# Occupied Identities: Female Agency and Gendered Stereotypes in Maxence van der Meersch's Invasion 14

Maria Tudosescu

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## To cite this version:

Maria Tudosescu. Occupied Identities: Female Agency and Gendered Stereotypes in Maxence van der Meersch's Invasion 14. Gender and Warfare, Oct 2024, Aix-en-Provence, France. hal-04920921

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Occupied Identities: Female Agency and Gendered Stereotypes in Maxence van der Meersch's
*Invasion 14*<fnref n="1" />

As a spatially and temporally limited place of interaction, a military occupation opens up a space
defined by violence, scarcity and fear, in which soldiers and civilians live side by side and develop
asymmetrical relations characterised by a deep imbalance of power.

This “third space of war”, as Sophie De Schaepdrijver has called it<fnref n="2" />, neither battlefield nor home
front, often dissolved the boundaries between combat and civilian spheres, abruptly changing the
social, political and cultural life of the occupied.

In 1914, when German soldiers invaded the northern departments of France, women suddenly found themselves at the mercy of a brutal enemy force. With the country's men absent, they were left on their own, with no one else to shield them. As a result, they had to (to quote Matthias Buschmeier) "negotiate their roles as mothers, daughters, lovers, citizens and survivors in a hostile environment", while simultaneously "enacting agency and resistance in their own way"<fnref n="3" />. Women thus found themselves in the paradoxical situation of both being able (and forced) to act more independently to ensure their own survival, while at the same time facing extreme gender-based violence. The layered power imbalance, both gendered and military, often led to women being perceived as commodities to be traded within the occupied society:

> Everything was expensive: sixty francs for a bottle of mediocre wine, a hundred francs for a skinny chicken, a hundred francs for a loaf of white bread, eighty francs for a litre of salad dressing [...]. A single commodity had seen a marked discount: prostitutes. One could get girls for next to nothing: a mouthful of bread alone, a plateful of cold meat in a tavern, a chocolate in a pastry shop.”<fnref n="4" />

<footnote n="1">¹ Presented on 2.10.2024 at Aix-Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence for “Gender and Warfare” (2-3.10.2024) organised in collaboration with AMU, ECHANGES, UFA, SHoW and FU Berlin</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Sophie de Schaepdrijver, *The Great War's Third Space: Military Occupations in Europe in the Era of the First World War* : https://fasos-research.nl/occupationstudies/the-great-wars-third-space-military-occupations-in-europe-in-the-era-of-the-first-world-war/, accessed on 30.01.2025</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ Buschmeier, Matthias, *European Literatures of Military Occupation: An Introduction to the Topic and Terminology of the Genre in European Literatures of Military Occupation*, Matthias Buschmeier and Jeanne E. Glesener (eds.), 11–48. Shared Experience, Shifting Boundaries, and Aesthetic Affections. Leuven University Press, 2024, p.24</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ Maxence van der Meersch, *Invasion 14*, translated by W. Brian Newsome. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2016, p. 175</footnote>
The comparison drawn here by the writer Maxence van der Meersch in his novel *Invasion 14* between women and perishable objects such as food or wine — with women being the less valuable ones — highlights the gender violence within the occupied society and creates a disturbing parallel that criticises the treatment of women as mere commodities to be traded. The cold, distant voice of the omniscient narrator reflects the attitude towards women and their position in the context of military conflict. It also reveals the exploitative nature of the patriarchal society and the dehumanisation that has led to the perpetuation of gender-based violence, which is never rightly punished after the end of the occupation: The women objectification meant that their trauma became secondary in the collective memory, and the erasure of their experiences only perpetuated this treatment after the war.

Occasionally helpful in their attempts to secure food and protection for themselves and their families, as the historian Nicholas Charles notes, relationships with German officers could offer women a degree of influence within occupied society, which however attracted the fear, jealousy and hatred of the rest of the community. As the historian points out, while it ensured their survival (and often that of their families), their transgression of gender norms imposed a stigma on them. When the war ended and the men returned from the front, women were faced with a reassertion of traditional roles, facing social judgement (and in some cases traumatic punishment) for their wartime behaviour — often from those who had relied on them during the conflict. However, analysing the complexity of each situation was not a priority after 1918: All relations with the German occupiers were either condemned or completely erased from the collective memory in an effort to create a narrative of French martyrdom and heroism. Already ridiculed as 'boches de nord' by the rest of the country, the northerners' main concern was to return to 'normality' and rebuild their identity as honest, fighting Frenchmen.

Literary narratives offer however a privileged space and a valuable resource for analysing the transition from times of occupation to times of peace. As Matthias Buschmeier points out in his introduction to the book *European Literatures of Military Occupation* (2024), literary narratives of occupation “present such (en)gendered spaces as a reality that affects women in particular ways”<fnref n="5" /> and show how this experience is perceived differently by the genders. Moreover, occupation literature, mostly published in the aftermath of the event, can “create, reinforce or challenge certain historical narratives through its aesthetic and affective potential”<fnref n="6" />, highlighting the complexity of

<footnote n="5">⁵ Buschmeier, Matthias, *European Literatures of Military Occupation*, p.21</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Ibid., 38</footnote>
the experience and bringing to light both historical facts and affective realities that would otherwise
remain overlooked.

Applying a gendered approach to the phenomenon of occupation, the aim of my presentation is to
show how Maxence van der Meersch, a prolific writer from northern France, constructed the image
of the woman within German-occupied society during the First World War. Using the character of
Judith Lacombe as example, I will analyse the depiction of female agency in the French novel
Invasion 14, showing the ways in which fiction can draw on cultural and literary narrative plots to
contrast with or perpetuate gendered stereotypes of the *femmes à boches* after 1918.

## Inspiration

Published in France in 1935, Maxence van der Meersch's novel *Invasion 14* is a unique example of World War I occupation literature, reconstructing in over 500 pages the complex realities of four years of German occupation in northern France. With over 60 characters, the author creates a narrative that aims to reveal the nuanced relationships formed within the occupied society and to challenge the dichotomous post-war narratives of victims and perpetrators.

Van der Meersch, a naturalist inspired by Balzac and Zola, is particularly concerned with the
construction of his characters: through the use of names and physical characteristics, the writer
reveals important inner qualities. By naming the town mayor's daughter Judith Lacombe, van der
Meersch draws on the religious and cultural heritage of the *Book of Judith*, a biblical epic included
in the Catholic Old Testament.

The title character, a widow of Jewish descent, uses her charms to trick and kill the besieger of her
city and is celebrated by her people as the saviour of Bethulia. In this instance, the qualities that are
often associated with femininity — beauty, harmlessness, innocence — are weaponised against the
male aggressor who perceives Judith through gender stereotypes. These preconceptions allow Judith
to defeat the enemy, thus redefining the concept and attributes of a hero.

Drawing on the inversion of gender roles in times of military conflict as depicted in the biblical
narrative, van der Meersch constructs a subversive character in his own Judith, who learns to use
her charms for the benefit of the occupied people, obtaining favours and food for them through her
connections to the German officers. Like the widow Judith, the mayor's daughter, “slender and high
strung, with a long, pale face and black hair”<fnref n="7" />, reflects societal ideals of female beauty, which
contrast however with “a hot-headed disposition, a quick-tempered and whimsical nature”<fnref n="8" />, traits

<footnote n="7">⁷ Maxence van der Meersch, *Invasion 14*, p. 17</footnote>

<footnote n="8">⁸ Ibid.</footnote>
that deviate slightly from traditional expectations of female nature (“hot-headed” and “quick-
tempered”) or reinforce gender stereotypes, such as an overly emotional nature (“whimsical”).

Through this juxtaposition, van der Meersch anticipates from the outset the tension between gender
norms and Judith's individual characteristics, the inner struggle between what is expected of her and
her own desires. Cast out from her home after claiming her sister's abortion of a pregnancy by a
German soldier, Judith Lacombe has to suffer society's repercussions for something she never did
and is left to fend for herself, forced to make her own way in the occupied society. Though echoing
the situation of the biblical Judith as an independent woman, Judith Lacombe's status is far more
precarious. Unlike widowhood, which would traditionally ensure the respect of society, Judith's
banishment effectively excludes her from her community.

Their postwar fate also reflects this difference. Unlike her biblical namesake, Judith Lacombe is not celebrated by her people, quite the opposite: She is cast out, banished from both German and French society. The juxtaposition of the two stories and their different endings could be seen as an indirect commentary on the gendered violence and prejudice experienced by women at the end of the First World War. Judith Lacombe's independence and subversive power is never regarded as a heroic trait by the other members of the occupied society, but rather as a transgression against the norm.

Another source of inspiration, as Brian Newsome points out in the introduction to *Invasion 14*, is Guy de Maupassant's story *Boule de Suif*. Set during the Franco-Prussian War, the story revolves around a group of French travellers on the run from German invaders. Already evident in the title, Maupassant's central character, *Boule de Suif* (literally, 'ball of fat') reflects society's gendered judgment of women and their objectification; Elizabeth Rousset (by her real name) is dehumanised, her identity fragmented, reduced to her physicality.

Convinced by her fellow travellers to sleep with a German officer in order to continue their journey, Elizabeth ultimately 'consents' (a concept already deeply problematic in this context), only to be later shamed for her actions, despite the fact that it was her who saved everyone in the carriage. Drawing on this occupation narrative, Maxence van der Meersch depicts the objectification of Judith, as well as the dual effects of her agency within the occupied society — on the one hand helping her community, on the other being ostracised for it.

Having fallen in love with the German soldier Albrecht, Judith, though blinded by her own ideals of
love, acts out of devotion and loyalty to Albrecht, enduring social judgment for his sake. But when

<footnote n="9">⁹ Newsome, Brian, *Introduction*, in *Invasion 14*, Maxence van der Meersch, 2016, p. 15</footnote>
she realises that society is not alone in judging her, that he too sees her as nothing more than an
object to satisfy his desires, a profound change takes place within Judith:

> "Insulted, ridiculed, miserably treated like a creature to be sold, she found herself brutally
demanded, fallen from the height of her ideal, degraded by the total degradation of the man she
had loved. Debased, he had debased her along with himself. [...] He was paying her today... He
was paying her according to her deeds, like a harlot deserving of an insult..."<fnref n="10" />

Like Maupassant's Elisabeth, who is forced to sleep with the German officer and then laments her "lost dignity", Judith feels similarly objectified and "degraded". With Judith treated like an object of transaction, passed on by Albrecht to his other fellow soldiers, she loses her sense of self-worth. Judith's inner monologue reveals the internalised patriarchal structures and stereotypes, as she sees herself through the eyes of the man she loves, internalising the prejudice and negative image cast upon her. This external definition imposed on her reflects the performative power of narrative in shaping identity, the portrayal of women as "harlots", as " creature to be sold" influencing the way in which individuals perceive reality — and the way in which one perceives oneself.

## Historical narratives

Maxence van der Meersch also weaves historical narratives into the construction of Judith Lacombe, both following and challenging certain patterns of common postwar narratives.

In the beginning, Judith is portrayed as a romantic soul, vulnerable, her fall into the German soldier's arms allegorising the fall of her country, a narrative often used after the war to put the blame on women for their "horizontal collaboration":

> "She fell into the thick, treacherous bed of hay. Albrecht's massive body was on top of her,
crushing her. (...) She felt powerless ... A sort of faintness, a delicious and perfidious languor,
was invading her. (...) She gave a start, instinctively trying to free herself. In a flash, without
warning, the memory of Pascal passed through her mind, filling her with an unexpected horror.
She stiffened in a reflex movement of defense, in an attempt to escape. But she felt trapped.
Albrecht paralyzed her."<fnref n="11" />

The word "treacherous" is immediately striking, signalling once again the patriarchal condemnation of women who engaged in sexual relations with the occupiers, even if coerced, reflecting the

<footnote n="10">¹⁰ Maxence van der Meersch, *Invasion 14*, p. 197</footnote>

<footnote n="11">¹¹ Ibid., 76</footnote>
stigmatisation of women's bodies as political symbols in times of military occupation. The stark power imbalance accentuated by the military occupation is reinforced in this paragraph through the violent vocabulary, comparable to that of a military operation (crushing, invading, escape, trapped), further highlighting the objectification of women. Judith's recollection of Pascal, the boy she was in love with, shows the way in which women seem to be perceived only through their relationships with men.

After this episode of nonconsensual intercourse, “Judith clung wildly to Albrecht. She was mad about him, absorbed by a passion that went beyond the physical”<fnref n="12" />, the described behaviour perpetuating the contemporary notion of women as devoted, nurturing beings who are expected to sacrifice themselves for the men they love, even when that affection is not reciprocated. However, the reference to Judith’s “splendid gift”<fnref n="13" /> that Albrecht does not merit could be interpreted as the author's critique of this expectation, suggesting that such devotion and care should be earned, not merely given. The societal pressures on Judith are evident as she internalises her role as a woman, shedding her former childish selfishness in order to become the ‘good woman’ expected of her, devoted to the man to whom she has tied herself.

Following his departure, Judith finds herself “completely disgraced”<fnref n="14" />, but paradoxically, with increased power within the occupied society, her discredit reconfiguring her role in the village — her former entrapment, both physical and psychological, is overcome as she starts enacting her agency. This sudden shift in power dynamics highlights the complexities of gender roles and transgressions in the context of military occupation.

By learning to use her sexuality in order to gain influence and favours from the occupiers (not for herself, but for the others), Judith is both despised, feared and relied upon by her community:

> “The influence of such women with the enemy was well known. When the villagers had need of something, they would even humbly seek her out, begging for a favour from army headquarters. Nearly half the village was indebted to her for help of this nature. No one in Herlem had done as much good as Judith the prostitute. (...) People went to see her and present their petititons, as if she were a power. She would intervene in the event of a fine, an illness, a requisition. The whole village had recourse to her.”<fnref n="15" />

<footnote n="12">¹² Maxence van der Meersch, *Invasion 14*, 77</footnote>

<footnote n="13">¹³ Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote n="14">¹⁴ Ibid., p. 500</footnote>

<footnote n="15">¹⁵ Ibid.</footnote>
The transgression of gender roles is particularly noticeable in the relationship between Judith and her father, who ultimately has to rely on his daughter's help. Having helped everyone during the occupation, the author highlights the contrast between her status as a 'prostitute' and the good deeds she has done for everyone, thus revealing the double standards women had to face, as well as the reduction of women's worth to their sexual behaviour, while ignoring their virtues and the difficulty of the situations they had to navigate. In the context of the post-war situation, the author's comment - "No one in Herlem had done as much good as Judith the prostitute"<fnref n="16" /> - can be understood as a criticism on the condemnation of women after the occupation, creating an evocative irony: The very village that benefitted from Judith's sacrifices now reproaches her for stepping out of the traditional norms.

In the aftermath of the conflict, however, when narratives of heroism and collaborator villainy are written, the blame is disproportionately placed on the women, with Judith having to bear "the weight of everyone else's transgressions. All the people she had obliged, assisted during the war, helped by way of her influence with the German authorities, had turned on her, as if they held it against her"<fnref n="17" />.

Unlike the men who had worked with the Germans to keep people employed, Judith is not forgiven for her transgression, even if it was for the sake of others: While David, a factory owner, is defended for the 'sacrifice' he had to make to keep his workers employed in times of conflict, Judith is condemned.

## Conclusion

In conclusion, the portrayal of Judith Lacombe and her fate within the occupied society mirrors the fate of many women who had to transgress traditional gender norms in order to survive.

Still influenced by contemporary narratives and cultural views on gender roles in the first half of the twentieth century, Maxence van der Meersch shows his character only partially transcending the stereotypes of the time, the internalised gender norms still present in Judith's inner monologue. On the one hand, Judith Lacombe is a complex character, both vulnerable and powerful, capable of adapting to a society that constantly seeks to undermine her. Despite the challenges posed by the difficult, violent times in which she lives, she is able to take action and look out not only for herself but for others.

<footnote n="16">¹⁶ Maxence van der Meersch, *Invasion 14*, p. 500</footnote>

<footnote n="17">¹⁷ Ibid., p. 582</footnote>
On the other hand, Judith Lacombe ends up in a convent after the end of the occupation, which is seen as “a kind of atonement for the Lacombe honour. She, like many others, would find refuge in religion”<fnref n="18" />. Such an emplotment could potentially reinforce the image of the sacrificial woman who has to bear the burden of her entire family, perpetuating the very stereotype she criticises. However, her further exclusion from society can also be read as a critique of the continued constraints placed on women, making it impossible for them to tell their stories and challenge the collective memory of the occupation, including their stereotypical portrayal.

Maxence van der Meersch's use of cultural, literary and historical narratives, such as parallels to the biblical Judith and Maupassant's Boule de Suif, places Judith Lacombe in a tradition of women's experiences during military occupation, showing the ways in which gender norms and expectations were perpetuated and drawing parallels to the increased agency of women in times of oppression. Illustrating how women like Judith, despite navigating complex social and moral landscapes to survive, were ultimately condemned and forgotten in the rush to return to pre-war gender norms, the author urges a reexamination of how their past is narrated and perceived.

<footnote n="18">¹⁸ Maxence van der Meersch, *Invasion 14*, p. 582</footnote>