# Farming Systems and egg production

Joël Gautron

► To cite this version:

Joël Gautron. Farming Systems and egg production. Master. Master 2 Européen Global Quality, Clermont-Ferrand, France. 2020. hal-04217782

HAL Id: hal-04217782

https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-04217782

Submitted on 26 Sep 2023

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<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

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# Farming systems and egg production

## The chicken or the egg ?

Joël GAUTRON

Joel.gautron@inrae.fr

Directeur de recherche
Research Director
UMR BOA
(33) 2 47 42 75 40
# The chicken egg

The egg, a basic ingredient for food
Isolated chamber for embryo development

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Must contains the entire components necessary for embryo

* Well-balanced nutritious ingredients

* Lot of compound (> 1000) with a broad range of biological activities

* Protective systems (natural defenses)

Physical defense (Mainly shell)

Chemical defense (Proteins with antimicrobial activities)

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>
# The egg composition is well adapted for embryo development

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

## The well adapted composition of the yellow

- Feminal gamete
(Clear disk of 3.5 mm)

- Nutritional reserves (lipids, proteins) and defenses
(antibodies)

- Surrounded by a thin and translucent membrane

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>
# The egg composition is well adapted for embryo development

The egg white, water rich (88%),
proteins and glucides

- Various textures of white

- Antimicrobial molecules

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

The well adapted composition of the yellow

- Feminal gamete
(Clear disk of 3.5 mm)

- Nutritional reserves (lipids, proteins) and defenses
(antibodies)

- Surrounded by a thin and translucent membrane
# The egg composition is well adapted for embryo development

The egg white, water rich (88%),
proteins and glucides

- Various textures of white

- Antimicrobial molecules

Chalazae to maintain the egg in
suspension

Protection of the yolk from chocks

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

## Mineral eggshell

- Ensure the physical protecton

- Assure la protection thermique

- Assure les échanges gazeux

- Source de calcium pour l'embryon

## The well adapted composition of the yellow

- Feminal gamete

(Clear disk of 3.5 mm)

- Nutritional reserves (lipids, proteins) and defenses
(antibodies)

- Surrounded by a thin and translucent membrane
The egg as food product

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>
The egg's journey

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>

Réhault et al., 2019; Nys et al., 2017

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>
Distribution of total French consumption

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

ITAVI d'après SSP, Kantar et Douanes

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>
# Shell and yolk colours

Shell colour is only dependent of genetic

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Brown</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>Leghorn</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>Marans</figcaption></figure>

Yolk colour depends of diet carotenoids

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>alfalfa</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>Corn</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>marigold</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>Paprika</figcaption></figure>

No impact on flavours and taste (but important for consumers)

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>
# Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

## Nutritional characteristics for 2 eggs (100 g)

- **Calories : 155**

- **Total proteins: 12,3 g**

High quality biological value (reference WHO 100/ Cow milk 86)

- **Total lipids: 11,9 g**

- phospholipids rich: 31 % (soit 3,4 g)

- majority of unsaturated fatty acids

- cholesterol : 0,42 g (1,2 g / 100 g de jaune)

- High digestibility value : 98% Triglycerids, 90% Phospholipids

- **Vitamins rich:**

- A,D,E, B1, B6, B12, biotine (jaune), B2, folic acid, niacine (white)

- **Minerals:** phosphorus, iron and suffur

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>

INRAO
# Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

## Egg and Cholesterol

Can we eat eggs every day?

**Yes**, studies have shown that if cholesterol levels are normal, you can eat many eggs a day without affecting cholesterol levels.

If your cholesterol level is high, **you should reduce your intake to 4** per week by cutting down on other sources of animal protein and fats.

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

26 mars 1984

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

19 juillet 1999

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>
# Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

## Yellow to emulsify

* An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two immiscible liquid substances

* The lecithin in the egg yolk is used as an emulsifier in the preparation of sauces in the kitchen.

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>

## White is swelling

* Beating the whites to snow means introducing air bubbles into a liquid mixture of water and protein to create a foam. This operation is called foaming.

* These properties vary during storage (gas exchanges between the inside and outside of the egg).

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>
# Egg as nutritional ingredient for humans

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

Biscuiterie/ pâtisserie/
viennoiserie

Colorant, liant,
coagulant, moussant

Moussant, foisonnant,
anti-cristallisant

Emulsifiant, colorant,
Brillance (dorure)

Confiserie

Anti-cristallisant
Foisonnant

Pouvoir aromatique

Glaces

Liant

Emulsifiant

Charcuterie (quenelle)

Liant, émulsifiant

Pâtes alimentaire

Colorant, liant,
pouvoir aromatique

Agent de texture

Emulsifiant, agent de
texture

Mayonnaise/sauces
chaudes

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /></figure>
Egg production

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>
# Chicken eggs, products for human nutrition

## Chickens cross selected for egg production

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /></figure>

More than 300 eggs produced in one year of production, i.e. ten times the weight of the hen.

**Transformation of plant matter into animal products = an enormous metabolic challenge!**

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /></figure>
Hystory of egg production

* Before the war: Domesticated chickens => mostly self-consumption

* After the war: need to meet the demand (in quantity) and to control the sanitary conditions (in quality: zero risk) => confinement and breeding in cages.

* 80 90s => "productive egg".

<figure><img src="image_37.png" /></figure>
# Eggs and chicken strains

<figure><img src="image_38.png" /></figure>

### Table eggs

A basic ingredient for human
consumption

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /></figure>

### Layer strains

(more than 300 eggs per year)

Non marketable for meat

<figure><img src="image_40.png" /></figure>

### Meat strains

(150 eggs per years)

Non marketable for eggs

<figure><img src="image_41.png" /></figure>

### Hatching eggs

Close and self sufficient chamber to allow the
development of the chicken

(Bredders for layers and meat production)

<figure><img src="image_42.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_43.png" /></figure>
# Eggs and chicken strains

<figure><img src="image_44.png" /></figure>

## Table eggs

A basic ingredient for human
consumption

<figure><img src="image_45.png" /></figure>

Itavi d'après FAO, Commission et FranceAgriMer

<figure><img src="image_46.png" /></figure>
Hystory of egg production

* Before the war: Domesticated chickens => mostly self-consumption

* After the war: need to meet the demand (in quantity) and to control the sanitary conditions (in quality: zero risk) => confinement and breeding in cages.

* 80 90s => "productive egg".

* Since the end of the 90s: new consumer demands: strong awareness of citizens on agricultural production systems in general and animal production in particular, including poultry and eggs diversification of farming methods

* The current European production models are the result of this social demand Welfare Directive for laying hens (1999/74/EC).

* This regulation is also the result of scientific research to satisfy the 5 freedoms of animal welfare: no hunger, no thirst, free of movement, no fear/distress, while allowing the expression of natural behaviour.

<figure><img src="image_47.png" /></figure>
# Eggs and layers

## Health, economic and ethical issues

<figure><img src="image_48.png" /></figure>

### Table eggs

14,7 billions eggs per year in France

A basic ingredient for human consumption

* Risks of toxi-infections for the consumer (Salmonellosis)

* Economic losses (about 8%): downgraded eggs linked to degraded egg qualities (dirty, cracked or broken shells, poor internal qualities leading to problems of white/yolk separation)

<figure><img src="image_49.png" /></figure>

### Hatchery eggs

1,1 billion eggs per year in France

Close and self sufficient chamber to allow the development of the chicken

* 10% clear eggs (absence of fertilization, embryonic mortality)

* Elimination of male chicks from the laying strain (early in ovo sexing)
# Egg production system in Europe

## Welfare Directive for laying hens (1999/74/EC)

Rules for rearing of hens

<figure><img src="image_50.png" /></figure>

Enriched cages

<figure><img src="image_51.png" /></figure>

Alternative systems

- The animals must be inspected at least once a day.

- The presence of perches is mandatory. If no minimum height is specified, hens must be able to put their fingers underneath.

- The presence of a nest is required. The nest is a separate space whose floor is not made of wire mesh. This nest can be provided for one or more hens.

- The nest is not considered a usable surface.

- The light program must follow a 24-hour rhythm. An uninterrupted period of darkness of an indicative duration of approximately 8 hours must be practiced in order to allow the animals to rest and to avoid eye problems. Light intensity must be sufficient to allow the animals to see and be seen, especially by the breeder during daily inspection.

<figure><img src="image_52.png" /></figure>
# Egg production system in Europe

## Welfare Directive for laying hens (1999/74/EC)

Rules for rearing of hens

<figure><img src="image_53.png" /></figure>

Enriched cages

<figure><img src="image_54.png" /></figure>

Alternativesystems

Barn or aviary systems
Indoor or Outdoor

Code 3: Cage fitted with new standards

Code 2: Raised on the ground or in an aviary without outside access

Code 1: Aviary or ground + outdoor access

Code 0: Aviary or ground + outdoor access + Organic production

<figure><img src="image_55.png" /></figure>
# Code 3: Enriched cages

All European production of code 3 eggs has been in cages since 2012: laying hen welfare directive (1999/74/EC).

* Cages with an area of at least 2000cm².

* Height of the cage increased

* Installation of perches (15cm /chicken)

* Installation of separate nests

* Scraping and pecking area

* 12 cm feeder/hen

* 100,000 hens in two buildings

before 2012

<figure><img src="image_56.png" /></figure>

since 2012

<figure><img src="image_57.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_58.png" /></figure>
## Code 3: Enriched cages

Diet: 100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins

Cereals (such as wheat, corn...), protein crops (soybeans, field peas, lupin), vegetable oils, vitamins, food supplements (amino acids or synthetic coloring), source of calcium (3.5% instead of 1% in broilers)

<figure><img src="image_59.png" /></figure>
Code 2: Barn or aviary without outdoor access

* 30,000 hens in a building

* Maximum density in the building 9 hens per m2

* Food 100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins (idem code 1)

<figure><img src="image_60.png" /></figure>
## Code 1: Aviary or ground + outdoor access

- 30,000 hens max. per farm.

- Maximum density in the building 9 hens per m2

- With access to an outdoor course (4m2 per hen, 12 ha of course for 30 000 hens)

- Food (100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins)

<figure><img src="image_61.png" /></figure>
# Code 1: Label Rouge specificities

## Label Rouge specifications:

- Two buildings of 6000 hens maximum

- Access to an outdoor course (5m2 per hen, 6 ha for 12 000 hens)

- Food (100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins, 50% minimum of cereals, no additives)

<figure><img src="image_62.png" /></figure>
## Code 0: Organic eggs

- Maximum 12 000 hens, buildings of 3000 hens maximum

- Maximum density in the building 6 hens per m2

- Access to an outside run (4 m2 per hen, max 4,8 ha)

- Food: 100% vegetable, minerals and vitamins, without synthetic additives 95% minimum of raw materials from AB

- Mainly prevention, stimulation of natural defenses. Lists of authorized veterinary drugs if needed

<figure><img src="image_63.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_64.png" /></figure>
# Evolution of egg production system in France

<figure><img src="image_65.png" /><figcaption>## Number of hens in France (Thousands)</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_66.png" /></figure>
# Characteristics of various systems

<figure><img src="image_67.png" /><figcaption>Nbre œufs
pondus/poule</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_68.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /></figure>
# Characteristics of various systems

IC

<figure><img src="image_70.png" /></figure>

Taux mortalité %

<figure><img src="image_71.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_72.png" /></figure>

ITAVI
# Characteristics of various systems

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Cage</th><th>Volière ou sol sans parcours</th><th>Volière ou sol + parcours</th><th>Label Rouge</th><th>Bio</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Accès au parcours</td><td>NON</td><td>NON</td><td>OUI</td><td>OUI<br>5m²/poule</td><td>OUI<br>4 m²/poule</td></tr><tr><td>Densité en bâtiment<br>(nb poules / m² accessible aux poules)</td><td>13,3<br>(6 étages)</td><td>9,0<br>(2 étages)</td><td>9,0<br>(2 étages)</td><td>9,0</td><td>6,0</td></tr><tr><td>Mortalité (%)</td><td>3-4%</td><td>6-8%</td><td>6-8%</td><td>6-8%</td><td>8-10%</td></tr><tr><td>Taux de poussière dans le bâtiment<br>(santé de l'éleveur et de la poule)</td><td>Faible</td><td>Fort</td><td>Fort</td><td>Moyen</td><td>Moyen</td></tr><tr><td>Utilisation vaccins et produits vétos</td><td colspan="5">Similaire (que lorsque l'animal est malade)</td></tr><tr><td>Impact environnemental<br>(Bilan carbone)</td><td>Faible<br>(IC=2.2)</td><td>Moyen<br>(IC=2.4)</td><td>Moyen<br>(IC=2.4)</td><td>Moyen<br>(IC=2.6)</td><td>Moyen<br>(IC=2.6)</td></tr><tr><td>Impact environnemental<br>Utilisation de terres</td><td>Faible</td><td>Moyen</td><td>Moyen</td><td>Moyen</td><td>Fort</td></tr></tbody></table>
# Characteristics of various systems

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Cage</th><th>Volière ou sol sans parcours</th><th>Volière ou sol + parcours</th><th>Label Rouge</th><th>Bio</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Qualité organoleptique (goût) et nutritionnelle</td><td colspan="5">Pas de différence</td></tr><tr><td>Qualité sanitaire (salmonelle)</td><td colspan="5">Pas de différence</td></tr><tr><td>Coût de production sortie élevage (€ les 100 oeufs)</td><td>6,41</td><td>7,35</td><td>7,82</td><td>8,65</td><td>13,64</td></tr><tr><td>Cout de production base 100</td><td>100</td><td>115</td><td>122</td><td>135</td><td>213</td></tr><tr><td>Prix de vente consommateur (€ les 6) Kantar 2014</td><td>0,89</td><td>0,94</td><td>1,36</td><td>1,87</td><td>1,96</td></tr><tr><td>Prix de vente consommateur base 100</td><td>100</td><td>106</td><td>153</td><td>210</td><td>220</td></tr></tbody></table>
# Evolution of egg production systems in UE

## Evolution des systèmes de production dans l'UE

<figure><img src="image_73.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_74.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_75.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_76.png" /></figure>
20
HEURES

2
Discussion

What is your favorite eggs and why ?
And Now ?

Egg in the next decade ?

<figure><img src="image_77.png" /></figure>
# The specialized chicken lines

## Broiler Production

(<150 eggs per year)
Non marketable low
quality eggs

<figure><img src="image_78.png" /></figure>

## Layer hens

(340 eggs per year)
Meat is not marketable

<figure><img src="image_79.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_80.png" /><figcaption>ZW female chicken</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /><figcaption>ZZ male chicken</figcaption></figure>

6 billions of males are killed every year in the world

<figure><img src="image_82.png" /></figure>

Ethical and societal concern

<figure><img src="image_83.png" /></figure>

# Alternatives ?
Reduce the number of layers

✓ Use of molt cycles

<figure><img src="image_84.png" /></figure>

Second and third laying cycles are possible after molting of the layer
→ Need to induce artificial molt with water and feeding privation not allowed in EU

Research is needed to induce moulting while respecting animal welfare

<figure><img src="image_85.png" /></figure>
Increasing persistency of laying hens

<figure><img src="image_86.png" /></figure>

Second and third laying cycles are possible after molting of the layer
→ Need to induce artificial molt with water and feeding privation not allowed in EU
# Increasing persistency of laying hens

Breeding companies claim that they will have developed the « long life » layer, which will be capable of producing 500 eggs in a production cycle lasting 100 weeks by 2020 (Van Sambeek, 2010)

Bain et al., 2016 estimated « than even 25 more eggs per hen could potentially reduce the UK flock, including breeding hens by 2,5 millions birds per annum. »

limited by the health charter in France...

<figure><img src="image_87.png" /></figure>
# Dual purpose chickens

<figure><img src="image_88.png" /></figure>

### Layers strain

(340 eggs per year)
Meat is not marketable

<figure><img src="image_89.png" /></figure>

### Broiler strains

(<150 eggs per year)
Non marketable low
quality eggs

<figure><img src="image_90.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_91.png" /></figure>

Females are reared
for egg production

<figure><img src="image_92.png" /></figure>

Low number of eggs
Quality ?

<figure><img src="image_93.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_94.png" /></figure>

Unfavorable
environmental impact

<figure><img src="image_95.png" /></figure>

Males are reared for
meat production

<figure><img src="image_96.png" /></figure>

Low meat yield
Different meat texture (consumer
education)

Need to evaluate the productivity, the quality, the behaviour of animals in various housing
systems and various environmental conditions, health and costs

<figure><img src="image_97.png" /></figure>
## IN OVO SEXING

Gender determination before the birth

* ✓ Must be fast (20 000 to 30 000 eggs per hour)

* ✓ Must be cheap

* ✓ Must be precise (98.5 %)

* ✓ Without detrimental consequences on the hatchability and the viability of the chicken

* ✓ Must be done before 9 days of embryonic development to avoid any nociception

→ A frantic race between states, scientists and industry to offer alternative solutions and hit the jackpot.

<figure><img src="image_98.png" /></figure>
# How to determine sex in ovo

* Destructives and non destructive methods

* Biological approaches

Hormonal detection

Metabolite marker detection

* Physicochemistry approaches

Dimorphic volatile odors between male and females

* Physical and optical approaches

FTIR spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy

Magnetic resonance imaging

Hyperspectral analysis

* Genetic engineering

Genome editing

<figure><img src="image_99.png" /></figure>
# In ovo sex determination

## Hormonal testing

SELEGGT - Hormonal testing (http://www.seleggt.com/) (Allemagne)

<figure><img src="image_100.png" /></figure>

* Test performed at 9 days of incubation

* Small hole 12 mm in the shell

* Samples used a patented test to measure the level of Estrone sulfate only present in females

<figure><img src="image_101.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_102.png" /></figure>

* Accuracy 97-98%

* Prototype developed

* Almost 100 000 eggs already hatched

* Price 1-3 cents per egg, 7 Euros per pullet

* Low throughput of approximately 5,000 eggs

<figure><img src="image_103.png" /></figure>

**The only available commercial solution, but not enough fast for the entire egg market**

<figure><img src="image_104.png" /></figure>

INRAO
# In ovo sex determination

## Hormonal testing

### EMBREX - Hormonal testing (USA)

* Test performed at 17 days of incubation

* Samples used a patented test to measure the level of Estradiol 17B

* Accuracy 100% ?

* Prototype not developed

* Price unknown

## Metabolite markers

### In ovo - Biomarker detection (https://inovo.nl/solutions/in-ovo-egg-sexing/) (Netherlands)

* Use of H NRM spectroscopy

* Fast 2 sec/egg

* Marketing planned in 2020

<figure><img src="image_105.png" /></figure>
# In ovo sex determination

## Physicochemical methods

Vital farms & Novotrans – odor detection (USA)

* Test performed at ?? days of incubation

* Vaccuum system to trap the odors

* Patented in USA 2019, June

* Accuracy ????

* Prototype ??

* Price ??

* throughput ??

## Genetic engineering

EggXYt – Genetic alteration (https://www.eggxyt.com/) (Israël)

* Genome editing

* Feasable the day of lay

* Fluorescent detection through the shell

* Transgenic chickens

* Consumer acceptance ?

* Accuracy 100 %

* Price ??

<figure><img src="image_106.png" /></figure>
# In ovo sex determination

## Physical methods

### Spectroscopy – Analysis of fluorescence signals (tu-dresden.de) (Allemagne)

* Test performed at 3 days of incubation

* DNA quantity is different from male to female (2%)

* Blood vessels are illuminated and fluorescence is measured at 910 nm

* Accuracy 90 %

* No impact on hatchability

* Prototype ?

### Hypereye – Hyperspectral imaging (Canada)

* Test performed at the day of lay

* Hyperspectral method

* Specific signature using mathematical algorithms

* Prototype was announced for 2018

* Throughput of 50 000 eggs per hours

* 1 to 5 Canadian dollars cents per egg

<figure><img src="image_107.png" /></figure>
# In ovo sex determination

## Physical methods

*Spectroscopy – hyperspectral imaging- Evonta technology Dresden (Allemagne)*

* ✓ Test performed at 14 days of incubation

* ✓ Difference in feather color

* ✓ Use of strain with different feathers depending on sex

* ✓ Accuracy 97 %

* ✓ Prototype ?

* ✓ Late determination 14 days

* ✓ Needs strains with feather differences

*SOO -non invasive physical methods (France)*

* ✓ Two complementary technics to predict the sex embryo. Raman hyperspectral and biocaptors

* ✓ Accuracy ??

* ✓ Prototype ?

<figure><img src="image_108.png" /></figure>
# How to determine sex in ovo

<table><thead><tr><th>Project</th><th>Country</th><th>Method</th><th>Day of egg incubation</th><th>Accuracy %</th><th>Price Cents/egg</th><th>Number of egg / H</th><th>Marketing</th><th>Remarks</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>SELEGGT</td><td>Germany</td><td>Hormonal</td><td>9</td><td>97-98</td><td>1-3</td><td>5000</td><td>Yes</td><td>The only available commercial solution, but not enough fast for the entire egg market</td></tr><tr><td>EMBREX</td><td>USA</td><td>Hormonal</td><td>17</td><td>100?</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>No</td><td>No prototype, 17 days is too late</td></tr><tr><td>In ovo</td><td>Netherlands</td><td>Metabolite</td><td>9</td><td>??</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>Planned in 2020</td><td>2 Sec/egg</td></tr><tr><td>Vital farms</td><td>USA</td><td>Odor detection</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EggXYt</td><td>ISRAEL</td><td>Genome editing</td><td>0</td><td>100</td><td>???</td><td>A lot</td><td>Yes</td><td>Transgenic chickens, consumer acceptance</td></tr><tr><td>Dresden</td><td>Germany</td><td>Raman</td><td>3,5</td><td>90</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>Prototype</td><td>Accuracy to improve</td></tr><tr><td>Hypereye</td><td>Canada</td><td>Hyperspectral</td><td>0</td><td>99</td><td>1-5</td><td>30 000</td><td>???</td><td>Large number of eggs, No news since 2018</td></tr><tr><td>Evonta</td><td>Germany</td><td>Hyperspectral<br>Feather color</td><td>14</td><td>97</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>Late determination, Needs strains with feather differences</td></tr><tr><td>SOO</td><td>France</td><td>Raman<br>Biocaptors</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PPILLOW</td><td>France</td><td>Electromagnetic<br>signature</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>???</td><td>No</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Many of them are still in development

Research and development must be continued (New methods, Big data, deep learning, artificial intelligence)
# Alternatives? Take-home messages

Few alternatives to the culling of male day-old chicks of layer lines:

* Increasing of laying period and use of molt cycles to reduce the number of births chickens for renewal

* Developing dual purpose chickens, but not for a mass market

* Strengthening the development of in ovo sexing processes

## BUT

* Today whethever method used, no fast and robust method is operational

* A race against time: There is an increased need for research and development before considering the industrial scale

* This change will be really challenging for producers with many technical and economical adaptations

<figure><img src="image_109.png" /></figure>

INRAO
To conclude

<figure><img src="image_110.png" /></figure>
# The Chicken or the egg ?

This is the question that is poorly formulated

Birds are descendants of dinosaurs

<figure><img src="image_111.png" /></figure>

The chicken or dinosaurs ?