We suggest here two phenomena that likely play com-
plementary roles in enforcing this apparently contradictory
trend. First, Romanelli et al. (2016) have observed an en-
hanced turbulence due to the presence of so-called proton
cyclotron waves (PCWs) becoming much more prominent
the closer to perihelion conditions. This is in turn linked to
the local plasma β, which plays a leading role in favouring
the MM instability over the Alfvén Ion Cyclotron instability
(typically for β ≥ 1.5) as predicted by the theory of microin-
stabilities (Gary, 1993). In solar maximum conditions, the
plasma β⊥ is on average lower than 1 in the solar wind and
in the dayside magnetosheath, as shown by Rojas Mata et al.
(2022) for Venus and Wilson et al. (2018) for the solar wind.
Consequently, the ion cyclotron instability may preferen-
tially grow over MMs, resulting in significantly less MM de-
tectons in solar maximum conditions or for increased EUV
fluxes. This would explain why large EUV fluxes (closer
to perihelion conditions) have comparatively lower detec-
tion rates of MM-like structures, especially since PCWs have
very different magnetic signatures (non-compressional, left-
hand elliptically polarised and MVA direction at small angles
to background *B*-field direction) and would not be captured
by our detection criteria (Delva et al., 2011; Romanelli et al.,
2016). Second, the distributions of pickup ions at Mars and
comets are expected to be non-gyrotropic (see e.g. Coates
et al., 1996; Coates, 2011; Halekas et al., 2017a), which
is known to modify the wave mode properties, the linear
growth rate, the instability threshold, or even produce new
wave modes that may consume the additional free energy
(see Brinca and Romeiras, 1998; Motschmann et al., 1997,
and references therein). This may in turn favour other modes
over MMs, although this specific question remains open. Fur-
ther study of these two aspects is needed with the use of full
plasma suite on board MAVEN; it is left for the future.

**3.2.4 Dependence on season (Ls)**

Dependence of MM-like structures on Martian season is pre-
sented in Fig. 11, with residence times on the left, detection
probabilities in the middle and percentage departures from
the total detection probability on the right, as before. In con-
trast to MY discrimination, the average residence times in a
grid cell is quite similar for all four Ls ranges considered,
with (Δ*T<sup>sc</sup>~12 h per grid cell, with the smallest residence
time for Ls3 = [135–225°] (see also Fig. 7f and Table 3).
This is due to a combination of relatively large spatial ex-
tension for the orbit and missing that Ls range during MY32
(see Fig. 4). Conversely, the highest residence time is for
Ls2 = [45–135°] because of an orbital coverage less spatially
extended in space and despite the Ls range being also missed
during MY32.

The detection probabilities *P* (middle panels, ignoring
cells for which Δ*T<sup>sc</sup>* < 2 h) display a rather similar be-
haviour for all Ls ranges with two main distribution loci:
one around the shock and the other immediately upstream

of the IMB. The Ls range [Ls4 = 225–315°] (Fig. 11d) in-
cludes perihelion condition (Ls = 251°, local maximum of
EUV flux) as well as the peak of exospheric H density
(~ Ls = 270°; see Halekas and McFadden, 2021). It seems
to contain, overall, smaller detection probabilities in the lo-
cus closest to the IMB than at aphelion (Ls = 71°, local mini-
mum of EUV flux, included in Fig. 11b). This is in agreement
with the findings of Sect. 3.2.3, where larger EUV flux lev-
els create noticeably less MM-like structures in the subsolar
magnetosheath than smaller EUV levels do, as a likely result
of a combination of comparatively lower plasma-β (Rojas
Mata et al., 2022) leading to PCWs being the fastest grow-
ing mode in those conditions (Ruhunusiri et al., 2018), and,
possibly, non-gyrotropic effects.

From a statistical viewpoint, Fig. 11b for Ls2 (respec-
tively, Fig. 11d for Ls4) resembles most Fig. 9a (Fig. 9b).
This is in line with the conclusions of Sect. 3.2.1 and Fig. 7e,
where we emphasised that the Ls2 (Ls4) range is representa-
tive of low (high) EUV flux conditions. Moreover, Ls1 and
Ls3 ranges are mutually comparable as they have roughly
similar PDFs over a rather large EUV flux range: these two
ranges thus mostly display changes due to seasonal effects.
In this view, the Ls1 range has a more evenly spread distri-
bution of MM-like events around the shock, whereas the Ls3
range displays comparatively sharper and less spatially ex-
tended features. It is interesting to note that, in contrast to
other Ls ranges, the Ls4 range displays its highest detection
probability in the deep magnetospheric tail just behind the
IMB (see Fig. 11d, middle plot and red region on the right-
most plot). This is a characteristic we have seen most often
displayed at high EUV fluxes (Fig. 9b) and during MY33
(Fig. 8b), which is consistent with this Ls range encompass-
ing perihelion conditions (see Fig. 4).

**4 Summary and conclusions**

In this paper, we have aimed at creating maps of detec-
tion probabilities of mirror-mode (MM)-like structures in
the Martian environment, in a quest to better characterise
MMs across weakly magnetised and unmagnetised planets.
Because magnetometers are a common instrument on space
missions, with similar resolution and characteristics, they are
an ideal tool to compare specific low-frequency wave modes
such as the ubiquitous MMs. This study is the first of two at
Mars and Venus (see Volwerk et al., 2022, for the companion
paper as Part 2), using for the first time the same magnetic-
field-only detection criteria and the same representation at
both planets. At Mars, we use the MAVEN data between
2014 and 2021, and at Venus, we use the Venus Express data
between 2006 and 2014.

We examined how these detection probability maps in
MSO coordinates change with respect to MY, atmospheric
seasons (Ls) and solar EUV flux. Overall, MM-like struc-
tures are mostly confined to two regions: one immediately
We suggest here two phenomena that likely play com-
plementary roles in enforcing this apparently contradictory
trend. First, Romanelli et al. (2016) have observed an en-
hanced turbulence due to the presence of so-called proton
cyclotron waves (PCWs) becoming much more prominent
the closer to perihelion conditions. This is in turn linked to
the local plasma β, which plays a leading role in favouring
the MM instability over the Alfvén Ion Cyclotron instability
(typically for β ≥ 1.5) as predicted by the theory of microin-
stabilities (Gary, 1993). In solar maximum conditions, the
plasma β⊥ is on average lower than 1 in the solar wind and
in the dayside magnetosheath, as shown by Rojas Mata et al.
(2022) for Venus and Wilson et al. (2018) for the solar wind.
Consequently, the ion cyclotron instability may preferen-
tially grow over MMs, resulting in significantly less MM de-
tectons in solar maximum conditions or for increased EUV
fluxes. This would explain why large EUV fluxes (closer
to perihelion conditions) have comparatively lower detec-
tion rates of MM-like structures, especially since PCWs have
very different magnetic signatures (non-compressional, left-
hand elliptically polarised and MVA direction at small angles
to background *B*-field direction) and would not be captured
by our detection criteria (Delva et al., 2011; Romanelli et al.,
2016). Second, the distributions of pickup ions at Mars and
comets are expected to be non-gyrotropic (see e.g. Coates
et al., 1996; Coates, 2011; Halekas et al., 2017a), which
is known to modify the wave mode properties, the linear
growth rate, the instability threshold, or even produce new
wave modes that may consume the additional free energy
(see Brinca and Romeiras, 1998; Motschmann et al., 1997,
and references therein). This may in turn favour other modes
over MMs, although this specific question remains open. Fur-
ther study of these two aspects is needed with the use of full
plasma suite on board MAVEN; it is left for the future.

**3.2.4 Dependence on season (Ls)**

Dependence of MM-like structures on Martian season is pre-
sented in Fig. 11, with residence times on the left, detection
probabilities in the middle and percentage departures from
the total detection probability on the right, as before. In con-
trast to MY discrimination, the average residence times in a
grid cell is quite similar for all four Ls ranges considered,
with (Δ*T<sup>sc</sup>)* ~ 12 h per grid cell, with the smallest residence
time for Ls3 = [135–225°] (see also Fig. 7f and Table 3).
This is due to a combination of relatively large spatial ex-
tension for the orbit and missing that Ls range during MY32
(see Fig. 4). Conversely, the highest residence time is for
Ls2 = [45–135°] because of an orbital coverage less spatially
extended in space and despite the Ls range being also missed
during MY32.

The detection probabilities *P* (middle panels, ignoring
cells for which Δ*T<sup>sc</sup>* < 2 h) display a rather similar be-
haviour for all Ls ranges with two main distribution loci:
one around the shock and the other immediately upstream

of the IMB. The Ls range [Ls4 = 225–315°] (Fig. 11d) in-
cludes perihelion condition (Ls = 251°, local maximum of
EUV flux) as well as the peak of exospheric H density
(~ Ls = 270°; see Halekas and McFadden, 2021). It seems
to contain, overall, smaller detection probabilities in the lo-
cus closest to the IMB than at aphelion (Ls = 71°, local mini-
mum of EUV flux, included in Fig. 11b). This is in agreement
with the findings of Sect. 3.2.3, where larger EUV flux lev-
els create noticeably less MM-like structures in the subsolar
magnetosheath than smaller EUV levels do, as a likely result
of a combination of comparatively lower plasma-β (Rojas
Mata et al., 2022) leading to PCWs being the fastest grow-
ing mode in those conditions (Ruhunusiri et al., 2018), and,
possibly, non-gyrotropic effects.

From a statistical viewpoint, Fig. 11b for Ls2 (respec-
tively, Fig. 11d for Ls4) resembles most Fig. 9a (Fig. 9b).
This is in line with the conclusions of Sect. 3.2.1 and Fig. 7e,
where we emphasised that the Ls2 (Ls4) range is representa-
tive of low (high) EUV flux conditions. Moreover, Ls1 and
Ls3 ranges are mutually comparable as they have roughly
similar PDFs over a rather large EUV flux range: these two
ranges thus mostly display changes due to seasonal effects.
In this view, the Ls1 range has a more evenly spread distri-
bution of MM-like events around the shock, whereas the Ls3
range displays comparatively sharper and less spatially ex-
tended features. It is interesting to note that, in contrast to
other Ls ranges, the Ls4 range displays its highest detection
probability in the deep magnetospheric tail just behind the
IMB (see Fig. 11d, middle plot and red region on the right-
most plot). This is a characteristic we have seen most often
displayed at high EUV fluxes (Fig. 9b) and during MY33
(Fig. 8b), which is consistent with this Ls range encompass-
ing perihelion conditions (see Fig. 4).

**4 Summary and conclusions**

In this paper, we have aimed at creating maps of detec-
tion probabilities of mirror-mode (MM)-like structures in
the Martian environment, in a quest to better characterise
MMs across weakly magnetised and unmagnetised planets.
Because magnetometers are a common instrument on space
missions, with similar resolution and characteristics, they are
an ideal tool to compare specific low-frequency wave modes
such as the ubiquitous MMs. This study is the first of two at
Mars and Venus (see Volwerk et al., 2022, for the companion
paper as Part 2), using for the first time the same magnetic-
field-only detection criteria and the same representation at
both planets. At Mars, we use the MAVEN data between
2014 and 2021, and at Venus, we use the Venus Express data
between 2006 and 2014.

We examined how these detection probability maps in
MSO coordinates change with respect to MY, atmospheric
seasons (Ls) and solar EUV flux. Overall, MM-like struc-
tures are mostly confined to two regions: one immediately
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 11.** Residence time (left) and probability *P* of detecting MM-like structures (middle) at Mars, and departure from total detection probability Δ*P*/*P*<sub>tot</sub> (right), with respect to Mars season (binned by Ls). (a) Ls = [315–45°] = Ls1. (b) Ls = [45–135°] = Ls2. (c) Ls = [135–225°] = Ls3. (d) Ls = [225–315°] = Ls4. The percentage difference is calculated as Δ*P*/*P* = (P<sub>Ls</sub> − P<sub>tot</sub>)/P<sub>tot</sub>, with positive hot-hued (negative cold-hued) values showing where P<sub>Ls</sub> > P<sub>tot</sub> (P<sub>Ls</sub> < P<sub>tot</sub>). The total rate P<sub>tot</sub> is taken from Fig. 3b. Bow shock average positions are shown as dotted lines (Hall et al., 2019, all points, noted H19) and as dashed lines (Simon Wedlund et al., 2022a, for each Ls range, noted SW22). See also caption of Fig. 3 for other details.</figcaption></figure>

behind the bow shock, especially at larger solar zenith angles (SZA), and one closer to the induced magnetospheric boundary (IMB). This picture is in good agreement with previous studies at Mars (Bertucci et al., 2004; Espley et al., 2004; Simon Wedlund et al., 2022b) and Venus (Volwerk et al., 2008, 2016; Fränz et al., 2017; Rojas Mata et al., 2022).

We linked the most dramatic changes in the spatial distri-
bution of MM-like structures with solar EUV flux variations.
First, the regions of high MM-like occurrences contract and
expand following the EUV flux-led variations of the shock
and the IMB. Second, with similar statistics, the higher the
EUV flux (and, to a certain extent, solar activity), the lower

the probability of detecting MM-like events around the shock
and the dayside IMB. Simultaneously, high EUV flux condi-
tions contain larger detection probabilities in the magneto-
spheric tail, downstream of the IMB.

The first behaviour contradicts the simple picture that, as
the solar EUV flux and ionisation levels increase in the ex-
tended exosphere, the creation of additional pickup ions may
lead to an increased ion temperature anisotropy in the entire
volume of space, both in the solar wind and in the magne-
tosheath – a favourable condition for MM generation. We
highlight two possible reasons that may explain the discrep-
ancy: the potential predominance of low plasma-β at high
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 11.** Residence time (left) and probability *P* of detecting MM-like structures (middle) at Mars, and departure from total detection probability Δ*P*/*P*<sub>tot</sub> (right), with respect to Mars season (binned by Ls). (a) Ls = [315–45°] = Ls1. (b) Ls = [45–135°] = Ls2. (c) Ls = [135–225°] = Ls3. (d) Ls = [225–315°] = Ls4. The percentage difference is calculated as Δ*P*/*P* = (P<sub>Ls</sub> − P<sub>tot</sub>)/P<sub>tot</sub>, with positive hot-hued (negative cold-hued) values showing where P<sub>Ls</sub> > P<sub>tot</sub> (P<sub>Ls</sub> < P<sub>tot</sub>). The total rate P<sub>tot</sub> is taken from Fig. 3b. Bow shock average positions are shown as dotted lines (Hall et al., 2019, all points, noted H19) and as dashed lines (Simon Wedlund et al., 2022a, for each Ls range, noted SW22). See also caption of Fig. 3 for other details.</figcaption></figure>

behind the bow shock, especially at larger solar zenith angles (SZA), and one closer to the induced magnetospheric boundary (IMB). This picture is in good agreement with previous studies at Mars (Bertucci et al., 2004; Espley et al., 2004; Simon Wedlund et al., 2022b) and Venus (Volwerk et al., 2008, 2016; Fränz et al., 2017; Rojas Mata et al., 2022).

We linked the most dramatic changes in the spatial distri-
bution of MM-like structures with solar EUV flux variations.
First, the regions of high MM-like occurrences contract and
expand following the EUV flux-led variations of the shock
and the IMB. Second, with similar statistics, the higher the
EUV flux (and, to a certain extent, solar activity), the lower

the probability of detecting MM-like events around the shock
and the dayside IMB. Simultaneously, high EUV flux condi-
tions contain larger detection probabilities in the magneto-
spheric tail, downstream of the IMB.

The first behaviour contradicts the simple picture that, as
the solar EUV flux and ionisation levels increase in the ex-
tended exosphere, the creation of additional pickup ions may
lead to an increased ion temperature anisotropy in the entire
volume of space, both in the solar wind and in the magne-
tosheath – a favourable condition for MM generation. We
highlight two possible reasons that may explain the discrep-
ancy: the potential predominance of low plasma-β at high
solar activity (Rojas Mata et al., 2022), leading to an increased presence of PCWs at and around perihelion (Romanelli et al., 2016), favouring their growth over MMs, and, possibly, the non-gyrotropic nature of pickup ions at Mars and Venus (Coates, 2011). Investigating in full the reason(s) of this discrepancy could be achieved by the full use of the plasma suite on board MAVEN, with the Solar Wind Ion Analyzer (SWIA) and the Solar Wind Electron Analyzer (SWEA) complementing the magnetometer data.

The second behaviour above is also reflected in changes with respect to atmospheric seasons (or solar longitude Ls): we have found that the northern hemisphere winter season (encompassing perihelion conditions, and thus higher EUV fluxes) contained less MM-like structures around the shock with compressive signatures more often observed in the magnetospheric tail (nightside downstream of the IMB). Such structures in this unusual region pose questions as to their nature, origin and characteristics and will need a dedicated study to ascertain them, preferably with the full plasma suite.

We emphasise several possible tracks to continue and expand on this first work. First, this work should be redone with coincident plasma/magnetometer measurements. Although we may lose somewhat in temporal resolution with respect to magnetic field measurements (SWIA has a 4–8 s resolution in the magnetosheath, whereas SWEA can reach down to 2 s), we will gain the certitude of a B–N antiphase behaviour, which is a necessary characteristic of MMs (see Jin et al., 2022, for a recent study using SWIA). Complementary techniques such as using transport ratios to characterise the low-frequency wave environment (Song et al., 1994) could also usefully be applied to the full MAVEN dataset, as shown early in the mission (Ruhunusiri et al., 2015). Comparing all of these results with our present ones will give a measure of the accuracy of the B-field-only method over more foolproof methods and may help reinterpret past and present datasets from a new perspective. Second, to expand our current study, we should also look at the dependence of MM detection probabilities with respect to upstream solar wind conditions (density, velocity, magnitude and orientation of BIMF), as well as the shock nature (quasi-parallel or quasi-perpendicular). The latter would help in determining the respective effects of unstable pickup ion distributions and quasi-perpendicular shock heating in the generation of the temperature anisotropy at the origin of MM structures. All studies could finally be performed in Mars Solar Electric coordinates, oriented along the solar wind convection electric field.

**Data availability.** The calibrated MAVEN/MAG datasets are available from the NASA Planetary Data System (PDS) at https://doi.org/10.17189/1414178 (Lawton and Connerney, 2023; Connerney et al., 2015). The FISM-P Mars Solar Spectral Irradiance model is available at the LASP Interactive Solar Irradiance Datacenter (LISIRD) of the Laboratory for Atmospheric

and Space Physics (https://lasp.colorado.edu/lisird/data/fism_p_ssi_mars, last access: 19 May 2023, Chamberlin et al., 2008; Thiemann et al., 2017) and at https://doi.org/10.17189/1517691 (Version 2.21, MAVEN Release 28, released 9 February 2022, Connerney et al., 2015) through NASA PDS archives. Predicted bow shock times, spatial coordinates and shock geometry (θ<sub>Bn</sub>) for the 2014–2021 dataset (up to Mars Year 35) are available on Zenodo at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5725288 (Version 3, Simon Wedlund et al., 2021).

**Author contributions.** CSW and MV instigated the project, made the calculations and the main interpretation, drew the figures, and wrote the main text for this study. CM, SRM, GSW, YF, JH, DRC, CB and JE contributed to the data validation and interpretation, numerous ideas and science discussions, and helped with the writing of the main text and text revision.

**Competing interests.** The contact author has declared that none of the authors has any competing interests.

**Disclaimer.** Publisher’s note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Acknowledgements.** Cyril Simon Wedlund and Martin Volwerk thank the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), and SRM thanks the Swedish National Space Agency for their support. The authors thank Charlotte Götz (Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK) and Arnaud Beth (Imperial College London, UK) for useful feedback on magnetosonic waves, as well as Christian Möstl, Zoltan Vörös, Luis Preisser, Owen Roberts and Adriana Settino (IWF-ÖAW, Graz) for useful discussions with respect to bow shock crossings, Earth’s turbulence, mirror modes and magnetosheath jets. The authors thank Emmanuel Penou for help and access to the CLWeb viewing and analysis software (v16.09) from IRAP/Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées. This research was supported by the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern, through ISSI International Team project no. 517 (Towards a Unifying Model for Magnetic Depressions in Space Plasmas, led by MV) and project no. 499 (Similarities and Differences in the Plasma at Comets and Mars, led by Charlotte Götz).

**Financial support.** This research has been supported by the Austrian Science Fund (project no. P32035-N36) and the Swedish National Space Agency (contract nos. 145/19 and 79/19).

**Review statement.** This paper was edited by Dalia Buresova and reviewed by two anonymous referees.
solar activity (Rojas Mata et al., 2022), leading to an increased presence of PCWs at and around perihelion (Romanelli et al., 2016), favouring their growth over MMs, and, possibly, the non-gyrotropic nature of pickup ions at Mars and Venus (Coates, 2011). Investigating in full the reason(s) of this discrepancy could be achieved by the full use of the plasma suite on board MAVEN, with the Solar Wind Ion Analyzer (SWIA) and the Solar Wind Electron Analyzer (SWEA) complementing the magnetometer data.

The second behaviour above is also reflected in changes with respect to atmospheric seasons (or solar longitude Ls): we have found that the northern hemisphere winter season (encompassing perihelion conditions, and thus higher EUV fluxes) contained less MM-like structures around the shock with compressive signatures more often observed in the magnetospheric tail (nightside downstream of the IMB). Such structures in this unusual region pose questions as to their nature, origin and characteristics and will need a dedicated study to ascertain them, preferably with the full plasma suite.

We emphasise several possible tracks to continue and expand on this first work. First, this work should be redone with coincident plasma/magnetometer measurements. Although we may lose somewhat in temporal resolution with respect to magnetic field measurements (SWIA has a 4–8 s resolution in the magnetosheath, whereas SWEA can reach down to 2 s), we will gain the certitude of a B–N antiphase behaviour, which is a necessary characteristic of MMs (see Jin et al., 2022, for a recent study using SWIA). Complementary techniques such as using transport ratios to characterise the low-frequency wave environment (Song et al., 1994) could also usefully be applied to the full MAVEN dataset, as shown early in the mission (Ruhunusiri et al., 2015). Comparing all of these results with our present ones will give a measure of the accuracy of the B-field-only method over more foolproof methods and may help reinterpret past and present datasets from a new perspective. Second, to expand our current study, we should also look at the dependence of MM detection probabilities with respect to upstream solar wind conditions (density, velocity, magnitude and orientation of BIMF), as well as the shock nature (quasi-parallel or quasi-perpendicular). The latter would help in determining the respective effects of unstable pickup ion distributions and quasi-perpendicular shock heating in the generation of the temperature anisotropy at the origin of MM structures. All studies could finally be performed in Mars Solar Electric coordinates, oriented along the solar wind convection electric field.

**Data availability.** The calibrated MAVEN/MAG datasets are available from the NASA Planetary Data System (PDS) at https://doi.org/10.17189/1414178 (Lawton and Connerney, 2023; Connerney et al., 2015). The FISM-P Mars Solar Spectral Irradiance model is available at the LASP Interactive Solar Irradiance Datacenter (LISIRD) of the Laboratory for Atmospheric

and Space Physics (https://lasp.colorado.edu/lisird/data/fism_p_ssi_mars, last access: 19 May 2023, Chamberlin et al., 2008; Thiemann et al., 2017) and at https://doi.org/10.17189/1517691 (Version 2.21, MAVEN Release 28, released 9 February 2022, Connerney et al., 2015) through NASA PDS archives. Predicted bow shock times, spatial coordinates and shock geometry (θ<sub>Bn</sub>) for the 2014–2021 dataset (up to Mars Year 35) are available on Zenodo at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5725288 (Version 3, Simon Wedlund et al., 2021).

**Author contributions.** CSW and MV instigated the project, made the calculations and the main interpretation, drew the figures, and wrote the main text for this study. CM, SRM, GSW, YF, JH, DRC, CB and JE contributed to the data validation and interpretation, numerous ideas and science discussions, and helped with the writing of the main text and text revision.

**Competing interests.** The contact author has declared that none of the authors has any competing interests.

**Disclaimer.** Publisher’s note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Acknowledgements.** Cyril Simon Wedlund and Martin Volwerk thank the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), and SRM thanks the Swedish National Space Agency for their support. The authors thank Charlotte Götz (Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK) and Arnaud Beth (Imperial College London, UK) for useful feedback on magnetosonic waves, as well as Christian Möstl, Zoltan Vörös, Luis Preisser, Owen Roberts and Adriana Settino (IWF-ÖAW, Graz) for useful discussions with respect to bow shock crossings, Earth’s turbulence, mirror modes and magnetosheath jets. The authors thank Emmanuel Penou for help and access to the CLWeb viewing and analysis software (v16.09) from IRAP/Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées. This research was supported by the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern, through ISSI International Team project no. 517 (Towards a Unifying Model for Magnetic Depressions in Space Plasmas, led by MV) and project no. 499 (Similarities and Differences in the Plasma at Comets and Mars, led by Charlotte Götz).

**Financial support.** This research has been supported by the Austrian Science Fund (project no. P32035-N36) and the Swedish National Space Agency (contract nos. 145/19 and 79/19).

**Review statement.** This paper was edited by Dalia Buresova and reviewed by two anonymous referees.
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Garnier, P., Jacquey, C., Gendre, X., Génot, V., Mazelle, C., Fang, X., Gruesbeck, J. R., Sánchez-Cano, B., and Halekas, J. S.: The Drivers of the Martian Bow Shock Location: A Statistical Analysis of Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution and Mars Express Observations, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e30147, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA030147, 2022.

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Génot, V., Schwartz, S. J., Mazelle, C., Balikhin, M., Dunlop, M., and Bauer, T. M.: Kinetic study of the mirror mode, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 21611–21622, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JA000457, 2001.

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Jarvinen, R., Kallio, E., and Pulkkinen, T. I.: Ultra-low Frequency Foreshock Waves and Ion Dynamics at Mars, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e30078, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA030078, 2022.

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Romanelli, N., Bertucci, C., Gómez, D., Mazelle, C., and Delva, M.: Proton cyclotron waves upstream from Mars: Observations from Mars Global Surveyor, Planet. Space Sci., 76, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2012.10.011, 2013.

Romanelli, N., Mazelle, C., Chaufray, J. Y., Meziane, K., Shan, L., Ruhunusiri, S., Connerney, J. E. P., Espley, J. R., Eparvier, F., Thiemann, E., Halekas, J. S., Mitchell, D. L., McFadden, J. P., Brain, D., and Jakosky, B. M.: Proton cyclotron waves occurrence rate upstream from Mars observed by MAVEN: Associated variability of the Martian upper atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 121, 11113–11128, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA023270, 2016.

Romeo, O. M., Romanelli, N., Espley, J. R., Mazelle, C., DiBraccio, G. A., Gruesbeck, J. R., and Halekas, J. S.: Variability of Upstream Proton Cyclotron Wave Properties and Occurrence at Mars Observed by MAVEN, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 126, e28616, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JA028616, 2021.

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Shan, L., Tsurutani, B. T., Ohsawa, Y., Mazelle, C., Huang, C., Du, A., Ge, Y. S., and Lu, Q.: Observational Evidence for Fast Mode Periodic Small-scale Shocks: A New Type of Plasma Phenomenon, Astrophys. J. Lett., 95, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abcb02, 2020.

Simon Wedlund, C., Volwerk, M., Beth, A., Mazelle, C., Möstl, C., Halekas, J., Gruesbeck, J., and Rojas-Castillo, D.: Predicted times, spatial coordinates of bow shock crossings and shock geometry at Mars from the NASA/MAVEN mission, using spacecraft ephemerides and magnetic field data, with a predictor-corrector algorithm (Version 3), Zenodo [data set] https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6320518, 2021.

Simon Wedlund, C., Volwerk, M., Beth, A., Mazelle, C., Möstl, C., Halekas, J., Gruesbeck, J. R., and Rojas-Castillo, D.: A Fast Bow Shock Location Predictor-Estimator From 2D and 3D Analytical Models: Application to Mars and the MAVEN Mission, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e2021JA029942, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029942, 2022a.

Simon Wedlund, C., Volwerk, M., Mazelle, C., Halekas, J., Rojas-Castillo, D., Espley, J., and Möstl, C.: Making Waves: Mirror Mode Structures Around Mars Observed by the MAVEN Spacecraft, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e2021JA029811, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029811, 2022b.

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Soucek, J., Lucek, E., and Dandouras, I.: Properties of magnetosheath mirror modes observed by Cluster and their response to changes in plasma parameters, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 113, A04203, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JA012649, 2008.

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Thiemann, E. M. B., Chamberlin, P. C., Eparvier, F. G., Templeman, B., Woods, T. N., Bougher, S. W., and Jakosky, B. M.: The MAVEN EUVM model of solar spectral irradiance variability at Mars: Algorithms and results, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 122, 2748–2767, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA023512, 2017.

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Treumann, R. A., Jaroschek, C. H., Constantinescu, O. D., Nakamura, R., Pokhotelov, O. A., and Georgescu, E.: The strange physics of low frequency mirror mode turbulence in the high temperature plasma of the magnetosheath, Nonlin. Processes Geophys., 11, 647–657, https://doi.org/10.5194/npg-11-647-2004, 2004.

Trotignon, J., Mazelle, C., Bertucci, C., and Acuña, M.: Martian shock and magnetic pile-up boundary positions and shapes determined from the Phobos 2 and Mars Global Surveyor data sets, Planet. Space Sci., 54, 357–369, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2006.01.003, 2006.

Tsurutani, B. T.: Comets: a Laboratory for Plasma Waves and Instabilities, in: Cometary Plasma Processes, 189–209, American Geophysical Union (AGU), https://doi.org/10.1029/GM061p0189, 1991.

Tsurutani, B. T., Thorne, R. M., Smith, E. J., Gosling, J. T., and Matsumoto, H.: Steepened magnetosonic waves at comet Giacobini-Zinner, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 92, 11074–11082, https://doi.org/10.1029/JA092iA10p11074, 1987.

Tsurutani, B. T., Lakhina, G. S., Smith, E. J., Buti, B., Moses, S. L., Coroniti, F. V., Brinca, A. L., Slavin, J. A., and Zwickl, R. D.: Mirror mode structures and ELF plasma waves in the Giacobini-
Price, C. P., Swift, D. W., and Lee, L.-C.: Numerical simulation of nonoscillatory mirror waves at the Earth's magnetosheath, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 91, 101–112, https://doi.org/10.1029/JA091iA01p00101, 1986.

Rojas Mata, S., Stenberg Wieser, G., Futaana, Y., Bader, A., Persson, M., Fedorov, A., and Zhang, T.: Proton Temperature Anisotropies in the Venus Plasma Environment During Solar Minimum and Maximum, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e29611, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029611, 2022.

Romanelli, N., Bertucci, C., Gómez, D., Mazelle, C., and Delva, M.: Proton cyclotron waves upstream from Mars: Observations from Mars Global Surveyor, Planet. Space Sci., 76, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2012.10.011, 2013.

Romanelli, N., Mazelle, C., Chaufray, J. Y., Meziane, K., Shan, L., Ruhunusiri, S., Connerney, J. E. P., Espley, J. R., Eparvier, F., Thiemann, E., Halekas, J. S., Mitchell, D. L., McFadden, J. P., Brain, D., and Jakosky, B. M.: Proton cyclotron waves occurrence rate upstream from Mars observed by MAVEN: Associated variability of the Martian upper atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 121, 11113–11128, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA023270, 2016.

Romeo, O. M., Romanelli, N., Espley, J. R., Mazelle, C., DiBraccio, G. A., Gruesbeck, J. R., and Halekas, J. S.: Variability of Upstream Proton Cyclotron Wave Properties and Occurrence at Mars Observed by MAVEN, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 126, e28616, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JA028616, 2021.

Ruhunusiri, S., Halekas, J. S., Connerney, J. E. P., Espley, J. R., McFadden, J. P., Larson, D. E., Mitchell, D. L., Mazelle, C., and Jakosky, B. M.: Low-frequency waves in the Martian magnetosphere and their response to upstream solar wind driving conditions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 8917–8924, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL064968, 2015.

Ruhunusiri, S., Halekas, J. S., Espley, J. R., Eparvier, F., Brain, D., Mazelle, C., Harada, Y., DiBraccio, G. A., Thiemann, E. M. B., Larson, D. E., Mitchell, D. L., Jakosky, B. M., and Sulaiman, A. H.: One-Hertz Waves at Mars: MAVEN Observations, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 123, 3460–3476, https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JA024618, 2018.

Schwartz, S. J., Burgess, D., and Moses, J. J.: Low-frequency waves in the Earth's magnetosheath: present status, Ann. Geophys., 14, 1134–1150, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00585-996-1134-z, 1997.

Shan, L., Tsurutani, B. T., Ohsawa, Y., Mazelle, C., Huang, C., Du, A., Ge, Y. S., and Lu, Q.: Observational Evidence for Fast Mode Periodic Small-scale Shocks: A New Type of Plasma Phenomenon, Astrophys. J. Lett., 95, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abcb02, 2020.

Simon Wedlund, C., Volwerk, M., Beth, A., Mazelle, C., Möstl, C., Halekas, J., Gruesbeck, J., and Rojas-Castillo, D.: Predicted times, spatial coordinates of bow shock crossings and shock geometry at Mars from the NASA/MAVEN mission, using spacecraft ephemerides and magnetic field data, with a predictor-corrector algorithm (Version 3), Zenodo [data set] https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6320518, 2021.

Simon Wedlund, C., Volwerk, M., Beth, A., Mazelle, C., Möstl, C., Halekas, J., Gruesbeck, J. R., and Rojas-Castillo, D.: A Fast Bow Shock Location Predictor-Estimator From 2D and 3D Analytical Models: Application to Mars and the MAVEN Mission, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e2021JA029942, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029942, 2022a.

Simon Wedlund, C., Volwerk, M., Mazelle, C., Halekas, J., Rojas-Castillo, D., Espley, J., and Möstl, C.: Making Waves: Mirror Mode Structures Around Mars Observed by the MAVEN Spacecraft, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e2021JA029811, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029811, 2022b.

Song, P., Russell, C. T., and Gary, S. P.: Identification of low-frequency fluctuations in the terrestrial magnetosheath, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 6011, https://doi.org/10.1029/93JA03300, 1994.

Sonnerup, B. U. Ø. and Scheible, M.: Minimum and Maximum Variance Analysis, in: Analysis Methods for Multi-Spacecraft Data, no. SR-001 in ISSI Scientific Report, ISSI/ESA, ESA Publications Division, the Netherlands, 185–220, ISBN: 1608-280X, 1998.

Soucek, J., Lucek, E., and Dandouras, I.: Properties of magnetosheath mirror modes observed by Cluster and their response to changes in plasma parameters, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 113, A04203, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JA012649, 2008.

Szegö, K., Glassmeier, K.-H., Bingham, R., Bogdanov, A., Fischer, C., Haerendel, G., Brinca, A., Cravens, T., Dubinin, E., Sauer, K., Fisk, L., Gombosi, T., Schwadron, N., Isenberg, P., Lee, M., Mazelle, C., Möbius, E., Motschmann, U., Shapiro, V. D., Tsurutani, B., and Zank, G.: Physics of Mass Loaded Plasmas, Space Sci. Rev., 94, 429–671, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026568530975, 2000.

Thiemann, E. M. B., Chamberlin, P. C., Eparvier, F. G., Templeman, B., Woods, T. N., Bougher, S. W., and Jakosky, B. M.: The MAVEN EUVM model of solar spectral irradiance variability at Mars: Algorithms and results, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 122, 2748–2767, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA023512, 2017.

Trainer, M. G., Wong, M. H., McConnochie, T. H., Franz, H. B., Atreya, S. K., Conrad, P. G., Lefèvre, F., Mahaffy, P. R., Malespin, C. A., Manning, H. L. K., Martín-Torres, J., Martínez, G. M., McKay, C. P., Navarro-González, R., Vicente-Retortillo, Á., Webster, C. R., and Zorzano, M.-P.: Seasonal Variations in Atmospheric Composition as Measured in Gale Crater, Mars, J. Geophys. Res.-Planet., 124, 3000–3024, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JE006175, 2019.

Treumann, R. A., Jaroschek, C. H., Constantinescu, O. D., Nakamura, R., Pokhotelov, O. A., and Georgescu, E.: The strange physics of low frequency mirror mode turbulence in the high temperature plasma of the magnetosheath, Nonlin. Processes Geophys., 11, 647–657, https://doi.org/10.5194/npg-11-647-2004, 2004.

Trotignon, J., Mazelle, C., Bertucci, C., and Acuña, M.: Martian shock and magnetic pile-up boundary positions and shapes determined from the Phobos 2 and Mars Global Surveyor data sets, Planet. Space Sci., 54, 357–369, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2006.01.003, 2006.

Tsurutani, B. T.: Comets: a Laboratory for Plasma Waves and Instabilities, in: Cometary Plasma Processes, 189–209, American Geophysical Union (AGU), https://doi.org/10.1029/GM061p0189, 1991.

Tsurutani, B. T., Thorne, R. M., Smith, E. J., Gosling, J. T., and Matsumoto, H.: Steepened magnetosonic waves at comet Giacobini-Zinner, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 92, 11074–11082, https://doi.org/10.1029/JA092iA10p11074, 1987.

Tsurutani, B. T., Lakhina, G. S., Smith, E. J., Buti, B., Moses, S. L., Coroniti, F. V., Brinca, A. L., Slavin, J. A., and Zwickl, R. D.: Mirror mode structures and ELF plasma waves in the Giacobini-
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Tsurutani, B. T., Lakhina, G. S., Verkhoglyadova, O. P., Echer, E., Guarnieri, F. L., Narita, Y., and Constantinescu, D. O.: Magnetosheath and heliosheath mirror mode structures, interplanetary magnetic decreases, and linear magnetic decreases: Differences and distinguishing features, J. Geophys. Res., 116, A2, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JA015913, 2011.

Turner, J. M., Burlaga, L. F., Ness, N. F., and Lemaire, J. F.: Magnetic holes in the solar wind, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 1921, https://doi.org/10.1029/JA082i013p01921, 1977.

Volwerk, M., Zhang, T. L., Delva, M., Vörös, Z., Baumjohann, W., and Glassmeier, K.-H.: Mirror-mode-like structures in Venus' induced magnetosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 113, E00B16, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JE003154, 2008.

Volwerk, M., Schmid, D., Tsurutani, B. T., Delva, M., Plaschke, F., Narita, Y., Zhang, T., and Glassmeier, K.-H.: Mirror mode waves in Venus's magnetosheath: solar minimum vs. solar maximum, Ann. Geophys., 34, 1099–1108, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-34-1099-2016, 2016.

Volwerk, M., Mautner, D., Wedlund, C. S., Goetz, C., Plaschke, F., Karlsson, T., Schmid, D., Rojas-Castillo, D., Roberts, O. W., and Varsani, A.: Statistical study of linear magnetic hole structures near Earth, Ann. Geophys., 39, 239–253, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-239-2021, 2021.

Volwerk, M., Simon Wedlund, C., Mautner, D., Rojas Mata, S., Stenberg Wieser, G., Futaana, Y., Mazelle, C., Rojas-Castillo, D., Bertucci, C., and Delva, M.: Statistical distribution of mirror mode-like structures in the magnetosheaths of unmagnetised planets: 2. Venus as observed by the Venus Express spacecraft, EGUsphere [preprint], https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-645, 2022.

Wilson III, L. B., Stevens, M. L., Kasper, J. C., Klein, K. G., Maruca, B. A., Bale, S. D., Bowen, T. A., Pulupa, M. P., and Salem, C. S.: The Statistical Properties of Solar Wind Temperature Parameters Near 1 au, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 236, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4365/aab71c, 2018.

Yamauchi, M., Hara, T., Lundin, R., Dubinin, E., Fedorov, A., Sauvaud, J. A., Frahm, R. A., Ramstad, R., Futaana, Y., Holmstrom, M., and Barabash, S.: Seasonal variation of Martian pickup ions: Evidence of breathing exosphere, Planet. Space Sci., 119, 54–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2015.09.013, 2015.
Zinner magnetosheath, Nonlin. Processes Geophys., 6, 229–234, https://doi.org/10.5194/npg-6-229-1999, 1999.

Tsurutani, B. T., Lakhina, G. S., Verkhoglyadova, O. P., Echer, E., Guarnieri, F. L., Narita, Y., and Constantinescu, D. O.: Magnetosheath and heliosheath mirror mode structures, interplanetary magnetic decreases, and linear magnetic decreases: Differences and distinguishing features, J. Geophys. Res., 116, A2, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JA015913, 2011.

Turner, J. M., Burlaga, L. F., Ness, N. F., and Lemaire, J. F.: Magnetic holes in the solar wind, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 1921, https://doi.org/10.1029/JA082i013p01921, 1977.

Volwerk, M., Zhang, T. L., Delva, M., Vörös, Z., Baumjohann, W., and Glassmeier, K.-H.: Mirror-mode-like structures in Venus' induced magnetosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 113, E00B16, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JE003154, 2008.

Volwerk, M., Schmid, D., Tsurutani, B. T., Delva, M., Plaschke, F., Narita, Y., Zhang, T., and Glassmeier, K.-H.: Mirror mode waves in Venus's magnetosheath: solar minimum vs. solar maximum, Ann. Geophys., 34, 1099–1108, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-34-1099-2016, 2016.

Volwerk, M., Mautner, D., Wedlund, C. S., Goetz, C., Plaschke, F., Karlsson, T., Schmid, D., Rojas-Castillo, D., Roberts, O. W., and Varsani, A.: Statistical study of linear magnetic hole structures near Earth, Ann. Geophys., 39, 239–253, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-239-2021, 2021.

Volwerk, M., Simon Wedlund, C., Mautner, D., Rojas Mata, S., Stenberg Wieser, G., Futaana, Y., Mazelle, C., Rojas-Castillo, D., Bertucci, C., and Delva, M.: Statistical distribution of mirror mode-like structures in the magnetosheaths of unmagnetised planets: 2. Venus as observed by the Venus Express spacecraft, EGUsphere [preprint], https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-645, 2022.

Wilson III, L. B., Stevens, M. L., Kasper, J. C., Klein, K. G., Maruca, B. A., Bale, S. D., Bowen, T. A., Pulupa, M. P., and Salem, C. S.: The Statistical Properties of Solar Wind Temperature Parameters Near 1 au, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 236, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4365/aab71c, 2018.

Yamauchi, M., Hara, T., Lundin, R., Dubinin, E., Fedorov, A., Sauvaud, J. A., Frahm, R. A., Ramstad, R., Futaana, Y., Holmstrom, M., and Barabash, S.: Seasonal variation of Martian pickup ions: Evidence of breathing exosphere, Planet. Space Sci., 119, 54–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2015.09.013, 2015.