character/s deserve to be in his/her/their condition?</td><td>1 = Pas du tout (not at all)<br/>5 = Aucun des deux (neither one nor the other)<br/>9 = Beaucoup (very much)</td></tr><tr><td>À quel point voudriez-vous aider le ou les sujets principaux?<br/>To which degree do you will to help the main character/s?</td><td>1 = Pas du tout (not at all)<br/>5 = Aucun des deux (neither one nor the other)<br/>9 = Beaucoup (very much)</td></tr></table>

477

478

479 Table 2. Questions and self-report scales presented after each context-video pair. Scales ranged from 1 to 9 with full unit intervals (i.e., a range of 9 possible answers). Materials are reported in French first, as this was the language used for the vast majority of participants.

483

484 Following the questions, participants underwent the AAT. It consisted in the presentation of short video-clips (N = 4) extracted from the video. A few seconds after the start of each clip, a visual cue appeared in the middle of the screen. Participants were instructed to react as fast as possible to the cue by pulling or pushing the right analogue stick of the Playstation® controller. Depending on the response, the clip was stopping and either zooming towards (after pulling) or zooming away (after pushing) from the participant. Cues characterised by a circle shape were prompting approach (pulling) responses while squared cues prompted avoid (pushing) responses. Cue onset timing was randomised between 2.5 and 3.5 seconds after the start of each video-clip.

493 Each session comprised twenty trials, consisting of 10 emotional (5 responsible and 5 not-responsible contexts) and 10 neutral videos. The inclusion of specific videos in the
495 first or second session and the trial presentation order within each session were
496 randomised for each subject. The association of emotional or neutral video with one of
497 the two contexts was counterbalanced between subjects.

498

499

500

501

502

503
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Visual representation of a trial of the experimental task. Each trial started with the presentation of a video stimulus preceded by either a “responsible” (red) or “not-responsible” (blue) context. After watching the video, participants answered questions on a 9-points Likert scale. This was followed by the presentation of a video-clip extracted from the video. Circle or squared cue appeared at the centre of the video-clip, prompting pulling or pushing, respectively, the controller stick as quickly as possible. The video-clip stopped and zoomed in or out depending on the controller input. Four video-clips were presented in each trial.</figcaption></figure>

512

513

514
515

**2.5 Analysis**

516

All statistical analyses were performed using R (v. 4.1.1, R core team, 2021). Raw data and analysis code are available on OSF (doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/h9byg).

517

518

Due to technical issues (errors in videos display, joystick malfunctioning, stimuli duplicate for both conditions), we excluded full data from an expert practitioner, data from the empathy condition for two participants (one expert, one novice) and data from some videos for two novice participants (9 and 11 videos respectively). This first step of data preparation resulted in a total of N = 2459 trials.

519

520

521

522

523

**2.5.1 Statistical power**

524

525

526

527

528

529

The present study was part of a larger project, the ERC-funded Brain&Mindfulness project (documentation accessible online at doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/dbwch) which comprised a total of 15 tasks, all completed by the same pool of participants. As such, the number of participants available for the study was constrained by project-level resources and criteria. The number of trials per condition was chosen to limit the total duration of the experiment to four hours.

530

531

532

533

534

535

536

537

We estimated the statistical power conferred by the sample size of the study a priori, i.e., based on effect sizes reported in the literature and motivated theoretical assumptions, described separately below for each of the analyses. We used the *pwr* package (Champely 2020) to compute power of correlation analyses and the *simr* package (Green & MacLeod 2016) for linear mixed models to simulate datasets from generative models reflecting the experimental design, featuring expected patterns of means, with variance parameters informed by relevant literature. Details can be found below and in the corresponding supplementary information (S1, S2 and S3).
### 2.5.1.1 Statistical power: Self-reports

539 The availability of fixed and random effects estimates from a previous validation study
540 (Fucci et al. 2021) facilitated the simulation-based estimation of statistical power for the
541 analysis of self-reports. In the current study, the effect of interest is the group by context
542 interaction, with experts expected to show a weaker context effect on some scales (e.g.,
543 willingness to help). The statistical power to detect such an interaction depends on the
544 magnitude of effect reduction in experts: the smaller the effect of context in experts
545 compared to novices, the higher the gap between the two groups and therefore the
546 higher the power to detect the interaction. In practice, simulations suggested that
547 group-related reductions as small as 25% can be detected with 80% power on scales
548 with large effects of context (willingness to help, responsibility and deservingness).
549 More pronounced reductions are needed to be reliably detected in other scales, for
550 which the effect of context was found small by Fucci et al. (2021). The complete
551 demonstration and profiles of statistical power as a function of effect sizes can be found
552 in supplementary information S1.

553 When we used partial correlation analysis to determine the relationship between self-
554 report measures, a network was estimated for each group of participants separately,
555 based on approximately 300 available trials. Such sample size allowed for the detection
556 of correlation coefficients as low as .16 with 80% statistical power (.19 at 90%).

### 2.5.1.3 Statistical power: Approach avoidance task

558 Effect sizes reported in the literature of approach-avoidance tasks, as well as typical
559 intra-individual trial-to-trial variability of response times in perceptual discrimination
560 tasks, could be exploited to estimate the statistical power of detecting experimental
561 manipulations on approach-avoid reaction times. We focused in particular on the
hypothesised reduction, in expert compared to novice practitioners, of the context (responsible, not responsible) by cue (approach, avoid) double difference. Simulations indicate that the statistical power for moderate (~40ms) to strong (≥50ms) effect sizes was largely sufficient (around 90% and close to 100%, respectively), but dropped rapidly below 50% for small effects (<30ms). Methodological details and complete results can be found in supplementary information S2.

### 2.5.1.2 Statistical power: Correlation analysis between behaviour and self-reports

Based on the same information drawn from the literature and used to compute the statistical power for approach-avoidance reaction time data (see previous paragraph), we could expect the correlation between self-ratings and behavioural measures to be anywhere between .06 and .20. Our design and sample size offer a statistical power of 80% for this range of values (see supplementary information S3 for a complete demonstration).

### 2.5.2 Self-report data analysis

Neutral videos were excluded from the analysis of self-reports data. Relevant questions regarding the effect of contexts on self-reports in response to neutral and emotional videos (i.e., that different contexts affect attributions and willingness to help in emotional, but not neutral videos) were already explored in the stimuli validation study (Fucci et al., 2021) and were not reiterated in the context of the present paradigm.

Data from one novice participant was excluded from the analysis of self-reports due to joystick malfunctioning. For questions on responsibility, deservingness and willingness to help, trials with the response 5 (corresponding to “not relevant”) on the 1 to 9 scale were excluded from further analysis (responsibility = 243 trials; deservingness = 253 trials).
trials; willingness to help = 97 trials). For those questions, values from 6 to 9 were mapped onto the 5-8 range. Additionally, 1 response for the Arousal scale and 1 response for the arousal scale and 42 responses for the valence scale were excluded due to joystick issues and one subject in empathic resonance condition misunderstanding the scale.

### 2.5.2.1 Linear mixed-effects models

Linear mixed-effects models (R package *lme4*; Bates et al., 2014) were used to investigate the effects of experimental manipulations on self-reports, separately for each response scale. Holm's family-wise error rate controlling procedure was used to account for multiple tests (Holm, 1979). The effects and interactions of each model were estimated using a type II F-test with Satterthwaite's method for approximation of degrees of freedom. Paired t-tests, corrected for multiple comparisons using Tukey honestly significant difference test (HSD), were used as post-hoc tests comparing estimated marginal means using the R package *emmeans* (Lenth et al., 2020). We report conditional and marginal R² as measure of models' total explanatory power and that of fixed effects alone, respectively (calculated using the *r2_nakagawa* function from R package *performance* [Nakagawa & Schielzeth, 2013]). Effect sizes for post-hoc tests are reported as values and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of estimated marginal mean difference.

For each response scale, we fitted models including context (responsible, not-responsible), group, condition (empathic resonance, compassion) and their interactions as fixed effects. Context by condition interaction was included as by-subject random slope and video stimuli were added as random intercept. The specification of random effects resulted from decreasing model complexity through multiple iterations until
609

reaching model convergence stability. Models N = 965 (responsibility), 955

610

(deservingness), 1111 (willingness to help), 1196 (valence), 1207 (arousal), 1208

611

(empathy).

612

Following the results of the analysis of the "willingness to help" scale, we fitted a model

613

that tested for a modulation of the group by context interaction by scores of the

614

Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR). Here, we included context, group,

615

BIDR scores and their interactions as fixed effects while keeping the random effects

616

specification from the previous model (model N = 1074).

617

### 2.5.2.2 Regularised partial correlation networks

618

We modelled the relationship between self-report measures using within-subject

619

partial correlation networks following the methodology already implemented in Fucci

620

et al. 2021. We focused on data from emotional videos preceded by responsible contexts

621

(data from the not-responsible contexts was excluded to avoid spurious correlations

622

due to a general effect of context on all variables).

623

Between-subject variance was removed by centring each self-report variable on the

624

participant's mean. Partial correlations between the 6 variables thus obtained were

625

computed. In order to reduce the risk of overfitting, the resulting network was

626

regularised using the LASSO, yielding a sparse network with many edges exactly set to

627

0. The best network was selected using the Extended Bayesian Information Criterion

628

(EBIC), with $\gamma = 0.5$. Non-parametric bootstrap (resampling rows with replacement)

629

was used to create 1000 samples to estimate edge weights and their confidence

630

intervals. All these operations were performed using the *qgraph* (Epskamp et al., 2012)

631

and *bootnet* (Epskamp & Fried, 2018) packages for R.
632

Networks were estimated separately for each group of participants (novices, experts).

633

To further assess potential differences between the two groups in edge weights (i.e., partial correlation strengths), tests comparing independent correlations were performed using the *cocor* R package (Diedenhofen & Musch, 2015) for each edge retained by the regularisation procedure.

634

635

636

637

2.5.3 Behavioural data analysis

638

639

For the analysis of reaction times collected in the approach-avoidance task (AAT), the original dataset consisted of 9836 trials (2459 X 4 [n. of short clips for each video stimulus]. A total of 530 trials were excluded due to issues with video clips display (N = 40), missing (N = 320) and incorrect responses (N = 170). Additionally, abnormal reaction times that fell below a threshold of 200 ms were excluded (N = 8). The remaining reaction times data consisted of N = 9298.

640

641

642

643

644

645

2.5.3.1 *Within-subject correlations*

646

647

In order to characterise the relationship between self-reports and behaviour as indexed by the AAT, we performed multilevel, within-subject correlational analyses between self-reports ratings and trial-level reaction time data using the R package *correlation* (0.7.0). Data were rank-transformed so that reported coefficients are Spearman correlation coefficients and indicate the strength of monotonic relationships.

648

649

650

651

2.5.3.2 *Generalised linear mixed-effects models*

652

653

To account for the non-normal distribution of reaction times (RTs) data, we fitted a generalised linear mixed-effects model where RTs were modelled as an inverse gaussian distribution, following the suggestion of Lo & Andrews (2015). The model

654
655 included group, context, condition, cue (approach-avoid) and their three-way
656 interactions as fixed effects. The presentation order of video clips was also added as a
657 fixed effect not interacting with the other factors. Following the same procedure of
658 simplification of random effects as in the self-reports models, context, condition and cue
659 were included as by-subject random slopes. Variance due to variability across video
660 stimuli was modelled with a by-video random intercept. Type II Wald chi-square test
661 was used for statistical inference. Paired z-tests, accounting for multiple comparisons
662 using Šidák correction, were used as post-hoc tests comparing estimated marginal
663 means using the R package *emmeans* (Lenth et al., 2020). We report conditional and
664 marginal R² as measure of models' total explanatory power and that of fixed effects
665 alone, respectively (calculated using the *r2_nakagawa* function from R package
666 *performance* [Nakagawa & Schielzeth, 2013]). Effect sizes for post-hoc tests are
667 reported as values and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of estimated marginal mean
668 difference. Based on the specificity observed in the correlation analysis (see section
669 3.3), the model data was restricted to emotional videos only (model N = 4607).
670 Additionally, we tested an additional model with the same structure, but modelling RTs
671 as gamma distribution.

672

673 2.6 Transparency and openness

674 We report a detailed analysis of statistical power for each measure given the sample
675 size, all data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and all measures in the study. Stimuli
676 and materials used in the present study are publicly available, along with raw data and
677 analysis code, through the Open Science Framework repository
678 (doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/h9byg). The manuscript contains detailed information that
679 should allow a replication of the task and findings. If further information is needed,
680 please contact the corresponding authors. The experiment was not pre-registered.

681

682

683

684 3. Results

685

686 **3.1 Self-reports**

687 Hypotheses were formulated prior to the statistical analysis for questions on
688 responsibility, deservingness and willingness to help. For the latter, we expected an
689 interaction between group and context, where willingness to help would be higher in
690 response to videos preceded by not-responsible, compared to responsible contexts in
691 novices but not expert practitioners. For responsibility, we expected an effect of context
692 to be present for both groups. For deservingness, we expected an effect of context to be
693 present for novices and possibly for expert practitioners. Regarding a possible effect of
694 practice, we expected willingness to help to be higher and the effect of context to
695 decrease after compassion, compared to empathic resonance practice. No hypotheses
696 were formulated for the analysis of valence, arousal and empathy self-reports.

697 Figures 2 and 3 show the results of the analysis of self-reports in response to questions
698 on responsibility, deservingness and willingness to help. A context by group interaction
699 was present for the "willingness to help" response scale (F (1,59.2) = 20.89, p < .001; R²
700 [full model] = 0.73, R² [fixed effects] = 0.23). Although experts scored higher than
701 novices in the BIDR questionnaire (experts' mean = 17.1, novices' mean = 12.7; t (58) =
2.26, p = 0.028; Cohen's d = 0.59, 95% CI [0.07, 1.12]), including the BIDR scores in the model did not alter the context by group interaction. Both novice and expert practitioners scored significantly higher in response to videos preceded by not-responsible, compared to responsible contexts. However, the difference between conditions was almost negligible for experts (0.35 difference on a 1 to 9 scale) and four times higher for novices (novices: t-ratio (60.8) = 8.8, p < 0.001, mean difference [CI] = 1.42 [1.09, 1.74]; experts: t-ratio (57.7) = 2.09, p = 0.041, mean difference [CI] = 0.35 [0.01, 0.69]). Additionally, experts' willingness to help was significantly higher than novices' in both contexts. However, the difference was higher in responsible compared to not-responsible contexts (exp - nov, responsible context: t-ratio (59.8) = 5.55, p < 0.001, mean difference [CI] = 1.64 [1.05, 2.23]; exp - nov, not-responsible context: t-ratio (59.8) = 2.14, p = 0.037, mean difference [CI] = 0.58 [0.04, 1.11]).

The same model yielded a significant main effect of condition, willingness to help being slightly higher in both groups after compassion compared to empathic resonance practice (F(1,57.9) = 11.67, p = 0.001; mean difference [CI] = 0.25 [0.10, 0.39]).

A main effect of context was present for the "responsibility" response scale, both groups reporting higher responsibility in responsible compared to not-responsible contexts (F(1,58.2) = 407.2, p < .001; R² [full model] = 0.65, R² [fixed effects] = 0.48; mean difference [CI] = 3.31 [2.98, 3.64]). The same main effect of context was present for the "deservingness" scale, both groups reporting higher deservingness in response to responsible compared to not-responsible contexts (F (1,58.1) = 129.01, p < .001; R² [full model] = 0.63, R² [fixed effects] = 0.29; mean difference [CI] = 2.24 [1.84, 2.64]).

Across both groups, the valence of emotional videos was judged as less negative when they followed responsible, compared to not-responsible contexts (F(1,59.4) = 8.25, p = 0.006; R² [full model] = 0.71, R² [fixed effects] = 0.01; mean difference [CI] = -0.22 [-
0.37, -0.07]), while an interaction between group and context was present for the questions on arousal (F(1,58.1) = 8.05, p = 0.006; R² [full model] = 0.58, R² [fixed effects] = 0.03) and empathy (F(1,58.7) = 11.39, p = 0.001; R² [full model] = 0.59, R² [fixed effects] = 0.06) [graphs for valence, arousal and empathy are displayed in supplementary figure S4]. Both groups reported higher arousal after watching videos preceded by not-responsible, compared to responsible contexts. However, this difference was bigger in novices compared to experts (novices: t-ratio (59.8) = 6.92, p < 0.001, mean difference [CI] = 0.83 [0.59, 1.07]); experts; t-ratio (58.1) = 2.65, p = 0.010, mean difference [CI] = 0.34 [0.08, 0.59]. Similarly, reported empathy was higher in responsible, compared to not-responsible contexts in both groups, but this difference was bigger in novices compared to experts (novices: t-ratio (59.7) = 7.56, p < 0.001, mean difference [CI] = 1.17 [0.86, 1.48]); experts: t-ratio (58.4) = 2.51, p = 0.015, mean difference [CI] = 0.41 [0.08, 0.74]). All effects on self-reports remain significant after a Holm correction for multiple comparison.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>
743

**Figure 2.** Effect of different context-video pairs on self-reported measures of responsibility, deservingness and willingness to help in expert and novice practitioners.

744

745

Box plots and histograms displaying means (white rhombi), medians (black horizontal lines) and distribution of responses to each question. ***: p < .001, **: p < .01, *: p < .05.

746

747

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

748

749

**Figure 3.** Effect of practice on the self-reported measure of willingness to help across both groups of participants. Box plot and histogram displaying means (white rhombi), medians (black horizontal lines) and distribution of responses. Emp = empathic resonance practice; Com = compassion practice. ***: p < .001, **: p < .01, *: p < .05.

750

751

752

753

754

755

## 3.2 Partial correlation networks

756

757

758

759

760

We have shown that the manipulation of context had effects on all self-rated scales but how do the scored variables interrelate? In particular, which dimensions are reliably associated with willingness to help? We addressed these questions using partial correlation networks computed separately for each group and focusing on self-report data from emotional videos preceded by responsible contexts (figure 4). We
hypothesised that the pattern of connectivity in novices would roughly replicate the one described in our previous study (figure 3 in Fucci et al. 2021). On the other hand, we expected experts to exhibit weakened associations between willingness to help on one hand, and empathy and deservingness on the other hand, reflecting the non-emotional basis and unconditionality, respectively, of the motivation of Buddhist practitioners to alleviate suffering of others.

The results displayed in figure 4 largely corroborate our hypotheses, with one exception: after partialling out other variables, empathy is not associated with willingness to help. Connections common to both groups are of similar strengths, and weights in the network computed for novices are very close to those reported in Fucci et al. 2021. The correlation strength between willingness to help and deservingness differed significantly across the two groups of practitioners ($\Delta r(\text{nov-exp}) = -.32$, 95% CI [-.47, -.17], Fisher's z = -4.22, p < .001), but not the correlation between responsibility and deservingness ($\Delta r(\text{nov-exp}) = .05$, 95% CI [-.09, .18], Fisher's z = 0.67, p = .50) nor the one between empathy and arousal ($\Delta r(\text{nov-exp}) = -.08$, 95% CI [-.19, .03], Fisher's z = -1.37, p = .17).
NOVICES

(n = 322)

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

EXPERTS

(n = 284)

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

784

785

<caption>Figure 4. Regularised partial correlation networks for expert and novice practitioners.</caption>

786

787

788

789

790

Edges represent partial correlations that survived a regularisation step designed to avoid spurious associations without loss of power. Values indicate estimates and 95% bootstrap confidence intervals between brackets. VAL: valence, ARS: arousal, EMP: empathy, RESP: responsibility, DSRV: deservingness, HLP: willingness to help. Grey and black colours are associated, respectively, with positive and negative correlation values.

791

792

## 3.3 Within subject correlations between self-reports and AAT reaction times

793

794

795

796

797

798

799

800

We hypothesised that the reaction times to approach emotional trials would negatively correlate with self-reported willingness to help. We ran a similar analysis for each expertise group separately to test whether they differed in terms of self-reports-behaviour association. Additionally, we performed control and specificity analyses by examining the correlation between Help ratings and RT to avoid emotional trials, between Help ratings and RT to approach neutral trials, and between other self-reports and RT to approach emotional trials.

801

802

Self-reported willingness to help in response to emotional videos significantly correlated with the response time to approach cues on the same videos (Spearman's rho
804 $r_s$ [CI] = -.09 [-.13 -.05], t(2081) = -4.20, p < .001), with no significant differences
805 between the two groups of participants (novices: $r_s$ [CI] = -.10 [-.16 -.04], experts: $r_s$ [CI]
806 = -.08 [-.14 -.02]). This association between willingness to help and behavioural
807 response time was specific to emotional videos (for neutral videos: $r_s$ [CI] = .00 [-.06
808 .05], t(1302) = -0.16, p > .87) and specific to the approach trials (for avoidance trials: $r_s$
809 [CI] = -.04 [-.08 .00], t(2093) = -1.74, p = .083).

810 As a last verification, we estimated the strength of correlation between other self-rated
811 scales and the approach behaviour to emotional videos. It appeared that all scales
812 correlated significantly with the approach reaction times (all absolute $r_s$ between .07
813 and .09, all p < .004). However, while all these correlations shranked after controlling for
814 willingness to help ratings (all absolute $r_s$ between .01 and .04, all p > .10), the correlation
815 between approach reaction times and willingness to help remained significant even
816 after controlling for all other scales simultaneously ($r_s$ [CI] = -.05 [-.10 0], p = .038).
817 These results indicate that the relationship between willingness to help and approach
818 reaction times is highly specific and rule out the possibility that it could be spuriously
819 induced by the covariance with other self-rated dimensions.

820 Taken altogether, the pattern of correlational results suggests that the approach
821 reaction time as implemented in our study in response to emotional videos is a reliable
822 and specific behavioural marker of participants' willingness to help the suffering
823 protagonists of the videos.

824

825

826
827 **3.4 Effect of context, group and condition on AAT reaction times**

828

829 We hypothesised that different contexts would modulate approach-avoidance reaction
times differently for novices and expert practitioners. We also expected to observe a
830 main effect of practice (compassion vs. empathic resonance) on the reaction times. We
831 did not formulate a priori hypotheses on the mechanisms driving these effects
832 (although correlation analysis pointed towards a possible effect on RTs following the
833 approach rather than the avoid cue).

835 Model estimation yielded a statistically significant interaction between group, context
836 (responsible, not-responsible), and cue (approach, avoid) (figure 5.a; Chisq(1) = 4.07, p
837 = 0.044; R² [full model] = 0.03, R² [fixed effects] = 0.01). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons
838 showed increased RTs to approach emotional videos preceded by responsible,
839 compared to not-responsible contexts in novices but not in expert practitioners, while
840 there was no difference in RTs following avoid cues (table 3). A main effect of video clips
841 presentation order was also present (figure 5.b; Chisq(3) = 393.78, p < 0.001), due to a
842 general decrease in RTs from the first to the fourth presentation (mean RT [CI]:
843 videoclip #1 = 912 ms [854, 970], videoclip #2 = 794 ms [737, 852], videoclip #3 = 816
844 ms [758, 873], videoclip #4 = 768 ms [710, 825]). No interaction between practice
845 (compassion, empathic resonance), context and cue was present (Chisq(1) = 1.19, p =
846 0.28), nor one between practice and cue (Chisq(1) = 1.25, p = 0.26).

847 Nonetheless, when modelling reaction times using a gamma instead of an inverse
848 gaussian distribution (see section 2.5.3.2), we did not observe the interaction between
849 group, context and cue found in the main model (Chisq(1) = 2.59, p = 0.11; R² [full
850 model] = 0.14, R² [fixed effects] = 0.05).

851
A

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

B

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

852

853

854

855

856

857

858

859

860

861

862

863

864

865

866

867

868

869

870

871

872

**Figure 5.** Effect of experimental factors on AAT reaction times. (A) Novices responded faster to approach emotional, not-responsible videos compared to responsible videos. Such difference between context conditions was not statistically significant for approaching videos in experts, nor was there any difference between context conditions in avoiding videos. (B) Four video-clips were extracted from and presented after each video (twice for approach, twice for avoid, in a random order); reaction times decreased across presentations, with responses being slower in the first presentation compared to the subsequent ones. Discrepancies with estimates reported in the main text are due to differences in estimation methods (from the fitted model vs. from raw data). Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals after removing inter-subject variability. Significance levels: \*p\*<.05.
<table><caption>**Table 3.** Post-hoc pairwise comparisons of reaction times following emotional videos preceded by responsible or not-responsible contexts (*Emotional Resp* – *Emotional NotResp*)</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="5">Responsible – Not responsible</th></tr><tr><th>Cue</th><th>Group</th><th>z-ratio</th><th>p-value</th><th>mean difference [ms] (95% CI)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">approach</td><td>novices</td><td>2.16</td><td><strong>0.031</strong></td><td><strong>29 (3, 55)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>experts</td><td>0.60</td><td>0.55</td><td>9 (-19, 36)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">avoid</td><td>novices</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.97</td><td>1 (-26, 27)</td></tr><tr><td>experts</td><td>1.36</td><td>0.17</td><td>19 (-8, 47)</td></tr></tbody></table>

4. Discussion

The present study provides initial self-reported and behavioural evidence of a dissociation between moral responsibility attribution and compassion in expert Buddhist practitioners. This data challenges the established view in western psychology that compassion is conditioned by moral judgement and by cost and benefit appraisals. Despite its relevance to both fundamental research and applicative scenarios, no studies up to date have investigated this topic in the context of contemplative traditions and practices. Here, we used a previously validated within-subject manipulation of responsibility and deservingness attribution based on short stories associated with video stimuli depicting people in distress (Fucci et al., 2021). We collected self-reported measures of attribution and willingness to help and investigated their relationship using
within-subject correlation networks. Finally, we introduced a new version of the approach-avoidance task (AAT) to investigate implicit behavioural attitudes in response to suffering stimuli and to elucidate the impact of context manipulation on reaction times in novice and expert meditation practitioners. In the following, we discuss findings and limitations of our study with the aim of initiating a dialogue between western and contemplative approaches to this sensitive and relevant subject.

## 4.1 Self-report measures of attributions and willingness to help in novice and expert practitioners

Results from the analysis of self-reports in response to video stimuli (figure 2) showed how, in novice practitioners, different contexts preceding emotional videos manipulated the perceived responsibility of the sufferer, judgments on the degree of deservingness for their suffering and participants' willingness to help the subject(s) of the video. In expert practitioners, different contexts had the same impact on responsibility attribution and deservingness judgement. However, experts' willingness to help was not modulated by contexts as much as it was for novices (in fact, the context effect size was almost negligible). Moreover, experts' willingness to help was higher than novices', especially for those videos preceded by responsible contexts. Willingness to help was also higher for both groups after compassion compared to empathic resonance practice (albeit with a small effect size; figure 3). Importantly, the partial correlation networks (figure 4) highlighted a positive relationship between responsibility attribution and deservingness judgement in both groups. However, while there was a negative relationship between deservingness and willingness to help in novices, the same correlation was not present in the experts' correlation network. In our opinion, this is
914 the most relevant finding of the present work, providing evidence in support of a dissociation between responsibility attribution and willingness to help in long-term 915 Buddhist practitioners. 916

917 In novices, the magnitudes of effects are very close to those previously reported in a 918 validation study of the experimental paradigm and stimuli (Fucci et al., 2021; see also 919 supplementary figure S5). More generally, the results are in line with previous between 920 and within-subject studies on the effect of attributions on helping intentions and 921 behaviour (Baránková et al., 2019; Halkjelsvik & Rise, 2014; Kogut, 2011; Rudolph et al., 922 2004). They corroborate evolutionary theories on compassion and prosocial motivation 923 as processes motivated by fostering kin-selection and reciprocal altruism (Stürmer & 924 Snyder, 2009). From this perspective, compassion is a costly resource and it is less 925 likely to be actualized in contexts that provide less chances for reciprocation and 926 cooperation, as it is the case when the sufferer is considered responsible and blamed for 927 their condition (Goetz et al., 2010).

928 According to attribution theory, the decreased willingness to help is mediated by 929 feelings of anger arising when a sufferer is considered to be responsible for their actions 930 (Weiner, 2006). Within philosophical analysis, moral emotions have been discussed as 931 having a prominent role in shaping the shared social attitude of considering suffering as 932 a deserved consequence for wrongdoers; a sentiment concretized in the many instances 933 of retributive, rather than restorative, punishment that characterise our legal systems 934 (Goodman, 2009, ch. 9).

935 Within Buddhist traditions, affective responses of hatred and resentment are not only 936 considered to be obstacles for compassion, but to result from a state of ignorance of the 937 causes and conditions of human suffering (e.g., Halifax, 2011). A compassionate mind is 938 regarded instead as being free from conditioning patterns (Makransky, 2021).
939 In order to counteract and transform aversive and disruptive emotional responses, 940 Buddhist practitioners engage in formal practises aimed at cultivating forms of 941 compassion that encompass all living beings independently of their relevance to the 942 practitioner and with an impartial stance towards their past actions (e.g., Lavelle, 2017; 943 Ricard, 2015).

944 The results from expert practitioners support this view and could be driven by specific 945 psychological processes underlying meditation training.

946 While the study of psychological mechanisms of unconditional compassion is still in its 947 infancy, recent models point to the engagement and modulation of both other- and self- 948 oriented processes through a variety of complementary meditative practices which 949 include deconstructive practices (e.g., open presence meditation), and a variety of 950 constructive practices such as loving-kindness and compassion meditations, or the 951 cultivation of ethical and spiritual values (Dahl et al. 2015, Patrul Rinpoche, 1993). The 952 specific role of each practice is still speculative. Regarding constructive practices, Dahl 953 et al. (2015) suggest that cognitive reappraisal and perspective taking are two 954 important mechanisms characterising meditation practices that aim to counteract and 955 transform aversive and disruptive emotional responses. Together, these processes are 956 proposed to reduce intergroup biases and to prompt the responding to aversive stimuli 957 with compassionate concern. As a result of intensive and continuous practice, this 958 response pattern would eventually become automatic and contribute to the formation 959 of a stable behaviour.

960 In addition, unconditional compassion could also be facilitated by recognizing and 961 “letting go” of conditioning elements that characterise a dualistic mind, such as the 962 distinction of self and others and a fixed sense of self as manifestations of an objective 963 reality (Condon and Mackransky, 2022). These deconstructive practices that cultivate
964 non-dual awareness have been proposed to facilitate this radical “letting go” by acting
965 on cognitive predictive processes underlying perception and action, ultimately reducing
966 the relying on prior knowledge to guide behaviour and instead engaging with
967 experience from a stance anchored in the present moment (e.g., Lutz at al., 2019;
968 Laukkonen and Slagter, 2021). These two complementary supporting mechanisms of
969 unconditional compassion meditation are possibly at place at different stages of a
970 practitioner’s training. Future research is needed to delineate the specific contributions
971 of these various practices as well as their synergistic effects so as to unpack the exact
972 psychological factors that explain the difference between expert and novice
973 practitioners.

974 Finally, our interpretation remains tentative due to two relevant issues. First, we do not
975 know whether the dissociation between responsibility attribution and willingness to
976 help in experts is mediated by differences in emotional responses. Compared to novices,
977 experts had a significant but much smaller effect of context on subjective measures of
978 arousal and empathy (figure S4). However, none of these two subjective measures
979 remained related to those of attribution or willingness to help in correlation networks
980 after partialling out the shared variance between variables. This is surprising, especially
981 for novice practitioners. A positive association between empathy and prosocial
982 motivation has been widely described in the psychology literature (Klimecki, 2019 for a
983 review) and it was previously observed in a partial correlation network based on a
984 sample of non-practitioners using the same experimental paradigm and stimuli (Fucci et
985 al., 2021). A possible interpretation would be that the training followed by novices
986 already induced some difference from the general population, in particular the fact that
987 they had multiple opportunities to reflect on the difference between empathy and
988 compassion. Nonetheless, it is difficult to provide a final interpretation until a broader
spectrum of emotional responses are investigated in this context. In future studies, 989 collecting reports of aversive affective reactions might help to better elucidate the role 990 of moral emotions in mediating the relationship between attributions and help in 991 experts and novices. 992

Secondly, the fact that experts judge subject(s) of videos preceded by responsible 993 contexts as more deserving of suffering, compared to not-responsible ones, might look 994 surprising under views of Buddhist's aspiration for all being to be free from suffering. 995 This result could be due to the fact that expert practitioners in the current study come 996 from a European background, which might influence their stance on punishment. On the 997 other hand, the notion of "deservingness" might be considered differently by the two 998 groups. However, within the present study, we do not have access to information that 999 can resolve this question. In this sense, we propose that future research could collect 1000 qualitative data through interviews apt to investigate differences in perspectives on 1001 blameworthiness and in the use of such scale between experts and novices. 1002

1003

1004

1005

## 4.2 Operationalization of compassion as approach-avoidance behaviour

1007

Based on traditional Buddhist accounts and recent definitions of compassion that 1008 emphasise its motivational aspect (Gilbert, 2019; Gilbert & Choden, 2013; Jazaieri et al., 1009 2013; Weng et al., 2017), we introduced in the present work a novel approach to 1010 investigate its behavioural correlates in laboratory, within-subject experiments. We 1011 hypothesised that a compassionate attitude would impact approach-avoidance reaction 1012
times to suffering stimuli and that the same behaviour would be modulated by
contextual and group differences in the same way as observed in the analysis of
subjective measures. Using a novel version of visual approach-avoidance task (AAT), we
found that, within each subject and across both groups, subjective willingness to help
was negatively correlated with reaction times to approach video clips extracted from a
suffering video preceding the AAT. This relationship was not present between self-
reports and avoidance behaviour. It was observed for emotional videos only and it was
specific to willingness to help when partialling out the shared variance between this and
the other subjective measures.

This result is in line with a recent body of research on approach motivation that
highlighted how negatively valenced stimuli, and especially human signals of distress
can be associated with approach tendencies. It is the case for images of faces in tears
(Gračanin et al., 2018), as well as for faces displaying sadness compared to anger (Seidel
et al., 2010). Importantly, a recent study showed how decreased reaction times to
approach faces expressing fear and sadness were related to individuals' prosocial
attitudes (Kaltwasser et al., 2017). This is in contrast with classical accounts of the AAT
which rely on the so-called stimulus response compatibility (SRC) effect (Krieglmeyer et
al., 2013), whereby negatively and positively valenced stimuli drive automatic
avoidance and approach behaviours, respectively. Whereas this effect has been found
consistently in the literature, several studies have demonstrated that traditional
stimulus-response associations can be modulated by emotional states and cognitive
processes that affect goals and motives driving behaviour. It is the case for anger, which
prompts approaching negatively valenced stimuli (Harmon-Jones et al., 2013) or
mindfulness, which has been shown to disrupt approach tendencies to attractive food as
well as classical valence-behaviour relationships (Baquedano et al., 2017; Juneau et al.,
1038 2021; Papies et al., 2012). Accordingly, a compassionate motivation entails a disposition
1039 (or readiness) towards approaching suffering that, we believe, lies at the basis of the
1040 observed relationship between increased willingness to help and decreased reaction
1041 times to approach emotional videos.

1042

1043 **4.3 Context information influences approach behaviour in novice, but not**
1044 **expert practitioners**

1045

1046 Following the correlations analysis, we explored the effects of the experimental
1047 variables on approach-avoidance reaction times. Our best model, which included all
1048 experimental variables and accounted for the effect of stimulus presentation order,
1049 highlighted a statistically significant interaction between contexts and groups on
1050 approach-avoidance reaction times. Novice practitioners were slower to approach
1051 videos preceded by responsible, compared to not-responsible contexts, while no
1052 difference was present for experts. The effect size (~30 ms) is in line with moderate
1053 effects observed in the literature on reaction times in approach-avoidance tasks (e.g.,
1054 Papies et al., 2012; Rougier et al., 2020).

1055 Adding to the correlation analysis, this result supports the validity of operationalizing
1056 compassion in terms of approach-avoidance behaviour, relying on theoretical accounts
1057 that stress its motivational aspect. Furthermore, it shows that attributional processes
1058 can influence behavioural attitudes. To our knowledge, this is the first data highlighting
1059 an effect of responsibility attribution on implicit behaviour in a within-subject
1060 experiment, attribution theory relying heavily on models based on subjective measures
1061 collected through cross-sectional studies (e.g., Rudolph et al., 2004). The use of implicit
1062 behavioural measures to investigate social attitudes has been proven effective in related
1063 fields. For instance, Rougier et al. (2020) provided evidence for an effect of group
1064 membership on approach-avoidance behaviour, showing how participants were faster
1065 in approaching first names belonging to their same ethnic group, an effect that was
1066 stronger for those who reported less trust towards outgroup members. If replicated, the
1067 present findings would contribute to the attribution theory and evolutionary accounts
1068 of compassion showing how responsibility attribution engages fundamental bodily
1069 processes. At the same time, they would show how the different stance towards
1070 suffering in Buddhist practitioners is embodied and not confined to a conceptual
1071 framework.

1072 Nonetheless, we believe the present findings are not entirely conclusive due to issues
1073 prevalently related to the experimental design and statistical power. Specifically, the
1074 model estimation showed how most of the variability in our sample is accounted for by
1075 a general decrease in reaction times over stimuli repetitions within the same trial.
1076 Moreover, a priori power analysis resulted in only ~70% statistical power to detect a
1077 moderate effect size for a three-way interaction including group, context and cue
1078 (approach, avoidance). These issues possibly explain the sensitivity to modelling
1079 choices such as using inverse gaussian or gamma distributions for reaction times, the
1080 latter showing a strong effect of stimulus repetition but no interaction between groups
1081 and contexts on approach reaction times. Finally, contrary to the self-reports on
1082 willingness to help, we did not observe any effect of expertise (e.g., faster RTs to
1083 approach videos preceded by either context in experts, compared to novices).

1084 While we believe our model represents the best way to describe the present data (see
1085 section 2.5.3.2), we also advise to interpret these specific results with caution until they
1086 are replicated by future research.
1087 **4.4 Framing trait and state effects in the context of research on compassion**
1088 **training**

1089
1090 In the analysis of self-reports, we observed both an effect of expertise and of practice
1091 (compassion, empathic resonance) on willingness to help. The effect of expertise is
1092 compatible with previous research showing increased self-reported prosocial attitude
1093 and behaviour following compassion and mindfulness-based training programs (Berry
1094 et al., 2018; Condon et al., 2013; Donald et al., 2019; Iwamoto et al., 2020; Weng et al.,
1095 2013). To our knowledge, no previous study has shown an effect of short compassion
1096 practice on prosocial behavioural measures. However, there is evidence of increased
1097 helping behaviour in a prosocial game after a short compassion-based intervention (1
1098 day long) compared to an active control condition (Leiberg et al., 2011). Remarkably, a
1099 short compassion practice does not seem to be able to mitigate the effect of contextual
1100 information on self-reported willingness to help (as well as on approach reaction times)
1101 in novice practitioners, who not only engaged in compassion meditation during the task,
1102 but underwent a weekend-long introduction to mindfulness and compassion and
1103 practised regularly at home before the experiment.

1104 Future longitudinal studies on secular compassion-based programs should investigate
1105 whether the decreased effect of context on self-reported willingness to help, the lack of
1106 effect on approach reaction times and the dissociation between blame attribution and
1107 willingness to help is indeed confined to highly advanced practitioners. If so, it should
1108 be determined whether this is prevalently due to the "amount" of practice or, and as
1109 already suggested by some authors (e.g. Gilbert and Mascaro, 2017, Gilbert, 2019), by
1110 the fact that compassion-based programs should be extended to address attitudes and
1111 resistances that compete with prosocial motivation. Finally, it could also be the case that
1112 secular programs directed to lay practitioners might not be the right setting to cultivate
1113 and study attitudes towards suffering like the one characterising experts' profiles in the
1114 present research.

1115

1116 **4.5 Limitations**

1117 The current research presents some limitations that should be addressed in future
1118 studies. First, confounding effects could interact with the effect of context on
1119 responsibility attribution, deservingness and willingness to help. In a previous report
1120 focusing on the validation of the set of stimuli implemented here (Fucci et al., 2021), we
1121 discussed how the video stimuli are characterised by a high degree of heterogeneity in
1122 terms of suffering situations displayed to account for possible confounds. However, we
1123 cannot entirely exclude that factors such as socio-economic status of the depicted
1124 characters might interact with context manipulation in some videos, something that is
1125 worth exploring in future research.

1126 Additionally, as mentioned in section 4.1, the present study lacks information that could
1127 help elucidate the role of emotion regulation in the relationship, or lack thereof,
1128 between attributions and willingness to help in both groups of participants, as well as
1129 the perspective on deservingness judgments in expert practitioners. Both could be
1130 addressed in future research by collecting subjective accounts through self-report
1131 measures and semi-structured interviews.

1132 In addition, and most importantly, limited statistical power affected our analysis of the
1133 effects of experimental factors on reaction times in the contexts of the AAT. Our sample
1134 of participants and trials was constrained by time and logistics of the larger project
1135 which the current study was part of. Nonetheless, the recruitment of a large sample of
1136 selected long-term Buddhist practitioners poses the same challenges affecting, for
1137 instance, studies on clinical or other special populations. In this sense, future research
1138 could benefit from international, multi-centre efforts (including open databases) and/or
1139 from increasing the repetitions and variety of stimuli in within-subject designs.

1140 The design of this study was cross-sectional, longitudinal studies will be required to
1141 investigate the role of extensive meditation training in shaping the trait differences
1142 observed here.

1143

1144 4.6 Constraints on generality

1145 Participants. All participants were middle-aged but our results in the control group
1146 were consistent with the literature on attribution theory and willingness to help, which
1147 has been mostly carried out on younger samples. Therefore, we expect our results to
1148 generalize to other age groups. Expert Buddhist practitioners were recruited within the
1149 Tibetan Kagyü and Nyingma meditation traditions, which stand out by the way they
1150 connect compassion with the practice of objectless meditations. A direct replication
1151 should make use of samples with a similar approach to the development of love and
1152 compassion and the similar level of expertise in this practice. Even so, the cultivation of
1153 unconditional and universal love and compassion, which we believe underlies the
1154 results reported here, is a common aim of many Buddhist contemplative traditions, so
1155 we expect the results to replicate in any sample of meditation practitioners who have
1156 achieved a comparable proficiency in the practice of universal love and compassion
1157 meditation. On the other hand, we have no evidence that merely holding the ethical
1158 value of universal love and compassion is enough to produce the reported behavioral
1159 effects.
1160 Stimuli. The set of video clips was dominated by highly emotional situations associated
1161 with morally charged contexts. We have no evidence that the results would generalize
1162 to a broader spectrum of suffering situations, especially low-arousal and everyday life
1163 contexts. Due to the laboratory setting and the use of video stimuli, we cannot know if
1164 the present findings translate into actual behaviour in real-life scenarios. In particular,
1165 the self-report measures might not reflect the same attitudes of participants' in more
1166 ecological settings. On the other hand, the correlation between self-reports and pre-
1167 motor attitudes represents a promising result in this direction.

1168 Procedure. The approach-avoidance effect is dependent on the visual stimulus being
1169 processed by participants. Therefore, direct replications should be attentive to the onset
1170 timing and relative position of the cue with respect to the video clip.

1171 We have no reason to believe that the results depend on other characteristics of the
1172 participants, materials, or context.

1173

1174 **4.7 Implications and future directions**

1175 Over the recent years, empirical research has been providing increasing evidence of the
1176 benefits of cultivating compassion and cooperation on personal well-being and in
1177 clinical settings (e.g., Ricard, 2015). However, urgent and pressing societal issues
1178 demand us to re-evaluate and possibly ameliorate the way we relate to each other's
1179 condition; to reflect and work on how we tackle suffering in a highly interconnected
1180 world. This entails questioning and expanding our theoretical knowledge, as well as
1181 defining new pathways of applicative research. By providing initial evidence for the
1182 possibility of developing an unconditional stance towards suffering, the current
1183 research challenges established views in social and evolutionary psychology. It calls for
1184 a dialogue between contemplative traditions and western psychology and philosophy to
1185 integrate theories and practices that can refine our understanding of prosocial
1186 motivation. We can imagine the practical implications that embodying Buddhist ethics
1187 in our societies would have for our justice systems (e.g., Goodman, 2009; ch. 8), but also
1188 for decision-making processes in policy, healthcare and other settings.

1189 In our view, future research on this topic should focus on replicating and increasing the
1190 understanding of the mechanisms behind the current findings. One question will be to
1191 investigate the consequences of this unconditional attitude, beyond implicit behavioural
1192 dispositions, as studied here, on complex real-life decision-making settings which
1193 require the integration of ethics and moral considerations.

1194 Additionally, future works should investigate, through longitudinal studies, whether
1195 compassion-based programs can lead to unconditional forms of compassion in lay
1196 practitioners, whether such a profile might only be cultivated and embodied by highly
1197 trained individuals and if non-Buddhist practices can impact similar processes. Either
1198 way, we believe that concepts such as “global compassion” (Ekman and Ekman, 2017),
1199 supported by empirical evidence, theoretical justification and practises, could have
1200 broad societal implications and we hope this is just a first step, among others, to guide
1201 research agendas in that direction.

1202 Finally, the results of the analysis of behavioural data provide initial supporting
1203 evidence over the validity of using a modified version of a visual AAT to study prosocial
1204 motivation. Future research should focus on validating this approach by working with
1205 more adequately powered samples and possibly investigate the physiological correlates
1206 of compassion as a social motivation in laboratory and ecological settings.
1207 CRediT authors contribution statement

1208 Authors are listed in alphabetical order within each contribution role

1209 • **Conceptualization:** AL, CB, EF

1210 • **Methodology:** CB, EF, OA

1211 • **Software:** EF, OA

1212 • **Validation:** EF, OA

1213 • **Formal analysis:** EF, OA

1214 • **Investigation:** EF

1215 • **Resources** - N.A.

1216 • **Data curation:** EF, OA

1217 • **Writing - original draft:** EF, OA

1218 • **Writing - review & editing:** AL, CB, EF, OA

1219 • **Visualization:** EF, OA

1220 • **Supervision:** AL

1221 • **Project administration:** AL, EF, OA

1222 • **Funding acquisition:** AL, EF

1223

1224 Acknowledgements

1225 We thank Olga Klimecki for sharing the original set of video stimuli, from which the

1226 stimuli presented here are derived (Klimecki et al., 2013). We also thank Camille Fakche

1227 for helping with data collection and data management, Kristien Aarts for support in

1228 requesting ethical approval, recruiting novice participants and planning data collection,

1229 as well as Clara Benson for the recruitment of expert Buddhist practitioners.
1230 Funding information

1231 This study was supported by a European Research Council grant ERC-Consolidator

1232 617739-BRAINandMINDFULNESS to Antoine Lutz and by a Mind & Life Institute

1233 Francisco J. Varela Research Award (2015) to Enrico Fucci. Constanza Baquedano was

1234 partially funded by the Chilean National Fund for Scientific and Technological

1235 Development (FONDECYT), through an "ANID-FONDECYT postdoctoral grant N.

1236 3210170

1237

1238 References

1239 Abdoun, O., Zorn, J., Fucci, E., Perraud, E., Aarts, K., & Lutz, A. (2018). Brain & Mindfulness project manual. OSF. https://doi.org/dbwch

1240 Abdoun, O., Zorn, J., Poletti, S., Fucci, E., & Lutz, A. (2019). Training novice practitioners to reliably report their meditation experience using shared phenomenological dimensions.

1241 *Consciousness and Cognition*, **68**, 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.004

1242 Allport, G. W. (1935). Attitudes' in Murchison, C (ed.) Handbook of Social Psychology. *Clark University Press*, *Worchester, MA*, 798, 844.

1243 Ashar, Y. K., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Halifax, J., Dimidjian, S., & Wager, T. D. (2021). Effects of compassion training on brain responses to suffering others. *Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience*, **16**(10), 1036–1047. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsab052

1244 Ashar, Y. K., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Yarkoni, T., Sills, J., Halifax, J., Dimidjian, S., & Wager, T. D. (2016). Effects of compassion meditation on a psychological model of charitable donation. *Emotion*, **16**(5), 691–705. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000119

1245 Baquedano, C., Vergara, R., Lopez, V., Fabar, C., Cosmelli, D., & Lutz, A. (2017). Compared to self-immersion, mindful attention reduces salivation and automatic food bias. *Scientific Reports*, **7**(1), 13839. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13662-z

1246 Baránková, M., Halamová, J., & Koróniová, J. (2019). Non-expert views of compassion: Consensual qualitative research using focus groups. *Human Affairs*, **29**(1), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.1515/humaff-2019-0002

1247 Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2014). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. *ArXiv Preprint ArXiv:1406.5823*.
1260 Berry, D. R., Cairo, A. H., Goodman, R. J., Quaglia, J. T., Green, J. D., & Brown, K. W. (2018). Mindfulness increases prosocial responses toward ostracized strangers through empathic concern. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: General*, 147(1), 93–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000392

1264 Berry, D. R., Wall, C. S. J., Tubbs, J. D., Zeidan, F., & Brown, K. W. (2021). Short-Term Training in Mindfulness Predicts Helping Behavior Toward Racial Ingroup and Outgroup Members. *Social Psychological and Personality Science*, 14(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211053095

1268 Bristow, J., & Bell, R. (2020). *Mindfulness: Developing Agency in Urgent Times*. The Mindfulness Initiative. https://www.themindfulnessinitiative.org/

1270 Champely, S., Ekstrom, C., Dalgaard, P., Gill, J., Weibelzahl, S., Anandkumar, A., Ford, C., Volcic, R., De Rosario, H., & De Rosario, M. H. (2018). Package 'pwr.' *R Package Version*, 1(2).

1273 Chen, M., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). Consequences of Automatic Evaluation: Immediate Behavioral Predispositions to Approach or Avoid the Stimulus. *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*, 25(2), 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025002007

1276 Condon, P., Desbordes, G., Miller, W. B., & DeSteno, D. (2013). Meditation Increases Compassionate Responses to Suffering. *Psychological Science*, 24(10), 2125–2127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613485603

1279 Condon, P., & Makransky, J. (2022). Compassion and Skillful Means: Cultural Adaptation, Psychological Science, and Creative Responsiveness. *Mindfulness*. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01866-y

1282 Cousijn, J., Goudriaan, A. E., & Wiers, R. W. (2011). Reaching out towards cannabis: Approach-bias in heavy cannabis users predicts changes in cannabis use. *Addiction*, 106(9), 1667–1674. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03475.x

1285 Dahl, C. J., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2015). Reconstructing and deconstructing the self: Cognitive mechanisms in meditation practice. *Trends in Cognitive Sciences*. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.001

1288 De Houwer, J., Crombez, G., Baeyens, F., & Hermans, D. (2001). On the generality of the affective Simon effect. *Cognition and Emotion*, 15(2), 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930125883

1291 Diedenhofen, B., & Musch, J. (2015). cocor: A Comprehensive Solution for the Statistical Comparison of Correlations. *PLOS ONE*, 10(4), e0121945. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121945

1294 Donald, J. N., Sahdra, B. K., Van Zanden, B., Duineveld, J. J., Atkins, P. W. B., Marshall, S. L., & Ciarrochi, J. (2019). Does your mindfulness benefit others? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the link between mindfulness and prosocial behaviour. *British
1297 *Journal of Psychology, 110*(1), 101–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12338

1298 Dunne, J. (2011). Toward an understanding of non-dual mindfulness. *Contemporary

1299 *Buddhism, 12*(1), 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564820

1300 Ekman, P., & Ekman, E. (2017). Is global compassion achievable? In *The Oxford handbook*

1301 *of compassion science* (p. 74).

1302 Epskamp, S., Cramer, A. O. J., Waldorp, L. J., Schmittmann, V. D., & Borsboom, D. (2012).

1303 *qgraph: Network Visualizations of Relationships in Psychometric Data*. *Journal of*

1304 *Statistical Software, 48*(4). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i04

1305 Epskamp, S., & Fried, E. I. (2018). A tutorial on regularized partial correlation networks.

1306 *Psychological Methods, 23*(4), 617–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000167

1307 Fucci, E., Baquedano, C., Abdoun, O., Deroche, J., & Lutz, A. (2021). Validation of a Set of

1308 Stimuli to Investigate the Effect of Attributional Processes on Social Motivation in

1309 Within-Subject Experiments. *Collabra: Psychology, 7*(1).

1310 https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.21937

1311 Gilbert, P. (2019). Explorations into the nature and function of compassion. *Current Opinion*

1312 *in Psychology, 28*, 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.002

1313 Gilbert, P., & Choden. (2013). *Mindful Compassion: Using the power of mindfulness and*

1314 *compassion to transform our lives*. Hachette UK.

1315 Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis

1316 and empirical review. *Psychological Bulletin, 136*(3), 351–374.

1317 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018807

1318 Goodman, C. (2009). *Consequences of compassion: An interpretation and defense of*

1319 *Buddhist ethics*. Oxford University Press.

1320 Gračanin, A., Krahmer, E., Rinck, M., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2018). The Effects of Tears

1321 on Approach–Avoidance Tendencies in Observers. *Evolutionary Psychology, 16*(3),

1322 1474704918791058. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704918791058

1323 Green, P., & MacLeod, C. J. (2016). SIMR: An R package for power analysis of generalized

1324 linear mixed models by simulation. *Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 7*(4), 493–498.

1325 https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12504

1326 Guo, Y., Guo, Q., Liu, Z., & Liu, H. (2021). Moral identity and empathy promote prosocial

1327 behavior only toward blameless AIDS patients. *Scandinavian Journal of Psychology*.

1328 https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12786

1329 Halifax, J. (2011). The Precious Necessity of Compassion. *Journal of Pain and Symptom*

1330 *Management, 41*(1), 146–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2010.08.010

1331 Halkjelsvik, T., & Rise, J. (2014). Social Dominance Orientation, Right-Wing

1332 Authoritarianism, and Willingness to Help Addicted Individuals: The Role of

1333 Responsibility Judgments. *Europe's Journal of Psychology, 10*(1), 27–40.
1334 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v10i1.669

1335 Harmon-Jones, E., Harmon-Jones, C., & Price, T. F. (2013). What is Approach Motivation?
*Emotion Review*, 5(3), 291–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477509

1336 Hart, C. M., Ritchie, T. D., Hepper, E. G., & Gebauer, J. E. (2015). The Balanced Inventory
1337 of Desirable Responding Short Form (BIDR-16). *SAGE Open*, 5(4),
1338 2158244015621113. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015621113

1340 Heuer, K., Rinck, M., & Becker, E. S. (2007). Avoidance of emotional facial expressions in
1341 social anxiety: The Approach–Avoidance Task. *Behaviour Research and Therapy*,
1342 45(12), 2990–3001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.010

1343 Hofmann, S. G., Grossman, P., & Hinton, D. E. (2011). Loving-Kindness and Compassion
1344 Meditation: Potential for Psychological Interventions. *Clinical Psychology Review*,
1345 31(7), 1126–1132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.003

1346 Holm, S. (1979). A Simple Sequentially Rejective Multiple Test Procedure. *Scandinavian
1347 Journal of Statistics*, 6(2), 65–70. JSTOR.

1348 Iwamoto, S. K., Alexander, M., Torres, M., Irwin, M. R., Christakis, N. A., & Nishi, A. (2020).
1349 Mindfulness Meditation Activates Altruism. *Scientific Reports*, 10(1), Article 1.
1350 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62652-1

1351 Jazaieri, H., Jinpa, G. T., McGonigal, K., Rosenberg, E. L., Finkelstein, J., Simon-Thomas,
1352 E., Cullen, M., Doty, J. R., Gross, J. J., & Goldin, P. R. (2013). Enhancing
1353 Compassion: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Compassion Cultivation Training
1354 Program. *Journal of Happiness Studies*, 14(4), 1113–1126.
1355 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9373-z

1356 Juneau, C., Shankland, R., Knäuper, B., & Dambrun, M. (2021). Mindfulness and equanimity
1357 moderate approach/avoidance motor responses. *Cognition and Emotion*, 35(6),
1358 1085–1098. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1927674

1359 Kaltwasser, L., Moore, K., Weinreich, A., & Sommer, W. (2017). The influence of emotion
1360 type, social value orientation and processing focus on approach-avoidance
1361 tendencies to negative dynamic facial expressions. *Motivation and Emotion*, 41(4),
1362 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9624-8

1363 Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Steindl, S. R. (2017). A Meta-Analysis of Compassion-Based
1364 Interventions: Current State of Knowledge and Future Directions. *Behavior Therapy*,
1365 48(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003

1366 Klimecki, O. M. (2019). The Role of Empathy and Compassion in Conflict Resolution.
1367 *Emotion Review*, 11(4), 310–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073919838609

1368 Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Lamm, C., & Singer, T. (2013). Functional Neural Plasticity and
1369 Associated Changes in Positive Affect After Compassion Training. *Cerebral Cortex*,
1370 23(7), 1552–1561. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs142
1371 Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2014). Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. *Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience*, 9(6), 873–879. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst060

1374 Kogut, T. (2011). Someone to blame: When identifying a victim decreases helping. *Journal of Experimental Social Psychology*, 47(4), 748–755.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.02.011

1377 Kozlik, J., Neumann, R., & Lozo, L. (2015). Contrasting motivational orientation and evaluative coding accounts: On the need to differentiate the effectors of approach/avoidance responses. *Frontiers in Psychology, 6*, 563.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00563

1381 Krieglmeyer, R., De Houwer, J., & Deutsch, R. (2013). On the Nature of Automatically Triggered Approach–Avoidance Behavior. *Emotion Review*, 5(3), 280–284.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477501

1384 Laukkonen, R. E., & Slagter, H. A. (2021). From many to (n)one: Meditation and the plasticity of the predictive mind. *Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews*, 128, 199–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.021

1387 Lavelle, B. D. (2017). Tracing the Buddhist roots of secular, compassion-based contemplative programs. In *The Oxford handbook of compassion science* (pp. 17–25).

1390 Leiberg, S., Klimecki, O., & Singer, T. (2011). Short-Term Compassion Training Increases Prosocial Behavior in a Newly Developed Prosocial Game. *PLOS ONE*, 6(3), e17798. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017798

1393 Lenth, R., Singmann, H., Love, J., Buerkner, P., & Herve, M. (2020). *emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, aka Least-Squares Means* (1.4.5). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=emmeans

1396 Lim, D., Condon, P., & DeSteno, D. (2015). Mindfulness and Compassion: An Examination of Mechanism and Scalability. *PLOS ONE*, 10(2), e0118221.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118221

1399 Lo, S., & Andrews, S. (2015). To transform or not to transform: Using generalized linear mixed models to analyse reaction time data. *Frontiers in Psychology, 6*.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01171

1402 Lutz, A., Mattout, J., & Pagnoni, G. (2019). The epistemic and pragmatic value of non-action: A predictive coding perspective on meditation. *Current Opinion in Psychology*.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.019

1405 Lutz, A., Brefczynski-Lewis, J., Johnstone, T., & Davidson, R. J. (2008). Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion meditation: Effects of meditative expertise. *PLoS ONE*, 3(3), e1897. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001897
1408 Lutz, A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2007). Meditation and the neuroscience of consciousness. *Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness*, 499–555.

1409 Lutz, A., Greischar, L. L., Rawlings, N. B., Ricard, M., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. *Proc Natl Acad Sci USA*, 101(46), 16369–16373.

1410 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407401101

1411 Makransky, J. (2021). *Compassion in Buddhist psychology* [Preprint]. MindRxiv. https://doi.org/10.31231/osf.io/qe3xd

1412 McCall, C., Steinbeis, N., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2014). Compassion meditators show less anger, less punishment, and more compensation of victims in response to fairness violations. *Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience*, 8, 424.

1413 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00424

1414 Nakagawa, S., & Schielzeth, H. (2013). A general and simple method for obtaining $R^2$ from generalized linear mixed-effects models. *Methods in Ecology and Evolution*, 4(2), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-210x.2012.00261.x

1415 Ord, T. (2020). *The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity*. Hachette UK.

1416 Papies, E. K., Barsalou, L. W., & Custers, R. (2012). Mindful attention prevents mindless impulses. *Social Psychological and Personality Science*, 3(3), 291–299.

1417 Patrul Rinpoche. (1993). *The heart treasure of the enlightened ones: The practice of view, meditation, and action*. Shambhala Publications.

1418 Peeters, M., Monshouwer, K., van de Schoot, R. A. G. J., Janssen, T., Vollebergh, W. A. M., & Wiers, R. W. (2013). Automatic Processes and the Drinking Behavior in Early Adolescence: A Prospective Study. *Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research*, 37(10), 1737–1744. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.12156

1419 Phaf, R. H., Mohr, S. E., Rotteveel, M., & Wicherts, J. M. (2014). Approach, avoidance, and affect: A meta-analysis of approach-avoidance tendencies in manual reaction time tasks. *Frontiers in Psychology*, 5, 378. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00378

1420 Philip, J., Chadee, D., & Yearwood, R. P. (2014). Health care students’ reactions towards HIV patients: Examining prejudice, emotions, attribution of blame and willingness to interact with HIV/AIDS patients. *AIDS Care*, 26(10), 1236–1241.

1421 https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2014.896449

1422 Ricard, M. (2015). *Altruism: The power of compassion to change yourself and the world*. Little, Brown.

1423 Rinck, M., & Becker, E. S. (2007). Approach and avoidance in fear of spiders. *Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry*, 38(2), 105–120.

1424 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.001

1425 Rinpoche, Y. M., & Swanson, E. (2007). *The joy of living: Unlocking the secret and science*
1445 *of happiness*. New York: Harmony Books.

1446 Roelofs, K., van Peer, J., Berrettty, E., Jong, P. de, Spinhoven, P., & Elzinga, B. M. (2009).

1447 Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Hyperresponsiveness Is Associated with

1448 Increased Social Avoidance Behavior in Social Phobia. *Biological Psychiatry*, *65*(4),

1449 336-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.08.022

1450 Rosenberg, E. L., Zanesco, A. P., King, B. G., Aichele, S. R., Jacobs, T. L., Bridwell, D. A.,

1451 MacLean, K. A., Shaver, P. R., Ferrer, E., Sahdra, B. K., Lavy, S., Wallace, B. A., &

1452 Saron, C. D. (2015). Intensive meditation training influences emotional responses to

1453 suffering. *Emotion (Washington, D.C.)*, *15*(6), 775-790.

1454 https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000080

1455 Rougier, M., Muller, D., Courset, R., Smeding, A., Devos, T., & Batailler, C. (2020). Toward

1456 the use of approach/avoidance tendencies as attitude measures: Individual- and

1457 group- level variability of the ingroup bias. *European Journal of Social Psychology*,

1458 50(4), 857-875. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2653

1459 Rougier, M., Muller, D., Ric, F., Alexopoulos, T., Batailler, C., Smeding, A., & Aubé, B.

1460 (2018). A new look at sensorimotor aspects in approach/avoidance tendencies: The

1461 role of visual whole-body movement information. *Journal of Experimental Social*

1462 Psychology, 76, 42-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.12.004

1463 Rudolph, U., Roesch, S., Greitemeyer, T., & Weiner, B. (2004). A meta- analytic review of

1464 help giving and aggression from an attributional perspective: Contributions to a

1465 general theory of motivation. *Cognition & Emotion*, *18*(6), 815-848.

1466 https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930341000248

1467 Schoenberg, P. L. A., Ruf, A., Churchill, J., Brown, D. P., & Brewer, J. A. (2018). Mapping

1468 complex mind states: EEG neural substrates of meditative unified compassionate

1469 awareness. *Consciousness and Cognition*, 57, 41-53.

1470 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.11.003

1471 Seidel, E.-M., Habel, U., Kirschner, M., Gur, R. C., & Derntl, B. (2010). The impact of facial

1472 emotional expressions on behavioral tendencies in women and men. *Journal of*

1473 *Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance*, *36*(2), 500-507.

1474 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018169

1475 Seppälä, E. M., Thomas, E. S., Brown, S. L., & Worline, M. C. (2017). *The Oxford*

1476 *Handbook of Compassion Science (Oxford Library of Psychology)*. 701.

1477 Solarz, A. K. (1960). Latency of Instrumental Responses as a Function of Compatibility with

1478 the Meaning of Eliciting Verbal Signs. *Journal of Experimental Psychology*, *59*(4),

1479 239. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0047274

1480 Stürmer, S., & Snyder, M. (2009). *The Psychology of Prosocial Behavior: Group Processes*,

1481 *Intergroup Relations, and Helping*. John Wiley & Sons.
1482 Tenzin Gyatso. (2001). *The Compassionate Life*. Wisdom Publications.

1483 Trautwein, F.-M., Kanske, P., Böckler, A., & Singer, T. (2020). Differential benefits of mental training types for attention, compassion, and theory of mind. *Cognition, 194*, 104039.

1485 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104039

1486 Weber, M., Ziegele, M., & Schnauber, A. (2013). Blaming the Victim: The Effects of Extraversion and Information Disclosure on Guilt Attributions in Cyberbullying.

1488 *Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16*(4), 254–259.

1489 https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0328

1490 Weiner, B. (2006). *Social motivation, justice, and the moral emotions: An attributional approach*. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

1492 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410615749

1493 Weng, H. Y., Fox, A. S., Shackman, A. J., Stodola, D. E., Caldwell, J. Z. K., Olson, M. C., Rogers, G. M., & Davidson, R. J. (2013). Compassion Training Alters Altruism and Neural Responses to Suffering. *Psychological Science, 24*(7), 1171–1180.

1496 https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612469537

1497 Weng, H. Y., Schuyler, B., & Davidson, R. J. (2017). The Impact of Compassion Meditation Training on the Brain and Prosocial Behavior. In *The Oxford handbook of compassion science* (p. 133).

1500 Wittekind, C. E., Feist, A., Schneider, B. C., Moritz, S., & Fritzsche, A. (2015). The approach-avoidance task as an online intervention in cigarette smoking: A pilot study. *Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 46*, 115–

1503 120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.08.006

1504

1505