SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF SIX
LECTURE-STUDIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY

Frederick Starr

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Frederick Starr. SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF SIX LECTURE-STUDIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY. The university of Chicago press. THE AZTECS OF ANCIENT MEXICO, pp.15, 1897. hal-03554500

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Don de Mª M. BOULE

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THE AZTECS OF
ANCIENT MEXICO

SYLLABUS OF A
COURSE OF SIX
LECTURE-STUDIES
IN ANTHROPOLOGY

BY FREDERICK STARR
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

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8

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P. 181.

CHICAGO
The University of Chicago Press
1897
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# LECTURE I.

## SOME AZTEC WORDS: LANGUAGE.

I. **Introductory remarks about Mexico and Mexicans.**— Mexico: location; physical characters; climate. Map of the Republic: states; important cities. Present population: its character; diversity of Indian tribes, types, tongues. This diversity is survival. Local individuality: examples; this local individuality is ancient.

II. **The Aztecs.**—The Nahuatl group: its location. The linguistic relatives of the Aztecs. Their legendary history. The story of Mexico. Four sources of information regarding old Mexico: (a) native traditions and records; (b) early Spanish narratives; (c) archaeological material; (d) life of modern Mexican tribes.

III. **The Aztec Language.**—Why worth examining? The four classes of languages—isolating, agglutinative, incorporative, inflected. Definitions of these. Two features of incorporating languages: (a) polysynthesis; (b) incorporation. The Aztec an incorporative language; its richness and power. A few points only can be noted.

1. *Phonology:* the sounds in Aztec; fondness for tl; hiatus.

2. *Numerals:* examples of numerical poverty. The richness of Aztec numeral expression. A vigesimal system; how numeral systems begin; evidences of finger "counting." Several series of numerals; compare with other such cases.

3. *The verb:* forms; compound forms.

4. *The noun:* abundance of abstract nouns. Place names: difference between place names among ourselves and barbarians; compounding words, e. g., *ma-pilli*; *ayotochtli*. Examples of place names:

* Parties desiring to secure this course of lectures should address the lecturer.
**Atotonilco** [Place where there is hot water]: *atl* (water);
totonilti (hot); co (where or place).

**Acatepec** [In the mountain of reeds]: *acatl* (reed); tepetl (mountain); c (place).

**Cacalomacan** [Where they catch crows]: cacalotl (crow);
mailt (hand); can (where).

**Camotlan** [Where there are root herbs]: camotl (herb with
fleshy root); tlan (where there is abundance of).

**Centzontepec** [District of many mountains] centzontli (four
hundred); tepetl (mountain); c (where).

**Cuicatlan** [Place of song]: cuicatl (song); tlan (place of
abundance).

**Popocatepetl** [Mountain of much smoke]: popoca (to
smoke much); tepetl (mountain).

**Tenochtitlan** [Where there was a cactus on the rock]: tetl
(rock); nochtli (cactus); tlan (place of abundance).
These give examples of polysynthesis and incorpora-
tion. In verbal forms analysis is even more interest-
ing, e. g., ayauhcofamalotonameyotimani.

Reverential form; applies to nouns, pronouns, verbs, participials, verbals, prepositions and adverbs. This gives a hint as to the racial psychology.

Book references:

Brinton, *Essays of an Americanist*, pp. 308-432.

de la Rosa, *Estudio de la Filosofia y Riqueza de la Lengua Mexicana*.

de la Rosa, *Analisis gramatical de algunos Textos Mexicanos*.

de la Rosa, *Aztec Place-names*, translated into English by Frederick
Starr.

Pimentel, *Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de las Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico*, vol. i.

Clavigero, *Historia antigua de Mexico*, lib. vii.

Orozco y Berra, *Geografia de las lenguas de Mexico*.

EXERCISES.

1. Prepare or carefully study a map of Mexico showing present geographical distribution of the native languages.

2. Name and define the four classes of languages.

3. What is meant by hiatus? Is it an advantage or a defect?

4. Briefly state the facts regarding Aztec numeration.

5. Of how many forms is a Mexican verb capable? Discuss this as an element of richness.

6. Analyze four of the place-names given.

7. What of the reverential form?

LECTURE II.

BOOKS: THE PICTURE WRITING.

I. **The History of Writing.**—Stages of development; table.

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Definition of terms: ideogram, phonogram, pictography, homophone, acrology. The most critical step in the development; Brinton's term—ikonomatic. Examples of the development drawn from the Chinese-Japanese system. What is an alphabet? What is perfection in writing?

II. **North American Indian Writing.**—Reminders; wampum belts; micams; mnemonic tablets; *walum olum*. Schoolcraft's letter. The Dakota Calendar. Weak points in pictography.

III. **Mexican Pictography.**—At what stage of development? What materials at hand for study? How can we know the meaning of this? The help of the *Codex Mendoza* and the *Codex Vaticanus*. Description of the former. Penafiel's study of the hieroglyphics of the place-names. Examples taken from that work. Five kinds of these—(a) Suggestive ideograms;
(b) ideograms; (c) indifferently ideogram or phonogram; (d) phonograms; (e) suggestive phonograms.

Examples.

Acalhuacan.

Cuauhximalpan.

Cuezcomahuacan.

Acapulco.

Atlhuelic.

Cacalomacan.

Atepec.

Acatepec.

Mapachtepec.

Coatlan.

Auchpanco.

Chalco.

How near did Aztec writing approach letters? Aubin's list. Aztec numeral signs; examples. Books among the Aztecs. Paper; materials, manufacture, uses. The colors used in the picture writing. What became of Aztec books? Classes of manuscripts still left; (a) records of the tribal traditions; (b) books regarding the religious feasts, etc.; (c) land titles, etc. Page from Aubin's *Mappe Tlotzin*. The use of picture writing by Spanish priests: examples.

Book references:

Aubin, *Mémoire sur la Peinture didactique et l'Écriture figurative des anciens Mexicains*,

Brinton, *Essays of an Americanist*: pp. 195-229.

Thomas, *A Study of the Ms. Troano, in vol. v. of Contributions to North American Ethnology, U. S. G. and G. Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region*.

Thomas, *Notes on Certain Maya and Mexican Manuscripts, in Third Annual Rept. of Bureau of Ethnology*.

Thomas, *Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, in Sixth Annual Rept. of Bureau of Ethnology*.

Thomas, *Are the Maya Hieroglyphics Phonetic*.

Brinton, *A Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics*.

Valentini, *Mexican Paper, an article of tribute, etc.*.

Valentini, *Analysis of the Pictorial Text inscribed on two Palenque Tablets*.

Bancroft, *Native Races of the Pacific Coast; vol. ii., chap. xvii*.

Peñafiel, *Nombres geograficos de Mexico*.

Hoffman, *The Beginnings of Writing*.

EXERCISES.

1. What has been the course of development in writing?

2. Exactly what is the most critical point in the development? Explain.

3. Describe the *Codex Mendoza*. Why of importance?

4. Just how far was Aztec writing developed? Define *ikonomatic*.

5. Give examples of place-names taken from the *Codex Mendoza* and explain.

LECTURE III.

DAILY LIFE: THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS.

1. **Daily Life. Food and cookery. Food materials; game and fish; crops—maize, beans, squash, chili; roots; scum cakes; fly eggs; dog. Food preparation: the metatl; the comalli. Tortillas, tomallis, etc. Drinks: maize, chocolatl; pulque. Food quest: hunting and fishing, —snares, decoys, the atlatl; agriculture—methods and implements, chinampas, irrigation.**

*Dress:* of the man, —*timatl, maxatl*; of the woman, —*huepilli, cueitl*. Hair-dressing. *Cactli*. Officials and special personages were distinguished by their dress. The old dress and that of modern Indians. Local variation.

*Houses and Architecture*. What do the ruined cities show? Private houses vs. public buildings. Bandeliers' three-part houses — *teopantzintli, tezcalli, cencalli*. Construction of walls; pyramids, temple. Stucco; wall painting; sculpture decoration. The arch. Architecture of other Mexican areas.

II. **Industrial Arts.** Cloth-making; spinning, *malacatl*; weaving, the old loom still in use; dyes. Mrs. Nuttall's Florentine manuscript.
*Work in stone.* Tools for such work. *Chipping:* obsidian blades and points, flint knives. *Pecking:* how lava and crystalline rocks were worked; making of *metlatls* and *metlapillis* today. *Polishing:* lip-plugs, mirrors, vases, maskoids. Mosaic work in bits of bright stones.

*Pottery.* The art of ancient Mexico. Its development. Universality of its applications. Sculptors in clay. The art persists and in local variation.

*Featherwork.*

*Floral decoration.* Fondness for flowers still exists. Examples.

*Metal work.* Copper, silver, gold. Bronze? Products described by early Spanish writer. Why objects are not more common? What are found? Ornamental pendants, beads, bells, knives, hatchets, etc.

### III. Trade and Exchange.
The merchants; trading expeditions; media of exchange.

#### Book References:

- Biart, *The Aztecs*.

- Bandelier, *Mexico*.

- Charnay, *Ancient Cities of the New World*.

- Holmes, *Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico*.

- Blake, *The Antiquities of Mexico*.

- Valentini, *Mexican Copper Tools*.

- Valentini, *Semi-lunar and Crescent-shaped tools*.

- Bancroft, *Native Races of the Pacific Coast, vol. ii., chaps. viii., x.-xii., xv., xviii.*

### EXERCISES.

1. Discuss the food-supply and cookery of the Aztecs.

2. To what degree is the dress of modern Indians in Mexico helpful in illustrating the ancient costume? Make detailed comparison.

3. Investigate the work done in obsidian by the Aztecs.

4. What is known of the trading expeditions of Aztec merchants?

## LECTURE IV.

### SONGS AND MUSIC: THE DANCE.

1. **The Beginning and Development of Poetry, Music, and the Dance.** — *Poetry.* What is poetry? Grosse's definition. Elements of poetry. Chanting *vs.* simple conversation. Alternation: repetition; rhythm—two elements of metre, quantity or length, quality; refrain, often of meaningless syllables. Later, though still early, alliteration, rhyme. Carefully distinguish form from content. The substance of *primitive* poetry is rude and meagre; egoistic, satirical; rarely deals with admiration of nature or the emotion of love. Poetical thought as *we* deem it, is not necessarily poetical. Poetry serves (*a*) to relieve pent-up feeling, (*b*) to please by form. Primitive poetry is usually musical and sacrifices meaning to form.

*Music.* Grosse's fundamental ideas may be tabulated thus:

- Music.

- Substance: tones.

- Form: { rhythm + =melody. harmony

Tylor's use of the term harmony is different. Savage music is less in fixed tones than our own. Musical scales: 4, 5, 7, note scales. How harmony arises. *Musical Instruments.* Monotonous instruments; the drum and rattle. These survive in our modern life. Conservators—children, soldiery. The trumpet and whistle; their evolution. The bow and the piano. The musical instruments of living savages: tabulated from Grosse's discussion:

- Musical instruments of savages:
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*The Dance*.—Its importance among lower races. They dance on every occasion. The characteristic feature—*rhythm*. Two kinds of primitive dances, *gymnastic* and *mimetic*. Examples of both in Australia. Notice the elements—dress, time (*a*, leader; *b*, chorus), dance, song. Dances may express or they may arouse passion. The mimetic dances are often war or love expressions. The mimetic dance may become religious. The dance, as Grosse points out (*a*), gives outlet for energy, (*b*) satisfies the demand for rhythm, (*c*) gratifies the imitative impulse, (*d*) acts as discharge for violent emotions, (*e*) becomes a means of gratifying or influencing the supernatural beings, (*f*) acts as a sexual excitant. Its social influence in savagery is so great as to be hardly overestimated. *The Drama* rises from the dance. Many religious dances contain notable dramatic elements.

## II. Music and Poetry among the Aztecs.
—Passion of the Aztecs for song; singing teachers and singing schools. The songs varied with the season. They were of many kinds, thus:

*melahuacuicatl*, straight and true songs
*xopancuicatl*, springtime songs.
*teuccuicatl*, song of the nobles.
*xochicuicatl*, flower songs.

icnocuicatl, song of destitution or compassion.
miccacuicatl, song for the dead.

Brinton summarizes the list of Aztec musical instruments; to his list we may perhaps add the chirimiya and the armadillo-shell guitar.

(a) huehuetl, upright drum.

(b) teponatztli, horizontal drum.

(c) tecomapiloa, the suspended vase.

(d) omichicahuaj, the strong bone.

(e) tetzilacatl, sheet gong.

(f) ayacachtli, rattle.

(g) ayacachicahualiztli, the arrangement of rattles.

(h) tzilinilli, copper bells.

(i) ——, various flutes of reed, bone, and pottery.

(j) quiquiztli, conch-shell trumpet.

(k) ayotl, shell of tortoise.

(l) chirimiya, sort of fife or horn.

(m) guitar of armadillo shell.

The character of Aztec poetry. Its elements; use of figures of speech; examples translated by Brinton.

### Book References:

Tylor, *Anthropology*, chap. xii.

Grosse, *Beginnings of Art*, chaps. viii-x.

Wallaschek, *Primitive Music*.

Brinton, *Essays of an Americanist*, pp. 284-304.

Brinton, *Ancient Nahuatl Poetry*.

Brinton, *Rig Veda Americanus*, the last two from vols. vii, viii of the Library of Aboriginal American Literature.

## EXERCISES.

1. Discuss the musical scales of different peoples.

2. Compare the social importance of the dance among primitive and civilized peoples.

3. Describe the musical instruments of the Aztecs.

4. Discuss the poetical elements in the songs in Brinton's *Ancient Nahuatl Poetry*.
## LECTURE V.

### THE SOCIETY AND THE GOVERNMENT.

Prevalent early views regarding the Aztecs, Montezuma, Mexico, etc. Later views of Morgan, Bandelier and others. This lecture is based chiefly upon Bandelier's three famous papers.

**I. Land Tenure.**—What is a *tribe*? The characteristics are (a) a particular territory; (b) a dialect; (c) common worship, What is the tribe's relation to *kin*? Definitions: *tribe*, *phratry*, *gens*, or *kin*. Tribal government in general. The *council*. Its duties, selection, action, control.—What is the relation of the savage to land? Tribal territory. Usufruct vs. ownership. The condition of the Aztecs when they entered the valley of Mexico. Gradual growth. According to Bandelier there were different classes of land, viz :

altepetlalli = the tribal territory.

yaotlalli = lands of war.

milchimalli = shield lands.

tecpantlalli = lands for workers at the tecpan.

tlatocatlalli = lands for officials.

calpullalli = lands of the calpulli.

There was no individual ownership of land; the kin held land in common; individuals had possession of allotted land during use.

**II. Government.**—There was no Aztec empire. The government was based upon the tribal idea. Mexico was divided into four quarters, and twenty minor quarters. The tribal council: its officers. The Aztecs were one tribe, the city of Tenochtitlan one city, in a confederacy of three tribes living in three cities.

Aztecs—Tenochtitlan.

Acolhuas—Texcoco.

Tecpanecas—Tlacopan.

Why did the confederacy arise? Its structure. The confederate council: its officers. The chief of men; why not an emperor.

**III. War Organization.**—The Aztecs essentially cruel and blood-thirsty; fond of war and trade. The war organization affected by the tribal life and social structure. Bandelier considers three topics:

(a) *Training*; all boys from fifteen years were under training. Regular times for warrior practice.

(b) *Armament*; (1) weapons. Missiles: darts, javelins, bows and arrows, slings and stones. Clubs. War sword, or *Maccuahuitl*. (2) Armor. Shields. Padded clothing. Head-coverings or helmets.

(c) *Organization*; tribe divided into quarters and minor quarters; fighting force was divided the same way. Squads of 200-400 men: subdivided into bands of 20. In battle still smaller groups. No nobility of birth; by valor a man might become (1) a distinguished brave or (2) a war chief. Of the latter there were three grades — chiefs of kindreds, chiefs of quarters, and the chief of men.

**Book References:**

Morgan, *Ancient Society*,

Morgan, *Montezuma's Dinner*, North American Review, 1876.

Bandelier, *On the Art of War and Mode of Warfare of the Ancient Mexicans*.

Bandelier, *On the Distribution and Tenure of Land*, etc.

Bandelier, *On the Social Organization and Mode of Government of the Ancient Mexicans*.

Bandelier's papers are in the Tenth, Eleventh and Twelfth Annual Repts. of the Peabody Museum of American Arch. and Eth.

Nuttall, *The Atlatl or Spear-Thrower of the Ancient Mexicans*. Peabody Museum publication.

## EXERCISES.

1. Sketch the usual social structure and government of a tribe.

2. Is Morgan's theory of tribal structure shown by all American Indians? If not, study and present an exception.

3. Describe the structure of the Mexican Confederacy.

4. What modes of warfare were in vogue among the Aztecs?

5. Where and in what forms does the spear-throwing stick exist today?
## LECTURE VI.

### RELIGION.

The basis of the Aztec religion. North American Indian nature worship. Symbolism. Sacred numbers. The reverential character of the Aztecs.

I. **The Gods.**—Their number, character. Examples: Huitzilipochtli, Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, Ehecatl, Tlaloc, Centeotl, the god of merchants, Tonantzin. The origin of Huitzilipochtli, Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. Why are the two latter always warring? The word teotl: its significance. The highest conception of deity among the Aztecs. Idols and figures of the gods; characteristic marks.

II. **The Temple.**—The great temple of Tenochtitlan; location, description. Other temples in the city. No remains of the great temple. Pyramids at Cholula and Teotihuacan.

III. **Worship.**—Abundance of festivals. Time reckoning. The days, weeks, months, years, cycles, eras. The Calendar Stone. Explanations. Examples of ceremonies. The secular celebration. Human sacrifices; mode; examples. Treatment of victim before. The Tzompantli. Religious eating of human flesh. Self mutilation. The worship of Quetzalcoatl. The temple of Netzalhuatcoyotl.

IV. **The priest.**—Number of priests; rank; influence. Their dress. Functions. Priestesses. Orders of priests and priestesses. Their work of education.

V. **Mortuary Customs.**—Classification of dead souls with reference to mode of death. The homes of the souls; the path thither. Treatment of the body. Cremation. Burial.

Curious similarities between Aztec religion and Christianity: baptism, the cross, communion. Description of these. How explained?

### Book References:

Brinton, *Myths of the New World*.

Brinton, *American Hero-Myths*.

Reville, *The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru*.

Biart, *The Aztecs*.

Bandelier, Mexico.

Bancroft, *Native Races of Pacific Coast; vol. ii, chaps. ix, xvi, xix*.

Spencer, *Descriptive Sociology*, vol. ii.

Nuttall, *Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System*.

Brinton, *The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico*.

Valentini, *The Aztec Calendar Stone*.

## EXERCISES.

1. Describe some of the prominent gods and present theories of their origin.

2. Summarize the matter of time reckoning. Review Mrs. Nuttall's paper on the Calendar.

3. What is the meaning of cannibalism and self-mutilation in Aztec ceremonial?

4. Investigate the cross as a religious symbol in America.

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