# An insight over time into undecorated tombs of the Kings' Valley (Luxor, Egypt): the challenge of 14C dating

Anita Quiles, Marie Ferrant, Mostafa Abd-El-Fattah, Mahmoud Gamil, Nadine Mounir, Susanne Bickel

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## To cite this version:

Anita Quiles, Marie Ferrant, Mostafa Abd-El-Fattah, Mahmoud Gamil, Nadine Mounir, et al.. An insight over time into undecorated tombs of the Kings' Valley (Luxor, Egypt): the challenge of 14C dating. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2025, 66, pp.105253. 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105253. hal-05198580

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Submitted on 4 Aug 2025

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# An insight over time into undecorated tombs of the Kings' Valley (Luxor, Egypt): the challenge of ¹⁴C dating

Anita Quiles<sup>a,b,*</sup>, Marie Ferrant<sup>c,d</sup>, Mostafa Abd-el-Fattah<sup>b</sup>, Mahmoud Gamil<sup>b</sup>, Nadine Mounir<sup>b</sup>, Susanne Bickel<sup>e</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

**Keywords:**

Egyptian mummies
Kings' Valley
Radiocarbon dating

## ABSTRACT

Tomb KV40 in the Kings' Valley (Luxor, Egypt) has been known for a long time but no archaeological information was collected before the University of Basel Kings' Valley Project. It has revealed the remains of more than 80 carefully mummified adults and children. Archaeological investigations attest two periods of use during the reign of Amenhotep III, dedicated to the king's children, and from the 22nd-25th dynasty. Revealing the presence of royal children buried in the 18th dynasty would be of crucial importance for deepening our knowledge of the various social groups that used the Kings' Valley as a burial place.

Five mummy fragments differentiated by anthropological investigations were selected with twenty textile fragments, all originating from the mummies' wrappings, for radiocarbon dating. ATR-FTIR analyses were carried out to check the possibility of exogenous organic materials due to mummification. Results confirm the use of KV 40 during the 18th dynasty (1510-1362 to 1345-1300 BCE) to receive mummies of royal children and the royal entourage under the reigns of Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III, and its re-use from 869-795 to 767-645 BCE. It is the first time that such a large series of radiocarbon dates has been carried out on Egyptian human mummies from the Kings' Valley in Luxor.

## 1. Introduction

### 1.1. The history of KV 40, KV 31 and KV 64 tombs

Since 2009, the University of Basel Kings' Valley Project has aimed at exploring a series of undecorated tombs from the Kings' Valley in Luxor, Egypt, among which are KV 40, KV 31 and KV 64, all located along the path leading to the tomb of Thutmose III.

Unlike the lavishly decorated sepulchers of the pharaohs, the rock-cut tombs prepared for other individuals remained systematically undecorated within this royal necropolis. With only one queen so far attested to be buried in the Kings' Valley, recent research tends to suggest that this category of tombs was built mainly during the mid-18th dynasty (ca. 1480-1350 BCE) for members of the extended royal family (Bickel, 2016, 2017, 2023; Bickel and Paulin-Grothe, 2014, 2012).

KV 40 has been known for a long time, but no archaeological information was collected before 2012. It has revealed the remains of more than 80 carefully mummified adults, children, new-borns and infants. First used during the reign of Amenhotep III (ca. 1400-1350 BCE), archaeological evidence and inscriptions demonstrate that it was dedicated to kings' sons and daughters. This tomb was later reused by priestly families from the 22nd-25th dynasty (~900-700 BCE). Ancient pillages are attested between these two occupation phases, as well as in modern times. The tomb and its contents have also been damaged by violent fires presumably linked with those lootings. Consequently, all the human remains have been commingled and partially burnt. Revealing the royal children's affiliation to the 18th dynasty kings, or family relationships between other individuals, would of course be of crucial importance for deepening our knowledge of the various social groups that used the Kings' Valley as a burial place.

<footnote><sup>a</sup> Laboratoire de Mesure du Carbone 14 (LMC14), LSCE/IPSL, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire, Pôle archéométrie, 37 Cheikh Aly Youssef, B.P Qasr al-Ainy 11562, 11411 Cairo, Egypt</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> Sorbonne Université, CNRS, de la Molécule aux Nano-objets: Réactivité, Interactions et Spectroscopies, MONARIS, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, 5 rue de la Doua, F-69100 Villeurbanne, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>e</sup> University of Basel, Switzerland, Department of Ancient Civilisations, Petersgraben 51, 4051 Basel, Switzerland</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author at: Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, Laboratoire de mesure du Carbone 14, CEA Paris-Saclay, Bât. 450, pt 4E, LSCE/LMC14, Gif sur Yvette Cedex 91191, France. Tel.: 0033 1 69 08 14 05.

E-mail address: anita.quiles@cea.fr (A. Quiles).</footnote>
KV 31 is smaller in scale than KV 40 and revealed five mummies together with fragmentary remains of burial goods of high-standard burials; the tomb was also heavily looted.

KV 64 was discovered by this team in 2012 and remains the most recently discovered tomb in the Kings' Valley. It is a small tomb with a single subterranean chamber that accommodated one burial from the 18th dynasty, also heavily looted during Antiquity. The space was reused for a later burial from the 22nd dynasty that remained intact until its discovery.

## 1.2. The challenge of ¹⁴C dating

A first attempt to date Egyptian KV 40 mummies was made in a previous study, exploring the possibility of analysing bone samples, which were the best chronological markers available in this tomb (Quiles et al., 2022). Since the age of the bone can be directly linked to the date of death of the individual, it would have provided a perfect answer to correlate burials and periods of use of the tomb. The difficulty of dating ancient bones that have been preserved in very hot and dry climatic conditions is well known, and depends on the state of collagen preservation (Hedges, 2002; Brock et al., 2010; Lebon et al., 2016; Sponheimer et al., 2019). Before collecting samples for ¹⁴C dating, the state of collagen in these individuals was tested using non-invasive

sampling. ATR-FTIR analyses were carried out in situ, demonstrating that for most of the mummies, ¹⁴C analyses could be undertaken (Quiles et al., 2022). However, the only radiocarbon technique applicable in Egypt is still the conventional method (Liquid Scintillation Counting), which requires large quantities of material. It was therefore not possible to collect samples for dating without damaging the integrity of these human mummies' bones, especially as many of them were in an advanced state of degradation (burnt, calcination). Thus, this initial study was restricted to spectroscopic analyses without leading to radiocarbon dating, and was unable to answer the pending question.

Another solution to date the mummies accurately is to concentrate on the organic material of the bodies themselves, but also to work on the mummy wrappings that have already been detached, and which were found in the tomb in tens of kilos, all mixed together. Although these analyses cannot be used to accurately date the burials associated with a specific individual, their results should a priori be spread over the identified periods of use of the tomb, and make it possible to situate them accurately in time. The availability of such textiles in very large quantities, still in place within the tomb, also provides an opportunity to carry out a statistical analysis of the data.

A similar problem arose for tombs KV 31 and KV 64, where it was impossible to take samples directly from the mummies. Samples of linen wrappings were therefore taken in order to assess the period of use of

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1.** Pictures of selected mummy fragments from KV 40 which have been radiocarbon dated. 316: pelvis/column of a child, probably a female. 238: Right femur, tibia and fibula of an 18–25 yr old male. 34: Torso with left ulna of an adult, probably a female, with her arm over her chest. 284: right femur of a female over 20 years old. 42: right femur and pelvis of a male aged 18–25 yrs. CS2. unidentified object made of textile, with no contents inside.</figcaption></figure>
these tombs and thus validate the chronological order of use of these three tombs located in the same area of the Kings' Valley.

The high heritage value of samples and the limitations of available analytical instruments make the integration of ¹⁴C analyses into archaeological studies a challenge for Egyptian archaeology. In that respect, this study is the first to produce ¹⁴C dates on human mummies buried in the Kings' Valley.

## 2. Materials and methods

### 2.1. *Sampling from KV 40, KV 31 and KV 64 tombs*

In tomb KV 40, at least 83 individuals have been identified on the basis of anthropological studies (Meyer et al., 2020). Most of them are preserved only in the form of disjoined mummy fragments (femur,

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2.** Top – map of Egypt where the Kings' valley is located, and detailed map of the Kings' valley with KV 40, KV 64 and KV 31, © googlemaps. Bottom – map of the KV 40 rooms – location of mummy fragments collected (in yellow) and textiles (in blue), and their associated time period (I – phase 1; II – phase 2).</figcaption></figure>
thorax, arm, leg, head); the mummy wrappings are sometimes still present, more or less burnt (Fig. 1). Due to their state of deterioration, it is almost impossible to definitively reassemble most of the fragments to single individuals.

Five mummy fragments were selected with the sequential numbers 34, 42, 218, 284 and 316. As they were found in different rooms of the tomb or have been differentiated by anthropological investigations (Fig. 2, Table 1), it can be asserted that they come from five different individuals, two males, two females including a child, and an undetermined adult over 20 yrs.

The samples contain organic material combining textile with skin and muscle, and black material used for embalming, except for the mummy fragment 238 for which it was also possible to select a visually “clean” textile fragment from the wrappings (Fig. 2, Table 1). The mummy fragments were chosen randomly within the whole set of individuals based on the availability of material. Small pieces of textiles and organic material from the mummified bodies were submitted to ATR-FTIR analyses to check the possibility of exogenous organic contamination. As has already been mentioned in the literature (Ferrant, 2021; Ferrant et al., 2022), it remains very difficult to identify precisely the type of organic material, which may be due to the body itself (muscle, skin), its decomposition or to the embalming material used during burial rituals. Several recipes were used by the ancient Egyptians, which vary according to the period and the workshop responsible for carrying out the preparation of the body. The mummification technique also varied: sometimes the body was dried using ritual materials before being wrapped, while in other cases the process was reversed. For this reason, we cannot predict prior to sampling which linen samples (the innermost or outermost wrapping layers of the body) would be the most relevant to analyse. When possible, a selection of several samples from the same area but following the wrapping stratigraphy was done. This is the case with mummy fragment 42 (Fig. 1) on which a specific study was

conducted: four samples were taken according to their location in relation to the body, from the innermost layer stuck to the body to the outermost wrap.

A total of six samples were taken for CSL-¹⁴C dating from the five selected mummies. Due to the quantity of material required for CSL (around 20 g), they were taken from textiles and fragments of organic material that had fallen from the body since its discovery, which did not carry any crucial anthropological information and which were likely to disintegrate completely. An additional linen artefact CS2 (Table 1) was also selected, coming from room C sector S2, as it was not possible to identify precisely what it was. Radiography investigations carried out by Roger Seiler, Lena Öhrström, Frank J. Rühli, Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, showed that no contents were hidden inside.

In addition, numerous textile fragments were found in tomb KV 40, covering the ground of several rooms. They originate from the mummies' wrappings but were all mixed together. Although it was not possible to identify which mummies they came from, they are unequivocally associated with one of the two archaeologically identified use phases of the tomb. Twenty samples that appeared visually 'clean' were selected at random (Table 1) in an attempt to statistically constrain them in time and thus to compare the results obtained on the textiles with those from the mummies. Two additional textile samples were collected from tomb KV 31 and KV 64 to date the burials that took place there (Table 1).

All the collection was done in 2017, 2019 and 2020, using gloves and sterilized material, and samples were put in burnt aluminium foil. The collection process was carried out with the authorization and under the supervision of the Research and Conservation Centre of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, and the samples were sent to the IFAO laboratory in Cairo.

<caption>**Table 1**</caption>

Description of analysed samples of mummies and textile fragments from tombs KV 40, KV 31 and KV 64.

<table><thead><tr><th>Tomb</th><th>Mission label</th><th>Mission number</th><th>Room number</th><th>Sample Nature</th><th>Description</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>Mummy 238</td><td>1217/17_#7<br>1218/17_#12</td><td>C S3</td><td>textile<br>organic material</td><td>Right femur/Right tibia/ Right fibula<br>male, 18–25 yrs.</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>CS2</td><td>1219/17_#28</td><td>C S2</td><td>organic material</td><td>Radiography: no content inside</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>Mummy 34</td><td>1220/17_#32</td><td>D F2</td><td>textile + organic material</td><td>Torso with left ulna/ Adult Prob. female, arm over chest</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>Mummy 284</td><td>1221/17_#41</td><td>D G2</td><td>organic material</td><td>Right femur, adult 20+</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>Mummy 316</td><td>1222/17_#50</td><td>D F2</td><td>organic material</td><td>Pelvis/column<br>child, prob. female</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>Mummy 42</td><td>1223/17_#54</td><td>D B3</td><td>organic material</td><td>Right femur, right pelvis,<br>male 18–25 yrs.</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E1 Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>1346/19_#01</td><td>D E1</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E1 Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>1347/19_#02</td><td>D E1</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E1 Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>1348/19_#03</td><td>D E1</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>1349/19_#04</td><td>C SIV</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>1350/19_#05</td><td>C SIV</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>1351/19_#06</td><td>C SIV</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV40_40D_Stoff_119_2014</td><td>19_#13</td><td>D Stoff</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV40_40C_Stoff_061, SIII, Abh.1</td><td>19_#14</td><td>C SIII</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV40_40C_Stoff_061, 40C SIII, Abh.1</td><td>19_#15</td><td>C SIII</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C1 Abh.1</td><td>1353/19_#22</td><td>E C1</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C1 Abh.1</td><td>1354/19_#23</td><td>E C1</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C1 Abh.1</td><td>1355/19_#24</td><td>E C1</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1</td><td>1356/19_#25</td><td>C SIV</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E I Abh. 1</td><td>1412/20_#01</td><td>E I</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E I Abh.1</td><td>1413/20_#02</td><td>E I</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E B2</td><td>1414/20_#14</td><td>E B2</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E B2</td><td>1415/20_#15</td><td>E B2</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C3</td><td>1416/20_#16</td><td>E C3</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C3</td><td>1417/20_#17</td><td>E C3</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E2</td><td>1418/20_#18</td><td>D E2</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV</td><td>1419/20_#19</td><td>C SIV</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D G2</td><td>1420/20_#20</td><td>D G2</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D F2</td><td>1421/20_#21</td><td>D F2</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 31</td><td>KV 31 C SIV Abh.1</td><td>1357–1358/19_#40</td><td>C SIV</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 31</td><td>KV31_SM_NR 31 Stoff 1</td><td>19_#10</td><td>SM</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr><tr><td>KV 64</td><td>KV 64 SII-N Abh.1-Stoff 6</td><td>1359/19_#07</td><td>SII-N</td><td>Linen textile</td><td>Textile fragment</td></tr></tbody></table>
## 2.2. Digital microscopic observations

Observations were first made on the textile samples using a portable digital microscope (DinoLite Edge) using visible and UV light controlled by a flexible LED, with a magnification of 20 to 220×, in order to assess their state of conservation and the possibility of external contamination.

## 2.3. ATR-FTIR analysis

ATR-FTIR analyses were carried out on the Nicolet Is5 instruments from Ifao Lab (Quiles et al. 2022) both on site (mummy samples) and at the lab (textile samples). Acquisition was done using the ATR-diamond module of the Nicolet (ThermoScientific), and absorbance was recorded between 4000 and 400 $cm^{-1}$ with a resolution of 4 $cm^{-1}$, by accumulating 128 scans for each spectrum. Due to the bad state of conservation of these mummies, for each individual, several analyses were performed on different samples of different nature (textiles, organic material), to check the homogeneity of the results and gain more accurate information. Analyses were carried out three times on each sample to check the repeatability of analyses. Only the most representative spectrum is reported.

## 2.4. <sup>14</sup>C dating

The samples were subjected to radiocarbon analysis using the routine protocol running at the IFAO lab (Quiles et al. 2017). After physical cleaning, around 20 g of samples are chemically pre-treated by AAA protocol [HCl, 8 % (80 °C); NaOH, 0.1–0.5 N; HCl 8 %] and then rinsed and cleaned using an automated ultrapure water system based on sand, bacteria, UV and resin filters.

Combustions are performed using a combustion bomb. Samples are placed in a stainless-steel cup inside the bomb, in contact with a tungsten filament and in a stream of around 10 bars oxygen, under an ac curate vacuum (~$10^{-1}$ mbar). The CO$_2$ gas is then purified using ethanol traps (~80 °C) and collected in liquid nitrogen cooled traps (~196 °C). A sub-sample of the purified CO$_2$ is collected to measure the $\delta^{13}$C value by IRMS on a Thermo Delta V Plus at the Stratochem laboratory in Cairo. CO$_2$ is then slowly released into a furnace in the presence of molten lithium in stoichiometric quantity with an excess of 1 g to form lithium carbide (Li$_2$C$_2$). Once the lithium carbide has cooled, it is then slowly hydrolysed into acetylene gas (C$_2$H$_2$) using tritium-free water. The acetylene gas is purified by passing it successively through ethanol (~80 °C) and orthophosphoric acid (H$_3$PO$_4$) bubble traps, and finally trimerized to benzene using an alumina-vanadium-chromium catalyst. Liquid benzene at atmospheric pressure is finally stored in glass vials in the fridge prior to being measured.

A cocktail of Bis-MSB and butyl-PBD scintillators dissolved in equal ratio in 4 mL benzene solution is then prepared to be measured on two Perkin Elmer Tricarb 3100 liquid scintillation counters. Each sample is measured eight times with each run lasting 1000 min.

$\delta^{13}$C measurements were carried out from the CO$_2$ gas after com bustion on the IRMS instrument at the Stratochem lab.

The <sup>14</sup>C activity was calculated in percent relative to the activity of an international standard of oxalic acid NIST SRM 4990C (OxII), using the Libby half-life (5568 yr) and taking into account the isotopic frac tionation normalised to -25 ‰ (versus VPDB) (Stuiver and Polach 1977; Mook and van der Plicht, 1999). Radiocarbon probability densities were converted into calendar ages using the IntCal20 calibration curve (Reimer et al. 2020) using the OxCal4.4 software (Bronk Ramsey, 1995, 2009a).

# 3. Results

## 3.1. ATR-FTIR analysis

For a single mummy, analyses were carried out both on visually pure

textiles (when available), organic material as well as mixed samples. As shown in previous studies, the “pure” linen FTIR spectrum is modified due to ageing. Several parameters should be taken into account to interpret the FTIR spectra.

- First, the linen degrades because of time and hot climatic conditions, which modify its spectrum compared to a pure modern linen. While the two peaks at 2910 and 2850 $cm^{-1}$ (C–H) are present on a modern linen spectrum, they tend to lose intensity and the massif to become rounder for aged linen. The peak at 1730 $cm^{-1}$ also shifts to 1710 $cm^{-1}$ and increases due to cellulose oxidation (Ferrant, 2021).

- Second, it should be borne in mind that these bodies have also un dergone at least two intense but short fires, which have partially or totally burnt many remains within the tomb (from calcination to carbonization). Carbonization will clearly modify the O–H area (at about 3200 $cm^{-1}$). Although the selected samples come from rela tively clean fragments that were not exposed to direct fire, exposure to the heat, smoke and soot can have had an impact.

- Third, mummies were embalmed using different processes according to time, and several exogenous organic materials, such as resins, gums, wax as well as bitumen, were applied on them.

### 3.1.1. Mummy fragments 42, 238, 284 and 316

ATR-FTIR analyses on several samples from mummy fragments 42, 238, 284 and 316 displayed almost the same results (Fig. 3, Table 2). The presence of exogenous organic material, in addition to the linen textile, was confirmed in all samples because of the increase in the two peaks at 2920 $cm^{-1}$ and 2850 $cm^{-1}$. The shoulder in the O–H area is due to the exposure of the linen samples to fire. In addition, the C=O band (acid groups) at around 1705 $cm^{-1}$ with the one at 1615 $cm^{-1}$ (aromatic C=C) support the presence of a resin, most probably a diterpenic one. The 1705 $cm^{-1}$ can also be correlated with the successive peaks between 1450 and 1150 $cm^{-1}$ linked to adipocire (Ferrant, 2021), which is fatty material due to the saponification process of the body. Regarding the peak at about 1705 $cm^{-1}$, it remains difficult to discriminate between adipocire and exogenous organic material as the two bands are superimposed. Finally, the peaks at 1630, 1316 and 780 $cm^{-1}$ identify the presence of calcium oxalate (Fig. 3, Table 2; IRUG IMP00345).

A test was carried out on the mummy fragment 42 to evaluate the modification of the spectra according to the stratigraphy of the wrap ping layers (Fig. 4). Variations in the relative ratios of C–O–C, C=C and CH were observed: the closer the layer is to the body, the more organic matter, mixing adipocere and exogenous material, is detected. However, all the samples are contaminated. This illustrates the complexity of selecting the best samples, since even the ones that appear the cleanest are also soaked in exogenous matter.

### 3.1.2. CS2

The ATR-FTIR spectrum carried out for the CS2 sample (room C, sector S2, Fig. 2, Table 2) shows the degradation of linen textile due to ageing and burning, with the three typical peaks for calcium oxalate (1620, 1315 and 780 $cm^{-1}$). The presence of exogenous organic ma terial is not unambiguously demonstrated.

### 3.1.3. Mummy fragment 34

Results obtained on the samples from mummy fragment 34 (Fig. 2, Table 2) show the presence of exogenous organic material (strong CH bands at 2930 and 2860 $cm^{-1}$), as well as calcium oxalate. An additional peak at 1605 $cm^{-1}$ was identified on the five samples analysed (Fig. 3), which could be related to aromatic C=C bands also present in bitumen spectra. This band was not detected on the other mummies’ spectra.

### 3.1.4. Textiles

The ATR-FTIR spectra obtained on samples of linen wrapping all display similar results for tomb KV 40. The O–H area increases
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 3.** ATR-FTIR spectra obtained on samples from KV 40 mummies. Several measurements were done per sample; only the most representative spectrum has been selected.</figcaption></figure>

(3400–3000 cm⁻¹), the C–H is more curved and the band expected at 1730 cm⁻¹ shifts slightly to 1720 cm⁻¹ due to cellulose oxidation (Fig. 5). These spectra definitely demonstrate that the textiles were subjected to intense fires (around 200 °C for a short time, due to the modification of the vibrational area between 1800–1600 cm⁻¹) but without being carbonized, otherwise the C=C band at 1580 cm⁻¹ would be present (Ferrant, 2021, p. 91). For most of them, the three bands of calcium oxalate were also detected (Fig. 5, Table 2), those of adipocere can sometimes be suspected (1710 cm⁻¹ and successive peaks between 1450 and 1200 cm⁻¹), but no exogeneous organic material was identified (the 2910 and 2850 cm⁻¹ bands do not increase), as was the case on the mummy samples (Fig. 6, Table 2).

Such modifications in the area 1800–1600 cm⁻¹ were not identified in the sample spectra from KV 31 and KV 64. They only displayed spectra of textiles aged by time and climatic variations, without any additional organic matter.

In conclusion, the ATR-FTIR analyses performed on mummies and textile samples show the presence of adipocere, which is a natural

material linked to the decomposition of bodies. Calcium oxalates were also detected, most likely as a result of fungal activity. This possible contamination highlights the need for conservation measures to preserve the integrity of these mummies. Exogeneous organic material was also detected on all these mummy samples, coming from ancient embalming processes, but not on textile samples. We have reasonable clues to identify resin (most probably diterpenic resins) on the majority of these individuals, but the presence of bitumen can also be considered on the mummy part 34. Textiles from KV 40 have been affected by fires leading to structural modifications of fibers, which can make them more fragile. Those of KV 31 and KV 64 are free of exogeneous organic material.

## 3.2. <sup>14</sup>C dating

### 3.2.1. Mummy fragment samples

Seven radiocarbon determinations were performed on samples from five different mummies and an unidentified object associated to these
<table><caption>**Table 2**
ATR-FTIR results with identified bands (cm⁻¹) and suggested identification.</caption><thead><tr><th>Mummy number</th><th>Tomb</th><th>Nature</th><th>Identified bands (cm<sup>-1</sup>)</th><th>Identification</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Mummy 42<br>1223/17_#54</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Organic material + textile</td><td>2920 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 2850 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1705 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Exogeneous Organic material and textile</td></tr><tr><td>Mummy 238<br>1218/17_#12</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Organic material + textile</td><td>1705 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1615 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Resin</td></tr><tr><td>Mummy 316<br>1222/17_#50</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Organic material + textile</td><td>1705 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1450 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1150 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Adipocire</td></tr><tr><td>Mummy 284<br>1221/17_#41</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Organic material + textile</td><td>1630 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1316 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 780 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Calcium oxalate</td></tr><tr><td>Mummy 34<br>1220/17_#32</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Organic material</td><td>2930 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 2830 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1705 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1605 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1620 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1315 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 780 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Exogeneous organic material and textile</td></tr><tr><td>CS2<br>1219/17_#28</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Textile</td><td>2920 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 2850 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1705 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1620 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1315 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 780 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Resin/ bitumen? Calcium oxalate</td></tr><tr><td>KV40_40D_Stoff_119_2014 (19#13)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Textile</td><td>3400–3000</td><td>Degraded textile</td></tr><tr><td>KV40_40C_Stoff_061, 40C SIII, Abh.1 (19#14)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Textile</td><td>2920 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>(burnt)</td></tr><tr><td>KV40_40C_Stoff_061, 40C SIII, Abh.1 (19#15)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>Textile</td><td>1800–1600 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Cellulose oxidation</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1620 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1315 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 780 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Calcium oxalate</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1705 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1450 cm<sup>-1</sup>, 1150 cm<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Adipocire suspected</td></tr><tr><td>KV 64 SII-N Abh.1-Stoff 6 (1359/19_#07)</td><td>KV 64</td><td>Textile</td><td>3400–3000 massif</td><td>Degraded textile</td></tr><tr><td>KV31 SM_NR 31 Stoff 1 (19_#10)</td><td>KV 31</td><td>Textile</td><td>2900 cm<sup>-1</sup> massif</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 4.** ATR-FTIR analyses on four linen fragments from mummy fragment 42, collected in different stratigraphic positions of the mummy wrappings, from Ferrant (2021).</figcaption></figure>

mummies (CS2). They extend from 3680 ± 30 BP (IFAO_0783) to 2520 ± 30 BP (IFAO_0781). δ¹³C values range from -25.1 ‰ to -22.7 ‰, so are perfectly consistent with organic material and linen textile samples.

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5.** Selection of ATR-FTIR spectra obtained on several textile samples from KV 40, KV 31 and KV 64, randomly collected.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 6.** Comparison of selected ATR-FTIR spectra from mummy fragment sample (316), textiles from KV 40 tomb and textile from KV 64.</figcaption></figure>
Samples IFAO_0780 and IFAO_0781 were both collected from the same individual, mummy part 238, from two different materials, pure textile and organic materials (mummified muscles and skin with possibly textile). They give consistent results (Table 3). Their age densities were combined to obtain only one, set at 2532 ± 22 BP.

The CS2 dating result (3399 ± 30 BP, IFAO_0782) extends from 1769 to 1614 calBCE (93.5 %), i.e. the end of the Middle Kingdom – Second Intermediate Period (Table 3). The associated FTIR spectra did not reveal any exogenous organic contamination, only calcium oxalates on a degraded linen fibre. There is therefore nothing to invalidate this result from a physico-chemical point of view. As the result is older than the expected time-period, without archaeological meaning, one suggestion might be that the object was made from recycled textiles, or that the object itself was recycled.

Mummy fragment 34 yielded the oldest result (3680 ± 30 BP, IFAO_0783), i.e. a time range of 2192-1961calBCE (95.4 %) which corresponds historically to a period from the First Intermediate Period to the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (Table 3). However, no activity is recorded at this site during this period. This result must also be taken in conjunction with the ATR-FTIR analyses, which indicate the possible detection of bitumen in this sample. Based on fossil carbon, this would explain the artificial ageing of the sample, as this material was probably not completely eliminated by the chemical protocol applied (Quiles et al., 2014). For this reason, this result could not be validated.

This is the only sample showing possible exogenous fossil organic contamination (bitumen) on the FTIR spectra, all the others being free of it. The presence of resin (di or tripernic) is not a criterion for rejecting ¹⁴C dates, since it was very probably manufactured at the same time as the individual's death, even if a short gap between the two events cannot be ruled out. Even if the chemical protocol applied to clean the samples was not strong enough to remove all this exogenous material, the presence of resin should not significantly impact the result.

According to the archaeological evidence, these results on mummy samples are assumed around two periods of frequentation. With the exception of sample IFAO_0783, the others are indeed organised into two groups, the first comprising Mummy fragments 284 and 316, while Mummy fragments 238 and 42 are likely to be contemporary and younger.

As shown in Fig. 7, the results from mummy fragments 284 and 316 are perfectly consistent and overlapping between 1517 and 1426 calBCE (95.4 %), whereas mummy parts 238 and 42 are placed on a more difficult part of the calibration curve, with fragment 238 being affected by the start of the Hallstatt plateau-age. This explains this small visual difference, even if the two results overlap slightly at about 800 calBCE. As mummy fragment 238 was found in room C S3 and fragment 42 in room D B3 (Fig. 2), and both have a right femur, we can be sure that they come from two different individuals. A similar conclusion can be extended to mummy fragments 316 and 284. Even if they were found in the same room D F2 and G2, 316 has been identified by anthropological investigations as a child, probably a female, whereas 284 was an adult

over 20 yrs. In this case as well, we can be certain to have dated two different individuals.

### 3.2.2. Textile samples

Twenty-four radiocarbon determinations were carried out on linen textile fragments, 21 from tomb KV 40, one from tomb KV 64 and two from KV 31. The results from the samples of KV 40 range from 3227 ± 30 (IFAO_0912) to 2465 ± 30 BP (IFAO_0977), while the δ¹³C ranges from -26.6 ‰ to -20.8 ‰, as expected from C3 plants (Table 4). Samples KV 40_D_F2 and KV 31_C_SIV_Abh.1 were analysed twice to check the repeatability of measurements. The results are perfectly consistent, providing 2637 and 2602 ± 30 BP (IFAO_0982 and IFAO_0983) for the first, and 3204 ± 30 BP (IFAO_0919) and 3247 ± 30 BP (IFAO_0920) for the second.

Calibrated ranges extend from 1537 to 418 calBCE for the KV 40 samples, 1609 to 1419 calBCE for KV 31 samples and 1447–1289 calBCE for the KV 64 sample. While the samples for KV 31 and KV 64 are clearly related to the 18th dynasty, the results for the KV 40 samples are grouped around two periods, as shown in Fig. 8, which is fully consistent with the archaeological investigations. It should be noted that the distribution of this series in two groups is perfectly homogeneous, as 10 samples are associated with the first phase and 11 with the second, although the selection of textiles was made randomly. However, a dispersion within the results of the first group is observed: IFAO_0912 and IFAO_0917 (resp. 1537–1426 calBCE and 1506–1402 calBCE, 95.4 %) are the oldest and IFAO_0913 and IFAO_0973 the youngest (resp. 1377–1119 calBCE and 1260–1047 calBCE, 95.4 %), thus not compatible with each other. Regarding their original locations within the tomb (Fig. 2), both periods are represented in room E (#9), while the textile samples from room D all date to the second period (#7) and all the textiles analysed from room C are from the first period (#4). Although this may give an initial picture of the organisation of mummies in the tomb when discovered, the number of analyses is not sufficient to reach a definitive conclusion. Clearly, the distribution of the mummies in the tomb cannot be correlated with the two periods of use. Burials from both periods seem to have existed in all the rooms of KV 40.

## 4. Interpretation-discussion

### 4.1. Modelling

Following the results of previous studies (Manning et al. 2020; Dee et al. 2010) suggesting a variation of radiocarbon activity of 19 ± 5 ¹⁴C yrs to the IntCal curve for the Nile Valley due to a seasonal effect, revised to 16 ± 4 using IntCal20, a Delta_R “seasonal effect” has been integrated. This value is consistent with current investigations on this offset for plant species having grown close to the Nile Valley (Quiles et al., 2021).

¹⁴C dating of textile samples gives an age linked with the cut of the linen plant, which can be slightly older than the age of textile use. The

<caption>**Table 3**</caption>

Results of ¹⁴C analyses performed on mummy samples (textile and organic material) from tomb KV 40. Anthropological identifications were carried out by Sabrina Meyer, Nakita Frater, Frank J. Rühli Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich.

<table><thead><tr><th>Ifao Code lab</th><th>Mummy fragment sequential number</th><th>Room number in KV 40</th><th>Anthropological description (male-female/age)</th><th>Sample Nature</th><th>δ¹³C (‰)</th><th>¹⁴C result (BP, σ)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IFAO_0780</td><td>Mummy 238</td><td>C S3</td><td>Right femur/Right tibia/ Right fibula</td><td>textile</td><td>-25.1</td><td>2544 30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0781</td><td></td><td></td><td>male, 18–25 yrs.</td><td>organic material</td><td>-23.6</td><td>2520 30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0782</td><td>CS2</td><td>C S2</td><td>Radiography: no content inside</td><td>organic material</td><td>-24.0</td><td>3399 30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0783</td><td>Mummy 34</td><td>D F2</td><td>Torso with left ulna/ Adult Prob. female, arm over chest</td><td>textile + organic material</td><td>-23.6</td><td>3680 30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0784</td><td>Mummy 284</td><td>D G2</td><td>Right femur, adult 20+</td><td>organic material</td><td>-24.3</td><td>3223 30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0785</td><td>Mummy 316</td><td>D F2</td><td>Pelvis/column child, prob. female</td><td>organic material</td><td>-23.5</td><td>3207 30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0786</td><td>Mummy 42</td><td>D B3</td><td>Right femur, right pelvis, male 18–25 yrs.</td><td>organic material</td><td>-22.7</td><td>2687 30</td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7. Calibrated ¹⁴C results obtained on the mummy samples. Two of them provide older ages than expected (mummy fragments 34 and CS2). The plot on the calibration curve (left) for the four validated results shows that the age of mummy fragment 238 is affected by the Hallstatt plateau age.</figcaption></figure>

**Table 4**

<table><caption>Results of ¹⁴C-CSL dating analyses carried out at the IFAO lab on textile samples from KV 40, KV 64 and KV 31. Duplicated analyses in the same sample are highlighted in green.</caption><thead><tr><th>Ifao Code lab</th><th>Sample Number (lab/mission)</th><th>Site</th><th>Site reference</th><th>Sample Nature</th><th>δ<sup>13</sup>C (‰)</th><th>¹⁴C result (BP)</th><th>Uncertainty (1σ)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IFAO_0908</td><td>1346 (19_#01)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E1 Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>textile</td><td>-21.2</td><td>2642</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0909</td><td>1347 (19_#02)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E1 Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>textile</td><td>-21.7</td><td>2697</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0910</td><td>1348 (19_#03)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E1 Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>textile</td><td>-21.1</td><td>2605</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0911</td><td>1349 (19_#04)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>textile</td><td>-22.0</td><td>3134</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0912</td><td>1350 (19_#05)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>textile</td><td>-22.5</td><td>3227</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0913</td><td>1351 (19_#06)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1-Stoff</td><td>textile</td><td>-23.5</td><td>2988</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0915</td><td>1353 (19_#22)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C1 Abh.1</td><td>textile</td><td>-22.7</td><td>2625</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0916</td><td>1354 (19_#23)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C1 Abh.1</td><td>textile</td><td>-23.0</td><td>3102</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0917</td><td>1355 (19_#24)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C1 Abh.1</td><td>textile</td><td>-22.5</td><td>3175</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0918</td><td>1356 (19_#25)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV Abh.1</td><td>textile</td><td>-20.8</td><td>3057</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0973</td><td>1412 (20_#01)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E I Abh. 1</td><td>textile</td><td>-26.0</td><td>2944</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0974</td><td>1413 (20_#02)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E I Abh.1</td><td>textile</td><td>-24.8</td><td>2995</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0975</td><td>1414 (20_#14)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E B2</td><td>textile</td><td>-25.5</td><td>2492</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0976</td><td>1415 (20_#15)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E B2</td><td>textile</td><td>-25.5</td><td>2508</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0977</td><td>1416 (20_#16)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C3</td><td>textile</td><td>-26.3</td><td>2465</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0978</td><td>1417 (20_#17)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 E C3</td><td>textile</td><td>-25.9</td><td>3016</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0979</td><td>1418 (20_#18)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D E2</td><td>textile</td><td>-25.5</td><td>2590</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0980</td><td>1419 (20_#19)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 C SIV</td><td>textile</td><td>-26.1</td><td>3036</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0981</td><td>1420 (20_#20)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D G2</td><td>textile</td><td>-26.5</td><td>2512</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0982</td><td>1421 (20_#21)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D F2</td><td>textile</td><td>-26.6</td><td>2637</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0983</td><td>1421.1 (20_#21)</td><td>KV 40</td><td>KV 40 D F2</td><td>textile</td><td>-25.5</td><td>2602</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0919</td><td>1357 (19_#40)</td><td>KV 31</td><td>KV 31 C SIV Abh.1</td><td>textile</td><td>-22.4</td><td>3204</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0920</td><td>1358 (19_#40)</td><td>KV 31</td><td>KV 31 C SIV Abh.1</td><td>textile</td><td>-22.2</td><td>3247</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>IFAO_0914</td><td>1352 (19_#07)</td><td>KV 64</td><td>KV 64 SII-N Abh.1-Stoff 6</td><td>textile</td><td>-22.0</td><td>3116</td><td>30</td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8.** $^{14}$C calibrated temporal estimates obtained on textile samples from KV 40. They are all associated within two phases, a first (in green) between 1550–1350 calBCE, and a second at about 800–700 calBCE. Two estimates were also obtained for textiles for KV 31 and KV 64 (in blue), both associated with the first time period.</figcaption></figure>

reuse of older linen for burials is a well-known practice in Ancient Egypt. According to studies of textiles conducted by art historians (Wos-Jucker, 2025-in print), some of them had already been used and even mended when abandoned, which clearly shows that the textiles may predate the burials associated with them. To take this into account, an outlier density was added to all the textiles (Bronk Ramsey, 2009b). An Outlier Model distribution was integrated using an exponential law, and each distribution was down-weighted with a prior probability of being an outlier set to 5 %.

To model the two periods of burials within tomb KV 40, the results were firstly grouped within two *Phases*. *Boundaries* were used to surround these *Phases*, and an *Interval* tool was placed to evaluate the duration of the non-frequentation of the tomb (Table 5).

Second, the same modelling was tested using the *KDE_Plot* tool (Bronk Ramsey, 2017) instead of *Phases*. It sums up all the temporal distributions within a single one, by eliminating the noise surrounding

<caption>**Table 5**</caption>

Modelling of the two time periods of use of tomb KV 40 based on textile samples, using different models (95.4%).

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>KDE_Plot Model (5<br>%)</th><th>KDE_Plot Model (20<br>%)</th><th>Phase Model (5<br>%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Start Phase 1</td><td>1613–1418 BCE</td><td>1596–1416 BCE</td><td>1600–1416 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>End Phase1</td><td>1221–938 BCE</td><td>1220–1016 BCE</td><td>1221–980 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>Interval<br>Phase1/2</td><td>142–402 yrs</td><td>148–403 yrs</td><td>147–403 yrs</td></tr><tr><td>Start Phase2</td><td>881–794 BCE</td><td>881–791 BCE</td><td>879–794 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>End Phase2</td><td>761–587 BCE</td><td>760–587 BCE</td><td>761–624 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table>

this distribution (Fig. 9). The results obtained for the two models are very close (Table 5), showing that the first use phase of the tomb is definitively associated with a time period starting from 1613 to 1418 BCE to 1221–938 BCE (95.4 %), and the second between 881–794 to
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9. KDE_Plot Model results obtained on textile samples from KV 40. Phase 1 is in green and Phase 2 in red on the upper graphic.</figcaption></figure>

761–587 BCE (95.4 %). With 5 % prior Outlier Probability, the maximum posterior probability is set to 11 % for sample IFAQ_0909. By increasing the prior probability to 20 % for all samples, the KDE Model provides almost the same time ranges going from 1596 to 1416 BCE (95.4 %) to 760–587 BCE (95.4 %). This demonstrates the consistency of the model.

## 4.2. Historical and archaeological evidence

To go further in the interpretation of results, archaeological evidence can be adduced. Ceramic and inscriptive evidence (reign of Amenhotep III) shows that the frequentation of tomb KV 40 during the New Kingdom took place during the 18th dynasty. It therefore seems reasonable to consider the end of the 18th dyn/start 19th dyn., modelled in a previous study to 1340–1292 BCE (95.4 %; Quiles et al., 2013), as a terminus ante quem for the end of Phase1. This is why the Boundary standing for the end of Phase1 was modelled by a normal C_Date distribution, centered on 1320 with a sigma of 10 yrs:

Boundary ("Bound_Start_Phase2", C_Date ("TAQ 18", BC(1320), 10));
The result for KV 64 was constrained in the same way.

The results of the three models are very close, indicating that the first frequentation in tomb KV 40 was from 1510 to 1362 to 1345–1300 BCE (95.4 %), and the second from 869 to 795 to 767–645 BCE (95.4 %), the gap between the two use phases being from 453 to 538 yrs (95.4 %, Table 6). The dispersion of the ¹⁴C results in Phase1 already observed in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 is repeated in the model, which shows that this first

<caption>**Table 6**</caption>

Modelled results obtained from textile samples of KV 40, using a *terminus ante quem* constraining the end of Phase1 to before the start of the 19th dynasty (results at 95.4%).

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>KDE_Plot Model-Termini (5 %)</th><th>KDE_Plot Model-Termini (20 %)</th><th>Phase Model-Termini (5 %)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Start Phase 1</td><td>1510–1362 BCE (90.4 %)</td><td>1501–1359 BCE</td><td>1508–1362 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>End Phase1</td><td>1345–1300 BCE</td><td>1346–1300 BCE</td><td>1345–1300 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>Interval Phase1/2</td><td>453–538 yrs</td><td>454–544 yrs</td><td>442–538 yrs</td></tr><tr><td>Start Phase2</td><td>869–795 BCE</td><td>869–790 BCE</td><td>878–795 BCE</td></tr><tr><td>End Phase2</td><td>767–645 BCE</td><td>766–638 BCE</td><td>766–610 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table>

phase should not be considered a one-off event, but its duration can be estimated at a couple of decades. The same conclusion cannot be drawn for phase 2. The ¹⁴C calibrated probability densities are even rather tight around 800 BCE, the dispersion observed towards younger ages being due to the Hallstatt plateau-age, which biases the interpretation.

Modeled densities for the KV 31, KV 64 and KDE_Plot of Phase 1 are compared to age densities already obtained for the beginning of the reign of several 18th dynasty kings (Fig. 10), according to independent radiocarbon estimates (Quiles et al. 2013) to which was added the known length of reigns (53 yrs for Thutmose III, 10 yrs for Thutmose IV and 38 yrs for Amenhotep III). As an indication, the dates suggested by Hornung et al. (2006) were also added. KV 31, slightly older than KV 64
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 10.** Comparison of results obtained on textile samples and mummy samples. They are grouped within two phases, the first during the 18th dynasty (green) and the other at about the end of the 22nd and the 25th dynasty (red). Textile samples from KV 40 are modelled using a KDE_Plot tool. Modelled temporal estimates for the reigns of Thutmose III, Thutmose IV and Amenhotep IV, as well as the time-range from the end 22nd-end 25th dynasties are in yellow (from Quiles et al., 2013). As a comparison, the dates suggested by Hornung et al. (2006) for the reign of TIII, AIII and Osorkon II are dotted in yellow.</figcaption></figure>
and KV 40-Phase1, is most probably relevant to the reign of Thutmose III (Fig. 10), which is fully consistent with archaeological evidence (Aston, 2021, SES 2.1, p. 255–256). The result for KV 64 overlaps the reigns from Thutmose IV to the end of the 18th dynasty (Fig. 10). As only one date was obtained, it is difficult to provide a more precise conclusion. KV 40-Phase 1 could correspond to the period extending from the reign of king Amenhotep III to the end of the 18th dynasty (Fig. 10). This is again consistent with the ceramics of KV 40, dated from the reign of Amenhotep III to the beginning of Amenhotep IV. Jars bearing inscriptions mentioning the year 25 (most probably of Amenhotep III) even suggest the end of Amenhotep III’s reign. The hypothesis that KV 64 is slightly older than KV 40 is plausible, even if it cannot be definitively demonstrated.

The results of the mummy samples can be related to those of the textile samples. The temporal estimates obtained for mummy fragments 284 and 316 from KV 40 are contemporaneous and fit perfectly with the results of KV 31, but only partially fit the KDE-Phase1 estimate (Fig. 10). They are nevertheless consistent with the *Boundary* modelled for the beginning of this phase. These two mummy fragment samples consisted of a mixture of textiles, muscle and skin, with organic matter due to the degradation of the bodies, but ATR-FTIR analyses also highlight exogenous organic matter due to the embalming process. This organic material is identified as resin, without any bitumen. Although the fragments were found in adjacent sectors (D G2 and D F2), they stem from two separate individuals, as the age estimate differs (284: adult 20+, 316: child). Two hypotheses remain possible. The tomb was not occupied on a one-off basis, but contained mummies buried during several decades of the 18th Dynasty, and the fragments in question could belong to the very first burials. Or, the mummification was possibly carried out using resin that was slightly older than the actual age of the mummies. Since two textiles are given time-ranges close to those of these mummy fragments (IFAO_0912 and IFAO_0917, resp. 1537–1426 calBCE and 1506–1402 calBCE, 95.4 %), the first hypothesis should be favoured. This would demonstrate that the highest use of the tomb took place between the middle and the end of Amenhotep III’s reign, as shown by the KDE density based on the analysis of textile samples and supported by the associated archaeological material. However, earlier burials dated between the end of the reign of Thutmose IV and the beginning of that of Amenhotep III also took place there and/or a couple of earlier mummies may have been brought to the tomb at a later date.

As for the second identified period, the KDE estimate for Phase 2 using textile samples lies exactly at the intersection of the temporal distributions obtained for mummy fragments 238 and 42. Based on archaeological evidence, this use of KV 40 is assumed to be between the 22nd–25th dynasties. ¹⁴C results are set within a time-range going from 869 to 795 to 767–645 BCE (95.4 %, Table 6), thus tending to favour the end of the 22nd and the 25th dynasties (dynasties 23 and 24 being contemporaneous to the end of dyn. 22).

The time without any frequentation within the KV 40 tomb is estimated from 453 to 538 yrs (95.4 %).

### 4.3. Outcome

This study clearly shows that tomb KV 40 was used twice, once during the 18th Dynasty and a second time during the 25th Dynasty, which is perfectly consistent with the archaeological evidence. KV 31 shows the oldest occupation within this set of samples, while textile analyses from KV 40 are of the same age as those from KV 64; however, at least two mummy fragments from KV 40 (284 and 316) could be contemporaneous to KV 31 or slightly younger. The boundaries modelled to evaluate the duration of Phase 1 of KV 40 make it possible to encompass at least the reigns of Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III, and definitively show a duration of this tomb’s use of about 30–50 yrs during the 18th dynasty. The second frequentation of KV 40 clearly dates from the end of the 22nd and the 25th Dynasty, starting most probably at the end of Osorkon II’s reign. Over the five mummies analysed, bitumen was

detected only in mummy fragment 34 and in a small quantity, perhaps in addition to resin materials. This suggests that Mummy 34 may also be part of Phase 1, since the quantity of bitumen required to age a ¹⁴C date by around 2,000 yrs is estimated at 20 % of its weight (Delibrias, 1985), whereas less than 5 % is enough for an ageing period of 500 yrs. If 20 % of the sample weight was bitumen, we would expect the FTIR spectra to detect its presence much more clearly with a much more intense aromatic C=C band. This demonstrates that the materials, and therefore by extension the practices, used for embalming rituals for members of the 18th dynasty royal court were different from one individual to another. The use of bitumen, a rare and expensive material, could confer on Mummy 34 a more prestigious royal affiliation than mummy fragments 284 and 316, and demonstrate at least two different practices of mummification during the 18th dynasty.

### 5. Conclusion

Accurately dating the mummies discovered in tomb KV 40 has been a challenge for the Kings’ Valley project of the University of Basel for several years, as more than 80 mummies have been identified, highlighting different embalming practices. While it was not possible to carry out ¹⁴C dating on the bones themselves, using the organic matter of the bodies, which were already badly fragmented due to several shortcomings, offered an interesting solution. In addition, the very large quantity of wrapping textiles found on the ground of the tomb was a second way to statistically model the periods of the tomb use and then to compare them with the mummies’ ages.

A total of 31 analyses were carried out, enabling us to reconstruct the history of tomb KV 40 over time, and also to link it with that of its two neighbouring tombs, KV 31 and KV 64. It is the first time that such a large series of radiocarbon dates has been carried out on Egyptian human mummies from the Kings’ Valley. It shows that tomb KV 40 was first used during the 18th dynasty to receive mummies of royal children and the royal entourage, under the reigns of Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III, between 1510–1362 to 1345–1300 BCE. Its use was not one-off but lasted for several decades. Mummy fragments 34, 284 and 316 are clearly dated to this period, and are therefore most probably royal family, Mummy 34 having been prepared using more prestigious and valuable material than the others. The burial analysed in tomb KV 31 predates KV 40 and is most probably associated with the reign of Thutmose III, while that in KV 64 is contemporary with the beginning of KV 40. 450 to 500 years after its first closure, tomb KV 40 was used again from 869–795 to 767–645 BCE, during the end of the 22nd and the 25th Dynasty, for what was probably a shorter period during which mummies 42 and 238 were buried.

#### CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Anita Quiles:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. **Marie Ferrant:** Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis. **Mostafa Abd-el-Fattah:** Formal analysis. **Mahmoud Gamil:** Formal analysis. **Nadine Mounir:** Project administration, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. **Susanne Bickel:** Writing – original draft, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Conceptualization.

#### Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
## Acknowledgements

This project has been funded by the Swiss National Research Foundation (SNF 100011_156046), Gertrud-Mayer Stiftung as well as the Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire. Authors are grateful to the archaeometry department of Ifao and Laurent Bavay, head of the Ifao when this study was launched.

## Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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