results. However, it is paramount that scenarios be as realistic as possible. At the cradle-to-grave level in particular, given the length of the supply chain and the resulting large need for data, scenarios may combine primary and secondary data sets that are not consistent. Examples include a proxy for a farming system that is too different from the actual system, or a scenario that does not correlate changes in inputs and outputs at the plot level. Given that the agricultural stage often contributes significantly to many impacts, even at the cradle-to-grave level, we should bear in mind that agricultural systems are complex living ecosystems, whose configurations may be extremely numerous and proper characterisations lie in the detail.

## CRediT authorship contribution statement

C. Chéron-Bessou: Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. I. Acosta-Alba: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. J. Boissy: Investigation. S. Payen: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. C. Rigal: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. A.A.R. Setiawan: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. M. Sevenster: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. T. Tran: Investigation. A. Azapagic: Investigation, Writing – review & editing.

## Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Cécile Chéron-Bessou reports financial support was provided by European Commission and the Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

## Acknowledgements

This work is part of the project Soil quality Assessment in Agriculture For life cycle assessment-based Eco-design (SAAFE), funded by the European Commission under the Global Individual Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellowship Grant Number: 843845. This work was co-funded by ISIC, the Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee.

The authors warmly thank the three reviewers and the editor for their very thorough and valuable comments on the manuscript. They greatly contributed to improve the quality of this article.

Finally, the authors would like to pay a tribute to their colleague and friend, Joachim Boissy, co-author of this work. Joachim was a beloved beautiful person, he will not be forgotten.

## Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2024.04.005.

## References

Acosta-Alba, I., Chia, E., Andrieu, N., 2019. The LCA4CSA framework: using life cycle assessment to strengthen environmental sustainability analysis of climate smart agriculture options at farm and crop system levels. Agr. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.02.001.

Acosta-Alba, I., Boissy, J., Chia, E., Andrieu, N., 2020. Integrating diversity of smallholder coffee cropping systems in environmental analysis. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-019-01689-5.

Adams, M., Ghaly, A.E., 2007. Maximizing sustainability of the Costa Rican coffee industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, From Material Flow Analysis to Material Flow Management 15, 1716–1729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.08.013.

Alemu, A., Dufera, E., 2017. Climate smart coffee (coffea arabica) production. American Journal of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 2 (2), 62–68.

Aristizábal-Marulanda, V., Garcia-Velasquez, C.A., Cardona Alzate, C.A., 2021a. Environmental assessment of energy-driven biorefineries: the case of the coffee cut-stems (CCS) in Colombia. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01855-0.

Aristizábal-Marulanda, V., Solarte-Toro, J.C., Cardona Alzate, C.A., 2021b. Study of biorefineries based on experimental data: production of bioethanol, biogas, syngas, and electricity using coffee-cut stems as raw material. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 28, 24590–24604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09804-y.

Basavalingaiah, K., Paramesh, V., Parajuli, R., Girisha, H.C., Shivaprasad, M., Vidyashree, G.V., Thoma, G., Hanumanthappa, M., Yogesh, G.S., Misra, S.D., Bhat, S., Irfan, M.M., Rajanna, G.A., 2022. Energy flow and life cycle impact assessment of coffee-pepper production systems: an evaluation of conventional, integrated and organic farms in India. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 92, 106687 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2021.106687.

Bessou, C., Basset-Mens, C., Tran, T., Benoist, A., 2013. LCA applied to perennial cropping systems: a review focused on the farm stage. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 340–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0502-z.

Bessou, C., Basset-Mens, C., Latunussa, C., Vélu, A., Heitz, H., Vannière, H., Caliman, J.-P., 2016. Partial modelling of the perennial crop cycle misleads LCA results in two contrasted case studies. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 21, 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1030-z.

Beyene, A., Kassahun, Y., Addis, T., Assefa, F., Amsalu, A., Legesse, W., Kloos, H., Triest, L., 2012. The impact of traditional coffee processing on river water quality in Ethiopia and the urgency of adopting sound environmental practices. Environ. Monit. Assess. 184, 7053–7063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2479-7.

Birkenberg, A., Birner, R., 2018. The world's first carbon neutral coffee: Lessons on certification and innovation from a pioneer case in Costa Rica. J. Clean. Prod. 189, 485–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.226.

Blinová, L., Sirotiak, M., Bartosová, A., Soldán, M., 2017. Review: utilization of waste from coffee production. Research Papers Faculty of Materials Science and Technology Slovak University of Technology 25, 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1515/rput-2017-0011.

Boulay, A.-M., Bare, J., Benini, L., Berger, M., Lathuillière, M.J., et al., 2018. The WULCA consensus characterization model for water scarcity footprints: assessing impacts of water consumption based on available water remaining (AWARE). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 23 (2), 368–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-017-1333-8.

Brenes-Peralta, L., De Menna, F., Vittuari, M., 2022. Interlinked driving factors for decision-making in sustainable coffee production. Environ. Dev. Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02821-6.

Brommer, E., Stratmann, B., Quack, D., 2011. Environmental impacts of different methods of coffee preparation. Int. J. Consum. Stud. 35, 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00971.x.

BSI, 2012. PAS 2050-1:2012 Assessment of life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Horticultural Products, 46.

BSI (British Standards Institution), 2011. The Guide to PAS 2050:2011: How to Carbon Footprint Your Products, Identify Hotspots and Reduce Emissions in Your Supply Chain. London, UK, p. 79 (ISBN 978-0-580-77432-4).

Büsser, S., Jungbluth, N., 2009. The role of flexible packaging in the life cycle of coffee and butter. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 14, 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-008-0056-2.

Catalan, E., Komilis, D., Sanchez, A., 2019. Environmental impact of cellulose production from coffee husks by solid-state fermentation: a life-cycle assessment. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.100.

Cerutti, A.K., Beccaro, G.L., Bruun, S., Bosco, S., Donno, D., Notarnicola, B., Bounous, G., 2013. LCA application in the fruit sector: state of the art and recommendations for environmental declarations of fruit products. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.09.017.

Chanakya, H.N., De Alwis, A.A.P., 2004. Environmental issues and management in primary coffee processing. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 82, 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1205/095758204323162319.

Chayer, J.-A., Kicak, K., 2015. Life Cycle Assessment of Coffee Consumption: Comparison of Single-Serve Coffee and Bulk Coffee Brewing. Quantis, Montreal, Canada.

Coltro, L., Mourad, A., Oliveira, P., Baddini, J., Kletecke, R., 2006. Environmental profile of Brazilian green coffee. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.01.230.

Conservation International, 2020. The Sustainable Coffee Challenge Sets Ambitious 2050 Climate Goal. retrieved from webpage: https://www.conservation.org/press-releases/2020/12/21/the-sustainable-coffee-challenge-sets-ambitious-2050-climate-goal.

Cruz, R., 2014. Coffee by-products: Sustainable Agro-Industrial Recovery and Impact on Vegetables Quality. Facultade de Farmacia, Master II, Universidade de Porto, Porto (117p).

Dadi, D., Daba, G., Beyene, A., Luis, P., Van der Bruggen, B., 2019. Composting and co-composting of coffee husk and pulp with source-separated municipal solid waste: a breakthrough in valorization of coffee waste. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agricult 8, 263–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-019-0256-8.

De Figueiredo Tavares, M.P., Mourad, A.L., 2020. Coffee beverage preparation by different methods from an environmental perspective. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 25, 1356–1367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-019-01719-2.

De Marco, I., Riemma, S., Iannone, R., 2018. Life cycle assessment of supercritical CO2 extraction of caffeine from coffee beans. J. Supercrit. Fluids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.11.005.

Djufry, F., Wulandari, S., Villano, R., 2022. Climate smart agriculture implementation on coffee smallholders in Indonesia and strategy to accelerate. Land 11, 1112. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11071112.
results. However, it is paramount that scenarios be as realistic as possible. At the cradle-to-grave level in particular, given the length of the supply chain and the resulting large need for data, scenarios may combine primary and secondary data sets that are not consistent. Examples include a proxy for a farming system that is too different from the actual system, or a scenario that does not correlate changes in inputs and outputs at the plot level. Given that the agricultural stage often contributes significantly to many impacts, even at the cradle-to-grave level, we should bear in mind that agricultural systems are complex living ecosystems, whose configurations may be extremely numerous and proper characterisations lie in the detail.

## CRediT authorship contribution statement

C. Chéron-Bessou: Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. I. Acosta-Alba: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. J. Boissy: Investigation. S. Payen: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. C. Rigal: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. A.A.R. Setiawan: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. M. Sevenster: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. T. Tran: Investigation. A. Azapagic: Investigation, Writing – review & editing.

## Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Cécile Chéron-Bessou reports financial support was provided by European Commission and the Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

## Acknowledgements

This work is part of the project Soil quality Assessment in Agriculture For life cycle assessment-based Eco-design (SAAFE), funded by the European Commission under the Global Individual Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellowship Grant Number: 843845. This work was co-funded by ISIC, the Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee.

The authors warmly thank the three reviewers and the editor for their very thorough and valuable comments on the manuscript. They greatly contributed to improve the quality of this article.

Finally, the authors would like to pay a tribute to their colleague and friend, Joachim Boissy, co-author of this work. Joachim was a beloved beautiful person, he will not be forgotten.

## Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2024.04.005.

## References

* Acosta-Alba, I., Chia, E., Andrieu, N., 2019. The LCA4CSA framework: using life cycle assessment to strengthen environmental sustainability analysis of climate smart agriculture options at farm and crop system levels. Agr. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.02.001.

* Acosta-Alba, I., Boissy, J., Chia, E., Andrieu, N., 2020. Integrating diversity of smallholder coffee cropping systems in environmental analysis. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-019-01689-5.

* Adams, M., Ghaly, A.E., 2007. Maximizing sustainability of the Costa Rican coffee industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, From Material Flow Analysis to Material Flow Management 15, 1716–1729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.08.013.

* Alemu, A., Dufera, E., 2017. Climate smart coffee (coffea arabica) production. American Journal of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 2 (2), 62–68.

* Aristizábal-Marulanda, V., Garcia-Velasquez, C.A., Cardona Alzate, C.A., 2021a. Environmental assessment of energy-driven biorefineries: the case of the coffee cut-stems (CCS) in Colombia. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01855-0.

* Aristizábal-Marulanda, V., Solarte-Toro, J.C., Cardona Alzate, C.A., 2021b. Study of biorefineries based on experimental data: production of bioethanol, biogas, syngas, and electricity using coffee-cut stems as raw material. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 28, 24590–24604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09804-y.

* Basavalingaiah, K., Paramesh, V., Parajuli, R., Girisha, H.C., Shivaprasad, M., Vidyashree, G.V., Thoma, G., Hanumanthappa, M., Yogesh, G.S., Misra, S.D., Bhat, S., Irfan, M.M., Rajanna, G.A., 2022. Energy flow and life cycle impact assessment of coffee-pepper production systems: an evaluation of conventional, integrated and organic farms in India. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 92, 106687 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2021.106687.

* Bessou, C., Basset-Mens, C., Tran, T., Benoist, A., 2013. LCA applied to perennial cropping systems: a review focused on the farm stage. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 340–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0502-z.

* Bessou, C., Basset-Mens, C., Latunussa, C., Vélu, A., Heitz, H., Vannière, H., Caliman, J.-P., 2016. Partial modelling of the perennial crop cycle misleads LCA results in two contrasted case studies. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 21, 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1030-z.

* Beyene, A., Kassahun, Y., Addis, T., Assefa, F., Amsalu, A., Legesse, W., Kloos, H., Triest, L., 2012. The impact of traditional coffee processing on river water quality in Ethiopia and the urgency of adopting sound environmental practices. Environ. Monit. Assess. 184, 7053–7063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2479-7.

* Birkenberg, A., Birner, R., 2018. The world's first carbon neutral coffee: Lessons on certification and innovation from a pioneer case in Costa Rica. J. Clean. Prod. 189, 485–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.226.

* Blinová, L., Sirotiak, M., Bartosová, A., Soldán, M., 2017. Review: utilization of waste from coffee production. Research Papers Faculty of Materials Science and Technology Slovak University of Technology 25, 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1515/rput-2017-0011.

* Boulay, A.-M., Bare, J., Benini, L., Berger, M., Lathuillière, M.J., et al., 2018. The WULCA consensus characterization model for water scarcity footprints: assessing impacts of water consumption based on available water remaining (AWARE). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 23 (2), 368–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-017-1333-8.

* Brenes-Peralta, L., De Menna, F., Vittuari, M., 2022. Interlinked driving factors for decision-making in sustainable coffee production. Environ. Dev. Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02821-6.

* Brommer, E., Stratmann, B., Quack, D., 2011. Environmental impacts of different methods of coffee preparation. Int. J. Consum. Stud. 35, 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00971.x.

* BSI, 2012. PAS 2050-1:2012 Assessment of life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Horticultural Products, 46.

* BSI (British Standards Institution), 2011. The Guide to PAS 2050:2011: How to Carbon Footprint Your Products, Identify Hotspots and Reduce Emissions in Your Supply Chain. London, UK, p. 79 (ISBN 978-0-580-77432-4).

* Büsser, S., Jungbluth, N., 2009. The role of flexible packaging in the life cycle of coffee and butter. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 14, 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-008-0056-2.

* Catalan, E., Komilis, D., Sanchez, A., 2019. Environmental impact of cellulose production from coffee husks by solid-state fermentation: a life-cycle assessment. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.100.

* Cerutti, A.K., Beccaro, G.L., Bruun, S., Bosco, S., Donno, D., Notarnicola, B., Bounous, G., 2013. LCA application in the fruit sector: state of the art and recommendations for environmental declarations of fruit products. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.09.017.

* Chanakya, H.N., De Alwis, A.A.P., 2004. Environmental issues and management in primary coffee processing. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 82, 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1205/095758204323162319.

* Chayer, J.-A., Kicak, K., 2015. Life Cycle Assessment of Coffee Consumption: Comparison of Single-Serve Coffee and Bulk Coffee Brewing. Quantis, Montreal, Canada.

* Coltro, L., Mourad, A., Oliveira, P., Baddini, J., Kletecke, R., 2006. Environmental profile of Brazilian green coffee. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.01.230.

* Conservation International, 2020. The Sustainable Coffee Challenge Sets Ambitious 2050 Climate Goal. retrieved from webpage: https://www.conservation.org/press-releases/2020/12/21/the-sustainable-coffee-challenge-sets-ambitious-2050-climate-goal.

* Cruz, R., 2014. Coffee by-products: Sustainable Agro-Industrial Recovery and Impact on Vegetables Quality. Facultade de Farmacia, Master II, Universidade de Porto, Porto (117p).

* Dadi, D., Daba, G., Beyene, A., Luis, P., Van der Bruggen, B., 2019. Composting and co-composting of coffee husk and pulp with source-separated municipal solid waste: a breakthrough in valorization of coffee waste. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agricult 8, 263–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-019-0256-8.

* De Figueiredo Tavares, M.P., Mourad, A.L., 2020. Coffee beverage preparation by different methods from an environmental perspective. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 25, 1356–1367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-019-01719-2.

* De Marco, I., Riemma, S., Iannone, R., 2018. Life cycle assessment of supercritical CO2 extraction of caffeine from coffee beans. J. Supercrit. Fluids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.11.005.

* Djufry, F., Wulandari, S., Villano, R., 2022. Climate smart agriculture implementation on coffee smallholders in Indonesia and strategy to accelerate. Land 11, 1112. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11071112.
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Rahn, E., Läderach, P., Baca, M., Cressy, C., Schroth, G., Malin, D., Van Rikxoort, H., Shriver, J., 2014. Climate change adaptation, mitigation and livelihood benefits in coffee production: where are the synergies? Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 19, 1119–1137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-013-9467-x.

Ratchawat, T., Panyatona, S., Nopchinwong, P., Chidthaisong, A., Chiarakorn, S., 2020. Carbon and water footprint of Robusta coffee through its production chains in Thailand. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 22, 2415–2429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0299-4.

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Youkhana, A.H., Idol, T.W., 2016. Leucaena-KX2 mulch additions increase growth, yield and soil C and N in a managed full-sun coffee system in Hawaii. Agrofor. Syst. 90, 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-015-9857-z.
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Trinh, L.T.K., Hu, A.H., Lan, Y.C., Chen, Z.H., 2020. Comparative life cycle assessment for conventional and organic coffee cultivation in Vietnam. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-019-02539-5.

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Usva, K., Sinkko, T., Silvenius, F., Riipi, I., Heusala, H., 2020. Carbon and water footprint of coffee consumed in Finland-life cycle assessment. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01799-5.

Van Rikxoort, H., 2011. The Potential of Mesoamerican Coffee Production Systems to Mitigate Climate Change. In: Climate Change Management. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31110-9_43.

Van Rikxoort, H., Läderach, P., Van Hal, J., 2013. The potential of Latin American coffee production systems to mitigate climate change. In: Leal Filho, W. (Ed.), Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management, Climate Change Management. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 655–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31110-9_43.

Van Rikxoort, H., Schroth, G., Läderach, P., Rodríguez-Sánchez, B., 2014. Carbon footprints and carbon stocks reveal climate-friendly coffee production. Agronomy and Sustainable Development. 34, 887–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-014- 0223-8.

Vera-Acevedo, L.D., Vélez-Henao, J.A., Marulanda-Grisales, N., 2016. Assessment of the environmental impact of three types of fertilizers on the cultivation of coffee at the Las Delicias indigenous reservation (Cauca) starting from the life cycle assessment. Revista Facultad de Ingeniería Universidad de Antioquia 93–101. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.redin.n81a09.

Viere, T., von Enden, J., Schaltegger, S., 2011. Life cycle and supply chain information in environmental management accounting: a coffee case study. Environmental Management Accounting and Supply Chain Management, Eco-Efficiency in Industry and Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1390-1_2.

Vignoli, J.A., Viegas, M.C., Bassoli, D.G., Benassi, M.D.T., 2014. Roasting process affects differently the bioactive compounds and the antioxidant activity of arabica and robusta coffees. Food Res. Int. 61, 279–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. foodres.2013.06.006.

Youkhana, A.H., Idol, T.W., 2016. Leucaena-KX2 mulch additions increase growth, yield and soil C and N in a managed full-sun coffee system in Hawaii. Agrofor. Syst. 90, 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-015-9857-z.