to accurately constrain the presence of longer-period planetary
signals underneath the stellar RV noise.

# 6. Discussion and conclusions

The recent observational campaigns aimed at characteriz-
ing the planets around V1298 Tau (David et al. 2019a,b;
Suárez Mascareño et al. 2022; Feinstein et al. 2022; Damasso
et al. 2023) reveal that this young planetary system is highly
peculiar. Its current architecture is quite compact, yet its planets
do not appear to be globally locked in resonance Tejada Arevalo
et al. (2022), and their orbital characteristics argue for the system
having crossed phases of dynamical instability (Sect. 2.1).

The dynamical state of the system, however, is not the sole
peculiar aspect of V1298 Tau. The estimated masses of its two
outer giant planets are associated with anomalously high den-
sity values for such young planetary objects. The confirmation
of its currently assessed physical characteristics would make
V1298 Tau a unique natural laboratory to study the formation
and evolution of planetary systems as well as a compelling target
for future physical and atmospheric characterization campaigns.

Specifically, unless young giant planets contract faster than
previously thought (Suárez Mascareño et al. 2022), the current
densities of V1298 Tau b and e point to their formation tracks as
being shaped by large-scale migration and enrichment in heavy
elements (Thorngren et al. 2016; Shibata et al. 2020; Turrini
et al. 2021; Pacetti et al. 2022). Consequently, reconstructing the
formation history of V1298 Tau must account for both the high
enrichment of heavy elements in its outer two planets and the
non-resonant state of the compact dynamical configuration of
the system.

In this work, we outlined the possible sequence of events that
drove the system into its present configuration. Specifically, we
argued that the convergent, large-scale migration of V1298 Tau's
planets while embedded in their native circumstellar disk can
explain both the density values of the two outermost giant planets
and the formation of V1298 Tau's compact architecture by res-
onant trapping. The dynamically excited planetesimal disk left
behind by the migrating giant planets can then support the for-
mation of additional planets that can break the original resonant
chain.

## 6.1. Assembling the mosaic of V1298 Tau's formation history

The uncertainty affecting the mass and density estimates of V1298 Tau's planets make it difficult to precisely pinpoint their formation regions. Optimistic estimates require about 20 and 30 $M_\oplus$ of heavy elements for V1298 Tau b and e, respectively. Accounting for the lower density of the hot gas composing such young giant planets brings the masses of heavy elements to 90 and 110 $M_\oplus$, respectively, making these planets some of the most metallic gas giants currently known. Adopting the nominal mass of V1298 Tau e would result in a planet whose composition is two-thirds heavy elements, and therefore more similar to Neptune than Jupiter, notwithstanding its Jovian mass.

Explaining the nominal density of V1298 Tau e in the frame-
work of the migration and enrichment scenario would require
the planet to have undergone extreme migration within a mas-
sive circumstellar disk. The intense planetesimal flux hitting the
forming planet would likely hinder the onset of its runaway gas
accretion process. This would keep the planet in the form of
a massive core surrounded by an extended atmosphere (unless

the primordial atmosphere is collisionally stripped) until the
planetesimal flux drops and the gas accretion process can restart.

A similar scenario is discussed for Jupiter by Alibert et al. (2018), but the characteristics of V1298 Tau e would invoke a significantly more extreme version than its original formulation. This scenario would make V1298 Tau e the first example of a new class of outcomes of the planet formation process. Due to the large uncertainty on its mass, however, it is more plausible that the true density of V1298 Tau e is lower than its current nominal value. Alternatively, the high density can be explained by invoking the interplay between planetesimal accretion and the accretion of disk gas enriched in heavy elements (Booth & Ilee 2019; Cridland et al. 2019; Schneider & Bitsch 2021).

Notwithstanding these uncertainties, our results describe an
overall coherent picture. Our simulations of the accretion history
of V1298 Tau b and e show that to reproduce their enrichment
in heavy elements, particularly that of planet e, their native cir-
cumstellar disk was plausibly massive, at least as massive as 0.1
times the host star. While massive, such a disk should have been
compact, with radial extension not exceeding 50–100 au. This is
consistent with the lack of massive companions at large separa-
tions that we verified by combining SPHERE’s direct imaging
and Gaia’s astrometric data.

Both planets must have crossed significant fractions of this
disk to accrete enough heavy elements to fit the current data,
as when adopting even the lowest metallicity values, their for-
mation region lies beyond Jupiter's current orbit. In all of our
simulations, V1298 Tau e should have started its formation about
twice as far as V1298 Tau b to be able to encounter and accrete
enough planetesimals. Depending on their real density values
and the interplay between planetesimal and enriched-gas accre-
tion in delivering heavy elements, their migration could have
spanned from a few astronomical units to several tens of astro-
nomical units. This uncertainty showcases the limited diagnostic
power of planetary density and metallicity (see Turrini et al. 2022
for more discussion) but also makes these planets compelling tar-
gets for future atmospheric characterization, as we discuss below
(see Sect. 6.2).

Fitting V1298 Tau's current compact architecture with the
large-scale migration of its two outer planets requires that the
system formed by convergent migration and resonant trapping
(i.e., the planets were trapped in a sequence of mean motion
resonances while migrating inwards due to disk-planet interac-
tions). This is confirmed by our simulations showing how the
planets are captured in a Laplace resonance in the presence of
dissipative forces such as those caused by their interactions with
the native circumstellar disk. The resonance trapping mechanism
naturally explains why at present V1298 Tau's four planets are
very close to a resonant configuration. Moreover, their conver-
gent migration promotes the conditions for the late formation of
massive planets in their wake, an important piece to explain the
later evolution of the system.

Resonant capture can account for the high eccentricity of
the planets, which will be excited during the dissipative reso-
nant capture. However, since the present system is only close to
but not in a Laplace resonance (Tejada Arevalo et al. 2022) and
also in a dynamically excited state, some additional mechanism
is needed to break the resonance lock after its formation. Thanks
to its well-constrained young age, V1298 Tau is an almost unique
laboratory for exploring different resonance-breaking mecha-
nisms. Specifically, V1298 Tau's age allows for the exclusion of
both the mechanism proposed by Batygin & Morbidelli (2013)
and a possible role of planetary evaporation (see Goldberg et al.
2022).
Next, we explore the two remaining possibilities we identified: planetesimals scattering and planet-planet scattering. In the case of planetesimals scattering, we verified with N-body simulations that even massive planetesimal populations made by the combination of remnant and second-generation bodies cannot break the tight resonant lock. In the case of planet-planet scattering, we find that a planet with a mass ranging from 0.5 to 2 $M_1$ on highly eccentric orbits and with a semimajor axis between 4 and 8 au can break the resonance lock after a series of close encounters with the inner planets and leave the inner planetary system in a dynamical state like the one observed at present.

The planet-planet scattering mechanism requires that the multiplicity of V1298 Tau's planetary system is or was higher than that suggested by its currently discovered four planets. The massive planets required by this mechanism are below the detection thresholds of the current SPHERE and Gaia observations, meaning that the eccentric planets responsible for breaking the resonant lock could still be orbiting V1298 Tau. As we showed, the possibility that one or more additional planets formed in V1298 Tau's circumstellar disk is supported by the formation scenario we proposed to explain the architecture and density values of V1298 Tau's four inner planets.

In other words, the very same conditions required to produce the densities of planets b and e as well as the compact architecture of V1298 Tau by means of a resonance lock plant the seed for destroying the said lock. Additional observations are needed to conclusively characterize the dynamical state of V1298 Tau's four planets, identify the possible presence of the outer planet(s), and verify whether they could have been responsible for breaking the original resonance lock of the inner four planets.

## 6.2. Implications for the atmospheric compositions of V1298 Tau b and e

As introduced above, the unusual formation history of V1298 Tau makes this young system a compelling target for future observational studies of atmospheric composition, notwithstanding the challenges posed by the activity of its host star. While the uncertainty of the mass and density values of V1298 Tau b and e hinder any attempt to pinpoint their original formation region through metallicity alone, the different densities of the two planets provide a basis to argue that their atmospheric compositions should be markedly different.

As an example, for the disk thermal profile we adopted in our simulations, the snowlines of H₂O, CO₂, and CO would be located at about 2, 6, and 23 au, respectively, while those of NH₃ and N₂ would fall at about 4 and 30 au (e.g., Eistrup et al. 2016; Öberg & Wordsworth 2019). Most refractory elements would be in solid form already within 1 au (e.g., Lodders 2003; Fogley & Schaefer 2010). The atmospheric composition of V1298 Tau b and e would therefore be characterized by radically different elemental abundances, depending on their actual formation tracks (e.g., Turrini et al. 2021; Pacetti et al. 2022; Fonte et al. 2023).

Specifically, the lowest metallicity scenario we considered would place the formation of both planets inside the CO snowline. The presence of massive cores inside both planets or, alternatively, lower masses and densities than their current modal values would reduce the planetesimal mass to be accreted and would shift their formation regions closer or inside the H₂O, NH₃, and CO₂ snowlines. Adopting more realistic gas densities for such hot and young objects would place the formation region of both planets beyond the CO snowline, with V1298 Tau e

plausibly having formed beyond the N₂ snowline. The nominal metallicity scenario for V1298 Tau e, which is also its highest metallicity scenario, firmly puts the formation region of the planet beyond the N₂ snowline. These different formation regions would be reflected by different patterns in the abundance ratios between C, O, and N (see Turrini et al. 2021, 2022; Pacetti et al. 2022 and Biazzo et al. 2022; Kolecki & Wang 2022 for observational validations).

Finally, the highest metallicity scenario for V1298 Tau e requires an extreme planetesimal accretion history, unless the giant planet accreted gas enriched in heavy elements from the disk (Booth & Ilee 2019; Cridland et al. 2019; Schneider & Bitsch 2021). Such a process results in a lower refractory-to-volatile ratio and a different C/O ratio than those resulting from the sole accretion of planetesimals (Turrini et al. 2021; Schneider & Bitsch 2021; Pacetti et al. 2022). Constraining the abundance of one or more refractory elements in V1298 Tau e's atmosphere would allow these two sources of heavy elements to be distinguished (Turrini et al. 2021; Pacetti et al. 2022) as well as possible biases affecting the C/O ratio due to the depletion of atmospheric oxygen by refractory species to be identified (Fonte et al. 2023).

*Acknowledgements.* This work has made use of the SPHERE Data Centre, jointly operated by OSUG/IPAG (Grenoble), PYTHEAS/LAM/CeSAM (Marseille), OCA/Lagrange (Nice), Observatoire de Paris/LESIA (Paris), and Observatoire de Lyon/CRAL, and supported by a grant from Labex OSUG2020 (Investissements d'avenir - ANR10 LABX56). This work has also made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia (https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia), processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC, https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/dpac/consortium). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. The authors acknowledge the support of the National Institute of Astrophysics (INAF) through the PRIN-INAF 2019 projects "Planetary systems at young ages (PLATEA)" and "The HOT-ATMOS Project", as well as that of the Italian Space Agency (ASI) through the ASI-INAF contracts no. 2018-16-HH.0 and 2021-5-HH.0, and that of the European Research Council via the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme ERC Synergy "ECOGAL" Project GA-855130. This work is supported by the Fondazione ICSC, Spoke 3 "Astrophysics and Cosmo-Observations", National Recovery and Resilience Plan (Piano Nazionale di Ripresa e Resilienza, PNRR) Project ID CN_00000013 "Italian Research Center on High-Performance Computing, Big Data and Quantum Computing" funded by MUR Missione 4 Componente 2 Investimento 1.4: Potenziatamento strutture di ricerca e creazione di "campioni nazionali di R&S (M4C2-19)" - Next Generation EU (NGEU). D.T. acknowledges the support of the INAF Main Stream project "Ariel and the astrochemical link between circumstellar discs and planets" (CUP: C54119000700005). D.P. acknowledges the support from the Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e Geofisica Sperimentale (OGS) and CINECA through the program "HPC-TRES (High Performance Computing Training and Research for Earth Sciences)" award number 2022-05. A.S. acknowledges support from the Italian Space Agency (ASI) under contract 2018-24-HH.0 "The Italian participation to the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC)" in collaboration with the Italian National Institute of Astrophysics. A.S.M. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) under 2018 Juan de la Cierva program IJC2018-035229-1. A.S.M. and J.I.G.H. acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) project PID2020-117493GB-I00, and from the Government of the Canary Islands project ProID2020010129. V.B. and N.L. acknowledge support from the Agencia Estatal de Investigación del Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (AEI-MCINN) under grant PID2019-109522GB-C53. C.d.B. acknowledges support by Mexican CONAHCYT research grant FOP16-2021-01-320608. The computational resources for this work were supplied by the Genesis cluster at INAF-IAPS and the technical support of Romolo Politi, Scigè John Liu and Sergio Fonte is gratefully acknowledged.

## References

* Alibert, Y., Venturini, J., Helled, R., et al. 2018, Nat. Astron., 2, 873

* Allard, F., Guillot, T., Ludwig, H., et al. 2003, IAU Symp., 211, 325

* Andrews, S. M., & Williams, J. P. 2007, ApJ, 659, 705
Next, we explore the two remaining possibilities we iden-
tified: planetesimals scattering and planet-planet scattering. In
the case of planetesimals scattering, we verified with N-body
simulations that even massive planetesimal populations made by
the combination of remnant and second-generation bodies can-
not break the tight resonant lock. In the case of planet-planet
scattering, we find that a planet with a mass ranging from 0.5
to 2 M<sub>I</sub> on highly eccentric orbits and with a semimajor axis
between 4 and 8 au can break the resonance lock after a series
of close encounters with the inner planets and leave the inner
planetary system in a dynamical state like the one observed at
present.

The planet-planet scattering mechanism requires that the multiplicity of V1298 Tau's planetary system is or was higher than that suggested by its currently discovered four planets. The massive planets required by this mechanism are below the detection thresholds of the current SPHERE and Gaia observations, meaning that the eccentric planets responsible for breaking the resonant lock could still be orbiting V1298 Tau. As we showed, the possibility that one or more additional planets formed in V1298 Tau's circumstellar disk is supported by the formation scenario we proposed to explain the architecture and density values of V1298 Tau's four inner planets.

In other words, the very same conditions required to produce
the densities of planets b and e as well as the compact architec-
ture of V1298 Tau by means of a resonance lock plant the seed
for destroying the said lock. Additional observations are needed
to conclusively characterize the dynamical state of V1298 Tau's
four planets, identify the possible presence of the outer planet(s),
and verify whether they could have been responsible for breaking
the original resonance lock of the inner four planets.

## 6.2. Implications for the atmospheric compositions of V1298 Tau b and e

As introduced above, the unusual formation history of V1298 Tau makes this young system a compelling target for future observational studies of atmospheric composition, notwithstanding the challenges posed by the activity of its host star. While the uncertainty of the mass and density values of V1298 Tau b and e hinder any attempt to pinpoint their original formation region through metallicity alone, the different densities of the two planets provide a basis to argue that their atmospheric compositions should be markedly different.

As an example, for the disk thermal profile we adopted in
our simulations, the snowlines of H₂O, CO₂, and CO would be
located at about 2, 6, and 23 au, respectively, while those of NH₃
and N₂ would fall at about 4 and 30 au (e.g., Eistrup et al. 2016;
Öberg & Wordsworth 2019). Most refractory elements would be
in solid form already within 1 au (e.g., Lodders 2003; Fogley
& Schaefer 2010). The atmospheric composition of V1298 Tau b
and e would therefore be characterized by radically different ele-
mental abundances, depending on their actual formation tracks
(e.g., Turrini et al. 2021; Pacetti et al. 2022; Fonte et al. 2023).

Specifically, the lowest metallicity scenario we considered
would place the formation of both planets inside the CO snow-
line. The presence of massive cores inside both planets or,
alternatively, lower masses and densities than their current modal
values would reduce the planetesimal mass to be accreted and
would shift their formation regions closer or inside the H₂O,
NH₃, and CO₂ snowlines. Adopting more realistic gas densities
for such hot and young objects would place the formation region
of both planets beyond the CO snowline, with V1298 Tau e

plausibly having formed beyond the N₂ snowline. The nominal
metallicity scenario for V1298 Tau e, which is also its high-
est metallicity scenario, firmly puts the formation region of
the planet beyond the N₂ snowline. These different formation
regions would be reflected by different patterns in the abundance
ratios between C, O, and N (see Turrini et al. 2021, 2022; Pacetti
et al. 2022 and Biazzo et al. 2022; Kolecki & Wang 2022 for
observational validations).

Finally, the highest metallicity scenario for V1298 Tau e requires an extreme planetesimal accretion history, unless the giant planet accreted gas enriched in heavy elements from the disk (Booth & Ilee 2019; Cridland et al. 2019; Schneider & Bitsch 2021). Such a process results in a lower refractory-to-volatile ratio and a different C/O ratio than those resulting from the sole accretion of planetesimals (Turrini et al. 2021; Schneider & Bitsch 2021; Pacetti et al. 2022). Constraining the abundance of one or more refractory elements in V1298 Tau e's atmosphere would allow these two sources of heavy elements to be distinguished (Turrini et al. 2021; Pacetti et al. 2022) as well as possible biases affecting the C/O ratio due to the depletion of atmospheric oxygen by refractory species to be identified (Fonte et al. 2023).

Acknowledgements. This work has made use of the SPHERE Data Centre, jointly operated by OSUG/IPAG (Grenoble), PYTHEAS/LAM/CeSAM (Mar-seille), OCA/Lagrange (Nice), Observatoire de Paris/LESIA (Paris), and Observatoire de Lyon/CRAL, and supported by a grant from Labex OSUG2020 (Investissements d'avenir - ANR10 LABX56). This work has also made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia (https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia), processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC, https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/dpac/consortium). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. The authors acknowledge the support of the National Institute of Astrophysics (INAF) through the PRIN-INAF 2019 projects "Planetary systems at young ages (PLATEA)" and "The HOT-ATMOS Project", as well as that of the Italian Space Agency (ASI) through the ASI-INAF contracts no. 2018-16-HH.0 and 2021-5-HH.0, and that of the European Research Council via the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme ERC Synergy "ECOGAL" Project GA-855130. This work is supported by the Fondazione ICSC, Spoke 3 "Astrophysics and Cosmo-Observations", National Recovery and Resilience Plan (Piano Nazionale di Ripresa e Resilienza, PNRR) Project ID CN_00000013 "Italian Research Center on High-Performance Computing, Big Data and Quantum Computing" funded by MUR Missione 4 Componente 2 Investimento 1.4: Potenziamento strutture di ricerca e creazione di "campioni nazionali di R&S (M4C2-19)" - Next Generation EU (NGEU). D.T. acknowledges the support of the INAF Main Stream project "Ariel and the astrochemical link between circumstellar discs and planets" (CUP: C54119000700005). D.P. acknowledges the support from the Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e Geofisica Sperimentale (OGS) and CINECA through the program "HPC-TRES (High Performance Computing Training and Research for Earth Sciences)" award number 2022-05. A.S. acknowledges support from the Italian Space Agency (ASI) under contract 2018-24-HH.0 "The Italian participation to the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC)" in collaboration with the Italian National Institute of Astrophysics. A.S.M. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) under 2018 Juan de la Cierva program IJC2018-035229-1. A.S.M. and J.I.G.H. acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) project PID2020-117493GB-I00, and from the Government of the Canary Islands project ProID2020010129. V.B. and N.L. acknowledge support from the Agencia Estatal de Investigación del Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (AEI-MCINN) under grant PID2019-109522GB-C53. C.d.B. acknowledges support by Mexican CONAHCYT research grant FOP16-2021-01-320608. The computational resources for this work were supplied by the Genesis cluster at INAF-IAPS and the technical support of Romolo Politi, Scigè John Liu and Sergio Fonte is gratefully acknowledged.

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¹ INAF – Osservatorio Astrofísico di Torino, via Osservatorio 20, 10025, Pino Torinese, Italy
e-mail: diego.turrini@inaf.it

² ICSC – National Research Centre for High Performance Computing, Big Data and Quantum Computing, Via Magnanelli 2, 40033, Casalecchio di Reno, Italy

³ INAF – Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, via Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133, Roma, Italy

⁴ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia – Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35121 Padova, Italy

⁵ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Vicolo dell'Osservatorio 5, 35122, Padova, Italy

⁶ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143, Trieste, Italy

⁷ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo, Piazza del Parlamento, 1, 90134, Palermo, Italy

⁸ Space Science Data Center - ASI, Via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy

⁹ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, 38200 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

¹⁰ Universidad de La Laguna, Dept. Astrofísica, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

¹¹ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00040, Monte Porzio Catone, Italy

¹² School of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK

¹³ SUPA, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK

¹⁴ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via E. Bianchi 46, 23087, Merate, Italy

¹⁵ Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica, Luis Enrique Erro 1, Sta. Ma. Tonantzintla, Puebla, Mexico

¹⁶ Université Côte d'Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Nice, France

¹⁷ Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, 38000 Grenoble, France

¹⁸ Geneva Observatory, University of Geneva, Chemin Pegasi 51, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland

¹⁹ Department of Astronomy, Stockholm University, AlbaNova University Center, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden

²⁰ CRAL, UMR 5574, CNRS, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France

²¹ INAF – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Via Santa Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy

²² Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK

²³ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Via della Scienza 5, 09047 Selargius, Italy

²⁴ Department of Physics, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133, Roma, Italy

²⁵ Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Königstuhl 17, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany

²⁶ Aix-Marseille Univ., CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France
Yu, L., Donati, J. F., Hébrard, E. M., et al. 2017, MNRAS, 467, 1342

Zinzi, A., & Turrini, D. 2017, A&A, 605, L4

Zinzi, A., Turrini, D., Alei, E., & Verrecchia, F. 2021a, Mem. Soc. Astron. It., 92, 124

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Zurlo, A., Vigan, A., Mesa, D., et al. 2014, A&A, 572, A85

¹ INAF – Osservatorio Astrofísico di Torino, via Osservatorio 20, 10025, Pino Torinese, Italy
e-mail: diego.turrini@inaf.it

² ICSC – National Research Centre for High Performance Computing, Big Data and Quantum Computing, Via Magnanelli 2, 40033, Casalecchio di Reno, Italy

³ INAF – Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, via Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133, Roma, Italy

⁴ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia – Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35121 Padova, Italy

⁵ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Vicolo dell’Osservatorio 5, 35122, Padova, Italy

⁶ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143, Trieste, Italy

⁷ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo, Piazza del Parlamento, 1, 90134, Palermo, Italy

⁸ Space Science Data Center - ASI, Via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy

⁹ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, 38200 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

¹⁰ Universidad de La Laguna, Dept. Astrofísica, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

¹¹ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00040, Monte Porzio Catone, Italy

¹² School of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK

¹³ SUPA, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK

¹⁴ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via E. Bianchi 46, 23087, Merate, Italy

¹⁵ Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica, Luis Enrique Erro 1, Sta. Ma. Tonantzintla, Puebla, Mexico

¹⁶ Université Côte d'Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Nice, France

¹⁷ Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, 38000 Grenoble, France

¹⁸ Geneva Observatory, University of Geneva, Chemin Pegasi 51, 1290 Versoux, Switzerland

¹⁹ Department of Astronomy, Stockholm University, AlbaNova University Center, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden

²⁰ CRAL, UMR 5574, CNRS, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France

²¹ INAF – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Via Santa Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy

²² Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK

²³ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Via della Scienza 5, 09047 Selargius, Italy

²⁴ Department of Physics, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133, Roma, Italy

²⁵ Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Königstuhl 17, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany

²⁶ Aix-Marseille Univ., CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France