Index

Page numbers in italic refer to figures, maps, and tables. Italicized page numbers followed by an 'f' refer to figures. Thus 67f1.1 refers to figure 1.1 on page 67. Italicized page numbers followed by 'map' refer to maps; italicized page numbers followed by 't' refer to tables.

Agnew, John 69

Amdo 18map1

repression of rebellion in (1958) 30, 31, 94n27

resistance army organized in 94; see also Qinghai; Xining

— cultural sphere

revival of religion and traditional practices in 94-98

Kalacakra and Lamrim Chenmo teachings by the Fourteenth Dalai Lama in 325

writers and filmmakers of 101-102

Amdowa identity 128

and Lhasa and Central Tibet 87, 90-93

and the threat of Sinicization 98-99, 104-105

and vegetarianism 97, 292-293

Anderson, Benedict 55, 221

Andrutsang (A 'brug tshang) family and Khampa trading communities in Central Tibet 319

see also Andrutsang Gönpo Tashi

Andrutsang, Gönpo Tashi (also Gompo Tashi Andrugsang)

on C.C.P. implemented reforms in Gyelthang 430n38

and the 'Four Rivers, Six Ranges' (Chushi Gangdruk) resistance army 94, 324, 325n19, 328

and resistance to the Chinese control over the Tibetan plateau 325-326

Aris, Michael 86, 328

Assam

British authority in 202-203

British impact on the musk trade in 157

murder of British Capt. Noel Williamson 203

and Zhao Erfeng's settlements in Dzayül 199

Atup chief Wangga (Dbang dga'a) 385

Atup Lakartsang family (A thub l'a dkar tshang), and Jagö Topden 378n34

Atup Ripuk (A thub ri phug), and Jagö Topden's camp at 381n38

Ba Chöde monastery (T. 'Ba chos sde gling; Ch. Dingning si 丁宁寺)

and the Khampa Rebellions (1955) 431-432

and persecution of M.E.P. missionaries 170, 173

as a regional landowner 164, 192

Bailey, Lt.-Col. F. M. 202-203

Bapa Püntsok Wangyel ('Ba' pa Phun tshogs Dbang rgyal or Pünwang)

and the Eastern Tibetan People's Autonomous Alliance 30, 310, 417

and the idea of pan-Tibetan nationality 91

and Jagö Topden 384-385

Barom Kagyü ('Ba' rom bka' brgyud) school fragmentation of 463-464

monasteries see Kumbum

and Nangchen 461-462, 472

Barth, Fredrik 51

Bathang (T. 'Ba'thang; Ch. Batang 巴塘)

depas (governors) from the Tibetan government appointment by the Fifth Dalai Lama (1648) 163

Lhasa's sending of (1703) 22

and the persecution of M.E.P.'s 173

and the Qing's collapse (1912) 365n5

and Fengquan as Assistant Amban to Tibet 25-26, 192, 192nn10-11

Han settlements in 191-192

and Kelzang Tsering

and the emergent elite in Bathang 364, 364nn2-3

launching of 'Khampa rule of Kham' in 338-339n1, 415-416

location of 18map1, 43map1.1

in the early twentieth century 171f4.3

at the time of Jagö Topden 369map11.1

and the long-distance tea trade from Dartedo to Lhasa 155

M.E.P. outposts in 163-165, 164map4.1

as one of the four big indigenous chieftains (si da tusi) 52

Zhao Erfeng's campaign against 25

see also Ba Chöde monastery; Bapa Püntsok Wangyel

Baud, Michel, and Willem van Schendel 48-49

beyül (T. sbas yül, valleys hidden by Pad-masambhava) 97-98, 311

biopolitics

and Chinese mining operations 122, 127, 131, 237, 263, 271-272

and state control 147, 492

and the marginalization of pastoralism 148-149, 285-286
and state imposition of geometrical control
on Yachen Gar 507-512, 509f14.5

Bishop, Peter 67

Booz, Patrick 169, 263, 266, 271

borderlands

five-stage life-cycle of 48-49

and liminality 10-11, 59, 127

parallel and often overlapping authorities
in 153-154, 163, 308-309

and topographical boundaries 50-51

and Zomia 53-54, 70

see also centre and periphery relations;
frontiers; regions

— as a term

and elements of change 87, 105, 314

and Kham-as-a-process 53-54, 68,
492-493, 500

and the term "Sino-Tibetan border-
lands" 44, 116-117, 525

‘Tibetan-Yi corrido’ (Ch. Zang-Yi
zoulang) coined by Fei Xiaotong 62

and vernacular Tibetan
terminology 87-89

Borges, Jorge Luis 133-134, 135

Buddhism

and China's transition to a
nation-state 56n11

circumambulation of Mount Kawa-
karpo 98, 99f2.2

and Dorje Shugden see Dorje Shugden

and identity

and the image of Nangchen as region of
meditators (*retsang gomdé*) 472-
474, 477-478

and Indic cosmological constructs and
ideas of an ideal sovereign 459,
463, 469-471

and Milarepa 95

incorporation of territorial gods (yül
lha) 98

rituals – *kurim* (*sku rim*)
ceremony 475-477

schools of Tibetan Buddhism see Geluk;
Karma Kagyü; Nyingma; Sakya

see also monastic communities;
Padmasambhava; religion – revival of
religion and traditional practices

Bulag, Uradyn 425-426

Bumla (Ningjing *shan* 宗静山) stele marking
the border between China and Tibet
erection of (1727) 20, 23, 48, 181, 182map5.1
and the McMahon Line 205

bureaucratization (*gaitu guiliu*, 'substituting
chieftains with state-appointed civilian
officials')

implementation in Dergé 185, 367, 373

implementation in Gyelrong 20

implementation issues in Trokyap 348,
350-352

Lu Chuanlin's implementation of 146,
185-187

Qing policy established (1792) 23, 186-187

and schools in the Sichuan
borderlands 364n2

Zhao Erfeng's implementation of 199,
350-352

Cartier, Carolyn 65

cartography

and knowledge

Borges's parable about the perfectly
congruent map 133-135

and J.Z. Smith on maps and terri-
tory 118, 128-135

place identification authority in
Gyelthang 123, 125, 128-134

and the maze of Yachen 497

narrative maps 56, 288-289

and the provincialization of Nangchen 468

Qiu Zhijie's 'Map of the World' series 65-
66, 67f1.2

centre and periphery relations

and the continuum of boundary dynam-
ics 60-61, 67f1.1

and forms of illegibility and partial
belonging 283, 287, 294, 296-299

Kham as both centre and frontier 56,
104-105, 517-520

and the agency of local inhabitants in
processes of change 60

and the need to re-centre 94, 520, 529

and the maintenance of state control in the
borderland 143-147, 284, 315-316, 438

and Nangchen's provincialization 468

and refusing to be knowable to the
state 499, 505, 526-527

and terminology used to define the
borderlands 51, 86-89

and the topological reconfiguration of the
Sino/Tibetan binary 44, 54, 69-72,
71f1.3, 132, 314

and Ü (Central Tibet) in relation to the
borderlands 86-87, 89-93

see also frontiers; Kham – territorialism

Chakla (T. Cagcs la) kingdom 60

capital of see Dartsedo

and the eighteen kingdoms of
Gyelmorong 339n2

as one of the four big indigenous chieftains
(*si da tusi*) 52

Chamdo (T. Chab mdo; Ch. 昌都)

and Central Tibet's military intervention in
Kham (1918) 28, 375

and the Lhasa government 28-29

localization of 18map1, 43m1.1
at the time of Jagö Topden 369map11.1

M.E.P. missionaries in 152

and tourism 66map1.4, 103
Chen, Zhihong 62-63n17, 63n18

Chichu (Lci chu), and the kingdom of
Nangchen 471, 472f13.2

Chinese Communist Party (C.C.P.)

control in Gyelthang 411-438 passim
and the disempowerment of Tibetan
locals 257-260

and political persuasion work (zhengzhi shuifu gongzuo) 310, 412, 427, 436-438

'speak bitterness' (suku) meetings 433, 437

United Front policy of incorporating local
ethnic leaders 420-427, 437-438

see also Cultural Revolution; Eastern
Tibetan People's Autonomous Alliance;
Long March; Mao Zedong

Choktsé (T. Cog Tse), and the eighteen
kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Chophel, Gedun 45n2, 88

Chuchen (southeast of Dzamtang ['Dzam
thang]), and the eighteen kingdoms of
Gyelmorong 339n2

Chushi Gangdruk (Chu bzhi gangs drug, 'Four
Rivers, Six Ranges) resistance army and
Gönpo Tashi Andrutsang 94, 324, 325n19,
328

colonialism

and field research 62-63n17

Qing expansion into Kham 142-149
agricultural colonization effort launched
by Fengquan 192, 192nn10-11

and Euro-American models of
colonialism 262

settler colonialism defined 518

— Chinese colonialism in Tibetan areas
and imperial expansion 517-519

Lu Chuanlin's proposals for the border-
lands 146, 185-186, 188-189

Republican-era agricultural colonization in
Kham 221

self-immolation as a response 33, 100,
100nn37-39, 490-491, 529-531

see also bureaucratization

Coulthard, Glen Sean 518

Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) 32

and the destruction of religious and
cultural heritage 94-95

and Sumtseling monastery 123

Dadu River (T. Ngülchu [Rngul chu]; Ch.
Daduhe 大渡河) 46n3

Dajianlu see Dartsedo

Dalai Lamas

Altan Khan's conferral of the title on Sönam
Gyatso (1578) 21

decree warning about Christian
missionaries 162

possession of photos of 530

and the power of monk regents supported
by Manchu emperors 24

rule of Central Tibet 19-20, 337-338

— Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawan Lobzang Gyatso
beginning of the rule of 21
unification of Tibet 19
the Nangchen king's rule supported
by 465-466

two depas of Bathang appointed by 163

control over Gyelthang 21-22, 412-413
construction of Ganden Sumtseling 22

suppression of the Karmapa and
Nyingmapa 21-22, 412-413

his death and its concealment by Regent
Sanggyé Gyatso 22

— Thirteenth Dalai Lama, Tupten Gyatso birth
of (1876) 26

assumption of his role as head of state
(1895) 26

flight to Mongolia (1904) 26

imperial audience in Beijing (1908) 27

return to Tibet (1909) 27, 374

Tibet's independence proclaimed by 28,
524

Tsewang Düdül chosen to accede to the
Dergé throne by 376n28

death of (1933) 29, 344

and the Jagö family 374-375

and Ngawang Jampel Rinchen 372-375,
375n27

— Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso
his discovery by a search party (1937) 30
entronement of (1940) 30

assumption of his role as head of state
(1950) 30

travels with the Panchen Lama to meet Mao
Zedong (1955) 31

travels with the Panchen Lama to India
(1956) 31

golden throne offering to (1957) 94,
325-326

Kalacakra and Lamrim Chenmo teachings
bestowed on traders in Kham and
Amdo 325

flight to India (1959) 19, 32, 328

dismissal of Dorje Shugden from the Geluk
pantheon 123

protest of the incorporation of Kham into
the P.R.C. 518

Dartsedo (T. Dar rtse mdo; Ch. Dajianlu 打箭炉
now Kangding 康定)

administrative status of a sub-prefecture
accorded by the Qing (1729) 20, 23

as the capital of Xikang 7

French Catholic mission in 25, 171-172, 234

as the gateway to Tibet from China
proper 46

localization of 18map1
at the time of Jagö Topden 369map11.1

Tibetan Inn 167f4.2

and tourism 103-104
Dartsedo (T. Dar rtse mdo; Ch. Dajianlu 打箭炉 now Kangding 康定) – trade and commerce and Han Chinese merchants 263-264, 271-272

long-distance tea trade via Lithang and Bathang to Lhasa 155, 156f4.1

and shifting political alignments 308

Sino-Tibetan trade in the late 1940s 322

Yunnanese merchants involved in long-distance trade 264, 267, 270-271

Das, Veena, and Deborah Poole 286n6, 287, 297, 300

Dechen (T. Bde chen, Ch. Adunzi 阿墩子/Deqin 德钦) 18map1

and Jol 121-122n11

and Kham exports by Hengshenggong 267

location outside of Gyelthang 18map1, 118-119

Qing garrisons stationed in 413

revival of local culture by the Kawakarpo Institute 103

Tibetan Communist activities in 417-418

and Wangchuk Tempa's political and military clout 415-416, 420

Denkhok ('Dan khog), and Tsewang Düdül 377n31

Dergé (T. Sde dge; Ch. Dege 德格)

and Central Tibet's military intervention in Kham (1918) 367, 373-376

Gönpo Namgyel's occupation of 371

implementation of gaitu guiliu in 185, 367, 373

and the Lhasa government after the failure of the Simla Convention 28-29

localization of 18map1, 43map1.1 at the time of Jagö Topden 369map11.1

as one of the four big indigenous chieftains (si da tusi) 52

pastoralists of the estate of Zilphukhog 296

and the rise of Jagö Topden 363-394 passim

and Sino-Tibetan trade in the late 1940s 322

— Royal family

decline of its power and authority 367

and feuding between two brothers 185

as hostages of Günpo Namgyel 371n19, 374n25

Jagö faction's power and authority compared with 388

and the Lhundrupteng monastery (Dergé Gönchen) 370

Tenpa Tsering (Bstan pa Tshe ring) 23, 458

Tsewang Düdül (Tshe dbang Budu 'dul)

death of 385

enthroning of 376, 376n28

and Jagö Topden 377, 377n31, 386n48

marriage to Jamyang Pelmo (daughter of the Nangchen king) 377n31

Urgyenkyap (O rgyan skyabs, aka Wuga [O dga']) 385

Desgodins, Auguste 155, 165-166, 168-169

Döndrupling (T. Don grub gling, Ch. Dongzhu-lin si 东竹林寺)

construction in Gyelthang (1667) 21

and Renou 159

and Shugden practice 124

Dongwang (Termarong [Gter ma rong])

Gyelthang distinguished from 117-118n5, 118-119, 119-120n8, 120map3.1

and the Shugden issue 123-124

and Wangchuk Tembu 412n2, 413-415, 414n6

Dorje Shugden (T. Rdo rje Shugldan)

dismissal from the Geluk pantheon by the Fourteenth Dalai Lama 123

and Tibetans in Gyelthang 123-124

Drakteng (Brag steng)

cycles of poverty and disempowerment exemplified by Khampa farmer Peldengyel 255-257, 260-261, 269, 271-272

and the eighteen kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Han migrant population in 260-261, 268, 272

Drango (T. Brag mgo; Ch. Zhanggu 章谷), localization at the time of Jagö Topden 369map11.1

Drebö (Bre 'bod) family

dispute with families in Menshö 387

Drebö Lhagyl's assassination 386-387, 386n49

Dreyfus, Georges 94, 96

Drichu River (T. 'Bri chu; Ch. Jinsha 金沙[upper Yangtze])

as the border between Central Tibet and China proper (1727) 20

as the border between the T.A.R. and Sichuan (1955) 29

as the border marking Central Tibet's control in Kham (1918) 28, 92, 375-376

and the kingdom of Nangchen 459-460, 471, 472f13.2

Dzachu (T. Rdza chu; Mekong River)

as the border between Central Tibet and China proper (1727) 20

and the kingdom of Nangchen 459-460, 471, 472f13.2

Dzayül (Rdza yül)

and British incursions 204, 207

and the musk trade 157

and Zhao Erfeng's settlements 199-203

Dzigak (T. Rdzi 'gag), and the eighteen kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Eastern Tibetan People's Autonomous Alliance (T. Böshar gyümi mang rang kyong na tün; Ch. Döngzang renmin zizhi hui 东藏人民自治会), establishment of 310, 417

economic inequality 255-274 passim
and C.C.P. implemented reforms targeting ethnic minority areas 420-421, 424 and land reform in Gyelthang 426-430, 430n38, 435, 435n46 and political tourism 425-427, 436-437

and the rise of the developmentalist state 147-149, 244-245, 257, 260-265, 271-274

Ekvall, Robert 291

elites

and political persuasion exerted on Khampa leaders 310, 412, 427, 436-438

see also Jagö Topden; tusi 土司 (native office system); Wangchuk Tempa

Elliot, Mark C. 51n7

encampments (chö gar [chos sgar])

and the revitalization of Buddhism in contemporary Tibet 96, 512

and the case of nunneries 501-504, 512

environment

adaptation to ecological conditions in Songpan (northern Sichuan) 60, 144, 147, 316

and the 'Great rivers project' led by The Nature Conservancy (T.N.C) 65

and toponyms 45-47

see also biopolitics; topography

Epstein, Lawrence 52, 217

ethnicity

'ethnographic Tibet' as a term 45, 58

and the fixing of boundaries by institutional and state power structures 121n10, 430n38

and the idea of pan-Tibetan nationality 91

and identity dynamics 10, 51, 86, 128

and inequality 147-148, 244-245, 257, 260-262, 271-274, 420-421

romanticization of 64-66

and special ethnic zones (S.E.Z.) 65

see also Khampa rule of Kham; identity

farming

and agrarian nationalism 221, 223, 225, 227, 232, 245

agricultural colonization effort launched by Fengquan during the Qing 192, 192n10-11

agricultural production and the C.C.P.'s first Five Year Plan 429 and cycles of poverty 196-197, 256-260 scientific analyses of Kham's growing conditions 226

experimental stations run by the B.A.I. see under Simaqiao; Taining

and Han dynasty yimin shibian 移民實邊 ('settle people to support the border') 187-188

and improvements promised by the Khampa rule of Kham movement 379, 417

trade as a supplement to 155, 256-257

Zhang Yunping's 'Tunken Recommenda-
tions' 222-223, 225, 230-231, 237, 283

Zhao Erfeng's settlement endeavour in Kham 199-202, 200map5.2, 204

Fischer, Andrew 258-259, 261

Foreign Missions Society of Paris see Missions Étrangères de Paris (M.E.P)

Foucault, Michel

notion of heterotopia 66-67

on the regulatory power 147, 499

four big indigenous chieftains (si da tusi 四大土司)

allegiance to the Qing emperor 52, 289

see also Bathang; Chakla; Dergé; Lithang

'Four Rivers, Six Ranges' (Chushi Gangdruk) resistance army 94, 324, 325n19, 328, 527

frontiers

and borderlands: the complex cultural
'matrix' of the Sino-Tibetan border-
lands 52-53, 61, 61f.1, 70, 314

'frontier service' 63, 220

and historiography 62-63

and indigenous narratives of
place-making 59-62

and Kham as a zone of contact 39, 43-44, 52, 68-71, 307

and nation building in the republican period 63-64

vernacular terms for 88

gaitu guiliu see bureaucratization

Ganden Sumtseling (Dga'ldan sum rtsen gling)

as a centre of identity-gravity in the region
of Gyelthang 117, 117nn3-4

construction of (1679) 22

and the Khampa Rebellions 431, 433-434

Wangchuk Tempa's as the leader of its bandit defense force 414

Ganden Sumtseling (Dga'ldan sum rtsen gling) – kangtsen (monastic colleges) 117, 117-118n5

and the 'Shugden issue' 123-124

and territorial boundaries 124, 128, 130

Gansu 甘肅

and the administrative divisions of the
eastern borderlands of the Tibetan
plateau 42

and the inclusion of the Kham frontier into Chinese national space 58n13, 346, 392

and self-immolation by Tibetans 530

trade between Golok pastoralists and
Muslims in 296

and *tunken*-style development 222n6

Gardner, Alexander 56, 289n9, 289n11

Garjé region (Sgar rje), localization at the time of Jagö Topden 369map11.1

Geluk (Dge lugs)

conversion of monasteries 21, 466
and influence in Gyelthang 413

exclusion from Jamgon Kongtrul's intra-
sectarian map of Kham 56, 289n9

monasteries see Ba Chöde; Döndrupling;
Ganden Sumtseling

and the rimé movement 327

see also Dalai Lamas; Panchen Lamas

Germano, David, on post-Mao Tibetan
revivalist practices 459

Gesar tradition
- historical appropriation of 456, 458
- revitalization of 101, 102f2.3

Géshitsa (Dge shis tsa), and the eighteen
kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Geza 格明 (T. Ketsak [Skad tshag]) 418n16
- anti-Shugden areas of 124

and Chinese mining operations 127, 131

and local identity 130-131

and Buddhism 131-132

and Wangchuk Tembu 412n2

Giersch, C. Patterson 60, 316

Goldstein, Melvyn C., peaceful democratic
reforms distinguished from land reforms in
China 429n37

Golok ('Go Log or Mgo log)
drokpa (pastoralists): self-identification
- of 291-292, 296-297

Lung Ngön monastery (Lung sngon dgon
pa) 95-96, 97

song recorded by Namkhai Norbu 91

Gomé (Mgo smad), and the eighteen kingdoms
of Gyelmorong 339n2

Gönpo Namgyel (Mgon po Rnam rgyal)
and Dergé 371, 371n19
Jagö Topden compared with 309, 366
regions south of his control 121
rise of 24-26, 56, 290, 528

Gotang (Mgo 'thang), and the eighteen
kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Gotö (Mgo stod [east of Dartsedo]), and the
eighteen kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Great Western Development Strategy (Go
West) (xibu dakaifa 西部大开发) 148, 286,
286t8.1

Gruschke, Andreas 469

Gushri Khan Khan (1582-1655) 21, 465-466

Gutschow, Kim 505

Guyot-Réchard, Bérénice 307

Gyelkha (Rgyal mkha), and the eighteen
kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Gyelmorong (T. Shargyelmo Tsawarong [Shar
rgyal mo tsha ba rong])
- communist presence from 1935 to 1936
- in 344

eighteen kingdoms of 339n2

and the establishment of Xikang
province 354n36

see also Chakla; Drakteng; Trokyap

Gyelrong (T. Rgyal rong; Ch. Jiarong 嘉绒)

Jinchuan campaigns in (1747-1749 and
1771-1776) 20, 23

military agricultural colonies established
by Lu Chuanlin in 186-187

Gyelthang (T. Rgyal thang; Ch. Da Zhongdian
大中甸)

Communist Party Rule in 411-438
passim

and C.C.P. implemented reforms targeting
ethnic minority areas 426-430, 430n38

Dongwang (Termarong [Gter ma rong])
distinguished from 117-118n5, 118-119,
119-120n8, 123

and Dorje Shugden practice 122-123

Fifth Dalai Lama's control over 21-22,
412-413

and Khampa identity 116-117, 125-128

localization of 43map.1

monasteries in see Ganden Sumtseling
rebellion against taxes imposed by the
Chinese Nationalist army 414-415

and the Red Army 416, 416-417n14

Tenth Karmapa's flight to (1647) 21

as a territory 118-122, 118n7, 120map3.1
and Shangri-La County (Ch. Xianggelila
xian) 64-67, 116, 119, 122

and tourism 64-65, 103-104

see also Geza; Sanba; Wangchuk Tempa

Hämäläinen, Pekka, and Samuel Truett 68

Hansen, Thomas Blom, and Finn Stepputat 59

Harrell, Stevan 122n12, 284n4, 436, 455

Hayes, Jack P. 60, 144, 147, 316

historiography
alternatives to histories found in official
records 12

and kingship narratives and cosmolo-
gies 310, 454-460, 481

and frontier studies 50n6, 62-63

official and unofficial middle ground
distinguished 60

terminology
vernacular terminology used to define
the borderlands 51, 87-89

Western terminology used to discuss
political formations 58-59

see also middle ground

Holmes-Tagchungdarpa, Amy 56, 461, 481

Huber, Toni 86

identity
and the advent of the nation-state in the
early twentieth century 27-28, 529

and the concept of Sino-Tibetan 'border-
land' 62, 68-69, 116-117

and homeland (*phayül* [*pha yul*]) 45-46,
127-128

and 'true Tibet' found in a body of reli-
gious and cultural practice 69n22
and *nangpa* (Tibetan Buddhist insiders) vs.
*chipa* (non-Buddhists) 94

and the reconstruct the traditional
mythical-religious elements 458,
477-478

and the revitalization of the Gesar
tradition 101, 102f2.3

and the revival of Tibetan scripture in the
Dechen region 103

and the term Ü-pas 109

see also Khampa identity; ethnicity

— and mnemonic practices 453-454, 465,
475-476

and cults to local territorial deities 57-58

and kingship and local identity in
Nangchen 465-473

and the successive revivals of Barom Kagyü
and Kumbum 461-465

imperialism

and the British
East India Company rule in India 23-
25, 320

and Great Game politics 188, 524

Tibet invaded by 24-26

see also bureaucratization; colonialism

Jagö (Bya rgod) family
benefits granted by the Thirteenth Dalai
Lama to 374-375

Drebö family suppported by 386

Jagö Topden (Bya rgod Stobs ldan)
account of the rise of 363-394 passim
and Atup chief Wangga's (Dbang dga'a)
assassination 385-386

Miser Gyelkhap (T. Mi ser rgyal mkha, The
People's Nation) proposed by 387

power and authority of the Dergé royal
family compared with 387-388

support for the Communist Party and the
Chinese central government 389

and the title of the 'hundred-year-king'
(gyalo gyelpo) 387, 478

Jamyang Pelmo ('Jam dyangs dpal mo)
and Jagö Topden 386, 388-389, 389n57

marriage to Tsewang Düdul 377n31

political appointments in Xikang and
Kangding 389-390, 390n58

as regent Urgyenkyap (heir to the Dergé
throne) 385-386

support for the Communist Party and the
Chinese central government 389

Jigme Pütsok ('Jigs med phun tshogs) 96

Jinchuan **金川**, Qing military campaigns in
(1747-1749 and 1771-1776) 20, 23, 186, 351

Jomda ('Jo mda')

localization at the time of Jagö
Topden 369map11.1

occupation by Lhasa troops 375-376

Jyekundo (T. Skye dgu mdo) (Yushu)

and the Dru clan 460

Gesar monument in 458

localization of 18map1, 43map1.1

and Sino-Tibetan trade in the late
1940s 322

and tourism 103-104

see also Nangchen

Kangding **康定** see Dartsedo (T. Dar rtse mdo)

kangtsen (khang tshan) monastic colleges
and Dongwang 117-118n5, 119-120n8

Wangchuk Tempa's study at Sera 414

see also Ganden Sumtseling (Dga'ldan
sum rtsen gling) – *kangtsen* (monastic
colleges)

Karma Kagyü (Kar ma bka' brgyud)
encampments (*chö gar*) associated
with 96

the Fifth Dalai Lama's suppression of 413
and Zhongdian county 123n14

see also Barom Kagyü

Karmay, Samten 89n12, 476

Kelzang Tsering (T. Bskal bzang tshe ring; Ch.
Gesang Zeren 格格桑泽仁)

and the emergent elite in Batang 364,
364n3, 391

Khampa rule of Kham launched by
(1932) 29, 379, 415-416

Xikang ambitions of 338-339n1

Ketsak (T. Skad tshag) see Geza

Kham (Khams)
celebrity of Khampa singers 102

four big indigenous chieftains (*si da
tusi*) see Bathang; Chakla; Dergé;
Lithang

'four rivers, six ranges' (*chushi gangdruk*) as
a designation 46, 28n11
rivers of see Chichu; Drichu; Dzachu;
Machu

'Four Rivers, Six Ranges' (*Chushi Gangdruk*)
resistance army set up by Gönpo Tashi
Andrutsang 31, 56, 94, 324, 325n19,
328, 527

size and demographics of 42, 43map1.1

see also Gyelmorong; Gyelrong; Gyelthang;
Nangchen

— territorialization 18map1

deterritorialization of the exiled commu-
nity in Kham 44-45, 525, 528-529

as a discontinuous landscape of kingdom-
centred realms 338-339

incorporation into the P.R.C. 518

and its spatio-temporal variation as a place
surrounded by two power centres 20,
37-39, 47-52, 397, 517-520

'Chinese Tibet' distinguished from
'Tibet proper' by the Vicariate of
Tibet 153
and the local institution of kingship 454-455, 461

see also Bumla (Ningjing *shan*) stele marking the border between China and Tibet; Xikang Province

### Khampa identity

Böpas (Tibetans from Central Tibet) distinguished from 91-92

and the creation of the resistance army in 1958 94

geopolitical layers of 525-529

and Lhasa and Central Tibet 87, 91-93

and *Minyak Drokpa* 282-283, 287-289, 291-292, 297-300

and the threat of Sinicization 98-99, 104-105

and the Tibetans of Gyelthang 116-117, 125-128

and vegetarianism 97, 292-293

### Khampa rule of Kham (T. *Kangpé rangsi rangkyong* or *Kangpé rangdé rangpön*; Ch. Kangren zhi Kang 康人治康)

Jagö Topden's changing allegiance towards it 378-380

and the idea of Miser Gyelkhap (T. Mi ser rgyal mkha, The People's Nation) 387

Kelzang Tsering's launching of (1932) 29, 379, 415-416

and Kham's discontinuous landscape 338

and the logic of national autonomy 309, 364n3, 366-367

and the ninth Panchen Lama 379-380

second movement launched by Gara Lama (Nörla Hutaktu) (1935) 29, 324

### Khampa traders

political and economic power of 313-329
passim

see also Andrutsang (A'brug tshang) family; Khatag Dzamyag; Pangdatsang (Spang mda' tshang) family; Sandutsang (Sa' du tshang) family

Khatag Dzamyag (Kha stag 'Dzamyag), title *tsongpön* (chief-merchant) 317n6

### kingship

and the authority of Buddha's teachings 459, 463, 470-471, 477

as an axis for an imagined pan-Tibetan community 482

and the charisma of royalty 478

and the designation *dé* (*sde*, region) 472-474

and the production of place in Kham 454-455

and the production of place in Lhatok 461, 470

see also Dergé (T. Sde dge; Ch. Dege 德格) – Royal family; Nangchen (T. Nang chen) – kingship

### Kumbum (Sku 'bum)

as a local religious-secular power center 462, 464, 474

destruction of 465

founding by Repa Karpo 461-462

Kyodrak (Skyo brag) monastery 474

### Larung Gar (Bla rung gar)

demolition of monastic dwellings in 96n32, 311

and Jigme Püntsok 96

and vegetarianism 292-293

Lattimore, Owen 49, 58-59, 296

Lawson, Joseph D. 148, 225

Leach, Edmund 58

Leibold, James 63n18, 349, 438

Lewis, Martin W. and Kären E. Wigen 78

Li Anzhai 62-63

### Lijiang 丽江 18map1

bandit raids in 415, 415n9

and the Great Shangri-La Eco-Tourism Zone 66map1.4

Jang kingship defeated by the Mongols 290

and long-distance trade in Kham 266-267

Lithang (T. Li thang; Ch. Litang 理塘)

Jamchen Chokholing's economic dominance 272-273

localization of 18map1 at the time of Jagö Topden 369map1.1

as one of the four big indigenous chieftains (*si da tusi*) 52

Zhao Erfeng and Ma Weiqi's campaign against 265

### Long March

in the Kham region 29, 343, 380, 416n12, 417

and Wangchuk Tempa 416

in Yunnan 416n12, 424

Lu Chuanlin 146, 183-186, 188-189

Lung Ngön monastery (Lung sngon dgon pa) 95-96, 97

Lungu (T. Lungdgu; Ch. Wenchuan 汶川), and the eighteen kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Macdonald, Alexander 57n12

McGranahan, Carole 57, 143, 458

Machu (Rma chu), and the kingdom of Nangchen 471, 472f13.2

Maconi, Lara 65

Makley, Charlene E. 55, 64, 505

### Mao Zedong

and the C.C.P.'s first Five Year Plan 429 meeting with the Fourteenth Dalai Lama (1955) 31

### margins

and forms of illegibility and partial belonging 283, 287, 297-299

see also borderlands; centre and periphery relations; frontiers
Markham (Smar khams)

localization of 18map1

at the time of Jagō Topden 369map11.1

Pangdatsang family in 319, 364

Renou's travels in 158, 160

Merkel-Hess, Kate 222

Michaud, Jean 53

middle ground

and adaptation to ecological conditions 60

borderlands as 315

and models proposed by Mark Lewis and
Kären Wigen 52-53, 70

between the nomadic and the industrial in
Zhang Yunping's agrarianism 223

'official' and an 'unofficial' middle ground
distinguished 60

and Richard White's scholarship 59

Minyak (Mi nyag) region

and Kyodrak monastery 474

pastoralism in 281-300 passim

and the six highland ranges in the designa-
tion 'four rivers, six ranges' (*chushi
gangdruk*) 46n3, 28n1

missions and missionaries

and access to Tibet 25

the Dalai Lama's decree against Christian
missionaries 162

French Catholic mission in Tibetan Kham
areas 145-146, 234
mission in Dartsedo 25, 171-172, 234

J.H. Edgar 196

Johan Lossing Buck 219

and Kham-centered histories 528

*see also* Desgodins, Auguste; Missions
Étrangères de Paris; Renou, Charles

Missions Étrangères de Paris (M.E.P., Foreign Missions Society of Paris)

and French diplomacy 154

missions in the Sino-Tibetan border-
lands 163-165, 164map4.1
and violent rioting in Bathang 25

and Qing protection based on the Treaty of
Tianjin 161-163

and smallpox vaccination in Tibetan
areas 172

and trade 145, 151-175 passim

*see also* Desgodins, Auguste; Renou, Charles

monastic communities

administrators of 464

and contestations for power and authority
in Kham 364
and Work Teams (Ch. gongzuo
zu) 497n17

and gender asymmetries 505

and monastic taxes (*sertrel*) 467

nuns

lower status of 505

relationships with their families 503,
503n17

*see also* Ba Chöde; encampments; Ganden
Sumtseling; Kumbum; Lung Ngön
monastery; Yachen Gar

Mongols and Mongolia

Altan Khan confers the title of Dalai Lama
on Sönam Gyatso 21

and the Fifth Dalai Lama's unification of
Tibet 19

Gushri Khan's support of Nangchen's war
on the Beri armies 465-466

Jang kingship in Lijiang defeated by 290

Mongolian People's Republic founded
(1924) 28

Nangchen's implementation of Mongol
administration 462

Quoxot Mongols *see* Qoshot (Qoshot Khanate or Quoxot Mongols)

Zunghars *see* Zunghar Mongols

Muchi (T. Mu phyi), and the eighteen kingdoms
of Gyelmorong 339n2

Mueggler, Erik 122n12

Nangchen (T. Nang chen)

localization of 18map1

at the time of Jagō Topden 369map11.1

Nangchen (T. Nang chen) – kingship

chanhu title bestowed on *see qianhu* 千户
and historiographic practice 455-459,
481

and the Hui Ma clan 478

and identity 310, 453-482 passim

kurim (*sku rim*) ceremony 475-477

and the production of place 454-455,
460-464

reign of Wangdrak Tsering Lhagyel (Dbang
drag Tshe ring Lha rgyal) 478, 480

*see also* Trashi Tsewang

Nangchen (T. Nang chen) – socio-political
structure

and the Barom Kagyü 462-463

and the Indic cosmological model of
organizing society 469-470

and Mongol administrative
structure 461-462

as a region of meditators (*retsang gomdé*
[*ras tshang sgom sde*]) 471-473

nationalism

'agrarian nationalism' 221, 283

and the idea of pan-Tibetan national-
ity 91, 94, 125

and the role of Buddhism 56n11

and the 'self-rule' movements of the
1930s 56-57

and Western terminology 58-59

*see also* sovereignty

Naxi and Naxi regions

and C.C.P. implemented reforms in
Gyelthang 121n10, 430n38

*see also* Sanba 三坝
Ngor E wam chöden, Khatag Dzamyag as a trade agent for a *labrang* of 317n6, 320-321, 321n12

Norbu, Jamyang, on laudatory and mythic terms for Wangchuk Tempa 412n2

Nulo, Naktsang 93

Nyarong (Nyag rong)

implementation of *gaitu guiliu* in 185

localization of 18mapi
at the time of Jagö Topden 369map11.1

*see also* Gönpo Namgyel (Mgon po Rnam rgyal)

Nyingma (Rnying ma) school

in Dongwang 117n5, 119n8

forced conversion of adherents to the
Gelukpa school 21

Oakes, Timothy S. 44, 65-66

Okzhi ('Og zghi), and the eighteen kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Oppenheim, Robert 66

Outer Mongolia, and *tunken*-style
development 222n6

Paasi, Ansí and Jonathan Metzger 71

Padmasambhava 95

beyül (T. *sbas yül*) valleys hidden by 97-
98, 311

and the Dru 460

and Yachen 498n9

Panchen Lamas – ninth Panchen Lama
and armed clashes with Liu Wenhui in
Kandzé 380

Central Tibet's reach into Kham resisted
by 338

exile in China (1924) 28

and Khampa rule of Kham 379-380

Panchen Lamas – tenth Panchen Lama
travels with the Dalai Lama to meet Mao
Zedong (1954) 31

travels with the Dalai Lama to India
(1956) 31

death of (1989) 32

Panchen Lamas – eleventh Panchen Lama,
dispute over the choice of (1995) 33

Pangda Topgyé (Spang mda' Stobs rgyas/Spom mda' Stobs rgyas)

and Jagö Topden 384, 389

and the ‘Khampa rule of Kham’ move-
ment 324, 379

Pangdatsang (Spang mda' tshang) family
active involvement in Sino-Tibetan
relations 364-365

and Khampa trading communities in
Central Tibet 319

official positions in the Lhasa government
held by 324

Pangdatsang Nyigyl's economic pragma-
tism toward monastic institutions 327

Rapga Pangdtsang 328

Parker, Bradley 44, 60-61, 61f1.1

pastoralism

and Chinese state policies 148, 286t8.1

in Golok 291, 296

and the grassland ecology of Kham 240, 245

and *mumin* (herder) as a category 284-
287, 294-295, 299

pastoral movements 291-292, 291t8.2

in Qinghai 296

regional trade as a supplement to 155

pathways

and efforts by nuns at Yachen to escape
spatial control 487-500, 512

and imperial governance 144

and trade networks along Khams 'four riv-
ers, six ranges' (*chushi gangdruk*) 46

Pawang (Dpa'dbang), and the eighteen
kingdoms of Gyelmorong 339n2

Pelyül (Dpal yül)

localization at the time of Jagö
Topden 369map11.1

occupation by Lhasa troops 375-376

Perdue, Peter C. 51

place-making

and the ‘idea’ of Gyelthang 119, 124-128

and process-oriented spatial forma-
tion 41-42, 68-72, 314, 454-455

and toponyms 47

*see also* centre and periphery relations;
frontiers; identity – and mnemonic
practices; Kham – territorialization;
territorialization

political tourism *see under* tourism

Pommaret, Françoise 86

Prins, Marielle 476

Püntsok, Tubten 376n28

qianhu 千户 (Tib. *chan hu*, chiliarch, com-
mander of a thousand men)

as a Manchu title 466

and Nangchen contemporary negotiations
of the local past 467

and Nangchen Dorjé Tséwang (r.
1680-1734) 466-468

and Nangchen kings during the Maoist
error 467

Qinghai 青海

and the administrative divisions of the
eastern borderlands of the Tibetan
plateau 42

discovery of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama in
(1937) 30

Golmud-Lhasa railroad constructed in 33

Guomindang's establishment of (1928) 29

and the inclusion of the Kham frontier into
Chinese national space 47, 49-50,
58n13, 346, 392

nomadic pastoralism in 296

self-immolations in 529
tea trade networks 264, 316

and *tunken*-style development 222n6

see also *Jyekundo* (Yushu); Nangchen

Qoshot (Qoshot Khanate or Quoxot Mongols)

and the Fifth Dalai Lama's control over
Gyelthang 21-22

Lhazang Khan as the chief of 22

and the Nangchen 465, 473

rule over most of Amdo (1636-1724) 21

Rafael, Vicente L. 473-474

Ramble, Charles 470

regions

and *dé* (*sde*, region) in the ascription of
‘Nangchen the region of meditators’
(*nangchen gomdé*) 471-474

'four rivers, six ranges' (*chushi gangdruk*) as
a designation 46, 281n1

and heterotopic space 65, 472

and identity 127-128

Kham as regional category 54, 71-72, 315

and the spatialization of sovereignty 54

'three regions of Tibet' (*chölkha sum*) 45,
57

Tibet as a macro-regional category 45

and Zomia as a heuristic 53-54, 70

religion

and Jamgon Kongtrul's intra-sectarian map
of Kham 55-56, 288-289, 289n9

local religious-secular power centers 462,
464, 474

religion – revival of religion and traditional
practices

in Amdo 94-98

emergence of treasure-revealers (*ter-
tön*) 96, 311, 498n9, 498

encampments 96, 311

and local dynamics in Kham 11

and re-codifying local identity 103, 459,
477-478

and *rimé* (*ris med*) values 96, 327, 327n22

Ren Naiqiang

on the French Catholic mission in Tibetan
Kham areas 145, 234

on Jagö Topden 386-387

Khampa stereotypes of 64

'sightseeing' (*guanguang* 观光):
and political tourism proposed
by 425-426

on Zhao Erfeng 220-221

Renou, Charles

death of 162

on long-distance trade
in Tibetan areas 155
in Yunnan 158

purchase and conversion of child slaves
proposed by 159

and smallpox vaccination efforts in Tibetan
areas 172n37

on taxes and corvée labour burdens 154

'trade' by

in Chamdo 151-152, 157-158

in Yunnan 158-159

Tsarong land acquired and developed
by 160-162, 174

Rock, Joseph 86, 415n9

Rodman, Margaret C. 52

Rodseth, Lars 44

Rongpatsa (Rong pa tsha) 28

Sahlins, Marshall 464

Sakya (Sa skya) school

and the Dergé royal family 370, 371n17

and the Sakya-Yuan hierarchy 463-465,
468

Salzman, Philip C. 295n12, 296

Samuel, Geoffrey 57

Sanba 三坝

Dorje Shugden practice 124

location in Gyelthang 120map3.1, 121

rebellion in 423

Sandutsang (Sa 'du tshang) family

and Khampa trading communities in
Central Tibet 319

and Khatag Dzamyag 318-323

Lo Gendun Sandutsang 328

official positions in the Lhasa government
held by 324

Rinchen Dorje as an agent of 321

wool exports to the United States and
England 322

Scott, James C. 53, 232, 284-285, 459, 511

self-immolations 33, 100, 100nn37-39, 490-491,
529-531

'Seventeen-Point Agreement'

the Dalai Lama's denouncement of
(1959) 32

and the incorporation of Central Tibet
into the People's Republic of China
(1951) 31

and Khampa Revellions of
1955-1957 431-432

Shakya, Tsering 90, 435n46, 529

Shangri-La

and the Great Shangri-La Eco-Tourism
Zone 66map1.4

as heterotopia 66-67

and Qiu Zhijie's 'Map of the World'
series 65-66, 67fi.2

and Shangri-La County (Ch. Xianggelila
*xian*) 64-67, 116, 119, 122

Shen Congwen 沈從文 64, 66

Shneiderman, Sara 86

Sichuan *see also* Dartsedo

Sichuan Frontier Special Administrative
Region (*Chuanbian tebie xingzhengqu*,
S.A.R)

establishment of (1914) 28, 205-206
renaming as Xikang Special Administrative Region 28, 206n22, 341

Simaqiao 驅馬橋
experimental station in 233-237, 233map6.1
Taining station compared with 238-240,
242

southeast Kham the focus of 242
and the Xikang Provincial B.A.I. 231

Simla Convention (1913-1914) 28, 48-49
failure of 28-29, 205-206, 341

and the McMahon Line 32
and the labels 'Outer Tibet' and 'Inner
Tibet' 49, 49map1.2, 92, 205

and R.O.C. territorial claims 183, 184, 199,
207-208

slavery 154, 159, 187-188, 416n14
slave as a class label 429-430

Smith, Jonathan Z. 118, 128-135
sovereignty

Indian Buddhist ideas of an ideal
sovereign 459, 463, 469-471

regions as the spatialization of 54

and territorial distinction between China
and Tibet 48

and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) 21,
27-28, 55n10, 146

zones of mutual interest 58-59

see also 'Seventeen-Point Agreement'; Simla
Convention

space

the borderlands as a process-oriented
spatial formation 314-315

and legibility 48
and state imposition of geometrical
control on Yachen Gar 507-512,
509f14.5

and the maze of Yachen Gar 487-500,
500f14.3

and regulatory power in modern
society 147, 499, 511

and sovereignty
and mapping 128-129
and narrative maps 56, 288-289
and territorial integrity 54-55

see also borderlands; frontiers; margins;
middle ground; pathways; place-
making; regions

stele (1727) see Bumla (Ningjing shan 寧靜山)
stele marking the border between China
and Tibet

Stoler, Ann 143

Sulang Jiachu 432

Sumtseling see Ganden Sumtseling

Sun Yat-sen
and autonomy status granted to border
areas 356

Republic proclaimed by 341, 347
*Three Principles of the People* 417

Tafel, Albert 467

Taining 泰寧
experimental station in 233map6.1
and the Xikang Provincial B.A.I. 231-232,
237-243

Tambiah, Stanley J. 469-470

Teichman, Eric 28, 289, 289n11

Tenpa (T. Bstan pa), and the eighteen kingdoms
of Gyelmorong 339n2

Termarong see Dongwang
territorialization

and boundary-making in the Sino-Tibetan
borderlands 37-38, 55-57

and the disputed frontier zone of North-
East India 202-205, 307

and dynamic and heterogeneous processes
of intervention 68-72

of Kham see Kham – territorialization
see also centre and periphery relations;
frontiers

Tibetan Communist Party see Eastern
Tibetan People's Autonomous Alliance

topography
and boundaries 47, 50-51, 70
republican period surveys of the frontier 63

topology
and the Möbius strip 70-71, 71f1.3, 492

reconfiguration of the Sino/Tibetan
binary 44, 54, 69-72, 71f1.3, 132, 314

toponyms
borderlands as places to be defended or to
be made civilized 51, 89, 181

Dokham used for the Sino-Tibetan
borderlands 45

and the expression *khamkyi gyeltren* (*khams kyi rgyal phran*), 'the small principality on the border' 88

'four rivers, six ranges' (*chushi gangdruk*) as
a designation for Kham 46, 281n1

and identity 46-47

and the invention of Zomia 53-54, 70

tourism – political tourism
the creation of special ethnic zones 65,
65n20

and economic inequality 425-427, 436-437
use with 'political persuasion work' to
control Gyelthang 412, 436-437

and efforts to win over and transform
ethnic minority leaders 424-426
and the Great Shangri-La Eco-Tourism
Zone 64-66, 66map1.4

and Ren Naiqiang's civilizing logic 425-426

trade
and *bachong* 壩充 facilitators 268-270

British military expedition into Lhasa forces
a trading agreement (1903-1904) 24, 26

local networks: and resistance to interven-
tionist policies 144, 261, 271-273
long-distance trade in Kham

and Lijiang 266-267

see also Dartsedo – trade and commerce
in

Ma Bufang's embargo on pastoral products
from Golok 296

and medicinal materials 256, 262,
267-272, 296

and musk (shexian 麝香) 157, 172, 256,
262, 268-269, 272, 296

regional trade
as a supplement to agriculture and
pastoralism 155

and the M.E.P.'s engagement with
Tibet 153-157, 167-168

re-emergence of networks 148

salt exchanges 155, 165, 263, 272

tea-trade 266

and British Indian trade with

Tibet 166-169

networks in Qinghai 264, 316

transformative power of traders 316-317,
320-323, 328-329

see also Khampa traders

Trashi Tsewang (Topgyel) Dorjé (Bkra shis Tshe
dbang Rdo rje) 457f13.1

and the communist takeover of
Nangchen 458-459, 478-480

death of 477

as the nominal head of the Tibetan People's
Autonomous District of Yushu or Upper
Kham 480

Travers, Alice 319

Trokyap (T. Khro skyabs; Ch. Chuosi jiabu 斐斯
甲布) kingdom

and the authority dispute between Sichuan
and Xikang (1930s-1940s) 309, 337-356

and the eighteen kingdoms of
Gyelmorong 339n2

localization of 345map1.1

submission to the Qing (1700) 22

Tsenla (Tib. Btsan lha; Ch. Xiaojin 小
金), and the eighteen kingdoms of
Gyelmorong 339n2

Tsewang (Tshe dbang, wealthy person in the
Tsarong district) 160-162

Tsewang Düdül see under Dergé (T. Sde dge;
Ch. Dege 德格) – Royal family

Tsomu, Yudru 60, 64, 105, 157, 414n7, 426n13,
467, 469

Turek, Maria M.

on Nangchen as a self-referential sphere 315
on rimé masters 327

Turner, Frederick J. 51n7

tusi 士土 (native office system)

the C.C.P.'s suspicion of 421, 427

and the denigration of Khampa kingship
narratives 458

dismantling of 435

and 'hereditary officials' 289n11

and indirect rule of the borderlands by the
Qing 143-144

Jagō Topden's opposition to 387

see also four big indigenous chieftains (si
da tusi)

Tuttle, Gray 56n11

Van Schendel, Willem 53

Van Spengen, Wim 414n8

Vasantkumar, Chris 69n22

vegetarianism 97, 292-293

Wang Chuan 244

Wangchuk Tempa

and the consolidation of C.C.P.'s rule in
Gylethang 411-438 passim

early life of 413-414

Jagō Topden compared with 394

militia of
establishment of 415-416

and the Red Army 416-417, 422n26

and the peaceful liberation of
Gyelthang 421-424

political persuasion exerted on 412, 427,
436-438

Wangdrak Tsering Lhagyel (Dbang drag Tshe
ring Lha rgyal) 478, 480

Wang Xiuyu 146, 225

Wu Wenzao 62

Xianggelila xian 香格里拉县 (Shangri-La) see
Gyelthang

Xikang Province (Xikang xian 西康
县) 233map6.1

as a term for Kham before its official
establishment 415n10

borders in 1933 and 1939 50map1.3

dismantling of (1955) 29, 31

establishment of (1939) 29-30

and the 'frontier reconstruction'
spirit 63-64

Kham region incorporated into it 220

tunken development in 222n6, 224-227

see also Simaqiao; Taining; Trokyap

Xikang Special Administrative Region (Xikang
tebie xingzheng qu) 28, 206n22, 341

see also Sichuan Frontier Special Adminis-
trative Region

Xining
and the Hui Ma clan 478

tunken development in 222n6

Xinjiang

as a region run by State Owned
Enterprises 259

and tunken-style development 180, 198,
222n6
Yachen Gar (T. Ya chen sgar; Ch. Yaqing si 亞
青寺)

spatial arrangement of
perpetually incomplete maze of 487-
500, 500f14.3

state imposition of geometrical control
on 507-512, 509f14.5

and the Treasure (T. terma) tradition 311,
498n9

Yeh, Emily T. 46, 257-258, 261, 285, 309

Yunnan

expansion of Yunnan tea firms into
Kham 265-267

Renou on long-distance trade in 158

Renou's missionary 'trade' in 158-159

Second Red Army's Long March
through 416n12, 424

silver shortage in 161, 264

see also Dechen; Gyelthang; Lijiang; Naxi

Zartman, William I. 87, 105

Zhang Yunping's 'Tunken Recommenda-
tions' 222-223, 225, 230-231, 237, 283

Zhao Erfeng 趙爾豐

campaign against Bathang 25, 195, 265

Dergé royal family led by Tsewang Drölma
defeated by (1909) 374

execution by Sichuanese
revolutionaries 265

settlement of Sichuan farmers in
Kham 188, 195-202, 200map5.2, 204

as the Sichuan-Yunnan Frontier Com-
missioner (duban Chuan Dian bianwu
dachen) 25, 27, 146, 183, 193, 264

Zhongdian 中甸 see Gyelthang

Zinda, John Aloyysius 65

Zomia concept 53-54, 70

Zunghar Mongols

invasion and occupation of Lhasa (1717-
1720) 20, 22

rule over much of central Eurasia
(1630s-1756) 21