i.e., spheres centered on the GW source have area $4\pi r^2$. Within a cosmological setting, this parameter is the transverse comoving distance $D_M$ (D. W. Hogg 1999). Then, if the redshift is entirely due to the cosmological expansion of spacetime, the combination $(1+z)D_M$ is equal to the luminosity distance of the source, and this becomes the observable distance parameter from the GW amplitude. In this sense, then, given a known cosmology (i.e., the values of the Hubble constant, matter density, and the spatial curvature), the functional relationship between luminosity distance and redshift allows the determination of the latter from the former, and the intrinsic masses, e.g., $M$, can then be deduced from the observed mass-redshift combined parameters, e.g., $M^{\text{det}} = (1+z)M$. However, if other redshift effects are present, e.g., due to peculiar motion of the source or the observer relative to the Hubble flow, the combination $(1+z)D_M$ is no longer equal to the luminosity distance.

Nevertheless, when reporting the parameters of a CBC, we normally assume that cosmological expansion is the only significant source of redshift, and so the observed amplitude parameter $(1+z)D_M$ is referred to as luminosity distance $D_L$, while a dimensionful intrinsic mass parameter such as the primary mass $m_1$ is derived from observed detector-frame mass parameters as $m_1 = m_1^{\text{det}}/[1+z(D_L)]$, where the relationship between the redshift and the luminosity distance, $z(D_L)$, is obtained by some standard cosmological model. The only case where this was not done was for GW170817, where the measured geocentric redshift to its host galaxy NGC 4993 was used (B. P. Abbott et al. 2019b). The main uncertainty in the chirp mass of the system comes from the unknown peculiar velocity of the system relative to its host galaxy. Unless otherwise specified, the reference cosmology used to relate luminosity distance to redshift throughout the works is a $\Lambda$CDM model (P. J. E. Peebles & B. Ratra 2003) corresponding to a spatially flat Friedman-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker spacetime (G. Lemaître 1931; H. P. Robertson 1935a, 1935b, 1936; A. G. Walker 1937; S. Weinberg 1972; C. W. Misner et al. 1973; A. Friedmann 1999b, 1999a) with Hubble constant $H_0 = 67.9 \text{ km s}^{-1}\text{Mpc}^{-1}$, matter density parameter $\Omega_m = 0.3065$, and cosmological constant density parameter $\Omega_\Lambda = 1 - \Omega_m = 0.6935$ (P. A. R. Ade et al. 2016, column TT+lowP+lensing+ext of Table 4).

**Constraints on Cosmic Expansion from GW Observations.**
If the redshift of a GW source can be determined independently of its distance, then a distance-redshift relationship can be obtained and used to infer cosmological parameters (B. F. Schutz 1986; A. Krolak & B. F. Schutz 1987). Here the CBC is called a *standard siren* (akin to the *standard candles* such as Cepheid variables and Type Ia supernovae used to measure distances to their galaxy hosts), where the luminosity distance of the CBC is inferred from the amplitude of the GWs (D. E. Holz & S. A. Hughes 2005). The most direct method of determining the redshift of a GW source is if there is an electromagnetic counterpart in which spectroscopic measurements of the redshift of its host galaxy can be made (A. Krolak & B. F. Schutz 1987; D. E. Holz & S. A. Hughes 2005; N. Dalal et al. 2006; H.-Y. Chen et al. 2018). This method is known as the *bright sirens* method. For example, the BNS coalescence GW170817 (B. P. Abbott et al. 2017a) was associated with the optical kilonova AT 2017gfo in the galaxy NGC 4993 (B. P. Abbott et al. 2017b), which allowed for a measurement of the maximum a posteriori value of the Hubble

constant with 68.3% credible level (CL) highest-density interval $69_{-8}^{+17}$ km s$^{-1}$Mpc$^{-1}$ (B. P. Abbott et al. 2021a).

If no electromagnetic counterpart to a GW is observed, various methods are available to deduce the associated redshift (BBHs are not normally expected to produce any electromagnetic radiation, unless there is matter present in their environment). One such method, the *galaxy catalog* method, also called the *dark siren* method, is to obtain statistical association of GW sources with potential host galaxies observed in surveys (B. F. Schutz 1986; C. L. MacLeod & C. J. Hogan 2008). This is usually done simultaneously with information obtained from another method, the *spectral siren* method. In the spectral siren method, a known feature in the mass distribution of the population of CBCs is used to statistically infer the redshift of a number of sources at a given distance by how the observed detector-frame mass distribution is shifted with respect to the local (zero-redshift) distribution (D. F. Chernoff & L. S. Finn 1993; S. R. Taylor et al. 2012; W. M. Farr et al. 2019; S. Mastrogiovanni et al. 2021). Finally, future observations of BNS mergers may be capable of directly inferring the redshift of the source from the GW signal alone through measurements of the NS tidal deformations (C. Messenger & J. Read 2012; D. Chatterjee et al. 2021).

The companion Letter A. G. Abac et al. (2025g) reports on constraints on the cosmic expansion history based on combined CBC bright and dark sirens, including both the galaxy catalog method and the spectral siren approach. If GWs propagate through cosmological backgrounds differently from electromagnetic waves in a manner that produces a different distance-amplitude relation, the modified propagation effects can be observed using standard siren methods (E. Belgacem et al. 2018). The companion Letter A. G. Abac et al. (2025g) also reports on constraints on such effects of modified GW propagation.

### 5.2.5. Populations of Compact Binaries

With a multitude of observed CBCs, one can infer the underlying population of these sources. In doing so, one needs to account for the detector selection effects, e.g., the fact that events that are farther away are less likely to be detected as compared to events that are nearby. One key element of the population that can be measured is the local merger rate density, $R$, representing the number of CBCs occurring per unit time per unit volume in the local Universe (E. S. Phinney 1991; C. Kim et al. 2003; P. R. Brady et al. 2004; R. Biswas et al. 2009; W. M. Farr et al. 2015; B. P. Abbott et al. 2016e), or its evolution with cosmic redshift $R(z)$, which is the number of coalescences per unit source-frame time per unit comoving volume at a cosmological redshift of $z$ (M. Fishbach et al. 2018). Another is the population distribution of masses and spins of merging compact binaries, $p(m_1, m_2, S_1, S_2)$, which might also evolve over cosmic history, $p(m_1, m_2, S_1, S_2|z)$. The measurement uncertainty in single-event parameters and the total number of detected events dictate the measurability of features in the population. These inferences are important in understanding the underlying astrophysical formation channels of compact binaries (e.g., S. Stevenson et al. 2017; W. M. Farr et al. 2017; M. Zevin et al. 2021; I. Mandel & F. S. Broekgaarden 2022).

**Inference of the Population of CBCs.** In the companion Letter A. G. Abac et al. (2025c), we present measurements of the local rate of BNS, NSBH, and BBH mergers; inference of
the evolution of the CBC rate over cosmological time; and
inference of the distribution of masses and spins of CBCs.

## 6. Synopsis

This Letter serves as an introduction to the collection of Letters accompanying the LVK's GWTC-4.0. We have provided an overview of the GW detectors and observing runs of the LVK network and of the observed GWs from CBCs. The primary sequels to this introduction are a description of the methods used to perform searches for GWs in LVK data and to characterize source properties of identified signals (A. G. Abac et al. 2025a) and a summary of the main observations of GWTC-4.0, highlighting new CBC candidates and their estimated masses and spins (A. G. Abac et al. 2025b). Other companion Letters presenting science results from the analysis of the GWTC-4.0 candidates were described in Section 1. GWTC provides a prodigious census of over 200 merging BHs and NSs spanning two orders of magnitude in mass from ~1$M_\odot$ NSs to remnant BHs exceeding 100$M_\odot$. Study of these observations will provide new insight into the nature of these objects, their population distribution, and their formation channels. These GW observations allow for sensitive tests of GR and provide information about the cosmological expansion history.

## Acknowledgments

This material is based on work supported by NSF's LIGO Laboratory, which is a major facility fully funded by the National Science Foundation. The authors also gratefully acknowledge the support of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) of the United Kingdom, the Max-Planck-Society (MPS), and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for support of the construction of Advanced LIGO and construction and operation of the GEO 600 detector. Additional support for Advanced LIGO was provided by the Australian Research Council. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) for the construction and operation of the Virgo detector and the creation and support of the EGO consortium. The authors also gratefully acknowledge research support from these agencies, as well as by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India; the Department of Science and Technology, India; the Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB), India; the Ministry of Human Resource Development, India; the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI); the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades; the European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR (PRTR-C17.11); the ICSC-Centro Nazionale di Ricerca in High Performance Computing, Big Data and Quantum Computing, funded by the European Union Next-GenerationEU; the Comunitat Autonòma de les Illes Balears through the Conselleria d'Educació i Universitats; the Conselleria d'Innovació, Universitats, Ciència i Societat Digital de la Generalitat Valenciana and the CERCA Programme Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain; the Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange; the National Science Centre of Poland and the European Union-European Regional Development Fund; the Foundation for Polish Science (FNP); the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education; the Swiss

National Science Foundation (SNSF); the Russian Science Foundation; the European Commission; the European Social Funds (ESF); the European Regional Development Funds (ERDF); the Royal Society; the Scottish Funding Council; the Scottish Universities Physics Alliance; the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA); the French Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO); the Belgian Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (FRS-FNRS), Actions de Recherche Concertées (ARC) and Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek-Vlaanderen (FWO), Belgium; the Paris Ile-de-France Region; the National Research, Development and Innovation Office of Hungary (NKFIH); the National Research Foundation of Korea; the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC); the Canadian Foundation for Innovation (CFI); the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovations; the International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR); the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong; the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC); the Israel Science Foundation (ISF); the US-Israel Binational Science Fund (BSF); the Leverhulme Trust; the Research Corporation; the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), Taiwan; the United States Department of Energy; and the Kavli Foundation. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the NSF, STFC, INFN, and CNRS for provision of computational resources.

This work was supported by MEXT; the JSPS Leading-edge Research Infrastructure Program, JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Specially Promoted Research 26000005, JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas 2402: 24103006, 24103005, and 2905: JP17H06358, JP17H06361, and JP17H06364, JSPS Core-to-Core Program A. Advanced Research Networks, JSPS Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (S) 17H06133 and 20H05639, JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas (A) 20A203: JP20H05854; the joint research program of the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, University of Tokyo; the National Research Foundation (NRF); the Computing Infrastructure Project of the Global Science experimental Data hub Center (GSDC) at KISTI; the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI); the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT) in Korea; Academia Sinica (AS), the AS Grid Center (ASGC), and the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) in Taiwan under grants including the Science Vanguard Research Program; the Advanced Technology Center (ATC) of NAOJ; and the Mechanical Engineering Center of KEK.

Additional acknowledgments for support of individual authors may be found in the following document: https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-M2300033/public. For the purpose of open access, the authors have applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising. We request that citations to this article use "A. G. Abac et al. (LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Collaboration), ..." or similar phrasing, depending on journal convention.

**Facilities:** EGO:Virgo, GEO600, Kamioka:KAGRA, LIGO.

**Software:** Plots were prepared with MATPLOTLIB (J. D. Hunter 2007) and SEABORN (M. Waskom 2021). ASTROPY (A. M. Price-Whelan et al. 2022), GWPY (D. M. Macleod et al. 2021), LALSUITE (LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Collaboration 2018; K. Wette 2020), NUMPY (C. R. Harris et al. 2020), and SCIPY (P. Virtanen et al. 2020).
were used for data processing in generating the figures and quantities in the manuscript.

## Data availability

Event data used within this work are openly available in the GWTC-4.0 online catalog, which is hosted at https://gwosc.org/GWTC-4.0 and documented further in A. G. Abac et al. (2025i). Data behind Figures 1, 2, and 3 can be found in LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Collaboration (2025).

# Appendix A
## Acronyms and Glossary

This is a reference of frequently used terms and acronyms.

**A+:** Advanced+ LIGO refers to a configuration of LIGO following a series of upgrades, some in advance of O4 (such as the addition of a new 300 m filter cavity for frequency-dependent vacuum squeezing), and some planned in advance of O5, such as installation of new optics with lower noise and loss (B. P. Abbott et al. 2020a; S. J. Cooper et al. 2023).

**A‡:** LIGO A‡ (A-sharp) is a proposed upgrade of the Advanced+ LIGO interferometers anticipated on a post-O5 timeline. The baseline A‡ design is a room-temperature 1 µm laser wavelength interferometer upgrade with larger test masses having coatings with lower thermal noise, higher laser power, and increased levels of vacuum squeezing (P. Fritschel et al. 2024).

**AdV:** Advanced Virgo refers to an upgraded Virgo detector (F. Acernese et al. 2015) with an advanced interferometer. Virgo operated with the AdV configuration during O2 and O3.

**AdV+:** Advanced Virgo+ is an upgrade to the AdV detector to take place in two phases: the first phase for operation during O4, and the second phase for operation during O5.

**aLIGO:** Advanced LIGO refers to an upgraded LIGO configuration with advanced interferometers installed at both LHO and LLO. LIGO operated with the aLIGO configuration during O1, O2, O3, and O4 (J. Aasi et al. 2015a).

**BBH:** Binary black hole. A binary system where both components are BHs.

**BH:** Black hole.

**BHNS:** Black hole-neutron star specifically refers to systems in which the BH formed before the NS. See also NSBH.

**bKAGRA:** Baseline-design KAGRA is a configuration of the KAGRA detector as a cryogenic dual-recycled Fabry-Perot Michelson interferometer. bKAGRA phase-1 operation without power- or signal recycling took place from 2018 April 28 to 2018 May 6 2018 (T. Akutsu et al. 2019).

**BNS:** Binary neutron star. A binary system where both components are NSs.

**CBC:** Compact binary coalescence. The gravitational-radiation-driven orbital decay resulting in merger of a binary system made of two compact objects (NSs or BHs).

**CI:** Credible interval. See CL.

**CL:** Credible level. Given an $n=1$ univariate or $n$-dimensional multivariate random variable $x$ having probability density function (pdf) $p(x)$ and an $n$-dimensional region $R_\alpha^n$, then the CL $\alpha$ of the region $R_\alpha^n$ is the probability of $x$ lying in $R_\alpha^n$, $\alpha = P(x \in R_\alpha^n) = \int_{R_\alpha^n} p(x) d^n x$. The region $R_\alpha^n$ is then known as a $100\alpha\%$ CL *credible region*, with special cases: *credible interval* (CI) if $n=1$, *credible area* if $n=2$, or *credible volume* if $n=3$. When $n > 1$, we normally take $R_\alpha^n$ to be the region having the smallest volume that has CL $\alpha$ (the *highest-density region*). When $n=1$ (CI), $R_\alpha^1$ is normally chosen to be an *equal-tailed interval* (also known as a symmetric interval), from the $\alpha/2$ quantile to the $1 - \alpha/2$ quantile, but sometimes the smallest *highest-density interval* is used instead.

**EOS:** Equation of state of an NS. For cold NSs (having temperature below the Fermi temperature), the EOS is of a barotropic fluid, a relationship between the energy density of the fluid and its pressure.

**FAR:** False-alarm rate. Often used as a detection threshold, the probability of any one or more of a sequence of statistical tests performed over a duration $T$ erroneously rejecting a null hypothesis is $1 - \exp(-T \times \text{FAR})$. FAR therefore has dimensions of time$^{-1}$. When interpreted as a measure of a detection significance of a candidate detection, this is the rate at which noise alone would produce more significant candidates.

**GEO:** The GEO600 GW detector is a British-German ⊥-shaped interferometric GW detector with 600 m arms located near Hannover, Germany (B. Willke et al. 2002).

**GR:** General relativity. Einstein's theory of gravitation.

**GW:** Gravitational wave. See Sections 1 and 5.1.

**GWOSC:** The Gravitational Wave Open Science Center (formerly known as the LIGO open science center) was created to provide public access to GW data products (R. Abbott et al. 2021d). The GWOSC online data and resources can be found at https://gwosc.org.

**GWTC:** The Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog is the electronic catalog of GW transients observed by LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA detectors produced by the LVK.

**IFAR:** Inverse false-alarm rate. The reciprocal of FAR, $\text{IFAR} = (\text{FAR})^{-1}$, having dimensions of time. A larger IFAR implies a more significant candidate, while a larger FAR implies a less significant candidate.

**IFO:** Interferometer, a type of detector that uses laser interferometry to measure changes in the lengths of optical paths induced by GWs.

**IGWN:** The International GW Observatory Network is a self-governing consortium using ground-based GW interferometers to explore the fundamental physics of gravity and to observe the Universe. The observatory network includes the KAGRA, LHO, LLO, and Virgo detectors. In addition, the GEO detector serves as a technology test bed and operates in an *astrowatch* mode outside of other detectors' observing periods.
iKAGRA: Initial-phase KAGRA is a configuration of the KAGRA detector as a simple Michelson interferometer that consists of two end test masses and a beam splitter. iKAGRA was operated from 2016 March 25 to 2016 March 31 and from 2016 April 11 to 2016 April 25 (T. Akutsu et al. 2018).

IMBH: Intermediate-mass black hole. A BH in the mass range ~$10^2 M_{\odot}$ to ~$10^5 M_{\odot}$.

KAGRA: KAGRA is a Japanese L-shaped interferometric GW detector with 3 km arms located underground at the Kamioka Observatory in Japan (T. Akutsu et al. 2021).

KAGRA Collaboration: The KAGRA Collaboration manages the building, operation, and development of the KAGRA detector.

LHO: The LIGO Hanford Observatory, one of the two LIGO observatories, located in Hanford, Washington, is an L-shaped interferometric GW detector with 4 km arms.

LIGO: The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory consists of two widely spaced installations within the United States: one in Hanford, Washington (LHO), and the other in Livingston, Louisiana (LLO). LIGO is operated by the LIGO Laboratory, a consortium of the California Institute of Technology and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology funded by the US National Science Foundation.

LLO: The LIGO Livingston Observatory, one of the two LIGO observatories, located in Livingston, Louisiana, is an L-shaped interferometric GW detector with 4 km arms.

LSC: The LIGO Scientific Collaboration, founded in 1997, is a group of more than 1000 scientists that carries out science related to the LIGO detectors and their observations.

LV: The LIGO-Virgo Collaboration. Prior to O3b, all observational results were published by the LV.

LVC: The LIGO-Virgo Collaboration. The acronym LV is now preferred.

LVK: The LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Collaboration.

NS: Neutron star.

NSBH: The general term for a neutron star–black hole binary: a binary system in which one component is an NS and the other is a BH. If used in distinction with BHNS, it refers to such systems in which the NS formed before the BH.

NR: Numerical relativity, the use of numerical methods to solve relativistic field equations.

O1: The first observing run began on 2015 September 12 and ended on 2016 January 19. The LHO and LLO detectors participated in this observing run.

O2: The second observing run began on 2016 November 30 and ended on 2016 August 25, during which the LHO and the LLO detectors were operating. On 2017 August 1, the AdV detector joined the observing run, forming a three-detector network.

O3: The third observing run began on 2019 April 1 and ended on 2020 March 27, during which the LHO, LLO, and Virgo detectors were operating. A commissioning break from 2019 October 1 to 2019 November 1 divided O3 into two parts, O3a and O3b. A subsequent short run, O3GK, from 2020 April 7 to 2020 April 21 with GEO and KAGRA observing, followed O3b.

O3a: The first, pre-commissioning break part of O3, from 2019 April 1 to October 1, during which the LHO, LLO, and Virgo detectors were operating.

O3b: The second, post-commissioning break part of O3, from 2019 November 1 to 2020 March 27, during which the LHO, LLO, and Virgo detectors were operating. O3b was planned to continue until 2020 April 30 but ended early owing to the COVID-19 pandemic.

O3GK: A short observing run after O3b from 2020 April 7 to 2020 April 21, during which the KAGRA and GEO detectors were observing. KAGRA had intended to join LIGO and Virgo at the end of O3, but the early end of O3b made this impossible.

O4: The fourth observing run began on 2023 May 24 and is planned to continue into late 2025. It is divided into parts, the first of which, O4a, covered the period from 2023 May 24 until a commissioning break from 2024 January 16 to 2024 April 10. During O4a, LHO and LLO were observing. Following the break, observing continued in O4b from 2024 April 10 until an original intended end date of 2025 January 23, with LHO, LLO, and Virgo observing. It was decided to continue O4 observing in a third period O4c, beginning 2025 January 23 and lasting until 2025 November 18.

O4a: The first part of the fourth observing run including data from 2023 May 24 until a commissioning break that began on 2024 January 16. During O4a, LHO and LLO were observing.

O4b: The second part of the fourth observing run starting at the end of a commissioning break on 2024 April 10 and ending on the originally planned O4 end date of 2025 January 23. During O4b, LHO, LLO, and Virgo were observing. It was decided to continue O4 observations with a third part, O4c, immediately following the end of O4b on 2025 January 23.

O4c: The third part of the fourth observing run, extending the run beyond its intended end date of 2025 January 23 through 2025 November 18. A commissioning break in O4c took place between 2025 April 1 and 2025 June 11.

O5: The fifth observing run is the planned future observing run to follow O4.

pdf: Probability density function. Given an $n = 1$ univariate or $n$-dimensional multivariate random variable $x$, the probability of $x$ lying in an $n$-dimensional region $R^n$ is $P(x \in R^n) = \int_{R^n} p(x) d^n x$, where $p(x)$ is the pdf.

PE: Parameter estimation, the process of measuring the parameters that describe the source of a signal, e.g., the masses and spins of the binary components of a CBC, from the observational data.

PN: Post-Newtonian, a perturbative method of obtaining solutions to relativistic field equations based on slow-motion and weak-field expansion of the spacetime metric and the stress–energy source.

PSD: Power spectral density. See Appendix B.

SNR: Signal-to-noise ratio. See Appendix B.

Virgo: The Virgo detector is a European L-shaped interferometric GW detector with 3 km arms located near Cascina, Italy (near Pisa).

VirgoNEXT: Virgo_nEXT is a planned, post-O5, major upgrade of Virgo to fill the gap between the current phase, AdV+, and next-generation detectors.
Virgo Collaboration: The Virgo Collaboration manages the building, operation, and development of the Virgo detector.

## Appendix B
Conventions for Data Analysis

This appendix serves to define the data analysis conventions that will be used throughout the GWTC-4.0 companion Letters. For a general introduction to data analysis we refer the reader to B. P. Abbott et al. (2020c) and references therein.

Time series $a(t)$ and frequency series $\tilde{a}(t)$ are related to each other by our conventions for the Fourier transform

$$ \tilde{a}(f) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} a(t) \exp(-2\pi i f t) dt \quad (23) $$

and its inverse transform

$$ a(t) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \tilde{a}(f) \exp(+2\pi i f t) df. \quad (24) $$

With these conventions, the dimensions of $\tilde{a}$ are $[\tilde{a}] = [a] \times \text{time}$.

Detector noise is often taken to be a stochastic Gaussian process. If $n(t)$ is a real-valued stochastic Gaussian process, then the one-sided PSD $S_n(f)$ is formally defined by

$$ \langle \tilde{n}^*(f') \tilde{n}(f) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} S_n(f) \delta(f - f'), \quad (25) $$

where $\langle \cdot \cdot \rangle$ is a statistical ensemble average of realizations of $n(t)$ and $\tilde{n}^*$ is the complex conjugate of $\tilde{n}$. The one-sided PSD is defined only for $f \ge 0$. With these conventions, the dimensions of $S_n$ are $[S_n] = [n]^2 \times \text{time}$. Real detector noise is neither entirely stationary nor Gaussian (B. P. Abbott et al. 2020c). However, it is often sufficient to assume that $n(t)$ is ergodic such that

$$ S_n(f) = \lim_{T \to \infty} \frac{2}{T} \left| \int_{-T/2}^{T/2} n(t) \exp(-2\pi i f t) dt \right|^2. \quad (26) $$

The factor of two in the one-sided PSD ensures that the integrated power is

$$ \int_{0}^{\infty} S_n(f) df = \lim_{T \to \infty} \frac{1}{T} \int_{-T/2}^{T/2} n^2(t) dt. \quad (27) $$

The amplitude spectral density is defined to be the square root of the PSD, $S_n^{1/2}(f)$.

We often use a detector-noise-weighted inner product between two real-valued time series, $a(t)$ and $b(t)$, which is defined as

$$ \langle a|b \rangle = 4 \operatorname{Re} \int_{0}^{+\infty} \frac{\tilde{a}^*(f) \tilde{b}(f)}{S_n(f)} df \quad (28a) $$

$$ = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \frac{\tilde{a}^*(f) \tilde{b}(f)}{(1/2)S_n(|f|)} df, \quad (28b) $$

where $S_n(f)$ is the detector's one-sided PSD for the readout noise from that detector. The second form, Equation (28b), is an appropriate generalization of the inner product for complex-valued time series.

Since GW detectors are insensitive at very low frequencies, the mean of the detector readout is arbitrary, and so we take the detector noise to have zero mean, $\langle n(t) \rangle = 0$. Gaussian noise is then entirely characterized by its PSD, and its

distribution is given by the probability density

$$ p(n) = \frac{1}{W} \exp\left(-\frac{1}{2} \langle n|n \rangle\right), \quad (29) $$

where $W$ is a usually neglected normalizing constant, the path integral $W = \int \exp(-\langle n|n \rangle/2) Dn$.

Consider a template waveform $u(t)$ that is unit normalized, $\langle u|u \rangle = 1$, which is expected to match a hypothetical signal in detector data $d(t)$. The matched filter SNR is

$$ \rho_{\text{mf}} = \langle u|d \rangle. \quad (30) $$

If data $d(t) = n(t) + h(t)$ contain Gaussian noise $n(t)$ plus a signal $h(t)$ that is perfectly matched by the template waveform, $h(t) \propto u(t)$, then $\rho_{\text{mf}}$ is a random variable having a normal distribution with unit variance and mean equal to the optimal SNR

$$ \rho_{\text{opt}} = \sqrt{\langle h|h \rangle}. \quad (31) $$

The likelihood that detector data $d(t)$ contains a signal $h(t)$ is given by Equation (29) with $n(t) = d(t) - h(t)$,

$$ p(d|h) = \frac{1}{W} \exp\left(-\frac{1}{2} \langle d - h | d - h \rangle\right) \quad (32a) $$

$$ = \frac{\exp(-\langle d|d \rangle/2)}{W} \exp\left(\langle h|d \rangle - \frac{1}{2}\langle h|h \rangle\right) \quad (32b) $$

$$ = p(d|\emptyset) \exp\left(\rho_{\text{mf}}\rho_{\text{opt}} - \frac{1}{2}\rho_{\text{opt}}^2\right), \quad (32c) $$

where $\rho_{\text{mf}}$ is the matched filter SNR with unit-normalized template $u(t) \propto h(t)$ and $p(d|\emptyset) = W^{-1} \exp(-\langle d|d \rangle/2)$ is the likelihood under the no-signal hypothesis, $d(t) = n(t)$. The likelihood is viewed as a functional of $h(t)$ for a given realization of detector data $d(t)$. The second factor in Equation (32c) is the signal-to-noise likelihood ratio $p(d|h)/p(d|\emptyset)$. Note that the likelihood ratio is a monotonically increasing function of the matched filter SNR, and so $\rho_{\text{mf}}$ is the uniformly most powerful test for a known signal in Gaussian detector noise (J. Neyman & E. S. Pearson 1933). If the amplitude of the signal is unknown, $h(t) = \rho_{\text{opt}}u(t)$ with unknown $\rho_{\text{opt}}$, then the likelihood is maximized for $\rho_{\text{opt}} = \rho_{\text{mf}}$ and

$$ \max_{\rho_{\text{opt}}} p(d|\rho_{\text{opt}}u) = p(d|\emptyset) \exp\left(\frac{1}{2}\rho_{\text{mf}}^2\right). \quad (33) $$

For the Newtonian inspiral of Section 5.2.1, the signal observed in a detector can be obtained in the frequency domain under the stationary phase approximation as (B. S. Sathyaprakash & S. V. Dhurandhar 1991; C. Cutler et al. 1993)

$$ \tilde{h}(f) = -\sqrt{\frac{5\pi}{24} \frac{GM}{c^3} \frac{GM}{c^2 D_{\text{eff}}} \times \left(\frac{\pi GMf}{c^3}\right)^{-7/6}} \exp(-i\Psi(f)), \quad (34) $$

where $\Psi(f)$ is the stationary phase function and

$$ D_{\text{eff}} = r \left[ F_{+}^2(\vartheta, \varphi, \psi) \left(\frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \cos^2 \iota\right)^2 + F_{\times}^2(\vartheta, \varphi, \psi) \cos^2 \iota \right]^{-1/2} \quad (35) $$
is the effective distance (B. Allen et al. 2012), which is related to the distance to the binary *r* by a factor that accounts for the orientation angles that describe the position of the source on the sky (ϑ, φ), its inclination ι, and polarization angle ψ. Since $F_+^2 + F_-^2 \le 1$ (with equality for a source on the zenith or nadir of an L-shaped interferometric detector), $D_{\text{eff}} \gg r$ (with equality only if ι = 0 or ι = π). The optimal SNR for such a signal is

$$ \rho_{\text{opt}} = \sqrt{\frac{5}{6\pi} \frac{GM}{c^2 D_{\text{eff}}} \left(\frac{\pi GM}{c^3}\right)^{-1/6}} \times \sqrt{\int_{0}^{+\infty} \frac{f^{-7/3}}{S_n(f)} df.} \quad (36) $$

The horizon distance $D_{\text{hor}}$ (B. Allen et al. 2012) of a source is the effective distance of a signal from such a source that has SNR $\rho_{\text{opt}}$ equal to some detection threshold $\rho_{\text{th}}$. Such sources would not be expected to be detected beyond the horizon distance, but not all nearer sources will be detected either. The sensitive volume (L. S. Finn & D. F. Chernoff 1993; H.-Y. Chen et al. 2021) is a measure of the effective volume of space in which randomly isotropically oriented and homogeneously distributed identical sources will produce signals in the detector with SNR $\rho_{\text{opt}}$ greater than the threshold $\rho_{\text{th}}$,

$$ V = \frac{\int_{\rho_{\text{opt}} > \rho_{\text{th}}} r^2 \sin \vartheta \sin \iota dr d\vartheta d\varphi d\psi}{\int \sin \iota d\psi} \quad (37a) $$

$$ = 0.086084 \times \frac{4}{3} D_{\text{hor}}^3. \quad (37b) $$

If the merger rate density is $\mathcal{R}$, then the expected number of detections in time $T$ is $\mathcal{R}VT$. For a standard measure of detector sensitivity, a binary source of two $1.4 M_{\odot}$ objects ($M = 2^{-1/5} \times 1.4 M_{\odot} \approx 1.22 M_{\odot}$) is considered and a threshold SNR of $\rho_{\text{th}} = 8$ is adopted (H.-Y. Chen et al. 2021). The sensitive volume is converted into an equivalent spherical radius as $V = (4\pi/3)R^3$ to obtain the BNS range $R = D_{\text{hor}}/2.26478$, Equation (1).

## ORCID iDs

A. G. Abac https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4786-2698

K. Ackley https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8648-0767

S. Adhicary https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2101-5428

N. Adhikari https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4559-8427

R. X. Adhikari https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5731-5076

S. Afroz https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4459-2981

D. Agarwal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8735-5554

M. Agathos https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9072-1121

M. Aghaei Abchouyeh https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1518-1946

O. D. Aguiar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2139-4390

L. Aiello https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2771-8816

A. Ain https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4534-4619

P. Ajith https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7519-2439

S. Akcay https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2216-421X

T. Akutsu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0733-7530

S. Albanesi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7345-4415

R. A. Alfaidi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6108-4979

A. Al-Jodah https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4536-1240

A. Allocca https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5288-1351

P. A. Altin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8193-5825

S. Alvarez-Lopez https://orcid.org/0009-0003-8040-4936

A. Amato https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9557-651X

S. B. Anderson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2219-9383

W. G. Anderson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0482-5942

M. Andia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3675-9126

M. Andrés-Carcasona https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8738-1672

T. Andrić https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9277-9773

S. Ansoldi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5613-7693

J. M. Antelis https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3377-0813

S. Antier https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7686-3334

S. K. Apple https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4490-5804

K. Arai https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8916-8915

A. Araya https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6884-2875

M. C. Araya https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6018-6447

J. S. Areeda https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0266-7936

F. Armato https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8856-8877

S. Armstrong https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4285-2360

N. Arnaud https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6589-8673

M. Arogeti https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5124-3350

S. M. Aronson https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7080-8177

G. Ashton https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7288-2231

Y. Aso https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1902-6695

P. Astone https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4981-4120

F. Attadio https://orcid.org/0009-0008-8916-1658

F. Aubin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1613-3142

K. AultONeal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6645-4473

G. Avallone https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5482-0299

S. Babak https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7469-4250

F. Badaracco https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8553-7904

S. Bae https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2429-3357

S. Bagnasco https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6062-6505

L. Baiotti https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0458-4288

R. Bajpai https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0495-5720

T. Baker https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5470-7616

S. Banagiri https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7852-7484

B. Banerjee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8008-2485

D. Bankar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6068-2993

P. Baral https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6308-211X

P. Barneo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8883-7280

F. Barone https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8069-8490

B. Barr https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5232-2736

L. Barsotti https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9819-2562

M. Barsuglia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1180-4050

D. Barta https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6841-550X

M. A. Barton https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9948-306X

S. Basak https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1824-3292

A. Basalaev https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5623-2853

R. Bassiri https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8171-6833

A. Basti https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2895-9638

M. Bawaj https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3611-3042

J. C. Bayley https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2306-4106

A. C. Baylor https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0918-0864

F. Beirnaert https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4003-7233

M. Bejger https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4991-8213

D. Belardinelli https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9332-5733

A. S. Bell https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1523-0821

L. Bellizzi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2071-0400

W. Benoit https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4750-9413

I. Bentara https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5074-839X

J. D. Bentley https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4736-7403
S. Bera https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0907-6098

F. Bergamin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1113-9644

B. K. Berger https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4845-8737

S. Bernuzzi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2334-0935

M. Beroiz https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6486-9897

C. P. L. Berry https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3870-7215

D. Bersanetti https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7377-415X

J. Betzwieser https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1533-9229

D. Beveridge https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1481-1993

G. Bevilacqua https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7298-6185

N. Bevins https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4312-4287

S. A. Bhat https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6783-1840

D. Bhattacharjee https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6623-9506

S. Bhaumik https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8492-2202

V. Biancalana https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1642-5391

G. Billingsley https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4141-2744

A. Binetti https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6449-5493

S. Bini https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0267-3562

O. Birnholtz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7562-9263

S. Biscoveanu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7616-7366

M. Bitossi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9862-4668

M.-A. Bizouard https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4618-1674

J. K. Blackburn https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3838-2986

N. Bode https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7101-9396

M. Boileau https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3576-6968

M. Boldrini https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9861-821X

G. N. Bolingbroke https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7350-5291

L. D. Bonavena https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2630-6724

R. Bondarescu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0330-2736

F. Bondu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6487-5197

E. Bonilla https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6284-9769

M. S. Bonilla https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4502-528X

R. Bonnand https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5013-5913

V. Boschi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8665-2293

P. R. Brady https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4611-9387

M. Branchesi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-0526

T. Briant https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6013-1729

E. Brockmueller https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1489-942X

A. F. Brooks https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4295-792X

M. L. Brozzetti https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5260-4979

R. Bruntz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0840-8567

F. Bucci https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1726-3838

O. Bulashenko https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1720-4061

A. Buonanno https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5433-1409

R. Buscicchio https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7387-6754

C. Buy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2872-8186

G. S. Cabourn Davies https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4289-3439

G. Cabras https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6852-6856

R. Cabrita https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0133-1306

V. Cáceres-Barbosa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9834-4781

L. Cadonati https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9846-166X

G. Cagnoli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7086-6550

C. Cahillane https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3888-314X

G. Caneva Santoro https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2935-1600

K. C. Cannon https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4068-6572

E. Capocasa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3762-6958

E. Capote https://orcid.org/0009-0007-0246-713X

G. Capurri https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0889-1015

J. B. Carlin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5694-0809

M. Carpinelli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8205-930X

J. J. Carter https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8845-0900

G. Carullo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9090-1862

C. Casentini https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8100-0579

M. Cavaglià https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3835-6729

R. Cavalieri https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6064-0569

G. Cella https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0752-0338

P. Cerdá-Durán https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4293-340X

E. Cesarini https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9127-3167

P. Chakraborty https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0994-7394

S. Chalathadka Subrahmanya https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9207-4669

J. C. L. Chan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3377-4737

S. Chao https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3853-3593

P. Charlton https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4263-2706

E. Chassande-Mottin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3768-9908

C. Chatterjee https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8700-3455

Debarati Chatterjee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0995-2329

Deep Chatterjee https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0038-5468

S. Chaty https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5769-8601

K. Chatziioannou https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5833-413X

C. Cechchia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1241-0413

A. Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9174-7780

D. Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1433-0716

H. Y. Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5403-3762

Yitian Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8664-9702

P. Chessa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9092-3965

H. T. Cheung https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3905-0665

F. Chiadini https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9339-8622

A. Chincarini https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4094-9942

M. L. Chiofalo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6992-5963

A. Chiummo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2165-2967

M. S. Choudhary https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0949-7298

N. Christensen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6870-4202

S. S. Y. Chua https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8026-7597

G. Ciani https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4258-9338

P. Ciecielag https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5871-4730

M. Cieślar https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8912-5587

M. Cifaldi https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1566-7093

R. Ciolfi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3140-8933

J. A. Clark https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3243-1393

T. A. Clarke https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6714-5429

E. Codazzo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7170-8733

P.-F. Cohadon https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3452-9415

S. Colace https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9429-1847

M. Colleoni https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7214-9088

S. Colloms https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9828-3646

A. Colombo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7439-4773

L. Conti https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2731-2656

T. R. Corbitt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5520-8541

I. Cordero-Carrión https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1985-1361

N. J. Cornish https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7435-0869

A. Corsi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8104-3536

S. Cortese https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6504-0973

M. W. Coughlin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8262-2924

P. Couvares https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2823-3127

R. Coyne https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-5917

J. D. E. Creighton https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3600-2406

P. Cremonese https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6472-8509

A. W. Criswell https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9225-7756

J. R. Cudell https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2003-4238

T. J. Cullen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8075-4088
A. Cumming https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4096-7542

E. Cuoco https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6528-3449

M. Cusinato https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4075-4539

T. Dal Canton https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5078-9044

S. Dall'Osso https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4366-8265

S. Dal Pra https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1057-2307

G. Dálya https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3258-5763

B. D'Angelo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9143-8427

S. Danilishin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7758-7493

S. D'Antonio https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0898-6030

S. Datta https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9200-8867

V. Dattilo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8816-8566

D. Davis https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5620-6751

M. C. Davis https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7663-0808

P. Davis https://orcid.org/0009-0004-5008-5660

M. Dax https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8798-0627

J. De Bolle https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5179-1725

J. Degallaix https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1019-6911

U. Deka https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5942-4487

M. De Laurentis https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3815-4078

S. Deléglise https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8680-5170

F. De Lillo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4977-0789

D. Dell'Aquila https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5895-0664

F. Della Valle https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4043-5178

W. Del Pozzo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3978-2030

F. De Marco https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5411-9424

F. De Matteis https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7860-9754

V. D'Emilio https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6145-8187

A. Depasse https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1014-8394

R. De Pietri https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1556-8304

R. De Rosa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4004-947X

C. De Rossi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5825-472X

R. DeSalvo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4818-0296

A. Dhani https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9930-9101

M. C. Díaz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7555-8856

M. Di Cesare https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0411-6043

T. Dietrich https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2374-307X

C. Di Fronzo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2693-6769

M. Di Giovanni https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4049-8336

T. Di Girolamo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2339-4471

A. Di Michele https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0357-2608

J. Ding https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1693-3828

S. Di Pace https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6759-5676

I. Di Palma https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1544-8943

F. Di Renzo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5447-3810
Divyajyoti https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2787-1012

A. Dmitriev https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0314-956X

Z. Doctor https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2077-4914

L. D'Onofrio https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9546-5959

K. L. Dooley https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1636-0233

S. Doravari https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8750-8330

M. Drago https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3738-2431

J. C. Driggers https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6134-7628

L. Dunn https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1769-6097

D. D'Urso https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8215-4542

H. Duval https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2475-1728

M. Ebersold https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4631-1771

T. Eckhardt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1224-4681

G. Eddolls https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5895-4523

B. Edelman https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7648-1689

O. Edy https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9617-8724

A. Effler https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8242-3944

J. Eichholz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2643-163X

A. Ejlli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4149-4532

M. Emma https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7943-0262

R. Enficiaud https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3908-1912

L. Errico https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2112-0653

R. C. Essick https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8196-9267

H. Estellés https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6143-5532

M. Evans https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8459-4499

J. M. Ezquiaga https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7213-3211

F. Fabrizi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3809-065X

V. Fafone https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1314-1622

S. Fairhurst https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8480-1961

A. M. Farah https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6121-0285

B. Farr https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2916-9200

W. M. Farr https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1540-8562

G. Favaro https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0351-6833

M. Favata https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8270-9512

M. Fays https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4390-9746

R. Felicetti https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6263-5604

E. Fenyvesi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2777-3719

D. L. Ferguson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4406-591X

T. Fernandes https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6820-2065

S. Ferraiuolo https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5582-2989

I. Ferrante https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0083-7228

F. Fidecaro https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6189-3311

P. Figura https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8925-0393

A. Fiori https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3174-0688

I. Fiori https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0210-516X

M. Fishbach https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1980-5293

V. Fiumara https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3644-217X

S. M. Fleischer https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7884-9993

J. A. Font https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6650-2634

B. Fornal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3271-2080

F. Frasconi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4204-6587

A. Frattale Mascioli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0155-3833

Z. Frei https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0181-8491

A. Freise https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6586-9901

O. Freitas https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2898-1256

R. Frey https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0341-2636

G. G. Fronzé https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0966-4279

M. Fuentes-García https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3390-8712

B. Gadre https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1534-9761

J. R. Gair https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1671-3668

S. Galaudage https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1819-0215

R. Gamba https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7239-0659

A. Gamboa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8391-5596

D. Ganapathy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3028-4174

A. Ganguly https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7394-0755

B. Garaventa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2490-404X

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L. Gergely https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3146-6201

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J. A. Giaime https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3531-817X

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H. L. Griggs https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5018-7908

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H. Grote https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0797-3943

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H. Heitmann https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0625-5461

A. Heffernan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3355-9671

F. Hellman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9135-6330

A. F. Helmling-Cornell https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7709-8638

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M. Hendry https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8322-5405

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M. Kalomenopoulos https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6677-949X
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N. Kanda https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6291-0227

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M. Kasprzack https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4618-5939

R. Kaushik https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4888-5154

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N. Kijbunchoo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2874-1228

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J. S. Kissel https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1702-9577

A. M. Knee https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0703-947X

N. Knust https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5984-5353

S. M. Koehlenbeck https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3842-9051

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K. Kokeyama https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2896-1992

P. Koley https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5793-6665

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K. Komori https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4092-9602

A. K. H. Kong https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5105-344X

A. Kontos https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1347-0680

M. Korobko https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3839-3909

A. Koushik https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7638-4544

N. Kouvatsos https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5497-3401

N. V. Krishnendu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3483-7517

A. Królak https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4514-7690

J. Kubisz https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7258-8673

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A. Kulur Ramamohan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3681-1887

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M. Lalleman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2254-010X

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R. Langgin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5116-6217

B. Lantz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7404-4845

A. La Rana https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8755-9322

I. L. Rosa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0107-1540

A. Lartaux-Vollard https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1714-365X

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J. Lawrence https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1222-0433

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C. Lazarte https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6964-9321

A. Lazzarini https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5993-8808

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R.-K. Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7171-7274

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M. Leonardi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7641-0060

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X. Li https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3780-7735

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G. Losurdo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0452-746X

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J. D. Lough https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5160-0239

C. O. Lousto https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6400-9640

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U. Mali https://orcid.org/0009-0003-1285-2788

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F. Marion https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8184-1017
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Z. Márka https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1306-5260

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F. Martelli https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3761-8616

I. W. Martin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7300-9151

R. M. Martin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9664-2216

V. Martinez https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5852-2301

J. C. Martins https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6099-4831

M. Masso-Reid https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6177-8105

S. Mastrogiovanni https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1606-4183

T. Matcovich https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1209-008X

M. Matiushechkina https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9957-8720

N. Mavalvala https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0219-9706

D. E. McClelland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6210-5842

L. McCuller https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0851-0593

G. I. McGhee https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5038-2658

J. McIver https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0316-1355

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I. Michaloliakos https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2980-358X

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Y. Michimura https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2218-4002

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M. Molina-Ruiz https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4892-3042

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C. M. Mow-Lowry https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0351-4555

F. Muciaccia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0850-2649

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A. Nishizawa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3562-0990

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J. Novak https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6029-4712

J. F. Nuño Siles https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8304-8066

L. K. Nuttall https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8599-8791

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M. Ohkawa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1380-1419

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R. Oliveri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7497-871X

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Y. Oshima https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1868-2842

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Yuhang Zhao https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2542-4734

Y. Zheng https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5432-1331

H. Zhong https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8324-5158

X.-J. Zhu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7049-6468

Z.-H. Zhu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3567-6743

A. B. Zimmerman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7453-6372

J. Zweizig https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1521-3397

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