# Distance Learning in Sports: Collaborative Learning in Ice Hockey Acquisition Processes

Masayuki Yamada, Yuta Ogai, Sayaka Tohyama

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Masayuki Yamada, Yuta Ogai, Sayaka Tohyama. Distance Learning in Sports: Collaborative Learning in Ice Hockey Acquisition Processes. IFIP World Conference on Computers in Education (WCCE), Aug 2022, Hiroshima, Japan. pp.309-319, 10.1007/978-3-031-43393-1_28 . hal-05533327

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# Distance Learning in Sports: Collaborative Learning in Ice Hockey Acquisition Processes

Masayuki Yamada<fnref n="1" />(✉) ID, Yuta Ogai<fnref n="2" /> ID, and Sayaka Tohyama<fnref n="3" /> ID

**Abstract.** Is it possible to induce collaborative learning in non-face-to-face learning? The objective of this research is to collaboratively support the sports skill acquisition process in non-face-to-face learning, which is currently growing and becoming widespread, and to study the characteristics of the cognitive aspects therein. An experiment concerning the ice hockey "stickhandling" skill was implemented in a non-face-to-face fashion, with two university students as the participants. In the experiment, a descriptive questionnaire was used concerning cognitive aspects in the acquisition process. The experiment was conducted over the course of eight months. The results of analyzing the descriptive questionnaire revealed a number of descriptions where the participant viewed the other person's movements, aiming to improve their own movement. However, descriptions concerning a participant attempting to improve the other subject's movement could not be observed. In contrast, in a previous study targeting online meetings, collaborative speech was observed. The findings suggested that in a non-face-to-face sports skill acquisition process, with merely an environment that allows for comparative study of the other person's movement and thinking, it would be difficult for collaborative settings regarding the other person's movement to occur. However, the possibility was mentioned for collaborative learning occurring with the addition of online meetings.

**Keywords:** Sports Skill · Non-Face-to-Face Collaborative Learning · Visualization System

## 1 Introduction

Is it possible to induce collaborative learning in non-face-to-face learning?

In recent years, research on collaborative learning to develop a knowledge-based society has been widely conducted (e.g. [1, 2]). Traditional research known as "Intercultural Learning Network" project suggested that students from different countries

<footnote n="1">¹ Kyushu Institute of Technology, 680-4 Kawazu, Iizuka, Fukuoka, Japan
yamada@lai.kyutech.ac.jp</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Tokyo Polytechnic University, 1583 Iiyama, Atsugi, Kanagawa, Japan
ogai@t-kougei.ac.jp</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan
tohyama@inf.shizuoka.ac.jp</footnote>
exchanged their experimental or observational results and discover ideas through dis-
cussions about differences between the results [3]. Asynchronous collaborative learning
examples aimed for “knowledge building” are widely known [4] in the Computer Sup-
ported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) field. CSCL learning environments have been
provided in both face-to-face and distance learning situations to support communities
of learners [5].

In sports skill learning situations, there are many collaborative settings where people train together as teammates. It is thought that the conversations in these settings implicitly turn into learning support. For example, in the scenario of two people playing catch, one person remarks on the other’s form, while the other player then corrects this form in accordance with the received comment, which can be seen in everyday life. Since these collaborative learning settings are too routine and unremarkable, they have not been made into the subject of research. In recent years, such research on implicit physical learning have been widely conducted [e.g., 6, 7].

However, today our lives in the COVID-19 situation include a big part of non-face-to-
face learning: many schools are implementing a significant number of non-face-to-face
classes. Sports learning is no exception. The conventional act of practicing together with a
friend in a field has now become difficult. Clarification regarding where non-face-to-face
implementation is possible is required to support learning going forward.

In sports learning, is it possible to perceive and grasp the process of acquisition, and
is non-face-to-face collaborative learning possible in sports skill acquisition processes?

In the present study, asynchronous-type training is defined as non-face-to-face learn-
ing. Here, we have compared such training with synchronous-type training including
online meetings.

This study was conducted on non-face-to-face collaborative sports skill acquisition
processes, targeting stickhandling in ice hockey. This research is about “acquisition,” the
process of being able to display matured performance in a particular field, such as a sport.
Much research in this domain has come to utilize techniques by comparing professionals
and amateurs [8]. In today’s world, where there is a need for non-face-to-face training,
implicit collaborative processes like the ones described above have not been established.
Due to this, the current situation is one that has not been examined previously. Online
tools are thought to be effective for supporting non-face-to-face collaborative training,
but it would be challenging to describe them as fully sufficient (the reason for this being
that the shift to non-face-to-face was not foreseen). Due to this, there is a need to focus
on non-face-to-face collaborative sports skill acquisition processes, and determine what
kind of learning processes will arise in completely non-face-to-face learning. Moreover,
there is a need for consideration regarding collaborative learning that can be induced
with the introduction of remote online meetings.

There is a need to focus on cognitive aspects that apply to human thinking for research concerning collaborative learning. For example, in research on programming learning [9], analysis has been performed on the cognitive aspects of constructive interactions in the learning process [10]. In sports, we can observe one’s performance like programming. The analysis of cognitive aspects using discourse and the learning process is needed based on the observed performance data. Further, some research revealed characteristics in a long-term learning process by cutting-edged technology. For example, Roy [11]
recorded all the speech of his son from his birth to age three at home and revealed a case of the process of language acquisition. Long-term data will also be necessary to examine the process of sports skill acquisition.

In research on cognitive aspects in the acquisition process [12], with ice hockey acquisition processes as the subject, cognitive aspect descriptions were indicated via a network diagram, and consideration was made concerning the circumstances of the changes therein. In research on activities conducted as an entire team, game and cognitive analyses were carried out [13], as was analysis of the athletes' respective cognitive aspects. However, since investigations on collaboration between athletes were not implemented, there is a need for such research going forward. In prior studies that developed a system for visualizing collaborative sports skill acquisition processes [14], there was a need for extended application in the implementation of the system, as well as for consideration of collaborative learning processes. Each of these research examples included an everyday, in-person practice environment and was built upon natural forms of learning; given this, there is a need to explore how collaborative learning between athletes takes place online.

## 2 Objective

This study was conducted on how non-face-to-face sports skill acquisition processes—which are currently growing more common—should be collaboratively supported, and considerations were made regarding the characteristics of the cognitive aspects therein.

# 3 Non-Face-To-Face Collaborative Training Experiment

## 3.1 Experimental Participants & Targeted Skills

In this research, an experiment was conducted in a non-face-to-face collaborative training environment. The participants were two university students. The present study took the approach of examining this process through long-term observation. Thus, rather than taking numerous participants as subjects, the study considered only the process of one pair. Collaborative learning settings as a team were assumed, and having explained this background, the experiment was executed for the two participants, who had no prior ice hockey experience. In the experiment, the participants were asked to act as teammates and facilitate improvements in each other's movements by reviewing those movements using the system. One of the participants was a male who played soccer. The other participant was a female who did not play sports. Both had different experiences with sports. However, in Japan, ice hockey is not at all a well-known sport. Most people have never encountered it. Thus, it was believed that the participants' experiences with sports would have little impact upon the results. Beginners were selected because it was believed that this would enable observation of the skill acquisition process. In studies of skill acquisition, experiments often take beginners as subjects.

The targeted skill in the study was “stickhandling.” In ice hockey, stickhandling is the skill of using one’s stick to move the puck (ball) as one desires. A person can carry out training for this skill on their own, but doing so with another person instead might
result in applicable feedback for both individuals. The experiment used a university
laboratory (meaning that dryland training took place), and adjustments were made so
that experimentation for each participant was conducted on different dates and times.
After implementing the experiment for a set period of time with the condition of it
taking place in a completely non-face-to-face manner (hereinafter “first half”), similar
experimentation continued, and was carried out with the condition of one online meeting
per month being set (hereinafter “second half”). The experimentation for both the first
and second halves lasted around four months. However, the first half was halted at
approximately two months due to the COVID-19 pandemic that emerged immediately
after experimentation began.

**3.2 The Number of Experimental Implementations**

As mentioned earlier, the experimentation schedule was adjusted (by the first author); the general standard was once per week, and the number of instances differed between the participants. The experiment was conducted eight times in the first half and 14 times in the second half for Participant A, as well as six times in the first half and 13 times in the second half for Participant B. A video conferencing system was used in the second half of the experiment, and remote online meetings were held four times. In these meetings, the system described below was utilized, and goals for the coming month were established, which were to be realized while continuing to access each other’s movements with regards to the matter of “what should be done to improve each other’s movement.”

**3.3 Training and Test Content**

The training and performance tests in the experiments utilized the company HOCKEY REVOLUTION’s “My Puzzle Systems” [15] (see Fig. 1). This system took place via tablet app, and has plates with colors and numbers arranged in six locations, designed in a way so that instructions concerning where one should move pucks appear.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. The Experimental Environment</figcaption></figure>

The experimental procedure was as follows: (1) The system (described below) was used, and a reflection was conducted (time: freely chosen); (2) Next, training was implemented for a 10-min period, and its contents were set by the participant; (3) After training, a skill test was conducted; (4) Finally, a descriptive questionnaire (described below) was
filled in (time: freely chosen) (see Fig. 2). The duration of the skill test was 30 s. In the test, one of the following instructions was given every 1.5 s: color, number, or pass to right or left. In accordance with these instructions, participants either handled the task on that tile or passed to the right or left. The number of participants' successful responses to each instruction was calculated by reviewing the video on site. Subsequently, the researchers determined whether the number was correct. In this research, the focus was on the cognitive aspects. Due to this, test results were not subjected to analysis. We hope to introduce details concerning performance at another opportunity in the future.

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2. The Experimental Procedure Was as Follows</figcaption></figure>

The system used a speech and movement visualization system for collaborative sports skill acquisition processes, assumed to be in person (HDMI system [14]). With this system, speech and descriptions indicating cognitive aspects in sports competencies were visualized via a network diagram (see Fig. 3) to help users making relations between their physical performances and their meta-cognitive awareness. In the network diagram, words appeared as nodes, and words that co-occur in the same sentence were connected by edges. Further, physical movements were analyzed through OpenPose [16]; the movement for each body part was rendered in graph form (see Fig. 4). To analyze the participant's reports, we used KBDeX [17]. We separately analyzed the participant's responses and plotted a network of the collocations in each sentence. We then analyzed this network focusing on collocations between collocating words associated with "stickhandling" specifically, words describing maneuvers, and words describing body-part positions. In Fig. 4, in the first letter of each item is "R," which indicates the right side of the body parts; if it is "L," it indicates the left side. If the last letter of each item is "X," it represents the horizontal value, and if it is "Y," it represents the vertical value. The remaining letters indicate the location of the part. RShoulderY is the right shoulder, RWristY is the right wrist, and RHipY is the right side of the hip.

A characteristic trait of the system is that, as collaborative skill acquisition settings are assumed, a comparative study of the participant and the other person's current and past movement and descriptive questionnaire data become possible (see Fig. 5). In Fig. 5, along with videos of different participants, the viewer may observe performance assessments, self-assessments, the results of descriptive questionnaire network analysis (the network diagram in the upper-middle part of the figure), as well as body-part coordinates on an x and y-axis in the videos (the two graphs in the lower-middle part of the figure). The descriptive questionnaire was administered upon the pre-training reflection, as well as upon post-test data entry. In the first half of the experiment, the entry items were: "Seeing and thinking about the system, where did you focus during implementation? Why did you think about focusing there?" and "After the training and test ended, where did you think about focusing the next time? Why did you think that?" In the second half,
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3. Network Diagram of Descriptive Questionnaire Data</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 4. System Development</figcaption></figure>

even if the activities were non-face-to-face, the aim was to utilize data and for collaborative learning to emerge, and the following item was added: “Viewing the movement of the other person and thinking that you want to improve your own movement, what would you do for your goals, including those with the other person?”.

# 4 Analysis

For protocol analysis, a tool was used to examine cognitive aspects—such as thinking [18] techniques for coding speech—following which such aspects were counted. In this research, “coding-and-counting analysis” [19] was employed. This method categorizes and counts data for speech and descriptions that indicate cognitive aspects of an objective established in advance. The objective of this research was to focus on cognitive aspects of collaborative acquisition processes in a non-face-to-face sports skill training environment, and to determine the characteristics therein. In an example of prior research
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 5. Visualization System.</figcaption></figure>

that utilized the same system and studied collaborative acquisition processes [20], it was shown that in the process of two children acquiring horizontal bar skills as they conversed, speech relating to their respective thoughts and movements was observed. In this research, consideration was made concerning to what degree collaborative descriptions about the other person were observed in an environment that allowed for mutual observation of each other's movements and cognitive aspects in a non-face-to-face collaborative sports acquisition setting.

In this research, the following two categories were established, and the number of descriptive questionnaires included in each was counted. The unit used was a written description provided by the participant, and a study was conducted regarding how many instances of these appeared.

In the first category, written text was extracted where the participant inspected the other person's data present in the system, and subsequently used it as a reference with their own movement. With in-person skill acquisition processes, situations can be observed in everyday life where a person views another's movement data and then
makes improvement to their own movements. This component, functioning as collaborative learning, often takes place implicitly. This experiment was non-face-to-face, and as with in-person cases, there are instances of being described as a part that is implicitly processed. Further, descriptions were utilized, and consideration was made regarding whether collaborative learning took place. Concretely, subject-written text was extracted that included descriptions where it could be determined that they were explicitly viewing and inspecting the other person's movement, such as "Looking at Person B's movement, I thought to do XX."

As for the other category, a subject-written text was extracted where the objective was to view the system and improve the other person's movement. In team sports, it is highly possible that in settings where a person trains with another, encouragement for improving the other person's movement will arise. This occurs because goals are shared as a team, and teammates build each other up. Concretely, a subject-written text was extracted that included descriptions where it could be determined that the participant was explicitly trying to correct the movements of the other person, such as "I think it would be better if Person B crouched down more."

In this research, extractions were made from descriptive questionnaires, with regard to the two above mentioned categories, and the matter regarding what degree of collaborative learning was taking place in a completely non-face-to-face setting was studied. In addition to the above mentioned analysis, a study was performed regarding whether collaborative speech (such as that seen in prior research examples) arose during online meetings. This consideration targeted speech in four meetings where the system was used, actions were mutually reflected upon, and shared objectives were set. In the online meetings, the two participants reflected and prepared their next objectives. With online meetings, it was predicted that mutual movement and sensations would be shared due to the establishment of goals, and that conversation relating to "mutual movement improvements" would naturally take place. Due to this, the analysis considered whether "mutual movement improvements" related to speech were included in meetings or not.

# 5 Results and Considerations

In this analysis, the two categories of "descriptions concerning corrections in one's own movements, having viewed the other person's movements and data" and "descriptions concerning corrections in the other person's movements" were established. Further, the descriptive questionnaires entered into the system were analyzed. Moreover, a study was conducted regarding whether analysis of speech in online meetings included the presence of "speech relating to mutual movement improvement."

The results extracted from both participants' descriptive questionnaires showed that there were two instances of "descriptions concerning improvement of one's own movements, having viewed the other person's movements and data" in the first half, and three in the second half for Participant A. There were no instances in either period for Participant B (see Table 1). There were no instances of "descriptions concerning corrections in the other person's movements" for either participant. Given the fact that in the eight months spanning the experiment for each, the experiment was implemented 22 times for Participant A and 19 for Participant B, with the appearance of merely five instances
can be considered a value that may be extremely low. In prior research that utilized the same system with in-person practice, speech (such as that described above) could be seen taking place in natural conversation [20]. However, in this non-face-to-face-type experiment, almost no such descriptions of utilizing collaborative advantageous points were observed.

<table><caption>**Table 1.** The Results Extracted from Both Participants' Descriptive Questionnaires</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Number of practices</th><th>Descriptions concerning corrections in one's own movements, having viewed the other person's movements and data</th><th>Descriptions concerning corrections in the other person's movements</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Participant A First half</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Participant B First half</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Participant A Second half</td><td>14</td><td>2</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Participant B Second half</td><td>13</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>

Speech relating to “mutual movement improvement” occurred in every online meeting. That is to say, if a system is utilized where even remotely both individuals can discuss and view learning processes online, then it is highly probable that collaborative learning will take place. It was not the case in this research that training was implemented for two people together online. Nonetheless, utilizing a visualization system may allow for a comparative study of each person's respective training images, movement analysis, and descriptive questionnaires, which will make it possible to induce collaborative learning with online viewing and discussions. Such speech may be related to coaching. Further, such collaborative interactions may be thought of as circumstances similar to a setting wherein people train in real time.

## 6 Outlook

The objective of this research was to collaboratively support non-face-to-face learning in sports skill acquisition settings, focusing on cognitive aspects and studying their characteristics. It was implied that with training that enables, via a system, the viewing of a variety of data concerning the movement and thinking of the other person, it would be difficult for collaborative settings to occur with regard to each other's performance. It suggests that sharing a video in a gymnastics class for sports education
will not encourage students to comment on each other. Moreover, it may be difficult for collaborative learning to take place in completely non-face-to-face, text-only interactions (for example, forums or message boards), which is not strictly limited to sports. In the background here, with text-only interactions, it is difficult for detailed nuances to be conveyed. However, in online meetings, training where past learning processes were viewed and inspected, it was implied that it is possible for collaborative learning to occur. In educational settings such as at schools, the construction of training that allows for mutual viewing of completely in-person individual learning processes, and the introduction of discussion actions through online meetings, can make it possible for collaborative learning to occur.

This research contains the implications of an experiment with a single pair of participants. There is a need for such studies, which focus on remote collaborative learning on a larger scale. Specifically, it is necessary to increase the number of participants as well as the amount of data. However, in a previous study by Roy [11], there was a significant impact upon the one participant in the study. In regard to these results as well, our plan is to follow up with continued long-term observation and to also consider the generalization of results.

Additionally, implementing detailed analysis, such as what kind of visualization system for information was utilized, may lead to the development of systems with greater learning effectiveness. In a previous study [7], postures were converted into numbers, and a cluster analysis of the relevant changes was displayed in the form of color bars. The system used here shows movements in the various video coordinates. We expect that it will be difficult to understand such coordinate data itself and to carry out investigations using it. For this reason, it is necessary to devise visualization methods that support learning by beginners. It is also necessary to consider whether these experimental results were brought about by the later addition of online meetings and whether there was any problem with the visualization of movements.

A study on performance in sports learning is also essential. For example, lowering one's waist is suggested in the ice hockey shooting skill acquisition process [21]. In terms of what kind of information may be visualized in support systems in various skill learning situations to lead to better support, the matter is one of domain specificity; thus, there is a need to examine systems that are based on the respective learning matters and interests of the participants. In this study, the analysis does not focus on individual reflections. However, we would introduce a statement as follows: "I'm getting better at passing the ball smoothly, but I need to pay attention to seeing the ball and giving it straight to where I want it to go." It suggests that the system helped her look back: thinking about other tasks after completing one task. In the future, we would like to continue studying when the subjects hope to cooperate with their partner and how the cooperation impacts their performances due to the provided technology.

**Acknowledgements.** This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 22K12315.

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