# Ecological Constraints and Adaptation Strategies of Sedentary Livestock Farming in Urban and Peri-Urban Sahelian Areas of Cameroon

Alexis Dzokom, Jules Balna

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## To cite this version:

Alexis Dzokom, Jules Balna. Ecological Constraints and Adaptation Strategies of Sedentary Livestock Farming in Urban and Peri-Urban Sahelian Areas of Cameroon. Sahel Nature Consulting Revue, In press, 09 (13), pp.1-15. hal-05012000

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# Ecological Constraints and Adaptation Strategies of Sedentary Livestock Farming in Urban and Peri-Urban Sahelian Areas of Cameroon

Alexis Dzokom¹, ², Jules Balna³

¹SAHEL NATURE CONSULTING

²Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon

³Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts Letters and Social Sciences, University of Maroua, Cameroon

## Abstract

Sedentary livestock farming in the Sahelian region of Cameroon faces numerous environmental stresses, exacerbated by climate change and increasing urbanization. This article examines the main stress factors affecting livestock farming in these areas, including the scarcity of fodder resources, rising temperatures, land pressure, and land degradation. The study highlights the effects of these stresses on animal productivity, livestock health, and the socio-economic conditions of farmers. In response to these challenges, several adaptation strategies are implemented by livestock farmers, such as the intensification of agro-pastoral practices, the use of agricultural by-products as feed supplements, the adoption of more resilient animal breeds, and the introduction of new watering and pasture management techniques. The article also emphasizes the role of public policies and local innovations in supporting livestock farmers to enhance their resilience to environmental changes. It concludes by stressing the need for an integrated approach involving local stakeholders, researchers, and policymakers to ensure the sustainable management of sedentary livestock farming in urban and peri-urban Sahelian areas.

**Keywords:** environmental stresses, sedentary livestock farming, adaptation strategies, urban areas, peri-urban areas, Cameroon.

## Introduction

The Sahelian regions of Cameroon, particularly in urban and peri-urban areas, are characterized by increasing aridity, high climate variability, and socio-economic tensions. These dynamics influence the availability of natural resources essential for livestock farming and agriculture, thereby compromising local food security. Sedentary livestock farming in the Sahelian region of Cameroon faces multiple environmental stresses related to climate change, natural resource degradation, and growing urbanization (Mertz et al., 2012; Basset & Turner, 2007; Dzokom, et al., 2025a,b,c ; Dzokom, et al., 2024a,b). Climate variability, marked by rising temperatures and reduced rainfall, directly impacts pasture and water resource availability, thereby affecting livestock productivity (Sarr, 2012).

In urban and peri-urban areas, infrastructure expansion and land pressure reduce the

space available for livestock farming, exacerbating land-use conflicts among farmers, livestock keepers, and urban planners (Moritz et al., 2009). Additionally, prolonged droughts and soil erosion lead to a decline in fodder yields, forcing farmers to adapt their practices to sustain their activities (Tiffen, 2003; Dzokom, 2025a,b; Dzokom, 2023 ; Dzokom, & Djouldé, 2025).

In response to these challenges, urban and peri-urban livestock farmers employ various adaptation strategies. The intensification of livestock feeding through the use of agricultural by-products, diversification of livestock species, and adoption of integrated production systems are common responses to maintain production levels (Turner et al., 2014). Furthermore, the adoption of new water resource management techniques, including the installation of boreholes and irrigation systems for fodder crops, helps mitigate environmental stresses (Blench, 2001). This
article aims to analyze the impacts of
environmental stresses on sedentary
livestock farming in urban and peri-urban
Sahelian areas of Cameroon and identify the
adaptation strategies implemented by
farmers to overcome these constraints.

**2. Materials and Methods**

**2.1. Study Area**

The study area is located in the Sahelian
zones in the far north of Cameroon,
covering 7,129 km², representing 1.49% of
the national territory. The study was
conducted in several urban and peri-urban
localities of the Sahelian region of
Cameroon, where sedentary livestock
farming plays a central role in the local
economy (Moritz et al., 2009). The area is
bordered to the north by Chad and to the
west by Nigeria. It experiences two seasons,
including a rainy season. These regions are
characterized by a Sahelian climate with
high interannual variability in precipitation
(300 to 800 mm/year) and high
temperatures (annual average exceeding
30°C) (Sarr, 2012). Increasing urbanization
and land pressure have led to changes in
livestock farming practices, requiring
adaptation strategies from farmers (Tiffen,
2003).

**2.2. Methodological Approach**

The study adopts a mixed-method
approach, combining quantitative and
qualitative methods to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the
impacts of environmental stresses and the
adaptation strategies implemented by
livestock farmers.

**1. Collection of Climate and
Environmental Data**

The urban and peri-urban Sahelian zones of
Cameroon included in this study comprise:

* Urban areas with high demographic and land pressure in Zones 1, 2, and 3.

* Peri-urban areas where livestock farming coexists with other

agricultural activities in Zones 1, 2,
and 3.

These localities were selected due to their
high concentration of sedentary livestock
farmers, increasing climatic challenges, and
significance in livestock product supply
systems. Temperature and precipitation
data were collected from the archives of the
National Meteorology Directorate of
Cameroon, the National Meteorology
Agency (ANAM), satellite data (NOAA,
MODIS, CHIRPS), and records of
temperature, precipitation, relative
humidity, and wind speed over the period
2000-2023 from the consulting firm Sahel
Nature Consulting For Communities. A
diachronic analysis of climate changes over
a 20-year period (2000-2020) was
conducted to identify climate change trends
and their effects on livestock farming
(Mertz et al., 2012; Dzokom, et al.,
2025a,b,c ; Dzokom, et al., 2024a,b ;
Dzokom, & Djouldé, 2025).

**2. Surveys with Livestock Farmers**

A semi-structured questionnaire survey was
conducted with 150 sedentary livestock
farmers evenly distributed across the
targeted urban and peri-urban zones. The
survey covered:

* Perceptions of climate and
  environmental changes.

* Main constraints related to sedentary livestock farming.

* Adaptation strategies implemented.

In-depth interviews were conducted with 20
leaders of livestock associations and
veterinarians to better understand local
dynamics and institutional responses to
climate challenges (Turner et al., 2014).

**3. Field Observations**

Direct observations were conducted at
livestock farming sites to examine the
condition of watering infrastructure,
pastures, and livestock management
practices (Basset & Turner, 2007). The
identification of alternative feed sources
(agricultural residues, improved fodder)
was documented to analyze farmers’
adaptation to land and climatic constraints
(Blench, 2001).

**4. Data Analysis**

Climate data were statistically analyzed to
assess correlations between environmental
variations and livestock performance.
Questionnaire responses were processed
using SPSS software to identify general
trends. A thematic analysis of interviews
was conducted to determine key adaptation
strategies and their perceived effectiveness
(Moritz et al., 2009). This methodology

thus helps to understand the interactions
between environmental and socio-
economic factors in sedentary livestock
farming in urban and peri-urban Sahelian
areas and identify the most effective
adaptations to ensure the sector's resilience.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Impact of Environmental Stresses on Sedentary Livestock Farming

3.1.1. Analysis and Interpretation of Observed Trends

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Climate Trends for Sedentary Livestock Farming Areas in the Sahelian Zones of Cameroon</figcaption></figure>

3.1.1.1. Increase in Annual Average Temperature

The red curve shows a progressive increase
in the annual average temperature between
2016 and 2020, rising from approximately
30.6°C to nearly 32°C. This trend aligns
with the IPCC (2021) projections, which
highlight a continuous increase in
temperatures in the Sahelian regions due to
global warming. This rise in temperatures
has direct implications for:

* Heat stress in livestock (Renaudeau et al., 2012; Dzokom, et al., 2025a).

* Increased water demand for livestock farming.

* Pasture degradation due to excessive evaporation.

3.1.1.2. Reduction in Annual Rainfall

The blue graph shows a continuous
decrease in rainfall, dropping from
approximately 420 mm in 2016 to 380 mm
in 2020. This trend aligns with Nicholson's
(2013) observations on declining
precipitation in West Africa and the Sahel.
The direct consequences include:
* Reduced water availability for livestock watering.

* A decrease in pasture areas and increased competition for resources.

* A decline in agricultural productivity, impacting agro-pastoral systems.

### 3.1.1.3. Degradation of the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI)

The SPI is an indicator used to assess drought periods. A progressive worsening of drought conditions is observed in sedentary livestock farming areas in both urban and peri-urban zones, with SPI values becoming increasingly negative. According to McKee et al. (1993), an SPI value below -1.5 indicates severe drought, which appears to be the case in 2019 and 2020. Based on surveys, the implications would include increasing water shortages for livestock and agriculture, heightened conflicts between herders and farmers (Turner et al., 2014), particularly in the humid plains of the Cameroonian Sahel, and a decrease in forage crop yields, forcing herders to diversify animal feed sources.

### 3.1.1.4. Increase in Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)

The increase in PET indicates a higher water demand to compensate for evaporation. This rise, observed in the purple graph, aligns with the findings of Mahé et al. (2012), which show an increase in evapotranspiration in Sahelian regions due to climate change. The effects include accelerated drying of water sources, reduced crop and pasture productivity, increased irrigation needs, and necessary adaptation of pastoral strategies.

### 3.1.2. Impact of Perceived Temperatures and Water Consumption on Reproduction in Sedentary Livestock Farming

The impact of perceived temperatures and water consumption on reproduction in sedentary livestock farming in the

Cameroonian Sahel is a major issue affecting agricultural productivity.

#### 3.1.2.1. Birth Rate and Water Consumption

The study shows that the birth rate of animals in sedentary livestock farming varies according to the climatic zones of the Sahel. The analysis of perceived temperature and water consumption impacts in different Cameroonian Sahel zones indicates that in arid-mountainous areas, the birth rate is 54.89±04.74% with a water consumption of 5.23±01.90 L/day/farm. In humid plains, the birth rate is 54.85±04.50% with a water consumption of 7.19±01.93 L/day/farm. In arid plains, the birth rate is 54.85±03.44% with a water consumption of 10.18±01.72 L/day/farm. Males generally consume more water than females, except in arid zones where the trend is reversed. These results corroborate those of Diallo et al. (2012), which highlight that water availability and consumption strongly influence animal growth and reproduction in arid zones.

#### 3.1.2.2. Variation in Perceived Temperatures and Impact on Reproduction

Between 2012 and 2022, perceived temperatures fluctuated, with a maximum of 44.16±02.43°C in 2022, a year when the calving rate reached 72.70±3.76%. Conversely, the minimum of 42.72±00.76°C in 2016 coincided with a lower calving rate of 51.47±02.28%. The average perceived temperatures in the different zones studied are:

* Arid-mountainous zone: 42.06±00.69°C, with a calving rate of 53.19±05.14%.

* Humid plains: 43.56±00.55°C, with a calving rate of 56.83±06.08%.

* Arid plains: 44.50±00.69°C, with a calving rate of 52.29±03.16%. These results align with those of Bazin et al. (2013), showing that increased perceived temperatures
reduce calving rates due to heat stress.

## Effects of Heat Stress on Reproduction

Heat stress directly impacts animal reproduction. When perceived temperatures are high, birth rates tend to decrease and vice versa when temperatures are more moderate. This is due to the low day-night temperature amplitude in sedentary livestock shelters, preventing animals from recovering from daytime stress. Moreover, Bazin et al. (2013) indicate that heat stress reduces the duration and intensity of estrus, as well as fertility and embryonic survival. This observation is also supported by Guerin et al. (2020), who state that extreme climatic conditions disrupt hormonal cycles and reduce livestock reproductive performance. Herders continuously adjust grazing pressure based on local resources to preserve livestock health and dairy productivity. However, high temperatures and low day-night thermal variations pose major challenges, requiring the adoption of heat stress mitigation strategies, such as improving livestock infrastructure and adjusting grazing schedules (Bazin et al., 2013; Dzokom, et al., 2025a,b,c; Dzokom,

et al., 2024a,b; Dzokom, 2025a,b; Dzokom, 2023; Dzokom, & Djouldé, 2025).

### 3.1.3. Land Pressure and Land Use Conflicts

Rapid urbanization has led to a reduction in pastoral land by 30 to 50% in some peri-urban areas such as Maroua and Yagoua (Moritz et al., 2009). Competition between sedentary livestock farming and agriculture has intensified, exacerbating land use conflicts. Interviews with herders' associations reveal that 62% of land conflicts involve restricted access to water points and transhumance routes, leading to tensions between farmers and herders (Turner et al., 2014). This situation is particularly concerning in peri-urban areas where infrastructure expansion limits access to natural resources.

## 3.2. Adaptation Strategies Implemented by Herders

The table below illustrates the adaptation strategies implemented by sedentary herders in targeted urban and peri-urban sedentary livestock farms:

<table><caption>Table 1: Adaptation Strategies Implemented by Sedentary Farmers in Urban and Peri-Urban Livestock Farming</caption><thead><tr><td>Zone</td><td>Adoption of Agro-Pastoral Practices (%)</td><td>Diversification of Animal Feed Sources (%)</td><td>Well Digging and Water Conservation (%)</td><td>Community Organization for Pasture Management (%)</td><td>Introduction of More Resistant Breeds (%)</td><td>Improvement of Veterinary Services and Health Prevention (%)</td><td>Storage and Group Marketing of Products (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Mokolo</td><td>60%</td><td>50%</td><td>40%</td><td>35%</td><td>25%</td><td>30%</td><td>20%</td></tr><tr><td>Mogodé</td><td>55%</td><td>48%</td><td>38%</td><td>32%</td><td>28%</td><td>27%</td><td>18%</td></tr><tr><td>Memé</td><td>58%</td><td>52%</td><td>45%</td><td>37%</td><td>30%</td><td>35%</td><td>22%</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>62%</td><td>54%</td><td>42%</td><td>40%</td><td>33%</td><td>32%</td><td>25%</td></tr><tr><td>Bogo</td><td>50%</td><td>47%</td><td>35%</td><td>30%</td><td>27%</td><td>28%</td><td>19%</td></tr><tr><td>Mindif</td><td>57%</td><td>51%</td><td>41%</td><td>38%</td><td>29%</td><td>33%</td><td>21%</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>53%</td><td>49%</td><td>39%</td><td>34%</td><td>26%</td><td>29%</td><td>20%</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>59%</td><td>55%</td><td>44%</td><td>39%</td><td>31%</td><td>36%</td><td>24%</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>61%</td><td>53%</td><td>43%</td><td>36%</td><td>28%</td><td>31%</td><td>23%</td></tr><tr><td>Tcholiré</td><td>56%</td><td>50%</td><td>37%</td><td>33%</td><td>25%</td><td>30%</td><td>18%</td></tr></tbody></table>

This table shows that agro-pastoral practices are the most common strategy,

with adoption rates ranging from 50% (Bogo) to 62% (Mora).
### 3.2.4. Community Organization for Pasture Management

Community-based management is adopted at moderate levels, ranging from 30% (Bogo) to 40% (Mora). This strategy aims to reduce land use conflicts and ensure the sustainable management of pastoral resources (Turner et al., 2014). Higher adoption rates in Mora (40%) and Guider (39%) indicate a more advanced structuring of local communities in pasture management. McPeak and Little (2014) note that such initiatives are crucial to preventing land overexploitation and strengthening cooperation among livestock farmers. However, the low adoption in Bogo (30%) and Mogodé (32%) may reflect a lack of community organization or tensions related to local governance of pastoral lands.

### 3.2.5. Introduction of More Resilient Animal Breeds

The adoption of breeds adapted to extreme climatic conditions is limited, with rates ranging from 25% (Mokolo and Tcholiré) to 33% (Mora). Thornton et al. (2009) ; Dzokom, et al., 2024a,b ; Dzokom, 2025a,b; Dzokom, 2023 ; Dzokom, & Djouldé, 2025 and Dzokom, et al., (2025)a,b,c explain that Sahelian livestock farmers often favor local breeds, which are better adapted to environmental constraints despite their lower productivity.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Photo 1: Resilient Animal Breeds</figcaption></figure>

The higher rate in Mora (33%) can be attributed to local genetic improvement initiatives (facilitated by proximity to Nigeria) or the presence of organizations

supporting the breeding of more resilient livestock. Conversely, the lower values in Tcholiré (25%) and Mokolo (25%) highlight obstacles related to high acquisition costs and the socio-cultural acceptance of new breeds.

### 3.2.6. Improvement of Veterinary Services and Health Prevention

Access to veterinary care varies between 27% (Mogodé) and 36% (Guider). According to Bonfoh et al. (2003), access to veterinary services in sub-Saharan Africa remains limited, with disparities across regions. Higher rates in Guider (36%) and Mémé (35%) indicate better veterinary coverage, likely due to vaccination programs and awareness campaigns. In contrast, the lower values in Mogodé (27%) and Bogo (28%) suggest a lack of accessible veterinary structures or the low purchasing power of livestock farmers.

### 3.2.7. Storage and Collective Marketing of Products

This strategy is the least adopted, with rates ranging from 18% (Mogodé and Tcholiré) to 25% (Mora). Barrett et al. (2001) explain that market structuring in the Sahelian region is a challenge, as livestock farmers often prefer to sell their products individually. The higher adoption in Mora (25%) and Guider (24%) suggests a stronger presence of cooperatives or well-organized marketing channels. Conversely, the low rates in Mogodé (18%) and Tcholiré (18%) reveal a lack of structured distribution networks, preventing livestock farmers from maximizing their income.

### 3.3. Analysis and Discussion of Carbon Balance, Ecological Footprint, and CO₂ Emissions in Sedentary Livestock Farming

The analysis of data from the table shows significant variations in carbon balance, ecological footprints, and CO₂ emissions from sedentary livestock farming in the targeted areas.
<table><caption>Table 2: Carbon Balance, Ecological Footprint, and CO₂ Emissions in Sedentary Livestock Farming in Targeted Urban and Peri-Urban Areas</caption><thead><tr><td>Zone</td><td>Carbon Balance (kg CO₂/year)</td><td>Ecological Footprint (ha/capita)</td><td>CO₂ Emissions (kg CO₂/head of livestock/year)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Mokolo</td><td>12,500</td><td>2.1</td><td>850</td></tr><tr><td>Mogodé</td><td>10,800</td><td>1.9</td><td>780</td></tr><tr><td>Mémé</td><td>9,600</td><td>1.8</td><td>720</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>13,200</td><td>2.3</td><td>890</td></tr><tr><td>Bogo</td><td>11,400</td><td>2.0</td><td>810</td></tr><tr><td>Mindif</td><td>10,200</td><td>1.7</td><td>750</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>14,000</td><td>2.4</td><td>920</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>12,700</td><td>2.1</td><td>860</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>11,900</td><td>2.0</td><td>830</td></tr><tr><td>Tcholiré</td><td>10,500</td><td>1.9</td><td>790</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3.3.1. Carbon Balance of Sedentary Livestock Farming

The carbon balance of sedentary livestock farming varies between 9,600 kg CO₂/year (Mémé) and 14,000 kg CO₂/year (Yagoua). Localities with higher carbon balances (Yagoua, Mora, Guider) generally have more intensive livestock farming, with a larger number of animals. This trend aligns with the findings of Steinfeld et al. (2006), which show that increasing livestock numbers leads to a proportional rise in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly methane (CH₄) from ruminant digestion and carbon dioxide (CO₂) related to animal feed production and transport. Localities with relatively lower carbon balances (Mémé, Mindif, Tcholiré) may be associated with less intensive farming systems and management practices better adapted to environmental constraints. However, this hypothesis requires further analysis of livestock management practices and the use of local resources.

### 3.3.2. Ecological Footprint of Livestock Farming

The ecological footprint ranges from 1.7 ha/capita (Mindif) to 2.4 ha/capita (Yagoua). A higher footprint indicates more intensive exploitation of natural resources (pastures, water, agricultural land for animal feed), typically corresponding to higher livestock density and increased reliance on supplementary feeds. According

to Wackernagel and Rees (1996), the ecological footprint directly reflects the impact of human activities on the environment based on available biocapacity.

Areas with lower ecological footprints, such as Mindif and Mémé, may indicate a better adaptation of livestock farming practices to the natural capacity of the environment, with more efficient use of available resources (natural pastures, better management of animal waste). However, this could also suggest limitations in local resources, forcing farmers to adopt rational intensification strategies.

### 3.3.3. CO₂ Emissions per Head of Livestock

CO₂ emissions per head of livestock range from 720 kg CO₂/year (Mémé) to 920 kg CO₂/year (Yagoua). This parameter is a good indicator of the environmental impact of each livestock production unit. The observed variation can be explained by several factors:

* **Type of feeding:** Livestock farms with limited access to natural pastures and greater reliance on concentrated feed generally produce higher emissions due to the industrial processes involved in feed manufacturing (Garnett, 2009; Dzokom, et al., 2025a,b,c; Dzokom, et al., 2024a,b; Dzokom, 2025a,b; Dzokom, 2023; Dzokom, & Djouldé, 2025).
* **Management of organic waste:** Poor management of livestock effluents leads to increased CO₂ and methane (CH₄) emissions, as demonstrated by studies by Gerber et al. (2013).

* **Production system:** Intensive livestock farming tends to produce higher emissions per production unit compared to extensive systems, which rely on local resources and require fewer external inputs (Smith et al., 2008;

Dzokom, 2023; Dzokom, & Djouldé, 2025).

## 3.4. Analysis of Production and Cost Price in Targeted Areas

Based on conducted surveys, the table below presents the production costs and cost price for different livestock sizes in the targeted urban and peri-urban areas:

<table><caption>Table 3: Production Cost and Cost Price in FCFA</caption><thead><tr><th>Zone</th><th>5 heads<br>(Prod./Cost)</th><th>10 heads<br>(Prod./Cost)</th><th>15 heads<br>(Prod./Cost)</th><th>20 heads<br>(Prod./Cost)</th><th>25 heads<br>(Prod./Cost)</th><th>30 heads<br>(Prod./Cost)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Mokolo</td><td>375K / 450K</td><td>750K / 900K</td><td>1.125M / 1.35M</td><td>1.5M / 1.8M</td><td>1.875M / 2.25M</td><td>2.25M / 2.7M</td></tr><tr><td>Mogodé</td><td>350K / 425K</td><td>700K / 850K</td><td>1.05M / 1.275M</td><td>1.4M / 1.7M</td><td>1.75M / 2.125M</td><td>2.1M / 2.55M</td></tr><tr><td>Memé</td><td>390K / 460K</td><td>780K / 920K</td><td>1.17M / 1.38M</td><td>1.56M / 1.84M</td><td>1.95M / 2.3M</td><td>2.34M / 2.76M</td></tr><tr><td>Mora</td><td>400K / 475K</td><td>800K / 950K</td><td>1.2M / 1.425M</td><td>1.6M / 1.9M</td><td>2.0M / 2.375M</td><td>2.4M / 2.85M</td></tr><tr><td>Bogo</td><td>340K / 415K</td><td>680K / 830K</td><td>1.02M / 1.245M</td><td>1.36M / 1.66M</td><td>1.7M / 2.075M</td><td>2.04M / 2.49M</td></tr><tr><td>Mindif</td><td>360K / 440K</td><td>720K / 880K</td><td>1.08M / 1.32M</td><td>1.44M / 1.76M</td><td>1.8M / 2.2M</td><td>2.16M / 2.64M</td></tr><tr><td>Yagoua</td><td>370K / 445K</td><td>740K / 890K</td><td>1.11M / 1.335M</td><td>1.48M / 1.78M</td><td>1.85M / 2.225M</td><td>2.22M / 2.67M</td></tr><tr><td>Guider</td><td>385K / 455K</td><td>770K / 910K</td><td>1.155M / 1.365M</td><td>1.54M / 1.82M</td><td>1.925M / 2.275M</td><td>2.31M / 2.73M</td></tr><tr><td>Lagdo</td><td>395K / 470K</td><td>790K / 940K</td><td>1.185M / 1.41M</td><td>1.58M / 1.88M</td><td>1.975M / 2.35M</td><td>2.37M / 2.82M</td></tr><tr><td>Tcholiré</td><td>365K / 435K</td><td>730K / 870K</td><td>1.095M / 1.305M</td><td>1.46M / 1.74M</td><td>1.825M / 2.175M</td><td>2.19M / 2.61M</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Legend:**

* **Prod. = Production cost** (Total expenses for feeding, caring for, and managing livestock)

* **K = ×1,000 FCFA, M = ×1,000,000 FCFA**

* **Cost = Cost price** (Includes production costs + indirect expenses such as transportation, storage, and marketing).

### 3.4.1. Detailed Analysis of Production and Cost Price in Targeted Areas

The analysis of production costs and cost prices in the targeted urban and peri-urban areas highlights several important trends related to sedentary livestock farming dynamics.

#### 3.4.1.1. Comparison of Production Costs and Cost Prices

##### 3.4.1.1.1. Production Cost

The production cost per head ranges from 68,000 FCFA (Bogo) to 80,000 FCFA (Mora). These differences can be attributed to several factors, such as:

* **Availability of local feed resources:** In Bogo and Mogodé, where agriculture is more developed, agricultural residues and agro-industrial by-products are more accessible, reducing the cost of livestock feed.

* **Infrastructure and veterinary services:** In areas like Mora and Lagdo, where veterinary care and feed supplements are more expensive, production costs tend to be higher.

* **Herd size:** Larger herds benefit from economies of scale, as bulk purchases of feed and veterinary care reduce the unit cost per head.

##### 3.4.1.1.2. Cost Price

The cost price includes, in addition to the production cost, expenses related to management and marketing (transportation, market taxes, storage), animal health, considering vaccinations and treatments, and infrastructure maintenance such as enclosures, water points, and grazing areas. The cost price is higher in areas like Mokolo (90,000 FCFA per head) and Mora (95,000 FCFA per head) due to the increasing
demand for meat and the logistical costs associated with livestock sales.

### 3.4.1.2. Influence of Herd Size on Costs

Increasing the number of heads in a livestock farm generally reduces the unit production cost and cost price due to economies of scale. For a small farmer (5 heads), the total production cost per head is higher because purchases are made in smaller quantities, and infrastructure is less optimized. For a medium-sized farmer (10 to 20 heads), the cost per head begins to decrease slightly as some fixed costs (shelters, water access, veterinary equipment) are better distributed. For a large farmer (25 to 30 heads), the unit cost is optimized since bulk purchases of feed

and veterinary care reduce costs, and fixed expenses are amortized over a larger number of animals. However, increasing herd size also presents challenges, including:

* Space and water management, particularly in areas with high demographic pressure.

* Access to pastures and feed supplements in case of drought.

### 3.4.1.3. Comparison of Areas: Factors Influencing Costs

Overall, the reduction in production costs through agricultural residues and agro-industrial by-products leads to increased production and cost price due to high medical expenses.

<table><caption>Table 4: Comparison of Factors Influencing Costs in Different Areas</caption><thead><tr><td>Cost-Influencing Factors</td><td>Affected Areas</td><td>Observed Effects</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Availability of livestock feed</td><td>Bogo, Mogodé, Yagoua</td><td>Reduction in production cost due to agricultural residues and agro-industrial by-products.</td></tr><tr><td>Cost of veterinary services</td><td>Mora, Lagdo, Guider</td><td>Increase in production and cost price due to high medical expenses.</td></tr><tr><td>Market infrastructure and transport</td><td>Mokolo, Memé, Guider</td><td>Higher cost price due to taxes and transportation to major consumer centers.</td></tr><tr><td>Water and pasture management</td><td>Mindif, Tcholiré, Lagdo</td><td>Higher cost due to investments in wells and water management for livestock.</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3.4.1.4. Economic Implications and Optimization Strategies

#### 3.4.1.4.1. Economic Implications for Farmers

Small farmers (5-10 heads) have higher unit costs and are more vulnerable to fluctuations in feed prices and veterinary services. Medium-sized farmers (15-20 heads) begin to see economies of scale but remain dependent on the availability of natural resources. Large farmers (25-30 heads) are better positioned to cope with crises through optimized management and better profitability.

#### 3.4.1.4.2. Improvement Strategies to Reduce Costs and Increase Profitability

Optimizing production and cost prices in urban and peri-urban sedentary livestock

farming requires strategies adapted to local environmental and economic constraints.

##### 3.4.1.4.2.1. Improving Livestock Feeding

Feed represents a significant portion of production costs (30 to 50%). Effective strategies include using agricultural residues and agro-industrial by-products by incorporating millet and sorghum stalks, peanut cakes, and corn bran to reduce dependence on expensive industrial feeds (Ayantunde et al., 2011). The development of adapted forage crops, such as fodder cowpea or Stylosanthes, could improve food availability and reduce costs (Mertz et al., 2011). The valorization of organic waste into compost and recycling of agricultural waste can enhance local pastures.
3.4.1.4.2. **Water Management and**
**Hydraulic Infrastructure**

Access to water is a major challenge in the
Sahelian zone. Strategies include
constructing boreholes and modern wells to
reduce the distance traveled for watering
and decrease animal fatigue (Reij &
Smaling, 2008). Rainwater harvesting
through retention basins and tanks in
sedentary livestock areas. Promotion of
water-efficient irrigation systems, such as
drip irrigation for forage crops.

3.4.1.4.2.3. Improving Veterinary Care and Health Prevention

Animal diseases can lead to significant
economic losses. Strategies to counteract
this include access to vaccines and
treatments through vaccination campaigns
to reduce mortality (Turner et al., 2014).
Training farmers in primary care to
strengthen local skills for early disease
detection and treatment. Pooling veterinary
costs through cooperatives to negotiate
reduced rates with veterinarians.

3.4.1.4.2.4. Enhancing Marketing and Profitability

Improving marketing and profitability
involves livestock storage and collective
selling to avoid selling during
overproduction periods when prices are
low. Processing products through the
production of fermented milk, cheese, or
dried meat to increase added value. Access
to urban and digital markets through online
platforms to connect farmers with urban
consumers.

3.5. Impact of Climate on Production and
Cost Price

Climate change directly affects the
profitability of sedentary livestock farming.

3.5.1. Rising Temperatures and Heat Stress

Increasing water needs for animals, which
raises water management costs. Declining
livestock productivity (weight loss, reduced
milk production) and higher risks of

parasitic and infectious diseases (Holmer,
1996).

3.5.2. Pasture Scarcity and Livestock Food Insecurity

The scarcity of pastures and livestock food insecurity result from the decrease in natural forage resources due to desertification and rainfall variability, rising prices of industrial feeds increasing production costs, and the development of land-use conflicts between farmers and herders (Turner et al., 2014).

3.5.3. Impact on Livestock Marketing and Prices

Increased livestock mortality during drought periods leads to excess supply and lower market prices. On the other hand, rising transportation costs for livestock to urban markets are due to deteriorating infrastructure during the rainy season.

3.5.4. Impact of Public Policies on
Sustainable Livestock Farming

Public policies play a key role in supporting or hindering adaptation strategies for farmers in urban and peri-urban areas. They directly influence production costs and livestock profitability through subsidies, regulations, and development programs.

3.5.4.1. Subsidies and Government Assistance

Some public policies facilitate access to
inputs and infrastructure. Feed subsidies
help reduce feeding costs during drought
periods. For example, several Sahelian
countries have established emergency funds
for farmers affected by pasture scarcity
(Mertz et al., 2011). Support for well
digging and irrigation is backed by public
funding for boreholes and water storage
systems (Reij & Smaling, 2008). Assistance
for vaccination and veterinary services to
reduce healthcare costs and improve
livestock productivity.
### 3.5.4.2. Regulation and Access to Resources

Land management policies through the establishment of clear access rights to pastures and water points can limit conflicts between farmers and herders (Turner et al., 2014; Balna, 2022). Sanitary standards and livestock product quality regulations impose strict health requirements that otherwise increase costs for small farmers. However, they ensure better competitiveness in national and international markets.

### 3.5.4.3. Training Programs and Capacity Building

Public initiatives could encourage livestock modernization by funding training on best practices in animal nutrition, herd management, and the use of new technologies (Ayantunde et al., 2011).

## 3.6. Technological Solutions for Sustainable Livestock Farming

Technological innovation plays a crucial role in adapting to climate challenges and improving productivity.

### 3.6.1. Innovations in Animal Feeding

Hydroponic forage allows forage production in a controlled environment, with little water and without reliance on rainfall. Enriched feed supplements through formulations containing minerals and probiotics improve digestion and livestock growth.

### 3.6.2. Smart Water Management

Automated watering systems regulate water distribution to prevent wastage. Sensors and drones for water point monitoring using remote sensing to identify drought-risk areas and optimize water point locations.

### 3.6.3. Improving Animal Health Through Digital Tools

Veterinary telemedicine through remote consultations for diagnosing and treating diseases without costly travel. Connected sensors on livestock allow real-time

monitoring of body temperature and feeding behavior to detect diseases early.

### 3.6.4. Digital Platforms and Market Access

Mobile applications for selling livestock and livestock products facilitate market access by reducing intermediaries. Blockchain for traceability improves transparency and consumer trust by ensuring product origin and quality.

## 4. Discussion of Implications and Recommendations

The analysis of the results highlights the importance of adopting sustainable practices to reduce the environmental footprint of sedentary livestock farming in the targeted areas. Several recommendations can be formulated, such as:

* Improving animal feed by encouraging the use of alternative low-carbon feeds, such as local forages and agricultural by-products (Herrero et al., 2016).

* Promoting integrated agro-pastoral systems, which help diversify food sources and reduce dependence on industrial feeds.

Efficient management of animal waste could enable the development of biodigester units to convert organic waste into biogas, thereby reducing methane emissions and providing a sustainable energy alternative (FAO, 2013). The valorization of animal waste as soil amendments also helps reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers and lowers the overall environmental impact.

Optimizing livestock infrastructure involves investing in modern watering and pasture management systems to prevent the overexploitation of water and forage resources. It also includes developing rotational grazing systems to limit soil degradation and improve the resilience of pastoral ecosystems.

Reducing the carbon footprint of livestock farming could be achieved by promoting tree planting in grazing areas to offset part
of the CO₂ emissions through carbon sequestration (Nair et al., 2009). However, policies should be encouraged to support farmers in adopting eco-friendly practices, such as environmental certification of livestock products.

**4.1. Conclusion**

The graphical results confirm the growing impact of climate change on Sahelian ecosystems. Rising temperatures and potential evapotranspiration (PET), combined with decreasing rainfall and worsening droughts, require farmers to rethink their practices. Transitioning to more resilient systems that combine livestock farming with sustainable agriculture, along with improving water infrastructure, will be crucial to mitigating the impacts of these climate changes.

Improving livestock practices and adopting climate-resilient strategies are essential to ensuring the profitability of urban and peri-urban sedentary livestock farming. Integrating innovation, sustainable management techniques, and strengthening local capacities can reduce costs while maintaining high productivity. The incorporation of public policies and modern technologies in sedentary livestock farming enhances resilience to climatic and economic challenges. Adopting solutions adapted to the Sahelian context can lower costs and increase the profitability of urban and peri-urban livestock farming.

Sedentary livestock farming in urban and peri-urban areas of the Sahelian region of Cameroon faces growing environmental challenges, including climate variability, natural resource degradation, and land pressure. Rising temperatures, declining rainfall, and urban expansion have led to a reduction in pastoral land and water resources, jeopardizing the sustainability of livestock systems. In response to these constraints, farmers have developed various adaptation strategies, such as integrating new feed sources for livestock, adopting breeds more resistant to arid conditions, optimizing water resource management,

and establishing community organizations to defend their interests. However, these strategies remain limited by economic, institutional, and land-related factors, necessitating a more comprehensive and coordinated approach.

The study of the carbon balance, ecological footprint, and CO₂ emissions in sedentary livestock farming in the targeted areas highlights the variability of environmental impacts based on local practices. Yagoua and Mora exhibit higher carbon balances and emissions, likely due to livestock intensification and pressure on resources. Conversely, localities such as Memé and Mindif seem to benefit from more sustainable practices, though their systems may be constrained by limited resources. Optimizing livestock systems requires integrated resource management, more sustainable feeding practices, and better utilization of organic waste. A coordinated approach involving farmers, local institutions, and researchers is essential to ensuring the sustainability of livestock farming while minimizing its environmental impact.

To ensure the long-term sustainability of sedentary livestock farming in the Sahelian region, it is crucial to strengthen public policies, improve access to financing and adapted infrastructure, and promote sustainable natural resource management. Close collaboration between researchers, farmers, and policymakers will help implement solutions tailored to local realities and enhance the sector's resilience to environmental changes.

Future research should explore the long-term effectiveness of adaptation strategies and identify innovative models for sustainable urban and peri-urban livestock farming, thereby contributing to food security and the socio-economic development of Sahelian regions in Cameroon. The analysis of production and operating costs in urban and peri-urban livestock farming in the targeted areas shows that profitability heavily depends on the availability of feed resources, access to
veterinary services, and the efficiency of
marketing channels.

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